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Cooper Medical College
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Bulletin No. 45.
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE-
OFFICK OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
A DIGEST
METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS
IN fffliCB THE BALANCE OF INCOME AND OUTGO WAS DETERMINED.
W. O. ATWATER, Ph. D.,
C. F. LA.NGWORTHY, Ph. D.
Ptspuod nnder tha mperviEion of A. C Tme, Fb I> Director of ths Offloa of
WASHINGTON:
aOVERSMEST PltlNTINQ OPPICK.
18D7.
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' I I
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
United States Department of Aobicultube,
Office of Experiment Stations,
Washington^ Z>. 0., June 29 j 1897.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a bulletin on the metab-
olism of man and the domestic animals, prepared by W. O. Atwater,
Ph. D., sx>ecial agent in charge of nutrition investigations, and C. F.
Langworthy, Ph. D., editor of the department of foods and animal pro-
duction of the Experiment Station Eecord, under the general sui)er-
vision of the Director of this Office. The bulletin is a digest of about
3,600 experiments in which the balance of one or more of the factors of
income and outgo was determined. This compilation is in a sense sup-
plementary to Bulletin No. 21 of this Office on the Methods and Eesults
of Investigations of the Chemistry and Economy of Food. At the
outset of the nutrition investigations by this Department the need of
compilations and summaries of the widely scattered investigations in
this line carried on at home and abroad was fully recognized. Bulletin
No. 21 was the first attempt to meet this need. Even before that
was completed the plan for the present bulletin was formed by Prof.
Atwater and Dr. Langworthy. The collection of material on metabo-
lism was for some time pursued in connection with the nutrition inves-
tigations in progress at Middletown, Conn. It soon appeared that it
would be unwise to segregate the metabolism experiments with men
from those with domestic animals even for the purposes of the nutrition
investigations of the Department. Moreover, a review of the experi-
ments with animals was needed in connection with the work of the
agricultural experiment stations in the establishment of a scientific
basis for the feeding of live stock on the farm. In view of the larger
scope thus given to the work, Dr. Langworthy came to Washington, and
has since executed the details of this work here, retaining, however, the
advice and assistance of Professor Atwater. The library of Professor
Atwater contains one of the largest private collections of works on the
subject of metabolism. In addition, liberal use has been made of the
unusually complete collection of medical and other works bearing on
this subject in the library of the Surgeon-General's Office.
As the compilation progressed, records were constantly found of
iuvestigations not referred to in general treatises or standard ab<^l\.^s^\»
4 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
journals. This was particularly true of reports of investigations made
in Eussia. Valuable service in collating and abstracting Eussian pub-
lications has been rendered by Dr. Peter Fireman, of the Columbian
University, who is a native of Eussia and conversant with scientific
publications in that language.
The number of experiments collated far exceeds what was anticipated
when the work was undertaken. While the authors do not claim to
have found all the investigations ever reported, it seems most probable
that comparatively few have escaped their attention."
This compilation is transmitted with the recommendation that it be
published as Bulletin 45 of this Office.
Eespectfully,
A. C. True,
Hon. James Wilson, Director.
Secretary of Agriculture.
CONTENTS.
Page.
Introduction , 7
General and bistorioal statements 7
Scope and plan of this compilation 13
Points to be considered in drawing deductions from the experiments 16
Accuracy and completeness of the compilation 20
Experiments with man 21
Experiments in which the nitrogen balance was determined 21
Healthy subjects, influence of diet 21
Experiments with a vegetarian diet 21
Experiments with a milk diet 25
Experiments with bread and other single food materials 84
Experiments in which alcoholic beverages, koumiss, and kepliir
were added 1o the diet 46
Experiments in which peptones and similar preparations wertj
added to the diet 55
Experiments to determine the amount of protein required 58
Miscellaneous experiments on the influence of diet 66
Healthy subjects, influence of other conditions than diet 87
Experiments in which the subjects were fasting .' 87
Experiments with drugs 94
Experiments on muscular exertion and the excretion of nitrogen. . 118
Experiments to determine the efl^ect of massage and faradization. 135
Experiments to determine the effect of baths and enemas 140
Experiments to determine the influence of pregnancy and child-
birth 168
Experiments to determine the influence of menstruation 172
Experiments on the influence of copious and diminished water
drinking 174
Experiments in which the subjects breathed compressed air 177
Diseased subjects 181
Experiments with subjects suffering from specific infectious dis-
eases 181
Experiments with subjects suffering from constitutional diseases. 215
Experiments with subjects suffering from diseases of the digestive
system 227
Experiments with subjects suffering from diseases of the respira-
tory system 237
Experiments with subjects suffering from diseases of the circula-
tory system 241
Experiments with subjects suffering from diseases of the blood and
ductless glands 246
Experiments with subjects suffering from diseases of the kidneys. 248
Experiments with subjects suffering from diseases of the nervous
system 258
Experiments with subjects suffering from diseases of the bones. . . 260
Experiments in which the balance of nitrogen and carbon was determined. 265
Respiration experiments ''^Sib
A t>iGfist OF Metabolism Exl>EiaMENt8.
Experiments with animals 285
Experiments in which the nitrogen balance was determined 2o5
Experiments with cattle » 285
Influence of feeding 285
Experiments with dogs 301
Influence of feeding 301
Influence of other conditions than feeding 326
Experiments with doves and poultry 345
Influence of feeding 345
Influence of other conditions than feeding ^ 347
Experiments with goats 351
Influence of feeding 351
Experiments with horses 354
Influence of feeding 354
Experiments with rabbits 363
Influence of other conditions than feeding 363
Experiments with sheep 365
Influence of feeding 365
Influence of other conditions than feeding 374
Experiments with swine 379
Influence of feeding 379
Experiments in which the balance of nitrogen and carbon was determined . 383
Respiration experiments 383
Experiments in which the balance of nitrogen and energy was determined . 417
'Experiments with animals 417
Index of names 423
Index of subjects 427
A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
UNTRODUCTION.
GENERAL AND HISTORICAL STATEMENTS.
The animal organism requires food for a twofold purpose, (1) to far-
nish material for the building and repair of tissue, and (2) to supply fuel
for the production of heat and energy. In serving as fuel food protects
the material of the body from consumption.
The food of animals consists of the so called nutrients — protein, fat,
and carbohydrates, various mineral salts, and water. Similar com-
pounds and many others are found in the animal body. The oxygen oi
the air, though not strictly a food, is also essential. All of these sub-
stances in both the food and the body are made up primarily of the
elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus,
chlorin, silicon, fluorin, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, and
iron. The changes which these substances undergo in the multiform
cleavages and syntheses involved in the processes of digestion, assimi-
lation, respiration, and excretion are extremely varied.
Tissue is added to the young organism until growth is completed.
In the performance of the bodily functions, in the wear and tear to
which the organism is subjected, tissue is constantly broken down and
consumed and new material is as constantly formed to take its place.
Tissue is also formed for the storage of reserve material, but to a less
extent and mainly in the form of fat, which serves as fuel for yielding
energy. The bulk of the fat in the body is therefore to be consid-
ered not as an essential part of the animal machine, but as fuel stored
up in it.
Energy is required for the maintenance of the heat of the body and
for the performance of its mechanical work. The potential energy of
both the nitrogenous and nonnitrogenous ingredients of food and body,
i. e., of protein, fats, carbohydrates, etc., is transformed into kinetic
energy and used in the body. But this service as fuel is performed
chiefly by the fats and carbohydrates, the carbonaceous as distinguished
from the nitrogenous nutrients. When burned in the body the nutri-
ents yield energy in the form of either heat or muscular power. Part
of this potential energy becomes kinetic in the cleavage of complex
compounds to simpler ones; part is liberated in the processes of oxida-
tion. Neither the chemical nor the physical changes which take \nVa^j.^
8 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
are now fully understood. This much, however, is certain: The proc-
esses are complex, and although the ultimate chemical products may
be the same as those of direct oxidation, the processes by which they
are formed in the body are much more complex than those which take
l)lace when they are burned either in the furnace or the calorimeter.
But it is believed that, in accordauce with the principle of the conser-
Viition of energy, the quantity of potential energy which is transformed
into kinetic energy will be the same in the one case as ia the other,
provided the final products are the same. Furthermore, in accordance
with the principle of maximum work the tendency is toward those
changes which result in the greatest evolution of heat or other form of
kinetic energy. Therefore the heats of combustion of the nutrients of
the food may be taken as equivalent to their potential energy, i. e.,
their value for tjie production of heat and muscular work when they
are burned in the body. The same principle applies to the materials,
mainly protein and fats, which the body takes from the food and makes
a part of its tissue before they are burned. It applies also, in so far
as their potential energy is concerned, to the incompletely oxidized
excretory products like urea and to the undigested residue of the food
and other material which is excreted by the intestines.
All these manifold changes of matter and energy are covered by the
term metabolism. It signifies the transformation of matter and energy
in the animal organism. Generally speaking, all the material which
has undergone metabolism is excreted in the nrine and respiratory
products, although the feces contain metabolic products along with
the undigested residue of food consumed.
One of the usual ways of expressing the results of experiments in
metabolism is in the form of a balance of income and outgo. In order
to establish the metabolic balance of matter it is necessary to measure
the total income in the food and outgo in the excretory products. In
practice it is usual to express the balance of matter in terms of nitrogen
or nitrogen and carbon, since these are the elements which can be most
readily determined and in addition they are the most important and
characteristic elements of the materials making up the income and outgo.
To establish a balance of energy, which may be best expressed in terms
of heat, it is necessary to know the thermal value of all the food con-
sumed and of all the excretory products, as well as the total energy
manifested by the organism during the experiment, either as heat or
in the form of external muscular work.
The above statement is, however, incomplete in that it does not take
into account the material which the body gains or loses during the
experiment and the corresponding energy stored or transformed. This
material consists mainly of water, protein compounds, and fats, with
smaller amounts of carbohydrates and other compounds.
The science of nutrition therefore must be studied from the stand-
points of the metabolisua of matter and energy if its fundamental laws
INTRODUCTION. 9
are to be thoroughly learned. The ideal experimeDt for the determina-
tiou of metabolic balance would include a respiration experiment, a
dietary study, and a digestion experiment in which the thermal values,
of food and excreta are determined. It would also include a measure-
ment, with a calorimeter, or by other suitable means, of heat produced
by the organism. If work is performed it must also be measured.
No experiment has yet been made which reaches this ideal. More often
special i^roblems connected with metabolism have been the subject of
investigation, such as the following: The functions of the nutrients of
food; the formation of fat from protein and from carbohydrates; the
digestibility of food of various kinds; the isodynamic values of nutri-
ents; the fuel value (potential energy) of food; the influence on metab-
olism of various diseases, of alcohol, drugs, condiments, and the like,
and of various forms of treatment, medical or otherwise, as for instance
hot baths; the influence of prolonged hunger or thirst on metabolism;
and the quantities of nutrients consumed and appropriate for i)eople of
different classes, occupations, and conditions, and for animals of differ-
ent kinds or animals fed for different economic purposes.
While the ultimate purpose of many experiments in metabolism is to
obtain answers to such questions as those enumerated above, in the
expression of results the balance of income and outgo is recognized as
of the utmost importance.
Before the day of modern science very curious views of metabolism
were entertained. The fact was very early recognized that in the urine,
feces, and respiratory products substances were eliminated which the
organism could no longer utilize and which, if retained, would prove
harmful. The nature of the excretory products was, however, not at
all understood. Experiments were made in which the food and excreta
were weighed and the fact was noticed that although large quantities
of food were consumed in a given time the organism did not materially
change in weight.
The idea that food is to the body what fuel is to the fire was advanced
as early as the seventeenth century. In 1668 John Mayow^ found that
from saltpeter a substance could be obtained identical with one of the
constituents of the air, which rendered combustion and respiration pos
sible. This substance was thought to enter the blood and there set up
a fermentation which produced heat. He further found that this sub-
stance, together with a supply of combustible material, was necessary
for muscular work.
These ideas, so nearly resembling the modern views of the subject,
Tvere, however, passed over and apparently forgotten.
* In 1762 Haller^ announced a mechanical theory of metabolism. He
believed that the muscular movements made by the organism caused
* John Mayow, Opera omnia, 1681 ; cited by Voit in Hermann's Handbnch, VI, p. 266.
'A. V. Haller, Elementa Physiologica, VIII; cited by Voit in Hermann's Hand-
bach der Physiologie, VI, p. 266.
10 A DIGEST OP METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
both the liquid and solid substances composing it to rub against each
other until they were worn out and divided into minute particles. The
liquid particles were then eliminated in the urine, through the lungs,
skin, etc., and the solid matter was eliminated in the feces. The loss
of material was made good by the food consumed. This and other
mechanical theories were entertained for many years.
The fact that the body loses considerable material through the skin
and lungs was very early recognized. In 1614 Sanctorius^ measured
the amount of material thus excreted in a large number of cases in
health and disease. His method was as follows: The subject was
weighed at the beginning of the experimental period, and from the
weight of the body plus the weight of the food and drink consumed
was subtracted the w^eight of the body at the end of the period plus
the weight of the* urine and feces excreted. He recognized the fact
that the insensible perspiration includes the respiratory products as
well as the material excreted through the skin.
In the translation of Sanctorius's Aphorisms early in the eighteenth
century, Qaincy^ emphasized the fact that the body is a machine and
the principles of mechanical motion can be applied to it.
Toward the close of the eighteenth century oxygen was discovered
by Priestly and Lavoisier. The latter* explained the process of com-
bustion. In 1789 he enunciated the doctrine that combustion takes
place in an analogous way in the animal organism.* Many physiolo-
gists would not accept his views at first. Evidence accumulated, how-
ever, and the truth of Lavoisier's opinions was at last generally
conceded.
The growth of the knowledge of metabolism owes very much to Liebig.
He isolated, analyzed, and studied many of the compounds which occur
in food and the various tissues and liquids of the animal organism and
made important contributions to the subject of the origin of animal
heat and other physiological questions. In this subject, as in many
others, Liebig seems to have arrived as if by intuition at conclusions
whick the labor of later years has only verified.
The early experiments in which the attempt was made to determine
a balance of matter are few in number. The subject has been devel-
oped largely since 1850.
Of experiments with man the earliest which is included in the present
compilation was made by Lehmann ^ in 1839. The methods of analysis
'Sanctorius: De Statica Medicina, Leipsic, 1614. Medicina Statica, or Rules of
Health. Translated by J. D., London, 1676. Biographie Universelle. Paris: L. G.
Michaud, 1825, pp. 308-310.
^Sanctorius : Medicina Statica. Translated by John Quincy. London: Wm. New-
ton, 1712, p. LXVIIL
^Lavoisier's Chemistry, Kerr's translation. New York, 1806, p. 63.
'•M^m. de I'acad. des Sciences, 1789, i>. 185. Oeuvres de Lavoisier, II, p. 688; cited
by Voit in Hermann's Handbuch der Physiologie, VI, p. 266.
* Jour, prakt. Chem., 27; p. 257.
mTRODUCTlON. 11
which were then in use render the work of little value except from an
historical standpoint.
In 1840 Liebig ^ published a dietary study in which an attempt was
made to estimate the carbon balance. The time was one month, and
the average number of persons 144. The subjects were a company of
soldiers of the bodyguard of the Grand Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt.
The amount of each of the food materials is recorded, as well as the
compute<l average per man per day. Elementary analyses of each
article of food were made, though many are not recorded. The carbon
in the urine and feces was computed. So many details were omitted
in the publication of this interesting experiment that it is not possible
to make a comparison of it with more modern work.
An extended series of observations was made by BarraP in 1847-48.
He quotes at length the opinions regarding nutrition entertained at
that time. Little is said, however, of the methods he himself followed
in his experiments. This is to be regretted, as he attempted to deter-
mine or calculate the balance of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen,
and mineral matter.
Much of this early work is very incomplete, and numerous inconsist-
encies in it are now apparent. It was impossible for these early investi-
gators to arrive at more accurate results with the facilities at their
command.
From 1850 to 1870 considerably more work was done on the metabo-
lism of animals than of man. About 1860 Pettenkofer perfected his
respiration apparatus.^ This furnished a much better means of investi-
gating the respiratory products than any before used. It differed in
several essential points from the respiration apparatus which Eegnault
and Eeiset* used in their experiments with animals in 1856, or the still
earlier form used by Boussingault ^ from 1839 to 1844. In 1862 Eanke
made a considerable number of experiments with man with the Pet-
tenkofer apparatus, and in 1865-66 Pettenkofer and Yoit^ published the
results of their experiments, which have been regarded as classic.
Some of the most important work in recent years on the metabolism
of man has been done by the Munich physiological chemists, Petten-
kofer, and more especially Voit, and later their followers, including
Eanke and Eubner, by PflUger and his associates in Bonn, and by
Tchudnovski, Pashutin, Danilevski, Likhachev, and others in St. Peters-
burg.
The Eussian work on this subject is very extensive and of a very high
order. However, it has unfortunately been very little known outside
^ Liebig's Complete Works on Chemistry. Philadelphia : Peterson. Animal Chem-
istry, p. 84.
2 Ann. Chim. et Phys., ser. 3, 25, p. 130.
^Liebig's Annalen, Supplement II, 1862-63, p. 17.
* Ann. Chim. et Phys., ser. 3, 26, p. 310; Compt. Rend. (56), 1863, pp. 569, 605.
» Ann. Chim. et Phys., ser. 3, 11, p. 441; 14, p. 443; ser. 2, 71, p. 127.
«Zt8chr. Biol., 2 (1866), p. 480; 3 (1867), p. 384; 5 (1869), p. 322.
12 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
of Russia. Generally speaking, the analytical details of tlie experi-
ments have been very carefully worked out, little, being assumed from
calculation. The work covers a great variety of topics. Most of it has
been published as inaugural dissertations for the doctor's degree.
Von Noordeu, of Berlin and later of Frankfort, and his pupils have
in recent years contributed considerable important work on the metabo-
lism of man. Investigations have also been made by Malfatti, Alber-
toni, and Novi in Italy; by Kellner, Mori, Oi, and others in Japan; by
Paton and North in England, and by Tigerstedt and associates in
Sweden. In America considerable matter has been published by Chit-
tenden and his pupils from the physiological laboratory of Yale Uni-
versity. Among the earliest American experiments were those made
by Flint with a professional pedestrian in 1873. Some work has also
been done by the experiment stations in connection with feeding and
digestion experiments with animals. Investigations with man have
been and are now being carried on by At water and his associates under
the direction of this Department.
Experiments on the metabolism of animals have been numerous.
Among the earlier investigators may be mentioned Boussingault, Reg-
nault and Eeiset, and Bidder and Schmidt. Voit, either alone or
associated with Bischoft'and Pettenkofer, made a large number of experi-
ments with dogs, between the years 1856 and 1865. Rubner and other
pupils of Yoit have continued the work, at Munich and elsewhere.
The work of Seegen and Nowak and others at Vienna, including
Soxhlet and Meissl, has contributed much to the subject. This line
of inquiry has also been greatly furthered by the work of Weiske and
Flechsig in Gottingen and, later, in Proskau and Breslau; of Wolff,
Kellner, and Kreuzhagein Hohenheim; of Henneberg and his colabor-
ers, including Stohmann, Maercker, Schulze, Lehman, and others in
Gottingen; of Gustav Ktihn and his associates in Mockern, and of
Graudeau and Leclerc in Paris.
Many other investigations, as those of Lawes and Gilbert and E.
Smith, in England, have been of great value in the development of the
general subject of metabolism, although the balance of matter and
energy was not the special subject under consideration.
Very important experiments, in which the relation of carbon dioxid
excreted to oxygen consumed — i. e., the respiratory quotient — have been
made by Zuntz and his followers in Berlin and by Pfliiger and others
in his laboratory at Bonn. Similar researches, which are perhaps of
equal importance, are being conducted by other investigators.
Finally, the work of Rosenthal in Erlangen and Rubner in Marburg,
in the development of a respiration calorimeter, deserves especial men-
tion, as well as the calorimetric experiments of Pashutin and Studen-
ski with animals, and of Likhachev with man, in St. Petersburg.
Several more or less complete summaries of experiments in metabolism
have been made. Among others the following may be mentioned:
INTRODUCTION. 13
In 1861 ^ and, later, in 1876,^ Wolff published summaries of experimental
inquiry in these lines, which had been made up to that time on the feed-
ing of domestic animals. In 1881 Voit published bis " Physiologie der
allgemeinen StoffwechseU und der Erndhrung^'^^^ in which the subject
of metabolism is very thoroughly treated from a physiological stand-
point. A great deal of historical and critical information is included,
and a large number of experiments with man and animals are quoted
in more or less detail. A similar treatise, from a somewhat different
standpoint, was published in 1886 by Munk and Uffelmann.* A brief
review of the subject and its literature was also published by Munk ^ in
1889. In 1893 von Noorden^ published a volume, in which the subject
of metabolism is exhaustively treated from the standpoint of health
and disease. A large number of experiments are quoted in detail, and
an extended bibliography of the subject is given.
SCOPE AND PLAN OF THIS COMPILATION.
In the present compilation the attempt was made to collect as many
as possible of the experiments in which the . metabolic balance was
determined. In most cases this means the balance of nitrogen or nitro-
gen and carbon. In a number of experiments the balance of phos-
phorus, sulphur, or other mineral matter was also determined. The
experiments were made with men, women, and children, and with cattle,
dogs, sheep, and other animals. A total of 3,661 individual tests or
averages is included. Of these 2,299 were made with man, 383 with
cattle and horses, 928 with sheep, dogs, and other domestic quadrupeds,
and 51 with poultry and doves. In 2,234 tests with man and 1,156 with
animals the nitrogen balance was determined, and in 65 with man and
206 with animals the balance of carbon and nitrogen was determined.
A few experiments have been made with such insects as silkworms,^
bees,^ etc. However, no attempt was made to include them in the
present compilation.
The experiments with men, women, and children were made under
various conditions of health and disease; those with animals were
usually made for a study of various economic problems. In compiling
the results the plan followed was to divide the experiments made with
man, in which the nitrogen balance, with or without the balance of
mineral matter, was determined, into two general classes, (1) those in
' Die landwirtscbaftliche Fiitterungslehre und Theorie der Meusclilichen Erniih-
rung.
'-^Die Ernahrung der landwirtschaftlichen Nutzthiere.
3 Hermann's Handbuch der Physiologie, Vol. VI.
^ Munk and Ufifelmanu's Emahrung des gesunden und krankon Mensclien.
*Real-Encyclopadie der gesammten Heilkunde, vol. 19, pp. 148-167.
^Lehrbuch der Patbologie des Stoffwechsels.
'Peligot, Compt. Rend., 61 (1865), p. 866; Ann. Chim. ot Phys., 12 (1867), p. 445.
"Dumas and Milne-Edwards, Ann. Chim. ct Phys., ser. 3, 14, p. 100; ser. 2, 14 (1820),
p.89; 22, p. 35. Compt. Rend., 17 (1843), p. 531.
14 A DTGEfeT OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
wliicli the subjects were in health, and (2) those in which the subjects
were suffering from some disease. The first class was further subdivided
into experiments in which the influence of diet was studied, and those
in which the influence of other conditions was also investigat-ed. The
second class was subdivided according to the diseases from which the
subjects were suffering, following Osier's classification^ of diseases.
The experiments with man in which the balance of nitrogen and
carbon with or without hydrogen, oxygen, and mineral matters was
determined form a group by themselves. .
The experiments with each kind of animal in which the nitrogen
balance was determined were grouped by themselves. As far as possi'
ble the groups were subdivided as in the case of man. The experiments
with animals in which the balance of nitrogen and carbon with or
without hydrogen, oxygen, and mineral matters was determined form
a group by themselves. And, finally, the last group is made up of
experiments in which the balance of energy was determined.
The attempt was not made to include experiments published since
1894, though a few of later date are quoted.
A brief reference to the journals and other publications consulted in
making up the present compilation may not be out of place. The com-
plete files of Jahresberieht der Thier-Ohemiey JahresheriehtderAgrikultur-
Chemie^ and the Index Medieus^ were consulted, and the original arti-
cles referred to in these journals were examined for the data quoted in
the tables. In addition, the references in Yoit's, Munk and TJffel-
mann's, and von Noorden's works were quite generally examined, as
well as the references in the bibliographies contained in the reports of
the individual experiments quoted. The complete files of Zeitschrift
fiir Biologiej Arehiv fur Hygiene^ LandwirthschaftUchen VersitehS'Sta-
tionen^ Zeitschrift fur physiologische Ghemie^ Arehiv fur die gesammte
Physiologiey Annates de la Science Agronomique, and Vra^h from 1885 to
1895 were also examined.
Many volumes, though not the complete files, of the following pub-
licaticftis were examined: Arehiv der Heilkunde^ Arehiv fur Kinder-
heilkunde^ Arehiv fiir Jclinisehe Medizin^ Arehiv filr pathologische Anato-
mie und Physiologie^ Arehiv filr Physiologic^ Berliner Jclinisehe Wochen-
schrifty Zeitschrift filr HeilkundCj Zeitschrift filr Tdinische Medizin, Jahr-
buch filr Kinderheilkunde^ Landicirthschaftliche Jahrbilcher, MUnchner
medicinische Wochenschrift^ Comptes Rendus de V Academic des Sciences^
PariSy British Medical Journal^ and many other periodicals and special
works on physiology and physiological chemistry, and inaugural disser-
tations. While it can not be claimed that the present compilation is
complete, it is believed that few of the recorded experiments have
escaped notice.
1 W. Osier, Principles and Practice of Medicine.
2 Only those sections were examined which it was believed would contain experi-
ments of the nature sought.
na-RODUCTION. 15
The purpose of this work is primarily to give a brief epitome, so far
as practicable, of the objects and results of iodividual experiments.
The tables quoted furnish the framework of such an epitome, while sup-
plementary data are given in the accompanying text. It is hoped that
the two together will enable the reader to learn what investigations
have been made and by whom, what balances wete determined, where
the original accounts were published, and the general character of the
results.
Generally speaking, only average figures have been included in the
compilation. For instance, if the results of each of the six days of a
period on a particular diet were given in the original publication, only
the average is quoted. This was done because it was believed that
the average results were usually sufficient for an understanding of the
investigation. Sometimes, where this did not seem to be the case, the
experiments have been quoted with more detail, and individual days
or such averages as seemed most desirable have been included. The
attempt has always been made to give sufficient material for the clear
understanding of the experiments quoted.
It is the opinion of many that the experimental methods followed m
metabolism investigations are not accurate enough to warrant the
numerical expression of results with more than one decimal place.
This has, indeed, been the more common practice. Many investigators
in computing the results have, howiever, used two or more decimal
places. For the sake of uniformity, the plan followed in the compila-
tion has been to use only one decimal place, adding 1 to the first deci-
mal digit if the second was 5 or over. In some few cases this causes
slight discrepancies between the original and the quoted results, and in
a few instances the author's conclusion is not quite so clearly brought
out as is the case when t\nb decimal is given in full.
In the experiments with man the age, sex, and occupation of the sub-
ject have been given when possible. When not otherwise stated, the
subject is supposed to be a man. Considerable variation was observed
in the statements concerning the weight of subjects. Sometimes this
was expressed in kilograms or pounds and sometimes in grams, and
in some experiments the daily weight of the subject was recorded and
in others the weight at the beginning or end of the period. For the
sake of uniformity the approximate weight is given in the tables when-
ever i)ossible.
In the text sufficiently full statements have been made of the meth-
ods followed by the investigators to make it possible to judge of the
relative value of their work.
In most of the experiments the figures quoted were actually deter-
mined. A number of experiments are, however, included in which the
experimenters themselves computed the composition of the food or feces,
or both. Some few experiments are also included in which the food or
feces, or both, were not analyzed nor was the composition computed
16 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
by the investigator. In such cases it was believed that the missing
data could be supplied by the compilers with reasonable accuracy
from available material. This was accordingly done, and figures so
obtained are inclosed in parentheses to. show that the calculations
were made by the compilers and not by the investigators. In a few
experiments the authors determined the urea and uric acid in the urine
and did not determine the total nitrogen. In such cases the nitrogen
of the urine was computed by the comiiilers from the data given. It
was believed that this would not introduce any considerable error,
since the chief nitrogenous compounds in the urine are uric acid, urea,
and extractives, and the amount of the last is small.
Frequently the authors have given additional data of a different
nature from those included in the tables. Reference is usually made to
such data in the text accompanying the tables, and in many cases the
information is briefly summarized.
When the published account of experiments covers more than one
class, the usual plan has been to include all the experiments in the
class to which the majority of them belong. In a few cases, however,
the experiments have been divided, each sort being tabulated in its
proper place.
POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN DRA^WING DEDUCTIONS FROM
THE EXPERIMENTS.
In judging of the value of any series of experiments for general
deductions the care with which the experiments were made and the
methods followed should be taken into account. Among other things —
(1) The experiments must be made under suitable conditions, espe-
cially as to character, environment, and treatment of the subject, be the
latter a man or a lower animal. Whether or not the subject is in such
close confinement as to disturb the bodily functions 5 or whether the
subject is fasting or fed, at work or at rest, should be definitely stated.
Unless the effects of some particular disease or some other unusual
condition are to be studied the bodily condition should be normal. If
the subject is in a respiration apparatus, care should be taken that
the confinement does not become so irksome as to derange the func-
tions. The food should not be such as to disagree with the subject,
and thus disturb the normal processes of metabolism.
(2) The experiments should be made with several different subjects,
and should be repeated in order to make sure that the results are
representative and not exceptional. Eesults of individual tests n^c
affected by individual peculiarities of the subjects, and these idiosyn-
crasies vary not only with different subjects, but with the same subject
at different times. A given diet furnishing certain amounts of protein
and energy may be taken by three different men under the same con-
ditions of environment and labor, and while it meets the demands of
the first it may be too much for the second or too little for the third; or
INTRODUCTION. 1 7
it may suffice very well for either one at a given time and be too much
or too little at another time. This fact is to be especially considered
in studies of dietaries. Again, certain predigested foods^ — so-called
peptones and the like— may be very efficacious in a particular case,
but it would be unwarranted to predicate a specific value without con-
siderable duplication of experiments. These statements apply with
special force where the conditions are abnormal ; e. g,, where a special
Ibrm of disease, or fasting, or unusual muscular exertion is a factor.
(3) The experiments must be of a suitable length, yet not long enough
to disturb normal functions. With too short a i)eriod, it is not certain
how far the observed results represent the actual eflfecfc of the feeding
or treatment which is to be tested. On the other hand, if the food or
treatment be unusual or disagreeable, lengthening the experimental
period unduly may vitiate .the results.
One other important question in this connection is, What period
should be taken for the measure of the metabolism of the food of a day
or given number of days? Unfortunately there is very little exact
knowledge as to when the change in metabolism corresponding to a
change in diet occurs, or how soon such a change of metabolism will
reach a constant level.
For instance, it can not be said that the metabolism of nitrogen, car-
bon, and energy for a period of 24 hours corresponds to the food of
either the same period or of the 24 hours previous, or of any other
exact period that can be named. The factors that enter into this ques-
tion are very complex and the exact data at hand unfortunately few.
If, therefore, a definite measure for the effect of food is desired it must
be sought by making the experiment cover a long period. Part of this
period should properly be considered as preliminary, during which time
the body is adjusting itself to the changed diet and the metabolism is
reaching the constant value corresponding to that diet. One factor of
this constant value is the nitrogen equilibrium which can be quickly
determined. When this point is attained the experiment may be con-
tinued long enough to show the actual effect of the food or other condi-
tions, e. g., muscular work upon metabolism.
(4) The proper separation of the urine, feces, and respiratory prod-
ucts is a matter of great importance. In order to establish a balance
of nitrogen when a certain diet is followed, the feces must be taken into
account. It may be that the feces which are due to the particular food
do not appear for several days after the food is consumed. Some of
tl^i^^early experiments are less valuable than they would otherwise be-
because this fact was overlooked. It was generally assumed that the
feces excreted on a given day were due to the food consumed the pre-
ceding day. This may or may not be the case. Several methods of
definitely marking the feces are in use. One of the best methods,
perhaps, is to give very finely powdered charcoal, either in capsules oi:
749— No. 45 a
18 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
some other convenient form, with the last food eaten before the exx)eri-
ment begins and the first food eaten after it is finished. The charcoal
imparts to the feces a dark bluish-black color of varying intensity, and
the line betw'een the charcoal feces and that which precedes or follows
it is sharply drawn. The separation is then only a mechanical matter.
The collecting of arine is a comparatively simple matter in experi-
ments with men, and can generally be accomplished without great diffi-
culty. To know just what should be the period for collecting urine to
represent the nitrogenous material metabolized during an experimental
period is another and far more difficult matter.. Certainly part of the
nitrogen of the food finds its way into the bladder in a very short time.
Thus the odor due to asparagus may be detected in the urine within
an hour after it is eaten. But when the metabolism of nitrogen is
increased by muscular labor the increased excretion of nitrogen may
continue for many hours after the labor has ceased. No generally
accepted method exists of identifying the urine due to a particular
food, and the experiment should always be of sufficient duration to
eliminate as much as possible the error which may arise from this fact.
It has been frequently assumed that the urine excreted on a particular
day may be taken as representing the food metabolized on that day,
but this is hardly correct. In other cases the urine of 24 hours is taken
as representing the nitrogen metabolized during the previous 24 hours.
The subject demands more experimental study than it has received.
(See Nos. 26n0-2698, Table 28.)
If the estimation of excretory nitrogen is to be perfectly exact, the
perspiration and "accidental" excretory products, such as hair, nails,
epithelial cells, etc., which are lost, must be taken into account,
measured, and analyzed. It is usually assumed that no great error is
involved by neglecting them altogether.
Very little can be said of the separation of the respiratory products
due to a particular diet. The usual plan has been to let the subject
consume a uniform diet for several days and then make the respiration
experiment, the diet being unchanged. Most of the respiration experi-
ments have so far been of short duration — 12 or 24 hours. In the case
of animals it has been possible to keep the subject in the respiration
chamber for a longer time than 24 hours without inconvenience. It was
thought that in the case of man the continued confinement might prove
very irksome, and so disturb the normal functions of the organism.
In late experiments (Nos. 2277-2306, Table 26) this was not found to be
the case. The extent to which the disturbance of normal functions would
occur would doubtless depend upon the temperament of the subject.
(5) In the collection, measurement, and analyses of the food, urine,
feces, and respiratory products lies one of the most difficult problems
encountered in experiments of this nature. It is very difficult to obtain
fair and representative samples of some articles of food — fur instance,
fresh meat. Yet this must be done or it is manifestly imi)ossible to
INTRODUCTION. 19
compute the factors of the income. When a fair sample is obtained it
must be analyzed by methods which are known to give accurate and
reliable results. Much work which has been done loses a considerable
part of its value because analyses of the food consumed were not
made. When the composition is determined by using calculations
based on reliable figures the work has value. It is, however, very
generally recognized that the food used must be analyzed.
Little difficulty attends the collection of urine. In the analysis of
urine it is important that the method be perfectly reliable. In experi-
ments which include only the nitrogen balance it has been customary
with many experimenters to determine the urea by gravimetric meth-
ods and compute the nitrogen from this. The results by this method
are not always satisfactory.
In experiments which include the balance of carbon, oxygen, and
hydrogen it is not enough to calculate these elements from the amount
of urea, or urea and water. Elementary analyses must be made, since
the urine contains other compounds.
The feces may be easily collected and should always be analyzed. It
has been sometimes a custom to assume that a particular diet would
always yield feces of a practically unvarying composition. This is at
best only a supposition. At present there is no entirely satisfactory
method of determining what part of the nitrogen of the feces is due to
undigested residue and what part is due to such metabolic products as
bile, coloring matter, etc. (See Nos. 418-420, Table 7; No. 2620, Table
28.) At present a small error seems unavoidable, due to the fact that
the methods now in use are not perfectly exact.
The methods of preparing samples of food, urine, and feces, and the
methods usually employed in their analysis, have been spoken of at
length in a previous publication.^
The measurement and analysis of the inspired air and the respira-
tory products calls for complicated apparatus, but these determinations
are necessary if any dependence is to be placed on results which include
the balance of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen.
Marsh gas is formed in considerable quantity by the action of bacte-
ria on carbohydrates in the intestines of Herbivora. It is also formed
under certain circumstances in the intestines of man. The carbon of
marsh gas is thus due to a gaseous excretory product of the intestines,
and is not a respiratory product.
The methods of collecting and analyzing respiratory products which
have been employed in the past are treated of under the individual
respiration experiments. (See Tables 27 and 38.)
(6) In order to establish a balance of energy it is necessary to deter-
mine the thermal value of the food, urine, and feces, with a bomb cal-
orimeter or by some other suitable method.^ The energy manifested as
^ U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of ExperimeDt Stations Bnl. 21.
^U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 21, p. 113.
20 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
heat radiated from the body must be measured, and that which is man-
ifested as external work must be measured and reduced to terms of
heat. It is evident that problems of this sort call for complicated
apparatus and a knowledge of the methods useil in physical research.
In discussing nutrients and their functions little has been said con-
cerning mineral matter or, as it is commonly called, ash. Some mineral
matter is required for the formation and repair of tissue. Since, how-
ever, the salts ordinarily consumed possess little or no potential energy,
they are necessarily of little importance in furnishing the body with
force. The mineral constituents have some function in nutrition which
is not at present understood.^ Sodium and chlorin are apparently
necessary constituents of blood serum, and potassium and phosphorus
of the red corpuscles. Phosphorus is absolutely essential for growth,
and sulphur is hardly less important.
As will be seen by reference to the tables, few experiments have been
made in which the balance of income and outgo of mineral constituents
was attempted. Though the theory of the function of mineral matter
does not rest upon such experiments alone, yet data of this nature are
undoubtedly very valuable, and this is a line of research which might
be profitably extended.
ACCURACT AND COMPLETENESS OF THE COMPILATION.
In conclusion the compilers call especial attention to the fact that the
present compilation is intended to cover only a definite line of metab-
olism experimenting. Very many experiments of a different nature
have been made which are of great value in drawing deductions con-
cerning the general laws of nutrition. Such, for instance, are experi-
ments in which the ratio of inspired oxygen to expired carbon dioxid
was determined under varying conditions. In a previous publication
of this Office^ an attempt was made to compile the more important
dietary and digestion experiments made with man. The results as
published include, however, only a part of the material collected.
As regards the correctness of thie statements here compiled, the
authors can only say that they have endeavored to avoid inaccuracy so
far as was in their power. They are aware that errors of detail will
doubtless be found in such a compilation, both in the figures and in
other data.
As already stated, no claim is made that all the experiments are
cited. Despite the efforts made it is certain that some have been
overlooked. A number of experiments with man and animals were
omitted because the feces were not analyzed. These might have been
included by computing the composition of the feces, since the feces do
not vary within very wide limits.
^ For general statements on this subject see Text-book of Physiology, by M. Foster.
2U. S. Dept. Agr., OflBce of Experiment Stations Bui. 21.
EXPEItIME:N^TS WITH MAN.
There is no esseutial difference between man and otber vertebrates
as regards the metabolism of matter and energy. The details of the
process may vary, but the final praducts are essentially the same.
The mate^rials burned yield carbon dioxid, water, and urea, and kindred
compounds, providing energy for internal and external muscular work
and the heat necessary for maintaining the body temperature. A par-
tial exception to these statements may perhaps be ibund in the relation
of intellectual and nervous action to metabolism, but this is a matter as
yet but little understood though demanding careful investigation.
In studying the general principles of metabolism the selection of man
or one of the lower animals as a subject is largely a matter of conveni-
ence. In the study of special questions, however, the nature of the
investigation usually determines the choice of a subject.
EXPERIMENTS IN TVHICH THE NITROGEN BALANCE "WAS
DETERMINED.
HEALTHY SUBJECTS, INFLUENCE OF DIET.
Experiments with man in which the balance of income and outgo of
nitrogen has been determined, with or without mineral matter, consti-
tute about two-thirds of the experiments recorded in this compilation.
They have been divided into two general classes — those in which the
subjects were in health and those in which they were suft'ering from
some disease. The experiments with men in health have been further
subdivided. In the first group the influence of special food materials
or various forms of diet has been studied. In the second group the
influence of other conditions than diet were studied. Some of these
were more or less abnormal or unusual.
EXPERIMENTS WITH A VEaETARIAN DIET.
In Table 1 are included 22 tests with men and 2 with women in which
the object was to study the value of a more or less strictly vegetarian
diet. Many so-called vegetarians do not strictly deserve the name, for
although they omit meat from their dietary they consume considerable
quantities of dairy products and eggs, which are derived irom animal
sources. While numerous works have been published on the subject
of vegetarianism, the actual experiments with man are not numerous.
Information is usually derived from artificial-digestion experiments and
not from actual experiments made with living subjects. A few experi-
ments are also included, which were made with diseased subjects to test
some form of diet, the disease being left out of account, or which were
made for the purpose of comparison. (See also Table 3.)
21
A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPEBIUENTR.
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24 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
No. 1 was made by Cramer in 1882 in connection with a study of the dietary of a
so-called vegetarian. The subject was an official of bigh rank in the German civil
service. He was in good health and possessed of a great deal of physical endurance.
He was not a strict vegetarian, for although vegetable food formed the greater part
of his diet, milk and eggs were also consumed. His diet was a matter of choice and
bad been followed for many years. Analyses of food, urine, and feces were made.
The conclusion is reached that the dietary followed furnished the subject with suf-
ficient nutriment, but if the animal food was omitted it would not do so. It is
urged that a strictly vegetarian diet is not desirable because a large quantity of food
must be consumed in order to obtain sufficient protein. This calls for much unnec-
essary labor by the digestive organs. The diet is also condemned from an econom-
ical standpoint. The ^ame amount of nutriment in a better balanced ration can be
purchased with a definite sum when a mixed dietary is followed than when only
vegetable food is consumed.
Nos. 2, 3 were made by Constantinidi in the Munich laboratory in 1886. The object
of the investigation was to see if the vegetable protein would furnish a fair substi-
tute for animal protein, as ordinarily consumed in meat, or any other expensive pro-
teid substance. The subject was a laboratory servant. The diet consisted of
potatoes cooked in water, to which fat was added, and *' gluten,^' a vegetable proteid
compound made from waste products of wheat. Beer was used as a beverage. The
food and excreta were analyzed. The separation of the feces was effected by means of
milk. The body made a daily gain of 3.6 grams nitrogen. When a second exx>eriment
was made like the above, but without the gluten, the body lost 2.3 grams of nitrogen
per day. The gluten furnished, therefore, a valuable and cheap nitrogenous food.
Nos. 4-7 were made by Rutgers in Amsterdam in 1887. The object was to deter-
mine whether vegetable protein had the same nutritive value as animal protein.
The subjects were the investigator (a physician) and his wife. The time covered by
the whole experiment was 10 weeks. During the first period a simple mixed dietary,
consisting of meat, milk, bread, rice, potatoes, etc., was followed. During the sec-
ond period meat and milk were omitted, and beans and peas were consumed instead.
The amount of protein, fat, and carbohydrates was in each case the same. The
composition of the food was estimated from Konig's figures except in the case of
some Tokay wine, which was analyzed. The food was very carefully prepared, in
order that it might be uniform each day. The cost of the diet which contained
animal food was 2.61 marks (62 cents) per day, while that of the diet containing
only vegetable food was 2.22 marks (55 cents). The amount of urine and its specific
gravity were determined daily, as well as the approximate amount of nitrogen. On
three days the nitrogen was accurately determined. The feces were weighed each
day, and on three days the nitrogen was determined. It is presumable that the
figures obtained are fairly representative of the whole jieriod, since variations from
the regular routine were avoided as much as possible. No particular inconvenience
was experienced in following either dietary, nor did the food become distasteful.
The conclusion is reached that the animal protein can be replaced by vegetable
protein without any particular change in the nitrogen balance. From an economic
standpoint, the only diff'erence In the cost of the two kinds of diet was due to the
fact that less fuel was needed to prepare the vegetable food.
Nos. 8-10 were made by Voit in the laboratory of the Physiological Institute, in
Munich, in 1886. The object of these experiments was an investigation of the merits
of a vegetarian diet as compared with a mixed diet. In No. 8 the subject was an
upholsterer. In Nos. 9 and 10 the subject was the laboratory servant, so often used
for experiments by Voit and his associates. The upholsterer was a strict vegetarian.
For three years his dietary had consisted entirely of bread, fruit, and oil. No warm
food was eaten. The man was normally developed and appeared healthy and well
nourished.
For purposes of comparison the laboratory servant was given the same kind of
food which was relished by the vegetarian. It was, however, very distasteful to
MILK DIET. 25
bim, aud after a few clays could not be eaten. The food and feces were analyzed and
the nitrogen in the urine was determined. The vegetarian was practically in a con-
dition of nitrogen equilibrium with this diet. It was, however, not sufficient for the
laboratory servant. He lost considerable nitrogen, though less than when no food
was consumed. If the diet had been followed for a longer time it is possible that &
condition of nitrogen equilibrium would have been reached.
Voit's conclusion is that it is perfectly possible for a person to subsist entirely on
vegetable food, but that a mixed diet is to be preferred.
Nos. 11-20 were made by Avsitidiski in St. Petersburg in 1889. The object was
to study the metabolism of nitrogen and losses through the skin and lungs on a
vegetable diet. The subjects were prisoners of the St. Petersburg civil prison, all
healthy men, between 20 and 29 years of age. Five series of experiments are
described, each of which was divided into two 10-day periods. In two series (Nos.
11-14 ) the subjects were on a mixed diet during the first period and on a vegeta-
ble diet during the second period, while in the other three series (Nos. 15-20) the
conditions were reversed, and a preliminary period of two days on a special prepara-
tory diet preceded the test proper. There was an interval of three days between Nos.
19 and 20, during which time the subject was suffering from diarrhea.
The nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl- Boro-
din method. The excretion through the skin and lungs was calculated by the method
of Sanctorius — that is, from the original weight of the body plus the total income
for the period was subtracted the weight at the end of the period plus the weight
of the outgo.
In all the experiments the metabolism and assimilation of nitrogen were less on
the vegetable diet than on the mixed diet. The excretion through the skin and
lungs in all cases was greater on the vegetable diet than on the mixed diet.
Nos. 21-24 were made by Taniguti in the Japanese Imperial Military Medical
School at Tokyo in 1892. The object was an investigation of the value of the
Japanese rice diet. The subject was a healthy laboratory servant. The food was
rice or rice and some other vegetable food. In one test takaun (salted vegetables,
chiefly turnip) and meat extract were each used as condiments. Miso (a thick
sauce made from soy beans) was also eaten. Few details are quoted. In most cases
there was a small gain of nitrogen.
EXPERIMENTS WITH A MILK DIET.
In Table 2 are included 46 tests with men, 6 with women, and 17 with
children in which the influence of a milk diet was studied. A num-
ber of the experiments were dietary or digestion studies, in which the
balance of income and outgo of nitrogen was also determined.
When milk or other single food is consumed for several days the
monotonous diet often becomes so repulsive as to cause more or less pro-
nounced digestive disorders. On an absolute milk diet, in order to sup-
ply the subject with the necessary amount of protein and energy, a
large quantity of milk must be consumed. If the amount taken at any
one time is large, digestive derangements sometimes result, owing to the
formation of masses of coagulated milk in the stomach. This may be
prevented in a measure by consuming dry bread or other similar food
with the milk. It is uncertain how much, if any, the digestibility and
assimilation of milk are affected by the addition of other food to the diet.
A number of experiments with diseased subjects in which milk was
the principal or only food consumed are included in Table 18 (Nos.
1507-1546) and Table 19 (Nos. 1869-1878).
26
A DIGEST OF METABOLISM KXPKRIMEXTS.
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MILK DIET. 31
Nos. 25-27 were made by Ruboer in Munich in 1876, and form a series with
Nos. 127-148, Table 3, and Nos. 413-417, Table 7. The object was to investigate the
digestibility of milk. The subject was a professional man. The only food used was
milk. The dry matter, nitrogen, fat, sugar, and ash in the milk were estimated
from previous analyses by Voit. The feces were analyzed, the dry matter, nitrogen,
ether extract^ and ash being determined. No carbohydrates or protein were found
in the feces. The milk feces could, of course, be easily separated.
The author remarks that the solid matter of milk is not as completely digested
by adults as that of meat or eggs. This is largely due to the fact that the percent-
age of ash in the solid matter is larger in milk than in the other two articles.
According to the author, the undigested organic matter from meat amounted to 4.1
to 4.7 per cent, from eggs 4.7 per cent, and from milk 5.4 per cent of the whole, not
a very considerable difference. Young children digest milk more completely tban
adults. Forster^ found that only 6.4 per cent of the solid matter of milk was undi-
gested by a nursing infant. This may, perliaps, be explained by the fact that a
considerable part of the ash of milk is composed of calcium salts and these would
b(^ more needed by the young organism for the formation of bones than in the case
of an adult, and not so much would be left in the undigested residue to form insoluble
salts of the fatty acids.
Nos. 28, 29 were made by Hoffmann in Dorpat in 1884 (?). The object was to
investigate metabolism with an absolute milk diet. The subject was a physician in
good health. He changed his ordinary diet to an absolute milk diet gradually. It
was impossible for him to consume over 3 liters per day. The amount of protein in
the milk and the nitrogen in the urine and feces were determined.
No. 28 was made in the winter, and there was a considerable loss of nitrogen.
No. 29 was made in the summer, and the loss of nitrogen was not so great.
The experiments and opinions of other authors are quoted. The great value of
milk as a diet for the sick is insisted on.
Nos. 30-43 were made by Slatkowsky in St. Petersburg in 1881 (?). The object
was to study the influence of profuse sweating on the assimilation of milk. The
subjects were 2 men and 1 woman. The only food consumed was milk. Large
quantities were taken daily without any difficulty or bad results. The nitrogen in
food (?), urine, and feces was determined. In Nos. 28-35 a period of 3 days on milk
diet under ordinary conditions was followed by a 2-day period in which profuse
perspiration was induced . This seemed to increase the amount of nitrogen absorbed.
It is possible, however, that this might be due to the fact that the organism became
used to the milk diet. To settle this point the conditions were reversed in Nos. 36-39,
and in Nos. 40-43 milk diet was followed for 5 days and perspiration was not
induced. It was found that when a milk diet was followed for some time there was
an increased assimilation of nitrogen.
Nos. 44-48 were made by Laptchinsky in 1880 (?). The object was to investigate
the value of a milk diet. The subjects were 3 healthy individuals and 2 who were
recovering from an illness. The food consisted of milk and a very little bread or
pastry (Gehack),
The subjects of Nos. 44, 45 did not change in weight during the experiment. The
subject of No. 46 lost 4 kilograms in 6 days, the subject of No. 47 lost 520 grams in
6 days, and the subject of No. 4S gained 550 grams in 5 days.
Nos. 49-53. See Nos. 462-473, Table 7.
Nos. 54-78 were made by Rudenko in St. Petersburg in 1885, and form a series with
Nos. 2621-2635 with dogs. The object was to study the metabolism and assimila-
tion of nitrogen on a milk diet.
Eight series of experiments were made with men and women. In the first two
series (No«». 54-57) the spt^cinl object of study was the metabolism of nitrogen at the
time of the transition from the customary mixed diet to the milk diet. The auihor
^Ztschr. Biol., 15 (1879), p. 135.
32 A DIGEST OP METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
himself; who was a healthy person, was the sabject of Nos. 54, 55. The subject of
Nos. 56; 57 was a very corpnlent man, though otherwise in good health.
In the last six series the subjects were suffering from various diseases. They under-
went a so-called milk treatment. The subjects of Nos. 58-75 at first drank 4 glames
of whole milk a day in 8 portions. This quantity was increased a half glass each
day until 10 to 12 glasses per day were consumed. The quantity of milk was then
gradually diminished and solid food taken in its place. The subject of Nos. 76-78
drank as much milk as he wished.
It was the usual plan in these experiments to begin to collect the urine and feces
one day after the test commenced and to continue it one day after the test ended.
The nitrogen in the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl method
except in No. 75, in which the Kjeldahl-Borodin method was used.
The author gives the results of Nos. 54-57 as' follows: During the transition from
the mixed to the milk diet there was a marked decrease in weight. However, this
was not due to an excretion of the products of the cleavage of protein^ but must be
ascribed to a loss of water from the tissues of the body. The outgo of nitrogen in
the urine was increased.
The results of Nos. 58-78 are summed up as follows : The weight of the body
decreased in every case, considering the test as a whole. The decrease was more
striking at the beginning of the milk treatment. As the treatment proceeded the
loss of weight was less, and sometimes there was a slight gain. The outgo of nitro-
gen exceeded the income in all cases at the beginning of the milk period. As the
milk period progressed, the difference between the income and outgo of nitrogen
became less. In the majority of cases nitrogen equilibrium was reached when 2,000
cubic centimeters of milk per day was consumed. The assimilation of nitrogen of
milk varied within wide limits. In general the quantity of urine excreted as com-
pared with the quantity of milk consumed was larger during the first days of the
period and loss later on.
The excretion of urea, phosphates, and sulphur is also discussed.
Nos. 79-96 were made by Markov, in the laboratory of Koshkakov, in St Petersburg,
in 1888. The object was to study the metabolism of nitrogen in healthy persons on an
absolute milk diet. Seven series of experiments carried out at the clinical hospital of
the Military Medical Academy at St. Petersburg are described. The subjects were
6 medical students. The experiments were usually of 14 days duration, and were
divided into three periods, the first and third on a mixed diet and the second on
an exclusive milk diet. Complete data were not given for all the periods. The food
was uniform in all cases, consisting in the mixed diet of soup, with an admixture of
pearl barley; a piece of fried meat, from which the bones, tendon, and as much as
possible of the fat were removed; boiled milk, white bread, and tea.
Before the beginning and also at the end of each experiment, in order to identify
the fe( es corresponding to tbe period of the experiment, the subjects were given
stewed blackberries.
The occupation of tbe subjects in the first four experiments was intense intellectaal
work, such as is required in the preparation for the final examinations, and in the
last two experiments attending lectures and reading. The nitrogen in food, urine,
and feces, was determined. The author sums up the results of his experiments as
follows: Tlio metabolism of nitrogen in healthy persons on an absolute milk diet
was regulated by the quantity of milk taken, being lower when much milk was con-
sumed and higher when less milk was consumed. The percentage of nitrogen of
urea increased and that of nitrogen of extractives decreased in the urine.
Under the influence of an exclusive milk diet the quantity of uric acid decreased
in a marked degree and the power of assimilation increased.
The influence of an absolute milk diet extended also over the following mixed diet
period.
On comparing the figures relating to the milk diet with those relating to the mixed
diet in the first period, it was evident that on the milk diet there was less nitrogen
MILK DIET. 33
digested and also less excreted through the urine, but that the amount of urea was
larger by 8 per cent and the amount of extractives correspondingly smaller. Con-
sequently the metabolism on the milk diet was lower in quantity but better in quality
than on the mixed diet in the first period.
In the third period (mixed diet) the quantity of the nitrogen digested was less
than in the first period but more than in the milk period, and the quantity of nitro-
gen excreted was 2.8 per cent less than in the first period and 0.2 per cent less than
in the second period, while the urea was 8.8 per cent more than in the first period
and 0.8 per cent more than in the second. Hence it follows that the metabolism in
the third period was lower in quantity but better in quality than in the first and
second periods.
No. 97. This experiment was made by Prausnitz in the laboratory of the Physio-
logical Institute, in Munich, in 1889. The object was to investigate the" digestibility
of milk. The subject was the laboratory servant who had been so often used in
Rnbner's experiments. The only food was milk. This was purchased in quantity,
thoroughly mixed, put into little fiasks, and sterilized by heating for two hours in a
Koch steam sterilizer. The milk was kept in the flasks on ice and slightly warmed
before it was used. The food, urine, and feces were analyzed.
The conclusion is reached that milk is one of the most useful, convenient, and
economical sources of protein.
Nos. 98-113 were made by Listov in St. Petersburg in 1892. The object was to
compare the metabolism and assimilation of nitrogen when raw and sterilized milk
were consumed by healthy adult persons. Eight experiments are described, each
covering 6 days, divided into 2 equal periods. In one i^erio:! raw milk was consumed,
in the other sterilized milk. In addition white bread and sugar were consumed.
The milk was sterilized with Koch's apparatus for If hours, at a temperature of 100
to 110°. The nitrogen in the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-
Borodin method.
The following conclusions were reached: The assimilation of the nitrogenous
constituents of sterilized milk was somewhat less than raw milk. The mean assimi-
lation of the former was 91.8 per cent and of the latter 93.6 per cent. The quantita-
tive metabolism in each case was practically the same, being 90.4 per cent in the
sterilized milk and 91.4 per cent in the raw milk. Sterilized milk contains no pep-
tones. The amount of nitrogenous constituents assimilated from the diet followed
in the present experiment is somewhat less than on an absolute milk diet, as shown
by Markov's experiments, Nos. 79-96.
Nos. 114, 115 were made by Magnus-Levy in the laboratory of the Agricultural
Institute in Berlin, in 1891, and form a series with Nos. 281-284, Table 4. The object
was to investigate the digestibility of milk and bread, and by comparing the results
with those previously obtained to judge of the eft'ect of alcohol on metabolism.
The subject was a boy 16 years old who had never used alcoholic drinks, and none
were consumed during these two tests. In No. 114 the diet was exclusively milk.
No bad effects were noticed. In No. 115 the diet consisted of milk, bread, butter,
and sugar.
The food, urine, and feces were analyzed.
The following conclusions are drawn: Slight differences in the assimilation of
nitrogen and fat are noticed in the cases of individuals who use alcohol and those
who are total abstainers. On the whole, however, assimilation is as good in one case
as the other, for the carbohydrates which furnish most of the energy to the organism
are almost completely assimilated in* both cases, provided they are consumed in a
snitable form and in not too great quantity.
Nos. 116-125 were made by Lange at the Medical Institute at the University of
Leipsic, in 1895. The object was to study the metabolism of nursing children when
fed cow's milk. The subjects wore young children. The food consisted of a mixture
of two parts cow's milk and one part of a 12.3 per cent milk-sugar solution. This
749— No. 45 3
34 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
was sterilized by Soxhlet's metiiod. Tbo arine was collected by Epstein's method.
The iiitrogeii in the food, urine, and feces was determined.
The fallowing conclusions were reached: The nitrogen of cow's milk when it is
properly prepared (diluted with milk-sugar solution and sterilized) is almost as
thoroughly assimilated as that of mother's milk. The dry matter in the feces is
about twice as great in the case of a dyspeptic subject as with a healthy child, and
the amount of nitrogen in the feces is also greater, though the percentage content is
less than when the functions of the stomach are normal. The nursing child fed with
milk is not in nitrogen equilibrium, but retains large quantities of nitrogen, usually
more than corresponds to the gain in weight. This discrepancy can best be
explained by the fact that the child's body grows with great rapidity and retains
large quantities of nitrogen for the formation of new cells, though the author does
not question Camerer and von Noorden's tlieory of increased intestinal work, or
Biedert's theory of the formation of free nitrogen by intestinal bacteria, which
might account for the excess.
A test by practically the same methods was also made by the author with a dog
(see No. 2745, Table 28).
EXPERIMENTS AVITH BREAD AND OTHER SINGLE FOOD MATERIALS.
Ill Table 3 are included 115 tests with nieu aiid 3 with womeu in
which the diet consisted of meat, eggs, cheese, bread, or other single
food materials. The bread was of various kinds, including that made
from rye, fine wheat flour, and whole wheat flour. The majority of the
experiments quoted were studies of digestibility in which the balance
of income and outgo of nitrogen was also determined. In some cases
in which vegetables were consumed the experiments can hardly be
considered normal, since the total amount of food consumed was insuffi-
cient for the needs of the organism.
Experiments on the influence of a single food material are of two
general types — either the particular food may be the only food con-
sumed, or it may be the varying constituent in an otherwise uniform
diet. As pointed out in discussing a milk diet, there are practical diffi-
culties in conducting experiments with a diet consisting of a singlo
food. The monotonous diet may become repulsive and derange the
digestive functions more or less. The experimental period must be long
enough to eliminate the influence of the preceding diet, but not long
enough to derange normal functions. It is often difficult to obtain pro-
tein, fat, and carbohydrates in the proper proportions when only one
food is eaten. For instance, if meat, eggs, or other material with a
high nitrogen content is consumed in sufficient quantity to furnish the
requisite energy the amount of protein would be considerably in excess
of the amount which dietary standards call for. When small amounts
of other foods are consumed with large quantities of the special food
studied, it is uncertain how far digestibility and assimilation are
influenced.
Experiments in which single foods have been studied with diseased
subjects will be found in Tables 17-23.
BREAD AND OTHER SINGLE FOOD MATEBIALS.
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42 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
No. 126 was iiia(l<^ by Lelimann in 1839. In 1887 Lelimann and Professor Hasse had
lived lor three weeks entirely on animal food, meat being the chief article of diet.
No inconvenience was experienced and no bad after effects were noticed. This led
Lehmann to try a second experiment with animal food, and eggs were selected as an
article of diet becanse it was more convenient to determine the nitrog<'n in them
than in meat. In order that the eggs might have the same water content thoy were
dried for 24 hours at a temperature of 25^ C. It was found that an egg then con-
tained on an average 23.01 grams of white and 15.54 grams yolk. During 4 days
128 eggs were consumed — 32 per day. This would be 736.3 grams white and 407.3
grams yolk per day. Some of the eggs were eaten raw and some boiled. The
amount of albumen in the eggs was determined, and on the I)a8i8 of Scheror's anal-
yses the amount of nitrogen in the albumen calculated. The amount of carbon con-
sumed was also calculated. The urine was collected each <lay, measured, and the
dry matter determined. The urea was determined as follows : A sample of the urine
was evaporated to about ] to }j of its volume. The urea was then taken up in 93 per
cent alcohol. The alcohol was partially evaporated, the remainder diluted with water
and treated with nitric acid. The nitrate of urea was filtered off and purified. The
nitrogen in the urine can be calculated from the urea, and this was done in order
that the experiment might be included in these tables. Lehmann did not collect the
feces, therefore the fiuiount of nitrogen in the feces when only eggs are consumed was
supplied from Rubuer's experiment No. 128. In Kubner's experiment the amount
consumed was somewhat smaller than in Lehmann's, but this would probably make
very little difterence, as the nitrogen of the eggs is very completely assimilated. This
experimentis interesting chiefly from an historical standpoint. It is the earliest which
has been found that could be included in this summary of nietaboliam experiments.
Three other similar experiments were made by Lehmann with a mixed diet, a veg-
etable diet, and a nitrogen- free diet. No details of the food consumed are given
except in the last case. The food then consisted of almond oil, starch, and sugar.
The time was 3 days. The daily excretion of urc^a was 15.4 grams (or 7.4 grams
nitrogen). The feces were not collected. According to Rieder (No. 418-420, Table
7), with similar nitrogen-free dicf 0.5 to 0.9 grams nitrogen are excreted in the feces.
Nos. 127-145 were made by Rubner in the laboratory of the Physiological Institute
in Munich in 1878. The object was to investigate the digestibility of a number of
single food materials.
In Nos. 127 and 129 the subject was a medical student. His food consisted of lean
beef, which was prepared by separating the fat, gristle, and connective tissue as
completely as was practicable with shears. The meat thus prepared was fried or
roasted with a little butter, onion, salt, and pepper, and eaten either with well
water or carbonated water as a beverage. For purposes of analysis specimens of
the meat after it had been cooked with the above materials were taken each meal
time and the fat and water determined. The quantity of nitrogen in the meat
was estimated. For this estimate the nitrogen content of the dry, fat-free flesh was
assumed to be 14.11 per cent. Although the meat was extremely palatable, it
was almost impossible for the subject to eat it on the third day. Eating meat alone
caused a strong aversion to it.
The subject of No. 128 was a student of medicine. The only food was eggs, which
were boiled hard in the shells and eaten with a little salt. Water was the only
beverage used. The dry matter in the eggs was determined, but the nitrogen, fat,
and ash were calculated from previous analyses by Voit.
In Nos. 130 and 131 the subject was a laboratory servant, 43 years old. The author
wished to make the experiment with cheese alone, but could find no one willing to
live upon cheese without other food; therefore milk and cheese were used together.
The cheese used was Allgauer (similar to what is called ''Swiss'' cheese in the
United States), and the dry matter, nitrogen, fat, and ash in it were estimated from
analyses of cheese made by Forster.
The subject of No. 132 was the medical student mentioned above. The food was
maJ^e meal cooked to a mush with water and butter, with the addition of grated
BREAD AND OTHER SINGLE FOOD MATERIALS. 43
Parmesan cheese. The subject of the experiment did not relish the food thns prepared,
and after the first meal made of it meat extract was added. Beer was used as a bever-
age. The composition of the food was estimated from Konig's compilation of analyses.
The subject of No. 133 was the same as the preceding. The food was rice, which
was cooked in water or water and meat extract ; a little fat and salt were added.
Analyses of the food were not made, but the composition was estimated from the
figures of Konig and others.
The subject of No. 134 was a Bavarian soldier who was accustomed to a diet con-
sisting largely of potatoes. The food consisted of potatoes, which were boiled and
eaten with salt or butter, or with oil and vinegar as salad. It is not stated whether
analyses were made of the potatoes or whether the composition was estimated.
The subject of Nos. 135-140 was the laboratory servant mentioned above. In Nos.
135 and 136 the food yvas bread made from fine wheat flour. The dry matter, nitrogen,
and ash in the flour and yeast were determined by analysis, and the results were
used in computing the composition of the bread, which was made in the Physiolog-
ical Institute, where the experiments were carried on.
The food in No. 137 consisted of spdtzeln, a dish which is much eaten in the Bava-
rian highlands. A stifle dough is made of flour, water, and sometimes milk and eggs
also. It is pressed through a sieve into boiling water and cooked for a few minutes.
In this case only flour and water were used. The flour was analyzed and the com-
position of the apdtzeln computed from this analysis. .
The food in No. 138 consisted of black bread made from rye flour. It was analyzed.
In No. 139 the food consisted of macaroni noodles, which were cooked in salted
water. It was analyzed.
In No. 140 a kind of macaroni was used which contained gluten, a substance made
from wheat and containing a large amount of nitrogen. The macaroni was cooked
in salted water and was analyzed. The gluten furnishes a cheap and valuable source
of nitrogen.
Nos. 141 and 142 were made by Breuer in the Munich laboratory, in 1878, and
reported by Rubner. Breuer himself was the subject. In No. 141 the food was
Savoy cabbage, and in No. 142 carrots. The vegetables were cooked in water, with
salt and a little fat.
The subject of Nos. 143 and 144 was the same laboratory servant. The food con-
sisted of peas, which were purchased dry, carefully cleaned, and cooked in water
2 or 3 hours, and then pressed through a fine sieve. Salt was eaten with the peas,
aDd beer was used as a beverage. Full analyses of the peas were made.
The subject of No. 145 was the medical student mentioned above. The food con-
sisted of green beans (presumably '^string beans"), which were cooked in water
with some butter. It is not stated whether analyses were made of the beans, but it
seems probable that they were. Rubner remarks that too much value should not be
placed on this experiment, since the quantity of solid matter in the diet was too
small to serve in any adequate manner as food.
The conclusions drawn from the above series of experiments have to do with the
digestibility of the various foods.
Nos. 146-148 were made by Rubner in the laboratory of the Physiological Institute,
at Munich, in 1882. The object was to investigate the value of wheat bran as food
for man. The subject was the laboratory servant mentioned above. In No. 146 the
food consisted of bread made from the finest wheat flour, in No. 147 from medium
wheat flour, and in No. 148 from the entire wheat. The bread for the experiment
was very carefully made from flour, yeast, water, salt, and a very little sugar. Beer
and water were consumed as beverages. The dry matter, nitrogen, fat, carbohy-
drates, and ash in the flour, the dry matter and ash in tlie yeast, the dry matter,
nitrogen, fat, and ash in the feces, and the nitrogen in the urine, Avere determined.
The nitrogen in the yeast was calculated. The separation of the feces was made
with charcoal or by eating meat. Meat and bread feces are each characteristic, so a
separation is possible.
44 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
The coDclnsion is reached that the nutrients in coarse bread are not as thoroughly
digested as in bread made from finer flour. Tlio loss falJs principally on the carbo-
hydrates. The amount of material excreted in the feces increases with the increased
bran content of the flour.
Nos. 149-177 were made by Solntzev in St. Pet-ersburg in 1886. The object of the
investigation was to study (1) the qualitative and quantitive composition of sev-
eral kinds of canned goods, (2) the chemical composition of the ingredients of the
canned goods, and (3) to compare the nutritive value of canned goods with freshly-
prepared foods. The author investigated 4 kinds of canned meat (roast beef, roast
mutton, ragout of beef, and ragout of nmtton), and 4 kinds of canned vegetables
with or without meat (sour cabbage soup, peas and meat, beans and meat, and lentils
and meat). These articles were canned by order of the Russian department of war.
They were compared with meats freshly prepared by cooking at a temperature of 85° C.
In the preparation of the canned goods the Appeur process, as modified by Fastier,
was used. The canned goods were prepared in 1883. This investigation was made
three years later, and of the 300 cans opened not a single one was spoiled as far as
could bo judged by taste and odor.
The subjects were prisoners in solitary confinement at the St. Petersburg military
prison. They were between 22 and 26 years of age, healthy, and well built.
The nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl method.
Of the 29 tests, 6 were made with beef, 6 with mutton, 5 with beef and bread, 7 with
mutton and bread, and 5 with black bread. Two other tests were made with a diet
of beef and bread in which the nitrogen in the urine was not determined.
The author draws the following conclusions : The canned goods had kept as Avell
as could be desired. The taste wiis tolerably satisfactory, but the meat was over-
cooked. The assimilation of canned meat taken alone or with black bread was con-
siderably lower than that of freshly- cooked meat. The canned preparations were
not at all homogeneous, the meat, fat, and tendon being very irregularly distributed.
Nos. 178-194 were made by Kurcheninov in St. Petersburg in 1887. The object
was to investigate the assimilation of the protein of millet meal. Millet (Panicum
miliaceum) is a cereal suited to hot and temperate climates. Millet meal is prepared
by removing the hull from the grain and grinding. Five experiments are described,
each consisting of four periods, (1) on a mixed diet, (2) on a diet of thin millet-meal
porridge, (3; on a diet of thick millet-meal porridge, and (4) on a mixed diet.
The nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl- Borodin
method.
The results obtained do not indicate that millet meal in the form of a thin or a
thick porridge is well assimilated. The assimilation of the mixed diets in the first
and fourth periods varied in the different experiments from 89.97 per cent to 91.08
per cent. The assimilation of the two sorts of millet-meal porridge varied from 40.04
per cent to 43.81 per cent. The author does not consider his experiments decisive,
since the subjects were not used to this kind of food.
Nos. 195, 196 were made by Atwater at the Physiological Institute, in Munich, in
1882-83, to compare the nutritive values of fish and meat. The subject was a medical
student. In one period fish was consumed and in the other lean beef, the amount of
dry matter being about the same in each case. In addition, some fat and a little salt
or other condiment was consumed also. Beer, wine, and coffee were used as bever-
ages. The food and feces were analyzed and the specific gravity, reaction, and
nitrogen in the urine were determined.
Tests were also made with a dog (see Nos. 2703, 2704, Table 28) under practically
the same experimental conditions.
The conclusion was reached that fish was as well digested and absorbed as lean meat,
that is (as its composition would indicate), fish has practically the same nutritive
value as lean meat. The value of fish as an inexpensive article of diet is discnssed.
Nos. 197-215 were made by Malakhovski in St. Petersburg in 1889. The object
was to study the chemical composition and assimilation of potassium and sodium
BREAD AND OTHER SINGLE FOOD MATERIALS. 45
albaminates. Four preparations of the alkaline white of eggs are fonnd in the mar-
ket, (1) sodium albuminate powder, (2) potassium albuminate powder, (3) the same
alkaline albuminates in alcohol, and (4) a powder resembling egg yolk. Their com-
XK>sition was determined.
It is important to note that the alkalinity of these preparatloUs is considerably
greater than that of the fresh egg albumen. For instance, that of potassium albu-
minates is 0.269 per cent, while that of the white of an egg is 0.00523 per cent.
Nineteen experiments are described, 4 of which lasted 2 days. The remaining 15
were of 3 days' duration. The various preparations were given to the different sub-
jects with a vegetable or mixed diet. Most of the subjects were convicts in prison.
The nitrogen was determined by the Kjeldahl-Willfarth method, and the starch by
the Fanlenbach method.
The author sums up his conclusions as follows:
None of the subjects receiving the preparations felt well. As regards chemical
composition the albuminates in alcohol resemble most nearly the normal albumen of
hen's eggs. An essential and marked defect of all the preparations under considera-
tion is the high degree of alkalinity. The assimilation of vegetable food is increased
but little under the influence of the albuminates. The sodium albuminate is some-
what better assimilated than the potassium albuminate. The metabolism of nitro-
gen increases strikingly and especially under the influence of the potassium powder.
The preparations were not satisfactorily preserved. This was especially the case with
the albuminates in alcohol and with the yolk-like preparations. A putrid odor indi-
cated decomposition. From an hygienic standpoint none of those preparations are
valuable.
Nos. 216-230 were made by Kuznetsov in St. Petersburg in 1889. The object was
to study the effect of feeding tata albumen. The preparations used were of two
forms, a powder and a jelly. The former was either a potassium or sodium albumi-
nate and the latter was preserved in 50 per cent alcohol.
The author himself was the subject of 12 of the tests, and the subject of 3 tests was
a midwife.
The following conclusions were reached by the author : The alkaline albuminate
powder was quite capable of replacing meat in supplying the organism with nitro-
gen, provided equal amounts of nitrogen were introduced in each case. When nearly
equal quantities of vegetable and animal proteids were introduced, 63 grams of the
albumen powder was sufficient not only for maintaining a nitrogen equilibrium, but
also for a gain of nitrogen in the organism. A like result was obtained by using a
quantity of tata jelly equal to 31.5 grams of the dry albumen. The assimilation of
the tata albumen was 1 per cent less, and that of the potassium albuminate 2.5 per
cent less than that of meat. The assimilation of the sodium albuminate was only
1 per cent less than that of fresh meat. It was observed that the use of the album-
inates did not cause digestive or general disorders, and the weight of the body
increased as compared with the meat period. The muscular energy, which was
measured by a dynamometer, was found to increase on the albumen diet.
The preparations of tata albumen are tasteless, but with suitable flavoring,
gravies, etc., are not at all disagreeable. Tata jolly is quite palatable.
No. 231. This experiment was made by Prausnitz in the Munich laboratory in
1889(f). The object was to study the digestibility of beans. The subject was a
laboratory servant. The food consisted of white beans, which trere soaked in water
over night and cooked in salted water until soft. Some flour was browned in fat
and this mixed with the beaiis, with the adaition of a little vinegar and some of the
water in which the beans were cooked. Analyses were made of food, urine, and
feces. The chief interest in this experiment attaches to the digestion of the nitro-
gen. The amount undigested, 30.3 per cent, is much larger than in Rubuer's
experiment with peas (Nos. 143, 144) ; but it must be remembered that the peas were
eaten in the form of a mush, while the beans were, for the most part, whole. This
might have a considerable influence on the digestibility.
46 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
Nob. 232-236 were made by llultgrcn and Landergren at the laboratory of the Caro-
linian Medical-Surgical Institute in Stockholm in 1889. The object was to compare
the digestibility of margarin and butter when consumed with rye bread. The experi-
menters were themselves the subjects. The diet consisted of rye bread and margarin
or butter. The bread was made with coarse or fine rye flour, water, and yeast, and
was baked in a hard, thin cake. The composition of the margarin and of the bread,
nrine, and feces was determined. The separation of the feces was made with berries.
The conclusion was reached that there was a difference in the digestibility of but-
ter and margarin. On an average 4.57 per cent of the butter fat and 6 2 per cent of
the margarin fat were not digested. The conclusion wasalso reached that the soluble
carbohydrates in the coarse bread were entirely digested.
Nos. 237-239. See Nos. 21-24, Table 1.
Nos. 240, 241 were made by Solomin at the University of Breslau in 1896. The
object was to investigate the digestibility of tripe. The subject was a laboratory
servant. The food consisted of bread, butter, and flour with tripe or meat. The
flour was used in frying the meat or tripe. The separation of the feces was made
with milk. The food, urine, and feces were analyzed.
The conclusion was reached that there was no marked difference in the digesti-
bility of tripe and meat.
EXPERIMENTS IN WHICH ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES, KOUMISS, AND
KEPHIR WERE ADDED TO THE DIET.
Ill Table 4 are included 105 tests with man, in 66 of which beer, wine,
or other similar alcoholic beverages were added to the diet in varying
amounts. In 39 tests koumiss or kephir was consumed, with or without
other food. One of the principal objects sought in the experiments of
the first group was to determine whether or not alcohol is a nutrient;
in other words, whether by being consumed in the organism it serves
as a i)rotector of protein in the same way as fat or carbohydrates. The
effect of alcohol upon the digestibility of fats and carbohydrates was
also studied.
Although the interest in problems of the sort mentioned is very wide-
spread, the number of experiments is comparatively limited. Very
many experiments of a different nature on the effects of alcohol have
been made. A bibliography of the literature on the subject, with brief
notes as to the character of the works cited, has been prepared by
Dr. John S. Billings. ^
In the experiments of the second group alcoholic beverages were
studied which are unquestionably foods as well. Koumiss and kephir
are made by fermenting mares' or cows' milk. In koumiss the fermenta-
tion is produced bylactic acid and the characteristic ferments of alcohol
and in kephir it is produced by a special organism, Saccharomyces
Icephiri. Tlie process of manufacture is described by Munk and Uff'el-
mann.^ These beverages contain considerable protein, a portion of
which is said to be partially digested by the process of manufacture.
1 Bibliography (preliminary) of the Literature on the Physiological and Patho-
logical Effects of Alcohol and Alcoholic Drinks. Washington, 1894.
^Munk and Uifelmann; Emahrung des Gesunden und Kranken Menschen, pp.
413-416.
ALCOHOLIC BEVEBAGES, KOUMISS, AMD KEPHIB.
47
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52 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
No8. 242, 243 were made by Parkes and Wollowicz iu 1860. The object was to
study the eifect of alcohol on the human body. Five experiments were made. In
three experiments water was the beverage consumed, in one 28.4 to 227.2 cubic centi-
meters of absolute alcohol was consumed, and in another 341 cubic centimeters of
brandy. The food consisted of a mixed diet. In every case the nitrogen of the food
and the nitrogen and urea of the urine were determined. The nitrogen of the feces
was determined on one day of one water period, and on one day of the period in
which absolute alcohol was consumed. Therefore these are the only tests included
in the table. In every case the amount of nitrogen in the food consumed was 17.3
grams. In the two iieriods not included in the table, when water was consumed, 17
grams and 16 grams of nitrogen, respectively, Avero excreted in the urine, and in the
period in which brandy was consumed, 16.4 grams. The conclusion was reached
that alcohol and brandy had no effect on the excretion of nitrogen.
Nos. 244, 245 were made by Parkes and Wollowicz in 1870. The object was to
study the effect of claret on the human body. The subject was a healthy man.
The food was a simple mixed diet, consisting of bread, beefsteak (fat used for fry-
ing the steak), butter, sugar, milk, potatoes, and salt.
For 16 days before the experiment began the subject drank only water. In the first
test (No. 244) water was used as a beverage, and in the second (No. 245) a good claret
(Haut Brion, 1863), containing 10 per cent alcohol. The nitrogen iu the food was
calculated on the basis of former analyses. The food was found by previous experi-
ments to be very uniform iu composition. The bread was made at the hospital bakery
at Netley. The nitrogen and urea in the urine were determined, and on the last day
of each experiment the nitrogen in the feces.
The claret had no eflect on the nitrogen excretion. The action of the heart was
increased, the increase being proportional to the quantity of alcohol consumed. No
other effects of importance were noticed. The author believes that alcohol was not
necessary or desirable for the subject of these experiments.
A third test was made with the sau^e diet and water as a beverage. The nitrogen
in the urine was 17.5 grams. The nitrogen in the feces was not determined, and the
results are not included in the table.
Nos. 246-250 were made by Parkes in 1872, and form a series with Nos. 242-245 and
858-867, Table 10. The object was to study the effect of alcohol and exerciso on
the human body. The suhject was a powerfully built Scotchman. He was very
temperate, drinking only a little beer and occasionally spirits.
The food in these experiments was oatmeal and milk. The nitrogen in the food,
urine, and feces was determined.
In No. 249 the subject consumed daily 355 cubic centimeters of brandy.
When no work was done the subject took exercise by walking slowly. The work
consisted of digging ground for eight or nine hours per day. He was fatigued by
this labor.
The principal conclusions were as follows : Brandy did not affect the excretion of
nitrogen during exercise (work) or when no work was done.
The brandy increased the action of the heart to such an extent that it lessened the
amount of work the subject was able to perform.
Nos. 251-280 were made by Mogilianski iu St. Petersburg in 188^. The object was
to study the influence of alcohol on the assimilation and metabolism of nitrogen
and the assimilation of fats.
Experiments with 15 subjects were carried out by the author. All the subjects
were young and healthy, the majority being stndents of the Military Medical Acad-
emy. The food consisted of meat freed as much as possible from fat, milk, bread,
butter, tea, water, and in some cases beef tea and jelly. The determination of
nitrogen in all the food materials, as well as in the urine and feces, was made by the
Kjeldahl-Borodin method. The tea and jelly contained very small quantities of
nitrogen. Each experiment covered 10 to 14 days, and was divided into periods,
one with and one without alcohol. Food was taken threo times a day, and each
meal was accompanied by a dose of alcohol during one period. The amount of
ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES, KOUMISS, AND KEPHIB. 53
alcohol (absolute) given to the subjects daily varied from 60 to 140 cubic centi-
meters. It was diluted with distilled water to 40° to 42° Tralles. Some of the sub-
jects were long accustomed to alcohol and consumed much of it, others drank it
only occasionally, and still others abstained altogether from alcoholic beverages.
The portion of alcohol administered to each subject was determined by his habits,
the rule being to give a sufficient quantity to cause slight intoxication.
The author draws the following conclusions: Temporary driuking of alcohol in
moderate doses, by those accustomed to it, increases the appetite and causes an
improvement in the assimilation of the nitrogenous constituents of the food. The
assimilation decreases in persons not used to alcohol. The quantity of the fatty
acids excreted in the feces is larger when small doses of alcohol are taken than when
none is consumed. The reverse is true when larger but still moderate doses are taken.
In other words, the assimilation of fats decreases under the influence of alcohol.
The decomposition of protein in the body decreases strikingly under the influence of
alcohol. ^Moderate doses always cause this, and small doses frequently do so. In
these experiments it was observed that a quantitative lowering of the metabolism did
not depend on the alcohol taken . Persons not accustomed to alcohol are more afl*ected
by it than those accustomed to it. Alcohol does not increase the amount of urine.
Nos. 281-284 were made by Zuntz and Magnus-Levy at the Agricultural Institute
in Berlin in 1890. The object was to study the digestibility and nutritive value
of bread, and also the effect of alcohol on metabolism. The subjects were the
Investigators themselves. One of them was an habitual beer drinker, consuming
1,000 to 1,500 cubic centimeters per day. The other used very little beer, about 300
cubic centimeters per day.
