Adolescence : its psychology and its relations to physiology, anthropology, sociology, sex, crime, religion and education

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ADOLESCENCE

ADOLESCENCE

ITS

PSYCHOLOGY

AND ITS RELATIONS TO

PHYSIOLOGY, ANTHROPOLOGY, SOCIOLOGY
SEX, CRIME, RELIGION

AND

EDUCATION

BY

G. STANLEY HALL, Ph.D., LL. D.

PRESIDENT OF CLARK UNIVERSITY AND PROFESSOR OF
PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY

VOLUME II

NEW YORK

D. appleton and company

1904

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Copyright, 1904, by
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY

Puiliahed May, 190^

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER IX

PAGE

Changes in the Senses and the Voice i

CHAPTER X

Evolution and the Feelings and Instincts Characteristic of

Normal Adolescence 40

CHAPTER XI
Adolescent Love 95

CHAPTER XII

Adolescent Feelings toward Nature and a New Education in

Science 144

CHAPTER XIII

Savage Public Initiations, Classical Ideals and Customs, and

Church Confirmation . 232

CHAPTER XIV
The Adolescent Psychology of Conversion 281

CHAPTER XV
Social Instincts and Institutions 363

CHAPTER XVI
Intellectual Development and Education ..... 449

V

vi THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

CHAPTER XVII
Adolescent Girls and their Education ..... 561

CHAPTER XVIII

Ethnic Psychology and Pedagogy, or Adolescent Races and

their Treatment 648

Index of Subjects . 749

Index of Names 765

CHAPTER IX

CHANGES IN THE SENSES AND THE VOICE

I. Touch : Changes in discriminative sensibility — Pain — Pressure — Minimal con-
tact— The tickle sense and its archaic origin — Basal nature of touch — Intoler-
ance of roughness and depilation — Dermal sense — Skin toilets. II. Taste :
Hunger the other basis of genetic psychology — Freakiness of appetite and its
changes for both food and drink at puberty — Nutritive and practical needs —
Phylogenetic suggestions. III. Smell : Historical hints — Relation to sex —
Experimental tests — New subjective relations and associations — Blushing and
its origin. IV. Hearing : Changes in range — Discrimination and new interest
in sounds in nature or music. V. The Voice : Sound in the insect and higher
animal world — Relations to love and war — Mutation in animals and men —
Differences between change of voice in girls and boys — Individual variations.
VI. Sight : Changes in the field of vision — New color sense — Experiments —
Optical judgments — New visual interests — Color vocabularies. VII. General
craving for sense stimuli — The age of sense — Dangers — Internal sensations.

Having, in the chapters that precede, considered physical
growth and the mental and moral perversions incident to
adolescence, and given an anthology of descriptions of various
phases of this transitional stage of life as conceived or experi-
enced by men and women of historic or literary eminence, we
have, in the chapters that follow, to consider its normal genetic
psychology, beginning with sensation and proceeding to feel-
ings, will, and intellect. The material for what follows is
newer, more difficult, and more incomplete, but although many
data are already at hand, there has never been any attempt,
within my knowledge, to bring them together or to draw the
scientific and practical inferences they suggest. Many of the
special studies to be considered are based upon too insufficient
numbers to be more than tentative, but in coordinating their
results they very commonly shed surprising light upon each
other, and their themes are often vividly illustrated and con-

40 I

2 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

elusions aided by analogies with growth or by the more salient
facts of mental disease or moral perversion, so that on the
whole the larger and more important features of this half of
the picture appear with considerable distinctness. I am well
aware that so great is the interest and importance of the field,
and such the momentum of challenging questions that at
present incite to further research in all parts of this rich domain
now so promisingly opened, that great additions to our knowl-
edge in the near future are inevitable.

At adolescence, each of the senses undergoes certain char-
acteristic changes of structure, function, or both. Interests
change and with them the organs of apperception, so that
aspects and elements different from those hitherto absorbing
the complex but already familiar objects of sense become foci
of attention. While it is of course impossible to distinguish
clearly between what is due to cerebral or psychic modification
and that resulting from changes in the sense organs and their
immediate centers, it is probable that the former greatly pre-
ponderate, although they can not explain all the facts. One of
the most important and comprehensive modifications is, that
whereas most sense stimuli before this age tend strongly to
provoke reflex reactions, after it these tend to be delayed or
better organized, as if there were a marked increase of associa-
tive or central functions. Before, the projection system pre-
dominated, and stimuli, suggestion, and afferent processes gen-
erally passed more readily over to the efferent or motor tracts ;
but now we have increased cerebral irradiations, and there is a
marked advance in the development of the long-circuiting func-
tions of thought, deliberation, and reflection. This, too, reacts
upon sense and makes observation better. The deliverances of
each sense also now begin to have a more independent value of
their own. Sensations are more objectified and their pleasure
and their pain effects are more keenly felt. There is a new
sense esthetic or enjoyment of the sensation itself for its own
sake. The conaesthesias, or associations of senses on the basis
of their organic feelings and tone effects, are now increased.

I. Touch. — According to Weber, discriminative dermal
sensibility, measured by the distance of compass-points, de-
creases with growth. His table is as follows :

CHANGES IN THE SENSES AND THE VOICE 3

Adult. Boy of 12 yrs.
Mm. Mm.

1. Point of the tongue 1. 1 1. 1

2. Volar side of the finger-tip 2.3 1. 7

3. Red part of lips ; volar side of the second finger joint. 4.5 3.9

4. Back part of the third finger joint; point of the nose.. 6.8 4.5

5. Edge and middle of back of tongue; not red part of

the lips; metacarpus of the thumb 9.0 6.8

6. Plantar side of the tip of the great toe 1 1.3 6.8

7. Palm of hand; cheek; outer lid 11. 3 9.0

8. Middle of the hard palate 13.6 11. 3

9. Back part of the forehead 22.6 18.0

10. Back part of the hand 31.6 22.6

11. GlutEeus 40.6 33.8

12. Acromion 40.6

13. Upper and lower part of the under arm 40. 6 36. i

14. Upper and lower part of the under thigh 40.6 36. i

15. On the breastbone 45.1 33.8

16. Spine and neck 54.2 36.1

17. Spine in the middle of the back 67.7 40.6

18. The middle of the upper arm and thigh 67. 7 31.6

Weber also shows that with the longitudinal growth of the
limbs and trunk the sensory circles of childhood grow more
oblong, their longitudinal increasing more than their trans-
verse axes.

Marro tested the increase of discriminative sensibility in
eight girls and ten boys. At the first test, the girls were from
seven to twelve years old and the boys from seven to four-
teen. The following were his results in millimeters. The
second test was made ten years later on the same subjects, and
indicated diminution with advancing age, as follows : ^

Right Left Back of Front of wrist.

finger-tip. finger-tip. hand. Right. Left.

Qij-ls 5 ISt test 1.3s 1.43 II. O 9.2 I2.I

] 2d test 1.77 1.75 6.4 8.5 10.4

Bovsl^^'^^^' ^-7^ ^■''3 ^3-^ ^°-7 ^^-^5

■' ( 2d test 1.85 1.82 11-44 10.12 15.68

From this Marro opines that the discriminative sensibility
of the index-finger of the right hand diminishes from child-
hood to maturity, although this might be due to the induration
caused by work. He found girls more obtuse in this respect
than boys, and thought the forehead grew insensitive to com-

' La Puberte. Bull, de la Soc. de Med. Ment. de Belgique, 1894, p. 413.

4 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

pass-points in man, and less so in woman, with advancing age.
Otherwise, both he and Lombroso thought touch more acute
in young girls than later. This accords with Czermak, who
found the topographic skin sense of children more acute than
in adults. Since then this has generally been assumed, and
ascribed to the fact that while the dermal surface increased,
the number of tactile end organs remained constant. Thus it
is plain that the most characteristic changes in dermal sensi-
bility are not in fine distance discriminations. This declines
somewhat with growth, which increases the interval between
the tactile organs.

Carman ^ found that sensibility to pain decreased as age
increased, except at twelve, with both sexes; that the left
temple grew more sensitive than the right; and that girls
were more sensitive than boys. Gilbert, too, found a gradual
decrease of pain sensibility to pressure from sixteen to nine-
teen, boys being less sensitive than girls throughout. Girls
seemed to have reached the minimum of sensibility at thirteen,
while for boys the most rapid decline began at that time
and the difference increased from about 0.4 kg. to more
than I kg. All these tests, however, have a large mean
variation. Other algometric tests, although perhaps less care-
ful than these, have led to somewhat different results. All
tests, too, leave it undetermined whether it is less sensibility
or increased power to bear pain that causes the threshold to be
set higher. In view of the increased hardships, battles, etc., of
this age, teleological modes of thought might have anticipated
this general result. It suggests that tenderness now may be
excessive, and that impact with the world of things must be
more vigorous to produce the same result. Susceptibility to
esthetic pain in the higher senses and in the skin itself seems
to increase, and in the wondrous system of balances and har-
monies in our nature this may be compensatory. I have some-
where read statistics showing that of all wounds leaving per-
manent scars found on the bodies of adult men, the time oi
which could be remembered, most were received during pubes-
cent years.

' Pain and strength measurements of 1,507 school children in Saginaw, Mich.
Am. Jour, of Psy., April, 1899, vol. x, pp. 392-398.

CHANGES IN THE SENSES AND THE VOICE 5

The skin and the nervous system are both developed from
the external embryological layer, and all the higher senses arose
as gradually differentiated and specialized forms of touch,
which is the mother sense of them all. The psychic side of
dermatology is thus the archaeological field of the psychologist,
whose precept, when ultimate and especially genetic questions
of sense-perception are discussed, must always be " back to
touch," somewhat as the philosophical slogan often is " back
to Kant," " to Plato," " to nature," etc. The various dermal
sensations, the modality of some of which is not yet deter-
mined, constitute a complex basis for the discussion of the
problem of reality, because their functions alone can give us the
primary qualities of matter. The reason that theories of
knowledge can not now give us the external world in all its
full reality is because the latter rested upon touch, and the
development of the higher senses has thus removed us many
degrees from reality. Haptics is thus a paleopsychic field par
excellence, and the exploration of this most extended of all
senses involves a study of the entire dermal area, which,
roughly speaking, is the boundary between the somatic ego and
the non ego. No department of psychology is so attractive and
so promising to those whose prime interest is in origins. One
of my pupils has made an ingenious and very suggestive
attempt to interpret a good part of the Scotch philosophy of
common sense, especially as represented by Reid, Stuart, and
Brown, as a more or less unconscious effort to base reality
upon the deliverances of this sense.^

The pubescent age is marked by a new kind of dermal con-
sciousness. There are often pimples and eruptions, and when
these or scabs are formed there is an especially strong desire
to remove them, and the habit of picking the skin sometimes
for hours may become almost irresistible. Many returns specify
a marked pubescent intolerance of the least roughness, a rage
for picking the face so that scabs can not perform their healing
function and the skin becomes so marred with sores that
sometimes permanent discolorations and even scars are left.
Occasionally the skin is purposely pricked or abraded with a

1 Fraser : The Psychological Foundations of Natural Realism. Am. Jour, of
Psy., vol. iv, pp. 429-450.

6 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

pin to create roughness in order to enjoy the exquisite pleasure
of removing it. Our records show some cases of youths who
have been fond of dropping tallow from a lighted candle on to
their hands to have the satisfaction of picking it off later.
Hang-nails, callosities, blisters, and scabs, sometimes of large
wounds, are never so intolerable and are impetuously removed
despite much pain. Some, too, pull out hair from the head,
eyebrows, lashes, hands, and elsewhere, despite the pain. In
some cases games of rubbing the skin are noted. Whether
there is a slight pruritus or a hunger for some specific dermal
sensation, like light-hunger for the eye in the blind, or whether
the skin is slightly anesthetic and its rights are thus invaded
to secure the normal quota of stimulus, or there is a desire to
satisfy the exquisite sensation of smoothness which, in hand-
shaking and caressing of lovers, is so important a factor, we
do not know. Perhaps some or all of these may have been
elements and played their role in natural selection or even in
the original depilation of the human body, the stroking of
which is still a source of pleasure. This theme is a very im-
portant and fascinating one from the standpoint of evolution
and is akin to the theory of minimal touch excitations, which
may provoke reactions of almost convulsive intensity. The
increase of this form of the tickle sense is another unique fea-
ture of this stage of life. Especially in states of fatigue and
reduced control, the reactions are highly dynamogenic and
the psychophysic law is in a sense inverted, for there is a point
below which the slighter the touch the more intense is its result-
ing sensation.

Minimal touch excitations suggest, and may thus perhaps
represent, the very oldest stratum of psychic life in the soul,
and, if so, have still in their strange sensitiveness and energy
reminiscences of the primeval vigor and spontaneity of its
dawn. Thus keenly perhaps did organisms once feel the world
about them, and thus intensely did they react to it in that Eocene
age of the soul before the soma had been mechanized and before
its vitality had lapsed to a degree of vigor which now separates
it so far from that of the reproductive elements that it may
be said to be a fallen thing and to have brought death into
the world. However this may be, it is certain that haptic im-
pressions are profoundly modified with the dawn of sexual life

CHANGES IN THE SENSES AND THE VOICE 7

in a way that suggests some mobilization of sensation con-
nected with the new sexual functions and their organs.^

Thus we may infer that along with the increased self- feel-
ing goes an augmented consciousness of everything that invades
the contour of the body. As allochiria is diminished and the
prepotency of the right side for muscular activity is known to
increase at this age, it is not unlikely that the left side now ac-
quires its slight advantage over the right in passive sensibility.

We have also evidence from returns and from anthropology
that the secretion of sebum is augmented and that the skin
becomes more glossy, an effect which it is often striven to in-
crease or diminish by various crude cosmetics, and also that
the secretion of sweat is more copious. Both these are factors
in the new sense of cleanliness or uncleanliness which now
arises.

In the middle teens there is often an increased general sen-
sitiveness to heat and cold. Boys, and especially girls, are more
sensitive to chills and prone to protect themselves, e. g., at night,
by too warm clothing instead of exposing themselves to wind
and weather, as hardy natures can with such advantage
so easily be encouraged to do. This sensitiveness to external
change may develop a delicate diathesis and even enervation.
The optimum of temperature most favorable for all vital proc-
esses, and which is instinctively sought by every creature that
can migrate or even move, seems to have a range which is nar-
rowed or widened with many corresponding new adjustments
almost directly according to vigor or the health. Conversely,
the body is often exposed to wind and sun with great predilec-
tion.

Much as we need more careful age determinations here,
the practical importance of correct dermal habits at this age
can not be overestimated. A rugged life with abundant stimu-
lation of the sense of contact, temperature, and even pain, has
great prophylactic value in preventing the focalization of der-
mal consciousness to the sexual parts and functions. Now,
too, begins a sensitiveness, which is often extreme and per-
sistent through life, especially in females, to the hand-shaking

1 See my fuller discussion of this subject : The Psychology of Tickling, Laugh-
ing, and the Comic. Am. Jour, of Psy., October, 1897, vol. ix, p. 10 et seq.

8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

habit, which often mediates sudden Hkes and disHkes that are
as deep-seated and ineluctable as those of smell. Many in our
returns find it hard at this age to shake hands at all, and this
aversion may culminate in settled misophobia, delirium of
touch, or fear of contact and contamination. A gifted lady
much before the public writes me : " At receptions, where I
must shake hands with a long line of people, I sometimes take
onp that gives me a shudder of repulsion. It is not necessarily
a moist, cold, clammy, or fish-tail hand, disagreeable as these
are, and it is not wholly the muscular action. I do not believe
in magnetic qualities, but the feel of some hands touches
off an idiosyncrasy I felt first in the early teens. Some are
pleasant, and this is quite independent of other qualities that
affect my likes and dislikes. I used to say that however much
I liked a man I could never marry him if I did not like the
touch of his hand ; and I feel so yet."

One of the many problems in this field is that of dermal
hairs. The current theories of man's anthropoid descent ap-
pealed to in explaining the loss of the lanugo of the fetus,
although suggested by, do not so readily explain, the increased
growth of hair or the impulse to remove it at puberty. Ploss
thinks the latter almost universal, and we have perhaps here an
interesting illustration of the great law, to be treated elsewhere,
that organic functions tend to be repeated higher up the phyletic
scale in the psychic field. Developmental processes, e. g., re-
moved the lanugo, but now man tends to shave, pull out hairs,
and otherwise to depilate his body. This, it has been suggested,
is the nearly spent momentum that bared the skin of the hair
of our pithecoid ancestors. As in all other impulses of this
class, the half-subliminal hair consciousness is philophobiac or
works both in the way of new love and new aversion under the
influence of the nascent sexual life. On the one hand, we
have increased love of coiffure, and on the other, we have the
persistent impulse to shave or cut hair. The newly awakened
skin consciousness at the same time prompts to undress and
expose portions of the body in a way hitherto unknown, and
also to tattoo, wear ornaments, and dress for a new motive.
The erogenic zones on the breast, back, abdomen, etc., give a
new love of caressing, stroking, patting, embracing, clasping
hands, and kissing, getting into close contact over larger sur-

CHANGES IN THE SENSES AND THE VOICE 9

faces, with a new sensitiveness to contact along with new con-
sciousness of arms, ankles, neck, etc. If Lotze's philosophy of
clothes, as the physical extensions of the ego into all that in-
creases height and point of contact through ribbons, canes, high
headgear, etc., is true, it all begins at adolescence. Indeed, his
measured paragraphs on the subject are real contributions to
the new palpation consciousness of this age also expressed in
blushing, and, in a very different way, in the ancient Roman,
Turkish, and Oriental passion for baths, unguents, and skin
toilet generally, which may develop into luxury and effemini-
zation. We know that pigmentation is greatly increased at
this age ; and there is much indication that not only the tickle
sensibility to minimal contacts, but also the range of discrim-
ination for pressures, is augmented.

II. Taste. — The true beginning for a psychology essen-
tially genetic is hunger, the first sentient expression of the will
to live, which with love, its other fundamental quality, rules the
world of life. The more we know of the body, the more clearly
we see that not only growth but every function has a trophic
background ; that through all the complex chemical bookkeeping
of income and expenditure, every organ is in a sense a diges-
tive organ; that the body is a machine for the conservation,
distribution, and transmission of energy ; and that man is, phys-
ically considered, what he eats and what he does with it, or,
better, what he completely digests. Food is the first object of
desire, and all fins, legs, wings, and tails were developed either
to get food or to escape finding a grave in some other crea-
ture's stomach. It is as if the lower forms of life said to them-
selves, " My world is my food," because there is less interest in
anything else. They hibernate, hestivate, or migrate accord-
ing to the food supply. Low forms of life that cease to be
sessile do so to get food, which is the chief end of the world-
wide struggle for survival, where the law. Eat or be eaten, is
imperative. Some two-thirds or more of all the kinetic energy
of the human body goes to digestion. Food is one of the first
forms of property, and almost everything is food for some
creature. In the slow processes of cephalization by which the
brain and centers develop near the mouth end of the alimentary
canal, the first laugh, if Spencer is right, was in prospect of

lO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

food, and says, when interpreted phyletically, " This is good
enough to eat." The great epoch marked by the descent of
fire and cooking not only economized digestion and freed its
energy for higher uses, but evolved hearth, home, and meal-
times. From the standpoint of the higher metabolism, every
cell and tissue has its own specific hunger, and what we call
appetite is a symphony of many parts or a net algebraic result
aggregated from the specified hunger of all the tissues and
cells. There is a struggle for survival between the different
organs of the same soma for the food supply which the blood
contains, and sensation, and perhaps thought, are in one sense
functions of nutrition. If the parts and molecules latest to de-
velop and most distinctively human, being more complex than
others, and being those which from their extreme instability
are most labile, are broken down in the function of thought and
feeling, we can well understand that the nervous system, which
is the master tissue of the body, may be the seat of the highest
complexity, where matter is most nearly transubstantiated into
soul. Pleasure and pain are closely linked with satiety and
hunger. Happiness or euphoria, which nearly every form of
greeting in the world first inquires for when friends meet, on
the one hand, and disease, the chief fear of man, which brings
functions to consciousness that should remain submerged, mor-
bidifies visceral sensations into hypochondria and darkens into
melancholia with forced feeding, on the other, are the extremes
between which every normal and happy life unfolds. Sleep
builds up brain cells, and in anemia we live on a lower nutri-
tive level. If the products of decomposition or the clinkers in
the furnace of life are not removed, one organ's food may be
another's poison, and there is auto-intoxication and fungoid
growth, and as the biproducts accumulate and the chip pile of
dead matter increases there is progressive liability to infection
by micro-organisms. In a sense every disease is due to cell
hunger, and old age and death are progressive starvation.
Most of the diseases of middle and later life are probably due
to avoidable errors of diet. As we go up this scale of complete
and high-level nutrition, there is growth, — physical, mental, or
both, — the pleasure field widens, and the maximum of utilized
food is attained. To feed well causes lower organisms to pass
rapidly and surely over the stages of growth, while insufficient

CHANGES IN THE SENSES AND THE VOICE H

nourishment causes arrest, whether in larva or child. A well-
balanced dietary is especially necessary at adolescence, when
the range of appetite normally enlarges and creatures pre-
viously monophagous become polyphagous, and it is hard to
adopt new kinds of food after the close of this period. Bad
eating habits, either in quality or quantity, are at the bottom
of most breakdowns in student life, and one of the chief causes
of intemperance. Thus every part of the body is constantly
undergoing chemico-vital changes, and in the extracts of the
six pounds of food and drink, which an adult working man
consumes daily, and which are poured through the thoracic
duct into the blood, every organ which is irrigated should find
and be able to extract the nutriment it needs.

At the very dawn of puberty there is a marked change
in the amount of food required which does not vary directly
with the rate of growth or even exercise ; but there are many
facts which suggest some unknown cause or process, as if the
catabolic changes were modified some months before the body
begins permanent augmentation. There is generally a new
relation to food. Appetite is often freaky, irregular, capricious,
seeking a new equilibrium and larger variety, and the relation
among the staple foods finally settled on almost always changes.
Sometimes food that is too highly seasoned or too hot, or that
in which desserts predominate and overload a sluggish stomach,
and perhaps those which have aphrodisiac action, as Marro
thinks the case with legumes of the garlic class, or tea, coffee,
wine, beer, alkaline or acid drinks, may be almost passionately
desired. Indeed, the instability of appetite in both sexes often
suggests that of pregnancy. The sense of taste becomes in
some degree independent and desires stimulants, condiments,
and sometimes intoxicants. The rhythm of meal-times often
tends to break up as if by a new wave of influences from the
irregularities of the savage life of our forebears. In nervous
temperaments, especially, food is bolted and breakfast slighted,
and love of occasional excessive gorging on edibles not hitherto
staple, alternates with indifference to or criticism of the family
table.

When we pass to detail, the data are not entirely har-
monious. It is now generally held that while the amount of
both solid matter and water taken into the body increases

12

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

greatly, indeed, nearly doubles from the age of nine to maturity,
both steadily decline per kg. of body weight — solids from 14.4
to 9.1 and water from 60 to 44.8.^ Other later data seem to
indicate that while the albuminoids and carbohydrates are not
greatly changed in relative amount, there is some decrease in
the relative proportion of fat and an increase in the sugar in-
gredients of food. Camerer constructed with great labor the
following table showing the changes in the quality and quantity
of food from the ages of eleven to eighteen :

Age

Average weight, kg

Total food, kg

Albumin

Fat

Carbohydrates ,

"Water

Girls.

Bo vs.

II-14

15-18

11-14

15-16

31.90

• 34

.41

52.8

1.723

1. 612

1.909

2.314

.068

.060

.086

.102

.044

.035

• 034

• 73

.270

.0219

.262

.287

1.322

1-273

1.510

1. 810

17-18

59-4
2-378
.1

• 83

.302

1.850

Taste is a chemical sense which seems often to improve
through life and sometimes to develop to an exquisite degree of
sensibility in old age. It is the doorkeeper at the entrance to
the alimentary canal, and the human face, including nose and
eyes, which are primarily food-finders, and the jaws, which are
triturators, have developed as accessories. All the higher meta-
bolism depends upon keeping the appetite true to the needs of
the body, like a somatic conscience always pointing steadfastly
toward the undiscovered poles, the one of nutritive need and
the other of human destiny. Taste is perhaps even harder to
explore by experimental methods than smell, and no good
laboratory age tests are available. Whether the special organs
of taste on the tongue or the gustatory surface is modified at
adolescence in either extent, discriminative sensibility, thresh-
old value, or reaction time, we have no demonstrable knowl-
edge. From Horn's experiments with eighty-eight tolerably
pure substances down to the latest explorations of this sense,
we do not find one thorough and valid test for even the chief
stages of life.

We have, however, a large body of questionnaire returns

' Vierordt : Daten und Tabellen, p. 214.

CHANGES IN THE SENSES AND THE VOICE ^3

which suggest with more or less probability that the following
modifications are likely to occur : first, there is a change of
appetite, often very marked at this age, or a psychic transvalu-
ation of tastes. Milk, often taken copiously and with zest be-
fore, now becomes unpleasant, and the proportion of solid food
desired increases. We know that the jaw-bone grows strong,
the chin prominent, and the muscles of mastication increase,
causing a general modification of the aspect of the face. Con-
nected with this, perhaps, is the propensity to chew and to eat
substances that require stronger action of the jaw. The very
prevalent gum-chewing habit, which culminates now, is another
expression of this age. But, on the other hand, there is often
a new tendency to bolt food unchewed, due perhaps to more
impetuosity of appetite or the increased nerve tension, and tem-
porary loss of the poise that good table manners suggest in
this respect. Nearly all who have answered the question, report
that at this age many foods seem to taste differently. Many
now incline to more, and others to less, vegetable food than be-
fore. Animal food is almost always more, but sometimes less,
in demand than before, and there is nearly always a change
in this respect. While the taste for sweets is sometimes dimin-
ished, it is often increased, but the propensity for mild acids
is greatly augmented, and still more so that for sodas or alka-
lies. The propensity for bitter tastes undergoes also a distinct
increase. All this indicates that the range of likes is normally
widened.

Mr. Bell found a desire to taste everything that could
be carried to the mouth regardless of its edible qualities —
grass, plants, soap, worms, bugs, ink, — one hundred and eighty
different objects being enumerated; but this desire was al-
ready declining at the age of four or five. Later, he thought,
came a propensity to make and taste unusual mixtures of food
and drink, or to taste foods in their stages of preparation — one
hundred and twenty articles being enumerated — culminating
between seven and ten. Adolescent curiosity vents itself on
new articles in a bill of fare, new flavors, etc. During or often
before this transition stage there is a period of unsettlement,
fluctuation, and freakiness. New flavors or savors are craved ;
there are appetites unknown before, and old foods, formerly
favorites, now become indifferent. There is a lickerish dainti-

14 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

ness, and it would seem that this upsetting often coincides with
a new love of spices, condiments, or very strong stimuli which
sometimes incline to the various toxic habits. It is as if taste
now had a somewhat more independent value in itself, became
more inward and more associated with the Gemeingefiihle on
the one hand, and more objectified on the other.

Another of the most marked tendencies of this age is that
to regulate appetite by psychic motives. New tastes for objects
at first unpleasant are often persistently cultivated, perhaps for
social or very often for reasons thought to be scientific. Various
foods or drinks are affected, because they are more associated
with adult habits ; the stern dietary of the training table is per-
haps imitated, and instinctive likes and dislikes are braved and
bullied according to some preconceived scheme. Semper and
others have brought forward evidence that in animals this is a
plastic period when many become more polyphagous, e. g., that
bears may learn to eat oats, and horses to even eat hens, and
they have shown how difficult it is to adopt new food after
sexual maturity.

All this shows the extreme hygienic necessity at this stage
that eating habits should receive special attention, and that
all pic^ and special likes and aversions which interfere with a
well-balanced and comprehensive dietary should be avoided,
if youth is to utilize the full impulsion of this period which the
human as well as the insect larva needs to bring it out to the
imago stage of full maturity. All suggests that excessive tea-
ism, coffeeism, etc., predilection for tidbits, condiments, and
desserts, to the prejudice of appetite for plain, wholesome nu-
tritives, and all the special dislikes for standard foods now so
common, if not themselves signs of arrest, at least jeopard the
highest maturation of powers.

Impatient as adults often are at the eccentricities of juve-
nile appetites and the proneness to time-irregularities in both
sexes, these probably have their justification within limits. This
is the age when at early tropical majority youth in primitive
society cut loose from parental aid in procuring food supply
and set up for themselves in new environments, before they
were fully skilled in the arts both of providing and preparing
food, and so at a time when the irregularities always found in
savage life were increased. Probably seasonal variations due

CHANGES IN THE SENSES AND THE VOICE 15

to changes from scantiness and abundance will be made out
when the facts are all in, and these will no doubt be found in
kind as well as in amount of food. No creature ever began to
have such a wide variety and range of dietary as man, for,
while his teeth and digestive organs are about as well adapted
to fungivorous as to carnivorous habits, commerce now enables
him to command the products of every clime and to insure con-
stancy and abundance in advance with no direct effort, and this
is a transforming and comparatively recent condition. Many
tribes, like many animals, are still fat and sleek in the fall and
lean in the spring, and alternate at every season between feast-
ing, potlucking, and famine or incipient starvation. In some
animals, and among some northern tribes which still show a
marked breeding season, this is attended by greatly reduced
appetites and by maceration. Prolonged periods of exception-
ally sustained activity are often concomitant with reduced eat-
ing, commonly and perhaps primarily the cause, but sometimes,
and it may be secondarily, the effect of unwonted effort. Thus
the phyletic presumption is that traces of these racial experi-
ences should be more or less faintly rehearsed at this period.
If so, this is the way of nature and should be frankly recog-
nized. Happy the youth who comes up to full maturity un-
stunted by perversions, excess or defect, and with true, trust-
worthy appetite and regular eating habits. Probably no period
and no condition of life suffers reduced vitality and efficiency
from errors in diet so much as brain-working and sedentary
youth, despite the fact that none can better sustain such errors,
so far as life and tolerable health are concerned.

III. Smell. — The sense of smell in adult man is about as
undeveloped as was the color sense in the remote and some-
what conjectural age, which Magnus describes for the chro-
matic sense when colors had no independent names, but were
designated by those of objects representively colored. It is still
hard to distinguish gustatory, olfactory, and often the tactile
elements " in all the smells of earth's great kitchen." H. Clo-
quet's ^ mystic and almost poetic interpretation of olfaction as
presiding over man's relation to everything vaporized or vola-
tile; his view that odors make the birds sing, or rather, as he

1 Osphresiologie. Paris, 1821, p. 758.

1 6 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

thought, laugh, and are the chief Hnk between the flora and the
fauna ; that those who eat and drink least best understand and
appreciate this highly spiritual sense; that odors were long
man's chief duty to the gods, who were known by their ambro-
sial aura; that the world of smells is that of Democritus and
brings man into rapport with cosmic emanations ; that Moham-
med was right when he called odors one of the two chief joys of
life, which had their own mystic language ; that in India, titles
and degrees of distinction are designated by odors ; that fumi-
gation keeps off evil spirits; that man prays to Heaven with
incense ; that perfumes compel the good-will of those about us ;
that they are carminative and generally medicinal; that the
clairolfactant or hyperosmic soul perceives more than the clair-
audient or clairvoyant, and the implication that if we ever fully
know the higher osmograms of aphrodisiacs and the aura semi-
nalis, love itself may be raised to a higher level — of all this we
can perhaps only say, Pericuhim est credere ant non credere.

Olfactory sensations are phylogenetically among the first
to associate themselves with sex, and are perhaps the first to
be differentiated from general sensibility. This stage is still
seen in reptiles and amphibians whose cortex is chiefly olfac-
tory. In the infant, smell is one of the earliest senses, and
Soury says thought begins in it.^ Although in man, its original
role of conserving the individual in helping him to find food
and to avoid enemies is slight, it still has very close association
with the reproductive function. Althaus long ago urged that
the primary function of the olfactory sense was to facilitate
reproduction, and cited many cases of animals detecting the
female in rut at great distance. Schiff performed the crucial
experiment of extirpating the olfactory centers in young dogs,
and found that when they had grown to maturity they did not
distinguish sex. The odor of the body, and especially of parts
of it, which Jaeger thinks to be the essence of the soul, is often
a very powerful aphrodisiac. Mantegazza tells of a lady who
took such great pleasure in smelling a flower that it seemed to
her like a sin. Fere, quoted by Roux, tells of a young man who
sneezed whenever he had an erotic thought, and many facts
show a very close sympathy in both health and disease between

1 See also Roux : Psychologic de I'lnstinct Sexuel, p. 72.

CHANGES IN THE SENSES AND THE VOICE 17

the pituitary surface of the nose and sex. Marro found that
the sense of smell was most exquisitely developed in girls at
the commencement of puberty. An old saw has it that when
young people have the nosebleed they are in love. Hemor-
rhages from the nose are quite common in puberty and adoles-
cence.^ The closeness of this relation appears from the fact
that congestion of the turbinated bodies is common during
menstruation, when it may embarrass nasal respiration, cause
headaches, and even act vicariously for the normal discharges.
Sneezing sometimes accompanies sexual excitement, and nasal
catarrh and the fetor of ozena are more pronounced. Often
after the menopause, atrophic rhinitis is found. The pain of
dysmenorrhea is often relieved by applying cocaine to the so-
called genital spots or the erectile tissue over the turbinal and
septum. This relation is often seen in the fact that castration
of young animals interferes with the development of this tissue.
So far, no thorough and adequate laboratory tests of the
development of smell during the different stages of life have
been made, unless we except those of Marro, who attempted
to measure the acuteness of smell with Zwardemaker's olfac-
tometer, by the maximum distance at which odors could be per-
ceived when a uniform surface and intensity of olfactory sub-
stance were exposed, with the following results in millimeters :

Sugar of Licorice. Caoutchouc. Vanilla. Musk.

Right. Left. Right. Left. Right. Left. Right. Left.

Girls.

Under fourteen — 39 cases.

16.29 15-05 29.29 26.81 II. 31 10.92 4.29 4.15

From fourteen to eighteen— 15 cases.

9.50 11.73 18.53 19.93 7-70 7-46 6.13 5.48

Over eighteen — 13 cases.

17.60 14.80 22.44 17- 16 13.41 11-33 4-07 3-30

Boys.
Under fourteen— 15 cases.

12.60 11.60 24.96 20.83 14-79 15-0 7-0 5-85

From fourteen to eighteen — 10 cases.

15.55 IS-40 28.22 27.0 13.05 13.18 5.83 4.80

Over eighteen — 5 cases.

8.40 8.20 19.20 17.80 8.25 8.25 7.50 7.0

^The Relation of the Nose to the Reproductive Organs. By C. N. Cox.
Brooklyn Med. Jour., July, 1902.
41

1 8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Besides these somewhat inconclusive tests, Marro repeated them
on boys and girls in public institutions, taking note in each case
whether each was pubescent. Although he used so few substances that
for this reason alone his conclusions seem less broadly based than we
could wish, we have perhaps no better inference than his, which is, in
fine, that women have more olfactory sensibility than men, and that
there is an augmentation in girls at puberty. This seems especially
pronounced for musk, a strong sex perfume. From fourteen to eight-
een many girls, it would appear, are slightly osmosmic for vanilla,
caoutchouc, and licorice, their olfactory perceptions being more acute
both before and after these years. Boys from fourteen to eighteen
were more sensitive for each substance except musk than either before
or after.

We have, however, a less controlled source of inference in
questionnaire returns, which indicate with considerable cer-
tainty the following results: First, the perfumes of flowers
attract more attention, give more pleasure, and are more
finely discriminated near the dawn of adolescence than before.
Sometimes this is described as the opening of a new olfactory
world. Fragrance becomes henceforth, and especially to young
women, a source of exquisite delight, and sometimes sym-
phonies of their perfumes are described as if the tone color of
this sense now became capable of producing a higher degree
of esthetic enjoyment than any other. The interest in flowers
is, of course, manifold, but there is reason to think that at no
stage of life does it depend more upon pure olfaction.
Secondly, most returns specify an increased interest in per-
fumes and aromata generally. The immense role these have
had in worship and in the development of religious feelings is
well seen in Sigismund,^ who gives a scholarly history of their
commercial, religious, and cosmetic uses. The adolescent soul
rises more easily with fumigation and incense than is possible
later in life. Returns show that now girls love the perfumes
for hair, breath, garments, writing paper, soaps, smelling bot-
tles and sachet, and that there is the widest range of individual
differences both in acuteness and obtuseness of olfactory sensi-
bility and in personal preferences and aversions. The psychol-
ogy of this sense, too, shows that its associations are strong,
but very deep and often subconscious. It is at this period of

^ Die Aromata. Leipzig, 1884.

CHANGES IN THE SENSES AND THE VOICE I9

life that these potentiahties by which incense may suggest all
the religious emotions, the odor of the flower recall images of
sunny meadows, varnish a funeral, the undescribable ship smell
a voyage by sea and even nausea, new-mown hay a mass of
dim haestevic sensations, are most numerous and active and
have greatest power to modify sentiments and enhance sug-
gestibility. Thirdly, body odors,^ while they do not reach their
maximal intensity, now rise suddenly to far greater dominance.
The more rapid metabolism increases them, as sweat now be-
comes more copious, as well as of dijfferent composition and
smell, with sex differentiations in quality, and somatic exhala-
tions are more keenly sensed. Bad breath, now for the first
time, has great power to blight friendships ; the aroma of dis-
ease or anything suggesting the intestinal tract, and sweatiness
or anything that savors of uncleanliness of person or toilet, now
becomes an important social factor. Real and sometimes fanci-
ful offensive personal exhalations now may become insupport-
able, and many are especially sensitized even to defective
ventilation. Indeed, we must admit that fantastic as was
Jaeger's identification of the soul with a smell, personal odors,
sometimes both consciously and unconsciously at this age, af-
fect likes and dislikes. Finally, we must reserve a place conjec-
turally for sex odors, which we know become effective with ani-
mals at this period of life, and this very probably may have an
importance for youth hitherto unsuspected and at present en-
tirely undemonstrable. If we add to all these the flavors and
savors which link taste and smell, and take account of intoxi-
cants, tobacco, etc., we are again on the old solid ground of
statistics, because both these habits, as shown in Chapter V,
are especially prone to arise at this period of inception.

Younsf children seem on the whole rather insensitive to
smell, which is currently assumed to be a decadent sense in
man. But there is now a period of recrudescence, not so much
for any discriminative or noetic value, as for a rather pure
sense feeling with a marked emotional tone, as if these sensa-
tions themselves were now appreciated for their own sake; as
if the scale of pleasure and pain, up and down which they are
distributed, was magnified; and as if the impressions which

^ Monin : Les Odeurs du Corps Humaine. Paris, 1886.

20 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

these nerves mediate now came to a higher psychic valuation.
Just possibly, too, the development of the organ at this stage
causes a characteristic modification in the direction of the air
current in the nostrils, which E. Paulsen has shown to be so
important. In some of our cases, the exquisiteness of this sense
in adolescence becomes remarkable. Julia Brace was at this age
when she best discriminated the washed clothes of each inmate
of the Hartford Asylum for the Blind. The recognition of per-
sons and even objects by the emanations that appeal to the nose,
which seems so incredible in the literature of hysterical distem-
pers, is possible at this period if ever ; and the sometimes almost
convulsive intensity of malodorous sensations also belongs here.
On the whole there can be no doubt that when laboratory tests
have explored the gamut of nature's odors for each period of
life, it will be found that closely bound up with the development
of sex in man goes a great exaltation and enlargement of this
spiritualization of taste, which is related to it in somewhat the
same anticipatory way that sight is related to touch.

Blushing is another dermal function which undergoes dis-
tinct augmentation at adolescence, suggesting a new or closer
rapport between the skin and the mind. Its close connection
with the sense of shame has suggested to some that it is an
organic relict of an ancestral sex fear, especially in young
women, in whom it is most developed. It may once have ex-
tended over a larger portion of the body, and be " an atavistic
trace of a more widely diffused sex erethism." ^ There is httle
uniformity in blushing. It may begin in a small or in a large
spot, or may mottle a considerable surface and then spread up
and down or around. Sometimes it acquires morbid intensity
and is accompanied by tremors, pressure, giddiness, mental con-
fusion, etc. Subjectively it goes with consciousness of self, or
of the surface of the body. It is a great heightener of beauty,
and natural selection may have much influence upon its devel-
opment. Campbell ascribes it to shyness, and Melinard to the
desire for concealment. The skin now becomes an organ of
the mind in a new sense and reflects its inner movements in
ways and degrees often very embarrassing. Not unconnected
with this is the new sense of consciousness of complexion.

^ G. E. Partridge: Blushing, Ped. Sem., vol. iv, p. Tfi"] et seq.

CHANGES IN THE SENSES AND THE VOICE 21

There is no beautifier that compares with arterial blood, and the
increased vascularity and erethism of the human skin at this
age, although not without analogues in the animal world, has
been a theme of much literature and poetry, while the absence
of it inclines to cosmetic arts. There are indications that pallor
of the skin, and especially the face, occurs more often at adoles-
cence, partly as a normal reaction to blushing, and partly be-
cause of the increased responsiveness of the skin to states of
mind opposite to those which cause blushing. So, too, chronic
flushes and coldness and clamminess of parts of the dermal sur-
face are more frequent and extreme.

IV. Hearing. — The ear is closely connected with the senti-
ments, and there is a general truth in the trite saying that music
is the language of the feelings as speech is that of the intellect.
There is reason to believe that young children hear higher
tones than adults, and also that there is a pubescent stage in
which the vocabulary does not grow as rapidly as before and
after, but when unwonted intensity of expression is vented
upon a few words and phrases which even the ear loves. One
of the characteristics of slang, of which this is the culminating
period, is that a few words do duty for a whole genus of psychic
processes, so that verbalization, like appetite, is now peculiarly
prone to ruttiness. This gullying intensity is perhaps cognate
with that to yell and vent the new tendency to phonation in
articulate and sometimes animal noises, not perhaps so much
to gratify any ear hunger as to relieve efferent tension. Pro-
clivity to ear-mindedness becomes more pronounced, and there
is a new responsiveness of soul to accents, inflections, timbre,
and cadences, or to speech music, which sometimes comes to
have an independent value, and even where it does not rise to
consciousness, has a sudden reenforcement.

Many of the emotions can almost be said to be born now,
and perhaps all are intensified, so that the emotional life is far
wider, more diversified, and deeper. Tone color is felt; pre-
cision in articulation and pronunciation, though not often at-
tained and very often actually diminished, is now felt in a new
way. Friendships are affected by the quality of the voice, and
the tales of sentimental maidens who fall in love with the voices
of people they have never seen, are true now, if ever. As the

22 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

voice increases in range, perhaps it is not impossible that the
scale of audibility falls slightly after this age and that some
higher notes are lost to audition and lower ones gained, or at
any rate are appreciated, after the traffic of language, spoken
and heard, has sunk to a lower key.

Dr. J. O. Reik,^ however, is inclined to think that the power
of hearing the highest musical notes varies with age, perhaps
being greatest in the early teens, the limit of perception declin-
ing with age. This was first suggested by Dr. Clarence Blake.^
There is some reason to think, too, that there is for a short time
hyperacuity of hearing and also of seeing at about this age.
Dr. Reik also thinks that the auricle gradually increases both
in length and width to at least the age of twenty and perhaps
later, although its most rapid growth is in the early years and
the annual increase is slight after fourteen. Where there is a
difference between the two ears, the right is usually the larger.

Again the sounds in nature reverberate more deeply in
the soul. The running brook, the waving trees and grass, the
ripple of the sea, the song of birds, the noises of the tempest,
now come nearer to the soul and seem to take on a more human
quality. These, too, often become independent objects of at-
tention and speak a language to the heart ; now stillness itself
may just become a sensation. Once more the range or hori-
zon of auditory consciousness is rather suddenly enlarged. A
series of tones, noises, and especially words, is grasped into a
unity, not by association and not perhaps because the after-
image of the first member of a series lingers longer to sense,
but rather because the range of the mind is more extended, and
the synthetic power which welds many elements into unity is
strengthened. Simple rhythm and rime are appreciated long
before, but now declamatory or stylistic prose becomes musical
and is cadenced into wholes, as if a new sentence sense was
developed. The swing and lilt of longer lines and more com-
plex forms of verse in poetry are appreciated. So is harmony,
while the power to apprehend all the factors of intricate musi-
cal accompaniments and compositions of many parts now first

^ Report on the Examination of the Ears of 440 School Children. Johns;
Hopkins Hospital Bull., December, 1900, p. 318.
2 Trans. Am. Otol. Soc, 1872.

CHANGES IN THE SENSES AND THE VOICE 23

appeals to the soul. Music, which may have been cultivated
much before, now comes to mean unutterable things and ac-
quires a new interest. Very often discords too become painful
to an unwonted degree, and if war, love, and religion be the
three factors that have cadenced the soul to the rhythm out of
which music was born, this is what we should expect at this
age, when the instincts which underlie all three are so greatly
reenforced. Most of these new manifestations are transient in
those who do not develop great musical power, but even in
these they are often well unfolded for a time.

Of 556 young people, Lancaster found that 464 had an in-
creased love of music, often amounting to a passion, which, how-
ever, soon passed. The curve of this love culminates at fifteen
and declines rapidly after sixteen. In many cases " everything
is given up to music for a year or two, and then it is dropped."
Some imagine themselves great musicians and see audiences
spellbound and applauding with waving handkerchiefs. Some
purchase instruments and take lessons with enthusiasm for a
while, but the spell soon passes. Young children who have
been made painfully nervous by music, are now filled with
rapture by it, and are sometimes easily and deeply moved to
tears. There is a new love of rhythm and of melody, a high
sense of the possibilities of music as a means of expression,
delight in opera, etc.

Music is more closely connected with pure sensation than
any other art. Hearing plays a far more important part in
musical esthetics than even the theory of perspective does in
painting. It does not necessarily and directly excite images like
poetry, or give pleasure in form like painting and statuary,
although it is far more than " a psychic process collected from
immediate sensation."^ In its origin it is closely connected with
the dance, which has been called mute poetry. Sometimes
music, but far more often words, come first, instrumental or
" absolute music " arising late. It is hard to combine its
esthetic, psychical, and physiological aspects in one inclusive
theory, but perhaps Billroth is right that the amount of harsh-
ness a hearer endures or loves is a matter of taste and habit,

^ See Billroth : Wer ist Musikalisch ? oder psycho-physiologische Aphorismen
iiber die Musik. Vienna, 1901.

24 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

so that the boundary between harmony and discord has often
changed. So tone scales most, and harmonious interweaving
next, do not rest upon fixed laws of nature, but upon esthetic
principles which are subject to change and will continue to de-
velop still more in the future. Of its many factors the rhythm-
sense is far most common. Only two per cent of the Austrian
recruits can not learn to march rhythmically and so have to
be transferred to the cavalry. Among children in this country
this proportion is far greater.^ The clog and jig dancing in-
stinct is strongest and most often manifested at the dawn of
puberty, as is the love of dancing generally. In 45 cases of
enthusiasm in playing the banjo or drum, " the interest was
awakened in every instance in the period of early adolescence,
between the ages of thirteen and seventeen." This is usually
the case, according to Sears, with interest in playing other
musical instruments. He also found that of 356 cases report-
ing increased interest in music, the average age in girls was
twelve and in boys thirteen, and also that " a special interest
in dancing is likely to arise when the child is thirteen or four-
teen," a little later in boys than in girls. Sometimes there is
a sudden and revolutionary change from strong dislike to
passionate and consuming love, and many devote themselves
to a musical career for a time during adolescence. This calen-
ture of enthusiasm may last for years even in those slightly
gifted. No genius is more precocious than that for music,
and with talent, progress during the early teens is often pro-
digious. For the average youth there is probably no such
agent of educating the heart to love of God, home, nature,
country, and of cadencing the whole emotional nature, and
hence there is no aspect of our educational life more sad than
the neglect or perversion of musical training from this, its
supreme end.

V. The Voice. — Here best we may consider the voice,
which, as the facts of deaf-mutism show, is developed under
the tutelage of the ear. The first sounds in the insect world
seem to be sexual, for they are made only by the male and only

^ Studies in Rhythm, by Charles H. Sears. Pad. Sam., March, 1901, espe-
cially p. 19 et seq.

CHANGES IN THE SENSES AND THE VOICE 25

at sexual maturity. Stridulation, which may have developed
from the rattling of the parts of a horny sheath caused by
locomotion, is made in many ways, but always by rubbing
serrated or pectinated edges, whether of wings, thighs, or body,
which perhaps fiddle on each other alternately. Some cicadse
can be heard a mile, and were kept in cages for their song by
the Greeks and Chinese. Other insects approximate a true
voice by sexual calls made by forcing air through their spira-
cles with abdomens distended as resonators, so that more than
half the body is a musical instrument. The note of these in-
struments, like that of bees in humming, is modified by excite-
ment, and often seems to express feeling. Some think the
noise of the death-tick a sexual call. Some fish make noises
audible for many fathoms, and male frogs chirp and croak in
the spring. Most clucks, chirps, crowing, and whistling, as
well as songs, are commonly love calls. A former test of a
good bird singer, Darwin tells us, was to see if it will continue
to sing while the cage is swung around the owner's head, and
birds matched in rivalry will sometimes sing for hours till one
drops exhausted or dead. A canary sang continuously for four-
teen hours. The best singers are commonly not brilliant in
hue, but charm with their voice. If song is not confined to
the breeding season, the very voice often changes then. Drum-
ming, rattling quills, the whirring of the birds made by feathers
especially shaped to cut the air, as they plunge or turn in it,
like most noises in the insect world which is so similar to that
of birds, primarily serve the reproductive function. The larynx
of some animals enlarges during rut, and others are mute save
in the breeding season. The voice is often to strike terror be-
fore battle or in challenge. Some monkeys make the woods
vocal in the spring. Darwin holds that music, instead of origi-
nating in speech cadences, as Spencer thinks, sprung from and
is reminiscent of the psychoses of old courtships of a long-
past age. However this may be, sound in both the animal and
human world is a potent agent of love. The song of crickets,
birds, and the pleasure of the other sex in hearing it, suggests
to Weismann that not only the voice but other kinds of musical
organs have a sexual origin as mediations of selection.
Whether we hold with Darwin that song was developed by
sexual selection and language was evolved from it, or with

26 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Spencer, Schweibe, and others, that speech was primary, or
even with Weismann that the musical sense has no necessary
relation to sexual life, but was a complementary product of
the organ of audition, we know that timbre alone has great
power in arousing or arresting sexual feeling and that music
and love are closely associated. Tissot ^ thinks birds have a
change of voice yearly, and that its relative loss in many
species out of the breeding season is a disease. This has been
noted in canaries and other captive birds, and especially when
molting. Other animals show similar phenomena in the
season of molting and shedding the coat.

It is impossible to glance at the later theories concerning the origin
of speech and the recent studies of vocalization among animals without
being convinced that, of all the many factors involved in this very
complex theme, sex has played a far more important role than has
even yet been recognized. Its profound modification by castration,
and by abnormalities of the vita sexualis, the change of voice that
accompanies puberty and its modification at senescence, the volumi-
nousness of song and sex-calls among animals in the breeding season,
all suggest that while it is as yet by no means proven that voice orig-
inated as a sex charm, this factor has nevertheless had immense influ-
ence in its development. During menstruation it is often less brilliant,
thin, and more prone to be flat in singers, and is often sharp in states
of dysmenorrhoea. The pubertal change is almost as much less marked
in the female as the mammary change is in the male. Before this
period the larynx of the sexes differs but little, and from three to eleven
the change in both sexes is slight. Puberty, however, brings a sudden
enlargement of the glottis, which in the male nearly doubles its propor-
tions, and in girls enlarges in the ratio of from five to seven. Its trans-
verse diameter remains more nearly the same for both sexes. It has
been thought that the shriller, higher pitch of the female voice, ob-
servant in many animals as well as in man, has had something to do
in determining the sharper quality of feminine terminations in the lan-
guages, where gender is thus distinguished. The voice is more devel-
oped in civilized than in savage races, and is probably slowly becoming
lower in pitch in Europe.

Intricate as is the anatomy of the larynx at puberty, these changes
are easy to understand. Its skeleton grows forward, giving greater
prominence to the Adam's apple, where the vocal cords have their
anterior insertion in the thyroid cartilage. In the female larynx the
same change occurs, but is much less marked and generally more grad-
ual, the larynx remaining a little higher up in the neck. The growth

' Essai sur la Mue de la Voix. Encyclopedic des Sciences M^d., 1840, viii,
p. 676.

CHANGES IN THE SENSES AND THE VOICE 27

to double the length or more involves the fall of an octave in the
pitch of the voice and a more or less prolonged period before fulness
and quality are well established on the new basis. The first symptom
of the impending change is slight hyperemia of the larynx, which
causes the voice to become slightly raucous and hoarse. This may
vanish in a few days, when it is noticed that the voice is a little lower
but more uncertain. Often the vocal cords and cartilages to which they
are attached do not grow in exact proportion the one to the other.
The tension is unsteady and the voice occasionally breaks to a childish
treble, often with notes higher than were normal before the change
began. Slowly phonation takes on a distinctly adult character. Those
probably go too far who assert that as the voice goes down in pitch it
keeps exact pace step by step with genital development, and that the
deeper it is the more complete the unfoldment of virility. Bierent even
goes so far as to think it a general rule, although not without numerous
exceptions, that a very robust man with very abundant hair and well-
developed sexual functions usually has a bass voice, and that dark-
haired people usually are bassos or contraltos, and blondes are more
likely to have high voices. Tenors, at any rate, need to be far more
careful to avoid errors and excess in order to keep their voice at the
top of its condition than those who sing bass. According to Delauney,
the voice of those made eunuchs before puberty is always between tenor
and soprano, because the larynx does not develop and the voice re-
mains childish. Despite the fact that ovariotomy is now so frequent,
its effects on the voice are not clear. It seems probable, however, that
it causes a slightly more masculine timbre without involving much
change of pitch. Masini has shown that the voices of prostitutes tend
to be still more mannish.

The influence of anomalies in the development of the sex organs
upon character and all the secondary sexual qualities is very marked
and almost inevitable. Castration before puberty, very common in
some parts of Italy, even by barbers, whose signs still advertise com-
petitively the cheapness of the operation, which is performed not only
to make singers for the famous Sistine choirs and elsewhere, but to
supply the market in Oriental seraglios, etc., arrests the larynx at about
two-thirds its normal diameter and prevents change of voice, and may
even cause its pitch to grow actually higher. Vocal spasms, persistent
hiccup, the harsh voice of women of the street, are also in close sym-
pathetic relation with the state of the organs of reproduction. From a
table of Marro,^ based however on only about one hundred cases, it
would appear that the voice of Italian girls begins to descend at twelve
or thirteen, and may reach its lowest point as late as sixteen or seven-
teen. Vierordt's table upon this point is based on still fewer cases, and
is far more indeterminate.

The best attempt yet made to determine the changes in chil-
dren's voices as modified by age through the period of muta-

' La Puberte, p. il.

28 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

tion is that of Paulsen,^ who carefully tested 250 individuals
in each school class in Kiel, or in all 2,685 boys between six
and fifteen, and 2,259 girls from six to fourteen. He used
only children with intact respiratory and vocal apparatus, and
with the aid of a singing-master utilized for upper and lower
limits only those notes that could be produced without special
effort. Children in the two lowest classes sang simple songs
variously pitched for the purpose, and older children sang the
scales in the vowel a. He found that 50 per cent began to
quaver at the age of thirteen ; 70 per cent at fourteen ; 80 per
cent at fifteen. During change he found the throat often swol-
len, but not the cords, which McKenzie said were affected.
Control is lost but afterward regained. Girls from six to nine
increase in height only, then drop to g, where they remain till
thirteen, when their lower limit falls to e, deepening in all only
two and a half notes. The boys' voices on the average were
more limited both up and down. Their increase upward at
first keeps pace with that of the girls, but the greatest height
is reached a year later, at twelve; then it sinks through four
and a half notes, till at thirteen its greatest depth attained is at
d. Near the end of the childish period the voice has a range of
nearly three octaves. Girls reach their greatest range at thir-
teen, and boys at fourteen.

Individual differences are very great : at ten, e. g., of girls
5.6 per cent can sing only an octave or less ; 85.6 per cent from
one to two octaves ; and 8.8 over two octaves ; while of boys
at ten, 12.5 can not exceed an octave; 83.7 sing between one
and two octaves; and only 3.9 per cent sing over two octaves.
Eliminating individual differences, the following table gives
the range available for singing for each age and for both sexes.
The first table represents the actual range minimal and max-
imal, and the second the limits within which average children
can safely sing ; the staff being appended for convenience.

' Ueber die Singstimme der Kinder. Pfliiger's Archiv, 1895, vol. xi, p. 407.

CHANGES IN THE SENSES AND THE VOICE

29

Age.

BOYS.

6.

ci .

di— a

. d

7-

b' .

di— a

• • • g^

8.

a .

. di

-d^ . g2

9-

a .

. di

-d^ . g's

10.

a .

. di

-d^ . a^

II.

a

. ol-

—d^ . . a?

12,

a

ei-

e\ . . . h2

a

13.

g

cs —

e2. . . . h^

14.

g

c3-

e^ . . ais'''

ges

15-

ges

Girls.
ci . di— gi .

ci . di ai

h . di ai ,

a. . di hi

d«

. d^

-d2 .
-d2
-d2

-d^
-d^

II.

Age.

Boys.

6.

di-

-g^

7-

di-

ai

8.

di-

-bi

9-

di-

— c2

10.

di-

-d2

II.

h(c

-')-

-d2

dis^

V,

dis^

13-

14-

h

dis^

IS-

h-

— dis2

Girls.
di— ai

di hi (c-s)

di d2

di

U^

U--

-dis

" g or h

30 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Other studies show shghtly different Hmits. Behnke and
Lenox Brown ^ found that from seven to ten the difference
in the sexes began to be marked, and from ten to thirteen gave
boys a practical range of from a to d, and girls from c to f.
Another investigator concludes that in the fifth year children
command from four to six notes, at eight years from seven to
nine, and at twelve from eleven to fourteen notes. Vierordt
thinks girls produce their highest notes at the age of ten.
Miiller measured the length of the vocal cords and found that
just before puberty it was .7 in. in boys and .625 in. in girls.
Later the relation of the length of these cords was as 7 : 5 at
rest, and as 3 : 2 in tension. The mean length at rest in males
he found to be .728, and in females .495, and at greatest ten-
sion .912 and .616 respectively.^ Since the important work of
G. Manuel Garcia,^ we understand the mechanism of falsetto,
or head and chest tones. We need, but still lack, a study of
the adolescent voice as thorough and painstaking as that which
Garbini * has made of the child's voice to the age of six.

Mutation is often very gradual. Perhaps a slight hoarse-
ness is noticed for a few days or weeks, and the voice is then
found to be permanently lowered. Sometimes the voice is
literally broken, perhaps into three or even more parts, with
gaps between them, and slowly the intervals fill in. Some
boys sing treble till nineteen. McKenzie found that of 300
choir boys only 17 per cent really showed a " tip over " of voice.
Some voices are raucous, and there is more or less irritation,
loss of control, and cases are on record where six or seven
years elapsed before phonation was established on the new
basis. Some, on the other hand, girls far more often than
boys, continue to sing through these changes with no apparent
injury. The voice grows powerful and rich in both sexes, and
its timbre as well as its pitch changes.

Pubescent boys are especially prone to yell and indulge in vocal
gymnastics of a drastic kind. They often become experts in imitating
animals, the other sex, instruments, locomotives, and sounds in nature.

1 The Child's Voice. London, 1885.

2 The Physiology of the Human Voice. Phil. Trans., 1896, p. 551.

' Observations on the Human Voice. Proc. Royal Soc. of London, vol. vii,
PP- 399-412.

* Evoluzione della voce nella infanzia. Verona, 1892.

CHANGES IN THE SENSES AND THE VOICE 3 1

The intense emotions, such as jealousy and rage, are vocally simulated,
and there are innumerable affectations and a new vocal consciousness.
Tones in conversation vv^ith the other sex, as appears from our returns,
may be almost oleaginous or excessively deep and hard, according to
temperament and occasion. Articulation otten suffers for a season.
Inflection is sometimes reduced and then excessive. Girls simper,
affect boyish phonation, and then may become mincing and overnice.
Speech, music, cadence, rhythm, and perhaps rate of utterance, are re-
constructed. Many bad habits, some suggesting arrest, are settled into.
Voices may become nasal, throaty, coarse, aspirate, guttural. Vowel-
ization lacks resonance, or pronunciation is slovenly, etc. In common
conversation, young people often seem playing on the voice as if to
explore its possibilities in all directions. In all these respects the voice
at the season of change is very responsive to bodily states, reflecting
the general tone, mood, sentiment, feeling, and state of health as at no
other age of life. On cloudy days and in hot weather and when hungry,
children easily flat, and tense, nervous states give the voice a strident,
perhaps sharp or neurasthenic tang, so that regimen, dress, food, sleep,
etc., are never more important in this respect. Never is mankind so
influenced by quality of voice as in adolescence. This is not only the
unconscious medium of likes and dislikes, but is often specified as the
very first charm in the other sex. So instinctive is imitation that the
young ought always to hear better and never worse voices than their
own.

Singing is the most universal language, because it is the language
of feeling. Piety, patriotism, all the racial and domestic sentiments
and love of nature can be thus trained. Teachers of singing have
drifted very far from the intent of nature in this respect. Love, home,
war, religion, country, and rhythm generally, it is their first duty to
preform in the heart. The merely technical process of reading notes
is a small matter compared with the education of the sentiments.
Their function is to direct a gymnastics of the emotions, to see that
no false feelings are admitted, to open the soul to sympathy and social
soHdarity. " Where singing is not," said Luther, " the devil enters ; "
and " I will not look at a teacher who can not sing." Melody, har-
mony, the dynamism of soft and loud, quality and cadence, are the
purest epitome and vehicle of the higher moral qualities. Without
them the range or depth of the Hfe of the heart suffers. Song should
expurgate every evil passion and banish care and fatigue. Even the
Chinese call their crude music the science of sciences, and think har-
mony connected with the function of government and the state; as
Plato said, a reform in music would mean a political revolution, and
Melanchthon called it the theology of the heart. Young and old meet
in this art, for much of the life of feeling is as independent of age as
of culture. The voice is the practical basis of all music. The larynx
is, like the face, a barometer and register of feeling. Aristotle said
music molded character as gymnastics do the body.

Behnke and Brown collected opinions from two hundred teachers

32 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

of singing on eight questions concerning children's voices/ Most
agree that boy choristers do not excel as singers later. Only-
fifteen think boys can sing through mutation, holding that the
voice goes to pieces then if not exercised. Many think train-
ing before puberty has little, and some say no effect on the
voice afterward. Children can not imderstand good music or
feel it before. It is impossible to predict from the child's voice vi^hat
it will become when adult. Seller goes to the extreme of saying that
it is useless to train the voice before puberty, but musical intelligence
can be helped, and the power of hearing music through the voice,
which is the best mode of appreciating it, can be trained. Little chil-
dren only are aided in vocalization by dancing while they sing. It aids
respiration, strengthens the lungs, helps digestion, and the consensus
is that from eleven to puberty, when the child's voice is at its best,
cultivation is valuable musically; many advocate beginning at the
age of two or three with very gentle, soft, and simple melodies, and
that there should be a generous period of singing by imitation. It is,
in fact, as absurd to begin singing by notes before a repertory of songs
is acquired as it would be to teach language from a primer before the
power of speech was acquired.

Finally, we have no sympathy with the view that great solicitude
should be exercised to prevent any but pure tones at adolescence, for
nature seems to decree that the young should utter every kind and
degree of emotion vocally; this takes us far outside the narrow
limits laid down by precisians and drill-masters, and we believe that
the self-consciousness so common in schools concerning song is a peda-
gogic artifact, due to either too little or too fastidious practise, and
that voices ought to be harsh, raw, and awkward for a season. The
chief evil of self-consciousness is artificiality in tone production that
tends to throat strain and chronic soreness. Declamation and recita-
tion may perhaps be made to afford an adequate basis for vocal train-
ing, especially if the selection be interesting and adapted to the senti-
ments of the young. Singing and speaking are at the best when the
subject-matter occupies the center of attention and rules are relegated
to the background, while music, like cadences, must fit the words. The
prime question in all singing, declamation, etc., is. What feelings and
ideas do they express? All other things are accessory, and all tech-
nique is bad, however good per se, if it diverts teacher or pupil from
the chief end of giving utterance to strong, normal, and uplifting sen-
timents. The moral purpose thus overtops and conditions all others.

VI. Vision. — The eye is the seat of the sense of form, color,
light, and shade, and is in most persons the sense nearest the

^ See F. E. Howard : The Child Voice in Singing. N. Y., 1898. Also Kafe-
mann : Die Erkrankungen der Sprechstimme. Danzig, 1899. Vierordt : Physiol,
des Kindes-Alters. Treitel iiber die Stimme kleiner Kindern. Centralblatt f.
Physiol., 1 89 1, No. 15.

CHANGES IN THE SENSES AND THE VOICE 33

mind. Young children excel adults in detecting dim forms in
the dark, and probably in fine spatial discriminations. Although
we have no satisfactory experimental tests, it is probable that
children distinguish grades of light and shade rather minutely
before the perception of colors is much developed. There is
also reason to think that the periphery of the retina, which
receives images from objects in indirect vision, although not so
extended as in the adult, has more power to roll the eye re-
flexly until it is brought into direct vision, and that the foveal
power is now increased. As the brow, eyebrows, cheek-bones,
and nose, which normally increase in the teens, narrow the field
of vision, it would seem that the difference of power between
the fovea and the retinal periphery is increased.

In Chicago, among 2,030 boys and 2,735 gi^^s, Smedley
found 32 per cent of the former and 37 per cent of the latter
with visual defects. These increased rapidly during the first
three years of school life, decreasing after the age of nine, first
slowly, then more rapidly, till the age of thirteen was passed.
From ten onward, those with visual defect stand lower than
those whose sight is normal, and the same was found to be true
for nearly all ages in cases of defective hearing.

Judgments of form are now more correct, and the power
to grasp large and complex forms as a whole is augmented.
Gilbert marked off 62 cm., and asked children to translate the
visual impression into muscle sense by moving the arm through
a distance thought to be the same; he found that it was over-
judged at no age, so that " we underestimate distance trans-
lated from the sense of sight to the muscle sense. Boys are less
accurate than girls from six to ten; then the reverse is the
case." The age of greatest correctness was fifteen. He also
tested children from six to eighteen, by asking them to estimate
the number of inches between two marks twenty inches apart.
At the age of six, these comparative estimates were only about
one-fifth the real distance, and up to fifteen the distance was al-
ways judged too short; fifteen to sixteen was the most accu-
rate age, and older people overestimate perhaps because their
method changes to marking off imaginary distances with the
eye on the principle that a full space seems larger than an
empty space. Judgments improve very rapidly in both sexes to
about eleven, after which they progress much more gradually.

42

34 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Griffing ^ shows " that the extensive threshold or abihty
to receive and retain a number of simultaneous retinal impres-
sions is a function of individual growth, reaching its maximum
only when the observer is fully developed." The maximum
numbers of letters seen at once shows a marked increase at
puberty and on through high school and college. The tendency
to guess decreases with maturity. The great gain from high
school to college is especially noteworthy.

Again, the perception of form is now gradually emanci-
pated from other associated sensations, coming into closer
rapport with the brain and with psychic processes, and all visual
estimates improve.

In testing children with objects, the size and weight of
which varied independently and sometimes inversely, Dress-
lar ^ found that there was no apparent gain from the age of
seven to fourteen in the capacity to separate visual impressions
from pressure, but that the size confused the estimate of
weight almost equally for all these ages.

Gilbert also tested the influence of suggestion by seen size
as affecting the estimated weight of lifted objects, and found
that from nine the increase in accuracy for both sexes coin-
cided tolerably with the age of fourteen, and that at fifteen
and sixteen there was a diminution followed by a rapid increase
to seventeen.

Another interesting psychic change, which takes place in
childhood and youth, has been suggested by Wolf e,^ who found
that our notions of the size of different objects differ widely.
Young children underestimate the size of coins and bills;
mature people overestimate the size of the former. The great
individual differences in these estimates of children grow quite
uniform with the dawn of the teens. It would seem that to
young children a memory image seems smaller than its object,
while in many adults it may exceed. This suggests that draw-
ing might concern itself more with size.

We also find changes due to modifications of interest. Fine

1 On the Development of Visual Perception and Attention. Am. Jour, of
Psy. , January, 1896, vol. vii, p. 227.

* Psychology of Touch. Am. Jour, of Psy., June, 1894, vol. vi, pp. 50-54.

* Some Judgments on the Size of Familiar Objects. Am. Jour, of Psy., Janu-
ary, 1898, vol. ix, pp. 137-166.

CHANGES IN THE SENSES AND THE VOICE 35

differences of face, figure, the fit of clothes, grace in motion,
or in outhne drawings now have a new meaning. We begin to
take in our esthetic, social, and natural environment with a
larger ken. We see better what feeds nascent interests and
ignore that which appeals to dying ones, and yet there is greater
capacity to see all things, self included, from the standpoint of
the neutral spectator. Words are read in outline without per-
ception of the letters that compose them. Some returns indi-
cate new interests in tracing mazes and figure ornaments, and
in grouping repeated visual impressions, as pickets, bricks in
the sidewalk, etc. Form begins to come to its independent
rights, and we see the beauty of symmetry and proportion,
group items to larger unities, count and aggregate impressions,
take pleasure in things afar, landscapes, and the heavens which
no other sense can attain, and there is pleasure in arranging,
dividing, and intricating details. Thus perhaps the constella-
tions were first imaged.

The color sense, which appeals more to sentiment, now ac-
quires a deeper meaning, and if children see light and shade
best, adolescents far excel them in response to the chromatic
world about them; the hues of blossoms and of clouds, the
blue of the sky, the green of the fields, etc., now give new
satisfaction. Colors have a suggestive and symbolic power,
and associations are widely irradiated and established. Crimson
suggests blood ; yellow, gold ; etc. There is new esthetic pleas-
ure and pain in the harmony and contrast of colors. Their
power to excite and depress, which Goethe first investigated in
a colored room, and which makes the poetry of colors, is now
deeply felt.

Luckey ^ found that the power to see colors in indirect
vision increased with age, but that the lack of this power in
children was compensated by a greater proportional range for
black and white than for color as compared with adults.

Wolfe ^ found that so far as could be inferred from the

' Comparative Observations on the Indirect Color Range of Children, Adults,
and Adults trained in Color. Am. Jour, of Psy., January, 1895, vol. vi, pp.
489-504.

* The Color Vocabulary of Children.

36 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

extent and accuracy of color vocabularies, the delicacy and
discriminative power of children increased rapidly at first, but
that girls make but little progress after the eleventh year, al-
though boys continue to advance until at seventeen there is
great improvement in discrimination of violet, orange, and
pink, in this order. The power to see and name violet cor-
rectly appears from his tables to be chiefly during adolescence,
girls having the advantage throughout.

Gilbert showed ten colors nearly alike to each child; he
measured acuteness of chromatic sensibility by the average
number of colors considered to be the same, and found a rapid
increase of sensitiveness to ten or twelve, which then more
slowly increased to a maximum at sixteen for girls.

The sense of sight craves stronger stimuli. Loud colors,
high lights, and striking contrasts are preferred, and taste for
mild hues, subdued tones, and delicate tints comes later. Some
think the range of the color scale is extended and that the red
end of the spectrum and far more the blue and violet end is
developed. There is much reason to believe that finer color
discrimination in intensity and wave length and degrees of
light and shade arises. The color world is at any rate almost
regenerated and recreated and all its esthetic effects greatly
enhanced. Dress, flowers, clouds and sky, chromatic patterns
and all variegated paintings in Nature's art gallery are not
only perceived more clearly, but are inwardly felt and affect
moods. Favorite colors acquire character and individuality and
by new analogies come to be associated with moral and intel-
lectual qualities, while their symbolism irradiates far into the
world of tone, ethics, and religion, as well as esthetics, and they
have new power over the heart. Color preferences may be so
marked as to shade everything controllable about the person and
the environment, and sometimes aversions are no less pro-
nounced. These often change, perhaps repeatedly, and may
be reversed, so that colors most loved will become unpleasant,
and vice versa. Perhaps everything must be colored, and the
soul becomes impressionable to what was before unnoticed, and
new central associations and interpretations arise. Combina-
tions painful to cultivated taste may be for a time a delight.
This secondary quality, which brain or soul is energized to
create, is laid on to the entire visible world like a lavish coat

CHANGES IN THE SENSES AND THE VOICE 37

of variegated fresh paint, and at the same time is given an ab-
stract value of its own quite independent of form.

Indeed, form often suffers in appreciation for a time at the
expense of the new color life of vision. Outlines and propor-
tions are less keenly felt, but this should be and normally is
only for a season, and the sense of the beauty that lies in these
has later its innings. Then the charm of contour, beginning
in the limited field of a few objects, grows acute and discrimina-
tive and slowly widens from the human to the animal, plant,
and inorganic world. Features, every article of dress, points
in pets, the utensils of play and work, sights and individual
objects in nature, drawing apart from painting, not only come
again to their rights, but have their own value both discrimina-
tive and esthetic if the development of the sensory is not prema-
turely checked, in a way pregnant with suggestion for courses
of artistic training that seek to follow rather than force nature.
It is as if the retinal cones, if they mediate color, or their cere-
bral endings and connections, precede the rods and their an-
nexes in the adolescent push upward to the adult plane, only
to be followed by the latter when their nascent period comes.

VII. General Craving. — In these changes of sensory re-
sponse to the objective world, it is often difficult, as we have
indicated, to say how much is due to new interests or to high-
er lability or potentialization of brain cells, and how much, if
any, is left to be explained by changes in the peripheral organs
of sense themselves. Among the 14,000 different sensations
which Kiilpe thinks can be discriminated, many may be grad-
ually lost and others developed by attention and fixed habit.
There is, no doubt, an important change in the relative prom-
inence of the different senses in our psychic life at this stage
with its new emotions, interests, and apathies. Adolescent
years mark the golden age of sense, which is so prone to be-
come sensual if uncontrolled. Then the soul exposes most
surface, as it were, to the external world. The eye gate and
ear gate especially are open their widest, and not only that,
but the feeling tone and the general sense feeling, so largely in-
dependent of perception, are also at their best, so that the pos-
sibilities of knowing our world and acquiring experience on
the one hand, and of lapsing to a life of indulgence, are now

3 8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

most developed. It has been suggested that this latter may be
somewhat inversely as discriminative power, but this view is
partial and needs the most careful limitation. When we re-
member that there is almost no such thing as memory for feel-
ings themselves, but only for the conceptions which accom-
pany or are reenforced by them, we can see how the reminis-
cences of adults on this point must be received with caution.

In fine, we must conceive the traffic inward along all the
sensory tracts augmented in a curve of increment yet to be
more exactly charted, and all the sensory areas of the brain to
be both more highly sensitized and flooded with masses of
impressions that for a time are confused and very imperfectly
understood or worked off into their normal channels of reac-
tion, and properly coordinated. The growth of the sex organs
and functions sends inward a confused mass of impressions
that can not be interpreted or at first even localized. Especially
is this true of girls, because their organs are both more inward
and relatively larger in size and function. These, too, give a
feeling of intensified existence, sentiments of strange, nameless
yearning, aimless unrest, moments of rapture and fulness of
life and joy abounding, alternating perhaps with misgiving and
periods of slight depression which can not be explained, as if
the soul were in the hands of some deep, mysterious, but fateful
principle that had power to play at its own alien and capricious
will upon all its frets and strings. An indescribable rapture
supervenes when we wake or sleep, and then its charm fades
and leaves the world a little somber with the sense of some
vanished good. Some supreme goal that seemed near retreats
to a distance that seems unattainable. Both these states and
their fluctuations, poetry, art, romance, and religion have
described in their polymorphic shapes in countless ways and
with all the imagery available in earth's scenery chambers.

Thus one of the most characteristic descriptions of this
period is that it is preeminently the age of sense, and hence
prone to sensuousness not only in taste and sex, where the
danger is greatest, but in the domain of each of the sense
species. Every centripetal nerve glows and tingles with new
life, and every in-going fiber is freighted and even gorged with
the traffic of impressions. Never is the body so imperiously
dominant and so insistently in evidence, and never is the ex-

CHANGES IN THE SENSES AND THE VOICE 39

ternal world so ineluctable and impressively real, as in this im-
pressionistic age. Never is objective and subjective experience
so vivid and so manifold. Youth is in its world, in the closest
rapport with it possible to man. It not only lights but often
burns his soul. He would touch it at every point, explore its
every possibility, receive everything it has to give, and revel
in it to intoxication. All this is his right and his necessity, only
it must neither lead to perversion or become so overwhelmingly
absorbing as to cause arrest or degeneration. Thus the soul is
furnished; for, whatever our philosophy, it is never so nearly
true as at this age, that there is nothing in the intellect that
does not get there through the senses, for now the chief activity
of the mind is working over the sense capital thus acquired.

CHAPTER X

EVOLUTION AND THE FEELINGS AND INSTINCTS CHARACTERISTIC
OF NORMAL ADOLESCENCE

Aversion to genetic views of the soul owing to undue interest in its future —
Neglect of its somatic and historic relations by modern ultra idealism and
epistemology — Evils of pure speculation and extreme dualism — Neglect of
lessons from animals, children, and savages — Barrenness of systems and
speculations for knowledge of the feelings — Postulates of a true genetic
psychology and its biological basis — A new evolutionary concept of soul —
Adolescent changes in instincts and feelings, alternations between inertness
and excitement, pleasure and pain, self-confidence and humility, selfishness and
altruism, society and solitude, sensitiveness and dulness, knowing and doing,
conservatism and iconoclasm, sense and intellect — Necessity of developing all
tendencies freely before the age of consistency and unity — The interval be-
tween pithecoid and primitive man — Phyletic and individual correlates — Ado-
lescence to advance up the age scale.

Before considering the normal psychic changes that oc-
cur during the period of sexual maturity, it is necessary at the
outset to state in a brief and summary way — because the topic
is to be dwelt on more fully in another book — the general con-
ceptions of the soul that underlie and condition the treatment of
adolescence and childhood, especially because the standpoint is
different from that of our psychological and philosophical con-
temporaries, and, we believe, embodies a new idea of profound
scientific and practical importance which has a great and as-
sured future.

It may be roughly characterized as in some sense a new and
higher monism and an evolutionism more evolved, with a
method which has already yielded some promising results
hitherto unattained and a program of far more work yet to
be done, which is little in harmony with the complacent
sense of finality and completeness so often manifest. From this
standpoint it becomes plain how gross have been the errors in
both conceiving and practically training the soul, which are
due to the inexpugnable and all-dominant interest in its future

40

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 4i

state and the insistent and, to our thinking, not only unscien-
tific but almost abnormal aversion to consider its past. This
genetophobia pervades, consciously or often unconsciously,
much of the best ancient and contemporary philosophical and
theological thought, and is one of the greatest and most invet-
erate obstacles to a truly scientific psychology. The problem
of the nature of the soul has also rarely, save in forms of
materialism now generally discarded, been separated from that
of a future life, has led to a horror of materialism that is almost
misophobia, and has betrayed many able professors to take an
attitude toward genetic psychology like that of Agassiz toward
evolution. Like every other prevalent aberration of the human
mind, this has deep historic roots, several of which must be
roughly indicated to understand it. It began in the Western
mind with " the fall of man in Socrates and Plato." In turn-
ing to the study of man, they neglected nature and disparaged
the naive and unconscious in the human soul. It was assumed
that there was no good even in unreasoned virtue, which could
not be really such until it became noetic and sophisticated. He
who knew the right and did not do it, instead of thereby
increasing his guilt, was already more than half-way to per-
fection.

L The doctrine of anamnesis or reminiscence first admitted
a most significant past to the psyche, but it was in a transcendent
world which had endowed it with only just those ideas which
Plato held to and of which he made Socrates the midwife in
this life. Education culminated in their recovery to conscious-
ness. Metempsychosis had also yet earlier held to a past for
the soul, and Nemesis and Karma were doctrines of retribution
and reward for the next previous state. Since ancient Greece,
however, categories or innate ideas, as Trendelenberg and Laas
well show, have been the goal or the basis or both of most
philosophic systems, but from Aristotle's ten to Kant's twelve,
they have been underived and Melchizedician, as holy to the
disciples of each school as the Mosaic tables, till Spencer sug-
gested that even all of those that were valid, although a priori
and innate in the individual, were acquired by the race. This
proposition will always be abhorrent to every pure intuition-
alist mind that has a passion for absolute presuppositionless
beginnings.

42 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Christianity, too, has shown little interest in the past of
the soul, save for that of its founder and in order to account
for sin. Its emphasis on personal immortality gave the soul
immense and unprecedented dignity, but focused attention and
endeavor upon its future. Even the traducianism of Tertul-
lian, who taught that the soul was in some sense hereditary and
had a somatic continuity with previous generations back to
Adam, found little vogue, helpful as it was in explaining the
mystery of transmitted sin and guilt, and was twice condemned
as a heresy, although Luther seems to have held it. Some form
of creationism, or the view that at a certain age of the embryo
a newly and miraculously made soul joined the body ab extra,
has been the prevailing one. The soul of the natural man is
tainted, corrupt, and children depraved perhaps totally at birth,
and the supreme work of life is to save it from eternal woe.
Asceticism demeaned this life for the sake of the next, and as
the soul and its destiny became glorious, the body was macer-
ated and its regimen neglected. The world was made out of
brute matter, chaos, or from nothing, but no one ever even
asked of what the soul was made. In condemning every form
of the doctrine of preexistence of the soul, the Church lost some
of the best arguments for its post-mortem existence, but these
were never appreciated save for the person of Christ. Thus,
while the body might come in part from the parent, every soul
was a newly made thing with no history. It was, in its own
nature, outside the current of heredity, but was corrupted by
contact with the sinful body through which it was dragged
down unless rescued by a special redemptive work. The focus
of all interest in the soul was thus, how to insure its salvation
hereafter.

The ethical value of the idea of a future life of rewards
and punishments has, of course, been incalculable. If it has
brought in cosmo-heteronymous motives of morality unknown
to the Stoics and disallowed by Kant; if it has sometimes en-
gendered a transcendental selfishness that may become gross,
and in neurotic ages, races, or persons, favored fears and anx-
ieties that were hysterical; if formal, external, and even me-
chanical ways and means of salvation have often been relied
on — all these things concern us here only as products and illus-
trations of the evils of a too exclusive interest in the soul's

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 43

future, which is, in fact, still unknowable save to faith, and of
excessive neglect of its past, which is really now increasingly-
accessible and which is proverbially the best means of judging
of its future.

One striking example of the havoc which this lust to pierce
the secrets of the future makes with science is seen in the Eng-
lish Psychic Research Society. It has collected masses of
precious and hitherto neglected border-land phenomena between
waking and sleep, sanity and insanity, on trancoidal states,
automatisms of body and mind, illusions, hypnotism, etc. But
almost the sole interest of this large and cultured society in
these data is what contribution they make to what its able leader
calls " the most insistent question of the human heart. If a man
die, shall he live again ? " Is there a land of disembodied spir-
its, and can communication be established and demonstrated
between them and us? Possession, apparitions, phantoms of
the dead, messages from the ghost world, or transcendental as
well as mundane telepathy, and in general an inductive demon-
stration of a survival of the soul after death, are thus the themes
or conclusions, directly or indirectly, inspiring all this work.^
Now the folly and pathos of all this is that every fact and group
of facts relied on point for their explanation directly and only
to the past of the individual or the race and not to the future,
to the ab- and sub- and not to the super-normal, or perhaps to
the body even more than to the spirit. Greatly indebted as our
guild is for facts, suggestive aperciis, and new interests to
these students, their service is, as I have elsewhere tried to
point out in some detail,^ not unlike that of alchemists who
sought the elixir of life for chemistry, of astrologists in quest
of the influence of the stars on human life for astronomy, and
just as the desire to locate heaven and faith in planetary in-
fluences and modes of attaining physical immortality had to
be cast out of these fields before science could really do its
great work in them, so similar purgation must be made here.

How profoundly contemporary psychologists and philoso-
phers of the highest academic rank, even those who shrink from

^ See Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death, by F. W. H. Myers.
2 vols. London, 1903.

^ See my fuller exposition of these points in the Am. Jour, of Psy., vol. vii,
p. 135 <?^ seq.

44 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

all such extreme conclusions, are influenced by this bias, con-
sciously or unconsciously, in the deeper motivations of their
work, its direction, methods, and conclusions, we see on every
hand. One professor of great learning and acumen has been
apparently almost unpivoted by the prolonged and acute study
of the revelations of a noted trance medium, which he is con-
vinced are from relatives in the spirit world. Another profound
and acute leader of American metaphysical thought attains as
his consummate conclusion the conviction of an eternal world
of many monadic minds or selves, in a republic or city of God,
the free members of which control the natural world and are
the sources of all its law. The supreme fact in his world is
" the eternal reality of the individual." Creation itself is not
an event, but a symbol, and these personal spirits never fully
and completely enter the real world, for they are out of time
and of the chain of causality. Another of no less power and
eminence makes the goal of philosophy the demonstration of
an individuality deeper, more permanent, and real than that of
persons as they appear to us, because knowledge and love are
stronger than life, and so, if our nature is not a lie, the actuality
of our dead friends transcends sense. Such instances might
be multiplied. The great majority of people, expert as well as
lay, think and speak of soul in the future tense, and to very
few does the word suggest any connotation with the past.
Ask the very man on the street what he thinks of the soul, and
he assumes that you speak of another life or of preparation
for it.

II. This proleptic and sometimes almost cataleptic interest
in the soul's future has also been a deep psychological motive
in most of the vast body of discussions, past and present, on
the relations of the mind and body, and the aversion to even
any very close association between the two is inveterate. Dr.
McCosh held that the student of psychology must, at the out-
set, strip the idea of soul of every material metaphor. It is
independent of time and space, has no place, age, form, etc.
Paulsen says in his introduction, " thoughts are not in the
brain ; one can just as well say that they are in the stomach or
in the moon, etc." For James, the brain obstructs thought
like a bad conductor. " Our brains are thin, half-transparent
places in the veil," through which the great life of soul " breaks

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 45

into this world in all sorts of restricted forms." Elsewhere he
makes purgation of the body by urging with unusual fervor
that sex has nothing whatever to do with the psychology of
religion, which is in fact a hollow and, to quite an extent, an
unreal thing without it. Soul and body are opposed and con-
trasted at every point. This tendency is a well-preserved tra-
dition of idealism. Descartes, its modern advocate, thought
mind and matter had nothing in common, and his successors
thought them only externally attached. Even volition, in order
to affect the body, and sensation, to give knowledge of things,
must go through God as a mediating tertium quid. So began
the tragic war between the ego and its object, and the terms
of truce drawn up by Kant and his successors, under whose
influence the problem of the perception and the possibility of
knowing the external world has been worked out, have for
many generations been the focus of all interest in the world
of soul, and the process of dissolving the objective world has
become an academic cult that plays on the dreameries of
adolescence and robs it of zest, vigor, and faith. It is a mental
tonic, but sterilizes the heart and paralyzes the will. Incom-
mensurability is their postulate, not unity, and just now even
psychologists are addicted to making subtle but utterly scholas-
tic distinctions between theories of parallelism and interaction,
with arguments I would far rather be refuted by than use.
These thinkers constitutionally resist every important, trans-
forming, and formative norm or principle that is offered to
psychology from any department of physical science, for which
they affect to legislate methods and lay down limitations on
high a priori grounds. What can brute matter tell us of its
lofty partner, mind ? It must rather be held up and brought to
its haunches like Plato's dark steed, and dualism is pushed to
its uttermost in every domain.

Ultra idealism I hold to be pathological, and hypertrophied
self-consciousness to be at least in part and perhaps essentially
a remedial process, but it is now so drastic that many succumb
under it. It may in part be grossly and physiologically described
as premature excessive development of associative activities
over those of the projection system which mediates sensation
and motion. Modern man at best has lost much keenness of
sense and his motor life tends to caducity. His muscles are

46 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

flabby from disuse, and efferent stimuli are long-circuited to
cerebral activities instead of being reflected at once to motion.
As sight becomes dominant, touch, the mother sense, which
alone gives the most inexpugnable sense of reality, retires in
favor of a paper currency of visual experience, and thus, as is
inevitable, those who subject themselves long to this discipline
feel a little removed from the basal properties of matter.^ The
eye-minded man is perhaps more predisposed to idealism than
the practical, motor-minded type. The blind have the most
unfaltering sense of the reality of the external world because
they are nearer the original tangible form in which reality was
first given. An age of wealth, too, withdraws from the stern
struggle for existence which most impresses objectivity. For
thinkers by profession, especially if they are not men of science,
who are withdrawn from the palpitating interests of literature
or social life and politics, sheltered and isolated still more by
a fixed and assured salary in old, endowed, respectable, but
uninspected institutions, segregated in the study, so that
knowledge of life and nature comes not even from the labora-
tory, but from the pallid, second-hand source of books, await-
ing in this environment the time of life when youthful exuber-
ance of not only sense and motion but even of passion begins
to abate, fed upon the literature of Hindu, Greek, and German
idealism rather than upon science — for such the whole physical
universe and the world of throbbing life and action is pretty
sure to fade and the inner world of thought to become all in all.
Having attained, by whatever processes, the settled convic-
tion that matter is non-being, that the rich, booming cosmos is
may a or illusion, mere eject, project, possibility of sensation,
thing-in-itself, etc., and that even its receptacles, time and space,
are only subjective forms, there comes as the first result an
elation and exaltation that nothing else, unless it be paranoia
or certain drugs, can give. Mind is supreme, has come to its
own kingdom, can not respect itself too highly as the cosmo-
thetic creator and bearer of the universe. And now comes, in-
terpolated between Berkeley and Hume, where this develop-

* See a suggestive argument on this point by A. Fraser, on Visualization as the
Chief Source of the Psychology of Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume, and an-
other on the Foundation of Natural Realism which he thinks to be touch. Am.
Jour, of Psychol., vol. iv, pp. 230, 429. See also ch. xvi, § vii (a).

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 47

ment stage should be both in the genetic and pedagogic order,
for they are its inevitable Nemesis, the great romantic period
of philosophizing. The soul, or rather one of its forms of ac-
tivity, speculative reason, proceeds to recreate from within or
posit the world, and to read a new title clear to what sense had
lost. It is all will and idea, or, Froschammer thinks, imagina-
tion ; the real and rational are identical. Nature is derived,
evolved, construed. The pantheistic soul of the individual, the
oracle of the world soul, the sole mouthpiece of God, itself
transcendent, is given a rank and dignity unprecedented in
many ways, even by preexistence theories, and the personal
soul of the thinker becomes a parvus in suo genere deus, the
organ of all the categories, and its self-consciousness is deemed
the blossom of all the world processes, with conscience the
vicegerent of the Divine, conviction immediate, the certainty
of reason almost convulsive, re-revealing religion, etc. This,
too, is the stage of the great postulates, Platonic myths of a
transcendental self, a world soul that creates by thinking, a
supernal will that is energy, ideas that are archetypal, a con-
science that is autonomous and absolute, etc.

But this ravishing interlude is soon seen to rest only on a
"transcendental subreption" in the Avernian progress of Carte-
sian doubt. Hume long before had taken the inevitable next
step ; the ego itself must go the way of the external world. We
can truly know only states of mind, and every inference, not
only of the existence of matter, of souls in animals and other
men, but of any subjective reality, is unwarranted by rigid
epistemological thinking that must be content to replow and
crossplow the same old fields of adult consciousness without
attempting to clear new land and bring it under cultivation.
The only possible logical conclusion is the nihilism of Gorgias.
Nothing exists ; if something did exist, we could not know it,
and if we knew anything, we could not tell it. We must doubt
even that we doubt, and may do this doubting the new doubt
indefinitely. The solipsistic involucre ends at last with only at
most the mental content of the present flitting moment, with
every inference to the reality not only of nature but of the
doubter, or even of other of his own states of mind not on the
instant present, denied, and so instead of a glorious soul there
remains only an inner void. There is no other goal for the

48 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

rigorous thinker, who has the courage of his convictions, than
to push on to this utter bankruptcy and abortion. Few have
the hardihood to take the extreme step, but many have had
their mental eyeballs seared by coming within sight of this
hell of complete skepticism and agnosticism. All such are
thereafter changed beings. The zest of life has faded as by
precocious senescence, so that they are a little aloof, Mahatmas,
who can never love, hate, enjoy nature and life without reserve,
and they can no longer live quite like those who have never ex-
perienced the great disenchantment. With a sense of superior
insight has come aridity of heart, and the intellect has enfeebled
the will. Few things are worth doing with enthusiasm and
abandon, unless it be to devise ways of escape, and to this some,
especially academic teachers, address themselves.^ I believe
this law to be vahd and often illustrated, viz., that, other things
being equal, the more rigorously and extremely the logic of
doubt has been applied in one's personal experience, the more
desperate the salto mortale he is prone to make to escape. Those
who have gone very far, may have recourse to some very satu-
rated form of religious orthodoxy, or spiritism in some of its
less crass modern forms, while those who have for any reason
paused midway on the downward road tend to have recourse
to the great postulates of romantic philosophy described in the
last paragraph.

Now such an experience, or indeed any very long, serious
and sympathetic work with extreme idealism and epistemology,
generally disqualifies for whole-souled work in any science,
and most of all in psychology considered as a natural science.
Such thinkers often attempt objective, inductive work in the
laboratory, clinic, etc., and often make brilliant suggestions,
but if it does not lack true scientific quality and show signs
of being amateurish and merely non-avocational, this work is
peculiarly prone to be upon speculative or insoluble questions
or to be marked by defective rigor of method, so that one great
need, especially now and in this country, is an effective demar-
cation between psychology as a science of nature and as a

1 See my College Philosophy, Forum, June, 1900, where I have tried to describe
the epistemological processes now in vogue of first losing the soul and then find-
ing a way of salvation.

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 49

branch of philosophy. Thus much of what is now called psy-
chology is half speculative philosophy, and if not hermaphrodite
and mongrel, as every editor in this field knows, much that is
offered it has at least the mark of hybridity, i.e., sterility, so that
large as it is now, it can have no future save in history as a
new type of scholasticism. Genetic psychology is still more
alien to the epistemologists, because they have their own
pseudogenesis of mind in the realm of speculation and intro-
spection.^

III. A third obstacle which genetic psychology encounters
has an instructive analogue in that which Darwinism had to
overcome in the wide-spread and almost inexpugnable convic-
tion that the study of living forms consisted in defining and
classifying genera and species, and that these were fixed and
intransmutable one into the other, and therefore, if the devel-
opment theory were established, instead of being near its goal,
biology would be shown to be really just beginning and the very
bases of classification thought to be established would be seen
to be many of them artificial. So psychogenesis seems utterly
lawless to most of the philosophers, even those who also affect
psychology. It has little respect for the narrow limits they
assign it and ignores their carefully laid down boundaries. It
knows and claims its own in logic, metaphysics, ethics, religion,
and pedagogy, in a way that perturbs the cartographer and tab-
ulator of all the fields of human knowledge. The philosophic
type of mind can do nothing without definitions at the start;
the psychologist is content to describe and shrinks from defin-
ing at all, at least, save at the end. The philosopher has his ste-
reotyped and conventionalized pigeon-holes — idealism, realism,
materialism, dogmatism, skepticism, positivism, intuitionalism,
empiricism, and the rest, and if he is above the partizanship
that uses the isms not his own as epithets, he classifies all think-
ers, ancient and contemporary, under one or another, bring-
ing these distinctions into the foreground as introductory or
propaedeutic courses, of which we have now so many illustra-
tions in current text-books and courses. The psychologist.

' See an exquisite illustration in Judd's Genetic Psychology for Teachers, New
York, 1903, which decries all genetic evolution save only that which comes from
the analysis of self-consciousness.
43

50

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

holding that all thinking men are all of these in differing pro-
portion and are any one of them at most, as it were, only by a
small majority, if they are not dwarfed or maimed, would, in
aching, bring his pupils into a relation of sympathetic appre-
ciation with each standpoint without bias or partiality ; both to
this end and also for pedagogic reasons, he defines and differ-
nti^tes these standpoints only after a broad basis of knowl-
dge has made them by turns, though unconsciously, but as
hcttly as possible, critics, pessimists, optimists, ontologists,
mepomenologists, materialists, idealists, and all the rest.

Oken's organosophy, assuming that animals are but fetal
'6rms of man, classified radiates as intestinal, annelids as res-
piratory, fishes as osseous, amphibia as muscular, birds as nerv-
ous animals, etc., calling each a crystallized thought or word
of God. Most philosophical classifications of systems, human
faculties and departments, and even sciences, are equally prone
to magnify one prominent part or function till it becomes the
chief or sole mark — an error that induction has long described
and warned against as due to underestimating the complexity
of nature, life, and mind. Theologians hold that men are
either Christians, fetish worshipers, Buddhists, Mohammed-
ans, Confucianists, etc., but the psychology of religion shows
that the individual who has a full and normal development is
essentially several, if not many or even all of these in turn, or
even at one and the same time.^ So in philosophy, age, mood,
culture-stage, perhaps sex, demand a differing succession of
isms already beginning to be slowly made out. Childhood is
sensual, materialistic, very dualistic; youth, ideal, optimistic;
manhood, realistic, positivistic ; and pessimism and especially
epistemology are essentially the fit philosophy of old age if of
any period of life. The history of philosophy teaches that the
mono-ideistic thinkers, who lived a lifetime in one system and
who are the types in whom the schematizers delight, either
stiffened in the mold by precociously formulating and defining
their ideas too early in life, ably defending in maturity the posi-
tion to which they chose to commit themselves with insufficient
orientation in youth, or else were the victims of an environment
or an age itself overwrought, one-sided, and extreme. Growth,

> See Jean Du Buy.
press.) Also ch. xiv.

Five Great Religions as Stages of Development. (In

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 5 1

on the other hand, is essentially non-logical and forever incon-
sistent with itself. The logic of the schools is ex post facto.
It follows after achievement and discovery, and at best tells a
little of how mind has achieved its triumphs in the past, warns
of errors, but it never either guided or inspired new steps.
Plato and Kant showed genetic progress despite the rigor of
their reasoning, and Schelling is still more instructive to the
geneticist, for he molted successive systems of thought, as
to some extent did Lotze and Fichte, although their meta-
morphoses were limited in both range and number. That some
day psychology will be able to give us, in place of the crude
phenomenologies and abstract constructions of the history of
philosophy from Hegel to our day, a true genetic, natural his-
tory of normal stages in human development, using systems as
human documents, somewhat as it now uses returns from chil-
dren, is a new, if yet a little dreamy, possibility, which, when it
is realized as it is sure to be sometime, will give a larger range
to our pilgrim's progress through life. If this ever be, there
will be not one Zarathustra, but several, and perhaps many vari-
eties, and they will not exemplify the present types of philoso-
phy as laid down in our introductions, but the psychology of
each will include all, only with characteristic diversities of
emphasis.

IV. All three of these tendencies contribute to what is
nevertheless in some sense a distinct and fourth obstacle to
genetic psychology, viz., the disposition to regard animals as
well as defectives, savages, and children as too remote from the
life of adult culture to shed much light upon the mature mind.

(a) There is a chasm, variously defined, deepened between
us and primitive people by prejudices which very few are able
to overcome, and recognize lower ethnic strata sympathetically
at their true worth. ^ " To know a typical savage is to love and
respect him," is the sentiment often expressed as the result of
long intimacy. They are only children and adolescents of
mature years, if unspoiled by civilization, with far more vigor-
ous bodies and often purer lives than ours, and perhaps in-
tended as relays to take up the burden of the world's progress

' See my article on The Relations between Lower and Higher Races. Proc.
Mass. Hist. Soc, January, 1903. Also chap, xviii.

52 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

on the center of the historic stage when we have gone the way
of Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Without knowing them and
their ways, we can not understand children, rehgion, or educa-
tion, our own earher history or that of our institutions, Man
was no doubt far longer in their state than they have been in
ours. We have had too little sympathy with the anthropol-
ogy of myth, custom, and belief, which, great as its achieve-
ments are, has won little academic recognition in curricula,
examinations, and degrees, and with which the philosoph-
ical psychologists fail to connect. Students of the soul
should be students of man, and the unanthropological character
of American psychology is not only un-American, but scien-
tifically so unnatural that it must be transient. Field work here
has a disciplinary and broadening effect, now one of the most
urgent needs of our too cloistered and sequestered work, but
to the speculative type of mind this seems remote, too purely
objective and hard. It is precisely psychological study that
is most needed for these vanishing races if we would truly
know ourselves, and only a profound conviction of the validity
and the value of psychic evolution can give the right motiva-
tion to this work.

(b) The same is true of defectives, criminals, and the in-
sane. There is the same lack of motivation and lukewarm
interest. Every truly inductive psychologist values above price
the few minute clinical and other personal studies of individual
cases which show devolutional phenomena, and feels that he
is helped on to know more of the stages by which man became
man and of the difficulties, and therefore dangers, of the ascent
still seen in adolescence. I know of but one or two American
universities in which a course in morbid psychology and clin-
ical work is part of the regular work of the department, and
although it is correlated with neurological work, even this is
confessedly inadequate. Our sophistic psychologists rarely
regard this work with contempt, and most of them not with
entire indifference, but so intent are they in their quest of the
Holy Grail of reality, or of the golden fleece of categories and
moral sanctions, that they neglect it unless it serves the pur-
pose of literary impressionism, illustration, or disputation.

(c) Animal psychology, or mind in the animal world, is
now happily less often an object of animosity or disparage-

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 53

ment. Descartes found that the impHcations in this field were
irreconcilable with his speculative system, and so non-suited
even the higher animals as non-intelligent and even senseless
automatisms, who did not really feel pain; despite the re-
cent revival of interest in a scientific as distinct from a specu-
lative treatment of the study of instinct, not only is his ques-
tion often treated seriously in texts and in class-rooms, but it
is incessantly reenforced by the sophistic argument that, as we
can not really know other minds or matter, we can much less
know the animal world, so that idealism not only makes no
contribution to this field, but disheartens those it interests from
attempting it. In this way, too, it countenances extreme views
of tropism like those of Loeb, and of mechanism like Bethe,
who says ants and bees have no interests for the psychologist.
Great as was the value of the triumph of the views of Marshall
Hall over those of Whytt, and of Pfliiger over those who held
to a spinal soul,^ mechanism, although always present, can just
as much, but no more, completely explain animal than human
conduct, and to eliminate sentiency and all analogies to human
life is only a grimace or affectation of science; this, as Forel
and others have shown, greatly limits both its scope and efii-
ciency, and is as extreme in one direction as the almost totemic
overestimation of animal sagacity by Jacobi, Fechner, and
others. Anthropomorphism here has a very important func-
tion, as well as limitation, both of which theorizers are so prone
to magnify.

The higher animals feel pleasure and pain and have many
algedonic experiences in common with us. They have our five
senses, memory, and attention, and most of our forms of reflex
action. They sleep, wake, feel hunger and thirst, form food-
societies, and much of their activity, like man's, is to satisfy
their wants. They have sexual sensations and desires, many
forms of courtship and showing off, sex-calls, songs, feel
rivalry and jealousy, and fight. They make homes often very
elaborate; shelter, defend, and feed their young. Fear is a
prominent factor in their conduct, as is anger and rage. They
have esthetic appreciation and preferences for color, form, and

• See my Sketch of the History of Reflex Action, and its continuation by Dr.
Hodge. Am. Jour, of Psy., vol. iii, pp. 71, 149.

54 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

action. They play, form families, associate in flocks, swarms,
coveys, packs, and droves, and often have highly developed
social organizations and classes, with communal sympathies.
Some kill the weak, make slaves, have great power of imitation,
make toilets, are educable, etc. They are liable to many of the
same diseases as we, have parasites, often suffer various forms
of insanity and degeneration,^ and have many of the symptoms
of old age. Some species are great collectors, and others cas-
trate their superfluous males. They migrate, organize, forage,
rob, hunt, take captives, feign death, and distract enemies that
are on their tracks.

Many animals do many things that man can not. They
have better homing instincts, estivate, hibernate, horripilate,
breed faster, have far keener and probably other senses, excel
us in speed, strength, and agility, and have ways of knowing
direction and the weather ; they weave, felt, plaster, make many
products, and conform to many conditions of life unfavorable
for man.

Of the many differences between the animal and the human
mind, the use and creation of tools and of clothes, the invention
of language, association by similarity, conscience and morality,
religion, progress, etc., have been urged, but those most familiar
with the brute mind and the recent literature upon it, while they
best know that the superiority of man in these respects is very
great, will be least disposed to deny to animals at least faint
rudiments in all these respects. There is then no absolute, but
only quantitative, differentiation. A late comparative psychol-
ogist boldly figured out the ratio of 50-28 as marking the rela-
tive psychic powers of lower races of men and higher animals
respectively.

(d) The same, in changed terms, is true of childhood and
youth, the value of the study of which I hope this book shows.

With all four of the above tendencies, a psychology that
refuses to evict common sense both in the popular sense and in
that of the Scotch philosophy which short-circuits the Kantian
detour; that would regard the chief writers, from Descartes

' See the instructive and too little known volume of Pierquin: Traits de la
Folie des Animaux. Paris, 1839.

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 55

to Hegel, as a philosophic intermezzo, which, while full of ex-
hilaration and rich in lessons, replete with interest and instruc-
tion, is not essential for its purposes, save as a precious human
document and warning ; that seeks a pure culture of naturalism
and induction ; that believes that neither the world nor the soul
is lost, and that nature and mind have the same root; that holds
that mind is invisible nature even though nature be not verified
by empirical methods as visible mind; that puts custom above
law and convention, and instinct, feeling, and impulse above
both ; that is not a cave of the winds, a hybrid of metaphysics
and science ; that will be neither bastardized nor marooned by
morosophs who would limit its scope and affect disappointment
in its work either in the laboratory or with animals or children,
because it does not solve their scholastic problems — assuredly
makes some havoc. Psychic is even more upsetting than bio-
logical evolution, for it lies nearer to all human and practical
interests. But it renders instant aid in education, science, and
religion. It turns with profound interest to the past of the
soul, is not concerned chiefly with the future, and studies
its embodied rather than its disembodied life. Its cardinal
principle is nemo psychologus nisi biologiis, so inseparable are
life and mind. It sees remarkable parallels between the present
state of the disciplines that now deal with mind and soul and
those which dealt with life just before Darwin, and anticipates
from its work a similar period of debate, followed by an analo-
gous new life in all these branches in the near future. As phys-
ical nature could hardly be really taught before the develop-
ment hypothesis, so psychic natures now so misrepresented can
not be properly taught, or will at least then be far more effec-
tively taught, and not only without the present mental wreck-
age, but with vast moral and intellectual economies. It prefers
a long program of hard work yet to be done to a sense of com-
placency in any present finalities. It appeals to the really young,
and would appreciate and meet adolescent needs rather than
deal in sad insights which belong only to senescence, whether
normal or precocious. It believes youth the golden age of life,
the child the consummate flower of creation, and most of all
things worthy of love, reverence, and study. It regards educa-
tion as man's chief problem, and the home, school, state, and
church valuable exactly in proportion as they serve it. When it

so THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

finds the order of nature in teaching lost, often inverted, growth
arrested, the all-sided expansion it should bring restricted, it
realizes that even pure science, including those departments
that deal with mind, is not for its own sake, but that it becomes
pure precisely as it becomes useful in bringing a race to ever
more complete maturity.^

1 Some have urged that every parent knows childhood and youth by instinct ;
but the soul is surely as complex as the body or its diseases, which no parent as
such pretends to understand. Others insist that the genetic study of childhood is
a popular and non-academic movement; and so it is, both for good and for evil,
the first, because it rebases our department on broader foundations and makes us
feel again the magnetic thrill of touching life and the perennial concerns of parent-
hood; interests the public in research in a vital, practical way that has already
yielded many benefits and promises far more ; develops a momentum of new
humanistic interest in the reminiscent that will shape and vivify the academic work
of the future ; and the last, because its evils are those incident to lusty infancy, and
only growth can give it ever better methods and increased facilities. It was as in-
dispensable, as in the day of the Reformation, to go outside the narrow limits of
over-sublimated systems to appeal to fresh, original sources in the VolA-sovil and
face the dangers of followers where zeal was too untempered by knowledge in the
faith already rapidly justifying itself that these would be soon left behind as rigor-
ous methods developed. Others have objected that results were crude masses of
facts unsystematized, uninterpreted, unreasoned, and this was in part true and in-
evitable at an early stage of such a movement, for it was a new ore and the
method of refinement hard to learn, but the foundations of a great structure are
already laid in some parts and in others well begun, into which this material
will be built, not, of course, without waste aud some refuse. One eminent
psychologist declared to a large audience, with great applause, that his children
should be loved and never studied, for it was an injurious interference with
nature. But is love less or greater if made intelligent, and may, nay, ought,
we not to study in order to best serve and develop our children, and is not half
our lesson to let alone and trust nature more and to keep them in this paradise of
unconsciousness ? Others say the adult mind is the psychologist's only Bible and
oracle, for in it the human plant blossoms ; but very much is lost in infancy that
never comes to maturity, and these factors are often vital for life, training, and
science. Moreover, this argument would rule out embryology and find everything
needed in adult anatomy. As was said of evolution, no one who has studied psy-
chogenesis carefully and candidly has been unconvinced by it, if they have not
crossed the dead line of age. In our land and period of decreasing offspring, it
has made children more desired ; it has given a new fruitful topic to thousands of
culture clubs of men, and especially of women ; it has found a fulcrum and placed its
lever under our educational system and an era of transformation has already begun ;
it has already shed new light on the origin and development of language, myth,
and more yet of religion ; and is now rapidly establishing itself in academic life
and work. The new danger that now looms in the pathway is that too much will
be expected of it too soon. Finally, some of these objections involve views of
childhood as false to fact and as atrocious scientifically as was the Calvinistic doc-
trine of total and innate infant depravity, morally and religiously.

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 57

Back of all the determined facts of proportionate physical
growth in the average boy or girl, so rich, as we have seen,
already in the quality of suggestiveness (the best of all indi-
cations of a great future development of a subject) lies a mass
of nascent questions like the dim baby faces artists depict in
the background of the nativity as a cloud of witnesses who are
to people the earth in the future. How wide is the range of
individual differences in the temporal order in which parts ap-
pear and what are the facts and laws of heterochrony; what
influences cause the slow secular transpositions now going on
in the race and individuals ; why are females virified and males
feminized in their gerontic stages as the secondary qualities of
each were latent in the other but were suppressed during the
reproductive period; what are the psychic units and subunits
of variation each under the control of its own hypothetical
determinant ; how shall we conceive the central principle which,
despite the struggle of part against part for its food supply
from the blood, preserves such harmony that the development
or arrest of each also acts as a stimulus to the development
or arrest of others, so that, while the elements vary so inde-
pendently, their growth is still so well correlated, coordinated,
and subordinated with each other ? Such problems can not be
answered till we can compare, far more fully than we are now
able to do, on a far broader basis of fact, with less diverse
methods and less uncertain and contradictory results, growth
of all the larger parts like those indicated in Chapters I and II,
with the embryological and infantile changes in each rudimen-
tary organ, especially of all the animal forms in man's pedigree,
and also, as I believe, till we have a parallel embryology of the
psyche, now just beginning its yet more significant develop-
ment. The soul is as much, but no more, an organized unity
than the body ; reflects the growth not of the brain alone, but
of every part and organ ; has powers in every stage of nascency
and decadence like it ; is now hindered and now forwarded by
every advance and regress of every organ, as organs themselves
are, sometimes directly, sometimes indirectly, always accord-
ing to the fulness or scantiness of the tides of life. Both
mind and body have the same haunting and persistent prob-
lems concerning the relations of innateness and heredity versus
environment and individual experience. Puberty is not with-

58 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

out analogues to birth and teething. In each of these three
crises new structures come to the front. In adolescence,
individuation is suddenly augmented and begins to sense
its limits and its gradual subordination to the race which
the Fates prescribe. Each of these epochs is no whit less
significant for the evolution of the soul in ways we must now
labor to discover and delineate. It is no less profoundly
sexed than the body. Its nature is no more absolute and un-
changeable. It, too, is a mobilized and moving equilibrium.
Much once central is now lapsed, submerged, instinctive, or
even reflex, and much once latent and budding is now potent
and in the focus of consciousness for our multiplex, com-
pounded and recompounded personality. It is real progress
in this direction that psychology has found a new center in the
will, served by a motor apparatus that is seventy-two per cent
of the body weight; that we have just begun to peep beneath
the threshold of consciousness, like toilers that have just real-
ized that there is a mine of untold wealth beneath their factory
which makes it and all its output of comparatively small value,
full, as some still deem the subconscious, of ghosts and shades
of the departed.

Especially in the study of sentiments and feelings to which
experimental psychology is now tending and regarding as its
next step, are the results of this Cartesian neglect of lower soul-
types, paralleled by Herbart's degrading concept of feeling as
the friction and detritus of mutually impinging ideas and of
excessive introspection now apparent in the paucity or aridity
of literature almost proverbial among students of childhood
and adolescence. Are all forms of pain identical, or are there
many pains ; is pain a sensation itself or a form of sensation ;
is there a neutral state between pleasure and pain; are there
pure states of feeling devoid of intellectual elements; is the
Lange- James theory right or wrong — these are surds insolv-
able by any conceivable crucial test. These problems isolate us
in barren formulae, but charm disputative, literary, speculative
minds, make parties, attract the scholastic temper, but repel
the investigator who is chiefly drawn to problems that in the
present state of knowledge admit rather than preclude solu-
tions. We seek nothing less than to raise new problems, find
different methods of approach, and bring about a transvaluation

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 59

generally, and we hold that on many of the points in the older
regime of the soul, our simple data, even though often crude
and meager, dispraised by the studio psychologists as merely
descriptive, inductive, or observational, are better data than all
the books, ancient or contemporary, contain. They upset many
theories and definitions, but have all the promise and potency
of cumulative facts and fresh problems, and suggest morning,
and not evening, of finished work.

There are other more general difficulties, now apparent,
which beset the specific study of our emotional nature. First,
in our day and civilization, the hot life of feeling is remote and
decadent. Culture represses, and intellect saps the root. The
very word passion is becoming obsolete in psychological litera-
ture, which on this subject elementarizes, repeats, is pedantic,
or affectedly didactic. The life of feeling has its prime in
youth, and we are prematurely old and too often senile in heart.
What does the psychologist of the study know of hate that
makes men mad or bestial, of love that is not only uncalculating
but is stronger than life, of fear that shakes the pulses, and
courage that faces death in its crudest forms unflinchingly, of
the wager of battle where men fight beasts or each other with
teeth and knives and spitting revolvers, of torture, of joy that
threatens sanity? Our sensibilities are refined, but our per-
spective is narrow, our experiences serene and regular, we are
protected, our very philosophy as well as our religion sup-
presses and looks with some contempt even upon enthusiasm
in matters of the cold reason. We have experienced no soul-
quaking reconstruction of our souls like Paul, Augustine, or
Luther, we are anemic and more prone to deny than to believe,
to speculate than to do, and we turn to novels and the theater
for catharsis of our emotions. Our sentiments are oversub-
tilized and sophisticated and reduced to puny reactions to music
and appreciation of art that are nine parts criticism and one
part appreciation. What we have felt is second-hand, bookish,
shop-worn, and the heart is parched and bankrupt. We can
hardly keep alive even the hearty and frank jealousies, aver-
sions, and sympathies of our own divergent psychologic theo-
ries, as if our deeper soul felt their inanity, and so the stagna-
tion that healthful controversies and polemics prevent, slowly
supervenes.

6o THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Happily for our craft, the child and youth appear at the
truly psychological moment, freighted, as they are, body and
soul, with reminiscences of what we were so fast losing. The);^
are abandoned to joy, grief, passion, fear, and rage. They are
bashful, show off, weep, laugh, desire, are curious, eager, re-
gret, and swell with passion, not knowing that these last two
are especially outlawed by our guild. There is color in their
souls, brilliant, livid, loud. Their hearts are yet young, fresh,
and in the golden age. Despite our lessening fecundity, our
over-schooling, "city-fication," and spoiling, the affectations
we instil and the repressions we practise, they are still the light
and hope of the world especially to us, who would know more
of the soul of man and would penetrate to its deeper strata
and study its origins.

Back of them, too, lies the great animal world, where often
each species seems essentially but a feeling-instinct embodied,
as the carnivora's cruelty, the rabbit's timidity, or the peacock's
ostentation. A true science of character that goes beyond
eye, ear, and motor mindedness, or activity and passivity, can
not dispense with the deeper, older, and more fixed unary
or binary or at most ternary compounds that were matured
and compacted before man arose. In the new tentatives in
ethology also, it is already apparent that true types of char-
acter can be determined only by studying the animal world;
that man, e.g., inherits some of the aggressiveness of the car-
nivora and the timidity and deceit of creatures long preyed
upon. Indeed, each animal group may represent some one
quality in great excess, the high selective value of which made
possible the development and survival of a species, genus, or
group. It should not be forgotten that such psychological
classification of psychic types may cross-section morphological
divisions of species and genera. Each character type is thus
a fulfilled possibility of development in some specific direction,
and in man is based on unconscious, instinctive, prehuman, or
animal traits, the elements of which are combined into aggre-
gates of greater or less cohesion according to age or persistence
in time, etc. This, of course, must be supplemented, first, by a
quite independent study of the forms of degeneration ; and, sec-
ondly, of the marked traits and dispositions in normal persons ;
and when the conclusions from all three classes of data concur,

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 6 1

we may infer that we have a trait of more or less typical value.
Individual psychology differs thus from comparative psychol-
ogy chiefly in the fact that the former is concerned with slighter
and more delicate variations, man's mode of adaptation being
finer and more specific. These general considerations, to be
treated more fully elsewhere, are here adverted to only to
explain the general psychonomic law which assumes that we
are influenced in our deeper, more temperamental dispositions
by the life-habits and codes of conduct of we know not what
unnumbered hosts of ancestors, which like a cloud of witnesses
are present throughout our lives, and that our souls are echo-
chambers in which their whispers reverberate.

Assuming thus that the feeling-instincts of whatever name
are the psychophores or bearers of mental heredity in us, some
of which persist below the threshold of consciousness through-
out our lives, while others are made over as instincts or are
transformed to habits into directions of the will more or less
persistent, we thus cross-section old methods and can approach
this study with a mental horizon vastly widened and with an
historic sense less atrophied. We have to deal with the arche-
ology of mind, with zones or strata which precede consciousness
as we know it, compared to which even it, and especially cult-
ured intellect, is an upstart novelty, with everywhere a fuller
and clearer expression of a part of the soul, but always partial,
one-sided, and more accidental and precarious. Both the degree
and the direction of development of intellect vary more with
age, sex, environment, etc., and sharpen individuality, while
the instinct-feelings in each person are broader, deeper, and
more nearly comprehensive of the traits of the whole human
race. It is in the latter alone that man is a microcosm, com-
prising anything like the large totality of human experience,
so that for it, and not for conscious mind, it can be said that
nothing human or prehuman is alien. These radicals of man's
psychic life, while some of them are decadent, rudimentary,
and superseded, are often important just in proportion to the
depth of the phylogenetic strata into which they strike their
roots. Hunger, love, pride, and many other instinctive feel-
ings, to say nothing of pleasure and pain, can be traced far
down through the scale of vertebrate and to invertebrate life.

It is plain, for these reasons, that they must be studied

62 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

objectively and by careful observational methods, and that the
genetic psychologist, while he must use introspection in the
old way, or reenforced and perfected by experimental methods
wherever they serve his purpose, will find it necessary, almost in
exact proportion as his work becomes fundamental, to gather
his data empirically from the comparative study of lower forms
of life and of children and from the collation of the varied inner
and outer experiences of many minds besides his own. Thus
the psychologist of the future, if his science is to have a future,
must turn to the past, by which alone it can be judged, and if
he would be prophetic and helpful must move more freely with
a far larger command of data up and down the phyletic scale.
Thus, too, our ideals of what the most perfect knowledge of
any fact or object really is, are coming to be more and more
genetic. We really know things only when we trace their de-
velopment from the farthest beginning through all their stages
to maximal maturity and decay. Thus we shall never truly
know ourselves till we know the mind of animals, and most
especially those in our line of descent. We must recognize that
some of them are our superiors in certain respects ; that while
we explain them by explication of those traits wherein we excel,
they no whit less explain us by those of their traits which are
superior to ours and of which our souls contain only relics;
that if in general we are their realized entelechy, they are the
key by which alone we can unlock many of the mysteries of our
own origin and nature.

Thus again the same revolution in the studies that deal with
soul impends that von Baer and Darwin represented for the
body. Before their day, everything was classification, nomen-
clature, fixed species, just as with the pregenetic psychologists
everything was faculties and processes, analyses and categories,
as if the adult human mind, as we know it, were a fixed and
settled thing. From the new standpoint, the human soul is one
of many types of mind in the world. At best it may be a tran-
sition from a lower to a higher race to be evolved later. It is
perhaps a temporary and accidental form which force or life has
taken on in the world. If it is like a species, a stage of evolu-
tion, interrupted at a definite point, we can not truly know it
until we have traced out all the roots and branches of the buried
tree of its pedigree. We must study its changing phases histor-

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 63

ically. We can not know mind till we know minds. It is well
not entirely to forget that in the great cosmic order revealed
to the evolutionist, the mind, which modern analysts so care-
fully dissect, may be merely a developmental stage of that of
a higher type as much above us as we are above the dwellers in
Lemuria ; that sometime even it may be studied as a link be-
tween the higher and the lower, and that it may itself some
day become a missing one.

More summarily, then, the idea of soul we hold to is in its
lower stages indistinguishable from that of life, and so far
in a sense we revert to Aristotle in holding that any truly sci-
entific psychology must be first of all biological. Mind is al-
most, possibly quite, coextensive with life, at least animal
life. Its most fundamental and primary expression may be
characterized in Schopenhauer's phrase, the will to live. It can
hardly be distinguished in rudimentary organisms from the
nisus a tergo in its multiform manifestations which underlies
growth, reproduction, and the struggle for survival generally.
Soul is characterized by responses to the present environment
that are exquisite, incessant, and all-sided, but is also pervaded
by the more or less permanently registered traces of past re-
sponses which lie far outside of and beyond our personal ex-
perience. The first chapter of a scientific psychology, then, is
metabolic and nutritive, and the first function of the soul is, as
we saw in the last chapter, in food-getting, assimilation, and
dissimilation. Whether it be conceived as spiritual or subtly
natural, it is related to soft protoplasmic parts, somewhat as
they are to the hard parts preserved and studied in paleontol-
ogy. Just as soft parts are primary and shape hard parts, are
more vital, plastic, and also more retentive of impression, so
soul is related to body generally. Conceptions of idioplasm,
psychoplasm, germplasm as distinct from somatic elements,
help us on toward more adequate soul concepts. Mind and life
are one and inseparable. Soul is thus at bottom homogeneous
and also continuous throughout the animal kingdom, the chief
differences being in degree and proportion. There are as many
types of mind as of body, and vice versa, and we can truly know
soul only through body, and conversely, can know body only
through the soul. A brain without a mind is as impossible as
a mind without a brain, every normal and pathological change

64 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

in either affecting the other. Whatever soul stuff may or may
not be, it is most susceptible and responsive to all present influ-
ences, and also, in a yet far deeper sense, most pervaded with
reverberations from an immeasurable past. As Heraclitus says,
" None can find the roots of soul, in such depths does it hide."
Consciousness and personality are far later, modal, attributive,
and specific determinations — irrelevant to a psychologia prima.

From this it follows that much if not most soul is lost.
With every extinct species of animal life a soul type also van-
ished irrecoverably from the world, and as dead far outnumber
living varieties, the great body of soul is irrecoverable by psy-
chologists; thus the world of soul must remain fragmentary,
and many faculties, traits, and genetic stages are gone forever.
Man can with great difficulty form any conception of how the
world appeared to the majority of even existing animal types;
what their senses were and could do ; what perceptive elements
they were sensitized to ; what their instincts and their organs
were; how they reared their young, obtained their food, mated,
fought their enemies, organized their societies, etc. Many of
them are in our pedigree, and we inherit the stored results of
this experience, but of how it was stored up we know little. It
is hard enough for us to understand, after generations of study,
what photodermatism means as a form of sense, or how the
world looks through the ant's nose, hand or odor-contact or-
gans, and how much more inaccessible the psychromes of van-
ished genera.

It is just because we have thus come into possession of a
vast and relatively sudden wealth, which we did not acquire,
that the world often seems unreal to us and we try tO' validate
it by strident and curious arguments which can never vicariate
for the actual experiences we prate of, but which, vast as they
were, must ever remain dim and unexplored, like a submerged
continent once full of life, now only of buried secrets. Our
own soul is full in all its parts of faint hints, rudimentary
specters flitting for an instant at some moment of our indi-
vidual life and then gone forever, dim and scarcely audible mur-
murs of a great and prolonged life, hot, intense, richly dight
with incident and detail that is no more; a slight automatism,
perhaps, being the sole relic of the most central experiences
of many generations, a fleeting fancy all that survives of ages

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 65

of toil and blood, a feeling that only peeps out for a moment
in infancy, the far-off dying echo of what was once the voice
of a great multitude. Yet these psychophores, whatever they
are, are wax to receive and marble to retain. Thus soul is truly
telepathic only to its own past, and thus these limitations are
nearly every one of our remote psychic pedigree, or of the
present, and never of a future state. The automatic or ancestral
and the plastic and adaptive constantly interact and influence
each other, the former predominating most in animals, but also
profoundly influencing man. The former is somehow repre-
sented in the lower, and the latter in the higher, brain levels,
the sequence up the cord, medulla, basal ganglia, cerebellum be-
ing a better picture of the real evolution of mind when we can
read its meaning aright than the chambered nautilus gives us
of its stages of growth.

Many of these archeopsychisms penetrate at times up to
consciousness. They pass up over we know not how many
thresholds and invade the adult mind. Even the soma itself
is resonant in every cell, fiber, and reflex arc with these remi-
niscences of extinct generations. Our souls are phyletic long
before and far more than they are individual. Each has, at
least ideally, a capacity to comprehend much if not most of
the experience of the race from the beginning, but this experi-
ence is dormant in us unless brought out by objective life or
observation. It is also the only reservoir and storehouse of
introspection. But even our line of descent is restricted, and if
we had all that our heredity could possibly bestow, we should be
but specialized and partial beings. It is not inconceivable or
even impossible that many a species that has become extinct
took with it out of the world the promise and potency of a
higher psychic development than that of man, but of a radically
different type from his. In the annelid or amphioxus stage
there was little promise of man who has since sprung from it.
Although the highest being that is, he is not perhaps the high-
est, or even among the highest, that might have been, to say
nothing of what we know nothing of — what may be in other
planets, or that will be on ours. The best and only key to truly
explain mind in man is mind in the animals he has sprung from
and in his own infancy, which so faintly recapitulates them;
for about every property of the human mind is found in animal
44

66 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

mind, as those of higher animals are found in the powers of
the lower.

Each species is a special set of reactions and adaptations to
a certain environment and illustrates a moving equilibrium of
forces. Now much that was in the past has quite lapsed from
consciousness, and therefore can only be studied in motor re-
sponses and subconscious psychoses objectively, empirically,
and inductively, so that introspection, upon which so much of
the philosophy of the past and present rests, is narrow, pro-
vincial, and perhaps merely terminal, and possibly even in some
sense degenerative. Thus observation must supplement self-
analysis, which is merely individual and now often even con-
fessedly solipsistic and abortive. The conscious adult person
is not a monad reflecting the universe, but a fragment broken
off and detached from the great world of soul, always maimed,
defined by special limitations, like, yet different, from all others,
with some incommensurability parting it off as something
unique, well fitted to illustrate some aspects and hopelessly un-
able to exemplify or even know other regions in the cosmos
of soul. The very self-consciousness that burns so intensely at
some point, with attention often so obsessive, blinds us from
seeing the larger rest of our selves. Not so much our birth,
but every year of growth and every degree of mental illumina-
tion, " is a forgetting " of preexisting states and involves a
lapse of other sections and activities of soul, as it were, to
lower meristic levels, of which augmented self-consciousness
involves progressive ignorance.

Highest, narrowest, most apical, and mobile as a tongue
of flame is the attentive state of the present flitting moment,
related to general personal mind a little as it to the impersonal
phyletic, or as it again to general soul. Greatest in intent and
least in extent, most foreground and least background, natural,
spontaneous attention, with all its special problems and all its
marvelous, somatic, and psychic effects, is often in form farthest
of all from the depths wherein soul life began. It is most
specialized and least germinal. Like the soma of highly special-
ized organs, it is most ancillary and most in evidence, but is
really valuable only as it serves psychoses, which it can no more
see than the sun can see shadows. All psychology that starts
or ends here is deciduous. The soul, as it conceives it, is not

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 67

worth saving, although personal immortality, as we have seen,
is often the dominant note in thought thus centered. Indeed,
the salvation motive that in our day often becomes almost hys-
terical is profoundly antiscientific, and the immortality pros-
pectors that neglect the past are enemies of real knowledge or
sound investigation in this field. The true researcher must be
as indifferent to his own salvability as pure science is to crass
utility or profit-making, or as the absolute moralist is to pleas-
ure or pain here or hereafter. Till our science can cut entirely
loose from every soteriological influence and drop the future,
which has its true place for study elsewhere, and turn to the
past, it can not flourish.

We can not believe that consciousness is even quite the ef-
florescence of the human plant. It may be a wart raised by the
sting of sin, a product of alienation or a remedial process. We
have no warrant that natural selection or the law of the survival
of the fittest determines what rises above the highest of the
series of thresholds in mind. Consciousness seems in some of
its aspects more likely a fall or a process of purgation so far as
it is merely adaptive, and that which is best and survives is that
which sinks deepest, beyond the test of recallability, and so be-
comes most fundamental whether as mental act or organ. In
lower forms of life, thought is motion, and later consciousness
seems to develop inversely as movement. Feeling may be de-
specialization, dissolution, and preliminary to evolution along
new lines. The moving phantasmagoria of images and con-
scious objects are not the chief facts of mind, as are the many-
voiced comments, the sense of assent and dissent, pleasure and
pain, the illation of strength or the esthetic responses, the play
of intuitions, the impulses to do or not to do, automatic ten-
sions or contractions. These are not epiphenomenal, but
noumenal in soul life, its palmary facts and experiences.

Conscious life, too, in the best of us is pitifully unorganized
and loose-jointed, and it differs perhaps most from the body
in its fragmentary, incomplete, and heterogeneous nature. The
sanest soul can not escape many mild or incipient insanities,
and the most vigorous bear many marks of degeneration. Since
writing made permanent records possible, the mind has reared
the sublime structure of science, the greatest achievement of
the soul thus far, but a very few out of vast multitudes have

68 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

done all the work, and any single individual, even the best, but
a very small part. Marvelous as the brain is, we have probably
yet learned but little how to use or control it, and are still in-
fants of mind. As we know more of it, it seems built layer
upon layer of partly isolated yet strangely interacting strata.
Very ancient hereditary tendencies often push up perhaps even
into consciousness, or affect conduct as if striving to be relived
and competing for the focus of attention or perhaps leading a
submerged life in nearly faded automatisms. Layers are often
reversed. Perhaps man acquired his massive brain largely in
fighting the great reptiles and mammals of past ages, but now
in the individual it is developed very early in life, and so
reproduction, although phyletically it develops very early,
is now in the individual almost the last power to be evolved
to normal function. Some psychic elements are hypertro-
phied and some latent and dumb. There are sudden resur-
gences of long-forgotten facts, and feelings and impulses of
an immeasurable past, while recent salient occurrences often
appear to sink to fathomless oblivion. Other experiences
and traits, that ought to be less stable because later ac-
quired, are sometimes suddenly fixed like adamant with no
apparent cause. Instead of the old classic unity, consciousness
tends to break up into disparate personalities in each of us, and
each mood and time has its own association plexus and its own
character. Dreams and narcotics shatter it or dissolve it into
nebulous clouds, anger and passion seize the rein and we are
demented and bestial for a time. While, on the whole, nor-
mal qualities usually have superior momentum and survival
power, they may be choked and overcome by lush weeds of
vice. Who that is honest and has true self-knowledge will not
confess to recognizing in his own soul the germs and possi-
bilities of about every crime, vice, insanity, superstition, and
folly in conduct he ever heard of? Taine thought every im-
pression tended to burgeon to illusory or hallucinatory inten-
sity, and that each was kept from doing so by collision with op-
posite ones, and thus something like sanity is preserved by an
equilibrium or balance between many lunacies. Barbaric and
animal traits and instincts jostle and mix with each other in
leaderless mobs of impression. Reason makes in every age
errors almost as colossal as superstition with which it is often

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 69

veined. In all this flux and chaos, however, common sense,
that knows and adjusts to facts and to the external world, and
the sciences of nature are the two solidest of all foundations
and are represented by the soundest and most firmly woven
brain texture; if man can ever bring order into the rest
of his confused psychic life it must be by going back to these
and working out and upward from them by observational
methods in the inner as well as the outer world.

Thus, in fine, the psyche is a quantum and direction of
vital energy, the processes of which most need exploration and
description, ordering and directing. By looking inward, we
see for the most part only the topmost twigs of the buried tree
of mind. The real ego is a spark struck off from the central
source of all being, freighted with meanings that, could we
interpret them, would give us the salient facts of its develop-
ment history. Its essence is its processes of becoming. It is
not a fixed, abiding thing, but grew out of antecedent soul
states as different from its present forms as protoplasm is from
the mature body. It tends to vary constantly and to depart
indefinitely from what it is at any given moment. Every ele-
ment has shaped and tempered it. Its long experience with
light and darkness, day and night, has fashioned its rhythm
indelibly. Heat and cold, the flickering of flame, smoke and
ashes, especially since man learned the control of fire, have
oriented it toward both thermal extremes. Cloud forms have
almost created the imagination. Water and a long apprentice-
ship to aquatics and arboreal life have left as plain and indelible
marks upon the soul as upon the body. Sky, stars, wind,
storms, fetishism, flowers, animals, ancient battles, industries,
occupations, and worship have polarized the soul to fear and
affection, and created anger and pity. The superficial phe-
nomena change, but all the deeper roots of the soul strike down
and back to a past that long preceded history. The soul is thus
a product of heredity. As such, it has been hammered, molded,
shocked, and worked by the stern law of labor and suffering
into its present crude form. It is covered with scars and
wounds not yet healed. It is still in the rough, and patch-
worky, full of contradictions, although the most marvelous of
all the products of nature. Where most educated and polished
externally, it still has inner veins where barbaric and animal

70 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

impulses are felt. Every individual soul is marked by limita-
tions, defects, and arrests, often beside traits of marvelous
beauty and virtue. None are complete, perfect, typical. Collec-
tive soul, however, is a sensorium of wondrous subtlety that re-
flects in its multipersonal facets most, perhaps all, that has been
in the world. Our present quest is to detect some characteristic
changes at that age of life when a certain group of powers
emerges from the past; when heredity is bestowing its latest
and therefore highest gifts ; when the mind is most exquisitely
sensitized to the aspects of nature and to social life, is repeat-
ing most rapidly the later neopsychic stages of phyletic expe-
riences, and laying on this foundation the corner-stones of a
new and unique adult personality.

These considerations must serve here to define the stand-
point from which we now proceed to consider the more specific
psychic changes which mark adolescence. We here face prob-
lems both more complex and more inaccessible than those con-
nected with the somatic changes. The most important and
basal of these are connected with the fact that powers and facul-
ties, essentially non-existent before, are now born, and of all
the older impulses and instincts some are reenforced and
greatly developed, while others are subordinated, so that new
relations are established and the ego finds a new center. In
connection with the reproduction function, love is born with all
its attendant passions — jealousy, rivalry, and all the manifold
phenomena of human courtship. All the previous religious
sentiments are regenerated and some now arise for the first
time, motivating a wide plexus of new psychic relations be-
tween the individual and the race, and irradiating to the
cosmos. Nature is felt and plays upon the soul with all its rich
orchestra of influences. Art at this time may become an enthu-
siasm and is now first deeply and truly felt, even though it had
been known and practised before. The ethical life is immensely
broadened and deepened, because now a far deeper possibility
and sense of sin and impurity arises. The floodgates of hered-
ity are thrown open again somewhat as in infancy. As in the
prenatal and infant stage man hears from his remoter fore-
bears back perhaps to primitive organisms, now the later and
higher ancestry takes up the burden of the song of life, and the

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 7 1

voices of our extinct and perhaps forgotten, and our later and
more human ancestry, are heard in the soul. Just as in the first
birth the gifts of nature are of fundamental psycho-physic qual-
ities, which are later elaborated and differentiated by develop-
ment, so now her rich dotations are generic, and the accessory
qualities that are unfolded out of them arise slowly from the
feelings, instincts, impulses, dispositions, Anlangen and Triebe,
which are the products of this later heritage.

In some respects, early adolescence is thus the infancy of
man's higher nature, when he receives from the great all-
mother his last capital of energy and evolutionary momentum.
Thus the child is father of the man, far older and conditioning
his nature. He is at the same time reduced back to a state of
nature, so far as some of the highest faculties are concerned,
again helpless, in need not only of guidance but of shelter and
protection. His knowledge of self is less adequate and he must
slowly work out his salvation. Character, temperament, emo-
tions, and appetites are changed ; the youth moves about in both
an inner and an outer world unrealized. The parent and
teacher must understand that mother nature has again taken
her child upon her knee and must stand off a little to see and
make room for her more perfect education. These years again,
like infancy, should be sacred to heredity, and we should have
a good warrant indeed before we venture to interfere with its
processes.