The food consisted of bread,, butter, tea with sugar, and beer. The bread was
made by the investigators themselves from weighed quantities of materials which
wi-re analyzed. That used in Nos. 281 and 283 consisted of jvheat flour, yeast, water,
and salt. It was glazed with beaten egg. That used in Nos. 284 and 285 consisted
of wheat flour to which 20 per cent of potato starch had been added, and skimmed
milk, yeast, and salt. It is described as being liglit and having a flue taste. It had
been suggested some years before by one of the investigators that when starch was
cheaper than flour it could be economically used in bread. This would decrease the
amount of nitrogen. Therefore skimmed milk was used to make good this deficiency.
The food, urine, and feces were analyzed. The following conclusions were reached :
The diet, though containing very little protein, was well assimilated. No diminution
in its nutritive value was noticed when bread was used which contained potato
starch. Alcohol exercised no bad effect on digestibility, even when 60 grams per
day was consumed.
In connection with the above work respiration experiments, in which the respira-
tory quotient was determined, were made. They are, however, not published in
detail. Accuracy within 2 or 3 per cent was claimed in the estimation of carbon
dioxid. On the basis of these experiments considerable space is devoted to a con-
sideration of the use which is actually made of the oxygen consumed from the air.
It is believed that when a man performs no severe mechanical labor more than half
of the oxygen consumed in a day is used in the production of internal muscular work.
Further, with a diet of bread and butter the work of digestion itself requires a con-
sumption of oxygen equal to 10 per cent of that required when no work is performed,
or, in other words, 5 per cent of the food consumed by a person at moderate labor is
expended in furnishing energy for the labor of digestion.
Nos. 285-290 were made by Stammreich in the medical department of the Univer-
sity of Berlin in 1890-91 (f) under the direction of von Noorden. The object was to
study the influence of alcohol on metabolism. The subject of Nos. 285-287 was the
investigator himself, and the subjecv of Nos. 288-290 was a woman.
In No. 285 the diet consisted of meat, bread, potatoes, beer, etc. The fuel value of
the diet was 2,241 calories. In No. 286 alcohol was substituted for fat The fuel
value was practically the same. In No. 287 the food and fv\e\^'a\^\Ck vrc^^ «w^ vcv^^.
285. In No. 288 the food consifited of milk, bread, butter, meat, auCL «k?,^^» '^V^ ^vxsfiw
54 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
value was, on an average, 2,200 calories per day. In No. 289 the butter was omitted
and 65 grams of alcohol, its isodynamic equivalent, was substituted (fat : alcohol : :
7 : 9.3). The alcohol was in the form of cognac. In No. 290 the diet was as at first.
The metabolism of nitrogen was practically the same under the three conditions
in both series of experiments.
The conclusion is reached that alcohol is a food and can take the place of fat as a
protector of protein.
A very complete review of the previous work in this connection is included in the
account of these experiments.
Nos. 291-307 were made by Miura in Berlin in 1891 to investigate the influence of
alcohol on metabolism. The investigator himself was the subject. He was a Japa-
nese, strong, but rather small in stature.
In Nos. 291-296 the diet contained a small amount of protein. It consisted of rice
and sausage, with some meat extract and salted cucumber (Salzgurke). In Nos. 297-
307 the diet was much richer in protein. It consisted of rice, meat, and butter, with
meat extract and salted cucumber. In Nos. 293, 296, 299, 303, and 30(> a smaller
amount of rice was consumed. In Nos. 293, 299, and 306 alcohol in the form of arack
or brandy was substituted for the carbohydrates of the rice, and some meat was
added to make up for the protein. The quantities of alcohol and meat were calcu-
lated to be equivalent to the amount of rice omitted. In Nos. 296 and 303 an equiva-
lent amount of meat was consumed in place of the protein of the rice, but nothing
was substituted for the carbohydrates.
The feces were separated with charcoal taken in a solution of gum arabic. Anal-
yses of the food, urine, and feces were made.
The author draws attention to the fact that tbe belief is quite general that alcohol
in small quantities can be substituted for carbohydrates, though proof on this point
is not abundant. In these experiments every precaution was taken to insure accu-
racy, and the conclusion was reached that alcohol did not take the place of carbohy-
drates as a protector of protein. It will be seen by reference to the table that just
ns much nitrogen was lost per day by the organism when alcohol was substituted
for part of the carbohydrates as was the case when both alcohol and carbohydrates
were omitted.
Nos. 308-313 were made by Korkounov at the University at St. Petersburg in 1885.
The object was to study the metabolism and assimilation of nitrogen when kou.
miss was consumed. Three experiments are described. The subject of Nos. 310,311
had been treated with koumiss for 3 years for chronic intestinal catarrh. The other
subjects were healthy persons. The experiments were divided into two periods. In
the first period the diet consisted of wheat bread, milk, and tea, and in the second
koumiss made from mare's milk was consumed in addition in gradually increasing
amounts. The koumiss used in the experiments was from 8 to 26 days old. The
nitrogen in food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin method.
The following conclusions were reached : When koumiss was consumed, the metab-
olism of nitrogen was increased, and the assimilation of nitrogen was increased in
two cases and very slightly decreased in one.
In connection with this work an experiment may be mentioned which was under-
taken by Kosturine at the University of St. Petersburg in 1885 to investigate the
assimilation of koumiss. The subject was a healthy man, 21 years old. The experi-
ment lasted 3 days. On the first day the subject consumed koumiss alone, and on
the second and third days koumiss with baked potatoes and English cakes. During
the whole period 10,500 cubic centimeters of koumiss was consumed. The nitrogen
in the food and feces was determined by the soda-lime method. The total income of
nitrogen was 25.5 grams, the total outgo in the feces 1.1 grams.
The conclusion was reached that 95.6 per cent of the nitrogen of koumiss was
assimilated.
In the 3 days 8,186 cubic centimeters of urine of 1.010 specific gravity was excreted.
Thb nitrogen of the urine was not determined.
Nos. 314-338 were made by Alexeyev in St. Petersburg in 1887-88. The object
was to study tbe metabolism and the assimilation of nitrogen on a diet containing
kepbir, Kepbir is a /ermeuted beverage made from cow's milk. It is prepared with
PEPTONES AND SIMILAR PREPARATIONS. 55
a special ferment called kephlr yeast. According to the length of time which the
milk is fermented the kephir is distinguished as weak (fermented 1 day), niedinm
(fermented 2 days), or strong (fermented 3 days). The total protein in kephir and
milk is about the same, hut the constituents of the protein vary considerably, as is
sliown by the following table :
Composition of protein of milk and kephir.
Milk...
Kephir .
Casein.
Per cent.
87.30
81.68
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Per cent.
8.20
3.02
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'6.73'
bumose. Peptones.
Per cent. \ Per cent.
4.50 ;
7.84 0.83
In addition to protein, kephir contains mineral salts, alcohol, carbonic acid, and
lactic acid.
Seven experiments are described. All the subjects were healthy men, students or
physicians. The majority of the experiments were divided into four periods. They
began and ended with a period on a mixed diet consisting of bread, soup, and meat.
Daring the second period kephir in gradually increasing amounts, beginning with 1|
glasses per day, was added to the diet. In the tliird period kephir alone or with bread
was consumed . In a number of cases the experiments consisted of but three periods,
the first and third on a mixed diet, and the second on a diet of bread and kephir.
The feces were separated by means of blackberries. The amount, specific gravity,
reaction, and nitrogen content of the urine were determined. It was also exam-
ined for albumen and su^ar. The food and feces were analyzed daily. In every
case the nitrogen was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin method.
The author drew the following conclusions: The weight of the body increased
when kephir was added to the mixed diet. When kephir alone was consumed the
weight of the body decreased, since it did not furnish sufficient protein for the
needs of the organism. In nearly every case the quantity of urine increased when
kephir w.ns consumed alone or with other foods and the specific gravity decreased,
being least on an absolute kephir diet. When kephir was consumed with other food
the amount of nitrogen in the urine increased. This was thought to be due to the
increased supply of nitrogenous matelrial in the food and to intensified metabolism.
On an absolute kephir diet the amount of nitrogen excreted in the urine decreased.
When kephir was consumed alone or with other foods the amount of feces decreased.
In the majority of cases more nitrogen was retained in the body when kephir was
added to the diet. On an absolute kephir diet the income of nitrogen exceeded the
outgo in one case only (No. 330). In nearly every case the metabolism and assimila-
tion of nitrogen increased when kephir was consumed.
In general, the author concludes that the effect of kephir on the organism is
similar in many respects to that of milk and koumiss.
The author gives a review of the literature of kephir, including methods of prepa-
ration, chemical composition, microscopical and bacteriological investigations,
physiological action, and therapeutical application.
EXPERIMENTS IN WHICH PEPTONES AND SIMILAR PREPARATIONS
WERE ADDED TO THE DIET.
In Table 5 are included 2 tests with men and 8 with women in which
peptones or similar preparations were added to the diet. Peptones
diflerfrom ordinary meat extracts in that the latter contain principally
nitrogen of extractives, while the former contain considerable quanti-
ties of proteoses, albumoses, and similar compounds. They are there-
fore foods and not simply stimulants. Peptones are prepared by par-
tially digesting meat, milk,or other food materials, and find their chief
application in the feeding of invalids. Experiments in which they
were used for this purpose will be found in Nos. 2222, 2223, Table 24.
56
A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
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PEPTONES AND SIMILAR PREPARATIONS. 57
Nofl. 339, 340 were made by Munk in Berlin in 1888 ( ?). The object was to investi-
gate the nutritive value of Ant weiler's *' gelatin-free peptone," an albumose peptone.
This preparation is obtained by digesting meat which contains no fat with the juice
of papaw (Carica papaya). The subject was a man 31 years old, weighing 61.1
kilograms.
The food in these experiments consisted of bread, meat, butter, broth, and pep-
tone. In one experiment no peptone was consumed, but an equivalent amount of
meat was substituted for it. Less broth was then used, since the meat contained
considerable moisture. The nitrogen in the food, urine, aud feces was determined.
The conclusion is reached that this peptone is very nearly as nutritious as meat
and is somewhat more completely digested. No bad effects were noticed when the
peptone was consumed.
Nos. 341-348 were made by Deiters, in von Noorden's laboratory in Berlin, in 1891.
The object was to compare peptones with meat in a dietary to determine whether the
nitrogen of peptones could be substituted for the proteid nitrogen of mebt. Pep-
tones are normally found in the body. The gastric juice converts the protein of the
food into peptonas (albumoses being formed as an intermediate step). Peptones are
soluble in water and will diffuse through animal membrane. They are therefore in
a condition to be assimilated. It was assumed that peptones, even if obtained by
artificial methods, conld be assimilated and prove of value in many cases where
through illness, weakness, or other cause the power of digestion was impaired.
The subjects of the experiments were 2 womeu, one suffering from a slight hyster-
ical affection and the other from a slight attack of rheumatism. In neither case was
the illness sufficient to affect metabolism. The subjects were kept in bed to insure a
uniform condition throughout the experiment. The experiments were divided into
either 2 or 3 periods. In the first period the food consisted of meat, meat extract,
rice, etc. In the second period an equivalent amount of peptone was substituted
for the meat and meat extract, the other food articles remaining the same as in the
first i)eriod. In the third period the diet was the same as at first. The food was
prepared with great care and every precaution was taken in collecting the excre-
tory products. The food, urine, and feces were analyzed.
Denaeyer's sterilized meat peptone, which was used in these experiments, is pre-
pared from beef by digesting it with pepsin and hydrochloric acid. It is a clear,
jelly-like liquid, of a light yellow color and an odor somewhat resembling that of
bouillon. It has a slightly bitter taste, which it loses, however, when taken in soup,
rice, or other medium. According to the manufacturer's analysis the composition is
as follows :
Composition of Denaeyer^s sterilized meat peptone.
Per cent.
Water 80.20
Dry matter 19.80
Gelatin 59
Albumins 12
Albumoses .' 5. 99
Pure peptone 5. 00
Nitrogenous extracti ves 6. 09
Nitrogen-free extract 37
Mineral matter 1. 66
Nitrogen of extractives 1. 02
Albuminoid and colloid nitrogen 1. 86
It will be noticed that the albumoses and pure peptone comprise .55 per cent of the
total dry matter.
Von Noorden also determined the dry matter, total nitrogen, and nitrogenous
extractives. His results agree with those of Denaeyer.
58 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
In the above experiments the sterilized meat peptone was eaten readily, although
large quantities (300 cubic centimeters per day) were given. It was well assimilated^
the Rame amounts of nitrogen being excreted whether peptone or meat was consumed.
In the author^s opinion this peptone can be substituted for the protein of meat, even
if the quantity of the latter is insufficient for the needs of the organism.
The author quotes at length the experiments of previous investigators.
EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE THE AMOUNT OF PROTEIN REQUIRED.
In Table 6 are included 49 tests with raen to study the amount of
protein nctually required by persons of various occupations and under
various conditions.
Food performs two functions in the body. It is used to build tissue
and to yield energy. While protein, fat, and carbohydrates are all
sources of energy, protein alone is a tissue former. The amount of
protein, in combination with fat and carbohydrates, in the so-called
dietary standards has usually been determined by studies of the kind
and amount of food consumed. The amount of protein which is
required for the needs of the body can not be learned from dietary
studies alone. In determining this factor experiments in which the
balance of nitrogen or nitrogen and carbon is determined are of great
value. The quantity of protein required has been shown to be depend-
ent in great measure upon the amount of fat and carbohydrates in the
dietary. The simplest form in which a diet may be expressed is in
terms of piotein and energy, since theoretically protein, fat, and car-
bohydrates can replace each other as sources of energy in the ratio of
1:4.5: 1. There is, however, a limit beyond which this is not possible.
A definite amount of protein is absolutely essential. The minimum
quantity which serves in the adult organism for the repair of nitrog-
enous tissue, or other purpose not so well understood, has been vari-
ously estimated by diflferent observers. It doubtless varies with the
kind and amount of work performed. The idea has been advanced
that although it is possible to sustain life and perform a considerable
amount of work on a diet containing a very small amount of protein
and correspondingly large amounts of carbohydrates and fat, a man is
actually better nourished when the nutrients are in about the propor-
tions suggested by the commonly accepted dietary standards. This
theory rests on the supposition that the dietary standards may be
learned by observing the relative amounts of nutrients actually con-
sumed by a large number of individuals so situated that the choice of
food is unrestricted.
The amount of protein required is closely connected with the influence
of muscular work on the metabolism of nitrogen (see page 118). As
is pointed out in the section devoted to the influence of disease on
metabolism, the normal functions of nutrients may be modified by
pathological conditions.
AMOUNT OP PROTEIN BEQUIKED.
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62 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
Nos. 349-351. Experiments Nos. 349 and 350 were made by Bowie in the laboratory
of the Phyaiological Institute in Munich in 1879. The object was to investigate the
amount of protein actually required by a man at moderate labor. The subjects were
the observer and another student of medicine. The food was a simple mixed diet
which included meat, bread, butter, potatoes, and milk. The composition of the food
was comi)uted from reliable data. The nitrogen in the urine was det-ermined, and on
the basis of Pettcnkofer and Voit's investigations that in the feces was assumed to
be 2.3 grains. The subject iu No. 349 worked iu the laboratory during the experi-
ment. The subject of No. 350 kept as qnict as possible. Both men felt considerable
hunger. The dietaries were so arranged as to contain the quantity of protein which,
from the work of Ranke and Benecke, was considered to be just sufficient for the
needs of each of the subjects. Ordinarily- they were accustomed to consume more.
Bowie had determined the amount of nitrogen per day in the urine of 8 men
who selected their own food, which was of the kiud and amount to which they were
accustomed. In this work no analyses of food were made, as the purpose was
merely to form .in idea of the amount of protein required, judging from the amount
of nitrogen excreted in the urine.
In addition to his own work, Bowie quotes an experiment. No. 351, made in Munich
in 1879 by E. Voit. The subject was a young soldier. At the time of the experi-
ment, which lasted two days, he was doing no work. The food was a simple mixed
diet, including bread, meat, butter, milk, etc.
Bowie's principal conclusion is that Voit's figure, 118 grams of protein per day
for a man at moderate work, is not too high. The article contains many references
to previous work.
Nos. 352-364 were made by Hirschfeld in the Pathological Institute at Berlin in
1888 ( ?). The object was an invcjstigation of the amount of protein actually required
by man. The observer himself was the subject. He was 1.73 meters tall and of
medium weight. The food was a mixed diet. In Nos. 352-359 it consisted of pota-
toes, bread, butter, bacon, sugar, beer, coffee, and wine or brandy. Most of the
articles were analyzed. The composition of some, for instance butter, was computed
from previous analyses. In Nos. 360-364 the food consisted of cervelat sausage,
cheese, bread, sugar, coffee, and sometimes wine. The sausage and cheese were
procured in large quantities and the nitrogen and fat determined. The urine and
feces were analyzed. The diet is expressed in terms of protein, fat, carbohydrates,
alcohol, and energy. In Nos. 352-354 the amount of protein consumed was very
small and the total energy of the diet was about 2,852 calories. The organism lost
nitrogen throughout the period, but less upon the last days than at first. In Nos.
355-359 the amount of protein was nmch larger, and the fuel value of the dietary
was about 3,462 calories. On the first days the organism lost considerable nitrogen.
The amount became less each day until nitrogen equilibrium was reached, and on
the last two days of the experiment there was a slight gain. The subject lost about
400 grams in weight. The amount of protein in these experiments is much below
Voit's normal (118 grams), yet the subject remained in nitrogen equilibrium.
In Nos. 360-364 the amount of protein was ample, but the fat and carbohydrates
were insufficient. In No. 360 the fuel value of the diet was 1,470 calories. This is
the sort of dietary which is employed when the attempt is made to remove super-
fluous fat. In these experiments the attempt was also made to observe the effect of
muscular labor on metabolism. For 4 days the subject remained perfectly quiet iu
his room, then on 2 days he took long walks. No definite conclusions were drawn.
In No. 363 the fuel value of the diet was 1,400 calories. The work done consisted
largely of walliing. In No. 364 the amount of protein was still more abundant and
the fuel value of the diet was about 1,573 calories. The ordinary laboratory duties
were the only work performed. In all these experiments the organism lost nitrogen,
losing more when work was performed than when the subject remained quiet.
The following conclusions are drawn: When an organism which has little fatty
tissue is supplied with an insufficient diet the protein and fat of the tissues are both
AMOUNT OF PROTEIN REQUIRED. 63
drawn upon, bnt the deficiency in fuel value of the diet is largely made up from the
fat of the organism. The excretion of uric acid is normal, the excretion of sulphuric
acid is greatly increased, and that of ether sulphuric acid very little increased.
All the methods of removing superflaous fat from the organism agree in general
in supplying a very small ration. These experiments would not warrant the con-
clusion that an abundance of protein in such cases increaaes very greatly the metab-
olism of fat. When the supply of protein was 170 grams per day it was impossible
to prevent the organism from metabolizing protein of the tissues. In a diet of the
sort consumed the organism does not store up the small amount of fat and carbo-
hydrates supplied and live entirely upon protein. If such were the case in order to
obtain sufficient energy a much greater quantity of protein would have to be metab-
olized than was actually the case. It was not possible to judge whether or not
corpulent persons could metabolize fat and no protein.
Nos. 365-369 were made by Kumagawa in the laboratory of the Pathological Insti-
tute in Berlin in 1887-88. The object was a comparison of a mixed and a vegetable
diet, with special attention given to the amount of protein required by man. The
investigator himself was the subject; he weighed 48 kilograms and was 1.54 meters
tall.
The investigator, though a Japanese, had eaten European food during the preced-
ing three years. With an idea, therefore, of finding the amount of protein he ordi-
narily consumed with this diet, the urine and feces were collected for 35 djiys and
the nitrogen in each was determined. The nitrogen in the food was not determined.
The amount of protein ordinarily consumed was calculated from the excreted nitro-
gen to be 70.4 grams. This is considerably less than Voit's figure, 118 grams.
For the experiments with a dietary containing small amounts of protein, Japa-
nese food was selected. In No. 366 the food was rice, meat or fish, turnips, onions,
eggs, miso, schoyu (a kind of sauce), tea, beer, and water. This dietary furnished
90.3 grams of protein, 5.6 grams of fat, and 471.9 grams carbohydrates daily.
More nitrogen was evidently consumed in this experiment than in No. 365, but it
was not as well assimilated, as is shown by the greater amount iu the feces. In No.
367 a dietary containing less protein was followed. It consisted of rice, fish, turnips,
miso, schoyu, beer, tea, and water. This dietary was not followed until nitrogen
equilibrium was reached.. The daily loss of nitrogen, however, was small. In No.
368 the food was entirely vegetable, consisting of rice, turnips^ miso, etc. A very
little nitrogen was lost daily. In No. 369 the same food as in No. 368 was used,
except that the quantity was greater. The organism stored up a small amount of
protein. In these experiments the nitrogen in the food was generally determined
and the urine and feces were always analyzed.
The conclusion was reached that it is only essential that the diet furnish the organ-
ism with the necessary number of calories of heat, and except for a small amount of
protein it is immaterial which sort of nutrients supply this energy.
Another conclusion is that a man can exist and even store up nitrogen from a diet-
ary which contains less than the amount excreted during hunger. The author is of
the opinion that a large amount of protein in the diet does not increase the amount
of protein in circulation, though it does increase the amount of protein cleavage
products. This might not be of advantnge to the organism.
The opinion of Mori, thatthediet of the larger part of the Japanese, which is prin-
cipally composed of vegetable food, isnot sufficient for an organism from which work
is expected, is not sustained. The author's opinion is that Mori did not use enough
carbohydrates in his investigations to make up for the small amount of protein.
Nos. 370-375 were made by Klemperer in 1888 to study the amount of protein actu-
ally required. The subjects were two young men. The food consisted of bread,
butter, grape sugar, and bouillon. Beer and cognac were also consumed, and after
each meal a little calcium carbonate was. taken. Both subjects followed this diet
for 8 days. On the first day there was a considerable loss of nitrogen. This loss
was smaller on the second and succoeding days, and on the last 3 days in each
experiment there was a slight gain ot nitrogen, showing that the organism utilized
64 A DIGEST OP METABOLISM EXPERIMEKTS.
-"X
the large amouut of fat and carbohydrates in place of protein. In the author's
opinion strong, healthy persons may maintain nitrogen eqailibriom on a diet
containing 30 to 40 grams of protein daily when the assimilation of large quanti-
ties of fat and carbohydrates is assisted by the consumption of alcohol and calcium
carbonate. He does not advocate the idea that healthy individuals should abandon
a diet which contains considerable protein. Ho believes rather that Voit's normal
figure represents the amount which is best suited to the needs of a healthy man.
In disease, however, the case is different. The object then is not to supply a diet
calculated to maintain a high protein level, which is only possible when the nitrogen
excretion is also large, but rather to help the organism to gain new protein. This
is possible only when the nitrogen excretion is reduced to the minimum. The metab-
olism of nitrogen is increased by disease. The author attempted to reduce it by a
proper dietary in experiments with an invalid. Other questions of a similar nature
were studied. The results, however, were not given in such form as to be available
for these tables.'
Nos. 376-378 were made by Pechsel in Berlin in 1890, under the direction of von
Noorden. The object was to study the amount of protein actually required by
a healthy man. Voit considered this to be 118 grams per day for a man under nor-
mal conditions and with a diet which contained an abundance of fat and carbo-
hydrates. Later investigators, notably Rubner, F. Hirschfeld, Kumagawa, and
Klemperer, were of tbe opinion that a much smaller amount — 30 to 40 grams per
day — was sufficient to maintain the nitrogen equilibrium.
Rubner^s work^ was of especial value. He found that, according to their fuel value,
the various nutrients could be substituted the one for the other. Thus, 100 grams
fat =240 grams 8tarch = 249 grams sugar = 770 grams fresh muscle flesh free from
fat. There was this limitation, however: Some protein was necessary to repair the
waste of nitrogenous tissue which is continually going on and to make ux> for the
loss of portions of the epidermis, hair, nails, epithelial cells, etc.
Pechsel's investigations were undertaken to determine this necessary amount of
protein. He himself was the subject. The food consisted of bread, rice, potatoes,
butter, sugar, tea, etc., but no meat. The food, urine, and feces were analyzed.
With a diet furnishing 39 to 40 grams of protein daily, nitrogen equilibrium was
reached on the fifth day; that is, the income was sufficient for the needs of the
organism. There was an abundance of fat and carbohydrates in the dietary, so that
the organism was supplied with about 3,640 calories of energy.
The supply of protein was now reduced tu 32 grams, and though sufficient fat and
carbohydrates were consumed to furnish about 3,600 calories, yet the organism con-
tinued to lose nitrogen. The conclusion is reached, therefore, that 32 grams of pro-
tein is less than the smallest quantity with which a person of PechseFs weight, 77
kilograms, could hold his own.
These experiments are too few to draw general conclusions from, but it is evident
that Voit's value, 118 grams, is far above the amount of protein absolutely required,
provided the dietary contains an abundance of carbohydrates and fat.
Nos. 379, 380 were made by Eijkmann in the Physiologicallnstitute at Weltevreden
(Batavia) in 1892 ( ?). The experiments formed jiart of an exten<led investigation of
the quantity of protein required by persons living in the tropics and the influence of
tropical climate on metabolism and on the production of heat. The subjects were
healthy young men — Malays. The food is not described with much detail. It con-
sisted of meat and eggs, or meat and fish, with vegetable food, probably rice. The
nitrogen in many of the food articles was determined. In other cases it was calculated
from Konig's tables. The nitrogen in the urine and feces was determined. In No. 379
analysis showed that about 40 per cent of the consumed nitrogen came from meat
'In a later publication (Ztschr. klin. Med., 16, 1889, p. 550) these experiments are
reported in detail. With one exception (No. 558, Table 8) they were omitted from
the compilation by an oversight.
2Ztschr, Biol., 19, 1883, p. 313.
AMOUNT OF PROTEIN BEQUIBED.
65
and eggs. In No. 380, 40 per cent of the nitrogen consumed came firom meat and fish.
In addition to these, a large number of experiments were made in which only the
urine or the food and urine were taken into account. In the latter case the dietary
is expressed in terms of protein, fat, and carbohydrates.
In the investigator's opinion, the Europeans who live iu the tropics do not consume
less food than those living in temperate climates and performing the same amount of
work, nor is the metabolism of the nutrients diminished. The fact that in the trop-
ics less animal food is consumed than in Europe is attributed to the fact that the
meats are usually prepared in such a way that they are not very appetizing.
The ration served to European soldiers in three garrisons in Batavia is given as
follows. It is probable that the food is generally all consumed.
Batian of European soldiers in Batavia.
Protein.
Fat.
Carbohy-
drates.
Xo. 1
Oranu.
137.5
128.4
142.8
Chranu,
103.0
55.1
79.0
Orams.
504.4
No. 2-
493.3
Uo. 3 -
491.6
— ^---
A vArftir A -
136.2
79.0
496 3
Using Rubner's values, the author calculated that the diet furnished about 3,000
calories. The average dietary of 8 young Malays was found to contain 75 grams pro-
tein, 40 grams fat, and 400 grams carbohydrates, equal to 2,300 calories. The average
weight of the individuals was 50 kilograms. They were from the better classes. The
house servants, or such persons, weighing perhaps 55 kilograms, consumed about 600
grams of rice per day and a very little animal food.
A number of experiments were made concerning the relative amount of nitrogen
excreted by newcomers, by Europeans who have lived a long time in the tropics,
and by the native Malays. The European subjects were young physicians or apothe-
caries. The Malays were medical students. The European dietary consisted of rice
cooked with condiments and vegetables, bread, cheese, fruit, and highly-seasoned
dishes made firom meat or eggs. This is a modification of the native diet. The
Malay diet is more simple, consisting per day of 800 to 1,200 grams of boiled rice,
150 to 200 grams of ducks' eggs, 60 grams of meat or fish, 150 to 250 grams of pastry
rather free from fat, and fresh fruit. Europeans who had been in the country from 2 to
6 months excreted 14.8 grams nitrogen per day, or 0.226 grams per kilogram (average
of 6 experiments). Those who had lived in the tropics 1^ to 15 years excreted 12.802
grams nitrogen per day, or 0.193 grams per kilogram (average of 12 experiments).
The Malays excreted 7.'817 grams per day, or 0.153 per kilogram (average of 8 experi-
ments). The smaller nitrogen excretion in the latter case is probably partly due to
the fact that less animal food is consumed and that the Malays are generally of
smaller stature than the Europeans.
Several experiments were made to determine the amount of nitrogen excreted in
the perspiration. The subjects were thoroughly washed and rinsed in distilled water.
They were then clothed in cotton or woolen garments, which were frequently changed.
The hands and face were also frequently wiped with a towel. At the end of the
experiment the body was washed with alcohol and distilled water, to remove all
adhering perspiration. The perspiration absorbed in the garments and towels was
extracted with acidulated water and then with pure water. The nitrogen was
determined in the water after it had been partially evaporated. The first experiment
lasted 3 hours, and 0.222 gram of nitrogen was excreted. The second experiment
lasted 24 hours; the nitrogen in the perspiration was 0.761 gram, in the urine 12.159
grams. The third experiment lasted 24 hours ; in the perspiration the nitrogen excre-
tion was 1.362 grams, in the urine 14.250 grams. The subjects engaged in some light
occupation.
749— No. 46 6
66 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
The article contains a somewhat extended historical accouDt of the work on
metabolism.
Nos. 381-395 were made by Eijkmann in Batavia in 1892. They were a continuation
of Nos. 379 and 380, and had the same objects in view. The subjects were 7 Europeans
and 5 Mulays. The average age of the Europeans was 32 years and they had been
in the East from 4^^ to 15 years, or an average of 7 years. The average weight was
65.4 kilograms. The average weight of the Malays was 49.6 kilograms. The Euro-
pean subjects were physicians or were occupied in some way in one of the hospitals.
The work which they performed was very moderate. The Malays were hospital or
laboratory servants, with the exception of one, who was a student of medicine.
The food of the Europeans was a European diet, but modified by the customs of
the country in which they lived, and consisted of bread, cheese, meat or eggs in
some form, vegetables and fruit, and an abundance of rice. Alcohol in some form
was also used, and considerable tea, coffee, and ice water were consumed. Most of
tho Europeans adopt the native custom of eating large quantities of rice. The
Malays consumed a somewhat similar diet, consisting largely of fruit, vegetables,
and rice cooked with red pepper. The diet of the Europeans contained on an average
99.6 grams of protein, 83.8 grams of fat, 264.2 grams of carbohydrates, 20.5 grams of
ash, 28.5 grams of alcohol, and furnished 2,470 calories. The diet of the Malays con-
tained 73.3 grams of protein, 30.2 of fat, 471.9 of carbohydrates, 16.3 of ash, and fur-
nished 2,512 calories. The native diet contains considerably less protein than the
European and the protein was more largely of vegetable origin. The food of the Malays
was purchased at native cook shops and cost per day about 0.2 florin, or 8 cents.
Portions of the food of the Europeans and Malays were taken for analysis, and the
dry matter, nitrogen, fat, and ash in the food and feces and the nitrogen of the urine
were determined.
In these investigations no regular change could be noticed in tho production of
heat or in the metabolism of Europeans performing light labor after long residence in
the tropics. The article contains considerable discussion of the subject from an
historical standpoint.
Nos. 396, 397 were made by Lapicque and Marette at the Hotel Dieu, in Paris, in
1893 (f). The object was to study the amount of nitrogen in the food which was
really necessary to maintain nitrogen equilibrium. The subjects were two young
men. The diet consisted principally of rice and milk. In addition a little bread,
butter, sugar, and fruit were consumed. In No. 396 tea was drunk, and in No. 397 half
a liter of wine with water was used per day. The nitrogen and the fat in the but-
ter, the water in the bread, and the alcohol in the wine were determined. The com-
position of the other foods was calculated from Kunig's tables. The author states
that protein was obtained by multiplying nitrogen by 6.5. However, it would appear
that this factor was not used in the calculation, but rather 6.4. No reason is given
for using 6.5 instead of the ordinarily accepted factor 6.25. The nitrogen in the
urine and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-Henninger method.
The following conclusions were reached: The organism can be maintained in
nitrogen equilibrium, or very nearly so, with the small quantity consumed in this
experiment. It is believed that the energy of alcohol is utilized in the same way as
that of other nutrients. The details as published are not very full.
MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS ON THE INFLUENCE OF DIET.
In Table 7 are included 125 tests with men, 4 with women, and 12 with
children, which could not be included in the preceding tables. In some
few experiments special questions were studied; for instance, the effect
of consuming food in small amounts at frequent intervals. In the
majority of cases the balance of nitrogen was determined in connection
with dietary studies.
QTFLUENCE OF DIET — ^MISCELLANEOUS.
67
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77
No8. 398-406. See Nos. 2250-2255, Table 26.
No8. 407-409 were made by Siewert in 1867 ( f ). The object was to test the correct-
ness of Yoit's theory that all nitrogen is excreted in the urine and feces. Three
experiments are described. The author himself was the subject. His food consisted
of bread; meat, potatoes, etc. In the first experiment beef was used and in the
other two horse meat. The reason for this change was that horse meat had been
thought by some to be less digestible than beef. In the author's opinion this was
not the case. The meat consumed was both roasted and boiled. In all the experi-
ments the nitrogen in the food; urine, and feces was determined by the soda-lime
method. In the first experiment the calcium oxid, phosphoric acid, and chlorin
in the urine were determined. In the second and third tests calcium oxid, phos-
phoric acid, chlorin, sodium oxid, and potassium oxid in the food, urine, and feces
were determined, and also the total ash in the food.
The difference between the amount of nitrogen consumed and the amount excreted
in the urine and feces was quite small in the first and second experiments and some-
what larger in the third. In the author's opinion this difference in the first
two experiments may be accounted for by experimental errors ; and in the third
experiment there was a considerable gain in body weight, which would partially
account for the discrepancy. He believes that Yoit's theory that all nitrogen is
excreted in urine and feces is correct.
No. 410 was made by Forster, in Munich, in 1874, in connection with a study of
the dietaries of the poor and laboring classes. The subject was an old man, janitor
of the Physiological Institute. The food was a mixed diet, selected by the subject
in accordance with his usual manner of living. The food and urine were analyzed.
The nitrogen in the feces was calculated from the results of other observers.
Nos. 411, 412 were made by Schuster iu 1877 ( ?), in Munich, and form part of an
extended investigation of the dietary in two prisons. The subject of No. 411 was a
prisoner in a house of correction who was compelled to work. The subject of No.
412 was a prisoner in a house of detention and did no work. The food was a mixed
diet consisting of soup, bread, vegetables, and a little meat. Somewhat more meat
was consumed at the house of detention than at the house of correction. In both
prisons the food was divided into portions before each meal and a portion served to
each prisoner. Each day of the experiment Schuster selected one of these portions,
which was taken to the laboratory in closed jars, weighed, and analyzed. In each
experiment one prisoner was selected as a fair representative and his urine and feces
were collected and analyzed. As the diet was almost unvarying from week to
week, it is presumable that the author's figures give a fair average. The large
amount of nitrogen in the feces in No. 411 is very noticeable. It was, of course, due
to the fact that the food was largely vegetable. With such a diet there is always a
large amount of feces produced, and as the nitrogen in vegetable food is not in a
very available form the loss through the feces may be quite considerable.
Nos. 413-417 were made by Rubner, in Munich, in 1877-1879, and form a series with
Nos. 127-148, Table 3. The object of the experiment was to observe the quantity of
fat which could be digested. The subject of Nos. 413-416 was a laboratory servant*
The fat was given in a practically constant mixed diet consisting of bread and meat.
Whether analyses of the food were made or whether its composition was calculated
from known figures is not stated. The feces were analyzed. The separation was
made by means of a milk diet. The amount of fat consumed and excreted in the
feces in each test is shown in the following table :
Comparative digestion of fat when taken in different quantities.
No.
413
414
415
416
Kiod of fat eaten.
Bacon (05*6 per cent fat)
do
Botter
5 Bacon (95.6 per cent fat)
^Batter
Fat in
food.
' Ether
extract in
I feces.
Qrams.
100
200
240
145.8
233
Grains.
17.2
15.2
5.8
44.6
Ether
extract in
feces.
Per cent.
17.4
7.8
2.7
12.7
78 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
It will be seen that when a large quantity of fat was consamed the excreted quan-
tity was large. It is also noticeable that butter was more digestible than bacon.
Bubner remarks that this is very likely due, in part, to the fact that butter is more
thoroughly acted upon by the digestive juices, since it is in a finely divided condi-
tion. The feces contained small pieces of bacon which had evidently not been dis-
integrated, and were unchanged. The fat in the bacon is also inclosed in fat cells
and hence less easily attacked.
The object of No. 417 was to investigate the digestibility of a diet containing
practically no nitrogen. The food consisted of starch, fat, sugar, and a little salt.
These ingredients were made into a sort of cake. The urine and feces were analyzed.
Nos. 418-420 were made by Rieder in the laboratory of the Physiological Institute
at Munich in 1884 (?). The object was to investigate what part of the nitrogen of
the feces is due to metabolic products.
The feces consist of undigested residues of food, mucus from the walls of the
intestines, coloring matter, salts of fatty acids, bile, and various other products of a
similar nature. It is evidently a false assumption that all the nitrogen of the feces
comes from unmetabolized matter. That which comes from bile, etc., has been me^
tabolized and formed a part of the nitrogen of the system. In a way, it might be
considered as nitrogen which was accidentally lost. This nitrogen is a constant fac-
tor in the feces. If no food is consumed the bile is still secreted and, in part, excreted
in the feces together with coloring matter, etc. A determination of this nitrogeu
would apparently show the amount due to metabolic products. Experiments Nos.
558-564, Table 8, are of this character. It does not follow, however, that the secre-
tion of bile, etc., is normal when no food is consumed. Voit made some experiments
with a dog having a fistula and found that three times as much (dry) bile was
secreted when an abundance of meat was consumed as was the case when no food
was eaten. ^
Almost no work along these lines had been carried on with man. Rieder's experi-
ments were therefore undertaken. The subject was a healthy man of medium
weight. The diet contained practically no nitrogen, yet it was sufficient in quantity
to insure a normal secretion of digestive juices. It was assumed that under these
conditions the nitrogen in the feces would be all due to metabolic products. The
food used was a very palatable cake made of starch, sugar, fat, salt, and a leavening
powder (cream of tartar and bicarbonate of soda). A little white wine and water
were used as beverages. The wine contained a little nitrogen, but so little that it
was left out of account. The average amount of nitrogen in the feces was not far
from one-half gram per day. The conclusion is reached that this fairly represents
the amount of nitrogen due to metabolic products.
Nos. 421-444 were made by Baftalovski in St. Petersburg in 1887. The object was
to investigate the influence of various kinds of food on the qualitative and quanti-
tative metabolism^ of nitrogen in man. The nitrogen in the food, urine, and feces
was determined by the Kjeldahl -Borodin method ; the uric acid by Lud wig's method,
and the urea by the Borodin method, first removing the extractives by preeipita-
tion with phospho-molybdic acid.
Seven experiments are described, four of which (Nos. 421-432) consisted of three
periods, the first with an animal diet, the second with a mixed diet, and the third
' Ztschr. Biol., 20, p. 380.
2 The Russians use the terms which have been translated assimilation and metab-
olism in the following definite sense : Assimilated nitrogen means digested nitrogen.
Metabolism of nitrogen means the ratio of nitrogen of urine to assimilated nitro-
gen. The qualitative metabolism of nitrogen means the ratio of partially oxidized
nitrogen in urine to nitrogen of urea. The normal value of this ratio for man is
assumed to be 1 : 14. Metabolism is qualitatively increased if this ratio is less than
normal and decreased if it is greater than normal.
INFLUENCE OF DIET — ^MISCELLANEOUS. 79
with a varied vegetable diet. Three experiments (Nos. 433-444) were divided into
four periods, the first with a mixed diet, the second and third with an unvaried veg-
etable diet (thin and thick millet gruel), and the fourth with a mixed diet. Four of
the experiments were made by the author and 3 by a physician, Kurcbeninov, with
the author's assistance. The subjects were the author, another physician, 3 medical
students, and 2 hospital servants. All were in normal health. The students attended
lectures during all the time of the experiment. The author worked in the laboratory
frequently until 4 or 5 o'clock in the morning. The other physician performed very
little muscular work, but did considerable mental work. During the last 2 days
on vegetable diet he worked in the laboratory.
The author sums up his results as follows : The total nitrogen of urine, nitrogen
of urea, nitrogen of extractives, and uric acid was greatest on the animal diet and
least on the vegetable diet. When a varied vegetable diet was consumed, half as
much nitrogen was excreted in the urine as when animal food was consumed, and
one-fourth as much as when on a mixed diet. When millet gruel only was consumed,
about one-third as much nitrogen was excreted in the urine as when a mixed diet
was consumed. On an animal diet the ratio of nitrogen of urea to nitrogen of
extractives was less than on a varied vegetable diet and greater than on a mixed
diet. On a mixed diet the ratio of urea to nitrogen of extractives and the ratio of
uric acid to urea (comparing both the weight and nitrogen content) was less than
on a diet of animal or vegetable food. Considerable less nitrogen of urea and of
extractives was excreted on a varied vegetable diet and on a millet meal diet than
on a mixed or animal diet. The total solids in the urine were nearly the same on a
mixed diet and on an animal diet and greatest when vegetable food was consumed.
The metabolism and assimilation of nitrogen were most complete on an animal diet
and least complete on a vegetable diet. On a varied vegetable diet the organism
maintained nitrogen equilibrium unless too much work was performed. With an
unvaried vegetable diet metabolism increased about 300 per cent over normal, and a
protein famine resulted. More liquid was consumed on a diet of animal food than
on a mixed or vegetable diet. The greatest quantity of urine was excreted on a vege-
table diet and the least on a mixed diet. When animal and unvaried vegetable food
was consumed, the weight of the body decreased and increased on a mixed and a varied
vegetable diet. The subjects felt well on a mixed and a varied vegetable diet. This
was not the case on a diet of animal food or on an unvaried vegetable diet.
Nos. 445, 446 -v^ere made by Levin in St. Petersburg in 1888 in connection with a
study of corpulence. Two experiments are described, each of 12 days' duration.
The food consisted of an abundant mixed diet of bread, meat, cheese, etc. The
subject of the first experiment began to grow fat after he was 30 years old. He
led a sedentary, life, and food rich in carbohydrates was apparently the cause of
corpulence. The subject of the second experiment inherited bis tendency to cor-
pulence. The nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-
Borodin method.
The author sums up his results as follows : In the first experiment there was a
striking relative as well as absolute decrease of the metabolism of nitrogen, and
in the second experiment there was a marked absolute decrease. This difference in
metabolism is thought to be due to the difference in age and degree of obesity.
Since obesity represents not only an anomaly of nourishment, but also an anomaly
of metabolism (at least of nitrogen), its treatment by exercise alone would be
unwarranted. Metabolism may be influenced by diet, hot baths, cold baths, douches
with friction, massage, alkaline mineral waters, etc.
These experiments might have been included in Table 18, since excessive corpu-
lence is regarded as a constitutional disease.
Nos. 447, 448. See Nos. 4-7, Table 1.
Nos. 449-451 were made by Mori in the Physiological Institute of the University
of Tokyo in 1888 in connection with a study of the dietary of the Japanese.
80 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
Accordinic to tbe author, 3 general rlassea of dietaries aro romtnon nmong the Jft)
aneae, vix, (1) that of the rnral popnlatiuD of Che interior, au nlmoBt e:iclasivel]^j
vegetable diet, aa flsh ia eaten but ouce or twice a month and meat
twice a year; (2) that of the population of the I'uaat, who oat flah in conHideraU
quantitioa; and. (3) that of the city populntion and of well-to-do faniiliea, who
both muat and fiah to a considerable extent.
nice ta the prinoipal article of vegetable food, but in addition to this barley,'
wheat, variona kinda of millet, and buckwheat ure eaten in ounsideiable qnautities.
Tuliers and roots, Buch as tumipa and radishea, are ataple articles of food, and
pumpkinB, cueumbera, etc., are much used. The leguuieR are little ettteu
natural state, but form the busia of a, nnmber of prepareil foods and nOiahes, aucii
as miao, tofu, and shoyu, all of which are made from the soy bean. Miso ia pro-
pared from cooked beana, which arc rubbed to a thick paste and fermented with thftl
ferment used in the preparation of the rice wine. Tofu, or bean rheese,
tially the lagnmin of the soy bean, which ia first extracted with water and then
precipitated by the addition of the mother lti|Oor (magnesium chloiid), obtained
from the cvajNiration of sea water in the manufacture of salt. The cheese ia oaten
Itesh. The aboyu sauce is prepared from n mixture of cooked oud pulverized aof
beana, roauted and pulverized wheat, wheat flour, aalt, and water. The mixture la
fermented with the above-men tiotied rice ferment for li to 5 years in casks. Thlt'j
sauce is used very largely by all classes.
The author was himself the aubject of thcae esperiments, which cover the tbra^J
kinds of diet usual in Japan.
The food, urine, and feces were analyzed.
Nos. 453-455 were made by I.usk in the laboratory of the Physiological InstituI
in Munich in 1890. The ob.ject was to investigate the influence of carliohyd rates
the metabotiem of protein. It was of interest to study this question because Voit
was of the opinion that in oases of diabetes the large amount of protein metabolized
was due to the fact that sugar was no longer a nutrient. It was aUo possible that
the largo amonnt of protein and fat metabolized waa due to some deep-seated ohauge
in the tiaaues and cella of the organiam. The inveatigator, who was in good bealtfa,
was himself the subject.
The food (with the exception of the meat), urine, and feces were analyzed. The
nitrogen content of the mnat waa calculated froni Volt's value, 3.4 per (ient. The
bread (Zwieback) was made from wheat Hour and yeast. The gluten bread wae
made from wheat gluten and yeast and contained no starch.
In Ko. 452, with an abundance of protein, fat, and carbohydrates, the organuun
gained a little nitrogen. In No. 4153 there was the same amount of nitrogen in the
diet, but no carbohydrates. The organiam lost considerable nitrogen. In No. iSS
the carbohydrates therefore served as » protector of protein. In Nos. 454 and W&
the amount of protein consumed was small, being about the amount consumed frois
the tissues of tho organism when fasting. In No, 455, aUo, where no carbohydrates
were consumed, much more nitrogen than the normal amount was excreted.
The article contains much theoretical disonssion of metabolism in diabetes, and tlie
conclusion is reached that the vaiiations from normal metaboliam in such cases aW
really due to the failnre of the organism to assimilate carbohydrates.
Nos. 456-^58 were made by Hultgren and Landergrou at Stooktoira in 1890. Th«
object was to investigate the digestibility of a mixed diet. Three experiments a^
described. The subject cif the firat two was a sailor 32 years old, and the subject of '
the last a workingunn 19 years old.
In No. 456 the diet was that usually fiimisheil to aailors ou land, and iu No. 457the
usual diet for Bailors on board ship was consumed. In No. 45S the food was similar
to that in No. 457, though simpler. The bread eaten in the lirat and third experi-
ments was made from coarse rye flour and iu the second from bolted rye flour. The
bran in the broad was analyzed and found to contain 3.6T ]>er cent nitrogen, 74.8 pel
cent nilrogen-lreo extract, and 2.3 iier cent ash. The nitrogen in the fooC, urine, nnd
at>;H
rm
iblafl
eaiH
iBy,^
id
ik
in ™
)d
V
rcii H
tlMMtfl
tut^fl
INFLUENCE OF DIET — ^MISCELLANEOUS. 81
feces was determined. The subject of No. 458 vomited ou the second day^ and the
matter thns excreted is taken into acconnt in the figures given in the table.
The authors state that the method of preparation of the food has a greater effect
upon the assimilation of vegetable protein than upon animal protein. The bran
in coarse bread is not readily assimilated by man. In No. 457, where fine rye bread
was consumed, the assimilation of protein and carbohydrates was most complete.
In the first experiment 13.2 per cent, in the second 8.6 per cent, and in the third
13.4 per cent of the potential energy of the food was lost in the feces. The differ-
ence in these figures is thought by the authors to be due to the difference in bran
content of the bread. Rubner has found that on a mixed diet containing rye bread
the total energy of the food lost in the feces amounted to 15 per cent.
The authors consider further investigations necessary before drawing general con-
clusions.
Nos. 459-461 were made by Buys in 1892. The object was to study the metabolism
of a man who habitually consumed very small quantities of nitrogen. The subject
was a factory operative, 60 years old. He worked in a factory 10 or 12 hours daily
and took considerable exercise in addition. Since his twentieth year he had been
accustomed to eat only small quantities of bread, butter, and vegetables. During
the experiment his diet consisted of bread and other vegetable food, with a little
meat or eggs. Konig and von Noorden^s figures were used in computing the analyses
of all the food consumed except the beer, which was analyzed. The nitrogen in the
urine was determined. The nitrogen in the feces was taken by the compilers from
Pechsel's experiments, Nos. 376-378, Table 6, in which the food was somewhat simi-
lar. The amount of consumed nitrogen was about the same, though in Pechsel's
experiment no meat was eaten. A little meat extract, however, was taken.
The diet contained only 7 or 8 grams of nitrogen, yet the subject was apparently
in good physical condition. The 'nitrogen-free constituents were not abundant
enough to make up the deficiency in nitrogen, since the fuel value of the diet was
only 1,600 calories.
Nos. 462-473 form a series with Nos. 49-53, Table 2. They were made by Camerer
at Riedlingen and Urach, in Wiirtemberg, in connection with dietary studies extend-
ing from 1878 to 1892. They are by far the most extended and important investi
gations of the dietaries of children which have been made.
In Nos, 49-53, Table 2, the food was milk, with a little water or coffee. In Nos.
462-473 it consisted of a mixed diet.
Camerer made all told seven series of dietaries of his own children, 4 girls and 1
boy, from 1878 to 1892. In 1878 the ages of the girls were 2, 3^, 9, and 11 years, and
that of the boy 5^ years.
The general plan of these investigations consisted in observing the food of each
child for six periods (in a few cases a less number) of 4 days each during each year.
The six dietaries thus obtained were averaged together for the dietary of the child
for the year.
Except in one of the seven annual series weighings were made of the food actually
eaten and its composition in part determined by analysis and in part estimated from
Konig's compilatioos. In addition to these data the weights of the children were
observed from day to day, the urine was collected and the urea detisrmined, and the
feces collected, weighed, and analyzed.
During the period between 1878 and 1892, 31 of these average annual dietaries
were made, representing approximately 37 observations for each child, or 186 for the
five children. It should be added that the children were healthy and their growth
was normal, although the girls who had attained the ages of 15 to 20 before the end
of the study were somewhat smaller than the average.
These dietaries have been quoted at length in a previous publication of this Office.'
Noe. 474-480 were made by Oi in the laboratory of the .Japanese Imperial Military
' U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 21, p. 192.
749— No. 45
82 A. DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
Medical Institute in Tokyo in 1892. The object was to determine the relative value
of rice alone and a mixture of rice and barley. The subjects were men, presumably
soldiers. The diet consisted of rice or rice and barley, with some meat, fish, vege-
tables, or tolu (bean cheese). For many hundred years rice, with some fish or other
nitrogenous food, has been the principal article of diet in Japan. An attempt has been
made by many to substitute barley, which is richer in protein, for a part of the rice.
This question has for some time excited the interest of all thinking people in Japan,
and each party has made many investigations, and much for and against the new
idea has been said and written.
The original report of Oi's investigation was not available, and few details can be
given. The author's conclusion is that the nitrogen is much better assimilated in
the rice diet than in the rice and barley diet.
Nos. 481, 482 were made by Oi in 1892 at the same place as the preceding experiments.
The object of the investigation was to compare the value of the European and Japa-
nese diets. The subj ects i n each experiment were 10 nurses. In No. 481 the European
diet, consisting chiefly of meat and bread, was followed, and in No. 482 the Japanese
diet of rice and fish.
The original publication was not available, and few details are given in the journal
cited.
Nos. 483-492 were made by Gariev in St. Petersburg in 1892. The object was to .
investigate the normal amount of protein required by old men and to study the metab-
olism of nitrogen. The subjects were from 65 to 88 years of age. The two oldest
were rather decrepit. The other three were hale and hearty. Each experiment
was divided into two periods. In the first period the metabolism and assimilation
of nitrogen was especially studied. The food consisted of a mixed diet and furnished
daily 90 grams protein, 42 grams fat, 372 grams carbohydrates, and 2,286 calories of
energy. In the second period the amount of jirotein was diminished, while the fat
and carbohydrates were correspondingly increased. The diet during th is period fur-
nished 55. grams protein, 87 grams fat, 385 grams carbohydrates, and 2,615 calories.
The subjects were weighed morning and evening. The nitrogen in the food, urine,
and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl method, with later modifications. The
results of these experiments were compared with those of Jawein with healthy young
men (see Nos. 820-850, Table 9).
The following conclusions were reached: The average assimilation of nitrogen in
the first i)eriod was 91.15 per cent, and in the second period 86.17 per cent. Accord-
ing to Jawein, the assimilation of nitrogen in healthy young men on a similar diet is
94 per cent. In the first period the metabolism was less than normal ; in the second
period it was somewhat greater than in the first period. In the first period the ratio
of partially oxidized products in the urine to urea was greater than normal, i. e., the
metabolism of the subjects was quantitatively inferior to that of young men: This
ratio decreased somewhat during the second period. When the diet contained a
smaller amount of protein, but an abundance of fat, the subjects maintained their
usual weight and health.
The general conclusion was reached that the amount of protein ordinarily con-
sumed by aged men may be diminished if an abundance of carbohydrates and fat is
supplied in its place.
Nos. 493-498 were made by Kayser at the medical department of the University of
Berlin in 1892. The object was to investigate the relation of fat and carbohydrates
to the metabolism of protein. The subject was the investigator himself. He was
23 years old, tall and thin. The experiment lasted 10 days and was divided into
three periods.
The food consisted of meat, cakes, rice, sugar, butter, oil, and green salad (let-
tuce?). The beverages consumed were tea and water. In the first and third periods
the diet contained protein, fat, and carbohydrates; in the second period, protein
and fat.
INFLUENCE OF DIET — MISCELLANEOUS. 83
The nitrogen in the a^eftt, rice, and qakes and in the urine and feces was deter-
minod^ and also the fat in the meat, batter, and cakes and in the feces ; the carbo-
hydrates ia "Qk^ rice and cake, and the sodium chlorid and phosphoric acid in the
urine. The meat oonsumed was very lean. Other details of food composition were
calculated. The green salad was left out of account. The separation of the feces
was made with charcoal. In the second period, though the total energy of the diet
was comparatively large, there was a considerable loss of nitrogen.
The following conclusions were reached: Fat is as well fitted to protect protein
as is an isodynamical quantity of carbohydrates. A very large consumption of pro-
tein and fat alone would be necessary in order to maintain nitrogen equilibrium. It
is doabtful if the organism could gain nitrogen on such a diet. The period in the
above experiments was short. It is possible that in long periods the organism could
adjust itself to a diet containing only fat and protein.
The above considerations refer to healthy individuals. In cases of diabetes the
conclusions are somewhat different.
Nos. 49^-507 were made by Manfredi in the laboratory of the Hygienic Institute
in Naples in 1892, and have been described at length in a previous publication.^
The object of the investigation, of which these experiments form a part, was a study
of the dietary and conditions of living of the very poor people. The subjects were
street venders, day laborers, and beggars. The food consisted of macaroni in vari-
ous forms, soup, vegetables, etc., and a little meat. The food, urine, and feces were
analyzed.
Nos. 508-n512 were made by Dapper in the department of medicine of the University
of Berlin in 1892-93. The object was to investigate metabolism during a course of
treatment for corpulency. Several treatments have been proposed. The methods
vary, but the plan is usually to cause a large loss of fat, but at the same time a very
small loss of protein. The investigator himself was the subject. He was 1.68
meters tall, and weighed, when the first experiment began, about 100 kilograms. His
muscles were well developed, and he was also quite fat. He had endeavored to
keep from gaining fat for some time by consuming a rather limited diet contain-
ing little fat and an abundance of meat and other animal food, by consuming very
little alcoholic beverages, and by taking considerable exercise.
The diet followed in the experiment consisted of meat, eggs, caviar, cakes, bread,
etc. The food was usually analyzed, and the nitrogen in the urine and feces and the
fat in the feces determined. The analyses were made under the direction of von
Noorden.
During the whole time the subject performed his regular laboratory work and
took considerable exercise. In every case the total energy of the food was small —
about 1,500 to 1,600 calories. The protein, however, was abundant, the supposition
bein^ that the organism would consume enough of its own fat to make up the
required energy.
In the first 8 days of the first test (No. 509) the daily loss in weight was 0.411
kilogram, in the last 12 days (No. 510) the daily loss was 0.225 kilogram, in No. 511 it
was 0.342 kilogram, and in No. 512, 0. 317 kilogram. In Nos. 509 and 512 there was
a small loss of nitrogen, showing that a little flesh was also lost. In other cases
there was a gain of flesh. The loss of weight was caused not by a loss of fat alone,
but of fat and water.
The author concludes that it is possible to obtain the desired end in experiments
of this nature, i. e., cause a large loss of fat, and at the same time protect the pro-
tein of the organism.
It is essential that the nitrogen excretion be frequently investigated in order to be
eare that the organism is not losing protein.
In the above investigation the respiratory quotient of the subject was determined
by Zuntz.
'U.S.Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 21, p. 173.
84 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPEBIMENTS.
The article contains mnch matter relating ifi cores for corpulency, which is inter-
esting from a medical standpoint.
Nos. 513, 514 were made by Krug in the medical department of the University of
Berlin in 1892. The object was to determine whether it was possible to so regulate
the diet that there should be a gain in muscular tissue under ordinary conditions.
Such a gain is of course the rule under the following conditions : Growth, concep-
tion, and lactation, and always when an organism which has had no food or an
insufficient diet or has been weakened by sickness or exhausted by excessive work is
again supplied with an abundant diet.
If the supply of fat is greater than is required, fat is stored up as a reserve mate-
rial. In the same way an excess of carbohydrates is converted into fat and stored
up. It is not so clear, however, what becomes of an excess of protein. The theory
is advanced that when much protein is supplied the excess over the amount necessary
may be utilized in two ways, (1) as "reserve protein,'' i. e., protein which is stored
up in the cells of the tissues in the same way as fat, or (2) as ''acquired" protein,
i. e.; protein which has been transformed into an essential part of the tissues and
forms new cells. Experiments with animals have shown that it is possible to store
up or gain protein when the supply is large and other nutrients are very abandant.
It was desirable to investigate the same problem with a healthy man.
The author was himself the subject of his experiments. The food consisted of
eocoa, meat, sausage, eggs, bread, fruit, etc. The food, urine, and feces were
analyzed.
No. 513 was a preliminary experiment. With the diet supplied the organism was
practically in nitrogen equilibrium.
In No. 514 the protein remained about the same, but the amount of fat and carbo-
hydrates was very much increased. There was a daily gain of 3.4 grams of nitrogen,
or a total gain of 51 grams. The subject gained 3.1 kilograms in weight. Taking
into account the gain in flesh, the gain in fat (shown by the excess of fat consumed
over that excreted in the feces), and the increase in weight, the following fignres
are given :
Grams.
Gain in weight 3,100
Gain in flesh 1, 455
Gain in fat 2,254
Loss of water 609
The experiments agree with those made with animals ; that is, protein can be
gained in considerable quantity, but, as the author says, there is no proof that it is
in the form of ''acquired'' protein. The gain was so large that it is impossible to
consider it "circulating protein," which was Yoit's idea of protein stored up under
similar circumstances. It is very probable that, in accord with von Noorden's theory,
the protein gained is stored up as "reserve" material.
Nos. 515-520 were made by Albertoni and Novi at the University of Bologna in
1892, and form part of an extended dietary study of Italian peasants. The subjects
were a peasant living in the neighborhood of Farrara, his wife, and son. The people
were in good health, but very poor. Their combined yearly earnings amounted to
only $97, of which $81 was expended for food. Their food in winter was mainly
maize and chestnut meal, macaroni, beans, fish, and lard. In summer the maize
meal was in x>art replaced by bread. The food was accurately weighed and analyzed,
as were also the urine and feces. The experiments represent two periods of obser-
vation of 3 days each, one in March and the other in August.
Nos. 521, 522 were made by von Limbeck in Vienna in 1894, and are briefly reported.
The object was to investigate the metabolism of calcium oxid. The subjects were
two aged women. The diet was mixed, but the food was not specified, nor is it
stated that analyses were made. It is probable that the calcium oxid in the urine
and feces was determined. The author concludes that the experiments were made at
a time when the organism for some reason was under abnormal conditionti as regards
INFLUENCE OP DIET — ^MISCELLANEODS. 86
calciam oxid metabolism (''senile osteosporosis^')) o^ that the diet selected did not
supply enough calcium ozid for the needs of the organism. At any rate the subjects
lost considerable calcium oxid each day. It is not possible that such a loss could
continue for a long time without fatal results. The calcium oxid was almost entirely
excreted in the feces.
Nos. 52^-538 were made by Smimov at Tshudnovsky's laboratory in St. Petersburg
in 1884. The object was to study the effect upon the assimilation and metabolism of
nitrogen of consuming the daily food at frequent intervals. The term fractional
nutrition has been applied to such a division of the daily ration. The subjects were
8 healthy young men. The experiments were of 12 days' duration and each was
divided into 2 equal periods. The same quantities of bread, milk, butter, and meat
were consumed daily. Weak tea with a little sugar was taken as a beverage.
During the first period the subjects consumed the food under normal conditions,
i. e., in 3 portions daily. Three-fifths of the total nitrogen of the food was furnished
by the midday meal and one-fifth by each of the other meals. During the second
period the food was consumed in 5 portions daily.
The separation of the feces was made with blackberries. The nitrogen of the food,
urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin method.
The principal conclusions reached were the following: When the food was con-
sumed in 5 portions the assimilation of nitrogen increased on an average 2.39 per
cent; the quantitative metabolism of nitrogen decreased on an average 8.37 per cent;
and, judging by the amount of extractives in the urine, the qualitative metabolism
of nitrogen increased on an average 1.54 per cent. The subjects gained in weight.
In addition the author studied the effect of fractional nutrition on the action of
putrefactive bacteria in the intestines. As an index of bacterial action the ratio of
preformed sulphuric acid to ether sulphuric acid in the urine was determined. The
preformed sulphuric acid was determined by Salkowski's method and the ether
sulphuric acid by Baumann's method. The ratio of one to the other was not affected
by fractional nutrition.
Since the data for this bulletin were compiled a few experiments with man which
would properly be included in this section have been published by American investi-
gators. Atwater' has reported an experiment made by Slagle, Smith, and Torrey.
They themselves were the subjects. They were all healthy young men weighing
from 60 to 68 kilograms. The test lasted 10 days. A simple mixed diet was con-
sumed. Most of the foods were analyzed, as were also the urine and feces. The
heats of combustion of the food, urine, and feces were determined with a bomb
calorimeter. The daily diet furnished 115.8 grams of protein, 164.8 grams of fat,
535.6 grams of carbohydrates, and 4,428 calories. The income and outgo of nitrogen
per man per day was as follows: In food 18.4 grams, in urine 11.9 grams, in feces 1.7
grams ; gain 4.8 grams.
From a large number of digestion experiments with man, Atwater has deduced^
the following average coefficients of digestibility of the different nutrients:
Calculated coefficients of digestibility.
Animal foods
Cereali* and soears —
Vegetables and fraits.
Protein.
Per cent.
98
85
8U
Fat.
(yarbo-
liydrates.
Per cent ; Per cent
97 100
90
90
98
95
In a considerable number of experiments, including the above, the calculated
digestibility, using these coefficients, was found to agree very closely with that
» Connecticut Storrs Sta. Rpt. 1896, p. 163.
«Ibid., p. 186.
86 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
actually obtained. It would appear^ therefore^ that in determining the actnal food
Talue of various articles of diet these calculated coefficients of digestibility may be
used similarly to the coefficients of digestibility which are employed in determining
the value of feeding stuffs.
Snyder ^ has reported an experiment on the digestibility of potatoes when consumed
with milk; cream, and eggs. The subject was a healthy young man weighing about
63 kilograms. The daily diet consisted of 1;587.6 grams of potatoes, 710 cubic centi-
meters of milk; 237 cubic centimeters of cream, and 8 eggs, and furnished 113.3 grams
of protein, 102.4 grams of fat, 319 grams of carbohydrates, and 2,883 calories. Tlie
experiment covered 4^ days. The daily income and outgo of nitrogen was as fol-
lows: In food, 18.1 grams; in urine, 15.7 grams; in feces, 2.0 grams; gain, 0.4 gram.
Taking into account the digestibility of cooked eggs, as determined by the Stutzer
method, the author calculated the digestibility of potatoes alone.
A number of other experiments in which the balance of income and outgo was
determined have been made under the direction of this Department, but are not yet
published.
Hoover and SoUmann^ studied the metabolism of a fasting man during hypnotic
sleep. The subject was a healthy young man and remained in hypnotic sleep for 9
days, awakening only once during this period. He was supplied with water but
consumed no food. The urine was collected with a catheter and analyzed but no
feces were produced. During the whole period the subject excreted 113.6 grams
nitrogen or 12.4 grams per day. As the experiment progressed, the loss of phos-
phoric acid became greater in proportion to the amount of nitrogen. The uric acid
excreted diminished on the first day but increased on the succeeding days.
*^The chlorids gradually decreased in amount, reaching the minimum on the last
day. The total loss of the body weight was 5,896 grams, 3,341 of which must have
been proteid material, as estimated in lean muscle from the amount of nitrogen lost.
Assuming that the maximum amount of glycogen in the liver was 200 grams, which
we may assume was all consumed, the loss in fat and water would be 2,355 grams.''
The authors compare their lesults with those obtained in experiments with fasting
men and discuss the subject from a medical standpoint.
^U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 43, p. 20.
« Jour. Exptl. Med., 2 (1897), p. 405.
HEALTHY SUBJECTS, IKFLUENCE OF OTHER CONDITIONS
THAN DIET.
A comparatively large number of experiments have been made with
man in which the eflfects of other conditions than diet upon the balance
of income and outgo of nitrogen were studied. Some of these condi-
tions were more or less abnormal. Experiments of the latter kind often
serve a twofold purpose. They throw light upon the influence upon
metabolism of the special point under consideration, for instance, the
effect of fasting or of different drugs; and by comparison it is often
possible to draw conclusions concerning the normal or usual conditions.
For example, experiments with fasting mnn have shown the eff'ect of
consuming no food upon the excretion of nitrogen and upon other
special questions. They have also shown, in the opinion of many in-
vestigators, the smallest amount of protein upon which the organism
can maintain itself, since it was believed that when living upon its
own tissues the organism would utilize its resources in the most
economical way possible.
Some of the special questions studied are of great interest and
importance in themselves. The influence of muscular exertion upon
the excretion of nitrogen may be cited. This involves the question of
the source of muscular energy. The exact service rendered by the
nitrogenous and nonnitrogenous nutrients as sources of energy in the
animal body is not yet clearly understood. Closely connected with the
experiments on the eft'ect of muscular energy are those in which mas-
sage was employed, since this may perhaps be regarded as equivalent
to involuntary muscular exertion.
The study of the changes in metabolism due to various phases of
sexual life is of great importance, yet the investigations made on these
lines are not as numerous as might be expected.
In the section of this compilation devoted to experiments with
animals many investigations are noted which were more or less similar
to those mentioned above.
EXPERIMENTS IN WHICH THE SUBJECTS WERE FASTING.
In Table 8 are included 62 tests with men and 4 with women in which
the subjects were fasting. Fasting may be either partial or complete.
Most of the experiments of the latter kind were made with well-known
professional fasters. A number of tests with diseased subjects consum-
ing no food are included in Tables 17 and 24. Experiments- with fasting
subjects in which the balance of carbon and nitrogen was determined
are included in Table 26. Tests with fasting animals are included in
Tables 28, 29, 30, 31, 34, and 38.
87
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Nos. 539-542 were made by Tuczek at the insane asylnm in Marburg in 1883-84.
The object was an InTestigation of the influence of fasting on metabolism. The
subjects were two women. Both were suffering from some mental derangement and
for a long time refused to take food. After the prolonged fast the subjects of their
own accord took food. It consisted of soup, bread, meat, etc. The water and pro-
tein in the food consumed were calculated from Bauer's figures. The urea, phos-
phoric acid, sulphuric acid, and chlorin in the urine were deterxnined, and tests
were made for albumen, sugar, indican, and acetone. The nitrogen in the feces was
calculated from Konig's coefficients of digestibility of the various articles of food.
The subject of No. 539 fasted for 22 days. She spent most of the time in bed.
There were no feces for 17 days. The urine was free from alb amen, sugar, and indi-
can ; it, however, gave a reaction for acetone. The patiei^t drank a little water, about
175 cubic centimeters per day.
In No. 540, which immediately followed No. 539, the subject received at first a
large quantity of liquid, over 2,000 cubic centimeters per day with the food, but
only 400 cubic centimeters of urine was excreted per day. The long fast had evi-
dently removed considerable water which is normally present in the body, and until
this was made good the loss of liquid from the body was small. On the third day
after the fast there was no acetone in the urine and on the fifth day indican was found.
The subject of No. 541 fasted for 28 days. The experiment covered 16 days, not
consecutive, between the eighth and twenty-eighth day of the fasting period.
During this time the patient drank a little water, beer, and broth, and ate a little
orange. Feces were produced normally. In No. 542 the subject took some food.
The author gives many details of the conduct of the two subjects, and the experi-
iments are discussed at some length from a medical standpoint. No conclusions
were drawn.
Nos. 543-551 were made by Sadovyen at St. Petersburg in 1888. The object was
to study the metabolism of man when fasting. The subject was a man. Three
experiments are described. In the first (Nos. 543-545) the subject took food on the
first and last days and fasted on 2 days ; in the second (Nos. 546-548) he fasted par-
tially or completely for 4 days and took food on the last day ; in the third (Nos. 549-
551) he consumed water, starch, and sugar, but no nitrogenous food. The nitrogen
in the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin method, the
uric acid in the urine by Neubauer's or Salkovsky's method, and the phosphoric and
hydrochloric acids in the urine by titrating with solutions of uranium nitrate and
silver nitrate, respectively. The oxygen and hydrogen in the food were determined
by elementary analyses. * The respiratory quotient was determined by Pashutin's
method.^
Among the conclusions reached were the following : As fasting continued the daily
loss in weight of the subject diminished. In general, observations with man cor-
roborate the law observed with animals, that the intensity of metabolism is inversely
proportional to the size of the organism.
The outgo of nitrogen and uric acid diminished during fasting. This has been
observed also with fasting animals, with this difference, however, that with man
relatively less nitrogen is excreted and on the first days of fasting the outgo of nitro-
gen decreases more gradually than in animals.
Nos. 552-557 were made by Paton and Stockman in 1889 ( f ). The object was an
investigation of the influence of fasting on metabolism. The subject was a French
professional faster named Jacques. He fasted 40 days. He consumed considerable
mineral water and smoked during the whole period. He took small quantities of a
powder of vegetable origin prepared by himself. He would not reveal its composi-
tion. During the first half of the experiment he took daily walks. For the first
few days feces were produced, then for 30 days none were excreted. A peculiarity
of the experiment was that the subject drank considerable quantities of his own
iVrach, 7,1886, No. 18.
FASTING. 98
mine. It is not stated that this fact is taken into account in computing the results.
Drinking urine for stomach troubles is customary among the peasants of the region
of which Jacques was a native.
No. 558 was made by Elemperer in 1888 ( f ) to study the excretion of nitrogen
during fasting. The subject was ^ patient in an insane asylum. For a long time he
refused to take food. A little water was consumed. The nitrogen in the urine was
determined. It is not stated that feces were excreted.
The author discusses his experiment and other experiments with fasting men, and
concludes that in long-continued fasting the usual nitrogen excretion is from 3 to 5
grams per day.
This experiment formed part of an investigation of metabolism with subjects
under various conditions. (See Nos. 370-375, Table 6.)
Nos. 559, 560 were made by Munk in Berlin lu 1888 ( ?). The object was a study of
the influence of fasting on metabolism. The subject was a healthy young man. For
6 days no food was consumed. For 2 days preceding and 2 days following the fast-
ing period the food was carefully weighed and analyzed. The urine and feces for the
2 days following the fasting period were also analyzed. It had been said by some
critics that the value for the nitrogen excretion which Zuntz had found in the case
of the professional faster Cetti (No. 563) was too high and was due partly to disease.
The nitrogen excretion of the subject of this experiment was the same as in the case
of Cetti. On the mixed diet followed for 2 days the organism gained a large amount
of nitrogen. This fact was attributed to the abundance of fat and carbohydrates
furnished with the protein. The nitrogen excretion was less on these days than
during the period of fasting.
The fact is pointed out that when the dietary contains little protein more calories
of energy are required before nitrogen balance is reached than when there is an
abundance of protein.
No. 561 was made for purposes of comparison with a vegetarian diet. (See Nos.
8-10, Table 1.)
No. 562 was made by Luciaui. The subject was the professional faster Succi. The
ezx>eriment is quoted by the compilers from a citation without details by Munk. The
original publication ' was not accessible. In discussing metabolism during fasting
von Noorden^ has quoted the experiment, giving some details. According to him
the subject fasted 30 days. For 5 days before fasting on an average 16.2 grams of
nitrogen was excreted in the urine. On the iirst 5 days of fasting the mean daily
excretion was 12.9 grams. The excretion diminished until from the twenty-first to
the twenty-fifth day the average was 4.7 grams, and from the twenty-sixth to the
thirtieth day it was 5.3 grams.
Nos. 563 and 564 were made by Lehmann, Miiller; Munk, Senator, and Zuntz, in
Berlin in 1887 and 1888. The object was to study the effect of prolonged fasting on
the organism. The subjects were the professional fasters Cetti and Breithaupt.
They were closely watched during the whole time of the experiments. Cetti fasted
ten days. His weight decreased from 57 to 50 kilograms, or 11.14 per cent. For the
first 5 days the loss of weight was rapid ; on the sixth and seventh days there was
only a slight loss, and on the last 3 days a considerable loss.
Breithaupt fasted 6 days. His weight decreased from 60 to 56.45 kilograms, or 6.9
per cent. The loss was greatest on the third and fourth days. The subjects
appeared thinner after fasting. Cetti's pulse remained about the same, but Breit-
hanpt's was slower than usual. Cetti suffered during the whole time with pains
similar to colic, and Breithaupt from a cold in the head and some inilanmiation of
the bowels.
Feces were produced during the whole period, the average for Cetti being 22 grams
per day and for Breithaupt 9.5 grams. In neither case avrq the loss of nitrogen
* Das Hungem., Leipzig, 1890. Translated from the Italian.
» Pathologic des Stoffwechsels, Berlin, 1893, p. 153.
94 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIME]!IT&
throngh the feces very large. The ether extract of the feces consisted of fat, fatty
acidS; and salts of fatty acids, besides a little cholestrin. The ash contained a
very little magnesia, but a large percentage of alkalies.
In both cases the sulphur in the urine was determined. In the case of Cetti the
phosphoric acid balance was also determined.
Respiration experiments were made in which the respiratory quotient was deter-
mined, but no figures were given for the balance of income and outgo of carbon.
Nob. 565-604 were made by Gorokhov in St. Petersburg in 1894. The object was
to determine the influence of repeated periods of partial fasting on nitrogen metabo-
lism of healthy individuals. The subjects were 8 young men, physically well devel-
oped. The experiments were divided into five periods, of 3 days each. In the first,
third, and fifth periods the subjects consumed normal quantities of bread, milk,
meat, and butter. The first period was regarded as preliminary. In the second and
fourth periods a moderate amount of black bread was consumed. The last two are
regarded as periods of partial fasting. Throughout the whole experiment weak tea,
with some sugar, was taken as a beverage.
The separation of the feces was made with blackberries. The nitrogen of the food,
urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl- Borodin method. The determina-
tions were made in each portion of the food purchased and in the urine and feces
daily. The ratio of neutral sulphur to acid sulphur in the urine was also determined.
The neutral sulphur was estimated by taking the difference between the total sul-
phur and sulphur of sulphuric acid. The sulphur was estimated by Salkowski's
method. From the ratio between neutral and acid sulphur inferences were drawn
concerning the qualitative metabolism of protein. Further deductions were drawn
from the amount of nitrogen of extractives, that is, the total nitrogen of the urine
less the nitrogen of urea.
The following conclusions were reached: During the periods of partial fasting the
assimilation of nitrogen was less complete than during normal periods and the organ-
ism lost nitrogen, i. e., some of its own tissue was metabolized. The amount of par-
tially oxidized products in the urine increased. The quantity of urine decreased,
although more water (tea) was consumed. The total quantity of dry matter of the
feces increased. More nitrogen was lost during partial fasting than was gained
during the following periods. The subjects gained in weight.
In the periods following the periods of partial fasting the assimilation of nitrogen
improved and the metabolism decreased. The quantity of incompletely oxidized
products in the urine was less than during the periods of partial fasting, but greater
than during the preliminary period. The subjects lost weight.
EXPERIMENTS WITH DRUGS.
In Table IN'o. 9 are included 243 tests with men, 2 with women, and
8 with children, in which various drugs, including many commonly
used in medicine, were given with a more or less normal diet. The
influence of a drug on the excretion of nitrogen is regarded as one of
the most valuable indications of its physiological effect, and in many
experiments with drugs the nitrogen balance has been determined in
this connection. For instance, if a drug causes an increased excretion
of nitrogen in the urine the conclusion seems warranted that this is
due to increased cleavage of protein. Many of the experiments with
dogs have been made to study the general laws of nutrition. Thus
laxatives have been employed to see whether increasing the amount of
feces increases the excretion of nitrogen also. Similar experiments
of a similar nature with diseased subjects are found in Tables 17 to 23,
and with animals in Tables 29, 31, 34, and 36.
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110 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPEKIMENTS.
No8. 605, 606 were made by Hofler in 1881 (?). The object was to investigate the
influence of Krankenheiler mineral water apon metabolism. The subject was a
healthy yoang man. The food consisted of a simple mixed diet. The experiment
was divided into two periods, and in the second Krankenheiler mineral water and
Krankenheiler salts were taken with the food. This mineral water contains in 750
oubic centimeters 1.45 grams of sodium chlorid, 1.15 grams of sodium carbonate,
and 0.15 gram of sodium sulphate. The nitrogen in the food was determined. The
specific gravity, urea, sodium chlorid, and phosphoric and sulphuric acids in the
urine were determined, and the nitrogen in the feces was assumed by the author
from Renke's figures.
The conclusion was reached that the Krankenheiler mineral water increased the
appetite and the amount of urine and also the metabolism of protein, as was shown
by the increased amount of urea, uric acid, sodium chlorid, and phosphoric acid
excreted.
Nos. 607-613. See Nos. 872-887, Table 10.
Nos. 614-616 were made by Schulze in the laboratory of the Department of Physi-
ological Chemistry of the University of Breslau in 1882 ( ?). The object was to inves-
tigate the influence of potassium bromid on metabolism. The investigator himself
was the subject. The diet consisted of bread, meat, butter, cocoa, etc. On three
days potassium bromid was taken in 10-gram doses. The food, urine, and feces were
analyzed. It was found that potassium bromid had no influence on the temperature
of the body. The conclusion was reached that it produced a marked diminution of
the nerve power and of the amount of matter metabolized by the nervous system.
This conclusion was based on the fact that potassium bromid diminishes the excre-
tion of phosphorus in the urine. If less metabolized phosphorus was excreted it was
thought to be because the nerve centers had been less active than usual.
Nos. 617, 618 were made by Forster at the University of Amsterdam in 1882 in con-
nection with a study of boric acid as a food preservative. The subject was a healthy
physician. The test was divided into three periods. The food consisted of a simple
mixed diet. In the second period 3 grams of boric acid was taken daily. The
feces were separated by means of milk and eggs. The food, urine, and feces were
analyzed.
The conclusion was reached that boric acid had no influence on the metabolism of
protein. It, however, diminished somewhat the abnoiption of nutrients in the
intestines. Its extended use as a food preservative is not recommended.
Nos. 619-621 were made by Chittenden and Cuthbert at the Laboratory of Physio-
logical Chemistry at Yale College in 1884. The object was to study the influence
of potassium and ammonium bromids on metabolism. The subject was one of the
investigators (Cuthbert). He was of good physique and vigorous constitution.
The food consisted of beef, bread, potatoes, oatmeal, etc. The periods with potas-
sium or ammonium bromid were preceded and followed by normal periods. The
reaction, specific gravity, total solids, phosphoric acid, phosphoric acid in combina-
tion with calcium and magnesium, and the uric acid and urea in the urine were
determined. The nitrogen in the urine was calculated by the compilers from the
uric acid and urea. The nitrogen of the feces was assumed by the compilers from
experiment No. 83. Table 2, in which the diet was similar. The composition of the
food was calculated by the compilers from standard tables.^
The following conclusions were reached : Potassium bromid increased the metab-
olism of nitrogen and slightly diminished the excretion of phosphoric acid. Ammo-
nium bromid increased the metabolism of protein more than potassium bromid,
while the phosphoric acid excretion remained practically unchanged.
1 Professor Chittenden has stated to the compilers that the composition of the food
used in these and other experiments made by him was determined, although it was
not published. The laboratory books containing these data have been mislaid, and
the original data could not be obtained for publication in this compilation.
DRUGS. Ill
Nos. 622-030 were made by Chittenden and Wliitehouse at the Laboratory of Physi-
ological Chemistry at Yale College in 1884. The object was to study the inflaeuce
of cinchonidin sulphate on metabolism. The subject was one of the investigators
(Whitehouse). The food consisted of beef, bread, potatoes, oatmeal, etc. Periods
in which cinchonidin sulphate was given were preceded and followed by periods of
normal diet. The reaction, specific gravity, total solids, chlorin, phosphoric acid,
uric acid, and area in the urine were determined. The nitrogen in the urea was
calculated by the compilers from the urea and uric acid. The nitrogen of the food
was calculated by the compilers from standard tables, and that in the feces was
supplied from experiment No. 83, Table 2, in which the diet was similar.
The conclusions were reached that cinchonidin sulphate diminished the excretion
of area, and the effect was noticed for some days after the last dose of the alkaloid
was taken. The excretion of uric acid did not appear to be correspondingly increased.
The excretion of phosphoric acid was diminished.
An experiment was made in which glucose was added to the normal diet, in order
to determine whether the diminished excretion of phosphoric acid was due to some
specific influence of the cinchonidin sulphate or to the general decrease of metabo-
lism of protein. If the diminished excretion of phosphoric acid was due to the
latter cause, it might be expected to take place also when the amount of carbo-
hydrates in the diet was increased. It was found that under the influence of glucose
the average amount of urea excreted was diminished 10 per cent and phosphoric
acid 8.34 per cent, while with cinchonidin sulphate the average decrease in the
excretion of urea was 8.8 per cent and of phosphoric acid 11.9 per cent. "Conse-
quently, it would appear that while cinchonidin lowers the rate of decomposition
of proteid matter in the body, it also has an effect upon the decomposition of some
phosphorized principles, that being the only plausible explanation of the increased
diminution of phosphoric acid noticed under the influence of the cinchonidin salt."