Psychic adolescence is heralded by all-sided mobilization.
The child from nine to twelve is well adjusted to his environ-
ment and proportionately developed ; he represents probably an
old and relatively perfected stage of race-maturity, still in some
sense and degree feasible in warm climates, which, as we have
previously urged, stands for a long-continued one, a terminal
stage of human development at some post-simian point. At
dawning adolescence this old unity and harmony with nature is
broken up ; the child is driven from his paradise and must enter
upon a long viaticum of ascent, must conquer a higher kingdom
of man for himself, break out a new sphere, and evolve a more
modern story to his psycho-physical nature. Because his en-
vironment is to be far more complex, the combinations are less
stable, the ascent less easy and secure ; there is more danger that

72 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

the youth in his upward progress, under the influence of this
"excelsior" motive, will backslide in one or several of the many-
ways possible. New dangers threaten on all sides. It is the
most critical stage of life, because failure to mount almost al-
ways means retrogression, degeneracy, or fall. One may be in
all respects better or worse, but can never be the same. The
old level is left forever. Perhaps the myth of Adam and
Eden describe this epoch. The consciousness of childhood
is molted, and a new, larger, better consciousness must be
developed, or increased exposure and vulnerability will bring
deterioration. Before this, boys and girls have been inter-
ested largely in those of their own age and have had little
interest in their future or in the life of adults. Their own life
is too varied, intense, and absorbing. But the soul now realizes
in a deeper sense the meaning of maturity and is protensive
toward its higher plateau. Slowly the color and life fade from
juvenile interests, which are deciduous like foliage or like milk
teeth. Vocations beckon first faintly, and then more and more
imperatively. Hero worship arises ; youth aspires to excel, first
perhaps by the order of nature in athletic contests, then in those
of the mind. The young savage can not attain his new name or
be initiated into adolescence until he has shown prowess or won
some fame as a doer of deeds, as, e.g., by killing some large
animal or in successful head-hunting. It is perhaps on the
athletic field that youth has his first taste of gratified ambition
and is fired thereby to constant discontent and Sehnsucht there-
after. He longs to struggle, make an effort, combat, loves a
hard and strenuous and scorns an easy life. The great deeds
and lives and prizes in the human world never shine so bright,
seem so near, or beckon so alluringly. The youth wills all that
he must or can; would be wise, strong, famous, talented,
learned, rich, loved, and withal good and perfect. When
the thought of death forces its presence upon his soul, though
at first cast down, he reacts by immortal longings. The tran-
scendental world opens before him ; he dreams of an ideal
future of the race or of a heaven where all his wishes shall be
realized in the glory of the world to be; and in these. " vague
snatches of Uranian antiphony," instead of its finding remi-
niscences of the preexistent state of the soul, the more progres-
sive Occidental world sees anticipations of a future immortality,

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 73

as it has taken its conceptions of paradise from the past where
antiquity placed them, and reconstructed them and set them up
in the future.

This long pilgrimage of the soul from its old level to a
higher maturity which adolescence recapitulates must have
taken place in the race in certain of its important lines long
before the historic period, because its very nature seems to in-
volve the destruction of all its products and extinction of all
records. Just as the well-matured adult, as is elsewhere shown,
has utterly lost all traces and recollection of the perturbations
of the storm and stress period, because they are so contradictory
and mutually destructive and because feelings themselves can
not be well remembered, so the race must have gone through a
long heat and ferment, of which consciousness, which best de-
velops in stationary periods, was lost, partly because growth
was so rapid. Incidents are never better remembered by the
individual, but they are never more transformed and changed,
and just so the precious but often grotesque myths and legends
of races, sacred to them but often meaningless to others, afford
the only traces of ethnic adolescence which races retain. They
are told about camp-fires, perhaps laboriously and allegorically
interpreted or developed into literary form with the same gusto
with which the man recounts in ever more mythic form the
most vivid incidents his memory has rescued from the turmoil
of these years of transformation and reconstruction, when na-
ture's first call is heard to go out from the home to some prom-
ised land or career, to establish a new domicile for body and
soul, and to be the progenitor of offspring of both, that to
the inflamed youthful heart seem like the stars of heaven in
number.

Youth loves intense states of mind and is passionately fond
of excitement. Tranquil, mild enjoyments are not its forte.
The heart and arteries are, as we have seen, rapidly increasing
in size, and perhaps heightened blood pressure is necessary to
cause the expansion normal at this stage. Nutritive activities
are greatly increased ; the temperature of the body is probably
a trifle higher. After its period of most rapid growth, the heart
walls are a little weak, and peripheral circulation is liable to
slight stagnation, so that in the interests of proper irrigation

74 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

of the tissues after the vascular growth has begun, tension
seems necessary. Although we do not know precisely the rela-
tion between blood pressure and the strong instinct to tingle
and glow, some correlation may safely be postulated. It is the
age of erectile diathesis, and the erethism that is now so in-
creased in the sexual parts is probably more or less so in nearly
every organ and tissue. The whole psycho-physic organism is
expanding, stretching out, and proper elasticity that relaxes
and contracts and gives vaso-motor range is coordinated with
the instinct for calenture or warming up, which is shown in
phenomena of second breath in both physical and mental activ-
ity. In savage life this period is marked by epochs of orgasm
and carousal, which is perhaps one expression of nature's effort
to secure a proper and ready reflex range of elasticity in the
circulatory apparatus. The " teens " are emotionally unstable
and pathic. It is the age of natural inebriation without the
need of intoxicants, which made Plato define youth as spiritual
drunkenness. It is a natural impulse to experience hot and
perfervid psychic states, and is characterized by emotionalism.
This gives a sense of vitality and the hunger for more and
fuller life. This desire to feel and to be very much alive, and
the horror of inertness and apathy, is, as we saw in Chapter V,
one of the chief features which incline youth to intoxicants.
Indeed, everything men strive for — fame, wealth, knowledge,
power, love — are only specialized forms of the will to attain
and to feel the maximum of vitality. Hence comes the pro-
clivity to superlativeness, to high, lurid color and fast life, be-
cause youth must have excitement, and if this be not at hand
in the form of moral and intellectual enthusiasms, it is more
prone, on the principle of kinetic equivalents, to be sought for in
sex or in drink. Athletic enthusiasm, the disposition of high
school and college youth to yell and paint the town, to laugh,
become boisterous and convivial, are better than sensuality and
reduce temptation to it. Better that a few of the most promis-
ing youth should be maimed or even killed on the gridiron or
in college rushes, or lose standing in their devotion to teams
and to emotional culture, than that they should find excesses,
some forms of which seem necessary now, in the lower life of
sinful indulgence, which is so prone to stunt and arrest the
precious last stages of growth in mind and body. More or less

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 75

of this erethic diathesis is necessary and inevitable, and one of
the chief problems of education is to prevent its lower forms
and give it ever higher vents and fields. Interest in and devo-
tion to all that is good, beautiful, and true is its loftiest ex-
pression, but it is often best cultivated on a lower plane, to be
applied later on the higher.

We here see the instability and fluctuation now so charac-
teristic. The emotions develop by contrast and reaction into
the opposite. We will specify a few of its antithetic impulses
now so marked.

I. There are hours, days, weeks, and perhaps months of over-
energetic action. The young man trains with ardor; perhaps
breaks a record ; sleep may be reduced ; he studies all night in
a persistent cram ; is swept away by some new fad ; is exalted
and hilarious and then reacts ; is limp, languid, inert, indiffer-
ent, fatigued, apathetic, sleepy, lazy; feels the lack of motive
power, and from overwork and excessive effort, when he
goaded himself to do or die, he relapses to a dull state of relax-
ation and doubts whether anything is really worth while in
the world. Thus youth now is really and easily overworked;
is never so fresh or more rested as when at the top of its condi-
tion, but very easily wearied and exhausted with the languor
due to overtraining. We have seen that early adolescent years
are prone to be sickly, although the death rate is now lowest,
and this is closely connected with the changes from overeffi-
ciency to low tension so frequent. Sometimes the stage of
torpor comes first or predominates and causes friends to be
anxious. Many great men, as we saw in Chapter VIII, loitered
in their development, dawdled in their work and seemed
to all about them entirely unpromising; but later woke up,
went to work, made up for lost time, and outstripped their fel-
lows. These changes are perhaps in slight degree modified
by weather, like moods, and have no doubt a physiological
basis. Sometimes it is as if anemia and hyperemia followed
each other with extreme sloth and then almost convulsive activ-
ity of motor centers. There are periods when one can do easily
twice the ordinary task without fatigue. Girls of fifteen or
sixteen would often like to sleep or rest a week, and seem in-
capable of putting forth real effort, and then there are fevers

76 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

of craving hard and even disagreeable work. Many returns
show that in the spring there is very often great loathing to
exert one's self, but this is occasionally broken by hours, days,
or even weeks of supernormal activity, when stints are not only
completed, but extra and self-imposed tasks are done with alac-
rity and satisfaction. Often there is a periodicity of activity in
young men that suggests a monthly and sometimes a seasonal
rhythm. The regular changes of day and night do not suffice,
but this is complicated by some larger cycle of alternating re-
cuperative and energetic periods of latent and patent, or inner
and outer work. This, like so much else, suggests an atavistic
trace of savage life, more controlled by moon and tides and
warm and cold seasons. Indeed, diurnal regularity of work,
play, food, and sleep is a recent thing in the development-his-
tory of man, is hard to establish, and in the vagrant, criminal,
vicious, and pauper class is often never reached. But spells of
overactivity, alternating with those of sluggishness and inert-
ness, still seem in these years like neural echoes of ancient hunts
and feasts, fasts and famines, migration and stagnation. Now
at least nature pushes on her work of growth by alternation,
now centering her energies upon function, now upon increase
in size of organs, and perhaps by this method of economy at-
tains a higher level than would be reached by too much poise,
balance, and steadiness. It is as if the momentum of growth
energies had to overcome obstacles at every point, by removing
now this, now that hindrance, where if its energies had been
applied to all simultaneously they would have been less effec-
tive.

2. Closely connected with this are the oscillations between
pleasure and pain — the two poles of life, its sovereign masters.
The fluctuations of mood in children are rapid and incessant.
Tears and laughter are in close juxtaposition. Their emo-
tional responses to impressions are immediate. They live in
the present and reflect all its changes, and their feelings are
little affected by the past or the future.^ With the dawn of
adolescence, the fluctuations are slower and often for a time

1 See Karl Just : Die Gefiihle des Frohsinns und der Heiterkeit und der Wech-
sel der Stimmung im Gemuthsleben des Kindes. Jahrbuch des Vereins f. wis.
Fed., also his Gefiihlsleben des Kindes.

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 77

more extreme, and recovery from elation and especially from
depression is retarded. The past, and still more the future, is
involved, and as the mental life widens, either tendency acquires
more momentum. Youth can not be temperate, in the philo-
sophical sense. Now it is prone to laughter, hearty and per-
haps almost convulsive, and is abandoned to pleasure, the field
of which ought gradually to widen with perhaps the pain field,
although more. There is gaiety, irrepressible levity, an euphoria
that overflows in every absurd manifestation of excess of ani-
mal spirits, that can not be repressed, that danger and affliction,
appeals to responsibility and to the future, can not daunt nor
temper. To have a good time is felt to be an inalienable right.
The joys of life are never felt with so keen a relish ; youth lives
for pleasure, whether of an epicurean or an esthetic type. It
must and ought to enjoy life without alloy. Every day seems
to bring passionate love of just being alive, and the genius for
extracting pleasure and gratification from everything is never
so great.

But this, too, reacts into pain and disphoria, as surely as the
thesis of the Hegelian logic passes over to its antithesis.
Young people weep and sigh, they know not why ; depressive
are almost as characteristic as expansive states of conscious-
ness. The sad Thanatopsis mood of gloom paints the world
in black. Far-off anticipations of death come in a foreboding
way, as it is dimly felt, though not realized, that life is not all
joy and that the individual must be subordinated and eventually
die. Hence statistics show, as we have seen, a strange rise in
the percentage of suicides. Now there is gloom and anon spon-
taneous exuberance. In 766 of Lancaster's returns, thirteen
had thought seriously of suicide, although only three had suc-
cessfully attempted it. Perhaps elation precedes and depres-
sion comes as a reaction in the majority of cases, although this
is not yet clear. Some feel despondent on awakening, at school
time, or at noon, suggesting nutritive changes. " The curve of
despondency starts at eleven, rises steadily and rapidly till fif-
teen, culminates at seventeen, then falls steadily till twenty
three." Young people are often unaccountably pleased with
every trifle. They can shout for joy from the very fact of
being alive. The far-off destiny of senescence looms up, and
in fatigue the atrabiliar psychic basis of pessimism clouds

78 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

life for a time and brings into dominance a new set of
associations like another personality. Youth fears inade-
quacy of its powers to cope with the world. How this is
connected with the alternating extremes of sexual tension,
we have seen, although this by no means explains all. Some-
times the tears are from no assignable cause, and often
from factitious motives. Suspicion of being disliked by
friends, of having faults of person or character that can not
be overcome; the fancy of being a supposititious child of their
parents, of having unwittingly caused calamity to others, of
hopeless love; failure in some special effort; a sense of the
necessity of a life of work and hardship — these bring moods
that may be more or less extreme according to environment,
heredity, temperament, and other causes, may succeed each
other with greater or less frequency, and may threaten to issue
in brooding, depression, and melancholy, or in a careless and
blind instinct to live for the day ; but these, too, are due to the
fact that the range of pleasure and pain is increased, so that
there are new motives to each, and perhaps a long period with
occasional special dangers must elapse before a final adjust-
ment.

This is the age of giggling, especially with girls, who are
at this stage of life farthest from Vassey's ^ view that man is
not originally a laughing animal and that the gentleman and
lady should never laugh, but only smile. If convulsive laughter
is an epilepsy, it is one that begins in the highest regions and
passes down the meristic levels.^ Goethe well says, that noth-
ing is more significant of men's character than what they find
laughable. The adolescent perhaps is most hilarious over cari-
cature of nationalities, teachers, freshmen, the other sex, etc.,
who are mimicked, burlesqued, and satirized. Ridicule is now
a powerful weapon of propriety. Again, the wit of the ephebos
sometimes provokes a mental ticklishness about certain sacred
and sometimes sexual topics, which may make jocularity and
waggishness almost a plague. Another of the chief butts of
adolescent fun is what is naive and unconscious ; the blunders

^ The Philosophy of Laughing and Smiling. London, 1877, p. 194.
^ The Psychology of Tickling, Laughing, and the Comic, by G. Hall and the
late Arthur Allin. Am. Jour, of Psy., October, 1897, vol. ix, pp. 1-41.

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 79

of the greeny, the unsophisticated way not only of the fresh-
man, but of the countryman, the emigrant, and the Backfisch girl
now abound, while the simple idea of disaster or misfortune,
which constitutes the humor of nine-tenths of the professional
joke-makers, is rare. The horror of old or even once-told jests
is never so intense, nor the appreciation for novelty so keen.

3. Self- feeling is increased, and we have all degrees of ego-
ism and all forms of self-affirmation. The chief outcrop may
be vanity and a sense of personal beauty and attractiveness, that
is felt to be stunning to the other sex. It may be expressed in
swagger ways ; thrusting one's self into conspicuous places ;
talking, acting, dressing, to attract notice; or in complacency
and even conceit for supposed superiority over others. Impu-
dence, affront, insult, and sometimes even physical aggressive-
ness are forms of it. Growth of mind and body is so rapid that
it is felt to the point of overestimation. Self-feeling is fed by
all the compliment and sweet flattery of affection, which is the
food often really tasted for the first time with true gusto, on
which it shoots up with mushroom growth. The wisdom and
advice of parents and teachers is overtopped, and in ruder na-
tures may be met by blank contradiction. It is all a new con-
sciousness of altitude and the desire to be, and to be taken for,
men and women; to be respected, consulted, and taken into
confidence. The new sense of self may be so exquisitely deli-
cate that a hundred things in the environment, that would never
rankle before, now sting and irritate. This is sometimes ex-
pressed in more or less conscious and formulated codes o£
honor, which among youth is often a strange and wondrous
thing which must be defended by the wager of battle, with fists,
or among German students with the sword, with all the punc-
tilio of chivalry. Sometimes the formulae by which honor and
self-respect may be gained, maintained, impaired, and restored
are detailed. Courage, honesty, parents, especially the mother,
and perhaps a sweetheart, are involved, and the youth must
perhaps represent honor for two. Ideals are so high and the
tedious labor by which they are attained so constitutionally
ignored that the goal seems very near and attainable if the pur-
pose is high, so that the spirited, mettlesome ephebos or cadet
summarily demands the world to take him on credit, as if the
promise of his ambition were already fulfilled. The youth who

8o THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

has been amenable to advice and even suggestion, now becomes
obstreperous, recalcitrant, filled with a spirit of opposition, and
can not repress a sense of top-lofty superiority to the ways and
persons of his environment. Age is often made to suffer dis-
courtesy, and it sometimes seems as though the faculties of
reverence and respect, to say nothing of admiration, were sud-
denly gone.

But the ebb of this tide is no less pronounced, and may pre-
cede in time its flood. The same youth with all his brazen
effrontery may feel a distrust of self and a sinking of heart,
which all his bravado is needed to hide. He doubts his own
powers, is perilously anxious about his future, his self-love is
wounded and humiliated in innumerable ways keenly felt, per-
haps at heart resented, but with a feeling of impotence to resist.
The collapsing moods bring a sense of abasement and humil-
iation, which sometimes seems like a degree of complacency
to all that comes, suggesting spiritlessness. Youth often
fears itself lacking in some essential trait of manhood or
womanhood, or wanting the qualities of success. He is often
vanquished in innumerable rivalries and competitions that now
make so much of life, and loses heart and face. The world
seems all the more hopeless because of the great demands which
the opposite mood has imposed. Sometimes a sense of shame
from purely imaginary causes is so poignant as to plunge the
soul for a time into the deepest and most doleful dumps ; fancied
slights suggest despair, and in place of wonted self-confidence
there is a retiring bashfulness, which no coaxing or encourage-
ment of friends can overcome or fathom, and which may ex-
press itself only in some secret diary or perhaps in prayer.
This, too, of course, often shades into elation and depression
from moral causes.

Youth, too, may become overfastidious and effeminate,
and this may pervade toilet, manners, care for health, or even
take the form of moral nicety, overscrupulousness, and casuis-
try. Time was when the freshman was really green, awkward,
inept in speech, without repose, but now too often the sub-
freshman is a polished gentleman, confident and at home every-
where, though happily often betraying in some respects the ear-
marks of the native roughness which goes along with strength,
in the midst of the overrefinement, suggestive of weakness.

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 8i

4, Another clearly related alternation is that between
selfishness and altruism. Before puberty, children are fed,
clothed, sheltered, instructed, and done for, so that all the cur-
rents in their environment, especially with parents who follow
Froebel's injunction to live for their children, have flowed
toward and converge in them. Now currents in the oppo-
site direction arise and should normally gather strength until
they predominate. Life is sacrifice, and in trite parlance, we
really live for what we die for. Before, youth must be served ;
now, it must serve. Its wants, perhaps even its whims, have
been supreme, but in the matin song of love the precepts of
renunciation are heard. Just as the embryonic cell grows large
till it can no longer be nourished from without and must then
divide or die, so the individual must be subordinated to society
and posterity. Life is no longer ego-centric, bat altro-centric.
Politeness and courtesy, and respect for the feelings of others,
are often hard at first, but are a school of minor morals grad-
uating into that of the higher virtues. Sympathy, and especially
love, wither the individual, until self-subordination may be-
come a passion. Youth devotes himself, perhaps by a vow, to
a lifetime of self-denial or painful servitude to some great
cause, or a career in which some of the deepest of human in-
stincts must be mortified and eradicated. He or she would go
on missions; labor for the sick, ignorant, depraved, and de-
fective classes; espouse great philanthropic causes, and very
often practise in secret asceticisms in the common and harmless
pleasures and comforts of life, in food, drink, sleep, it may be,
to the point of impairment of health, as if now glimpsing from
afar the universal law which makes all individual good merely
ancillary to the welfare of the species. Self-sacrifice may be ex-
orbitant and vows gifts ; humiliations are enthusiastic ; selfish-
ness seems mean; the ideal becomes a "pure life ruled by love
alone" ; the unselfishness may sometimes come in streaks and is
often secreted, young people giving food or sweetmeats, stay-
ing at home to give others pleasure, without telling. There is,
on the one hand, increase of self-confidence, a sense that the
individual " is important enough to be noticed anywhere " ; but
this is not incompatible with helping others as never before, and
even performing disagreeable tasks for them, associating with
the bad in order to make them better, and greater readiness to
45

82 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

give up any individual good. Our returns here show outcrops
of the grossest selfishness and greediness side by side with a
generosity and magnanimity rarely found in adult life save in
poetry and romance. Others' rights of possession, food, and
clothing sometimes are rudely trampled under foot, while the
most delicate attentions and services, involving both fore-
thought and hardship, are carried out to others or perhaps to
the same persons. It seems as if expressions of extremely
puerile selfishness were now particularly prone to be compen-
sated for by extremes of the opposite nature, and vice versa;
that often those most tender and considerate, most prone to
take pains, to prefer others' enjoyment to their own, and to
renounce ease, abandon cherished plans, and conquer the
strongest natural desires in doing this, were those most liable
occasionally to fall lowest in gloating self-gratification at the
expense of others.^

Here, too, parents and teachers sometimes alternate between
hope and despair for the young, before they slowly settle to
fixed characteristics and conduct. Moreover, there is often ar-
rest before the process of self-effacement is duly complete, so
that we see in adults noble lives and acts veined with petty
meannesses, which are the residual and unreduced organs of
childhood,

5. Closely connected with the above are the alternations
between good and bad conduct generally. Perhaps at no time
of life can goodness be so exotically pure and true, virtue so
spotless, and good works spring from such a depth of good-
will, which, since Kant, is often made the source of all real
morality. Conscience, though not new-born, now can first be-

^ The ego, Fichte argued, created not only its own consciousness but the objec-
tive world, and is therefore sovereign lord of all. The self only exists, and all
else, even other persons, are phantasmic projections of it. On this basis Max
Stirner (Das Ich und sein Eigenthum) bases his monstrous ethics of absolute self-
ishness. Each must get every possible pleasure and seek his own aggrandizement
in every way. Fame, property, sense, and enjoyment must be striven for by every
means that can be successful, and all ideas of morality, truthfulness, duty, are utter
nullities evolved from the brain of superior individuals in furtherance of this aim.
Nietzsche's "will to power" is a no less crass reversion to the egoism of savagery.
Lust of power is glorified to the point of tyranny and to the actual disparagement
of tenderness and humanity. Whatever truth there is in this view, it has its best
outcrop in this age.

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 83

gin to play a leading role. It awakens with a longing hunger
and thirst for righteousness, prompts to highest aspiration and
resolve. Benevolence and love to all persons and all being is
fresh from its original source, and there are hearty good wishes
for the general and special weal of others and ingenuity in
anticipating and gratifying their desires, so that for brief
periods youth and maidens sometimes seem too good for this
earth.

But we need have no fear. From the same soil in which
these budding virtues spring and bloom so delicately arise rank
weeds; physical appetites are grossly indulged naively, even
though they may sometimes seem almost bestial ; propensities to
lie break out, perhaps irresistibly, for a time. Anger slips its
leash and wreaks havoc. Some petty and perhaps undreamed
meanness surprises the onlooker. The common constraints of
society are ruptured, or there are spasms of profanity ; perhaps
a sudden night of debauch, before knowledge had put up proper
defenses ; perhaps some lapse from virtue, which seems almost
irretrievable, but which in fact should never be so readily par-
doned and forgotten. The forces of sin and those of virtue
never struggle so hotly for possession of the youthful soul. As
statistics show, the age of most frequent conversions to true
religion is precisely the years of the largest percentage of first
commitments to houses of detention for crime. Now some new
manifestations of vice surprise the soul in the midst of its ideal
longings for absolute perfection, and wring it with grief and
remorse. It seems a law of psychic development, that more or
less evil must be done to unloose the higher powers of constraint
and to practise them until they can keep down the baser in-
stincts. The religious struggles of this stage bear abundant
evidence to the violence of these storms and counter currents
of which the human soul is now the arena. Temptations hith-
erto unknown to sins hitherto impossible bring redeeming
agencies also new into action, and while the juvenile offender
and the debauchee is arrested in his development and remains
through life under the power of evil, growth is benign, and
those who achieve normal maturity domesticate their baser in-
stincts into the service of goodness.

6, The same is true of the great group of social instincts,
some of which rest upon the preceding. Youth is often bashful,

84 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

retiring, in love with solitude ; perhaps wanders alone and com-
munes with stars, sea, forest, animals ; prefers nature to man ;
loves midnight walks ; shuns the face of man, and especially the
other sex; becomes interested in its own inner states and care-
less of the objective while sunken in the subjective life. Some
youth take to drink chiefly or solely to gain through it the
courage to go into society. They know not how, or if they do
so, find it hard to assert themselves sufficiently to do justice to
their ideas of their own merits. This is most common among
country youth, but it is also frequent enough in the city. Others
spring into a new love of companionship; friendships are ce-
mented; " mashes " and " crushes " occur; the gregarious pas-
sion vents itself in all kinds of convivial associations, in organi-
zations of many kinds, sometimes in riotous bouts and carous-
als ; some can never be alone and seem to have for a time no
resources in themselves, but to be abjectly dependent for their
happiness upon their mates. They lose independence, and not
only run, but think and feel, with the gang and the class. Alone,
they are uninteresting and uninterested, but with others, viva-
cious, lively, and entertaining. To the inner circle of their
chosen associates they bare their inmost soul. There are no
reserves or secrets, but a love of confessional outpourings in
intimate hours together or sometimes in letters. The desire to
please dominates some, and that to rule and lead, others ; while
the more passive and inert gradually lose the power of indepen-
dent action, thought, or impulse, and come into the settled hab-
its of dependent henchmen and followers. The psychology of
crowds show us how all human qualities are kept in counte-
nance and developed, when like is paired with like; how joys are
doubled and pains divided; how responsibility is attenuated
until the greatest outrages are perpetrated by masses, from
which every individual would revolt. Alternations between
these two extremes of excessive or defective sociability are less
frequent in the same individual, and if they occur, are at longer
intervals.

At times, young people feel that those who are liked fail to
appreciate or even dislike them. They are repelled by society,
feel sinful and lonely, and perhaps need a good cry, which quite
relieves them. We find, too, admiration and contempt strangely
mingled; now appreciation, which almost becomes abject hero

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 85

worship or fanaticism for great and new ideas, gushing devo-
tion to Hterary and art products, etc., but all alternating with
satire, burlesque, and parody, which seem to indicate that the
power of reverence is lost and all the charm and modesty, which
Plato found so becoming in youth, for a season quite extinct.
There is always a wide range of change between more
and less before a center of gravity is found and a definite social
character established. Both, of course, are necessary, and there
is much that is true in the Baconian adage, that character is
perfected in solitude and talent in society. City life, the in-
numerable clubs, business aggregations, sodalities, political and
religious fraternization, seem a characteristic of this growingly
urban age, and have no doubt perturbed the oscillations of the
compass, so that it settles more slowly toward the pole of man's
destiny than in other historic periods. We have seen these
phenomena unusually accented in the early lives of Savonarola,
Newton, Shelley, Patrick Henry, Keats, Hawthorne, Gififord,
Jeffries, Boyeson, Nansen, and in the scores of our returns
from men and women unknown to fame.

7. Closely akin to this are the changes from exquisite sen-
sitiveness to imperturbability and even apathy, hard-hearted-
ness, and perhaps cruelty. Many youthful murderers, callous
to the sufferings of their victims, have had the keenest sym-
pathy with pets and even with children. Most criminals are
unfeeling and unhumane. They can not pity, and the sus-
ceptibility to pathos is alien to them. The juvenile torturers
often seem to have specialized psychic zones, where tenderness
is excessive, as if to compensate for their defect. They weep
over the pain, actual or imaginary, of their pets, while utterly
hardened to the normal sentiments of kindness and help for
suffering. The development of sympathy, as Sutherland has
shown, has been slow and hard in the world, but it is basal for
most of the factors of morality.

8. Curiosity and interest are generally the first outcrop of
intellectual ability. Youth is normally greedy for knowledge,
and that, not in one but in many directions. There is eagerness,
zest, enthusiasm, which inspires corresponding activity to
know that and only that which is of the highest worth. Wher-
ever a new mine of great and fruitful discovery of truth is
opened, a new field of activity appears, or new motives of self-

86 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

sacrifice are made operative, there youth is in its element. It
is the age of questioning, exploration, investigation, testing
ideas, men, and the world. Expectation is at its best and the
impulse to be ready for any new occasion is at its strongest.
Now first it is really felt that knowledge is power, and the
noetic fever sometimes becomes too hot for the convenience of
others, for conventionality, the routine of life, or even for
health.

But the opposite is no less germane to these years. Here
we find the inert moods and types, which are apathetic, which
can not be profoundly stirred, that regard passionate mental
interest as bad form, and cultivate indifference, that can not
and will not admire. No devoted teacher need attempt to arouse
and fire the mind in this condition. Sometimes this is all an af-
fectation, mental posing, provoked by fashion or environment,
and unconsciously imitative. Sometimes, alas ! it is the direct
result of excess, which saps the springs of life and brings senes-
cent inertia before its time. It may be a product of fatigue and
reaction from excessive effort, as in the case of Stuart Mill.
It is not pain or pessimism, although, if real, it is the raw
material out of which the latter is made. To the wise adult
this is always pathetic, for what is youth without enthusiasm?
These states always need wise diagnosis, because if they are
recuperative, they should be let alone, and if results of dissipa-
tion, they should be drastically treated. Institutions, especially
the tone and traditions of colleges and high schools, differ
widely in their prevailing atmosphere in this regard. Here, too,
a considerable range is no doubt normal.

9. Another vacillation is between knowing and doing. Now
the life of the study charms, and the ambition is to be learned,
bookish, or there is a passion to read. Perhaps there is a love
of poetic intoxication or of contemplation, such as Scott,
Bryant, Fulton, Franklin, Newton, etc., experienced. This
afferent, more passive, receptive mood is necessary, because in
the civilized state youth always lives in the midst of a far
higher culture than it could produce. But a reaction is almost
always inevitable where this receptive passion is extreme, and
soon either unconscious instinct or else purpose takes the youth
out of doors, because he has fallen in love with nature, or, it
may be, to cultivate muscle. His tastes and plans turn to active

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 87

occupation. He would achieve rather than learn. He feels
sometimes, more or less unconsciously, the vanity of mere eru-
dition, and wishes to storm the world of reality and win his
spurs, make his mark, and become an active and perhaps crea-
tive cause.

10. Less often we see one or more alternations between
dominance by conservative and by radical instincts. The young
man finds the world out of joint and would reform the church,
school, perhaps social and family life; is sick at heart at the
hollowness of established conventionality ; is fired at the tyranny
of wealth or trusts, and would himself reconstruct by doubting,
casting out everything which does not seem to his own fledgling
intelligence good, true, and beautiful. Some do and all ought
to react from the party of progress to that of order, from burn-
ing the products of the past to worshiping them, to caring and
working that no good already attained be lost ; they should at
some period feel the force of conventionalities, the truth of
highly saturated creeds, the value of established institutions,
despite their possible betterment. There is especial danger that
temperament or environment will destroy this balance and pre-
cipitate the mind for life into one or another of these camps
where extreme views are so easy and simple, and moderate ones
so hard and complex. This is especially seen in the religious
sphere, to which we shall turn later. The equipoise between
atheism and bigotry is almost always disturbed ; there is excess
of skepticism or of credulity, affirmation or denial, doubt or
faith, and youth is especially prone to be distracted between
the instincts that make the devotee and those that make the
heretic.

11. We find many cases of signal interest in which there
is a distinct reciprocity between sense and intellect, as if each
had its nascent period. We have already seen how the senses
are acuminated and sense interests modified and generally en-
hanced, so that occasionally youth is passionately devoted to
seeing and hearing new things, is all eye, ear, taste, and would
widen the surface of contact with the external world to the
maximum, as if laying in stock for future mental elaboration;
but there are also periods of inner absorption and meditation,
when reality fades and its very existence is questioned, when
the elements that make the content of the sensory shoot to-

88

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

gether into new unities. The inner eye that sees larger corre-
spondences in time and space is opened ; the bearings of familiar
facts appear; wisdom is sought from books or friends, and is
assimilated with amazing facility, so that a new consciousness
is born within or above the old, and the attention is attracted to
inner states which demand explanation. It is as if the projec-
tive system, which acts and reacts upon the external world,
had now its innings, to be later followed by a period when the
energy of psychic growth is largely turned to the associative
fibers, both ends of which are in the brain.

12. Closely connected with this is the juxtaposition of
wisdom and folly. Now there are high intuitions that antici-
pate maturity and even the best mental products of old age,
an attitude of mind that seems to have anticipated the experi-
ences of a lifetime, and to have found rest in the true goal of
wisdom. Yet, interspersed with all this precocious philosophy,
we find pitfalls of collapsing and childish folly. This may be
ethical, in the form of irritability, greed, causeless and irra-
tional freakishness and abandon to the lower impulses, or
downright silliness. Those precocious in some are often ar-
rested in other respects.

We have already seen that body growth is not symmetrical,
but to some extent the parts, functions, and organs grow in
succession, so that the exact normal proportions of the body
are temporarily lost, to be regained later on a new plan. The
mind now grows in like manner. It is as if the various quali-
ties of soul were developed successively; as if the energy of
growth now stretched out to new boundaries, now in this and
now in that direction. This is biological economy, as well as
recapitulatory, because in some way that we do not understand
nature follows in the psychic field the familiar mechanical prin-
ciple we must so often appeal to by which power is best devel-
oped over a large surface, to be later best applied at a point.
The human plant circumnutates in a wider and wider circle,
and the endeavor should be to prevent it from prematurely
finding a support, to prolong the period of variation to which
this stage of life is sacred, and to prevent natural selection from
confirming too soon, the slight advantage which any quality
may temporarily have in this struggle for existence among

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 89

many faculties and tendencies within us. The educational ideal
is now to develop capacities in as many directions as possible,
to indulge caprice and velleity a little, to delay consistency for
a time, and let the diverse prepotencies struggle with each other.
Now everything psychic tends in its turn to be intense to the
point of illusion or positive obsession, but nature's rhythm, if
allowed to have its due course, prevents stagnation and hebe-
tude, and the passion to change keeps all powers fluent and
plastic, gives elasticity and develops power of sanification.
Sometimes there seem almost to be dual or multiplex personal-
ities. The venerable four temperaments of the phrenologists
seem contending with each other for dominance, but the soul
should make some place for all of them in its many mansions.
It is veritably like a batrachian, or insect struggling to get out
of its last year's skin or chitin, or like sloughing off the old con-
sciousness of childhood for the new one of maturity. It is thus
that the soul explores the maximum area possible of human
experience. This is now the meaning of the freedom of the
will, and captious though it often seems, it is thus that the foun-
dations of wise choices that first hear from all parts and parties
are preformed. The mind is now in what the biologists call its
generalized form. It is as if man were polyphyletic in his ori-
gin and now the different ethnic stocks were successively harked
back to. The possibility of variation in the soul is now at its
height. Especially in races of mixed blood, our returns con-
vince me, that more prepoterxies clash or coincide, as the case
may be, and we can often detect the voices of our forebears
of very different races in the soul. Psychic life is thus for a
term greatly perturbed. When the youth takes the helm of his
own being, he navigates a choppy sea. Thus it would appear
in nature's economy he must strive, fight, and storm his way up,
if he would break into the kingdom of man. Here, too, many
an impulse seeks expression, which seems strong for a time,
but which will never be heard of later. Its function is to stimu-
late the next higher power that can only thus be provoked to
development, in order to direct, repress, or supersede it. Never
is it so true that nothing human is alien from each individual,
as in this fever of ephebeitis, which has so many peculiar fea-
tures in the American temperament.

The popular idea, that youth must have its fling, implies

90 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

the need of greatly and sometimes suddenly widened liberty,
which nevertheless needs careful supervision and wise direc-
tion, from afar and by indirect methods. The forces of growth
now strain to their uttermost against old restrictions. It is the
age of bathmism, or most rapid variation, which is sometimes
almost saltatory. Nearly every latency must be developed, or
else some higher power, that later tempers and coordinates it,
lacks normal stimulus to develop. Instead of the phenomena of
alternate generation, where certain potentialities lie dormant in
one generation to appear in the next, we have corresponding
psychic phenomena in one and the same individual by which
faculties and impulses, which are denied legitimate expression
during their nascent periods, break out well on in adult life —
falsetto notes mingling with manly bass as strange puerilities.
The chief end in view must now be to bring out all the poly-
phonous harmonies of human nature. The individual can never
again expand his nature to so nearly compass the life of the
species. The voices of extinct generations, sometimes still and
small, sometimes strident and shrill, now reverberate, and
psychic development is by leaps and bounds, of which psycho-
logical science has so far been able to know but very little.

Mental unity comes later. Consistency then has its place.
The supreme Aristotelian virtue of temperance and the golden
mean — which is courage well poised between timidity and fool-
hardiness, liberality midway between the extremes of avarice
and prodigality, modesty which combines the good and rejects
the evil by excess of bashfulness and impudence, self-respect
which is neither vainglory nor self-abasement — slowly knits
up the soul, coordinates its many elements, represses illusions,
and issues in settled character. The logical as contrasted with
the genetic ideal now arises and prompts to reason, consistency,
and coordinations in ever higher associations as cosmos rises
from chaos. We see over and over again that the metamorphic
stages of early adolescence are forgotten, and how impossible it
is for the mature mind to remember or even credit, when they
are noted or told by others, the preceding phases of instinctive
transformations. In one sense, youth loses very much in be-
coming adult. The ordered, regular life of maturity involves
necessarily more or less degeneration for simple tendencies.
Indeed, the best definition of genius is intensified and pro-

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 9 1

longed adolescence, to which excessive or premature system-
atization is fatal. Even in commonplace lives, higher qualities,
and often the very highest, appear in the teens for a brief flit-
ting moment, or at least they barely hint their existence and
then fade, sometimes because the demands of adulthood are
too early or too insistently enforced.

This law of a period of freedom that leans a little toward
license before the human colt is haltered and broken to any of
the harnesses of severe discipline, is favored by every aspect of
the bionomic law. It is a fact of great significance not only
unexplored but hitherto unnoted, that even as the psychic per-
turbations of this stage of multifarious impulsions are lost to
recollection, because they are so inconsistent and blind, since
they lack the intellectual factor of experience, just so the phy-
letic stages in the development of the race that correspond to
puberty fall largely in the unhistoric period — the darkest of all
dark ages, during which brute became man. Science explores
the simian forms of life, but here our sense of ignorance is
increasingly painful. The distribution of the gorilla is rapidly
narrowing toward early extinction, and we know far less of
its characteristics, or those of the gibbon, ourang, and chim-
panzee, than we do of the lowest races of men. The interval
between the highest anthropoid brain of 550 cubic centimeters,
and that of the lowest man, 1,150 cubic centimeters, is almost
as lost as a sunken Atlantis. If we take Canstadt man, per-
haps the lowest in Europe, as the point of reemergence of
man's phyletic history, we find the most radical transforma-
tions.

In the interval that separates the pithecoid from the trog-
lodyte, many changes, perhaps more momentous than any in the
historic period, took place. Arboreal life and a diet of fruits,
nuts, and buds was exchanged for a life weh adjusted to fluvial
and littoral conditions. The shore — the most changing of all
the life areas, the great feeding-ground of aquatic and terres-
trial forms, where all land animals originally came from their
primordial home in the sea, after long amphibian apprentice-
ship, and where the whale, seal, and other backsliders to aquatic
life reverted after long experience on the land — had already
been the highway of extended migration ; and man, especially if
monophyletic and if the qualities that gave him supremacy over

92 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

the brutes were developed in a single narrow area, had multi-
plied rapidly ; had learned the use of fire and cooking, thus free-
ing energy, hitherto needed for digestion, to higher uses ; had
entered the paleolithic stage of chipped stone for spear and ar-
row heads ; had asserted his dominion over the mammoth, cave-
bear, hyena, woolly rhinoceros, Irish elk ; had invested himself
with the freedom of the world ; had become the most migratory
of all species, thus favoring amphimixis and variation by ex-
ogamy, and knew no barrier because only man stops man. He
had been forced from some primitive home or cunabula, perhaps
by the slow submergence of Sclater's Lemuria, or driven from
his pristine habitat on the high table-lands north of the Hima-
layas, and had already begun his career over the globe. During
this period many of the scores of domestic animals had been
tamed — perhaps mostly, as O.T.Mason thinks — by women who
began pastoral life. Many of the two hundred and forty-nine
species of plants of which de Candolle traces the history — all
phanerogamous — were brought under culture also perhaps first
by women, and thus settled agricultural life had been intro-
duced. The hand had been developed much in structure, and
far more in function, from a simple prehensile organ to a tool
and weapon user and even maker. Dress had evolved, a mo-
mentous change had come about by focusing development upon
intelligence as soon as its high survival and selective value made
itself felt, leaving the body relatively unchanged while mind
evolved enormously, if not disproportionately, like the giraffe's
neck. Infancy had been prolonged, and, with it, parental care,
love and home, and the possibilities of education unfolded.
Speech and tradition had been acquired. From this point all
is relatively easy of explanation, for as Lyell said, if all but one
race of men in a single spot of the globe were exterminated,
they would soon people the earth again though they were as low
as the Eskimo or South Sea Islander. Perhaps primitive man
had already grown to gigantic stature, as Principal Dawson
conjectures, and did and dared at sea, in hunting, and in cross-
ing barriers, that which modern man would not. Perhaps he
was a pigmoid, as the horse has grown from the orohippus of
fox size ; perhaps he was Broca's estromelian, half monster and
half man ; or more akin to Lombroso's degenerate mattoid, or
to Sergi's hominidse. Perhaps McRitchie's conjecture that

FEELINGS AND PSYCHIC EVOLUTION 93

fairies were primitive dwarfs or mid-men is valuable; it is in
line with the wide-spread superstition that arrow-heads are
fairy darts. He may have been pliocene, diluvial, or even
tertiary.

My own belief, as I have set forth elsewhere,^ is that man
early became the wanderer and the exterminator par excellence.
Less than any other animal, can man tolerate rivals in the
struggle for existence. The instinct which impelled him to
exterminate the North sea-cow in 1767, and, in the nineteenth
century, the great awk in 1840, the African quagga in 1870,
and scores of other animals and birds that in recent times have
gone forever even beyond the reach of the collector, that is now
rapidly reducing to the vanishing point the American bison,
the Indian lion and rhinoceros, the walrus, the zebra-giraffe,
halibut, oyster, lobster, etc., and that prepares and sells the skins
of two million birds a year, which are dying out that man may
have food, safety, or sport, is the same instinct which in pre-
historic times destroyed chiefly or with aid of other causes the
gigantic extinct mammals, and has forever scarred man's soul
with fear, anger, and wanton cruelty. The same enmity against
the lower races, which in our day has exterminated forever the
Boethuks, the Tasmanians, and is reducing so many lower
human ethnic stocks to make way for favored races, is but a
relic of the rage which exterminated the missing links and
made man for ages the passionate destroyer of his own pedi-
gree, so that no trace of it is left.

A great number of the phyletic corollates of some of the
most marked stages by which prepubescent boyhood passes to
maturity exist only in the later phases of this transition from
anthropoid to savage life, although many are found earlier and
others later yet. To much in this dark interval early adoles-
cence is the only key, but even here the record is so distorted,
falsified, so often inverted, so mingled with what belongs to
later phases, that we know as yet but little how to use this key.
To-day youth is passed in an environment of culture, nearly
every element of which is far superior to anything that it could
produce. The powers of imitation and appropriation are so

^ The Relation of Civilization and Savagery. Proc. Mass. Hist. Soc, January,
1903.

94 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

developed and perhaps hypertrophied that it is impossible to
distinguish what comes from indigenous and what from ac-
quired sources. The past and future contend with each other
for mastery. In his elegiac moods, youth seems to long for a
lost idea in a way that suggests transmigration of a Platonic
Wordsworthian type, as plants dream of the sun, and on the
other hand, his esthetic sensibilities are presentiments of a
superior stage of the race that will develop out of the present
human type which it is the function of art to prophesy and
anticipate. The processes last to be attained are least assured
by heredity and most dependent upon individual effort, in aid of
which nature gives only propulsion, often less defined the later
it can be acquired, like the Kantian pure autonomous " ought-
ness," which the individual must laboriously shape by a wise
use of heteronymous and consciously regulated motives. While
adolescence is the great revealer of the past of the race, its
earlier stages must be ever surer and safer and the later possi-
bilities ever greater and more prolonged, for it, and not
maturity as now defined, is the only point of departure for the
superanthropoid that man is to become. This can be only by an
ever higher adolescence lifting him to a plane related to his
present maturity as that is to the well-adjusted .stage of boy-
hood where our puberty now begins its regenerating metamor-
phoses.

CHAPTER XI

ADOLESCENT LOVE

Physical self-consciousness — Nudity in history and its pedagogy — Early phallicism
and the reactions against it — Sex and mental growth — Relations between the
child and the race — Evolutionary stages of secondary sex qualities — Morbid-
ities of this instinct — Inadequate treatment of the topic — Animal and primi-
tive human courtship — The dominant influence of the female — Common love
fetishes in the young — Highly specialized points of attraction and repulsion
between the sexes — Coquetry — Convention and suggestiveness — Relation of
love to man, death, esthetics, music, and religion — Courtship — First falling in
love — Its power to sensitize the soul to nature — -Psychological states and
metaphors — Love as related to interests and achievements and to friendship —
Its irradiations to children, the community and humanity — Knowledge as a
form of love — Classification of theories — Lessons for education and morality.

In the child's slowly progressive knowledge of its own
body, hands, fingers, mouth, feet, toes, ears, eyes, hair, and nose,
in about this order, seem to be especially noticed or attended to
with interest each at its own period before the sex parts, which
in children normally reared attract little attention in early
years. But in infants, these organs may very early become the
sea of knismogenic (^nwmc^ = tickling) sensations, and a
little later in early boyhood the least allusion to them is ex-
tremely gelogenic (^^/o.s = laughter). These experiences are
different from the tickle feeling aroused by contact with other
parts of the body or by other humorous suggestions, and may
be infantile rudiment from which, if we knew more of genetic
psychology, we could trace the evolution of the whole sym-
phony of sexual feelings and acts.^ Young children sometimes
become so exquisitely sensitized that the remotest hint or sug-
gestion, act, or indication without contact, is sufficient to pro-
duce convulsions of often suppressed laughter. Even after
adolescence there is a strange rapport and perhaps some kinetic
equivalence between giggling and sexual psychoses; more

' See my Early Sense of Self. Am. Jour, of Psy., April, 1898, vol. ix, pp.
351-394.

95

96 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

probably, however, giggling is due to atavism or to arrest.
It would almost seem in infancy that these sensations are re-
lated to those of adult sexual activity somewhat as the organs
of the infant are to those of the man. Laughter and tears are
as primal and generic as pleasure and pain, the sovereign mas-
ters of human life, and in hysteria sometimes seem to function
not only alternately but vicariously.

I. The unconsciousness of the normal child makes it,
though naked, not ashamed. It has no private parts, and its
consciousness is in this respect not unlike that of animals.
Many have praised this pristine Adamic innocence, and some
have even thought it desirable to preserve it as long as possible.
The Spartans required their youth not only to exercise publicly
thus and even in the presence of the other sex, but compelled
them to show themselves every six weeks to the Ephors that
they might satisfy themselves, by inspection, of their purity and
general vigor. It has been suggested that this makes directly
for virtue, and so eminent an anthropologist as Angus has
urged that, other things being equal, the more naked savages are
the more moral they are found to be. The state of the organs
to some extent reveals vice, which clothing conceals. Diogenes
and the cynics may or may not have had this in mind in their
exposures and in performing all acts usually concealed in pub-
lic. The Spartan ideal evidently was that exposure made for
healthfulness in these parts, and that heat and cold, wind and
weather, tempered virtue, while covering not only concealed
the immediate effects of vice, but both its warmth and its fric-
tion tended to provoke it. Strikingly akin to the effects of
more or less nudity or dress are the effects of the wider
or narrower range of reserve in speech, which the fashions
of different ages and races prescribe with such accuracy.
When we reflect that just whatever area of topics parents
and adults shun is instinctively counted vile by children and
becomes a psychic zone of prudery, which curiosity ever at-
tempts to invade and modesty to avoid, we can realize how
strong a case might be made out, provided man lived in warm
climates, in primitive conditions, in the country, etc., for naked-
ness and plainness of speech, and how well this might comport
with an ideal state of innocence, which, if it ever existed, is
now forever gone. As a psycho-pedagogic theory, a reversion-

ADOLESCENT LOVE 97

ary goal or term, or as an even possible reminiscence of the
race, this conception is a precious element in man's spiritual
idealization of his own life.

11. The dawn of adolescence is marked by a special con-
sciousness of sex. Young people are psychologically in the con-
dition of Adam and Eve when they first knew they were naked.
There is a special kind of sex shame hitherto unknown. This
access of modesty is a favorite and theoretically fascinating
theme for genetic psychology. It supplies one of the powerful
motives for dress. The reason of this instinct is not all to be
sought in convention, but one of its motives seems to be a part
of the impulse to round out and command one's own personal-
ity, and also to enlarge it, which is analogous to Lotze's theory
that clothes are to extend the limits of self and make the wearer
feel himself to the extremity of every feather, skirt, ribbon, hat,
and even cane. The new sensitiveness of these organs, which
makes them so acutely responsive to psychic states which their
condition reveals, is also involved. But we have much reason
to assume that in a state of nature there is a certain instinctive
pride and ostentation that accompanies the new local develop-
ment. I think it will be found that exhibitionists are usually
those who have excessive growth here, and that much that
modern society stigmatizes as obscene is at bottom more or
less spontaneous and perhaps in some cases not abnormal.
Dr. Seerley tells me he has never examined a young man
largely developed who had the usual strong instinctive tend-
ency of modesty to cover himself with his hand, but he finds
this instinct general with those whose development is less than
the average.

My distinguished teacher, Ludwig, the leading physiolo-
gist of his time, once told me that he thought that for some
years about nine-tenths of the psychic processes of adolescents
centered in sex and its functions, if we give the latter a broad
interpretation. However excessive this estimate may be, there
is an intense natural curiosity and possibly sometimes a faint
recrudescence of the sentiment ascribed to the cynics that it is
a bad sign to cover, and that exposure is a sign of honesty as
well as of purity. The virtuous man strips well if necessary,
and does not blush. The literature on sex abounds in cases
not only of virtuous young men, but even women, who rather

46

98 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

glory in occasions when they can display the beauty of their
forms without reserve, not only to themselves and to loved
ones, but even to others with proper pretexts. Medical experi-
ence, art school, and gymnasia abound in such instances, and
there are still other fields of evidence that where the common
reserves of concealment have once been broken down, there is
a sort of wild and perhaps atavistic ecstasy in exposure. In
many primitive religions it has been an act of worship to glory
in what society deems shame, and many a youth and even
maiden, from the Spartan days down, often under elaborately
ritualized conditions, have stripped ad majorem Dei gloriam.
God sees through all disguises, and hence unclothing is a sym-
bol of successfully challenging divine inspection. Moreover,
not only malicious rumor and libel may be defied, for vice seeks
concealment, but in many times and places it has been thought
a bad sign to keep the body too persistently covered. Disrob-
ing has been the climax of many a romance, defied many an
enemy, vindicated the innocence of many a suspected or accused
person. Tertullian prayed in substance that his soul and body
might stand forth naked, stripped of every rag of disguise be-
fore God and man. It is a hard and high principle, alien to
most civilizations of history, but on occasions of great emprise,
of oath or solemn vow, in times of national calamity, or as the
most spermatic ritual of prayer, man may attest the profundity
of his sincerity and faith, and woman may offer herself in the
arena as a martyr and become a sacrifice fit for the altar of the
gods and make this reversion to pristine innocence sublime. It
is a talisman of wondrous power with gods and men.^

It is a lamentable fact that most of the writers on phallicism
— Jennings, Inman, Forlong, Rocco, Westorp, Howard,

^ The story of Lady Godiva, Dr. A. F. Chamberlain tells me, has Bengal and
Hindu parallels (Gomme: Ethnology and Folk-Lore, p. 28 et seq.\ Witness also
Grimm's Marchen of the Star Dollars. Maitland's Science of Fairy Tales, p. 71
et seq. An experience of my own ended in complete undress and a rank sense of
freedom and lightness. (My Early Memories. Ped. Sem. , vol. vi, p. 504.)
Papuans "glory in their nudeness and consider clothing fit only for women."
(Westermarck : History of Human Marriage, p. 118 et seq.) Reclus (Primitive
Folk, pp. 91, 333) describes nudity in religious rites, and Ploss, its ceremonial use
as a love charm (Das Weib, vol. i, p. 352). Nakedness is probably, as Schurtz
says (Philosophic der Tracht, p 48), more often a reversion than the survival of a
primitive state, although it may sometimes be the latter.

ADOLESCENT LOVE 99

Knight, and many others — seem to lack greatly either in learn-
ing or the critical spirit and moderation of science, or both ; but
this fact is rather a result of the long taboo that has been placed
upon this subject than an indication that it is either less vast
or less important than these writers claim. None can doubt
that Phallos and Kteis, or Linga and Yoni, and their emblems
under many a name and in many forms, have been widely, if
not almost universally, worshiped at some stage of the devel-
opment of our race, and that Lares and Penates, El and Jah,
Astarte and Ashtaroth, Baal and Peor, Istar and Libissa, Isis
and Osiris, Lira and Kali, and perhaps many other gods and
goddesses, have phallic features or traits in their cult. L. Gu-
lick ^ has popularly summed up the evidence that Judaism owed
many of its chief traits to the long struggle with the phallic
religion of Canaan to which its adherents were so prone to
lapse, and Buckley ^ has epitomized its status in modern Japan.
The fact that in all primitive languages gender plays so im-
portant a role, and that most objects are sexed, makes even the
contention that not only the symbolic ichthus and the sun, but
perhaps many ancient monoliths and towers from Babel down
to the caduceus, and it may be the cross, are understood as
male ; and the moon, the golden fleece, Dante's mystic rose of
dawn, the Grail, and many a cave and vase, female organs.
Moreover, one need not be versed in the occult, gnostic, sibyl-
line, Orphic, Rosicrucian, or other recondite and esoteric mys-
teries, to understand that the gem in the lotus, the serpent, the
marriage of heaven and earth, and many a round table or sacra-
mental mystery, may be typical of the function of the Teutonic
goddess, Frigga.^ We have in the Christian doctrine of love,
and of the spermatic logos, in the Platonic stages of eroticism
in the symposium, abundant evidence that the race has had a
sexual consciousness more all-dominating and pervasive than
now appears, and many a conception in nearly if not quite all

' A series of articles in the Association Outlook, igor.

* Phallicism in Japan. Dissertation. University of Chicago, 1895.

' Gushing, speaking of the Zunis (First National Congress of Mothers, p. 41),
says: "They worship the sun and the moon, earth, and the phenomena of the
seasons personified chiefly in relation to reproductivity and growth. In other
words, these people are so-called phallic worshipers, but a far better name for this
kind of worship would be mother-worshipers. I have scant patience with those

100 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

religions, primitive, ethnic, or Christian, shows many traces of
having been slowly sublimated and refined out of these bases.
Perhaps this phanerogamic stage had much to do in making
man an aberrant type, but certainly transcendental phallicism is
one of the great — if not the greatest — achievements of the
race.

Both ancient mutJios and logos are full of this element, and
the recognition of this fact gives us a key of magic power to
unlock many of the most abstruse mysteries of life, creed, and
of cult. The power of this factor to extend its subtle connota-
tions afar and to keep alive many a rite and faith that seemed
to have no raison d'etre; to work its mystic charm through
many a sphere of influence where it is not suspected ; to speak
with a subtle voice that is heard through many ages, so that its
fainter accents are not easily lost — when all this is understood,
we shall be able to extend some charity even to the many writers
like the above, often accused of illustrating a strange tendency
to go crazy when sex is spoken of, and perhaps even condone
many such errors and crudities of all who have attained true
biological insight into human life. Indeed, for one, the more
I read, ponder, lecture, and know life, especially among adoles-
cents, whose lives are such an open sesame to the history of the
race, tlie more natural it seems to expect that the vaticinations
of these sex-intoxicated mystics should be not more, but less,
than the actual historic truth. Poetry abounds in archaic sym-
bolisms that suggest it ; etymologies are steeped in it ; it supplies
a long-sought missing link in psychogenesis ; it shows forth the
work of religion in the world as even more sublime and majes-
tic than any of its devotees have ever dreamed ; it furnishes the
simple solution of many a problem of life and mind, and re-
veals how entirely the burden of the Bible has sprung from
the very heart of man's deepest nature and his direst need.

III. Having had its career and done its work first where it

of our race who denounce, on the mere notion that its name conveys, this religion
of reproduction, for in reality, although one of the earliest, it is certainly also one
of the most beautiful of the religions of mankind. We hear much about sensuosity
and indecency as connected with the ceremonials of this worship, but, believe me,
such claims are in most cases due to the evil imagination or else misrepresentation
of those who make them. There is certainly no truth in their allegations regard-
ing the worship of reproduction so long at least as it is associated or idertified with
the matriarchate phase of human development and with the worship of motherhood."

ADOLESCENT LOVE 10 1

was indigenous, no doubt a great and sacramental one, laying
just stress upon the supreme function of man, giving it the
place of highest sanctity and perhaps making it the act of con-
summate worship, phallicism gradually lapsed to an ever lower
position, long persisting as a secret cult, until it became, in the
unworthy, a stimulus for sense and passion, and in the logic of
history was slowly sloughed off as the elect remnant of man-
kind slowly found out a new and higher way. Possibly this
change may have been in some way related to the slow migra-
tion northward of races, and a new thermal function of cloth-
ing. Perhaps as races grew and spread and life had to be sus-
tained by work in soils not tropically spontaneous, labor and
healthful fatigue became a factor of purity. With dress, even
the scantiest and most local, attention was more and more
long-circuited to general form, figure, complexion, face, eyes,
hair, and all the secondary sexual qualities, love antics, dances,
and song, helped to drag the race upward from a flood of cor-
ruption. Asceticism is based on a normal instinct, and as the
soul realized the cause of its woe, it abhorred what it had most
loved, burned what it had worshiped, and perhaps by instincts
akin to those that vowed poverty, chastity, and obedience, re-
garded every manifestation that could be called sexual as lewd
and crapulous. At any rate, I think no one who has carefully
availed himself of the knowledge now at hand can doubt that
there was a later period when men assiduously scored away,
wherever it was possible, all traces of earlier phallicism and be-
came iconoclastic toward all its documents — literary, monu-
mental, symbolic, verbal, and religious; when they thought
races who still held the old faith were only worthy of exter-
mination, and were often blind and fanatical in their holy rage.
This counter current would be true to the laws of sexual psy-
chology, in which reaction always follows activity, and explains
very simply so much that is baffling in the contrasts and fre-
quently the sudden alternations of individuals from debauchery
to prudery and vice versa.

My contention, then, is that young people, especially boys,
in their development, as later shown, afford the ontogenetic
parallel to these phyletic stages, each, as I think no one has
previously suggested, confirming and illustrating the other and
affording the developmental bases of explanation, hitherto lack-

102 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

ing, for certain forms of sexual perversion or arrest.^ If this
view be correct, the race at one time, or nearly every ethnic
stock at some time early in its development, let itself go until it
found that, as Hegel describes in his Phenomenology, pleasure
has its limits in pain and must be compensated. Then came a
period of humiliation and conviction of unworthiness or sin,
in which man undertook to convert himself, but although he
groveled and many despaired, the elect pressed on, yearning
for the reincarnation of love in its primitive, high, holy, and
wholesome sense in their midst. Perhaps in this abjectness
there was pious longing upward for a purer love to supervene
from above. Thus man's history may explain to some degree
why it is that sexual remorse is still, as we have seen in Chap-
ter VI, the religious teacher's great opportunity, and may make
us realize how, in the philosophy of history, a true incarnation
of love is the object of such long, fervent, and prophetic desire,
and its evangel so welcome to those who need it.

As to the typical development of the sentiment of love in
the individual, we still know too little, i. An infantile form
of it is often seen between boys and girls under the age of
eight.^ It is then transparent, with no self-consciousness, and
appears in fondness for each other's company, gifts for keep-
sakes, especially edibles, and often in embraces and kisses.
Jealousy is often well developed, and there is no mutual shyness
or fear of ridicule between the little sweethearts, who some-
times assume that they will marry and even prattle of details
of life together. In rare cases such attraction has culminated in
happy and fruitful wedlock. This precocity of love is of scien-
tific interest as illustrating in the individual what is probably
an inversion of the order of the development of the race, in
which the somatic seems to precede. It is Platonic and in a
sense sexless, a purer affinity of soul than is generally possible
later. To adult onlookers it is an entertaining spectacle, and to

^ It is chiefly the degraded aspect of these themes that Barnes (Feelings and
Ideas of Sex in Children; Ped. Sam., vol. ii, p. 199) thinks nineteen-twentieths
of American children learn from back alleys, servants, etc., filling their minds
with words that go back to Aryan beginnings, but which it is a crime to print,
and with abnormal visual images highly potentialized at puberty that are not only
dirty and vulgar, but false.

"* The Emotion of Love between the Sexes, by Sanford Bell. Am. Jour, of
Psy. , July, igo2.

ADOLESCENT LOVE 103

some, especially women, an ideal and prophecy of a new Edenic
state of purity, but it is very doubtful if it is either a good sign
or a desirable educational experience, especially for boys, to
thus early individualize their interest in others, although it is
immeasurably better than the vile physical precocity described
in Chapter VI. The child marriages of the Orient do not, of
course, rest on any such basis. It is exotic, like infant piety,
limits the range of association normal at this age, tends to
physical prematurity, and a fostering interest of grown-ups in
it is, albeit unconsciously to them, a form of selfishness on their
part which indulges their own delectation at the expense of the
best interests of the child. Yet, like so many other phenomena,
it suggests, as does very early physical development, the possi-
bility of traces of a prehistoric early ripeness in some pigmoid
stage that, like the persistence or hypertrophy of rudimentary
organs seen in teratology, has failed of proper reduction in its
season. If so, it is a phenomenon of arrest and not of progress.
2. Later, as Bell has shown, at from perhaps eight to twelve
or fourteen, comes another phase of juvenile love. There is
acute interest in some person of the other sex, but it is no longer
unconscious. The object of attraction is followed, but at a
distance. There are gifts, no longer face to face, but secretly
and perhaps anonymously. There is no confession, but con-
fusion in each other's presence. There is no open pairing off,
and teasing is often fatal. Fear of ridicule is so great that
accusation of interest or taunts may prompt to denial or even
to censure and asseveration of dislike, which may lead to sudden
mutual aversion and even hate. Babcock,^ out of eighty-three
games of Washington children, calls thirty love games, like
post-office, King William, London Bridge, picking grapes,
dropping the handkerchief, digging a well, etc., which owe their
charm to choosing a partner, embracing, or kissing, or both.
Thus preferences are freely expressed, but apparently imper-
sonal and masked by the rules of the game. The eyes feast on
the loved one, but furtively and from afar. Boldness is in-
creased with the fall of darkness. The girl at this stage is
often less guarded and more aggressive than the boy. It is not

' Am. Anthropologist, vol. i, p. 243. Lippincott's Mag., March and Sep-
tember, 1886.

104 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

called loving, but liking, which is partly a euphemism and
partly a fitter designation of the juvenile state of mind. Boys
deny it far more readily upon occasion than girls. Some
never confess either to the object of their love or to any con-
fidant, child or adult, but may ostentatiously speak slightingly.
They are ill at ease with each other and perhaps would be
ashamed to be seen together, and the object of an ardent passion
lasting for several years may never suspect it. Its chief out-
crop may be a hostile demonstration toward a fancied rival.
Perhaps avowal is made in a note sent through a friend, or even
with the identity of the writer carefully concealed, or motto
candy, valentines, ornaments, curios, keepsakes, fruit, picture
cards, etc., are sent. In school these mates often love to sit
or stand together and seek contact that must appear to be acci-
dental. Favoritism is shown by intentionally missing a word
so that the other shall profit by it, or helping in study or recita-
tion. If one is absent from school, the other grows lax, indif-
ferent, or irritable, suggesting that such attractions are often
an incentive to good work that pedagogic tact could utilize.
Some brace up in study for years to please or win the favor
of another. A form of courtship may consist solely in touching
feet under the desk. Sometimes there is a profusion of billets-
doux, pages long, by those who are tongue-tied together. A
teacher who furnished Bell with seventy-six cases, said these
childish loves " fairly broke out in the spring-time."

Showing off is perhaps the boy's chief expression of this
callow calf love. He instinctively seeks to charm by somer-
saults, walking fences, yodeling, aping animals in voice and
act, mimicking people, wrestling, bullying his mates, and often
tackling bigger boys, and sometimes courting danger, which in
extreme cases has brought mayhem or death, hanging by the
toes from trees, cutting the initials of his favorite in the ice, or
carving or drawing them. There is much scuffling and horse-
play, loud or grandiloquent talk to others, but really intended
for her. A boy hugs another, his sister, or a pet in the pres-
ence and for the benefit of his affinity. Here, too, the boy's
courtship and its tension-vents are those of the savage writ
small. To this repertory of fascination the girl responds per-
haps by ostentatiously and studiously ignoring them all. Of
all boys, the one who is so assiduously prancing attendance

ADOLESCENT LOVE 105

upon her as the best form of admiration he can offer, is the one
of whose very presence she is most unconscious. This may be
aversion, but it is more Hkely to be due to her dim but strong
instinct to prompt him to a nearer and more personal expres-
sion. No psychologist, but only her trusted confidante, and
perhaps not she, can tell which it is. She might upon occa-
sion slap him and afterward fancy or wish it had been a kiss.
Meanwhile she is pondering whether she likes him as well as
papa, mama, or even God, and is in some cases raising vexa-
tious scruples in her budding conscience. Perhaps she includes
him in her prayers with parents or pets, or fancies love and
hate by turns. She writes his name or pronounces it in secret
and wonders if she likes its sound or its association with others
bearing the same name, is nice to another boy to goad him on,
praises before him qualities he lacks or in which others excel,
or condemns freckles, light hair, or some item of attire which
characterizes him, but if he shows sign of lukewarmness or di-
version to another, she comes forward with some sudden and
unequivocal token. The first crude impulse of coyness often
impels her to open scorn of what is secretly fascinating. Thus
Boyville and Girldom reenact in pantomime a love life that was
old when history began, for these fore-courts of love, which are
so delicious, are more ancient than all the temples that civiliza-
tion and culture have built for it, and these crude rehearsals are
more essential and true to life than many of the more highly
elaborated expressions of it that modern romance and conven-
tion have superposed.

Another characteristic trait of this age, often strongly accen-
tuated also in the next, or third stage, is juvenile love of an
older person of the opposite sex. The interval may be ten or
twenty years or even more. From the rather meager data avail-
able, it would appear that there is here less fickleness and more
constancy, partly but not wholly because only the junior party
changes, while the elder remains always only kind. With
extreme disparity, this is most common where the free play of
intercourse with other children of equal age is restricted. But
beyond this there is a marked early and pre-adolescent pro-
clivity to focus affection at least quite as sharply differentiated
from that felt for parents as from the love of riper years, upon
older counterparts. Some children of from four to six fall in

io6 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

love with those of the later teens and early twenties or even
older.^ These youngsters are often demonstrative, persistent,
jealous, chatter about marriage, appropriate the object of their
infatuation to see whom they eagerly abandon every playmate
or occupation and comport themselves with every affectation of
young gentlemen and ladies that they can attain. Grief at the
marriage of the object of their choice is often violent. Ridicu-
lous and often ominous as this is, it is often regarded by
parents with complacency.

3. In the period from eight to thirteen or later, the tendency
to older loves is more common, but the law seems to be that dis-
parity lessens with age, falling to ten, five or less years. Al-
though returns do not yet warrant statistics of frequency, boys
seem to lead during the first part of this period, and girls later.
Boys in the grades may select a young female teacher and be-
come abject slaves to her slightest wish. She is idealized, at-
tended on every occasion, overwhelmed with gifts and con-
fidences, flattered by imitation conscious and unconscious. The
object may reciprocate with a feeling half motherly and half
amorous. Where the male is older there is more, yet still
but little, real danger. The disparity of years is itself a safe-
guard and the older feels the innocence of the younger to be a
matter of honor, though conscious recognition and even more
or less avowal is mutual. Often great good, especially to the
younger, results, and the plasticity thus arising is wisely util-
ized. Plato thought boys and older men should choose each
others as lovers, and teaching should be a pay-less work of
love, but the boy now often has female teachers only and must
vent this propensity, if such it be, on them for want of an avail-
able male mentor. In one case I know, there was a series of
four loves in about as many years, each younger than the pre-
ceding, so that the sum of the ages of both did not vary greatly,
the last being of nearly the same age as the lover — a case sug-
gestive of what, as we shall see later, is by some thought a law
of constant aggregate age of both parents for most effective
child-bearing. Much of the sentiment of the younger party in
most of these cases is made up of admiration, respect, and even
reverence, and whatever return there may be by the older is of

' Bell, op. cit. , p. 348.

ADOLESCENT LOVE 107

a pleasing sense of having a protege to shelter, to be responsible
for, dominate, and occasionally to domineer. Thus such rela-
tions may be a wholesome fore-school to life. The charm to the
younger is sometimes partly maturity itself, as if the budding
nature was not satisfied with what childhood had to offer and
was protensive toward adulthood. This, if to a degree that
violates the wholesome rule of exhausting each stage of life as
it is lived, is distinctly bad. So far as it is due to unconscious
discontent with the little conventionalities that the sexes in-
stinctively assume toward each other and to attraction toward
one too old to think of them, and therefore more natural, it is
better. The instability of childhood often turns to its elders
and is thus saved from caprice by imitating a good pattern, and
then it is love of a more finished product and of shaping the
soul to an idealized model of the other sex. Even this is only
a partial advantage at the age when the life of each sex should
to some extent include rather than supplement that of the
other. In general, attachments for elders or for well-developed
specimens of the same sex are better at this age.^

' The extreme of this latter, however, is seen in the so-called "mashes" so
characteristic of adolescent girls and the hero-worship and fagging of boys.
These homo-sexual relations were recognized in Greece for boys who were thought
unfortunate, or in some way deficient if they did not have an adult patron. This
prompted ideal conduct of the elder in the presence of the younger partner that
none but the highest example be set, and general but not technical teaching and
initiation into life. The elder must assume responsibility for the younger, inspire
him and feel shame for his error or ignorance. That the relation lapsed to base-
ness later should not blind us to the great possible advantages of it in many, if not
every kind of social organization. Many of these, as we shall see later, are now
utilizing it with good results. Not only is the ideal teacher primarily an older friend,
fertilizing the soul with knowledge and bringing ideas to birth, but, as it is some-
times said, every woman is always more or less in love with some man, so in the
church, club, young peoples' organizations, and the tutorial system at its best,
every youth is always profoundly influenced by some one a little older, and is more
or less plastic to his or her will. Each is impressionable by some one stronger,
more brilliant, or otherwise specially favored by nature or fortune, as he is not by
others. The old and great are too far away, but most have this hero embodying
an ideal. In girls, especially if isolated from the other sex, this homo-sexuality is
also pervasive if less often organized under a leader, and its extreme form of
"crushes " is more liable to do harm. The parasite is often given nervous poise,
guided aright and gains new incentive, but also loses independence, and becomes a
clinging vine just when she should learn to think and act for herself. The object
of this kind of love is tempted to selfishness in accepting service, and may become
domineering and masculine in manner. With girls, especially, these dangers, like

I08 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

4. In the fourth stage, there is a rather distinct period that
begins with puberty which is marked by a general tendency of
the sexes to draw apart for a season. The barks of love built
before are mostly too frail to cross the breakers that separate
childhood from youth. The new interests now born are too
many, strange, sudden, and absorbing. Each is a new creature,
and all relations, ideas, and ideals are changed. A new im-
pulsion to develop and perfect a personality all one's own arises
in each sex. Sex itself means other and more than before, and
reserve and a new sex consciousness unfold. Modes of life, in-
terests, and plans for the future differentiate. The boy becomes
a little ashamed of girl associates and is desirous of asserting his
manhood, while the girl is more conscious if not more coy.
Each is more aware of the other's scrutiny and often a little
fearful of it. Persistence of the old camaraderie would now
have a different and more serious meaning, and each is a little
wary of being attracted into the other's sphere. Nearly every
known primitive race now isolates the sexes for a time from
each other, and perhaps this ancient practise now appears as an
instinct which reenforces the necessity for a period of restraint.
It is tempting to speculate on how essential this stage of segre-
gation has been for the progress of the human race, and how, if
it is ignored, familiarity, which sometimes breeds contempt,
may here disenchant and impair the motives for a proper rap-
prochement later when full nubility is achieved. This theme
must be left for the chapter on the education of girls.

5. The age of love, in the full and proper sense of the word,
slowly supervenes when body and soul are mature, and on this
we must dwell longer and seek to analyze and describe its ele-
ments. The world has long waited for an adequate treatment
of this vast and vital theme, but that modern psychology is now
approaching it from so many sides is one of the most hopeful
facts of the present age.

The development of the sex function is normally, perhaps,
the greatest of all stimuli to mental growth. The new curiosity
and interests bring the alert soul into rapport with very many
facts and laws of life hitherto unseen. Each of its phenomena

worse ones for both sexes previously described, are part of the price modern man
must pay for the prolonged prenubile apprenticeship to life. All are needful to
human progress, dearly as it is bought.

ADOLESCENT LOVE 109

supplies the key to a new mystery. Sex is the most potent and
magic open sesame to the deepest mysteries of hfe, death, re-
hgion, and love. It is, therefore, one of the cardinal sins
against youth to repress healthy thoughts of sex at the proper
age, because thus the mind itself is darkened and its wings
clipped for many of the higher intuitions, which the supreme
muse of common sense at this its psychologic moment ought
to give. If youth are left to themselves and the contagion
of most environments, this mental stimulus takes a low turn
toward lewd imaginations and vile conceptions, which under-
mine the strength of virtue, and instead of helping upward
and making invulnerable against all temptation, it makes vir-
tue safe only in its absence and prepares the way for a fall,
when its full stress is first felt.^

IV. Neither the psychology nor the pedagogy of adoles-
cence can be treated without careful consideration of the whole
problem of sex. In the vast literature upon this subject, the
biologists have hitherto treated almost exclusively the anatomy
and embryology of sex and its physiology in the lower forms
of life, and have had little to say concerning its function in
man. The alienists have given us a most painful though scien-
tifically precious body of facts concerning perversions, but no
competent writer among them has seriously considered their
origin, and the best of them hardly mention puberty or adoles-
cence, while writers on this topic, like Clouston and Marro,

^ G. Loisel (Rev. Scientifique, May 30, 1903), in an interesting article on sex-
uality, attempts to differentiate four different groups or evolutionary stages of sex-
ual qualities : First, those that accompany the act of fecundation and which are
very early both in ontogenesis and phylogenesis like the glands and organs, in-
cluding those of prehension, of which he enumerates twenty-three; secondly,
traits that prepare for this act which appear later and sometimes disappear with the
sexual period, like pigmentation, organs of locomotion, differences in strength and
size, horns, spurs, teeth, song, odors, decorations, etc.; thirdly, those concerned
with the eduction of the new being, which appear later yet, such as organs of ovi-
position, nidification, somatic cavities, cutaneous formations, permanent or tran-
sitory, various appendixes, those concerned with feeding the young — secretions,
breasts, placenta, etc.; and fourthly, psychic and ethnologic traits having only a
remote rapport with the above and arising only as a result of very accentuated sex-
ual evolution, such as different habits of male and female, their varied conditions
of life, modes of courtship, modesty, marriage, family, etc. Under these primary,
secondary, tertiary, and quaternary groups, he believes, fall all important phe-

no THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

have mostly limited themselves to the psycho-physiological as-
pects of the age they treat with no attempt at larger coordina-
tion. Ellis has so far confined himself mainly to a record of
facts and opinions, and Scott/ who has approached the sub-
ject from the broadest standpoint, has written only a single
monograph on the relations between sex and art. The cue
given by Darwin's treatment of sexual selection as the chief
factor in the descent of man must first be followed, and we
may well invoke Plato's Diatoraa to be our guide in this, per-
haps the largest, most complex, yet most interesting and most
important of all human themes. Geddes and Thompson ^ state
that " the number of speculations as to the nature of sex has
been well-nigh doubled since Drelincourt in the last century
brought together two hundred and sixty-two groundless hy-
potheses." But, as Schleiermacher well says, sex ought to be
endlessly studied, because it is the most endless of subjects.

We may begin by recalling the now familiar facts of or-
ganic decorations in the mating season where, in the animal
world, the appeal is directly intersexual, and not, as in the case
of blossoms in sexual plants, through the medium of insects.
From the latter up, seasonal sex decorations make the whole
animal world beautiful even to man. Life overflows in bright
colors, the products of health. Ocelli, combs, wattles, horns,
erectile hairs, top-knots, lapettes, crests, bands, spots, nuptial
plumage, and many extra appendages, indicating high blood
pressure and increased tension of life, herald the spring-time
awakening. The ibex, goat, and some apes, develop beards;
the glow-worm emits its love light to signal a mate; scent
glands are censers for the incense of love; organs of prehension
and of warfare grow as their need arises; and musical instru-
ments are developed in and on the body. Not only structure,
but function, is evolved. In the mating season the air is filled
with noises; insects tick or stridulate; birds drum, slur, and
rattle, and if they live in the dense woods where bright plumage
would be less effective, they are endowed with song. Almost
every animal is vocal at its mating time, and birds pout, tumble,
strut, balz, or dance, open their wings to show hidden charms

1 Sex and Art. Am. Jour, of Psy., January, 1896, vol. vii, pp. 153-226.
^ Evolution of Sex, p. 117.

ADOLESCENT LOVE I"

of color ; they often perform the most complex love antics, and
emit their most charming love calls in their courtships often
very prolonged and elaborate, their ars erotica even extending
to details of toilet that might almost be called cosmetic.

Animated by this same instinct, and under the influence of
the momentum of all this heritage, primitive races attempt to
improve upon nature and exaggerate or modify their physical
peculiarities. There are mutilations, often of the sex parts,
sometimes of the ear, the skull, nose, lips, or teeth, which may
be as disfiguring to our taste as the pelele, with scarifications
that raise ridges, and tattooing, which may be for modesty,
as if clothes could be etched on for beauty or ornament, or to
make the wearer feared, or, even as Wundt and Fraser think,
to imprint the totem of their tribe upon human parchment.
The hair is most diversely treated of all. It is pulled out,
shaved, or made to grow as long as possible and done up into
highly conventionalized and elaborate forms. Many games
and dances and most songs and cries are highly sexual, and
owe much of their stimulus to the presence and encouragement
of the other sex. Ethnologists often discover this element
where it is no longer recognized by the natives.

In early puberty the same instinct is often normally the
very first manifestation of sex feeling in boys; the primary
outcrop of secondary psychic sexual qualities is often seen in
the " showing off " instinct. Hundreds of boys, in our returns,
run fastest, hit hardest, talk largest, are most stimulated to
compete and excel, do rash and foolhardy or unusual things,
when observed by girls, or perhaps by one in particular. They
stand, walk, and sit more erect; use larger words and more
ample or perhaps softer and more richly cadenced tones and
accents ; their eye and their wits are brighter. Older youth are
not without sex consciousness in the display of athletic feats in
which the body is more or less exposed.

The influence of the female sex upon the conflicts between
males is old, deep, and manifold. In animals, many claws,
horns, beaks, and fangs are for offensive and defensive war in
the battles for females, and many organs and muscles used in
combat are also for the prehension of the female. In a primi-
tive polygamous state, where each male desires as many females
as possible, he is at war with all other males and frequently in a

112 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

life-and-death struggle with them. He often wars on neighbor-
ing races for the capture of wives, where exogamy is the cus-
tom. Where the female is the prize, victory may be defined as
successful courtship and war is for the sake of love. Grad-
ually with advancing civilization, conflict may become cere-
monialized as in the tournaments of chivalry, and finally battles
become more and more mimetic, and the stern, fierce look and
strong frame, that could be aggressive, the quality of cour-
age that could do or dare, or even the uniform of war rather
than blood itself become most moving to the female soul. Ex-
cess tends to Sadistic morbidity, which here takes its rise. The
rage of war is expressed in the rage of sex, which may break
all barriers, and, strange to say, so plastic is the adjustment of
the sexes, that not only are some men in the sad clinical ro-
mances of abnormality all anger in their love, but some women
are all fear, and their love means utter subordination and
the ultra passivity of cruel pain, because love has come in
this guise, which, in extreme cases, may culminate in lust
murder.

It is a prime and precious fact to which man owes we
know not how much in his higher evolution, that while aggres-
sive qualities may have preceded and dominated in the early
developmental stages, the esthetic manifestations of sexual ten-
sion precede and exceed them now in youth. The female may
have had much to do with this, and it is certain that the girl's
delicate appreciation, though often veiled by affected indiffer-
ence, has been a constant biotonic stimulus. Through it all
she performs her great role of sexual selection. Man is pass-
ing her examination, part by part, in the oldest and most effec-
tive of all nature's schools. To her power of appreciation and
her capacity to admire nothing is lost. Her high function is
to praise aright. While chronic militarism is bad in its effects
on woman, her tendency is constantly to subdue it. Her very
coyness is unconsciously prized because it is a stimulus to self-
exhibition and all the parenetical arts of courtship. While
for man the original pairing season is mainly lost, yet the fancy
of each sex turns more lightly to love and is more hyperesthetic
to the other in spring-time, and the rapport and range of adjust-
ment is more exquisite and marvelous. So great is the plas-
ticity of this relation that woman may acquire a Massochistic

ADOLESCENT LOVE 113

love of violence and pain for the ideal of pleasure, abhor the
bashful man, ostentatiously affect resistance in order to inflame
him to overcome it, or she may also be attracted to his sphere
and become herself aggressive. Each sex is now in a sense
making, choosing, or keenly critical of secondary sexual qual-
ities in the other.

This is illustrated in a comprehensive census of data, al-
ready tabulated, and soon to appear as a special memoir, on
traits mediating sexual likes and dislikes. The order of points
specified as most admired in the other sex by young men and
women in their teens, who answered my questionnaire, is as fol-
lows : eyes, hair, stature and size, feet, brows, complexion,
cheeks, form of head, throat, ears, chin, hands, neck, nose,
nails and even fingers, and shape of face. In Drew's census of
356 love poems of college students, where eyes and hair also
lead, where kisses (sixty-six mentions) are often unreal,
dreamed, fancied, charms of the hand, and walking, riding,
dancing, eating confectionery follow; the sweetheart's song,
sigh, pout, smile, and even chewing-gum, are also specialized
fascinations.^ In each case many often highly specialized
points are mentioned. For instance, eight per cent of young
men are very susceptible to sloping or drooping shoulders;
seven per cent of the girls specify broad shoulders ; ten per cent
regular and six per cent white teeth; long lashes charm five
per cent of the young men; long, clean, or pink finger-nails
are often specified; arched brows among girls find a special
susceptibility in four per cent of the youth, while cowlicks
charm three per cent. Often the specialization of taste or
preference lays great stress upon the color of the hair, the
shape of the hand or fingers ; for some a nose slightly retrousse,
a long neck, prominent eyes, dimples, and even freckles, have
special erogenic power.

Passing to movements or acts, the voice has far most
preferences and is highly specialized. Some are affected by a
high, some a low, voice. The rising inflection, clearness, flex-
ibility, a lisp, special intonations, accents, or even dialects, are
often prepotent. The mode of laughing comes next, while
carriage, gait, gesture, the movement or roll of the eye, the

^ Ped. Sem., vol. ii, p. 504.

47

"4 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

pose of the head and shoulders, the mode of fanning, use of
the handkerchief, holding the dress, the way of sitting or sigh-
ing, may each have a special preeminence.

In dress or toilet, hair leads, and length, mode, or parting,
dressing, curling, beau-catchers, etc., are detailed. Rings,
bracelets, and ribbons come next with the girls, and with boys,
clothes that fit, with several specifications, especially at the
shoulder, waist, etc. Canes, glasses, furs and collars, teeth
filled with gold, clean linen, white handkerchiefs, the quality
of the cloth, pronounced styles, hats, and even parasols and
umbrellas, are specialized. For some, a particular mode of
wearing the hat, stick-pins, the special style of collar, the mode
of wearing the watch-chain, frizzes, or coils, symmetry, neat-
ness, etc., are all prominently mentioned.

Conversely, dislikes are no less pronounced. Here, promi-
nent, deep-set eyes lead, and fulness of neck, ears that stand out,
brows that meet, broad and long feet, high cheek-bones, light
eyes, large nose, small stature, long neck or teeth, bushy brows,
pimples, red hair, and a score and a half other points are speci-
fied. Of abhorred habits, the following lead in order : snuffling,
lisping, making faces, swallowing, rolling the eyes, loud voice,
" er- " and " um-ing," pausing in talk, gesticulation, sarcastic
smiles, hard or tasteless laugh, stiffness in movement or ex-
treme lounging, giggling, shuffling, bad inflections, swagger-
ing, and many affectations.

In dress, the order of dislikes mentioned is : earrings worn
by men, lost teeth, neglect of style, bangs, thumb rings, hat on
one side in men, short hair in women, baldness, ultra style,
clothes that do not fit, monocles, flashy ties, untidy linen, hand-
kerchiefs with colors, furs and rings for men, cheap or coarse
dress, etc.

Resemblance to animals plays a great and surprising role
in adolescence among sexual dislikes. Forty-one are men-
tioned, and the resemblances may be suggested by face, voice,
motion, or character, the order being monkey, dog, parrot,
pig, bird, peacock, cat, hen, donkey, sheep, rabbit, bear, fox,
etc. Qualities disliked were as follows : impertinence, flattery,
affectation, boldness, complaint, bashfulness, languor, criticism,
impulsiveness, deliberation, overgallantry, and frankness.
These are the alphabet or stoichiological material of which

ADOLESCENT LOVE 1I5

romantic love is so largely composed, where trivial often eclipse
great qualities and one trait may be magnified beyond all
bounds. We see love charms dissociated from sex centers and
become objects of independent attraction, and also how, in de-
generates, sex feelings may be transferred to new objects with
no change in the feelings themselves. If touch, smell, voice,
eye, mind or body, dress, automatisms, conscious acts, intelli-
gence, are the decentric series, we can see how now a change in
fashion, now in manners, now in morals, and now in religion,
may each be only a change of fetish groups.

We note at once in the above the origin of morbid fetish-
isms, the buds of which exist in many cases at this stage of life
when all of them probably take their rise. Normally, these
special preferences, no doubt often consciously, and still more
often unconsciously, associated with liking for individuals,
already well developed, are instinctively organized as parts of
a larger whole, so that when one who embodies in his or her
own person most of these fetishistic traits is met with, love may
suddenly recognize and focus on its own. There is quick identi-
fication and fusion of ideals that are fit. Love is on this view
the practical culmination of self-knowledge which is aware of
defects, and the systematization of counterpart is more or less
unconsciously proceeding in the depths of the soul. On the
one hand, so many of these perfections may be coordinated
and in so high a degree, that the ideal hovers forever above the
reality, and the former must be comprised within actual mating.
The romantic love, which Finck shows is largely a modern
product, illustrates the ideals of the minstrels of the twelfth
century, and many of the modern novelists of both the porno-
graphic and the mystic schools must share with many other
causes the responsibility of perturbing the plain and beauteous
order of nature. In six leading contemporary alienists, I find
the following definitions of the love as described in novels,
" emotive delusion," " fixed idea," " rudimentary paranoia,"
" psychic neurasthenia," " psychic emotive obsession," and
" episodic symptoms of hereditary degeneracy." In the de-
generate soul, the whole energy of love may center upon some
single trait which may thus come to play a disproportionate or
even demiurgic part in the life of sex. In any case, esthetic
taste is unconsciously being cultivated over a wide range of

Il6 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

topics and to a degree of which the mature mind generally loses
all appreciation.

Female coyness and reluctance or refusal is so deep-seated
as to belie the Bible imputation that this sex made the first ad-
vances. The contrary seems true, that in this respect woman
is normally and constitutionally more unfallen than man, and
that the world owes to her the precious and primal motive of
reserve. All through the animal series she leads, not only
organically, because her parts are inward and hidden, but psy-
chically, in the instinct to cover. As Ellis well suggests, the
attitude of the Medicean Venus with the two hands concealing
and protecting the two chief sexual zones is typical. First,
no doubt, comes fear and her shyness and timidity accentuated
by male aggression and full of reverberations through her
whole mental and physical organism. Next, perhaps, comes the
long menstrual taboo to which man has condemned her, so
that her instincts shun everything that could betray this condi-
tion and seek in every way to disguise it. To these are added
the dread of exciting disgust and the close association of ex-
cremental functions and the shame that centers in them. An-
other factor is her individual preference which constantly
tends to make her reserved toward all others, although she
would be unreserved to one. Waitz thinks that she thus antici-
pates male ownership, and in civilized life the feelings of a
future husband. The fact that during most or all of the stages
of gestation she is averse to approach would place a psychic
embargo upon these periods. Sixth, the pain of parturition
and the labor of rearing children must have always constituted,
whenever foresight was sufficiently developed, a strong toco-
logical and prudential restraint ; while lastly, her love of being-
admired, courted, and wooed would make delay in these deli-
cious forecourts of love prolonged. Dressed and fortified by
all this intricate panoply of motives to anatomical, physiolog-
ical, and psychological modesty, she plays her role of sexual
selection, long-circuiting primary to secondary instincts, slowly
domesticating man and developing in him the traits she pre-
fers, and endowing him with many of his best secondary sexual
qualities. Miss Gamble says, in substance, that woman thus
created man, gave him his best traits of mind and body, and
takes pleasure in adding that she had to make him attractive

ADOLESCENT LOVE I17

in order to endure him. But the reverse process has been no
less effective, for she thus diverted selective processes to higher
secondary qualities in herself, and gave these all the stimuli
that spring from natural selection. If the race had passed
through a long stage of female supremacy or a matriarchate,
as Bachofen supposed, this would naturally intensify and re-
fine all these long-circuit influences.

With, and probably without, this latter stress, sexual ten-
sion would have been sufficient to be one cause of the now well-
established greater variability of the male as compared with the
female. Sexual sympathy could overdo its work and attract
the male to the sphere of the female. This would supply the
cause of feminism in its many forms, and perhaps the sac-
charinity ineffable of many an ancient and modern amorist and
bard. If man loses his cue and becomes overdocile, interpret-
ing the woman's states of mind too subtly, playing female parts
in her costume, with oily voice and cadence, we have the germs
of inversion. Not only in the body, but in the psyche of child-
hood, there are well-marked stages in which male and female
traits, sensations, and instincts struggle for prepotency. Here,
too, the instincts peculiar to the opposite sex may not vanish as
they normally should, so that we have bi-sexual souls. In these
cases, where latencies and rudiments of the other sex are
aroused, as eviration progresses, instincts in the male predomi-
nantly feminine, which should be relegated to the background,
are brought to the fore. Moreover, in the state consecutive to
consummation, exhaustion in the male produces a temporary
passivity akin to feminism, and this state is the background of
homo-sexuality. Schopenhauer, with singular lack of insight
or with germs of inversion in his own soul, thought the latter
a normal state for men over fifty and a wise provision of nature
to turn these instincts in man from the opposite sex to his own
for the benefit of posterity.

While these sad phenomena are unquestionably exceptional
and degenerate, we have, in the excessive predominance of
feminine reluctance, factors which Moll has made the basis of a
theory of the origin of fetishisms; viz., that where clothing
and other accessories have too far or too completely irradiated
man's sexual instinct, it may focus on relatively neutral or in-
different parts, objects, and acts, until instead of specializing in

ll» THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

an individual synthesis, it focuses upon one single item which
may provoke it toward any person, and becomes anesthetic
toward its normal stimulus. Upon this view, prudery and
mock modesty have a share in the responsibility for this perver-
sion which sometimes, although far less than in cases of in-
version, is reflected in bodily modifications at puberty. The
fact that both sexes have in them germs of the other's quality,
makes it incumbent upon each to play its sex symphony with
no great error, lest the other be more or less desexed in soul.
The function of dreams and of heredity in these abnormalities
does not concern us here.

It is one important office of convention, custom, and eti-
quette to preside over this balance between the relationship of
the sexes at large. Modesty is at root mode, and woman is its
priestess. Nothing can be more diverse among different people
and in different ages. Nudity is perfectly compatible and often
associated with modesty, whose only garb may be virtue, which
may express itself in pose, deportment, and make itself thor-
oughly recognized at once upon acquaintance. From the mere
phalocript and the mixed bathing in Japan, the foot modesty
in China which could sooner expose anything else, from the
shame of male models up to the sensitiveness that blushes if
the neck is exposed in the bath-suit or the ankle in the ballroom,
that does not permit the sight of one's own body alone, that
drapes statues and can not study botany, we have scales and
unwritten codes which extend no less rigorously to acts, ges-
tures, and expressions. These are like psychic garments with
changing fashions, but erotology well understands that some-
times to ignore their existence is itself to win, for like clothes
they may be removed with reluctance, but once off the wearer
sinks to a lower psychic plateau on which the race long lived,
and becomes more or less shameless.

It is on these laws, written and unwritten, that coquetry
loves to play. It flees, but flees in a circle, or to excite pursuit ;
it resists, but so as to provoke conquests; it understands that
concealment inflames and feeds fancy, that dress may be war-
paint in the battle of sex against sex. Without consciously
assuming that modesty was meant only to be overcome, that
many of the original dances parody the closest of all relations,
and that modes are often set by demi-mondaines, everything is.

ADOLESCENT LOVE I19

risque. Pudenda are concealed but with colors still more strik-
ing, and, as Ellis says, dashes, stars, and asterisks, as Swift
first used them, may be most insidiously suggestive. The
coquette is generally discentered and hollow at the root, and
her fickleness is not that normal to the monthly rhythm, but
capricious and freaky. Any barrier, no matter how fantastic
and extreme, if consciously let down may become provocative
and immoral. The early stages of adolescent development
should be mainly directed toward irradiation and the cultiva-
tion of qualities penumbral and accessory to the fundamental
one of sex. Education, religion, art, society, and philosophy
must build a well-constructed stairway up the same height
which the Platonic ladder sought to scale. Almost everything
should be viewed by adults in its bearing to this one end, so
that orgies may be restrained and calentures be experienced on
a high plane.

Not only is the soma itself in some sense a secondary sexual
quality, but its development is a kind of nidification for the
human germ to be molted at death, when it has served its pur-
pose, while work with intensity is necessary so that erethisms
and second breath may be had both in physical and mental
activity. Healthful and sufficient society of noble women,
communion with whom at this age rapidly passes over to
adoration; diversion, starting out in business as the majority
of young people do in the early teens on completing the legal
requirements of education; avoidance of self-consciousness,
lest it be turned toward parts and functions the premature de-
velopment of which stunts all the higher faculties ; enthusiasm
in intellectual work, so that studies be not dry and leave us
cold; experience with hardship and perhaps some asceticism
and mortification of the flesh at the age when the blood is
hottest, when debauchees became flagellants and St. Benedict
rolled in the thorn bushes to divert and check his passion ; even
sorrow and grief and perhaps love melancholy, which glimpses
in pain and disappointment its Nemesis, death — all these, if
not actually building up higher Jacksonian levels in the brain,
are constructing nests of high and wholesome thoughts for old
age, in which it can dwell with pleasure and dignity, when the
stress of passion is gone, and are working out the higher voca-
tion of man.

120 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

One of the functions of this flood-time of hfe is to irrigate
old age and make it green, to lay up psychic treasure anticipa-
tory of it, and make senescence, which is in so many ways a
negative replica or intaglio of adolescence, pure and noble in a
high Ciceronian sense. It is perhaps not without significance
that the nervous system begins its development with sex and
increases for the most part pari passu with it. Its associative
plexi are organs of irradiation upward and they have widening
correspondences in time and space, so that the satiety of the
moment does not breed disgust, and the physical and spiritual
are indissolubly knit together, so that love can now be the most
unitary act of a highly complex life. Offspring is literally a
continuation or a part of the body, and love to it begins in and
is a part of self-love. In lower forms even the nest is secreted,
and the identity of body between parent and offspring is such
that defense is self-protection.

Thus starting from the reproductive act and widening to
love of features, dress, acts, and fair forms, and so on in en-
larging concentric circles, to all the arts of caresza, then to
images and courtship, ever higher, richer, purged of fear and
anger, love with the mind instead of with sense may become
the kinetic equivalent and catharsis for its grosser physical
manifestations, and its telluric-chthonic type may be transpe-
ciated to reenforce the appreciation of all that is good, beauti-
ful, and true. From giving, first, edibles and toys up to self-
effacement; from love of being together to complete coordi-
nation of habits, tastes, and instincts ; from trying to please
and cause a smile up to always preferring another's good to
one's own — all this is not alchemy and the archaic symbolism
in which love poems revel, but the plain, simple course of
evolution if normally environed. It is no mystery save the
supreme mystery of spring-time and of growth.

The apex of individuation must be attained before genesis,
but only for the sake of the latter, to which it is subordinate.
This means the postponement of every nubile function till as
near the end of the growth period as possible, so that maturity
may realize as far as practicable the ideal of Sir Galahad, who
had the strength of ten because his heart was pure. The most
rigid chastity of fancy, heart, and body is physiologically and
psychologically as well as ethically imperative till maturity is

ADOLESCENT LOVE 121

complete on into the twenties, nor is it hard if continence is
inward, for nature in all healthful bodies brings normal relief ;
while the most morbid symptom of decadence and degeneration
of both the individual and his stock or line is the concession
to the excuses and justification now often current even among
academic youth for the indulgences of passion. Restraint is
now true manhood and makes races ascendent and not de-
scendent, while from the plant world up, prematurity, that
goes too early to seed, means caducity. The perfected adoles-
cent will now have systematized his ideals.

A sad new light upon the peculiar vulnerability of early
adolescence in girls is presented in a recent minute study of
eighteen cases of hysteria in highly cultivated subjects, to each
of which more than one hundred hours of work was devoted.^
In nearly every case, it was found that the primary disturbance
was due to some lesion, shock, or psychic traumatism at pu-
berty, such as a sudden indecent proposal from a revered friend
or lover, or some pornographic scene, the private nature of
which caused it to be concealed from others and unacknowl-
edged by the subject of it. This acted like a foreign body in
consciousness, which would not be assimilated in the general
associative plexus, but could sometimes be brought into con-
sciousness by hypnosis ; or in other cases, the mere act of con-
fession relieved the hysterical symptoms, so that such experi-
ences no longer inhibited motor acts. Sometimes the wounded
feelings were almost lost to consciousness and were transmuted
to physical pain or nausea, or else the fact developed a hidden
life of its own, or produced Charcot's passional attitudes where
physical pain did not relieve the intense psychalgia. Freud
sums up by saying ^ that their chief result is that " from what-
ever side and from whatever symptom we start, we always
unfailingly reach the region of the sexual life." " At the bot-
tom of every case of hysteria, and reproducible by an analytic
effort after even an interval of ten years, may be found one or
more facts of previous sexual experience belonging to early
youth." " I regard this important result as the discovery of a
caput Nili of neuropathology." This view, although no doubt

' Brauer and Freud, op. cit.
''Wien. klin. Rundschau, 1896.

122 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

partial and less completely explanatory of all hysterical phe-
nomena, brings it back, nevertheless, to its etymology, and is
suggestive here not only in showing the wide psychic and also
somatic resonance of this function, but in confirming our con-
tention that primary sexual facts normally come in the later
stages of adolescence after secondary qualities have become
familiar to consciousness. To my thinking, we have in the
above theory a new outcrop of the old problems of catharsis,
which is suggested in Plato's Symposium, elaborated in Aris-
totle's Poetics, and voluminously discussed ever since (Doring
mentions seventy treatises on it in fifteen years), and which is
destined to be one of the most fundamental themes in the new
psychology of art, and perhaps still more of religion.

Now love can include the whole body and soul. The fact
that, as we have seen, woman is a more generic being than man,
closer to the race, and less mutilated by specializations or by
deformities of body or of soul, makes it easy and normal for
man to see in his chosen Helen the entire sex. She becomes to
him the flower in the crannied wall, by knowing and loving
which he knows God and man. Every part of her body and
mind is attractive. He must not be unable to see her coun-
tenance for her soul, or her soul for her body, and will find in
her a complete microcosm so that age and beauty are not in-
compatible, and his love for soma and psyche will each keep
the other from atrophy. Marriage can now be ideal, infallible,
and impeccable without requiring any platonic supervision of
elders. The erogenic magnets are organized so that a life of
true love can be both complemental and symbiotic. Synthesis
of the many complex elements now secures against any form
of degradation ; each sex is conscious of its own good points,
but still more so of those of the other ; life, which has hitherto
been partial, provisional, and preparatory, now becomes com-
plete in mutual, spiritual appropriation and mastery. Defects
are balanced, and two bodies and two souls are a finished nidus
for the development of the new resultant life which can now be
inaugurated.

Every gemmule is mobilized and the sacred hour of hered-
ity normally comes when adolescence is complete in wedlock
and the cerebro-spinal rings up the sympathetic system, and
this hands over the reins to the biophores and germ cells, which

ADOLESCENT LOVE 123

now assert their dominance over those of the soma. In the
most unitary of all acts, which is the epitome and pleroma of
life, we have the most intense of all affirmations of the will to
live and realize that the only true God is love, and the center
of life is worship. Every part of mind and body participates
in a true pangenesis. This sacrament is the annunciation hour,
with hosannas which the whole world reflects. Communion is
fusion and beatitude. It is the supreme hedonic narcosis, a
holy intoxication, the chief ecstasy, because the most intense
of experiences ; it is the very heart of psychology, and because
it is the supreme pleasure of life it is the eternal basis and
guarantee of optimism. It is this experience more than any
other that opens to man the ideal world. Now the race is in-
carnated in the individual and remembers its lost paradise.
Man must experience pleasure in order to know the good, and
the long reverberations of this experience remain, transporting
the soul, filling it with a sense of exquisite rapture, delicacy,
and deep joy, hovering over life and suffusing it with a glory
not hitherto suspected, enriching the past like a " vague snatch
of Uranian antiphone," and lighting the future with the per-
manent possibility of a higher life than could hitherto be con-
ceived. Life is now polarized, oriented, and potentialized. The
soul is filled with a Titanism that would achieve a vita nuova
upon a higher plateau, where the music of humanity is no
longer sad but triumphant. The conversion of the Marquis
of Penalta, by the act of love, from a monk to a hero of action,
as the first taste of blood transforms a young tiger, illustrates
how this act can never be normally passionate unless it is pure.
Now the soul realizes the possibility of a new heaven and a new
earth ; that the highest dreams of human beatitude may be real ;
that there is a smmnum bonuin awaiting man on heights not
yet scaled, and that erethism and its calentures are prophecies
of a higher human estate. It pants for more and fuller life.
Nothing is such a potent norm, so pervades all the conscious
and unconscious regions with a controlling force, which science
can not describe and which is forever too subtle for the intellect,
which is a more individual product, to trace. Every goal that
science, art, religion, ambition strives for becomes more real
and near, and in no other act are body and soul so absolutely
one, and the rights and fullest functions of each so utterly

124 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

dependent upon those of the other. The flesh and spirit are
mated, and now for the first time an apperception organ is
molted forth, full grown like Minerva for knowing, doing, and
feeling all that is lawful to man's estate. Nature, as hitherto
conceived, is transcended in the soul's natiira natiirata, and the
extra and supernatural organ of faith comes into possession of
its kingdom.

Alas for those in whom this experience is mutilated by pre-
mature or excessive experience in Venusberg, for these can
never know the highest, largest, and deepest things of life !
Genesic excess, venery, and salacity arrest the higher develop-
ment, forever exclude the soul from the higher kingdom of
man and compel it to dwell in lower regions, where adolescence
merges into senescence too early and without normal culmina-
tion. Synthesis on the psychic side and amphimixis on the
physical issues in offspring in variation, in the interests of which
sex was developed. The effectiveness of the rejuvenation thus
arising in the new generation is a moral as well as a physiolog-
ical biometer, or test of life, every act of which should be con-
formable to the needs of the unborn, that an enfeebled exist-
ence be not transmitted to them, but that the sacred torch be
passed on undimmed. Many a mystery of human existence is
only the dim forecourt to this great clarifier. As Heraclitus
thought the sun each night was absorbed into the earth, mak-
ing all its mass a little warmer and lighter, and secreted anew
each morning; as the sun explains many a mythic cycle of
solar heroes and brings both them and the mind into a higher
unity, so the high potential of sex pervades and gives us the
key by which to unlock many obscurities. When chaste and
ripened love is thus, each personality is a god to the other and
every such conception is immaculate for both.

Reproduction is always sacrificial. Man learns to live by
dying and his life is at best a masterly retreat. Relaxation and
detumescence are the first faint symptoms from afar of senile
involution and the Nemesis of death, toward which the indi-
vidual shrivels. After the high tide in which the ars amandi
culminates, lifting existence, like the great bore on the Chinese
rivers, the law of post coitus triste is gradually accentuated with
increasing age. Now man truly knows good and evil, euphoria
and disphoria, and is polarized to pleasure and pain. Hereafter

ADOLESCENT LOVE 125

Nature grows more and more indifferent to the individual, for
the species is his true essence and its Hfe is an explanation
and paraphrase of sex. In natures weakened by venery, indif-
ference and impotence deepen to remorse and sometimes to
psychic pain so intense that the fall of man is reenacted and
hate and even murder may take the place of love. Pleasure at
any price means a loveless life from which all the music of
humanity has gone. If it is hollow or diseased at the core,
even pleasure is only explosive and instantaneous, and the
trough of the wave of reaction is too deep and broad. This sex-
ual cause of neurasthenia, " in the morning hectic, in the even-
ing electric," makes life a living death, for all sin either is or
is measured by the degradation of this function.

The soul of the normal mother now slowly turns toward the
child and toward the future, and the father, whom she original-
ly reclaimed from feral, roving loves, later follows. Marital is
enlarged to filial love, and the affections are slowly pivoted
over into alinement with the race and its interests. The
struggle for the life of others, which has taken the place of that
for individual existence, now includes the family and is triune.
Childhood is studied by sympathy through all stages of the
miracle of growth. In the lower animal series, parents die in
the exercise of the reproductive function. Many animal
mothers never see their children, who are orphaned before
birth, but now womb, cradle, nursery, home, family, relatives,
school, church, and state are only a series of larger cradles or
placenta, as the soul, like the chambered nautilus, builds itself
larger mansions, the only test and virtue of which is their
service in bringing the youth to ever fuller maturity.

Wedlock and the family are thus all conditioning. They
must be perfect because they are symbols and types of life.
These masterpieces are the choicest products, so far as evolution
is yet itself evolved, of the history of the world, which is at
root a love story. Defect here destroys an organ of knowledge,
for the larger institutions are created in its image and can be
rightly known only through it. Without children, love is in-
complete. If woman is not satisfied, and grows mannish and
assumes the functions of the other sex as her rights, it is be-
cause man is a failure and has not met her highest needs of
body and soul, or both ; and if he degenerates, and either be-

126 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

comes feminine or relapses to his predomesticated stage and
ceases to be primarily husband, it is because she no longer is
primarily wife and mother. That religion and sex are in close
psychological relation the world knows well. This is seen
even in their abnormalities and in the acute attunement of the
adolescent soul to the former. This stage of life is the accepted
time when the teachers of all faiths have found their chief op-
portunity, as appears at length in another chapter. Christianity
has exercised its salvatory and soteriological power in the world
because it rescued love by deploying it upon a higher plane
and building a temple where vice makes a sewer. It is this upon
which the claims of Christianity chiefly rest. It is this that
makes the Jewish-Christian story, and it affects the very heart
of human history, the record of the supreme achievement of our
race thus far, and our Bible its pedagogic masterpiece.

V. The chief reason why our Bible is the best of all ethnic
Bibles is because it is so deeply based upon genetic truth. The
story of creation is full of ancient and subtle symbols of divine
generation. The tale of Eden and the fall, whatever historical
validity it may or may not have, is a masterly allegory of the
first stage in the decadence of love. Abraham, a nomad sheik,
was a breeder of cattle, and the promise was that he should
be a breeder of men like the stars of the heavens for multitude.
Circumcision was a hygienic measure of great efficacy, as we
shall see, as well as a covenant. The long wars with the
Canaanites and Baal worshipers were conflicts with phallicism,
to the gross orgies of which the chosen people were always
lapsing. All early Hebrew history shows that while man
knows how to breed cattle, Jehovah could breed men, and it is
a study of human heredity far more effective than Plato knew
how to make it. The New Testament begins with the annun-
ciation and conception from on high, and a nursery scene of
moving bucolic power, while Islam hypostatizes only the for-
mer. We glimpse the hero, at the dawn of puberty, in the
temple, turning, as is germane to gifted souls at this stage,
to the great themes of religion. One at least of his tempta-
tions was probably fleshly, but gloriously overcome. He dies
at the acme of prolonged adolescence, nubility, and ideal perfec-
tion. Motherhood is idealized in the adoration of Mary, who
has lost none of the charm of virginity, but combines the two

ADOLESCENT LOVE 127

into unique glory. God is our Father and heavenly Parent, and
the Gospel is through and through a literal deification of love
as the chief thing in the world. Paul's teaching culminates in
his enthronement of charity, v^hich is love fulfilling all the law.
Celibacy and asceticism were long thought the Christian service
most ad majorem Dei gloriani. The logos or spirit of wisdom,
which made the world, was spermatic; all the doctrines of
conversion and customs of confirmation are prefigured in the
nature and the needs of adolescence. Liturgies are full of
adoration and passionate declarations of love to God. Thus
the great work of Jesus was, when all else save love alone was
dead, to create the world from this vital germ.

Psychologically, religion and love rise and degenerate to-
gether. One test of an age, race, or civilization is to keep
these two as near as love and death are to each other, and in
as wholesome relations. Schleiermacher deduces theology and
religion alike from a sense of absolute dependence, which al-
most suggests Massochistic longings toward the transcendent.
The same erethic diathesis appears in Swedenborg, to whom,
after the severest conflicts with lust, heaven opened with
hedonic raptures as epiphanies have often come to saints who
abandon themselves to heaven. We must love God with all
the heart, soul, mind, and strength, because he can only be
known by love and not by arguments from design or sufficient
reason or cause, and if we do so aright we shall not make him
a love fetish or idol, a transcendent or extraneous personality,
nor shall we approach him with phallic ecstasy or parusia
mania or many of the arts of pious eroticism, but we shall real-
ize that he is the most immanent of all things, and that the
higher monotheism is not altogether separable from the higher
pantheism. We shall not love him on Sundays only, or in
dreams apart from life as sexual love is narrowed to fetishistic
perversion, but by a life like Abou ben Adhem's, devoted to the
service of the race, that great Being the lightest whisper from
whose soul " moves us more than all the ranged reason of the
world." Because he is love, love only can know its own.
Prayer will not be a ceremonial ritual, adulation, or petition,
but simply approximation and desire, on the principle that " he
prayeth best who loveth best all things both great and small."
Miracle will no longer be a term reserved for a series of facts

128 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

choicely isolated from organic connection with nature or life,
but will be best seen in the wonder and awe felt for all nature
and perhaps especially for growth, while revelation will be
truth cherished with irresistible conviction as its criterion.
All longings for immortality will not be satisfied with the per-
petuation of the shell of our selfish selves, but will focus on our
immortal race as its true and proper object, with the larger
perspective of all being in the background.

In the later sections of his ethics, the God-intoxicated
Spinoza characterizes the intellectual love of his pantheistic
God, which is simply nature known sub specie eternitatis, as
giving freedom, salvation, blessedness, joy, and immortality,
and which can only be known by love. For all ontological
Minnesingers of the love of God, it is eternal life to know him.
Philosophy is a noetic Eros or impulse of the soul to return to
its preexistent state, of which all things mortal remind it. It
is the passion for general ideas, but because these transcend all
particulate existence it is the contemplation of death or a real
Thanatopsis, and death, as the counterpart of love which never
seems so black as when contrasted with it, has been the great
stimulus to thought. Thus the heart makes the theologian, and
if its impulses are strong and good, must impel him to some-
times believe the absurd just in proportion as his heart trans-
cends his head, and is a more adequate organ of response to the
universe. The supernatural in religion, therefore, is the homo-
logue of the idealization of the mistress in whom, despite her
defects, the lover sees all perfection. As the soul of the rapt
Yogi reaches the mystic On and hovers on the edge of ab-
sorption and the extinction of personality, he may pause and
hark back for a moment only at the call of love. All else per-
ishes, but it endures, for love in the Sanskrit hymnology is the
spring of mind, and without it all things are as a root out of
dry ground.

Jesus was the consummate artist in this field, for he with-
stood the contemplative passion which has irradiated so much
of the best human motive power in the world into the inane
infinite, and addressed himself to what we so sadly now need
again in terms less fossilized by convention, the reincarnation
of love. It is reassuring to find that what either the individual
or the race originated at an age when the feelings and instincts

ADOLESCENT LOVE 129

are strongest and the intellect is undeveloped is reaffirmed by
the latter when it comes to its full flower ; that if fashions in
orthodoxies change, it is because all these are stagings which
must always be slowly changed or demolished as the great
spiritual temple of religion is being reared in the heart. Our
scripture will itself be regenerated and re-revealed as the record
of man's highest insights into the meaning, and his most prac-
tical utilization of his own life, which far transcends anything
known to modern psychology and ethics, and all chiefly because
it recognized love as the central power in the soul and presented
both patterns and precepts how, instead of a way of death, it
could open up a way of life.

VI. The fact that love sensitizes the soul to the influences
of nature makes it a genetic factor in the evolution of art, liter-
ature, natural religion, and perhaps to some extent of science.
The lover is moved not only by his mistress's form, features,
and every act, but associates her with a larger environment,
almost every item of which may reflect her to his fancy, senti-
ment, or both. He is at the mercy of the weather. She may be
cold and chill as death, while he is burning or melting in a
flame with his blood lava, or alternating from the torrid to the
frigid zone of passion, while climate and environment in poetry
and romance are always propitious, and the effects of nature are
increased by the descending series of her absence, refusal, or
death. The lovesick swain borrows the poet's heart and brain,
or the artist's eye and hand. In four hundred love poems and
songs, aquatic phenomena and metaphors abound. His heart
sings of her as the shell ever murmurs of the sea. His passion,
or her breast, ebbs and flows like the tides. Its waves break
and burst like billows upon the shore. He would live in an
ocean of love, " as fishes tipple in the deep." Love draws him,
while the ocean mirrors his ardors as it reflects the sky. He
would glide with her over sunlit waves with sails of taffeta and
masts of beaten gold, or, if disappointed, would settle into un-
known depths where old Silenus sank. Lovers' suicides are
often by drowning. The holy water of affection laves the soul
and stills its thirst. The course of love runs like a river be-
tween flowery banks or plunges over a cataract, for love is born
out of and came up from the sea.

The lover is in special rapport with the winds that grieve,

48

13° THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

sigh, and murmur. The zephyrs whisper to him of his absent
love, the gales from the south are amorous, and the very air
in which he gasps is wanton or lovesick. Fourteen per cent
of three hundred and forty youths and maidens confessed, in a
questionnaire, that the moon always made them want to see
their beau or girl. It is invoked to pity those who love in vain,
to carry messages, and has heard the confessions of wan and
moonsick languishers in love since life was cadenced to its
monthly rhythm. The sun burns with the heat of love, and
though there is no day till Gloriana awakes, it looks dull when
she appears, or when he " opes his golden eye " the light from
hers *' misleads the morn." Love would be not only blind but
aphasic without flowers, the language of which is the signa-
ture of its diverse and myrionomous phases. The aspen,
poppy, willow, violet, forget-me-not, lily, hyacinth, jessamine,
eglantine, asphodel, amaranth, harebell, anemone, are states of
mind, and the laureate of love is a fool in its college without
the folk-lore of flowers, in terms of which all the incidents of
courtship can be symbolically told. Philomel with her lyre of
gold, the lark that " clinks its golden anvil at heaven's gate,"
the bulbul, the boding raven, and the amorous descant of es-
pousals by a numerous choir of feathered songsters are another
important element in the stock vocabulary of the lover. In-
deed, everything in nature responds. The sky is deep and
cerulean like her eyes, pure as her heart, high as her purpose.
Night, stars, storm, lightning, moldering earth, grot and dell,
sand and grave, rock and all the precious stones and a copious
fauna and flora, both real and imaginary, are ministers of love.
Landscapes are vestiges of ancient love scenes which, until
recent times, were out-of-doors and in the country, the con-
ventionalities of which make us recognize the sentiment in its
stage setting before the lovers appear. When she has gone,
" idolatrous fancy sanctifies her relics." All things " mind me
of my Jean," and respond by a unique animism, the psychology
of which has not yet been treated, to the lover's call for sym-
pathy. They are his valentines, and the sounds of nature have
been his epithalamium and made the whole world a pastoral
Arcady to him at that stage of life when

"AH thoughts, all passions, all delights, v/hatever stirs this mortal frame,
Are but the ministers of love and feed his sacred flame."

ADOLESCENT LOVE , 13 ^

He has the right of sanctuary everywhere, and love has cast
out the fears of nature. If the object of affection dies, it is
still loved " as some diffusive power," not less, but more, for
"so little means so much." All activities are inspired by it;
" all journeys end in lovers' meetings," he would " make her
glorious by his pen or famous by his sword," for " love rules
the court, the camp, the grove, for love is God, and God is love."
All else, save love alone, is dross, but sympathetic appreciation
and his sultry tropical heart irradiate the world, while poetic
license allows most of all liberties in amatory literature and
archaic symbolisms of hearts that melt and freeze, or heart-
strings that make melody or break in a way physiology knows
not of. While he may be " in folly ripe, in reason rotten " —
for love is known by follies and Jove laughs at lovers' per-
juries, and the whole world, both of science and mythology,
is at his command — still love is often so hard a master that it
can express itself only inter jectionally with woe alack and well-
a-day, or sigh like a furnace or congeal with reserve, because
life is so brief and love so long.

This golden stage when life glisters and crepitates, although
it may fade like nuptial plumage or fall like ripe petals when
the fruit and seed begin to set, has wrought a great work in
the soul and infected it with love of beauty everywhere. It is
the vernal season of the heart and the greatest of all stimuli
for the imagination. It opens the world of fancy which is su-
perposed upon that of reality, and which is the totalizing faculty
that supplements the limitations of individuality and makes
the age of love the natal hour of esthetic appreciation. Art is
certainly in part, though not wholly, a higher potency and
plateau of love, a different stage or degree and a higher move-
ment by the same momentum. If appreciation is a less degree
of the same power that creates, and the perfect lover is always
a poet, then art is not for its own sake, but for that of love,
which should ripen into it. The author of Rembrandt als
Erzieher is in essential accord with Vachon, who has made
the most comprehensive of all reports on the present condition
of art, that most of the great creative minds have achieved
fame, not by representing impressions acquired after maturity
had been attained or those derived from an environment un-
familiar to them in youth, but with themes they loved in the

132 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

teens and early twenties. If so, this shows that the deepest
and largest impressions are made during adolescence, which
we know from other sources is most plastic and richest in
memory pictures. Conversely, if enthusiasm for nature is not
then engendered, the soul remains an alien and Philistine
through life to all the higher raptures of art. Its holy spirit
now knocks at the door of every heart, although its day of
grace may be sinned away.

Perhaps we shall never know whether the first song or rude
drawing was in the service of love, but we know that it has
done and can do great things creatively. The Taj Mahal, per-
haps the most exquisite of all poems in marble, scores of fu-
neral creations in music, poetry, and eulogy of the dead almost
to apotheosis, at least one, and that perhaps the greatest,
French system of philosophy, and dramas by the score, have
been inspired by and dedicated to loved ones. Moreover, the
world so loves lovers that the description of their experiences,
real and imaginary, has been perhaps the most prolific of all
modern themes in romance and literature, and certainly none
has such power to unify to one sharp focus so many diverse
incidents and characters, extending over such ranges of time
and especially space. As love inspires animals to make bur-
rows, nests, and homes, without hands, so many of the greatest
creations have been a kind of metaphysical bower-building for
those whom the artist loves. The eternally feminine in some
woman makes her his Beatrice, leading him to the highest
regions of thought for her sake and for her delectation, as the
head strives to overtake the heart which has outgrown it. In-
deed, love is essentially creative, as well as procreative, and
the great makers have probably nearly all been great lovers.

VII. Ethics as a science, and morals as a life, have as their
chief purpose to bring man into alinement with the laws of
love, whether we are concerned with the minor morals of eti-
quette or with ultimate sanctions of good. Plato could not
separate beauty and goodness, and our endeavor is to raise the
altruism of race to the level of parenthood. For the new ethics
we can easily conceive a new scale or hierarchy of virtues,
which, provisional as it is, may be of service as an erotometer.

First, of course, comes selfishness normal to children, whose
bodies and minds must be fed and whose individualities must

ADOLESCENT LOVE 133

be developed to their culmination. Here belong much of the
current utilitarianism and the principle of Guyau of the max-
imalization of the ego to its point of highest perfection. Es-
sential as this is in its nascent stage, no instinct perhaps is more
prone to hypertrophy. This may appear in the tendency, which
only Max Stirner in recent times has had the hardihood to
formulate. Its principle is : I will get, be, do the most possible
for myself, no matter how others suffer, provided only I am not
found out and made to suffer myself. It may be naive epi-
cureanism with a veritable itch for pleasures of sense. Where
self-knowledge and self-reverence are no longer curbed by self-
criticism, modesty, or sanity, it appears in morbid delusions of
greatness. Here belong all the ethical precepts of those virtues
that are primarily self-regarding, and in its higher ranges life
appears from this standpoint as enlightened selfishness. The
root, however, of most failures is that self-interest is not well
and largely understood, for when it is, it merges into higher
standpoints.

The second stage is entered upon always without this later
adequate knowledge, and appears in friendship and especially
in love of the opposite sex. The history of friendship,^ which
in the sense of Aristotle and Cicero has no doubt been en-
croached on by modern love, shows how it stimulates honor,
knowledge, high ambition, and may be one of the great joys
of life. Homodoxia, or opinions held in common; homonoia,
sentiments mutually shared; mastropia, the art of acquiring
friends and making one's self liked ; loyalty and even Platonic
friendship between the sexes, like that of Waldemar and Hen-
riette, whose high intercourse of soul was for a time perturbed
by the fear of love, where each human moiety finds its counter-
part or helps the other on to perfection, and which can only
exist between the good — these are its highest forms. So in the
mistress the lover sees another self, and with her would estab-
lish an enlarged selfishness for two. Abel ^ and Brinton ^ have
pointed out that the etymologies of most words signifying love

^ See Dugas : L'Amitie Antique. Paris, 1894, p. 454.

^ Linguistic Essays. The Conception of l^ove in Some Ancient and Modern
Languages, p. 25.

'■' Brinton : Essays of an Americanist. The Conception of Love in Some Ameri-
can Languages, p. 410.

134 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

in ancient and modern languages mean identities, sameness,
likeness, fusion, mutual reflection, want, desire, preference, or
precious values. The chief Peruvian tongue is called " prob-
ably the richest language on the continent, not only in separate
words denoting affection, but in modifications of these by im-
parting to them delicate shades of meaning through the addi-
tion of particles," for it has " nearly six hundred combinations
of the word munay = to love." Fundamental as this is, it is
always protensive toward something higher, as appears even in
such more or less rabulistic descriptions of it as by Michelet,
Stendhal, Mantegazza, and even Finck, perhaps the best of his
class.

Love of children is a third and higher stage, which may
extend down to the unborn, up to the last stage of adolescence,
and on to posterity. The test of the virtue of life is to produce
and bring to maturity the best children, who shall themselves
be most prolific in body and soul. From this standpoint it is
trite to say that there is nothing so worthy of love and service
as children for whom we must live, and virtue now consists in
not evading or laying too much of this function upon the nurse,
school, or church, as the cuckoo lays its eggs in nests built by
other birds and allows them to incubate and feed its own
young.

The community is a larger object of service and devotion.
The state was never so dependent as to-day upon those vestals
of charity who teach young children and project their own
lives and all the love that nature intended for the family into
the young, who must first of all be loved in order to be rightly
taught. The school is a larger home, and the teacher should
be a parent raised to a higher potence. Even in its advanced
stages education ought to be " friends seeking happiness to-
gether," as Epicurus is said to have defined it. The Greek boy
had to awaken by every means in his power the love of some
mature man, who would instruct and apprentice him to life, and
not to do so was a disgrace. The teacher was inspired first by
a love of his pupil's fair body and manners to furnish his soul.
The four great schools in the later history of Greece were homo-
geneous, because based on friendship, and this sentiment only
could give spirit, untie the tongue, double pleasure, halve pain,
and open the heart so that teacher and taught could be true

ADOLESCENT LOVE 135

lovers, speaking to each other with as little reserve as to their
very selves. The teacher was inspired to do nothing unworthy
of the respect and idealization which he sought to engender.
He should make the pupil not only all that he is himself, but
more, as the good parent would make his children what he was
unable to become, and all should teach. Morals was the chief
theme, and the teacher's life must be a constant and inspiring
object-lesson in virtue. It was because this relation was so
sacred to affection that pay seemed prostitution. Phillips ^
has shown. how education is the complement of procreation and
increases the reproductive sacrifice and rapture. Patriotism,
which is ready to serve or even to die for one's country, is only
a larger aspect of this stage of love now dimmed and oriented,
because the state has drifted from its old gentile sense of an
enlarged family and become an organized method of securing
liberty, happiness, and property.

The fifth stage is love of the race or enthusiasm for human-
ity, the "grand etre " that Comte thought the most worthy of
service and worship. Philanthropy, which ministers to the
poor and neglected and would save outcasts, or go on missions
to dispense the goods of religion, and which ought to be stimu-
lated by all monophyletic theories of the origin of man, is just
now greatly reenforced by a new cosmic sense, when expansion
is not merely a new political dream, but includes the whole
world, worships heroes wherever they appear, and deems no
human interest alien to itself. The Hindu sage, who is tender
to the lowest forms of life, whether from natural goodness of
heart or on transmigration theories, St. Francis, who called
flowers, worms, birds, and insects his brothers and sisters, and
the modern evolutionist, who sees every species, man included,
as but different branches of one great family tree, illustrate
how adequate love is to a yet larger object, and what a palpi-
tating sensorium the heart of man is to everything that lives.

Altruism may go farther yet and embrace nature or all
material existence, from every aspect of which the love which
goes with knowledge is gradually casting out fear. Jeffries,
who buried his face in the grass and prayed to be absorbed in
the whole universe; the higher animism, which sees not only

* The Teaching Instinct. Ped. Sem., March, i88g, vol. vi, pp. 188-246.

136 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

life, but psychic properties and even personality in stars, stones,
clouds, and sea ; the pantheist, that conceives the visible universe
as simply an incarnation, and the man of science, who would
make his brain the oracle even of any department of the grand
whole of existence, have reached a yet higher standpoint

Perhaps no individual or race passes through all these stages
in the phenomenology of love, for neither a single personal nor
even one ethnic soul is large enough to do justice to them all.
But long before this viaticum is open, the mind modulates over
into the field of transcendence and projaculates gods, heavens,
hells, and ideals, or, if more philosophical, hypostatizes ideas
of goodness, truth, and beauty.^

The final stage is love of being or of all that exists, visible
and invisible. The ontological passion culminates thus in a
mystic devotion to the absolute in which self is forever merged
and swallowed up, and the mind and life find their supreme
virtue in anticipating and accepting with joy their inevitable
final fate.

Banausic as it would be to insist that these stages are final,
I can see only in something of this kind the outcome of
the larger interpretations which the Symposium first rudely
glimpsed, which Zeller and Schleiermacher sought to bring into
conformity with modern knowledge, and which others ^ since
have striven in different ways to vindicate or to develop.

VIII. Even knowledge at its best is a form of love. Inter-
est is intellectual love, and one of the best tests of education is
the number, intensity, and distribution of interests, while one of
its best definitions is to teach us to delight in what we should.
Even philosophy is not the possession, but the love and wooing
of wisdom. C. S. Peirce ^ conceives " agapastic " knowledge

^ See The New Psychology, my inaugural address at Johns Hopkins. An-
dover Review, vol. iii, pp. 120-135, 239-438. Also my Aspects of German Cul-
ture, p. 189.

^ See M. Koch: Problem der Erotik, 1886; H. Hille : Ueber die platonische
Lehre vom Eros. Liegnitz, 1892. C. Boettischer : Eros und Erkenntniss bei Plato
(who would coordinate the Lysis and the Phasdrus). Berlin, 1894. Wachter: Die
Liebe als korperlichseelische Kraftiibertragung, 1899. Wyneken : Amor Intellectus
Dei. Eine religiosphilos. Studie, 1898. Santayana : Platonic Love in some Italian
Poets — V, in his Poetry and Religion, 1900.

2 Evolutionary Love. Monist, January, 1893. See also his Man's Glassy
Essence. Monist, October, 1892; and his Law of Mind, Monist, July, 1892.

ADOLESCENT LOVE 137

as its highest type. By this phrase he means immediate sym-
pathetic insight where the object or idea has an instant attrac-
tion for the mind by sympathy ; where the subject knows, recog-
nizes, and closes in with its own, perhaps with an irresistible
conviction like that of the Stoics, without waiting for any criti-
cal test or coordination with other mental contents. If intuitive
certainty thus furnishes the mind with opinions not logically
harmonized, this itself is a spur to thought and a surety against
stagnation. The term includes growth from within and that
love of and confidence in one's own productions which is a part
of the creative power of genius, and even if its own origina-
tions seem freaks or sports to the systematizer or to current
opinion, they are but true spontaneities of the development of
the race which has its own logic of mental growth and con-
tinuity.

Further, we owe to Horwicz ^ the view that organized truth,
whether in science or philosophy, finds its ultimate criterion in
a sentiment, viz., that of conviction. This at bottom is esthetic,
because the logical or scientific order pleases the mind best.
This satisfaction is not Avanarius's most economic way of think-
ing the universe by grouping the largest number of facts under
the simplest formula, but may be partly due to the feeling that,
while the universe might be so vast as to have no order or char-
acter assignable by the mind, it is in fact not only lawful to
the core but the whole macrocosm is only the mind writ large.
One of man's supreme passions is to conceive the universe as
one, the gods as one, and even to postulate an ultimate monism
to make the " All " a unitary fact.

Again, for those who deem the relation of the individual
to the world the supreme question of knowledge, whether from
the standpoint of Shaler ^ or of Royce,^ as well as for all who
are impelled to rise from the manifoldness of sense to the unity
of reason, the platonic love motive is probably at bottom the
animating principle. The self is a hint or image of the Absolute

' Psy. Analysen. Erster Theil, 1872, p. 376. Zweiter Theil, 1876, p. 183,
Dritter Theil, 1878, p. 524.

2 The Individual : A Study of Life and Death, by N. S. Shaler. New York,
1901. Also G. A. Wyneken, Amor Dei Intellectualis, Greifswald, 1898.

* The World and the Individual, by Josiah Royce.

138 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

or Divine. We and the world exist just in the degree in which
we press to our perfect goal of union with God. But for this
passion the world would be indifferent or dead, for the infinite
and eternal are as closely associated with love, which first made
man metaphysical and transcendent, as light is associated with
heat. The conversion or turning from sense to reason under
the stress of the gnostic passion is a true euthanasia, or rather
the apotheosis, by absorption of the mind, which is individual,
in the cosmos.

Especially in all the sciences that deal with life, recent prog-
ress has been, step by step, the progressive recognition of Eros.
All the work of Darwin, and especially the place he assigns to
sexual selection; Weismann's coronation of the supremacy of
the germ over the somatic cells ; the reconstructions in botany
based on growing knowledge of methods of fertilization; the
recapitulation theory that the individual repeats the history of
his phylum; the derivation of society and the state, from the
clan or other origins always gentile; the growing recognition
by psychology that, as the will is larger than the intellect, so the
instinct and feelings are at the root of both reason and will;
the new discovery of the profound meaning of adolescence;
gradual psychic embryology and the development of the genetic
versus the logical order and standpoint — all these show how the
knowledge of life is at root the knowledge of love, and that the
latter is really the goal as well as the spring of mind. The
world has always vaguely understood how love quickens com-
prehension and how the heart fertilizes the intellect, but the
full significance of love as an organ of apperception is new.
We do not need to reason, prove, or demonstrate in perfect
detail, but love identifies from afar ; it grows or languishes on
tropes, metaphors, or hints unconsciously given and received.
When the temple of science, which is the greatest creation of
the human race thus far, is near enough complete to reveal its
true proportions, no small part of its ministry to life will be
the esthetic joy of contemplation. The lives of great discov-
erers show that they were animated to their work by a passion-
ate love of some department of nature without which no excel-
lence is possible. Those who lack it are the sophists, scribes,
literalists, and commentators, or minds that go to seed in
method, technique, and mechanical classification without mat-

ADOLESCENT LOVE 139

ter. In all these ways, therefore, science justifies the ways of
love to man.

In fine, from a broad biological standpoint, we conclude in
review that every experience of body or soul bears on heredity,
and the best life is that which is best for the unborn. Ideal
conduct is that which first develops the individual and then
subordinates it to the larger interests of the race. At few
points are consciousness and theory so inferior to higher un-
conscious instinct, which is still the chief regulative of all per-
taining to the transmission of life. Education culminates in
training for condition for the function. This is the highest
criterion. Just so far as we owe what we are to the long line
of ancestors from whom our life is derived, so the interests of
posterity should be the highest, most pervasive, and most con-
trolling ethical motive, and our current instruction in morals
should be reconstructed and rebased to this end.

More specifically, the act of impregnating the ovum is the
most important act of life. By it the entire momentum of
growth is given and upon it completeness of development of the
offspring is conditioned. To make this intense and give an
inheritance that is all-sided and total, nature seems to require,
in ways and for reasons which biology does not yet fully under-
stand, special pre-nuptial activities known as courtship, wooing,
charming, falling in love, etc. These preliminaries are some-
what analogous to secondary sexual qualities, and of both it
may be said that the more we know of life the wider they are
found to extend. They have been described among slugs,
snails, spiders, moths, many insects, and various species of fish,
and are highly developed among birds, as the ostrich, cow-bird,
Argus pheasant, the tyrant and marsh birds which show off
their charms, sing, balz, tremble, and tumble to rouse the
pairing instinct in the female and also in themselves. So
among many primitive people courtship consists in singing,
dancing, plays and games, mimic warfare, or in elaborate toilet,
often with a suggestive generative pantomime growing more
and more fervent and solicitative, which Ellis thinks pro-
vocative of a state of tumescence,^ with a normal climax in
coition. Such dances, as he well says, are the most complex

' Studies in the Psychology of Sex, vol. iii, sec. i, 1903.

HO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

and intense of all forms of muscular, and he might have added
of psychic, activity. Every part of the body is involved, and
that almost at the same time. There is laughter, shouting,
jubilation, ardor, frenzy, violence almost epileptic, motor
drunkenness and enormous output of energy and orgy, and
often force itself becomes erogenic.

Among higher races the psychic preliminaries are more
and the physical less. Love broods, sentimentalizes, poetizes,
and perhaps philosophizes. The preludes are more manifold
and also more prolonged. The variety of stimuli increases and
the range of associations widens. Perhaps this is in some way
necessary for the most effective propagation of the higher men-
tal, moral, and esthetic qualities. The religious instincts are
more involved and marriage is more ceremonial, the arts of
persuasion are more elaborate and those of reluctance, modesty,
and coyness more formal. Love has more delicious romance
and often lingers long in the forecourts of its temple. To
ornament, dance, and music, it adds love courts, jousts, more
developed dances, pious rites and services, till sometimes this
anticipatory stage of imaginative ideality may be so intense
and prolonged that the realities of married life suffer and pale.

If this fore-school of love be necessary to the complete ful-
filment of its object, we can now appreciate its degradations in
lazy, loveless, overrefined individuals, ages, or races, well
matched by theories no less decadent. The view of Montaigne,
More, and Fere,^ that the genesic impulse is at root one of
evacuation, and even that of Moll, who urges that detumescence
is primal, strikes hands with the idea so current among youth
of to-day, especially if depraved, that the glands must be dis-
charged and their secretion eliminated from the system. This
vulgar concept is as unsatisfactory scientifically as it has been
devastating morally; it has been not only the excuse but the
incentive to immeasurable vice, and has aided to an enormously
exaggerated idea of the difficulties of continence. The very
fact, brought out so clearly by Guinard ^ and others, that cas-
tration, especially after mature age, often does not lessen but
may even increase the desire, is because in man, the latter, being

1 See L'Instinct Sexual. Paris, 1899.

* Dictionnaire de Physiol., art. Castration.

ADOLESCENT LOVE H^

more widely irradiated, has more stimuli or more modes of ex-
pression so that it readily becomes more and more independent
in both sexes of any of the various forms and degrees of abla-
tion. The motive of merely relieving organic pressure tends
to degrade the act to its very lowest possible level, seen in mas-
turbation ; it also involves the most degrading view of woman,
and ignores the fact of the necessity and high developmental
power of control and of maintained sex tension.

So, too, chemical theories of sex like those of Joanny Roux ^
and several American writers, who base the instinct on proto-
plasmic hunger, and often fitly represent it as mediated in
man by the degenerate sense of smell, are utterly inadequate at
least for human psychology. Indeed, in the lowest forms of
life, nutritive and sexual needs have only remote analogies
chiefly attractive to symbolists. Dominant as the function of
germ cells is, especially in lower forms, man loves not only
with the whole body and its every organ, but with the whole
soul and its every faculty, and human love needs added rubrics
above those in the animal world. So, too, the view that it
has an exclusive region in the brain is at best very partial in
view of all the evidence. Even the work of Moll and of Ellis,
to whom we owe most, courageous and indefatigable as it is,
deals so much with the undeveloped or perverted manifesta-
tions of this instinct that their theories, luminous and highly
suggestive as they are, seem so far too somatic, and therefore
partial and inadequate, to explain the higher and normal mani-
festations of love. As the popular mind tends to become vio-
lent and extreme about this subject, so men of science still in-
cline to remote, speculative views which, while useful as pro-
tests against narrow and crude ideas, are still inadequate to
explain " the greatest thing in the world." Possibly sex will
never be regulated solely in the interests of reproduction ac-
cording to the best attainable knowledge. Certainly the sects,
colonies, and individuals who have so far sought to do so have
attained neither stirpicultural results of value nor knowledge
that gives them scientific respectability. Turgescence and its
provocatives, discharge and its intense sensations, and flaccidity
and all its psychic correlates of reaction, whether apathetic or

^ Psychologie de I'lnstinct Sexuel. Paris, 1899.