Nos. 631-648 were made by Walter in St. Petersburg in 1886. The object was to
study the influence of antipyrin on the metabolism and assimilation of nitrogen
in fever patients and healthy persons. Nine experiments are described. The sub-
jects in Nos. 631-644 were suffering from various diseases and in Nos. 645-648 they
were healthy.. Each experiment was divided in two periods, one without anti-
pyrin and one with antipyrin. The diseased subjects received no food except milk.
They drank water and a beverage made from red bilberries ( Facdnium rUi8'id(Ba), and
took from 5 to 7.5 grams of antipyrin per day during the second period. The healthy
subjects consumed milk, bread, bouillon, and roast beef, and took 3 grams of anti-
pyrin per day during the second period. The nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces
was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin method.
The author sums up his results as follows ; Under the influence of antipyrin the
metabolism of protein decreased in all the subjects, and the assimilation of protein
improved in the cases of fever subjects and was not affected in the healthy subjects.
Nos. 649-660. Gramatchikov and Ossendovski made in St. Petersburg in 1887 an
extended study of the influence of [cigarette] smoking on the organism of man. The
influence of [cigarette] smoking on the metabolism and assimilation of nitrogen
formed a part of this investigation.
A number of experiments of 10 days' duration were made, divided into two periods
of 5 days each and preceded by a preliminary period of 5 days under the same dietary
conditions. None of the subjects smoked during this period. The subjects were
healthy men except B., who was troubled slightly with rheumatism. O. had never
before emoked, B. was a moderate smoker, and the others were in the habit of smok-
ing a large number of cigarettes daily. In all the experiments except Nos. 651-6.54
the subjects smoked .during the second period, but did not smoke during the first
period. In these two experiments the conditions were reversed. The number of
cigarettes smoked per day was left to the inclination of the subjects. The food
consisted of a mixed diet, varying somewhat in quantity for the different subjects.
The nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin
method.
112 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
The authors Ursfw the following conelusioDS: SmokiDg [cigarettes] lowen t.
ratio nf tbe nitrof^D of tbe nrine to tliat aBsiniilBteil, i.e., loners tbe metabulinillt'-B
this decrease beiii^ especially mariicil in the case of iioiiBmoliers makiDg their fl
attempts at smokiu^. Kmoking [cigarettes] also louers the assimilatioi
nitrogenous coustitueuts ol' thu fooil. Nu coQcliiHions cau ho drawn on the l>aaiB
thBHO oxpBrinmiitB an to the iiillueuce of smoking [cigarettes] on the weight of thsV
Nob. 661-669 were made by Gorsky in St. Petnrsbiicg in 18SS. The object v
study tlie iuUueuce of lithinm carbonate on the metabolism of nitrogen iu health;
persons. The BulijectB were 3 men. Gaoh experiment continued 34 dajs, and was
divide<l into thi en periods, the Srst and third of 7 and the second of 10 day e' duration.
During tlie first and third periods the enhjec ta were under normal conditions. Daiing
the second period each nubject received lithinm cnrbonate in gradual]]' increasing
amounts, the dose on the first day being 2 grains and on tbe tenth day 8 grains.
Water charged with carbonic dioiid was given as the best solvent for lithinm, and.
260 cubic centimeters wore consumed daily. Lithium carbonate dissolved iu carboa-J
ated water irritates tbe gastro-iutestinal canal less than any otJier preparation.
The subjects were perfectly healthy prisoners coufined in the St. Fetersbnrg HoumV
of Detention. The food consisted of white bread, masted meat, and beef tea.
beverage each subject received 2,250 cubio centimeters of weak tea.
Tbe nitrogen of the food, urine, and fei^es was delermined by the Kjeldahl- Borodin,!
method. Urea was determined by Borodin's method and uric acid by Haycraffsl
method.
The resnlts of all 3 experiments are concordant, and lead to the following era
elusions: The metabolism of nitrogen and tbe quantity of urea and nrio a
considerably increu Bed under the iuHuence of lithium carltonate. The in<
nrea was still greater after the period when lithium was taken, while the quantity otfl
Nob. 670-677 were made by Klemptiier at the University of Dorpat in 18
object waa to study the influence of smliiim carbonate and sodium citrate upon '
the eiicretion of nitrogen and uric acid. The subject wiis a physician. The food
consisted of a eimplo mixed diet. In several tests sodium carbonate or sodium
citrate ami saeoharin were taken in soda water with the food. Tbe composition of
the food was calculated from KiVnig's tables. Tbe nitrogen in the urine was deter-
mined by theLiebig-Pdiiger method anil by the Kjeldahl method. Thenriu acid wm ]
also determined. The nitrogen in the feces was calculated from Rubuer's figures.
The following conclusions were reached: Even small doses of sodiunt carbonats
and sodium citrate caused marked variations in the. nitrogen excretion. When tba
dose was gra<luaUy increased to a large one and taken for a long time tbe variations
became less marked and the orgauism more nearly in nitrogen equilibrium. The
wean excretion of nitrogen was very little inereased by sodium citrate. Both the
citrate and carbonate had a diuretic action, and even when large doses of sodium J
citrate were consumed no dyspepsia resulted. Doses of sodium citrate of 15 g
and over caused an alkaline reaction in the urine. Large doses diminished t
The author does not agree with Burchard, Nos. 678-484, that large doses of aodia^
citrat-e dimiuish the metabolism of protein in the organism and cause an ini
weight.
Nos. 67S-4i84 were made by Burchard at the University of Dorpat iu 18
object was to study the effect of sodium carbonate and citrate upon metabolism fl
and especially upon tb>' excretion of nitrogen. The author himself was the subject..!
He was 1.64 meters tall and in perfect health. Tbe food consumed consisted of a
simple mixed diet, hi one cose sodium carbonate was taken, and in several other
cases sodiaui carbonate, citric acid, and saci'harin were takeu in the form of soda
water. The nitrogen of tbe food wiis calculated from Konig's tjibles. The nitrogen
iu the urine waa determined by the Liebig-Ffliiger method and also by the Kjeldahl _
DRUGS. 113
method with Pfliiger's modifications. The ammonia, nric acid, and chlorids in the
urine were also determined, and in some instances the nitrogen in the feces. In the
other cases the nitrogen in the feces was calculated.
The following conclusions were reached: Sodium citrate in large doses when taken
for a long time did not produce dyspepsia. It had a diuretic elf'ect and made the
urine decidedly alkaline. Sodiam citrate for a time diminished the metabolism of
nitrogen and caused a gain of nitrogenous material. This period was, however,
limited, for soon the weight of the body decreased and at the same time the nitrogen
excretion was abnormally increased. Sodium citrate decreased the ammonia excre-
tion to a minimum. While the decomposition of protein was increased the decom-
position of fat was also increased, or the water in the organism was diminished.
The excretion of uric acid was diminished and the complete assimilation of nutrients
in the intestines was disturbed. Small doses of sodium carbonate had no effect upon
the nitrogen excretion in the urine.
The after effect of long-continued large doses of sodium citrate upon the nitrogen
content of the urine and feces was limited to 4 or 5 days. The increased consumption
of water did not diminish the excretion of uric acid, but did remove nitrogenous
materials already formed in tbe organism.
Nos. 685-707 were made by Ippolitov in St. Petersburg in 1889. The object was to
study the influence of the internal use of cod-liver oil on the metabolism of nitrogen
in children. From a survey of the literature on the therapeutical effects of cod-liver
oil tbe author concludes that there are two opposite opinions, each of which has
many supporters. Some (the majority) regard cod-liver oil only as a fat, easily
digested, owing to the presence of free fatty acids, while others consider the fats of
no consequence and attribute all importance to special constituents of the oil.
Recently two articles which are intended to replace cod-liver oil have appeared.
Mering proposed ^'lipanin" (a preparation of olive oil with 5 to 6 per cent of oleic
acid), which, in his opinion, has none of the bad properties and all the advantages
of cod-lirer oil; and Lafage proposed **niorrhuol," in which there is no fat, but
which, in his opinion, represents tbe active principle of cod-liver oil.
Eight experiments were undertaken, although the eighth was not completed, to
study the influence of cod-liver oil on the metabolism of nitrogen, to compare it with
common vegetable oil, *4ipanin" and "morrhuol," and also to compare white and
yellow cod-liver oil. The subjects were children, hospital patients. Each experi-
ment lasted 19 days, and was divided into three periods. In the first period (5 days)
no remedy was given; in the second period (9 days) 4 subjects received white cod-
liver oil and the others either almond oil, ^Mipanin,'' **morrhnol," or yellow cod-liver
oil; and in the third period (7 days) the conditions were reversed. The oil was
administered twice a day in doses of a dessert-spoonful before meals. The nitrogen
of the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin method. In 5
cases the nitrogen of the urea, extractives, and uric acid in the urine was also deter-
mined. Borodin's method for urea and Hay craft's method for uric acid was used.
The following conclusions were reached: The internal use of white cod-liver oil
diminished the metabolism of nitrogen, and almond oil and ^'lipanin" diminished
it in a less degree. Yellow cod-liver oil and *' morrhuol ' slightly increased tbe meta-
bolism of nitrogen. Cod-liver oil, almond oil, and **lipanin" did not materially
influence the assimilation of nitrogen. Satisfactory gains in weight were made while
using white cod-liver oil, better gains while using 'Mipauin," and less satisfactory
gains while using almond oil and yellow cod-liver oil. The qualitative metabolism
of the children was approximately the same as that of adnlts.
Nos. 708-739 were made by Aikinov in St. Petersburg in 1889. The object was to
study the effect of feeding alkaline albuminates, i. e., artificial tata albumen. Tata
albumen was discovered by Tarchanov. He found that in the fresh eggs of l)irds
which are not covered with feathers when hatched there is a special kind of albumen.
On boiling this albumen becomes transparent and gelatinouH. It received the name
of tata albumen. Tarchanov also devised a method for preparing tata albumen from
749_No. 46 8
114
A DIGEST OP METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
the white of hen's eggs. All the nsnal qualitative tests for albumen are applicable
to tata albumen also. However, it has one peculiarity, i. e., a strong odor when
treated with water. Tata albumen is prepared in two forms, a jelly and a pow-
der. • Both have a stronger alkaline reaction than the white of eggs. The author
quotes the composition of tata albuminates from a dissertation by ]^alachowski on
"Chemical composition and assimilation of potassium and sodium albuminates (tata
albuminates)," St. Petersburg, 1889.
Composition of tata albuminates.
Potassiam tata powder
Sodium tata powder...
Tata jelly
Water.
Nitrogen.
Ether
extract.
Ash.
Potassi-
um oxid.
Per eent.
8.610
8.413
88. 705
Per eent.
12.800
12. 738
1.343
Per cent.
1.441
1.461
.290
Per cent.
7.860
7.672
2.199
Per cent.
2.076
Sodinm
oxid.
Percent.
1.313
.519
Eleven experiments on the food value of tata albuminates were made. The sub-
jects were men suffering from some disease. In 5 experiments the food, urine,
and feces were analyzed; in the remaining 6 the food was not analyzed, but its
composition was calculated from available data. The nitrogen in all cases was
determibed by the Kjeldahl-Wilfartli method, the urea by the Pfluger method, and
the uric acid by the Haycraft method. Each experiment was divided into three
periods. During the second period the subjects were given the tata albuminates
(jelly and sodium powder). In the first and third periods the dietary conditions
were normal.
The following couclusions were reached: The patients ate the tata albumen
preparations quite willingly. The alkaline albuminates did not cause vomiting,
symptoms of dyspepsia, or diarrhea. The alkaline albuminates were as well assimi-
lated as the milk casein or meat of a mixed diet. When tata albumen was con-
sumed the qualitative metabolism of nitro<i^eii improved and the cleavage of protein
was more complete. Alkaline albuminates will probably prove valuable in diseases
where abundant nourishment is the chief problem.
Nos. 740-743 were made by Kozerski at the University of Dorpat in 1890. The
object was to study the influence of sodium carbonate upon metabolism. The
author himself was the subject. The food consisted of a simple mixed diet. In two
tests sodium carbonate was also consumed. The composition of the food was calcu-
lated from Konig's tables. The nitrogen, sodium, and potassium in the urine and
feces, and the chlorin in the urine were determined.
The following conclusions were reached: Sodium carbonate in large doses had a
slightly diuretic action, but did not produce a loss of weigh fc. When the dose was
7 grams per day or larger the urine became alkaline. Sodium carbonate caused an
increased excretion of chlorin, sodium, and potassium. When taken in amounts not
exceeding 13 grams daily it was entirely absorbed in the intestines. When sodinm
carbonate was no longer taken the urine soon became acid and the chlorin and
potassium excretion became normal. The after effect of sodium carbonate on sodium
excretion was not marked. Wi th the exception of the acid reaction of the urine the
after effects of sodium carbonate were only noticed for 1 day. Large doses some-
what diminished the digestibility of the food. No constant effect could be observed
on the excretion of urea. In general the effect of sodinm carbonate was the same as
that observed by Beckmann for sodium citrate, except that no storing up of sodium
in the organism was observed.
Nos. 744-755 were made by Navasartianz in St. Petersburg in 1890. The object
was to study the influence of Esseutuki mineral water No. 17 on the assimilation
and metabolism of nitrogenous substances. Essentuki, a village in the province of
the Terek; Caucasus, is situated 603 meters above the level of the sea. The chemical
DRUGS. 115
comx>08ition of the Essentuki mineral springs is well known in Russia, and especially
that designated No. 17. The^ characteristic ingredients of this mineral water are
sodinm carbonate, sodium chlorid, and carbonic acid free and combined.
The experiments described were made with 4 subjects at Essen tuki — the author,
2 physicians, and a laboratory janitor. The nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces
was determined by the Ejeldahl-Borodin method. The urea was determined by the
method of Ohavane and Richet. The subjects had 3 meals a day, the food being as
varied as practicable. Red wine was also allowed. The subject ot Nos. 753-755 did
not take wine. He was given blackberries for separating the feces ; the others took
manna for this purpose. All the experiments were carried on simultaneously. They
lasted 18 days, and were divided into three periods of 6 days each. Mineral water
was taken during the second period, the amount being 300 cubic centimeters daily
for each person. The water, which was of the temperature of the room, was taken
in two portions, 150 cubic centimeters in the momiug on an empty stomach, and 150
cubic centimeters 4 or 5 hours after dinner. ^
The author sums up the results obtained as to the influence of the internal use of
Essentuki mineral water No. 17 as follows : There was a decrease of extractives, an
increase of urea, and a decrease of uric acid in the urine. The metabolism of nitrog-
enous substances was increased. There was an increased excretion of bile and a
general improvement of the digestion. The quantity of feces increased and the
assimilation as a wiiole and the weight of the body decreased. The reaction of the
urine changed from acid to slightly acid or neutral. The quantity of urine decreased
and the specific gravity increased.
Nos. 756-772 were made by Kotlyar in St. Petersburg in 1890. The object was
to study the influence of orexin (phenyldihydroquinazolin) on the appetite and
metabolism and assimilation of nitrogen in healthy and diseased subjects, and also
on the assimilation of fats by diseased subjects. Three experiments are described
with healthy and 4 with diseased subjects. The experiments were divided into two
or three periods. The food consisted of a mixed diet. In every case 5 to 12 grams
of orexin hydrochlorate was taken daily during the second period. The nitrogen in
the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl- Borodin method.
The following conclusions were reached : Orexin increased the assimilation of
nitrogen of healthy and diseased subjects and the assimilation of fat of diseased
subjects. The metabolism of nitrogen was lowered in healthy and diseased subjects,
though in the latter case the decrease was neither as marked nor as constant as in
the former. In all cases the appetite and general condition were improved.
Nos. 773-782 were made by Savatski in St. Petersburg in 1890. The object was to
study the influence of saccharin on the metabolism and assimilation of nitrogen
in healthy subjects. Five experiments are described, each lasting 10 days, divided
into two equal periods. The food consisted of a mixed diet. Tea was consumed as
a beverage. In the second period saccharin was added to the tea instead of sugar.
The nitrogen in the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl- Borodin
method.
The conclusion was reached that daily doses of 0.2 to 0.4 gram of saccharin increased
the assimilation and decreased the metabolism of nitrogen in healthy subjects.
Nos. 783-787 were made by Chittenden and Washburn at the Laboratory of Physi-
ological Chemistry at Yale University in 1888 (?). The object was to study the
influence of urethan on the metabolism of protein. The subject was a healthy man.
The food consisted of beef, potatoes, bread, rice, etc. The attempt was made to
have the daily diet uniform through the whole time of the experiment, which
extended over a period of 6 weeks. The nitrogen in the food was calculated by the
compilers^ from available data.* The nitrogen in the urine was determined by the
Kjeldahl method. The specific gravity, reaction, Hulphur, phosphorus, and chlorin
were also determined. The nitrogen in the feces was supplied by the compilers from
* See note on page 110.
- U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 28.
116 A DIGEST OP METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
Rutger's experiments (Nos. 447 and 448, Table 7) in wluch the diet was similar. The
experiment was divided into five periods, and in the second and fourth periods
urethan was added to the diet.
The following conclusions were reached: Urethan had a decided diuretic action,
most noticeable on the second day after the drug was taken. Later the amount of
urine excreted diminished as the dose of urethan was increased. The volume
remained far below the average for 2 or 3 days after the drug had been discontinued ;
that is, until its elimination from the system was fairly complete. Urethan lowered
the excretion of nitrogen, its effect being observed even when the dose was small — 5
or 10 grains. After the drug was discontinued the nitrogen excretion rapidly became
normal. The excretion of phosphorus was apparently increased by small doses of
urethan. The excretion of sulphur was parallel with that of nitrogen. In no case
was any hypnotic action observed.
Nos. 788-792 were made by Chittenden and Adams in 1888 ( f ) at the Laboratory of
Physiological Chemistry at Yale University. The object was to study the infla-
ence of antipyrin on the metabolism of protein in a healthy organism. The subject
was a man. The food consisted of meat, potatoes, bread, steamed oatmeal, milk, etc.
The nitrogen in the food was compnted by the compilers' in order that the experi-
ment might be included in the present compilation. The uric acid in the urine
was determined and also the urea by the PflUger method. The reaction, specific
gravity, chlorin, total phosphoric acid, and phosphoric acid combined with calcium
and magnesia were also determined. From these data the amount of nitrogen in
the urine was computed by the compilers. The nitrogen in the feces was taken
by the compilers from Rutger's experiments (Nos. 447 and 448, Table 7) in which the
diet was similar. The experiment was divided into five periods, and in the second
and fourth antipyrin was given.
The conclusion was reached that antipyrin had a decided Inhibitory action on the
metabolism of protein in the healthy organism, as shown by the diminished excretion
of urea and uric acid. It also tended to diminish the volume of urine. This was
more marked when large doses were taken. No definite conclusion was drawn
regarding the effect of antipyrin on the excretion of phosphoric acid and chlorin.
Nos. 793, 794 were made by Badt in von Noorden^s laboratory at the Medical lusti-
tute of the University of Berlin in 1890. The object was to study the influence
of phosphorus poisoning on metabolism. The subject was a woman 40 years old.
She attempted suicide by drinking the water in which the ends of 3 boxes of matches
bad been dissolved. She died the day after the close of the experiment.
The food consisted of '*Bolles Modified Milk," gruel, etc. Its composition was
determined from actual analyses and from previous analyses by von Noorden. The
nitrogen in the urine and the nitrogen and fat in the feces were determined. Quali-
tative analyses of the urine and blood were also made, and the experiment is discussed
at length from a medical standpoint.
The principal conclusions reached were the following : In cases of phosphorus
poisoning the decomposition of protein is enormously increased. However, when
the poisoning causes death at once or during the final period of slow poisoning the
nitrogen excretion becomes very small. In many cases the excretion of uric acid is
not influenced, and in other cases it is influenced considerably. Small quantities of
peptones, and probably leucin, and tyrosin were found in the urine in the above experi-
ment, but not in such quantities that they influenced the nitrogen excretion. In
cases of phosphorus poisoning the processes of oxidation are diminished, though this
can not be determined with certainty from an examination of the nitrogen metab-
olism, but must rest upon the determination of oxygen consumption. Ten days
after poisoning with phosphorus the intestine contained phosphorus and phosphoric
acid in recognizable quantity.
Nos. 795-799 were made by Dronke and Ewald in the Empress Augusta Hospital
in Berlin in 1891-92. The object was to study the effect of the continued use of
1 See note on page 110.
DRUGS. 117
Levico arsenio-iron water on metabolism. Tliict mineral water, which is mach used
in Germany, comes from springs in the town of Levico in Austro-Hungary. There
are two sorts, the "weak'' and ''strong.'' The weak contains in 10,000 grams 0.0095
gram arsenic acid (AssOa), 0.0003 gram sodiam chlorid (NaCl), 6.7278 grams ferroiiH
sulphate (FeS04), 2.7272 grams ferric sulphate (Fe2(S04)3), 1.5919 grams aluminum
sulphate (A1.»S04)3), 0.0520 gram copper sulphate (CUSO4), as well as iron carbonate
and sulphates of manganese, calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, ammonium, and
silicon. The "strong" contains in 10,000 grams 0.086879 gram arsenic acid, 0.001781
gram sodium chlorid, 25.675198 grams ferrous sulphate, 13.019720 grams ferric sul-
phate, 6.239873 grams aluminum sulphate, 0.474459 gram copper sulphate, together
with silicon, carbon from organic sources; and sulphates of manganese, calcium,
magnesium, potassium, sodium, and ammonium. These springs have been known for
more than 200 years and used for anaemia, lack of blood, scrofula, general weakness
nervous troubles, skin diseases, etc.
Very little is known of the influence of the sulphates of iron on metabolism, and,
so far as is known, no experiments have been made with man in which arsenic was
given in small doses.
The subject of these experiments was a school-teacher. She was suffering from gen -
eral weakness, nervousness, dyspepsia, and mental depression . An examination of the
blood showed that there was no anaemia. This seemed a desirable case in which to
try the Levico water. This experiment differs from most others with special medieal
treatment in that no tests were made when the remedial agent was not used. Such
a comparison was not practicable in this case.
Three sorts of diet were follo\»ed : (1) Bouillon and milk ; (2) bouillon, milk, meat,
potatoes, eggs, and bread ; (3) bouillon, milk, and a larger amount of bread, meat,
eggs, etc.
The nitrogen in the urine, feces, and food, with the exception of eggs, vegetables,
and preserved fruits, was determined. In these cases it was calculated from Konig's
tables. Great care was observed in collectiug the urine and feces. The separation
was made by means of jiowdered charcoal.
Two teaspoonfuls of the Levico water was taken daily; for 8 days the "weak,"
and afterwards the "strong."
There was an interval of about two weeks between the second and third periods
(Nos. 796, 799). The subject at jBrst lost nitrogen, and then gained it steadily. She
gained also 9 kilograms in weight. When the investigation was begun the number of
red corpuscles in the blood was 5,120,000 per millimeter; at the end it was 8,400,000— a
very large number. It might be thought that the improvement in the subject's health
was due to better living, pleasanter surroundings, etc., during the experiment, and
not to the mineral water. In the author's opinion this could hardly be the case, since
her home was with a family who lived unusually well, and nothing which could
contribute to her comfort was lacking. The article contains considerable discussion
which is interesting from, a medical standpoint.
Nos. 800-817 were made by Volkov and Stadnitski. The object was to study the
influence of potassium iodid on the metabolism and assimilation of nitrogen and fat
and on the variation in the amount of neutral sulphur in the urine of healthy sub-
jects. The subjects were healthy persons between 22 and 24 years of age, servants
in a military hospital. The food consisted of a simple mixed diet. The experiments
lasted 12 days and were divided into three periods. During the second, the subjects
were given 6 grams of potassium iodid in solution in 2 doses, one in the morning
and one in the evening. The conditions were normal in the first and third periods.
The nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kj eld ahl- Borodin
method. The total sulphur and acid sulphur in the urine were determined and the
diflTerence between them was assumed to represent the amount of neutral sulphur.
The fat of the feces was determined by Lachinov and Chernov's method.
The authors' conclusions were as follows: The assimilation of protein was very
slightly lowered under the influence of potassium iodid, and the metabolism of nitro-
gen was increased. The processes of oxidation in the organism were diminiabedo^ud
118 A DIGEST OF METABOIJSM EXPERIMENTS.
the quantities of nitrogen of incompletely oxidized products and of neutral solplinr
in the urine were increased. Judging from the increase of sulphur in the urine the
cleavage of protein in the tissues was increased. The quantity of urine was
increased and the assimilation of fats very slightly diminished. The weight of the
subjects was practically unchanged.
Xos. 818, 819. See Nos. 1858-1868, Table 18.
Nos. 820-850 were made by Jawein at the clinic of Professor Tschudnovski in
St. Petersburg in 1891. The object was to study the influence of large doses of
sodium bicarbonate and sodium citrate upon the metabolism of nitrogen in healthy
individuals and upon the quantity of neutral sulphur and ether sulphuric acid in the
urine. The subjects were healthy men.
The food was a simple mixed diet of bread, meat, etc. The nitrogen in the food,
urine, and feces was determined. The total sulphur, total sulphuric acid, and ether
sulphuric acid in the urine were also determined, and the neutral sulphur and pre-
formed sulphuric acid calculated. In most cases the patients were in nitrogen
equilibrium at the beginning of the experiment. The period in which sodium bicar-
bonate or sodium citrate was taken was preceded and in several oases followed by a
four-day period with normal dietary conditions. When 20 grams of sodium bicar-
bonate was consumed it was taken in three portions between meals. The dose of 40
grams of sodium citrate was taken in the same way. The dose of 40 grams of sodium
bicarbonate was taken in two portions. The urine was noticeably alkaline after
taking 20 grams of sodium bicarbonate or 40 grams of sodium citrate. In all the
experiments 12 hours after taking the alkali the urine had an acid reaction.
The conclusion is reached that large doses of either of the salts diminishes the
assimilation of nitrogen, provided a laxative effect is produced. The nitrogen metab-
olism is little affected. Large doses of the salts cause a slight retention of water in the
organism and do not increase the production of urine. They cause marked changes
in metabolism as a whole, however, as is shown by the increase in the amount of
neutral sulphur in the urine and the decrease of the acid sulphur. Apparently
oxidation processes are retarded and fermentation in the intestines is unaffected.
Nos. 851-857 were made by Helmers in Berlin in 1883-84. The object was to
study the effect of ichthyol upon metabolism. The investigator himself was the
subject. The food, which consisted of a simple mixed diet, was prepared with great
care, and, when possible, sufficient quantity of each article was procured to last
through the whole experiment. The separation of the feces was made with berries
or by the charcoal method. The nitrogen in food, urine, and feces was determined.
The sulphur in urine and feces was also determined. The plan of the experiment
was to give ichthyol-ammonium in water for a short period, preceded and followed
by a normal period.
The following conclusions were reached: Ichthyol influences the metabolism of
protein in the animal organism very slightly. So far as any influence can be
observed it hinders decomposition of protein and increases its assimilation. Fully
one- third of the sulphur contained in the ichthyol circulates in the fluids of the body
and is eventually excreted in the urine. Part of that excreted in the feces appar-
ently circulates in the body also and is exuded by the glands of the intestines.
EXPERIMENTS ON MUSCULAR EXERTION AND THE EXCRETION OF
NITROGEN.
In Table 10 are included 183 tests with men in which the eflfect of
muscular exertion on the excretion of nitrogen (urea) was studied.
This question includes a discussion of the source of energy in the
animal body, i. e., whether energy for internal and external work is
furnished by the nitrogenous or nonnitrogenous constituents of the
food. This is a much-disputed point, and the number of experiments
on this subject is quite large. Experiments on this question with
doga will be found in Table 29 (Nos. 2455-2514).
MUSCULAR EXERTION.
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MUSCULAR EXERTION. 129
No8. 858-861 were made by Parkes in 1861. The object was to investigate the excre-
tion of nitrogen by the kidneys and intestines during rest and exercise whetl the diet
contains no nitrogen. The subjects were two healthy soldiers about 6 feet tall doing
duty at the Royal Victoria Hospital atNetley. A diet of starch, sugar, and butter
was consumed. The work done consisted of walking on level ground ; the amount was
calculated from Houghton's formula, that when walking on a level tho work is equal
to that of lifting one-twentieth of the weight through the distance walked. Several
other experiments were made with a mixed diet, but the food was not analyzed. The
ni-ea in the urine was determined by the Liebig method and the nitrogen in urine and
feces by the soda-lime method.
It was found that when the diet contained no nitrogen, exercise did not materially
increase the nitrogen excreted in the urine or feces. The amount of urea excreted
during work was less than during rest. The men were exhausted after a small
amount of work was performed.
The conclnsion is reached that although work can be done on a nonnitrogenous
diet, it does not follow that nitrogen is unnecessary. It is more probable that the
organism used some of its own nitrogen during this short period. Experience shows
that nitrogen must be supplied when work is done and that the amount must increase
with the work.
Nos. 862--867 were made by Parkes in 1862, and are a continuation of Nos. 858-861.
The object was to study the elimination of nitrogen during rest and exercise with a
regulated consumption of nitrogen. The subjects were two soldiers doing duty in the
Royal Victoria Hospital at Netley. Subject S. was the same as in Nos. 858 and 860.
The food was a simple mixed diet consisting of bread,, meat, potatoes, etc. The
nitrogen in the bread was determined. The bread was always made in the same
way. In the other articles the nitrogen was calculated. Neither alcohol nor tobacco
was used. The nitrogen in the urine and feces and the urea in the urine were
determined as in Nos. 858-861. The work performed consisted in walking over level
ground, the amount being computed as before. A period at ordinary occupation on
the same diet iireceded and followed Nos. 866, 867, but the feces were not analyzed.
Subject S. excreted in the urine 16.6 grams and 21.1 grams of nitrogen, and Subject
B. excreted 18.5 and 20.1 grams.
The following conclusions were reached : The nitrogen consumed remaining the
same, the amount excreted during rest was a little greater than during ordinary
occupation ; during active exercise the amount of urinary nitrogen decreased ; after
exercise there was a small but long-continued excess in the excretion of nitrogen,
and after both rest and exercise there was a retention of nitrogen in the system,
when it was again supplied after having been cut off.
Nos. 868-870 were made by Flint and associates in New York in 1870. The object
was to investigate the relation of the excretion of urea to exercise. The subject
was the professional pedestrian, Weston, who endeavored to walk 400 miles in 5
consecutive days and on 1 day to cover 112 miles. This he was unable to do. The
total distance walked was 317 miles, the greatest distance on 1 day being 92 miles.
For 5 days before and after the walk and during that time the subject was carefully
watched. All the food consumed and all the excreta were weighed.
In Nos. 868 and 870 the food was a very abundant mixed diet consisting of meat,
bread, milk, eggs, etc. In No. 869 the food consisted of beef extract, oatmeal gruel,
raw eggs, and a little brandy and champagne. The nitrogen in oatmeal gruel, head
cheese, and beef extract was determined; in other articles of food it was computed
from Payen's figures. The urea, uric acid, phosphoric acid, and sulphuric acid in
the urine and the nitrogen in the feces were determined. The subject was thoroughly
exhausted by the severe exercise, but recovered quickly and experienced no bad after
effects.
The conclusion is reached that severe muscular exertion increases the excretion of
area very considerably.
749— No. 45 ^9
130 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
No. 871 was made by Jones in New Orleans in 1878. The object was to investigate
the effec€ of prolonged muscular exertion upon the excretion of urine, urea, uric
acid, phosphoric arid, sulphuric acid, and sodium chlorid. The subject was Schmehl,
the professional pedestrian. The muscular exertion consisted in walking 500 miles
in 142 hours, 17 minutes, and 5 seconds. The aggregate time consumed in walking
was about 95^ hours and in rest about 47 hours. The average time required for each
mile walked was 11^ minutes. The average distance covered each day was 83^ miles.
The prolonged exertion produced no bad after effects. The food consumed consisted
of rare beefsteak, beef tea, and eggs. Porter, champagne, and seltzer water were
used as beverages.
The urea, uric, phosphoric, and sulphuric acids, and sodium chlorid in the urine
were determined. The author did not determine the nitrogen in the food, urine, or
feces. In order that the experiment might be included in the present compilation,
the nitrogen in the food was calculated from the standard table of analyses of Amer-
ican food materials and the nitrogen in the feces was taken from experiment No.
868, where the diet was somewhat similar. The nitrogen in the urine was calculated
from the amount of urea and uric acid. The urea and uric acid excretion diminished
gradually during the experiment. On the first day it was 62.9 grams and 0.6 gram,
respectively, and on the last day 39.0 grams and 0.5 gram.
The author compared his results with those obtained with individuals under nor-
mal conditions. The conclusion was reached that increased muscular exertion
increased the excreticm of urea and phosphoric and sulphuric acids.
Nos. 872-887 and Nos. 607-613 were made by Oppenheim in the laboratory of the
Institute of Animal Physiology at Popi)el8dorf, near Bonn, in 1879-80. The object
was to study the phj^siology and pathology of the excretion of urea. The author
himself was the subject. The food ccmsisted of bread, meat, and milk. The nitro-
gen in the food was determined every 3 days. The nitrogen in the feces and the
urea in the urine were determined.
The following special (piestions were investigated:
(1) The influence of frequent urination on the excretion of urea (Nos. 873-875).
The effect was so slight that no general conclusion could be drawn from the few
experiments.
(2) The excretion of urea when fasting is begun (Nos. '876, 877). The excretion
of urea was immediately diminished. This is in accord with the views of Bischoff,
Voit, and others.
(3) The influence of the consumption of large quantities of water (Nos. 878, 879).
The conclusion was reached that the urine and urea excretions are both increased.
The extra (juantity of water consumed was 4 liters, and the urine was increased 3
liters.
(4) The influence of coffee (see Nos. 607, 008, Table 9). The amount of urine
excreted was increased, but the urea excretion diminished. The feces contained a
larger amount of nitrogen than usual, and in the 2 days following the test there
was no feces. No conclusion is drawn from these results. The subject had been
without coffee or tea for a long time, and the coft'ee had a marked intoxicating effect.
(5) The eflect of quinin (see Nos. 609, 610, 613, Table 9). The quinin had an
intoxicating effect. The excretion of urine was not much more than normal, while
the urea excretion was increased, this effect being produced in the flrst 8 hours after
taking the quinin.
(6) Th(^ effect of perspiring when the loss of moisture is made good by an increased
consumption of water (see Nos. 611, 612, Table 9). Tbe increased perspiration was
brought about by a hypodermic injection of pilocarpi n. As much extra water was
consumed as would satisfy thirst, viz, 500 cubic centimeters The perspiration
Avas not very great, although the subject remained in bed. An increased secretion of
saliva was observed, which began a very few minutes after the injection. There was
an increased secretion of tears and tracheal, or bronchial, discharges. No marked
effect on the urea excretion was observed.
MUSCULAR EXERTION. 131
(7) The effect of muscular exertion on the metabolism of protein (Nos. 880-887).
The exertion consisted in climbing a hill several times. When this was done so
rapidly that the subject was out of breath, i. e., severe labor was performed, the
excretion of urea was increased. In the first experiment, where there was no severe
work, it was not increased. The normal days between the experiments are also
included in the table. On these days the nitrogen excretion remained quite constant.
In the pathological experiments no details or analyses of food or feces are given.
In general, the experiments bear out the conclusions of other observers.
Nos. 888-899 were made by North in 1882. The object was to study the effect
of physical labor on the elimination of nitrogen. The investigator himself was the
subject. The food consisted of meat dried and ground to a powder, flour, dried veg-
tables, potatoes (Edwards' patent desiccated), and condensed milk. It was believed
that with these articles a perfectly uniform diet could be prepared. The nitrogen
and phosphoric acid in the food, urine, and feces were determined.
The diet was followed for 4 or 5 days before the experiinouts begun, in order to
eliminate any nitrogen due to a previous diet. In No. 894 a fast of 24 hours was also
included, in order to more nearly accomplish this end. Thus there are 2 sets of values
in the table, the figures in Nos. 894-896 including the day of fasting, and those in
Nos. 897-899 representing the same period, omitting the day of fasting. In all the
experiments the time was 9 to 12 days. At the middle of the period a definite
amount of muscular work was performed, consisting of walking a known distance
(30 to 47 miles) and carrying a known load (about 27 pounds).
The conclusions reached agree in general with those of Parkes (Nos. 8.55-867), but
it was believed that the effect of severe labor on the nitrogen excretion is more imme-
diate and more pronounced than Parkes's experiments show. The labor performed
in his experiments was not sufficiently severe.
The author believed that the storing up of nitrogen in the organism is tlie ** expres-
sion of a tendency to economize resources." Unless the labor be very severe the
excretion of phosphates is not increased.
Xos. 900-929 were made by Zasietski at the l^niversity of St. Petersburg in 1885.
The object was to investigate the influence of muscular work on the metabolism of
nitrogen. Fifteen experiments are described. The subjects were healthy persons.
In most of the experiments a period of 2 or 3 daj's of absolute rest (lying down)
was followed by several days of severe muscular exertion, which consisted of walk-
ing from 9 a. m. to 9 p. m., with short intervals of rest. In several (Experiments the
IM-riods were reversed. Milk was the only food consumed. The nitrogen of the
foo<l, urine, and feces was determined by the Seegan method.
The following conclusions were reached : In increased muscular exertion the nitro-
gen metabolism was increased 4 to 18 per cent, or, on an average, 9 per cent. In U) of
the 15 tests the quantity of urine increased, on an average, 210 cubic centimeters daily.
Increased muscul.ir exertion did not exercise a definite influence on the assimilation
of protein. In 10 cases the assimilation increased, on an average, 6.4 per cent; in 4
cases it decreased 0.5 per cent, and in 1 case it remained unchanged. The muscular
exertion did not exercise a definite influence upon the amount of milk consumed in
the above experiments.
Xos. 930-940 were made by Burlakov in St. Petersburg in 1888. The object was to
investigate the influence of muscular work on the metabolism and assimilation of
nitrogen. Five experiments are described. Each experiment included a preliminary
period (2 to 3 days), a period of rest (4 days), and a period of work (4 days). Some
of the experiments began with resft and ended with work, and in others the condi-
tions were reversed. The work consisted of (1) wood chopi)ing; (2) carrying heavy
loads of water, wood, and the like; (3) gymnastics (exercises with 10 to 15 ])ound
dumb-bells), and (4) more or less extended walks. The work was performed several
hours each day. The food consisted of a 8im])le mixed diet.
The nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces was determined by theKjeldahl-Horodin
ni<'tho<l.
132 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
The author sums up his results as follows : Under the iufluence of moderate mus-
cular work assiniilatiou of nitrogenous substances increased from 1.2 to 8.7 per
cent, or, on an average, 5.02 per cent. This increaHo of assimilation was maintained
also during the period of rest following the period of work. The assimilation was
diminished at first during intensified work, when the subjects were unaccustomed
to it.
Under the influence of muscular exertion the metabolism of nitrogen generally
increased from 1.1 to 18.5 per cent, or, on an average, 12.2 per cent. There was no
marked influence on the weight of the body.
Nos. 941-948 were made by Argutinsky in the laboratory of the Physiological
Institute in Bonn in 1889 ( ?). The object was to investigate the influence of mus-
cular exertion on nitrogen metabolism. The investigator himself was the subject.
Some time before the experiment he had observed that for several days after a
long walk the nitrogen in the urine was increased. These experiments were there-
fore undertaken to investigate the matter. The food was most carefully prepared.
It consisted of bread (zwieback), meat, and condensed milk. In some cases rice,
butter, sugar, and ^'avenicia'^ (a sort of oatmeal) were consumed also. The nitro-
gen was determined by the Kjeldahl method in food, urine, and feces. The meat
(beef) was freed from all visible fat, chopped and mixed. Samples were taken for
analyses. The muscular exertion which was performed in these experiments con-
sisted of long walks and mountain climbing. In No. 942 the distance covered was
18 to 20 kilometers, and the height climbed was 1,300 meters. In No. 945 the dis-
tance walked was 18 to 20 kilometers, and the height climbed 1,600 meters. In No.
947 the distance walked was about 12 kilometers, and the height climbed 1,300
meters. The exercise increased the amount of nitrogen in the urine, and the eff'ett
wns observed for 2 days after the exercise. The author attributes this efl'ect to the
climbing, and not to the long walk. In No. 947 a large quantity of sugar was con-
sumed. This did not prevent the increased metabolism of nitrogen, although it was
calculated that the amount of sugar consumed was twice as great as was required to
i'urnish the necessary energy for the climbing. Further, the conclusion was reached
that the extra amount of protein metabolized when the climbing was done (as indi-
cated by the increased amount of nitrogen in the urine) would account for 75 to 100
per cent of the energy actually expended.
These experiments are considered to be additional proofs of Pfluger's theory that
protein is the source of muscular energy.
[The author lelt out of account the energy which is required for walking, i. e.,
'* forward progression." This was pointed out by Paton (Nos. 965-969). An extended
criticism of Argutinsky's work was made by Munk.^ His conclusion is that the
results do not disprove the theory that energy is chiefly produced by the metabolism
of the nitrogen-free substances, and it is only when from some cause these are not
furnished that the protein is metabolized. Some of Argutinsky's other assumptions
are, according to Munk, not warranted. Thus, the extra amount of sugar consumed
in No. 947 is not half sufficient to account for the energy of the exercise, including
forward progression.]
Nos. 949-959 were made by Hirschfeld at the chemical laboratory of the Physiolog-
ical Institute of the University of Wiirzburg in 1887. The object was to investigate
the influence of increased muscular exertion upon the metabolism of protein. Three
experiments are described. The author himself was the subject. His food con-
sisted of a mixed diet of meat, bread, butter, potatoes, etc. The nitrogen in the food,
urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl method. In the first experiment
(Nos. 949-952) the diet was rich in protein, and in the second and third experi-
ments (Nos. 953-959) the amount of protein was small. On 1 or 2 days of each experi-
ment the subject took a rapid walk, which included climbing a hill 400 to 500 meters
high. By this severe muscular exertion the pulse was increased to 80 and the
iPfluger's Arch., 46 (1890), p. 563.
MUSCULAR EXERTION. 133
respiration to 48. On the other days the ordinary laboratory duty was the only
work performed.
The conclusion was reached that severe muscular exertion produced no increase
in the metabolism of nitrogen with a diet rich or poor in protein, provided the total
quantity of nutrients was sufficient for the demands of the organism.
Nos. 960-964 wore made by Krummacher in the laboratory of the Physiological
Institute at Bonn in 1890. The object was to investigate the influence of muscular
exertion on nitrogen metabolism. The work is a continuation of that of Argutinsky
(Nos. 941-948), and was intended to remove the objection that his results were not
normal, but might have been influenced by personal characteristics. The investi-
gator himself was the subject.
The food, which was very carefully prepared, consisted of meat, bread, milk, rice,
wine, and pickled onions. Enough of each article was prepared to last through the
whole experiment — 14 days. The fat was determined in the food, except in the
bread. In this it was calculated. The nitrogen iu the food, urine, and feces was
determined. The experiment was divided into five periods. In three periods no
work was done, «nd in two periods the subject walked and climbed mountains.
In the calculations no attention is paid to the energy expended in walking.
In No. 961 the subject climbed 1,137.7 meters. His weight was 68 kilograms. The
work done was therefore estimated to bo equal to 77,363.6 kilogranimeters or 182,000
calories. A gram of protein, according to Rubner, yields 4.2 calories. The above
amount of muscular exertion would require, therefore, 43.33 grams of protein (or
6.713 grams of nitrogen). In reality, 4=326 grams, or 64.4 per cent, more nitrogen was
metabolized when work was performed than when no work was done.
In No. 963 work was done on 2 days. The total height climbed was 2,403.79 meters.
The weight of the subject being 67 kilograms, the work performed was estimated to
equal 161,053.93 kilogrammeters, or 378,950 calories. This would require 90.23 grams
of protein (or 13.99 grams of nitrogen;. In reality, 6.771 grams, or 48 per cent, more
nitrogen was actually metabolized than when no work was performed.
The agreement between the observed facts and Pfliiger's theory that protein is the
source of muscular energy is not as close as in Argiitinsky's work.
[The same criticism which was made by Paton of Argutinsky^s experiments applies
to this work also, viz, that the very important matter of the energy used in walking
C forward progression") is left out of account entirely.]
Nos. 965-969 were made by Paton in one of the laboratories of the Royal College of
Physicians in Edinburgh in 1891. The object of the experiment was to investigate
the efl*ect of muscular labor on the metabolism of nitrogen. The subject was a med-
ical student 5 feet 6 inches tall. He was in good health and had for several years
been accustomed to a simple, more or less strictly vegetable, diet.
The food was a simple mixed diet, consisting of soup made from beef and bone,
oatmeal porridge, oatmeal biscuit, cocoa, butter, sugar, rice, stewed dried figs, and
condensed milk. The nitrogen in each article was determined. Great care was used
in the preparation of the food, when practicable a considerable quantity being pre-
pared and kept on ice. The fat and carbohydrates were determined, except in the
oatmeal, the biscuits, and the figs. The energy was calculated Avith the aid of
Rubner's figures.
The work performed consisted in raising a weight a definite number of times by
means of a pulley. To this may be added the labor of walking to and from the
laboratory and ascending some stairs. The work of raising the weight 140 times
amounted to 15,220 kilogrammeters, and that of ascending the stairs to 1,050 kilo-
grammeters. Using Zuntz's' figures, the energy of walking was calculated to bo
21,076 kilogrammeters. The total was, therefore, 37,366 kilogrammeters. After per-
forming the work the subject remained at home and kept as (juiet as possible.
The conclusion was reached that the increased metabolism of protein indicated by
1 Virchow^s Arch., 121 (1890), p. 367.
134 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
the increased excretion of nitrogen would account for 35 per cent of the work
j)erforuied and that the protein did not yield the greater part of muscular enei^y.
The conclusion is also reached that when the organism in a condition of compara-
tive rest is called upon to perform a largely increased amount of work the protein
and iiounitrogenous constituents undergo increased metaholism. In these experi-
nieiits the amount of work was moderate, hut large in comparison with the work
done before and .after — much larger than in experiments previously recorded.
[The conclusions do not agree with those of Argutlnsky (Nos. 941-948). The proh-
ahle reason for this is that Argutinsky neglected the motion of ** forward progression/'
which must have called for a large amount of muscular exertion.]
It is noticed that the increased metaholism of protein is not accompanied by the
increased excretion of nitrogen on the day work was done, hut upon several suc-
ceeding days. This is a point of interest as, in the author's opinion, it invalidates
the classic work of Fick and Wislicenus. This increase in the excretion of nitrogen
may be due " to a retardation of the excretion of the effete nitrogen. But it strongly
suggests the possibility that muscular work may in some way modify the constructive
or anabolic change so that the nitrogenous part of the muscle substance is not again
fully rebuilt into the structure of the molecule, but is allowed to escape and to
undergo subsequent retrogressive changes in the liver."
Nos. 970-999 were made by Puuine in St. Petersburg in 1894. The object was to
study the influence of horseback riding on the metabolism and assimilation of
nitrogen in healthy men. The subjects were soldiers of a battery of artillery guards,
composed of horsemen and infantry, 8 of whom were recruits who had never ridden
horseback and 7 were old 8oldi<jrs. The subjects were divided into 5 groups, 3 of
which consisted of recruits and 2 of old soldiers. Fifteen experiments are described,
each divided into a riding period and a rest ]»eriod of 5 days. The recruits began
with the rest period and the old soldiers with the riding period. The riding exer-
cises took place iu the riding house, and continued from 1 to 3 hours a day.
The food consisted of a mixed diet. The nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces was
determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin method.
The author's conclusions were as follows: The assimilation of the protein of the
food decreased under the influence of horseback riding from 1 to 8 per cent, or an
average of 3.8 per cent. The metabolism of the protein increased from 2 to 37 per
cent, or an average of 4.5 per cent, and the quality of the metabolism improved.
During the period of horseback riding the weight of the body decreased, the quantity
of urine decreased on an average 1,179 cubic centimeters, and the quantity of feces
increased 670.4 grams.
Nos. 1000-1013 were made by Krummacher at the Physiological Institute in Munich
in 1892. The object was to investigate the influence of muscular work upon the
cleavage of protein. The subjects were the investigator himself and a laboratory
servant. The food consisted of a mixed diet of rice, meat, milk, etc. The nitro-
gen in the food, urine, and feces was determined, and also the fat in the food. The
carbohydrates in the food were calculated from earlier analyses, with the excep-
tion of the beer, and in this the extractive material was determined and assumed to
be carbohydrates. The Kjeldahl method was used for determining the nitrogen in
the food and feces, and sometimes in the urine, though the Schneider-Seegen method
was more usual for the last deteimination. The separation of the feces was made
with lampblack. In each experiment on one day a considerable amount of work was
done, which consisted in turning the arm of a dynamometer of special construction.
The conclusion was reached that muscular work causes an increased cleavage
of protein. This increase is less as the ratio of nitrogen-free material to protein
in the food increases and is not directly connected with the amount of work per-
formed. The author agrees with Voit in the opinion that usually work does not
directly produce a greater breaking down of protein, but that an increase in
the ])rotein cleavage is caused by tho increased combustion of the nitrogen- free
materials which protect protein. If it were possible during the period of work to
MASSAGE AND FARADIZATION. 135
continuoaBly supply the cells with a sufficient amount of nitrogen-free material,
then there would be no increase in the quantity of protein broken down. But this
is a very difficult matter. The after effect of muscular labor has been noticed by a
number of investigators. In the author's opinion, this effect is not due to the con-
tinued excretion of nitrogenous cleavage products, but to the fact that the nitrogen-
free materials in the body were used up and that it takes some time to provide the
body with a new supply. The author believes that under certain conditions it is
possible for protein alone to be the source of muscular energy.
The subject is discussed from an historical and critical standpoint at considerable
length.
No8. 1014-1040^ were made by Zavadovski in St. Petersburg in 1892. The object
was to investigate the influence of a special breathing exercise upon the metabolism
and assimilation of nitrogen in healthy subjects. The subjects were 8 hospital
servants and a nurse. All the experiments were of 15 days' duration and were
divided into 3 equal periods. The breathing exercise was practiced in the sec-
ond period. It consisted of taking very deep breaths and expiring the air slowly.
The exercise was performed as follows : The subjects stood in a row a few feet apart,
the hands were placed on the ilium, and at a given signal the inspiration was begun.
When the lungs were fully inflated a short pause was made and at another signal
the expiration was commenced. The inspiration and the expiration each lasted
about 5 seconds, and the pause between them was 3 or 4 seconds. There was also a
pause of 3 or 4 seconds between each respiration. After 10 or 1.5 such inspirations a
rest of 5 or 10 minutes was allowed. In every case the subjects were required to
breathe through the nose. Th^e breathing exercise was carried on from 9 to 10
o'clock in the morning, and from 12 to 2 and from 4 to 6 in the afternoon. At first
the number of such respirations was 120 daily. The number was increased 15 or 20
each day, so that on the fifth day the number was about 200.
The food consisted of a mixed diet. The nitrogen in the food, urine, and feces was
determined by the Kjeldahl -Borodin method.
The following conclusions were reached: The special breathing exercise practiced
in these experiments increased the assimilation of nitrogen, and the increase was
still noticed in the period following that with the breathing exercise. The metab-
olism of nitrogen was also increased, but the increase was dependent upon the
quantity of fat in the food and on some other special features. Qualitatively the
metabolism of nitrogen improved ; that is, the ratio of incompletely oxidized products
to nitrogen of urea decreased. The subjects gained somewhat in weight.
EXPEBIMENTS TO DETERMINE THE EFFECT OF MASSAGE AND FARA-
DIZATION.
In Table 11 are included 40 tests with men and 3 with children, in
which the subjects received massage or faradization. Massage may
perhaps be regarded as involuntary muscular exercise, and these
experiments are connected with those in Table 9.
The massage was applied in accordance with the recognized methods.
Although massage is often recommended as a therapeutic measure, the
number of experiments on this subject is not large.
* These experiments were included with those in which the influence of muscular
work on the excretion of nitrogen was studied, because the breathing exercise prac-
ticed seemed similar to the labored breathing produced by severe muscular work, and,
according to Zuntz (Experiment Station Record, 7, p. 549), it is only when breath-
ing becomes labored that muscular exercise causes an increase in the metabolism of
protein.
- A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
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MASSAGE AND FARADIZATION. 139
No8. 1041-1052 were made by Gopadze in St. Petersburg in 1886.
The author studied the influence of massage on the metabolism of nitrogen and the
assimilation of protein, and its eflects on the pulse, respiration, temperature and
the weight of the body, and the quantities and consistency of the feces. All the
subjects were healthy medical students.
Four series of experiments are described. Each experiment was divided into three
periods of 7 days each. In the first experiment the last period was limited to
5 days in consequence of diarrhea. The food was uniform in all cases and con-
sisted of white bread, milk, broth, veal, and roast beef, besides 2 to 3 cups of
tea morning and evening. The determination of the nitrogen of the food, feces, and
urine was made by the Rjeldahl-Borodiu method. The feces were separated by
means of stewed blackberries. Each subject was weighed once in the morning after
urinating and before taking food, and once in the evening after the last meal and
after urinating.
During the second period massage was applied for 20 to 25 minutes each day 2 or 3
hours after breakfast or 3 hours after dinner. The massage consisted of stroking
(effleurage), friction, kneading (petrissage) f and pounding (topotement). The whole
body except the head and neck was subjected to this treatment.
The author sums up the results of his experiments as follows :
Under the influence of massage the appetite increased considerably in all four
cases, and the intensified appetite continued during the period following massage.
The metabolism of nitrogen was intensified in all cases.
The assimilation of the nitrogenous constituents of the food improved under the
influence of massage in all cases, notwithstanding the increased quantities of food
taken. The improved assimilation continued in the third period, though in a less
degree. The inconsiderable improvement of assimilation in No. 1048 is accounted
for by diarrhea.
The subjects of Nos. 1044-1046 and 1050-1052 in(;reased in weight, and the subjects
of Nos. 1041-1043 and 1047-1049 decreased in weight, in the massage period. In the
third period all the subjects increased in weight.
Nos. 1053-1056 were made by Walter in St. Petersburg in 1887. The object was to
study the influence of faradization in the region of the liver on the metabolism
of nitrogen and its excretion in the urine. The subject of the first experiment was
sufl'ering from an enlarged liver, the cause of which was not quite clear, and the
subject of the second had a hypertrophic affection of the liver. Both experiments
lasted 6 days, and were divided into two equal periods. In the second period fara-
dization treatment was employed.
The faradization was carried on by Sigrist's method — that is, one electrode was
placed on the pit of the stomach and the other at different points in the region of
the liver. The application was made for 15 minutes twice a day.
The food consisted of a mixed diet. The nitrogen in the food, urine, and feces
was determined by the Kj el dahl- Borodin method.
The author concluded that faradization of the region of the liver caused a slight
increase in the amount of nitrogen excreted in the urine.
Nos. 1057-1080 were made by Kianovsky in St. Petersburg in 1889. The object was
to study the influence of abdominal massage on the assimilation and metabolism of
nitrogen. The influence of abdominal massage on the assimilation of fats was
observed in several cases. Some experiments consisted of two and some of three
periods. In every case massage was applied in the second period. Nearly all
periods lasted 6 days. The subjects were all healthy persons — 8 medical students
and the author. The food consisted of milk, beef tea, roasted meat, bread, jelly,
etc. The jelly was made from blueberries. Between 10 and 11 a. m. the subjects
took tea; at 12 to 1 p. m. breakfast, consisting of milk, bread, butter, and meat; at
3 to 5 p. m., dinner; and from 8 to 11, lea. Abdominal massage was ai)plied between
11 and 12 o'clock, and in two experiments about 5 hours after dinner also.
140 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
The nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin
method.
The author sums up the results of his experiments as follows :
Under the influence of abdominal massage the assimilation of. the nitrogenous
constituents of the food improved in every case from 1.4 to 5.76 per cent. In the
period after massage the assimilation of nitrogen continued to improve in only one
case (No. 1065); in three other cases (Nos. 1059, 1062, and 1068) it somewhat deterio-
rated as compared with the massage period, but remains improved &< compared with
the ante-massage period. The assimilation of fats improved during the massage
period. The metabolism of nitrogen increased from 0.6 to 10.9 per cent. The appe-
tite of almost all the subjects improved. Notwithstanding the increase of the metab-
olism of nitrogen, many of the subjects gradually increased iu weight. After each
massage treatment the subjects had a feeling of lassitude and drowsiness.
Nos. 1081-1083 were made by Bendix at the laboratory of the department of animal
physiology of the Royal Agricultural Institute in Berlin in 1894 (?). The subject
was a boy 2^ years old. The object was to observe the eftect of massage on metab-
olism. The experiment was divided into four periods, three of which are included
in this table. Massage was applied in the second period. The method of massage
was not stated. The food consisted of sterilized milk, chocolate, white bread, and
apple jelly. The nitrogen and fat in the food and feces, and the nitrogen in the
urine, were determined. The carbohydrates in the food were calculated.
In the fourth period (6 days) the same amount of nitrogen as in the other periods
was consumed daily and 4.8 grams was excreted in the urine. No analysis of feces
for this period is reported. The .luthor made two other experiments in which anal-
yses of feces are not reported. The subject of the first test w^as a man 26 years
old. The test was divided into two periods of 6 and 3 days, with massage in the
second ])eri<)d. During the whole test a mixed diet was consumed which furnished
16.5 grams of nitrogen daily. Before massage the urine contained on an average 11.6
grams of nitrogen and during th(^ massage period 12.7 grams. The second test was
niadi^ with a woman 25 years old and was divided into five periods, the first tliiei?
and the last period of 4 days' duration and the fcmrth of 9 days. The subject
was massaged in the second and fourth ]> riods. A mixed diet uniform through-
out the test ^was consumed which furnished 15.3 grams of nitrogen daily. The
average daily excretion of nitrogen in the urine in the different periods was 12.0,
13.7, 13.2, 13.5, and 12.6 grams, respectively.
The conclusion was reache<l that massage increases the amount of urine and the
excretion of nitrogen iu the urine. These results were noticeable for several days
after the end of the massage period.
EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE THE EFFECT OF BATHS AND ENEMAS.
In Table 12 are incladed 276 tests with men and 12 with children, in
which baths of various sorts were given to subjects living under more
or less normal conditions, and 24 experiments in which the subjects
were given enemas. The baths were of various sorts — cold baths,
douches, baths in natural or artificially prepared mineral water, and
Kussian baths. In several cases they were accompanied bj'^ rubbing or
massage. A number of tests were also made with mud baths and sand
baths. In many instances the treatment was such as to induce copious
perspiration. This was true of the hot-air bath. Other experiments
with diseased subjects, in which baths of various sorts were given, will
be found in Tables 17-22. Experiments of a similar nature with dogs
will be found in Table 29 (Nos. 295«-2962).
BATHS AND ENEMAS.
141
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BATHS AND ENEMAS. 159
No6. 1084-1095 were made by Frantzins in St. Peteisbnrg in 1886. The object was
to study the influence of fresh- water baths and the mineral baths of Staraia-
Russa on the metabolism and assimilation of nitrogen. The subjects were 4 healthy
boys. In general^ each experiment consisted of three x>eriods, (1) without baths, (2)
with salt baths of 35^ C, and (3) with fresh-water baths of the same temperature.
The baths lasted half an hour. On Sundays they were omitted. The mineral
spring of Staraia-Russa yields an alkaline salt water of medium concentration. An
analysis in 1881 showed the following composition : In 1,000 grains there were 19.380
grams total solids, consisting of 13.332 grams sodium chlorid (NaCl), 1.901 'grams
calcium chlorid (CaCU), 1.769 grams magnesium chlorid (MgC]2), 0.301 grams potas-
sium chlorid (KCl), 0.070 grams calcium and magnesium bicarbonate, 0.31 grams
ferric oxid (FeiOa), 0.019 grams bromin compounds, and 1.961 grams gypsum (MgS04).
The specific gravity of the water was 1.016 at 15^ C, and the reaction neutral. One
thousand grams of water also contained 1.12 grams hydrogen sulphid (H^S), 0.08
grams oxygen, and 0.42 grams nitrogen.
The food consisted of a mixed diet. The nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces was
determined by the Kjeldabl-Borodin method.
The author drew the following conclusions: Under the influence of warm mineral
baths the metabolism and assimilation of nitrogen improved. Under the influence
of fresh- water baths no marked eff^ect on the metabolism of nitrogen was observed,
but in most cases the assimilation of nitrogen improved. The increase in weight of
the children was greater under the iuflueiice of mineral baths than of fresh-water
baths of the same temperature. Tlie increase of weight was not directly dependent
upon the storing up of protein in the organism.
Nos. 1096-1107 were made by Feit in St. Petersburg in 1887. The object was to
study the influence of cold, wet rubbing od the metabolism and assimilation of
nitrogen. The subjects were 4 healthy students. Each experiment lasted 21 days, and
was divided into three periods of 7 days each. In the first period the conditious
were normal, in the second period variations in metabolism and assimilation of
nitrogen under the influence of friction were observed, and in the third period the
after effects of the special friction treatment were studied.
The rubbing was done with rough cloths according to Winternitz's directions.
The subjects were wrapped in the rough cloths and rubbed for 2 or 3 minutes until
the skin showed some redness. They were then wrapped up in blankets wrung out of
cold water and rubbed. This treatment was applied in order to bring about an
expansion of the blood vessels of the skin, which Avould attract more blood and
produce more heat at the surface of the body. The temperature of the room and of
the water in which the blanket was wet was recorded. The weights of the dry and
wet blankets were also determined, so that the amount of water in the blankets
coDld be calculated. Immediately after the rubbing the subject was placed in b(>.d.
The food consisted of a simple mixed diet. The nitrogen of the food^ urine, and
feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin method.
The author gives the following conclusions : Under the influence of the special
treatment the metabolism and assimilation of nitrogen increased in all cases. The
appetite increased in three cases, but decreased in one case
Kos. 1108-1137. Threeseriesof experiments were made by Evdokimov in St. Peters-
burg in 1887. The object was to study the influence of profuse perspiriug on metab-
olism. The first series consisted of five experiments with healthy subjects. In this
series the nitrogen of extractives was determined by taking the diff*erence between the
total nitrogen of the urine and the nitrogen of the urea (accordiug to Lupine's direc-
tions). The second series consisted of three experiments with healthy snbJectH. Tie
determination of the nitrogen of the urea was made after precipitating the extract-
ives with phosphomolybdic acid (accordiug to Thudichuui) aud (.'havanc and
Kichet's reagent. The third series consisted of two experiments with nephritic
patients.
The subjects of the first series (Xos. 1108^1122) were soldier.s. In order to obtain
160 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
more comparable results the diet of these subjects was the same as that of the ne-
phritic subjects (1129-1137). It consisted of milk, bread, and tea. Each experiment
lasted 7 days. On the fourth and fifth days profuse sweating was induced by inclos-
ing the subject in a rubber bag which covered him up tq the neck. A blanket was
wrapped around the rubber bag. The sweating lasted for 1^ to 2 hours. The sub-
ject was then dried off and weighed. The perspiration was squeezed out from the
bag into a glass cylinder and by repeating filtration (four times) freed from the
suspended dirt, epidermis, etc. The quantity of perspiration varied in the healthy
men in the first series from 215 to 655 cubic centimeters, in the second series from 62
to 142 cubic centimeters, and in the third series (nephritic subjects) from 116 to 288
cubic centimeters. The 7 days of observation were preceded by a preliminary period
of 4 to 7 days during which the subjects became accustomed to the milk diet. On
the first day of the preliminary test each subject took a bath. On the days of
sweating the subjects took a bath of 40^ C. and 20 minutes' duration in the morning
Ijefore taking food. Immediately before the bath the subjects were weighed, and
again after it, having first rubbed dry.
The nitrogen of the food, urine, feces, and perspiration was determined by the
Kjeldahl-Borodin method.
More protein was digested during the sweating period, and less in the following
period, not only as compared with the period of sweating but also with the preced-
ing period. The quantity of nitrogen excreted decreased in most cases on the days
of sweating or during the following period. The qualitative metabolism improved
either in the period of sweating or in the following period, but frequently it was not
paralleled with the quantitative improvement of the metabolism. The quantity of
nitrogen found in the perspiration Avas so insignificant that it can be neglected in the
study of the metabolism of nitrogen.
The results obtained in the second series are similar to those of the previous series
with this difference thut, owing to a more exact determination of the nitrogen of the
urea, the changes in the different periods of observation were more marked than
before.
In the third series the nitrogen of the albumen in the urine was also determined.
This was done by determining the total nitrogen of the urine including albumen and
the nitrogen of the urine after removing the albumen by Ludwig's method. The
difference was taken as the nitrogen of the albumen.
The author sums up the result of the three series as follows : Under the influence
of sweating more protein was digested and the metabolism of nitrogen increased
qualitatively and quantitatively.
The metabolism of nitrogen in the nephritic subjects was lower in quality and
quantity than in healthy persons. The urine contained more urea and less extract-
ives. The amount of nitrogen in the perspiration was so insignificant in both nephritic
patients and healthy persons that it need not be taken into consideration.
Nos. 1138-1143 were made by Sigrist at the therapeutic clinic in St. Petersburg in
1887 with healthy subjects. The object was to study the influence of thermally
indifferent, fresh, and salt-alkali baths on the metabolism and assimilation of nitro-
gen. The plan was to divide each experiment into three periods — the first without
baths, the second with fresh-water baths, and the third with salt-alkali baths.
Only two experiments were successfully carried through from beginning to end.
The temperature of the baths was 35^ C, and each bath lasted 20 minutes. The
salt-alkali baths were made by adding to the water common salt and potash in
quantities corresponding to those contained in the *'Essentuki No. 17" mineral
spring. (See Nos. 744-755, Taible 10.)
The author sums up his results as follows : Thermally indifferent firesh- water baths
and also weak salt-alkali baths iit first increased the metabolism of nitrogen. Later
it again became about normal. The effect was slight in both cases. The influence
of both kinds of baths on the assimilation of nitrogen was so insignificant that a
definite conclusion could not be drawn.
BATHS AND ENEMAS. 161
No8. 1144-1161 were made by Garine in St. Petersburg in 1887. The object was to
study the influence of hot-air baths on the assimilation and metabolism of nitrogen
in healthy subjects and subjects suffering from nephritis. Four experiments were
made with healthy subjects and two with subjects suffering from chronic nephritis,
llie experiments usually lasted 15 days and were divided into three equal periods.
In the second period hot-air baths were taken. The apparatus used for the bath
consisted of a box 133 by 111 by 64 centimeters, in the cover of which was an open-
ing for the head of the subject. The box contained a seat and was heated by means
of a gas-burner. The bath was taken between 3 and 6 o'clock in the afternoon and
lasted from 15 to 35 minutes. The temperature of the bath^ as shown by a ther-
mometer in the top, was 40 to 60^ C, and by a thermometer in the side of the box
56 to 72.5°, After the bath the healthy subjects were wrapped up in woolen blank-
ets for half an hour, and the diseased subjects for an hour or more.
The food consisted of a mixed diet. The nitrogen in the food, urine^ and feces
was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin method.
The following conclusions were reached : Hot-air baths, or, in other words, per-
spiration induced by a high temperature, improved the assimilation of nitrogen in
all the subjects. In the case of healthy subjects the increase was noticeable in the
third period also, though it was less than in the second period. The metabolism of
nitrogen — that is, the ratio of nitrogen in the urine to assimilated nitrogen — was
considerably increased in both the healthy and diseased subjects. The increase
in the former case was noticeable in the third period, though it was less than in the
second, and in the latter case it was considerably greater in the third period than
in the second. The after effect of the baths was considerably greater in the case
of the diseased subjects. Both the healthy and diseased subjects lost Aveight during
the bath period, though the loss was usually made good in the third period.
Nos. 1162-1185 were made by Blagoveschchenski in St. Petersburg in 1888. The
object was to study the influence of cold affusions on the metabolism aud assimila-
tion of nitrogen. The subjects were 8 healthy convicts confined in the St. Peters-
burg civil prison. The experiments were divided into three periods, the first and
third under normal conditions, and the second with cold affusions. The affusions,
which were made twice a day (at 7 in the morning and 6 in the evening), lasted a
little over a minute. They were carried out as follows : The subject stood in a bath
tub and 40 liters of water of the desired temperature was poured over the entire
body, beginning at the head.
Since the regular prison food was insufficient for nutrition and difficult to analyze
it was replaced by a diet consisting of bread, meat, butter, milk, etc. The subjects
were allowed this food for 5 or 10 days before the test proper to accustom them to
the new diet. During this time no analyses were made. The nitrogen of the food,
urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin method.
The author sums up his results briefly as follows: Cold affusions increased the
metabolism and assimilation of nitrogen, and decreased the quantity of the nitrogen
retained in the body; they improved the appetite, induced restful sleep, and im-
proved the general condition.
Nos. 1186-1200 were made by Makovetski in St. Petersburg in 1888. The object was
to observe the influence of Russian steam baths on the metabolism and assimilation
of nitrogen, and on the assimilation of fats in healthy subjects. The subjects were
4 medical students aud a physician, and were all healthy, except the subject of Nos.
1189-1191. Each experiment was divided into three periods, the first and second of
5 days' and the third of 2 days' duration. In the second period steam baths were
taken. The steam bath at the Military Clinical Hospital was used. The arrange-
ment of the bath is described as follows : It consists of an anteroom, a soaping room,
and a steaming room. A considerable portion of the latter is taken up by a stove
and a "sweating loft." On entering the soaping room the subject has 3 or 4 bucket-
fuls of water poured over him and is then required to lie down for 10 minutes in the
steaming room. He then returns to the soaping room, washes himself thoroughly,
749— No. 45 ^11
162 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
and then goes to the third room^ where an abundance of steam is generated by pour-
ing water on the hot stove. After remaining 10 minutes in the *' sweating loft'' the
bath is concluded by pouring 8 to 10 bucketfnls of water over the subject and rub-
bing dry.
The diet consisted of beef tea from which the fat was removed, white bread, plum
jam, roasted meat from which the fat was removed, milk, tea, and blueberry jelly.
The nitrogen in the food, urine, and feces (each defecation) was determined by the
Kjeldahl- Borodin method.
The following conclusions were reached: Under the influence of Russian steam
baths the assimilation of nitrogen generally decreased on an average ^ per cent.
The metabolism of nitrogen also decreased 1 to 15 per cent, or an average 8 per cent.
In the first and second experiments (Nos. 1186-1191) the income of nitrogen in the
second period remained the same as in the first, but was increased 5 per cent in the
third period. In the third, fourth, and fifth experiments (Nos. 1192-1200) the income
of nitrogen in the second period was 5 per cent less, and in the third period 19 per
cent less than in the first period. In all the experiments the outgo of nitrogen in tho
urine in the second period as compared with the first period decreased from 6 to 13
per cent. The amount of nitrogen in the urine is directly dependent upon the
intensity of metabolism and the amounts of nitrogen consumed and assimilated.
In the second period the ratio of nitrogen of urea to total nitrogen of urine
increased on an average 2.4 per cent. Therefore the conclusion seems warranted
that under the influence of steam baths the oxidation of protein is rendered more
complete. The ratio of nitrogen of urea to total nitrogen of urine also increased in
the third period on an average of 2.2 per cent.
The effects produced by steam baths on the subject of Nos. 1189-1191 diff^ered in
most respects from the others. This is explained by the fact that the subject was
not in normal health.
Briefly, it may be said that under the influence of Russian steam baths the assimi-
lation of protein and the metabolism of nitrogen decreased and the assimilation of
fats increased. Although the latter point was discussed at length by the author it
is not taken up in detail in the present discussion.
Nos. 1201-1218 were made in St. Petersburg in 1888 by Gopadze and Vatsadze.
The object was to study the physiological efl'ect of cold, thermally indifferent, hot,
and Scotch douches on healthy man.
The subjects were 2 healthy soldiers. The experiments lasted 27 days and were
divided into nine periods of 3 days each, a normal period alternating with a bath
period. In the second period thermally indifferent douches (33° C.) were applied
daily; in the fourth period cold douches (15° C), in the sixth period hot douches
(40° C), and in the seventh period Scotch douches (varying from 45° to 15° and from
15° to 45° C). The duration of the douche baths was 4 minutes in every case. In
the application of the Scotch douche the bath began and ended with h(Jt water, and
in all nine changes of temperature from hot to cold and from cold to hot were made.
The pressure of the water of the thermally indifferent and hot douches was 1 atmos-
phere, of the cold 1^, and of the Scotch 1 to 1^. Part of the water used in these
experiments came from a spring with scarcely any mineral properties and part from
a well. The douches Avere so arranged that all the body was subjected to the action
of lateral streams and at the same time a shower fell upon the head and shoulders.
The food consisted of a mixed diet. The nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces was
determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin method.
The authoi-'s summary of results bearing on metabolism and assimilation is as follows :
The metabolism of nitrogen increased in both subjects under the influence of
douches, the increase being greatest with the Scotch douche, followed by the cold,
the hot, and the thermally indifferent douches in the order mentioned. In the
period immediately following that Avith douches the increase in the metabolism of
nitrogen was more or less constant. The assimilation of nitrogen improved under
the influence of the douches from 1.1 to 3 per cent.
BATHS AND ENEMAS. 163
No8. 1219-1257 were made by Aristov in St. Petersburg in 1889. The object was
to study the assimilation of protein when enemas were given. The snbjects were
soldiers, either in active service or retired. Several of them were suffering from
chronic constipation ; the others were in normal health. Fourteen experiments were
made, 11 of which were divided into three periods each; a period with enemas, pre-
ceded and followed by a period under normal conditions. In 3 experiments the last
period was omitted.
The food consisted of a simple mixed diet. The nitrogen in the food^ urine, and
feces was determined by the Kjeldahl- Borodin method.
The enemas were given twice a day, at 8 a. m. and 6 p. m., and a liter of water was
used each time.
The following conclusions were reached : During the enema period the assimila-
tion of nitrogen by the subjects affected with constipation was less than during the
first period, but became normal during the third period.
The assimilation of nitrogen by the subjects in normal health usually increased
during the enema period as compared with the normal periods. During the third
period it decreased in 4 cases and increased in 2 cases.
During the enema period the excretion of urea increased in all the subjects, and
e8i>ecially those affected with constipation.
Nos. 1258-1272 were made by Zavadski in St. Petersburg in 1890. The object was
to study the influence of tepid baths on the metabolism and assimilation of nitrogen
in healthy persons. The subjects were healthy young men. Five experiments were
made, each being divided into three periods of four days. During the second period
of all the experiments tepid baths were taken. In the first three experiments one-
half-hour bath of 35° C. was taken daily, and in the others two baths were taken
daily. Immediately on leaving the bath a sheet was thrown over the subject to dry
him, but all rubbing was avoided.
The food consisted of bread, meat, bouillon, and tea. The nitrogen of the food,
arine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin method.
The author's conclusions were as follows: Under the influence of tepid baths the
assimilation of the nitrogenous substances of the food by healthy men increases,
the weight of the body increases, and the metabolism of nitrogen increases qualita-
tively as well as quantitatively. The influence of tepid baths on the losses through
the skin and lungs and on the excretion of urine is not proportional, i. e., when the
losses by the skin and lungs increase the quantity of urine excreted diminishes, and
vice versa.
Nos. 1273-1287 were made by Nechayev in St. Petersburg in 1890. The object was
to study the influence of salt baths on the metabolism and assimilation of nitrogen
in healthy subjects. Five experiments are described, each of 12 days' duration,
divided into three equal periods. Salt baths were taken during the second period.
The baths were prepared by adding sufficient salt to 198 liters of water at 35° C. to
make a 1 per cent solution. The subjects remained in the bath about half an hour
and dried themselves lightly without rinsing ofl'the salt water. The food consisted
of a mixed diet. The nitrogen in the food, urine, and feces was determined by the
Kjeldahl-Borodin method.
The following conclusions were reached : The salt baths increased the assimilation
of nitrogen in the second period, aud in the third period the increase became still
more pronounced. The qualitative and quantitative metabolism of nitrogen was
increased, and in most cases the quantitative increase was greater in the third than
ill the seccmd period. In the majority of cases the subjects decreased in weight.
Nos. 1288-1311 were made by Voskresenski at St. Petersburg in 1891. The object
was to study the influence of aromatic baths on the metabolism and assimilation of
nitrogen in healthy persons. Eight experiments Avith healthy men are described.
Each experiment was divided into three periods of 4 days each. During the second
period aromatic baths were taken. The bath was prepared bj^ pouring warm water
(35° C.) over 358 grams of equal parts of camomile flowers, lavender flowers, mint
leaves, rosemary leaves^ snake root, and calamus root.
164 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
These aromatic sabstances were placed iu a bag, which remained in the water daring
the bath, being frequently squeezed. In Nos. 1300-1311 the surface of the water was
covered with linseed oil to prevent the inhalation of the aromatic vapor. This was
done in order to compare the effect of the aromatic substances when absorbed through
the skin and when the vapor was also inhaled.
The food consisted of a mixed diet. The nitrogen in the food, urine, and feces was
determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin method.
The following conclusions were reached: When the surface of the water was not
covered with oil the aromatic bath increased the assimilation of nitrogen during the
bath period, and in most cases for some time afterwards. During the bath period the
metabolism of nitrogen was lowered, but became practically normal in the period
after the bath. The qualitative metabolism of nitrogen was improved; that is, the
ratio of the nitrogen uf the incompletely oxidized substances of the urine to that of
nitrogen of urea diminished.
When the surface of the water was covered with oil, aromatic baths diminished the
assimilation of nitrogen, the metabolism of nitrogen was increased, and the increase
was observed in the period after the bath. The qualitative metabolism of nitrogen
was improved.
Nos. 1312-1329 were ma<le by Velitchkine in St. Petersburg in 1891. The object
was to studv the influence of hot-air baths on the metabolism and assimilation of
nitrogen and on the losses through the skin and lungs of healthy subjects. Six
experiments are described. They were each of 15 days' duration, divided into three
equal periods. In the second period hot-air baths were taken. The apparatus for
the hot-air bath consisted of a wooden box 132 centimeters high, 70.4 centimeters
wide, and 101.2 centimeters lonj?. Its capacity was about 1 cubic meter. There was
an opening iu the cover for the liead of the subject. The walls of the box were thick
and lined with sheet iron. Inside the box there was a seat. The bath was heated
by means of alcohol lamps. Wlien the subject first entered the bath the temperature
was increased to 40° C. and kept at that temperature for about 20 to 25 minutes and
then increased. As long as the temperature remained under 60° C. the subjects expe-
rienced agreeable sensations and the pulse gradually became more rapid. At 60^
the beating of the heart became more violent, the temples began to throb, perspira-
tion was very profuse, and breathing became labored. At 1(P respiration became
frequent and the subjects experienced a sensation of shortness of breath and lack of
air. They were thirsty and their mouths were dry. Small pieces of ice were taken
for quenching the thirst. The face became red, the head perspired freely, and a ring-
ing in the ears was noticed. Finally, when the temperature reached 80^, some of the
subjects experienced slight nausea and vertigo.
The food consisted of a simple mixed diet. The nitrogen in the food, urine, and
feces was determined by the Kjeldahl- Borodin method.
The author draws the following conclusions : The assimilation of nitrogen was
greater in the bath period than in the first period. During the third period the
assimilation of nitrogen was also greater than in the first period, although less than
during the second. The metabolism of nitrogen increased in the bath period in all
cases and decreased in the third period in 4 cases. The amount of urea excreted
increased during the bath period, and the increase was still observed in the third
period. During the bath period the quantity of feces diminished in 5 cases.
Nos. 1330-1345. An experiment was made by Kostlin at the medical institute of
the University at Halle in 1892 to study the influence of warm salt baths on the
metabolism of protein. This is included in Nos. 1330-1338. The observer himself
was the subject. The food consisted of a mixed diet. A considerable quantity of
meat was purchased at a time and the connective tissue, etc., removed as far as pos-
sible. It is not stated that the composition of the food Avas determined. The infer-
ence is that it was calculated. The nitrogen in the urine was determined by the
Kjeldahl method. The nitrogen in the feces was added by the compilers from the
average of Makovetski^s experiments (Nos. 1186-1200), in which the food consisted of
B mixed diet and contained about the same amount of nitrogen.
BATHS AND ENEMAS. 165
The experiment lasted 23 days. On several days warm salt batlis (34-35° C.) were
taken. The snbject remained in the hath an hoar or an hour and a quarter. The
hath was prepared by adding sufficient '^Stassfurt hath salf to make a 4 per cent
Bolntion.
Control experiments (Nos. 1339-1345) are reported by the author which were made
by Klingmuller and Peiser in which they themselves were the subjects. In Peiser^s
experiment the amount of nitrogen in the food is not stated and the results are not
included in the table. The inference is that it was the same as in the other tests.
On two days before the salt bath was taken 14.4 grams of nitrogen was excreted
in the urine, and on the day the bath was taken only 13.1 grams.
From all these experiments the conclusion was reached that warm salt baths
diminished the excretion of nitrogen in the urine.
Nos. 1346-1354 were made by Formanek at the Uniyersity of Prague in 1892 ( ?)
to determine whethi r warm baths had any influence on the metabolism of nitrogen.
The experiments were of 12 to 14 days^ duration, and each was divided into three
periods. In the second period warm baths were taken. The baths were of several
kinds; for instance, in No. 1347 the subject took an air bath (81° C.) of 20 minutes'
duration, followed by a steam bath (51° C.) of 15 minutes' duration and a shower
bath with lukewarm water. The subjects were the investigator and 2 other young
medical students. The food was a comparatively simple mixed diet which included
meat, Emmenthaler cheese, bread, etc. The nitrogen in food, urine, and feces was
determined.
The conclusion was reached that the continued use of warm baths increased the
amount of metabolized nitrogen. This effect was not noticed unless the baths were
taken more than 1 day.
Nos. 1355-1357 and Nos. 1702-1714, Table 17, were made by Troitsky in 1892 at the
military hospital located at the ''moor baths" of Ssaki in the Crimea. The object
was to study the influence of the moor baths upon metabolism. Ssaki is a small
Tartar village a short distance from the towns of Eupatoria and Simferopol. A por-
tion of the Black Sea was cut oif from the rest by the formation of a sand bar. The
salt water in the small lake thus formed became more concentrated, and dissolved
organic and inorganic substances from the soil. These in some cases united with the
salts present in the water and formed new chemical compounds. The result is a
** brine*' (See^'app)^ which is of very difl'erent composition from the sea water. A
moor has gradually formed in this salt lake. The soil of the moor when wet is black
and sticky, having the appearance of shoemakers' wax. When dry, however, it looks
like the other soil of the region. The following analyses of the moor water and soil
were made by Professor Fleck, of Dresden, in 1876 :
Composition of Ssaki moor water.
(Specific gravity at 18° C.^1.191.)
[In 1,000 grams water.]
Grams.
Sodium 61.586
Magnesium 14.881
Chlorin 130.725
Biomin - 0. 146
Sulphuric acid 10.920
Hydrogen sulphid 0. 004
Organic matter 0. 697
Sulphur, potassium, and lithium Traces.
In 1,000 grams of water there were 221.47 grams of dry matter made up of sodium
cblorid 156.64 grams, magnesium chlorid 47.96 grams, magnesium bromid 0.17 gram,
magnesiam sulphid 14.02 grams, and calcium sulphid 2.68 grams.
i66 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
The composition of the total soil and the soluble and insoluble portions were as
follows :
Composition of Ssaki moor soil.