142 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

violent, are the most convenient handles yet found for the vast
masses of phenomena involved, but the greatest need, both
practical and scientific, can be met only when higher and wider
irradiations of these three processes, especially the first, are
more clearly traced in their relations to the general conduct of
life and mind, to religion, art, and esthetics, and even to scien-
tific activity. While it is no part of our purpose here to discuss
general theories of sex in detail, we may at least record a grow-
ing and already irresistible conviction that great and hitherto
unsuspected light is to be shed upon the genetic psychology of
all these fields by the new studies of sex now so well advanced.
Till then, while we may breed cattle, we can not breed men.

About this great theme, despite the precious new glimpses
and the wide mobilization toward the great advances in knowl-
edge of it that seem to impend, no one can feel more painfully
than I the inadequacy of such rude attempts as the above to
delineate a standpoint which, from the nature of the case, can
not yet entirely transcend the realm of crude allegory and meta-
phor. One might parody life as a stream from high mountain
ranges which wring it from the clouds, coursing down through
all the manifold ways in which the water comes down at Lodore
to the sea of eternity. Adolescence is the chief rapids in this
river of life which may cut a deep canon and leave its shores
a desert. Educational methods, from those of the statesman
and the religious founder to those of the artist and man of sci-
ence, and even the pedagogue, are hydrographic engineering
which builds a series of well-located and well-devised dams to
irrigate wide arid areas or turn the mills of life, or that its
floods be stored up against drought and need, so that nothing
is lost. Seepage is the waste of licensed vice in otherwise happy
families or prosperous civilizations. The rich alluvium of cus-
tom and tradition, once rank with a life now gone and for-
gotten, is the soil or mold from the broad acreage of which
culture in all its departments and the most precious values of
life grow toward a harvest. Marshes are formed of the rich
body of myth and custom, like the coal-measures from which
higher utilities may be extracted. Alkaline dead sea plains
of phallic detritus may be deposited. The village teacher is
like the small farmer in Utah, who carefully turns his tiny pipe-

ADOLESCENT LOVE 143

stem supply of water from one hill or row in his garden to
another. Youthful dissipation is the wreckage of a spring
freshet which wears away the dams, makes deep gullies, and
may restore the primitive desert. The progressive prolonga-
tion of old age by all the methods of modern hygiene and regi-
men is a system of dikes, which rescues land from the primitive
sea wherein man can take the pleasure, Faust thought supreme,
of seeing growth. This fable suggests, despite its incoherence
and partiality, the practical implications of this theory of sex.

CHAPTER XII

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE AND A NEW EDUCATION

IN SCIENCE

Nature a new world at adolescence, and love of nature as the basis of art, literature,
religion, and science — The age of symbolism, allegory — The old philosophy of
nature and the Latin feeling — Ages of conventionality — Dangers of premature
nomenclature and mathematics — Study of structure without function — Youth
the humanistic stage of science — Logical versus genetic order — A new renais-
sance of liberal education in nature-study — The present elimination of a pre-
cious late stage of psychic development — Geography as an enemy of science —
Method of determining the genetic order — A few basic principles only estab-
lished yet — The place of utilities and application of science — The status of high
school physics as one illustration of blindness to genetic laws — How to rescue
it from present decadence — The stage of the nature religions and their present
practical significance — Adolescent changes of feeling for (i) boundless space
and time, (2) the stars, (3) the sun and light and darkness, (4) the moon, (5)
clouds, (6) wind and air, (7) heat and cold, (8) sea and water, (9) rocks and
stones, (10) flowers, (11) trees, (12) animals — The relation in all these fields
between science and poetry, myth and religion, and educational utilization and
psychogenetic inferences.

Of all the changes normal at adolescence, none are more
comprehensive and perhaps none are now more typical of the
psychic transformation of this age than those that occur in the
attitude toward the various aspects of nature. Before, these are
naively learned, pragmatically accepted, and animistically inter-
preted, for life and especially its sentient forms are best known
and most interesting and so give apperceptive norms for all that
is inanimate. The domain of law is limited and superstition
flourishes. But when the ephebic sun dawns and the springs
of a maturer mental life flow, the old world begins to seem
strange and new. What things seem is not all of them, but
there is something more behind and other meanings strive to
reveal themselves. It was from this auroral state of mind, I
ween, that the term natura, " the about to be born," arose.
There is a new expectancy that her Memnonian lips will open
and the heart begins to hum the only song of ancient Horus,
144

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE I45

" Hush, all hush, and see." We have known the countenance,
but would now know the soul of the great all-mother. Every-
thing is pregnant, and things about us seem to fairly cry out
for some higher explanation. Phenomena are a veil to a great
mystery, like a curtain to be rung up. Youth feels itself mov-
ing about in a world unrealized. Perhaps the problem of the
great Autos rests on some with a weight that is oppressive.
Will the sphinx lips never open and tell the riddle of existence,
or will it destroy us and reck not that we suffer and die? It is
the age of brooding, and the normal courageous soul will not
be baffled nor fall back, but will find or make answers — if only
the echoes of its own questions.

The new life is first born in the heart, and is more or less
unconscious, and among its first spontaneous creations are
metaphors that may fade and be often recreated, so that lan-
guage itself becomes fossil poetry. Allegory gives things a
dual meaning ; symbolism is now first possible, and a widening
circle of objects and events acquire a new purport; light, cloud,
wave, fountain, ivy, laurel, palm, heat, and scores of objects
are no longer mere things of sense, but are words in the dic-
tionary of psychic states and moral qualities. If myths remain,
they are given new contexts and transformed and ennobled by
higher uses. Thus prose is often now transmuted into poetry.
In this way the old that had concealed now reveals the new,
if growth is continuous, and thus the soul is nourished in ways
that often seem mystical, as many species of fish subsist on
invisible food. Thus every aspect and thing in nature has
somewhere and by some race been an object of perhaps supreme
worship. The traces of these old idolatries are still found in
the oozes of sentiment in the depths of the soul, which, like the
sea-bed oozes, are not inorganic but the sedimentary products
of extinct forms of life. In the soul, too (though not in the
sea, for here the analogy fails), these are not only residual but
have a protoplasmal promise and potency of a larger and fuller
life for modern youth. Love and enthusiasm for nature, if
it is ever to arise, is now in order, and the open secret may
seem ever slipping away, but revelation, although slow, is sure,
because it comes by growth and does not depend upon the
solutions of specific problems. All this is copiously illustrated
in Chapter VIII.

49

146 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

How basal and all-conditioning the love of nature is for
all that is best in the soul of youth the world has probably
never begun to realize. Biography shows how nearly all the
great creators of physical science — the greatest achievement of
man in the world so far — have first been passionate lovers of
nature in their chosen field, and that this has been their initial
impulsion. The artist must first see with the heart. Ruskin
never wearies in preaching this lesson; while Vachon's vo-
luminous report on the state of art in Europe by countries
essentially agrees with the unknown author of Rembrandt als
Erzieher in two conclusions : first, that the best artists are
those who conserve most completely into maturity and old age
the sentiments and ideas of youth at its prime; and, secondly,
that most who attain the highest real success are those whose
inspiration was given by the environment in which the most
susceptible years of youth were passed, and who have succeeded
in expressing most adequately and completely its responses to
nature. The same holds in general of the early history of
every literature that developed from an indigenous origin, for
its first monuments are of personified objects or forces of
nature. Again, religion sprung from nature, and to a great
extent thrives and languishes with love or indifference to
nature. Max Miiller counts some three thousand Aryan nature
gods. After profuse polytheistic deification of nature, mono-
theism was aided by the idea of one all-covering vault of
heaven, which gave us a uni-verse, and pantheism is but the
culmination of the religion of nature. There is no such muse
and no such inspiration. Our brain, her mouthpiece, which she
created and in which she mirrors herself in consciousness, al-
though it can do nothing else but interpret her, tells but a part
of her, and she herself in turn reveals but a part of absolute
being ; so there must always be residual mystery and miracle,
demanding myth hypotheses and assumptions, shading down
to blank nescience. Hence youth must always be asked — with
no whit less solemnity than the pulpit puts the solemn question,
" Do you love God ? " — Do you really love nature, or will
you remain strangers and aliens to her mighty heart ? Taste
and see that she is purest, truest, noblest. We sprung from
her bosom and inherit vastly more than we ever dreamed of
her wisdom, and to her all that is mortal of us will return.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE H?

In affliction and calamity, when conscious purpose and en-
deavor fail, we can sink back into her arms, and when creeds
and philosophies fade we know that if " our bark sink, 'tis to
her larger sea." She is all law and no chaos, life abounds
wherever life is possible, good-will is there because the best
and not the worst survive, and youth is in a peculiar sense the
consummate flower of nature, more worthy than anything else
on earth, of love, reverence, and devoted service.^

Zeller finds the germ of the ancient Roman religion in the
Latin-Sabine veneration of invisible spiritual beings in nature ;
the solitude and gloom of the forest, the gurgling of springs,
the crackling and leaping of flames, sky phenomena and the
seasons — all these suggested three classes of natural forces,
heavenly, terrestrial, and subterranean, which were poetically
personified as gods, instead of scientifically interpreted. The
transition from these conceptions to matured ethical religion
can nowhere be so fully studied as among the Romans, the
most superstitious of all civilized races, whose fundamental
characteristic was awe of unknown forces and constraint before
supernatural influences.^

The German idealistic philosophy of nature by Kant,
Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel was haunted by this old sense of
the divinity of nature and of the pregnancy, closeness to origins,
many-sidedness, vitality, and infinite elasticity of muthos,
which by the Tubingen school was made no less orphic and
pervaded by a sense of the spirituality of the world than the
logos doctrines. There was a rich old feeling that nature was
God's body and He its soul, that it is all one great apocalypse.
There were impulses from the vernal woods, communion with
the anima mundi that " lives through all life, and extends
through all extent," and a deep belief that the soul gathers in
wisdom by intuition and beauty by silent sympathy. The
teacher of any science who feels this will forever arouse en-
thusiasm, and he who does not, works on the surfaces and

' See M. A. Hoyt : Love of Nature ; or, The Root of Teaching and Learning the
Sciences; Ped. Sem., vol. iii, pp. 61-86. Biese: Entwickelung des Naturge-
fiihls bei den Griechen und Romern ; Kiel, 1882, p. 210. Im Mittelalter u. in
der Neuzeit, 1888, p. 460. Also P. Lefebre : La Religion, Paris, 1892.

^ See my article on Edward Zeller, in Contemporary Psychologists, Am. Jour,
of Psy., April, 1891, vol. iv, pp. 156-175.

148 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

not in the depths of the pupil's soul, while he who vilipends
the sentiment that underlies his department, no matter how
learned or pedagogically gifted he be, robs the soul of far more
than he gives it.

Only those who have studied the history of poetry in this
regard realize how remote from nature it sometimes becomes
through a whole period of its development ; how conventional
its treatment of natural objects; how tawdry its diction; how
inaccurate its descriptions; and how slender its stock in trade
of real knowledge under the combined influence of city life
and utility. Many an otherwise reputable English poet in the
period somewhat preceding Wordsworth manifested only a
feeble color sense, and wrote as if all above was blue and all
below green. The ocean was simply vast, solitary, awful, and
it had to wait for Turner, Byron, Shelley. Things that could
be smelled and which were fit for poetry hardly needed more
than the words fragrance and perfume. Birds were a feath-
ered choir; the nightingale, and perhaps the cuckoo, lark, raven,
eagle, and peacock, were all the birds in the poet's muniment
chamber. The brook simply babbled and meandered, and did
little more. The night was incidentally invoked for the sake
of the moon, and perhaps of the stars. The flowery mead, with
now and then a little progress from the general toward the
specific, the old or strong oak, whispering poplar, and perhaps
a few other trees, quite sufficed, and these faint echoes of the
old pastoral idyl were almost as conventionalized as Chinese
art. Thus it was an important and a very difficult step to
break the poetic canons or unwritten traditions and really get
out of doors ; to travel, paint, read and write fiction ; and this
was at first with a real but pallid joy like that of a convales-
cent's first glimpse of spring.^

The modern pedagogy of science is threatened with a simi-
lar alienation from the love of nature. This is seen in three
respects: i. Technical nomenclature which attaches classical
names to objects is often thought the beginning of science.
It brings order and makes classification possible. It is so copi-
ous that it fills dictionaries, and so far exhausts ancient lan-

1 The Treatment of Nature and English Poetry in Literature. M. Reynolds.
Chicago, 1896, p. 290.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 149

giiages that to know this part of botany and zoology alone
would itself involve mastery of scores of thousands of Greek
and Latin words. This is much more than the average bache-
lor of arts in these tongues commands, and it is now often
used as an argument for classical study. This is, in a sense,
the vocabulary of some sciences and therefore it is often made
to bear the chief introductory stress, so that the youth who
would study nature must first serve an apprenticeship in the
workshop of ancient philosophy and etymology. 2. Mathe-
matics is the language of other sciences which become com-
plete only just so far as their body of truth can be expressed
in numbers and equations. Tables of constants and formulae
of calculus that show how God himself geometrizes have been
so inspiring that mathematical methods have often been applied
prematurely in fields not ripe for such treatment, so that the
history not only of science but of speculation is strewn with
the wreckage of such abortive efforts because men have for-
gotten Aristotle's precept, that it is only affectation to try to
treat a subject more exactly than its nature permits. All this
has its place, and its invaluable and imposing methodology
and its inspiring ideals have given momentum to many of the
most important advances. 3. Morphology, the exact and com-
parative study of parts of organs, accurate perception, memory,
drawing of forms, the paralleling and homologizing of struc-
tures of higher species, the anatomizing of even microscopic
objects, almost constitute a number of sciences themselves.

Without these, modern science could not do its work in
the world nor hardly exist. But we do not realize, least of
all do college-makers of high school text-books, that there is
a standpoint in the teens from which this is not even needful
alloy to give the precious metal of truth currency, but simply
dross and tarnish. Such formulae disinfect the soul of interest
and dehumanize nature. They are just as much and just as
truly weeds to the boy as his mythopoetic sentiments for nature
are to the drill-master. The pupil is farther from understand-
ing the specialist professor than from sympathizing with Keats,
who in a toast proposed perdition to Newton, who had de-
graded the rainbow by making it a mere matter of prisms, or
with Walt Whitman in the poem, where he " had heard the
learned astronomer lecture," etc., till his brain was so fatigued

150 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

by ideation and technique that he had to rush out to seek rest
and refuge, and reassure himself by lying on the grass and
gazing up at the moon and starry skies. Humboldt thought
love of landscapes and landscape-painting had much to do with
generating love of geography and natural science, and our
returns show how keen this rivalry between science and senti-
ment often is at this stage of life. The stories of Jeffries,
Deleal, and many others in Chapter VIII, also teach the same
open secret. One might almost think that a love of solitude
with nature was a good index of mental ability, showing a
mind capable of entertaining itself and generating love of
nature, which is the best basis of love of science, later, if only
the pedagogue can develop and not alienate and disenchant.
The gnarled and dozy technical roots if they do not act as
switchbacks are liable to transform a participator in nature,
fronting the essentials of life in her presence, into an indifferent
spectator, and to make the child of nature's household only a
guest. The spirit of botany is where flowers grow, geology in
the fields and not in the mineralogical cabinet with petrog-
raphy, and that of astronomy is in the silence of the open
night alone.

Thus my chief thesis here is that in early adolescence not
only girls, but boys, normally approach any and every branch
of science over the same road which the race traversed in a
prescientific age. There should be a humanistic propsedeutic
because youth is in the humanist stage. Nature is sentiment
before it becomes idea or formula or utility. The chief among
many reasons why all branches of science are so disappointing
to their promoters in high school and college is, that in the
exact logical, technical way they are taught, they violate the
basal law of psychic growth, ignore the deep springs of natural
interest, and attempt to force a precocity against which the
instincts of the young, so much wiser and truer and older than
their consciousness, happily revolt. The statistics of progress-
ive school decadence in science show how the laws of psychic
growth, although too subtle for science to see, are too strong for
its best endeavors to overcome. It is the logical order before
its time making havoc with the genetic order. The little sci-
ence taught is no compensation for the ruin and desolation
wrought in the feelings for nature and nature's God, which
are about the best things in this best age of the soul. Those

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 151

who, like the present writer, would see the sciences given the
foremost place, are most inconsolable in view of the pathos of
their present educational status.

The precious last stages of growth are ignored and elim-
inated. Race history and the nature of youth demand that
science should be taught at first in a large, all-comprehensive
way, not without a distinctly religious spirit, reopening the
half-obscured but broad road by which man passes from nature
to nature's God. We must have an introduction to science that
touches rather lightly on nearly all the great hypotheses, fron-
tier questions, and larger syntheses over the whole field, in a
way that the modern specialist wots not of, that is unitary and
synthetic and non-analytic, that commands and compares the
great ethnic mythophemes, that is poetic and historical and
orienting; then we shall realize here a higher meaning of
the two best designations of education, now so often degraded
and misapplied, in the literary and philological fields where they
were once inculcated, humanistic and liberal, and usher in a
new renaissance by bringing youth and nature together as they
belong. There is all the more need of this because, as a later
chapter shows, even literature and language are rapidly ceasing
to be humanistic. Such a course will be an ally and not a para-
site of science. It will be as different from our full-grown
geographies as a living serpent, the symbol of wisdom, is from
a sausage. This subject as now taught is one of the chief ob-
stacles in the true way of approaching the study of the cosmos.
Its topics are disconnected or associated on the low plane of
juxtaposition in space. It ignores nothing but its own history.
As Turkey represents a past stage of development once threat-
ening to overrun the West, but is now the shrunken sick man
of Europe, so school geography is an amorphous remnant of
the old cosmology from which many sciences have split off.
This text-book maker's pet and pedagogue's abomination often
has all the defects charged against popular science without its
saving quality of being made by experts, and dilutes and dif-
fuses itself over the entire universe, from stars to geology,
crops, politics, history, anthropology, manufacture, mining,
commerce — fields that geographical societies know not of.^

Our knowledge of the true genetic order is yet very imper-

1 See my Love and Study of Nature. The Agriculture of Mass., 1898, pp. 134-
158.

152 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

feet, but we now see the method by which it is to be developed.
This is (a) by studying children in large numbers, (b) by
combining from available sources a composite picture of race
development on analogous lines. These processes should be
largely independent of each other, and then (c) comes the task
of comparison, using each as the key to the other, which should
give a record of development more complete than either alone
could afford. The phyletic series will show much full-blown
that in the child series only buds. Most of the evolved prod-
ucts in the former will not be hard to identify with the rudi-
ments of the latter series. Next (d) we must decide which of
the last should be left to the progressive atrophy now taking
place, and which need to be more completely lived out either
for their own sake or to furnish the momentum of interest
necessary for achieving the next higher stage of life. Here we
shall find that many of the best impulsions in our nature are
thwarted so that youth is arrested in many of its choicest prom-
ises and potencies by adverse conditions of modern life, social,
industrial, educational, and religious, and shall realize the
pathos and tragedy of aborted powers so that the adult is some-
times but the torso of what he would be were the unsuspected
possibilities of youth fulfilled. Instead of entering upon the
full, rich life of the race which is our heritage, which is the only
meaning of the grand old ideal of a humanistic and truly
liberal education, and lingering as long as possible in the para-
dise of unfallen man, that the individual may enlarge itself as
far as possible toward the dimensions of his species, there is a
veritable rage for prematurity, for precociously assuming adult
burdens, airs, indocilities, and callousness. If there is a sin
against the Holy Ghost it is dishonoring one's own or an-
other's youth. Next comes (e) the task of deciding which of
all the profuse buds of talent and genius most need expression
in each individual; and last (/) we must determine what men-
tal pabulum, and how curriculized and how given, makes
it most effective for our ends. Here many of the garbs
of culture long since outgrown and discarded by mature sci-
ence will be found of inestimable value. Science itself arose
by working over and over to ever more refined forms old
nature myths, and to some extent, in a true pedagogy, youth
must repeat the process.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 153

Vast as is the work that yet remains to be done in this field,
a few basal principles can be already roughly outlined. In
general the child's reactions to nature are either directly sen-
sory or crudely practical for work and play.

I. Adolescence marks the rise of the first sentimental re-
sponse, the best first expression of which is myth, poetry, or
the religions of nature. Familiarity with and love of these
interpretations should be diligently and systematically fostered.
Their possibilities both as genetic introductions and later as
relays of scientific interest are as great as they are unrealized,
and literary anthologies for reading courses should be gathered
into courses related to each of the great sciences where litera-
ture exists; that it does not in all is both a defect of letters
and a misfortune for youth, all the sadder because crude mythic
ore awaiting synthesis and modern literary expression is so
accessible in the field of every leading branch of science.

II. Next in the genetic order comes popular science, also
well developed in some and so defective in other lines. Per-
haps it will some day be brought home to every eminent inves-
tigator that a new discovery, besides its technical record, in-
volves the added duty of concise and lucid popular statement
of it as a tribute to youth. In the quality, amount, and
grouping of this material the wise teacher in every branch will
have deep concern. Here, too, belongs every contact which
science can suggest with the daily life of the pupil at home
or school, at play or resting, in dress and regimen, and here,
too, begins the need of abundant apparatus, models, diagrams,
collections, and all aids that eye or hand can give the mind.
A science building or course v/ithout these is a soulless corpse.
The heroes and history epochs of each branch add another
needed quality to the still so largely humanistic stage.

III. Then, and not earlier, come the need of utilities, ap-
plication to machinery, hygiene, commerce, processes of manu-
facture, the bread-winning worth of nature knowledge, how
its forces are harnessed to serve man and to produce values.
Contrary to common educational theory and practise, the prac-
tical, technological side of science should precede its purer
forms. Here belong economic botany and zoology, the help-
fulness of astronomy, the inventions that follow in the wake
cf discovery, machinery, and engineering novelties based on

154 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

researches — or, in a word, how man has made nature work for
him.

IV. Last and highest comes pure science freed from all
alloy of myth, genetic stage or utility, and cultivated for its
own sake, with no motive but love of truth.

Of many illustrations of the current ignorance and neglect
of genetic principles and its sad results, I here select but one.
Of all the sciences that deal with the physical universe, physics
may now be called one of the chief. In antiquity it was the
science of nature from which many branches have sprung. It
conditions, perhaps, man's most fundamental views about his
world. In all the history of science its chapter is one of the
most imposing, its recent growth astounding, its applications
and utilities most fruitful, its promise for the future brightest,
and its disciplinary value unexcelled. It is easier to teach to
large numbers in the city than the biological sciences, although
far less germane to girls than to boys in the middle teens. Its
pedagogic history, too, under various names is some two cen-
turies old. As natural philosophy it has been for nearly three
generations the chief, quite commonly the only, science taught
in secondary schools. Despite all this, it seems now from
some points of view well along in the stages of educational
decadence.^ Probably less than eight per cent of all the boy
pupils in our high schools are now studying physics. This
progressive neglect or aversion to physics has gone on, despite
the best fostering care of colleges, its high place among en-
trance requirements, the great ability with which it has been
taught in the high schools by aid of the nearly two score new
texts which I have collected. Everything that expert knowl-
edge, that the authority that works from above downward, that
the advocates of unity and enrichment, that the laboratories
and methods could do, has been attempted, but the same decline
of physics is widespread among colleges. Now as this subject
has been given such a prominent role as the typical science
intended to lead to the introduction of others, this status is
especially deplorable for the new education in science, and has
given the advocates of Latin, English, mathematics, and

^ See my Address before the New England Association of Physics Teachers,
Boston Proceedings, May 24, 1902.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE I55

modern languages — courses in all of which have increased
greatly and all the pupils in which far outnumber if not far
more than double those of physics — grounds against the intro-
duction of science in the high schools, which some of them
have used with great effect. Something is very wrong. What
is it?

It needs no special knowledge of psychics, but of something
outside and just as real, to see that the cause lies in the neglect
and the violence done to the nature and needs of the youthful
soul by the present methods and matters.

1. Boys in their teens have a veritable passion for the
stories of great men, and the heroology of physics, which if
rightly applied might generate a momentum of interest that
would even take them through the course as laid out, should
find a place. Here again we must see that, as with mechanical
so with psychic force, it must be generated over a large area
if it is to be applied intensively at a single point. Physics has
its saints and martyrs and devotees, its dramatic incidents and
epochs, its struggles with superstition, its glorious triumphs;
and a judicious seasoning, perhaps, of the whole course with
a few references and reports, with choice material from this
field, would do much. Moreover, the historic sense is awaken-
ing in these fields, giving a present sense of achievement
and progress, and nothing appeals to the young more than to
feel vividly the sense of growth.

2. The half-score of text-books in physics I have glanced
over seem essentially quantitative, require great exactness, and
are largely devoted to precise measurements, with too much
and too early insistence on mathematics. Teachers in this field
have a sense that mathematics is the only proper language of
this science. The topics are no doubt admirably chosen, their
sequence the best from a logical standpoint, and they are such
models of condensation and enrichment that it seems to the
organizer and to the specialist alike almost perversion that our
youth pass it by. But boys of this age want more dynamics.
Like Maxwell when a youth, they are chiefly interested in the
" go " of things. Recent statistics of boys' general reading in
our public libraries show that they were but little interested
in much especially prepared for them, like the Youth's Com-
panion and St. Nicholas, but that the Scientific American and

ISC' THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

its Supplement led all the rest. The boys with aptitudes for
physics want to understand how engines, machinery, perhaps
especially dynamos, work. I have known some greatly inter-
ested in the Patent reports ; but everything to really appeal to
them must move. In Germany there are many toys that might
be called scientific. Hence, too, the fascination with which, in
my school days, we delighted in lectures and demonstra-
tions with very crude and often home-made illustrative appa-
ratus, which a clever teacher devised and set up for us. This
exactness which involved applying mathematics came very late
in the history of physics. Even Tyndall, and more yet before
his day, knew little of this and never used it in classes, but
were most inspiring teachers who powerfully evoked thought
and were not affected by the modern rage to apply mathematics
to the boy's brain processes, even by marking his examinations
and recitations.

3. I must confess myself a convert to the dire heresy that
in this field, and in some others, very much thoroughness and
perfection violates the laws of youthful nature and of growth.
The normal boy in the teens is essentially in the popular science
age. He wants and needs great wholes, facts in profusion,
but few formulas. He would go far to see scores and hundreds
of demonstrative experiments made in physics, and would like
to repeat them in his own imperfect and perhaps even clumsy
way without being bothered by equations. He is often a walk-
ing interrogation-point about ether, atoms. X-rays, nature of
electricity, motors of many kinds, with a native gravity of his
mind toward those frontier questions where even the great
masters know as little as he. He is in the questioning age,
but wants only answers that are vague, brief, but above all
suggestive; and in all this he is true to the great law that the
development of the individual in any line of culture tends to
repeat the history of the race in that field.

4. Last, and perhaps most important of all for our purpose
to-day, the high school boy is in the stage of beginning to be
a utilitarian. The age of pure science has not come for him,
but applications, though not logically first, precede in the order
of growth and interest the knowledge of laws, forms, and
abstractions. He would know how the trolley, how wired and
wireless telegraphy work, and the steam engine, the applica-

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 157

tions of mechanics in the intricate mechanisms, ahnost any of
even the smaller straps and buckles in the complex harnesses
science has put upon natural force, charm him. Physics in
the field, the street, the shop, the factory, the great triumphs
of engineering skill, civil, mining, mechanical, inventions in
their embryo stage, processes, aerial navigation, power devel-
oped from waves, vortexes, molecules, atoms, all these things
which make man's reaction to nature a wonder book, should be
open to him ; and, in frequent conversations and copious infor-
mation, we should arouse his imagination, for this is the organ
of the heart and opens up the way for reason. The boyhood
of the great makers of physics and astronomy, who have found
out and opened a natural way for their own genius, is a lesson
which most teachers of physics, I fear, have not enough profited
by. The subject-matter of their curriculum is too condensed,
too highly peptonized for healthful assimilation; and we are
too prone to forget that we can only accelerate nature's way,
but never short-circuit it without violence.

The influence of the college professors of physics and their
text-books has in the last decade or two been a stimulus of
very great value in elevating standards, but this work now, in
my opinion, has been overdone, and the time has come when
high-school teachers should assert their independence and make
adjustments to a stage of youthful interest, of which the col-
lege professor knows little. High-school physics has problems
all its own to which its representatives should address them-
selves with courage, resolution, and above all with independ-
ence, or else the present decadent tendencies, more due to
college control through the undue influence of examinations
and standards than to them, will continue, and with it the sci-
entific movement, of which it is in a sense a pioneer, will suffer
still more.

Toy museums, exhibitions, and even congresses in Europe,
are very instructive here. Bugs that flutter and creep, birds
that fly, peck, and sing; monkeys, soldiers, boats, dolls, bal-
loons, engines that move, are often, especially in Germany,
masterpieces of mechanical simplification and cheapness illustrat-
ing fundamental principles. Many of these things could be
made as manual training adjuncts, and the best boys' books,
like Cassell, Baker, Beard, Routledge, Peper, and also books

15^ THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

on magic, like Hoffman and Hopkins, would be helpful in
teaching problems of the lever, balance, wedge, pulley, pump,
monochord, whistle, prisms, small lenses easily ground by boys,
magic lanterns, kaleidoscope, telegraph, etc., which the normal
boy would approach with a full head-pressure of interest.
Glass work, the equipment of which with a little stock of tubes,
blowpipes, bellows, tools, and annealing oven, occupies no
more space than a sewing machine, including the making of
thermometers, all this gives a manual discipline for hand
and eye comparable to learning the piano. Tops of many kinds
are an open sesame into the very heart of science and suggest
and illustrate some of the profoundest principles from ions and
electrons to stellar systems. Box kites that penetrate the clouds
and the secrets of humidity, temperature, velocity, pressure,
perhaps with photographic attachments, rest on a soil of
strong native interest. Where work that the boy has made
with his own hands goes, there his interest follows. An inner
eye opens, skill with fingers is harnessed to the development
of cerebral neurons, and we work in the depths and not in
the shadows of the soul. In Europe photography is often
curriculized, and in Vienna the magnificent imperial school
devoted to it is visited. At the BesanQon school of horology,
vibrations, springs, synchronization, etc., are taught, and at the
famous Ecole du Livre, where everything pertaining to book-
making is learned, pupils are taught many principles of physics.
Each one of these topics has a choice little literature, as does
rubber work and soldering. Suffering as school physics is
from lack of concreteness, application, and appeals to the motor
element, and still more maimed as manual training is for lack
of intellectual ingredients, the present divorce of the two is a
strange and surely transient anomaly.

The humanistic stage and aspect of science has been pro-
gressively ignored. If the old nature religions had persisted,
or if it could be now recognized that childhood and youth still
tend to live through them in a way that both the higher relig-
ions that worship man and the mechanism of science intim-
idate and repress to the great loss of both, all would be very
different. To me the faint beginnings that are now being
made to recover some of our losses here, appeal as a new enthu-
siasm of humanity, as a restoration from a dire fall that has

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 159

been so gradual that we do not realize it, and so all-sided that
the very standards of comparison are all in various stages of
decay. The Renaissance recreated Europe by restoring a rela-
tively recent age and stage of man's development. History
seeks to conserve for present uses the lessons of the past. Prot-
estant culture seeks to go back to Scripture and restore by the
spade and textual criticism the consciousness of Jesus and the
nascent stages of the new life that came into and transformed
the world through Him and His early followers. Now that
education would guide and improve all earlier and later stages
of development, it must no longer limit its lesson to the short
period of authentic history, but profit by and even incite by
new motives every new method of retracing ever earlier stages
of the soul's evolution. Happily, it is now beginning to shape
a larger and all-comprehensive humanism and renaissance full
of new promise for the future of the race.

In what follows I can only very briefly glance at some of
the great fields of natuie interest, following a general evolu-
tionary order rather than that of psychogenetic zest, which is so
far less determined, and having regard chiefly to adolescence
only.

I. One of the new psychic developments of this age is a
great and sometimes sudden extension of interest in space and
time. Childhood cares little for what is remote in either order
unless associated with some personal object. Inversely as the
squares of the distances is one of its most characteristic laws
of interest, for it lives chiefly in the present. But it would
almost seem from our returns that every well-endowed youth,
before or very soon after the age of twenty, has an infinity
neurosis concerning space and time, which is more or less spe-
cific and is often at first perhaps chiefly automatic and
instinctive, but unique and heretofore little known. While it
fascinates, it soothes and quiets. Some become specialists in
sky-gazing and dreaming and think along, visiting worlds full
of wonders, or the arch above may seem a wall which shuts
out the soul as though it never could get through, or it may
become a shuddering menace of extinction and annihilation,
while some are so updrawn that the heavens and the soul seem
to belong to each other. Some have distinct agoraphobia at
the thought of spatial infinity, and steady themselves by think-

i6o THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

ing that the stellar worlds are oases scattered at distances that
are not really too great to be a little neighborly, while the claus-
trophobiac type of mind is relieved to find open spaces in a star
map, so that escape is not cut off, or are glad to hear of ether
instead of a void, for it seems a way of exit or makes getting
to heaven easier. Some muse on whether there can really be
either a mathematical or a gravity center in the universe and
associate these thoughts with constant falling and a sinking
feeling. Some think the universe laminated in a Dantesque
way or growing a layer at a time. Others feel that space opens
to infinity easiest toward some one point of compass, usually
eastward, or at a certain angle of elevation where the world
came from or where God is still creating worlds. Others
think out in one direction until they are fatigued or repelled,
and then in the opposite. Some have a persistent longing or
drawing toward the east, south, or west, or right up to the
sky, where they would float on forever. Some fancy limits,
then transcend them, and count off and must measure time and
space by each other. Some pity the loneliness of the earth,
the solar system, or the stars so far from each other, with no
communication.

Some reflect that void space might be either light or dark
and it would make no difference. The lapse of time is so
doom-like going on to the end. Some must stop the tick of the
clock or turn it back. Some are '' frozen stiff " and gasp at
these attacks, and all the snugness and comfort of life seem
gone. What can God do with all this space and time? Some
are faint, others angry, to hear talk suggesting their creepy
" spells." Does it get lighter, darker, emptier, hotter, or colder
away out there ? Is it spherical or oblate, etc. ? To many these
thoughts are immediately associated with ideas of the soul's
future, while to others it is all more abstract and mathematical.
Not one of our returns even suggested the subjectivity of time
and space, except where there had been specific instruction in
philosophy.^

^F., 17. At thirteen began to realize eternity and think on the end of time,
space, and the world. This brought a feeling of weakness and palpitation and
made her serious and thoughtful. She developed a ritual of Bible verses, hymns,
etc., for such occasions.

M., 23. Thought space might be dotted all over with stars, and if it was infinite

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE i6i

We glimpse here perhaps the motives of the Yogi cult of
absorption in the absolute or universal, and of the worship of
Varuna, or Uranus, of which diffusing smoke and incense was

and the light of them all could reach us, that no matter how far apart they were
the sky would seem a solid floor of light, and wondered if he went to the farthest
star they would still seem uniformly thick on all sides. (Cf. Eternity, by W. M.
Bryant, pp. 36-37, for a somewhat similar reverie.)

F., 27. Thinks of infinite space as intensely alive, tingling and vibrating with
activity. Worlds and stars are dross or precipitations, and souls are finer extracts
of their cosmic life far more intense than theirs. Matter is the same, only lower
and more degraded.

M., 27. Thinks all people worry about infinite time and space sometimes, and
that it is well to have it early and in a chicken-pox form so as not to be befuddled
by Kant. Space is round with the earth at the center, and the thought of forever
falling affects his heart.

M., 25. When I gaze at the sky and think of the immensities and infinitudes, I
feel like a microbe and could no more have the conceit to say their esse is percipi
(though I could do this with ease and pleasure in my room at college) than I could
conceive a protozoan saying this universe consists of me. Very likely the gods or
real beings out there could not see us with a microscope if the sun itself was a lens
made on purpose. If they can, they must laugh.

M. , 24. If space is really infinite and populated with stars all through, I could
not see how there could be any common center, or any absolute gravity, or abso-
lute motion. Again, if every movement of every being started vibrations that irra-
diate outward forever, the acts of my boyhood must now be present by continuity
of vibration at some far-off point, and thus everything that ever happened is some-
where present forever in irradiating spheres, and thus if there be a universal senso-
rium everything is forever present to it.

F. , 25. I am a strong believer in cremation, because I like the idea of having
the body given a speedy gaseous diffusion as wide as possible. The poetic idea of
products of my body coloring a sunset ever so little appeals to me ; besides, I had
rather be gas and vapor than clay and earth which ordinary inhumation suggests,
because the former seems somehow more akin to spirit, as the latter does to
matter.

M., 20. When I get hypnotized by gazing at the sky and stars, I think my pre-
dominant feeling is a desire to explore, to float up and travel all around and visit
many stars and get to the limit and look off into empty starless space in some sort
of a wild Jules Verne trip, and I often fancy schemes of rapid interstellar transit in
my idle sky-dreamings.

M., 21. After much thought, once reached this notion, that starting with a row
of small figure nines reaching to the farthest star and back and then looping through
all the other stars and back, then letting each unit represented in this immense
number stand for all the smallest particles in the universe, and letting each of these
particles stand for a decillion miles, he reflected that when he had traveled all these
miles beyond the farthest star he would have only just started through infinite
space. Later he thought each unit might stand for all the distance light could
travel in all these years, and then that each particle in the universe should be placed
at the end of the distance light could travel in them all, etc.
50

1 62 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

the symbol, and from which the various theories of pantheistic
anatheosis were unfolded. But there is no suggestion of get-
ting beyond or outside of time and space. Now the mind is
expanded and finds repose in the nebulse hypothesis, as formerly
the quietism of the heart was attained in Nirvana. The modern
dreamer wants to be pulverized or reduced back to his stoichio-
logical bases, like Jeffries perhaps, by fire burial, as the panthe-
istic soul which felt itself as intensive as space is extensive, and
would relapse to the void out of which it was formed. To
those who aspire to be " sunk in the changeless calm " of an
impersonal deity, the only truly nihilistic atheism is to deny
the void, but the infinite void is real, and to affirm its over-
whelming positive character is the supreme affirmation of
faith. Modern psychology knows no hint of an explanation
why the adolescent soul seeks perhaps to cool passion, as it
is still taught to do in India by the cult of sitting cross-legged
and saying " om " ; or why it gravitates so strongly at this
age to think sub specie cEtertinatis , or to fall into this " lair "
of Eckhart, unless there really be some " impulse of return,"
as Proclus and Plotinus said, by contemplation toward the
etherism from which all things emanated and into which they
will be reabsorbed. It would almost seem that pantheistic, like
other religious impulses, culminated in youth in which the best
blood of its highest types flows. It is not critically formulated
or entirely conscious, but the appetency for uncreated and un-
determined being, for a Godhood above God, for bottoming on
some most real being or substance as if the summit of the scale
of existence was attained with the highest degree of abstrac-
tion, is perhaps the supreme expression of the religion of pure
intellect, which must forever be a very different thing in its
nature and needs from the religion of the heart which can never
love a being defined by negation, can not worship an unmoved
mover, and is not intoxicated with abstract unity. Or is it all
because the work of reason itself is not complete until it has
postulated something ultra rational or brought itself squarely
up against barriers which thought can never cross, and thus
in a sense shown forth its own transcendent nature even by
affirming the dissolution of personality in a universal and un-
conditioned menstruum, pausing before a veil which only the
heart can penetrate ?

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 163

The new ephebic sympathy with nature in these days of
evolution and cosmic gas passes far more rapidly than formerly
into an Oriental sense o.f a one and all, which is a unity back
of all difference, conceived as a point of departure from which
we were formed out of the void, and into which, when the
tides that drew us forth ebb again, we shall be resolved or
absorbed. As by the old doctrine of representative perception
the heart perceives objects because it is of the same kind, since
like knows like, so it is felt that the soul is of the same nature
as all, and can therefore know all. These sentiments are in
fact not yet pantheism, because there is no conception of a soul
of the world, and indeed there is at first neither dualism nor
monism. It is not a system, but a feeling of kinship which is
a kind of insight and which may later develop comprehension.
At first it is an utterly naive and unreflecting sympathetic grop-
ing or orientation with regard to origin and end of both self
and the world, a sense«of our continuity with life, earth, sun,
and sky. It is true that this way lies pantheism, which Paulsen
calls the secret faith of science to-day, in which perhaps all
natural religions culminate. It is the sentiment which the
Stoics interpreted materialistically, making their theology a
part of physics ; optimistically, because they thought the world
and its soul the most perfect; and ethically, by defining duty
as the contemplation and imitation of nature or the universe —
but in its native youthful form it is most benign.

Thus, neither the narrowness of creed nor the bigotry of
systems should lead us to forget that theologies and even phi-
losophies pass, while folklore and poetry, that spring from and
lie nearer the heart, remain, and that the weak points of the
former often constitute their chief use. A shallow orthodoxy
may condemn these youthful stirrings of soul, but they are not
only not inconsistent with the highest religious or even Chris-
tian belief and life, but profoundly strengthen it, so that their
absence is a very serious loss. This experience makes purgation
and is a precious baptism for which the now much vaunted
epistemology is no adequate substitute ; it gives a deep, abiding
sense of reality instead of the hollowness which academic
teaching so often leaves about the heart. It instils feelings
that " there lives and moves a soul in all things, and that soul
is God " ; that " the rolling year is full of God ; forth in the

1 64 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

spring his beauty walks" ; that "in Him we Hve, and move, and
have our being." It gives a kind of spiritual exaltation, so
that every aspect of the cosmos may awaken the spirit of
poetry, of which one of the best definitions is contact between
the soul and nature. This sudden psychic expansion toward
the infinite is almost the acme, and these phenomena the high-
water mark of genius, which needs to see little in order to
know so much, and which is temperamental and characteristic
in the modern environment of true science in which it is " bliss
to be alive and to be yovmg is heaven." This is nature living,
as it can truly only in our lives. It touches perhaps the very
highest point yet attained in human evolution, where our
source and destiny bend together to a cycle, and where we
can with equal ease and equal edification interpret the highest
things in the scale of development by the lowest, or the lowest
by the highest.

II. Little children watch the stars pop out like bubbles, or
take their places, " say present," think them diamonds, gold
studs, brass nail-heads to keep up the sky, lamp's eyes, sparks,
glass buttons. They love each other's company, and the happy
celestial family, mothered by the moon or fathered by the sun,
talk of us or of God. At about the age of ten, twinkling seems
to attract special attention. It is explained as winking at each
other in sign language, or at us, and children wink back ; it is
the breaking of bubbles, vibrations when they hit each other and
shake, shooting out sparkles, rotation showing alternate light
and dark sides, saying good evening, and they call back this
greeting; it is dancing or else their smiles or tears. They
often pick a certain star as " my star," wait for and salute it,
and are sad or feel guilty if it does not appear. It is talked to,
told secrets, used to wish by, and invested with peculiar power
to make wishes come true, etc., will take the soul in personal
charge at death ; some move the bed or adjust curtains so it will
shine on them when they go to sleep. Sometimes they are indi-
vidualized as souls of parents, dead friends, great men, and
many amuse themselves by tracing angles, circles, animals,
persons, buildings, apparel. They cluster for sociability, etc.

At adolescence sentiment regarding them is greatly deep-
ened. There are sometimes longings for some token of re-
sponse, melting tenderness, partly love and partly worship.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 165

Some reveries are dependent upon stars and seem to free the
mind from the body and send it off on charming excursions.
Spontaneous prayers to stars are not infrequent. Maidens are
sometimes greatly steadied by silent communion with the stars
and lifted above trouble, because from their eternal standpoint
earthly pleasure and pain seem evanescent. They bring calm-
ness, purity, control. Occasionally young women become pas-
sionate star lovers.^ The Milky Way is a heavenly river " with
a broad, peaceful, stony bed." It is often conceived as flowing
both ways, perhaps from the north pole, which was once
nearer to it than now ; or it is a fiery current, the storehouse
of lightning, or its stream is the source of rain and flows
alternately up and down.

We have here the ontogenic correlate of astrology and
many an ancient myth of stars and planetary influences. In-
terest in stellar revolutions comes later and its phyletic side
seems far stronger, this stage probably having been suppressed
by the percolations of the influences of modern astronomy
which are extirpating pre-Copernican ideas, great, long-persis-
tent, and pervasive as they have been. The value of their edu-
cational reconstructions may be an open question. I can here
only indicate them in a note.^

' A young mother still holds unspoken communion with stars and is helped by
it in many ways. They lifted her thoughts far above all trouble. They were
eternal, and from their standpoint all pleasure and pain seemed evanescent. They
were constant, unchanging, and so mild and pure that to contemplate them kept
her calm, pure in thought, sweet in temper, and brought self-control and a deep
peace. For another, although reared in Puritan New England and still an active
church member, the being called God had little interest or reality, as a child, less
than Santa Claus, and was prayed to only perfunctorily and not as a power in her
life. But the stars were passionately loved and could grant prayers. Because they
had such power to arouse deep longings, they must have power to satisfy them, till
matters of conscience were habitually and instinctively taken to them. Faith in
the love of mother or sister is not more perfect than was girlish belief in the re-
sponsive love of the stars, that drew so mysteriously yet strongly. What is
prayed them for is still granted, and the awe and love still increases and they are
looked to for right desires.

^ An endless number of man's sacred ideas are based on a supreme reverence
for the revolution of the universe about the earth's axis and for the power that
causes this motion, a belief which since Copernicus we know to be false. The
idea of this vast and constant revolution of the heavens around the earth must,
from the time the human mind first took cognizance of it, have exerted an enormous
fascination and influence upon the reflective and devout mind. An axletree or

1 66 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Perhaps the most significant immediate effect of science
here is to put the stars afar off. The youth reads in his text-
book that if the sun were two feet in diameter, the earth would
be the size of a pea two hundred and twenty feet away, and the
nearest star would be eight thousand miles away. He reads
of one hundred million stars visible through the three-foot
glass of a telescope, or of the twenty-two thousand million,
estimated, when a lens is made which can see those of the
twentieth magnitude — the Lick glass reaching only the six-
teenth ; of the small size of our sun compared with Sirius
about five hundred times greater, and others estimated to be
a million times larger; of all the stages of stellar life from

pole was early assumed, and some creative myths, like the Japanese, represent this
spear-axis as churning the world out of the primeval sea. Hence we have a vast
cycletic or kinetic mythology of cosmic machinery in motion.

When the awe-struck mind sought for the power that caused this rotation, it
would naturally be placed at the highest pivotal point, so that the polar deity may
be, as John O'Neill (The Night of the Gods, 2 vols., 1893) urges with great learn-
ing, " the oldest and supremest of the cosmic gods of all the early northern regions."
Here is the eye of heaven, and here the omphalos myths are located. Here, espe-
cially, the seven stars of Ursa Major turn and have given its holiness to the number
seven. The Atlas myths and those of the pillars of heaven often survive in obelisks,
towers, and steeples, which still perpetuate primitive man's idea of the mainstay
of the universe. Here, too, belong the universe tree and the bridges to another
world, the dance of the stars, the wheel of the law, the prayer wheel, the fire wheel,
the wheel of fortune, the one holy mountain as a cone piercing heaven — all these
are traced from the original idea of a pole.

The swastika (The Fundamental Principles of Old and New World Civilization,
by Zelia Nuttall, Papers of Peabody Museum, vol. ii, 1901) was first used in the
circumpolar regions, and was a record of the four positions of the nocturnal and
annual circuits of the Bear and Dipper about the pole-star. It was first a year sign,
then a symbol of the four quarters of the year and of the quadruplicate division,
and of "a stable central power whose rule extended in four directions and con-
trolled the entire heavens." In India, Egypt, Babylonia, and Assyria, cities and
states were divided into four quarters with four tribes under a central chief, and thus
society was harmonized under the ideal of a religious democracy. The pyramid,
which originally had four stories and was cruciform, and many sacred structures,
commemorate cosmical and territorial organization into four parts. The four quar-
ters, the sacred middle, and above and below, represent a yet more extended con-
ception of seven directions in space, as in Egypt there were seven classes. Start-
ing from this common basis of fourfold division, a great variety of constitutions
were independently invented by statesmen and philosophers who devised many
cycles combined of numbers and signs to regulate time and communal life in imita-
tion of the order and harmony of heavenly motion and under one supreme ruler,
the earthly representative of Polaris. The origin of these schemes is generally

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 167

nebulae, through all stages of incandescence and cooling, to
cinders ; of vast bodies of equal size revolving about each other
in immense periods; how of all this number scarcely eight
hundred thousand are yet even catalogued ; of the stratifications
and general configurations of the stars in the Milky Way, in
which our system is and from which we look out to it as from
a center toward the edges of a lens-shaped group of stars com-
prising all within the ken of astronomy.

Of all the sciences, astronomy is the oldest. Its theme is
the largest. It deals with the greatest masses of matter and the
longest stretches of time and space. As Emerson said, if the
heavens were visible only one night in a thousand years the

ascribed to a northern race who had discovered fire-making and evolved a cult and
ritual suggested by it. They were persecuted for both their religious and demo-
cratic views, and this would be an incentive to seek refuges and found colonies.
This they did in the New World, transporting their ideas at widely separated criti-
cal periods of their own history. Hence the close similarity between the art of the
Andes and that of the Mediterranean, especially in plan and numerical schemes.
Thus America became an isolated area of preservation for archaic forms of govern-
ment, cultivated industry drawn at different epochs from various centers of Old
World culture, and transmitted but with increasing native elements. The one
basis that underlay all was the recognition of fixed laws governing the universe, and
this was given by long observation of Polaris and northern stars. Thus we recog-
nize anew how the entire intellectual, moral, and religious evolution of the race has
resulted in fixed laws. From the time when our world began to rotate, the fact of
one fixed point in space that never changed has had a mystic and irresistible influ-
ence, raising the mind of man from darkness and confusion, and issuing in the idea
of one central power, and from this the idea of an invisible and supreme Deity arose
in the higher scale of spiritual development. Perhaps the Master Architect of the
world designed this, still suggested by the sacred sign of the cross which is set for
a sign in heaven ; while the shaft, pole, or chark, which brought down fire, sug-
gested a primitive mode of worship.

" The earliest year used by the first agricultural races was one of two seasons
measured by Pleiades, beginning with the festival of the stars and the commemora-
tion of dead ancestors celebrated in November " (The Ruling Races of Prehis-
toric Times in India, Southwestern Asia, and Southern Europe; Westminster,
1894. See Essay IV). Then came the year of three seasons, the first official meas-
ure of time by the barley-growing races who always began their year at the autumnal
equinox. "These early astronomers substituted for the reckoning of time by the
Pleiades one founded on the supposed friction of the pole, which they thought to
be proven by the apparent motion of the stars around it." The heat thus gener-
ated by the ever-turning fire drill was bounded by the four stars, which marked
the four quarters of the heavens: viz., Sirius, which rose with the beginning rains
of India at the summer solstice ; the Great Bear ; Argo in the south ; and Corvus
in the west. These latter constellations traced their birth to Sirius.

1 68 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

sights of that night would be awaited with the greatest ex-
pectation, and those of that generation ahve to see it would
count themselves happy. Its decline in both high schools and
colleges is purely because it is no longer so taught as to meet
youthful needs. Even when its first stages consisted largely
in tracing constellations it used to be taught in a religious and
almost devotional way. One of these old observatories bore,
cut in stone over the entrance, the legend, " The heavens de-
clare the glory of God," and over another stood "The undevout
astronomer is mad." In looking over elementary text-books
of our day, we find the greatest difference between those which
treat the subject in a technical, mathematical way, and those
which are more like popular reading books because they appeal
to deep, primary sentiments of awe, wonder, reverence, and
curiosity. The former method dwells chiefly upon celestial
motions and makes more or less use of mathematics as its lan-
guage. The revolution of the earth is often the starting-point,
and I know of a high-school class who spent six precious weeks
of individual competition in trying to determine the noon-mark
most accurately. Prediction of eclipses, subtler motions and
their determinations, explanations of equinox, aberration, and
nutation, determinations of the eccentricity of orbits, the dif-
ferent seasonal distances of the moon, etc., follow. Under this
method carried to extreme, interest vanishes almost in direct
proportion to difficulties and the end is disenchantment.

Under the other method, interest is first generated over
a large field. The history of astronomy from astrology down
is made interesting. Kepler, Galileo, Tycho Brahe, and the
heroology and biography in which this science so abounds and
which gives it such high value as culture history, are given
prominence. Telescopes with something of their history, and
the casting and finishing of great lenses, are made as inter-
esting as Schiller's Song of the Bell. Clocks and chronoscopes
down to those that measure ten-thousandths of a second are
described, along with gratings and other apparatus. Cos-
mogony and the nebular theory, as a part of evolution, have a
place, and something is told about ether and the development of
the stellar world with the historical stages, now exemplified
in different parts of space. Practical astronomy is given a
place and its effects traced in navigation, the discovery of

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 169

America, and the changes from the geocentric to the helio-
centric view of things. Ghmpses of the most recent discoveries
and observations are included, such as the revolutions deter-
mined in some of the fixed stars ; photographs of the heavens ;
the process by which many thousands of the million stars now
estimated to be visible through a forty-inch glass have been
named or identified, comets, meteors — all with very copious
pictures in text-books.

III. Not only is man a child of the sun, body and soul, but
every dawning day rescues us from blindness in the great dark
and recreates the mind as it wakes from the void of sleep. The
soul is instinctively heliotropic and worships its Creator. The
phenomenon of dawn to a soul refreshed by sleep kindles such
a wealth of variegated imagery that it seems a calamity that
modern childhood and youth are so withdrawn from its influ-
ence. To bright young children, in our returns, the sun is
often completely personified as getting out of bed, pulled or
pushed upward by some alien power or person, rising like a
balloon or on wings, shot up by a cannon, as being God's open-
ing eye, God himself or his lamp, a hole in the sky, etc. Chil-
dren a little older conceive the sun as making an effort to lift
itself, to get free from the horizon, disentangle itself from the
trees, break loose from the sea, as angry at the clouds and
pushing them away or breaking through as a victor in a contest
with them or with darkness. It seems most triumphant in the
early hour when its movement is vertically upward against
gravity. To children also, as to primitive man, the sun, like
the moon, is a wanderer at its own free will. It floats or rolls
along wherever it wishes; rises when it feels disposed to do
so ; and goes now fast, now slow. There is no idea of a fixed
orbit, time, or rate. Some draw the breath with relief when the
sun really gets clear of the horizon. If wakeful, they often
fear morning will never come, or feel in bondage until light
sets them free.

To the awakening imagination in adolescence it is but an
easy and natural next step to Phaeton, with the rays as lines
and the clouds as horses, the labors of Hercules, the birth of
Aurora, A j ax's prayer for light, or a single touch of fancy
gives the sun of Heraclitus daily secreted out of the body of
the world, leaving its mass a little darker, colder, or more

17° THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

corpse-like throughout. All the phototonic influences which
pervade animate nature are here at their very best. It is no
longer imposing, sensuous scenery only, but there is a feeling
of victory, of triumph of the powers of good over those of evil,
and so of worship, as in the famous antique statue of the Greek
youth's prayer eastward to the dawn whence comes all our light
and wisdom. It is all, too, a pregnant symbol of the age when
the good, beautiful, and true really dawn in the soul.

So of solar rays our data show how they stimulate juve-
nile fancies. They are described as " bars between me and an-
other world " ; " ladders for fairies to dance on and go to and
from heaven on;" " a wreath of rays around the round happy
face of the sun ;" " the sun's long arms reaching out to embrace
and warm us ;" they " pierce all crevices and pry out darkness
as you pry out a stone with a lever." Many make a dust to see
the particles float in a ray, blow them, or try perhaps to follow
one. The rays plunge into the sea to loosen or open a way
from the sun, who sinks into it as they do ; they spout out on
all sides like jets of a fiery fountain; isolated rays are lone-
some; are often feared if it is not known at once where they
enter the trees or house, and with some this quest becomes a
neurosis ; clouds are very bold that do not fear them ; the dark
is many times as big but knows enough to fly at their approach.
One thinks the floating motes separate particles of sunshine
dancing; they and the rays die when the sun does; reflected
rays are impertinent and rebellious ; threads or ropes to hold
the sun; tubes to suck up water; paths or ladders to the sky;
strokes of an artist's brush; spears, daggers, with power to
make us good or to punish us if we are bad ; full of gold dust ;
the sun is unselfish to send them out so freely, vain to mirror
himself in the water, or cruel to break the rays at its sur-
face, etc.

All this shows that the soul of childhood and youth is a
rank sprouting-bed for far more than poetry, mythology, or
etymologies combined have yet exploited. In the past, if
Max Miiller and Cox are right, the darts of the far-shooting
Apollo, the arrows of Philoctetes and Ulysses, and not only
many magic shafts but perhaps the swords of Theseus, Perseus,
and Siegfried, Arthur's Excalibur, Orlando's Durandal, the
Volsung's good blade Gram, etc., are only anthropomorphized

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE i/i

rays of the sun. But these are all tropes of an age of war.
There are also triumphs of love, pity, and science yet to be
wrought out in new artistic and humanistic forms if we are to
unfold all the best latent possibilities of the young, and fully
accept, feel, and yield to the inspiration of their needs as our
muse.

Some blinded animals sleep for lack of stimulus to keep
awake, and as blind children are indisposed to action in part
for the same reason, bright lights quicken the mentation of
idiots. For small children, a succession of dark days tends to
sloth, somnolence, irritability, or dyspepsia. Some are un-
toned in dark corners, and groups of children are often so
sensitive that a cloud passing over the sun causes a notice-
able depression of spirits, activity, or both. They falter in
their play, are less merry, hesitate, pause, and neurotic children
often shiver and catch their breath. As the degree of its
illumination diminishes, they speak more softly, whisper, or
are silent, grow less energetic in their movements, their spirits
sink, the quality and quantity of work in school declines, their
standards and ideals droop, they are slow and inattentive, all
tasks seem harder, the appetite is enfeebled and freaky, pugnac-
ity increases, they are very easily discouraged, huddle, clasp
hands, cling about each other or adults, suffer from ennui, are
prone to collapse attitudes, are lonesome, homesick, etc., but
when the sun breaks out, especially on new snow, their ex-
hilaration, noise, activity, and joy are boundless.

Here, too, adolescence brings a marked change to children.
Early nightfall is the withdrawal of stimulus, physical inac-
tivity, and rest. They enjoy the panorama of a fine sunset
or are subdued and sad that the day is done. But to youth
twilight means far more. As sense is dulled and the body less
active, reflection awakes and declares its independence of sur-
roundings. Of all the day it is the calm, pensive hour for
retrospection and protension. Friends and kinsmen gather and
social instincts unfold. The hour of closing day, if the adoles-
cent soul is directly exposed to its influences, opens up a new
life of sentiment and mysticism. As sense is dimmed, soul
comes forth. There is a deeper, sacred, symbolic meaning to
it all. Conscience awakes, if not in the form of reproach, in
aspirations for a new and better life. The peace and purity of

172 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

the evening sky is reflected in the moral nature. The isolation
of gathering twilight brings solitude; the soul is alone with
itself, face to face with duty and ideals. There are new long-
ings for a larger, higher life, a desire for more self-knowledge
and self-expression. A sunset is a sermon, and " betwixt the
gloaming and the mirk " is the time for music, favorite hymns,
because heaven and God seem near, as well as for philosophic
thought and reflection. It is the hour, too, for reviewing the
day, for moralizing, dreamily though it be, and for resolutions
for the future, for ambitious plans for adulthood, castle build-
ing, and reverie, often the best expression in the young of
spontaneous psychic growth. In the great hush and peace the
imagination is kindled. Much is thought and talked of that
would be impossible by garish day. That is for plain, lucid
prose, but now is the time for reading or even writing poetry,
the time when so many, in our returns, invoke their Muse.
Some would compose new music ; sing something wildly weird
and sad ; tell sweet thoughts, if only to themselves or an imagi-
nary companion ; let the mind wander away and away, shunning
every noise and intrusion in an abandon of delicious depression,
some of which is perhaps an after-effect of the crude childish
fears which now in large measure and rather suddenly fade.
Pedagogy, especially that of religion and art, has here a great
opportunity and perhaps will one day rise to its duty and con-
struct a vesper service that, while not without shelter and com-
fort exposing the soul to all the sensuous phenomena of slowly
gathering night, will devise adequate expression for the in-
stincts that now turn the soul inward; make it feel the need
of protection and trust ; preform it to walk by faith and not by
sight ; strengthen the feeling of dependence ; anticipate the
evening of life and the great sleep that wakes not. This is the
way the soul should descend into the dark valley, " like one
who wraps the drapery of his couch about him and lies down
to pleasant dreams." This is the hour of sentiment and should
be sacred to its culture.

The solar heroes exposed in their infancy on eastern hills,
golden-haired, strongest at noon with strange fits of gloom,
subject for a time to alien and baser powers, have now sunk
to their death in a triumphant transformation scene implying a
resurrection. Night " drinks the blood of the sun as he

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 173

slaughtered sank " ; " the pale wandering ghosts that beat the
gates of heaven all night " are creeping forth. Darkness
" draweth night's thin net," " blackens bush and tree," falls
" fold on fold dulling the western gold." The west breaks
into bars of color, or perhaps there remains " a lifeless cloud
like a dead angel lying in a shroud with lilies on her breast."
The trees " turn old and gray " as the shadows drape them.
Hesper " rises over the orbs of the sun," which has fallen de-
feated into " ominous dim space," leaving only " the stern
blue crypt of night." Thus poets try to conserve somewhat of
what youth feels in metaphoric phrases not stereotyped to
myth. Twilight has created moods and sentiments all its own,
and has done much to shape the soul and inspired much poetry.
This sweet disphoria is the normal counterpart of the euphoria
of dawn.

When darkness becomes complete the waking child be-
comes helpless. It can neither resist nor fly. Perhaps old night
fears of animals or ghosts tense the nerves, and in those who
are nervous phobias develop, for the old night of ignorance,
mother of fears, still rules infant neurones. But now the fires
and lamps are suddenly lit, and the eye and brain snatched back
from these tensions or from somnolence, the most exact bio-
logic expression of darkness, and we have the interesting
phenomenon of " candle-light fever." Children wake up as to a
new morn in petto, are wild, noisy, frolicsome, and abandoned.
This, I suggest, may be the reverberation in modern souls of
the joy that in some prehistoric times hailed the Prometheus
art of controlling fire and defying night. This developed even-
ing and made man's habits seminocturnal, but the gift has
cost us the boon of sunrise, has brought the sadness of study
and wisdom, and has robbed us of the optimistic upward
striving hours of dawn. With the adolescent it is no longer a
matter of retinal excitement, but at first comes a stormy period
of defying night, a passion for seeing its side of life and na-
ture. This perhaps is helpful as establishing a diathesis of
intense activity which more and more tends to be psychic
rather than somatic. Culture and mind drill owe very much
to the development of evening. Many first learn to think when
the distractions of the day are gone, and many can do this best
at no other time.

174 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Finally, if Cleanthes's hymn to the sun as the source of all
life could make Goethe a sun worshiper for life, how great
must have been its impression when paganism was in its zenith !
To Aristotle the sun was divine also because it had the power
of self-motion. From the same psychic soil and from the same
seed of wondrous awe has since come the zest that animates the
work of the solar observatories of Potsdam and Meudon, and
the sun is no less supreme to modern science than to Plato and
Socrates. The processional from the infant concept of a fire
ball to that of solar physics and chemistry is as continuous and
natural as it is majestic. This measure of paganism in youth
makes the better astronomer later. The younger Herschel
thought the willow-leaf maculations seen through his telescope
to be living organisms, hundreds of miles in length though they
must be, and defying intense heat. Like bold hypotheses for
the adult, so myth and poetry for the young supplement and
feed the roots of science and are not opposed save in narrow
souls. Perhaps crass weeds of ignorance must flourish in their
season to make a rich mold for better growth later; or, to
change the figure, as the rough glacial age smoothed and trit-
urated the earth's surface and is perhaps still doing a being's
work though it has retreated to a polar ice cap, so the best
thoughts of the best men of old are often relegated to ever
earlier childhood.

The practical and the scientific outcome here again is that,
if it is well that the child should reproduce ancient industries,
by the same token he should, if his development is to be com-
plete, here also revive the ancient sentiments and view-points
of the race, more or less as the tadpole must develop a tail
only to be absorbed by the growing legs, the development of
which it was necessary both to stimulate and to feed. If youth
ever really reads at all the literature that the sun, dawn, twi-
light, and night have inspired, he must find the object-lesson
in his own experience by frequent and perhaps systematic ex-
posure to these influences, or else he is learning words with no
meaning, masterpieces which are senseless conventionalities,
for his heart rings hollow while his memory only is stuffed.^

' See on all this section my study with Dr. T. L. Smith : Reactions to Light
and Darkness ; Am. Jour, of Psy., January, 1903, pp. 21-83. Also I. Gaule,
Einfluss des Nacht, Centralbl. f. Psychol., April 28, 1900.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 175

IV. The moon is our nearest celestial neighbor, only some
ten earth's circumferences away, and here astronomy began.
It perhaps first and chiefly lifted men's thoughts to the
sky, releasing them from mundane affairs, and is their first
halting-place in the quest of the infinite. No celestial object
excites such interest in youth as the moon. The ideas of
young children have been collated as to its size, distance, the
material out of which it is made, how it got up into the sky,
why it does not fall, how the form of its different quarters is
explained, where it stays when it is absent, what is seen or
imagined in it — the nursery folklore which pervades all juve-
nile ideas and conceptions about it.^

They often talk to the moon, say " Shine on, I want you,"
" Blessed moon," sing to it, offer it toys. If they are bad, they
tell it to go away ; ask it for a kiss, to be their playmate ; think
of its celestial companionship with clouds, stars, sun, who are
perhaps its relatives ; think it the face of Jesus looking out of
heaven; imagine it to be Moses, Santa Claus; courtesy to it
for luck ; im.agine people in the moon and fairies, those without
head or all head, angels, musicians, lighthouse-keepers, souls
of the dead, babies, crooked people, penal colonies of Sabbath-
breakers. They often detect faces of God, a veiled lady, a man,
perhaps her husband, perhaps of just dead parents or play-
mates, and trace out eyes, beard, etc. ; see fire, smoke, the cow
and dog of nursery rhyme, and are often abandoned and mildly
intoxicated in its light. They speculate how it moves, whether
by rolling or sliding steadily or by jerks ; whether it rises from
behind the woods, or the sea, etc. They often think it an ex-
ternal conscience which either smiles, grows bright, or comes
to them and increases in size when they are good, and is dim,
hidden, small, far away, if they are bad. It sees them, and in

' Five hundred and fifty-five children, well distributed as to age, answered the
question how the man got in the moon (How the Man Got in the Moon, by Miriam
B. Levy; Ped. Sem., October, 1895, vol. iii, pp. 317-318), in nineteen different
ways. From seven to ten, and especially from eight to nine, the question was taken
in all seriousness, and he was said to have flown in, jumped in, gone in a balloon,
by tower, went there when he died, got there by electricity, to be God, angel, etc.
But from twelve to fourteen, when the census ends, there is either a marked blank-
ness of mind on the whole subject or else disbelief that there is a man there, or, in
a less number of cases, an attempt to give a scientific explanation.

i;^ THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

its presence they shrink from naughty acts. It can see and
tell us what our friends are doing at a distance.^

In early adolescence, however, the moon rises to great
prominence in its influence upon sentiment. Infantile con-
ceptions fade, and it becomes an object of a new interest and
comes into the most sympathetic rapport with the religious and
sentimental life of the soul, where it has a role hitherto, as I
think, entirely unsuspected. From 443 returns it is plain that
it is now profoundly associated with the moral, poetic, and re-
ligious life. Even before this stage of development it is often
pitied when it is thought to be pale, or wearied from long shin-
ing, or wandering, or sick, because the sun refuses the light it
craves. Pubescents gaze, languish, and become sentimental.
Girls in the teens, whose windows open to the sky, often draw
their blinds that the moon may not see them undress, although
a few love exposure to it. The sight of it thrills many a maiden
with pleasure or occasionally with sadness. Some involunta-
rily clench the hands and grow tense; others feel unworthy and
are humiliated. Many a maiden sits, watches the moon, and
spins fancies, how it is the oldest and largest star ; that perhaps
her dead mother is there; longs to visit it till a lump rises in the
throat ; it is so soothing, sympathetic, tender ; its light is mild
and soft, and it must love everybody and everything. It rests
them, makes them good, and perhaps homesick for it. Others
feel only awe, and want to be still and alone with every moon,
or stretch out their arms to it. Many a phrase, quotation, and
often prayer is spontaneously repeated.