Total soil : Per cent.
Water ' 26.64
Silica 31.30
Aluminum oxid 13. 14
Calcium 8.81
Magnesium 0. 64
Sodium 1.98
Iron 1.13
Chlorin 3.06
Carbon dioxid. 3. 90
Sulphuric acid 5. 10
• Sulphur 1.23
Soluble portion :
Calcium sulphid 6. 50
Magnesium sulphid 1. 92
Sodium chlorid 5. 05
Water 24.64
Hydrogen sulphid 0. 001
Insoluble portion :
Aluminum silicate 24. 64
Calcium silicate 3. 04
Silica 17.92
Calcium carbonate 8. 81
Iron sulphid 0. 14
Ferric oxid 1. 49
Sulphur 1.18
Organic matter 2. 67
Both the soil and the water are used for the so-called baths. Platforms are built
on the moor, and on these the soil is heaped up after it has been carefully freed from
stones, shells, etc. The soil is saturated with the salt water and formed into a
smooth oval '*bed'' 3 or 4 inches thick. This is done early in the morning. When
the weather is favorable the snn will warm the upper part of the soil to about 51'^ C.
The lower layers of soil are 5° or 6° cooler. When the upper surface has a tempera-
ture of 47-50° C. the '* bath'' is ready for use. If, however, the lower layers of soil
are only about 3^ cooler than the upper layers the "bath" can not be used. The
patient lies down with his arms extended on this bed of moor soil and is covered up
to the neck with the warm earth, the head being protected from the sun. The
patient perspires freely, and remains covered with the earth for 15 to 25 minutes.
The earth is then removed, the patient taken to the bath house and bathed in the
moor water or brine which has been warmed to about 38°, and then with fresh water
of the same temperature. The patient is then thoroughly rubbed down, and remains
in his room 1 to 3 hours, perspiring freely. Tea and water are taken to quench the
thirst. Immediately after the bath the temperature of the body often rises to about
50°. In an hour or two it becomes normal, the patient feels very well, and lias a
good appetite. The usual custom is to take a bath for two days, then omit it for
one day. If they are taken too often the patients frequently suffer from sleepless-
ness, headache, and loss of appetite. The course of baths lasts about 6 weeks, the
patient receiving 10 to 20 baths. The above are called '* natural" or " earth" baths.
In bad weather, or under some other conditions, another sort of bath is given
which is not " full strength." A large tub is filled with moor soil and hot moor brine.
This is mixed until it has the consistency of thin porridge. When it has cooled to
BATHS AND ENEMAS. 167
about 41-42^ the patieot is immersed to the Deck in the bath and remains 10 to 20
minutes. The patient is then bathed in brine, etc., as in the '^ natural '^ baths.
Sometimes baths are taken in the salt water alone.
The baths of Ssaki are recommended for rheumatism of all kinds, tertiary sy])hiliB,
diseases of the bones and periosteum, lameuess, and diseases of the uterus.
The subjects of Troitsky's experiments were soldiers and inmates of the Military
Hos]>ital. They were all suffering from various diseases, except the subject of Nos.
1355-1357, who was in normal health. His diet consisted of bread, rice, oil, and
tea or water. He remained in his room during the experiment and slept a consider-
able x)ortion of the time. The nitrogen excretion was greater than the amount con-
sumed, but was diminished by the baths. The food of the other subjects consisted
of bread, meat, milk, butter, etc. The nitrogen in the food, urine, and feces was
determined, and the amount in the perspiration in several cases was calculated.
The diseased subjects were benefited by the baths. In no case was nitrogen equi-
librium reached. The excreted nitrogen was always less than the amount consumed.
The conclusion was reached that the baths diminished the excretion of nitrogen.
This would indicate that the metabolism of nitrogen was lowered. After the baths
it increased. At the same time that the nitrogen metabolism decreased the assimi-
lation of nitrogen of the food increased.
Nos. 1358-1864 were made by Formanek at the University of Prague in 1893 to
investigate the influence of cold baths on the excretion of nitrogen and uric acid.
The subject was a medical student. The food consisted of sausage, cheese, bread,
rice, etc., and a little tea which was left out of account in determining the amount
of nitrogen consumed. Water and beer were also used as beverages. The nitrogen
in food, urine, and feces was determined by the Ludwig method (with Horbaczew-
ski's modification). The uric acid in the urine was determined by the Salkowski-
Ludwig method. A preliminary period of 7 days (no analyses made) was followed
by a normal period without baths. Then on 1 day a cold bath (15^ C.) lasting ^
hour was taken. A second normal period was followed by a bath period. Two
baths of about ^ hour*8 duration and about 15° C. temperature were taken daily. A
third normal period was followed by a bath period. On one day 1 and on the other
2 baths of about the same duration and temperature as in the other cases were
taken. The experiment closed with a normal period. The temperature of the sub-
ject was taken three times daily and a number of times at short intervals after each
bath. The normal temperature was about 37° C. It was lower than this immedi-
ately after a bath, but became normal after a few hours. The subject did not
become tired of the diet aud gained a little in weight during tbe experiment. One
cold bath did not change the excretion of nitrogen materially. When several baths
were taken the excretion of nitrogen in the urine was noticeably increased. The
feces also contained more nitrogen, showing that the protein was not as well digested
as during a normal period. The baths increased the excretion of uric acid a little
and the effect was noticeable for several days.
Nos. 1365-1371 were made by Topp at Halle in 1893 to study the influence of hot
baths. The observer himself was the subject. The author's age and weight are not
recorded. He states, however, that during the experiments his weight remained
practically unchanged. The food consisted of a simple mixed diet, which was fol-
lowed for 15 days before the experiment proper began. It is not stated that the
food was analyzed. The nitrogen in the urine was determined by tbe Kjeldahl
method. The subject was in nitrogen equilibrium at the beginning of the experi-
ment, and practically the same amounts of nitrogen were excreted on each of the
days on which no baths were taken. The nitrogen in tlie feces was not determined.
In adding the experiments to the present compilation the figures were supplied by the
compilers. The value, which is unusually low, Avas selected because, as previously
stated, the subject remained in nitrogen equilibrium while his weight remained
unchanged. On several days hot baths of from 15 to 45 minutes' duration were taken.
An interval of several days elapsed between Nos, 1368 and 1370. On the days on
168 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
which hot baths were taken somewhat more nitrogen was excreted in the urine.
This effect was noticed, though less markedly, on the succeeding day.
The author concludes that the artificial raising of the body temperature causes an
increased breaking down of protein. The experiments of several other investigators
are quoted in detail, and the general subject of hot baths is discussed at length.
Nos. 1372-1395 were made by Bezrodnov at St. Petersburg in 1896. The object was
to investigate the influence of artificial sand baths on the metabolism and assimila-
tion of nitrogen and on the quantity of neutral sulphur excreted in the urine by
healthy subjects. Eight experiments of 12 days' duration were made. They were
divided in three periods of 4 days each. The sand baths were taken during the sec-
ond period. They were prepared by covering a mattress with a layer of hot sand
(60^-70° C.) several inches deep. The sand was covered with blankets and a sheet.
The subjects were placed on the bed and covered with blankets, except the head, and
bags of hot sand were placed at the feet. The treatment lasted from 30 to 40 min-
utes. The subjects were then placed on an ordinary bed and kept covered until they
ceased to perspire.
The food consisted of a mixed diet. The nitrogen in the food, urhie, and feces
was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin method.
The following conclusions were reached: Artificial sand baths diminished the
assimilation of protein during the period in which the baths were taken. In the
succeeding period the assimilation became normal. The qualitative metabolism of
nitrogen improved and the improvement was noticeable in the period following the
sand baths. The relative quantity of neutral sulphur in the urine was diminished;
that is, the process of oxidation improved. Generally speaking, the subjects folt
better when sand baths were taken.
EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE THE INFLUENCE OF PREGNANCY AND
CHILDBIRTH.
In Table 13 are included 40 tests with women in which the influence
of pregnancy and childbirth on the metabolism and excretion of nitro-
gen was determined.
An examination of the literature shows that very few such experi-
ments have been carried on. During pregnancy and lactation unusual
demands are made on the parent organism to provide for the growth
and nourishment of the foetus. It is an important question to deter-
mine whether the parent organism requires less material for its own
needs, devoting the remainder of its normal supply to the young organ-
ism, or whether an iucreased income is required; that is, in brief,
whether the foetus is provided with nourishment at the expense of the
parent organism or whether the extra material must be supplied from
outside. A considerable number of experiments during the period
of lactation have been made with cows and goats: that is, this work
has usually been carried on in connection with feeding experiments
or in the study of the economic production of milk (Table 27, ^os.
2307-2325, and Table 32, Kos. 3036-3068). A few experiments with
dogs on the influence of various phases of sexual life on metabolism
are included in Table 28 (Kos. 2572-2581), and in Table 29 (Nos. 2970-
2972); and with rabbits in Table 34 (Nos. 3272-3287).
PREQNi.NCT AND CHILDBIRTH.
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172 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
No8. 1396-1435 were made by Zaehajewsky at Kasao, Russia, in 1890-91. The
object was to investigate the metabolism of nitrogen during chihlbirth and on the
days preceding and immediately following it. The subjects were 9 patients in Pro-
fessor Fermanoff's hospital for obstetrics. The analytical work was done in Profes-
sor Techerbakoff 's laboratory. The diet was simple, consisting of meat, b^ead, milk,
tea, and sometimes a little butter. Each article was weighed or measured. Gener-
ally the food was especially prepared for these experiments. The meat was cooked
in butter or stewed. The bread was the so-called French bread (probably white
bread). The milk was boiled. The food, urine, and feces were analyzed. Nos.
1396-1404 are the experiments made during pregnancy and Nos. 1405-1435 those
during and after confinement. In Nos. 1405-1427 the milk secreted and the lochial
discharges were also analyzed. With the subjects of Nos. 1396-1398 this was the
first confinement. In all except two cases there was a gain of nitrogen.
In the author's opinion the subjects pregnant for the first time did not assimilate
the nitrogen of the food as well as those who had been pregnant more than once.
The latter also retain more nitrogen in the organism.
The eff'ect of the frequency of i)regnancy on the amount and composition of the
urine is also discussed During confinement there was in every case a considerable
loss of nitrogen. This was gradually made good, and after a longer or a shorter time
the nitrogen metabolism again became normal — that is, the subjects were in nitrogen
equilibrium. Varying quantities of food were consumed by the different subjects,
and in the author's opinion it is not possible to specify the proper amount of nitrogen
for the dietary of patients during confinement. The dietary should be abundant and
consist of foods easily assimilated. The amount of nitrogen excreted in the milk (8
to 9 per cent of the total nitrogen assimilated) was not large compared with that
excreted in the urine. The amount of redncing substances in the urine was deter-
mined. This was found to be considerable, and in the author's opinion consisted of
milk sugar. Many other questions are discussed in detail from a medical standpoint.
The amount of nitrogen excreted in the perspiration has been a matter of consid-
erable discussion. It is usually considered to bo so small that it is left out of
account in most experiments on metabolism.
Zaehajewsky quotes the following experiment made by Jefdokinoff. The subjects
were men who were inclosed in rubber bags. This may have increased the amount
of perspiration. Analysis showed that nitrogen formed 0.044 per cent of the total.
Oddi and Yicarelli ' have published results of experiments with rats in which the
influence of gestation on the respiratory quotient was studied. The conclusion was
reached that gestation is characterized by an increased combustion of carbohydrates
in the body while the nitrogenous material is used for the nutrition and develop-
ment of the fnetus.
EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE THE INFLUENCE OF MENSTRUATION.
In Table 14 are included 11 tests with women in which the metabo-
lism and excretion of nitrogen during menstruation was investigated.
The number of experiments in this and in the preceding section is
limited. The questions investigated in the two sections are closely
connected and might be included under the general head of influence
of sexual life on metabolism. Tests with dogs similar to those in this
table are found in Table 29 (Nos. 2964-2969).
lArch. Ital. Biol., 15 (1891), p. 367.
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174 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
Nos. 1436-1446 were made by Schrader at the Charity Hospital in Berlin in 1891-92
to stady the effect of meDstruation on the metabolism of nitrogen. The subjects
were women who were convalescing from rheumatism. The sexual organs were
normal in every case. The food was a simple mixed diet consisting of meat; bread,
soup, rice, etc. The food was analyzed and the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and
sodium chlorid in the urine, and the nitrogen, and in some cases the fat in the feces,
were determined.
On the day after (No. 1437) the food contained 11.4 grams of nitrogen and the urine
9.8 grams. The feces were not analyzed. Assuming that they contained 0.7 gram
of nitrogen (the same value as on the preceding day) there was a gain of 0.9 gram of
nitrogen. In every case except one the excretion of nitrogen in the urine aod feces
was diminished during menstruation.
The subject is discussed at considerable length.
An experiment on the influence of menstruation on metabolism was reported by
Rabuteau,' although the balance of income and outgo was not determined. The
subject was a young woman. The experiment covered 19 days, including 3 days
before and 11 after the menstrual period. The author states that the daily diet was
uniform during the whole test, although the amount and composition of the food
are not recorded. The quantity of urine excreted daily, the urea content, and the
body temperature were recorded. It is not stated that the feces were collected or
analyzed. On an average somewhat less urine was excreted during the menstrual
period than at other times. The average amount of nitrogen (calculated from the
urea) excreted in the urine per day during the menstrual period was 7.8 grams;
before and after this period, 9.2 aod 8.5 grams, respectively. In the author's
opinion the excretion of urea is diminished by menstruation. This is in accord
with results which he - obtained in an earlier experiment. The author believes that
during the menstrual period the excretion of carbon dioxid was also diminished.
This was contrary to the opinion of Andral and Gavarret,^ who determined the
amount of carbon dioxid excreted by men and women at various periods from youth
to old age."*
EXPERIMENTS ON THE INFLUENCE OF COPIOUS AND DIMINISHED
WATER DRINKING.
In Table 15 are included 12 experiments with men in which copious
amounts of water were drunk, and 27 experiments with men in which
small amounts of water were consumed. The object of the experiments
was to investigate the influence of copious and diminished water drink-
ing on metabolism and the excretion of nitrogen. The consumption of
limited amounts of water is recommended by Oertel for the relief of
corpulency.
Similar experimeuts are included in Table 17 (Nos. 1618-1633).
1 Gaz. hebd. Med. et Chirurg., 7 (1870), p. 402.
2 Compt. Rend. Soc. Biol., 5. ser., 2 (1870), p. 75.
3 Aun. Chim. et Phys., 3. ser., 7 (1813), p. 129.
'*Sond^n and Tigerstedt have recently reported a large number of experiments (1)
on the total excretion of carbon dioxid by men and women of different ages; (2) on
the excretion of carbon dioxid and nitrogen by man at different hours in the day;
(3) on the influence of muscular work on carbon dioxid excretion, and (4) on the
total metabolism of individaals of different ages. The influence of various phases
of sexual life was not, however, tlio subject of a special study. (Skand. Arch.
Physiol., 6 (1895), p. 1; Experiment Station Record, 8, p. 242.)
COPIOUS AND DIMINISHED WATER DEINKING.
175
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COMPRESSED AIR. 177
No8. 1447-1458 were made by Ter-Grigorianz in St. Petersburg in 1886. The object
was to investigate the influence of drinking large quantities of water on the metab'
olism and assimilation of nitrogen in healthy subjects. Four experiments of 21
days' duration were made with healthy subjects. The experiments were divided in
three periods of 7 days each. In the first period the subjects consumed no water
and were limited to known quantities of liquids in the form of tea, milk, and soup.
In the second period they were given 150 cubic centimeters of water (of room temper-
ature) 8 times per day. In the third period the quantity of water consumed was
doubled.
The food consisted of white bread, beef tea, roast meat, milk, potatoes, and tea.
The diet was uniform throughout the experiments. The nitrogen in the food, urine,
and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl method. The amount of urine, its spe-
cific gravity, and nitrogen content were determined every 12 hours. The urine
excreted from 8 o'clock in the morning to 8 o'clock in the evening was taken as
representing the day urine; and the remainder, from 8 o'clock at night until 8 o'clock
in the morning, as representing the night urine. The feces were separated with
blackberries, and the nitrogen content was determined at each defecation. During
the whole time of the experiments the subjects followed their ordinary occupations.
The following conclusions were reached : When large quantities of water were
consumed, the metabolism of nitrogen increased and in general the assimilation of
nitrogen decreased, although there were some exceptions; the amount of urine was
increased and the nitrogen content of the day urine was higher than that of the
night urine; the weight of the subjects also increased. (See also No. 878, Table 11.)
Nos. 1459-1476 were made by Karchagin in St. Petersburg in 1889. The object was
to investigate the influence of diminished drinking of water on the assimilation and
metabolism of nitrogen in healthy persons. The subjects were 6 healthy medical
students, 20 to 25 years old. Each experiment was divided into three periods of 5
days each. The food consisted of boiled meat, beef tea, plum butter, milk, white
bread, tea, and water. Some of the subjects did not take milk, and some took,
besides the food indicated, red bilberry jelly. The periods differed only in the quan-
tities of water drunk. In the first and third periods a normal quantity was allowed,
and in the second a limited qaantity. In some of the food materials (bread, boiled
meat, and red bilberry jelly), the author determined the percentage of water, and in
the others it was calculated from Konig's figures. The nitrogen of the food, urine,
and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl- Borodin method, and the uric acid in the
urine by Hay craft's method.
The following conclusions were reached : When the quantities of water consumed
were less than the normal amount, the weight of the body diminished considerably ;
the quantity of urine decreased and its specific gravity increased ; the assimilation
of nitrogen improved somewhat ; and the metabolism of nitrogen was lowered quali-
tatively and quantitatively, though inconsiderably. The subjects did not feel as
well as usual.
On returning to the normal quantities of water, the weight of the body increased,
though in some Cases the normal weight was not reached in 5 days. In some cases,
however, the weight increased beyond normal. The quantitative metabolism was
improved as compared with metabolism under normal conditions, while the qnali-
tative metabolism remained below normal. After a short time the subjects felt as
well as usual.
EXPERIMENTS IN WHICH THE SUBJECTS BREATHED COMPRESSED AIR.
In Table 16 are included 9 tests with men in which the subjects for a
part of the day lived in an atmosphere of more than normal pressure.
The other conditions were normal.
749_No. 45 12
' OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
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COMPRESSED AIR. 179
Nob. 1477-1485 were made by Shmitz in St. Petersburg in 1889. The object was to
inyestigate the influence of compressed air on the metabolism and assimilation of
nitrogen. Several caissons or air-tight chambers under water, used in building
a railroad bridge over the river Oufa in 1886 and 1887, were employed for these
experiments. The maximum and minimum pressure of air in the chambers was 1.8
to 1.5 atmospheres in addition to the prevailing barometric pressure. The subjects
were the author and two hospital servants. The food consisted of bread, meat, and
bouillon. Sometimes milk was consumed also. The nitrogen of the food, urine, and
feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin method. Each experiment lasted 3
weeks and was divided into three equal periods, the first and third under normal
conditions. During the second period the subjects remained in the caissons in the
compressed air 3 hours a day.
The author sums up the results of his experiments as follows : The metabolism of
nitrogen was lowered by remaining in an atmosphere of compressed air and increased
very markedly upon a return to normal conditions. The assimilation of nitrogen
improved slightly under the influence of compressed air (nearly 3 atmospheres). In
2 cases the appetite improved during the second period and also during the third
period. The weight of the body increased during the whole experiment with each
subject.
Another and more recent series of experiments by Schmitz ^ on the same subject
was received too late for insertion in full in this compilation. The subjects were a
man, a hospital servant, 36 years old, and 3 boys, each about 15 years old. The experi-
ment was divided into 3 periods of 6 or 7 days each. During the second period the
subjects spent 6 hours of each day in caissons used in the construction of a bridge
on the river Ishim. The air in the caissons was under pressure of 2^ atmospheres.
The nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin
method. In the author's opinion the results indicate that the metabolism and assim-
ilation of protein increased with increased atmospheric pressure and varied directly
with the amount of food consumed. The more complete assimilation of protein is
regarded aa an indication of the importance of atmospheric oxygen in the oxi-
dation processes of the body. The experiments are also discussed from a medical
standpoint.
In view of the limited number of experiments on this and closely related problems,
the following brief abstracts of work very recently published are given : von Terray*
made a number of experiments with a rabbit and a dog on the effect of variation in
the oxygen content of the air on metabolism. The nitrogen in the food, urine, and
feces was determined. Intermediate metabolic products in the urine, namely, lactic
and oxalic acids, were also studied. The inspired oxygen and expired carbon dioxid
were measured by means of a small respiration apparatus. In the author's opinion
within wide limits metabolism, as a whole, is not influenced by the composition of
the inspired air. In the experiment reported when the air contained 10.5 to 87 per
cent of oxygen no effect on the mechanical processes of respiration or the excretion
of nitrogen and carbon dioxid was observed. Below or above these limits effects of
varying intensity were noticed. When the oxygen content of the air was less than
10.5 per cent the tissues apparently did not receive the necessary amount of oxygen,
and symptoms of asphyxia occurred. The amount of oxygen assimilated diminished
and the carbon dioxid excretion and the respiratory quotient increased, while the
urine contained more nitrogen than was consumed in the food and the amount of
intermediate metabolic products in it increased.
The influence of rarefied air, i. e., diminished atmospheric pressure, was studied
by Lewinstein^*. The experiments were made with rabbits. The subjects died in
^ The influence of increased atmospheric pressure on the metabolism and assimila-
tion of nitrogen. Inaug. Diss. (Russian), St. Petersburg, 1895.
apfliiger's Arch., 65 (1897), p. 393.
3Ibid., p. 278.
180 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
from 2 to 3 days when confined in an atmosphere of 300 to 400 millimeters pressure.
This corresponds to an altitude of 5,000 to 7,000 meters. The rabbits were dissected
and changes in the organs and tissues noted.
The influence of rarefied air and the air of high altitudes on the metabolism of
man was studied by A. Loewy, J. Loewy, and L. Zuntz.' Experiments in which the
respiratory quotient was determined were made in Berlin. The subjects were con-
fined in a small chamber with an atmospheric pressure less than normal. They
were made under various conditions of rest and work. The work was measured by
a specially constructed apparatus. The conclusion was reached that when muscular
work was performed the diminished atmospheric pressure did not change the amount
of oxygen consumed from the air. When no work was performed the respiratory
quotient was unaffected by diminished pressure. A number of experiments in which
the respiratory (quotient was determined were al3o made under various conditions of
rest and work with three subjects on Monta Rosa in the Alps, and the results com-
pared with the experiments made in Berlin. In the author's opinion the experi-
ments showed that the air of high regions had a different effect from rarefied air
when the diminished pressure is brought about by mechanical means. Rarefied air
causes little if any change in metabolism during rest or work. The air of high
regions, however, increases the general metabolism. The experiments are discussed
at length.
Pfliiger's Arch., G6 (1897), p. 477.
DISEASED SUBJECTS.
The second main group includes the experiments with man in which
the subjects were suffering from some disease. These experiments
number about 750, or one-third of the entire number with man which
Lave been collected.
The term "disease" is used in a restricted sense to indicate a patho-
logical condition of organs, tissues, or functions of the body, and not
those conditions which are simply abnormal or the result of accident.
In general the experiments have been so subdivided in the compila-
tion that those in which the subjects were suffering from the Stime dis-
ease form classes by themselves. In several instances, liowever, when
the same observer made experiments with subjects with different dis-
eases all have been included in the group to which the greatest number
belonged. Experiments made with normal subjects for purposes of
comparison have also been included in a number of cases.
In classifying the diseases. Osier's Principles and Practice of Medi-
cine has been followed in the main. The largest class includes tlie
experiments with specific infectious diseases. The classes including
constitutional diseases and diseases of the kidneys are next in point of
numbers.
In the greater number of the experiments with diseased subjects the
object was to study the influence of the disease on metabolism, usually
the metabolism of nitrogen. In a few instances the effect on metab-
olism of the special medical treatment followed was studied.
The experiments with diseased subjects are interesting in themselves.
They are in many cases of the utmost value in determining what foods
are useful and what harmful in different pathological conditions. As
an instance may be cited the investigations carried on to learn the effect
of protein, fat, and carbohydrates in different combinations on the treat-
ment of diabetes. The subject as a whole is perhaps the most important
in the study of invalid dietetics. Experiments under pathological con-
ditions are also of use in drawing deductions concerning nonpathologi-
cal conditions. For instance, diseased subjects are often in a condition
of more or less complete fasting. By comparing the phenomena of
metabolism under such conditions with those of a healthy subject fast-
ing and fed it is possible to draw deductions concerning metabolism
under the latter conditions.
EXPERIMENTS WITH SUBJECTS WITH SPECIFIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES.
In Table 17 are included 351 tests with men, 8 with women, and 14
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181
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SPECIFIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES.
207
208 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
No. 1486. See No. 1678.
No. 1487. This experiment and Nos. 1858, Table 18, and 2039 and 2040, Table 20,
were made by Rohmann at the Medical Institute of the University of Berlin in
1877-78. The object was to investigate the excretion of chlorids during fever, that
is, when the body temperature was higher than normal. The subject of No. 1487
was suffering from typhoid fever. The food consisted of meat, eggs, milk, etc.
The sodium chlorid was determined in the urine and feces and in all the food except
the meat ; that was calculated, using Yoit's value.
In addition to this test and those noted beyond the author studied the excretion
of sodium chlorid by a man in normal health. He himself was the subject. The
test covered 8 days. The daily diet consisted of bread, unsalted fat, nieat, and 5
grams of salt. Beer and water were consumed as beverages. On an average 9.5
grams of sodium chlorid were excreted daily in the urine and 0.05 gram in the feces.
A test with a female dog weighing about 31 kilograms is recorded. For a number
of days (until in nitrogen equilibrium) the subject consumed daily 100 grams of
ship biscuit, 100 grams of unsalted fat, 70 grams of condensed milk, 500 cubic
centimeters of water, and 2 grams of salt. The test proper lasted 7 days. In addi-
tion to the above diet, on 3 days the dog consumed daily 750 grams of meat. This
quantity of meat contained 0.9 gram of sodium chlorid. On an average the dog
excreted dally in the urine 2.7 grams of nitrogen.
From these experiments and those in the tables beyond the conclusion was
reached by the author that in acute fever the chlorids consumed are not excreted
in normal quantity in the urine.
Nos. 1488-1506 were made by Hoesslin in one of the Munich hospitals in 1877-78. At
this time Rubner was making his investigations on the digestibility of various articles-
of food by healthy men, and it seemed to the investigator, who was an assistant in the
hospital, tliat similar investigatiouH should be made with individuals who were ill.
The Hubjects were suffering from typhoid fever.
The food was very carefully prepared, and every precaution was taken in the col-
lection of the excreta. The food was analyzed in many cases. In some cases — for
instance, white of egg, yolk of ogg, and milk — the composition was estimated from
Konig's figures or some other reliable source. The feces were analyzed and the urea
in the urine was determined. No particular method of separating the feces wa« em-
ployed. In most cases the experiments with the same individual were continuous,
and the various articles of food were such that the feces could be separated with
considerable accuracy. The diet is expressed in terms of protein, fat, and carbohy-
drates.
In many of the experiments the subjects had more or less diarrhea. It was found
that even when the diarrhea was severe the dry matter excreted was not materially
increased. It was found that when the fever was moderate (38-40.5^ C. ) and the diar-
rhea also moderate the digestion and assimilation of protein, fat, and carbohydrates
were not much different from that of healthy individuals.
The questions whether protein, fat, or carbohydrates is best for a diet in fever, and
the inlluence of the consumption of food on high temperature in fever and its dura-
tion, are discussed at length.
Nos. 1507-1546 were made by Zasietski in St. Petersburg in 1881-82 (!) to stady
the influence of fever and antiix)yretics on the metabolism and assimilation of the
protein of milk. Fifteen experiments are described. Fourteen subjects were
patients with typhoid fever and one with simple recurrent fever. The treatment
for reducing the temi)erature consisted in 9 cases of cold baths, in 4 cases of quinin
hydrociilorate, and in 2 cases of sodium salicylate. The cold baths had a temper-
ature of 22.5^ C. in most cases and lasted 15 minutes. The subject sat in the bath
up to his neck, and water was ponred on the head. This treatment was foUowedfor
2 or 3 dayH, after which there was a period of 2 or 3 days without treatment. Dur-
ing the whole time the food consisted exclusively of milk and water. There were
two periods during tlie fever and a period of 2 or 3 days 16 to 35 days after the cessa-
t/on of the fever. The nitrogen of the milk and feces was determined by the Will-
SPECIFIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 209
Warren trapp method, and of the urine hy the Seegen method. The phosphates were
also determined in the urine. The uranium and sodium acetate method was followed.
The author summarizes his results as follows :
The metabolism of nitrogen and the excretion of phosphates iu the urine decreased
under the influence of cold baths and in the majority of cases, though in a less
degree, under the influence of quinin and sodium salicylate.
Quinin and sodium salicylate increased the quantity of urine in the majority of
cases and cold baths in all cases. Cold baths, quinin and sodium salicylate, also
improved the assimilation of the solids and the nitrogen of milk in all cases.
Antipyretics decreased the consumption of water in the majority of cases. Under
the influence of cold baths the loss of water through the skin and lungs usually
decreased.
During fever the assimilation of the solids and the nitrogen of the milk was not
so good as when there was no fever.
These experiments were also published by the author iu (German, ^ his name being
transliterated Sassetzky.
Nos. 1547-1563 were made by Khadgi in St. Petersburg in 1888. The object was
to study the metabolism and assimilation of nitrogen by typhoid-fever patients in
its qualitative and quantitative relations. Eight experiments are described, each
divided into two periods, (1 ) during the time of fever, and (2) during convalescence.
The duration of the periods varied in different cases. In No. 1557 the convalescent
period was omitted. The food consisted of milk and bread with or without meat
and broth. The nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces was determined by the
Kjeldahl-Borodin method, the urea by the Borodin method, and the uric acid by the
Hay craft method.
The author arrives at the following conclusions : In all cases the absolute quantity
of nitrogen in the urine was less in the first period than in the second. The quanti-
tative metabolism of nitrogen in the first period, judging from the ratio of the nitro-
gen excreted in the urine to that assimilated, wa« higher than in the second period.
In nearly every case the metabolism of the first period was inferior in quality to that
of the second, indicating that the nitrogenous decomposition products undergo more
complete oxidation during convalescence than during fc^ver. In the majority of cases
the assimilation was better in the second period than in the first. On an average
it may be represented in the second period by 87.5 per cent and in the first by 83.8
per cent.
The author published the results of a number of these experiments in (lerman.^
His name was transliterated Chadchi.
No. 1564. See Nos. 2219-2226, Table 24.
Nos. 1565-1583 were made by Diakonov in St. Petersburg in 1890. The object was
to investigate the influence of alcohol on the metabolism and assimilation of nitrogen
in subjects with typhoid fever. Seven experiments were made with subjects sufler-
ing from typhoid fever in some form. Five of the experiments were divided into
three periods of 4 days each. During the second period alcohol was taken with the
food. Two experiments consisted of only two periods, one with and one without
alcohol. Some of the subjects had never before used alcohol, while others had used
it occasionally. The food consisted of bread and milk. Each subject consumed dur-
ing the alcohol period the equivalent of 50 cubic centimeters absolute alcohol. It
was diluted to 40^ Tralles.
The following conclusions were reached : The temporary use of alcohol lowered
the assimilation of protein by the typhoid subjects, the efi'ect bein«^- greatest iu the
subjects not used to taking alcohol. It also lessened the appetite and increased the
quantity of feces. The relative and absolute quantities of protein broken down in
the organism were decreased. When the assimilation of nitrogen was slightly
diminished the metabolism of nitrogen was also diminished. Wlien the former was
• Virchow's Archiv., 94, p. 533. ^Virchow's Archiv., IHl, p. 'Mi,
749— No. 45 14
L
210 A DIOKST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMEHTS.
conaultrably iliminialied tbe latter wae iucreased. During; the nlcoliol jieriod t]
qiialitaTivB metabo]ifiui of nitnigeu was iiilerjor to tliat of tbe otlnfr perioifs, i. t
the qiiaDlity of incompli'tely osiilizcd deuompoaitiua producta in thu urine wl
iniTeHHed, tbe ijaantity of dHdo nus increased, aud tlio absulute and relative cleat
age uf protein waii decreased. The jreneral condition of the Hubjecte was iuiproTM
Nus. IStM-lGlT were made by Mutzkevii-h iu St, PetersbarR in 1890. The objei
was to investigate the influence of I'opioiia drinking of water on the aasiuiilatic
anil metabolism of nilrogeu iu typhoid patients. Eiglit nerii'R of Dxperinient^ m
(leacribed. They were from 16 to 20 days' duration, divided into from thiee to a]
periods. The Biibjects were Buffering i^'om ileo-typbuH. The trentmeut followed v)
that adapted to the Hymptoms aud was not modi tied for experimental pnrposee. Dal
ing the fever the subjects received two or throe baths ji day, aud in two casai w«
given tincture stropbantbiis. A mixed, diet 'wax consumed, nhich iuclnded Stokt
mixture.' Large (inantities of water (2,<)00 to 3,000 cubic oentimeterB) were em
suwed daily iu one or more perioda. The nitrogen ot* the food, urine, and fecra iri
deterniined by the Kjehiabl-Uorodin me[hod.
The author sums up kii ri^sults as follows: The tuisiinilatiuu of protmn iDcroasc
nnder the luflueuee of eopious driukinj; of water. The increase was most mark<
at tbe time of high temperature (iu tbo Bocond period). During convaleaence, hot
ev<-r, the assimilatiua of proteiu decreased. The metaboliBm of ultrof'Sn in thn
oases waa least during the [leriod of copious drinkiug and greatest in the followlii
period. Iu general, however, an increase of tbi* metaliolism was obserTuil. Tt
Bubjecta decreased iu weight. This decrease was more or less nutforni, the orgal
ieni apparently tending lo maintain its weight, <Jopioua water drinkiug does u|
neeni to have auy influence uu the temperature, pulse, or respiration. Under tl
influence of copious drinking the nuiouut of urine iucreased and its epeoifto
dimluished. Tliif occurrence of diarrhea dues not nut preclude copious drinking
Nos. 1618-1633 were made by Urnzdiuv' iu iHt. Feturaburg iu IKIffi, The object «j
a comparison of the iuflnence of copious and moderate water drinking ou the metll
olism and assimilation of nitrogen, on tlie blood pressure, and on excretions of tl
skin and luugs iu patients with acute fever. Kight luetabolistn experiments W
describeil. Each experiment lasted 10 days and was diiidod into 2 equal periodi
one of copiona aud one uf moderate water drinking. In 5 cases the period of moc
erate drinking preceded thiituf copious drinking; in 3 cafes the order was reversed,
The maxiuLum amount of water drunk during Che period of moderate drinking was
1.1,869 grams aud the minimum 5,725 grams; tbe maximum during the i>orind of
copious drinking was 18,001 grams and the minimum 10,S3S grams. The fond c ^
sisted of bread and milk. In several cases meat was eaten also. The nitrogen «l
the food, nriue, aud feces was determined by the Kj eld alil- Borodin method and ll
nitrogen of the ursa by the Borodin method.
The author briefly sums up tbe results of his experiments as follows: Copi^
drinking of hot or cold water iu febrile discaaes intensified tbe metabolism tl
nitrogen aud improved it qualitatively. It improved the assimilation of then,
gen and increased the arterial tension and the excretions of the skin and lungs.
In the opinion of the author it is ailvlsable to permit lever patients to drinkfl
much water as they desire. If, for any reason, the patient does not ask for water tlT
physleian sliould in one way or anothi'r euforce eopious drinking, withiu «
bounds.
Nos. Itj34-lt)46 wi'j-e maile by Gtainatohikuv in tit. Petersburg iu 1890. Tbe chief
object was tbe study of the metabolism of tbe mineral constituents of tbo orgiinifini
under the intluence of fever, .-^ix experiments are di'scribed; in 2 of these the
metabolism of nitrogen was also obnoi-ved. I'he food consisted of bread and milk,
and in some cases meat also.
' Agua (innamoni nimplicia, vinnm cognacium^ vit«Uuui ovi, tiuctura ralerisas,
SPECIFIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 211
The nitrogen iu food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin
method. The mineral salts and sulphuric and phosphoric acids were also deter-
mined.
The author draws the following conclusions : During the fever in all subjects an
increased excretion of potassium salts was observed ; the metabolism of sodium salts
was increased, but in less degree; the amount of calcium and magnesium salts in
the organism appeared to vary very little ; the metabolism of uitrogeu, sulphuric
and phosphoric acids increased, and the assimilation of nitrogen decreased.
Nos. 1646-1655 were made by.Gteisler in St. Petersburg in 1890, to study the influ-
ence of hot enemas on the metabolism and assimilation of nitrogen in subjects with
typhus abdominalis.
Five experiments are described, consisting of two periods of 4 days each. During
one period the patient was given daily an enema of 1 liter of water of 42-43^ C.
The food consisted of milk and bread. During both periods the subjects took tepid
baths of 35° C, and were given Stoke's mixture. The nitrogen of the food, urine,
and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin method. The urea of the urine
was estimated by Borodin's method.
The author sums up his results as follows : Under the influence of hot enemas the
assimilation of nitrogen was decreased, the metabolism of nitrogen was increased,
and the quantity of extractives in the urine was also slightly increased.
Nos. 1656-1671 were made by Puritz in St. Petersburg in 1890-1892 in Professor
Tschudnovski's laboratory. The object was to study the effect of abundant diet
in typhns abdominalis. As the investigator points out, Graves, in the years 1840-
1850, was the first to urge the necessity of a rational diet in fevers. Investigators
since that time have not agreed as to the amount and kind of food, i. e., pro
teiii, fat, or carbohydrates, necessary in such cases, though the opinion is almost
universal that considerable nourishment is required. The subjects were soldiers and
were all suffering from typhus abdominalis, though several experiments (Xos. 1666-
1671) were made after the fever had ceased. Few details of these are recorded.
Two sorts of diet suggested themselves to the author as ^' abundant:'^ (1) A diet
which contained protein enough to cover the entire nitrogen excretion, which is
increased in acute fever, and about the same amount of fat and carbohydrates as
woold be required by a healthy individual of the same weight as the subject; and
(2). a diet which contained large quantities of carbohydrates and fat and a normal
quantity of protein. In these experiments a diet of the first type was selected. It
consisted of meat, bread, milk, Stokers mixture, tea, coflee, port wine, etc. 'I he diet
contained about 180 grams of protein, 60 to 90 grams of fat, and about 300 grams of
carbohydrates. The food and drink were given often, but in small quantities. The
]iatient8 were also given two or three baths per day, but no drugs were prescribed.
The nitrogen in the food, urine, and feces was determined.^
For the sake of comparison, in experiments Nos. 1656-1659, the subjects received
insufficient nutriment. Their diet contained on an average 40 grams of protein, 10
to 20 grams of fat, and 100 to 150 grams of carbohydrates.
In the experiments during fever 79 to 82 per cent of the nitrogen consumed was
assimilated, and after the fever ceased 85.6 to 90.5 per cent. During fever the
nitrogen in the urine was much greater than the amount consumed. The conclusion
is reached that fever increases metabolism.
The following <?oiiclusions were also drawn:
When large quantities of liquid are consumed patients with typhus iibdomiu<alis
van digest very considerable quantities of protein, both during the fever and the
first days after it has ceased.
4n Noe. 1663, 1664, and 1670 the figures given by the author for loss of nitrogen
<:oald not be obtained from his published figures for consumed and excreted nitro-
Keu. There is probably an error in the printing or the statement of the data. The
•^gores in parentheses were computed by the compilers.
21^ A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPEBIMENTS.
Dnring; fever protelu iligeHtiou ienut quite »u i:om|ilele when the diet is abuni
as it is ^Theu tlit diet ia iueiifflcient. The ditfeivat periods of the dia«
little affect upou assimilatiaD. When Ihtt diet i« alitinduiit and licli
aniouat of urea in the niiao iiioreusef. With abiindiiut diet the amon
iiietabulized deereBBeB, although the iuti^nsity of the metahoiiaiu
abnndoiit nonrishmetit the dnily loss of weight aod of iiiCro^en is eligbtly dii
lahfld. With an almmliinco of food a,ud wuter tho quantity of
These eODilitlous, however, have no effect on the production of albumen ia the urii
Abundant Duuriahment ciLuttea no riae in terapetatuie.
Neitliev uumplicattoua, relapae, nor leugthening of the fever ijeciod was
when tho diet was abandaot.
The patientn were more comfortable and the urgana performed their fuuctit
better with un abundant diet, uud convaleacenoe was ahortei .
The article also contains many references to previoun work.
Nob. 1B72-1677 wore made by von Boeck in Munich in 186B. The obj.^ct of th»
experinienta wua to invextigate the ell'ect of mercury and iodida on metabolism in
anbjecta with ayphilis. Thi.' autijecta were a purter and a student. They were suf-
fering from syphilis in the priniary stage and were inmates of the city hospital.
The porter wax robust, but the stniieiit seemed poorly nonriahed and had been in
poor health for Home tiuie befoic hia pri'sent illneea. The diet followed in these
expei'inients was ver.v aimple, eouaiatiug of eggs, bread, butti-r, milk, moat extract,
and beer. The tbod waa prepared by von Boeok, and food, urine, and fecea were
analyiieil. lu Nob. 1672-1674 the aubjeot was treated with mercury in the form of
gray ointment iiud ptotlodid pilla. Ju No«. 167&-1B7T the aubjeot was tri'ated with a
10 per cent snlution of hydrlodic Hoid ( ~ l.lif grnma of iodlu per day).
The conoliiaiou is reached that in these experiments the drags used eseruised nu
luHuencc on the metabnlisni »f nitrogen.
Ko. 1678. This usperimi^nt uud No. 1486 were made by Renk in ISTT { f], and foroi
pnrt of an extended investigation of the dietaries of the inmatea of a hospital in
Munii'h. The subject in No. 1678 was siifTerlng from Nypbills: in No. 14A6 the sab-
jeot waa recovering from uu attack of typhus abdoiiiinitlis. In eaih case the fooil
waa a mixed diet consisting of soup, bread, meal, etc. The nitrogen in the urine
was determined, and that in the food was calculated. From the resultB of otliar
inveatigations the nitrogen in tho fet'ea was supplied by the compiti
caaea the diet was hardly aullii'ieut foi the needs of the individual.
Ko concluaioua concerning the income and outgo of nitrogen were itrawu by
anthor.
Nob. 1679-1701 wore uiwle by Yakovlyev in lit. Petersburg in IWja. The oltJett
was to atndy the luctaholiam and assimilation of nitro;ten In sabjer'tH with syphllisi
»even e\porimeuta were made. In three of the experiments, N<m. 1679-1684, tb«
enbjects received no special medical treatment. These experiments were divided
into two periods, the lirst before the appearance of the roneolip and the aecuud
after its appeai'ance.
In Nob. 1685-1B98 the sulijeota were treated with uugnentnm hydrargyri du]ilei.
Aud in Nos. 1699-1701 the subject waa given subcntnneous injections of corroaivs-
suljlimate solution.
The food coni-inted of a mixed diet. The, nitrogen in thr food, urine, and ft-ci!H wm
determined by the Kj el dit hi -Borodin method.
The following I'unclusions were reachedr The ijuantitative metabolism of nitru-
gen jncrc.iae" during tho first ernptive stage of syphilis, while the i|ualitalin
metabolisui decreases. The asaiiuilation of nili-ogen nlao decreases. Under tlii'
infiuence of treatment with mercnry tho aHaimiliition ot* nitrogen nanaliy improTM,
while the metabolism of iiitrogeu is lowered.
Nob. 1702-17H. See Nos. 1355-135T, Table 12.
Nos. 1715-1751* were made by Frolnv in St. Petersburg in ISM. The object wan tu
study the influence of treatioeut with niercnvy upon the mptaboliani nud ussiiuilatinii
|e(t I
SPECIFir ■INFECTlmTS DISEASES. 213
II ■ubjeul-' \Tith Byjiliilis reuidivti und in tliotui with ttte disease in earlier
■tagea. Eleven experimentH wure nioilv, of from 8 to In Says' ilitration. Thej' wci'e
iliviiiod iut.) periodB of 3 or 3 und 2 dityH. On tlie flrat day ol'oiie or more periods
thfi suljjects were given mi itijection of salicylate of niei-curj auHpcnded in liipiid
vaseliu. In several instaneeH injpctioDH of vaseliii alono wnre i;ivi'ji.
The food, oouaisted of a mixed diet. The nitro^n in the food, mine, and feces ivnH
detcTDiined liy the Xjeldahl' Borodin method.
The following oonclusions were reached: Injectious of aalicylate of niercnry
increased the qualitative metaboliani of nitro^'eii in SDh,)ectR n-ith syphilis recidtva,
although the assimilalion of iiitro^rpn was sometimes lowered. If, however, the
metaholiam of nitrogen was very intense and the aaaimilatiou had, as is the case in
the Srat stages of the diaease. injections of salicylate of mercnry lowered the
metftbolism of nitrogen somewhiit, while the aadimilation waa improved and the
qnantity of incompletely oxidized prodiii'ts exureted in the nrine was diminished.
When the disease was left to mn its cunrse withont treatment, rovetse changes in
tho metabolism of nitrogen were tiLserved both in the early and later stages.
Sos. 1760-177T wore made by Knrlov in St. PetorBbnrg in 188G. The objeot was to
investigate the metabolism and aBsimihition of protein in phthisical snlijeots fed
liy De Bove's method. The esperimenta were madp with 5 subjeots with phthisis.
The experiments lasted i) to IT days, and each was divided into three perind^i. In
the drat and third periods the dietary conditions were normal or the aiibjucts ftksted.
In Ihe second period the subjects underwent D« Itove'a forced feeding treatment.
In moet cases it meat powder (pri'piired in Kiiriev's laboratory) mixed with milk
naa fed by means of a stomach tnbe, though in a few casea the subjects drank the
mistiire. The nitrogen in the nrino and fecea wna detemdnod in all caaea, and tlie
uitrog'tn of the food in some cases. The Kjelduhl-Borodiu method was used.
Owing to relapse one subject (Nos, 1769-1774) was treated twire.
The following concluaions were reached : Under the indnence of forced feeding
the nietaboltsm and asHiniilittion of nitrogen improved, the snlijects gained rapidly
in weight, the appetite improved, the tumpenitnre was lowered, and in moat raaea
diarrhea was relieved. The general condition improved, the shortness of breath waa
relievotl, perspiration and coughing and expectoration decreiiseii, and sleep improved.
So9. 1778-1790 were made by flnshuiev in St. Peterslnirg in 1K87, In an extended
inveatigation on the indoence of ctcoaote in the treatment of phthiaia, the author
studied tb<' metabolism of nitrogen and its qualitative and quantitative relations;
that ia, be determined the ratio between nrea and the partially oxidized nitroge-
IS coDstitnents of urine, including uric acid and extractives,
ive experiments are described — 2 witli subjects in the ftrat stage of phthisis,
2 with subjects In the second stage, and 1 with a subject in tbr last stage. Each
expeKment wna divided into tliree periods — a creosote period of 7 to 8 days pre-
ceded and followed hy a period of 3 or 4 days without creosote. The dose of creosote
in all cases wna 2 or 3 drops administered in the form of pilla. The food consumed
iSDot stated. The inference is that it was a mixed diet. The uitrogen of tbe food,
urine, and feces was determiacd by tbe Rjeld a hi- Borodin method.
Among tbe oonclneions reached were the following: The qualitative metabolism
of nitrogen by the subjects was Btrikingl,y lower than that of healthy persons, and
n treatment with creosote it was lowered still more. The assimilation of nitrogen
deteriorated marhedl.v under the intlueuce of creosote, while the metabolism of
nitrogen did not appear to be altered quantitatively. The daily losses in weight
were less under the influence of creosote than when no creosote waa taken.
XoH. 1T78-1TS0 were not takeu into consideration in the conclnsions, as the subject
liad an aluioat normal temperature and exhibited only slight local Nyinptoina.
Nos, 1791-1794 were made by Lipski in St. Fotersburg in 1888. The object was to
study the assimilation of kephir. Two of Ihe sobjecta had phthisis, one had can-
flMof the cesophaguB, anil oue was a healthy peraou. Tbe nitrogen of the food.
914 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS. V
urine, !idi1 feces nas iletermmed by tlie Kjeldahl Diothod and tbe fnt "waa dotenalneiX
by tbe Sohilet methoil. Tbe snbjects usually recaiFBd R m 7 iilanBea of Itepbir a day
with other foml.
Tbe anthordraw the following csonchisionn: The uiteogenons imil the fatty roaatit-
iientB of kepliir were ngHiiuilatud by both healthy and iliseaiied Hnhjects, as well as
thoae of milk, and therefore the iiae of Icepbtr as a remedy which impvovea nutrition
dt^serves POOS ill pration. Patbnts. aspecinlly consumptives, often tflkr' kephir more
willingly than milk.
Nos. 1795-1798 were made by Levin \i\ St. fetorebiirg in 188«. The object was M
■tndy tlie metaboliani of uitrogeu aud phosplioma iu subjects with phtliisia. Tn the
opinion of the antbor, simiiltaueous determinations of tbe total metabolism ofphoa-
phoms and nitrogen are necessory for a knowleilgB of their mutual relations in
consnlnpiive patients.
Four experiments are described, each lastinf; 6 days. The food consisted of broad,
meat, and milk. Tbe nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces was determined by the
Kjoldahl-Borodin method. Tlie phoaphntea of thi! food and feces wore detormineil
by the Sounenschein method ami of the urine by titrating with nraninm ai^tate.
The following conclusions were reached : In Xo. 179n, where the inteatinal funetiouH
were normal, the metabolism of nitrogen was na low as 73.46 per cent. The metab-
olism of pbosphoruB was cooaidunibly lower, namely, 37. 2B per cent. This is a
marked case of jiarallelism between the metabolism ol' phoephoniH and that of nitrii-
geu. In No. 17% similar relations are observed. Tbe extremely low figures for the
phosphates in thi' urine are very noticeable. This wasdouhtleaa doe to the verypoOT
health of tbe subject, who died sliortly after the close of tlio experiment. In this
case the low purceutaH""'' niotabolism was not due lo impaired dif^estion, bnt to the
inability to oiidine the food.
'In Nn. IT97the subject bad fever all the time, ate little, and contlmmHy loa'
weight. The metabolism of nitrogen was 133,81 per cent and the metabolism oJ'
phoaphatea 22.1.6.^ per cent. The aesimilatlon of the latter was only 43.10 per cont,
This is a ease of real phosphatnria.
The subject of No. 170S had diarrhea. The metaliolism of nitrogen was !l3.8li ]>«'
cent and of phosphoric acid 112.38 per eont. More pboaphatos were excreted in tlic
ferea than in the urine, a condition never observed in the iiietaboliRni of nitrogen.
Nos. 1799-1810 were made by Sevastyanov in St. Petersburg in 1«91. The objerl
was to study tbe metabolism and assimilation of nitrogen in phthiniB patients lUidiT I
the influence of salt baths. 81: experiments are described. Iu four experimentn tbr I
subjects were in the last stages of phthisis, and in two they had symptoms of inripi- I
ent phthisis. Eaeh eKperimeut was divided in three periods of 4 days eaoh, and in I
tbe second period salt baths were taken. The hatha were prepared by adding suffi-
cient salt to warm watj>r (W C.) to make a 1 per cent solution. The anbjMfc
remained in the bath fur 30 minutes. They dried themselves lightly, without rinsis)!
oil' tbe salt water.
The food consisted of a mixed diet. The nitrogen in tlie food, nrine, and fert»
was determined by the KJeldabl-Borodin method.
The following con Dins ions were reached; The assimilation of nitrogen incresM^
during tbe bath period, and in some cases the increase was noticed dnringtlie psHud
after the baths. The metabolism of nitrogen increased quantitatively during vA
after tbe balb period, but in both periods it decreased qnalitatively. The sQlyHl*
lost weight in most cases during the second and third periods. I'nder the in9oMiM
of tbe baths the subjects slept better.
Nos. 1817, 1818. See Nos. 1964-1971, Table 10.
Nos. 1819-1839 were made by Ikx'hkarev at the University of St. Petorsburi; in lS3
and 1893. Tbe object was to study the iiilfnenoe of malt extract on the motobolis'"
and usaimilution of nitrogen iu phthisis patients. Seven experiments are desorilHd.
The subject of the seventh experiment (Noa. 1837-1839) waa in the last stage of con-
sumption, while the others were not ao fur advanced. Each e>:periini'nt w;!." di'i'''''
CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES. 215
into three periods of 4 days each. Malt extract in milk was given in the second
period. The food consisted of a mixed diet. The nitrogen in tho food, urine, and
feces was determined hy the Kjeldahl- Borodin method.
The malt extract exerted no inflnence npou the subject of the seventh experiment.
From the other experiments the following conclusions are drawn : Malt extract some-
what improved the appetite, and the thirst was slightly increased. The assimilation
of nitrogen was increased a little and the metabolism very slightly lowered. The
ratio of incompletely oxidized products excreted in the urine to urea was increased;
that is, the process of oxidation was diminished. The ratio of neutral sulphur in the
nrine to acid sulphur was decreased. This indicated a decrease in the breaking down
of nitrogenous tissue. The subjects gained in weight.
Nos. 1840-1847 were reported by Blnmenfeld. They were made by him or by Spirig
at the Charity Hospital in Berlin in 1893^94. The object was to investigate the
assimilation of fat. The subjects were 3 women — hospital patients suffering from
consumption. The food consisted of milk, coffee, soup, white bread, etc., and butter
or lipanin, a preparation of olive oil and oleic acid, which is said to be assimilated
more easily than cod-liver oil. In some cases both butter and 1 ipanin were consumed.
The nitrogen and fat in the food and the carbohydrates in the bread were determined,
and also the nitrogen in the nrine and the nitrogen and fat in the feces. A number
of additional experiments were made by Spirig in which the urine was not analyzed.
The assimilation of lipanin was found to be normal, but it was not more thoroughly
ntilized than butter, although it contains a larger percentage of fat. Lipanin is not
a more digestible fat than butter. It is useful for consumi)tive patients when it is
not possible to give the desired amount of fat in the food in other forms.
Nos. 1848-1857 were made by Pipjjing at the laboratory of the Carolinian Medical-
Snrgical Institute in Stockholm in 1890. The object was to determine the influence
of fever, i. e., a temperature higher than normal, upon the metabolism of children.
The subjects were children suffering from diphtheria ( ?). The food consisted of bread
eggSy milk, sago soup, and similar articles. The nitrogen in the urine and feces and
the phosphoric acid iu the urine were determined. It is not stated whether the com-
position of the food was determined or calculated. In several cases the metabolism
of the subject was studied some days after the fever period had ceased, when the
patient was convalescent.
The following conclusions were reached : During the fever period the nitrogen
excretion is usually very much increased in proportion to the amount consumed.
Sometimes, however, it remain^ normal when the patient is well nourished. When
there is moderate fever, nitrogenous food does not produce increased excretion Of
nitrogen ; on the other hand, it is possible by this means to make up for the breaking
down of protein. When the fever is moderate the assimilation of protein is about
as good as in health. The excretion of phos2)horus is diminished during fever.
EXPERIMENTS WITH SUBJECTS SUFFERINa FROM CONSTITUTIONAL
DISEASES.
In Table 18 are included 87 experiments with men, 9 with women, and
1 with a child, in which the subjects were suffering from rheumatism,
gout, diabetes, or scurvy. In some of the experiments the effect of
drugs, in others the effect of a special diet, w^s tested. These and other
special questions are noted in the text accompanying the table. Some
of the experiments with diabetic subjects have been made to study the
general laws of nutrition. All the experiments with diabetic subjects
in which the balance of income and outgo of carbon was determined in
addition to nitrogen will be found in Table 26.
210
A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
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224 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
No. 1858. See No. 1487, Table 17.
Nos. 1859-1869 were made by Vo^el at the Charity Hospital in Berlin in 1892. The
object wa8 to study the effect of gout on metabolism. The subjects were 3 men
suffering from gout, who were patients in the hospital. Two experiments (Nos. 818
and 819, Table 9) made by von Noorden with a healthy man, a laboratory servant,
are also reported for purposes of comparison. The food consisted of a mixed diet of
bread, potatoes, beans, etc. With a few exceptions it was all analyzed. In a num-
ber of cases pipirizin was taken as a remedial agent. This increased the daily nitro-
gen consumption materially. The nitrogen and fat in the feces were determined,
and also the total nitrogen, urea, uric acid, and xanthin compounds in the urine.
The ammonia in the urine was determined by difference. With each of the three
patients there was a marked retention of nitrogen, although, as the author remarks,
there was nothing in the diet or condition of the patient which indicated that such
would be the case. In two cases this was more marked after taking pipirizin, yet
Yon Noordeu's experiment with a healthy man showed that this substance did not
cause a retention of nitrogen.
The nitrogen metabolism in cases of gout is regarded as very like that in eases of
disease of the kidneys. It was found that the assimilation of fat was about the
same as in the case of normal individuals, while the assimilation of nitrogen was
apparently not nearly as good. The conclusion is also reached that in cases of goat
there is often a proportional increase in the excretion of uric acid, xanthin, etc.,
owing to a decrease in the amount of urea excreted. An absolute increase in the
uric-acid excretion Ih, however, doubtful, and for xanthin, etc., is certainly not the
case.
The article contains much historical and other information interesting from a
medical standpoint.
Nos. 1870-1875 were made by Gaehtgens at the medical department of the Univer-
sity of Dorpat in 1866. The object was a comx)arison of the metabolism of a man
with diabetes with that of a healthy individual. The healthy individual was the
investigator himself. He was 1.679 meters tall. The other subject was a man who
had diabetes. He was 1.62 meters tall. The food consisted of milk, butter, soup,
meat, white br<*ad, ryo bread, bolted rye bread, etc. Tea, coffee, and water were
used as beverages. lu experiments Nos. 1872 and 1873 sodium bicarbonate was taken
with the food, and in Nos. 1874 and 1875 sodium benzoate. The two subjects occu-
pied the same room and performed approximately the same amount of work. The
composition of the food and feces was computed from the figures obtained by Voit,
Ranke, C. Schmidt, Barral, and Bidder and Schmidt. The urea, sodium chlorid, and
sulphuric and phosphoric acids, the specific gravity and reaction of the urine of both
subjects and the sugar in the dia])etic urine were determined, and on 6 days the
krcatin and on 5 days (the sodium benzoate period) the hippuric acid also. Records
of temperature, pulse, respiration, and variation in weight were also kept in each
test. The metabolism of the two subjects is discussed in detail. An attempt was
made to compute the balance of hydrogen, oxygen, and water. The results are not
included in the tables, since no account is taken of respiratory products. In the first
and second tests the man with diabetes lost and the healthy subject gained nitrogen.
In the third test both gained nitrogen.
Nos. 1876 and 1877 were made by Levin. The object was an investigation of the
metabolism of phosphorus and nitrogen in diabetes mellitus. The subject was a
merchant suffering from intermittent diabetes. The experiment lasted 10 days and
was divided into two equal ijcriods. In the first period the conditions were normal
and in th(' second the jiatient took daily a half-hour bath of 35^ C . The food consisted
of a mixed diet. The nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces was determined by the
Kjeldahl-Borodin method, and the phosphorus by titrating with urarinm acetate
(Pine us method).
The author sums up bis results as follows; To draw conclusions concerning the
metabolism of ])hosphorus iVom th<- amount of the phosphates in the urine is even
CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES. 225
le66 permissible tbau to judge of the metabolism of nitrogen by the amount of nitro-
gen in the urine. In the above experiment the subject excreted considerably more
phosphates than a healthy man^ but he excreted much less than he assimilated, so
that the mean metabolism of phosphates for 10 days was 78.36 per cent. This is con-
siderably less than the normal amount for a healthy man (about 89 per cent). The
mean metabolism of nitrogen was 89.86 per cent. The metabolism of pliosphorus, as
xiompared with the metabolism of nitrogen, was, therefore, considerably lower than
in a healthy man.
The tepid baths produced a slight increase in the metabolism of nitrogen.
Whether the marked increase in the metabolism of phosphorus (from 68.55 to 94.67
per cent) during the bath period is to be ascribed to the influence of the tepid baths
can be settled only by further investigations.
Nos. 1878-1882 were made by Jawein. The object was to study the metabolism of
nitrogen in diabetes. Two experiments were completed and a third was begun but
not finished. The first experiment (Nos. 1878-1881) was divided into four periods. In
the first period (7 days) the conditions were normal ; in the second (5 days) the patient
received 10 grams of sodium bicarbonate daily; in the third period (4 days) an
abundant though not absolute protein diet was maintained, and in the fourth
period (5 days) the conditions were again normal.
The second experiment (No. 1882) consisted of one period under usual conditions.
The nitrogen in the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin
method ; the nitrogen of the urea by the Borodin method. The extractives were sepa-
rated with Chavane and Richet's reagent. Uric acid was estimated by the Haycraft
method.
The author draws the following conclusions : While using sodium bicarbonate the
metabolism of nitrogen was considerably lowered, viz, from 99.79 to 93.82 per cent,
the quantity of extractives decreased, the quantity of uric acid increased, and the
assimilation of nitrogen was not changed.
The influence of sodium bicarbonate on the quantity of sugar in the urine was not
clear in these experiments.
On a very abundant protein diet the metabolism of nitrogen increased from 99.79
per cent to 127.86 per cent, the assimilation of nitrogen decreased, the quantity of
nitrogen of extractives increased, the ratio of nitrogen of extractives to that of urea
increased, and the quantity of uric acid also increased.
Nos. 1883-1886 were made by Fritz Voit in the laboratory of the Physiological
Institnte at Munich in 1891(?). The object was to see whether a i)erson with
diabetes required more protein than a normal individual when the diet consisted
of protein and fat only and would produce very little sugar. The subjects were a
healthy man and a man suflering from diabetes. The latter had been in the Munich
hospital for some time, and as he followed a dietary which contained no carbohy-
drates the amount of sugar excreted in the urine was very small.
The first experiment lasted 6 days and the second 4 days. The diet during the
exx>eriments consisted of meat, milk, butter, bacon, and wine. It contained hardly
enough protein to supply the needs of either individual, for on the third day of each
experiment there was a loss of nitrogen, the amount being about the same in each
case. Food, urine, and feces were analyzed. The conclusion is reached that the two
organisms utilized the diet in practically the same way and to us umch advantage in
one case as the other. Fat was a protector of protein in each case. When the diet
contains carbohydrates the diseased organism requires more protein and fat thiin the
normal, simply because carbohydrates can not be utilized to protect protein. There
is, however, a tendency even in the diseased organism to utilize carbohydrates, as
was shown by No. 1883. On the day following No. 1884 the subject consumed 164
grams of milk sugar and the same amount of protein and fat as before. Only 70
grams of sagar reappeared in the urine. The total nitrogen excreted was only 14.9
grams. On the previous day it was 17.3 grams.
Voit discusses the problem of metabolism in diabetes at considerable length and
refers to the greater part of the work which had been done on this a\]Lli^iict,,
U9—No. 45 15
226 A DIGEST OP METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
Mos. 1887-1896 wert' made by Leu nt tbe Uuiverait.v of Kunu iu 18^1-92. Tlie oUJm
WHS to study the effect of carbohydriiteH on tbe excretiou of iiitroi;eii iu diabetes,'!
TL<> subjects w.'re a wotiiau and n man siitteriiiB ftim diabetes tiiellilas. For a
pei'iod of several days a, mixed diet was followed. Tbi'ufaraevei-aliiays theai
of citrbobydrateB coDHnmeil mis i-onsiderably mcreaBed. This alternation of dist>a
was repeated, and the experiment eloued iu each citBO with u day of normal diet, ■
Tbe anbjecta wei'e praetii'ally in nitrogen minilibriuiu at the bepuniug of the experi-J
ment. Tbe nitrouen in food, urini'. and feces was determined, and also the sugar iKfl
the urine.
The conelusiou is reached that the increased I'onsumptiou of carbohydrates dimin-l
ishes tliu uxcratiuii of nitrogen.
Other experiments are reported wbii'h are not of tbe sort tabulated iu tbe prea^V
But compilation.
\os. 18W-19LJ were made by Durchani and Fiukelstein at tbe Urban Hospital ii
Berlin in 1893. The olijects were (1) to determine nbelber, the diet being tbe *
same, tbe nitrogen excreted by a diabetic patient difl'ered from that uf a uotmal
individnal, (2) to determine how much the protection of proteiu by corbobydratM
differed iu the case ot a jiersoii with diabet«a from that of normal indivlduala, and
(3) if a pewon with diabetes reiiUy ox.idi/ed less carbohydrates than a healthy indi-
vidual. It was believed that tlie ''proteetive power" of a given ijuautity of e
bydrates would be less in t^ase of diabetes than in health.
Tbe investigators themaelvi-s were the eubjeclis iu the expi^rinientn with norm^ 1
iudividnale. Tbe subject in Nos. 18!<!l mid 190)1-1912 was ii man saffering trota dlo-
lietes. Iu Nob. 189T-1899 tbe food consistt'd of fisb, meat, eggs, etc., and contained
no oarbohydrales. For i days before Ko. ItlHH the subject bad fbllowed the sBimu
dietary and tlie urine bud become sugar ft'ee. Tbe nitrojien in food, n
was determineit. In these exprrinieuto no dilt'ereuce was observed iu tbe nltrogc
metabolism of the three snbjeets. .AJt lost a little iu weight. Tbe siihjeot wiHJ
diabetes, htiwevrr, Inst leust.
In Nus. lHOO-1908 tbe same mixed ditt and a koowu quautity of dextioee was con='
snmed. With such a diet tbe subject with diabdes escreted consideriible angarin
tbe nrine (about 40 gruuis when 50 grains whs cousumed). Tbe protein metabolism,
however, was very little dltlert'nt from that of tbe liealtby individuals. Tbe earbo-
hyilrates protected tbe protein in about tbe same way in evrry chks. The subject
with diabetes, bnwevfr, lost weight, the others gained a little. In Nos. 1910-1912
the same diet as in No. 1897 \?as iroDsnnied. with the addition of levnloite.niillf sugar,
or dextrose. It was found that the subject ntilized the dextrose as a protector of
protein ns fully as the levnloae and milk snuar, which were oonsidereil ti
easily rombuatible. In tbia oaac, as in tbe resalts of otber observers, when r
sugar was cousumed the nrine contiilnid grape sugar.
The article coutains cousidcrabli' diainssiou of theovti's of nutrition in diabetes.
Nos. 19VA and l^\il were made by Strausa at the Medical Institute of the I'c
sity of Strassburg in 1815 The object was to study the nutritive value of fat it
cases of diabetes mellitns The subject was a man suffering from tbia dieeaee in »fl
very severe fuim He bad been iu the hospital once before for treatment. Durin|
the cxperimeitt he emplo^ ed bis time with light work about tbi' hospital.
Tbe diet contaiui^d practically no carbohydrates. The food was carefully a
lyxed, with tbe CMeption i>f the bnttci' and bacon. The composition of these wtl^
computed from aualyaes made by Weintrand in Nennyn'w laboratory in Straasbnrg.
The uriiic and tei ea were analyzed. The diet contained a large <|nantlty uf fat—
280.6 grams per day Of this 92.6 tii !)2.8 per cent was assimilated. This does not
differ much from Rubnur's resulto (Sos. 413-416, Table 7) for the asBimilalion of fat
by beulthy individuals.
With a diet which cuutBiued 138 ^rams protein iiud UT grauis fat the iiiitajei't
excreted 17 grams of sugar per day in tbe urine.
The i]U,'uitity of raeiit iu the diet was diminished, l>uL some .^iigar was still
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.1^
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 227
«
excreted; aud it was not until the subject fasted for 1 day that Hugur disappeared
from the urine.
The conclusion is reached that it is possible to maintain the protein balance of an
indiyidual with diabetes on a diet of meat and fat which contains no carbohydrates.
This had been doubted by some investigators.
llie diet exerted a beneficial effect on the organism. When 85 grams of i)rotein
was consumed at the beginning of the experiment sugar was excreted in the urine.
After a time, however, the tendency to produce sugar diminished, showing that the
organism was more nearly normal.
The article contains considerable matter relating to diabetes which is interesting
from a medical standpoint.
Nos. 1915-1942 were made by Pautz in the laboratory of the Physiological Insti-
tute at Marburg in 1891-1893. The object was an investigation of the metabolism of
persons with diabetes as compared with that of healthy individuals. The subjects
were 7 men, 2 women, and a boy. The subjects of Nos. 1915-1918 were healthy indi-
viduals, the others were suffering from diabetes. The food was a simple mixed diet
consisting of meat, bread, butter, eggs, etc., varying somewhat in the individual
experiments. Most of the food was analyzed. For the nitrogen content of meat,
however, Voit's figure, 3.4 per cent, was used. The urine and feces were analyzed.
The fuel value of the food and feces was determined or calculated. That of the
urine was calculated from the amount of sugar it contained.
The conclusion is reached that persons with diabetes do not, generally speaking,
require more energy in the food than healthy individuals, and also that in the case
of adults the disease does not increase metabolism.
Nos. 1943-1954 were made by Mikhalevitch in St. Peteraburg in 1886. The object
was an investigation of the metabolism and assimilation of protein in scurvy patients.
Two experiments are described, each lasting 16 days at the time of the disease and 15
days four and a half months later when the patients had completely recovered.
Each experiment was divided into three periods ; the first, with ordinary hospital
diet; the second, with a milk and meat diet; and the third, with the hospital diet
for scurvy patients.
The nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin
method. The sulphates were also determined in the food and excreta by titrating
with a uranium solution.
The author sums up his results as follows : The assimilation of protein by scurvy
patients was very satisfactory, and no less complete during the disease than after
recovery. The assimilation of the milk and meat diet by the subjects both in health
and with scurvy was better than that of the ordinary hospital diet. The scurvy
diet was less completely assimilated than either the milk and meat diet or the ordi-
nary hospital diet. The quantity of nitrogen assimilated by the patients when
suffering firom scurvy was greater and the quantity of nitrogen excreted daily in the
urine was less than after recovery. The ratio of the phosphates to nitrogen was
less, while the ratio of the sulphates to nitrogen was greater, during the disease
than after recovery, while on the scurvy diet the ratio of the i)hosphates to nitrogen
increased and the increase was more marked after recovery than during the diease.
EXPERIMENTS WITH SUBJECTS SUFFEKINa FROM D1SEA8KS OF THE
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.
In Table 19 are included 31 tests with meu aud 46 with womeu,
in which the subjects were suffering from cancer of the oesophagus,
cancer of the stomach, constipation, jaundice, and cirrhosis. These
experiments were made to investigate special questions, wliich are
noted in the text accompanying the table. A number of experiments
in which the subjects were suffering from cancer of other than the
digestive organs are also included in this table.
228
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DISEASES OP THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 235
Nu8. 1955-1962, No. 1564, Table 17, and Nos. 2219-2226, Table 24, were mad© by
Miiller at the Charity Hospital in Berlin in 1886-1888. The object was to investigate
the e£fect of carcinoma on metabolism. The subjects of Nos. 2219-2226, Table 24,
were suffering from some mental trouble, but were otherwise healthy. They received
a diet containing an insufficient amount of nitrogen and the ezx>®rimentB were made
for purposes of comparison. The subjects of Nos. 1955-1962 were suffering from car-
cinoma, and the subject of No. 1564, Table 17, from typhus abdominalis.
The food consisted of meat, soup, eggs, etc. The frees were separated by means
of charcoal. The nitrogen in the food, urine, and feces was determined, and in most
cases the urea of the urine was also determined by titration (Pfliiger's method).
The subject of No. 1959 died soon after the close of the experiment. With a diet
containing 1 to 1.5 grams of nitrogen, this subject excreted in the urine an average
of 2.9 grams of nitrogen daily during the 15 days before death occurred. On the
first day the excretion of nitrogen was 5.2 grams and on the second day 6.6 grams.
It then diminished steadily until on the fifteenth day it was 0.3 gram. The feces
were not collected.
The author quotes two experiments with a woman 26 years old suffering from some
mental trouble, in which no food was consumed. On the sixth day of fasting 4.2
grams of nitrogen was excreted in the urine. When a little bouillon and egg were
consumed, 4.4 grams of nitrogen was excreted in the urine. The feces were not
analyzed.
The conclusion is reached that carcinoma increases the metabolism of nitrogen.
Even if the amount consumed was increased it was not possible to prevent a loss of
nitrogen.
The medical aspect of these experiments is discussed* at length and the literature
is reviewed.
No. 1963 was made by Gaertig at the Charitc Hospital in Berlin in 1889 ( ?) under
the direction of von Noorden. The object was to investigate the metabolism of
nitrogen and chlorin in cases of carcinoma. The subject was a man 58 years old
suffering from carcinoma cesophagi. It was almost impossible for the subject to
swallow much food or retain it on his stomach. He was therefore fed part of the
time per rectum. The food taken per os consisted of eggs, meat, milk, and sherry.
During the whole period a considerable amount (equal to 150 grams dry matter) was
vomited. It contained 5.1 per cent nitrogen and 1.5 per cent sodium chlorid. The
food taken per rectum consisted of peptone, egg yolk, and grape sugar. The com-
position of the meat and of the egg yolk was calculated from Yoit's figures, the
chlorin of the milk from Konig's figures. The composition of the remainder of the
food and of the urine and feces was determined.
The following conclusions were reached : The assimilation of the nitrogen of pep-
tones was very complete. Carcinoma caused a considerable breaking down of the
protein of the organism.
Nos. 1964-1971 and No. 1817, Table 17, were made by Laudenheimer at the Medical
Institute of the University of Berlin in 1891-92. The object was to investigate the
excretion of chlorids in patients suffering from carcinoma.
The subjects were 2 women and 3 men, patients in Dr. Leyden's hospital. The
subjects of Nos. 1964-1971 were suffering from cancer and the subject of Nos. 1817,
1818, Table 17, had phthisis. The latter experiment was made for purposes of com-
parison. The sodium chlorid and nitrogen in food, urine, and feces were determined.
When food was vomited the sodium chlorid and nitrogen in it were also determined.
Several other experiments were made, in which the details were not complete
enough for tabulation in the present compilation.
The conclusion of the author is that there is no characteristic change in the rela-
tion of excreted to consumed chlorids caused by carcinoma.
Nos. 1972-1976 were made by Schopp at the Urban Hospital in Berlin in 1892. No.
1976 was made by Miiller. The object was to study the metabolism and excretion
of sodium chlorid in cases of carcinoma. The subjects were 4 women, hospital
patients, suffering from carcinoma. The food consisted of beef, pork, veal, milk,
rolls, eggs, artificial butter, coffee, and beer. The sodium chlorid in the milk^
23fi A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
butter, cott'ee. aud bread, and in the iiriue and feces, was determined. It was cal-
culated for the moat, eggs, and beer. The nitrogen in the food was also calculated,
and that in the urine was determined. The nitrogen in tlie feces was supplied by
the compilers from Cheltsov^s oxpcrinients (Nos. 1979 and 1984) in which the nitrogen
consumed was similar in amount.
Tlie following conclusions were reached : The relation between the consumption
and excretion of sodium chlorid wats not constant for all cases of carcinoma. The
very marked diminution in the amount of chlorin in certain cases of carcinoma
is intimately connected witli the retardation of the reconstructive processes, and
is caused by the large amount of chlorin in the secretions due to ulceration. It is
proportional to the growth of the morbid tissue and indirectly proportional to
the wasting away of the tissues of the body. The idea had been advanced by
some investigators that the diminution in the amount of chlorin excreted and the
increased excretion of urea in carcinoma pointed to an analogy between this disease
and acute fever. In the author's opinion this diminution in the amount of chlorin
excreted in many cases of carcinoma does not point to the fact that cancerous dis-
eases and fevers have anything in common as regards their origin. The result is
produced by entirely different causes.
Nos. 1977-19a5 and Nos. 2860-2868, Table 29, were made by Cheltsov in St. Peters-
burg in 1886. The special question studied was the influence of bitter drugs (amara)
on the metabolism of nitrogen, though the gastric and pancreatic digestion, the
secretion of bile, and intestinal fermentation were also studied. The subjects were
men and dogs. The experiments with dogs (Nos. 2860-2868, Table 29) are described
on page 3.S0.
Three experiments were made with 2 men suffering from chronic derangement of
dig(^stion. The experiments were divided into three periods. In the first period
bitter remedies (either extr. absinthii or extr. quassia) were given, and in the second
and third periods the treatment was omitted. The food consisted of bread, meat)
milk, and water. Th(^ nitrogen in the food, urine, and feces was determined by the
Kjeldahl-Borodin method.
The conclusion was reached tliat tlie assimilation of nitrogen diminished under
the influence of bitter remedies.
Nos. 1986-1992 were made by Miiller at the Charit<^ Hospital in 1882-83, to htudy
the effect of jaundice upon digestion and upon metabolism.
The subject in No. 1986 was a healthy man. The subjects in Nos. 1987-1989 were
suffering from some form of jaundice, in Nos. 1990 aud 1991 from echinococcns hepatis,
and in No. 1992 from phthisis pulmonalis and starchy degeneration of the intestines
and glandularum mesariacuni. The investigation includes in addition several diges-
tion experiments.
The food consisted of milk, white bread, butter, and in some cases lean beef in
addition.
The nitrogen and fat in the milk and the fat in the meat were determined. The
nitrogen in the meat was calculated, using Voit's value, 3.4 per cent. The separation
of the fec€s was made with charcoal. The nitrogen, fat, and ash in the feces and
the nitrogen in the urine were determined. In some cases the total sulphur, total
combined sulphur, and neutral sulphur in the urine were also determined.
The conclusion is reached that in cases of simple jaundice the metabolism of pro-
tein is not affected. When the gall was prevented from entering the intestine the
digestibility of starch was not materially changed, that of protein was very little
changed, and that of ash was normal or better than in the case of healthy individ-
uals. The digestibility of fat was not nearly as good as in the case of normal indi-
viduals. The experiments are discussed at length from a medical standpoint.
Nos. 1993-2008 were made by von Noorden at the Charity Hospital in Berlin in
1889-90. The object of Nos. 1993-2006 was to investigate the assimilation of food
in diseases of the stomach. The object of Nos. 2007 and 2008 was to determine the
effect of neutralizing the hydrochloric acid of the stomach with calcium carbonate.
The subjects of Nos. 1993-2006 were hospital patients suffering from some disease of
the stomach characterized by a deficiency of hydrochloric acid. The subject of Nos.
2001 and 2008 was well nourished and in good health.
DISEASES OP THE RE8PIBAT0BY SYSTEM. 237
The coiuposition of the food was determined in Home cases, iu others calculated
firom known data. The nitrogen in the urine and the nitrogen aud fat in the feces
were determined.
The conclusion was reached that the assimilation of protein iu the suhjects with
diseased stomachs was amply sufficient, though the food was not suhjected to the
normal stomach digestion with pepsin and hydrochloric acid. The very general
diminution iu the amount of nourishment assimilated hy subjects with disease of the
stomach is explained as due to weakness (marasmus). The discussion of the experi-
ments aud the other conclusions drawn are of a medical nature.
Nos. 2009 and 2010 were made hy Sachse in Berlin in 1893. Tiie object was to
investigate the effect upon the absorption of nutrients of causing the gall to flow
continuously into the intestine instead of periodically. The subject was a woman,
a patient in the Charit6 Hospital. She had undergone the operation of cholecystos-
tomy. The food consisted of milk, bread, butter, eggs, and meat. The nitrogeti iu
the milk and meat and the fat in the milk aud butter were determined. The nitro-
gen aud fat in the hread and eggs were calculated. The nitrogen in the urine and
feces and the fat in the feces were determined. The conclusion is reached that w hen
the gall flows continuously instead of periodically into the intestine the absorption
of nutrients is not aftected.
Experiments with 2 other subjects are recorded. In these the urine was not col-
lected. The experiments, therefore, could not be included in the present compilation.
Nos. 2011-2032 were made hy Favitski in St. Petersburg iu 1888. The object was
to investigate the qualitative and quantitative metabolism of nitrogen in subjects
with cirrhosis of the liver. The subjects were hospital patients sutt'ering from this
disease. The food usually consisted of a mixed diet. In several cases milk only was
consumed.
Seven experiments are described. The nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces was
determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin method. The urea was usually estimated by the
Borodin method after precipitating the extractives by phosphOmolybdic acid (Thudi-
cnm's method). In Nob. 2013 and 2015 Byasson's method was employed. The uric
acid was determined according to Ludwig's method.
The subject of No. 2021 was under observation only 8 days since symptoms of
meningitis appeared, and the patient soon died from this disease. In Nos. 2011 and
2012 the cirrhosis was in the incipient stage, but was more advanced in all other
cases. The subjects usually received no treatmeut at the beginning of the experi-
ment. Later various therapeutic measures were tried, including the alkaline, milk;
diuretic, and potassium iodid treatments and faradization. The efl'ect of the difVer-
ent kinds of treatment is not discussed. The author sums up his results as follows:
In intensity, though not in quality, the metabolism of nitrogen iu the subjt^cts with
cirrhosis of the liver approaches that of healthy persons on a mixed diet. The
assimilation of nitrogen was from 84 to 94 per cent, and therefore about ilormal.
The quantity of urea excreted during 24 hours varied within wide limits, namely
from 14 to 45 grams; the usual quantity was 25 to 30 grams. The author remarks
that his observations corroborate the opinion of Harley and of Labadie-Legran that
the variations in the quantity of urea excreted are more dependent on the general
nutrition than on the condition of the liver tissues.
In the excretion of uric acid wide variations were also observed. In most cases
they were parallel with the variations of urea. The absolute amount of extractives
in the urine was not large, and did not vary much from that in healthy man.
EXPERIMENTS WITH SUBJECTS SUFFERING FROM DISEASES OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.
In- Table 20 are included 27 tests with men in which the subjects
were suffering from pneumonia. In these experiments special questions
were studied, for instance, the effect of pneumonia on the metabolism
and assimilation of nitrogen, or the effect of some particular treatment
on the condition of the subject.
238
A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
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DISEASES OP THE BESPIBATOEY STSTEM.
240
A DIQEfiT OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
Nui. 21)33-2038 ncra uiiiile hy Huppvrt uiid KieEsll fu the Jitcobs Hospital in Ldp-
aic <f) in 1868-60. The object was to invoatigute tbe effect of fever (iKxly tempera-
ture liigher thau normal) on metaboliam. According to the obeerver, these are the
first experimenta of the kind. 'I'lie snbjeot in Nob. 2033-S03T 'waa a. man safferin^j
with croupous pntumooia. The eiperintent iuelndes three perioils, namely, high
fever, little fever, nod con villi; see qco with no fever. The subject in Ko. 2038 was a
man suli'eriug from pnenmoiiia followinj; typhoid fever. Dnrin^ the whole experi-
ment tile man La<l fever, and hia deutb oocnrred on the day after the experimenti
ended. The food was evidently a mixed diet, though tlie dutaila of its oomponitiMl
are nut given. The nitmgen was determined in each mticle whenever a fieah si
was procured. The uitrogen in the urine, and pcobalily in the feces also, waa dated
mined Ly the tjeegen-Schueider method.
Theexjierimeuta are not described by the author with much detail. The prii
ooEClnaions drawu were the following: A man with fever uses more protein fromtfc
organiani than a fivsting man.
A healthy iudividual can metabolize as much protein as a man with fever, biitintliB
first caue it is protein which is stored up lu the body and in tlic second it is protein
of the tisanes. A man with fever requires uoiinltrogenoiisnntrienta as welt aaprateln
One of the invest igatora, HuppiTl, made farther experiments with two BQbJKt,
having febria reonrrens. One (II.) waa 18yeurs old and the other (E.) 22 yeawold.
Thoy woighed 60 kg. and 68 kg., respcotively, at the lieginning of the experiment
The food consiatcd of n mixed dii't, H. cunHUiulng ftboiit twici' aa murh protein se E.
The experiment with II. lasted 22 days. The author determim-d the iiioomi' anil
outgo of iiitrogbu for each day. From the Ut'th to the Ulteenth day thii tempemtun
of the anbject ranged from 'Hi" to ■HN (', On tbo other days it was normal. The
avciagt' amount uf nitrogen cousuniod per day before, daring, and atter the !enr
period was 22.8, 10.7, aud 22.3 gm., respectively. The average amount of nttrogi'U
excreted daily in the urine for the correaponding periods waa 17.3, 18.6, and lligm.
and that excreted in the feces was 3.5, 2.0, and 2.1 gm. There was an averuge iloilf
gain of 3.0gm. and 5.2 gm. of nitrogen in the Itrst and third periods, aud on uvcnp
loss of O.i) gni. in the second or fever period.
The ■■xjiiTinii-nt with E. oovi'red 19 days. From the Iburth ti> the elovi-ntU d»j lii*
temperature rauged from 37° to 40.2^ C The iucoum and outgo of uitrugim
di^termiui-d as above. The average amount of nitrogen eooaumed per day lieftniv
during, and ufter the fever period wuu 8.6, 9.1, and 9.5 gm., respectively,
age anioant excreted in the urijii^ for the i:orri>spoudiug periods whb 15,9, iS.S, al
11.9 gm. ; and that excreted in the tVci-a wax 1.6, 1.2, and 0.6 gm. The avenge iI>Uh
loss of uitrogen duriug the three periods was 8.9, 7,4, and 3.0 gm., ri'speotivcilj'.
In the author's opini-)n, the resulla indicate either that the protein of ti«<
{OrgaHehteias) is ch^ged Into resi'rve iiroti'in ( VotralhaeiwelH), or that the protein <l
titiaue ia broken up into a complex nidii-le containing uitrogen und a ui
BUbstauce, whicli ia probiibly bnmed iuthe body. The latter alternative ia regardi
e probable. The experitu
etaudpoiut.
These expeiimeuts wore omilteil frut
Hos. 2039, 2O10 were made by Kohiu:
of Berlin in 1877-78, aud form a serii
The olijeet wa.s to study the e.
tst-d at SI
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11 the tallies by iiu oversight.
AQQ at the Medical Institute uf the UnlverBit]'
eis with Nos. 1487, Table 17, and 1858, Table I8.
1 of sodium ehlorid during fever — that is, nhes
the body temperature was higher than normal. The anbjects of Nos, 2039 andSWl
wore men anHeriug from pneumonia. The subject of No. 1858 had rbenmatlsiu. TU ■
experimental details were the aame as those previously noted. fl
In addition to these testa the author reported seiernl others, in which the detillH
^r metabolio balance wen' uut complete, A workman <P.),26 yetirn old, with piiM"|
iiionla consumed daily on an average on 4 daya during which be liad fever 5.2 gTBivi)
of Bodinin chlorid and excruted 7.4 grama in the urine. Dnring tbe period after Lta
~ ~ e consumed and excreted the same average quantitiea
titles consumed and excreted per day, however, varied
tcwlint wide limits.
DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 241
The author reports nothing concerning the amount and composition of the feces.
A locksmith (M.), 24 years old, with typhus exanthematicus during 4 days of fever
consumed daily on an average 4.0 grams of nitrogen and 1.7 grams of salt. lie
excreted in the urine 11.3 grams of nitrogen and 1.6 grams of salt. No feces were
excreted during the test.
A test was also made with a mason (A.), 19 years old, with morbilli (measles). The
food consisted of milk, eggs, bread, and raw meat. Its composition is not recorded.
During 3 days of fever the subject excreted daily on an average 4.9 grams of sodium
chlorid in the urine and 0.2 gram in the feces. On one day alter the temperature
became normal he excreted 10.7 grams sodium chlorid in the urine and 0.2 gram in
the feces.
From these experiments and those previously noted the author drew the conclusion
that in acute fever the chlorids consumed are not excreted in normal quantity in the
urine. The retention of sodium chlorid is regarded as due to the changes in general
metabolism caused by the increased body temperature.
Nos. 2041-2059 were made by Abramovitch in St. Petersburg in 1888. Tlio object
was to investigate the metabolism of nitrogen in subjects with croupous pneumonia
Seven experiments are described. Each experiment, except Nos. 2043 and 2044,
the subject of which died in the period of fever, was divided into tbreo periods — the
first before'tbe crisis, the second immediately after the crisis, and the third during
convalescence. During the period of fever 2 of the subjects were given antifebrin,
3 were given corrosive sublimate, while 2 received no special medicine.
The food of the subjects was the ordinary hospital diet, and usually consisted of
h:>lf- white bread, milk, and sometimes a little bouillon, if desired. During the fever
period and for 3 days after the crisis 5 tablespoonfuls of sherry wine were also allowed
daily. During convalescence the diet was more abundant. The separation of the
feces was made with blackberries. The nitrogen of the food, urine, etc., was deter-
mined by the Kjeldahl- Borodin method. The nitrogen of the antifebrin was esti-
mated in the same way. Albumen was found in the urine of all the patients during
the p6riod of fever and of the majority of them for some days after the crisis. This
had to be removed from the urine before determining the urea and the uric acid. The
nitrogen of the sputa was also determined.
The authordraws the following conclusions : The assimilation of the nitrogenous
constituents of the food in the fever period was in all cases jioorer than during the
time of convalescence. In the fever period and during 2 or more days after the crisis
an intensified destruction of the protein of the tissues took place. During the time of
convalescence, when the patients began tp take sufficient food, a part of the nitrogen
of the food was retained. The increased outgo of nitrogen in the urine in the period
immediately after the crisis may be chiefly accounted for by the intensified destruc-
tion of i)rotein tissue. The ratio of the extractives to uric acid and urea was higher
than normal in all cases in the fever period, and in the majority of cases during con-
valescence. The cleavage of protein of the tissues was greatest in patients treated
with corrosive sublimate, and least in those treated with antifebrin. The ratio of
the extractives to uric acid and urea was less iu the former case.
So far as was observed, the treatment with corrosive sublimate had no influence on
the amount of albumen in the urine.
BXPEBIMENTS WITH SUBJECTS SUFFEBlNa FROM DISEASES OF THE
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.
In Table 21 are included 8 tests with men, 31 with women, and 2
with children, in which the subjects were suffering from some form of
heart disease. In each case special questions were studied; for
instance, the* effect of heart disease on the metabolism and assimila-
tion of nitrogen, or the effect of some particular treatment on the con-
dition of the subject.
749— No. 46 16
242
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DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 245
No8. 2060-i2074 were made by Dashkevich in St. Petersburg in 1888. The object
was to stndy the metabolism of nitrogen in subjects with heart disease in the period
of deranged compensation. Five experiments are described. All- the subjects were
more or less seriously afflicted with heart disease. Each experiment was divided into
two or three periods. In one period the subjects received no special treatment. In
the other periods they were given the usual treatment which their symptoms seemed
to demand^ either tincture of strophantBus, digitalis, cafteinum natro-salicylium,
or tepid Nauheim baths. The food consisted of bread, meat, milk, etc. The separa-
tion of the feces was made with blackberries. The nitrogen of the food, urine, and
feces was determined by the Kjeldahl- Borodin method, and the nitrogen of the urea
by Borodin's method^ having first removed the extractives by By assou's method. The
uric acid was determined in the first 4 experiments by the Haycraft-Ludwig
method and in the fifth experiment by Haycraft's method.
The following conclusions were reached : In the periods with no special medical
treatment the metabolism of nitrogen decreased and the ratio of the nitrogen of the
extractives to that of the urea (1:14) was larger than normal.
When digitalis was given the metabolism increased in every case, i. e., the excre-
tion of the cleavage products of protein was increased. This may perhaps explain
the favorable action of digitalis on patients with heart disease.
The changes in metabolism due to tincture of strophanthus were contradictory.
No conclusions can be drawn regarding the effect of cafFeinum natro-salicylium,
which was administered in only one case.
Tiie influence of the tepid artificial Nanheim baths on metabolism varied in differ-
ent cases, though on the whole the subjects were benefited. The author believes
that these baths are permissible in heart diseases, though not in severe cases.
Nos. 2075-2080 were made by Grassmann at the Charity Hospital in Berlin in
1886-87 to investigate the assimilation of food by subjects with disturbed circula-
tion. The subjects were hospital patients, 5 women and a man, who were suffering
from heart disease, which caused such disturbance of the circulation. The food con-
sisted of milk and white bread, and in some cases butter, meat, and eggs were also
consumed. The nitrogen and fat in the milk, the nitrogen and chlorin in the urine,
and the nitrogen, fat, and fatty acids in the feces were determined. The composition
of the meat and eggs was calculated from Voit's figures and the bread from Miiller's.
The separation of the feces was made wi th charcoal. Starch grains were not found in
the feces. The author therefore concludes that the absorption of carbohydrates
was not disturbed. The assimilation of nitrogen differed very little from the normal.
The assimilation of fat was diminished.
Nos. 2081-2084 were made by Schneider at the Charit6 Hospital in Berlin in 1893-94.
The object was to investigate the nitrogen balance of persons with valvular disease
of the heart. The subjects were 3 women suffering from this disease. The food
consisted of a simple mixed diet. The compositicm of several articles — for instance,
milk, cocoa, sausage, and potato — was determined. The composition of meat, bread,
soup, and butter was calculated from analyses made by von Noorden, and the com-
position of eggs from Voit's figures. The separation of the feces was made with
charcoal. The nitrogen in the urine and feces and the fat in the feces were
deternnned.
The conclusion is reached that there is no typical relation of th*e nitrogen balance
to disease of the heart. The changes in the individual experiments are discussed at
length .
Nos. 20&5-2095 were made by Husche at the Charitd Hospital iu Berlin in 1892-93
to study the nitrogen balance in various stages of heart disease. The subjects were
women suffering from some form of heart disease. The food consisted of a simple
mixed diet of milk, meat^ eggs, etc. The nitrogen in the milk was usually deter-
mined. The nitrogen, fat, and carbohydrates in the porridge, veal, and sausage
were determined. The composition of other articles of food was calculated from
von Noorden's and from Konig's figures. The urine and feces were analyzed.
246 A DIGEST OP METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
The following conclnslons were reached : Disease of the. heart affects the amonnt
of urine excreted. The increase or decrease of the amount of nitrogen eliminated
varies in the same way as the amount of urine, though the two are not parallel.
The variations in the nitrogen balance take place more quickly than the variations
in the quantity of urine. The excretion of nitrogen and fat in the feces and the rela-
tive amounts of different nitrogenous compounds in the urine were also investigated.
The article, contains much matter interesting from a medical standpoint.
The author, with Vogel and vonXoorden/ made further investigations on the effect
of heart disease on the excretion of urine and nitrogen. The following deductions
were drawn : When treatment with digitalis is successful the amount of urine is
greatly increased and large quantities of nitrogen are removed from the body.
Very abundant excretion of nitrogen seldom continues more than 2 to 4 days. In
the experiments made the nitrogen excretion in the urine exceeded that consumed
in the food by 10 to 15 grams daily. The increased nitrogen excretion was not
always regular from day to daj^ though the diuresis was constant. Sometimes it was
found that the urine excretion was greatly increased, while the excretion of nitrogen
was unaffected. Von Noorden is of the opinion that when the excretion of nitrogen
is increased the nitrogen which was stored up in anasarcous tissue is removed from
the body.
These conclusions are in accord with those of Kobler,^ who studied the effect on
the excretion of nitrogen and urine of treating heart disease with digitalis. The
proportion of different nitrogenous constituents in the urine was also studied.
Experiments were made with 7 subjects, men and women who were hospital patients
suffering from some form of heart disease which caused deranged compensation.
In every case the diet remained the same throughout the test. In one instance digi-
talis increased the daily excretion of urine from about 400 to 1,100 cubic centimeters.
The excretion of urea was increased from 9.01 to 23.43 grams and the uric acid from
0.53 to 0.98 gram. In another test the urine was increased from 500 to 2,200 cubic
centimeters, while the urea excretion was little affected, being increased from 10.9
to 15.6 grams. In the corresponding period the daily excretion of uric acid was
increased from 0.29 to 0.40 gram. In another case the amount of urine was not
much increased (from 320 to 700 cubic centimeters), while in the corresponding period
the urea was increased from 8.64 to 21.42 grams.
The author was of the opinion that in the period of deranged compensation the
excretion of urine and nitrogen was diminished. Proper treatment, for instance
digitalis, in general caused an increased excretion of both urine and urea.
EXPERIMENTS WITH SUBJECTS SUFFERINa FROM DISEASES OF THE
BLOOD AND DUCTLESS GLANDS.
In Table 22 are included 1 test with a man and 3 with women suffer-
ing from leucaemia or from chlorosis. In these experiments special
questions were investigated. In one instance the effect of inhalation
of oxygen gas was studied. Other experiments on the effect of varying
oxygen content in respired air will be found on page 179. Tests were
also made with a subject affected with leuciemia in which the special
point studied was the influence of the remedial agent employed (Table
9, Nos. 795-799). Experiments with dogs in which anaemia was arti-
ficially produced will be found in Table 29, Nos. 2912-2917.
1 Lehrbuch der Patbologie des Stoffwechsels, p. 326.
2 W^iener klin. Wochenschr., 4 (1891), p. 375.
DISEASES OP THE BLOOD AND DUCTLESS GLANDS.
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248 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
No8. 2096 and 2097 were made Ly Burzliinski iu St. Petersburg in 1889. The object
was to study tUe influence of iubaliug increased amounts of oxygen on the metabo-
lism of nitrogen iu subjects with leucti^mia.
The subject was a man of middle stature and well built. He was suffering from
leucaemia. The experiment lasted 12 days. The first 6 days were under usual condi-
tions. During tbo last 6 days tbe subject inhaled 60 liters of oxygen per day. The
inhalations were at 1 p. m. and at 6 p. m. The nitrogen in the food, urine^ and feces
was determined by tbe Kjeldahl method, the uric acid of the urine by the Ludwig
method, and ammonia by Schlosing's method. The extractives of the urine were
precipitated with pliosi)ho-tungstic acid.
Tlio following conclusions were drawn : The metabolism of nitrogen and the quan-
tity of uric, acid, especially in relation to the urea, was increased in the subject with
leucM'inia wlien oxygen was inhaled.
No. 2098 was made by Ketcher in St. Petersburg iu 1890 to investigate the metabo-
lism of nitrogen in chlorosis. The subject was a woman teacher. The nitrogen of
the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin method.
The following are the author's conclusions: The assimilation of nitrogen in chlo-
rosis was normal. The metabolism of nitrogen was 86.32 per cent — i. e., somewhat
lower than the mean for healthy persons, but still not below the normal limits.
The total quantity of nitrogen, the nitrogen of urea, and the amount of chloride
and phosphates in the urine was less than normal.
The absidute amount of extractives in the urine was greater than normal.
Nos. 2099-2103 were made bj*^ Lipmau-Wulf in Berlin in 1891. The object was to
investigate the influence of chlorosis upon metabolism. The subjects were 3 young
women suffering from this disease who were under treatment at the Charity Hos-
pital. The investigations were not made until the patients had been in the hospital
some days. The details of their condition are given in full by the author. The food
consisted of milk, meat, bread, butter, eggs, soup, beer, wine, and coffee. Analyses
of food, urine, and feces were made. The assimilation of nitrogen was very good,
and the conclusion is drawn that chlorosis is not a disease which brings about a
pathological change in the metabolism of protein. In these cases the metabolism
was very much like that of a normal individual. In the diet fat and carbohydrates
were present in abundance, but the amounts were not great enough to produce any
abnormal effect in the way of protecting protein.
No. 2104 was made by Spirig in 1893 at the Charity Hospital in Berlin. The object
was to stndy the assimilation of food in leucajmia. The subject was suffering from
this disease. The blood contained 1,700,000 red and 137,500 white corpuscles per
cubic millimeter when the subject was admitted to the hospital.
A simple mixed diet was consumed, consisting of bread, butter, cheese, sausage,
meat, etc. The nitrogen, fat, and carbohydrates in the food were determined, also
the nitrogen in the urine, and the nitrogen and fat in the feces. The assimilation of
nitrogen and fat was not quite so good as in the case of a healthy individual. The
organism gained nitrogen, which is in accord with von Noorden's theory that leucae-
mia is not a toxigenic protoplasm disturbing disease.
EXPERIMENTS WITH SUBJECTS SUFFERING FROM DISEASES OF THE
KIDNEYS.
In Table 23 are included 97 tests with men, 6 with women, and 6
with children, in which the subjects were suffering from nephritis, alba-
menuria, Bright's disease, amyloid diseases, or contracted kidney. In
these experiments special questions were investigated — i'or instance,
the effect of the disease on the metabolism and assimilation of nitro-
gen, or the effect of some particular treatment on tbe condition of the
subject.
DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS.
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DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 245
Nos. 2060-i2074 were made by Dashkevich in St. Petersburg in 1888. The object
was to stndy the metabolism of nitrogen in subjects with heart disease in the period
of deranged compensation. Five experiments are described. All- the subjects were
more or less seriously afflicted with heart disease. Each experiment was divided into
two or three periods. In one period the subjects received no special treatment. In
the other periods they were given the usual treatment which their symptoms seemed
to demand^ either tincture of strophantBus, digitalis, cafteinum natro-salicylium,
or tepid Nauheim baths. The food consisted of bread, meat, milk, etc. The separa-
tion of the feces was made with blackberries. The nitrogen of the food, urine, and
feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin method, and the nitrogen of the urea
by Borodin's method, having first removed the extractives by By assents method. The
uric acid was determined in the first 4 experiments by the Haycraft-Ludwig
method and in the fifth experiment by Haycraft's method.
The following conclusions were reached ; In the periods with no special medical
treatment the metabolism of nitrogen decreased and the ratio of the nitrogen of the
extractives to that of the urea (1:14) was larger than normal.
When digitalis was given the metabolism increased in every case, i. e., the excre-
tion of the cleavage products of protein was increased. This may perhaps explain
the favorable action of digitalis on patients with heart disease.
The changes in metabolism due to tincture of strophanthus were contradictory.
No conclusions can be drawn regarding the effect of caffeinum natro-salicylium,
which was administered in only one case.
The influence of the tepid artificial Nanheim baths on metabolism varied in differ-
ent cases, though on the whole the subjects were benefited. The author believes
that these baths are permissible in heart diseases, though not in severe cases.
Nos. 2075-2080 were made by Grassniann at the Charity Hospital in Berlin in
1886-87 to investigate the assimilation of food by subjects with disturbed circula-
tion. The subjects were hospital patients, 5 women and a man, who were suffering
from heart disease, which caused such disturbance of the circulation. The food con-
sisted of milk and white bread, and in some cases butter, meat, and eggs were also
consumed. The nitrogen and fat in the milk, the nitrogen and chlorin in the urine,
and the nitrogen, fat, and fatty acids in the feces were determined. The composition
of the meat and eggs was calculated from Voit's figures and the bread from Miiller's.
The separation of the feces was made wi th charcoal. Starch grains were not found in
the feces. The author therefore concludes that the absorption of carbohydrates
was not disturbed. The assimilation of nitrogen differed very little from the normal.
The assimilation of fat was diminished.
Nos. 2081-2084 were made by Schneider at the Charitd Hospital in Berlin in 1893-94.
The object was to investigate the nitrogen balance of persons with valvular disease
of the heart. The subjects were 3 women suffering from this disease. The food
consisted of a simple mixed diet. The compositicm of several articles — for instance,
milk, cocoa, sausage, and potato — was determined. The composition of meat, bread,
soup, and butter was calculated from analyses made by von Noorden, and the com-
position of eggs from Voit's figures. The separation of the feces was made with
charcoal. The nitrogen in the urine and feces and the fat in the feces were
determined.
The conclusion is reached that there is no tyj)ical relation of ttfe nitrogen balance
to disease of the heart. The changes in the individual experiments are discussed at
length.
Nos. 2085-2095 were made by Husche at the Charitd Hospital in Berlin in 1892-93
to study the nitrogen balance in various stages of heart disease. The subjects were
women suffering from some form of heart disease. The food consisted of a simple
mixed diet of milk, meat^ eggs* t^tc. The nitrogen in the milk was usually deter-
mined. The nitrogen, fat, and carbohydrates in the porridge, veal, and sausage
were determined. The composition of other articles of food was calculated from
yon Noorden's and from Konig's iigures. The urine and feces were analyzed.
252
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DISEASES OP THE KIDNEYS. 255
Nos. 2105-2114 were made by Korkounov at St. Petersburg in 1886 ( ?). The object
was to study the influence of a sudorific treatment on metabolism and the assimila-
tion of the protein of milk in chronic inflammation of the kidneys.
Persons were selected as subjects who had well-defined chronic inflammation of
the kidneys and anarsaca as a prominent symptom. Four experiments were made,
each divided into two periods. During the experiment the subjects received milk
exclusively. Before the experiment they received the milk, white bread, and cut-
let. The nitrogen of the milk, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-
Borodiu method. The albumen in the urine was estimated by the gravimetric
method. The sudorific treatment consisted of baths. During the last period of
each experiment two baths of 40"^ C. and 15 to 25 minutes' duration were given daily.
After the bath the subjects were wrapped in blankets.
The following conclusions were reached : The weight of the subjects decreased
during both periods. At the same time the dropsy diminished. In two cases on the
last day of the experiment the dropsy had entirely disappeared and the weight of
the patients increased a little.
The assimilation of the milk varied considerably in different subjects, the limits
being 82.57 per cent and 93.83 per cent.
The more developed the dropsy the poorer the nitrogen assimilation. Under the
inflncnce of the baths the assimilation improved in every case. The limits were 86
and 95.39 per cent. During the first period the subjects not only maintained a nitro-
gen equilibrium, but even gained some nitrogen. Under the sudorific treatment a
still greater amount of nitrogen was retained.
Nos. 2115-2138 were made by Grigoriev in St. Petersburg in 1888. The object was
a study of the quantitative and qualitative metabolism of nitrogen in diseases of
the kidneys. The subjects were men suffering from some form of kidney disease.
Five experiments are described. The general plan followed waste keep the patients
on an absolute milk diet or a bread and milk diet for several days, this period being
preceded and followed by a period on mixed diet. The nitrogen of the food, urine,
and feces was determined by the KjeldAhl- Borodin method. During the last 4 days
the subject of Nos. 2115-2117 was given warm baths.
The subject of experiment Nos. 2120-2132 was under observation 40 days. During
this time he received alternately a mixed diet and one of milk with bread. The med-
ical treatment consisted of hot baths and digitalis and similar drugs. The patient
died.
The subject of experiment Nos. 2126-2138 was treated with vichy and lithium bro-
mid solution and baths of 30^ C. He died some months after the conclusion of the
experiment.
The author's general conclusions are as follows:
The qualitative metabolism of nitrogen in nephritic subjects is inferior to that of
healthy subjects, while the quantitative metabolism of nitrogen is sometimes inferior
and sometimes superior. Many conditions influence this change.
The absolute quantities of uric acid and extractives in the urine of nephritic sub-
jects are not lower than in healthy persons, but the relative amounts are higher than
the normal.
The excretion of uric acid and extractives in the urine of nephritic subjects does
not stand in either direct or inverse relation to the outgo of urea. This indicates
that these substances are formed by independent processes in the body.
The excretion of uric acid in the urine of nephritic subjects fluctuates leas than
that of extractives.
The individuality of the subject and the peculiarities of the disease materially
influence the changes in the metabolism of nitrogen in diseases of the kidneys. This
accounts for the contradictory results obtained by various investigators.
Nos. 2139-2180 were made by Prior in Bonn ( ?), in 1889-90, to study the influence of
the consumption of albumen upon the functions of the kidneys. The subjects were
sofferiDg from some disease of the kidneys which caused an excretion of albumen in
the orine. The food consisted of bread, meat, milk, potatoes, a^wvL ^^%^«
256 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
The subjects consumed a diet with a moderate amoaot of protein for a few days,
then for a short period the amount of protein was considerably increased by adding
eggs to the dietary. The ordinary diet was then resumed. In most cases, trials
were made in which the subjects consumed cooked or raw eggs alone. These periods
were also preceded and followed by periods with the usual diet. The nitrogen in
the food was cither determined or calculated from Konig's tables. The nitrogen in
the urine and feces was determined and also the albumen, uric acid, phosphoric
acid, and in some cases the urea and sulphuric acid in the urine.
The author concludes that coagulated egg albumen consumed with other food or
alone does not cause an excretion of albumen in the urine in healthy subjects, nor
does it have any bad effect on subjects with albuminuria. When raw egg albumen
is consumed with other food it does not usually cause an excretion of albumen in
the urine of healthy individuals, and is also harmless for subjects with albuminuria.
When raw egg albuint^n alone is consumed it often causes an excretion of albumen
in the urine of healthy individuals and increases the excretion of albumen in sub-
jects suffering from albuminuria. The results vary considerably, however, with
different forms of kidney disease.
The article contains many references to previous work, and much matter interest-
ing from a medical standpoint.
Experiments were also made with dogs, rabbits, and guinea pigs, and with healthy
men. They were not complete metabolism experiments and therefore are not
included in the present compilation.
Nos. 2181-2185 were made by P. Miiller at the Charity Hospital in Berlin in 1890
to study the metabolism of nitrogen in chronic nephritis. The subject was a maid
servant — a patient in the hospital — suffering from this disease. Throughout the
whole exi)6rimeut the food was a simple mixed diet eonsisting of bread, meat, soup,
potatoes, etc., varied somewhat from day to day. The experiment was divided into
four periods. In Nos. 2181, 2183, and 2185 the diet contained an abundance of nitrogen,
and in No. 2182 a limited amount. An interval of several weeks separated Nos. 2183
and 2185. At this time the subject manifested symptoms of granular atrophy of
the kidneys. The feces were separated by means of charcoal. The nitrogen in the
food was calculated from Klemporor's compilation,' which includes many analyses
of foods served in the (,'haritd Hospital. The nitrogen in the feces was determined
by the Kjeldahl- Borodin method, and the urea in the urine by the Liebig-Pfliiger
method. The albumen in the urine was estimated by means of Esbachscher's alba-
minimeter.
The following conclusions were drawn: Generally speaking, during the earlier
stages of the disease the subject gained nitrogen, provided the amount consumed
exceeded 9 or 10 grams daily. This gain was observed even when the quantity of
urine was large. It was possible by diminishing the amount of protein consumed
to prevent a gain of nitrogen, provided the excretion of urine was not excessive.
When the symptoms of granular atrophy occurred less nitrogen was retained than
before, the amount being inversely proportional to the quantity of urine excreted.
When 18.8 grams of nitrogen was consumed daily it was not possible to store up
nitrogen if the excretion of urine was correspondingly large.
The author discusses the experiments at length from a medical standpoint, with
special reference to nriemia.
Nos. 2186-2191 were made by von Noorden and Ritter in Professor Gerhardt's clinic
in Berlin in 1890-91. The object was to investigate (1) the absorption of nutrients;
(2) to see if a change in the composition of the diet had an effect on the action of the
kidneys, and (3) to see if albuminuria was influenced by the diet. The subjects
were 3 women suffering from some form of kidney disease. The food consisted of a
simple mixed diet. The protein was furnished. by various combinations of meat,
milk, and eggs. The supj)osition [of the (compilers] is that the nitrogen and fat were
^Grundriss de klinischen Diagnostik.
DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS. 257
determined in the food and feces, and the nitrogen, albumen, and, in some cases,
phosphoric tusid in the urine. In discussing the outgo of nitrogen in the urine in one
of the experiments (No. 2191) the author divides the whole time— 24 days — into five
periods, while in the statements concerning the food and feces the whole time — 27
days—is divided into six periods. It is presumable that the last 24 days are those
which correspond to the days on which the outgo of nitrogen in the urine is given.
They were divided into periods of 5, 4, 4, 6, and 5 days' duration, respectively. The
nitrogen consumed was derived from milk and eggs in the first period; from meat,
milk, and eggs in the second and fourth periods ; from milk in the third period ; and
from milk and meat in the fifth period. Baths which induced sweating were given
in the last period.
When the balance of income and outgo is computed on the above basis the
results obtained differed somewhat from those given by the authors. The figures
are therefore not quoted in detail, since it was not certain that the periods in which
income and outgo were recorded coincided, as was assumed above.
The conclusion was reached that in kidney disease the amount of nutrients excreted
in the feces does not differ in any regular way from that in health. The form in
which protein was consumed had no influence on the action of the kidneys. No con-
clusion was drawn regarding the influence of the diet on albuminuria. The article
contains much matter which is interesting from a medical standpoint.
Nos. 2192-2203 were made by Mann at the first medical clinic of the University
of Berlin in 1890-91 to investigate the excretion of nitrogen in subjects with diseases
of the kidneys. The opinions of a number of earlier investigators on this subject
are quoted. Some of the experiments are referred to in detail. As shown by these
citations, the opinion is quite general that acute nephritis diminishes the excretion
of nitrogen .
The author reports experiments with 4 men. L., 45 years old, was sufteriug from
chronic nephritis; N., 54 years old, and H., 29 years old, from sclerosis of the kid-
neys, and M., 26 years old, from amyloid degeneration of the kidneys. L., M., and
N. had more or less pronounced edema or anasarca. N. died shortly after the close
of the test. H. had a very severe attack immediately before the test. With the sub-
jects L. and N., periods on a mixed diet were followed by jjeriods on an absolute milk
diet. The mixed diet consumed by L. was believed to furnish as much protein and
energy as was required, since the subject remained in bed during the test. The milk
diet furnished considerable less protein and energy. The mixed diet consumed by
X. was similar in kind and amount to that which he was accustomed to. If. and M.
('onsamed a simple diet of milk, rolls, and eggs. All the subjects Avere given char-
coal emulsion to facilitate the separation of the feces. The nitrogen in the urine
and feces, and in all the articles of food except butter, was determined bj^ the Kjel-
dahl method. The nitrogen in the butter was calculated from Kijnig's figures. The
Albumen in the urine was usually determined by an Essbach albuniinimeter, and
Sometimes by weighing the precipitated albumcm. The nitrogen was always doter-
tiined in two samples of urine, the albumen in one sample being first removed by
I^recipitation with acetic acid. The author calculated the amount of albumen
J^resent in the urine by multiplying the difference in the nitrogen content of the two
Samples by 6.25. The results when albumen was thus determined were found to
^^ee very closely with those obtained by precipitation and weighing, and were
^=Oore uniform than those obtained by using the Essbach albmuiniuieter. In every
^ase the outgo of nitrogen was less than the income; that is, some nitrogen was
^"tored in the body. This was particularly noticeable with the subject of Xos. 21112-
^196 in the periods on an absolute milk diet, when the food furnished less nitrogen
^»nd energy than it was believed the subject would reciuire under normal conditions.
From the experiments as a whole, the conclusion was drawn that in diseases of the
Icldneys nitrogen equilibrium can be reached when only a small amount of nitrogen
^8 consumed. If the amount of nitrogen consumed is increased, tht^re is usually a
749— No. 45 17
258 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
considerable retention of nitrogen, which is stored up in the edema. If the amount
of nitrogen consumed is diminished, the amount excreted increases until nitrogen
equilibrium is reached. The retention of nitrogen sometimes causes uraemia.
Nos. 2204-2207 were ma-de by Korublum in the Moabit Hospital in Berlin in 1892 ( ?).
Some of the analytical work, i. c, on the feces, was done in the laboratory of the
Pathological Institute. The object of the experiments was an investigation of nitro-
gen metabolism in man where the kidneys were diseased. In speaking of metabolism
in disease the author says, in effect, tliere are many diseases, particularly those of a
more or less morbid nature, which drugs do not permanently relieve. In such cases
the most important thing is to so arrange the diet that the subject may be main-
tained in a well-nourished condition as long as possible, and to better his condition
if he is not well nourished. Investigators have given attention chiefly to protein,
since it is well known that while fat and carbohydrates may replace each other, oi
nnder certain conditions be omitted altogether, some protein is absolutely essential.
The smallest quantity of protein which in combination with fat and carbohydrates
will serve for the needs of the body is called ** protein for maintenance.''
The subjects in Kornblum*s experiments were 2 patients in the Moabit Hospital,
one suffering from chronic nephritis and the other from amyloid degeneration of
the kidneys and phthisis. These men were chosen because it seemed desirable to
select subjects suffering from some form of Bright's disease. For purposes of com-
parison with a normal individual several series of experiments were made, in which
the investigator was himself the subject. The results could not be included in the
present compilation, since they were not reported with suflicient detail. In the
experiments made with the men suffering from kidney disease the nitrogen in all
the food except m(^at and eggs was determined. For the nitrogen of meat Volt's
value, 3.4 per cent, was used. The fat in the meat was calculated from Konig's
figures. The nitrogen and fat in the eggs were calculated from values given by
Voit. The carbohydrates, fat, alcohol, and fuel value in the various articles of food
were calculated from the best available data. The urine was boiled with a little
acetic acid; the albumen was filtered off and determined. The nitrogen and phos-
phoric acid in the urine and the nitrogen in the feces were determined also. Ii^
No. 2207 the nitrogen in the sputa was determined.
The principal conclusion from these exp(^riments was that there is no diminutionM^
in the amount of nitrogen excreted due to nephritis, although the nitrogen metabo —
lism is much retarded by it.
Nos. 2208-2212 were made by Baginsky in Berlin in 1891-92. The object of thes.^
experiments was to study the pathology of the kidneys during childhood. The 8ut» —
jects were young girls. Those in Nos. 2208-2211 were patients in the Emperor an ^3L
Empress Frederick Hospital suffering from nephritis or other disease which oaus^^fl
albumen in the urine. The Hubject of No. 2212 had diabetes mellitus. In Nos. 220^ —
2210 the food consisted of milk. In No. 2211 of milk, bread (semmel), and rice, ar* ^
in No. 2212 of meat and eggs, bouillon, cheese, butter, etc., and a little coarse bresfc-cl
and spinach. Coffee, red wine, and Carlsbad Miilhbrun water were used as bev^ im-
ages. The nitrogen in food, urine, and fences was determined.
From the first 4 experiments (Nos. 2208-2211) the conclusion is drawn that in sa <5li
diseases the kidneys do not excrete nitrogen as well as in health. This tendency csa^iif
however, be overcome. The greater part of the nitrogen in the urine is in the form
of urea.
The discussion of the experiments is largely from a medical standpoint.
EXPERIMENTS WITH SUBJECTS SUFFEBINa FROM DISEASES OF THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Ill Table 24 are included 14 tests with women suffering from hysteria.
The special questions investigated are noted in the text accompanying
the table.
DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
259
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260 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
No8. 2213, 2214 were made by Bleibtreu at the laboratory of the Physiological Insti-
tute in Bonn in 1887 ( ?). The object of the investigation was to observe the effect
of the Weir-Mitchell cure on metabolism. The Weir-Mitchell cure, which is rec-
ommended for cases of hysteria, consists in increasing very greatly the food con-
sumption, particularly the protein, and at the same time employing massage. In
such treatment it was by no means certain that the increased food was digested and
benefited the organism. The subject was a woman, 1.66 meters tall. She had been
ill for many years with an irritation of the spine, which caused hysteria. With great
difficulty, she could walk a few steps only. She spent most of her time in bed or
lying on a couch. She ate very little and had a very marked nervous dyspepsia.
Part of the spinal region was very tender and the subject could not endure the light.
She had no organic disease.
The food, which was very abundant, consisted of meat, milk, eggs, bread, potatoes,
vegetables, butter, zwieback, and cakes of some sort. No details of the daily food
consumption are given by the author. The protein of the food was estimated from
Konig's tables. The nitrogen in the urine was determined. The urine was collected
for several days, jihenol being added as a preservative, and samples were taken for
analysis. The nitrogen in the feces was determined on 4 days and the mean value,
7.57 per cent, taken as representing the percentage of undigested protein in the
feces during the whole period.
At the close of the experiment the patient was in good health and could walk
several hours per day. The lameness in the back had disappeared. She had gained
15.84 kilograms in weight, and the author calculated that 7,414 kilograms of this
was muscular tissue. The Weir Mitchell cure in this case was certainly beneficial.
Nos. 2215-2218 were made by Popov in &t. Petersburg in 1889. i he object was to
study the influence of hysteria on metabolism. The subject was a girl who suffered
from hysterical paralysis, local ana>sthesis, hypenesthesis, etc. The experiment
lasted 7 days, and was divided into three periods, the first with an exclusive milk diet,
the second with a diet largely of animal food, and the third with a fish and vegeta-
ble diet. The patient remained in bed during the experiment. During the period
with the animal food (chiefly meat powder) the patient was forced to eat a consid-
erable amount.
The nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-
Borodin method, the urea by Borodin's method.
The author had no data which would enable him to compare the metabolism of th^
patient while suff^ering with hysteria with her metabolism in health. He endeav —
ored, therefore, to compare the results obtained by him with the results ordinariljr^"
accepted for a girl of 18 years in normal health. He draws the following concju
sions: The practical interest in this experiment lies not only in the lowered nntri
tion, which suggests somewhat that of hibernating animals, but in the fact that th^^
nutrition can be so easily improved by artificial and copious feeding. A forced di^^*
appears to be beneficial in cases of enfeebled nervous functions where there is a tendIL—
ency in the organism to be maintained on a low level of metabolism.
Nos. 2219-2226. See Nos. 1955-1962, Table 19.
EXPERIMENTS WITH SUBJECTS SUFFERINO FROM DISEASES OF Hm.ZE
BONES.
In Table 25 are included 14 tests with men and 1 with a boy suffering
from diseases of the bones or from fractured bones. The special ques-
tions investigated are noted in the text accompanying the table.
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A DIQEST OP METABOLISM EXPEBIHENTS.
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DISEASES OF THE BONES.
263
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264 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPEBIMEKi i o.
No8. 2227-2241 were made by Raspopov in St. Petersburg in 1885. The object was
to study the assimilation of i)itro(;en and phosphoric acid in subjects with dis-
eases of the bones and in healthy subjects under similar experimental conditions.
Five experiments were made witli healtliy and 8 with diseased subjects. The latter
were persons with chronic diseases of the bones and with fractured bones. The food
consisted of meat, milk, white bread, and water. The nitrogen in the food, urine,
and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin method. The phosphoric acid in
the food, urine, and ash of the feces was determined by precipitating hot solutions
of the phosphoric acid with uranium acetate in the presence of acetic acid, using
potassium ferrocyanid as au indicator. To determine the phosphoric acid combined
witli alkaline earths 100 cubic centimeters of urine was treated with ammonia, to
2>recipitate the alkaline earths, and after 12 hours the precipitate was removed and
dissolved in citric acid. The hot solution was then treated with uranium acetate,
as above.
Tiie following conclusions were drawn : More nitrogen was assimilated by the sub-
jects with diseased bones than by those in normal health. The healthy subjects
excreted more nitrogen and phosphoric acid in the urine and more nnassimilated
phosphoric acid in the fect^s than the diseased subjects — that is, the diseased sub-
jects retained more nitrogen and phosphoric acid than those in health. The ratio of
total excrete<l phosphoric acid to phosphoric acid in combination with alkalies and
alkaline earths was nearly the same in the diseased and healthy subjects. In one
instance the metabolism of nitrogen of a subject with fractured bones was increased,
and considerably more nitrogen- was excreted in the urine and feces than was con-
sumed in the food. The nitrogen metabolism of the other subjects with fractured
bones did not show any variation from that of healthy subjects, and the variations in
the assimilation of phosphoric acid were not uniform.
EXPERIMENTS IN TVHICH THE BALANCE OF NITROGEN AND
CARBON "^AS DETERMINED.
In the preceding groups have been considered the experiments in
which the balance of income and outgo of nitrogen was determined
with or without the balance of phosphorus or other mineral matter.
These experiments admit among other things of deductions concerning
the gain or loss of nitrogenous tissues by the subject and the fitness of
various forms of diet for the subject under different conditions. If the
gain or loss of fatty tissue is to be taken into account also, the balance
of carbon with or without that of oxygen and liydrogen must be meas-
ured, since this is the characteristic element of fatty tissue. A large
proportion of the carbon excreted by the body is in the form of carbon
dioxid of the respired air. In order to determine the amount of carbon
.dioxid excreted the amount and composition of the air must be deter-
mined before and after its respiration. This requires apparatus of a
special kind, to which the name respiration apparatus has been applied.
Various forms of respiration apparatus have been devised by a num-
ber of investigators. They may perhaps for convenience be divided
into three classes: (1) Those in which the subject remained in a closed
chamber and was supplied with oxygen to take the i)lace of that with-
drawn from the air by the processes of respiration. The air in the
chamber was analyzed at the beginning and end of the experiment.
(2) Those in which the subject remained in a chamber supplied with a
current of air, which was measured and analyzed as it entered and left
the chamber. (3) Those in which the subject was not in a closed
chamber, but was provided with apparatus which permitted the meas-
urement and analysis of the inspired and expired air and the determi-
nation of the respiratory quotient. In several instances the last two
forms have been combined.
A summary of the methods and results of respiration experiments,
including those with man, to about the year 1882, with descriptions of
the apparatus employed, has been prepared by Zuntz.^ Since that
time different forms of apparatus have been devised or the older forms
have been modified, and a large number of experiments have been
carried out with man and the lower animals. Many were of the class
in which the respiratory quotient was determined and not the balance
of income and outgo of carbon.
EESPIRATION EXPERIMENTS.
In Table 26 are included 63 tests with men, 1 with a woman, and 1 with
a child, in which the balance of income and outgo of nitrogen and car-
bon, and sometimes also of oxygen, hydrogen, and ash, was determined.
The majority of these experiments were made with a respiration appa-
ratus. In some of the earlier experiments, however, the balance of
carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen was computed, and not determined. The
special form of respiration apparatus used and the questions studied
are described in the text to the individual experiments.
* Herrmann's Handbucli der PhyHiologie, vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 86-162.
A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
°
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EXPERIMIiNTS IN V7HICH THE BALANCE OF NITROGEN AND
CARBON "^AS DETERMINED.
In the preceding groups have been considered the experiments in
which the balance of income and outgo of nitrogen was determined
with or without the balance of pbospliorus or other mineral matter.
These experiments admit among other things of deductions conceruing
the gain or loss of nitrogenous tissues by the subject and the fitness of
various forms of diet for the subject under different conditions. If the
gain or loss of fatty tissue is to be taken into account also, the balance
of carbon with or without that of oxygen and liydrogen must be meas-
ured, since this is the characteristic element of fatty tissue. A large
proportion of the carbon excreted by the body is in the form of carbon
dioxid of the respired air. In order to determine the amount of carbon
dioxid excreted the amount and composition of the air must be deter-
mined before and after its respiration. This requires apparatus of a
special kind, to which the name respiration apparatus has been applied.
Various forms of respiration apparatus have been devised by a num-
ber of investigators. They may perhaps for convenience be divided
iuto three classes: (1) Those in which the subject remained in a closed
chamber and was supplied with oxygen to take the i)lace of that with-
drawn from the air by the processes of respiration. The air in the
chamber was analyzed at the beginning and end of the experiment.
(2) Those in which the subject remained in a chamber supplied with a
current of air, which was measured and analyzed as it entered and left
the chamber. (3) Those in which the subject was not in a closed
chamber, but was provided with apparatus which permitted the meas-
urement and analysis of the inspired and exi)ired air and the determi-
nation of the respiratory quotient. In several instances the last two
forms have been combined.
A summary of the methods and results of respiration experiments,
including those with man, to about the year 1882, with descriptions of
tlie apparatus employed, has been prepared by Zuntz.^ Since that
time different forms of apparatus have been devised or the older forms
have been modified, and a large number of experiments have been
carried out with man and the lower animals. Many were of the class
in which the respiratory quotient was determined and not the balance
of income and outgo of carbon.
EESPIRATION EXPERIMENTS.
In Table 26 are included 63 tests with men, 1 with a woman, and 1 with
^ child, in which the balance of income and outgo of nitrogen and car-
bon, and sometimes also of oxygen, hydrogen, and ash, was determined.
t'he majority of these experiments were made with a respiration appa-
ratus. In some of the earlier experiments, however, the balance of
^arbon, oxygen, and hydrogen was computed, and not determined. The
^I)ecial form of respiration apparatus used and the questions studied
are described in the text to the individual experiments.
* Heirmann's Handbuch dor Physiologic, vol. 4, No. 2, pi). 86-162.
2(>5
266
A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
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276 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
Nos. 2242-2246 were made by Barral, in Paris, in 1847 and 1848. The objects were
an investigation of the r61e of salt in the organism and a study of the metabolic
balance. The former point will not be dlscnssed in this abstract. The anther
believed that, the amount and elementary composition of the liquid and solid matter
consumed daily being known, it was necessary also to determine the amount and
elementary composition of the excreta (including respiratory products) in order to
make a comparison of the income and outgo of the organism.
The subjects were the investigator, his young son, a laboratory servant, and a
young woman. The food in these experiments consisted of a mixed diet, which
included meat, bread, butter, milk, potatoes, etc. The greatest care was used in the
preparation of the food. The food and drink, urine, and feces were weighed and
the total solids, the water, carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, chlorin, and ash in
each were determined by analysis. The methods followed in determining mineral
matter and water were essentially the same as now used.. The carbon, nitrogen,
hydrogen, and oxygen appear to have been determined by combustion, though the
fact is not stated. The respiratory products, perspiration, and inspired air were not
measured or analyzed. The amount of water excreted in the respiratory products
and perspiration was calculated from the excess of oxygen and hydrogen consumed
over that excreted in urine and feces. The carbon dioxid in the respiratory products
was computed from the similar excess of carbon. The excess of nitrogen consumed
over that in the urine and feces was supposed to be excreted in the perspiration and
respiratory products. These experiments were made in winter and summer in order
to eliminate the variation, if any, due to temperature.
In all of Barral's experiments the income of nitrogen was considerably greater
than the outgo in the urine and feces. This excess he considered to be a' respiratory
product, and his work is often cited in proof of the theory of the respiratory excre-"
tiou of nitrogen. In examining Barral's figures, before inserting them in the present
compilation, the nitrogen in the meat, as given by him, was multiplied by 6.25, the
protein factor ordinarily accepted. In almost every case the protein thus obtained,
was equal to or greater than the total meat as given by Barral. Since all meat con-
tains water and fat as well as protein, BarraFs figures for consumed nitrogen are evi-
dently too high. The total nitrogen in the meat in the 5 days of No. 2242, for
instance, as given by Barral, is 85.9 grams. The amount obtained, if Konig's fig-
ures are used to compute it, is 68.1 grams. In the case of bread, butter, milk, cheese,
etc., there is almost no variation between the amounts Barral gives and those which
would be obtained by computation with the aid of Konig's figures. It is evident
that no conclusions regarding respiratory nitrogen can be drawn from these experi-
ments, since the consumed nitrogen, as given by the author, is much too high.
An interesting conclusion reached by the author is that a man radiates 30,000 units
of heat per day in summer and 42,000 units per day in winter. These values were
obtained by calculation.
BarraPs work is interesting to-day from an historical standpoint. It is the first
attempt which has been found by the compilers to determine the complete metaholie
balance of matter for man in terms of the elements. It is not surprising that errors
in the analytical work should be found, for methods of analysis were not perfected
when this work was done.
An extended historical account of views regarding metabolism of man and animab
is included in Barral's work.
Nos. 2247-2249 were reported by Hildesheim in 1856 and form part of an extended
study of the problems relating to the food of man. It would seem that part of
the figures in Nos. 2247 and 2248 were obtained from actual experiments, A^d
the rest obtained by the author from calculations based on available data. No. 2249
is the result of calculations based on Barral's and similar work. The subject of No^
2247 and 2248 was a soldier. The diet consisted of bread, meat, butter, peas, etc., io
both cases and was somewhat more abundant in the latter. In the author's opinion
nitrogen was excreted in the respiratory products and perspiration, and in ***
RESPIRATION EXPERIMENTS. 277
the experiments the calculated valaes for such excretion are included, the amount
being equal to the excess of consumed nitrogen over that excreted in the urine and
feces. In No. 2247 the diet was considered insufficient, and it was the author's opin-
ion that some of the muscular tissue of the organism was metabolized. The amount
and its composition was calculated. In No. 2249 the daily excretions of a healthy
man are calculated as well as the diet which would suffice to cover the outgo. The
figures are included here because they are referred to by Voit in discussing the
probability of a respiratory excretion of nitrogen. Although the author believes in
the possibility of respiratory nitrogen^ yet the amount he considers to be excreted in
this way is very small, namely, 0.015 gram out of a total of 18.094 grams consumed.
The nitrogen excreted through the skin is given at 1.399 grams, or 8 per cent of the
total.
The author made calculations similar to No. 2249 for a man on a vegetable diet, on
a diet of animal food, fasting, etc. In these approximations the composition of the
food was calculated from analyses made by Bidder and Schmidt, Berzelins, Playfair,
Boussingault, etc. These approximations all include calculations for the balance of
nitrogen, carbon, water, hydrogen, oxygen, and ash. It is noticeable that the factor
which must be used to reduce nitrogen to protein is not the same in every case.
Hildesheim*s publication is a very complete compendium of early analytical data.
Noe. 2250-2255 and Nos. 398-406, Table 7, were made by Ranke in the laboratory
of the Physiological Institute in Munich in 1862, to study the metabolism of nitrogen
md carbon in man under various dietary conditions. The investigator was himself
the subject. In Nos. 2250-2252 he was fasting ; in Nos. 2254, 405, and 406 the diet con-
UBted of meat and fat, and in Nos. 2255 and 398-403 a mixed diet was followed. The
food, urine, and feces were analyzed. In the experiments in which the respiratory
products were measured the apparatus and experimental methods of Pettenkofer and
Yoit were used. Ranke was the first person to enter the Pettenkofer respiration
apparatus for experimental purposes.
Among the principal conclusions reached were the following : It is possible to so
arrange a mixed diet that the daily excretion of nitrogen in the urine and feces will
jiu»t equal the amount consumed; but nitrogen equilibrium is not reached unless the
food contains sufficient carbon as well as nitrogen. A constant ratio between the
nitrogen and carbon in the food is not necessary for nitrogen equilibrium. When
the food is insufficient the excretion of nitrogen in the urine and feces is greater
than the amount consumed, and this would be the case whether nitrogen or carbon
were lacking in the food. When fasting the nitrogen excretion diminishes more rap-
idly than the carbon excretion.
On a diet of meat and fat the subject lost weight. This diet did not supply suffi-
cient carbon. Consuming large quantities of meat caused digestive disturbances,
^ben the diet contained no protein the amount of nitrogen excreted in the urine
was somewhat less than during fasting. This diet only slightly increased the excre-
tion of carbon. The weight of the body is not a direct measure of its condition as
regards nutrition, owing to the fact that more or less water is contained in the tissues
Atdiflferent times. The experiments and the deductions drawn from them are dis-
I ^^aed at length both in the publication cited and in a later publication.'
Koe. 2256-2268 were made by Pettenkofer and Voit in the laboratory of the Physi-
^ogical Institute in Munich in 1866-67. The Pettenkofer respiration apparatus was
•"^ployed. The experiments form one of the most extended and important series of
. their kind yet published. The nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and the
^»ter, protein, fats, carbohydrates, and ash of the income and outgo were either
^termined or estimated. Twelve tests with a watchmaker (Nos. 2256-2267) and I
^»th a tailor (No. 2268) are reported.
^6 watchmaker was a strong, healthy man. The tailor was not robust. The
**«ta each lasted 24 hours.
1 Ranke, Die Emahrung des Menschen, Munich, 1876.
278
A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
In No8. 2256-2258 no food was consumed and no work was done. A little meat
extract was taken as a stimulant. In Nos. 5259-2281 the diet was moderate (mittlere
Ko8i) and no work was done. In Nos. 2262 and 2263 the same diet was followed bat
muscular work was performed. In Nos. 2264 and 2265 a dietary rich in protein was fol-
lowed and no work was done. In No. 2266 a diet which contained no protein was
consumed and no work was performed. In No. 2267 the diet was abundant. It was
divided into two parts, and half was consumed during the day and half during the
night. In No. 2268 the diet was medium (mittlere Kost) and no work was done.
On the days in which the watchmaker did no muscular work he passed the time
in reading, cleaning a watch, or other light occupation. The muscular work per-
formed consisted of turning a lathe, and was rather severe.
The food consumed was very carefully prepared, only such articles being used as
were believed to have a known, uniform composition. The meat used was beef,
which was prepared in Voit's customary way. All visible fat, connective tissue,
etc., were removed with scissors, and only what was considered to be pure muscle
was retained. This moat was weighed, then fried in a known quantity of fat, and
again weighed, the loss in weight being calculated as water. The milk used was
always from the same cow, the cow being kept on a uniform diet.
White of egg was either fried in a little fat or made into a sort of cak« with
starch, sugar, and a little fat. Soup was made from South American meat extract
(presumably Liebig's), salt, and water. It took the entire time of one man to
prepare, weigh, and cook the required amount of food. Analyses of these various
foods were not made — the composition was assumed from earlier analyses. The fol-
lowing table gives the values which were used:
Assumed composition of food materials.
Water-
free sub-
stance.
In water-free substance.
Food materials.
Water.
Carbon.
Hydro-
gen.
Nitro-
gen.
Oxygen.
Ash.
1
Lean beef (muscle nearly free
from fat)
Per cent.
24.10
13.32
53.65
12.92
92.95
Per cent.
75.90
80.68
46.35
87.08
7.05
Per cent.
12.52
7.13
24.37
7.05
73.43
76.50
37.42
42.10
19.50
2.49
Percent.
1.73
0.96
3.46
1.11
10.23
11.90
5.21
6.43
8.90
0.42
Per cent.
3.40
1.93
1.28
0.63
0.11
Per cent.
5.15
2.89
22.33
3.40
9.30
11.60
41.58
51.46
16.16
2.98
Percent.
I 30
White of este
41
Bread
2.21
Milk
0.73
Butter
Fat
Starch
84.21
15.79
Sugar .
Meat extract .r..r.x......r
G8.22
6.22
98.19
0.04
31.78
93.78
1.81
99.90
9.47
0.07
19.19
Beer
0.27
Salt
98.19
Water
0.04
The fact that the various articles of food were not analyzed is one of the weak
points in this investigation, for it has seemed to many critics that the analyses Yoit
depended upon in computing the composition of the food were not sufficiently
accurate. It was Voit's belief, however, that he and Pettenkofer actually succeeded
in preparing a diet which was practically unvarying, for under similar conditions
the following quantities of carbon dioxid and urea were excreted during equal periods
of time : In the breath 912, 943, and 930 grams of carbon dioxid, and in the urine
37.2, 35.4, and 37.3 grams of urea.
The nitrogen in the urine was calculated from the amount of urea as determined
by the Liebig titration method. The accuracy of the results is shown by Petten-
kofer and Volt in the following table, which gives the amount of nitrogen found by
RESPIRATION EXPERIMENTS.
279
this method and by elementary analysis of a considerable number of the specimens
collected during the exx>eriments :
Comparison of two methods of determining nitrogen.
July?
Do
Anenst 3 . . . .
December 11.
December 22.
Do
December 27.
Do
December 29.
Do
Jannary 2 ...
Do
January 4 . . .
Do
January 7 . . .
Do
Date.
1866-67.
Day or nii^^ht.
Day..
Night
Day ..
Night
Day ..
do
Night
Day..
Night
Day ..
Night
Day..
Night
Day ..
Night
Day..
Night
Amount
of nrine.
Nitrogen
calcu-
lated
from
urea.
Nitrosen
by ete-
mentary
analysis.
'ams.
Orams.
846
10.08
497
7.33
726
9.38
451
7.56
855
7.42
477
5.55
315
6.11
723
8.96
644
8.40
653
8.82
608
8.59
822
10.83
1,160
15.21
860
14.61
1.464
17.92
554
7.70
331
5.23
Grams.
10.12
7.24
9.41
7.85
6.97
5.91
6.35
8.22
8.52
8.49
^.39
10.50
15.50
14.90
17.40
7.43
5.13
The solid matter in the urine was determined by evaporating portions to dryness
with quartz sand. The ash was usually determined by extracting a weighed portion
of charred solid matter with hydrochloric acid until the weight was constant. Some-
times^ however, the charred mass was extracted with water, then burned in a crucible
until white, the water being added again, evaporated to dryness, and the total residue
weighed. Carbon and hydrogen were determined in a number of cases by elementary
analysis. This would also give oxygen by difference. The oxygen and hydrogen
computed from the water of the fresh sample were added to these values to give the
total consumed. It may be inferred, though it is not directly stated by the authors,
that complete analyses of the urine were not m ide for each day of the experiments,
but that the composition of urine from medium diet was determined, and this
assumed to be constant. Determinations of uric, sulphuric, and phosphoric acids
were also made in some cases. Usually each day the total urine and its content of
dry matter, ash, and sodium ohlorid seem to have been all that was actually deter-
mined.
The feces were collected each morning, it being assumed that the feces of a partic-
ular morning were due to the food consumed the preceding day. No charcoal, milk,
or other material was used to make a separation. The descriptions seem to imply
that the feces were analyzed once for all, and that the only determinations made each
day were the total weight, dry matter, and fat.
The subject was weighed at the beginning and end of each experiment. The bed-
clothing was also weighed night and morning, as it would absorb more or less per-
spiration.
The respiratory products were measured by means of the large Pettenkofer respira-
tion apparatus. This has been described in detail in a previous publication of this
Office. 1
Determinations of the volumes of air which left the respiration chamber were
made, and of the carbon dioxid, water, and methan and hydrogen which this air
contained. The carbon dioxid and water in the air which entered the respiration
chamber were also determined.
The main onrrent of air was drawn from near the bottom and top of the respira-
*U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 21, p. 107.
280 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
tion chamber by means of a pair of large (valve) air pumps. It passed first through
a large vessel containing pumice stone and water, in order that it might be saturated
with moisture and not absorb any from the large meter through which it was next
drawn to measure its volume. The air finally escaped through the air pumps. The
volume was 250 to 1^250 liters per minute. The gasometer was believed to be correct
to 1 part in 1,000.
Sample currents for analyses were drawn from the outside air close to where it
entered the respiration chamber, and from the large pipe just after leaving the
respiration chamber, in order to obtain as fair samples as possible of the air before
and after passing through the chamber. These sample currents first passed through
modified Liebig bulbs containing sulphuric acid, and a tube filled with pumice stone
and sulphuric acid, to absorb and measure the water. The air then passed through a
mercury pump, then through U-tubes containing water and pumice stone, in order
that it might be saturated with water and not take up any from the solution of
barium hydroxid through which it next passed, in order to absorb the carbon dioxid.
The barium hydroxid solution was contained in two Pettenkofer tubes. The air
finally escaped after passing through a small gasometer'. These sample currents
measured 80 to 90 cubic centimeters per minute; that is, about ji^ or less of the
respiratory current. The error in the measurement of this gasometer was believed
to be about 1 in 1,000. The first Pettenkofer tube contained barium hydroxid sola-
tion, of which 30 cubic centimeters were equivalent to 90 milligrams carbon dioxid,
the second a solution of which 30 cubic centimeters were equivalent to 30 milligrams
carbon dioxid. The solutions were titrated with oxalic acid at the end of the experi-
ment, to measure the quantity of barium hydroxid not combined with carbon dioxid.
-Tumeric paper was used as an indicator. The error in titration was less than iV^iiil-
ligram carbon dioxid. The error in measuring the total carbon dioxid produced in
the chamber was assumed to be less than one-half of 1 per cent of the whole, while
it was thought that the error iu determining the water might be as much as 6
per cent.
''The oxygen consumed from the air was calculated by taking the weight of the
income of food and drink from that of the outgo of urine, feces and respiratory prod-
ucts (CO2 and HjO) and then substracting the loss or adding the gain in weight of
the body. The error is believed to be not more than 8.5 per cent of the total oxygen.''
To determine the hydrogen and me than in the respired air a second sample was
taken as before, but previous to its passing through the sulphuric acid bulbs and
barium hydroxid tubes it was passed through a long tube containing red-hot platinum
sponge. The hydrogen and methan would thus be burned to carbon dioxid and
water. From the excess of carbon dioxid and water in this sample over the air
which was not passed over the platinum sponge the amount of methan and hydrogen
was calculated.
Nos. 2269-2274 were made by Pettenkofer and Volt at Munich in 1865-66. The
large respiration apparatus was used. The subject was a peasant who had been
accustomed to work in the fields. For some time before the investigation he had
been unjible to work much, but had an unusually good appetite. A difficulty of the
eyesight brought him to the notice of the physicians, and it was then found that he
was sufi'ering from diabetes mellitus. The analytical methods and details of the
experiments were the same as those in Nos. 2256-2268.
The diet consisted of bread, meat, etc. In No. 2269 no food was consumed. A lit
tie bouillon made from beef extract was, however, taken. In No. 2270 the diet w»8
mixed and very abundant. In No. 2271 the diet was medium {mittlere KosU) In
No. 2272 the diet contained no protein, and in No. 2273 no carbohydrates. No. 2274
was not a respiration experiment. The diet was rich iu protein and poor in carbo-
hydrates.
From these experiments the authors conclude that in cases of diabetes the amonnt
of protein and fat metabolized is abnormally large. Thus, in No. 2269, with no food,
the -subject, who weighed about 54 kilograms, lost nitrogen which was the equiva-
RESPIRATION EXPERIMENTS. 281
lent of. 326 grams of mosoalar tissue. Under similar coDditioDS, in No. 2256, the
healthy suhjeot, weighing 70 kilograms, lost nitrogen Tvhich was eqaivalent to the
same amoont of mosonlar tisane. Ranke (No. 2250) lost nitrogen equivalent to 262
grams, and the healthy hut poorly nourished tailor (No. 2268), weighing 54 kilo-
grams, lost nitrogen equivalent to 287 grams muscular tissue.
The mixed diet which was sufficient for the lahoring man weighing 70 kilograms
(No. 2262) was not sufficient for the subject with diabetes. He still drew upon the
£it and protein of his body.
It was only when the amount of protein consumed was very large, as in Nqs.
2273 and 2274, that the income of nitrogen was equal to the outgo.
The authors also thought that the diseased organism took less oxygen from the air
and excreted less earhon dioxid than the normal. Sugar was thought to be a decom-
position product of the protein. Sagar thus produced, as well as that consumed in
the food, could not be burned to carbon dioxid and water, as in a normal organism,
owing to the insufficient amount of oxygon. That is, in cases of diabetes it was
believed that there was a disturbance of the relation between the consumption
of oxygen and the amount of combustion.
Yoit^ did not hold this idea very long, for he found that under certain conditions
a person with diabetes could take as much oxygen from the air as a norma 1 indi-
vidual, and that the taking of oxygen from the air was a secondary process to com-
bustion in the organism.
At this time Voit held the opinion that possibly all the quantitative changes in
the metabolism of a person having diabetes could be explained on the ground that
sugar was no longer a nutrient. A healthy laborer who holds bis own with a mixed
diet would certainly lose protein and fat if carbohydrates equivalent to the sugar
excreted by a person with diabetes were removed from his diet.^
No. 2275 was made by Pettenkofer and Voit in the Munich laboratory in 1866. The
subject was a man suffering from leucocythsemia, a disease characterized by an
increase in the number of white corpuscles and a decrease in the number of red
corpuscles of the blood.
After a considerable number of experiments with healthy individuals had been
made it seemed desirable to the authors to study metabolism under the abnormal
conditions of disease, hence this experiment and Nos. 2269-2274 were made.
The large respiration apparatus was used, and all details of m<anipulation were
the same as in Nos. 2256-2268. A medium diet was followed, consisting of bread,
meat, milk, beer, etc. No muscular work was done.
The oonclusion is reached that the subject could utilize as much oxygen as a
normal individual under the same conditions.
The authors do not go so far as to say that the red corpuscles of the blood do not
unite with the oxygen of the air, or that the white corpuscles do this as well as the
red. They would rather emphasize the fact that the organism possesses a remark-
able power of accommodation in carrying on its functions normally under disturbing
•conditions.
No. 2276 was made by Hanriot and Richet in Paris in 1888. Considerable work
has been done by these iuvestigators. In most cases the object sought was the
respiratory quotient, i. e., the relation of expired carbon dioxid to iuspired oxygen.
The experiment quoted in the present compilation was described with very few
details.^ A natural inference seems to be that the subject was not confined in a
respiration chamber, but wore a sort of mouthpiece or mask, through which air was
inspired and expired, the nostrils being closed. The apparatus was provided with a
valve 8p that the inspired and expired air would always take the same course.
The inspired air passed through a gas meter of such accuracy that the total error
» Hermann's Hnndbuch der Physiologie, VI, p. 227.
« Ibid., p. 226.
» Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, 104 (1887), pp.435 and 1.327; 105 (1887), p. 76.
282 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
in measuring tlie air was belioyed not to exceed 50 cubic centimeters. After pass-
ing through the lungs it was expired and passed through a wash bottle which con-
tained a very little water. The air was thus cooled. It next passed through a
second gas meter, and then through a tube 1.5 meters long, which was filled with
broken glass, over which a spray or shower of potassium hydroxid solution was con-
tinually falling. This absorbed most of the carbon dioxid. The little which
remained was absorbed in a solution of barium hydroxid, through which the air next
passed on its way to a third gas meter. The difference in volume of the air which
passed through the first meter and the third meter evidently represents the amount
of oxygen consumed from the air (provided it all combined with oxygen and was
excreted as carbon dioxid). The difference between the volume of the air which
passed through the second and third meters showed the amount of carbon dioxid
produced.
This method seems to be very well adapted to certain lines of investigation. It is
evident that the value of the work depends entirely upon the accuracy of the gas
meters and the completeness of the absorption of carbon dioxid. In 10 experi-
ments by the authors in which a known quantity of carbon dioxid made from mar-
ble was passed with a large quantity of air through the absorbers the smallest error
was per cent and the largest 2.58 per cent. In the latter case the amount of car-
bon dioxid was 6,800 cubic centimeters and the amount of air 150 liters. The gas
meters were especially constructed and were believed to be very accurate.
In this experiment the food consisted of beef, bread, potatoes, cheese, etc. This
diet was followed for 15 days. It is not stated that the food was analyzed. The
carbon in the urine and feces was calculated. The nitrogen in the urine was deter-
mined. The authors assumed that no nitrogen is excreted in the feces.^ In insert-
ing the experiment in the present compilation, however, the amount of nitrogen in
the feces found in No. 2260, where the food wns similar, was inserted.
Nos. 2277-2302 were made by Atwater, Woods, and Benedict at Wesleyan Univer-
sity in 1895. The experiments were carried on by the Storrs Agricnltural Experi-
ment Station in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture and
Wesleyan University. The object was to study the metabolism of matter and energy
in man. In connection with the experiments the apparatus used was modified and
improved and experimental methods were elaborated. The results are regarded as
prelimiuary.
The subjects were a laboratory janitor, a chemist, and a physicist — all young men
in good health. The food consisted of a simple mixed diet, which was in every case
selected in accordance with the dietary habits of the subjects. A respiration appa-
ratus of special construction was used. It is similar to that of Pettenkofer and
Voit, with the addition of apparatus for measuring the energy liberated by the body
in the form of heat. The inside measurements of the respiration chamber are,
length 2.15 meters, width 1.22 meters, and height 1.92 meters. It is provided with
conveniences for sitting, sleeping, eating, and working, as well as arrangements for
ventilation and for the study of the respiratory products. The chamber consists, in
fact, of three concentric boxes, the inner one of metal and the two outer ones of
wood. The inner box is double walled, the inner wall being of sheet copper, tbe
outer of sheet zinc. The two walls are 8 centimeters apart. This double-walled
box is held in shape by a wooden framework between the two metal walls. The
four vertical comers are rounded, as this simplifies the construction and makes the
apparatus rather more convenient for use. The inside volume is approximately 4.8
cubic meters.
An opening in the front end of the metal chamber 70 centimeters high and 49
centimeters wide serves both the purpose of a window and a door for entrance and
exit. This is hermetically closed with a pane of glass secured in a wooden frame
with putty.
» Compt. Reud. Acad. Sci. Paris, 106 (1888), p. 420.
BEttPIRATION EXPERIMENTS. 283
A current of air is pumped through the apparatus and measured by special devices.
Samples of the incoming and outgoing air were taken for analysis. An inconvenient^
rise in temperature is prevented by a current of cold water which passes through a
system of pipes inside of the chamber. This device forms a part of the arrange-
ments for measuring the heat given off from the body. It is desirable to have the
incoming current of air as dry as possible. To reduce the water content to a mini-
mum the air which came from out of doors was dried before it entered the chamber
by surrounding a portion of the pipe through which it passed with a freezing mix-
ture of salt and ice. The bulk of the water in the incoming air was thus removed
and was weighed. The amount of water remaining in the incoming air and that in
the outgoing air was determined by passing the samples through U tubes filled with
pumice saturated with concentrated sulphuric acid. The carbon dioxid in the sam-
ples of air was determined by passing it through U tubes filled with soda lime. A
U tube containing glass beads drenched with barium hydroxid solution was also
used as a control. The experiments^ together with the apparatus used and methods
followed, are described in detail in Bulletin 44 of this Office and Connecticut Storrs
Station Report for 1896.
Full analyses were made of the food and excretory products. The determinations
of the balance of energy and hydrogen are not yet published.
In Nos. 2277-2279, with the janitor, the diet was rich in protein. No work was
performed. The organism stored protein and fat. In Nos. 2280-2282, with the same
subject, the diet was similar but less abundant. In this case the organism was very
nearly in equilibrium. There was a small loss of protein and a small gain of fat.
The diet of the chemist (Nos. 2283-2288) was somewhat less abundant than in the
preceding cases. The body was very nearly in nitrogen and carbon equilibrium,
though there was a small gain of protein and loss of fat. No muscular work was
performed.
The fourth experiment was divided into five periods (Nos. 2289-2302). In the first,
third, and fifth periods no work was performed. During the second period the sub-
ject was engaged in severe mental work, consisting in part of mathematical calcula-
tions. In the fourth period severe muscular work (raising and lowering a weight)
was performed. In all the periods there was a loss of fat and a slight loss of pro-
tein. When muscular work was performed the loss of fat was much greater than in
the other cases. So far as could be observed mental work did not iuflneuce the
metabolism of nitrogen and carbon.
In these experiments the subjects remained in tbe respiration chamber for compar-
atively long periods, yet no inconvenience was experienced. They were supplied
with from 49 to 55 liters, and in one instance 75 liters, of air per minute. It is ordi-
narily assumed that the maximum amount of carbon dioxid permissible in the air
of inhabited rooms should be about 2 milligrams of carbon dioxid per liter. In
these experiments the air in the respiration chamber contained on an average 10 to
12 milligrams of carbon dioxid per liter, and during periods of severe muscular
work the carbon dioxid rose to 24.6 milligrams per liter, yet no inconvenience was
experienced. In the authors' opinion this would indicate that the discomfort expe-
rienced in poorly ventilated rooms is not due to an excess of carbon dioxid.
The lag in the excretion of nitrogen in the urine and the gain or loss of fat are
discussed at considerable length.
Nos. 2303-2306 were made in 1897 at Middletown, Conn., by Atwater, Kosa, and
Benedict, with the apparatus described in the preceding series. The subject was
the laboratory janitor mentioned above. The respiration calorimeter had been some-
what modified. The details have, however, not been published. In connection
with the series here reported, and other unpublished experiments, check experi-
ments were made in which alcohol was burned in the respiration chamber. In these
exx>eriments, in addition to measuring the carbon and hydrogen produced, the heat
was also measured.
In each case the alcohol was burned for a time, generally from three to six hourp
284
A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
before tlie experiment proper began, the object being to get the temperature of the
interior of the apparatus, the moisture content of the air, and the moisture adhering
to the inner walls and the heat absorbers, as nearly as practicable, in equilibrium.
The attempt was made to have tbe temperature and moisture content of the air dur-
ing the last three to six hours of the experiment the same as in this preliminary
period, on the assumption that under these conditions the amounts of moisture in
the apparatus would be the same at both times. The quantities of water and carbon
dioxid in the air at the beginning and at the eud of the experiment were determined
in samples of about 10 liters drawn out for the purpose.
The apparatus and the conditions of the experiment were such as to permit reason-
able uniformity in the flow of the ventilating current of air through the chamber,
the rate of combustion of alcohol, the consequent production of carbon dioxid, wat«r,
vapor, and heat, and the temperature of the interior of the chamber. The follow-
ing figures show the results of determinations of the total amounts of carbon dioxid,
water, and heat produced, compared with the theoretical amounts:
Summary of resnUs of alcohol check experiments.
Carbon dioxid.
Pound.
1
2
3
4
Apr. 27-29, 1897.
May 10-11, 1897.
May 26-27,1897.
Nov. 2-3, 1897...
Dura-
tion.
Alco-
hol I
burned. Required.
h. m. Grams.
52 30 I 955.4
20 56
B3 50
35 09
798.8
505.4
788.2
Orams.
1,659.0
1, 387. 5
877.6
1,366.6
Chrams.
1, 657. 7
1. 385. 5
882.9
1. 374. 6
Water.
Required.
Grams.
1, 106. 4
924.8
585.3
912,4
Found.
Heat.
Required.
CHrams.
1,109.6
925.6
a 649. 7
920.9
Calories.
5, 499. 9
4, 556. 6
a 2, 882. 9
4, 488. 1
Found.
CaU.
5,380.1
4,558.8
2. 808. 5
4,478.8
a The excesB of water and deficiency of heat are assumed to be due to evaporation of water inside
the chamber.
Considered as results of analyses and of determinations of the heat of combustion
of etbyl alcohol the figures for experiments 1, 2, and 4 would compare with the
theoretical figures as follows :
Determinations of respiration calorimeter compared with theoretical figures for carbon and
hydrogen and heat of combustion of alcohol.
Carbon
Hydrogen
Heat of combustion
Experi-
ment 1.
Per cent.
52.12
13.08
98.70
Experi-
ment 2.
Per cent.
52.12
13. 05
100.00
Experi-
ment 4.
Per cent,
52.54
13.16
99.80
Average.
Per cent.
52.26
13.10
99.50
Theoreti*
cal.
Pereent.
52.17
13. M
100.00
The accuracy of the heat measurements of the respiration calorimeter was
tested by a number of experiments in which heat was given off by the use of an
electric current, the amount being determined by the resistance. The tests by the
electrical method showed much smaller variations from the theoretical standard
than those made by the combustion of alcohol within the chamber, the widest
variation being not more than one-half of 1 per cent.
EXPERIMENTS WITH ANIMALS.
Thirteen handred and sixty-two experiments, or about one-third of
the total number included in this compilation, were made with animals.
Some 600 of these were made with animals such as are fed for economic
purposes — cattle, sheep, swine, goats, and horses, about the same num-
ber with dogs, and a comparatively small number with doves and
poultry. Generally speaking, the same methods were followed as in
the experiments with man. Taking into account the very large num-
ber of feeding and digestion experiments with animals, the number in
which the balance of income and outgo has been determined is surpris-
ingly small. Very often the balance of income and outgo of nitrogen
could have been determined with little additional labor. Except in
a few instances, the animals used for experimental purposes were in
normal health.
EXPERIMENTS IN WHICH THE NITROGEN BALANCE WAS
DETERMINED.
In 1,156 of the experiments with animals the balance of income and
outgo of nitrogen, with or without mineral matter, was determined. In
the majority of cases with animals fed for economic purposes this bal-
ance was determined in connection with feeding and digestion experi-
ments. A few experiments were, however, made for the study of spe-
cial questions concerning metabolism. The majority of those for the
study of the general laws of metabolism were made with dogs. Tbey
were used generally because of their fitness for experimental jmrposes.
The range of size is such that a subject suited to a particular purpose
may be readily selected. Dogs may be trained to eat almost any food
for a longer or shorter period without serious inconvenience. A monot-
onous diet seldom causes lack of appetite, as in the case of man. The
excretory products may be readily collected, and when confinement in
a cage is a necessary experimental condition it has seldom proved so
irksome as to derange normal functions.
In this compilation the material has been so arranged that the exper-
iments with different kinds of animals are grouped in separate tables.
EXPBEIMENTS WITH CATTLE.
INFLUENCE OF FEEDING.
In Table 27 are included 19 tests with cows and 121 with steers. The
animals were all in health. In most cases the nitrogen balance was
determined in connection with digestion and feeding experiments, and
numerous special questions connected with the feeding and fattening
of cattle were studied.
285
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298 A DIGEST OP METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
No. 2307 was made by Boussingault in 1838. The object was to compare the food
and excretory products of a milch cow to see whether Herbivora derived nitrogen
from the air or not. The food consisted of potatoes and rowen. Elementary analy-
ses of food, urine, feces, and milk were made. Somewhat more nitrogen was excreted
than was consumed.
The conclusion was reached that it was extremely improbable that any nitrogen
was absorbed from the air during respiration.
The excretion of carbon and hydrogen was briefly discussed.
No. 2308 was made by Voit and his assistants in Munich in 1867, to study the
formation of fat from protein and the metabolism of nitrogen. The subject was
a cow. She had been previously fed meadow hay and meal, and the same feeding
stuffs were used during the test. Sufficient quantities of these two materials for
each of the 6 days were weighed out, the hay tied up in bundles, and samples taken
for analysis. The urine and feces were collected directly. The urine was thoroughly
mixed and samples taken for analysis each day. The urine was evaporated with
quartz sand, and the nitrogen in it and in the feces and milk determined by the
soda-lime method. The fat in milk, food, and feces was also determined. The nitro-
gen consumed during the whole period was 1,448.8 grams, the amount excreted,
1431.1 grams. The difference was 17.7 grams, or 1.2 per cent of the whole. This
difference is, in the author's opinion, within the limit of error, since in dealing
with such large quantities it is difficult to take samples for analysis which will
accurately represent the average composition.
No. 2309. See No. 2314.
Nos. 2310 and 2311 were made by Kiihn and Fleischer at the Experiment Station
at Mockern in 1867. The object was to study the formation of fat in the animal
organism. The subjects were 2 cows. Their food consisted of hay and starch.
The food, urine, feces, and milk were analyzed. No conclusion was reached concern-
ing the metabolism of nitrogen except that the subjects were in nitrogen equilibriani.
Nos. 2312 and 2313 were made by Fleischer at Hohenheim in 1870, and are quoted
by Henneberg, with no details.
Nos. 2314-2320 and 2309 were made by Kiihn and Pleischer at the Experiment
Station at Mockern in 1867-68. The object was to determine the influence of chang-
ing the food upon milk production and upon the digestibility of coarse fodder, and
also the changes produced by adding easily digested feeding stuffs to the ration.
The subjects were 2 cows, weighing about 399 and 383 kilograms, respectively. The
basal ration consisted of meadow hay. To this rape-seed meal with the oil extracted,
rape-seed oil, starch, or bean meal was added in several instances. The food, urine,
feces, and milk were analyzed.
The conclusion was reached that, generally speaking, all the nitrogen consumed
was excreted in the milk, urine, and feces. If this was not the case, it was because
nitrogen equilibrium was not reached before the experiment began. The nitrogen
balance is distmssed very briefly. The other points investigated are discussed at
length but c*re not quoted here.
This is the first of an extended series of investigations by Kiihn and his associates
in which the principal object was to get light upon the effect of food upon milk pro-
duction by cows. This was followed by experiments with steers, which culminated
in a series of respiration experiments which are described beyond (Nos. 3468-3499,
Table 38).
These experiments, taken together, make one of the most important series whicb
have been made with domestic animals.
No. 2321. This experiment, which was made at the New York State Station in 1883,
was reported by Sturtevant. It forms part of an extended feeding experiment with
4 cows. The results were calculated for 1 cow. The composition of the food was
determined, and it is probable that the nitrogen in the urine, feces, and milk was
calculated. The author states that the nitrogen gained' represents a gain of 1.5
pounds of flesh. The feeding experiments are discussed at length in the original
publication.
EXPERIMENTS WITH CATTLE. 299
No8. 2322 and 2323 were made by Emery and Kilgore at the Agricaltaral Experiment
Station in North Carolina in 1890 and 1891, in connection with a study of the diges-
tibility of cotton-seed hulls. The subject was a Jersey cow. The food consumed
consisted of cotton-seed meal and cotton-seed hulls. The composition of the food
and feces was determined, as well as the dry matter, nitrogen, phosphoric acid and
potash in the urine.
The conclusions drawn have to do with the special question under consideration.
Nos. 2324 and 2325 and Nos. 3454-3459, Table, 37 were made by Snyder at the Univer-
sity of Minnesota in 1893, in connection with a study of the digestibility of a num-
ber of feeding stuffs by milch cows and growing pigs. The composition of the food
and feces was determined, as well as the nitrogen in the urine.
The conclusions drawn from the experiments have to do with the digestibility of
the rations consumed and the gains in weight of the animals.
Nos. 2326-2339, 2340-2347, and 2402-2442 were made by Henneberg and associates
at the Experiment! Station at Weendo in 1858-1864, as part of an extended study of
the feeding of ruminants. The questions studied were (1) a maintenance ration for
full-grown cattle; (2) feeding value of beet molasses and the digestibility of wood
fiber; (3) feeding experiments with various kinds of coarse fodders; (4) feeding
experiments with various foods added to a ration of wheat straw and clover hay
(including experiments with molasses) ; and (5) digestibility of coarse fodder with-
out bean meal and with the addition of a small quantity of it. The subjects of
these experiments were steers weighing about 600 kilograms. The food, urine, and
feces were analyzed. This series of experiments forms one of the most extended and
valuable investigations which have been made on the feeding of cattle. The con-
clusions reached usually have to do with the special questions studied, and are not
quoted in detail.
Nos. 2348-2401 were made by Grouven at the Experiment Station at Salzmunde in
1861-1863. They form part of a very extended study of metabolism. The subjects
were steers. The water, fat, ash, crude fiber, nitrogen, carbon, and hydrogen in the
food and feces, and in some instances the ammonia in the feces, and the specific
gravity, dry matter, ash, free and combined carbon dioxid, hippuric acid, urea,
nitrogen, carbon, and hydrogen in the urine were determined. The soda lime method
was used for determining nitrogen. A number of special questions were studied.