It now chiefly suggests love. Some maidens literally tell
the moon their troubles and ask many things, and often find
encouragement. Many young women can never endure to
look at or think of the moon if away from home. They are
made homesick and intolerably sad because it seems cold and
friendless, or perhaps they wish to go off by themselves and
cry. They sit and watch it and think, feel a strange fascina-
tion, and can not take their eyes off from it. Others are in-
spired to walk, to ride, see some one, be out with their girl or

^ The Moon in Childhood and Folklore, by J. W. Slaughter ; Amer. Jour, of
Psychology, xiii, pp. 294-318. Also, Note on Moon Fancies, by G. S. H. ; Amer.
Jour, of Psychology, January, 1903, p. 88.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 177

beau ; to go to bed when the moon is at its best seems Hke wast-
ing opportunity to do something. Some are ashamed or afraid
to have the moon see them misbehave, or perhaps study its face
to see if they can detect a smile or a frown. Thus in many
ways the soul at this age reverberates with the echo of the
many-sounding sea and the shore where terrestrial life first
arose from it. The tides still rule us with a monthly as well as
a daily rhythm, and lunacy or moon-madness is both more
and more aggravated during its periods, which ajffect nutrition,
growth, sleep, health, disease, suicide, etc. The young often
develop toward it some of the same sentiments of love, de-
pendence, and reverence, which in infancy were directed
toward the mother's face, and which in normal mature life
may be all the more effectively turned toward God or less
concrete forms of goodness, truth, and beauty, because they
have been developed by the moon, which is one of the important
generators of religious feeling, and which has been the object
of supreme worship to so many races, both savage and civilized,
for even the Greeks thought the moon a proper object of divine
worship.^

When we turn from the moon of the heart to the moon
of science, the contrast seems at first painful. We learn that
it is a burnt-out cinder with no water, although Schmidt's
map, seven feet in diameter, and even Webb'fe, show among
the four hundred named objects on the lunar surface many
regions still called by the old names — seas, lakes, bays, marshes,

^ This direction of man's animistic propensity has not only nourished religion
but science, and has been strangely persistent among wise men. Pythagoras
thought the moon peopled with larger animals and trees than the earth. Many
have since thought it a mirror in which they could read what was taking place on
earth. Flammarion found over a hundred imaginary voyages to the moon. Louis
XIV proposed a 10,000 foot telescope to show the animals in the moon. Al-
though its air can not exceed one-one-hundred-and-fiftieth of ours in barometric
pressure, it has lately been seriously urged that moon men might be habituated
to extreme rarefaction, that our air would drown them, and to argue that it has
no inhabitants would be the reasoning of a fish. A lady who asked Arago what
was on the side of the moon we never see, what about its inhabitants, its effects
on the weather and on love, on being answered that he did not know, turned away
exclaiming, " What then is the use of being so learned? " The Berlin Academy,
knowing that careful records show that the moon had no effect on the weather, sup-
pressed the predictions in its official almanac, but its sale, on which so much of the
society's income depended, was so reduced that they were restored.
51

i;^ THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

etc. There are, therefore, no clouds, no plant or animal life,
and during the long lunar day, equal to fourteen of ours, its
temperature passes from at least 200 degrees below zero
up to that of boiling water and even far above. Although
the best telescopes bring it within less than a hundred miles,
and few terrestrial countries are mapped so fully and truly as
the surface always turned toward us, and on which the earth-
shine is from thirteen times as large a surface, it is nothing
after all but a traveling corpse of a world which no doubt once
had life on it but is now a silent prophecy of what our planet
will sometime come to. G. H. Darwin tells us the earth-moon
system began at least fifty-four million years ago, when the
earth was revolving so fast that a day was from only two to
four hours long, that tidal friction is still separating the moon
and earth, and that in a calculable time, some millions of years
hence, the rotation of the latter will be so retarded that we
shall have a day of nine hundred and sixty hours. The great
selenographers, like Beer, Maedler, Neison, began when young
with profound sentimental interest in the moon. Has their
love kept pace with their growing knowledge of it, or is the
intellectual zest of their maturity only its transformation ? Do
we prefer such modern knowledge as is above sampled to the
old romantic zest, and what is their relation to each other?
If we wish to make selenic experts, should we first expose
them to the maximum of poetic inebriation before extermina-
ting it by knowledge? In these profound questions we face
again the vast problem of myth and science. To tell the moon-
struck maiden that she is gazing at a globe of cold lava is a
shock akin to that which the Greeks felt when told by Anytus
that Socrates held the moon to be a stone. Although the great
hebamist denied this heresy and declared that all men knew the
moon was a god, this was no doubt one motive to his con-
demnation.

Interest in things celestial is perhaps as good a mark as
any for distinguishing between the highest brute and the lowest
human mind. Our race became men when they looked up, and
perhaps reason and scientific thought began in musing on the
causes of day, night, seasons, storms, etc., in the heavens.
Moon-zest seems earliest. Day and sun were matters of course,
while the moon came and went, changed form, and was visi-

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 179

ble in the quiet, reverie part of the day. Schultze ^ thinks
moon, sun, moving planets, the fixed stars studding the vault
of night, and all rotating on the pole as an axis about our cen-
tral earth, and last the blue sky itself, is the order in which
these five passed one after another as culture developed
through the four stages of manism, when each was regarded
as only the sensuous object it seemed; animism, when a soul
was given it ; polytheism, when each was divine ; and finally
each in the above order came to be thought only an instrument
or symbol of one power back of and including them, and only
at this last stage did monotheism and the adoration of the
All-Father arise. Each successive stage emancipated from a
lower idolatry. As each successively emerged from the neuter,
thing, or it stage and became masculine, the lower and sup-
planted object lapsed, as primitive languages show, to the
feminine gender. However this be, the spectacle of the
heavens must have had much to do in evoking mind, wherever
mind exists in the universe, by its endless fascinations.

V. It is hardly too strong a statement to say that there
is nothing whatever that the plastic, polymorphic fancy of chil-
dren does not see in the clouds. Not only is everything on
earth mirrored and transfigured there and everything read, re-
flected and pictured, but the factual and literary world is far
transcended, and many things with no earthly counterpart are
revealed to the imagination of which they are perhaps the chief
school, inspirer, and in no small degree the creator. If instead
of living at the bottom of a deep sea of air with such changing
phenomena taking place above us, so in contrast with the fixity
of earth, we can conceive human life possible on, e. g., the
cloudless moon, the soul would have been a very different and
far more prosaic thing. Not only is everything seen in cloud-
land, but every known emotion and every sentiment is strongly
played on by its scenery. Its vast repertory of effects has done
much to make the life of feeling deep, rich, and variegated.
The " moods of heaven's deep heart " are reflected in our own.
They have inspired so much in myth and poetry that without
cloud-psychoses both would suffer great loss. We should have
had no vision of Ezekiel or John, should have lost most of the

^ Psychologic der Naturvolker, Leipzig, 1900, p. 318 et seq.

100 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

best of the old Aryan myths, and the Vedas and Bible prophe-
cies would be impoverished ; we would have had no Niobe,
Nephele, swan maidens, golden fleece, Valkyries, harpies, no,
or a very different Odin, Walhalla, Jove, Hermes, Polyphe-
mus, Phryxos, Helle, Phaiakian ships, great roc, houris, no
Greek or old Hindu heaven, no sphinx, Apollo, etc. The child's
imagery about clouds is not only rankly profuse, but sometimes
of uncontrolled or almost delusional intensity. Many think
they see real angels, saints, faces of God, friends, landscapes,
seascapes, shipwrecks, fairy islands, castles. Queen Mab's shin-
ing tent, volcanoes, chariots and horses, monsters, battles, car-
avans, swords, banners, patterns and tapestry of supreme tint
and texture, hands, fish, Santa Glaus, Indians, dead people
lying in state, Dido, Judgment-day scenes, cities, Ghrist on his
sparkling throne, geographical scenes, conflagrations, views in
heaven, animals, which are often as numerous as Bible scenes,
flowers and trees, and things too grand, beautiful, and fearful
for earth. Distances are greatly underestimated, so that every-
thing is near and the effects are immediate and almost reflex.
They often want to go to, touch, roll, plunge into their downy
substance, lie in, sail off with them, follow the persons, or take
part in the scenes they see in them.^ Some find themselves un-
consciously so absorbed in watching the transformations that
they involuntarily sigh or cry out with pain when the pictures
change or fade. Some form settled habits of watching them,
not for fancy, but merely for the joy of color and form.

With adolescence all this undergoes a characteristic change
for those sensitized to clouds. Instead of wanting to soar away
to, float with, embrace or be embraced by them, their lovely
shapes inspire youth with a vague longing for greater beauty
than earth affords. Transient as they are, they stir suggestion
in his soul of something nobler and purer than has been, and
arouse moral and esthetic aspiration. Not physical contact or
levitation, but inner exaltation, a hunger of soul for a larger
and more glorious life, is now the normal reaction. Ideal con-
structions are suggested beyond the immediate presentation of
sense. The thrills are of ethical expansion. The mind is led

^ See my paper with J. E. W. Wallin ; How Children and Youth Think and
Feel about Clouds; Ped. Sem., vol. ix, pp. 450-506.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE l8i

to regions of ineffable tranquillity and of light unsullied till
earth seems dull, gloomy, solitary. There is no real illusion,
less fear, but far more often lingering, but perhaps sweet, de-
pression. Youth does not picture weather people or perhaps
not even angels or God just behind the clouds, veiled by them
from the sight of men as they do their work, and the heaven
they suggest is no longer literal or just beyond or in the clouds,
for all the space ideas are vastated. Behindness is metamor-
phosed into symbolism. Even the colors that inundate and
intoxicate the brain in such vast variety typify life. The color
sense, nowhere so satisfied as in some cloudscapes, besides its
sensuous beauty, has some mystic meaning, or at least suggests
some problem though it can not be solved or even formulated.
The illusion is gone, but the fancy persists, and the feeling
far more. The celestial picture gallery speaks to the heart
more than to sense. Through the teens and early twenties the
fantasies will fade and perhaps almost vanish, so that the effect
is immediately upon the mood with diminishing constructive
imagery. The transiency of these ghostly silhouettes suggests
that man and all things, even the earth itself, will melt away
and vanish. Words themselves can not so mirror every emo-
tion or mood from joy or brightness to depression and melan-
choly. They symbolize everything in life, and perhaps nothing
can so elevate and expand the feelings. If the natural cloud
tropism of this age is indulged, Ruskin, who more forcibly than
any one else has insisted that otherwise the imagination is
dwarfed and sentiments crippled by disuse, thinks that genius
often finds here the inspiration for its masterpieces. Thus in
an added sense, " to the solid ground of Nature trusts the
mind that builds for aye."

Nephelopsychoses, if such a word may be coined, are dis-
tinctly more prominent and numerous among girls than boys,
and as the female organism is more conservative this of itself
suggests rapport with phylogeny. They take a deeper hold on
the soul at adolescence, and the feelings, which are so pro-
foundly stirred by them, are older than the intellect and are the
form in which new momenta of heredity are expressed, and this
again suggests race experience. Perhaps we can now, in view
of new data from child study, compare, although with much
vagueness and uncertainty, the two. In the early history of the

102 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

race clouds were observed more intensively and protensively
because they were thought to reveal the feelings of the divine
powers toward men and to forecast future events. Cloud-gaz-
ing was very likely a very serious and anxious business. Abo-
riginal people lived in the country, and its monotony and the
absence of social excitement inclined to attentive scrutiny of
the ever metamorphosing landscape above, while pastoral and
agricultural life, because more dependent on the weather, in-
creased interest in them as weather-bearers. With the modern
child they form a far smaller part of the environment ; he is so
well sheltered that weather is less important ; because younger
at the same stage his constructive faculties are less developed,
and so his concepts are less elaborated and the faculties in-
volved are slowly lapsing to vestigial rudiments. Because liv-
ing in an age when traditions on the subject are less evolved
and dominant, his mind is freer, its creations more varied and
fleeting, life about him is more interesting and distracting from
the heavens, and he sometimes actually grows myopic in mind
because he renounces looking upward, which is etymologically
the most characteristic act of man, anthropos. Powers that
once entified and personated objects are atrophied, or if youth
becomes a cloud-gazer it is for pastime and not seriously or for
business. Youth now knows and feels that clouds are always
mere phenomena and appearance with nothing noumenal, and
however ignorant he may be, all his nephelopsychoses are under
the dominance of knowledge enough of condensation and
vaporization to kill this factor of mystery forever and his
reaction is purely emotional.

Children wonder, fear, and admire impressive cloud-scenes.
But youth feels nameless longings, awe, reverence, or is home-
sick for a great love and melted to tenderness, and rises from
the thought of something behind the clouds to that of a power
behind nature. The pleasure and pain and all the other senti-
ments suggested are often disproportionately great compared
with the strength of the stimulus, and that suggests inherited
psychic vestiges from a far past. The child's images are the
foreground of the soul and are of some hundred different spe-
cies and varities in our less than four hundred persons, with
but few stable and uniform reactions. With youth the cloud
language is addressed to the heart and its responses are no less

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 183

varied and voluminous. The child observes in its hasty and
cursory way and reacts by pictures that a painter might attempt
to portray. Youth, too, observes but more absent-mindedly and
in reverie, and its reactions only the poet's pen, not the painter's
brush, could seek to represent. One would conserve the visual
glory by depicting it ; the other would perpetuate the sentiment
inspired by inditing. In the child the intensity of the emo-
tions of fear and painful reaction are most disproportionate to
the cause, and in youth suggest inherited vestiges from an age
when man was at the mercy of uncontrolled forces in nature.
In the youth, joy, with perhaps often the rapture of woe, is
incited by effects more felt than seen, suggesting a pre-
potency of the subjective over the objective that dates to a later
age when love was well on with its great work of casting out
fear and was beginning to give nature a new language but
had not yet found its own by focusing its wide-ranging sec-
ondary psychic qualities on a chosen mate. The religious
reactions are so prominent that religion itself and the senti-
ments on which it rests would be very different without them.
They lift thoughts and perhaps prayers upward, and give a
sense of reality to tenuous and heavenly things. At no moment
does the world above seem so overwhelmingly and intensely
real as when thunder rolls overhead. Very often special cloud
experiences are indelible, and religious imagery and faith are
sometimes given a great reality and material support.^

We also here find the old contrast between sentiment and
science. The feelings are not edified by learning that clouds are

^ A girl of seventeen one evening at the seashore saw a cloud as if all the rivers
in the world were hung up to dry like ribbons ; could not bear to have it fade,
and wanted to paint it. Another, when thirteen, saw a cloud at sunset beautifully
tinted and the shape of an angel's wing, which brought to mind a young friend
who had just died, and she had to weep. A girl of nineteen, waiting for a train,
saw a cloud like a lava river with a distant volcano, which changed to a sea of ice
and then became a silver path leading from earth to heaven, which seemed like the
strait and narrow way which led to life eternal, and it was felt might be a special
warning to her. A girl of nineteen saw Jesus slowly ascending, glad but glorious,
and wished to rise with him. One saw the resurrection enacted and watched with
awe to see it again. Another came to believe in heaven from seeing Christ with
saints in white. Communion with clouds sometimes consoles in affliction ; encour-
ages high purpose and resolve ; threatens or intimidates wrong; answers questions ;
reveals secrets ; tells fortunes ; teaches aspiration and idealism, and even belief in
the reality of souls and immortality.

184 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

aqueous vapor or by memorizing their names or studying their
laws in meteorology. Here, too, there is a light that goes out
in the heart when the light of science is kindled in the mind,
and we have many records of children who resist the first new
adult knowledge with a vehemence that suggests the long war-
fare between science and religion, as rain comes to be under-
stood as precipitation and not leakage from a sea above the
firmament, or the opening of heavenly windows. But here,
too, imagination is the propaideutic, and myth and poetry
the Vorfrucht of science, making the mental soil friable and
fertile.

VI. Young children invent many mental images concern-
ing the wind. It sleeps and wakes, whistles, whispers, pipes,
roars, frets, sings, howls, sobs, gasps, sighs, screams. It is
very often personified and talked to. It sometimes seems to
make exclamations like ah ! whew ! so ! look out ! hark ! go
away ! and is often talked back to, etc. ; is a giant ; lives in
the mountains of clouds; frolics, scolds, caresses, strews
light about, etc. In its roar they hear music, battles, laugh-
ter, anguish, as did primitive man, and as metaphor and
poetry still describe. It is a friend of trees, which perhaps
start it, or quarrels with clouds, or it may be a waving
figure. In the teens most of these images fall off, but the
wind often has the most intimate rapport with moods. Its
whistling and piping may bring intolerable ennui and unrest,
or, again, it lulls to sleep, and murmurs interjections if not
even words. Strong wind suggests what God can do and often
seems to indicate and measure the degree of his anger. The
powers of the air, which the ancient Hebrews and so many
other races have invested with mystery and awe, suggest
gentle spiritual presences. Zephyr and Boreas are perhaps
faintly personified; they bring and take messages of love,
come from heaven or are God's breath. It perhaps first of all
taught men the tremendous lesson of the reality and causal
efficiency of something unseen, so that not only in our own but
in many languages, etymologies of words suggesting soul and
spirit mean simply wind. Psycho-physical researches have
shown the strong effect of humidity, altitude, and barometric
pressure unaided by noise, and sudden change in affecting
moods, and our returns give abundant evidence that there are

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 185

at least many anemic souls over which most of all in adolescent
years ^olus makes his dominion felt.

The wind now often seems to express sentiments about our
acts and thoughts. It is friendly or at enmity, perhaps there
are ghosts or witches in it. Instead of cuddling away or fidget-
ing like the child, many youths are made mentally restless, and
the suggestive power of a high wind seems vastly increased.
Some fancy themselves at sea with all the symptoms of sea-
sickness; others imagine possible and impossible disasters,
many kinds of animals, battles, machinery, cars, thunder, every
mood of the ocean, pathetic scenes. Sometimes these are in
vivid imagery. The ^olian Pan pipe has wondrous power
over the soul and comes so close that its every change of pitch
or loudness is followed by psychic changes of stress or tension.
This wind-song needed only to be fretted with tonality and har-
nessed with scales to create music, the power both to compose
and feel which it has helped so much. Interesting, too, is the
fact of anemophobia. From feeling the incessant changes in
intensity and direction which are as close as our pulses, but
which follow no known law and awaiting with nervous or
bated breath its " what-next," this bandmaster of the many-
membered orchestra of nature-music plays on the whole gamut
of our emotional life, and overwrought souls are still ^olus
caves from which may yet be loosed imaginary winds that
threaten to sweep away earth, sea, and heavens.^ Thus, what
in children is nerve-stress from high barometric pressure, tends
in youth to anxieties.

Like the race, the child knows wind long before it sus-
pects the existence of the atmosphere as an all-encompassing,
shoreless, island-less sea on the very bottom of which we have
to crawl out our lives. In regard to this mechanical mixture of
gases, full of odors, motes, smokes, a heat-trap for the solar
rays, and so a blanket to give the earth a warm and more
equable temperature, abounding in germs even almost to the
pole, so that it has its own biology, exerting vast pressure with-
out and within the body, so that we live by and on it, creating
in neurotic temperaments claustrophobic and globus symptoms^

1 My "Fears"; Am. Jour, of Psy., vol. viii, p. 171,
* Fears, p. 162.

1 86 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

the element by which all life is sustained, the form in which all
things have existed, to which they are re-resolvable, its skyey
color being cosmic dust, the rich body of facts and of still richer
symbols is now in order. The simple laws of dew point, pre-
cipitation, boiling points, other nodes in the thermic scale,
and other rudiments of meteorology should be taught by those
broad enough, while drilling in isotherms and isobars, currents,
apparatus, weather forecasts, etc., not to ignore the state of
mind that needs also to muse on the ether of the empyrean of
Hippocrates or Dante to be breathed only in mountain life,
where it gave inspiration because it was the medium in which
the gods lived. Teachers who can draw at need upon the his-
toric stages of development here, not omitting poetry or the
modern theories of ether while the mind of the boy in his teens
can be so easily taught the stimulating and expanding little
which only the wisest know, and perhaps get his first ravishing
glimpse of the frontier of human knowledge, lead his mind
captive at will.

VII. The thermal scale as now explored by science ranges
from near the absolute zero of 460 below, where energy seems
to die and chemical action ceases, up to circa 15,000 above,
where most solid substances volatilize. In his own body, man
can vary but some ten degrees and live and his environment
and that of all animal existence has for the most part a range
of hardly more than 100° F. Although placed far nearer the
lower than the upper limit of controllable heat, he is nearly
four times nearer the pain limit of heat than of cold. These
sensations early orient the child, which like all beings, whether
by tropism or sense tends to the thermal optimum most favor-
able for the most intense vitality. One of the most fascinating
activities of the child's mind is found in the instructive curios-
ity and the creative reactions up and down the thermometric
scale.^

Jack Frost seems to be the child's thermal correlate of
Loki, the heat sprite of Teutonic mythology. He appears to
fill a real need of the childish soul and is vastly more plastic
and less conventionalized than Santa Claus. He lives in snow-

^ See my study with C. E. Browne: Children's Ideas of Fire, Heat, Frost and
Cold; Ped. Sem., March, 1903, vol. x, pp. 27-85.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 187

banks, icebergs, caves, with God, in the earth, sky, air, in the
sun ; is an icicle, a snow-man, a snowflake ; is invisible because
he is so small, of mountainous bulk, six inches high, like an elf,
Puck, a fairy, a brownie, a dwarf, an owl, a bug, a pigeon,
a painter of the windows with pictures of trees, fields, animals,
flowers, ferns and leaves, woods, caves, seas, and many of the
forms such as fancy sees in the fire, clouds, or moon; makes
them bad or good according to the children's conduct; etches
them in or " breathes on things to make them white and stiff;"
nips grass and flowers ; pinches noses, fingers, toes, cheeks ;
carries a bag of complexion powder; howls in the wind, on
which he rides drawn by rabbits, or flies on the backs of birds ;
can go through closed doors and windows; is a " cold devil;"
is old, young ; icicles are his whiskers ; his hair and beard are
white or powdered with snow; he opens nuts with an ice
sword; wanders by night like a lost soul; sleeps by day; all
he touches cracks; he controls the weather; is spiteful or
roguish, wicked or kind; and is far more prominent in the life
of girls than in that of boys.

Much of this is, of course, due to suggestion, but it is al-
most impossible not to believe that much is spontaneous and
original in the fecund fancy of children. Why he is more com-
monly conceived than a heat sprite is probably not because
there is no " cold sun " or central source of cold and the soul
needs something concrete and so makes it, for the child mind
does not conceive the sun as the one source and center of heat.
Is it because there is no " cold fire " or chemical phenomena
from which cold radiates like heat from the hearth, and that
the mind therefore tends to create a nidus for the polar opposite
of heat by some kind of unconscious process like that invoked
by philologists to explain so much, e. g., their principle of anal-
ogy? Perhaps the view most immediately suggested by our
returns is that Jack Frost comes as near or nearer than any-
thing else to be an independent modern creation of the child
mind. Like every mythological personation, it was helped on
by many facts and suggestions from many sources and is not
a creation ex nihilo any more than were those of antiquity or
savagery. Yet here perhaps we have the best key within our
very doors for unlocking the mysteries of racial myth-making.
True, its products here are very crude, rank, extremely diverse,

1 88 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

and undomesticated by literature or art. Here, for once, chil-
dren in our over-illuminated age and land escaped the peda-
gogic grafters and put forth a fresh, vigorous, wild shoot that
is indigenous and expresses their own soul and does not
merely reflect what adults have put into it. Better yet, each
makes his own Jack Frost, and he is still plastic, unconvention-
alized, ununiformitized, and unstandardized.

The charm of fire-gazing is a great school of the plastic
imagination. The excitant is far more mobile than clouds, and
still more so than frost forms on the window pane. If the very
EigenUcht of the retina starts the photistic forms that Galton
and many others have described, how much more than anything
else in the physical world the incessant changes of fire are cal-
culated to arouse suggestion, and the series of vivid pictures it
presents to set up manifold trains of spontaneous reverie that
hold the soul under a spell that is rudely broken, like sudden
awakening, if the embers fall or some outer interruption brings
us back to ourselves and to the present. Here children see
animals' faces, sky and sea scenes, clouds and ships, flowers,
pixies, brownies, fairies, dwarfs, monsters, soldiers and battles,
demons and angels, eyes, blood, landscapes, illustrations of
stories, gods and devils, hell and heaven, dances, church
service, chimeras, a hut becomes a palace, air castles, caves and
mines of precious metals and diamonds, volcanoes, everything
in action and rapidly changing and flitting fears that crea-
tures may break out or beauties vanish. The child hears the
noises of every animal and insect ; the fire creatures laugh, cry,
sing, roar, moan, are angry, unhappy ; leaves rustle and waves
beat audibly; they or the very wood or coal scream in agony
till we pity them, or are talkative to each other; the whips
crack ; the guns go off in volleys ; the hyenas and wolves growl ;
and children are rapt and absorbed almost to the point of hyp-
nosis, while many of these experiences are so vivid that they
are recalled long after. Smoke, too, is dirty steam, baby clouds,
fairy robes, soap-suds, the breath of the fire or of the animals
in it, scorched or roasted air, live ghosts or birds. Ashes are
death, cold and corpse-like, no longer light and alive, but dead
and dark, wood or coal with the light and heat taken out of
them ; the clothes the baby brands are put to bed in when the
fire is raked, cold fire, softened wood, the stuff we are all made

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 189

of and what we shall all return to at last, and hence shivery
and dreary. So with flushed face and spellbound mind, the
world and life are all reflected in the soul, its moral lessons
taught in this primal philosophy of the chimney corner, and the
soul oriented to the beginning and end of all things. Happy
the family and even the schoolroom that can still thus expose
the youthful soul to these lessons, and without the open, blaz-
ing fireplace, which needs the story hour, no story can be
quite complete.

Disequilibrated children go further and develop phobias in
both and a mania in one direction. Among the fears often
flitting, and sometimes morbid, are that it will get hotter or
colder till everything will burn or freeze, while the passion for
burning things, universal in infants, if not repressed by reason
may later issue in pyromania with its complicated motivations.

In the souls of early races, which are only those of children
magnified, the culture period begins with the domestication of
fire, or subjecting Agni, or the yet wilder Loki, to the rule
of Hestia. It made the hearth the center of domestic life, and
in temples was kept by perpetual ministrations as a sign of
immortality. The Parsees punished its defilement by death.
When rekindled every fifty-two years in the Aztec mountains,
it meant a renewed covenant with the gods that their devas-
tating anger should not flame forth to man's destruction, shear-
ing the forest hair of the earth and making havoc. Many a
myth of its origin, many a form of fire burial, and many a
type of baptism by fire show that this brother of the wind and
sea has been both more friendly and more cruel to man than
any of the elements. It is no wonder he is more profoundly
pyrotactic than he knows, dominated unconsciously even in his
migrations by it. Through it man communicates with the
gods in sacrifice. It is a symbol of purification and even spirit-
ualization and etherization. The smoke of altars is incense
inhaled by divine nostrils. Its tongue of flame lapped the burnt-
ofifering and was the emblem of the gift of the Holy Spirit.
Without thermal experience life would be robbed of much
thought, g,nd metaphor, and science, and morals would lack
many reenforcements ; there would be no hells of heat or cold,
and life would be monotonous, if not indeed as impossible as
are two dimensional beings. Even sympathy, from which

190 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

morals arose, almost began with warm-blooded animals which
brooded eggs and incubated their young, which thus passed
more rapidly through the dangerous period of immaturity, and
which, because they were warm-blooded, needed to cluster to-
gether and thus developed racial instincts and the need of
mutual help and companionship.^

If one were to attempt a bold, comprehensive, systematic
construction of a theory of the world based on what Bastian
calls natural thinking, made up of thoughts nearest to sense,
conforming to Avanarius's law of easiest and most economical
mentation and including a pedagogy, a cult, and a most natu-
ral because most naive religion, perhaps he might well attempt
to do so by developing and coordinating the suggestions, now
scattered and ineffective, of this theme. Heraclitus, the obscure
thinker of Ephesus, whose fragments since Lasalle have been
composed and rearranged like sibylline leaves in many ways
and made to teach many things, represents, some think, the
highest product of indigenous Greek thought before the So-
cratic period started on the alien, politically motivated, quest
of ineluctable foundation on which to rebase the crumbling
state. Beywater, Schuster, Bernays, Patrick, and, above all,
Teichmiiller, have re-revealed some of the grand features of
his system, as geologists suggest the vague outlines of vast
mountains now worn away, from the hints of many clinal and
anticlinal strata. Both modern science and genetic psychology
supply new hints as to what is partly lost and partly might
have been, or indeed may yet be when the scientific imagination
supplements facts by heroic hypotheses, as Plato supplemented
his positive teachings by the great myths which still so appeal
to the heart and in later theological ages had more influence
than even his doctrines.

As the sun was daily secreted out of the earth, leaving it
a little colder and darker, but reabsorbed at night, so the soul
is a fiery particle secreted out of nature and returning to it
at death ; its activity a " degree of burning," glowing, kin-
dling, its culture a second sun arising from unconsciousness as

' A. Sutherland: Origin and Growth of the Moral Instinct; London, 1898;
chaps, iii to v, and also x. See also the suggestion that if man were to become
extinct, birds have most potentiality of taking their place at the head of the
animal kingdom.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 191

the physical sun from the earth. All things may follow the
" way down " (" the death of fire is to become air, that of air
to become water, that of water to become earth," or that of
steam to become water, and of water to become ice), or the
way up in successive eons with reversion at some epochal era ;
so the light of reason may " burn high or burn low," as sense
and matter prevail and we become sarcous, or as spirit and
wisdom predominate we may be slowly transmuted, first into
great men, then into deity, " or die the fiery death," for there is
no rupture of continuity and we are homoousia with both ex-
tremes. Then perhaps we may again one day say with Herac-
litus, " If one wander through all ways he will not reach the
limits of the soul, in so great depths does it hide," which Tren-
delenburg interprets to mean that the soul has unlimited power
to know all because it is of the same nature as all things.

This philosopheme took the next step beyond the myths,
and its pedagogic relations to our thermodynamic world are
strikingly suggestive of those of youth to maturity. To eval-
uate each of these stages as prelusion and preparation is a
great and real task that genetic psychology has yet before it.
Till it is solved there will be waste and loss in teaching, and
what is worse, waste and loss in the pupil's life.

VIII. Man's body affords abundant proof of his pelagic
origin. After the vertebrae appear in the human embryo, it
can not be determined for some time whether it is to be a
fish, reptile, or quadruped. At one stage the human brain, as
De Varigny first pointed out, is like that of a fish, but if it is
to be that of a man, the development goes on. His heart is first
two-chambered, like a fish's. Man has gills, which are later
slowly metamorphosed into lungs and a double circulation es-
tablished. In human monsters the gill-clefts are sometimes
not closed in the neck, and in many children their traces can be
seen as lighter spots. As the embryo grows, one of these slits
is transformed into the thymus and probably into the thyroid
gland. Dohrn thinks man's mouth was developed by the
fusion of a pair of them and the olfactory organs from another
pair ; that the eye muscles are remnants of gill muscles ; and
most agree that the middle and outer ear, the Eustachian tube
and tympanum, and perhaps even the external ear which occa-
sionally crops out in the neck, are derived from them.

192 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

If this be so, it is plain that at that stage it is important
that the gill-sHts be well developed, lest otherwise all these or-
gans which arise from them be imperfect — a fact which is also
a parable of very high and wide signification in the field of
education. At the gill-slit period of human life, man is at the
stage of his very ancient progenitors, who once lived a pelagic
life when there was nothing but water over the earth's surface.
There is, of course, no reason to think that if removed from
the mother's body at this stage the very young man could
swim away like a fish, if placed in water, as do the embryos
of the mountain salamander atra, if cut out from the mother at
the tadpole stage, although if brought forth at full term they
drown when placed in water. If the soul is as old as the body,
we should expect to find some pelagic vestiges in it, although
they be more or less effaced in childhood or reduced like the
remnant of the nictitating membrane of the eye of the fish
found in man. Let us glance at the evidence.

1. Men and children have some psychomotor phenomena which,
to say the least, admit of interpretation as atavisms of the old aquatic
life. Mumford ^ found that if a babe a few days old was held face
downward with only hands and feet touching the floor, it made pecul-
iar paddling or swimming movements which would have propelled
it through the water. The elbows open and the palm is pushed in a
slow, rhythmic flexion and extension, in series of two or three move-
ments at a time, interrupted by pauses, and very like those of loco-
motion seen in aquaria. These movements he interpreted as vestiges
of watery life.

2. In children and even adults among many automatisms we find
swaying from side to side, or forward and backward, not infrequent.^
This suggests the slow oscillatory movements used by fish in swim-
ming or maintaining their position in currents of water. In extreme
cases these movements are very pronounced, prolonged, and may even
become imperative and exhaust the energy of the body. I knew a
weak-minded girl in an asylum who rocked all day despite efiforts to
restrain her, and died apparently from exhaustion thus caused. The
cradle and especially the rocking-chair may become almost a psycho-
sis. This is often unconscious, as during study. We see it in the
rocking or back-and-forth movements of many large animals confined
in cages, in nearly ail of the cat family, bears, elephants, etc., and
sometimes in smaller vertebrates. The fact that these automatisms

1 Brain, 1897.

^ See Lindley, Automatism, op. cit.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 193

are generally increased by fatigue favors the aquatic theory of their
origin, because fatigue is a temporary remission of control by the
higher and later centers, and is a reversion to lower and more primi-
tive conditions. We may assume with Bolton ^ that " all automatic as
well as expressive movements are weakened repetitions of those that
were once of use."

3. Tapping with a wrist movement or with the fingers, nodding,
sometimes intensified in chorea and paralysis agitans, and the habit
of trotting with the foot or leg, are thought by Bolton to be perhaps
also thus explained. Fish, of course, make larger movements of the
tail and body and finer ones with the fins, but while we do not know
the origin of these latter movements, this explanation must be re-
garded as perhaps even more hypothetical for these than for the other
movements, all of which are yet far from actual demonstration as
pelagic survivals.

4. Many movements and experiences, traces of which long persist
in memory, with perhaps some morphological basis may be transmit-
ted for many generations without reappearing because their proper
stimulus is lacking or because repressed by higher centers. But in
disease or sleep which functionally remove the latter, these old mem-
ories or functions may be set free. If the higher and newer centers
are destroyed, events long forgotten sometimes reappear. The decay
of memory begins with the new and less organized, and passes to the
old, so that we sometimes have glimpses of a far-off paleopsychic
basis or substrate. In sleep, which is a kind of decapitation of higher
functions, ancient ancestral experiences crop out. Very common
among these, as dream statistics show, are floating, hovering, gliding,
with utter independence of gravity; we swing high or low with the
same freedom that we move horizontally, and these nightmares are
almost always associated with a differentiated respiratory rhythm. We
gasp, or breathe deep and long. One of the present writer's most per-
sistent dream experiences was that, by holding the breath and con-
trolling it in a peculiar way, he could rise from the ground and float
through the air by slight movements of the limbs and body. So urgent
and repeated was this experience that he has many times awaked with
a sense projected for some moments into waking life that he could
now demonstrate to his friends the astounding trick of levitation over
houses and fields at will. Similar experiences occur in many a dream
census, when the subject swoops up and down, glides over hills and
valleys, or can leap enormous distances. Now, as lungs have taken
the place of swim-bladders, these unique hovering experiences of
sleep suggest that here traces of a function have survived their known
structure. Our ancestors floated and swam far longer than they have
had legs, and why may the psyche not retain traces of this as the body
does its rudimentary organs? It may be that these are some of the

^ Hydro-Psychoses; Am. Tour, of Psy., January, 1899, vol. x, pp. 171-227.
52

194 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

oldest strata or elements of our psychic life, a reminiscent echo of the
sea which was our primeval home and mother.

5. The statistics of suicide show that women choose this method
much more often than men, and that at some periods and in some lands
they choose it in preference to any and perhaps even all other methods.
This is one expression of a profound psychic difference between the
sexes. Woman's body and soul is phyletically older and more primi-
tive, while man is more modern, variable, and less conservative.
Women are always more inclined to preserve old customs and ways
of thinking. Women prefer passive methods; to give themselves up
to the power of elemental forces, as gravity, when they throw them-
selves from heights or take poison, in which methods of suicide they
surpass man. Ellis thinks drowning is becoming more frequent, and
that therein women are becoming more womanly. Now, if we sup-
pose that fatigue or racial exhaustion or decay removes permanently
or temporarily the control of higher centers, and that this allows a
revival of the old love for and power of aquatic conditions, we have
a suggestion for the explanation of the " drawing power " of water.
The fear of it came later, as adjustment to land conditions made it
more dangerous. This is normally overbalanced, as in the case of
Comte, who in a fit of madness plunged into the water. The ac-
quired love of swimming is a later philophobic adjustment. The spe-
cific gravity of water resists but does not check movement, and tends
to slow everything down toward passive movements. Prose, poetry,
and myth have described these fascinations and peopled sea and stream
with mythic creatures, both terrifying and captivating.^

The problem, whether there is any paleopsychic race element, is
as inevitable as it is unanswerable. For one I am convinced that
there is as much evidence of a specific " drawing power " or love of
water as there now is, since the abandonment of a specific hydro-
phobia, of a special aversion to it. Some can hardly bathe without an
almost imperative impulse to plunge in forever, as if to go back to
an old love. " Take me into your arms, O sea, away from the care
and pain of life; I have always loved you more than the hard and
bruising earth. Let me float and toss and wave in your embrace, and
finally melt into the wild, wide ocean," is a sentiment not without
some kinship to the religious motive of pantheistic absorption.

6. Children are phyletically even older than women, and after
the first shock and fright most of them take the greatest delight in
water. The shore where these forms first emerged and became am-
phibian, to which many land forms return to lay eggs or rear their
young, is no less than a passion to children. As Kline has shown,
it accounts for a large proportion of all truancies. To paddle, splash,
swim, and sun sometimes constitutes almost a hydroneurosis, and chil-
dren pine all winter and live only for the next summer at the sea.

1 A Study of Fears ; Am. Jour, of Psy. , January, 1897, vol. viii, pp. 147-249.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 195

It is a grievous loss if they are near water and can not go in, and
lazy children walk great distances to swim, and sometimes go in many
times a day. In some cases frequent danger, almost to the point of
drowning, can not wean them. Cold does not deter; the very touch
of water on the skin is rapture and exhilaration. If not a pond or
river or brook, a puddle or gutter is sought, and played in even in
severe storms. If boys can not swim, they raft and sail and fish ;
dabbling and sozzling in pails, pans, and cisterns, or splashing through
the mud, frisking or capering through the rain with headgear and
perhaps clothes off, is high glee. Alas for the child who has not access
to a beach ! and nowhere in the world perhaps are children so happy
or in their element as when there, if under favorable conditions. It
would seem as if some children loved to be wet for the mere sake
of it. Sometimes the impulse to plunge in is so strong that they do so
with clothes on. Others older or less active can sit by the hour, see-
ing and hearing the movements of water in sea or stream. The best
demonstration of the fact of this hydrophilia is the amount of cold, of
first horror, often intensified by fancy and even superstition, real or
imagined danger, and the occasional association with smother-feel-
ing that it will overcome. The joy of going barefoot is never so in-
tense as when it is possible to wade, and the boy of twelve who de-
clared that he loved water like a fish, and knew no boy who did not
and was a different being when away from it, was typical.

7. Many forms of animal life which have had long experience on
the land, have yielded to the attraction of the sea and have become
backsliders to marine habits, and their quadrupedal organization has
slowly lapsed to fish-like traits. So completely have they forsaken
the land that they are often called fishes. They still breathe with
lungs, and must periodically come to the surface. Their heart is four-
chambered, like quadrupeds ; they bring forth living young, and do not
lay eggs like fish ; they are mammals, and suckle their offspring ; they
have rudimentary teeth, legs, and pelvis, that do not mature or have
been metamorphosed into analogy with fins and tail. The whale is,
of course, the best-known type, and must have lived a long time on
land; but the traces of its terrestrial life have been largely effaced.
Here, too, belong porpoises, dolphins, seals, walruses, while the polar
bear, sea-otter, penguin, the sea-lion, beaver, duck-billed platypus,
web-footed opossum, dugong, manatee, oceanic turtle, sea-snake,
and many others, have retrogressed in various degrees from the land
type. Limbs are lost or are being modified into paddles or flippers, and
the chief changes have always been in the least typical structures,
and thus less strongly inherited. The whale has acquired his blubber
for heat; the skin, claws, teeth, eyes, shape of head, are modified.
The lungs are often enlarged as the animal acquires the power of re-
maining under water. Reversion increases size by reducing the energy
required in locomotion and in securing food ; while the loss of the pel-
vis enables the young to be born larger, and more mature, and with
less injury to the parent.

196 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

To the simple animisms of children water lives, sings,
laughs, moans, beckons, and often talks in words and phrases
of which Bolton collected many. It is roused to truculence
and anger by storms and rocks, is treacherous and wily. They
prattle their secrets to it, scold and offer it gifts, imperson-
ate springs, fountains, streams, and individual waves, and their
credulity in all the water people from nixies, kelpies, and mer-
maids to fabulous monsters, and in fairy submarine castles,
cities, gem-bestrewn grots, knows little bounds, as the litera-
ture on the subject copiously shows.

Youth works a sea change and the hydropsychoses strike
inward. The curve of runaways to go to sea rises steeply, and
a sailor's life now makes its strongest appeal. The sea sug-
gests eternity, as it invites thoughts to the horizon, and is
eloquent of things which they " can ne'er express but can not
all conceal." To be near and hear its polyphonous voice com-
forts, soothes, rests, relaxes, and its many aspects mirror inner
moods. It draws away and away, and one would sail on and
on perhaps to the moon and stars and, with Flaubert, revolt
at science that has set limits to old ocean's stream that in Ho-
meric days not only flowed round all but joined the sky itself.
A friend has collected, from youthful preferences, over two
hundred hymns that teach the great lessons of religion by
aquatic tropes. Some, like the Zuiiis when they saw it for the
first time, must pray to or beside it. In place of the childish pas-
sion for playing in and with it, and beside the bathing craze,
arises a love of gazing and meditating alone. Not only does
the curve of boating take a sharp upward curve, but it seems
instinct with a mighty and quasi divine power, and the tides,
floods, currents, waves, storms, shallows, depths, and glassy
transparency of the sea mirror and even make moods. The
soul would be as boundless, pure, profound, persevering, as
it, depth answering depth, and as the voices of extinct gener-
ations are heard for the first time, feels itself as old and as
full of buried treasures and secrets, or it is truculent, treach-
erous, wily, pacing the shingly beach to and fro, or falling
back with baffled rage, or at its priest-like task of absolution.
Thus feeling ebbs and flows, and the current of spontaneous
thought must go on forever. As if the rudimentary aquatic
organs in the body had psychic resonances and sympathies

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 197

with it, the sea, the mother of Hfe, wakens the soul to new
appreciation of all that it has meant in literature, myth, and
rites. Love is " born of the deep and comes up with the sun
from the sea," billows " break like a bursting heart and die
in foam " ; like a shell the soul ever whispers and murmurs
of the main what of horror or charm fills its depths since old
Silenus and the Tritons settled back into them. In the normal
soul there is now an outcrop of the same psychic strata which
once created and gave life and sacredness to lustrations, bap-
tisms, oracles, water deities, philosophemes like those of Thales,
who made water the source of all things, or of Heraclitus, who
saw in vapor, water, and ice the key to the universe which was
constantly fluxing up or down the long way of rarefication and
condensation between ether and rock. So, too, the stream is
in a hundred ways the type of life. The soul is hydrotropic,
and this is the sacred hour of opportunity for bringing these
dim and dumb molimena of the soul to their issue, for wedding
the individual promptings to the best that literature, art, his-
tory, of the races have to offer in a way that makes teaching at
its best such a high and sacred calling. Empiricist as I am in
insisting that everything possible should be traced to a source
in individual experience, I can not read these youthful ebulli-
tions without inclining to believe in residual traces that hark
back through ages, and that the soul is still marked like our
body by vestiges of pelagic life. Here, too, if it is dangerous
to believe, it is no less so to disbelieve.^

IX. It would seem that nothing could be farther from
human sympathy than rocks, stones, and minerals of the
earth's lithosphere. Yet hard, cold, and dark as they are, they
have played a very important role in shaping and expressing
the human soul. Many, when they think of matter, image
rock or earth of various kinds, and we owe to it much of our
impressions of solidity, while even the idea of substance in many
minds is in close rapport with impressions derived from this
source, so utterly irrelevant to modern mineralogy and geology.
Menhirs, dolmens, cairns, barrows, cromlechs, topes, swastika
of many kinds, Druid circles like Stonehenge, altars, hearths,

^ Ueber den Einfluss der See auf die englische Literatur. Drei Studien. Th.
A. Fischer. Gotha, 1892.

igS THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

lintels, bethels, and the traditions and customs spun about the
Woden stone, through a hole in which hands were placed when
fidelity was sworn; the stone of St. Fillan, where, up to 1798,
the sick were healed ; the holy stones of Ireland, against which
maidens leaned to see their future husbands; rocking stones;
shrine pillars ; stones of witness, like that at Mizpah ; the black
stone schippeda at Emesa ; wishing stones ; stones of unction,
libation, taboo, bloody rites, of judgment, of impregnation;
king stones ; sentinel stones ; the famous Blarney stone ; monu-
ment worship in India; the bounding stone, symbol of Mer-
cury; pentile stones in France; stones of mystic shape, mark-
ings, and charms; touchstones; natural magnets; lodestone
mountains, (Edipus myths in many forms — all these suggest
something analogous to a stone age for psychology, which has
almost nothing in common with the industrial Stone age of the
anthropologist. Savages often think their sacred stones move
about at night. In many parts of Palestine, especially the
eastern, the archeologist finds almost no other remains of the
ancient Hebrew or pre-Hebrew cults.^

Very strong and wide-spread is the primitive belief, perhaps
most clearly seen in Tahiti, that stones, especially if peculiar
in any way, have souls that go to the gods if they are broken.
St. Arnobius was wont to beg a blessing for every anointed
stone. The Council of Toledo, a. d. 681, decreed punishment
for stone worshipers, and in 789 Charlemagne condemned
them. Many of these ancient relics, erected because of vows,
or to crown tumuli of unknown purpose, perhaps alined to
perpetuate astronomic lore, etc., are products of a psychosis
now almost extinct in adults, but relegated to ineffectual child-
hood.

Still more interesting because revealing a still closer rapport
with the higher development of the soul is the lore of precious
stones.^ Most of these now worn as ornaments were once

1 See C. R. Conder : Heth and Moab. Explorations in Syria in 1881, espe-
cially chapter vii. Also, Survey of Eastern Palestine, vol. i, p. 302 et seq. J.
O'Neill : The Night of the Gods, i, pp. 99-188. Lubbock : Origin of Civilization,
first ed., p. 204 et seq. The Worship of Stones in France, by P. Sibillot. Am.
Anthropologist, 1902, pp. 76-107. Mystical Properties of Gems, by Wirt Tassin ;
Annual Report Smithsonian Inst., 1900, pp. 558-588.

' See G. F. King: Folklore of Precious Stones. Int. Cong. Anthrop., Chicago
Exposition, 1893. Also William Jones: History and Mythology of Precious
Stones ; London, 1880.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE I99

charms, and their names often suggest what they meant to the
heart. The madstone drew poison; amber, once thought a
stone, was concentrated tears of birds or electrides and is still
sometimes worn for sore throat; the carbuncle was sacred to
the angel Amoriel; the touchstone was a test; the bloodstone
stanched; the famous bezoar from the kidney of the Arabian
antelope was a charm against poison ; the sapphire against
apoplexy ; arrow-heads were fairy darts ; moonstones waxed
and waned with the moon, were clear on fortunate and dim on
unlucky days; the lodestone made invisible, cured headache
and love, and is still sold to conjure with in voodoo charms;
hydrophane, as it absorbed liquids, became opaque or trans-
parent with psychic correspondences ; eye agate cured sight dis-
tempers; the chrysoberyl or cat's-eye drove away evil spirits;
the Cabot stone prophesied weather; opals, beautiful as they
are, even yet have limited sale because they bring bad luck;
while obsidian, jade, chalcedony, carnelian, onyx, sardonyx,
sard, amethyst, malachite, tourmaline, draconite from the head
of a dragon, aetites from the head of an eagle, and many others,
were centers of superstition or symbols of sentiment, were
worn as pendants, amulets, brooches, rings, and had a meaning
of great pregnancy, as they were carved, faceted, variously
colored, etc. If we extend our survey to the folklore and sym-
bolism of diamonds, gold, mercury, brass, iron, crystal, flint,
soil, sand, and reflect on their mystical, allegorical, and meta-
physical uses, we shall realize what they have meant for phy-
letic psychogenesis.

Autochthones spring directly from the bosom of the earth
and feel, as Tecumseh told General Harrison, that the earth
was their mother and at death they repose in her bosom. Not
only are our bodies dust and to dust return, but for many
primitive races the soul leads a gnome-like, subterranean exist-
ence. The dead live on their pallid lives beneath our feet;
affect crops and the fertility of soil ; preside over mines and
buried treasures ; and in famine, as the Muthos of the Golden
Bough shows, must be propitiated that the earth may yield
again.

If we accept the Spencer-Allen view of this aspect of nature
worship, that stones first became sacred because erected over
graves, thus deriving their sanctity from ancestor worship, and

200 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

even myths like those of Deucahon, which make stones be-
come men and therefore worshiped as their parents, we can
thus see a possible origin of idolatry and can best feel whatever
force there is in the extreme view, which derives the Hebrew
El and our Christian God from a sacred, ancestral stone.^

So again in cosmic myths, mountains often support the
heavens, although sometimes the mountain is the hollow heav-
enly vault and we are inside, not outside, it.^ Atlas's head
sometimes touches the North Pole. The Hindu mountain
Meru is the polar home of the gods, a column joining earth and
sky, the highest terrestrial spot ; it goes through the earth and
protrudes on the other side. The Chinese thought mountains
form a more subtle substance than plain earth; and Schopen-
hauer says the study and sight of them throws us into a sub-
lime frame of mind. They brave decay that sweeps all else
away. Mountains are often the home of the gods, or again
are worshiped as themselves divine. They uphold the earth.
All of Horeb was sacred, and Hermon, meaning holy, still
bears the ruins of many temples. Here the Ephraimites sac-
rificed, and many temples and churches have been built on
sacred mountains, a catalogue of which would probably more
than equal all the mountains of the earth, because, as Words-
worth said, " every mountain is finest." Many a tope and
pyramid is an effort to rival the mountains of nature. Buddha
made pilgrimages up mountains a symbol of the renunciation
of earthly comforts for hardship, and such trips are still
meritorious. The phenomena of altitude favor great thoughts
and suggest communion with the gods. Such places they
would choose, as have many monks, especially the Benedictines.
On mountains dead bodies are often exposed, and many a
fictitious mountain of the imagination has pierced the heart of
heaven. On their summits are found earthly paradises, per-
haps wondrous gardens and fountains. The cone is a sacred
symbol of the hill.

Mount Sinai is a bleak, dark granite, waterless rock, sug-
gesting a moon mountain, because having no life, the center
of terrible storms, an utterly unique object, an isolated accident
throughout all the wide plain and Sahara desert region, and

^ .See Grant Allen : Evolution of the Idea of God, chap. v.
^ O'Neill : Night of the Gods, vol. ii, chap, viii, p. 383.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 201

altogether " one of the most singular phenomena on the sur-
face of the globe." ^ In a sense, it is the mountain of Egypt ;
its bare rocks were centers of worship ages before the Hebrews
saw it. The impression its new phenomena made, when first
seen by a plain-dwelling people, was indelible. Like the sacred
mountain of Japan, Olympus and many others, it was the home
of deity. Veiled in cloud perhaps when he descended, the God
of Sinai was a fierce deity, who brewed storms and lightning
and rode on the wings of the wind, and so awful, that no one
could see him and live. In his theophany, Moses must be hid
in the cleft of a rock and covered with his hand and could only
catch a glimpse of his back parts. Jehovah was its special
local deity, and Sinai after Moses was " the basis of all the
theology of the Israelites." They became now as much the
people of the mountain as in the days of Ezra they became the
people of the Sacred Book. The mountain phenomena per-
vaded their literature and made it sublime. After the appari-
tion, it became their Parnassus and Olympus in one. The
children of Israel left it filled with awe, terror, and faith in
the awful power of the deity, who made the earth shake and
dwelt in a pavilion of clouds. Finally, the judgment would
be ushered in by mountain phenomena.

The mind of children is still replete with fancies about
stones. They collect luckies, carry them everywhere, and boast
where they have been, keep them warm, sometimes in cotton ;
think sand is baby stones, plant and water them to see if they
grow, take them apart from piles that they may not press each
other, will not step on them, fish them out of the fire and
water, that they may feel more comfortable, give them dirt
and sand to eat, believe they rain down or come up from the
ground because they are so much more abundant after a
shower, pity the little or ugly ones, think them sociable and
perhaps put them together, give them names, talk to them,
regard rocks as friendly or hostile, protecting or silent wit-
nesses who could tell, regard them as related if alike, think
they appreciate, have moral qualities and are sympathetic, and
often regard them as fetishes.^

^Renan: History of the People of Israel, chap. xiv.

^ Fetishism in Children, by G. Harold Ellis; Ped. Sem., June, 1902, vol. ix,
pp. 205-220.

202 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

For youth this rarely survives even in the realm of play
and " make-believe," although for some it lingers through
life.^ Our data show the following typical changes : i, A sense
of the great age or perdurability of stones and rocks comes
with the expansion of the time sense; 2, there is a very marked
rise of the curve of interest in precious stones and deepened
appreciation of their beauty and their different characteristics,
often with new superstitions; 3, the rare and distant are more
valued ; 4, the carrying power of association is enhanced, and
mementoes and keepsakes have more meaning and are more
cherished; 5, monuments, and yet more mountains, are now
first really both comprehended and felt, the size of the latter
being too great for the child mind ; 6, rock and earth come to
be the symbol of reality, solid substantiality, and matter gen-
erally ; and lastly, collections of them are not merely amassed,
but ordered and grouped with far more mentality and zest for
classification.

Geology and physical geography, the percentages of stu-
dents in both of which are decreasing in our high schools, are
too dehumanized for want of contact with folklore, scenery,
landscapes, charts, and pictures, and the dynamic and historical
elements. Paleontology, full of suggestion of the great age of
the world, is encumbered with details and technical names, and
forgets that growth is analytic in the sense that large views
and apercus should come first. Petrography and crystallogra-
phy can be made impressive if taught by a full mind, which
alone can elementarize well. So too, later, mining, metallurgy,
economic, commercial, and industrial processes precede classi-
fication and technique in the order of nature and mental
growth. The study of glaciers, beaches, ripple-marks, old
volcanoes, hill-top views, collections, excursions, and above all,
talks, which is the method of the real teacher charged with two
interests, that in the subject and in the youth, these are the
only beginnings of this age that do not disenchant.

X. A change I am coming to regard as at the same time one
of the most characteristic, suggestive, and beautiful, in pubes-
cent years, is in the new relation to flowers and plants. Before,
both the psychic qualities ascribed to them and the impressions

^ Gould: Child Fetishes. Ped. Sem., vol. v, p. 421.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 203

they make upon the child are predominantly, frankly, and
naively in the physical realm of sense. From the data of Alice
Thayer ^ and others, we can now roughly describe these
changes in the several senses most involved. Children love to
fondle and feel of flowers, and some can hardly keep their
hands off every flower in the garden. They are often toys,
and played with as dolls, pets, dishes, soldiers, and money ; are
made into wreaths, girdles, necklaces, and gaudy trimmings,
and their petals are soft to " poor " and stroke. The hateful
ones are those that sting, prick, are pitchy, or leave stains ; or,
again, it hurts them to be trampled, plucked, etc. But with the
teens they are often caressed, pressed against the cheeks, neck,
lips, and kissed, and the face is buried in them. Their coolness
and more often the velvety softness of their petals and their
fragrance is mentioned. This is more common with favorite
flowers or those with associations with loved persons, places,
or incidents, while reluctance to touch indifferent or disliked
flowers is also more pronounced and relations to the other
senses more satisfying.

Smell, though dominant before puberty as mediating likes
and dislikes in a purely sensuous way, is now a very strong-
factor, in the appeal of flowers, far more subjective. Its irra-
diation widens more and more. Odor becomes almost the
soul of flowers. It is an index to the human attributes which
now the flowers seem to possess, and much of their symbolism
is in large part suggested by this deepened sense. By their
fragrance flowers suggest crime, death, funerals, the sick-
room, weddings, commencement, churches, Easter time,
spring, the cool woods, solitude, the running brook, the open
fields, sunshine, summer and harvest scenes, festive occasions,
love in all its many forms, may bring joy, depression, pensive-
hess, or voluptuous sensations that make it almost wicked to
enjoy the fragrance of some. Malodorous flowers, perhaps,
seem morally bad, their odors bespeak a gentle, sweet, or ugly
disposition, those with pleasant odors are friendly. Disagree-
able odors are harder to overcome. A young man met and
smelled of a wild rose unexpectedly in a field, and, with no
conscious process, found himself crying, and only after some

^ An article soon to appear in the Ped. Sem.

204 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

time could recall that years ago his mother, now dead, called
him in the doorway as he stood at that spot. Thus they may
scent the very heart, " their breath make sweet a world of
pain," " their censers with faint odors swinging," or, again,
they may fret the nostrils and through them the soul with fetid
and nauseous exhalations.

So, too, their color flames more inwardly at this age, sug-
gesting blood, fire, sky, snow, and January fields, solitude and
sociability, precious stones, sunlight, flashes of glittering gold
(although most hated flowers are yellow). Chromatic likes
and dislikes unfold a complex symbolism. White means
purity ineffable; red, pleromal life and love, and is of the
heart; purple is regal. Colors seem more intense, and there
is something mystically, transcendently real behind them.
Their relations make whole symphonies of harmony or painful
discords.

Taste seems least of all changed, while bad tastes do not
so immediately blight beauty. Plants and flowers that are
medicinal, poisonous, or edible, tend to be excluded from the
esthetic sphere, as use and beauty grow apart. These changes,
however manifest, are slight compared with others. To the
child flowers live and die, grow, sleep, are tired, sick, feel
hunger, thirst, and temperature. They are loved because they
are bright, pretty, or fragrant. Their wounds may even be
bandaged ; there are prayers and thanks for rain for their sake.
Some would like to become flowers, but the corrective thought
is that they die soon or are neglected, alone, out nights, and
so children would be like them, the motive being that they are
loved or caressed by some one whose good-will they wish to
obtain, or because they are beautiful, or they would be as pure,
sweet, and good as the flowers. In Plato's figure, man is him-
self a plant of heavenly parentage, and the child is in the
vegetative stage.

With adolescence, the flower world slowly acquires a new,
far more diversified and inward meaning. Tangibility and
sense are less, and subjective resonance more. Their relations
become more internal and they have psychic more than physical
bearings upon human life. While many previous tendencies
are developed, others are shed, and we meet the frequent
phrases " suggest," " seem like," " stand for," " speak of," for

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 205

both the nascent and the decadent responses of the soul. The
number of cultivated as distinct from wild flowers, especially
for city children, that are known and also that are both liked
and disliked, increases. There is a new sense for form and
shape. Individual preferences come out. Crass forms of
fancy slowly yield to sentiment, and early fictions are no longer
believed but are felt, and their effects persist as if they had been
absorbed and had fertilized the heart. The pure animism of
the child fades, though it may persist as a feeling in a deepened
sense. Some are perplexed to find hateful and lovely qualities
in the same flower, or pity those sweet in scent but ugly in
form or color.

As to language, for the child flowers nod or shake yes or
no, whisper with squeaky voices in peepy mouths like fairies
in disguise, asking for water or care, have a speech for each
other, and when alone at night or in the moonlight, perhaps,
are heard to say, " Do not tread on us," " Take me with you,"
" Love, or be like us," " Spring is here," " Be happy," " We
come out from nature for you." They at least try to say some-
thing very sweet in a silent language, or they sigh, sing, sob,
have delectable things they could say, are voluble to bees, birds,
trees, and grass. But while the average pubescent no longer
hears or believes in vocal speech, he holds all the more to a
higher symbolic communion. Their motions are full of grace,
beckoning and gesture. They are seers revealing the real heart
of nature to us. They meditate, sympathize, are hard or easy
to get acquainted with, incite to mischief, solitude, joy, or
pathos. They " burn with a mystical love," and every bud and
leaf is full of dreams. Their speech is in a tongue no one
exactly knows, but which in certain moods comes home to
every heart. They teach lessons of virtue and usefulness and
incite to noble lives. A bouquet is a mute letter. At such
times when we are wise in the rhythm of blossom and leaf,
they tell wondrous secrets to those whom they love and who
love them, but it is all in the dialect in which the wind and
the sun and rain murmur to the seed-corn in the dark ground
of the coming harvest, or of the scythe to the grass. " Hush
and heed not, for all things pass," or in which the daisy wishes
to say, " I am the star of the day."

Flowers have their own friendships and enmities. In gen-

2o6 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

eral they love bees and butterflies but hate noxious parasitic
insects, ants, hens, and weeds, and dread large animals that
eat or injure them. Some invite birds, protect other flowers,
or are protected by trees, nestle together affectionately in beds.
They are friends to good people, and rebuke evil. Wild flowers
are savages or unkempt street urchins friendly to animals, and
perhaps to bad people. The homely are jealous of the pretty
ones, and the small ones love the protection of the large.
Thistles, thorns, and poison, malodorous and shabby plants,
are criminals in the flower world. The rose, e. g., is an enemy
of the lilac, but loves the violet; the daisy is jealous of the
buttercup's golden calyx, and all the flowers are jealous of the
daisy's white frill.

Many flowers, too, in their appearance suggest birds or ani-
mals. Some have all the human features ; the pansy is a little
face to almost everyone, a sweet and innocent baby face, a
roguish child, sly, cute, and mischievous, or even the face of a
cross old woman.

Again, the human attributes of flowers are no longer found
in physical analysis, but they both acquire and suggest moral
qualities. They teach or illustrate modesty, humility, meek-
ness, resignation, content, cheer, gentleness, serenity, purity,
perfection, candor, honesty, sensitiveness, elegance, sweetness,
piety, as they look up to heaven and pray, etc. Some are
bold, selfish, gaudy, bedizened, brazen, ill-tempered, unsocial,
reserved, fierce, full of fire and of red blood, pert, jaunty,
affected, coarse, old-fashioned. Others are dainty, true, cour-
teous, reserved, snobbish, coxcomb-like, stuptd, clumsy, quick-
tempered, frail, cross, barbaric or overrefined, greedy, and
selfish. Some suggest golden-haired children, some fussy and
prim old ladies in frills and flounces, some roistering young
blades, some helpless, new-born babes, or soldiers, nuns,
queens. The qualities assigned to different flowers, while
varying considerably with different individuals, have much
general similarity, but each has its dispositions and its own
sphere of suggestiveness. The lily, violet, and rose, for ex-
ample, are especially replete with deep significance. In all
these many ways, too, the appeal in adolescent years is notice-
ably much fuller and far more suggestive in the case of girls
than with boys.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 207

Two typical illustrations must suffice. One is from a country
girl of thii'teen, who was passionately fond of pansies, and each blos-
som was given a name, generally that of a quality. They were love,
charity, humility, sweetness, envy, pride, goody, sweetie, dearie,
birdie, etc. ; each preserved its own individuality and name, and when
one died the latter was never given to another individual, but a new
name was sought. Occasionally playmates' names were used, from
fancied resemblance, or names of characters in stories she had
heard, and usually everything was suggested by resemblance. She
was very fond of keeping school and teaching or reproving each indi-
vidual pansy. Sometimes she preached to them and exhorted them to
be good, to avoid certain faults, to rise early, and be clean. Some-
times they were sick and in need of special treatment, of water or shel-
ter. If the nights were cool they must be protected, that they might
sleep warmly. Occasionally romances and characteristics far more
definite than those suggested by the names were given.

The other is the case of a young lady about twenty. For her the
rose is, e. g., an ideal madam craving perfection and claiming homage
from all the rest; the violet is a universal favorite, and for children, es-
pecially those who are much alone and in the country, and like so many
others, is very companionable. It is affectionate, huggable, " loves
you, and turns its face toward you," as if craving a kiss ; is the home-
maker, shading and hiding itself under and never without its leaves,
from which it is almost indecent to separate it. The daisies are " faces
but with souls behind them " ; geraniums are " honest poor persons in
bright calico"; pinks are pretty but soulless, all color; calla-lilies
are the most stately, generally unmarried vestals ; the tiger-lily is " a
priestess of Africa, gaudy, and, like all lilies, stately and craving ad-
miration with an almost processional dignity " ; the lilac is hardly hu-
man, strongly but somewhat vulgarly odorous ; the buttercup is very
human, but virginal ; the hyacinth is " hardly a true flower, but ar-
tificial, waxy, or snowy " ; the tulip is mainly color, as the honey-
suckle is mainly perfume ; the sweet pea is " besouled, but of a light
butterfly character " ; the peony is " married, like the rose, but less
refined and spiritual, more undeveloped, but vital and robust on a low
plane " ; the forget-me-not is " a dear, sweet, young country girl " ;
the morning-glory is " simply pretty, conceited perhaps, a grisette and
overconscious " ; the dahlia is " married, but at heart an old maid " ;
the chrysanthemum has " traveled, and has a foreign air, with a
highly individualized and perhaps conceited soul " ; the arbutus is " an
Indian girl, brought up to play shyly and hide in the forest " ; the snow-
ball is not a flower, though a distant friend of the peony; the anemone
is morbidly delicate, " too good for this earth," can hardly be picked
without being lain out delicately; the aster has its own soul, and is
" on speaking terms with the daisy, but on a lower plane of life " ; the
sunflower is a gaudy but ineffably conceited creature ; the lady's-slip-
per is a " thoroughbred fairy " ; the cactus is made of wax ; Jack-in-
the-pulpit, equisetce, cattails, and goldenrods are often conceived as

2o8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

male flowers, while all the rest are female. The poppy is " a brilliant,
dashing brunette"; the hollyhock aspires to perfection, like the lily,
and though much more lowly, serves like it in the temple ; the mignon-
ette is a simple child ; the verbenas make good children to keep school
with ; the water-lily is another " sacred princess, and its pads are
prayer-mats " ; the cowslip is the male of the buttercup ; the thistle is a
regal, married Irishwoman; the gentian, a beautiful and ideal old
maid ; the yarrow, an " honest farmer in brown overalls," etc.

Why this strange fascination for flowers? Why does this
new rapport increase at adolescence when the immediate inter-
est of sense begins to abate ? Flowers were not developed for
man, who has had little agency in their fertilization. Their
beauty was meant to appeal to bees and other insects. Perhaps
it is in part because woman first domesticated them, but so
she did most animals, for which her feeling was very different ;
and why her peculiar fondness that first led her to cultivate
them ? I believe it to be at root because of the fact, now more
or less overlaid and lost to modern consciousness, that she
feels, as also does man in a duller way, that flowers are the
best expression nature affords of her adolescence, that from
the efflorescence of dawning puberty to full maturity she is a
flower in bloom, and that till the petals fall they are the ex-
ternal type of her virginity, and so they remain ever afterward
the memento of her unfallen paradise. Poetry is often only
a mature expression of the ideas and sentiments of childhood,
which are vastly older and truer to nature than those of adults,
and with this key we can better understand the pathos of the
rose, which has been in all the historic period a favorite theme
of poetry.^ This sheds light on the frequency of flower names
for girls common everywhere. The general term for woman
in Malay is flower.

For the genetic psychologist, Fechner's Nanna, or, The Soul
Life of Plants, lately republished, is of interest here.^ He as-
sumed a psychic continuity throughout the universe. The
spirit that besouled the universe was mostly under the threshold
of consciousness, human minds being specialized apexes which

' See an anthology on this subject in Rosa Rosarum Exhorto Poetarum, by
E. V. B. Also, The Pathos of the Rose, in J. A. Symonds's Essays, vol. i, p. 187.

^ Nanna, oder iiber das Seelenleben der Pflanzen, von Gustav T. Fechner.
Second ed., Leipzig, 1899.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 209

cropped out, but it had a larger though obscurer expression in
plants and in planets. The former have an individual con-
sciousness but only slightly unfolded, but this rests back on
a higher one without losing its individuality by so doing. This
parallelism is universal. The Clytie metamorphosis was a
myth of the special relations between the vegetable world and
that of man. Nanna, Balder's widow, was a German goddess
and better suggests this than Flora, whom he condemns to
herbaria.^

The plant world is far vaster and older than man or perhaps
even than animals, and vernacular names are of the highest
antiquity and connect flowers with animals, stars, ancient gods,
Christ, angels, historic persons, fairies, Naiads, elves, Puck,
demons, trolls, witches, medicine, magic, are wrought into
proverbs, festivals, calendars, and many miraculous plants
have been invented as if there was once a full florigraphic lan-
guage. " Could we penetrate to the original suggestive idea
that called forth the name it would bring valuable information
about the first openings of the human mind toward nature,
and the merest dream of such a discovery invests with strange
charm the words that could tell, if we could understand, so
much of the forgotten infancy of the human race." ^ Flower
lore shows still further what they have meant in the early
world. These names and lore are also woman's work. No-
where has she been more original or creative. The plant world

' If, he says in substance, we could invert things and set plants upon the throne
of the earth and we become plants, we should be inclined to ask what these restless
human bipeds were running about for and whether they had any use save to serve
vegetative life. We, the plant men, would continue, remain in dignified rest in our
own place, and need do nothing save to spread out our roots and leaves in order to
receive all divine gifts as our due in tribute. Men live to prepare carbonic acid for
our breath, and die only that their decaying bodies may furnish us nitrogen. Men
have to cultivate us in flower-pots and gardens, field and forest, and yet we con-
sume them in the end. If we wish to send our bacterial army in their blood, we
exterminate them, and although they take a small part of our fruit and leaves, it is
only to spread and fertilize our seeds. Insects as far outnumber men as our leaves
do insects, and yet even they serve us as love messengers to bring the pollen of
our blossoms to fertile corollas.