In Nos. 2348-2351 the object was to see if nitrogen equilibrium could be reached
when a maintenance ration of hay was consumed for a long time. The experiment
lasted from December 1 to January 15, and was divided into four periods of 6, 8, 10, and
12 days, respectively. The time from December 28 to January 6 is not included in
the table, as the urine and feces were not analyzed. The daily ration consumed
during this time was 6,500 grams hay, and, in the author's opinion, nitrogen equi-
librium was then reached, since in the preceding period there was a small loss of
nitrogen and a gain in the following period. The total nitrogen consumed in experi-
ments Nos. 2348 and 2349 was 2,594.2 grams, and the total amount excreted in urine
and feces 2,617.3 grams, a difference of only 23.1 in 18 days. This experiment is
regarded by Grouven as proof that there is no excretion of nitrogen in the gaseous
excretory products, and also as confirming Bischoff and Voit's theory that the amount
of protein metabolized increases with an increased consumption of it. Other con-
clusions regarding digestibility, etc., were drawn.
In Nos. 2352-2357 the object was to study metabolism during fasting. The intes-
tinal tract of an ox retains food for several days. In the author's opinion the real
fasting does not begin until the fifth day after the last food is consumed. From the
(calculated) muscular tissue, fat, and mineral matter metabolized and the (calcu-
lated) heat produced, the author calculates by comparison the nutritive value of
straw.
The object of Nos. 2.358-2378 was to determine the nutritive value of straw. The
ration consisted of straw with a little salt. The balance of nitrogen and ash was
determined and the balance of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen calculated. The
300 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM ESPEEIMENT8.
umcmnt of tbesH eleiDents iu the reBpinLtoiy prodncts was obtained by sabtracting
tho anionnt L-Kcreted iu urrue and focea fW>m the (calculated) amonat I'onBnineil j:
food and tiHSuc. The rtsiilts of these esperiments were oompared with thoan obtained
when nil food was conHiimed. It was found that stravr protected much more i
tein than its content of dieeatibld protein wonld indicate pouible. [At the ti
these e!iperimeutB were made the theory of the isoily mimical valne of the nntrienta
was not □DderHtood, and it was not known that fat and carbohydrates can protect
protein. Grouven, however, thought it poasible that, when fusting, the inspired
ox.jgea acted more energetically on the pnitein tiasnes than when xtraw wna i
Bumed; i. e., that the nitrogen-ireii oonstitnents of thi> straw nsed op the energy of
the OKygeu and thus protected protein. This iit almost an SKpressiuu of th« tht>OT<r
which has ainoe become current.]
Til all these experiments there lire Tery extended disrus«iouB of the results and of
yarions theories.
In N^os. 23T!>-2401 the object was to determine the inflnence of cane sngar, grapa
sugar, starch, dertrin, wood gnni ((rummi;, wax. alcohol, crude liber f^m straw
"piiper fiber,"' jind nf pectin upon metabolism. Each of these substances was
with straw and the rebnlts compared with those obtained with a diet of straw alone.
The conclusion was reached that all these nitrogen-free snbstances (except wai
alcohol) diiaioishe<l the normal metabolism of muacular tissue, Aa the amount
aonsnmetl iDcrcased, the power to protect )>rotein diininisbcd. The intensity of the
prooef ae« of osidiition iu blood und tisNue ia not dependent on the nitrogenous food.
BncU Bnbatancea when HUpplie<l are metabolized instead of fatty tissue of the body.
A considerable numlier of experiments are reported by tho autho^ which are of a
different nature from those included in the present compilation, or which do not
contain all tho factors necessary fur expressing a balance of income and nutgo.
In a number of experiments tho carbon dioxid in the rewpira'ory products w
determined with a respiration nppuratus somewhat similar to that of Pettenkofer
and Voit. Complete metabolisiu experiments in wbicli this apparatus was nsed a:
aot recorded iu the "Zweiter Berichte." However, four Bnperimonts with astear
noighinjr 550 kilograms are recorded in detail, iu whinh the oarbou dioicid prodaced
WHH measured, though the food, urine, and feces were not analyzed. The first
experiment was of 1^ hours' duration. The ration (which had also boen followed
for the 6 days preceding the experiment) consisted of 1,000 grants straw and about
50 grams salt. The corbon dioxid produced was 2,395 grams, or at the rat
4,590 grams in 21 hoars. In tbe second oxporiment, of the snme duration and with
the same ration, 2,234.5 grams carbon dioxid was produced, or at the rate of 4,
grams in 24 hours. In the third experiment, the ration (used for 1 day before the
experiment also) consisted of 4.000 grams chopped straw, 50 grams salt, and 2,500
grams cane sugar. The time was S hours, and 1,503.6 grams oarbou dioxid woe ]
duced, or at the rate of 4,510.5 gnims in 24 honrs. The time of the fourth exped-
melit was 8 hours and the ration the same as in the third. The amount of carbon
dioxid produced was l,liI2 grams, or at the rate of 4,836 grams iu 24 honrs.
Oronveu believed with Bischoff and Voit that no nitrogeu was excreted except ii
the urine and feces. The opinion was held by many that nitrogen was excreted it
the respiratory products in the form of ammouia, A large number of experiments of
12 hours' duration were mnde with steers anil other animals, using a large respiration
apparatus, and the ammonia in the respiratory products was detomined. The
amount found was very small, not exceeding 1 gram per day for a steer weighing
650 kilograms. The qnantity is so small that it can be left out of account in deter-
mining the nitrogen balance.
Nob. 2403-2442. See Nos. 2326-3339.
Nob. 2(43-2446 were made by Emery and Kilgore at the Agricultural Experiment
station iu North Carolina in 18*5 iu connection with a study of the digestibility
if cottoD-seed hulls nnd cotton-seed meal by steers. The experiments were toads
' I'apei' putp. such as waM used for mukiug writing paper.
EXPEBIMENTS WITH DOGS. 301
with 3 steers. The rations consisted of cotton-seed hulls and cotton-seed meal
in varying proportions. The food, urine, and feces were analyzed. The phosphoric
acid, potash, and nitrogen in the excretory products were determined in connection
with a study of the manurial value of the rations.
The conclusions drawn have to do with the special questions studied.
EXPEBIMENTS WITH DOGS.
INFLUENCE OF FBEDINa.
Aboat one-half of the total number of experiments with animals in-
claded in the present compilation were made with dogs. As previously-
noted, dogs are particularly well suited for experimental purposes.
They readily adapt themselves to the experimental conditions and are
seldom affected by a monotonous diet; that is, a diet consisting of one
food or a limited number of food materials. In experiments with man
such a diet often becomes distasteful, and digestive disorders result.
The range of size in dogs is such that a subject can readily be selected
suitable for the special point to be studied in an experiment, and it is
a comparatively easy matter to collect the urine and feces.
Owing to their limited number, in the experiments with animals,
fewer subdivisions have been made in this compilation than in the
experiments with man. Of the total number of experiments with dogs,
302 are included in Table 28. This section includes the tests in which
the subjects were in health and the experimental conditions ^vere not
abnormal or unusual. A very few experiments under other conditions,
made for purposes of comparison, are, however, included in this section.
In a number of cases the influence on metabolism of consuming milk,
meat, peptx)nes, gelatin, or other special food was studied. The digesti-
bility of several foods was also investigated. In many cases the excre-
tion of i)hosphoric acid or other mineral matter was the special question
considered. Some of the investigations were carried on to study experi-
mental methods and theories relating to the general laws of nutrition.
A case in point is the work which has been done to determine whether,
generally speaking, all nitrogen is excreted in the urine and feces or
whether some leaves the body in the gaseous excretory products. This
was a disputed point for many years, although it is now usually con-
ceded that the former view is correct.
Another question of interest from a theoretical standpoint is the
direct source of the nitrogen of the urine 5 that is, whether it is derived
directly from the food or whether the nitrogen consumed must form a
portion of the tissue of the body before it is excreted. Directly con-
nected with this is the discussion concerning the length of time which
must elapse before the nitrogen of a particular diet will be excreted.
The subject, as a whole, has a direct bearing on the effect of muscular
exertion on the excretion of nitrogen and the source of muscular energy
in the organism.
302
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EXPERIMENTS WITH DOGS.
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314 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
No. 2447 was made by Bischoff in the laboratory of the Physiological Institate in
Munich in 1853. The object was to investigate the inflneuce of sodium chlorid on the
excretion of nrea. The subject was a dog. The food consisted of beef freed from
bone and fat. Sodium chlorid in solution was given with the meat. The specific
gravity, the urea, and the sodium chlorid in the urine were determiued. The nitro-
gen in the food was calculated. In adding this experiment to the table the nitrogen
in the feces was calculated by the compilers from Pettenkofer and Voit's experiments
with a dog consuming the same quantity of food. The dog consumed during the
whole time 158.82 grams sodium chlorid and excreted 145.0 grams in the urine. The
feces were not examined, as they were not believed to contain any sodium chlorid.
The author states that the results indicated a decomposition of sodium chlorid in
the organism.
The nitrogen consumed was not all recovered. The weight of the animal was
practically unchanged during the experiment. It was believed that no nitrogen
was stored as flesh, but rather 'Hhat urea was retained and its transformation into
other compounds, for instance ammonium carbonate, was hindered. '^
These experiments are interesting chiefly from an historical standpoint. They
were published as a continuation of Bischofi^'s first publication on ^'Urea the meas-
ure of nitrogen metabolism.''
Nos. 2448 and 2449 were made by Hoppe-Seyler in 1855. The object was to study
the influence of cane sugar on digestion and nutrition. The subject was a dog.
The food consisted of heart and lungs of sheep chopped fine and thoroughly mixed
in a mortar. The experiment was divided into two periods. In one sugar was
added to the normal diet. The nitrogen in the food and feces was determined by
the Will- Warren trapp method, and the fat in the food by extraction. The ureaia
the urine was determined by the Heintz method and the Liebig method. The attempt
was made to determine the carbon dioxid in the respiratory products, but according
to the author it was unsuccessful, and the results are not given by him. The dog
appeared in normal condition throughout the experiment.
Among the conclusions reached were the following : No sugar was observed in the
urine or feces when sugar was eaten for a long time, nor was the amount of lactic
acid in the urine increased. When meat and sugar were eaten, the subject gained
in weight more rapidly and excreted more urea than when meat alone was fed. The
excretion of nitrogen in the feces was practically unchanged by the addition of
sugar to the food. When much sugar is present in the blood, protein and allied sub-
stances are protected from oxidation. The reserve protein which is provided with
little or no oxygen appears to be broken up, this process being accompanied by the
formation of fat.
Nos, 2450-2454 were made by Voit in the laboratory of the Physiological Institate
in Munich in 1856. The object was to investigate the metabolism of nitrogen. The
subject of experiments Nos. 2450-2452 was a very active dog, and Nos. 2453 and 2454
a dog with a permanent gall fistula. The urea and nitrogen in several samples of
urine, the dry matter and nitrogen in meat feces, and the dry matter and nitrogen in
a number of samples of meat were determined. In experiments Nos. 2453 and 2454
the nitrogen in the gall obtained from the fistula was taken into account in deter-
mining the balance of income and outgo. Voit found that the mean nitrogen content
of 6 samples of meat (fresh beef) was 3.5 per cent. He uses 3.4 per cent, however,
in calculating the nitrogen in the meat consumed. He gives as a reason for the
change the fact that the samples he analyzed were carefully selected samples of pore-
muscle. He believed, therefore, that the meat fed would have a slightly lower nitro-
gen eonteut, since it would contain some fat, tendon, etc. This change has beei^B
much criticised by later observers in discussions of the formation of fat from protein. —
The individual experiments are discussed in detail by the author. They
regarded as additional proof of the correctness of Bisch«fi''s * opinion that the
> I>er Hamstofi' als Maass des StoflVechsels, Giesen, 1853. See also aahorter acooim^
ill Add. Cbem,, 88 (1855), p. 101.
EXPERIMEin'8 WITH DOGS. 315
excreted in the nrine may be regarded as a measure of the metabolized nitrogen,
taking into account the small amotints in the uric acid and other compounds in the
urine and feces,, and in the epidermis and hair accidentally lost. These experiments
are interesting to-day chiefly from an historical standpoint.
Nos. 2455-2514 and Nos. 274ft-2750, Table 29, were made by Bischoff and Voit at
the laboratory of the Physiological Institute, in Munich, in 1857-58. The object
was to investigate metabolism of dogs while fasting, and on the following rations:
(1) Meat; (2) meat and fat; (3) fat and starch with and without meat ; (4) bread;
(5) sugar with and without meat; (6) gelatin with and without meat, and (7)
gelatin and fat.
The water was determined in bread with and without crust. In starch, grape
sugar, and in the feces from each sort of diet. Nitrogen was determined in bread,
gelatin, and in several instances in the feces. Carbon and hydrogen were deter-
mined in the feces from meat diet, bread diet, and starch diet. Fat was determined
in meat, meat feces, meat and fat feces, and in gelatin and fat feces. Ash was deter-
mined in bread and in the feces from meat, bread, meat and starch, and from gela-
tin and fat. Sulphur was determined in meat, bread, gelatin, and the feces from
meat, bread, and gelatin, and in many cases in the urine. In the urine from bread and
from meat diet the dry matter and ash and their ratio to urea were determined also.
The analyses were made with a few samples, and then the composition of food, urine,
and feces was calculated from this data. The composition of the meat was calcu-
lated, and in very many cases that of the urine and feces also. It was assumed that
the urine and feces from a particular diet were unvarying.
The points investigated are discussed at length, and the results obtained are com-
pai'ed with work of other observers.
The discussions are interesting from an historical standpoint, since much of the
later work on metabolism is based on observations and conclusions from this series
of experiments.
The principal conclusions reached were the following :
When fasting, a dog lives upon the flesh and fat of his own body and excretes
urea, carbon dioxid, and water formed from them. The amount of fat aud muscu-
lar tissue consumed is dependent upon the size of the animal. The conditions which
affect the metabolism of nitrogenous material of the body are (1) the oxygen sup-
plied, and (2) the size of the organs of the body, and (3) the amount of blood. Since
it is the breaking down of nitrogenous tissue which furnishes energy, and energy is
expended for internal muscular movement, all the changes in the animal body have
a definite relation to each other.
To nourish a dog with meat only, so that flesh or fat is not lost from the organism,
requires a considerable quantity of meat, varying from one-twentieth to one twenty-
fifth of the weight of the dog. If less than this is supplied, tissue and fat from the
organism will be metabolized. If more meat is supplied for one day than is neces-
sary for nourishment, the excess is stored up. On the following day the same quan-
tity of meat does not suffice to produce the same gain, but will all be utilized. A
further gain of muscular tissue can be brought about only by a continued increase
in the quantity of food consumed. When a maximum consumption is reached, the
dog will not eat more, and loses weight rapidly. The quantity of meat which the
dog needs to cover losses sustained and to gain flesh is always decided by the quan-
tity of body tissue. If the dog has a large quantity of muscular tissue, he needs more
food than when he has little flesh, and if he gains largely in muscular tissue he must
consume an abundant diet of meat. The more fat meat consumed the less fat is
used up from the body.
The metabolism of nitrogenous tissue -and the elimination of nitrogenous material
from the body is not prevented by consuming fat. The consumption of fat from the
body can be prevented by consuming fat in the food. With an abundance of fat in the
diet it is also possible to gain fatty tissue. The consumption of fat reduces the
metabolivm of nitrogen so that only one- third to one-fonrth as much meat need be
316 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
coDHumed willi fat as n hero meat only is fed. Sagar aud atartih act in the same wajai
fat. Bread ix largely Htarch anil ouoi not fnrnisli a uomplete litet for flesh-eating ani- 1
mala. Gelatin is nf morn ii[iportaDcethaaw]iH supposed. It is apparently all (.'hAtiged 1
into nrea and Boems to act ns a protector of protein, not iu the waj' that fat iindstaroli 1
do, namely, by diminishing tlie metabiilisui of thla substance liy tesaening the ci
BuiDption of osygen, but directly in beiug anbstitnted for nitrogenona substaufe
the body.
Nos, 2515-2554 were made by Voit in the laboratory of the Physiologioal Institute
at Mnniah iiom 1S59 to 1864, The older eKporiments (Koa. 2547-2554) are quoted
by the author from prevloua publications n-bicli were aotnrrnsBible t-o the compilers.
A few aeem to be either duplicatea of or experimeuta reported iu otlter pnblications,
The objent was to investigate the excretion of nitrogen by dogs.
The food naually conaiated of luoat, or meat uud fat, sugar, or gelatin. In Nos.
254T and 254S coffee whh given with tlie food, anil in No. 2554 urea. The uitiogen
and sometimes the ash in the food and feces were calonlated. It would seem thrtr'
the nrea in the urine was determined anil from this the nitrogen calculated.
The conclusion is reuched that no nitrogen leaves the l<ody except in the orins
and feces. The concordauce of the reaults for nitrogen aiid aah are loolted upon ai
proof of the accuracy of the coiictnHioDs drawn re-garding nitrogen.
Nos. 2555-2568 were made by E. Biaohofl' at the laboratory of the Physiological
Inatitute in Munich in 1867. The olijert was to investigate the excretion of pbos<
phoric acid. The subject was a dog. The food uauatly conaiat«d of meat, witk
fat or atorclj io some cases. Bread and stari-h wore each fed alone, and i:
experiment no food wan consumed. The nitrogen and plioaphorio acid in the
were caloulated. The factor for nitrogen was 3.4 per cent. The phoiphorii
in the atnrch and the nitrogen and phosphoric acid in the bread, the nrea, auA'
phosphoric acid in the urine, and the nitrogen, ash, and pliospboric acid iu the fecek'
were determined.
Thu principal conclus ons drawn were the following; The excretioa of pfaoapfaor
acid varies within widor limits thau that of nitrogen. By increasing the raetalralisal'
of protein the excretion of phosphoric aoid can be increoned eight times the amount
excreted when fasting, Phoaphorio acid is excreted principally in the urine. 1
animal in phoapborus eqnilibrinu all the phoepborio acid couaumed is excreted ii
urine and feces.
If any considerable quantity of urinn and feres had been lent there would haTl'
been a deficiency in the amonnt of excreted pbosphoruB. The fact that all tli»l
phosphorus consnmed was recnvi<reil iu the urine and fecea is regardnd na additiond^
proof of the correotneas nf the theory that all the excreted nitrogen leaves the o
ism in the nrine and fecea.
Nob. 2569-2581 were nuule by Voit in the laboratory of the Physiological InetitnW
in Munich iu 18^ in connection witli un extended study of the formation of fat in
the animal organism. The subject waa a female dog. The food ponsiatert of meat,
withstarchorfat inanumberof cnSE!S. Ttie milk aecreted by the dog was taken into
account in determining the nitrogen balance. It is inferred that the nitrogen in the
food and feces was calculated and the urea in the urine determined. It is not stated I
whether the water, casein, protein, fat, sugar, and ash in the milk were determined ■
or calculated. I
The following conclusions were reached: The secretion of milk is only slightly I
dependent upon tliB food (so far us composition of the milk solids is concerned). It
decreased during fasting and waa greatest on a diet rich in protein. The consump-
tion of targe quantities of fat with meat did not decrease the yield of milk ae much
as waa reported by an earlier iibaervcr. The consumption of starch alone did not
increase the yield of milk over that observed during fuating. The absolute and
relative qnantity of casein and protein in the milk was not directly proportional to
the amonnt of proteiu in the food. It increased a Uttk with a large consnmption of
meut and waa lowered somewhat durini^ fasting. The quantity of tat in the milk
EXPERIMENTS WITH DOGS. 317
was greatest when most protein was consumed and least when starch was consumed.
The consumption of fat apparently exercised little influence on it. The amount of
milk sugar showed very small variation, being greatest when much meat was con-
sumed. The consumption of carbohydrates did not increase it. Other conclusions
which have to do with the yield of milk, etc., are also drawn.
Nos. 2582-2591 were made by E. Bischoff at the laboratory of the Physiological
Institute in Munich in 1867-68. The objects were (1) to ascertain whether other
dogs would utilize a bread diet in the same way as the dogs in Bischoff and Yoit's
experiments (see Nos. 2471-2493) ; (2) to learn why bread is so poorly assimilated ; and
(3) to see if some simple addition could not be made to the diet which would render
the bread more digestible. The food usually consisted of rye bread, with meat or
meat extract in some cases. In one case salt was consumed. In No. 2590 the diet
consisted of meat and starch. No. 2591 was made by Yoit and reported by Bischoff.
The nitrogen in the bread and nitrogen and water in the meat extract were deter-
mined. In the feces it was sometimes calculated and sometimes determined. The
urea in the urine was determined.
The dog could not be maintained in good condition on a diet of rye bread. Suffi-
cient nitrogen for the needs of the organism was not assimilated. On a diet of meat
and starch, however, the dog gained strength and appeared in good condition. It
was observed that the bread feces fermented very readily, and it was believed that
the fermentation caused intestinal movements which hastened the excretion of the
feces and thus hindered the intestinal absorption of nitrogenous material. The fer-
mentation was studied at considerable length, but no reason for it was found.
Neither meat extract nor salt exercised any marked influence on the absorption of
the protein of bread in the intestine.
No. 2592 was made by Toldt at the University in Vienna in 1871. The object was
to investigate the excretion of nitrogen. The subject was the same dog used in
Seegen's experiments, Nos. 2770-2781, Table 29. The food consisted of meat. Great
care was taken in collecting the urine. The urea in it was determined by the Liebig
method and by the Schneider-Seegen method. The amount of nitrogen excreted in
the feces was calculated. The nitrogen in the food was determined by the Dumas
and by the soda-lime methods, and the conclusion was reached that the latter gave
too low results. In the author's opinion all the consumed nitrogen was not recov-
ered in the urine and feces or accounted for by a gain in weight of the subject.
Seegen quotes the author's results iu the discussion of the gaseous excretion of
lUtrogen, and on the basis of the variations in the nitrogen content as shown by the
linalyBis of meat, explains some of the discrepancies observed in previous investiga-
tions. He emphasizes the necessity of making analyses of meat by a reliable method.
Nos. 2593-2597 were made by Forster at the laboratory of the Physiological Insti-
tute at Munich in 1873. They form part of an extended investigation of the value
Of the mineral constituents of food. The subjects were 2 dogs, weighing about 26
^nd 32 kilograms at the beginning of the experiment. The food consisted of ''meat
Residue,'' with fat, and some starch or sugar. In addition, on 1 day a little salt and
On 4 days a little meat extract was consumed. ''Meat residue^' is meat from which
"the juiees have been extracted by pressure and the salts have been removed by
Extracting three times with water. That used in these experimeiits was iu the form
of a coarse powder. The nitrogen and phosphoric acid in the food and urine, and the
Nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and ash (in Nos. 2593, 2594, and 2597 fat also) iu the feces
'Were determined. In all the experiments the iron in food and feces was deter-
tKiined. (Urine contains no iron.) The sodium chlorid and sulphuric acid in the
lirine in No. 2593, and the cyanuric acid, sodium chlorid, and the phosphoric acid
combined with alkali and with earthy bases in Nos. 2595 and 2596 were also deter-
mined. In each experiment the dogs lost weight and were in poor condition. In
Ko. 2597 it was evident that the dog could not have lived much longer on the diet.
The conclusion was reached that certain salts are necessary for the animal organism,
and that an animal will die if the amount supplied in the food falls below a definite
quantity, or if none at all is supplied.
318 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPEBIMENTS.
Many conclusions are drawn which can not be noted here, since they do not concern
metabolism. The author reviews the literature of the sujbeot at length.
Nos. 2598-2600 were made by Voit in the laboratory of the Physiological Institute
at Munich in 1874. The object was to determine the nutritive value of ossein. The
subject was a dog.
After a period of 4 days of fasting ossein and fat were fed. This diet was fol-
lowed by a period of fasting. Ossein was prepared by treating bones with dilute
hydrochloric acid.
The nitrogen, fat, ash, sulphuric acid, and phosphoric acid in the ossein, the uitro*
gen, urea, sulphur, sulphuric acid, and phosphoric acid in the urine, and the nitro-
gen, fat, ash, and sulphuric acid in the feces were determined:
The conclusion was reached that it was not possible to make a ration of ossein,
fat, and mineral matters which would meet the needs of the organism.
The article contains an ext>ended discussion of the ''luxus consumption" theory
and of the terms used in discussions on metabolism.
No. 2601 was made by P168z and Gyergyai at Buda Pesth in 1875 in connection with
a study of the food value of peptones. The subject was a dog, which was kept in a
cage with glass sides and floor of wire netting. The urine and feces were col-
lected together in a suitable vessel under the netting. The food consisted of pep-
tones and a solution of starch, grape sugar, and melted butter. This was injected
into the stomach. The peptone was prepared from dried fiber by digesting with the
pepsin from a pig's stomach. The nitrogen in the food and excretory products was
determined by Seegen's method.
The conclusion was reached that on a ration in which peptones are substituted for
protein it is possible for the subject to gain in weight, and the gain may consist of
nitrogenous tissue.
The article contains an extended review of the subject, with references to the
work of other observers.
Nos. 2602-2615 were made by Gruber in the laboratory of the Physiological Insti-
tute at Munich in 1880. The objects were (1) to get light upon the question as to
whether all the nitrogen consumed in the food could be recovered in the urine and
feces ; and (2) to test the accuracy of a number of experimental methods which had
been employed by Voit.
As has been stated above, Voit held the opinion that no \iitrogen was excreted
except in the urine and feces. This was doubted by other investigators. The
methods used by Voit in making his experiments had also been questioned. It was
hiH usual plan to calculate the nitrogen in fresh meat;, using as a factor 3.4 per cent.
The nitrogen in the urine was ordinarily determined by the soda-lime method after
evaporating with quartz sand. The nitrogen in the meat and feces was usuall}*^
determined by the soda-lime method.
The subject of the present experiment was a dog weighing about 17 kilograms.
The experiment lasted 22 days. The first 5 days were regarded as a preliminary
period. The remaining days were divided into two periods of 7 and 10 days, respec-
tively. The food was lean beef, which was prepared in quantity and kept on ice.
The meat was freed from visible fat, tendon, connective tissue, etc., as much as
possible, and grouud several times in a sausage cutter. It was then pressed out in a
large, flat cake on a porcelain slab, and portions were out out here and there as
samples for analysis. A comparative test was made to show that the samples
obtained were representative. The water content of the meat was determined at
tho beginning of the experiment. The portions for each day's ration were weighed
and put into an ice chest. As they were required the portions were again weighed.
Any loss in weight was attributed to a loss of water, and sufficient water was added
to mako good the loss. Each day the dog was given 600 grams of meat thus pre-
pared and 200 cubic centimeters of water. The day's ration was divided into two
equal portions; one was fed at 8 a. m. and the other at 11 to 11.30 a. m.
The subject was confined in a cage, which stood in the middle of a large room.
EXPERIMENTS WITH DOGS. 319
The mean temperature of the room was 15^ C. The dog was trained to deposit
nrine in a beaker glass. He was taken out of the cage three times a day for this
purpose. The urine was measured and its specific gravity determined. The feces
were separated by feeding bones, and collected and weighed. The nitrogen in the
meat was determined by the Dumas (absolute) method and by the Will method,
and the results obtained by the two methods were found to agree. The author
also calculated the nitrogen in the meat, using the factor 3.554 per cent. This
value was actually obtained as the mean of a number of determinations. The
author believes that Volt's figure, 3.4 per cent, was equally correct as used in Volt's
experiments, since the meat was then prepared in a somewhat different way. The
nitrogen in the urine was determined by the Voit method ; that is, the urine was
evaporated at 10(P C. with gypsum (instead of quartz sand) and oxalic acid, and the
nitrogen then determined by the soda-lime method. The author found by experi-
ment that practically no nitrogen was lost as ammonia during the evaporation of the
urine. Parallel investigations have shown that practically the same results are
obtained as when evaporated in a vacuum. The urea in the urine was determined
by the Liebig method, and from this the nitrogen was calculated.
For purposes of comparison the nitrogen was also determined in a number of sam-
ples of the urine by the Dumas and the Schneider-Seegen methods. The Dumas
method gave practically the same results as the Voit method. The Schneider-Seegen
method gave slightly lower results. These figures are not included in the table.
The nitrogen in the feces was determined by the soda-lime method ( Voit's) in sam-
ples of the feces for the whole experiment. It was assumed that the same amount
of feces was excreted each day. In one period (No. 2609) the sulphur in the food,
urine, and feces was also deternained.
The principal conclusions reached were the following : Practically all the nitrogen
consumed is excreted in the urine and feces. The differences observed were so small
as to be within the limits of error. The view maintained by Voit concerning this ques-
tion is therefore correct. The above conclusion is further strengthened from the fact
that all the sulphur consumed was recovered in the urine and feces. In the case of
sulphur there is no question of an excretion in the respiratory products. Since the
same care was observed in determining the balance of income and outgo of nitrogen,
it was believed that the results obtained were equally trustworthy.
Comparatively litfle difference was observed in the results when the different
analytical methods were employed. The differences are less marked when the aver-
ages are taken, as in the table, than when the experiments are considered as a whole.
In the preliminary period of 5 days the total nitrogen consumed, as determined by
the Will method, was 106.6 grams. The total amount excreted in the urine and
feces, using Liebig's method for urine, was 97.51 grams; using Voit's method, 99.40
^ams. The total amount of nitrogen in the food in the 7-day period, as determined
by the Dumas method, was 154.81 grams; as determined by the Will method, 154.14
grrams ; as calculated, using the factor mentioned above, 149.27 grams. During this
Period the total nitrogen excreted in the urine and feces, using Voit's method for
nrine, was 155.02 grams ; usin": Liebig's method for urine, 150.82 grams. The total
^moant of nitrogen in the food in the 10-day period was 213.72 by the Dumas method
a-nd 213.06 by the Will method ; as calculated, the amount was 213.24 grams. The
'total nitrogen in the urine and feces, using Volt's method for urine, was 213.26
grains; using Liebig's method, for the urine, it was 216.47 grams.
The total amount of meat consumed during the last 10 days of the experiment was
B,000 grams. On the basis of excreted nitrogen, the author calculated that 5,986
learns had been metabolized. On the basis of excreted sulphur the amount of meat
xuetabolized was calculated to be 5,998 grams. The balance of income and outgo of
^ater was also calculated. Tlie article contains an extended review of the litera-
tiure, particularly of the controversy regarding the excretion of nitrogen in the
respiratory products, and of the accuracy of various analytical methods.
No«. 2616-2619 were made by Gruber at the laboratory of the Physiological Insti-
1
bin ■
the ■
320 • A DIGEST OP METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
tnte at Munith in 1883. The object waa to test the truth of the theory that aU ei
cretory II itrogun leaves the liody inthe iirinenQil feces. Theuoliject was a female ilug. |
The food consiHteil of fi'esh meat and bacou, whii^h was very carefully prepared in
iraf iisual at the Munich lalioratury. Tbo urine wag colU'i'ted with n catheter,
nitnigen in the meal waa determined by the Wiil-Warrentrapp method. In the I
baton it wUM caliulatL'd l^m Hnlfnian's figures. The nitro(;eu in the urine and feoet J
was determined. Careful recurds were kept of the dog^s weight, correction being J
iiitrodaoed for the fe<-ea proiiiiei^d.
The experiineuts are regarded an additional proof that all nitrogen is exereted In
the urine and fei'oa, Hinro the difl'erence between total cooaninod and excreted nitro-
gen in the experinients was veaj smRll. The dog's weight varied within Hmall limits.
No.2620 was made hf Kieder at the laboratory of the Physioiogieal Inetitute hi
Munich in 1884, aiid forms a series with Nob. 118-420, Table 7. The object was t» J
investigati.^ the amount nf nttroKOti io the feces which wasdne to nndigested residua. V
The eobject of this experiment wui4 a dog. The food, which contained no nitro^ivi
cimaisted of starch iind fat. The nitrogen iu the urine and feces was det«rmin«d_~
Other exporiments. iu whith the nitrogen was determined in the feees but not in
oriue, were made with the same subject, on a diet of starch and fat, a diet of m
and white ftistlug. These could not be included in the present oompilatiiin.
When food free from nitrogen was consumed, more nitrogen was excreted in tba
feces than during liimger, and us mui'h as when meat was consumed; that Is, ilk ,
every cnse the nitrogen of the feces was due to metabolic products, and the i
work the intestine performed in digesting the food the greater the amount of sucit
products,
Kos. 2621-2635 were made by Rudeiiko at St. Puteralmrg in 1885. The object km
tostiidy the assimilation of the nitrogenous constituents of milk, and the metaboliBro
of nitrogen on an abHOlut« milk diet. The exgierinients form a series with Nob. 54
to 78, Table 2. In the experiments with men and dogs the author experienced gnat
difficulty in kueplng subjects for any DDnsiderable time on an ubsulnte milk diet.
Iu the experiments with dogs, an absolute milk diet produced JotestiualderaDgemente
anil diarrhea. In order to avoid this, several articles were fed with the milk, uud
the best rpaults were obtained when small quantities of cheese wero used, Th.«
nitrogen of tbn milk consumed, and of Mie urine and feces, waa determined by
the KJeldaht method, and the fat in the milk by the Soxhiet metliod. In several tesfc^
amixture of salts which approxli t d th I f asein was fed with the milk. I
The principal concliisiuns reach d w th f Uowing; The nseimilation of th^^H
nitrogen of milk when fed alone w m mpl te thau that of black bread, bn-'^B
less complete than that of mUk nd h When bread and meat were fed, tb^* J
feces contained about three time mu h t g u as was the ca«e when milk aut^^'
meat were fed. More nitrogen >^as ted he feces on an absolute milk die^^^
than ou a meat diet, Itwasfounlp bl t m taindogsinnitrogeneqoilibriuiC^*
on an absolute milk diet. In determining the quantity of milk necessary for thi^^*
purpose, allowance mn«t be made for the large amount of uuussimilated nitrogen — '
Wlien milk was fed iu place of bread, there was a small gain of fat and the metabo-
liem of nitrogen was intensified. More urine waa excreted ou an absolott'ly milk diet^^:^^-^^^
than on any other,
Noa. 2636-2643 were made by Follitzer at the laboratoty of the Physiologioal Ineti^ — —
tute of Bonn in 18S5 { f }. The object was to stnily the nutrition of a dog when pep —
tones, albumoses, and gelatin were fed in place of meat. The dog was fed rice^^'
ptarch (which was practically free from nitrogen), and fat, with a littlo salt, Tt;;^'
theaeeither meat or peptone, protoalbumose, heteroalbumose, or gelatin was addeiL —
The nitrogen in the food, urine, and feces was determined.
The conclusion was reached that when peptones were fed the gain in nitrogen vm^
the same na when meat was eaten, while the gain of nitrogen on. a diet coutainin^
albumoses was greater; that is, the nutritive vulue of peptone is about the aame^^
that of meat, while that of albnmose is greater. The dog lost in weight while oob-
^
BXPEKIMENT8 WITH DOGS.
321
I*
*
snming peptones. In the author's opinion this was probably due to the fact that
peptones caused diarrhea.
No8. 2644-2657 were made by Potthast at the laboratory of the Department of Animal
Physiology of the Agricultural Institute at Berlin in 1886. The object was to deter-
mine the effect of the consumption of protein from different sources on the metabo-
lism of protein in the animal organism. The subject was a dog. The food consisted
of meat, meat meal, casein, lentils, wheat gluten, and lupines. The water, ash, fat, and
fiber, and nitrogen in the food and feces and the nitrogen in the urine were deter-
mined. The crude fiber in the feces was calculated. The casein was prepared from
milk. The lentils and gluten were ground before feeding. The bitter principle was
removed from the lupines, and they were then hulled, dried, and ground. Each of
these different articles was cooked in water with fat or starch, or both. In compar-
ing the different foods, it was the author's intention to feed about the same amount
of nitrogen and digestible nitrogen-free material in each period.
The following conclusions were reached : The experiments show that the nitrogen
content of protein compounds is not a measure of their actual nutritive value. Thus
f he lupines contained the highest percentage of nitrogen, but had the least nutritive
value The protein of the meat, meat meal, casein, lentils, and gluten had about
the same value.
Znntz repeated some of Potthast's work with the same subject, and the author
quotes the results in detail. The nitrogen in the food consumed, however, is not
recorded. The test was divided into three ])eriod8. In the.first period the ration
consisted of 35 grams of the same meat meal used in the above experiment, 50 grams
of starch, and 50 grams of fat. In the second period the ration consisted of 42 grams
of lupine meal, 37.5 grams of starch, and 36 grams of fat. In the third period the
ration was the same as in the first. The nitrogen excreted in the different periods
iu the urine, feces, and hair is shown in the following table :
T}ie excretion of nitrogen on different diets.
Ration.
?«atmeal..
ii^pine meal
^eatmeal..
Nitrogen in —
CTrine.
Qramt.
3.99
4.39
3.48
Feces.
Gram.
0.43
.41
.43
Hair.
Total
nitrogen
excreted.
Oram.
0.09
.09
.09
I
Grams.
4.52
4.88
3.99
^rom these experiments the conclusion was drawn that the nitrogen of the meat
^^al ration was sufficient to maintain the dog in nitrogen equilibrium. When the
^^Uae amount of nitrogen was fed in the lupine meal ration there was a daily loss of
Nitrogen equivalent to 17.3 grams of flesh.
The subject is discussed at length and extended refertmce is made to the work of
^^her observers.
Kos. 2658, 2659 were made by Constantinidi in Munich, and form a series with
■^<*8. 2 and3, Table 1. The object was to invesf igate the digestibility of wheat gluten.
**ie subject was a dog. The food consisted of wheat gluten and bacon. The water,
^^trogen, fat, starch, cellulose, and ash in the gluten were determined, and in the
"^con the water, connective tissue, nitrogen, aud fat were calculated from Hoff-
'^^ftn's figures. The urine was connected with a catheter. The nitrogen in it was
**^termined by the Schneider-Seegen method. The nitrogen, ash, ether extract,
alcohol extract, and water extract in the feces were determined. The gluten was
^©ly thoroughly assimilated, and in the author's opinion the small amount of nitro-
^^n in the feces is not due to undigested residue, but to m<^tabolic products.
Kos. 2660-2698 were made by Kolpakcha at the medical department of the llni-
^^Tsity of Kharkov in 1887. The object was to learn the real source of the nitrogen
749— Ko. 45 21
322 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
in the urine — that is, to determine whether it is derived directly from the protein
consumed in the food, from protein stored in the tissue, or from actual protein tis-
sue — and, further, to study the nature of stored protein. The experiments were
made with dogs. The food consisted of meat, gelatin, white and yolk of eggs, fat,
and starch, which were fed alone or in combination.
The nitrogen of the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl-Borodin
method, and the phosphoric acid by the volumetric method, using uranium nitrate.
In some cases the sulphur, the alkali phosphates, and the alkali earth phosphates
were determined.
The author endeavored to solve the problems under consideration by comparing
the ratios of phosphoric acid to nitrogen and sulphur to nitrogen in the food con-
sumed and in the urine. By repeated analyses it was found that these ratios in the
foods were as follows :
In meat, PaOfiiN:: 1:7.3; S:N::1:15.6.
In gelatiu (no PiOg), S : N : : 1 : 22.5.
In whites of eggs, PaOfitNiil: 47.6; S:N::1:9.8.
In yolks of eggs, PaOs : N : : 1 : 1.8.
The figures show that the protein in the different foods contains nitrogen, phos-
phoric acid, and sulphur in different proportions. The ratio of these elements in
the urine was found to vary under different conditions of feeding and partial or
complete fasting. Knowing the ratio of these elements in the food and in the
urine and the ratio in the urine during partial or complete fasting, the author
believed it was possible to judge whether the nitrogen in the urine came from the
breaking down of the protein of the food consumed or from the breaking down of
tissue protein.
The general plan of the experiments was to bring the subject into a condition of
nitrogen equilibrium and ^hen to either vary the character of the food (the amount
of nitrogen remaining the Hame) or increase the amount of food. There were also
periods of partial or complete fasting.
Eight experiments were made. Since they are the only ones of this nature found
by the compilers, they will be described in detail.
The first experiment (Nos. 2660-2663) was of 16 days' duration and was divided
into four periods. In the first period (No. 2660) the food consisted of 600 grams lean
meat daily, the ratio of phosphoric acid to nitrogen being 1 : 7.3. Practically as
much phosphoric acid and nitrogen were excreted in the urine as were consumed in
the food, and the ratio was the same. Therefore the conclusion seems warranted
that the phosphoric acid and nitrogen in the urine were derived from the breaking
down of the protein compounds actually consumed in the food.
In the two following periods (Nos. 2661 and 2662) the dog was fed large quantities of
meat, i. e., increased quantities of phosphoric acid and nitrogen. The amount of
these elements excreted in the urine was also increased, but the ratio remained
practically unchanged. This again indicates that the protein which was broken
down to furnish the phosphoric acid and nitrogen in the urine was that consumed in
the food. All the nitrogen consumed was not excreted, and therefore a part of the
protein of the food was retained in the organism. The ratio of retained phosphoric
acid to nitrogen was 1 : 9.5, or very nearly the same as the ratio in meat.
In the fourth period (No. 2663) the dog farted. In the first days of fasting the
ratio of phosphoric acid to nitrogen in the urine varied from 1 : 6.7 to 1 : 4.5. It
then became almost couHtant (about 1:4). This would indicate that while fast-
ing two kinds of protein are broken down, (1) *' stored protein" (Yorrathseiweiss),
i. e., protein which is retained in the body after excessive feeding and which has
not yet had time to become a part of the actual body tissue ; and (2) tissue protein,
that is, protein which has actually become a part of the cell walls of the nitrogenow
tissue of the body. The former is broken down with comparative ease, while the
latter is morn stable. From the ratio of phosphoric acid to nitrogen in the urine
it would seem that the cleavage of tissue protein begins on the fiist day of
EXPERIMENTS WITH DOGS. 323
fiwting. However, at first it is very largely stored protein which is broken down.
As the stored protein is exhausted the organism approaches a condition when it
must exist exclosively on its own tissues. If this condition is reached in the later
days of fsuting, then it may be assumed that the nitrogitu and phosphoric acid in
the urine are directly derived from protein of tissue and that the ratio of phosphoric
acid to nitrogen in the urine (1 : 3.9 to 1 : 4.1) is the ratio of tissue protein also.
The protein assimilated from the food serves two purposes: (1) by being broken
down it furnishes energy for carrying on the work of the organism, thus protecting
protein of tissue; and (2) when excessive quantities of food are consumed the pro-
tein goes to form stored protein, which under favorable conditions may become
organized protein, i. e., protein of tissue.
The second experiment (Nos. 2664 and 2665) lasted 14 days and was divided into
two periods. After a preliminary period in which the dog was brought into nitro-
gen equilibrium it was fed excessive quantities of meat (No. 2664). The results
obtained suggest that protein which is broken down in the organism and assimilated
corresponds in chemical composition to the protein of the food. During the last
period of this experiment (No. 2665) a ration consisting of fat and starch and con-
taining no nitrogen was fed. As in the case of absolute fasting in the previous
experiment the amount of nitrogen and phosphoric acid in the urine decreased on
each succeeding day, but the ratio of one to the other was constant from the fifth
day on. The ratio of these elements in the urine indicated in both cases (complete
&Bting and nitrogen-free food) whether stored ])rotein or tissue protein or both
were broken down, and also the quantity of each. The author believes that the
increased amount of phosphoric acid in the urine in the last days of the fasting
period is due to the fact that not only protein of nitrogenous tissue was broken
down, but also protein from the bones. The bones are particularly rich in alkali
earth phosphates, and during the period of fasting the proportion of alkali earth
phosphates to alkali phosphates in the urine increased.
In order to study this point further, experiments were made in which the subject
was fed white of egg, yolk of egg, and gelatin ; i. e., protein compounds which contain
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and sulphur in difierout proportions from meat.
Tbo third experiment (Nos. 2666-2672) lasted 1-8 days and was divided into three
periods. In the first period (No. 266t>) the subject was fed 500 grams meat and 200
gnuns lard daily until in a condition of equilibrium; that is, the outgo of nitrogen,
phosphoric acid, and sulphur in the urine was equal to the amounts consumed. The
ratio of these substances in the urine (PaOs : N : : 1 : 6.9-7.1 ; S : N : : 1 : 15.1-16.8) was
^ about the same as in the meat.
During the following periods (Nos. 2667-2671) the dog received various quantities
^^ white of egg with a little lard.
Daring the last period (No. 2672)uthe dog fasted. When passing from the meat ration
*o the white of egg ration the relative amount of phosphoric acid in the urine dimin-
^6(1, while the quantity of sulphur increased. A comparison of the ratios of phos-
phoric acid and sulphur to nitrogen in the food and urine indicates that the organism
utilized some protein in addition to that in the food. The ratio of ])ho8phoric acid to
**»trogen in the nrine during the period in which white of egg was consumed varied
considerably. The relatively large amount of phosphoric acid in the first days of
*^e period was due to the fact that some of it was derived from body tissue. The
^tively small amount of phosphoric acid in the last days of the p(^riod must be
•^counted for on the basis of Forster's investigations, which show that when the
^fganism is supplied with food poor in phosphoric acid it retains some of the phos-
plioric acid formed f^om the protein which is broken down. The other conclusions
^ved from this experiment in general agree with those previously state^d.
Ilie fourth experiment (Nos. 2673-2675) was practically a repetition of the i)rcced-
^g« The conclusions reached were as follows : The increased amount of nitrogen in
^s nrine in the first period (No. 2673) indicated that the most favorable conditions
^ the breaking down of protein in the organism were (1) the consumption of excess-
324 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
ive amounts of protein and (2) the condition of the orfj^anism as to protein which
exists after fasting. The amounts and ratio of nitrogen and sulphur in the urine
indicated that during the first period only protein from the food was hroken down.
There was a decrease in the amount of nitrogen in the urine in the second period.
While fasting, i. e., when the organism consumed its own tissue, the ratio of phosphoric
acid to nitrogen was 1 : 3.9-4.1.
The fifth experiment (Nos. 2676-2680) lasted 13 days and was divided into three
periods. It was undertaken chiefly for the sake of ohserving the influence of gelatin,
which contains no phosphoric acid, on the breaking down of protein in the organism.
In the first period (No. 2676) the ration consisted of meat and lard^ in the second
(Nos. 2677-2679) of gelatin and lard, while in the third (No. 2680) the snbject fasted.
In passing from the meat to the gelatin ration the quantity of nitrogen in the urine
increased while the phosphoric acid decreased, though it did not entirely disappear.
Consequently the consumption of gelatin alone can not prevent the breaking down
of protein tissue ; that is, the organism lives not only at the expense of the gelatin,
but also at the expense of its own tissue. The increase in the amount of alkali earth
phosphates, as compared with the alkali phosphates in the urine.during the second
period, indicated that not only when fasting, but also when the food consumed was
insufficient, the nitrogenous tissue of the bones as well as the tissue protein was
utilized.
The sixth (Nos. 2681-2690), seventh (Nos. 2691-2694), and eighth (Nos. 2695-2698)
experiments were made to verify the results of the previous ones, and in general the
conclusions drawn from them were the same.
From all his experiments the author draws the following conclusions : When food
is consumed circulating protein and stored protein (which Volt calls CircuJerendes-
eiweiss and Forrtheiweiss) appear to be identical in chemical composition with the
protein of the food. When the food contains a sufficient amount of protein very
little protein of tissae is broken down, since it is protected by the protein of the
food. The tendency of the organism to break down only consumed protein is most
noticeable under the following conditions: (1) When the income of protein in the
food is excessive, (2) during nutrition after fasting, and (3) when the daily quantity
of food is consumed at several different times. This theory also holds good in a
comparison of the income and outgo of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Thus the
problem of nutrition comes to be the protection of the tissue from destruction, and
not the destroying and rebuilding of tissue; and the nutrients consumed must serve
for the production of the energy of the organism. Foods should be selected quft^*
tatively and ([uantitatively according to their power to protect tissue. In experi-
ments made to learn the nutritive value of a food material it is not sufficient to
determine the nitrogen in the income and outgo. The phosphoric acid must also be
determined as well as the ratio of phosphoric acid .to nitrogen in the food and urine,
since it is these factors which indicate whether tissue protein or other proteinic
being broken down. A knowledge of the relative amount of phosphoric acid in the
tissue protein seems to be a very important and necessary factor in determiniog
whether tissue or food protein is being broken down at any given time. Further,
knowing the relative amount of phosphoric acid in the food, tissue protein, and
urine, the quantity of each sort of protein which is broken down may be expressed
mathematically. The author gives formulas for this purpose. When fasting tho
amount of tissue protein broken down as compared with stored protein is verysmaU*
The protein of the food and stored protein are broken down very readily, but the
organism makes every attempt to protect tissue protein from consumption.
Nos. 2699-2702 were made by Bergeat at the laboratory of the Physiological Insti-
tute at Munich in 1885-86. The object was to determine the digestibility of thym^
gland, lungs, and liver by a dog. These articles were fed to the subject after*
period of fasting. A sufficient quantity of each was prepared for the whole expert*
ment by removing all connective tissue, etc. The separation of the feces was made
by feeding bones. The nitrogen, ash, phosphoric acid, ether extract, alcohol extract^
EXPERIMENTS WITH DOGS. 325
and water extract in food and feces were determined. The nitrogen in the urine was
determined by the Sohneider-Seegen method. The phosphoric acid and cyanuric
acid were also determined.
The conclusion is reached that the digestibility of the foods under discussion did
not dilfer materially from that of meat.
The author discusses the term '' digestibility'' at considerable length, and points
out the difference between actual digestibility and ease of digestion.
Nos. 2703, 2704. See Nos. 195, 196, Table 2.
Nos. 2705-2Z36 were made by Munk at Berlin in 1890 and 1891. The object was to
study metabolism on a diet which furnished an abundance of energy but c<mtaiDed
Httle protein. The experiments were made with a view t» determining the amount
of protein which is actually essential for the animal organism. The subjects were
dogrg. The food consisted of meat, fat, and rice cooked together in water. The nitro-
gen in the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kjeldabl method. The fat in
the feces was also determined. In a few cases in which the nitrogen of the feces was
not stated it was supplied by the compilers from other experiments in tbis series in
which the food was the same. Four series of experiments were made. In every case,
after a few days on a ration containing an abundance of protein, the dogs were fed a
ration which furnished an abundance of energy but contained a small amount of
protein. This was continued for 9 to 11 weeks, when a ration containing a large
amount of protein was again supplied.
Although the ration containing insufficient protein was made up of meat, fat, and
rice and was relished at first, after following it for a considerable time it became
distasteful to the subjects. They could be induced to eat it only by feeding it in
several portions, and eventually they refiised it altogether. Even before the loss of
appetite was noticed the subjects became weak. At first the ration was well digested,
but gradually the assimilation became poorer, the decrease in assimilation of fat
being greatest, of protein less, and of carbohydrates least. It was thought that the
lack of assimilation was largely caused by a diminution in the secretion of the digest-
iTe juices.
The ration which was poor in protein but furnished an abundance of energy, when
followed for a long time produced disturbances in the organism. The amount of
disturbance was influenced by the individual characteristics of the subjects. The
dogs recovered their normal condition very quickly when a ration containing an
abundance of protein and little nitrogen- free material was again supplied. If, how-
ever, the subject is for any reason weak the ration poor in protein sometimes causes
death when followed for a time.
From these experiments the author concludes that for a dog weighing 10 kilograms
«t ration furnishing 0.255 gram of nitrogen (equal to 1.6 grams of protein) and 100 or
itiore calories per kilogram per body weight is not sufficient for the demands of the
<>fganism. A ration of the same fuel value must contain at least 0.31 gram of nitro-
gen (equal tO 2.9 grams of protein) per kilogram body weight if the subject is to be
tkiaintalned in nitrogen equilibrium and not lose weight.
For purposes bf comparison the author quotes an experiment with a fasting dog
(Ko. 2736) from his unpublished investigations.
The amount of protein actually required by man and animals is discussed at length
Und the results of other investigators are quoted.
Nos. 2737-2744 were made by Marcuse at the Physiological Institute of the Univer-
sity of Breslau in 1894. The object was to study the nutritive value of casein as
compared with meat. The subjects were two dogs. Five tests were made, three of
^hich were divided into two periods. In two cases a period with casein followed
and in one case preceded a period with meat diet. Practically the same amount of
nitrogen was consumed in each case. In the two remaining tests the diet consisted
of casein and casein-calcium. Lard and starch were fed with the meat and casein,
and meat extract was generally added to the food to make it more ])alatable. With
the casein a mixture of salts, approximating milk ash, was also fed. Water was
326 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
consnmed with the food, the amoant being recorded. The urine was collected with
a catheter. The feces was usually separated by feeding infusorial earth ; sometimes,
however, small porcelain beads in capsules were used.
The conclusion was reached that casein has the same nutritive value as the
albuminoids of meat.
The author gives an extended review of previous investigations on this subject.
No. 2745 was made by Lange at the Medical Institute at the University of Leipsio
in 1895, in connection with an investigation of the metabolism of nursing children
on a diet of cows' milk. The subject was a dog 14 days old. The food consisted of
milk sterilized with Soxhlet's apparatus. The urine and feces were collected together.
The nitrogen in the food, urine, and feces was determined.
The conclusion was reached that in the case of young animals there is the same
discrepancy between the amount of nitrogen retained in the body and the gain in
weight as was observed in the case of children (see Nos. 116-125, Table 2).
Experiments were made by Zuntz ^ to study the nutritive value of meat peptones.
By an oversight these were omitted from the tables. The subjects were two dogs
weighing 3.1 and 5.2 kilograms, respectively. The first experiment was divided into
five periods of five, six, five, four, and five days' duration. In the first, third, and
fifth periods the food consisted of 120 grams of meat and 20 grams of fat ; in the
second period 48.5 grams of Kemmerich's meat peptone, and in the fourth period
60.7 grams of Koch's meat peptone were substituted for the meat.
The nitrogen in the food in the different periods was 3.9, 4.7, 3.9, 4.9, and 3.9 grams;
in the urine, 3.4^ 4.8, 3.3, 5.0, and 3.3 grams, and in the feces 0.3, 0.4, 0.4, 0.4, and
0.3 gram. In the first, third, and fifth periods there was a gain of 0.2, 0.2, and 0.3
gram, respectively, while in both the second and fourth periods there was a loss of
0.5 gram.
The second experiment was divided into three periods of one, ten, and fonr days,
respectively. In the first period the food consisted of 70 grams of rice and 10 grams
of fat; in the second period 40.4 to 60.6 grams of Kemmerich's meat peptone was
taken in addition, and in the third period 75.8 grams of Koch's meat peptone.
The nitrogen in the food in the several periods was 0.7, 4.8, and 6.8 grams ; in the
urine 1.8, 4, and 6.1 grams, and in the feces, 0.1, 0.4, and 0.2 gram. In the first
period there was a loss of 1.2 grams and in the second and third periods there was a
gain of 0.4 and 0.5 gram, respectively.
The conclusion was reached that the two peptones bad a high nutritive value,
Kemmerich's being somewhat superior to Koch's in this respect.
INFLUENCE OF OTHER CONDITIONS THAN FEEDING.
In Table 29 are included 244 tests with dogs under various more or
less abnormal or unusual conditions. In experiments ^os. 2746-2750
the subjects were fasting, in ^os. 2751-2955 the influence of various
drugs was tested, in I^os. 2956-2962^the effect of baths was observed,
and in Nos. 2963-2972 the influence of pregnancy and other phases of
sexual life was studied. In all these experiments the dogs were in
health. In Nos. 2973-2987 the dogs were suffering from the effects of a
surgical operation.
An experiment with a dog on the influence of hot baths in whicli the
balance of income and outgo of carbon was determined in addition to
that of nitrogen will be found in Table 38.
iPliuger's Arch., 37 (1885), p. 313.
EXPERIMENTS WITH DOGS.
327
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A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPEBIMENTS.
EXPEBIMENTS WITH DOGS.
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336 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
Nos. 2746-2750. See Nos. 2455-2514, Table 28.
Nos. 2751-2762 were made by Seegen in the laboratory of the Physiological Insti-
tute in Vienna in 1861-1863. The object was to investigate the inflaence of sodium
snlphate on uietabolism. The subject was a dog. Twelve tests were made, of from
7 to 30 days' duration. The food consisted of meat and fat. In 8 tests sodium sul-
phate was given. The nitrogen in the urine was at first determined by the Liebig
titration method and later by the soda-lime method. The nitrogen in the meat
used was calculated, using Voit's figure. The nitrogen in the feces was determined
by the soda-lime method. The uriue was usually collected directly, and any which
was deposited in the cage in which the dog was confined was collected in a dish
placed under an opening in the floor.
The following conclusions were drawn : When sodium sulphate was consumed, the
assimilation of the food was not affected. The feces contained the same amount
of nitrogen and nearly the same amount of fat as under normal conditions, but the
water content was increased. The quantity of urine was normal, or a little less.
Its nitrogen content was, however, much lowered. The^ain in weight of the snbject
was not sufficient to account for the discrepancy between consumed and excreted
nitrogen. The author believed that the metabolism of nitrogen-free tissue (fat) was
considerably increased.
Nos. 2763-2769 were made by Voit at the laboratory of the Physiological Institute
in Munich in 1864. The object was to determine the influence of sodium sulphate
on nitrogen metabolism. The subject was a dog. The food consisted of meat, and
in several cases fat also. The nitrogen in the food and feces was calculated and the
urea in the urine determined. After the dog was in nitrogen equilibrium, sodium
sulphate was given for a number of days. The conclusion was reached that the
metabolism of protein was not at all afiTected by sodium sulphate. This is contrary
to Scegen's opinion (see Nos. 2751-2762).
Nos. 2770-2781 were made by Seegen in the laboratory of the Physiological Insti-
tute in Vienna in 1866-67. The object was to study the influence of sodinm
carbonate on the metabolism of nitrogen. The subject was a dog. During the
experiments he was confined in a cage. The floor was of zinc, and inclined so that
any urine deposited in the cage could be collected in a dish placed underneath. The
dog was trained to deposit urine in a dish, and in the later experiments this was
always done. In the first experiments the floor of the cage was wiped up with a
large dry sponge, which was weighed before and after use.
Twelve tests were made. In Nos. 2770-2773 the food consisted of meat and fat,
and in Nos. 2774-2781 of meat only. Sodium carbonate was given in 4 tests. The
nitrogen in the urine was determined by the soda-lime method; in the food it was
calculated, using Voit's mean value for meat (3.4 per cent). Analyses of meat
showed that this value was, however, a little low. The nitrogen in the feces was
determined.
The conclusion was reached that under the influence of sodium carbonate the
excretiou of nitrogen through the kidneys was increased.
NoH. 2782-2789 were made bv von Boeck at the laboratory of the Physiological
Institute in Munich in 1871 with a dog. The object was to determine the influence
of morpbin, quiuin, and arsenic-acid on the metabolism of protein. The food con-
sisted of meat and fat. The nitrogen in the meat was calculated from Voit's figure.
Morphin acetate, quinin sulphate, and arsenic-acid were each given for several days.
Very little food was given with the arsenic, in order that there might be no vomiting.
In every case a period with the drugs was preceded and followed by a period with
normal diet. The urea In the urine was determined by the Liebig method. The
nitrogen in the feces was also determined.
The following conclusions were reached: Morphin lowered the metabolism of pro-
tein a scarcely preceptible amount; quinin lowered it somewhat more than mor-
phin; while arsenic, in the doses given, exercised no effect.
Nos. 2790-2803 were made by Muuk in the chemical laboratory of the Pathological
EXPERIMENTS WITH DOGS. 337
Institnte of the University of Berlin in 1877. The object was to study the physiolog-
ical r61e of glycerin in the animal organism. The subjects were 2 female do^s. The
food consisted of meat and bacon. The nitrogen in the meat was calculated from
Voit's value. The nitrogen in the food and feces was determined by the Schneider-
Seegeu method. The feces were separated by feeding the animals pulverized cork.
The author divides the tests into 4 series.
In the first series (Nos. 2790-2792) 25 grams of glycerin was fed in one period.
This period was preceded and followed by a period with normal diet. The second
series (Nos. 2793-2796) was divided into four periods. In the first the diet was
normal; in the second 25 grams of glycerin was added; In the third period the diet
was normal, and in the fourth period 25 grams of sugar was fed. In the third series
(Nos. 2797-2800) the plan followed was the same as in the second, except that 30
grams of glycerin and 30 grams of sugar were fed. In the fourth series (Nos. 2801-
2803) a period with 30 grams of glycerin was preceded and followed by a normal
period.
The conclusion was reached that glycerin had no effect upon the breaking down of
protein in the organism. In other words, it did not protect protein.
The literature of the subject is reviewed at length.
Nos. 2804-2811 were made by Munk in the physiological laboratory of the Veter-
inary Institute in Berlin in 1878 and 1879. The object was to study the value of
fat and its constituents in metabolism, or, more definitely, (1) to compare the amount
of fatty acids and their salts (soaps) in the feces, (2) to determine the digestibility of
the fats and fatty acids and their salts in the chyle, and (3) to investigate the influ-
ence of fats and fatty acids upon the decomposition of protein in the organism. The
snbjects were 2 dogs, and the food consisted of meat. In the different periods a
definite amount of fat or the fatty acids derived from the same quantity of fat were
also fed. The feces were separated with pulverized cork. The nitrogen in the food
was calculated from Yoit's figure. The nitrogen in the urine and feces was deter-
mined by the Seegen method.
The following conclusions were reached : Fatty acids protect protein in the same
way as the equivalent quantity of fat. When considerable quantities of fatty acids
are fed, the amount excreted in the feces is very small. When fatty acids are con-
sumed, only a very little more ot tlieir salts is excreted in the feces than when fat is
consumed. When pure fatty acids are consumed, the fat content of the chyle is
greatly increased and the chyle contains free fatty acids. The fatty acids are largely
absorbed as an enmlsion, and not as salts. The fatty acids are not only absorbed,
but also undergo a synthesis to fats.
The literature of the subject is discussed at length.
Nos. 2812-2817 were made by Ott in the laboratory of the Physiological Institute
in Manich in 1880. The object was to study the influence of sodium carbonate
on the metabolism of nitrogen. The subject was a dog. His food consisted of meat
with the connective tissue, etc., removed as much as possible. The dog had been
fed 50 grams meat per day for a long time before the experiments were begun and
was in nitrogen e(]uilibrium. The experiment covered 50 days and was divided into
six periods. During the second period 2 grams of sodium carbonate and during the
fifth period 5 or 10 grams of sodium carbonate were given daily with the meat. The
nitrogen of food, urine, and feces was determined. The urine and feces were col-
lected directly.
The author concludes that sodium carbonate has no influence on nitrogen metabo-
lism.
[The opinions regarding the influence of sodium carbonate on nitrogen metabolism
are quite varied. Seegen ^ declared that it increased the amount of nitrogen in the
urine. Sabuteau's^ opinion was exactly the opposite.]
1 Studien uber Stoff wechsel, p. 127.
« Gaz. hebd. Med. et Chir., 1871, No. 43, p. 692.
749— No. 45 22
338 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
Nos. 2818-2838 were made by Mayer in 1881 . The object was to investigate the influ-
ence of sodium acetate, carbonate, salphate, and phosphate on the metabolism of
nitrogen. The experiments were made with a female dog. The food consisted of
meat prepared by Voit's method, and bacon. The nitrogen in the meat was calca-
lated from Yoit's figure and that in the bacon from Hoffman's figure (0.2 per cent).
The urine was collected with a catheter and the bladder was washed out with water.
The nitrogen in the urine, and probably in the feces, was determined by the Schnei-
der- Seegcn method. After a period of several days on the meat and fat diet one of
the salts was given for a few days. This period was followed by several days on a
normal diet.
The following conclusions were reached: Sodium acetate in large doses deci cased
the metabolism of protein a very little. Sodinui carbonate increased the metabohsni
of protein in proportion to the dose, while sodium sulphate diminished it a very
little, the amount being proporticmal to the dose. Small doses of sodium phosphate
had no particular effect on the metabolism of protein ; large doses diminished it some-
what. The excretion of urine was increased in every case.
Nos. 2839-2844 were made by Albertoni in 1882. The object was to study the
effect of the transfusion of blood (1) upon the utilization of protein aud (2) npnn
the excretion of carbon dioxid. The blood was defibrinated and injected into the
peritoneal region. Expenments on the iirst question were made with dogs, and on
the second with guinea pigs. So few data were recorded in some of the experiments
with dogs that they could not be inclndcd in the present compilation, while in the
experiments with guinea pigs no attempt was made to determine the balance of
income and outgo.
The dog used in Nos. 2839-2841 was well nourished; that in Nos. 2842-2844 had
been fasting a long time before the experiment and was weak. No food was given
the dogs during the experiment. The nitrogen in the urine was determined by
Seegen'H aud by Hufher's methods. Both values are included in the table. In only
one case (No. 2839) were feces excreted. The nitrogen in the feces was supplied
by the compilers from Kolpakcha's figures for a fasting dog (see experiment No.
2663, Table 28).
The conclusion is reached that when the subject was well nourished the transfii-
sion of blood had no effect on the excretion of nitrogen, but when the subject was
poorly nourished the excretion of nitrogen was somewhat increased.
Nos. 2845, 2856 were made by Carl Virchow at the laboratory of the Pathological
Institute at Berlin in 1881. The object was to investigate the influence of sodium
benzoate and sodium salicylate on the metabolism of protein. Tbe subject was a
female dog. The food consisted of chopped meat Sodium benzoate and sodium
salicylate were given on several days. The urine was collected with a catheter. The
nitrogen in the food, urine, aud feces was determined by the Will-Warrentrapp
method. The fat in the food, aud the hippuric acid in the urine, on days when
sodium benzoate was consumed, was also determined. In a few of the tests the
nitrogen in the feces was supplied by the compilers from the previous tests reported
by the author. After bringing the dog into nitrogen equilibrium she was twice fisd
sodium benzoate and once sodium salicylate for 3 days.
Tbe following conclusions were reached : Sodium benzoate and sodiun salicylate
fed to the dog in nitrogen equilibrium caused a considerable increase in the breaking
down of protein, as shown by the increased excretion of nitrogen. No after effect
was noticed with the first drug, the second was injurious.
Nos. 2857-2859 were made by Hunk in Berlin in 1883. The object was to investi-
gate tbe influence of asparagin on protein metabolism and its value as a nutrient.
The subject was a dog. Meat was the only food. On 3 days asparagin was given.
The urine was collected with a catheter. The feces were separated by means of
ground cork. The nitrogen in the meat was calculated, using the factor 3.4 per cent
The nitrogen in the urine was determined by the Schneider-Seegen method, and in
the feces by the soda-lime method. In No. 2857 (without asparagin) the total sol-
EXPERIMENTS WITH DOGS. 339
phuric acid in the arine was determined and in No. 2858 (with asparagin) the total
salphur.
The author reports a second experiment with a dog in which the feces were not
analyzed. The test cohered 17 days. The food consisted of 700 grams meat, 120
grams starch, and 200 cuhic centimeters of water per day. On the ninth, tenth,
and eleventh days 25 to 30 grams of asparagin were given in addition. Dnriug the
8 days before and the 6 days after the asparagin period the average daily consump-
tion of nitrogen was 23.8 grams and during the asparagin period 29.1 grams. The
excretion of nitrogen in the urine ia the corresponding periods was 26.2, 27.4, and 31.6
grams. The conclusion was reached that in the case of a dog in practically nitrogen
eqniHbrinm asparagin did not protect protein, but rather the cleavage of protein was
increased a little.
Nos. 2860-2868 were made by Cheltsov in St. Petersburg in 1886. The object was
to investigate the effect of bitter drags on the digestion and assimilation of protein.
They form a series with experiments Nos. 2011-2019, Table 19. The subject was a
dog. The food consisted of meat. On several days either ext. absinthii, q^uassia,
or ext. trifolii were given in the food.
The conclusion was reached that bitter drugs, even in small doses, disturb the
digestion and assimilation of protein.
Nos. 2869-2879 were made by Chittenden and Blake at the laboratory of physio-
logical chemistry at Yale University in 1886. The object was to investigate the
influence of antimoiiions oxid on metabolism. The subject was a dog. Th:3 animal
was confiDed ia a suitable cage, so that the excreta could be collected. The food
consisted of beef and crackers. The beef was prepared by freeing it from fat, ten-
don, etc., grinding it iine, and drying it until it had lost about 75 per cent of its
water. Sufficient meat and crackers were prepared for the whole experiment. The
Ditrogen in the meat and in the urine was determined by the Kjeldahl method;
that ia the feces was supplied by the compilers from experiments in which the food
was similar. The reaction, specific gravity, phosphorus, sulphur, and chlorin in
the urine were also determined. After a number of days on normal diet antimonious
oxid was given in small doses.
The conclusion was reached that small repeated doses of antimonious oxid had no
influence on the excretion of nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus; that is, this com-
pound when taken in nontoxic doses has no effect on metabolism of protein.
Nos. 2880-2882 were made by Spilker at the Medical Institute of the University
of Berlin in 1889. The object was to study the influence of sodium acetate on
metabolism, with special reference to the excretion of uric acid. The subject was a
dog. The food consisted of meat and fat. A period during which sodium acetate
was added to the food was preceded and followed by a normal diet. The urea
in the urine was determined by the SalkowHki method and the nitrogen by the
Kjeldahl method. The composition of the food and feces was computed by the
author, using Volt's mean value, 3.4 per cent for meat.
The author also made experiments in which he himself wiEis the subject, but the
food consumed and the amount and composition of the feces are not recorded.
The following conclusions were reached : Large doses of sodium acetate diminished
the uric-acid excretion in man and increased that of a dog already in nitrogen equi-
librium. In both cases the specific gravity of the urine was increased. In the case
of the dog there was a marked increase in the excretion of urine.
Nos. 2883-2902 were made by Tanignti at the laboratory of the Pathological Insti-
tute of the University of Berlin in 1889. The object was to investigate the influence
of chloroform, chloroform water, ether, paraldehyde, and chloral hydrate on the break-
ing down of protein in the animal organism. The subjects were dogs and the food
consisted of meat. The periods in which the drugs were given were preceded and
followed by periods with normal diet.
From his own experiments the author draws the conclusion that the breaking down
of protein is increased by the drugs used, and that if the action of chloroform is a
340 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
specific one, the other narcotic materials have a similar action, which is least notice-
able when they are taken for several days in succession.
Nos. 2903-2905 were made by Mtlgdan in Berlin in 1888 to stndy the poisonooB
effects of creolin and its influence on metabolism. The subject was a dog. The
food consisted of meat and fat. On a number of days creolin was given. The nitro-
gen content of the food was calculated and the nitrogen in the urine and feces was
determined. The sulphur compounds in the urine were also determined -and tests
for iudican were made.
The conclusion was reached that creolin in the doses given did not influence the
cleavage of protein. After taking creolin only traces of carbolic acid and indican
were fotnd in tlie urine. The absence of the latter indicates a diminution in intes-
tinal putrefaction. Creolin caused an increase in the sulphuric acid and neutral
sulphur in the urine, but a decrease in total sulphur. Tests were also made by the
author with a dog and a rabbit to study the effect of creolin on the namber of
bacteria in the feces.
Nos. 2906-2908 were made by Chittenden and Lambert at the laboratory of phys-
iological chemistry at Yale University in 1885, to study the physiological and toxic
effect of uranium salts. The subject, a female dog, was kept in a cage suitably
arranged for collecting the excreta, and was fed soda crackers and lean beef chopped
flue and dried until it had lost about 75 per cent of the water content. The nitrogen
in the food and urino was determined by the Kjeldahl method; that in the feces was
supplied by the compilers from experiments in which the food was similar. The
specific gravity, reaction, sulphur, and phosphorus in the urine were also determined.
A normal period preceded the period in which uranium nitrate was given in varying
doses.
The conclusion was reacheil that uranium salts had a marked influence on the
excretion of urine, the increase amounting, on the average, to 80 cubic centimeters per
day. The speciflo gravity of the urine was also increased. On a number of clays
the sugar and albumen in the urine were determined. The urine showed traces of
albumen soon after uranium nitrate was taken, and in about 5 days sugar appeared.
Experiments on the toxic jiction of uranium were made with rabbits. The experi-
ments were, however, not of the kind included in the present compilation.
Nos. 2909-2911 were made by Chittenden and Dookendorflf at the laboratory of
physiological chemistry at Yale University in 1886. The object was to investigate
the influence of paraldehyd on the metabolism of protein. The subject wa^ a dog.
The experimental methods were the same as those noted above. The paraldehyde
produced no noticeable hypnotic eflect, and the conclusion was reached that it has
little, if any, action upon metabolism of protein.
Nos. 2912-2917 were made by Skvortsov in St. Petersburg in 1890. The objects
were to study (1) the influence of a preparation of iron on the metabolism and
assimilation of nitrogen of healthy animals, and (2) its effect when introduced into
the gaHtro-intestinal canal on the rapidity with which hasmoglobin is restored to the
blood after artificially induced anasmia. The same dog was used in the study of
both questions. The food consisted of horse meat, and in two cases ferum reducti
was given in addition. The nitrogen in the food, urine, and feces was deterniioed
by the Kjeldahl method, with Pfluger's and Boland's modifications. The urea in tho
urine was determined by Liebig's method.
In Nos. 2912-2914 the first question was studied. The dog was fed until the con-
dition of nitrogen equilibrium was reached. He was then given iron (ferum
reducti). This period was followed by a period under normal conditions.
In Nos. 2915-2917 the second question was investigated. Daring the interval be-
tween Nos. 2915 and 2916 artificial anaemia was induced by bleeding the dog from
the veins in the neck. The wounds were allowed to remain open and were washed
with a solution of boric acid. The amount of haemoglobin in the blood was deter-
mined for two days before and after bleeding. The dog was bled a second time
fourteen days later in the interval between Nos. 2916 and 2917. After the second
bleeding the subject was given ferum reducti on several days and the metabolism o^
EXPERIMENTS WITH DOGS. 341
nitrogen and the amount of hsBmoglobin in the blood were determined. Sixteen
days after the second bleeding the dog was bled a third time and the hsBmoglobin
content of the blood was again determined. The nitrogen balance was, howeyer,
not reported by the author.
From these experiments and others not of the kind included in the present com-
pilation the following conclnsions were reached : The medicinal preparation of iron
given with the food apparently did not perceptibly change the metabolism of nitro-
gen, bnt seemed to intensify the breaking down of carbohydrates and fats; when
taken after artificially induced anaemia it undoubtedly caused a rapid restoration of
the haemoglobin content of the blood.
Nos. 2918, 2919 were made by Frankel at the laboratory at the Agricnltural Insti-
tute at Berlin in 1890. The object was to investigate the influence of pyrodin
(acetyl-phenyl hydrazin) poisoning on metabolism. The subject was a dog. The
food consisted of meat. A sufficient amount of meat was prepared for the whole
experiment, and sterilized by heating at 100° C. The separation of the feces was
made with bones. The author does not calculate the amount of nitrogen in the
food consumed, but in a discussion of the amount of nitrogen in the portion of the
food which was vomited by the dog assumes that the nitrogen content of the meat
was 3.4 per cent. This value was used by the compilers in supplying the figures in
the table. The nitrogen in the urine and feces was determined. Pyrodin was dis-
Bolyed in warm water and given in subcutaneous injections. Very soon after taking
the pyrodin the urine became dark reddish brown in color. When the dose was
increased, the urine . contained blood and albumen. The dog appeared in normal
health until the dose was increased to 0.5 gram. It then showed symptoms of poison-
ing, and died on the following day. The blood and organs were carefully examined.
The conclusion was reached that small doses (0.1 gram) of pyrodin increased the
excretion of nitrogen in the urine immediately and that this increase was caused
by the poisonous effect of the drug on the different tissues of the organism. Large
doses increased still further the nitrogen excretion.
The author reviews the literature of the subject at length.
Nos. 2920-2924 were made by Hahn at the chemical laboratory of the Pathological
Institute of the University of Berlin in 1891 . The object was to invowtigate the influ-
ence of sulfonal upon the metabolism of protein. The subject was a female dog.
The food consisted of meat, fat, and water. The urine was collected with a catheter.
The nitrogen in the food was calculated from Voit^s figure, 3.4 per cent. The nitro-
gen in the urine and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl method. On 2 consecutive
days and later on 1 day sulfonal was given with the food.
In the author's opinion it was possible to draw no conclusion from this (experiment
regarding the influence of sulfonal upon the metabolism of protein.
Nos. 2925-2933 were made by Norris and Smith at the laboratory of physiological
chemistry at Yale University in 1893, and reported by Chittendc^n. The object was
to study the influence of alcohol upon the metabolism of protein. The subjects
were 3 dogs. The food consisted of beef and milk crackers. The meat was freed
from fat and tendon, passed through a chopping machine, and dried at 45-50^ C.
It was then ground to a coarse powder and kept in jars. The milk cra(?kers were
al84> ground to a coarse powder.
The nitrogen in the meat and crackers and the urine and feces was determined
by the Kjeldahl method. The sulphur and phosphorus, the specific gravity, and the
reaction of the urine were also determined. Each experiment was divided into
three periods. During the second period alcohol was added to the daily ration.
The conclusion was reached that alcohol had no striking specific action on the
general metabolism of protein. The investigators believe that alcohol acts as a
nonnitrogenous food and tends to protect protein slightly. The excretion of uric
acid was increased in the alcohol period. This indicates, in the authors' opinion,
that alcohol has some specific effect upon nutrition.
Nos. 2934-2944 were made by Dubelir at the Physiological Institute in Munich in
1881. The object was to investigate the influence of water and of salt upon the
342 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPEBIMENTS.
excretion of nitrogen. The subject was a dog. The food consisted of meat and
bacon. The feces were separated by means of bones. The nitrogen in the food,
urine, and feces was determined by the Will-Warrentrapp and Schneider-Seegen
methods. A normal period preceded and followed the period during which water or
salt was added to the diet. The experiments were not begun until the dog was in
nitrogen o(inilibrinm. In No. 2936 the water wan introduced into the stomach with
a stomach tube.
The conclusion was reached that in these experiments drinking water had very
little or no eflect cm the excretion of nitrogen, and that salt diminished the excre-
tion of nitrogen a little, while the amount of urine excreted was nearly doubled.
Nos. 2945-2952 wer« made by Mauthner at the Physiological Institute in Munich
in 1882. The object was to study the influence of asparagin on the metabolism of
protein in Carnivora. The subject was a female dog. The plan was to feed aspara-
gin (I) with a diet containing an abundance of protein, and (2) with a diet contain-
ing fat and carbohydrates but no protein. The food in Nos. 2945-2948 consisted of
meat and bacon, and in Nos. 2949-2952 of starch and fat. In each case asparagin
was fed for 3 days. In No. 2950 potassium sulphate was fed also. A period with
asparagin was preceded and followed by a normal period. The urine was collected
with a catheter. The feces were separated by means of bones. The nitrogen in food
(including asparagin), urine, and feces was dt^termined by the Will-Warrentrapp
method. The sulphur and phosphoric acid in the urine were determined in nearly
every case.
The author does not draw definite conclusions from his experiments, but thinks
that if asparagin exercises any influence on the metabolism of protein it must be
very slight.
Another experiment was made in which a young dog weighing 8.7 kilograms was
fed starch, gelatin, fat, asparagin (4.48 grams nitrogen daily), potassium ])ho8pbate,
water, and meat extract. In 15 days the dog lost 580 grams in weight, although an
abundance of nitrogen was consumed in the food. When 130 grams meat daily (24
grams protein) was substituted for the asparagin, the dog gained 620 grams in weight
in 8 days. The urine and feces were not analyzed. From this experiment the con-
clusion is drawn that asparagin can not take the place of protein.
Nos. 2953-2955 were- made by Brandt and Tappeiner at the Physiological Institnte
in Munich in 1890-91. The object was to study the storing up of fluorin compounds
in the organism when sodinm fluorid wns fed. The subject was a young but fall-
grown dog. The food consisted of cooked meat, the soup made f^om it, and bread.
Sodium fluorid solution was poured over the meat; after it had been absorbed the
meat could be fed without trouble. When the dry salt was mixed with the meat, the
dog could with difSculty bo made to eat it, and sometimes vomiting was prodnced.
From 0.1 to 0.9 gram pure sodium fluorid was fed daily. The fiuorin in the nrine
and feces was determined. The experiment lasted from February 7, 1890, to Novem-
ber 16, 1891. In discussing the experiments the author divides the time into three
periods. In the first a total of 27.8 grams sodium fluorid ^tw stored up in the organ-
ism ; in the si^cond period 21.2 grams, and in the third period 23.4 grams, making a
total of 72.6 grams. At the close of the experiment the dog was killed and the varions
organs, etc., weighed and analyzed. The blood, liver, kidneys, and muscular tissne
did not differ much from the normal condition. The bones were, however, unusnally
white, very hard, and found to be full of small crystals, presnmably calcium flaorid.
The experiment is discussed in detail.
The conclusion is reached that when the food contains soluble fluorin compounds
large amounts will be stored up in the organism. * The larger part will be found in
the bones.
Nos. 2956-2962 were made by Dommer at the Pharmacological Institute of the
University of Konigsburg in 1883. The object was to study the effect of different
baths on the metabolism of protein in the animal organism. The subject was a dog.
The food consisted of horse meat, bacon, and water. The connective tissue, etc., was
EXPEBIMENTB WITH DOGS. 343
Temoved, as far as possible, from the meat. The nitrogen in the meat was deter-
mined from Stohmann's value for horse meat, 3.35 per cent. The nitrogen in the urine
-was determined by the Schneider-Seegen method, and the nitrogen in the feces was
oalcnlated.
The experiment was divided into seven periods. In the first, third, and fifth
periods the dog was fed antil a condition of nitrogen equilibrium was reached. In
the second period he was given a cold bath (10°-12.5^ C.) ; in the fourth period a cold
salt bath (12.5^ C); in the sixth period a warm bath (34^ C), and in the seventh
period a warm salt bath (34^ C). The baths were of a half hour's duration in every
case. The salt baths were prepared by adding sufficient coarse salt to make a 4 per
cent solution.
The following conclusions were reached : The cold fresh and salt baths caused an
inereased excretion of nitrogen in the urine. The after effect could not be deter-
miiied. Though they did not increase the body temperature, the warm salt baths
increased the cleavage of protein in the organism perceptibly, but not as much as
the cold baths. The warm fresh-water baths exerted no influence on metabolism.
Nos. 2963-2969 were made by Potthast at the laboratory of animal physiology of
the Agricultural Institute of Berlin in 1886. The object was to study the effect of
different phases of sexual life on the metabolism of protein. The subject was a
female dog.
The experiment was divided into seven periods. The first covered the last days of
pregnancy. Eleven days elapsed between the first and second periods. On the day
following the first period the subject gave birth to 6 young. Two were taken away
And 1 died; the others nursed during the second and third periods. The subject was
in full flow of milk during the time. During the fourth period the puppies were
^ ven some food in addition to the mother's milk. They were taken from the mother
at the end of the period. During the fifth period the subject was in a condition of
sexual rest. On the last day of the sixth period she came in heat, and remained in
this condition during several days of the seventh period.
The food consisted of meat and fat in the first period, and meat, fat, and starch in
the other periods. The meat was chopped, mixed, and sterilized by heating in an
Air bath at 7(P C. It was prepared in large portions. The nitrogen in the meat,
nrine, feces, and in the hair lost was determined.
The following conclusions were reached : The cleavage of protein in the organism
is greater during pregnancy than after the period of lactation has ceased. During
the period of lactati'-n the cleavage of protein in the organism is greater than dur-
ing the period of sexual rest.
Babuteau's^ opinion that during the menstrual period the metabolism of protein is
lowered was not corroborated by this experiment. The author made extended
reference to the work of other investigators on the subject.