2 English Plant Names. Also Folklore of Plants, by T. F. Thiselton Dyer,
chap. XX. Flowers and Flower-Lore, by Hilderic Friend, p. 353 et seq. Also
Folkard : Plant-Lore, Legends, and Lyrics, chaps, xiii, xiv, and xv. Cockayne,
Leechdoms, Wortcunning, and Starcraft, London, 1871.
53

2IO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

she has used as her own private pass-key to the universe. In
some such view as Fechner's her natural rehgion would have
its intellectual expression, as if a garden were her primal home,
her paradise still revisited as in a dream, in the normal psy-
choses of these years which should be forever sacred to senti-
ment and intuition so instinct with the best that has been in
the past. There is something here which ages of past utilities
can not account for, even if some of them do tend to be in-
herited as esthetic effects. Perhaps beauty to us was all once
religion or love.

The pedagogic lessons of this are plain and unequivocal. A
botany that begins by merely plucking, collecting, analyzing, classify-
ing, afifixing Latin names that mean nothing in place of those that
mean everything, desiccating in herbaria, makes havoc with all this,
and if economic and edible plants are preferred, the soul is starved.
A technical term is at first a weed, which is defined as a plant out of
place. Taxonomy has its important function, but here it is not even a
necessary evil. The fact that so many young and old maidens wear out
a Gray's Botany or other text-book, and learn to give uncouth names to
all wayside plants, is a pathetic illustration of woman's subserviency to
authority or to man-made fashion in making something of a stone when
her soul cried out for bread. I have collected twenty-one poems on
the daisy, more than half of them written by women, and not one
taught a new fact or term, but all talk directly to the heart. If Latin
were accepted as the inexorable mind-breaking condition, and the
whole circa 150,000 plant species known, it would not be botany but
a rank crop of Latin tares, and would put the child's soul, which is
normally nearer the floral kingdom than the adult's, farther away,
while what lore survived would be like flowers springing from a grave
till " nothing can bring back the hour of splendor of the grass or
glory in the flower." It is like the study of the grammar and diction-
ary by themselves. We must recognize the natural, youthful senti-
ments as the persistence of what was once and long man's highest
philosophy. Rightly taught, no science equals botany in educational
influence and benefit, and wrongly taught nothing so dries up the
spontaneous springs of interest.

I can not detail here but only briefly indicate the method of na-
ture. After the folk-lore stage, scientific study at the high school
should begin with fertilization, first revealed by Sprengel and Dar-
win, with the relations of blossoms to insect life, and thus the whole
philosophy of sex taught in the delicate far-off way of the field. Then
should come the relations of plants to men, the vine, sugar, cotton,
flax, fruit, and cereals, with something of their domestication. A
third human factor, never to be lost sight of, should be the biographic
element in the history of botany, from the Herbalists and doctrine of

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 21 1

signatures on to Linnaeus and down to the present time. Something of
mythic plants, also of pests, diseases, struggle for existence, and com-
mercial and industrial botany, should also be taught. Drawing should
be greatly reduced; much taught without the presence of specimens,
and laboratory work minimized, save a few experiments on move-
ments, tropisms and plant physiology. The text-books of Hodge, Bes-
sey, Grant Allen, Macdougal, Bailey, and the Cornell leaflets, and
especially Hugh Macmillan, are all helpful.^

XL Children's feeling for trees is another of the indis-
putable and well-marked psychogenetic phenomena, which have
hitherto remained utterly inexplicable. Our returns show that
children instinctively and without teaching ascribe emotion,
sense, intelligence, morality to trees. They have arms and
legs; sap is their blood or tears; leaves are their dress, which
they feel ashamed to lose; their bark is skin; they are per-
sonified ; fall in love with each other; are lonesome if trees near
them are felled ; make shade, if they are kind, just for the chil-
dren ; like to have them around ; spread out their arms in bene-
diction or shelter; watch over the house; miss the children and
perhaps weep for lonesomeness if they do not play round them ;
are fast friends of the birds, who perhaps sing to put the leaves
to sleep, and are welcomed back in the spring ; trees feel hon-
ored and joyous if birds build their nests in them; hold out
their hands when they are passing to invite them to alight.
Trees talk to each other and understand the thoughts and lan-
guage, at least of the trees of the same species, though oftener
of all kinds. They sometimes laugh loudly; sway their
branches as if to shake hands ; say good-night. The rustling
of their leaves is whispering of or to the fairies, who live in
them ; " the wind blowing through branches is leaves singing

' The latter (The Deeper Teachings of Plant Life ; New York, 1902) would
restore this deep ancestral interest to its rightful place in the soul. He even says
that in flowers we see human nature reflected in a way we had lost sight of. In
the cotyledons for the nourishment of the young embryo, we have the analogue of
the mother's breast. We see nature adorning her bridal bower in the spring; our
own selfishness in the spreading of the flat leaves of the daisy round its roots close
to the earth that no other may grow beside it. In the dried spathe of the daffodil
is the lesson of death, while its blossom, the first in spring, means mortality. The
cowslip, a belated primrose, each cup the home of an elf, is the key flower unlock-
ing the kingdom of heaven in the spring, through the gates of which the flowers
issue; and the bluebell, the last in the fall, is a curfew rung by the trembling
hand of an old man to bring us home, etc.

212 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

their babies to sleep ; trees of the same kind Hke to be planted
near each other, for if an elm is planted near a maple, it would
be like putting an American girl with a little Dutch girl ;" but
trees can understand the children, and the children the trees.
A child of six, walking in the woods, looked up and said, " Oh !
I am only going a little way," because the leaves asked her.
To one of ten, if the wind blew mournfully, the leaves said,
" I am sad; " if it blew hard, " I am mad." To a boy of ten,
trees get angry at the wind and scream, scold, and slap it. To
one of eleven years, God comes into the trees at times when
the clouds touch their tops. The spirit of trees goes to heaven.
They sing to moon and stars. Trees are very often hugged,
greeted after a long absence, thanked for giving shade. Trees
that cast no shadow are selfish ; crooked trees, those that bear
no fruit, or are bitter, poisonous, prickly, malodorous, are bad.
Children are pained and sometimes exasperated at the cruelty
of trimming trees. Dense forests soothe, hush, and awe the
soul and feel " like church."

I maintain that the experience of the child and its personal
relations can not explain these phenomena and that we must
here again have recourse to the phyletic history of the soul.
Perhaps no cult has been so wide-spread and persistent as that
of sacred trees, and few throw such light on the dark ways
of primitive and childish thought. Nearly every early race
has its sacred trees or groves ; often altars are set up beneath
them and sacrifices are made ; burials are among their roots or
in their branches ; libations are poured upon them so that often
they grow to great size, because especially nourished. Trees
are planted above graves, and the soul of the dead man or the
matter of the corpse have some kind of reincarnation in the
life of the tree. They are planted at birth and there is a close
rapport between the life or fortunes of the tree and that of the
man. Their juice is often interpreted as blood; prayers are
said to them, if they are to be cut; gifts are hung on them;
their voice is often heard. Some think that the first man grew
from trees. The Druids worshiped all trees, but thought the
mistletoe especially sacred. Spirits perch or live in their
branches ; God may be incarnate in trees or make a theophany
in some burning bush. Trees are anointed, clothed, fumigated ;
have curative properties; are Dodona oracles; have temples

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 213

built in their honor; are sacred to deities — the oak to Jove,
laurel to Apollo, fig to Buddha. The evergreens teach immor-
tality, or the fruit of others gives it. The glorified totemic
world-trees — Yggdrasil, the Mohammedan Tooba, the Persian
Haoma, are of immense proportions ; their roots hold the earth
together, are watered by mystic rivers ; their branches bear the
stars as fruit, souls come down them at birth, and to climb
them is the way to heaven. God is sometimes tree-shaped, and
tree was the Acadian idiograph of God. This cult survives in
the Christmas-tree and May-day festivals. The fruit of the
tree of knowledge gives wisdom and inspiration, as that of life
does immortality.^

If all this established body of data must be invoked and
conceded to have a more or less prima facie explanatory power
for the phenomena of childhood, I think we must boldly take
the further momentous step of postulating that both the child-
ish and the ethnic phenomena, however related, need ulterior

^ The universe-tree has been often regarded as the axle-tree of the earth. It
yields the gods their soma. It is so high that it casts a shadow on the moon. Of
it the great stick that churns the ocean is made. Yggdrasil is the tree of life and
the judgment-seat of the gods. A mythological sucker which sometimes has be-
come a substitute of it is the bean-stalk legend, of a ladder reaching from heaven to
earth. Sometimes these mystic trees appear suddenly and unexpectedly. The
barber's pole was originally a human sacrifice post grasped by the victim, and later
colored with red paint instead of blood ; this, the May-pole, and the mystic reed, are
all irradiations of the world-tree in whose branches Osiris's body is suspended be-
tween heaven and earth. Sacred groves, trees, and even shrubs, have been set
apart like the rowan tree, the ganus thorn, the mistletoe. O'Neill (Night of the
Gods, vol. i, p. 329) thinks the all-embracing idea of the universe-tree is illus-
trated in the two hundred or more chemicals made from coal tar, all extracted from
the earth in past time by trees, and ranging from Berkeley's tar water to the anilin
dyes, from the strong acids to saccharine, the sweetest thing known. Christmas-
trees, the myths of Daphne, the Druid religions, the Golden Bough, all belong
here, as do the Kabeiroi, the Dioscures, Corybantes, Curetes, Dactyles, Tel-
chines, and the Arvalian trees.

Tree worship must have been polygenous. It prevailed in Assyria, Greece, Po-
land, France, Persia, and is now found in Sahara and Central Africa. Tacitus
described sacred groves in Germany. On the Guinea coast nearly every village
has its sacred grove. Tree worshipers are abundant among Filipinos. They
are often hung with ornaments and offerings. In Mexico useful trees and even
maize are worshiped. The Lapps have sacred trees, sometimes regarded as gods
themselves, sometimes as ladders. — (The Origin of Civilization, by Sir John Lub-
bock ; London, 1870, p. iqi et seq.)

Trees have strongly marked individual, and perhaps still more accentuated

214 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

explanation, and suggest that we must here invoke the hy-
pothesis of arboreal life in man's remote progenitors.^ The
argument may be summarized as follows :

The earth was formerly more covered with forests than at pres-
ent, and life for higher anthropoids nearest man in bodily structure
was for an unknown but no doubt very prolonged period arboreal.
This stage was, at any rate, protracted enough to modify the body
profoundly to fit the requirements of tree life. The early primates
and primitive man were frugiferous. Tree life lifted the fore-quarters
of quadrupedal life into the erect position ; differentiated the fore and
hind legs, and especially the fore and hind feet; elevated the head
and balanced it upon the spinal column; opened the hip-joint; brought
the shoulder-blades back into nearly the same plane instead of their
former parallel position; gave the hand and arm its power of inner
rotation instead of the palm facing backward; created the human
hand, in the powers of which Huxley says man is as much differen-
tiated from the higher apes as he is in intellect; greatly increased the
range of motion in the arm and brought handwork under the control
of the mind and into the focus of the eye in what I have elsewhere
called its primary position ; ^ developed the palmaris muscle ; gave
direction to the hairs on the body, still seen in the human embryo;
lengthened the foot, still seen in the negro ; creased its sole, as still
appears in infants ; shaped and gave power to the great toe in ways
it still shows ; developed the remarkable clinging power of the fore-
arm, also shown in Robinson's study of human infants a few days
old, which at three weeks of age can cling and grasp as adults can
not.^ In all these respects savage people show closer correlation with
simian structure than civilized races. The female pelvis ; the small
and large toes; the scapula index; the humeral torsion; the spinal

specific characters. The apple-tree is kindly and sheltering; the willow, lithe and
graceful for mourning ; the oak, strong and heroic ; the cedar, sacred ; the elm, the
hickory, chestnut, birch, beech, aspen, spruce, magnolia, hemlock, locust, linden,
mahogany, sycamore, fir, rosewood, almond, banyan, ebony, holly, bamboo, catalpa,
yew, are all types and symbols of thought or illustrations of character about
which myth, fancy, childish sentiment, and adult reminiscences have spun a mani-
fold texture of association. Even the despised garden vegetables (potato, cab-
bage, bean, onion, pea, radish, corn, beets, turnip, carrot, pumpkin, squash, yam,
rhubarb, watermelon, pepper, citron, orange, peanut, etc.) have often psychic quali-
ties and are used as metaphors or descriptions of human traits and qualities.

^ Dr. Quantz, who worked under my direction and with data which I had col-
lected to this end, has written a significant article to which the reader is referred.
Dendro-Psychoses. Am. Jour, of Psy. , July, 1898, vol. ix, pp. 449-506. Also
Philpot: The Sacred Tree. London, 1897. Mannhardt: Baumkultus, 2 vols.,
Berlin, i875-'77, pp. 646 and 359.

* Notes on the Study of Infants. Ped. Sem., June, 1891, vol. i, p. 130.

' See The Nineteenth Century, November, i8gi. Darwinism in the Nursery.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 215

curvature ; relative length of arms ; the absence of calves of the legs,
which were developed after walking on the earth was an established
habit; the form of the nose; the size of the brain; most of the cerebral
indices ; the early closing of the sutures ; the development and opposi-
tion of the thumb — in all these respects, as we go down the scale of
civilization, we approximate the arboreal form of life.

Passing from the body to the soul is like passing from hard parts,
which paleontology conserves, to the soft parts, which shape them
but are not preserved, so that difficulties are great and we must be
content with less conclusive evidence. No one familiar with the facts
now doubts that man has inherited nearly every organ and tissue in
his body from lower forms of life, and that there are many rudimen-
tary organs (Wiedersheim thinks over a hundred) of no use in the
human stage — mere pensioners, relics, like silent letters in spelling,
but I think we do not dishonor the soul by making it no less freighted
with mementoes of earlier stages of development than the body. We
must summarily break from the arbitrary, vicious, and persistent in-
fluence of Descartes's automaton theory, and revert to a broader
and more Aristotelian conception of the soul, which conceives it as
more nearly coincident with life and the evolutionary push upward.
Function is as important, persistent, and as specifically characteristic
as structure. It is more variable, and perhaps, when established, is
no less stable. Instincts are as plastic to the environment, and in
man, since evolution focused on the brain, still more so. The psychic
vestiges in man, which are suggestive of former arboreal life, are the
following :

1. As I have elsewhere shown,^ the fear perhaps strongest and
most widely diffused in man is that of thunder and lightning, a fear
out of all proportion to the danger, as shown by statistics of those
struck by lightning, and with nothing in man's present condition to
account for its instinctive strength. But in tropical regions tree life is
particularly exposed to lightning, for a tree is a better conductor than
air, and its tips attract. If then we assume many generations of life
in trees, and that this danger has left its mark and can be transmit-
ted, the intensity and diffusion of this fear and awe is to some extent
explained.

2. Next in the catalogue of fears comes that of reptiles, and es-
pecially serpents. No creatures are objects of such instinctive horror
to apes as snakes, as the literature well shows. Now, tree-dwellers
have ready immunity or escape from most animals that prey upon
them except serpents, still the chief enemies of monkeys, which can
follow them into the trees and prey upon their young. Although their
progressive movements are slow, their strike or dash is sudden, and
they lie in wait in tree-tops. Hence even in Ireland, where for gen-
erations there have been no snakes, this fear is strong, and again out

^ A Study of Fears. Am. Jour, of Psy. , January, 1897, vol. viii, p. 201.

21 6 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

of all proportion to danger in modern life. To be sure, serpents are
dangerous on the ground, and in some lands their venom destroys
hundreds of lives yearly, so that we must be cautious in ascribing too
much weight to the inference here.

3. Another prevalent fear is of high winds, even in districts where
they are rare. Against these, cave-dwellers would be more or less
protected, and to tornadoes which destroyed trees, wood-dwellers
would be especially exposed. Yet life in trees would be still more sus-
ceptible to air currents and to storms of all kinds. The depth of the
impression weather has made is still seen in its constant recurrence
as a topic of conversation, even now when we are so protected by
clothing and houses. But life in trees would be most of all exposed,
and would thus intensify the fear with the danger.

4. Closely connected with this is the habit of inducing sleep in in-
fants by rocking. Sleep is reversionary. Rhythm stamps the organ-
ism. Sailors on landing must readjust their gait; soldiers keep on
walking in sleep ; children and idiots sway, and we count or beat or pat
to induce sleep, and even sing " Rock-a-by baby in the tree-top." For
creatures wonted through many generations to tree life, swaying
would be a natural accompaniment to sleep, and rhythm, the mother
of poetry and music that rules the soul in love, war, religion, would
be deeply ingrained.

5. Agoraphobia is sometimes a very marked psychosis, which
prompts its victims to walk near houses or shelter, and gives them a
horror of city squares or open spaces, exposure of which they seek to
avoid. In a forest-clad world, and especially for tree-dwellers, dan-
ger was directly as distance from this shelter, and we can imagine
that many generations were required before man could really feel at
home in cleared open spaces, which brought new dangers to locomo-
tion, for which arboreal habits are ill adapted. Thus, in types of ar-
rest or degeneration, we hark back to far prehistoric conditions.

6. Again, tree life requires its own peculiar kind of locomotion.
It developed longer than any other after life had emerged from the
primeval sea and perhaps at a greater distance from or above it.
Some apes do not even need to drink, but find fluid enough in foods.
Most vertebrates, even mammals, especially those living in warm cli-
mates, can swim, and many love to ; but apes have a cat-like horror of
water, and it has been stated that some species can not swim. Human
infants, too, as I have elsewhere shown, have an untaught horror of
water,^ and man must learn to swim. The movements and organs de-
veloped by life among branches seem especially incommensurate with
swimming movements, although it must be admitted that there would
be less force in this evidence taken by itself.

7. Fear of falling is another instinctive horror of children, whose
individual experience has not justified it. This danger, and the per-
sistent clinging to clothes, beard, etc., may be a reverberation from a

^ A Study of Fears. Am. Jour, of Psy. , January, 1897, vol. viii, p. 166.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 217

life where falling was an incessant danger. On this group of cor-
relations considerable stress may be laid.

8. Despite this fear, children have a strange propensity to climb.
Before they can walk they often have an " insane desire to climb up-
stairs." The modes of creeping and of assuming the erect position
have many suggestions of chmbing.^ Yet boys often perform prod-
igies in this respect, and often with safety akin to that of somnam-
bulists. To mount a high tree even without the stimulus of puts or
eggs, perhaps to construct a tree platform like the ourang, and, as in
many cases in our returns, to find places where they can readily pass
from tree to tree by boughs, even to pass the night in tree houses,
with ladders drawn up for mimic safety, is often a passion. Man has
an instinctive pleasure to get up high and look down and afar.

9. Among the chief psychic analogies, we must place the extreme
imitativeness which is so characteristic of the lowest savages and
still more so of monkeys, the very verb to ape indicating where this
habit, which may become a mania, is best developed. Motor imita-
tions in children culminate early, before inhibitory powers are devel-
oped. In no forms of life is the impulse to mimic, which has been
lately so well explored by psychologists, so highly developed as in the
apes and in men. It is one of the bases of gregariousness, and brings
ape and man into singular rapport. So similar are their structures
that the movements of each are significant to the other, and to see
children watch and mimic apes suggests deep sense of kinship.

10. There are other miscellaneous and merely suggestive intima-
tions pointing to the same conclusion seen in some forms of playing
hide and seek ; some resemblances between the postures of children in
sleep and those of the ourang and chimpanzee ; several automatisms,
often ancestral, that suggest ape life. Wild or feralized children and
also idiots often develop ape-like qualities. They often go on all-fours,
are expert climbers, and assume, as savages often do in their dances,
many strikingly ape-like attitudes and contortions, while often their
physical features — jaw, teeth, length of arm, etc. — point in the same
direction.

These facts and inferences, while they can not individually or even
collectively be said to amount to demonstration, erect, in my judg-
ment, a strong probability in favor of the theory which I am urging ;
at any rate, they give a new genetic interest to the esthetic rapport of
the human soul with trees, and make them an object of such unique
zest to nature lovers.

Now the significant fact is that most of both the childish
animisms and also of these special dendropsychoses fall away
or end completely at puberty, so that there is a striking con-

^ Creeping and Walking, by A. W. Trettien. Am. Jour, of Psy., October,
igoo, vol. xii, pp. 1-57.

21 8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

trast between the effect of this epoch upon the feelings for
trees and those for flowers. The psychic soil becomes poor and
thin for the grosser fancies of trees that bear golden fruit,
precious stones, birds and babies, the metamorphoses into god-
desses, men and maidens, the crass analysis of leaves as hairs
or clapping hands, roots as feet, etc., before or during the
earliest school years, and later prepubescent years are autumnal
for this deciduous psychic foliage. Here again the early his-
tory of the race affords a clue. Frugivorous, primitive, trop-
ical man often subsisted largely upon tree fruit, the list of
which from veritable trees of life included many. He plucked
and ate through the entire year. So, too, on arid plains a tree
was precious from its associations with water, shade, shelter,
and rest. All this, to say nothing of tree-dwelling, would
favor the various tree cults or even worship which higher
human religions have condemned, as did so often the ancient
Hebrews.

With the northern migrations those who had once dwelt in
the tropics or jungle found tree fruit less abundant and edible,
shade less desired and better protection than branches and
boughs needed, so that their psychic role declined. Druidism
was perhaps a survival or attempted restoration of a cherished
past, the heart of which had perished. Again, in the north,
trees acquired a new utility that was as inconsistent with re-
spect for them as was the use of mummies as fuel with the old
Egyptian reverence for corpses, as was the function of the
butcher in the shambles with the Hindu veneration for animal
life, or of the perfume manufacturer with sentimental love for
his acreage of roses and violets. Not living, but slaughtered
trees for fire-wood and dwellings are now needful. Agriculture,
too, makes war upon the forest to clear land for crops. These
kings of the vegetable as man is of the animal world suffer dis-
enchantment, like currant once wild and pretty in a kitchen
garden, and totemism is incompatible with extermination of its
species. Somewhere we must perhaps postulate a wood age
like that of stone, iron, and bronze, but beginning earlier with
the control of fire and continuing after metals and the ore.
Once more the century life of a tree is harder to oversee than
the annual life of plants and flowers, so that it requires a long
period of mental and moral development to attain the same

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 219

standpoint of control and cultivation, and modern forestry is
only now fully domesticating trees. Later esthetic interest in
them is less in brilliancy of blossom, color, and perfume, and
more purely in form.

Thus modern youth is coming out of the forest and away
from its influence. Most of its ancestral effects upon his soul
are becoming more rudimentary, and there is much in his en-
vironment that, if it does not actually score away early den-
dritic influence, at least tends to indifference. But while this
is the general law it is not without limitation and important
exceptions. He may become more susceptible to the literature
of antiquity, that fancied woodland scenes with fauns and
dryads, tropes of sap or blood, milk, wine, the evergreens or
trees of life, and the symbolism of oak, aspen, palm, California
big trees, cypress, lotus, banyan, and many others which he has,
and perhaps more that he has never, seen. Class and historic
trees, those owned or set out, can acquire much zest. The grand
myths of celestial or universe trees and their mazes of allegory,
as well as family trees and pedigrees, may impress and even
instruct him. But like Arbor Day, poetic anthologies of the
" Woodman-spare-that-tree " order, and even the tree raptures
of the modern field naturalist, or the wisdom of tree botany, are
likely to be in too large measure adult-made or school-bred
artifacts that strike no deep root in the soul. Very vital to him,
however, are the influences of the forest in solitude. In its
stillness and awe his thoughts are lifted upward, his soul ex-
pands, awe, reverence, expectation, poise, make it the very
temple of the natural religion of the heart. The lessons of life
and death, growth, age, and decay come home. Anything
might appear or happen to his quickened fancy. He thinks
inevitably of God, love, destiny, and his future. The wood
voices will bring out atavistic echoes which put him into un-
witting communion with his remote forebears and evoke latent
mythopeic tendencies otherwise mute. If he is ever to have a
muse, it is here she may first appear to him. For many it is
perhaps a little too solemn and tame, but every youth should
be exposed to these sylvan influences in spring, fall, summer-
tide, and winter, for thus all that is best in his nature will ripen
and gain ascendency. Thus adolescence can never do all its
work without an occasional day alone in a city of trees.

220 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

XII. Some think the best approach to psychology is the
study of the instincts and Hfe history of animals. However
this be, this is the natural beginning of zoology, which has
hitherto been so devoted to the study of anatomical form and
growth-stages that its representatives have grown not only
incompetent or unwilling to start aright, but have lost the peda-
gogic sense of how to do so. To the young child, there is no
gap between his soul and that of animals. They feel, think,
act, much as he does. They love, hate, fear, learn, sleep, make
toilets, sympathize, and have nearly all the basal psychic qual-
ities that the child has. Indeed, we might almost define the
animal world as consisting of human qualities broken up and
widely scattered throughout nature and as having their highest
utility in teaching psychology to the young by a true peda-
gogical method. The pig, e. g., to one who knows its habits
and therefore what piggish means, is a symbol not only of
impetuous greed in eating and gross selfishness, but also of
filth and untidiness, which gives the child a better conception
and a truer reaction to all that these qualities mean in the world
of man. To say of a woman that she is a butterfly or a pea-
cock, describes traits which it would take a long time to ex-
plain to one who was not familiar with these forms of animal
life. In the same way the goose, the fox, the eel, the lion,
bulls and bears, the eagle, dove, jay, cuckoo, hawk, pelican,
crow, serpent, gazelle, cormorant, badger, wolf, tiger, ele-
phant, alligator, fish, the frog, tadpole, chrysalis and its meta-
morphoses, the bee, ant, wasp, the sloth, insects, the ape, hiber-
nation, migration, nest-building, and scores more, are psycho-
logical categories or qualities embodied and exaggerated so
that we see them writ large and taught object-lesson wise, to
those who live at a stage when character is being molded and
influenced pro or con in each of these directions. More than
one thousand editions of Reynard the Fox are enumerated and
its lessons entered into all the great discussions of centuries, for
it is perhaps the best of all the ^sop class in which the animal
fahleaux were a language of man's moral nature. We might
add a long list of more or less mythic animals, the leviathan,
phenix, dragons, centaurs, or popular misconceptions of animal
traits, while children's fancy in creating impossible new ani-
mals is still almost as fecund as Nature herself. Therefore, we

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 221

plead for menageries, for collections of animals in every public
park, pets, familiarity with stables, for school museums of
stuffed specimens, and for the flora and fauna of the neighbor-
hood in every schoolhouse, to say nothing of instruction in
every school concerning insects, birds, and animals which are
noxious and those which are helpful to vegetation, fruit, and
agriculture generally. The story of the gipsy-moth, the phyl-
loxera, the caterpillar, the tobacco-worm, the life history and
habits of other parasites in the bark or on the leaf, in seed or
pulp, the marvelous habits of the botfly, the angle-worm,
through whose body all our vegetable mold has so often
passed, the common house fly with its interesting story, the
grub, the wire-worm, moth and bat, the food fishes, the peach-
tree borer, the apple aphis, the tent makers, and many other fas-
cinating living creatures which have been so carefully studied
of late in our agricultural colleges, all these have a moral as
well as a scientific interest to childhood and constitute a kind
of knowledge which has an educational, to say nothing of an
economic, value, and which must be ranked as one of the very
highest.

Many animals excel man in certain qualities of sensation,
instinct and physical development, so that even the adult is
often looking up and studying higher qualities than his own in
learning of animals and their ways. They are not only our
older brothers, but fit in some respects to be our teachers.
Man's supremacy in the world consists in the fact that the
qualities in which he excels animals are more numerous than
those in which he is inferior to them, and that certain of these
qualities are developed in him to a high and perhaps even ex-
cessive degree. The unfoldment of these, however, comes late
in his own development, and those which most distinguish
him from animals are added last, so that arrest in the critical
later stages of adolescent development condemns him to pass
through life deficient in just those traits which are most char-
acteristically human.

Children thus in their incomplete stage of development are
nearer the animals in some respects than they are to adults,
and there is in this direction a rich but undiscovered silo of
educational possibilities which heredity has stored up like the
coal-measures, which when explored and utilized to its full

222 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

extent will reveal pedagogic possibilities now undreamed of.
The domestication of the two or three hundred animal species,
as history shows, has largely been the product of this sym-
pathy with the brute mind and life, and if it be true, as is
claimed, that most of all these animals have been tamed by
woman, this is only another illustration of the fact that her
life and mind are more generic than that of man. Even the
children's instinctive fears of animals, insects, etc., that are
often harmless, show not only how old and close the relation
between man and beast has been in the past, despite the great
evolutionary chasm caused by the loss of whole series of miss-
ing links, but supply the other chief ingredient of interest
which is most intense where fear and the love which casts it
out are battling for supremacy, for, as I have elsewhere shown,
our souls in infancy are scarred with ancient fears as of big
eyes, teeth, fur.^ This stratum is one of the very richest layers
in paleopsychic development, and its outcrops in the many
varied zoolatries of savage life, which show its strength, con-
stitute one of the most interesting illustrations of the way in
which the stages of a child's development repeat those through
which the race has passed.

All this may be concisely illustrated by studies of the child's
relations to the two commonest household pets. Brehm says,
" We can not conceive savage man without the dog," and
Longkanel adds, " The dog is a part of man himself." ^ It
was an important factor in helping him to supremacy. Some
northern races would now cease to exist without it, as the
prairie Indians vanished with the buffalo. It is most com-
pletely domesticated and has entered most deeply and sympa-
thetically into man's psychic life. It has been a specialty in
art, for Landseer has been called the " Shakespeare of dogs,"
and the world would be poorer without the story of Gelert and
the famous dogs of literature and history from Homer's Argus
down. It was already domesticated in paleolithic days. Dogs
have been close companions of great men, and for nearly a
quarter of a century a French society has conferred a colleur
d'honneur upon dogs for acts of signal merit. Although do-

^ See my Fears, sees, xii-xv, incl.
^ Quoted from Bucke.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 223

mestication probably early interfered with dog totemism, their
superiority to man in the power of scent, orientation, speed,
their patience with children, companionship in play and hunt-
ing, dulness among races that use them chiefly for food, their
hardiness, diseases, tricks, etc., all suggest improvement by
association with man and participation in the advantages of
civilization. While some writers fear or rebuke too much sen-
timent about or interest in them, others think far more might
be done in communicating with and training them than has
even yet been dreamed of.

Their attention to small children is often almost un-
bounded and they are their companions in every aspect of their
life, share their food and perhaps their bed, are their play-
fellows, are talked to and partake of all their confidences, are
taught their lessons, are thought to understand all, are loved
because of their smooth, soft, and shaggy coats, color, lively
actions, and are often treated with full recognition of the qual-
ities in which they excel man. Children are credulous and un-
critical about the most remarkable dog stories, are anthropo-
morphic and chummy. As Mr. Bucke shows, on the basis of
2,804 returns, at or soon after puberty important characteristic
changes of attitude toward the dog occur. Boys' interest in
hunting and coursing qualities rises sharply, and the hound is
invested with and reflects a new interest and takes him afield.
Fighting qualities are much more appreciated, dog fights more
absorbing and often cultivated not only instinctively on occa-
sions, but promoted and prepared for, while the bulldog be-
comes a hero and an object-lesson, and perhaps an inspirer of
pluck, courage, gameness, perseverance, and sometimes has a
marked influence on the boy's life and disposition for a time.
Again, there is a new interest in the dog's intelligence, and the
boy not only values but teaches tricks and boasts of the mental
qualities and sagacious acts of his pet. This is illustrated by
the downward curve. There is also a new interest in breeds and
pedigrees. The quality of different species is discussed with
psychologic acumen, and points about eyes, mouth, teeth, tail,
and shape generally, and also the money value of favorites are
foci of attention. While the superstitions of childhood are out-
grown, credulity about general intelligence is for some time
unabated. Finally, sexual differences are sharply developed,

224 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

girls preferring St. Bernards, for their size, strength, protec-
tion, and the sense of dependence they foster, as well as for the
romance that attaches to them, greyhounds for their elegance,
or poodles for their beauty, and little dogs generally, and being
more prone to decorate with embroidered blankets, orna-
mental collars, ribbons, and more sensitive to any hardship and
cruelty they suffer. They are more interested in face and
feature than in general form, in cleanliness, bath, toilets, and
sometimes in dog hospitals, regimen, hygiene, and diet, teach-
ing them to eat ice-cream and confectionery, etc. Not one in all
Bucke's returns shows interest in the dog's anatomy by a single
mention. For youth, they still have almost every psychic qual-
ity of man, but their limitations and arrest or inferiority are
also more clearly recognized. In view of all, Bucke argues that
every child and youth should have a dog for the moral and
psychological education they would bring their masters. In
a well-known western summer school every boy is given a
horse, and the work of the season consists chiefly in caring for,
training, using, and studying the horse; so the dog teaches
loyalty, reverence, and fidelity, which illustrate the very
ideal of man's relation to God, as well as patience, sympathy,
good-will, companionship, occupation that keeps from mis-
chief, and the sense of responsibility that ownership can teach.
To this end also the dog should be studied more systematically
and scientifically. In respect to this animal the average child
should repeat somewhat more fully the history of the race.

The cat represents the great family of Felidse, the larger
members of which have long been very dangerous to man.
Morbid fears and phobias of cats by both children and adults,
of its eyes in the dark, of exceptional acts, sizes, colors, and
the many uncanny superstitions and proverbs about them and
their association with witchcraft suggest both that man's old
fear of this genus has not subsided and also that the cat is not
yet fully domesticated. In a careful statistical study Mr. C.
E. Browne ^ shows that most cats get lost, run away, or easily
relapse toward the feral state, and that the cat in many house-
holds is found or rescued by the still active domesticating in-
stincts of children. In the lives of young children the cat plays

^ The Cat and the Child. Ped. Sem., Macen, 1904, vol. xi, p. 4.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 225

an important role. It is ceremonially named, often with epi-
thets designating its form, acts, or traits, as names are given
by our Indian tribes, or to dolls. It sings, scolds, swears,
smiles, laughs, talks, saying words and sentences, has its own
code of conduct to which it must be trained with many penal-
ties, is bad or good in many ways or degrees. It pities, appre-
ciates care, is sorry, cross, understands, is moody, and finis felis
often means tears and elaborate funerals. At all ages, but far
more so as puberty approaches, the cat is the girl's pet as the
dog is the boy's. Boys' interest in cats as fighters, however,
rises very rapidly through the early teens, that of the girls
rather declining. Puberty at first seems to augment in both
sexes the feeling that the cat really " says things," although
this new sympathy soon declines. Despite its cruelty to birds,
etc., it pities more, seems more musical, etc., just in proportion
as the child's own psychic life expands. But even with girls
interest in this pet after an initial increase is greatly reduced
again by the middle teens. The varieties of punishment are
less and there is less zest in disciplining it. It eats, sleeps, is
cold, sick, etc., like us, but its rapport with the child's higher
qualities now nascent is less, and it never equals the dog in this
respect. Boys often become torturers or kill it in a way that
seems inexcusable, and thus childish interest may come to a
sharply marked conclusion. The acute detection and respon-
siveness to every feature, act, and trait, shade of eyes, colors,
markings, shape of foot, ear, degree of gentleness, activity,
tameness ; its most attractive quality of the power to play ; its
size, which must be adjusted somewhat to that of the child,
that it may be easily handled, many animals being too small,
others too big for them; its nocturnal habits in sleeping day-
times; its power to climb, almost as impressive as that of the
dog to swim ; the progressive recognition of sex in naming
cats ; the fact that here, too, there is not one expression of in-
terest in feline anatomy, which many school courses make so
prominent ; the pubescent lapse back at first to earlier interests,
as if here again adolescence were not so old or mature as child-
hood— in all this we see restored in childhood the psychic stage
of taming animals and how important a factor in the education
of a child is experience with pets like this. As no carnivora
were so well fitted to their wild environment as the cat family,
54

226

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

SO that its feral traits are still almost intact, it appeals most to
girls, relatively useless as it is, in part because the old instinct
which made her the domesticator of wild animals survives best

Age? 8

10

. Boys' interest in cats
. Girls' ., .4 •>

-Boys' ,( ,, dogs

. Girls' '. " "

11 13 13 H 15 16

xbo-o-o. Boys' Interest in horses

XJtxxxx Girls'

\ rabbits
Canaries

in her. It is preeminently the plaything animal, with a place
in several score of plays and games, is highly anthropo-
morphized and so is an important revealer of childhood. It is
sometimes loved in old age chiefly as a memento of childhood,
with which often no animal is so closely connected.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 227

Mr. Biicke ^ has made tentative but suggestive statistical
curves showing pubescent changes of zest for some of the com-
mon forms of animal life, as illustrated on opposite page.

From the census on which these curves were constructed,
it appears that boys' love of and interest in dogs at all ages
exceeds that of girls, but rises rapidly from seven to fourteen,
where it appears to culminate. Girls' interest follows rather
nearly the same curve. Boys' interest in cats is at all ages
much inferior to that of girls, and appears to culminate at
eleven, while girls' interest does not increase after eight.
Boys' interest in the horse rises very rapidly during the early
teens. Their interest in rabbits does not appear to increase
after the eighth or ninth year, but rather to decline. Girls'
interest in canaries shows an early pubescent rise. The popu-
larity of dogs for both boys and girls at early puberty is more
and more based upon their intelligence. The ascription of moral
qualities and love of animals generally undergo some decline
at the dawn of puberty, where there is a stage of disillusion
and the high childish estimate is corrected by progressive
knowledge, but after about fourteen, feeling for common ani-
mals and a belief in their intelligence rise again. From eight
to nine there is great disillusion of the feeling that animals
appreciate care, but the impression that they do so, after being
for a time repressed by intelligence, rises instinctively again
later. Games of hide and seek, catch ball, etc., also decline
rapidly at about eight or nine and thereafter. The appreciation
of the utility of the dog in both boys and girls rises rapidly and
steadily through the early teens. Disposition to train dogs in-
creases very rapidly from ten to fifteen. Of all the animals
the dog is the favorite; cats follow; then come birds, rabbits,
horses, parrots, chickens, pigeons, squirrels, and many others.
Although most of the exploration in this field of youthful in-
terest is yet to be done, and the above conclusions are sure to
be more or less modified, we can already see that just as man's
development would have been very different without animals,
and the fishing, hunting, and pastoral stages, so childhood is
maimed if long robbed of its due measure of influences from
this comprehensive arsenal of educational material. Indeed,

^ Cyno. Psychoses. Fed. Sem., Dec, 1903, vol. x, pp. 459-513.

228

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

son

64 Sf

333C

Ui

/ /^V\

y4 \

\ / /

— i^ — ^ — . — ^ _

\/ /

IQ

12 14

-Boys who train dogs

16

I can almost believe that, if pedagogy is ever to become ade-
quate to the needs of the soul, the time will come when ani-
mals will play a far larger educational role than has yet been
conceived, that they will be curriculized, will acquire a new and
higher humanistic or culture value in the future comparable
with their utility in the past, and that there will be a new poign-
ancy of regret over the loss by extermination of many species

akin to that now felt at the
barbaric iconoclasm that
has deprived the world of
so many of the priceless
monuments of antiquity.

Meanwhile one of the
greatest educational needs
of the present time is not
one but a series of animal
books, one each on, e. g.,
the dog, cat, lion, the
monkey, horse, snake, one
each on several species of
birds, fish, and insects, and

___uiriB una

a dozen or two more
of a kind that does not now exist, giving very little about
structure but much about nests, food-getting, migrations, ani-
mal families, homes, and colonies, domestication, training,
with some standard tales and fables, folk-lore, literature,
breeds, myth, and poetry, copiously illustrated, and full of the
spirit of the field naturalist, observer, and lover, something of
animals famous in history, with some, but not too many, eco-
nomic uses and still less technicalities, and guided in each case
by some such studies as those above instanced on the dog and
cat. To one in rapport with interests of childhood and youth it
requires no Phaethon flight of imagination to see in the future
a new type of literature here that will rescue the early teaching
of zoology from its present degradation, which will utilize for
moral and humanistic as well as scientific uses a wealth of
natural zest now going to waste. I am glad to know a very
few people who could confect such a book, but they are not
professors or even high school teachers of biology, for these
have singularly lost contact with the nature and needs of child-

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 229

hood and youth and regard the spirit of Brehm's Thierleben
as obsolete and unscientific.

Finally, in view of all this, there is no other possible con-
clusion than that the problem of teaching sciences in the teens
is in the main yet to be solved. City life favors knowledge of
mankind, physics, and perhaps chemistry, but so removes the
child from the heavens and animate nature that it is pathetic
to see how unknown "and merely bookish knowledge of them
becomes to the town-bred child. Biology, that has given us evo-
lution, is perhaps farthest from recognizing the necessity of
developing a genetic pedagogy that shall very slowly pass over
to the adult logical stage which cross-sections it only when it
has completed its own. How undeveloped the development
theory still is is here seen in the fact that it has not yet drawn its
own obvious but momentous lesson for education where it has
its most fruitful field of application. When this science knows
life histories as well as it does morphology it will have the
material with which to begin aright. We no longer deform the
child's body, and have in more and more ways recognized its
rights, but we still arrest and even mutilate the soul of adoles-
cence by prematurely forcing it into the mental mold of
grown-ups. Instead of the ideal of knowing or doing one
thing minutely well, like the ant, bee, or wasp, we should con-
struct, even if at certain points it be done tentatively and
out of glimpses, apergus, hints, a true universe, and pass
from the whole to parts and not vice versa. Love of nature
always burgeons in the soul of youth, but its half-grown buds
are picked open or stunted, and disenchantment too often
leaves the soul only a few mouthfuls of wretched desiccated
phrases, as meager and inadequate as those of poetry in a con-
ventional age that has drifted far from her. A true pedagogy
of science is in large measure yet to be developed. Art, liter-
ature, and perhaps above all, religion, need this reconstruction,
and I could not be an optimist in education if I did not expect
its coming without the shadow of a doubt.

Harnack says, " How often in history theology has only
been a means of setting religion aside." It is just as true
that science is often taught in a way to destroy the love of the
very department of nature it should develop. The only cor-

23° THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

rective is to introduce evolution as a conscious method, a goal
to which everything focuses to a great unity. Heredity, varia-
tion, recapitulation, natural and artificial selection, the strug-
gle for existence, parasitism and retrogression, development
histories, lessons from paleontology, etc., are perfectly practical
themes when made concrete in the high school. There is no
such correlation and coordination, no such lever of culture,
nothing so educational, necessary, and, I believe, inevitable.
Nor should it be restricted to the biological field where it is
always implicit and irrepressible to even youthful minds that
have begun to really think. The proper introduction to nature
study in adolescence includes ether, nebulae, young and old
worlds, rotation of cooling masses, and formation of orbits
and systems, the geological strata, the ascending orders of life,
the descent of man, his primitive modes of fife, thought, and
feeling, as taught by anthropology, the unfoldment of arts,
industries, social life, culture, the stages of development of
science and the great heroes of each, and finally the slow
growth of morals and religion and their institutions. This
view of the world is the greatest achievement of our race, re-
establishes on firmer bases all the goods and truths men have
striven and died for in the past, takes away nothing, gives
back and enriches all that is worth while that was thought
imperiled, gives all who teach it wisely and well new mission-
ary zest for their work, and fires the heart and mind of youth.
Its unprecedented pedagogic motive power is still for the
most part unutilized. It is a new educational gospel just re-
vealed and not yet proclaimed. Adequately taught it would
revolutionize not only instruction in science but in every other
department. The enthusiasm at new utilizations of natural
forces, legitimate as it is, is a low thing compared with that
felt when some great law or group of facts swings into its
true place in the development history of the world. Of all
pedagogic problems since the Renaissance the greatest and
most pressing is now upon us, viz., to bring out these latent
educational potentialities in effecting what Forel calls the next
step in increasing the perfectibility of man.^

1 As I write comes a modest attempt to begin just this work in the earliest teens.
Die Abstammungs Lehre im Unterricht der Schule, by W. Schoenichen. Leipzig,
1903. See also attempts by D. K. Shute, A. W. Bickerton, A. R. Dewar, C.
Morris & Co.

ADOLESCENT FEELINGS TOWARD NATURE 231

Christianity not only depends on but recognizes the relig-
ion of nature that underlies it in ever more conscious and
still more unconscious ways. The sentiments on which the
highest religion rests are best trained in children on the no-
blest objects of nature. Natural theology once had, and is
destined in new forms to have again, a great role in the
intellectual side of religious training. So, too, in many sum-
mer meetings, twilight services on hills or exposed to vesper
influences, perhaps out of doors, are found to have wondrous
reenforcements. Worship on a hill or mountain, at the shore,
out at sea, under towering trees, or in solemn forests or flowery
gardens, amidst harvest scenes, in moonlight, at midnight, at
dawn, in view of the full moon, with the noises of the wind
or streams, the hum of insects, the songs of birds, or in pastoral
scenes, is purer and more exalting for these pagan influences
set to the music of nature from which they all took their origin,
than it can ever be in stuffy churches on noisy city streets upon
the dull or familiar words of litany, sermon, or Scripture.
Here, again, so-called " progress " has broken too completely
with the past and forgotten the psychogenesis of religion,
which has thus grown anemic, superficial, and formal. It is
the old error of amputating the tadpole's tail rather than letting
it be absorbed to develop the legs that make a higher life on
land possible.

CHAPTER XIII

SAVAGE PUBIC INITIATIONS, CLASSICAL IDEALS AND CUSTOMS,
AND CHURCH CONFIRMATION

I. Pubic initiation among Thlinkets, Metlakahtlans, Omahas, Hupas, Hopis,
Zunis, Seris, Brazilians, Aztecs, Australians, Papuans, ancient inhabitants of
India, Zulus, Pygmies, Bechuanas, Kosas — Circumcision once a wide-spread
pubic rite— Its value and meaning. II. Ephebic education in ancient Greece
and Rome — The use of song, poetry, myth, philosophy, physical and military
training, antique music, ceremonies, higher education, politics, the toga virilis.
III. The advent of youth in medieval knighthood. IV. Religious confirma-
tion, its ceremonies and the ideas that underlie them, among {a) the Jews ; (b)
Catholics ; (<:) Russians ; {^d) Episcopalians ; (e) Lutherans.

After the chapters on love and on the feeHngs for nature,
and before considering the subjective rehgious changes at this
stage of Hfe, we must pause to describe the objective regimen to
which youth have been subjected as they cross the threshold
from childhood to maturity. The universality of these rites
and their solemn character testify impressively to a sense of
the critical importance of this age almost as wide as the race.
Here education began and extended up toward more mature
years and downward toward infancy almost in exact propor-
tion as civilization and its luggage of cultures and skills in-
creased. The functions of the teacher began genetically with
the rude regimentations, tortures, mutilations, instructions
often most antihygienic, and immoral ceremonies of these
initiations to manhood, womanhood, and often at the same
time to nubility, with almost no interval after the first physical
signs of puberty, for the slow processes of maturation of body
and soul. The progressive increase of this interval is another
index of the degree of civilization, as is also the mitigation of
the primitive perversity of the early teacher to which in recent
centuries individuals and localities have often tended to relapse.
Of the importance of this stage of transition, religion, which is
so preeminently conservative, has preserved the best and most
adequate sense. It still maintains the idea that the great change
232

SAVAGE PUBIC INITIATIONS 233

is fixed, brief in time, radical in nature, and mediated to a
greater or less extent by external pious offices. Secular and
purely intellectual education, however, has broken so radically
with the consensus of the past as to retain no vestige of recog-
nition of this great revolution, and hence natural interest,
which is to the school what the Holy Spirit is to the Church
or his Muse to the poet, has been ignored and even suspected,
and motivations of utility, always of a far lower order, or else
the pedagogic fictions of special disciplinary virtue inherent
in indifferent or abhorred studies, which is the last resource of
the baffled and belated conservatives, have been invoked in.
its place. Credo quia absurdum had some justification, be-
cause the heart often needs what the head condemns. Doceo
quia abhorrendum has none, and its analogies are with methods
of the savage past, of which I now give the best samples, which
might, however, be greatly increased in number. It would
seem that among American aborigines the girl receives most
attention, while in Africa and in the Eastern islands it is be-
stowed upon the boy.

I. Primitive People — (a) American aborigines. — In the life of
the Thlinket there is almost nothing between childhood and adult age.
" Youth, that delicious pause between infancy and maturity, has no
place in his existence. At an age when our children are barely ready
to lay aside pinafore and short trousers, Alaskan boys and girls are
declared old enough to marry and begin life for themselves." ^ " The
first great event in the Thlinket girl's life is her arrival at maturity."
The old custom was to banish her for six months in a small out-
house, from which she could not stir except after dark, when she
must go with her mother, and wear a peculiar cloak or hood as badge
of her condition. The daughters of the rich were imprisoned longer,
but in larger huts, sometimes elegant, and with several girl friends.
Sometimes a corner of a room was partitioned off for her by boards
and blanket screens. During this isolation she was kept very busy
early and late sewing squirrel skins into blankets, and weaving hats
and baskets, to teach her industry and patience. On the first day of
her retreat, a tiny pin was inserted through her lower lip by a slave,
who was then either freed or killed, according to the mood of his
master. This, on the wedding-day, was changed to a labret. The
first four days were a fast ; then the mother brought a little grease and
a tiny basket of water. The latter must be overturned three times

1 Thlinkets of Southeastern Alaska, by F. Knapp and R. L. Childe. Chicago,
1896, chap. vii.

234 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

before she could drink, to teach her self-denial. Then she could eat
the grease and sip four swallows of water through the hollow bone
of a stork's leg. Complimentary boxes of grease were also sent out
to the chief families of the father's totem. Then followed another four
days of fast, and then a regular diet of dried venison, fish, and pota-
toes ; but great care must be exercised, for fat meat would make her
stout, clams lean, anything raw would make her die young, portions
of the salmon would make her thoughts transparent. Should she dress
her hair before the fifth day, it would come out. She must not move
about much, lest she acquire habits of restlessness; must not talk
much, lest she become a scold. Reserve, self-control, and the weigh-
ing of consequences were emphasized. She soon took this life philo-
sophically, and strove to fix all her thoughts upon rapid workman-
ship and skilful weaving. Her prayers during this seclusion were
very effective. When this period was over, the friends of the parents
were invited orally " to see the girl behind the cloth." At this com-
ing-out feast the daughter was introduced to the young men of the
opposite phratry. Wealthy families made great potlatches. The de-
butante was led out by her mother and girl friends, in a new calico
dress, costly Chilkat blanket, and basket-woven conical hat with to-
temic designs, silver and abalone rings in her nose, broad bands of
silver from her wrists to her elbows, many rows of fancy beads about
the ankles, and embroidered moccasins. She was mounted on a box.
Conscious of looking her best, she met without flinching the gaze of
the curious. If she were healthy and industrious, modest and re-
served, spoke slowly, quietly, and moved deliberately, and especially
if she had gained a reputation for unusual industry and skill, suitors
abounded and she was very soon married.

" It was the custom among the Metlakahtlans to confine for one
month in an isolated cabin girls when attaining the age of puberty,
usually their thirteenth year. No one is allowed to see them during
this time, and it is supposed they are away on a voyage to the moon
or some other celestial abode, and at the end of the month they return
to their people, amid great feasting and rejoicing." On these occa-
sions, and when youth are initiated into the mysteries of Shamanism,
dog-eating, devil-dancing, cannibalism, and the reckless giving away
or destruction of property occur.^

The Omaha child was initiated into the tribe at three, but its in-
dividual life did not begin till its mind had " become white," or till
events are recalled with clearness and full detail. This comes at
about the age of puberty, when the youth is " inducted into religious
mysteries by a distinct personal experience acquired by the rite, Non-
zhin-zhon, which brought them into what was believed to be direct
communications with the supernatural powers. In preparation for this
rite the Omaha youth was taught the tribal prayer. He was to sing
it during the four nights and days of his vigil in some lonely place.

1 The Story of Metlakahtla, by G. H. S. Wellcome. New York, 1887, p. 7.

SAVAGE PUBIC INITIATIONS 235

As he left his home his parents put clay on his head, and to teach him
self-control they placed a bow and arrows in his hand, with the in-
junction not to use them during his long fast, no matter how great
the temptation might be. He was bidden to weep as he sung the
prayer and to wipe his tears with the palms of his hands, to lift his
wet hands to heaven, and then lay them on the earth. With these
instructions, the youth departed to enter upon the trial of his endur-
ance. When at last he fell into a sleep or trance and the vision came
of bird or beast or cloud, bringing with it a cadence, this song became
ever after the medium of communication between man and the mys-
terious power typified in his vision, and by it he summoned help and
strength in the hour of his need." The words of the prayer are ad-
dressed to Wa-Kon-da, the power that makes and brings to pass and
is : " Here, needy, he stands, and I am he." It is far older than the
advent of Columbus. It is a cry voicing the climactic desire of the
youth in his weary fast and vigil, as after long preparations he faces
nature and the supernatural above. The melody is so soulful and
appealingly prayerful that one can scarcely believe it to be of bar-
barous origin, yet what miracles may not religious feeling work ! The
boy is waiting, in fact, for a vision from on high, a revelation to be
vouchsafed to him personally, and to show what his life is to be,
whether that of a hunter or of a warrior, medicine man, etc.^

Miss Fletcher also writes me. May 16, 1903: "Among the tribes
with which I am acquainted there are ceremonies at puberty, but
they are rather simple. At maturity the parents of a girl make a
feast, or else defer the feast until the time of some tribal gathering or
festival. At this feast the girl is clad in gala dress, and makes many
gifts to the guests. She stands beside her mother, and with her own
hand offers the presents. The official herald sometimes proclaims this
feast, and those who receive gifts shout or sing their thanks. By
this act the girl takes her place among the mature; but in olden times
she was not considered marriageable until she had mastered certain
arts, as the tanning of skins, cutting and making garments and tents,
etc."

The Hupa Indians of California have a somewhat elaborate cere-
mony of initiating girls into maturity.^ At the dawn of first menstrua-
tion the girl goes to one of the established bathing places in a creek
near by, enters the water at once to her waist, throws it over each
shoulder twice with her hands, returns to the house, stoops and puts
out her hands, looks at the door, but does not enter. She then runs to
another bathing spot about half as far from the house as the first,
bathes, and goes back in the same way. Then she goes to a third
place half the distance of the second. Returning from this last ex-
cursion, she brings some wood into the house, which no girl can do

^ Alice C. Fletcher: Indian Story and Song from North America, 1900, p. 27
et seq.

* Goddard : Life and Culture of the Huap, vol. i, p. 53 et seq.

236 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

before. She must not eat until this is done, and her chaperon gives
her but one regular meal a day. She must go without drinking water
for ten days, during which this ceremony is repeated, and must live
upon acorn mush, dried eels, and salmon, but must eat no fresh fish.
During all this time she must wear a dress made of the inner bark of
the maple, shredded out and woven into cloth, such as those women
who are training to be doctors always wear thereafter. She must
never touch her hair or face, is dressed by the chaperon, and wears a
sharp bit of bone about her neck, shaped something like a human nail,
with which she may scratch her hair. If she touches it with her own
nails they will decay and fall. During these days she must not look
at the sky, must look no one in the face, least of all a man, and while
in the house is covered with a blanket if a man enters. She must be
very careful in her acts and words, for whatever she says or dreams
during these ten days will come true, and she will ever afterward be
what she was during her training. It is considered an honor to go
through the entire period, and many are not able to stand the train-
ing so long.

The second night, dancing begins. It is in the house, but the girl
is covered with a blanket. In the dances the women sit around the
wall, and the men shake and brandish sticks made of mock orange,
split at the end so that they will rattle, and decorated with paint.
When the men go out, at intervals of about an hour, the women sing.
This lasts for nine nights. At the concluding session a special song
is sung, which is not allowed at any other time, during which the
blanket is held over the girl and struck with sticks. When the men
leave at daybreak, the girl is uncovered and comes forth. Two women
stand in front of the house, one hundred yards from it, facing each
other, holding abalone shells high above them. As the girl comes
toward them she whips herself over the shoulder with woven strands
of maple bark like her dress. She approaches and then backs from
the women, all the while whipping herself. When near them she
leaps up and gazes into the shells, repeating this ten times for each
woman. She has now seen the world of the immortals, and makes a
final trip to the bath, followed by small boys, who try to make her
look back. If they succeed, all the ceremony has to be begun again.
When the bath is ended she is a free woman. Sometimes the dance is
omitted. It is said that no such ceremonial is known for young men
among this tribe.

Among the Crescent City Athabascan Indians a similar ceremony,
with some variation, is established. There are usually two meals a
day, although some eat but twice in the entire ten days ; the less eaten,
the better. Instead of bathing, the girl must swim, and before daylight,
and that for four months. No man and not even a boy must be in
the house when she eats. Her body is cut with sharp grass. Medi-
cine is made over her food. She must now wear in her nose, which
has been previously pierced, the feather of the yellowhammer. In
the dance there are six very distinct motions. She must peep into

SAVAGE PUBIC INITIATIONS 237

the house five times before entering, and walk up and down five times
behind the door. Sometimes the dance is repeated at the advent of
the second period. Every absentee must have an effigy representing
him if he would live long. All is done with the strictest solemnity
and seriousness.

J. Walter Fewkes writes me, May i8, 1903 : " The Hopi maid, at
the time of her first menstruation, invites her girl friends to a family
festival, which one often ' happens in upon ' in prowling about the
pueblo. Naturally, the participants are very shy, and although I have
occasionally seen the girls grinding corn in company — which is part
of the festival — I have never been able to gather much about it
except that it was elaborate and had secret rites. With the boys I
suppose the flogging ceremony ' ay Powamii ' is practically a puberty
rite."

James Mooney writes me. May 30, 1903 : " From general acquaint-
ance with Indian things I am inclined to think that practically every
tribe has some puberty rite for girls, and many of them for boys also.
With boys the ' medicine dream/ in which the young man fasted,
prayed, and kept vigil to obtain visions of his future guardian spirit,
took the place of the puberty rite in some tribes. The Mescalews have
a puberty dance for girls, a public coming-out ceremony. The Chey-
ennes have a private purification rite for girls^ which takes place
within the tipi in the -presence of certain old women, the girl stand-
ing over a sort of burning incense while the prayers are recited. The
Qutayu, an ancient incorporated tribe of the Cheyennes, had a puberty
rite for boys, during which the young man was painted over his whole
body with Indian red, v/hich probably remained as a public notifica-
tion of the fact until it wore off, the Qutayu men wearing only the
G-string. The Cheyenne ceremony for girls was probably closely
paralleled among most of the Plain tribes. The regular menstrual se-
clusion and taboo for women seems to have been universal, and still
exists in most tribes."

Mrs. M. C. Stevenson writes, September 25, 1903 : " With the Zufiis
marriage usually occurs at very tender years, girls frequently marry-
ing two years before reaching puberty; but should one not be married
at the time she arrives at womanhood, her mother goes to the house
of the paternal grandmother and informs her of the event. The grand-
mother returns with the mother (if the grandmother is not living the
paternal aunt fills the place), and the girl accompanies her grand-
mother to her dwelling, where she labors hard all day grinding corn.
When the girl returns to her home in the evening she carries a bowl
of meat-stew prepared and presented by the paternal grandmother,
who returns with her to her house. If a girl works hard at the dawn
of her womanhood, she will not suffer pain at this period ; should she
be idle on the first day, she will always suffer from dysmenorrhea.
This is the only occasion when a woman makes a point of exerting
herself during menstruation. As a rule the women walk but little at
this time ; they are excused from carrying water from the well. This,

238 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

however, is not due to any particular weakness at this period, though
the women do suffer to some extent. They employ themselves with
indoor work (a Zuni woman is never idle), usually weaving or grind-
ing, sitting at the loom or kneeling before their mills over heated sand
spread thickly upon the floor. Their robes are brought up around
their waists and blankets are fastened round their shoulders, falhng
loosely to the floor, covering all traces of the sand. [This custom
has been largely discontinued since I secured the confidence of the
women.] Extreme delicacy is observed by the women at this period.
A heated stone is worn in the belt and a hot tea made of cedar is
frequently drunk. The menses usually continue four days, but in
some cases cease at the expiration of two or three days. The Zuni
women are not segregated during this period. It is claimed that a
certain root tea, which is drunk hot, will permanently suspend the
menses after four months. The first two months the flow is said to
be copious and of a very dark color, the third month the color is nor-
mal, and the fourth month the discharge is almost colorless, after
which the catamenia cease. Specimens of the root referred to were
collected during the summer of 1902, and are now with the remainder
of the plant collection in the National Museum for classification. I
would add that this root is in the possession of certain old medicine
men and women, who carefully guard the secret, that the young
women may not procure the medicine and thereby render themselves
incapable of becoming mothers."

W J McGee writes me, May 13, 1903 : " There are elaborate (rela-
tively, if not absolutely) puberty rites for girls in the Seri tribe,
though I was unable to obtain much information concerning them from
the Indians themselves, and none from any other source. So far as
I can judge, these observances are of an importance proportionate to
that of the mortuary observances over matrons or that of the marital
regulations and ceremonies — indeed, so far as I could learn, the only
collective ceremonies of such consequence as to bring together the
several clans are the girls' puberty feasts. In certain cases, at least,
bodily mutilations are suffered by females (e. g., the removal of the
incisors, noted in Hrdlicka's description of the skeleton obtained by
me), though I was unable to ascertain whether this is connected with
puberty or with marriage ceremonials, which are in some degree in-
terwoven."

Partridge says : " The use of intoxicants in pubertal rites is very
common, especially among the American Indians. The Tuscaroras
of North Carolina, among other initiatory ordeals for boys, adminis-
ter to them some kind of a bark and several stimulating plants, which
reduce them to a state of raving intoxication. When the Creek boys
were to be initiated into manhood, they gathered two handfuls of a
certain plant which intoxicates and maddens, and continued eating
the bitter root for a whole day, and then steeped the leaves in water
and drank from this decoction."

SAVAGE PUBIC INITIATIONS 239

On the first sign of puberty, the Brazilian' girl, secluded for a
month previously indoors and fed on bread and water, is brought out
naked before all relations and friends, and each person present gives
her five or six severe blovi^s with a sipo across back and breast till
she falls senseless, and sometimes dead. If she recovers, it is repeated
by them every six hours, and it is considered an offense to parents
not to strike hard. Pots of meat and fish are prepared and the sipos
dipped in them and given her to lick; then she is a woman, can eat
anything, and may marry.

Boys undergo a similar ordeal but not so severe, which allows
them to see the Jurupari — pipes or trumpets made of bamboo or palm
stems and hollowed, each pair producing a distinct note — a mystery
which no woman can see on pain of death. If they are heard, every
woman hides, and if she is thought to have seen them she is killed
by poison. On the Rio de la Plata the girl is sewn up in her hammock
as if she were dead, with only a small breathing hole. Very many
dietary customs are enforced on pubescent girls. These ceremonies
are for first menstruation only.

Among the ancient Aztecs, children from the earliest years were
trained to endure hunger, cold, and heat; they were made to sleep
on a mat, and when they reached the age of puberty were taught the
use of arms; they accompanied their fathers on military expeditions,
and were taught trades. If detected in lies, their tongues were
pricked with agave thorns; the feet of those who ran away were
bound ; quarrelsome children were whipped with nettles. Two ancient
documents, of too great length to quote here, containing some of a
father's teaching to his son and that of a mother to her daughter, con-
stitute an admirable code of morals and manners, which with a few
changes in detail would be helpful in any land and age.^

Pritchard ' says : " A certain stage in the life of each girl is cele-
brated by a festivity in the camp. An ornamented toldo is put up
temporarily for the girl's occupation, and the young men of the tribe
march around it singing, while the women howl, probably with a view
of exorcising any evil spirit which may be lingering about the camp.
The ceremony is followed by a feast, and the evening winds up with
a dance. The men alone take part in this, and it consists in circling
around the fire, pacing sometimes slowly and sometimes quickly. A
few dance at a time, accompanying their movements by a constant
bowing or nodding of the head, which is adorned with tufts of ostrich
feathers. When one party is tired out, another takes its place."

(&) The Far East. — Haddon* describes many ceremonies of initia-
tion of boys into manhood, such as are found throughout the greater

^ A. R. Walker: Travels on the Amazon, 1889, p. 325.

" The Aztecs : Their History, Manners, and Customs, by Lucien Biart. Trans,
by J. L. Garner. Chicago, 1900, p. 214. et sec/.

^ Through the Heart of Patagonia. New York, 1902, p. 92.

* Head Hunters, Black, White, and Brown. London, 1901, chap, iv ei se^.

240 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

part of the Melanesian and the Indonesian Archipelago. These begin
when lads first show a sprouting beard. They are secluded in a
tabooed spot in the bush, instructed in the moral code, social customs,
and sacred legends, which a man must know, especially those con-
nected with the totemic animal, plant, or object peculiar to the clan.
Many of these customs are in various stages of disintegration, and
old men often weep over the profanation of ancient mysteries, of
which only just enough echoes are preserved to enable us to under-
stand some of their old solemnity. It is very hard to get all of the
sacred words, formulae, and myths, but Haddon has found more of
them in the East than any one else, and has even obtained masks and
other paraphernalia, photographed some of the scenes of the cere-
monies, obtained songs in phonographs, etc.

The Malu mysteries are cherished somewhat as we cherish the
church and school. They take the young man out of the family and
weld him into a solidarity with the community in which he lives.
They often follow the death dances. Boys that have been good are
treated easily, while the bad ones may be initiated with great cruelty.
The morality taught, as far as it goes, is often high, and one common
exhortation is not to be like women in various enumerated respects.

All the manifold Australian rites agree in being tests of endurance
of pain. In almost all, the boys lose one or more teeth. There is an
elaborate ceremony with a grass effigy of a kangaroo, by which the
young are given power over this animal. The men personate the
kangaroo, with grass tails, leaping, looking about, lying on their sides,
while others act the part of hunters and pretend to kill them. In
some forms the operators deliberately cut long gashes on the back
and shoulders, and if the youth groans or even winces, three long
yells indicate that he is unworthy to be a warrior, and he is handed
over to the women, to be forever ranked with them and to do their
tasks. In a mental trial a crystal with magic power is given to each
candidate, and the old men try all their arts of persuasion to induce
him to give it up. If he does not resist all their threats and cajoleries,
he is rejected as a warrior. When the ceremony is over, with loud
yells the women are summoned, and great dances and feasts occur.
The young men who have passed through these ceremonies think very
highly of themselves, and go out to hunt the largest game.

The most careful study of pubertal rites yet made is by Mathews.^
Some Australian tribes have typical and elaborate initiation cere-
monies, called Burbung or Bora, for their adolescents. In an open-
ing in the woods a round cleared space of eighty to ninety feet in
diameter is marked by a groove in the soil. In the center is a short
pole, to the top of which bushes and emu feathers are tied. From

^ R. H. Mathews : Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and
Ireland, vol. xxiv, pp. 411-427; xxv, pp. 297-330; xxvi, pp. 272-285, 320-340.
See also his interesting variant : The Toara Ceremony of the Dippil Tribes of
Queensland. Am. Anthropologist, January-March, 1900, p. 139.

SAVAGE PUBIC INITIATIONS 241

this circle a track about four feet wide runs several hundred yards
into brush and scrub. First, beside this path is a hole three feet by
eighteen inches, to represent the place where a girl must sit during
her first menstruation. A few yards farther is a human figure and an
emu, life size, cut in the ground. Next come two spiral strips cut in
a tree and other zigzags to represent lightning; then a fire, which is
kept burning during all the days of the ceremony, and a gigantic
human figure, twenty-one feet long, with the dent of his fist in the
ground where he fell, always made beside his figure by puddling clay.
This figure represents Baiamai, the culture hero who slew Dhurmoo-
lan, an awful being, with a voice like thunder, by whom boys used
to be taken to the brush to be instructed in the customs, laws, and
traditions of the community, that they might take part in councils
and do all the duties of tribesmen. Each boy, it was said, he cut up,
burned, formed the ashes to human shape, and restored to life, with
the exception of one upper front tooth, which he kept and the loss
of which was a sign of initiation. It was found out, however, that he
bit out the tooth, and often devoured a boy. So after killing him
Baiamai put his voice into the trees, from which it could be charmed
into bull-roarers made from their wood. Farther along this walk is
a tree with an imitation of an eagle's nest, figures representing the
sun and moon cut large through the bark to the white, an immense
fabulous snake-like monster fifty-nine feet long, four little mounds
of earth, making a square, with native weapons stuck in them for
decoration, and between these, four seats made of saplings dug up
with their roots, formed to a seat stained with human blood and their
stems inverted in the ground, while turtles, iguanas, and fish, pointed
up and down, carved on tree-trunks, with other mystic lines and pat-
terns, complete the scenes for this long walk, which is terminated by
a screen of boughs.