Nos. 2970-2972 and Nos. 3272-3287, Tabic 34, were made by Reprev in St. Peters-
burg in 1878. The object was to investigate the influence of pregnancy on the metab-
olism of matter in animals. The subjects of the experiment were a female dog and
two rabbits. One of the rabbits became pregnant three times, the other once. Other
experiments with dogs and rabbits were undertaken, but were not successful. The
author also reports experiments with a rabbit and a guinea pig, in which the respira-
tory quotient was determined. These latter are not of the kind included in the
present compilation.
The experiment with a dog covers the last days of pregnancy. Three of th e experi-
ments with rabbits included periods of sexual rest as well as pregnancy. The nitro-
Ken of the food, urine, and feces was determined by the Kj eld ah 1- Borodin method.
The urea, chlorids, and phosphates of the urine were estimated. The respiratory
quotient was determined by Pashutin's ^ method. The author does not regard the
experiment with a dog as satisfactory, since the subject ate up her young. How-
iGaz. hebd. de Paris, 1870, July.
«Vrach, 7 (1886), No. 18.
344 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
ever, the oonclasion was reached that, daring pregnancy, the cleavage processes
were diminished, while the processes of assimilation were intensified.
From the investigation as a whole the following general conclnsions were drawn :
During pregnancy the organism absorhs more from the food and rejects less than
during periods of sexnal rest. The metabolism of nitrogen decreases, and less is excre-
ted in the urine. Nitrogen is stored up in the body. In other words, the processes of
assimilation are intensified, while those of excretion are diminished. Less urea and
phosphates are excreted during pregnancy than under normal conditions. The
amount diminishes as pregnancy advances. During pregnancy less oxygen is
exhaled and less carbon dioxid excreted than under normal conditions ; that is, the
oxidation processes are weakened.
Hagemann ^ made experiments with two female dogs to study the influence Of the
various phases of sexual life on the metabolism of protein. In the report of the
experiments the data were not given in such form that they could be included in the
tables in the present compilation. The experiment with one of the subjects was not
successfully completed. The other subject weighed 12.5 kilograms, and during sexual
rest, while in heat, during pregnancy, lactation, and sexual rest following the period
of lactation, the diet remained the same. It consisted o f 300 grams of meat, 50 grams
of fat, and 60 grams of starch daily, which furnished 9.986 grams nittogeu. The
inference is that food, urine, and feces were analyzed. At the beginning of the
experiment, during sexual rest, there was a daily gain of 0.187 gram nitrogen. Just
before coming in heat this amount increased to 0.570 gram daily. While in heat
the excretory products were not analyzed. In the eight days immediately following,
there was a daily loss of 0.376 gram nitrogen, and during the first three weeks of
pregnancy the daily loss was 0.177 gram. During the last half of this period, how-
ever, there was a daily gain of 0.220 gram, and during the eighteen days immedi-
ately before deliverj'^ the daily gain increased to 1.617 grams. The dog gave birth
to two young weighing 740 grams. They were nursed until they weighed 3,250 grams.
During this period the daily excretion of nitrogen in the urine and feces was 1.498
grams Icsk than the amount consumed. During the period of sexual rest, immedi-
ately after the young were weaned, the dog gained only 1.297 grams of nitrogen
daily. In another experimenfc, made daring a period of sexual rest, the dog was fed
200 grams of rice, 17 grams of meat meal, and 60 grams of fat daily. This furnished
4.36 grams of nitrogen. After a time, nitrogen equilibrium was reached and main-
tained on this diet. The conclusion was reached that menstruation increased the
metabolism of nitrogen, and that during pregnancy and the period of lactation nitro-
gen was retained to supply the unusual demands of the organism.
Nos. 2973-2979 were made by Vilizhanin in St. Petersburg in 1883. The object
was to study the metabolism of nitrogen when the functions of the liver were dis-
turbed. Three experiments were made with dogs. Jaundice was induced as fol-
lows : In Nos. 2974 and 2977. the ductus choledochi was ligated and a fistula of the
biliary bladder was also made. Both dogs licked up the bile which was discharged,
so that nearly all of it got back into the organism. During sleep, however, it was
eollecteil into a vessel placed under the cage. The fistula could be closed at will and
jaundice would follow.
In No. 2979 a part of the ductus choledochi was cut out without forming a fistula of
the biliary bladder, and the abdominal wound sewed up.
The first experiment was divided into three periods, (1) before operation (nor-
mal), (2) with biliary fistula, (3) with jaundice. The other two experiments were
divided into two periods, (1) before operation (normal) and (2) with jaundice. The
nitrogen of the food was determined by the Will -Warren trap method, that of the
urine by the Seegen method in the first experiment, and in the other by the Will-
Warrentrap method. The nitrogen of the feces was also determined, presumably
by the Will- Warren trap method.
1 Virchow's Arch., 121 (1890), p. 557.
EXPERIMENTS WITH DOVES AND POULTRY. 345
The author draws the conclusion that the passage of hile into the blood caused an
intensified cleavage of protein in the organism, as a result of which an increased
outgo of nitrogen in the urine was observed.
No8. 2980-2989 were made by Zouiev in St. Petersburg in 1887. The object was to
investigate the influence of ligating the ductus thoracicus on the metabolism of nitro-
gen in dogs. The author attempted 15 experiments, but was unable to complete them
all. The dog^ experimented upon were kept for a considerable time in cages, until
nitrogen equilibrium was reached. The operation was then performed. The ductus
thoracicus was ligated at the neck. An incision was made through the skin 4 to 6
centimeters long. The cutaneous wound was sewed up. The operation was per-
formed under narcosis. The wound never healed per primam, and there was always
some suppuration.
The food consisted of horse meat and bread. The nitrogen of the food, feces, and
nrine was determined in the first experiment by the Kjeldahl method, and in the
others by the Kjeldahl- Wilfarth method. Each experiment was divided into two
periods, (1) before and (2) after the operation. In the first three experiments the
ductus thoracicus was ligated. The dogs recovered from the operation in a short
time and were then killed. On dissecting, the ligature of the ductus thoracicus was
found to be closed. A solution of prussian blue injected into the ductus thoracicus
did not pass into the veins. In the last two experiments, which were made as a
control, the ductus thoracicus was operated upon, but was not ligated. The dogs
recovered completely and were then killed. On dissecting, everything was found
normal.
The following conclusions were reached : In every case when the ductus thoracicus
was ligated immediately after the operation a decrease in the outgo of nitrogen was
observed. During the next 4 or 5 days the outgo increased and gradually became
normal. The metabolism of nitrogen increased after the operation, whether the
ductus thoracicus was ligated or not.
A number of tests were made by Aronsohn and Sachs ^ in connection with a
study of the relation Xif the brain to body temperature and to fever. Experiments
^ere made with rabbits and a dog to ascertain the effect on metabolism o^ injuring
the brain by puncturing it with a needle, either through the eye or through an open-
ing made in the skull. This caused an increased body temperature. Four tests
^ere naade with a dog. In the fourth morphin was given when the operation was
performed. In each test the daily food consisted of 70 grams of rice, 10 grams of
faty and a little salt. According to Zuntz^ this would contain 0.7 gram of nitrogen.
In the first three tests before the operation was performed the dog excreted in the
urine on an average 1.8 grams of nitrogen per day, and in the fourth test 2.0 grams.
Xhiring the fever the dog excreted in the urine in the second, third, and fourth tests
on an average 2.3, 1.5, and 2.7 grams. After the temperature again became normal,
in the second test the daily excretion of nitrogen in the urine was 1.7, and in the
third test 2.1 grams.
These tests and those with rabbits, mentioned on page 365, in the author's opinion,
show that the abnormally high temperature resulting from the operation performed
on the brain caused an increased cleavage of protein, as is the case in fever due to
other causes.
EXPEEIMEKTS WITH DOVES AND POULTEY.
INFLUENCE OF FEEDING.
In Table 30 are included 1 test with chickens, 1 with a dove, and 6
with geese. The special questions investigated are noted in the text
of the individual experiments.
I Pfliiger's Arch., 37 (1885), p. 232.
« Ibid., p. 313.
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EXPERIMENTS WITH DOVES AND POULTRY. 347
No. 2990 was made by Sacc at Giessen in 1843 to determine what percentage of the
food was retained by the animal body. The experiment was made with a cock and
a hen. The average figures for one chicken are given in the table. The food con-
sisted of barley. Sand and chalk were also fed. The elementary composition of the
food and feces was determined. The respiratory products were not taken into
account. The chickens in this experiment on a ration of barley excreted in the feces
a little less than half the substance which they consumed. The feces consisted of
one-fourth of the organic material and practically all of the inorganic material con-
sumed. The latter probably resisted the mechanical action of the digestive tract and
the digestive juices, and it was doubtless excreted without in any way nourishing
the body.
No. 2991 was made by Voit in Munich in 1861-62. The object was to investigate
whether nitrogen was excreted in the gaseous excretory products. The subject was
a dove. The duration of the experiment was 124 days. The food consisted of peas.
The nitrogen in the peas was determined. The mean of 5 analyses was 4.77 per
cent. The nitrogen in the excreta was also determined, the mean of 12 analyses
being taken as representing the average nitrogen content. During the whole experi-
ment the dove consumed 3,132.4 grams peas (water free) = 149.4 grams nitrogen.
The excreta weighed 976 grams (water free) and contained 145.9 grams nitrogen.
The excreted nitrogen was therefore 3.6 grams less than the amount consumed for
the entire period. The dove had, however, gained 70 grams in weight, which,
according to Voit's calculation, would account for 2.4 grams nitrogen, thus reducing
the discrepancy to 1.2 grams.
The ash in food and excreta was also determined, as a control on the correctness of
the nitrogen balance. The food contained 94.6 grams ash and the excreta 94.7 grams.
This would indicate that no excrement had been lost. The author selected a dove
to experiment with, as up to this time the largest recorded deficit had been found in
such experiments.
[This experiment has been much discussed and criticised, but must nevertheless be
accepted as accurate. It has become famous as one of the valuable arguments
against a respiratory excretion of nitrogen.]
Nos. 2992-2997 were made by Weiske and Mehlis at the Institute for Animal Chem-
istry at Breslau in 1877 ( ?). The object was to investigate the digestibility of crude
fiber. The subject was a goose. The food consisted of leaves of dandelion (Leonto-
don taraixacum) and the stalks of horse-tail rush (Equisetum arrenae). The food and
excretory products were analyzed. The conclusion was reached that crude fiber
was not digested.
Experiments were made byKalugine^ to study the influence of consuming fine
gravel upon the digestibility of millet by hens. The test was divided into three
periods. In two fine gravel was fed with millet and in one powdered coal. The
food and excreta were analyzed. The original publication could not be obtained,
and the results are therefore not induced in the compilation. The digestibility of
the food is briefly noted in the Exjeriment Station Record (8, p. 718), from an
abstract '2 of the original publication. The conclusion was reached that fine gravel
and also powdered coal increased the ( oefficients of digestibility of the nutrients,
especially of protein and crude fiber.
INFLUENCE OF OTHER CONDITTONS THAN FEEDING.
Ill Table 31 are included 3tS tests with poultry in which the influence
of other conditions than feeding was studied. The special questions
investigated are noted in the text accompanying the table.
iSelsk. Khoz. i Lyesov., 1896, No. 10.
«Fuhling's Landw. Ztg., 46 (1897), p. 85.
348
A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPEBIMENTS.
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EXPERIMENTS WITH DOVES AND POULTRY.
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No8. 3004-3027 were made by Knieriem at the University of Dorpat in 1877. The
object was to study in the organism of a hen the behavior of the compounds which
form the intermediate steps in the formation of urea in the organism of Mammalia.
The subjects were hens weighing about 1 kilogram. The food consisted of barley
grits. The substances fed with the grits were asparagin, aspartio acid, amido acetic
acid, leucin, and ammonium chlorid. The period during which these substances
were fed was preceded and followed by a period with normal food. A complete
analysis of the barley grits was made. The nitrogen in the excreta was determined
by the soda-lime method. The uric acid, urea, and ammonia in the excreta were
also determined and the nitrogen in the urea calculated.
The author reports an experiment in which a chicken consumed 40 grams of rice
and 30 grams of water daily. On the seventh day of the test 0.998 gram of ammo-
nium sulphate was given. The average daily excretion of nitrogen in the feces the
first 6 days was 0.1 gram. On the day ammonium sulphate was given the nitrogen
excretion was 0.2 gram, and on the 4 following days it averaged 0.1 gram.
The principal conclusions reached were the following : The digestion of protein
by hens appears to 3'ield the same compounds as in the case of Mammalia. Aspartic
acid, lencin, and amido acetic acid are to be regarded as intermediate steps in the
formation of uric acid by the former as well as the latter. In the case of Mammalia,
ammonium salts yield urea. In the case of hens they are excreted unchanged. This
accounts for the greater amount of ammonia excreted by hens.
Nos. 3022-3027 were made by Frankel and Rohmann in Berlin in 1879. The object
was to study phosphorus poisoning in hens. No food was consumed bj'^ the fowls,
but phosphorus was fed in bread pills. The nitrogen in the excreta was determined
in Nos. 3022 and 3023 by the Dumas method; in the other cases by the soda-lime
method. The uric acid in the excreta was also determined.
The conclusion is reached that in phosphorus poisoning of hens the cleavage of pro-
tein is very greatly increased, and that the uric acid excretion is also increased. The
number of red corpuscles in the blood was also studied. The conclusion was reached
that hunger did not diminish their relative number. Phosphorus poisoning, how-
ever, diminished the relative number, at first slowly and later very rapidly. In
the authors' opinion this shows that the processes of oxidation must be greatly
affected by phosphorus poisoning and that diminished metabolism of protein results
from diminished oxidation.
Nos. 3028-3033 were made by Weiske and Schulze at the Institute of Animal Chem-
istry of the University of Breslau in 1884. The object was to study the behavior
of several amid compounds in the animal organism. The subject was a gander.
The food consisted of noodles made from bran and starch. In No. 3029 aspartic acid
was added to the noodles, in No. 3031 succinic acid, and in No. 3033 meat meal. The
nitrogen in the food was determined by the soda-lime method. In nearly every case
the excrement was evaporated to dryness with and without the .addition of hydro-
chloric acid and the nitrogen in each portion determined. Aspartic acid had prac-
tically no influence on the excretion of nitrogen. Succinic acid caused a slight yet
marked gain. The greatest gain was made on a diet containing meat meal.
Nos. 3034, 3035, and Nos. 3460-3462, Table 37, were made by Kornauth at the Impe-
rial Experiment Station of Agricultural Chemistry at Vienna in 1871. The experi-
ments form part of a study of saccharin. The subject of Nos. 3034 and 3035 was a
duck, and of Nos 3460-3462 a pig. The duck was fed corn. Saccharin was fed with
the other food for several days, this period being preceded and followed by a period on
normal diet. The duck was fed by stuffing, i. e., the food was forced down its throat,
and it choked to death during the second period on normal diet. Complete analyses
were made of the food and feces. The conclusions reached are given on page 382.
Experiments were made with rabbits and dogs, but they were not of the sort
included in the present compilation.
Experiments were made by Kalugine ' to study the digestibility of peas, buckwheat,
1 Zap. Novo-Alexandri Inst. Selsk. i Khoz. Lyesov, 9 (1896), No. 3, pp. 217-257.
EXPERIMENTS WITH GOATS.
351
wheat, and barley. These experiments were found too late for insertion in the
tables. They more properly belong in the preceding section, but owing to limited
space are inserted here. Two hens were used as subjects and the tests lasted 7
days, being preceded by a preliminary period of 2 days. Full analyses were made
of the food and excretory products. The balance of income and outgo of nitrogen
and ash ^ is shown in the following table :
Chicken 1
Chicken 2
Chicken 1
Chicken 2
Chicken 1
Chicken 2
Chicken 1
Chicken 2
Food consumed.
104.9 gm. peas
91.9 gm. peas
80.5 gm. buckwheat
96.9 gm. buckwheat
61.4 gm. wheat
63.4 gm. wheat
70.0 gm. barley
63.8 gm. barley
Nitrogen.
In
feces.
Gain(+)
In food.
or
loss ( — ) .
Grams.
Oramt.
Oratna.
4.2
3.1
+ 1.1
3.5
2.8
+0.7
1.6
1.1
+0.5
1.3
1.1
+0.2
0.9
0.7
+0.2
0.9
0.8
+0.1
0.9
1.0
—0.1
0.8
0.8
0.0
Ash.
In food.
Grams.
2.5
2.2
1.6
1.3
1.0
0.9
1.5
1.3
In
i feces.
I Grams.
4.3
4.9
1.8
1.5
1.2
1.1
1.2
1.0
Gain(+)
or
loss ( — ).
Grains.
—1.8
—2.7
-0.2
—0.2
—0.2
—0.2
+ 0.3
1-0.3
In determining the digestibility of protein only that portion of the nitrogen of
the feces was taken into account which represented the undigested residue. The
total nitrogen in the feces and the nitrogen of uric acid and of ammonia (taken
together as representing the nitrogen of urates) and the nitrogen of metabolic prod-
ucts and undigested residue (considered as together representing nitrogen of pro-
tein) were determined. The results are shown in the following table :
Chicken 1.
Chicken 2.
Chicken 1.
Chicken 2.
Chicken 1 .
Chicken 2.
Chicken 1.
Chicken 2.
Food consumed.
Peas
do
Buckwheat
do
Wheat
.....do
Barley
.....do
Weight
of feces
(7 days).
Chram^s.
353.0
313.5
171.7
203.0
81.8
93.7
132.0
106.0
Nitrogen in urates
of feces.
Uric acid.
Per cent.
2.53
2.39
0.47
0.44
0.51
0.29
2.11
2.54
Anunouia.
Per cent.
0.31
0.30
0.05
0.05
0.06
0.03
0.26
0.31
Nitrogen in protmn
of feces.
Meta-
bolic
products.
Undi-
gested
residue.
Per cent.
2.62
2.76
2.26
2.07
2.73
2.26
1.55
1.60
Per cent.
0.72
0.81
2.04
1.86
2.94
3.39
1.23
0.81
Total
nitrogen
in feces.
Per cent.
6.18
6.26
4.30
3.93
6.21
5.97
5.15
5.26
The following conclusions were drawn from the experiments : In the ability to
digest the crude protein of peas and barley chickens do not differ from the ordinary
farm animals. In ability to digest the crude protein of buckwheat and wheat they
are much inferior. In ability to digest fat they resemble in some respects Herbivora
and in other respects swine. Chickens digest nitrogen-free extract very completely.
The gravel which hens consume is worn down in the intestinal tract to sand of
different degrees of fineness and is excreted in the excretory products.
EXPERIMENTS WITH GOATS.
INFLUENCE OF FEEDING.
In Table 32 are included 33 tests with goats. The animals were all
in health. The metabolism balance was usually determined in connec-
tion with feeding and digestion experiments or experiments in which
some special question was studied.
' In the tests with buckwheat, wheat, and barley the sand in the ash of feces was
determined. The sand consumed, if any, is not recorded.
EXPERIMENTS WITH GOATS.
353
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354 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
Xo6. 3036-3047 were made by .Stohmann, Roet, and fYtihling at the experiment
station in Halle in 1868. The object was to investigate the validity of Yoit's theory
that no nitrogen is excreted except in the solid and liquid excretory prodacts. Two
goats were nse^l us snbjects. The food consisted of meadow hay, and in several
cases starch, poppy oil, orsngar was also fed. The nitrogen in food, nrine, feces, and
milk was determined . In Xos. 3036-3012 practically all the nitrogen consumed was
recovered in the nrioe, feces, and milk. In Nos. 3043-3047 the amount which was not
q^overed conld be accounted for by the gain in weight of the animal.
The author's conclusion is that Voit's theory holds good for goats; that is, nitrogen
is excreted only in the urine and feces. Protein metabolism is dependent apon the
amount of circulating protein in the body. Increased consumption of water increases
the metabolism of nitrogen. Nitrogen. metabolism rapidly adjuste itself to changes
in the amount of nitrogen consumed. When the food contains insufficient nitrogen
the body loses protein. There is a noticeable gain in weight when the food contains
an abundance of fat and carbohydrates in addition to sufficient protein.
Nos. 3048-3066 were made by Stohmann, Lehde, and Bael>er at Halle in 1866. The
object was to study the metal »oli8ui of nutrients during the period of lactation.
The subjects were two goats. The food consisted of meadow hay and linseed cake
of several kinds, with a little salt. In several cases poppy oil or starch was fed also.
Analyses were made of food, urine, and feces.
Among the conclusions reached were the following : Some nitrogen leaves the body
in other ways than in the solid and liquid excretory products. The proteiu content
of the milk is not dependent upon the composition of the food, but is dependent npoD
the length of the period of lactation.
Nos. 3067, 3068 were made by Stohniann at the experiment station in Halle iu
1867. The object was to determine whether the laws of nitrogen metabolism which
Voit had formulated for (*ami vora held g04Ml for Herbivora also. The subject was a
goat. The food iu No. 3067 consisted of hay, with oil-free linseed meal, and in No.
306S of hay, with starch and gum. F<mm1, urine, feces, and milk were analyzed. The
conclusion was reached that the protein is metabolized in Herbivora as in Camivora-
Stohmann reports Ihh exporimentH with goats in another publication.' Soweot
the figures agree with those <|aote<l above, while others do not. The inference of the
compilers is that the same experiments arc referred to in each case. The apparent
discrepancy is probably due to the fact that in one instance averages are given fta<^
in the other more detailed statements.
EXPPnUMENTS WITH HORSES.
INFLUENCE OF FEEDING.
Ill Table 33 are included 198 tests with horses. The number of
investigators who have studied the metabolism of horses is not large?
and a review of the literature of the subject shows that comparatively
few feeding exi>erimeuts have been made. Much of the work has been
done for tbe purpose of studying the best methods of feeding. In some
cases the balance of income and outgo of nitrogen has been determii»ejl
in conne(5tiou with feeding and digestion experiments. In many expen
ments the influence of muscular work of varying kinds and amoants
has been investigated. The conclusions drawn from the experiments
in tlie following table have been much quoted in discussions concerning
the economic feeding of horses.
' Hiolo^isclio Sttullcn, 1873. liraqnsehweig.
EXPEKIMKNTS WITH HORSES.
355
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EXPERIMENTS WITH HORSES.
367
Asli in food, 45.0 gm. ; in urine, 17.3
gm.; in feces, 29.8 gm.; loss, 2.1
gm.
Ash in food, 52.5 gin. ; in urine, 19.6
gm. ; in feoeH. 32.8 gm.; gain,
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The maize was soaked in water bo-
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' EXPERIMENTS WITH HORSES. 361
No. 3069 was made by Boussingault in 1838. The object was to compare the food
aDd excretory products of a horse on a maintenance ration to see whether nitrogen
was assimilated from the air. The food consisted of hay and oats Elemcntar^^
analyses of food, urine, and feces were made. The conclusion was reached that
nitrogen was not assimilated from the air and that some nitrogen was excreted in
the gaseous excretory products.
Nos. 3070, 3071 were made by Hofmeister at the experiment station of the Royal
Veterinary College in Dresden in 1864. The object was to study the digestibility
of crude fiber. The subject was a horse between 7 and 8 years old. The* food
consisted of hay, oats, and straw. The water, dry matter, protein, fat, ash, crude
fiber, and nitrogen-free extract in the food and feces and the reaction, specific
gravity, water, dry matter, ash, urea, sulphuric acid, and nitrogen in the urine were
determined.
The conclusion was reached that crude fiber was digested by a horse. Other con-
clusions regarding digestibility of protein, etc., were drawn.
Nos. 3072-3075 were made by Hofmeister at the experiment station of the Royal
Veterinary College of Dresden in 1865 in connection witli a scries of feeding experi-
ments. The subject was a horse. The food consisted of hay, with oats and straw
in two cases. Full analyses of foo<l, uriuo, and feces were made.
The principal conclusions drawn concerned digestibility, and are therefore not
quoted here.
It was observed that the nmount of hippuric acid in the urine increased or
clecreased with the increase or decrease in the amount of crude fiber digestion, when
liay only or hay and oats were fed.
Nos. 3076-3080 were made by Kellner and his associates at the agricultural experi-
ment station in Hohenheim in 1877.^ The object was to investigate the influence of
mnscular exertion upon the metabolism of matter in the horse. The subject was a
liorse weighing about 534 kilograms. He was fed a ration of meadow hay, oats, and
chopped straw. Analyses were made of the food, urine, and feces. The work done
was measured by a specially constructed horse dynamometer. The work varied in
amount in the difi'ereut periods.
The following conclusions were reached: The amount of work done had no
influence upon the total digestibility of the food or the digestibility of the different
nntrients. Increased work and increased cleavage of ])rotein go hand in hand. The
cleavage of protein decreased materially as soon as the muscular exertion was
diminished. Muscular exertion, under certain circumstances, can increase directly
the metabolism of protein in the organism. The energy from the breaking down
of organic body substance in general is to be regarded as the source of nniscnlar
power. The energy liberated by the oxidation of the nitrogen- tree materials, carbo-
hydrates, and fat, in addition to that furnished by the breaking down of the
circulating protein, is that first used for mechanical energy. Protein of tissue
{oi'ganizirte Eiweiss) will not be broken down as long as there is a sufliciency of
other material which can be oxidized.
Nos. 3081-3101. These experiments and Nos. 3102-3119, 3144-3181, and 3182-3267
were made by Grandeau, associated with Le Clerc, Ballaeey, and Alekan, from 1880
to 1892,2 in connection with an investigation of the principles of horse feeding
carried on for the Compagnie G<^n6ralo de Voitures of Paris. This is one of the
most extended investigations of the kind that has been made. In every case the
digestibility of the ration as well as its value for the production of work was studied.
'The portion of the work relating to the digestibility of the rations was pub-
lished in connection with other similar work in a separate article by Wolff, Fnnke,
Kreuzhage, and Kellner. Landw. Jahrb., 8 (1879), Sup. 1, p. 6.
2The report of the experiments made from 1880 to 1887 was first published in
"fitudes Exp6rimeu tales sur lalimentation dn Cheval de Trait," and also in Ann.
Sci. Agron., 1884, II; 1885, I; 1886, II; and 1S88, II.
362 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
There were seven serieA of experiments. In the first (Nos. 3081-3101) a mixed
ration consisting of * * maize cake/' horse beans, maize, oats, hay, and straw was
fed. The maize cake was made from starch factory and distillery waste, and con-
tained a considi^rable portion of potato and barley as well as com refuse. In the
second series (Noh. 3102-3119) the ration consiHted of hay; in the third series (Noe.
3144-31.55), of oats and straw; in the fourth series (Nos. 3156-3181), of hay and
straw; in the fifth series (Nos. 3182-3217), of maize and straw; in the sixth series
(Nos. 3218-3241), of horse beans and oat straw; and in the seventh series (Nos.
3242-3267), of maize cake and oat straw.
Analyses were made of the food, nrine, and feces. In most cases the nitrogen
volatilized from the feces while drying, that eliminated in the perspiration and in
the material removed by currying, and that from the hoofs, is taken into acconnt
In inserting the experiments in the present compilation the nitrogen from these
sources was included with that of the feces.
The effect of the rations was studied while the horses were at rest, walkmg,
trotting, at work while walking, and at work while trotting. The work consisted
in turning the arm of a dynamometer a definite number of times. Experiments
were also made in whi(?h the horses drew a vehicle, though the metabolism of
nitrogen was not always studied in this connection. The effect of the rations under
the different conditions of rest and work on temperature and weight of the animftls
was studied. In every case, the detailed results for each horse for each day of the
various periods are given in tabular form.
The conelnsions drawn have to do particularly with the problem of feeding horses.^
Following are some of the principal conclusions drawn from these experiments:
The pace at which a horse travels was found to have a marked influence on the
amount of labor performed and the food required. Thus, a horse walking 7.8 kilo-
meters per day neither gained nor lost in weight on a daily ration of 8,800 grams of
hay, while a ration of 10,8^6 grams was not sufficient provided the horse trotted the
same distance. When a horse walked the above distance and drew a load, the addi-
tional work being e<|uivolent to 60,449 kilogran meters, a ration of 11,975 grams of
hay was sufficient for maintenance. A ration of 14,787 grams, all a horse wonld
consume, was not sufficient for maintenance when the same work was done trotting.
Home of the leasons given for the fact that rapid work is less economical than slow
work are the increased action of the heart when a horse is trotting or galloping;
the lifting of his own weight at each step only to allow it to fall again, thus devel-
oping heat; and the increase of body temperature with exertion and the loss of beat
by evaporation through the skin and lungs.
A horse of 500 kilograms weight by the motion of forward progression through ft
horizontal distance of 10 kilometerH at a speed of 1.5 meters per second loses 2.4
kilograms in weight. A horse of the same weigJit covering a distance of 10 kilo-
meters with a velocity of 1.5 meters per second, and producing 190,000 kilogram-
meters of work loses about 3.8 kilograms in weight.
Generally speaking, the horses digested from a ration of maize cake (1) sometimes
more and sometinieH less carbohydrates, but always two or three times as much
protein as from a ration of hay; (2) less carbohydrates, but more protein than from
a ration of oats or maize, and (3) less carbohydrates and protein than from a ration
of horse beans.
In general, when no work was performed, the horses gained in weight when oats
wore consumed, but the gain was not pro])ortional to the quantity eaten. The gain
was less with hay, and hay furnished less available energj\ On the other hand,
maize cake did not produce a gain com])arable with that from maize and beans.
When walking the gains in weight of the horses varied with the different rations,
being greatest when maize was fed, followed by beans, maize cake, oats, and hay in
' For a summary of a number of the earlier experiments see Experiment Station
Record, 6, p. 1018.
EXPERIMENTS WITH RABBITS. 363
the order mentioued. The superiority of cake to oats is still more noticeable when it
is remembered that the quantities assimilated of the former are much less than the
latter. On the same basis the apparent superiority of the maize, especially of
beans, diminishes. As a ration for horses when trotting, hay was much inferior to the
other feeding stuffs as regards gains in weight, and it can also be said that the nutri-
tive ingredients assimilated from this food are much inferior in quality. Maize cake
produced less satisfactory results than beans, and maize than oats, as regards the
available energy furnished. For work done in drawing a cab maize at first seemed
to be inferior to the other rations, but this was not the case. The quantity fed did
not furnish a sufficient amount of nutriment, which was also true of the oats, cake,
and beans. From these experiments it appeared that maize cake was much supe-
rior both to hay, a coarse fodder, and to beans, which may be regarded as a type of
feeding stuifs rich in protein. On the other hand, tUe cake was much inferior to
feeding stuffs like maize and oats, which are rich in 6tarch and moderately rich in
protein. Its coefficient of digestibility is also midway between maize and oats, as
is also its nutritive ratio.
Nos. 3102-3119. (See Nos. 3081-3101. )
Nos. 3120-3143 ^ were made by Wolff and his associates at Hobenheim in 1885-86.
The objects were to investigate the capacity for work of a horse on a diet rich in
nitrogen and one containing little nitrogen, and to study the metabolism of nitrogen
and mineral matter. The basal ration consisted of meadow hay, usually with oats.
In some cases straw, beans, flaxseed, or maize were also fed. The dry matter, organic
substance, protein, fat, crude fiber, and nitrogen-free extract in food and feces and
the nitrogen in the urine were determined. In addition the dry matter, ash, sodium,
potassium, calcium and magnesium oxids, the phosphoric, sulphuric, and salicylic
acids, iron oxid, and chlorin in the food, urine, and feces (in one case food and feces
only) were determined in a number of the experiments. The muscular work per-
formed was measured by a dynamometer of special construction.
The principal conclusions drawn were the following : The food rich in nitrogen
bad no greater nutritive value as regards the production of energy than that con-
taining little nitrogen. Digestible protein beyond a certain definite minimum has
no more value for the production of energy than an equal quantity by weight of
starch or the equivalent quantity of fat. The amounts of nitrogen, the total ash,
and the several mineral constituents excreted in the urine and feces were equal to
the amount consumed. This is a proof that during the whole time of the experi-
ment the subject remained in equilibrium; that is, the food consumed was jusi: suffi-
cient for the amount of work performed under the experimental conditions. A horse
weighing 500 kilograms requires for maintenance in medium condition when no
external work is performed, 4,200 grams of nutrients per day, it being assumed that a
considerable quantity (at least half the daily ration) consists of coarse fodder.
Nos. 3144-3267. (See Nos. 3081-3101.)
EXPEKIMENTS WITH BABBITS.
INFLUENCE OF OTHER CONDITIONS THAN FEEDING.
In Table 34 are included 22 tests with rabbits. All the animals were
in health. The special qaestions investigated are noted in the text
accompanying the table.
' These experiments were originally published in Landw. Jahrb., 16, 1887, Suj). Ill,
p. 1 . The figures are more conveniently arranged in the publication cited in Table 33.
364
A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
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EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP. 365
No8. 3268-3271 were made by Rubner at the laboratory of the Physiological Insti-
tute at Munich in 1879-80. The object was to investigate the amount of material,
i. e., body tissue, metabolized by fasting Herbivora. The subject was a rabbit. The
nitrogen in the urine was determined. In a number of experiments the carbon dioxid
excreted was also measured with Voit's small respiration apparatus.
Though the balance of income and outgo of carbon was not determined, the con-
clnsion was reached that Herbivora, when fasting, metabolize almost as much
protein as Carnivora of the same weight.
Nos. 3272-3287. (See Nos. 2970-2972, Table 29. )
Nos. 3288, 3289 were made by Gratfenberger at the Institute of Animal Physiology
at the University of Breslau in 1892. The object was to note the changes which
take place in the anininl organism when the subject is kept in the dark. Thesub-
iects were 2 rabbits. The food consisted of oats to which a little calcium car-
bonate was added. The food, urine, and feces were analyzed. The blood was
also examined from time to time, and at the close of the experiments the animals
were killed and tlie blood and organs examined. One rabbit was kept in the ligkt
and the other in the dark.
From these experiments and a preliminary experiment not recorded in the present
compilation the conclusion was reached that animals kept in the dark gain in weight
more rapidly than those kept in the light. Farther, light had no particular influence
on metabolism or gain in nitrogen. An increase in metabolism as a whole seems to
have very little if any connection with the increased excretion of carbon dioxid,
which was observed by sonie investigators. ^ The two rabbits digested their food
equally well. Light appeared to have no particular influence on the formation of
glycogen. The subject kept in the dark gained more fat than the one kept in the
light; the gain in fat was less after a time, probably owing to the fact that the
general health became aft'ected.
Tests were made by Aronsohn and Sachs- to study the relation of the brain to
body temperature and to fever. Three rabbits and a dog were used as subjects.
The experiments with the dog are noted on page 345.
The brain of the animals was pierced witli a needle through the eye or through an
opening made in the skull. This caused an increased body temperature. During
the operation the third rabbit was given morphin. The rabbits consumed daily
20 grai s of starch, 5 grams of sugar, and 0.1 gram of a mixture of several salts
approximating hay ash in composition. The food contained no nitrogen. Before
the operation the rabbits excreted daily, on an tiverage, 1.1, 1.7, and 0.3 grams of
nitrogen. After the operation, while the temperature was higher than normal, the
daily excretion was 1.4, 2.1, and 0.3 grams. After the temperature again became
normal rabbits 1 and 2 excreted 1.0 and 0.6 grams. On the same diet rabbit 2 excreted
1.1 grams of nitrogen daily during fever from other cause than injury to the brain,
while the excretion under normal conditions was 0.6.
The conclusions drawn from these experiments will be found on ])age 345.
EXPEKIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
INFLUENCE OF FEEDING.
Ill Table 35 are included 104 tests with sheep. All the animals were
in health. The nitrogen balance was usually determined in conuection
Xvith feeding and digestion experiments. In some cases special ques-
"tions were investigated, which are noted in the text accompanying the
"table.
' Moleschott, Wiener med. Wochenschr., No. 43 (1855),
^Ffliiger^s Arch., 37 (1885), p. 232,
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EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP. 371
No. 3290 was made by Reiset in 1856-57 in connection with the study of the feeding
and fattening of farm animals. The experiment was l)egun with three sheep, but one
was dropped before the close. The average results were taken as representing the
values for one animal when the figures were added to the present compilation. The
experiment was divided into four periods, but the data for the individual periods
are not given by tlie author. The food consisted of beets, bran, oats, and wheat straw.
Analyses were matle of the food and of the urine and feces together. At the begin-
ning of the experiment two sheep of the same breed were slaughtered and the
amounts of flesh, wool, and tallow determined. The amounts for the sheep used in
this experiment were calculated from the data thus obtained. At the close of the
experiment the sheep were slaughtered and the weight of the flesh and organs
determined. They had gained 6 kilograms in weight, 3 kilograms of which the
author calculates to be pure muscular tissue. All the nitrogen consumed was not
recovered in the urine and feces, since they contained 6.Q grams per day less
than the food consumed. The author calculates that the muscular tissues gained
would account for 0.3 gram of nitrogen daily. Deducting this amount there would
still remain 6.3 grams, which, according to the author, was not stored in the organ-
ism, but was excreied in the gaseous excretory products. The author gives 6 grams
per day as the amount of nitrogen which was thus excreted by one sheep. The dis-
crepancy between this figure and that given in the table is due to the fact that in
iliscussing his results as a whole the author uses round numbers. In computing the
claily average for the present compilation this was not done.
[Reiset's work is often quoted as a proof of the excretion of nitrogen in the gas-
eous excretory products. The work was carried on many years ago and the experi-
ment is of more interest to-day from an historical standi>oint than from its actual
Araloe. The bearing of this work upon the subject of the excretion of nitrogen in
"the excretory products has been discussed in a previous publication of this Oflice.^]
Nos. 3291-3297 were made by Hofmeister at the experiment station of the Royal
"Veterinary School at Dresden in 1863 in connection with a series of feeding experi-
xnents. The subjects were 2 three-year-old sheep. They were fed together and the
51 verage results were taken in determining values of food for one sheep. The rations
C3onsisted of meadow hay with oats, oats and oil, rape-seed cake, or rape-seed cake
^nd oil.
The dry matter, water, ash, fat, crude fiber, nitrogen, and carbohydrates in fodder
and feces, and the dry matter, ash, nitrogen, urea, and hippuric acid in the urine
"vrere determined. The conclusions reached are not of the kind which are (juoted
liere.
Nos. 3298-3308 were made by Hellriegel and Lucanus at the experiment station in
X)ahme in 1862. The object was to investigate the nutritive value of fermented
^shopped straw as compared with dry and steeped ciiopped straw. The experiments
'were made with 2 sheep. Each was fed dry chopped straw, fermented straw, and
eteeped straw with turnips or lupine seeds. For purposes of comparison each sheep
"was fed hay alone for 14 days. The nitrogen in the food, urine, and feces was
determined.
Fermented straw is usually prepared by moistening the chopped straw with water,
xnixing with potatoes and other materials, and allowing the mixture to ferment.
The temperature rises to 40-45^ C. In these experiments the chopped straw was fer-
mented without the addition of potatoes or other materials. The steeped straw was
prepared by pouring hot water over chopi)ed straw and allowing it to stand.
The conclusion was reached that the sheep made bettc»r gains when stee])ed straw
was fed, because less efl'ort was required to chew it and they could eat larger
quantities.
The coefficient of digestibility of the dry matter of the dry chopped straw was
^The excretion of metabolized nitrogen by animals, C. F. Langworthy, Experiment
Station Record 7, ])p. 817-825.
372 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPEEIMENTO.
42.1 per cent, of the steeped straAv 41.8 per cent, and of the fermented straw 37.9
per cent.
\o8. 330(K^29 were made by Hofoioister and associates at the experiment station
of the Royal Veterinary School in Dresden in 1861-65 in connection with a series of
feeding experiments. The subjects were 2 sheep 1^ years old, weighing about 70
kilograms each. The sheep were fed together nud the nrine and feces were not col-
lected for eiich sheep separately. The average results were taken as representing the
values for 1 sheep. The basal ration consisted of hay or hay and straw. In several
periods there was added either potatoes witli or without rape-seed cake, mangel-
wurzels with or without rape-seed cake, rye bran with or without oil, or oats.
AnalyHes of the feeding stuffs and of the feces were made. The specific gravity,
dry matter, ash, hippuric acid, uric acid, and nitrogen in the urine were determined.
The conclusions reached do not bear directly npon the metabolism of nitrogen and
are therefore not quoted here.
NoH. 3330-3337 were made by Hofmeister at the experiment station of the Royal
Veterinary School in Dresden in 1869 in connection with a feeding experiment with
Merino and Sonthdown-lYank sheep. Three sheep of each breed were used and the
average taken as the values for 1 shee]). The food consisted of rape-seed cake,
meadow hay, and potatoes. In several cases peas were also fed. The food, urine,
and feces w(>re analyzed. The Southdown-Frank sheep gained flesh, and the Merinoe
lost flesh in every case. The feeding experiment is discussed at length.
NoH. 3338-3357 were made by Schulze and Miircker at the experiment station in
Weende in 1868-69. The object was to determine whether Voit's theory that no
nitrogen is excreted except iu the solid and liquid excretory products, held good for
sheep. The Hubjects were full-grown aninials. In some cases the tests were made
with 2 animals and the average results taken as representing the value for one
animal. In other easels the tests were made with one animal as a subject. The basal
ration consisted of meadow hay or rowen with salt. In a number of cases starch,
starch and sugar, bean meal, barley meal, oatmeal, starch waste, or gluten were
also fed. In Nos. 3354 and 3356 potassium chlorid and disodium phosphate were
given. Great care was taken in collecting the urine and feces, and both were
analyzed.
The conclusion was reached that Voit's theory was true in the case of sheep.
NoH. 3358-3361 were made by Weiske and associates at the experiment station in
ProHkau in 1875. The object was to investigate the influence of shearing sheep npon
the digestibility of the rations and the metabolism of nitrogen. Two sheep were
used as subjects. The experiments were each divided into two periods. At the end
of the lirst period the sheep were shorn. Several days elapsed between the first and
second periods. The food consisted of meadow hay and barley meal, and the same
quantity was fed throughout the experiments. The food, urine, and feces were
analyzed.
The conclusion was reached that shearing increased the excretion of nitrogen in
the urine. The digestibility of the food was not affected by shearing.
Nos. 3362-3368 were made by Weiske and associates at the experiment station i^
Proskau in 1876. The object was to investigate the digestibility of animal food(fi9^
scrap) by Herbivora. The subjects were 2 sheep. In Nos. 3362-3365 the food con-
sisted of hay and oatmeal, to which flsh scrap was added in one period, and straw
and fish scrap in another period. In Nos. 3367, 3368 straw and beets with fish scrap
were consumed. The nitrogen consumed was practically the same in every case.
Food, urine, and fecies were analyzed. The nitrogen of the animal food was well
assimilated, and the author recommends adding fish scrap, meat meal, or similar
food to a ration when for any reason vegetable foods containing protein are scarce-
Nos. 3369-3372 were made by Weiske, Kennophol, and Schulze at the experiment
station at Proskau in 1878. The object was to investigate the digestibility and nutri-
tive value of hops which have been used in brewing beer. The subjects were 2
sheep. The food consisted of meadow hay fed with and wRhout hops. The food,
uriue^ and feces were analyzed.
EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP. 373
The conclusion was reached that although the hops were not as valuable as coarse
fodder of similar composition^ yet on account of their high content of protein they
are worth using as a feeding stuff when easily obtainable.
No8. 3373, 3374 were made by Kellner at the Agricultural Experiment Station at
Hohenheim in 1880. The object was to study the effect of removing the bitter prin-
ciple of lupine seeds upon their digestibility. The subject was a sheep. The basal
ration consisted of hay; in No. 3373 lupine seeds with the bitter principle removed,
and in No. 3374 steamed lupine seeds were fed. The food, urine, and feces were
analyzed. The bitter principle was removed from the lupine seeds by soaking them,
then steaming and extracting with cold water.
The following are the principal conclusions reached : Seeds treated as above lose
considerable dry matter, mostly nitrogen-free extract, but this is more than made
good by the improved quality as a feeding stuff. They are eaten readily, improve
the appetite, are more digestible, and improve the digestibility of crude fiber in the
coarse fodder fed with them.
Experiments were begun with another sheep, but it became sick and the urine
could not be collected.
Nos. 3375, 3376 were made by Weiske, Kennophol, and Schulze at the Institute of
Animal Chemistry of the University of Breslau in 1882. The object was to study
the digestibility of food by different breeds of sheep. The subjects were a South-
down-Merino and a Rambouillet sheep of about the same weight. The food con-
sisted of meadow hay, barley, and beans, with a little salt. The food, urine, and
feces were analyzed. The conclusion was reached that the two breeds of sheep
digested the nutrients equally well.
Nos. 3377, 3378 were made by Jordan at the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station
in 1885. The object was to compare the fertilizing constituents in a ration containing
cotton-seed meal and one containing corn meal. The subject was a full-grown sheep.
Three experiments were begun, but only two were successfully completed. In the
Qrst period the food consisted of timothy hay and cotton-seed meal, and in the second
[>f timotliy hay and corn meal. The nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash in the
food, urine, and feces were determined.
The principal conclusions reached were the following: The nitrogen, phosphoric
%cid, and potash in the excretory products are in direct relation to the amount of
these ingredients in the food. The urine contained nearly half the potash excreted,
Proni one-half to three-fourths of the nitrogen, and no phosphoric acid [_8ic'], this
being all excreted in the feces.
Nos. 3379-3383 were made by Weiske, Schulze, and Flechsig at the experiment
station in Proskau in 1885 ( ?). The object was to determine whether cellulose acted
as u> protector of protein for Herbirora. The subject was a sheep. The basal ration
consisted of pea meal and a little salt, to which either oat straw, starch, or starch
and sngar were added in different periods. The amount of water consumed was
recorded. The food, urine, and feces were analyzed.
The conclusion was reached that digestible cellulose and nitrogen-free extract can
take the place of a definite quantity of starch. The subject is discussed at consid-
ablo length and many references are made to previous work.
. Nos. 3384-3394 were made by Wicke and Weiske at the Institute of Animal Chem-
istry at the University of Breslau in 1895 (?). The object was to investigate the
influence of fat and starch on the digestion and assimilation of nutrients. The
Bnbjects were two sheep. To a basal ration consisting of hay and clover, or hay and
flaxseed, from which the oil had been partially removed, starch or isodynamic
quantities of olive oil were added. The food, urine, and feces were analyzed.
The following conclusions were reached : With both subjects the addition of starch
to the ration diminished the digestibility and assimilation of fat, and more especially
of protein and crude fiber. The addition of fat to the ration did not show a similar
marked effect. The addition of starch and fat increased the amount of feces (dry).
The Jiddltion of starch increased the water content of the feces, while the addition
374
A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
of fat (lid uot rliaiige it. The addition of fat and starch to the ration had no marked
eft«ct on the amount of water consumed or urine produced. The metabolism of
nitrogen of both subjects was considerably diminished by the addition of starch and
fat to the ration, and the effect was more marked with starch than with isodynamic
quantities of fat. The gain of nitrogen was increased by the addition of starch and
fat. The gain in the case of starch was greater than with isodynamic (xuantities of
fat, provided the (quantity of starch consumed did not produce too great a diminu-
tion of digestibility of the nitrogenous constituents of the food. On the other
hand, it was possible to produce greater gain with fat than with isodynamic quanti-
ties of starch, since the fat usually did not diminish the digestibility of the food.
Wicke and Weiske' made experiments in continuatipn of the work reported above
to study the influence on metabolism and gain of nitrogen in the animal body of the
addition of increasing (luantities of fat to the ration. The report of these experi-
ments Avas feceived too late for insertion in the tables.
The experiments were made with the same sheep and under the same general
experimental conditions noted above. Sheep I, weighing 69 kilograms, received a
basal ration of 1,000 grams of meadow hay and 250 grams of linseed cake per day.
Sheep II, weighing 56.5 kilograms, received a basal ration of 750 granrs of meadow
hay and 200 grams of linseed cake. The tests were divided into 4 periods of 7, 5, 6,
and 5 days, respectively. In the second period 60 grams of oliv<* oil was added
to the ration of Sheep I, and 50 grams to that of Sheep 11. In tho third period the
amount of oil was increased to 120 grams and 100 grams, respectively, and in the
fourth period to 180 grams and 150 grams. The balance of incom<' and outgo of^
nitrogen is shown in the following table:
yitrogen balance per day in experiments with sheep.
Animal.
Hay aud linseed rake Sheep I. .
Do Sheep II,
Hay, linseed cake, ami 60 j;m. of olive oil Sheep T. .
Hay, linsee<l cake, and 50 gra. of olive oil Sheep II.
Hay, linm'ed cake, and 120 gni. of olive oil Sheep I..
Hay, linseed cake, and 100 gin. of olive oii i Sheep II.
Hay, linseed cake, and 180 gm. of olivf oil Sheep I. .
Hay, linseed cake, and 150 gm. of olive oil Sheep II.
Nitrogenin— |Gain(^- j
1 ---| or
Foo<l. Urine. Feces. Iosh (— ^ _
Oraifit.
31.65
24.42
31.65
24.42
31. 65
24.42
31. U5
24.42
draws.
22. 00
1 17. 51
! 20. 92
17.07
19. 01
16.14
18. 62
15. 18
Grams.
9.10
7.43
9.23
7.51
8.79
7.57
9.49
7.12
The authors discuss the experiment at length. Following are the principal co
chisions reached:
The addition of fat to the ration diminished the excretion of nitrogen in theurin
and this decrease was greater the more fat was added, the limit being reached, in tl
author's opini(ui, the first day of the fourth jjcriod. The addition of the maxinni
quantity of fat to the ration did not influence the digestibility and assimilation
protein.
INFLUENCE OF OTHER CONDITIONS THAN FEEDING.
Ill Table 3() are included 50 tests with sheep in health in which tl^*
influence of other conditions than feeding were investigated. These
conditions were the effect of feeding chiefly during the day and durhi^
the night, the influence of drugs, and of variations in the amount of
water consumed.
Ztschr. PhyHi(d. (Mieiii., 22 (1896), )>. 2a5.
EXPEKIMENTS WITH SHEEP.
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No8. 3395-3398. Sec Xos. 3(U8-365(), Table :^.
No8. 3399-JM04 were made l»y Weiske and associates at the experiment station in
Proskau in 1874 ( ?). The object was to investi<^ate the influence of- salt and water on
nitrogen metabolism, on the weight of the subject, and on the digestibility of varions
feeding stuffs. The subjects were sheep about 3 years old. The experiment was
divided into three periods. The food consisteil of meadow hay, straw, and barley
meal. During the first period 5 grams of salt was a<lded to the ration. In the second
period the amount was increased to 10 grams. In the third period no salt was given.
Water was supplied ad libitum. Each period was preceded by a preliminary period
of about two weeks' duration on the same diet. Food, urine, and feces were
analyzed.
The following conclusions were reached : Increasing the amount of salt in the food
increased the amoant of water consumed and urine excreted. Since the increased
salt and water consumption increased the amount of urine, it also increased the nitro-
gen metabolism. When no salt was eonsuuied much less water was drunk, and the
quantity of urine excreted and of nitrogen metabolized also diminished.
Other conclusions were drawn which have to do with gains in weight and digest-
ibility.
Nob. 3405, 3406 were made by Weiske and associates at the experiment station in
Proskau in 1875 (f). The object was to inve8tigat(^ the influence of arsenic upon the
digestibility of food and upon nitrogen metabolism. These experiments were made
immediately after the close of experiments Nos. 3358-3361, with the same sheep and
the same ration, with the addition of 0.1 gram arsenic acid. The conclusion was
that small quantities of arsenic <liminished the excretion of nitrogen in the urine
and increased the digestibility of the food.
Nos. 3407-3414 were made by Weiske, Schro<lt, and Dangel at the experiment sta-
tion in Proskau in 1878 to study the value of asparagin for the nourishment of ani-
mals. The subjects were 2 sheep. The l>asal ration consisted of meadow hay.
starch, and sugar. Asparagin, pea meal, and gelatin were each added to the ration
in two periods. Analyses were made of food, urine, and feces. The balance of
income and outgo of nitrogen and sulphur was determined.
The experiments showed that asparagin has a decided value in the diet, and is a
nutrient in the same way that gelatin is. It acts as a ))rotector of protein and
diminishes the nitrogen metabolism Avhen fed in a diet containing little protein,
though it does not serve for the formation of nitrogenous tissue,
Nos. 3415-3420 were made by Weiske, Kennophol, and Schulze at the experiment
station in Proskau in 1879-80 and are a continuation of Nos. 3407-3414. The subjects
were 2 sheej). The experiment was divided into three periods. In the first period
(Nos. 3415, 3416) the food consisted of meadow hay. In the second period (Nos.
3417, 3418) both sheep Avere fed about the same amount of meadow hay. In addition
Sheep I was fed beau meal and Sheep II starch, sugar, and asparagin, furnishing
approximately as much nitrogen and nitrogen-free material as the bean meal. In
the third period (Nos. 3419, .3420) both sheep wca'e given starch and sugar in addition
to the basal ration of meadow hay, and Sheep II was given gelatin in addition.
The food, urine, and feces were analyzed. The conclusion was reached thai
asparagin served as a i>rotector of protein.
Nos. 3421 and 3422 were made by Weiske and Flechsig in 1885 to study the influ-
ence of alcohol on llerbivora. The subject was a Southdown-Merino sheep. In No.
3421 the food consisted of meadow hay and a little salt and water. In No. 3422 the
food was the same except that an equal amount of 5 per cent alcohol was substituted
for water. Food, urine, and fece« were analyzed.
The conclusion was reached that the alcohol diminished the digestibility of the
food very little, if any. No marked change in the amount of nitrogen in the urine
was observed.
Other ex]>criments with larger doses of alcohol were begun but not finished,
because the animal did not take the alcohol readily and lost liis appetite. In the
EXPERIMENTS WITH SWINE. 379
authoi's' opinion the large (loses of alcohol seemed to increase the metabolism of
nitrogen.
Nos. 3423-3438 were made by Gabriel at the Institute of Animal Chemistry of the
University of Breslan in 1892-93. The object was to study the influence of salt on
the digestibility and metabolism of protein. The subjects were 3 sheep in medium
condition. The food consisted of meadow hay or meadow hay and peas, with or
without salt. The food, urine, and feces were analyzed.
Th(^ results obtained were contradictory. The author concludes, therefore, that salt
is not one of the substances which under all conditions and circumstances exercises
a marked influence on the metabolism of protein or a definite effect on digestibility.
Nos. 3439-3444 were made by Gabriel and Weiske at the Institute of Animal Chem-
istry of the University of Breslau in 1893. The obje<*t was to study the influence of
drinking water ad libitum jind before and after eating on tho digestibility of nutri-
ents and the metabolism of nitrogen. The subjects were 2 Southdown-Merino sheep.
The food; which consisted of meadow hay and oats, was fed in three portions daily.
Analyses were made of food and feces. The specific gravity and nitrogen of the
urine were determined. In the first period both sheep drank water ad libitum. In
the second period Sheep I drank wat«:?r before and Sheep II after eating. In the
third period the conditions were reversed.
The author concludes that as far as the metabolism of nitrogen or the digestibility
of the nutrients of the food was concerned it was immaterial in which way the
water was consumed.
Somewhat more water was consumed when it was drank at will or after eating
than when it was consumed before eating. In all the periods some undigested oats
were found in the feces. The water and dry matter contained iu the feces was
practically the same under the different experimental conditions. The fresh feces
in the first period contained 53 per cent water, in the second period 50.5 per cent,
and in the third 48.4 per cent.
The author cites experiments by Kiihn made with steers. The subjects were fed
wheat bran and hay, with and without water. The coefticients of digestibility were
practically the same in both cases.
EXPEEIMENTS WITH 8WINE.
INFLUENCE OF FEEDING.
In Table 37 are included 18 tests with swine in which the conditions
were not abnormal or unusual. Some of these tests were made in
connection with feeding experiments, while others were made for the
purpose of studying special i)oints. Those which have to do with the
question of the formation of fat in the animal organism (Nos. 3445 and
3446) are of special historical interest. The theory was advanced by
some of the earlier investigators that animals took the material used
in the formation of fatty tissue ready-made from vegetable foods. For
many years it was a disputed point whether or not fat was formed
from carbohydrates, and also whether it could be formed from protein.
It is now generally conceded that fat is formed from fat and carbo-
hydrates consumed, though tlie possibility of its formation from protein
under certain circumstances is also quite generally admitted.^
*S. Soskin: The formation of fat in the animal body. Experiment Station Record,
8, p. 179.
380
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EXPERIMENTS WITH 8WINE. 381
No8. 3445; 3446 were made by Boussiiigaiilt iu 1845 aud formed part of an extended
investigation of the formation of fat in the animal organism. The subject was a
pig. The food consisted of potatoes and salt, with and without slop. Elementary
analyses of the food, urine, and feces were made.
One of the conclusions reached was that nitrogen was excreted in the gaseous
respiratory products. The other conclusions have to do largely >f^ith the special
question of the formation of fat. These are the .experiments of Boussingault, which
are often quoted in the discussion of formation of fat in the animal organism.
Nos. 3447-3452 were made by Pfeiffer at the Agricultural Experiment Station in
Gottingen in 1883, to learn how much of the nitrogen of the feces was due to meta-
bolic products and to study the nature of such nitrogenous metabolic products.
The subjects were 2 young pigs. The experiment covered three periods. In the
first period an abundant ration of barley meal, with some salt and calcium carbonate,
was fed. In the second period the ration was of about the same nutritives value,
except that it contained no protein. It was made up of sugar, starch, paper fiber,
and olive oil, with a mixture of mineral salts, which were believed to be necessary.
In the third period the ration was the same as during the second period, with the
addition of conglutin, a protein compound, which in the author's opinion would be
thoroughly assimilated.
The food aud feces were analyzed, the usual determinations being made. In addi-
tion, the mucin in the feces was determined and the nitrogen and ash in the feces.
Nitrogenous metabolic products — e. g., mucin — were found in the feces in all three
periods. In other words, when the food contained no nitrogen metabolic nitrogen
xvas still found in the feces. In the first period the feces of the 2 pigs contained 0.7
^rani and 0.8 gram of mucin and 150.0 grams and 158,7 grams of dry matter, respect-
ively ; in the second period 0.9 gram and 0.8 gram mucin and 262.5 grams and 249.5
^rams dry matter; and in the third period 2.2 grams and 1.6 grams mucin and 204.5
^rams and 173,3 grams dry matter.
The following are the principal conclusions reached : The nitrogenous metabolic
X^roducts in the feces must be taken into account in all investigations of the nutritive
"value of feeding stuffs. The amount of nitrogenous metabolic products in the feces
is proportional to the amount of dry matter digested. For swine the relations are
^nch that 0.7 gram of- nitrogen may be assumed in the feces for every 100 grams of
^ry matter digested. This agrees with the value founc^ by Kellner for Herbivora.
The author discusses the subject at length, quoting the work of Rieder, Kellner,
^nd other investigators.
No. 3453. See Nos. 3658, 3659, Table 38.
Nos. 3454-34.59 and Nos. 2324, 2325, Table 27, were made by Snyder at the University
^f Minnesota in 1893 in connection with a study of the digestibility of a number of
:feeding stuffs by milch cows and growing pigs. Six pigs were used in the test.
They were fed barley, corn, and peas separately and in combination with bran and
cohorts. Full analyses of the food and feces were made. The nitrogen, phosphoric
Acid, and potash in the urine and feces were also detc^rmined. The coefficients of
digestibility of the different feeding stuffs are reported.
Among the conclusions reached are the following :
When no nitrogen was retained in the body there was a slight loss in weight.
There was a corresponding gain in weight when a little nitrogen was retained.
When 250 grams of digestible protein was fed per day, tlit^ pigs consuming barley
and com and shorts made no perceptible gains. When the digestible protein was
increased to about 375 grams and the other nutrients increased in th(^ same propor-
tion the pigs made a fair gain. When the nutrients Avere still further increased the
gains were correspondingly large. Whether the pigs were gaining or losing in
weight about 35 grams of nitrogen per day was excreted in the urine. The amount
of nitrogen excreted in the feces varied with the character of tlie food. When the
digestible protein of the food was increased above the amount required to maintain
the animal nearly all this increase was stored ui) iu the body.
382 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
A practical (UMluction drawn from the tents was that for every 2^948 grams of bar-
ley or coru fed to a pig weighing 114 kilogrnms about 2,722 grams is used up in the
mechanical processes of the body, and only abont 227 grams goes to form flesh. The
chief l»enefitB that are derived from the food come from the amount in excess of
that required for maintenance. The general deduction is drawn that it is unprofit-
able to feed small or unbalanced rations when fattening mature animals. *
Nos. 3460-3462 were made by Kornanth at the Imjierial Experiment Station of
Agricultural Chemistry in Vienna in 1871 in connection with a study of saeeharin?
and form a Heries with the experiments with a duck inilnded in Table 31 (Nos. 3031,
3035). The pig used as the subject of Nos. 3460-3462 was fed corn and barley (equal
parts) and whey. A period on norniiil diet preceded and followed a period in which
saccharin was added to the food. The usual anal3'ses of food, urine, and feces were
made. The nitrogen in the urine and feces was determined by the Kjeldahl method
and the azometric method.
The author also made experiments with rabbits and a dog. The balance of income
and (mtgo of nitrogen was, however, not determined. The dog was fed as much as
59 grams of saccharin per day. It did not relish the saccharin at first, but gradu-
ally became accustomed to it. A post-mortem examination revealed nothing ab
normal.
From all the experiments the conclusion was reached that feeding saccharin for a
hmg time and in large doses had no bad effects. The fact that the subjects did not
relish saccharin wjis attributed to individual peculiarities. Generally sx>eaking, the
coefhcients of digestibility were not lowered when saccharin was taken.
^
)
EXPERIMENTS IN WHICH THE BALANCE OF NITROGEN AND
CARBON WAS DETERMINED.
The number of experiments with animals in which the balance of
income and outgo of carbon was determined, with or without oxygen,
hydrogen, and mineral matter, is large. Such experiments necessitated
the measurement and analysis of the products of respiration. For this
purpose special apparatus has been devised, to which the name respira-
tion apparatus has been applied. As noted in the section devoted to
respiration experiments with man, such apparatus may be conveniently
divided into three classes: (1) Apparatus in which the oxygen is sup-
plied to a limited volume of air to take the place of that used, (2)
apparatus in which a current of air is constantly supplied, and (3) a
<ievice worn over the mouth or a tube inserted in the throat Avhich per-
mits the measurement of the oxygen of the inspire<l air and the carbon
dioxid of the expired air. The apparatus designed by liegnault and
Reiset ^ may be taken as a type of the first, that of Pettenkofer ^ of the
second, and that of Zuntz^ of the third. Apparatus of the first two
types has usually been employed in determining the balance of income
and outgo of carbon. The apparatus of Zuntz has been usually
employed to determine the respiratory quotient, i. e., the ratio of
inspired oxygen to expired carbon dioxid. Experiments of this nature
are very important and furnish the basis for interesting and valuable
deductions concerning the laws of metabolism. However, no attempt
has been made to include them in the present compilation, since they
ate very numerous and it was believed they could more properly form
a subject by themselves.
The apparatus used in the experiments with animals here cited was
essentially the same in pf inciple and construction as that used in experi-
ments with man.
EESPIRATION EXPERIMENTS.
In Table 38 are included M respiration experiments with steers, 6
with calves, 7 with cats, 99 with dogs, 5 with doves and poultry, 1 with
a horse, 30 with rabbits, 4 with sheep, and 8 with swine. The special
problems discussed are noted in the text of the individual experiments.
»ADn. Chiin. et Phys., ser. 3, 26, p. 310.
^Anii. Chem. Sup. II, p. 1. For description of a smaller form tlevisinl by Voit, see
U. S. Dept. Agr., Ottice of Ex])eriineut Statious Hul. 21, p. 109.
^Laiulw. Jahrb., 1889, p. 1.
383
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404 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
Nos. 3463 aud 3464 were made by Henneberg at the experiment station at Weende
in 1865, aud are referred to byliim in a discussion of tho objects sought and methods
followed in experiments with animals carried on by the experiment stations. The
experiments are very likely duplicates of Nos. 3474 and 3468 with the calculated
balance of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen added. The slight discrepancy in the fig-
ures for nitrogen is duo to the fact that in the original the quantities were given in
pounds, and iu Nos. 3463 and 3464 there is one less decimal place quoted than in Nos.
3474 and 3468. This caused some variation wheu the figures were reduced to grams
before adding them to this compilation. In No. 3464 the value for nitrogen in the
food as given by the author was incorrect but was corrected by the compilers from
a later publication' where a report of the experimeut is given in detail.
Nos. 3465-3467. The data quoted in the table are calculations made by Henneberg
based on previous experiments. The object was to compare the metabolism of a
steer on a diet containing gluten with that on a maintenance ration of clover hay
and oat straw.
Nos. 3468-3475 were made by Henneberg, Bnsse, Schultz, Ktthn, Maercker, Schulze,
and Schultze at the experiment station at Weende iu 1865. They form part of an
extended series of observations on the feeding of full-grown steers. The food con-
sisted of clover hay and oat straw. In most cases bean meal was also fed and in
several cases starch aud sugar. The food, urine, and feces were analyzed.
The respiration experiments were made with a Pettenkofer apparatus and by
practically the Munich methods and were of 12 hours duration. The carbon, hydro-
gen, and oxygen balance was not given in the original publication, but the amounts
of carbon dioxid aud methan produced were measured and the carbon in the food,
urine, and feces was determined. The carbon balance was computed by the compilers
from the available data and inserted in the table.
The principal conclusions reached were tho following: With steers as well as with
other animals all the nitrogen excretion is through the urine and feces. When the
protein consumed is increased or diminished, there is not an immediate corresponding
change in the excretion of nitrogen, but tbe change is gradual.
When no work is done, a steer requires 500 grams protein per 1.000 pounds (500
kilograms) live weight daily for maintenance under normal conditions.
Increased consumption of water generally increased the metabolism of protein,
though this was more noticeable after a few days than at once. The relation between
consumed aud excreted nitrogen was fairly constant during each experiment. If
nitrogen equilibrium was not reached at the first, it was not reached at all.
With steers as with other animals, a marked change in the food produced a marked
change in the metabolism of protein, other conditions remaining the same.
The steers produced as much carbon dioxid as sheep, pound for pound. The
carbon dioxid production increased wben nitrogenous as well as nonnitrogeuous food
was added to the basal ration. In the author's opinion, the excess of nutrients in a
given diet over what is necessary for maintenance can never be as valuable for the
production of flesh, etc., as its composition would indicate. •
The condition of the animal influences the production of carbon dioxid. Very
little methan was found in the gaseous excretory products. It was observed that
the excretions of carbon dioxid and water were not always parallel; that each
increased (1) when there was less moisture in the air, the temperature remaining
constant, and (2) when the temperature increased and the moisture in the air remain-
ing constant. In other words, the respiratory excretion of both carbon dioxid and
water increased when the moisture in the air diminished, the temperature remaining
constant. When the temperature rose, the moisture content remained unchanged.
Nos. 3476-3499. This series of experiments was made by Klihn, Thomas, Martin,
Laukisch, G. Kouig, Mohr, Bottcher, Koch, Waage, Mielcke, Kohler, Losche, Gerhard,
and Kellner at the experiment station in Mockern in 1882, 1885-86^ and 1889-90.
A Jour. Laudw., 1871, p. 27.
RESPIRATION EXPERIMENTS. 405
The object was to deterraino whether fat was formed from carbohydrates and nnder
what conditions, and also to study the formation of hydrocarbons in the intestines
nnder various dietary conditions. The experiment was divided into periods. The
author's numbers for these periods are pjiven in the table. The subjects were full-
grown steers. The respiration apparatus used was of the Pettenkofer type. The
capacity of the respiration chamber was 18.21 cubic meters.
No attempt was made in these experiments to measure the water in the respiratory
products or outer air. The only determinations made were analyses of food, urine,
and feces; the amount of respired air, the carbon dioxid, and marsh gas in it; and
the carbon dioxid in the air entering the apparatus. The respired air was measured
with' a large gas meter. Eight small mercury i)umps and 8 small gas meters were
used to collect and measure the samples of external and respired air.
It is claimed by the Miickern investigators that their respiration apparatus is
extremely accurate in its measurements of respired air and carbon dioxid. The
carbon dioxid was measured as in the Pettenkofer apparatus. The respiration
chamber contained a manger for food and water, which could be closed air-tight
from the outside. Food or wat6r could then be inserted through an opening in the
wall, the opening closed and the cover of the inanger raised. A correction was.
always made for the air thus introduced. A similar arrangement was used for col-
lecting the feces. There was a box in the floor which could be closed air-tight and
the feces then removed. The urine was collected by means of a "urine funnel"
which was strapi^ed on to the animal. The uriuo ran through a tube passing through
the bottom of the chamber and was collected in a large flask. The marsh gas in the
respired air was estimated by passing a sample through a combustion tube. Up to
1885 the combustion tube was filled with pumice stone impregnated with platinum
and copper oxid. Later kaolin impregnated with platinum was substituted for the
pumice stone.
The accuracy of the measurements with this respiration apparatus was tested by
control experiments with candles burned in the chamber.
The amount of marsh gas in the atmospheric air was found to be very small and
to vary much more than the amount of carbon dioxid. The variation was accounted
for by atmospheric conditions, swampy or marshy districts, or, for instance, the pres-
ence of large chimneys in the neighborhood.
The conclusions drawn were the following : The smallest ration which will main-
tain a steer in perfect quiet must furnish 0.7 kilogram digestible protein and 6.7
kilograms digestible nitrogen-free substance per 1,000 kilograms live weight daily.
Any excess over this amount of nutrients causes the production of fat. It makes
no difference whether the excess be nitrogenous or nonnltrogenous matter. A very
valuable practical deduction is that in these experiments even with very wide rations
which are not ordinarily regarded as desirable, the intensity of the fat production
was in no wise diminished.
Fat is produced from carbohydrates, 1 kilogram of starch producing on an aver-
age 0.2 kilogram fat.
Hydrocarbons were always found in the gaseous excretions. The amount was
proportional to the total amount of carbon excreted in gaseous form. It was not,
however, proportional to the amount of crude fiber consumed. This is contrary to
the conclusions drawn by Tappeiner from his investigations. Hydrocarbons (unox-
idized carbon) are formed in the stomach and intestines of ruminants not only when
cellulose is consumed, but also in about the same proportion when starch or other
nonnitrogenous material is substituted for cellulose.
Ihe feeding stuffs rich in protein iufluence the production of hydrocarbons little
or not at all as compared with the other feeding foods.
Nos. 3500-3505 were made by Soxhlet at the Agricultural Experiment Station in
Vienna in 1874 and 1875. The object was the investigation of the metabolism of the
sucking calf. The ex))eriments were made with 3 steer calves. The food consisted
406 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
of milk, wliich was fed from a bottle. The dry matter, fat, nitrogen, sngar, asb,
ash constituents, phosphoric acid, fhlorin, and carbon in the milk; the nitrogen,
carbon, ash, and ash constltnents in the nrine; and the dry matter, nitrogen, carbon,
ash, ash constltnents, and fat in the feces were determined. Respiration experi-
ments were made with a respiration apparatus similar to that of Pettenkofer, and by
similar methods. The respiration experiments were of 24 honrs dnration, and the
feeding experiments lasted several days. The experiments are discussed at length
in detail.
Among the conclusions reached were the following: A sucking calf closely resem-
bles a carnivorous animal in that its diet consists of animal food with an abundance
of protein and fat, the time of digestion is short, and the food is almost completely
digested. lu the amount of nitrogen and carbon consumed the calf resembles a
well-nourished carnivorous animal, and in the quantity of protein metabolized and
not excreted, it resembles a fasting carnivorous animal. The sucking calf consumes
the same quantity of dry matter, and one and a half times as much protein as a full-
grown herbivorous animal of the same weight (sheep) with a very abundant diet,
for instance a fattening ration; but it excretes as little protein as an herbivorous
animal on n maintenance ration. In the adnlt animal under all circumstances by
far the larger part of the protein of the food is transformed into easily decomposable
''circulating protein," but in the calf only a very small part. In an adnlt animal
under all circumstances the protein metabolized is greater than the gain of protein,
or, in other words, the larger part of the protein of the food is tr<ausformed into
circulating i)rotein and the smaller part into protein of tissue. In the sucking calf
the reverse is true, sinco the amount of protein stored is always larger than the
amount of protein metabolized, two-thirds of the protein of the food becoming pro-
tein of tissue and one-third circulating protein. A very much greater quantity of
mineral matter is retained by the sucking calf than by the adalt animal.
From the results obtained in these experiments the author computed the food con-
sumed and the metabolic balance for a calf 2 or 3 weeks old weighing 50 kilograms.
His results are often referred to, and this calculated average (No. 3505) is usually
quoted instead of the results actually obtained.
Nos. 3508-3512 were made by Bidder and Schmidt in Dorpat ( ?) in 1847-48, in con-
nection with an extended nutrition investigation. The subject was a cat. The food
in 5 cases consisted of meat, in 4 cases with, and in 1 without, water. In 2 cases no
food was given; water was, however, supplied.
The cat was confined in a metallic box having windows on 3 sides. The capacity
of the box was 0.5 cubic meter. Tho bottom was concave, and in the center there
was a tube through which the urine flowed. The nitrogen in the urine was deter-
mined by combustion with copper oxid, the urine being first evaporated with pow-
dered (juartz. It is not stated that direct determinations of nitrogen, carbon, etc.,
in the food and feces were made. Tlie inference is that. they were, at least in part.
No common factor for calculating the nitrogen of meat was used. The cat was allowed
to leave the cago some time each day, but was carefully watched.
The respiration experiments were made with an apparatus similar to that of
Boussingault. The bell glass under which the cat was placed had a capacity of 39.43
liters. During an hour 15.2 liters of air werfe imssed through the bell jar by means
of an aspirator, in order that there might be no accumulation of carbon dioxid,
which would hinder the success of the experiment. The air in the room in which
the apparatus stood was analyzed.
In these experiments there is a very slight difference between the nitrogen con-
sumed and th<at excreted. This is explained on the ground that muscular tissue was
formed. The possibility of a respiratory excretion of nitrogen is also suggested.
[In considering these experiments it is a justifiable assumption that this very small
"•uantity is entirely within the limit of error.]
These experiments are interesting because they were cited by Voit * as proving
» Ztscbr. B\o\., 2 0^66), p. 18.
RESPIRATION EXPERIMENTS. 407
that no nitrogen was excreted except in tlio urine and feces, while Seegeu and
No wak ^ took an opposite view.
Nos. 3513-3515 were made by Bidder and Schmidt in Dorpat (f) iu 1849-50, in con-
nection with an extended study of animal nutrition. The subjects were 2 dogs.
The food was meat. The food, urine, and feces and gall were analyzed in some cases,
and the inference is that this was done for each experiment. The gall was collected
by means of a fistula. The respiration experiment was made with an apparatus
which is described as being essentially like that of Boussingault.
The carbon dioxid in the respired air was determined. The expired water vapor
was evidently calculated.
The conclusion was reached that practically all the nitrogen consumed was excreted
in the solid and liquid excretory products.
Nos. 3516-3600 were made by Pettenkofer and Voit at the^ Physiological Institute
in Munich in 1861-1863. The object was the study of metabolism when fasting, and
with food furnishing proteiu, fat, and carbohydrates singly and in various combi-
nations. A dog was used as the subject. Nos. 3525-3532 include the tests while
fasting; Nos. 3530-3532 while on a ration of fat; Nos. 3516-3524 and Nos. 3535-3557
on a protein ration; Nos. 3558-3573 on a protein and fat ration ; Nos. 3574-3592 on a
ration of protein and carbohydrates with and without fat, and Nos. 3593-3600 on
a ration of carbohydrates with and without fat.
The experiments lasted several days, though the respiratory products were deter-
mined for one day only in each case. The small respiration apparatus devised by
Voit on the plan of the large one of Pettenkofer ^ was used.
In these experiments a complete study of the metabolism of nitrogen, carbon, oxygen,
and ash was attempted. The food, feces, urine, and ventilating current of air were
weighed and measured. In the respiratory products the carbon dioxid and water
were determined by absorption and the hydrocarbons and hydrogen by combustion,
as in the respiration experiments with men described above.
Lean meat (muscular tissue nearly freed from fat) was used to supply protein, fat
pork ( ?) for fat, and starch or grape sugar for carbohydrates. The meat was care-
fully selected, cut up into very small i)ieces, and all visible fat and connective tissue,
tendon, etc., removed with pinchers as completely as possible. Voit believed that
meat thus prepared was practically unvarying in composition, and that the percent-
ages of nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and ash might therefore be estimated
from previous analyses of «imilarly prepared lean beef. Accordingly no analyses
of the meat were made for these experiments. In like manner the composition of
tlie fat, sugar, and starch was^ calculated from other analyses. The composition
of the feces was likewise estimated, rather than found by actual determination. The
Orea in the urine was determined by the Liebig titration method. The dry matter
in the urine was calculated from previous work.^ Analyses were also made of sam-
ples of the urine wljiich were evaporated to dryness with quartz sand. All the data
thus obtained were used in determining the carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, because
it was found that the total dry matter in urine was somewhat greater than the urea
pins the soluble salts. What this excess consisted of is not stated.-*
1 Stndien iiber StofFwechsel, p. 204.
2 Ann. Chem., Sup. II, p. 1. See also U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations
^ul. 21, p. 108.
^Ztschr. Biol., 1, p. 136.
-•Ann. Chem., Sup. II, p. 364.
408 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
The oxygen consumed was calculated by difference^ in the manner shown in the
following example: '
Graana.
Weight of animal at end of experiment 33, 171. 00
Weight of urine excreted during experiment 1, 061. 00
Weight of carbon dioxid excreted during experiment 539. 40
Weight of water excreted during experiment 343. 48
Weight of hydrogen excreted during experiment 0. 67
Weight of methan excreted during experiment 2. 66
Total 35,118.13
Grams.
Weight of animal at beginning of experiment 33, 140
Weight of food consumed 1, 500
Total 34,640.00
Oxygen consumed 478. 13
All error of 1 gram in the carbon would make an error of 3 grams in the oxygen,
and nn error of 1 gram in the hydrogen would make an error of 8 grams in the
oxygen. As a control on the accuracy of the calculation of the oxygen, the amount
necessary for the combustion of the carbon and hydrogen in the food was also
calculated in some cases.
The actual determinations made in these experiments were, therefore, nitrogen,
carbon, and hydrogen in urine; dry matter and water in feces; and carbon dioxid,
water, methan, and hydrogen in respiratory products.
The principal conclusions drawn from these experiments were the following:
When no food is supplied, the organism lives from Vie protein and the fat of its
tissues, consuming just enough oxygen from the air to oxidize them completely.
When fat alone is supplied in the food and the amount is equal to that consumed
from the organism during fasting, fat is consumed from the organism in addition
to that supplied by the food. On a diet of fat less oxygen was consumed than dur-
ing fasting. When larger quantities of fat were supplied, more oxygen was still
consumed ; and although the organism continued to lose nitrogen, there was a gain
of fat.
When lean meat only was fed and the amount eaten was small (500-1,000 grams),
the organism lost nitrogen and fat. When a larger amoiint of lean meat was eaten
(1,500 grams), the organism was in nitrogen and carbon eqnilibrium. When still
more lean meat (1,800-2,500 grams) was eaten, more nitrogen was metabolized, but
nitrogen equilibrium was eventually reached. Although in this latter case all the
nitrogen consumed was excreted (i. e., the nitrogen in urine and feces was equal to
that in the food), some carbon was retained by the organism. If carbon is stored in
the organism it was assumed that it must be in the form of fat. As the lean meat
was assumed to be practically pure protein (only 0.9 per cent being fat), the con-
clusion was reached that the fat had been formed from protein. The fat thus formed
is not proportional to the quantity of meat consumed, but is influenced by the con-
dition of the organism. Thus fat is most readily formed from protein when the body
has little fat. The consumption of oxygen increases with the increased consumption
of lean meat.
When lean meat and fat arc supplied and the amount of fat is not large, the feces
contain very little fat, i. e., the fat is assimilated and what is not needed is stored in
the organism. If, however, largo quantities of fat are eaten, the amount in the feces
maybe quite considerable, i. c, all the excess over the amount required by the
organism can not be absorbed and stored or consumed. If the body has little fat,
fat is readily stored up from that taken as fat in the food or from that formed from
protein. If there is an abundance of fat in the body it hinders the formation of
1 Ztschr. Biol., 7, p. 437.
RESPIRATION EXPERIMENTS. 409
fat from protein. In the opinion of the anthers, fat is not more easily burned in the
organism than protein, hut the reverse. This ]>oint is discussed at considerable
length.
When lean meat and starch were fed in sufficient quantities, fat was stored in the
organism. In the authors' opinion this is not because the fat is formed from carbo-
hydrates, but because the carbohydrates protect the fat which has been formed from
protein.
When carbohydrates are taken either alone or with very little fat, all the carbon is
excreted and nO fat is formed from them. It is immaterial wlu^ther starch or grape
sugar is used. Less protein is consumed from the tissues than in fasting. The car-
bohydrates protect the protein.
With starch as food the quantity of feces is very small. With a diet of bread,
which is largely starch, the feces are more iibuudaut. (Carbohydrates are more
easily burned iu the organism than fat.
The two important conclusions from all these experiments are that (1) fat is formed
from protein, and (2) fat is not formed from carbohydrates.
In view of the importance of the theories deduced from these experiments some^
statements regarding opinions held to-day concerning them may not be out of place.
It is now generally conceded that fat is formed from carbohydrates. This point has
been discussed at some length in previous publications of this office. ^
The formation of fat from protein is perhaps still an open question. Voit's experi-
ments and results have been recently discussed by Pfliiger,^ who advanced objection
to them. More recently E. Voit repeated the experiments made by his father with
apparently all the needful precautions in the way of analyses, and in a brief prelimi-
nary report of his work^ claims to have substantiated his father's conclusions and to
have demonstrated the formation of fat from j^rotein. In E. Voit's experiments the
subject was a dog weighing 23 kilograms. Only one experiment is given in detail in
the brief preliminary report. The dog consumed daily for 3 days 1,500 grams pure
meat (extracted with water), containing 367 grams protein (60 grams nitrogen, 197.4
grams carlion). The ni.trogen excreted on the 3 days of the experiment was 35.5
grams, 50 grams, and 53.1 grams, respectively. The protein broken down would
furnish 116.7 grams, 161.1 grams, and 171.6 grams carbon; and 129.2 grams, 148.6
grams, and 156.5 grams carbon were actually excreted. On the lirst day there was
a deficit of 12.4. grams carbon, equivalent to 16 grams fat. On the two succeeding
days there was a gain of 12.5 and 18.2 grams carbon, respectively, equivalent to 16
and 24 grams fat. The possibility of the stated carbon being in the form of glycogen
is also discussed, but the author does not consider it probable.
On the second and third days, therefore, considerable carbon was stored up. It
may be that this carbon was stored as glycogen; still, as the author points out, the
amount which can be formed from protein is smaller than the quantity of nitrogen-
free material which must have been formed in this case.
As pointed out by Zuntz in the article referred to above, the possibility of the for-
mation of fat from protein has been shown by other methods than those of Voit to
he extremely probable.
Nos. 3601-3605 were made by Rubner in the laboratory of the Physiological Insti-
tute in Munich in 1883. The object was to study the isodynamic values of nutrients
for the animal organism. The subjects were dogs. A number of experiments were
made besides Nos. 3601-3605, but they could not be included in the present compila-
tion as the data recorded were of a different nature.
No food was consumed. The urine and feces were probably analyzed. The respir-
* N. Zuntz, *'The metabolism of nutrients iu the animal body and the source of
muscular energy" (Experiment Station Record, 7, p. 538). 8. Soskin, "The forma-
tion of fat in the animal body" (Experiment Station Record, 8, p. 179).
apflUger's Arch., 51 (1892), p. 267.
sjahresber. Thier. Chem., 1892, p. 34.
410 A DIGEST OP METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
atory prodncts were measured and analyzed. In No. 3603 the figaree for balance of
income and outgo of carbon are not given, as the data were not found in the pub-
lication cited.
Among the conclusions reached were the following: Each gram of fat in the food
is the isodynamic equivalent of a gram of body fat, and protein of food (circulat-
ing protein) is the isodynamic equivalent of protein of tissue which is metabolized
when sufficient protein is not supplied in the food. It is probable that the forma-
tion of organized protein from the protein of the food takes place without any con-
siderable storing up of potential energy. In general. 240 parts of carbohydrates
are the isodynamic equivalent of 100 parts of fat, and 100 parts of protein are the
isodynamic equivalent of 113 parts of cane sugar or 122 parts of grape sugar.
In the author's opinion this investigation first gave exx>erimental proof of the fact
that energy is utilized in the body without loss; that is, the principle of the con-
servation of energy holds good for the animal organism.
The experiments and the theories deduced from them are discussed at length.
Nos. 3606, 3607 were made by Simanowsky at the Physiological Institute in Munich
^ in 1883-84. The object was to study the influence on metabolism of a body temper-
ature higher than normal produced by artificial methods. The subject was a dog.
No food was consumed. The rise in temperature was produced by giving the dog hot
baths of 38-38.5^ C. The animal was placed in a large tub which had a wooden
cover with an opening for the head. His temperature rose rapidly — for instance,
inside of 7 minutes from 38.35^ to 40.4^, and remained there until half an hour after
the bath. The separation of the feces was made with bones. The urine was collected
with a catheter. The nitrogen in the urine was determined by the Schneider-Seegen
method and in the feces by the Will-Warrentrapp method.
Respiration experiments were made with the Pettenkofer-Voit apparatus.
The conclusion was reached that raising the body temperature artificially for
several hours by means of hot baths did not increase the nitrogen-free metabolic
products. The excretion of nitrogen remained normal or was increased a very little.
Noe. 3609-3611 were made by Rubner in the laboratory of. the Physiological Insti-
tute in Munich in 1883, with a dog. The object was to learn something of the forma-
tion of fat from carbohydrates in the animal organism. In one test no food was
consumed. In the other two tests the food consisted of cane sugar and starch. The
respiration experiments were made with the small Pettenkofer apparatus. In all
details this work corresponds to the work of Pettenkofer and Voit.
The conclusion is drawn that fat is formed from carbohydrates in the case of
meat-eating animals.
Nos. 3612-3614 were made by Boussingault in 1844 ( t). The object was, by com-
paring the ingested and excreted material, to determine whether nitrogen was
excreted in the gaseous excretory products of birds. The subject was a dove. In
Nos. 3612 and 3613 the food consisted of millet; in No. 3614 no food was consumed.
Elementary analyses of the millet and feces were made. The carbon dioxid pro-
duced in the respiratory products was measured by means of a small respiration
apparatus. This consisted of a glass bell jar in which the subject was confined,
with a suitable device for pumping air through the jar. The carbon dioxid and
water in the air which left the jar was determined. In Nos. 3612 and 3613 the sub-
ject lost between 1 and 2 grams in weight. More nitrogen was consumed than was
excreted in the feces.
It was the author's conclusion that the amount representing the difference was
excreted in the gaseous excretory products.
Nos. 3615 and 3616 were made by Kuchein in the laboratory of the Physiological
Institute at Munich in 1880. The object was to study the metabolism of fowls when
fasting to see if it was similar to that of Carnivora and Herbivora. The subject
of No. 3615 was a rooster and of No. 3616 a hen. The rooster died on the ninth day
of fasting and the hen on the twelfth day. The nitrogen in the excreta was deter-
mined by the Will-Warrentrapp method. The carbon in the excreta was calculated.
RESPIRATION EXPERIMENTS. 411
The carbon dioxid in the respiratory products was determined with a small Voit
respiration apparatus by the usual methods. In No. 3616 the weight of the different
organs and the water, nitrogen, and fat in the bones, muscles, tissue, and Internal
organs was determined.
The following conclusions were reached : When fasting, fowls metabolize less pro-
tein and more nitrogen-free extract than other animals pound for pound; therefore
the metabolism of fowls can not be regarded as intense. Fowls require much less
protein and much more nitrogen-free nntrients for maintenance than other animals
of the same weight.
No. 3617 was made by Lehmann, Hagemann, and Zuntz at the Agricultural Experi-
ment Station of the University of Gottingen in 1894 (?), in connection Avith a series
of investigations on the metabolism of a horse, conducted by Zuntz at the Institute for
Animal Physiology of the Agricultural Institute in Berlin. The food consisted of oat«,
hay, and chopped straw, and was calculated to be sufficient for the production of 6,777
kilogrammeters of work. Analyses were made of the food, urine, and feces. The res-
piratory products were measured for 1 day. An apparatus similar to that of Petten-
kofer was used and similar methods followed. The figures for nitrogen in the food,
urine, and feces represent the average for several days. In the experiments carried
on in Berlin the respiratory quotient was measured by the aid of Zuntz's apparatus —
i. e., a tube was inserted in the horse's trachea. This was connected with two tubes
and by an arrangement of valves the air passed in through one tube and out through
another. No air was taken into the lungs except through this apparatus. It is
stated that horses undergo the operation of tracheotomy without permanent injury
and apparentlj*^ suffer no inconvenience from it afterwards. The carbon dioxid
produced and oxygen consumed were measured by suitable methods.
The authors devised another apparatus Avhich served the same purpose as the
tracheal tube and could be used in place of it. This consisted of a mask worn over
the horse's nose and mouth. It was provided with two tubes with suitable valves;
one tube for the inspired, and the other for the expired, air.
By combining the results obtained with the Pettenkofer apparatus and those
obtained with the Zuntz apparatus it was possible not only to measure tlio total
carbon excreted, but also to determine the amount of carbon dioxid excreted from
the lungs and from the intestines and skin.
The following conclusions were drawn from the experiments : Methan accompanies
carbon dioxid as a gaseous excretory product of horses, though the amount is very
much less than in the case of Herbivora. As an average of six experiments, 210
grams of methan, equivalent to 15.7 grams of carbon dioxid, was produced daily when
the horse was fed principally oats, the amount being little more than sufficient for
maintenance. The methan is largely excreted from the intestines, and with it about
37.5 per cent of its volume of carbon dioxid. Not more than 1 gram of free hydrogen
was excreted per day. In this experiment the horse produced 73.9 liters of carbon
dioxid in 24 hours in addition to that excreted from the lungs, and of this 13.3 liters
were excreted from the intestines and 60.6 liters through the skin. The gaseous excre-
tion through the skin was about 2.5 per cent of that through the lungs. When the
gaseous exchange through the lungs only is taken into account, the carbon dioxid
excretion obtained is 3 per cent too low and the nitrogen excretion is also too low,
though the amount is less than 3 per cent. Taking into account this error, the metab-
olism of a horse doing no work, calculated by the Zuntz method, gave the same result
as by the Pettenkofer method. The results by the two methods differed only within
the limits of error due to the fact that the animal could not be kept perfectly still.
No. 3618 was made by Regnault and Reiset at the College de France in Paris in
1849, and forms part of a long series of respiration experiments. The subject was a
rabbit. The food consisted of carrots. No analyses of food, urine, or feces were
made. The subject was confined in a small respiration apparatus. This consisted
of (1) a respiration chamber, (2) a device for absorbing the carbon dioxid, and (3) a
device for supplying oxygen. The respiration chamber was a bell glass of 45 liters
412 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
capacity. It was cemented to a base and immersed in water. The carbon dioxid
produced by the subject was absorbed iu two vessels containing potassium hydroxid
sohition. These vessels resembled the mercury holders of an air pump. When one
waH lowered the potassium hydroxid solution would fill it and the other was filled
with air from the respiration chamber. When the position of the two vessels was
reversed, potassium hydroxid solution passed from one to the other and removed more
or loss of the carbon dioxid from the air with which it came in contact.
Oxygen was stored in Heveral large vessels and admitted to the respiration chamber
as needed. The air in the respiration chamber at the beginning and end of the
experiment was analyzed. From the amount of carbon dioxid in it and that absorbed
by the potassium hydroxid solution, the amount of carbon dioxid prodnced was oal-
cuhited. The nitrogen content of the air at the beginning and end of the experiment
was <also determined.
In this experiment with the rabbit the air contained more nitrogen than normal
air, and the conclusion was reached that nitrogen was excreted in the gaseous excre-
tory products. The rabbit gained 14 grams in weight.
bidder and Schmidt quoted this experiment in a discussion of the theory of '' Inxns
consumption '' of food. They calculated the composition of the food, urine, and feces,
and their figures are those given in the table. The figures are quoted for their
interest from an historical standpoint.
The authors made a large number of experiments with dogs, rabbits, marmots,
chickens, small birds, frogs, and lizards. The marmots were hibernating at the time
of the experiment. The special points considered in these experiments were the
excretion of carbon dioxid and the amount of oxygen absorbed from the air. The
respiratory excretion of nitrogen was also discussed. The authors believed when
food was consumed some nitrogen was excreted in the gaseous excretory prodnrts,
although the amount was very small. When fasting it was believed that nitrogen
was absorbed from the air. [The experiment and the respiration apparatuis used for
it are of special interest, both because of the fact that they mark the beginning of
that class of systematic investigations which are commonly classed as respiration
experiments, and because of the ingenuity of the apparatus' and methods of investi-
gation. Notwithstanding the crudeness of the experimental methods of half a
century ago as compared with the present, these investigations have permanent
historical value.]
NoH. 3619-3628 were made by Knieriem at the laboratory of the Physiological Insti-
tute in Munich in 1879-80. The object was to study the nutritive value of cellulose.
Two rabbits were used. They were in separate cages and were fed the same rations.
In calculating the results, the mean of the total excreted urine and feces was taken
as representing the amounts for one animal. The respiration experiments were
made with the small Voit respiraticm apparatus and were of one or two days' dnra-
tion. The excreted carbon dioxid was the only factor measured. The food con-
sisted of milk or egg albumen. Horn shavings, crude fiber, and sugar were fed with
the milk and meat extract, and horn shavings, sugar, and fiber from cabbage leaf
were fed in varying combinations with the albumen.
A sufficient quantity of milk for a whole experiment was boiled, and then kept on
ice in sealed bottles until needed. The dry matter, carbon, nitrogen, ash, snlphnr,
and phosphoric acid in the milk and horn shavings and the fat in the milk were
determined. The carbon in the sugar, and crude fiber from cabbage leaf were deter-
mined and elementary analyses of egg albumen and meat extract were made. The
nitrogen and carbon, and sometimes the sulphur and phosphoric acid in the urine and
feces and the crude fiber in the feces, were also determined.
'American readers not familiar with the fact will be interested to know that there
is in the laboratory of Professor Chapman, of the Jefi:erson Medical College, Phila-
delphia, a duplicate of the famous respiration apparatus of Regnault and Relset. I^
was made by Golaz, of Paris, the maker of the original, and from the same drawings.
RESPIRATION EXPERIMENTS. 413
The conclusion is reached that cellulose is a nutrient for Herbivora. The article
contains an extended discussion of the subject, with many references to previous
work. A number of digestion experiments in which no metabolic balance was
determined were made by the author with man, heus, dogs, a hedgehog, and rabbits.
Nos. 3629-3647 were made by May at the Physiological Institute in Munich in 1892.
The object was to investigate metabolism during fever. The subjects were rabbits.
Fever was produced by inoculation with hog-cholera culture. In most of the experi-
ments no food was consumed. In some grape sugar and water were injected into
the stomach. The urine was collected with a catheter. The respiration experiments
were made with the small Yoit respiration apparatus. The carbon iu the grape sugar
was calculated. The nitrogen in the urine was determined by the Kjeldahl or
Schneider-Seegen method. The carbon was calculated in two cases from Rubner's
figures and in the other cases determined. The carbon dioxid was determined, and
in two instances the oxygen was estimated in the respiratory products. Careful
records were kept of the body temperature. The heat, measured in calories, pro-
duced by the rabbits with and without fever, was calculated.
The principal conclusions drawn were the following: Fever increases the amount
of heat produced. This depends upon the fact that more protein is metabolized.
Carbohydrates protect protein during fever. The relation of carbon to nitrogen in
the urine is changed by fever, fever urine being richer in carbon than normal urine.
The increased metabolism of protein during fever is caused by the increased demand
of the organism for carbohydrates, which are utilized and can not protect protein.
A number of experiments (which were not of the sort reported in this compilation)
were made on the utilization of glycogen during fever. The conclusion was reached
that glycogen in the body disappears more rapidly during fever than under normal
conditions.
Nos. 3648-3650 and Nos. 3395-3398, fable 36, were made by Henneberg, Busse,
Schultz, Kiihn, Maercker, Schulze, and Schultze at the experiment station in Weeude
in 1868, to study the metabolism of sheep on a maintenance ration and to compare
the effect of feeding during the day with feeding during the night. The subjects
were 2 sheep about 4^ years old. In Nos. 3395 and 3396 the animals were fed during
the day and in Nos. 3397 and 3398 they were fed during the night. The food consisted
of meadow hay, with a little salt.
No. 3648 is an average, based on Nos. 3395 and 3396, with the figures for balance of
income and outgo of carbon in addition. No. 3649 is a similar average, based on Nos.
3397 and 3398. No. 3650 is an average based on 2648 and 3649. The balance of
mineral matter given in No. 3398 is an average value for the two subjects for the
whole experimental period.
The respiratory products were measured and analyzed in connection with Nos.
3395-3398. Sufficient data were not given by the author to include the results in the
present compilation. Ajialyses were made of the food, urine, and feces. The res-
piration experiments were made with a Pettenkofer-Voit apparatus by practically
the same methods as those followed in Munich. The ammonia iu the respired air
was also determined. It amounted to 0.37 gram per day, equivalent to 0.31 gram
of nitrogen. A test was also made to determine the carbon dioxid excretion when
no food was consumed. The urine and feces were not analyzed.
Among the conclusions reached were the following: The carbon dioxid produced
during the day and night differed in amount. This was not caused by light and
darkness, but by the time of feeding. When the same quantities of food were con-
sumed, the total quantity of carbon dioxid excreted in 24 hours was unchanged.
When food was consnmed during the day more carbon dioxid was produced, and
vice versa. Variations in the amount of carbon dioxid excreted were also influenced
by the fact that the sheep did not remain quiet — by their eating at unusual times, by
the temperature of the apparatus, the temperature and quantity of food and water
consumed; and by the amount of water vapor excreted through the lungs. The pro>
414 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
daction of carbon dioxid and water vapor were parallel. No marked excretion of
methau, ammonia, or hydrogen was observed. The inspired oxygen was not all
immediately expired. Of the total amount of carbon consumed, 48.7 per cent was
excreted in the respiratory products and 43.8 per cent in the feces. Three-iifths of
the water consumed wns excreted in the urine and feces and two-fifths in the gase-
ous excretory- products. The heat produced by the oxidation processes in the body
was calculated to be equal to about 1,900 calories per day> or 420 calories per kilogram
body weight.
The experiments and the deductions drawn from them are discussed at length.
No. 3651 was made by Henneberg, Fleischer, and M tiller at the experiment station
in Weende in 1872, and forms part of an investigation on the changes in metabolism
in ruminants due to changes in the food consumed. Two sheep were used as sub-
jects. The excretory products of both sheep were collected and the average results
taken as the values for one sheep. The experiments were made by the usual meth-
ods followed at Weende.
The investigation was divided iuto three periods. In the first period the ration
consisted of meadow hay and barley meal. In the second and third periods tbe
amount of protein in the ration was increased by diminishing the amount of barley
meal and adding wheat gluten. In the publication cited in the reference column
of tlje table the authors reported in full the data for the first period only, but gave
conclusions which were drawn from the whole investigation, as follows :
Small animals require relatively more material for building tissue than lar^e ani-
mals. In this investigation in all cases where the amount of digestible protein con-
sumed was greater than the amount necessary for equilibrium there was a gain in
protein. When this was not the case there was a loss. This was not due alone to
the consumption of stored protein, but also and in large part to the great change in
the ration. A period of 6 days did not seem' to be long enough to insure nitrogen
equilibriiuu.
Nos. 3652-3657 were made by Meissl, Strohmcr, and Lorenz at the Experiment Sta-
tion for Agricultural Chemistry at Vienna in 1882-1884. The object was a study of
the metabolism of swine. The food consisted in 2 experiment-s of rice, in 1 of bar-
ley meal, aud in 1 of rice, whey, and meat meal. In 2 experiments no food was con-
sumed. Analyses of food and feces were made by the Weende method. The nitro-
gen in food and feces was determined by the Will- War rentrapp, Dumas (with
MeissFs modification), or Kjeldahl method. Often two methods were used for the
same substance. The nitrogen in the urine was determined with Knop's azometer
with some later modifications. Carbon was determined in food, urine, and feces.
The specific gravity, hippuric acid, and chlorin of the urine were also determined.
The carbon dioxid in the respiratory products was determined with a respiration
apparatus made on the Pettenkofer plan.
The experiments are discussed in detail, and one of the principal conclusions drawn
conceriis the Very considerable amount of fat which must have been formed f^om
carbohydrates. The digestibility of the rations is also discussed at length. The
conclusion is also reached that the amount of protein metabolized increases with
the amount supplied in the food.
Nos. 3658, 3659, and 3453, Table 37, were made by Komauth and Arche at the
Imperial Agricultural Chemical Experiment Station in Vienna in 1889. The object
was to study the metabolism of swine on a diet containing com cockles.
In Nos. 3453 aud 3658 the food consisted of corn cockles, barley, and maize, and in
No. 3659 of oil cake, barley, and maize. A little salt or salt and calcium phosphate
were fed with the grain. Full analyses of food and feces, including total nitrogen
and amid nitrogen, were made. The carbon and nitrogen in the urine were deter-
mined in Nos. 3658 and 3659, and the carbon dioxid in the respiratory products was
determined with a A'oit respiration apparatus.
Two other pigs were fed for purposes of comparison. One received the same ration
as in the experiments proper, the other a ration consisting of 70 per cent corn
RESPIRATION EXPERIMENTS. 415
cockles and 30 per cent barley and maize. The resnlts were not given in such form
that they could be included in the present compilation.
The following conclusions were reached : Corn cockles diminished the metabolism
of protelu; increased the accumulation of fat, and diminished the excretion of
carbon dioxid. They produced no bad effects on the health of the pig. When the
ration w.is largely composed of corn cockles it was not eaten as readily, owing to
its bitter taste, and the pig made little growth.
The digestibility of the ratiou with corn cockles did not differ materially from
that of the ration without them, and the flesh gained on the ration containing them
was normal in quality and composition. Considering their small cost, corn cockles
may be regarded as a suitable food for pigs.
An investigation of the possibility of the formation of fat from protein in a cat
was reported by Cremer ^ too late for insertion in the tables of this compilation. A
considerable number of experiments were made at the University of Vienna. ITie
article cited is a brief report of some of them. The urine was collected as in Bidder
and Schmidt's experiments, and analyses were made of the food, urine, feces, and
gaseous excretory products, a respiration apparatus being employed for the measure-
ment of the respired air. After a daily consumption of 450 grams of meat for 8 days
the subject fasted. The daily excretion of nitrogen (av^erage of 8 days) in the urine
and feces was 13.0 grams. The excretion of carbon in the urine was 7.5 grams, in
the feces 1.4 grams, and in the respiratory products 25.4 grams; in all, 34.3 grams.
The total carbon which it was calculated would be furnished by the metabolism of
protein sufficient to furnish the nitrogen excreted was 41.6 grams; that is, the body
gained 7.3 grams carbon, which must have been derived from the cleavage of protein
of body tissue. In the calculation it was assumed that in fat- and glycogen-free
flesh nitrogen is to carbon as 1 : 3.2. The calculated gain of carbon for the whole
X»eriod (8 days) was 58 grams, which would be equivalent to about 130 grams of
glycogen. At the close of the experiments the cat was killed. It weighed 3.7 kilo-
grams, and the organs and tissues were found to contain only 35 grams of glycogen
and sugar.
Experiments were also made with a cat fed an abundance of meat. It was calcu-
lated that in one of the experiments over 20 per cent of the total carbon derived
from metabolized protein was stored up in the body. The nitrogen excretion reached
5 grams per kilogram of body weight — a very high value.
The author concludes that his experiments confirm Volt's theory of the formation
of fat from protein .
Experiments, received too late for insertion in the tables of this compilation, were
made with two steers A and B at the Agricultural Experiment Station at Mockem
by Kellner, Kohler, Barnstein, Zielstorff, Hartung, and Liihrig.* The object was to
study the metabolism of matter and energy on a maintenance ration. This work is
regarded by the authors as preliminary to a series of iuvestigations on the metab-
olism of steers under various conditions. The food, urine, feces, and respiratory prod-
ucts were analyzed. The respiratory products were measured by the Pettenkofer
apparatus. The analytical methods and apparatus were the same as those used by
Kiihn-' in his experiment with steers. For some time before the experiment proper
began the steers were fed the same ration under similar conditions, to accustom
them to it. The digestibility of the ration was determined for 15 days. Five of the
days (not consecutive) were spent in the respiration apparatus.
» Miinchen. med. Wochenschr., 44 (1897), p. 811.
2Landw. Vers. Stat., 47 (1896), p. 275 (Experiment Station Kecord, 9, p. 167).
3Lamlw. Vers. Stat., 44 (1894), p. 257.
416
A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
The diiily balauee of income and outgo of nitrogen and carbon was as follows:
Balance of income and ouiyo of nitrogen and carbon.
Steer A : 8.5 kg. hay,
26 kfj. water
Steer 13 : 4 kg. bay, 5
k^. straw, 40 gin.
salt, 2,621 kg. water.
In food.
In
urine
Nitrogen.
In ^«ain^( + '
feces. io88(_)
In food.
In
urine.
_ -f . -
Carbon.
In feces.
In respi-
ratory
I>rod-
ncts.
Gramt. Or atns. Grams. Grains.
116.2 61.3 48.7 +6.2
77.1
46.6 ' 45.1 —14.6
Grams. Grams.\ Oram^. ; Grams.
3,554.6 210.4 1,207.0 1,810.0
I
3,554.2 169.1 1,500.1 2,011.6
Gain (+)
or
loss (— ).
Grams.
+ 127.2
— 126.6
From the balance of nitrogen and carbon the authors calculate that steer A gained
39 grams protein and 139 grams fat, and that steer B lost 91 grams protein and 102
grams fat. The fuel value of the food, urine, and feces was determined by the bomb
caloiimeter.
Taking into account the fuel value of food and excretory products, and of the gain
or loss of body tissue, the balance of income and outgo of energy in the two experi-
ments was determined. (The balance is not complete, since the author did not
measure the energy liberated as heat or used for external muscular work.) The
fuel value of these factors was as follows :
Fuel value of food aetualbj consumed, excretory products, and tissue gained and lost in
experiments with steers.
»*teer A :
Meadow hay (7,283 gm.)
Feces (2,547 gra.)
Urine, diry matter (633.7 gm.) .
Methan (158.4 gm.)
Protein tissue gained (39 gm.)
Fatty tissue gained (139 gm.) .
Total outgo and stored material
Balance —
Steer B :
Meadow hay (3,494 gm.)
Oat straw (4, 146 gm.)
Feces (3,086 gm.)
Urine, dry matter (542.5 gm.)
Methan (174.7 gm.)
Protein tissue from body
Fatty tissue from body
Total outgo.
Balance
Income. Outgo.
Calories.
32,177.3
14.8«2.8 .
Calories,
"11*750.* 3
1,945.0
2, 098. 2
220.5
1,320.5
17, 334. 5
15. 426. 4
18, 368.
405.3
069.0
16, 729. 1
14, 576. 1
1.549.4
2, 314. 1
18, 439. 6
From their own experiments, and from experiments by Kithn, the authors calculate
that for steers 24,000 calories of energy per daj' per 1,000 kilograms live weight are
necessary for maintenance, and that the nutritive ingredients of hay of fair quality
and similar feeding stutls furnish about 3.5 calories per gram.
EXPERIMENTS IN TVHICH THE BALANCE OF NTFROGEN AND
ENERGT TV AS DETERMINED.
The establishing of the balance of energy in the animal body is a
difficult task, since it involves the determination of the income and
outgo of nitrogen, carbon, and oth^r elements and adds thereto the
measurement of the potential energy of food and excretory products
and the more serious problem of measuring the energy transformed
within the body and given off as heat, mechanical work, or otherwise.
This balance may be most conveniently expressed in terms of heat.
The fuel value of the food consumed and of the urine and feces may bo
easily determined by a bomb calorimeter,^ or some similajr^^ui table
instrument.
The measurement of the heat radiated frjoin the body requires special
apparatus to which the name respiration calorimeter has been ai)plied.
Several forms have been devised. A description of these, reasonably
complete up to date of publication, was prepared several years ago,
by Rosenthal (seep. 12). Most of the calorimeter experiments which
have been found in the literature of the subject have been concerned
w ith the measurement of the energy produced by the subject. The
f energy of the food has been left out of account, not because it was
unimportant, but because the elaboration of methods and appara-
tus for the special jjoint studied was necessary before more complex
investigations could be undertaken, ^o published experiments have
been found with man in which the balance of income and outgo of
energy was determined. A considerable number were made by Lik-
hachev^ at St. Petersburg in which the attempt was made to measure
the total outgo of energy with a calorimeter of special construction.
This was a development of the apparatus used by Pashutin^ in simi-
lar experiments with animals. As stated in a previous publication^
of this Office a respiration calorimeter designed for experiments with
man has been constructed in this country, although the exi)eriments
in which the balance of income and outgo of energy was determined
have not been published.
\ EXPERIMENTS WITH ANIMALS.
In Table 39 are included 9 tests with dogs in which the balance of
nitrogen and energy was determined. These experiments and others
in which the results are not tabulated are discussed in the text.
• IJ. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 21, p. 120.
^ The production of heat hy healthy man in a condition of comparative rest. Iiwaii^.
Diss. (Russian), St. Petersburg.
3 Vrach, 1886, No. 18.
* U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations Bui. 44.
749— No. 45 27 417
418
A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
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EXPERIMENTS WITH ANIMALS. 419
Nos. 3660-3668 were made by Rubner at the University of Marburg in 1889-90 as a
study of the source of animal heat. The subjects were two dogs, weighing about 5 and
12 kilograms, respectively. In some of the experiments the animals fasted ; in others
they had lean meat to furnish protein, or bacon to furnish fat, or both. They were
placed inside the chamber of a respiratioii calorimeter especially devised by Rubner
for determining the respiratory products and the heat given off from the body.^
The respiratory products were measured by the methods of Pettenkofer and Voit,
and the heat by the expansion of air. The respiration chamber was a box with 6
rectangular walls of copper. This was surrounded by a box of copper, making an
air jacket, and this in turn by another copper box making a second air jacket which
served to isolate the air in the inner jacket from an outer jacket of water contained
in a double-walled box of copper surrounding the whole. The inner air jacket was
connected by a tube with a spirometer which served to measure the expansion of
the air in the jacket when the latter was heated or the contraction when it was
cooled, thus making practically an air thermometer. The water in the outside
jacket could be maintained uniformly at any convenient temperature. It served
not only to preveut access of heat to the chamber from without but also to absorb
and carry away heat which was given off within the chamber and passed through
the air jackets. Inside the water were A^essels of copper connected by a tube with
a second spirometer, making a second air thermometer which showed the correc-
tions to be applied for temperature and barometric pressure. At one end was an
opening through the walls of the apparatus. This was closed by a coyer consisting
of a metal frame with a double window of glass. By opening this door the animal
could be passed in and out. Tubes were also provided for passing a current of air
through the chamber and for mercury thermometers. A part of the heat given off
from the body of the animal was carried out by the air current and was determined
from the volume of the latter and its rise in temperature in passing through the
chamber; another part was carried away in the water vapor in this air, which was
also measured, while the greater part passed through the walls the amount being
determined from the expansion of the air in the inner jacket. The mechanical
features of the appar^us were numerous. Its accuracy was tested by numerous
control experiments in which known amounts of carbon dioxid, water, and heat
were introduced into the chamber and measured.
In the experiments with animals the determinations actually made were as fol-
lows : The weights of the animal at the beginning and at the end of the experiment,
of food and water given, and of urine and feces; the percentages of fat in the food
and of nitrogen and feces in the urine; the weights of carbon dioxid and water in
respiratory products; and the calories of heat given off from the body. The nitro-
gen in the food (lean meat) was computed by the compilers for the nitrogen balance
in tabulating the results, A^oit's factor (3.4 per cent), which is assumed by the author
in discussing Ihe experiments, being used for the computation. The carbon was not
determined in the food, feces, or urine and no carbon balance was made. No deter-
minations were made of heats of combustion of food or excretory products.
For the balance of energy the income was estimated by the author from the (esti-
mated amounts of material oxidized in the body, and the outgo was found in the
measurement of the heat given off from the body as above descrilied. The materials
oxidized were assumed to be protein, fats, and carbohydrates of the body or the
Ibod, or both. The amounts were estimated from the nitrogen and carbon excreted
in the urine and the carbon dioxid exhaled. From the nitrogen excreted the amount
of protein oxidized and the carbon in the latter were computed. The remaining
carbon was assumed to come from fat and carbohydrates burned. How much
belonged to each of these two latter classes of compounds the data of income and
outgo of material were insufficient to show, but the author assumes that the propor-
tions can be calculated from the amount of heat produced. The data for the bal-
* Described by Rubner in Calorimetrische Methodik. Marburg, Elwert, 1891.
420 A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
ance of energy given in the tables were estimated by the author. The differences
of* income and outgo of energy in the individual days and experiments as thus com-
puted were in some cases quite appreciable, but for the forty-five days covered by the
experiments there was a discrepancy of only 0.47 per cent. It is assumed that all
of the energy given off from the body of the animals was in the fonn of heat.
In the author's opinion these experiments furnish a proof that the nutrients of
the food and the body materials consumed are the sole sources of heat in the animal
body. They thus contirm the belief that the law of the conservation of energy
applies in the living organism.
The experiments are distAissed at considerable length, and from standpoints dif-
ferent from that of the present compilation.
In a bibliography of Russian literature received from Russia too late for detailed
use in this compilation reference is made to the following investigations in which
calorimetric lueasurements were made in connection Avith investigations of the respir-
atory quotient. With one exception these were published as inaugural disserta-
tions at the Imperial Military Medical Academy of St. Petersburg. In the last three
experiments cited the balance of income and outgo of nitrogen Avas also determined,
and a ''water calorimeter'' was used for the measurement of lieat. Pashutin's appa-
ratus was generally used for the determination of the respiratory quotient.
In 1884 Kostiurin published the results of experiments on the effect of injuring the
lower part of the spinal cord upon metabolism in animals. Three experiments
of from two to six days' duration were made with fasting dogs. The ctmclusion
was reached that the amount of heat produced and the carbon dioxid excreted
was increased, and at the same time the ratio of heat t9 carbon dioxid production was
increased.
In the same year Hotcharov published a report of his experiments on the influence
of septic poisoning on metabolism. Twelve experiments of three days' duration
were made with fasting dogs. Poisoning was produced by the injection of a fer-
menting solution (Jauchc). In the author's opinion this form of poisoning increased
the production of carbon dioxid, water vapor, and heat.
In 18H6 Sadovyen published an account of investigations onthe respiratory quotient
and the production of heat in uneniia. Fourteen experiments of from four to seven
days' duration were made with dogs and rabbits. The ureter was llgated. The con-
clusion was reached that in ura»miy there was a decrease in the cor.sumption of oxygen
and the production of carbon dioxid, water vapor, and heat.
Jurovski published in 1888 the results of experiments on the respiratory quotient
and the ])roduction of heat in poisoning produced by gallic acid salts. Fifteen
experiments of from four to six days' duration were made with rabbits. It was
found that the amount of oxygen consumed and the carbon dioxid and heat produced
was decreased.
In the same year Kosorotov published an account of experiments on the eft'ect of
poisoning duo to putrescent material. Twenty experiments, continuing from twelve
to twenty-four hours, were made with fasting dogs. Calorimetric measurements
were made in only fourteen of the experiments. The author found that the amount
of oxygen consumed and carbon dioxid and heat produced increased after-the injec-
tion of Naegeli's solution, which had putrefied on exposure to the air.
In 1890 Archarov ^ published an article on the relation of antipyretics to fever.
Forty tests of six hours' duration were made with dogs. Fever was induced by the
injection of Naegeli's solution (Xafjelischer Jauche). The conclusion was reached
that under the influence of quinin and antipyrin the oxidation processes of the body
and the production of heat increased. When fever was induced and antipyretics
were given the increase was still greater.
In the experiments which follow the nitrogen balance was determine*! in addition
to the resj^iratory quotient and calorimetric measuremeiits.
^ Voyenno Med. Jour. [St. Petersburg], 1890, Apr.
EXPERIMENTS WITH ANIMALS. 421
Uschinski published in 1891 tlie results of inyestigations of the respiratory quotient
and the production of heat in glycoseria induced by phlorizin. Eight tests of five
days' duration were made with dogs fasting and fed under various conditions. The
author believes that in glycoseria it is possible that the kidneys are an important
factor. It is hardly probable that the amount of heat produced can be accurately
calculated from the amount of matter metabolized in the body.
In 1893 Likhachev investigated the production of heat by healthy man in a con-
dition of comparative rest. Six experiments were made, each continuing twenty-
four hours. The principal conclusions reached were the following: In healthy man
the daily production of heat is from 33.0 to 38.7 calories per kilogram body weight,
and when fasting 31.8 calories. At night during sleep the heat production and lib-
eration and the respiratory quotient decreased. Soon after falling asleep the decrease
in the production and liberation of heat was more pronounced than the decrease in
the respiratory quotient. The author believes there is a parallelism between the
production of carbon dioxid and the liberation of heat dependent upon the fact that
both processes are regulated by a common cause.
In 1897 Studenski published the results of &n extended investigation for the pur-
pose of comparing the .amount of heat actually produced by the body with the cal-
culated amount (using Rubner's figures). Forty-five tests of twenty-four hours'
duration were made with dogs fasting and fed with meat. Some of the dogs were
in normal condition and others were pregnant or had fever. In the case of healthy
dogs Rubner's method of calculating thermal values gave results which were practi-
cally identical with the measurements of the heat actually produced per day. In
the case of dogs with fever the heat actually produced in a given time was less than
the calculated amount which the matter metabolized during the same period of time
would furnish. Relatively less oxygen was consumed during fever than under nor-
mal conditions.
I]!^DEX OF NAMES.
Abramovitcb, 238, 239, 241.
Adams, 107, 116.
Aikinov, 100, 101, 102, 103, 1 13.
Albertoni, 12, 75, 84, 329, 330, 338. ,
Alekan, 359, 360,361. [
Alexeyev, 50, 51, 54.
Andral, 174.
Appeur, 44.
Archarov, 420.
Arche, 380, 403, 414. |
Argutiiisky, 122, 123, 132, 133, 134. |
Aristov, 149, 150, 151, 163.
Aronsohii, 345, 365.
Atwater, 12, 31, 38, 44, 85, 270, 271, '
272, 273, 274, 275, 282, 283, 311.
Avsitidiski, 22, 23, 25. !
Badt, 107, 116. i
Baeber, 352, 353, 354. i
Baftalovski, 68, 69, 70, 78, 79. I
Baginuky, 254, 258.
Ballacey , 358, 359, 360, 361 . |
Bam8tein,415.
Barral, 11, 224, 266, 267, 276.
Bauer, 92.
Beckinann, 114.
Bendix, 138, 140. ,
Benecke, 62.
Benedict, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, \
275, 282, 283.
Bergeat, 311,324.
Bezrodnov, 156, 157, 158, 168. |
Bidder, 12, 224, 389, 391,399,406, i
407, 412, 415. i
Biedert, 34.
Billings, 46.
Bisoboff, 12, 130, 300, 302, 303. 314,
327.
Biscboff, E., 304, 305, 315, 316, 317,
Blagoveschcheuski, 145, 146, 147, |
161.
Blake, 331, 339.
Bleibtreii, 259. 260.
BluTuenfeld, 205, 215.
Bocb karev, 203, 204, 205, 214 . '
ISoeck, von, 195, 212, 328, 336.
Bottcber, 404.
Boiissingault, 11, 12, 286, 298, 355, ;
361,380,381,399,410.
Bowie, 59, 62.
Brandt, 333, 342. |
Breitbanpt, 93. i
Breuer, 35, 43.
Burobard, 99, 112, 218, 226.
Burlakov, 122, 131.
Biirzbiuski, 247, 278.
Bushuiev, 201, 213.
Busse, 404, 413.
Buys, 72, 81.
Canierer, 26, 34, 72, 73, 81.
Cetti, 93, 94.
Cbadchi, 209.
Chapman, 412.
Cbeltsov, 230, 236, 330, 331, 339.
Chernov, 117.
Chittenden, 12, 95, 96, 107, 110, 111,
115, 116, 331, 332, 333, 339, 340,
341.
Chudnovski, 11.
Constantinidi, 22, 24, 308, 321.
Cramer, 22, 24.
Cremer, 415.
Cuthbert,95, 110.
Dangel, 376, 378.
Danilevski, 11.
Dapper, 74, 75, 83.
Dashkevich, 242, 243, 245.
Deiters, 56, 57.
Denaeyer, 57.
Diakonov, 185, 209.
Dockendorff; 332, 340.
Dommer, 333, 334, 342.
Dronke, 107, 116.
Dubelir,333,341.
Dumas, 13.
Eijkmann, 60, 61, 64, 66.
Emery, 286, 297, 299, 300.
Epstein, 34.
Evdokimov, 142, 143, 144, 159.
Ewald, 107, 116.
Fastier, 44.
Favitski, 232, 233, 234, 237.
Feit, 142, 159.
Fermanoff, 172.
Fick, 134.
Finkelstein, 218, 219, 226.
Flechsig, 12, 369, 373, 377, 378.
Fleck, 165.
Fleischer, 286, 298, 401, 414.
Flint, 12, 119, 129.
Formanek, 155, 156, 165, 167.
Forater, 31, 42, 68, 77, 95, 110, 306,
317.
Foster, 20.
Frunkel, 332, 341, 348, 349, 350.
Frantzius, 141, 142, 159.
Frolov, 197, 198, 199, 200, 212.
Friihling, 352, 354.
Funke,361.
Gabriel, 337, 379.
Gaehtgens, 216, 217, 224.
Gaertig, 228, 235.
Garine, 144, 145, 161.
Gavarret, 174.
Geislor, 195, 211.
Gerhard, 404.
Gerhardt, 256.
Gilbert, 12.
Golaz, 412.
Gopadze, 136, 139, 148, 149, 162
Gorokhov, 89, 90, 91, 94.
Gorsky, 98, 112.
Graflfenberger, 3J4, 365.
Gramatchikov, 97, 98, 111, 189,
190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 210.
Grandeau, 12, 355, 356, 357, 358,
359, 360, 361.
Grassman, 243, 245.
Graves, 211.
Grigoriev, 249, 250, 251, 256.
Grouven, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292,
293, 299.
Gruber, 306, 307. 318, 319.
Gruzdiev, 187, 188, 210.
Guriev, 73, 82.
Gryergyai, 306, 318.
Hagemann, 344, 399, 411.
Habn, 332, 341.
Haller. von, 9.
Harley, 237.
Hartnng, 415.
Hasse, 42.
Hellriegel, 366, 371.
Helmer8,109,118.
Henneberg, 12, 286, 287, 288, 293,
294, 295, 296, 297, 299, 375, 386,
401,404,413,414.
Henriot, 270, 271, 281.
Hermann, 13.
Hildesbeim, 266, 267, 276.
Hirschfeld, 59, 62, 64, 123, 132.
Hoesslin, 182,208.
Hoffmann, 26, 31.
Hofler, 95, 110.
llofmeister, 355, 361,366,367,371,
372.
Hoover, 86.
Hoppe-Seyler, 302, 314.
Hultgren, 40, 41, 46, 71, 80.
Huppert, 238, 240.
Huscbe, 243, 244, 245.
Ippolitov, 99, 100, 113.
Jacques, 92, 93.
423
424
A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
Jawein, 82, 108, 118, 217, 225.
Jeftlokinoff, 172.
Jones, 119, 130.
JorduD, 360, 373.
JnrovBki, 420.
Kalngine, 347, 350.
Karchagin, 175, 176, 177.
Kayser, 74. 82.
KeUner. 12, 355, 361, 368, 369, 373,
376, 381, 404. 415.
Kennophol, 3G9. 372, 37J. 376. 377.
378.
Ketcher, 247, 248.
Khadgi. 184, 185, 209.
Kianovsky, 136, 137. 138, 1.39.
Kilgore, ^6, 297, 299, 300.
Klemperer, CO, 63, 64, 88, 93
Klemptner, 98. 99. 112.
Klingmnller. 155, 165.
Knieriera, 348, 350, 399. 401. 412.
Kobler, 246
Koch. 404.
Kohler. 404. 41.">.
Kolpakcha, 308. 309, 310, 311,. t21,
338.
Kiinig, 24, 92.
Konig. G., 404.
Korkonnov, 50, 54, 249, 255.
Kornauth. 349, 350. 380. 382, 40:{.
414.
Kornhlnm, 253, 254. 257.
KoBorotov, 420.
Kostinrin, 420.
KostliD, 155, 164.
Kosturine, 54.
Kotlyar, 105, 106. 115.
Kozeraki, 103, 104. 114.
Krenzhage,12, 361.
Krng, 75, 84.
Kmmmacher, 123. 126, 127. 133,
134.
Kachein, 399, 410.
Kiihii, 12, 286, 298, 385, 387, 389,
403,404,415,423.
Knmagawa, 59, 60, 63, 64.
Kurclieninov, 37, 38, 44, 79.
Kurlov, 200, 201, 213.
KnzneUov, 40, 45.
Labadine-Legran, 237.
Lack inov, 117.
Lafarge, 113.
Lambert, 332, 340.
Landergren, 40, 41, 46. 71, 80.
Lange, 30, 33, 313, 326.
Langwortliy, 371 .
Lankisch, 404.
Lapicque, 61, 66.
Laptschinsky. 26, 31.
Laudenheimer, 203, 228. 229, 235.
Lavoisier, 10.
Lawos, 12.
Leclerc, 12, 256, 3,'>5, 357, 358. 359.
361.
Lebde, 352, 353, 354.
Lehmann, 10, 12, 35, 42, 89, 93, 399,
411.
Leo, 217, 218, 22a
Levin. 71, 79, 202, 214, 217, 224.
Lewinstein, 179.
Leyden, 235.
Liebig.lO, 11.
Likbachev. 11.12,417.
Limbeck, von. 75, 84.
Lipman-Wulf, 247, 248.
Lipski, 201,202,213.
Listov, 29, 33.
Loewy, A., 180.
Loewy, J.. 180.
Lorenz, 403, 414.
Lo8cbe, 404.
Lncanas. 366,371.
Laciani, 89, 93.
Liihrig. 415.
Lusk, 71, 80.
Magnus-Levy, 29, 33, 49, 53.
Makoveteki, 147, 148, 161.
Malakbovski. 38, .39. 44, 114.
Malfatti, 12.
Manfredi, 74, 83.
Mann, 253. 257.
Maercker, 12, 367. 368, 372.404,413.
MarcuHe.313, 325.
.Marette. 61, 66.
Markov, 28, 32, 33.
Martin, 404.
Matzkfvicb, 185, 186, 187. 210.
Mantbner, 3:{3, 342.
May, 400, 401, 413.
Mayer, 329, 338.
Mayow, 9.
IMeiilis, 346. 347.
MeiHsl, 12. 402. 403, 414.
Meriug, 113.
Miclcke, 404.
Mikhalevitcb, 222, 223, 227.
Milne- Edwards, 13.
Mitchell. W., 260.
Minra. 49, 50. 54.
Mogilianski, 47, 48, .52.
Mohr, 404.
MoUeschott, 365.
Mori, 12, 63, 71, 73, 79.
Mngdan, 331, 340.
Miiller, 89, 93, 185. 228. 231. 235,
259, 401, 414.
MiiUer,P.,252,253,256.
Mnnk, 13, 14, 46, 56, 57, 59, 88, 89,
93, 132, 311, 312, 313, 325. 328, 329,
330, 336, 337.
Xavasartianz, 104, 105, 114.
Nechayew, 152. 153, 163,
Neubauer, 92.
Noorden, von, 12, 13, 14, 34, 53, 57,
83, 93, 108, 116, 118. 224, 231. 232,
235, 236, 246, 248, 253. 256.
Xorris, 332, 333, 341.
Xorth, 12, 120, 121,131.
Novi, 12, 75, 84.
Xowak, 12.
Oddi,172.
Oertel, 174.
Oi, 12, 73, 81, 82.
Opi)enheini, 95, 119, 120, 1:K).
Osier, 14. 181.
Ossendovski, 97, 98, 111.
Ott, 329, 337.
Parkes, 47, 52. 119, 129, 131.
Pa8hutin,ll,12,92,417.
Paton, 12, 88, 92, 123, 132, 133.
Pautz, 219, 220, 221, 222. 227.
Pcchsel,60,64,81.
Peiser, 165.
Peligot. 13.
Pettenkofer, 11, 12, 62, 266, 267,
268, 269, 270, 271, 277, 280, 281,
383, 391. 393, 395, 397, 407, 410.
Pfeiffer, 375. 376, 380, 381.
Pfliigi-r, 11, 12, 113, 132, 409.
Pipping, 206, 215.
P16sz, 306, 318.
Pollitzer, 307; 308, 320.
Popov, 259, 260.
Pott, 368, 375, 376.
Potthast, 308, 321, 334, 343.
Praosnitz, 29, 40. 45.
Priestly, 10.
Prior, 251, 252, 255.
Ponine, 123, 124. 125, 126, 134.
Pnritz, 195,211.
Quincy, 10.
Rabutean, 174, 337, 343.
Ranke, 11, 62, 67. 110, 224, 266, 267,
277.281.
Raspopov. 261, 262, 263, 264.
Regnanlt, 11,12,383,399,411,412.
Reiset, 11, 12, 366, 371, 383, 399,411,
412.
Renk. 182, 195, 212.
Reprcv, 334, 343, 364.
Richet, 270, 271, 281.
Rie<ler, 42, 68, 78. .•M)7, 320, 381.
Riesell, 238, 240.
Ritter, 253,256.
Rohmann, 182, 208. 216, 238, 240,
348, 349, 350,
Rosa, 274, 275, 283.
Rosenthal, 12, 417.
Ro8t,352,354.
Rnbner, 11, 12, 26, 31, 33, 35, 42, 43,
64, 68, 77, 78, 81, 112, 208, 364, 365,
397, 399, 409,410,418.419.
Rudenko, 26, 27, 28, 31, 307, 320.
Rutgers, 22,24,71, 116.
Sacc, 346, 347.
Sachs, 345, 365.
Sachse, 232, 237.
Sadovyen, 88, 92, 420.
Salkovsky, 92, 94.
Sanctt)rins, 10.
Sassetzky, 209.
Savatski, 106,107,115.
Scherer, 42.
Schmehl, 130.
Schmidt, 12, 224, 389, 391, ;J99. 406,
407,412,415.
Schmitz, 178, 179.
Schneider, 243, 245.
Schopp, 229, 230, 235.
Schrader, 173, 174.
Schrodt, 368, 376, 378.
Schultz, 369,373,404.413.
INDEX OF NAMES.
425
Sohultze. 404, 413.
Schulze, 12, 95, 110, 349, 350, 387,
368, 369, 372, 373, 376,377,378.404,
413.
Schuster, 68,77.
Seegen, 12, 306, 317, 327, 328, 336,
337.
Senator, 89, 93.
Sevastyanov, 202, 203, 214.
Shmitz, 178, 179.
Siewert, 67, 68, 77.
Sigrist, 144, 160.
Simanowsky, 399, 410.
Skvortsov, 332,340.
Slagle, Q5.
Slatkowsky, 26,31.
Smirnov, 75, 76, 85.
Smith, E., 12.
Smith, E. E., 332, 333, 341.
Smith, H.M., 85.
Smitz, 179.
Snyder, 86, 286, 299, 380.
Sollmann, 86.
Solntzev, 35, 36, 37, 44.
Solorain, 41, 46.
Sond^n, 174.
Soskiu, 379.
Soxhlet, 12, 34, 389, 405.
Spilker, 331, 339.
Spirig, 205, 215, 247, 248.
Stadnitski, 107, 108, 117.
Stammreich, 49, 53.
Stockman, 88, 92, 352, 353, 354.
Stohmann, 12, 352, 353, 354.
Stranss. 219, 226.
Strohmer,403,414.
Stndenski, 12.
Sturtevant. 286, 298.
Sncci, 93.
Taniguti, 23, 25, 41, 331, 339.
Tappeiner, 333, 342, 405.
Tarchanov, 11, 113.
Ter-Grigorianz, 175, 177.
Terray, von, 179.
Thomas, 404.
Tiger8tedt.l2,174.
Toldt, 306, 317.
Topp, 156. 167.
Torrey, 85.
Troitsky, 155. 165, 197.
TschudiiovHki, 11. 118, 211.
Tnczek, 88, 92.
Urach, 81.
Uffclmann, 13, 14,46.
r8chin8ki,421.
Vatsadze, 148, 149, 162.
Velitchkine, 154, 164.
Vican^lli, 172,
Vilizhanin,334,344.
Virchow, 330, 338.
Vogel, 216, 224, 246.
Yoit, C, 11, 12, 13, 14, 22. 24, 25, 31,
42, 62, 64, 78, 89, 130, 134, 224, 266,
267,268,269,270, 277, 279, 280, 281,
286,292,298,300, 302, 303, 304, 305.
306,314,315,316. 318, 324, 327, 336,
338,346,347,391, 393, 395, 397, 406,
407.410,415.
Voit, E., 59, 62, 409.
Volt, F., 217, 225.
Volkov, 107, 108, 117.
Voskresenski, 153, 154, 163.
TVaage, 404.
Walter, 96, 97, 111, 136, 139.
Washburn, 107, 115.
Weintraud, 226.
Weiske, 12, 346, 347, 340, 350, 368,
369,370,372,373, 374, 375, 376, 377,
378,379.
Weston, 129.
Whitehou8e,96,lll.
Wicke, 369, 370, 373, 374.
Wildt, 375, 376.
Wimmer, 368, 369.
Winternitz, 159.
Wislicenns, 134.
Wolff, 12, 13, 356, 357, 361, 363.
WoUowicz, 47, 52.
Woods, 270. 271, 272. 273, 274, 275.
282.
Yakovlyev, 196, 197, 212.
Zach^ewflky, 169, 170, 171, 172.
Zasietski, 121, 122, 131, 182, 183,
184, 208.
Zavadovski, 127, 128, 135.
Zavadski, 151, 152, 163.
Zielstorft*, 415.
Zouiev, 334, 345.
Znntz, 12, 49, 53, 83, 89, 93, 133, 321,
326,383,399,409,411.
Zontz, L., 180.
Il^rDEX OF SUBJECTS.
Page.
Absinthium, effect on digestion of protein. 330,339
in chronic indigestion 230, 236
with dogs 330, 339
Adonis vemalis, in cirrhosis of liver 233, 237
Air, compressed, effect of breathing 177
Albumen, in albuminuria 251, 255
preparations 38,40,44,45
Albnmose vs, meat for dogs : 308, 320
Alcohol 46
and exercise, ph.ysiQlogieal effect.. 47,52
as a nutrient 66
bibliography^ 46
• combustion in respiration calorim-
eter 283
effect on cattle 293.300
dogs 332, 341
Herbivora 377. 378
• man 29,33,49,53,54
with typhoid fever 185, 209
respiratory quotient 49, 53
physiological effect 46, 47, 49, 52, 53
Alkaline treatment in cirrhosis of liver.. 233, 237
Amido acetic acid, with chickens 348, 350
Ammonia in respirator}- products 300
Ammonium bromid 95, 110
chlorid, with chickens 348, 350
sulphate, with chickens 350
Animal food 24,68,79,85,227,266,267
for Herbivoya 368, 372
in hysteria 259, 260
v#. mixed diet 68, 79
vegetable diet 68, 79
protein 24
Animals, experiments with 285
A ntifebrin in pneumonia 238, 241
A ntimony 331, 339
Antipjrin 96,107, 111,116
with dogs 420
Arsenic 328, 336
effect on digestibility of food . . . 376, 378
iron water, composition 1 17
Ash, metabolism in —
cattle 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291,
292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 380, 385
diabetes and in normal health 216, 224
dogs 303, 304, 316, 391, 393, 395, 397
fowls 346,347.399
horses 356, 357, 363
man 206,
267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 27U, 277, 278, 279, 280
rabbits 399
sheep 401
swine 380, 403
Paga
Ash in gall 389,391
of milk, digestibility 25,31
Asparagin, effect on metabolism of protein
in Carnivora 333, 342
nutritive value 376,378
with chickens 348, 360
dogs 330, 338
Aspartic acid, with chickens 348, 350
geese 349,350
Barley and rice vs. rice for man 73, 82
digestibility 351, 380, 381
Baths and enemas 140
aromatic 153, 163
cold 155,167
donche 148, 162
in typhoid fever 182, 183, 208
shower ^ 145,161
freshwater 141,144,159,160
hot 156,167,398,410
hot-air 144, 154, 161, 164
in diabetes 217,224
heart disease 242, 245
kidney diseases 249, 253, 255, 257
mineral 141, 159
mud 155, 165
in gonorrhea 165, 197
syphilis 165,197
salt 152,155,163,104
in phthisis 202, 214
with dogs 333, 334, 342, 343
sand 150,168
Scotch douche 148, 162
steam 147, 161
warm 144, 148, 151, 155, 160, 162, 163, 165
in cirrhosis of liver 234. 237
with dogs 333,342
Beans, digestibility 35, 40, 43, 45
Beef, lean, digestibility 35, -12
t>*. fish 38,44
vs. horse meat for men 07, 77
Bibliography of alcohol 10
Black bread, digestibility 35. 43
Blatta orientalis, in cirrhosis of liver 233, 237
Blood and ductless glands, diseases of 246
transfusion 329, 338
Bomb calorimeter, use 416, 417
Bones, diseases of ". . . . 260
Boric acid 95. 110
Brain of animals, effect of injuring 345
Brandy, physiological effect 47, 52
Bread and milk, digestibility 29, 33
other single food materials 35
black, digestibility 35, 48
427
4
428
A DIGEST OP METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
Pasje.
Brewl, digestibility 35,43,49,53
mnking, use of potato starch in 49, 53
with dogs 302,306,315,317
lireatliiiig exercises 127, 135
Breed, effect on digestibility of food by
sheep 369.373
Broraids 95,110
Bucl« wlieat, digestibility 350
Butter, digestibility 40, 45
Caffeiii, in cirrhosis of liver 233, 237
Caffeinum natro-salicyliuni, in heart dis-
ease 242,245
Calcium carbonate 329, 338
nietalM>lisTn in man 75, 84
with fever .. 189,190,
191, 192, 193, 194, 211
slieep 375
Calorimeter, bomb. {See Bomb calorimeter.)
Caloriniet(T, respiration. {See Respiration
calorimeter.)
Calves, sucking, exi>eriments witli 388, 405
Cancer. (<SV« Carcinoma.)
Cane sugar, effect on cattle 291, 300
digestion in dogs. . . 302, 314
Canned vh. fresli meat 35, 44
N'cgetables 35, 44
Carbohydrat4Mli«'t in diabetes 217,226
ration with and without fat. 390, 407
Carbohydrates nnd fat. relation to mt^tab-
olisni of protein 7 1, 74, 80, 82
Carbon and ni*^rogen metabolism as affected
by various diets 266,267,277
Carbon dioxid excretion—
as affected by transfusion of bloo<l. . . 329, 338
by dogs 419, 420
horses 411
man 421
rabbits 420
sheep 384, 404
steers 384, 404
during fasting 413, 419, 420
Carbon, metabolism. {See Respiration ex-
periments.)
unoxidized. {See Hydrocarbons.)
Carcinoma 201, 213. 228, 229, 230, 235
Carlsbad salts, in cirrhosis of liver 233, 237
Camivora i'«. fowls, fasting 398,410
HeK)ivora 353,354
Carrots, digestibility 35, 43
Casein vs. meat f(»r dogs 313, 325
Cats, fasting, experiments with 388, 406, 415
respiration experiments with. . . 388, 406, 415
Cattle. (.SV<'ffZ«() Steers.)
experiments with 285
fasting, experiments with 288, 299
respiration exjierimeuts with . 384, 404, 415
r«. sheep, carbon dioxid produc-
tion 384, 404
Olliilose as a j)rotector of protein in Her-
bivora 369,373
nutritive value 398,412
Cereals, digestibility 85
Cheese, digestibility 35,42
Chickens, experiments with 346
fa.sting, experinu'nts with 398. 410
respiration experiments with . 398,410
Page.
Childbirth 1G8
Children, dietaries of 72, 81
experiments with. .26, 29, 30, 72, 73. 75. 99,
138, 140, 184, 219, 220, 243, 244. 254, 262. 266
nursing 3D, 33
Chloral, effect on protein cleavage 331, 339
Chloride, excretion as affected by hypnotic
sleep 86
Chlorin, metabolism in carcinoma 228. 235
sheep 375
Chloroform, effect on protein cleavage 331, 339
Chlorosis 247,248
Cholecystotomy, effect on digestion 232, 237
Cinchonidin sulphate 96, 111
Circulatorj- system, diseases of. 241
Cirrhosis of liver 232,233,234,237
Claret, physiological effect 47, 52
Climate, inff nenceof 60, 64
Cod-liver oil, with children 93, 113
Coffee, physiological effect 1 19, 130
Constipation 149,150,151.163
Constitutional diseases 215
Corn cockles, with swine 402, 414
digestibility 355,362,380.381
meal and cotton-seed meal, fertilizer
constituents compared 369, 373
digestibility 35, 42
Corpulence, effect of diet 71, 74, 79, 83
Oertel treatment 174
Corrosive sublimate, in pneumonia 238, 2(1
syphilis 197,212
Cotton-seed hulls, digestibility 297,299,300
meal and corn meal, fertilizer
constituents compared 269,273
digestibility ..-. 297,300
Cow's milk vs. human milk 30, 34
Creolin, effect on bacteria in feces 331, 340
Creosote, in phthisis 201,213
Crude fiber, digestibility 346, 347, 355, 361
effect on cattle 293, 300
Darkness, physiological effect 364, 365
De Bove's method of forced feeding 201 , 213
Dextrin, with cattle 292,300
Dextrose, in diabetes 218,226
Diabetes 80, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220.
221, 222, 224, 225, 226, 227, 268, 269, 270, 271, 277
Diet, abundant, in typhoid fever 105, 211
effect of change 28,31
on corpulence 71, 74, 79, 83
European vs. Japanese 73, 82
Malayan 60,66
influence of 66
insufficient, in typhoid fever 195, 211
Japanese 71,79
mixetl 35,42,68,79
digestibUity 71,80
effect on amount of protein re-
quired 69,63
in diabetes 270,271,280
vs. animal 68, 79
vegetable 25,68,79
nitrogen-free 35, 42
digestibiUty 68,78
effect on nitrogen excre-
tion 119,129
of sailors on land and on shipboard. . . 71, 80
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
429
. Page.
Diet, with little protein aud abandance of
energy 311, 325
without carbohydrates, in diabetes. . . 218,
219,226,270,271,280
protein 268, 260, 277
in diabetes 270, 271, 280
influence on carbon
and nitrogen meta-
bolism 266,267,277
Dietaries of children 72, 81
European soldiers 65
hospital patients 195,196,212
Italian peasants 75, 84
prisoners 68, 77
the poor 68,74,77,83
Digestibility of^
animal food by Herbi vera 368, 372
ash of milk 25,31
barley 351,380,381
beans 35, 40, 43, 45
black bread 35, 43
bread 35,43,49,53
and milk 29,33
buckwheat 350
butter 40, 45
carrots 35, 43
cereals 85
cheese 35, 42
corn 380,381
meal 35, 42
cotton-seed hulls 297, 300
meal 297, 300
crude fiber 355, 361
disombittered lupine seed 369, 373
eggs 35,42
fat 68,77
food as affected by alcohol 377, 378
arsenic 376, 378
by sheep, as att'ected by breed... 369, 373
shearing 368, 372
fruits 85
hay 415
hops 369, 372
lean beef 35, 42
macaroni 35, 43
margarin 40, 45
milk 26,29,31,33
millet 347
mixed diet 71, 80
nutrients 85
asaffected by drinking water 377, 379
starch and fat. 369,373
peas 350, 380, 381
potatoes 86
rntions for horses 361
rice 35, 43
straw 366,372,415
sugar 85
tripe 41.46
vegetables 85
wheat 351
Digestion as affected by continuous flow of
gall 232,237
typhoid fever. . . 182, 208
Digestion experiments with—
cattle 286, 287, 297, 298, 299, 300
^. Page.
Digestion exi>eriment8 with —
chickens 351
dogs 311,324
geese - 346,347
horses 355, 361, 362
man 25, 26, 29, 31, 33, 35, 40, 41,
42, 43, 45,46, 49, 53, 68, 71, 77, 78, 80, 85, 86, 230
sheep. 366, 368, 369, 371, 372, 373, 376, 377,378,379
swine 380,381,402,414
Digesti ve system, diseases of 227
Digitalis, in heart disease 242, 245, 246
nephritis 249, 255
Diphtheria 205, 206, 215
Diseases of blood and ductless glands 246
digestive system 227
Dogs, calorimetric experiments with 417,
418, 419, 420, 421
experiments with 301
fasting, experiments with . 310, 327, 329, 330,
390, 396, 398, 400, 407, 409, 410. 419, 420, 421
metabolism of energy in 417,
418,419,420,421
respiration experiments with 388, 407
sucking, experiments with 313,320
Doves, experiments with 346, 347
respiration experiments with 398, 410
Ductus thoracicus, ligature, in dogs 334, 345
Dynamometer, use in experiments with
horses 361,362,363
Echinococcus hepatis 231, 236
Eggs, digestibility 35,42 '
Enemas 150, 151, 163
in typhoid fever 195, 211
Energy, metabolism in dogs. . 417, 418, 419, 420, 421
man 283,421
Ether, effect on protein cleavage 331, 339
European v«. Japanese diet 73, 82
Malayan diet 00, 66
Excretorj* products —
examination 17
gaseous, as affected by copious water
drinking 187,210
determination 25
Exercise and alcohol, physiological effect . . 47, 52
Faradization in diseases of liver. 136, 139, 233, 237
Fasting cats, experiments with 388, 406, 415
cattle, experiments with 288, 299
chickens, experiments with 348,
350, 398, 410
dogs, experiments with. 302, 308, 311, 313,
315, 316, 322, 324, 327, 329, 330, 390, 396,
398, 400, 407, 409, 410, 418, 419, 420, 421
during hypnotic sleep 86
effect on carbon dioxid excretion . . 413
urea excretion 119,130
Herbivora and Camivora com-
pared 364,365
in diabetes 268, 269, 280
man, experiments with 86, 88, 89, 90,
91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 260, 267, 268, 269, 277, 280
rabbits, experiments with . . . 864. 305, 420
swine, experiments with 402, 414
Fat and carbohydrates, relation to metabol-
ism of prottin 74,82
meat for dogs 302, 315
protein for dogs 390, 407
starch for dogs 302, 815 ^
430
A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
Page
Fat aasimilatioQ as affected by alcohol 47, 52
orexin 105,115
in phthisis 205.215
digestibility 68,77
effect on diabetes 219, 226
digestion of nutrients 369, 373
for dogs 390,407
formation in animal organism.. 286,298,305,
316, 380, 381. 384. 398, 405, 409, 410, 414, 415
in rations for sheep 374
Fatty ncids. physiological role 328, 337
Feces, bacteria in, as affected by creolin 339
metalwlic nitrogen in 68, 78. 380, 381
Fertilizer constituents of cotton-seed meal
and <'om meal compared 369, 373
Fever as affected by copious water drink-
ing 187,188,210
effect on cleavage of protein 345, 365
metabolism of protein of
milk 182,183,184,208
in children 205,206,215
dogs 345,420
rabbits 400,413
metabolism of mineAl matter in.. 189,
190, 191, 192, 198, 194. 210. 211
relapsing. (See Relapsing fever.)
typhoid. (See Typhoid fever.)
utilization of glycogen in 413
FiHh anil vegetable diet in hysteria 259, 260
vn. lean beef 38, 44
Fluoriu compounds, storing in the body of. 333, 342
FmlUer, digestibility as affected by change
of ration ' 286,298
Tood, consumption at freiiuent intervals ... 75, 85
effect of preparation on assimilation
of protein 81
functions 7, 58
Forced feeding in phthisis 201, 213
Fowls and Ilerbivora, fasting, compared. . 308, 410
fasting, experiments >\ ith !^ 'M8, 350, 398, 410
Friction baths, Wiiit(*rnitz's method ..... 141, 159
Fruits, digestibility 85
Fuel value, detenuination. (See Homb
calorimeter.)
Gall, ash in 389, 391
effect of continuous tlow on digestion . 232, 237
hydrogen in 389. 391
nitrogen in 389,391
sulphur in 389,391
Gallic acid, poisoning 420
Geese, experiments with 346, 347
Gelatin and fat for dogs 302, 315
with and without meat for dogs. . 302, 315
vs. meat for dogs 308, 320
Glandiilarum mesareaeum, starchy dogen-
erat ion of 231, 236
Glucose, effect on phosphoric acid excre-
tion 96,111
Gluten, digestibility 35, 43
Glycerin, piiysiological role 328, 337
Glyco;reu of the body, utilizatiou in fever. . 413
Glycoseria 421
Goats, exjieriments with 351, 354
Gonorrhea 165, 197
Gout 216,224
I Pagn
I Grape SQ^r, with cattle 291,300
I Gom, wood, with cattle 293,300
Hay, digestibility 355,362,415
; maintenance ration for cattle 288, 299
Healthy man, experiments with 2!,
202, 213. 216, 217, 218, 219, 224, 226.
227, 231 , 236, 261, 262, 264, 266. 421
Heartdisease 242,245
Heat, animal, source of 418
Heat, measurement in —
control experiments with alcohol 284
experiments with dogs 418, 419, 420. 421
man 283,421
rabbits 420
Herbivora. cellulose as a nutrient for 412
protector of pro-
tein in 369,373
digestibility of animal food by . 368. 372
effect of alcohol on 377, 378
V8. Camivora 353, 354
Hippnric acid in nrine as affected by crude
fiber 355,361
'' Hops, digestibility 369,372
Horseback riding, influence of 123,134
I Horse beans, digestibility 355,362
nieat v«. beef for man 67,77
Horses, capacity for work as affected by
various rations 356, 363
' digestion of various rations 355, 361
' effectofwork 355,361
excretion of carbon dioxid by 411
I methanby 411
experiments with 354
respiration exi>eriments with.... 398,411
Hydrocarbons, formation in intestines as
affected by ration 384,405
Hydrogen In gall 389, 391
metabolism in dogs 389,
391, 393, 395. 397, 399
man 266,
267, 268, 269, 270, 271,
276, 277, 278. 279, 280
I rabbits 399
sheep 401
Hypnotic sleep 86
Hysteria 259,260
Icthyol, physiological effect 109, 118
Insanity 88, 92, 93
lodin in syphilis 193, 212
Iron, effecton hiemoglobin content of blood 332. 340
metabolism in dogs 306.317
sheep 375
Isodynamic values of nutrients 369, 409
Italian peasants, dietaries 75, 84
Japanese dietaries 71, 79
rice diet 25
vs. European diet 73, 82
' Jaundice 231,236
artiflcially produced in dogs 334, 344
Kephir 46
assimilation in disease 201,213
health 202,213
effect on assimilation of nitrogen . . 50, 54
preparation 46,54
protein of, composition S5
INDEX OP SUBJECTS.
431
I*age
Kidnej'8, diseaseB of 248
Koumiss 46
assimilation 50, 54
preparation 46
Lactation in dogs 334, 343
Ijoats 352, 354
Leuca'tnia 247, 248
l^eucin, with chickens 348, 350
Leiicocy thoBmia .•. 270, 271
Levico mineral water, composition 117
Levnlose, in diabetes 218, 226
Light, physiological effect 364, 365
Lipanin as a substitute for cod-liver oil 113
Lithium bromid, in nephritis 249, 255
carbonate 98, 111
Liver, digestibility by dogs 311, 324
Lungs, digestibility by dogs 311, 324
inflammation 187, 210
Lupine meal t>«. meat meal 321
seed, disembittered, digestibility . 369, 373
" Lnxus consumption " of food, theory of. . . 412
Macaroni, digestibility 35, 43
Magnesium, metabolism in fever 189, 190,
191, 192, 193, 194. 211
sheep 375
Maize. (See also Corn.)
Maize cake, digestibility 355, 362
Malayan vs. European diet 60. 66
Malt'extract, in i>hthisi8 203, 204, 214
Man, calorimetric experiments with 283, 421
experiments with 21
Margarin, digestibilitj' 40, 45
Massage 135
in hysteria.... 259,260
Measles 241
Meat and fat for dogs 302,315
])eptoues, nutritive value com-
pared 326
canned vs. fresh 35, 44
for dogs 302,315
meal for geese 349, 350
V8. lupine meal for dogs 321
peptone, composition 57
vn. albumoses for dogs 308, 320
casein for dogs 313,325
gelatin for dogs 308, 320
peptones 56, 57, 307, 320
Men. experiments with 22. 26, 35, 47. 56,
59, 67, 88, 95, 119, 136, 142, 175, 178, 182.
216, 228, 238, 242, 247, 249, 261, 266, 421
Menstruation 172
Mercury, in syphilis 195, 196, 198, 199, 200, 212
Metabolic balance, definition 8
determination 9
Metabolism, definition 8
experiments, compilation and
classificat ion 13
experiments, factors affecting
value 16
experiments with man, his-
tory 10
investigations, history 7
theories 9
Methan, excretion by horses 411
Milk and bread, digestibility 29, 33
cheese, digestibility 35. 42
Page.
Milk assimilation as affected by sweating. . 26, 31
diet 25,26,31,32,121,131
for dogs 307,320
in cirrhosis of liver 233, 237
hysteria 259,260
nephritis 249, 255
digestibility 26,29,31,33
human V8. cow's 30, 34
l)roduction as affected by change of
ration 286,298
protein of, composition 55
raw VS. sterilized 29, 33
secretion by dogs as affected by food . 316
sugar, in diabetes 218, 226
Millet, dige.stibility by chickens as affected
by gravel 347
meal : 37,44
Mineral constituents of food, value 306, 317
matter. {See Ash.)
water 95, 104, 107, 110, 114, 117
Levico, composition 117
Miso, preparation 80
Mixed diet. {See Diet.)
Moor soil, composition 166
water, composition 165
Moi^hin, effect on metabolism 328, 336
Morrhuol as a substitute for cod-liver oil . . 113
Muscular work. {See Work.) 0^
Nephritis 143,144,145,159.161
Nervous diseases 258
Nitrogen, assimilation—
as affected by consuming food at fre-
quent intervals 75, 85
kephir 50,54
koumiss 50, 54
from the air 355,361
Nitrogen, consumption, effect on nitrogen
excretion 119, 129
content of i)erspiration 172
determination, comparison of
methods 279, 306, 319
effect of consuming limited quan-
tities 72,81
Nitrogen excretion—
as aftect«d by muscular work 118
salt 333,341
transfusion of blood. . . 329, 338
water 333,341
by dogs 303,306,316,317
sheep 367,372
in diabetes as affected by carbohy-
drates 218, 226
gaseous excretory products 288, 299,
318, 320, 346, 347, 352, 354, 366, 367,
371, 372, 381, 398, 404, 407, 410, 412
perspiration 65
Nitrogen freediet 35,42
from the air, absorption by Her-
bivora 286,298
in feces, character 68, 78, 380, 381
gall 302,314,389,391
urine, source 308, 321
ratio to phosphoric acid in food
and urine, theory base<l
on 322
432
A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIMENTS.
Page.
Nitrogen in ratio to sulphur iu fo(Ml and
urine, tbeorj- based on . 322
Kutrieuts, digestibility 85
isodynamic values G4. 396, 409
Nutrition, use or alcohol iu 66 |
Oats, digestibility 355,362
Oertel treatment for cori>uleneo 1 74
Orexin, eflect on assimilation of fats 105, 115
Ossein, nutritive value 306,318
Oxygen, effect of increased inhalation iu
leucaemia 247, 248
metabolism in dogs. 389, 391, 393, 395, 397
man . 266, 267, 268, 269,27(»,
271, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280
rabbits 399 ,
sheep 401 .
consumption 420
Paraldehyde, physiological effect. 331, 332, 339, 340
Peas, digestibility 350, 380, 381
Peasants, Italian, dietaries 75, 84
Pectin, with cattle 293,300
Pedestrian, professional, experiments with . 119,
129, 130
Peptone, meat, composition 57
Peptones 55
and meat, nutritive value com-
pared 326
nutritive value 306. 318
preparation and use 55
t>».meat 56,57,307,320
Perspiration, nitrogen content 65, 160, 172 j
Perspiring 119, 130, 142. 159
influence on assimilation of
milk 2(5,31
Phlorizin, producing glycoseria 421
Phosphates, excretion as aflected by-
hypnotic sleej) 86
muscular work 120, 131
Phosphoric acid—
excret ion by dogs 304, 316
metabolism in cattle 297, 300
diabetes 217,224
diseases of t he bones 261 ,
282, 263, 264
dogs 30 J, 305. C08,
309, 310, 311, 316. 317, 321, 324
man 67, 68, 120,
121,202.261,262,263,264
with fever 189,
190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 211
sheep 369, 373, 375
ratio to nitrogen in food and urine, the-
ory based on 322
Phosphorus, excretion as aiiected by glu-
cose 96, 111
metabolism in phthisis 202,214
poisoning 107, 110,348,350
Phthisis 187,188,200,
201, 202, 20r., 204, 205, 210, 213, 214, 215, 231, 236
Pigs. {Sre Swine.)
Pilocarpiu, phyKiological effect 119, 130
Pipirizin, in gout 216, 224
Pneumonia 238,239,240,241
Poor peo])le, dietaries 68, 74. 77, 83
Potassium bromid 95, 110
Page.
Potassium chlorid, metabolism in fever 189,
190, 191, 192, 193, 194
iodid 107.117
in cirrhosis of liver 232, 237
oxid, metabolism in sheep. 369,373,375
Potato starch, use in bread making 49, 53
Potatoes, digestibility 35, 43, 86
Pregnancy ^ 1 68, 334, 343, 421
Prisoners, dietaries 68,77,161
Protein, acquired, definition 84
amount required as affected by
muscular work 59,62
amount required as affected by
vegetable and mixed diet 59, 63
and carbohydrate ration, with and
without fat 390,407
and fat for dogs 390,407
animal vs. vegetable 24, 308, 321
circulating,deduction8 concerning . 334
cleavage as affected by chloral . . 331, 339
c h I o r o •
form .. 331,339
ether 331,339
fever.... 345,365
paralde-
hyde.. 331,339
determination of amount required
in a dietary 58
diet forman 268,269,277
in diabetes 217, 225, 270. 271, 280
digestion of, as affected by diseases
of the stomach 231,236
factorH affecting amount re<iuired . 58
from different sources, iu kidney
diseases 253, 256
increased consumption in hyste-
ria 259, 260
nu'tabolisni as affected by carbo-
hydrates 71, 80
method of determining amount re-
(piired 58
of ke])hir, <-omposition 55
milk, assimilation by dogs 307, 320
man 26, 55
composition 55
tissue, conversion into reserve
protein 240
protection by cellulose iu Herbiv-
ora 369,373
ration for dogs 390, 407
reserve, definition 84
stored, deductions concerning 324
varying amounts in ration for
horses 356", 363
vegetable vs. animal 308, 321
Pyrodin poisoning 332, 341
Quassia, e fleet on digestion of protein 330, 339
in chronic indigestion 230, 236
Quiuin 328.336,420
in relapsing fever 184, 208
typhoid fever 184.208
physiological effect 119, 130
Rabbits, calorimetric experiments with 420
experiments with 363
respiration experiments with 398, 411
INDEX OK
I'ag..
KiiKniia for horses. vkIiib lor tiroilortioii i,r
work K5,3ei
Rel«|Mlng feyer 1*4, 2IW
.'tBBSificotion 38:1
ilex^riiitian WS,4I1,41M
TUintim - WT'
■{•'■plrutkiii GtlorliiiDler—
■leHRriptinn iM2
tsBt of a<wnra<-,v SS3
iioo ill ei,)>erlnioiilii nilli nicoliol 281
•loKH. 418.419. 420,121
ninn »«.42l
rnblilti 4»
Kwliimlion ciperlmenU-
uiialytlcul iiietlimlo 270
ivItln^Bts ftKB.IOMlS
cattle 3W.4W,41S
.■liioltens 3*8,410
di.jw 3SX.W!
.iovps :i9t.ll«
horae- SflB.411
™i.liil« 3*8.411
rfli™i. ..., 400.413
flr-pirnt«r)<iii"lleiit..iBiilf6i!t*illjynli-olMil. 4B,53
df ternilnrttfon M
ItheiimatiBm 216
l{lc(<dlet.Ja|iBDvae 25
dlgeatiliillty 35.43
ri. rici-aiidlwrli'y fDrniaB 73.82
UDnilDkiils. HS alln'iMl by I'liaugo of rn-
lioiiB 40->414
Swi'liariD. offei-t au aHimilatloD of nitni-
KBD 108,115
|ili}sialoeica1eirBCt... 34B, 350, 380, 382
Satlorn. 'lict on land jidiI mi alilplioanl 71, SV
Snll.eirertoiialiBep 375,378
excrrelloii of nitrogen 3.13,341
Scurvy 222,223,227
Seiillr jiulaiinlng 42V
Hiitiullini, idMHFaiiidogH 334.348,421
SliBepaiid I'littkmwlHiii dloiid pmluctlon
digest ill! Illy of ■dIdwI food by 308,372
rlllH-l of line<l 1,11 digentililllly of
retting iliiriDK dny snd
shearing .^. 388,372
npErimenls nilli 305
inaintfliiaiioB ration for 4g0.4l3
iilcnigeu excretion I17 307,372
nrsplrahoneiiierliiients with 400,413
T-I'j—Xo. 4.5 28
FUECTS.
pnolDclioD
heatlliiring
gldefftct...
ring
4S3
rage.
ring . 421
king, Physiol
. 329
....07.111
lwii™lB
ndi^iiete.;;:;
... 330,338
216,217,224
... 108.118
ilorld, elTect cm oicretlon of urea
l.ydogB 302.314
In <^a^PiI^nna. 228. 22S, Kill. £i5. 238
lypLoid fever 182,208.240
ill the body ...
Olid, luetabullsni
328.338
380,338
ill typhoid feviT 184,208
Btilphate 327,328,388,338
Kuldlira, Eiiro]>oBu. diotarlL-a m
Npi'ttllr Infw'tinuK dlunawi 181
N]iltiBl4'cirdof imiimils, elfectof lltllirliig.. VX
Spnti.i.ullnif;Biiiii ....238,339
Ktarrh jind fat fur diigH '... 302.318
effecl uii digestion uod ■mliiiilMiciu
(If niitrlsnOi 3«>,aT>
ill rations fur entile !f2,30t
SleeTK. (AWufjo Cattle.)
and shoe]], cwbnn dloiid prodnotlon
by 884.404
■sall^'tnl by change of ration.... 384,404
Stomach diseases, eHhct on digestion of pro-
tein 281,338
Stnv, iliguatlMltty 381.388,371
uillTlliTeTBlue... 288.388
StiropliaiithiiB. in heart diuaee 242,346
^uoelnic acid, "with j^uese
Hiigar.cant^ i^H'ei't-uu digestion in dogs..
in ratloDH for cattle
dlKPSIiliilily
jnlph.ll
iigall...
met^bolimii in cat
she
Siilplinrh-acld, I'netalHdioii
434
A DIGEST OF METABOLISM EXPERIBiENTS.
Page.
Swine, experiments with 379
fasting, experiments with 402, 414
respiration experiments with 400, 413
Syphilis 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 212, 213
Tata albumen 40, 45, 100, 1 1 3
com|>o8ition 100, 114
Thymus gland, digestibility by dogs 311. 324
TissiK*, muscular, as alfecte<l by diet 75, 84
Tobacco, physiological effect 97, 111
Tofu, preparation 80
Trifolinm, effect on digestibility of pro-
tein :. 330,339
Tripe, digestibility 41,46
Typhoid fover 182,
183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 195, 208, 210. 211, 240
Unemia 420
Uraniam nitrate, physiological and toxic
effects 332,340
Urea excretion as affected by-
fasting 119,130
frequent urination 119, 130
hypnotic sleep 86
Ureter of dog, ligature 420
Urethan 107,115
Urine, excretion as affected by salt .... 333, 341
hippnric acid content as affected by
crude fiber 355, 361
source of nitrogen in 808,321
Vaselin, in syphilis 198, 212
Vejretable and fish diet in hj^steria 259, 260
diet, effect on amount of protein
required 59,63
vit. animal diet 68, 79
protein 24
mixed diet 25, 68, 79
Vegetables, canned vs. fresh 35. 44
digestibility 85
Pago.
Vegetarian diet, experiments with 21
Vichy, in nephritis 249,255
Water—
copious drinking, effect on excretion
through skin and lungs 187, 210
copious drinking, in typhoid fever 185,
186,187,210,211
effect of copious and diminished drink-
ing 174,177
increased consumption 119,
130, 375, 878, 384, 404
on digestion of nutrients 377, 379
excretion of nitrogen 333, 341
Wax, effect on cattle '. 293,300
Weir Mitchell cure for hysteria 259, 260
Wheat, digestibility 351
gluten , digestibility 308, 321
Winternitz's method of friction baths. (See
Baths.)
Women, experiments with . . 22, 24, 26, 27, 40, 5d, 71,
74. 75, 88, 101, 103, 107, 169, 173, 185, 206, 218, 2»,
221, 228, 231, 232, 233, 242, 243, 247, 253. 259, 266
Wood gum, effect on cattle 293, 300
Work, capacity for, by horses as affected by
diets rich and i)oor in protein. . . 356, 363 *^
effect on horses 355, 361
mental 272,273,282
muscular . 118, 119, 131, 266, 267, 268, 269, 277
aftereffect 135
effect on amount of protein
required 59,62
excretion of nitro-
gen 118
excretion of phos-
phates 120, 131
Houghton's formula for
computing 129
LANE MEDICAL LIBRARY
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