Early in the spring two messengers are sent to invite the neigh-
boring tribes. They carry kilts and bull-roarers, and arrive at the
camp at about sundown, when the men come home. A council is
held, at which the invitation is presented and discussed and word sent
to the next camp. They all muster, so as to arrive on the prepared
ground together, and are ceremoniously received in the circle ; some-
times two or three weeks are spent before the arrival of the last con-
tingent. For several days there is much marching, stamping, and
beating the ground with resonant pandamelon skins, and other per-
formances. Finally all assemble, the men painted in full savage re-
galia, tramping and waving their arms or dancing a corroboree, and
the women throwing leaves at them. Sometimes the men represent
dogs running after each other, or kangaroos, or they parody an emu
hunt, and the wizards perform their mummeries. Recent initiates
are taken over the walk, and all the devices of the sacred ground
where they had been inducted the year before are fully explained to
them. During the night bull-roarers are sounded, and the boys are
told that the dreadful Dhurmoolan is coming for them the next morn-
55

242 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

ing. At dawn all assemble in the circle, each tribe distinct, the boys
to be initiated sitting naked on bark back of the circle, looking at
the earth, each with his sister near by and her husband, who acts
as the boy's guardian during the ceremony. The two latter paint
each boy all over with red ochre, put pipe marks on his breast, swan
feathers in his hair, and gird him with a band with four kilts depend-
ing, representing a man's dress, while his head is bound with two
bands. The headsman then shouts : " He is coming — lie down ! " All
the women and boys are then securely covered with blankets, and
men stay to watch that they do not see. A group of men advance
from the sacred path, beating the ground with sonorous pieces of
bark, tramp around, sound the bull-roarers, and with a great noise
throw brands near the women and children, to make them think
Dhurmoolan tried to burn them. Each guardian then catches his
boy under the arm, and leads him along the path, all the men follow-
ing with terrific din. They are then taken a few miles away, seated,
and given advice on the conduct of life and on the coming ceremony,
when the blankets are removed from their heads. Here they are
kept two or three days, watched and taught, and join the men for the
first time in hunting. Every night the men steal off and make a great
noise, pretending to drive off the giant who seeks to burn the boys.
Meanwhile those in camp form a yard, shaped like a horseshoe, and
thickly walled with boughs, and here on a platform opposite the open-
ing they await them. When they arrive each boy gets on the shoul-
ders of his guardian, and the sisters or mothers spirt pipe-clay into
their faces. After a night here, four days more are spent in the brush,
and they are still further instructed in the tribal ordinances and
taught songs and dances which women and the uninitiated never
know and which it is unlawful to hear or teach elsewhere. Each boy
is given a new name, known only to the initiated, each animal is given
a secret name, and there are many ceremonials and sham fights, panto-
mimes, and trick magic, leaping on the four mounds, running among
the inverted roots of saplings above described, shouting the names of
other bora grounds, squatting in black paint and with horrid grimaces,
long and silent gazing at the feet, tableaux often disgustingly obscene,
songs and dancing, during all of which the boys are not allowed to
question or speak, and thus by these and other devices they are well
seasoned to fear. At the last afternoon the boys' heads are again
covered with blankets and a big fire is kindled, where they are told
they are likely to be burned. Then the blankets are taken off and
the boys are shown the men with bull-roarers, fumigated, and in-
formed that Dhurmoolan is only they; his story is told, the rites
explained, and death threatened for any revelation of what they have
learned. They are told that when they marry it must be according to
the totem laws, which are explained. All the symbols of every ob-
ject beside the path and the rites are also explained. Formerly human
ordure was eaten, a tooth extracted, and the hair cut.

The ceremonies differ in detail among different tribes. In one

SAVAGE PUBIC INITIATIONS 243

form of the ceremony the novitiates, when taken from their mothers
and relatives, are made to believe that a giant has slain them all,
virhile mothers loudly lament, that the young girls may think the boys
are all slain. The boys are initiated into many forms of gross ob-
scenity. Instead of a blanket over his head, the novice may have to
sit and vi^alk all day with his head and eyes bent down so low that
he faints on being allowed to straighten up after dark. In the bush
he may be required to go off alone and sustain himself by hunting.
The mode of death threatened for revealing what is seen or heard or
for speaking of or letting women know of the bull-roarer differs, as
does the mode of impressing the form and meaning of the figures
cut in the trees or on the ground. If a tooth is removed, the boy's
feet are confined in a hole in the ground. His hair may be singed
and his body painted white, so that his mother can not recognize
him. The annual dances vary, and the camp is often daily split into
small groups. There is a wide field of exceeding difficulty yet to be
explored before it can be known just what the novices are taught and
what is the esoteric significance of these mysteries. Great precau-
tions are taken that none but the initiated shall ever penetrate them.
Many ceremonies are according to a minutely prescribed ritual, and
on the other hand the program is often made up anew each night for
the next day.

Among the Victorian aborigines ^ boys of thirteen are taken away
from the camp by old men for about a month, during which time they
are instructed in the legends of the tribe. At the end of this time
each is held by two men, while two others bore the flesh around one
of his front teeth with a piece of bone, and then knock it out with a
bit of wood used as a punch. The nakedness is then covered, and he
returns to the camp. At eighteen years of age he is again taken
away and the initiation completed. The tribes of the Xarra River
eat human excrement as one part of the symbolic ceremonies of initia-
tion. In another form of the ceremony, known as Tit-but, the boys of
fourteen or fifteen are led away, and the hair cut close with chips of
quartzite, except a strip half an inch wide from the middle of the
forehead to the neck. Naked save at the hips, which are covered
with opossum skin and strings of the fur, the initiated is daubed
with clay and every kind of filth, and with a basket full of the same
material he wanders throughout the camp, casting it at every one. He
is isolated, and no one speaks to him till his hair begins to grow, when
he is given over to the women, who wash and paint him and dance
before him. Among some tribes the novitiate is simply clothed with
man's attire ceremonially. Probably most accounts here and else-
where are mere fragments of far more elaborate ceremonials, which
are so carefully guarded that it is very difficult to gain access to the
rites and far more so to learn their meaning, which latter is often for-

^ The Victoria Aborigines : Their Initiation Ceremonies, etc., by R. H.
Mathews. Am. Anthropologist, November, 1898, p. 325 et seq.

244 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

gotten by the natives themselves. Many of the forms seem to be pro-
bationary or degenerate.

Among the natives of the Murray River another ceremony occurs
when lads are about sixteen. They are seized and conducted to the
chosen field amidst the cries and self-mutilations of the women. The
boys lie down, and their new beards and hair are torn from their
bodies.

Among another tribe there are three ceremonies : the first very
simple, where the boys are merely carried away from the women and
blindfolded. Here the Witarna must cease using their natural voices,
and not speak above a whisper for some months and perhaps a year
or two. The initiates of the second degree wear a bell-shaped apron
and can marry, although they are not yet warriors, for they have not
suffered sufficient pain to take their full rank. They still bear the
trivial names given them by their mothers. In the third ceremony
they are taken to a secluded spot, covered with kangaroo skins, laid
out on a platform of boughs, while each lad sucks the open vein of
an adult and is rudely tattooed with broad gashes, that are pulled
opened by the fingers as far as possible. Their faces and upper bodies
are blackened, and they are again enjoined to whisper, and given all
sorts of advice about hunting, etc.^

In New Zealand there seems to be no definite ceremony of admis-
sion to manhood. The tattoo is a sign that it is done ; but there seems
to be a long process, extending over years, which can not be consid-
ered an initiatory rite, like those of the Australians.

According to J. L. Holmes," the lads of the Papuan gulf are in-
itiated by being first isolated in the eraro or clubhouse till their hair
is grown to its full length. Their bodies must not be exposed to the
sun, and they are subject to several taboos. The bull-roarer is shown
and explained, and masks play a great part in the more important
ceremonies.

In Korea puberty and betrothal ceremonies often coincide, and the
ritualists of that country celebrate these events by elaborate formulae,
implying that the full responsibilities of manhood are assumed. Three
days before, the head of the clan must announce the approaching
ceremony to the tablets of the ancestral temple. The day in ancient
times was chosen by divination. When capped, the boy adds a new
link, says Sandis,^ to the chain of descent. Even the tutor was once
chosen by lot, and he must be virtuous and well versed in the cere-
monial law. Besides the black paper cap, twenty other objects — belt,
embroidered shoes, hood, cowl, cord, trays and tables, dried meats,
horn spoons, etc. — are exactly arranged in a room partitioned from a
larger hall. All the relatives, in ceremonial or holiday dress, are

^ J. G. Wood : Natural History of Man, vol. ii, p. 76 et seq.
2 Nature, October 30, 1902.

' The Capping Ceremony of Korea, by E. B. Sandis, M.D., Jour, of the An-
thropological Inst., May, 1898, p. 525.

SAVAGE PUBIC INITIATIONS 245

grouped in a prescribed order, and a tutor, prompter, and assistant in-
vest with the virile cap and cowl, and invoke three blessings. Liba-
tions, a new name, salutations, genuflections, presents, etc., follow.
The ceremony for girls is somewhat similar, and is called tying of the
hair, with jackets, corsets, a new name, and presentation in the ances-
tral temple.

Nearly every Buddhist boy in Burma becomes a monk for a time
before he is fourteen, according to Fielding Hall, taking the vows of
chastity and poverty, but always for a limited time, to be renewed or
not at the end of the term according to inclination.

Professor E. Washburn Hopkins, of Yale, writes me, May 16,
1903, of ancient India : " There is only one rite connected with puberty
by inference. That is the Upanayana, or admission into caste, when
a cord is bound around the boy at ages from eight to twenty-four
years. It seems to be the same as the Avestan circling with a holy
cord at fifteen years, and for this reason, with the wide-spread analogy
of some such ceremony, it has been connected by ethnologists (Lip-
pert, Culturgeschichte, vol. ii, p. 320) and by Oldenberg (Religion
des Veda) with a puberty rite, though in Hindu form it is quite made
over into an introduction of a boy into the study of the Veda and
admission into caste privileges, at ages according to caste. There is
no other rite at this time, and this is recognized as a puberty rite,
more by analogy than by inner evidence, since all reference to puberty
is lacking in the Brahmanical rite, and which only in the secondary
stage of the literature receives recognition. The earliest Veda has
absolutely no reference to anything of the sort. It appears to be a
faint survival of the old rite, much modified through the influence of
the caste system. Latin literature, so far as I know, refers only to this
rite and has nothing new, except that at this epoch the (warrior caste)
boys at sixteen were admitted into the rank of warriors after proving
their ability at a joust of arms."

(c) Africa. — Frazer tells us that among the Zulus and neighbor-
ing South African tribes when the first signs of puberty appear in a
girl she must hide, not be seen by men, cover her head, lest the sun
shrivel her, and seclude herself for some time in a hut. In New Ire-
land girls at this age are confined for four or five years in small
cages, kept in the dark, and not allowed to set foot on the ground.
These cages are conical, ten or twelve feet in circumference and
seven or eight high, made of pandanus leaves sewed tight, and three
feet from the ground. The cages are very hot, but clean, and the
girls are taken out once a day to bathe ; in these cages they remain
until they are taken out to be married, and attend the great feast
which is a part of this ceremony. Poor people can afford to keep
their daughters thus shut up for only a few weeks, but the time in-
creases with wealth and station.' The Borneo girl is also shut up
at eight or ten; none save a slave waitress must see her, not even

^ Untrodden Fields of Anthropology, vol. ii, p. 197 ei seq.

246 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

her family. Sometimes she remains here six or seven years, doing
handiwork. Her body growth is stunted and her complexion becomes
waxy. On coming out she is shown sun, water, earth, flowers, and
trees as if she were new-born; the great feast is held, a slave killed,
and she is smeared in his blood. In New Guinea, Vancouver, Ceram,
and among some Alaskan tribes, girls are isolated in cells or huts for
periods of varying length. Commonly the longer she stays the greater
honor to her parents. Hoods and veils are worn, that the sun may
not see her.

" From the age of eleven to thirteen among the Pygmies,^ begins,
for individuals of both sexes, a period of abstinence called akayaha,
which for the young girls extends nearly to the time of their mar-
riage and for the young men to the time of puberty. While it lasts
they can not eat turtle, pork, fish, or honey, that is to say, the food
forming the staple of their usual diet. They must also abstain from
the use of certain delicacies, such as the meat of iguana, the larvae of
a large beetle, etc. They may, however, satisfy their hunger with any
other native dishes. This kind of taboo can only be removed by the
chiefs, who keep it in force until the time when the candidates have
given sufficient proof of their perseverance. The akayaha comprises
three periods, named from the three principal kinds of food tabooed
— the meat of the turtle, honey, and the fat of pork kidneys. At the
expiration of the time a feast is celebrated, during which the neophyte
must observe silence, deprive himself of sleep for twenty-four hours,
and then with ceremony eat one of those dishes, the use of which is
henceforth permitted him. The ceremony closes with a special dance,
reserved for these kinds of initiations."

Among the Bechuanas, when boys are admitted to manhood at the
age of about fourteen, they are stripped and stood in a row opposite
an equal number of men, each with a long torch and supple switch.
First they dance the odd Koha, and each boy has a pair of sandals on
his hands. At intervals the men put certain questions to the boys con-
cerning their future, when they are admitted to manhood, e. g., " Will
you herd the cattle well?" "I will," says the boy, lifting his san-
daled hands. The man then strikes with full force at the boy's head ;
the blow is received on the sandals, but the elastic rod curls over
with such force as to make a deep gash on his back from twelve to
eighteen inches long, from which the blood spurts as if it were made
with a knife. The lesson of cattle guarding is thought thus to be in-
eradicably impressed. " Will you guard the chief well ? " etc., and
other questions are repeated through a long series. The boys must
look happy and continue to dance through it all, though their backs
are scarred for life, on pain of rejection. It may be remembered, how-
ever, that where nudity is common the skin seems less sensitive. Only
older and otherwise qualified men can take part. These ceremonies
are kept very secret, and are common to many tribes. At another stage

* Quatrefages : The Pygmies, p. 102.

SAVAGE PUBIC INITIATIONS 247

of the rite boys are gathered together every few years, under the com-
mand of one of the sons of the chief, and taken into the woods by the
old men for some time. What takes place is unknown, but they come
back lean and scarred, and are henceforth comrades and address each
other by a new familiar name.^

" When about fifteen or sixteen years of age Kosa boys are cir-
cumcised. The rite is purely civil ; by it a youth is enabled to emerge
from the society of women and boys, and is admitted to the privi-
leges of manhood. Its performance is attended with many ceremonies,
some of a harmless, others, to European ideas, of a criminal nature.
At a certain period in every year, unless it is a time of calamity or
the chief has a son not yet ready, all the youths of a village who are
old enough are circumcised. Thereafter for a couple of months or
longer they live by themselves, and are distinguished by wearing a
peculiar head-dress and a girdle of long grass about the loins, besides
having their bodies covered with white clay. During this period they
have license to steal freely from their relatives, provided they can do
so without being caught in the act. After returning to their homes
they are brought before the old men of the tribe, who lecture them
upon the duties and responsibilities which they have taken upon them-
selves. Presents of cattle and weapons are afterward made by their
friends to give them a start in life. A free rein is then given to all
kinds of immorality, without let or hindrance from their elders." ^

" Females," says Theal, " who arrive at the age of puberty are in-
troduced into the state of womanhood by peculiar ceremonies, which
extinguish all virtuous feelings within them. Originally, however, the
very worst of the observances on these occasions was a test of self-
discipline. The object of the education which a people like the Kosas
go through is to make a man entirely master of himself. He must be
able to control himself so that no trace of his emotions shall appear
on his countenance ; he must not wince when undergoing the most se-
vere punishment. In olden times a further test was applied, which
has degenerated into the most abominable licentiousness. It will be
sufficient to say that the young women who attend the revels on these
occasions are allowed to select temporary companions of the other
sex, and if they decline to do so the chief distributes them at his pleas-
ure. As these pages are being prepared, a Kosa chief, who is consid-
ered one of the most advanced of his tribe in civilization, has come into
legal collision with the colonial authorities for distributing, in a dis-
trict annexed to the colony, a large number of girls in this manner."

(d) Circumcision. — There is some evidence that circumcision was
common in the age of neolithic man, and it now seems exceedingly
improbable that it originated with the Hebrews. It was practised by
the priests of ancient Egypt, from whom Pythagoras obtained the rite,

1 J. G. Wood : Natural History of Man, vol. i, p. 324 et seq.

2 History of South Africa, by George McCall Theal, London, 1888, vol. ii, p.
205.

248 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

and by the Persians and Phenicians. It is common among the Turks
and most Moslem races, although not commanded by the Koran, and
was adopted by Mohammed for himself probably from a prevailing
custom of ancient Arabia. It is practised by many of the aborigines
of Australia, the Malay tribes, and a number of the native African
races. The best authorities now think it prevailed among the ancient
Aztecs and perhaps the Peruvians, and among certain native stocks of
central North America. While Andree is wrong in calling it " a cus-
tom which extends over the whole world," it is one of the most widely
diffused and persistent of all ancient rites. The medical and an-
thropological literature upon the subject is now extensive, and shows
great diversity concerning both the nature and the manner of the
operation itself, the various instruments in this oldest of surgical proc-
esses, the preparation, curative treatment, and the attendant rituals
and ceremonials sometimes elaborated and exactly prescribed. Its
symbolic significance is subject to manifold interpretations, and its
hygienic and moral bearing was never so actively discussed as at
present.

Circumcision is performed at almost every stage of life ; by the
Hebrews at the age of eight days, by the Turks between the ages of
six and thirteen years, by the African tribes south of the Zambesi
from ten to fifteen, by most of the Malay and native American races
at the same age or a little later, by other tribes just before or after
marriage, or when a certain number of children are born, or on be-
coming a soldier, priest, ascetic, convert, or at senescence. Dr. Re-
mondino,^ from inquiry among physicians, thinks it is extending in
most civilized communities independently of race or creed. That it is
generally and essentially connected with puberty, and that its habitual
occurrence at earlier or later stages can be or should be accounted for,
and indicates a secondary or derived origin, I think any careful and
fair-minded reader of the literature will grant. My reasons for this
view are briefly as follows : where it occurs at the dawn of adolescence,
the ceremonial, the germs of which are often as old as the custom
it attends, is fuller, more prolonged, and more significant ; and even
where it occurs in infancy, the symbolism of the attending liturgy or
ritual refers chiefly to sexual maturity and function. Its transposi-
tion to infancy also seems readily accounted for by reasons of prac-
tical convenience.

It thus marks the advent of youth to the rites of manhood, and is
sometimes essentially civic, political, or social. It may signalize in-
itiation into the secret societies or religious mysteries of the tribe. In
some cases the ceremonies are mainly hygienic or psycho-physiologi-
cal. Occasionally it is associated with gross sensual orgies, but more
often, with higher races, the ritual suggests the higher rather than
the lower life, both of which now become possible. A Madagascar
tribe regards circumcision as making boys into men. Without it, they

1 History of Circumcision, by P. E. Remondino. Philadelphia, 1891, p. 346.

SAVAGE PUBIC INITIATIONS 249

can never become soldiers or govern. The ceremony includes meas-
urement, sprinkling with water, and a formula, " He is not a child,
but a man, breasting a stream ; his money fills a large vault, his house
is crowded with slaves, etc." Bechuana and Kaffir tribes circumcise
boys in the early teens, and set them apart for life as followers of
one of the sons of the chief. They are taken off alone to recover in
huts built for the purpose. Meanwhile old men teach them to dance
and interpret the wisdom of African church and state, while each
youth composes a homily praising himself, is beaten, and later points
with pride to the scars thus left as signs of the thoroughness of his
education. A Peruvian tribe wrap their youths in skins after the
operation, give them presents, and send them to hide in the forest,
there to feast and fatten till they grow weary of idleness. In Aus-
tralia circumcision is a very sacred ceremony, admitting to the rights
and duties of manhood, marriage among the rest.^

Besides the physiological aspect presented in Chapter VI, this topic
has or should be given a higher one. The latest treatise on the sub-
ject that I have read urges that the very first requirement of a cir-
cumciser should be " satisfactory guarantees of a moral life and con-
stant maintenance of an honorable character." Although the writer's
purpose is chiefly medical, this ethical requirement is placed first, sug-
gesting that the symbolic character of the rite predominates over the
physical in the Jewish mind, hardly less than is the case among Chris-
tians with baptism or communion. From the time of Abraham to the
present it has been a sacred blood covenant with Jehovah. On their
part the Jews were to obey his commands and keep his law, and their
promised reward for so doing was that they should be blessed in their
seed, which should be as the stars for multitude. This is still the
blessing possible to those who normalize this part of their nature.
When the latter awakens, the need of control is most imperative till
maturity is complete, and here this rite originally belonged, enforcing
inhibition by the strongest physical and psychic motives. Well admin-
istered, it combines the best yet attainable results aimed at by scores
of savage methods of enforcing chastity for a season by physiologi-
cal and even mechanical restraints, with a Platonic, or, better, an
essentially Christian mode of spiritualizing and long-circuiting what
might be the love of sense into a sacrament. It is almost as if Jeho-
vah's chief interest in man and that of man in him centered about this
biological function and was cemented just at the time of life when the
chief sin against self and the Lord becomes possible.

II. Classical Antiquity. — No pedagogic contrast can be
greater than that between barbaric rites like the preceding and

^ Circumcision, by A. B. Arnold. New York Med. Jour., February 13, i885.
See also Iaff6, Bergson, Terquem, Bernheim, Arnholdt, Clapar^de, Chabas, and
Nogues.

250 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

the mode of inducting youth to manhood which was developed
in classical antiquity. The latter stands in hardly less sharp
contrast to modern methods, and every informed and candid
student of youthful nature and needs must ponder whether we
of to-day have really gained more than we have lost. The best
Attic methods especially stand out in the golden light that in-
vests this land with a perennial and ideal charm. The glory of
Greece is that it best represented and understood youth as no
other age or race has done. It seems a bitter irony of fate
that just the pedagogics that advocate and teach classical
culture are not only dead to this spirit but have lapsed farthest
from it to mere verbalism, as we shall see later.

Few subjects are more difficult or have given rise to more
diversity of conclusion among classical scholars than the de-
tails of the education of pubescent and adolescent boys in
ancient Greece and Rome. Authorities are fragmentary and
contradictory; customs differed in different provinces and pe-
riods; the historical value of Plato and the poets, distinction
between what was exceptional or habitual or merely theoreti-
cal, and differences of rank and wealth are involved. A
Dumont ^ for Attica, and L. Grasberger ^ for all Greece and
Rome, are our best authorities. Chaotic as is the arrangement
and slovenly as is the style of the latter, his work is a monu-
ment of erudition, and seeks to exhaust all the original sources,
although the author is needlessly wary of general conclusions,
and the incessant comparisons between Greece and Rome are

1 Essai sur I'ephebie attique. Paris, 1879.

2 Grasberger, L.: Erziehung und Unterricht im klassischen Alterthum ; Wiirz-
burg, Bd. Ill ; Die Epheben Bildung, 1881. See also Girard, Paul: L'Education
Athenienne au V^ et au IV« siecle avant J.-C. ; Paris, 1889. Hermann: Lehr-
buch des Griechen Privat Alterthums ; 2d ed., pp. 71, 269. Dittenberger : De
ephebis atticis ; Gottingen, 1863. Marquardt: Das Privatleben der Romern, 1886.
Becker, W. A. : Gallus. See also his Charicles. Krause : Gymnastik und Agonistik
bei den Hellenen. Schmidt, K. : Geschichte der Padagogik. Krause, C. J. H.:
Geschichte der Erziehung bei den Griechen, Etruskern, und Romern; Halle, 1851-
Capes, W. W. : University Life in Ancient Athens; New York, 1877. Jaeger, O.
H. : Die Gymnastik der Hellenen; Stuttgart, 1881. Cramer, F. : Geschichte der
Erziehung und Unterrichts im Alterthum, 2 vols. ; Elberfeld, 1832. Helfericht :
Erziehung und Unterricht bei den Romern. Weete : Erziehung und Unterricht
bei den Romern, 1854. Ussing, J. L. : Erziehung und Unterrichtswesen bei den
Griechen und den Romern ; Altona, 1870.

CLASSICAL IDEALS AND CUSTOMS 25 »

confusing. The large features, however, stand out with some
distinctness.

Higher education in Greece or the training of epheboi lasted some
five years, or from the end of a period of more private education to
the beginning of the public life of citizenship vi^ith more or less for-
mal induction to M^hich the years of specific apprenticeship to teach-
ers ended. Politics v^^ere regarded as the highest vocation of man,
vi^hom Aristotle defined as a political animal, and thus the maxim,
non scholcs sed vitcs discimus, v^as valid in both Greece and Rome in
a very different sense than it is in a commercial and industrial age
like our own. Much earlier than now^ boys of antiquity were brought
into close contact with not only governmental matters, but were
trained to become watchmen of the state and zealous custodians of
the commonweal. The beardless ageneioi from sixteen to eighteen
or more often to twenty were a third-class intermediate between boys
and men in the Greek scheme of Agonistik. In Rome the term puer,
boy, was best applied to the first fifteen years of life ; and adulescens
to subsequent years, sometimes to the age of thirty, but was often not
distinguishable from juvenis. In Athens formal induction to the
ephebic status came two years after puberty, and at eighteen, majority
was attained with the civic oath to bear arms for the fatherland. The
ephebic period comprised the age from eighteen to twenty, and else-
where from sixteen to eighteen, and rarely the years of puberty, hebe,
from fourteen to sixteen. In Athens youths were formally accepted
as epheboi at eighteen, and then were for two years watchmen in the
suburbs or at the frontiers as a sort of compulsory military service;
they then took the civic oath in the grove of Agraulos, were inscribed
on the list of burghers, each in his phratry or deme, and enjoyed
more freedom and certain dispensations. The oath was as follows :
" I will never bring disgrace to these arms, nor desert the man next
me in the ranks, but will fight for the sanctities and for the common
good, both alone and with others. I will not leave the fatherland di-
minished, but greater and better (by sea and land) than I received
it. I will listen to those always who have the power of decision,
and obey existing laws and all others which the people shall agree in
ordaining; and if any one would nullify or refuse to obey them, I
will not permit it, but will defend them, whether alone or with others.
I will honor the religion of my native land, witness the gods, Agrau-
los, Enyalius, Ares, Zeus, Thallo, Auxo, and Hegemone." Of this
oath there were many variants, detailed comments, and explanations,
and the gods invoked were agrarian and military and not distinctly
ephebic. It was administered with solemn ceremonial. In Attica the
hair was festively cut, and in Sparta the hair and the beard were now
left to grow. So in many rites of confirmation in the early Christian
Church, as is common in pubescent initiations among savages, the hair
is symbolically cut or dressed. So, too, the ancient Persian investiture

252 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

with the girdle at fifteen is symbolic of becoming a warrior for Or-
muzd, while in India a similar girdle ceremony signifies being twice
born or else entering into a higher caste. In Attica the hair was of-
fered to a mystic river god or some higher deity, to whom perhaps it
had been vowed beforehand. As festive hair-cutting is often a token
of sadness or an offering to the dead, some have fancied here a symbol
of the death of the old self as the higher life of the race is begun.

The chlamys was the distinctive garment of the ephebos. It was
a short war-mantle of Thessalian or Macedonian origin. Its color
was always black in the older, reflecting the serious character of
nearly all earlier festivities, but white in the Roman period. Who-
ever died at this age was buried in the chlamys. Hardly less charac-
teristic was the broad-brimmed traveling hat, and the shield and spear
were the ephebic arms. Ancient art often represents a band around
the forehead and the right hand wrapped in the mantle. After this
oath and equipment, the youth were introduced to the people by the
herald, usually at the festival of Dionysus, just before the tragedy,
after which they were conducted to the first place in the theater es-
pecially reserved for them, where they were chaperoned by the soph-
ronists. Thus the youth became at once a citizen, a soldier of the
army, a member and voter in the popular assemblies, save in Sparta,
where complete citizenship was reserved till the age of thirty. They
were now ceremonially enrolled as either politai or zenoi. In Sparta
the ephehoi were officially inspected every ten days, and ranks were
ordered according to drill and conduct. In Crete chief stress was
laid on military and practical training and a little on literature and
music, as in Athens. Everywhere, however, the institution of the
ephebiate was intended to lay the foundation for a just and virtuous
life. Grasberger (iii, 65) finds it in nearly every part and even
province of Greece.

Antique song, such an integral part of the education of Greek
youth, was chiefly recitative and declamatory, but was not, at the
same time, without features of elaborate ballet and pantomime.
Words, and not music, led, and melody and rhythm were strictly sub-
ordinate to the text. In melic poetry music in this sense was an in-
separable commentary, and the creative element was entirely in the
song of the performer. Instrumental music was a still later offshoot
of song. The dance, too, was in a similar sense auxiliary and an
art of expressing the verbal or dramatic content of a given theme.
The choral rhythm was primarily orchestral and only secondarily
musical ; the gymnastic element was harmoniously welded to the dance
as poetry to music, and the " figures " were expressions of the games
of the pentathlon. " The musical man is a man of culture," and only
grim Mars and Death were quite unmusical. Many plays and games
were with beats and in rhythm. Ball-games, e. g., were the root of
both agonistic and also of orchestral form. Even in battle warriors
were controlled by tone and tact. Religious dances celebrating gods
and heroes were no less common than profane. In Sparta the motto

CLASSICAL IDEALS AND CUSTOMS 253

of the playgrounds was " Strip and join the play, or go." The
standpoint and spirit of the profane orchestras was that of the best
and most vigorous folk-festivals of Europe, and that of the religious
orchestras was cognate with the mysteries of ancient and medieval
times. Harvest and other agrarian celebrations (as described in Era-
ser's Golden Bough, Mannhardt's Feldculte und Baumkultus) were
favorite nuclei for both, but the profane was derived from the re-
ligious, and not vice versa. Poetry, music, and dance were never be-
fore nor since welded into such educative power over the human heart.
The true singer must be a godlike man, whose song must be, like
prayer, a mode of worshiping the gods, or a teacher who forms by
his art the souls of youth. Plato would have songs for each age, and
virtue was taught by the dance. With all these elements the com-
pelling power of music over souls is illustrated by a wealth of legend ;
the martial Phrygian and the massive Doric music were thought to
implant courage and temperance, while the Lydian, Ionian, and orgias-
tic services of the Muses were subversions of virtue. In the early days
dancers sang, sharpened their minds, strengthened their bodies, and
ravished beholders till even Solon would learn a new dance and then
die. Later not only instrumentation but song was delegated to others,
and dancing became more intricate. Love, anger, mourning, and mad-
ness could be represented with such intensity that the postures and
gestures were athletic culture; there were few acts, types of character,
or states of mind that could not be expressed by pantomime, and all of
these gave the best basis for philosophical education and for eloquence.
So lucid was his hand alone, the use of which was at first very
secondary to speech and sense, that Lesbonax was surnamed chei-
risophon, or " wise in gesture," and it was said he could make any-
thing plain to barbarians who spoke an unknown tongue. Nothing
of all that is lost in antiquity, said Buchholtz, would be more desirable
to restore than the choral dance in the age of its glory in Greece.
The prominent dances of the Spartan gymnopsedia were religious and
national, and perhaps began with festive paeans to Apollo; but most
of these were changed by the ephors after the defeat of Leuctra, and
ephebic dances became largely military and with pyrrhic maneuvers,
in which some think strophe and antistrophe were first introduced.
The cults of Apollo and Dionysus were chiefly groups of these acted,
marched, and sung dances. Thus literature was taught, and arithme-
tic and physics were parts of music. There were also song contests
and prizes.

The substance of the literary education of Greek and Roman
adolescents was the reading and explanation of the poets. Here even
history, astronomy, and geography were largely learned. Fortunate
was the poet who was recognized in the curriculum during his life,
and the mind was cast into hexameter and pentameter forms. Till
Solon there was no prose, and it was long in becoming interesting
and dignified with good rhythm and periods. School and poesy were
most intimately unified, and prose was admitted late and with diffi-

254 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

culty. Not only prose, but foreign languages and translations and
even grammar came in after the sophists, and especially in Rome,
realism and such natural science as then existed followed after the
Peloponnesian war for the more mature youth. The sophists con-
tributed greatly to increase the subject-matter, the time and the ex-
pense of adolescent education, and in Greece higher instruction began
with them. They made thinking, speaking, and criticism vocations,
and held that everything could be imparted by teaching, and every-
thing could be proven and also disproven. A doctrinaire ethics took
the place of the dying religious faith, cleverness superseded convic-
tion, learning supplanted creative genius, and, as in all such de-
cadences of culture, adolescents suffered first and most. Eloquence,
which can only flourish in a free state, for the existence of which in
turn it is itself necessary, and which is perhaps in the largest, highest
sense the most worthy and effective way of obtaining and using per-
sonal influence, once so central in the education of youth in the best
period of Greece and Rome, slowly lapsed to rhetoric, and even to
eristics, dialectic and debate, and from this logic was evolved as a set
of rules of the game. Historical narration was often the first step
and improvisation the last in the education of the orator. Imaginary
objects and situations were eulogized or blamed, and accusation, de-
fense, monologues, suasion and declamation, hortatory, imprecatory,
laudatory, casuistic, controversial, epideictic, descriptive, mnemotech-
nic arts, rules for the arrangement of matter, the classification and
use of tropes, and a copious technical nomenclature, were developed.
The so-called myths of Plato are an unique educational device pe-
culiarly fitting to the adolescent mind as a mode of formulating or
rather frescoing the unknown frontiers of human knowledge. Great
principles that meet deep needs of the soul must be clad in fact, and
can not be otherwise presented. The cave and the conversion of its
dwellers from the sight of shadows to the sun ; Er, whose soul visited
the place and scenes of judgment, where also unborn souls choose
their course of life; the two steeds, the one carnal, the other spirit-
ual; Diatima, Aristophanes's tale of the origin of the sex; the develop-
ment of the cosmos in the Timseus; the crises of reversion of all cos-
mic processes in the Statesman ; the culture history in the Protagoras ;
the story of the priest of Sais and the lost Atlantis ; the other world in
the Gorgias and Phaedo, all show consummate pedagogic art in the
scientific uses of the imagination which Deuschle, Westcott, and Vol-
quarsden have helped us to rightly evaluate. We can hardly call them
taken together a systematic whole, or claim that each expresses a
definite and unique human instinct, as enthusiasts have urged; but
they involve a clear sense on Plato's part at once of the limitations
of reason and of the urgent needs of faith. Plato's myths, it has well
been said, are related to his speculation somewhat as legend is related
to history, and are " individual expressions of universal instincts."
Although the facts recorded never happened, they might have hap-
pened many times and at many places. They are not prophecies, nor

CLASSICAL IDEALS AND CUSTOMS 255

are they " a Greek apocalypse." They are not allegories, myths in the
common sense of that term, nor pious frauds. The folk-lore features
of some of them are unified and overlaid with speculative meanings.
They constitute a kind of Platonian theology, quite distinct from his
philosophy, vi^ith wondrous power to allay doubt. Had there been a
Greek revelation we might almost expect it to take some such shape.
So artistic a soul as Plato's must fill even the gaps of his scheme of
things, where philosophy failed, with poetry. With his doctrine of
reminiscences, these additions were not unlike restorations of, e. g.,
the Acropolis, or broken statues in a continuity as true as the human
mind can yet devise. They are what we wish to believe, and are
therefore a broader and deeper expression of humanity and our com-
mon nature and mind than science or history has yet attained, and
their moving and edifying power is so broadening to the feelings and
instincts that they may claim to be part of the true Bible of the heart,
with power to make it more effective for good.

The action of the best of these myths has a sweep that parables
and allegories lack, and they strike deeper into the subsoil of the
soul than the Platonic doctrine of ideas. Nothing is better calculated
to half reveal and half conceal the great ulterior truths of life and mind
that beckon us on, yet bafifle at every point. They are utterly differ-
ent from the finished answers we give to the great nascent interests
of adolescence, for they do not cause a sense of finality, but encourage
the mind to press on. The best things are just beyond the solid limit
of facts, were overpunctilious agnosticism stops, and further growth
in mental power and knowledge may advance us within sight of still
further glimpses and make the future seem vaster and richer than the
past has been. This very attitude constitutes the true adolescence of
the mind. From this standpoint and with this conception of myth,
very different we grant from that generally held, the resolution of all
Christology into myth would be a gain and mark a growth in the
Christian consciousness, would be not merely its revival but its re-
juvenation, and the tedious and paralyzing problem of historical valid-
ity would be transcended by a satisfying conviction of eternal and
profound psychological truthfulness.

Philosophy was the culmination of ephebic education after Soc-
rates. After the Persian war the entire nation turned to the devel-
opment of independent thought. This was the apex of education to
which it had added a newer story, and was the best propaedeutic
for statesmanship. The method of lecture and conversation was well
adapted to secure participation, and both the personal pomp of some
of the sophists and the great simplicity and directness of Socrates
were extremes, both of which were pedagogically very effective. Or-
ganized higher instruction was established first with the founding of
the Academy, and still farther advanced by the Lyceum and the Stoa,
each with a scholiarch at its head and each representing a large vol-
ume of both tradition and knowledge. There were student fraternities
and table companions, journeys together, rival parties urging, one

256 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

the claims of Theseus and the other of Hercules, to be the chief na-
tional hero and ideal of adolescence. The former, represented as in
the bloom of eternal youth, and as the center of some of the most in-
spiring sagas, was especially in Attica a favorite theme of school
declamation. The ancient student associations, the Theseides and He-
rakleidae, no doubt resembled in many respects the Nations, Corps,
Landsmannschafteii, orders, fraternities of the medieval universities,
at least in spirit. There were even excesses, hazing, competition of so-
cieties for newcomers, regulated conflicts, sometimes real terrorism,
broils, tricks, pranks, and practical jokes, sometimes dangerous to life,
to say nothing of stipends, pensions, rules concerning students' debts,
and for the regulations of drinking, feasts, and deposition ceremonials.
Whether Schwarz is right in the opinion that some student initiation
rites now in use are directly from consecration forms of the ancient
mysteries or not, the customs of students have changed hardly more
than their nature since the fourth and fifth centuries.

In the days of the Roman Empire, youth entered upon higher
courses of study at sixteen, and studied from five to eight years. In
Athens, courses began in the fall and continued with brief intervals
till the middle of the summer. Some teachers devoted all their ener-
gies to instruction and commenting on standard writers, and others to
authorship, addressing chiefly posterity. Masses of manuscript ac-
cumulated, many of which were multiplied by the transcriptions of
students. The methods were catechising, disputation, and colloquy,
lectures in the form of both monologue and dialogue, esoteric and
exoteric, but no very definite curriculum was established. The true
education of mankind in both virtue and knowledge was philosophy,
and although its three parts — logic, physics, ethics — were recognized,
it had not been rounded into a system sufficiently complete to be the
basis of a uniform course. As schools multiplied, however, and as
the field of practical activities at the same time increased, philosophy
slowly seemed inadequate as leading to and detaining the mind where
there was everywhere only sky above and sea around and beneath, and
law, medicine, and nature study slowly encroached till at last in Rome
came the formal persecutions of the philosophers with the Christians.
Gymnasiarchs, sophronists, paidonomoi, and ephebiarchs were all
holders of established offices in the service of adolescent youth, with
very definite but now not very well known duties. The last phase
of the Attic ephebiate coincided with the degeneration of gymnastics
and the corresponding change in the Hellenic character, of which
these were both cause and effect. The luxury that developed with the
Roman baths and their association with the gymnasiums was one cause
of its degeneration. Aberrant practises in the education of girls
was another. " Girls who studied geometry grew ashamed to dance,"
and women became erudite when the subject-matter of learning had
become formal and technical and had lost its soul in dilettanteism.
Religious culture, at first cardinal, later decayed, and toleration taught
to hold no creed. The cult of Apollo, which marked the highest point

CLASSICAL IDEALS AND CUSTOMS 257

of religious consciousness among the Greeks, declined. With the
acme of Roman power man was educated not as man, but to serve
the state, and slowly but surely Greece and her influence faded. More
than any other nation she represents the eternally adolescent. Hardly
an important motive in her history, an institution in her whole na-
tional life, a monument of her literature, or an item in the list of her
very errors and vices, that does not in a peculiar and incomparable
sense represent more or less directly the nature, ideals, and needs of
adolescence, so that to exhaust what this land and race has to teach
us concerning this stage of life, her entire story must be retold. Till
Greece can be reproduced, fit educational environment for youth will
not be complete, and in this fact we have a new justification of the
advantages of the study of classical antiquity for youth and a new
unifying standpoint from which to teach it. Without some knowledge
of her poets, dramatists, rhetoricians, historians, philosophers, and
heroes, modern youth is robbed of some of its opportunities, and, I
would add, of its rights, and will be forever less complete than it
would otherwise have been. Even a little epitomized and general
knowledge of the best of what is here offered, if properly impressed
at the fit age, has a quickening power that is simply marvelous.

Bodily and not mental training was the center and beginning of
all. In Sparta, the care and development of the body was the chief
business of life. Greece gives us a new creation of education on a
physical basis. To train the intellect without training the body, not
to mention its education at the expense of the body, would have
seemed an abomination for health, morals, and religion. To sit
much was bad, and " to have the hands and feet soft and the rump
hard from use" (Seneca) was a disgrace. The great games were in
honor of the gods. All who threw the spear, ran, or leaped did so for
the greater glory of deity. The very nakedness of the athlete was a
symbol of sacrifice, and victory was by special divine favor. Youth
were more temperate and less passionate than if obliged to sit all day
in closed spaces. One strong impulse to poetry and to statuary was to
perpetuate athletic victories in story and form. The mind was edu-
cated so that it could take care of and control the body, but body
training was the best mode of mind building. The Greeks held, as
the Turners claim, that man is whole and entire only when he plays.
Games, of which Grasberger gives a list of scores, many of which
fitted Greece as untransferably close as some games of the great Eng-
lish schools fit their form of grounds and buildings, were a dominant
passion of the Greek mind. The Trojan heroes intermitted their war-
fare to celebrate them, as did Xenophon's Ten Thousand their marches.
They were played in old age, and future life for the Greeks provided
for games. Play is the poetry of life, more truly humanistic than lit-
erature itself. The history of motor culture shows, as we saw in
Chapter III, that the neglect and decline of plays and sports and that
of physical education go together. National growth and decay rest
upon this basis, for nations rise and fall as the body is well devel-
56

258 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

oped or neglected, and the stability of culture depends upon the same
condition. To try to educate the mind apart from the body is an ap-
proach to the dark ages and asceticism where this basis was lost.
Starting with the physical, education naturally passes from this fun-
damental to the more accessory mental unfoldment. Indeed, the best
test of the value of body training is its effect on the higher culture,
for which it opens new possibilities. In fine, we have in Greece a
new creation of education on a physical basis with all the new possi-
bilities of culture, the sense of which was never so well developed as
in this land of its origin, where also the higher education was born.
This made its unity and harmony. The " good chest, clear complex-
ion, short tongue,"' which was Aristophanes's characterization of the
ideal ephebos, was due to an ideal blending of nature and art, im-
agination and reason, passion and logic, heredity and training. The
vitality of the ideal is shown by its persistence as the chivalric con-
ception against the monastic down the Middle Ages. The knight's
ideal was not unlike that of the young Greek, " to fight eye to eye,"
and we can not refuse sympathy with the hero of many a joust who
lamented that all the craft and prowess of the best-trained cavalier
could be overcome by so much of the newly invented black powder as
could be put in a woman's thimble.

The state which claimed the Greek youth at eighteen was not so
much a camp or barrack as a pedagogic province, such as is described
in Wilhelm Meister. It was a kind of university, where citizen-
ship was a baccalaureate degree, and its great men a faculty of sages
not so remote from youth as not to be its inspirers and mentors. Till
Plato's educational state and Aristotle, no one had suggested a state
program. Lepelletier has urged that all should be educated by com-
pulsion, but that instruction should be reserved for the fit few. In
Greece nothing was obligatory. There was no danger that the bud-
ding soul would be crushed by the mass of literature, science, and his-
tory forced on unwilling minds by a kind of mental rape, for bookish-
ness was abhorred ; but nowhere was curiosity so intense, all-sided,
and universal. None have so understood or so loved adolescent youth
as the Greeks, so bemoaned the death of those rarely endowed, or so
admired their bodies, so sympathized with their souls, so loved to
teach and incite them to noble deeds. Even military duty was almost
a sacrament for members of the ephebic college. All this freshness,
zest, enthusiasm, and naivete of youth impelled the Greek mind to live
no longer in a world of twilight knowledge, but to push on to en-
lighten and clear up mental vision by the greatest effort the human
spirit has yet made to solve anew the problems of life and death, and
which has added new dignity to human nature. All is to serve and
advance the kingdom of man. The musician who did not strive pri-
marily to make men better by his art, but sought merely to please the
many, was condemned. Theocritus, Virgil, as well as Plato and even
the popular consensus of a higher state of the human race, to which
ideal our Sabbath was originally sacred, the customs of the Satur-

CLASSICAL IDEALS AND CUSTOMS 259

nalia, the glimpses of Hyperboreans, Ethiopians, and all the Ar-
cadias. Golden Ages, and millennia seem less dreamy and more pos-
sible in their best features when we feel most deeply the vitality of
the sudden push upward toward a larger estate and higher dignity of
human nature nowhere so manifest as in the eternally adolescent of
Greece.

The military character of ephebic education in ancient Greece and
Rome has no analogue in modern times. Fighting involved the use
of arms of various sorts, and strength and skill in close personal en-
counter, which decided battles, was the dominant idea in the palestra.
The ephebic regimen was a political novitiate and also a school of
tactics, fortifications, camp life, and of parades and festivals. It was
boy-breaking to civic life. Youth were watchmen and did police
duty, were guardians of the sacred mountains, household gods, na-
tional treasures and palladia, and had patrol duties, often changed,
so that in their wanderings much geography was learned, and there
was much night duty and in the dark, for even city streets had no
lights. In extreme military need boys of sixteen could be called to
actual war, and in general the duties of Greek were not very differ-
ent from those of Persian youth as described by Xenophon, although
the latter held hunting, with great system and detail, to be the best
preparation for war. Most smaller Greek states had athletic excur-
sions and traveling marches, and sometimes even mimic warfare, to
season the body and soul of youth, and an outdoor life of action was
almost universal. Fighting in full and heavy armor, hoplomachy,
which Plato praised as a noble art, came somewhat later. Only while
the Greek national character was developing was the institution of
the ephebiate seen at its best, and with the beginning of the decline
it at once began to show signs of decay. Special military exercises
are described, as stabbing a post, shooting with the bow, hurling spears
of various sizes and forms, slinging, fort-fighting, and several styles
of wrestling, leaping, and running. These and other exercises had
often as their goal and motive future participation in the pentathlon,
which was variously composed at different periods of Greek history.
There was also special training in swimming and nautics, as rowing
and sailing, and riding and driving, preparatory to chariot-racing in
the circus and mimic battles.

Music, the orchestral culture of adolescence in Greece which sup-
plemented the athletic training, making a harmony of body and mind,
began in ancient times with the culture of the sages and the lyre and
pipe. Music was not yet independent of words, but, together with
gesture, dance, and processionals, reenforced and " sweetened " speech.

Among the Romans, the end of the period of education at about
seventeen was marked by a change of costume. Free-born boys and
girls wore the toga prcstexta, of Etruscan origin, with a broad pur-
ple stripe, with the bulla aurea, a spherical ornament made of two
concave gold plates and containing an amulet. Later the children of
the rich, or bullati, also wore it. It was suspended by a band around

26o THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

the neck, and was a symbol of honor and fidehty. About the end of
the sixteenth year the bulla was laid aside and the all-white toga of
manhood, toga piira, toga virilis, vestis pura, was assumed in its place.
Just when the change should be made was determined chiefly by the
father. Caligula assumed it in his nineteenth year, Nero, Commodus,
and Caracalla in the fourteenth, etc. The age of eighteen was plena
pubertate. Only in the days of the empire did the Roman jurists fix
the lower limit of puberty at the end of the fourteenth year for boys
and of the twelfth for girls. The ceremonial was usually at the fes-i
tival of Liberalia, March 17th. In his new toga libera, the juventus^
laid off before the Lares of his house the insignia pueritice, especially
the bulla, which was hung up over the hearth as a gift to the house-
hold gods. Next morning the youth, now called vesticeps or investis,
accompanied by relatives and friends, went to the Forum. This was
a symbol of his first public act, and was called tirocinium fori. The
procession went to the capitol, sacrificed to Jupiter and Liber, and the
name of the tiro was inscribed in the tribal list of citizens by an aedile
acting for a tribune. After an offering the day was closed by a re-
past, often elaborate, more or less public, and with some of the features
of a wedding feast. Rich people gave gifts and entertainments to
the people. With this ceremony all instruction provided by the parents
ended, and further education was left entirely to the youth himself.
The father was no longer responsible for his acts, but with complete
freedom came now also full legal responsibility. Adults no longer
talked with the former prescribed reserve in his presence ; he could
frequent all public places, and participate in games before forbidden.
The chief choice was now between a military or a legal or forensic
career. In the first case the military service by elite youth was not
that of common soldiers but of companion or contubernalis in a gen-
eral's cohort, although even here rhetoric and declamation had some
place. For the other career private apprenticeship and instruction
with some jurist or statesman for at least a year was customary. A
blunt-pointed spear was given as a symbol of the right of might and
of property, and was carried especially on parades and in triumphs.
As in the Middle Ages, the bestowal of a horse was a token of eleva-
tion to knighthood, and deprivation of it a sign of expulsion ; so witii
the spear among Roman youth. The sacrament was the regular oath
for entrance to the army, and the jusjurandum was a camp oath made
on special military occasions. The strictness of military discipline
for these Roman youth was great, and they must faithfully serve the
emperor as if he were a god. To be a Roman soldier was a high honor.
The members of the old legions were full Roman citizens, and fidelity
to the standard here cultivated later shaped the idea of a soldier of
Christ in the Church militant.

III. Of the practices of medieval knighthood we know
little, but it is plain that they were quite as much classic as

CLASSICAL IDEALS AND CUSTOMS 261

Christian in spirit. From the eleventh century through the
feudal period, lords opened schools in their castles for the sons
of their vassale. From the age of about seven to fourteen they
attended ladies, and were taught obedience and courtesy as well
as games, music, and religion. The young boy often chose a
lady for his particular attention, so that his first thoughts were
those of love, honor, bravery, and gallantry. The page was
made a squire at the age of fourteen, and then had to attend his
lord in battle or tourney, and keep near him to help or protect.
After seven years of this work, at the age of twenty-one, he
was knighted with solemn and imposing ceremonies. A day
and night were spent in fasting, prayer, confession, and watch-
ing, and in the morning, after a bath, the candidate was
dressed in new white robes — a satin vest, embroidered in gold,
and a leather collar over his coat of mail. The Holy Sacra-
ment was given, and then he was taken to the church and ex-
amined by the priest. If found worthy, he took " vows to be
a brave, loyal, generous, just, and gentle knight, a champion
of the Church, a redressor of the wrongs of widows and or-
phans, and a protector of ladies " ; then the priest, after bless-
ing his sword, hung it about the new-made knight's neck. The
ceremony was completed by handing him his spear, helmet,
shield, and spurs. Then the prince or king who gave the honor
of knighthood to the youth struck him on the neck with the
flat of his sword, saying, " In the name of God, St. Michael,
and St. George, I make thee a knight ; be valiant, courteous,
and loyal."

The youth's mind was saturated with tales of knight-
errantry, of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table,
and the Quest of the Holy Grail, and taught the old Teutonic
love of women, arms, and the gods. This system constituted
perhaps the brightest spot in the dark ages, produced charac-
ters like Bayard and Sidney, and the ideal of a gentleman,
until the invention of gunpowder and the appearance of Don
Quixote gave it its death-blow.

IV. The Jewish and Christian religions have always
recognized the critical nature of this epoch and its peculiar temp-
tations and invoked the aid of transcendental motives before in-
telligence and self-control are able to cope with the strong new

262 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

instincts that now spring into life. Hence a religious majority is
celebrated in the early teens, when the young become members
of the religious community as well as of the home, and parents
seek divine and ecclesiastical cooperation in the further nurture
of their offspring. The ideas and rites that follow, which I
have described sympathetically, have not only a profound re-
ligious but also an anthropological, psychological, and peda-
gogic interest.

(A) The Old Testament tells us little concerning the special train-
ing of adolescents. When the open vision had been sealed up because
of the wickedness of Israel, the ofifice of prophet was first established
in the youth Samuel, who was thrice called in the night, who fore-
told the swift destruction of Eli and his house, and became the pio-
neer and in a sense the founder of the school of the prophets in which
the ancient Hebrew spirit reached its highest expression. The picture
of Jesus in adolescent years discussing the highest themes with the
doctors in the temple suggests at once the care of Jewish training and
the characteristic gravitation of the soul at this age to fundamental
religious and philosophical questions and insights.

While the Jews have always attached the greatest importance to
the early training of youth in their sacred writings,^ the oldest form
of confirmation, the Bar Mitzvah or son of the commandment, did not
become current before the fourteenth century, but is still observed by
the majority of Jews the world over." Up to the age of thirteen the
father is responsible for his son's acts, but now by this ceremony he
attains his religious majority. In a special form of benediction the
father renounces or transfers responsibility from himself to the child.
The ceremony is simple. The Sabbath after his thirteenth birthday
the youth appears at the reader's desk, wrapped in his talith, and pro-
nounces the ritual benediction of the prayer-book. If he is a student
of the torah or law, and is advanced enough, he reads a few chapters
in Hebrew and the prophetic portion of the day, and if a student of
the Talmud, he discourses on some knotty point of his own selection,
either at the close of the service in the synagogue or at home after-
ward in the presence of the rabbi. In any case he then becomes a
member of the congregation, wears his own phylacteries at morning

^ See titles on the History of Education among the Ancient Hebrews in my
Bibliography of Education, pp. 6-7.

^ I am chiefly indebted for this account to Rabbi I. M. Wise, Rabbin G. Gott-
heil, of Temple Emanuel, New York; and also to Rabbin D. Philipson, of Cin-
cinnati, I. S. Moses, and J. Stolz, of Chicago, C. Fleischer, of Boston, and others;
also to a somewhat copious literature of articles, most of which they have named,
and to many manuals in current use.

CHURCH CONFIRMATION 263

service, and may be called to the desk to read the law or say the bene-
diction. Girls attain their legal majority a year earlier, but although
they are carefully trained the event is marked by no ritual. The age
and the rites are based on Oriental ideas and conditions.

This, however, all the reformed and many conservative Jews now
regard as a soulless, worn-out tradition of rabbinism; they hold that
the age should not be fixed, but that it depends on the capacity of the
child, and should be generally later, setting thirteen as a suitable min-
imum age. The new forms of confirmation were first practised at
Cassel, in 1810, and have since spread for several decades, not with-
out much opposition, as a servile imitation of Christianity and for-
eign to the spirit of Judaism. At first the new ceremonial was per-
formed not in the synagogue, but in the schoolhouse, not by the
rabbi, but by the teacher, and on boys only ; it was first performed in
America by Dr. Max Lilienthal in New York in 1846.^ It is now not
a ceremony but a kind of official conclusion of the training of the
Sabbath-school, the first public religious act of the child, inducting
him to full and complete membership of the synagogue and to a re-
ligion that is not mere legalism, a ceremony of acts, but " a religion
of the spirit whose mission is to realize the prophetic ideals of one
God and one mankind." It is thus an impressive ceremonial, whereby
the confirmants make a self-actuated profession of belief and declare
their purpose to uphold the principles of Judaism.

The earlier stages of preparation for confirmation are represented
by graded classes, held on Sabbath mornings and sometimes during
week-days, generally limited to children of members of the congrega-
tion, who enter at from eight to ten years of age. Each of the four
or five grades in the best Jewish schools has its own room, the chil-
dren are marked and promoted from one section to another, pass oral
and sometimes written examinations, and in all other respects the
methods and principles are those of the public schools. Part of this
time is devoted to the Hebrew language, as a bond uniting a dispersed
people with each other and with their antiquities. The rabbi him-
self commonly devotes much attention to the school. Sometimes sub-
stantial prizes are offered to stimulate competition. The first year's
work in the best schools is largely the biographies of the heroes of
the Old Testament, the history of which is followed. The last week or
two is devoted to post-Biblical history, mainly of the Jews, but includ-
ing Christianity and Mohammedanism, and incidentally considerable
general European history through the Christian centuries, with some
attention to secular Jewish literature. The Old Testament is taught
intensively and well, but mainly as literature, and the chief services
of the Church are also taught in the Hebrew language. The relative
absence of dogma is a chief feature of the work. The chief doctrines
taught are: God, his unity, wisdom, goodness, justice, and fatherhood;

^ See Dr. David Philipson : Confirmation in the Synagogue, Cincinnati, 1890,
and Rabbi I. M. Wise : Essence of Judaism.

264 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

man's duty to confess, obey, and love him ; the immortality of the soul,
and duties to our fellow-men, to self, and country.

Confirmation classes are formed, a few months before the cere-
mony, of children whose mental and moral maturity is deemed suffi-
cient. Here, besides a general review, the higher meaning of the
chief movements of Scripture is impressed, and also the nature of
Abraham's call, the significance of Moses's life and legation, the mes-
sage of the prophets, the idea of revelation, the meaning of the Jewish
idea, its relation to its future, the festivities and the Ten Command-
ments ; passages of Scripture and ritual are memorized, and then,
sometimes after a special examination, the postulants are ready for
the ceremonial. These months are a season of probation, and any
serious misconduct is followed by relegation to the next lower
class.

The day set apart for the ceremony of confirmation is the Feast
of Pentecost, on which the synagogue commemorates the revelation of
the law on Sinai, and also the establishment of the covenant of Israel
with God to be his chosen people. Confirmation is treated as a re-
newal of that covenant. The children come and sit with their parents
during a special service, considerably varied in different synagogues.
Later they pass to the vestry and file in with the rabbi and school
officers, to music. The sacred scroll of the law is taken from the taber-
nacle and read. Then follow impressive responses, prayers, exhorta-
tions, and sermon, and sometimes flower offerings, symbolic of those
of slain victims upon the altars of old ; and then, with benediction and
chant, the purpose of which is to confirm the ancient vow of Horeb
to serve God alone, the children are returned, past the open ark one
by one, to their parents, who are told to lay on their heads, in sacred
blessing, the hands that toiled for, guarded, and nursed them through
infancy and illness. This, in the services where it occurs, is perhaps the
most touching and impressive ceremony of the year. The afternoon is
sometimes spent with orphans in the asylum, for one or more of whom
each class had perhaps assumed the responsibility, where they are en-
couraged to express the first fruits of the new life and feelings of the
day in some act of charity, perhaps making presents of dresses like
their own, so that the difference between poor and rich is no longer
seen, etc.

These ceremonials have occasionally of late suggested to some the
dangers of pomp and display, and have evoked protests that this is
not an entertainment or exhibition, with brilliant receptions, vulgar
display of presents, and extravagant dress. Such perversions seem,
however, to be exceptional, and the predominant purpose is to work
on the inner and not the outer sense, to appeal to the heart, and to
start religious currents in the life and mind. Vows at this tender age
are generally disapproved. No creed is formulated, for Judaism is the
" least dogmatic of all religions," but the higher vocation of man is
to be felt and striven toward as a dim and distant goal. While this
ceremony is not passed even by all the children of the congregation,

CHURCH CONFIRMATION 265

it is earnestly advocated for every Jew by birth who has not apos-
tatized by dehberate choice.

In recent years post-confirmation classes for further work are often
formed for still older children. It is felt that while childhood is re-
ceptive and credulous, and puberty is a period of doubt and reaction,
that there is a higher and later standpoint of ripe, reasoned, and set-
tled conviction beyond cult and form, and that it is a mistake to leave
children in the " Flegeljahre," when not only doubt but temptation
is strongest. Such classes already exist in some places as an integral
but kind of post-graduate department of the Sabbath-school. Here
the history of other ancient Oriental nations is studied, with some-
thing about antiquities and excavation, some philosophy of religion
and comparative religion, Milton, and modern Jewish literature, with
a view to counteract the crude infidelity which in our age is so often
rankly rife in callow adolescents.^

(B) Confirmation is one of the seven sacraments of the
Catholic Church, by which the Holy Ghost is received, which
it is a sin for any parent to neglect, and in which, some think,
centers the very heart and soul of the best that is in Catholi-
cism.

It is also often called a mission, and its inspiration in most Catho-
lic treatises on the subject is directly traced to the sayings of Jesus :
" Suffer little children to come unto me, and forbid them not : for of
such is the kingdom of God " ; " Out of the mouth of babes and
sucklings thou hast perfected praise " ; " Except ye be converted and
become as little children, ye shall not enter into the kingdom of
heaven " ; "I thank thee, O Father, Lord of heaven and earth, that
thou hast hid these things from the wise and prudent, and hast re-
vealed them unto babes " ; " Whoso shall receive one such little child
in my name receiveth me " ; " Whoso shall offend one of these little

^ In a curious and learned book, Leopold Low (Die Lebensalter in der Jiidi-
schen Literatur; Szegedin, 1875, p. 457) compiles from ancient Talmudic and
other sources an account of how the Jews regarded and treated each stage of life,
and gives quite a full account of how the Katan or boy became a Gadol or attained
a kind of preliminary majority at puberty. The ages of six, thirteen or fourteen,
twenty and thirty-six were especially marked stadia toward maturity. In early
times puberty was determined by individual signs of ripeness, but legalistic tenden-
cies later tended to fix an age and were attracted to fourteen as twice the sacred
number seven. The Miskfta and Geinara differed somewhat, but in general the
boy of this age began to acquire property rights, could make contracts, not, how-
ever, unannullable, and the goods he could own were indicated. He could give
testimony as a witness but was not fully responsible at law till twenty. The ritual
college prescribed new functions in the synagogue, and full religious accountability
was slowly developed as a progressive emancipation.

266 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

ones which beheve in me, it were better for him that a millstone were
hanged about his neck and that he were drowned in the depth of the
sea"; "Take heed that ye despise not one of these little ones; for I
say unto you, That in heaven their angels do always behold the face
of my Father which is in heaven." The divinity of childhood as sug-
gested in such passages is interpreted by the Church to imply a some-
what mystic power of deep internal appropriation of symbols, rites,
and even dogma, more akin to Wordsworth than to the modern meth-
ods of secular pedagogy.

The age of confirmation differs. In Italy, where the mind develops
very early, the lowest age at which it may be received is fixed at
seven. In France and Belgium children can not be confirmed before
ten. In this country eleven or twelve may be called the minimum age.
There must be no time lost with the children. Early impressions sink
deepest. As soon as they are able to receive the eucharist with a
fair degree of appreciation the sacrament should be administered.
Indeed, the priest, who alone has the power to admit, while having
some discretion, is generally thought negligent if children of sixteen
or seventeen in his parish are not confirmed, except for special cause.
Stated preparation is prescribed for deaf-mutes and even for the
feeble-minded, for whom a so-called " fool's catechism " of the simplest
and most essential truths is provided. Those who do not honor their
parents, refuse to attend mass, eat flesh-meat on Friday, steal or are
unchaste, should be kept waiting, lest they profane the holy table.
Childish lies, obstinacy, or lack of devotion should not bar them from
the chief source of help against their faults, which might be aug-
mented by delay.

The essential preparation for first communion and confirmation is
a knowledge of the catechism. In insisting upon this as basal, the
voice of the Church has been practically unanimous from the time of
Origen and the famous catechetical school of Alexandria, and from
Augustine, who consecrated the first years of his episcopate to com-
posing his treatises on catechizing, down to Fenelon and Bossuet, and
even to the present time. While there have been periods of decline,
and eminent prelates have sometimes failed to see its dignity and im-
portance, men like Gerson, chancellor of the University of Paris,
found in catechizing children the chief source of comfort in their de-
clining years, and by a decree of the Council of Trent every pastor
was ordered to administer the catechism for children with care, at
least on Sundays and other holy-days. This was speedily ratified and
detailed by provincial councils and synods throughout the world. Car-
dinal Bellarmine devoted himself with ardor to this work in person.
St. Ignatius bound himself with a vow to this office, and each Jesuit
priest still acts for forty days as catechist when he begins his charge.
Xavier, too, thus began his great mission, and Romilion and the found-
er of the Ursulines devoted themselves to it. The work was reformed
in the seventeenth and in part recreated in the nineteenth century, but
the catechetical traditions have been strong and constant, and there

CHURCH CONFIRMATION 267

has always been a body, never so large as now, of devoted nuns and
priests who, as Plato's Republic first suggested, renouncing family
ties, have turned that same rich and deep tide of affection, which most
spend on spouse and offspring, to this holy apostolate of childhood and
youth, as their sweetest and dearest life-work in a way that has not
only supplemented, but quickened, instructed, and elevated parental
love, and helped to build up the holy city of " Man-Soul " in the heart.
It is to this long-circuiting and sublimation of the sexual and parental
instinct that I ascribe the entirely unique character that pervades the
labor and writings of the great child-lovers in Catholic Christendom,
and which merits the reverent and prolonged attention of all who
study other systems than their own, to realize ideals, to learn their
strength and their virtue rather than to conform old prejudices by
listing the more superficial defects, perversions, and failures.

The catechism must be learned with great verbal accuracy, be-
cause it is the standard of religious knowledge. It contains sublime
answers, that children can be made to feel the sense of, " to every
question of interest to man." It is a high philosophy of life, so fit
and admirable that not one syllable of it must be changed, although it
is seasoned with much of explanation and illustration. It is often
begun festively, and the work is interposed with song and story. By
the " billet " system children sometimes appear dressed as angels, and
recite the answers as if they were just revealed from heaven. The
best catechetical tradition of the Church has been carefully preserved,
and is even now being developed more vigorously than for some cen-
turies. There are several Catholic catechisms, but they differ only
in the amount of matter included, ranging from elementary work,
containing a few topics, to those of Deharbe, Jouin, Gaume, and
Schouppe, which are for the last year of study or for the post-con-
firmation classes, now strongly advocated, and often formed. The
catechism of the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore is the American
standard, and is a pocket volume of seventy-two pages. First are
ten chief prayers, to which some would devote the entire primary
year. The chief topics in order, taught by questions and answers, are :
the end of man, God, unity and trinity, creation, first parents, the fall,
sin, incarnation, redemption, the passion, death, and ascension, the
Holy Ghost, the Church and its marks, and each of the sacraments in
detail, viz., baptism, confirmation, eucharist, penance, unction, holy
orders, and matrimony. Then follow mass, prayers, each of the Ten
Commandments in detail, the last judgment, hell, purgatory, and
heaven. Sometimes the catechumens are stimulated by marks, rank,
prizes, examinations and charts, the bell and blackboard, and the vast
repertory of the many thousand lives of the saints, those arsenals of
virtue, the best of which are often calendared one or more for each
day in the year, is sometimes utilized. The central theme of cate-
chetical inculcation and also of early influences of the Church is sin
and the divine and human instrumentalities by which its results are
removed. Confirmation is a renewal by children of the vows made for

268 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

them by others in infancy at baptism, which meant purification from
ancestral sin/

This work is done less comprehensively than in countries where
there are no parochial schools, and it must be limited to Sunday.
Often the work is more or less graded. When the work of the regu-
lar teachers approaches completion, special confirmation classes are
formed of those thought fit, and the priest takes the children for a
few months of review, and more intensive and extensive instruction,
often twice a week. Just preceding the rite itself as a special prep-
aration for first communion, comes the retreat, by which children are
withdrawn into the sanctuary of the soul, and which seeks for a sea-
son of from two to four or five days to snatch them from the outward
life and from association with other children, to bring them face to
face with God and self, and to impress them with the sense that some-
thing serious and momentous is transpiring within. The catechism
has been learned, and the soul is tender and ripe for the deepest im-
pressions as never before or after. It has many varieties, but in a
true retreat, by a good leader, the children devote the best part of the
morning, afternoon, and evening to receiving the strongest impres-
sions of sin, death, salvation, and judgment, but without undue fatigue
or fear. Prayers, admonition, meditation, and sometimes the noting
of their impressions and experiences in individual books (a method
said to be full of suggestion for the instructors and of great present
and even greater subsequent value to the child, in keeping alive the
freshness and purity of first religious emotion), special hymns, the
sentiments of which are impressed and explained beforehand, care-
fully selected and told stories of saintly heroes of virtue, and alle-
gories, are all directed to produce a silent revolution of the soul or a
veritable conversion. They are told that Jesus is now passing, knock-
ing at their hearts, nearer than ever before or after; that they must
choose between good and evil, and declare in their hearts eternal war
with sin. The exercises begin Sunday, and last till confirmation day,
which is Thursday. The battle with sin in the soul becomes most in-
tense on Tuesday, especially in the afternoon, when sometimes the
crucifix is draped in black and death is impressed as the doom of all;
there are tears and warnings, lest each child may not make a true
communion, and the sermonettes to them are most austere and
penitential. The suffering and death of Christ is made objective,
vivid, and impressive, and the sentiment of pity which, deepened to
pathos, is one of the most powerful sentiments of the soul, which
after Emperor Otho's death prompted many to slay themselves for
sheer compassion, the Church knows best how to utilize for good. The

^ I have corresponded with many eminent American Catholic prelates, to whom
I am much indebted, and have examined many manuals in several languages, espe-
cially those by Rev. T. L. Kinkead, M. Noel, Mons. Dupenloup, Rev. D. J. Scholt,
I. Reuter, S. I. Ratistinae, Father Thurston; and other works by Rev. A. G.
Mortimer, L'Abbe Laden, M. J. Lavelle, etc.

CHURCH CONFIRMATION 269

director is sad and overwhelmed, lest their hearts be not really hum-
bled, broken, and contrite. Eternal salvation is at stake, and the hor-
ror of a sacrilegious communion must be deeply felt. Each child files
up and kisses the crucifix, but at the evening service, after all have
received absolution, all is joy, and the service is beautiful and grand.
Past sins are pardoned, and they then and there begin a new life.
Something divine has passed over the soul, and each is restored to
goodness.

Just before the ceremony of confirmation every child must make
a general confession, covering all it can recall of its past life. Con-
fession is usually the Catholic child's first personal contact with the
Church, and is commonly advised as early as seven or eight, because
he can then sin and repent. While he must rather die than betray
the secrets of adults, a good confessor must keep the confidences of
this tender age also strictly inviolate, and may be a beneficent spir-
itual father of childhood if he has the rare gift of keeping in sym-
pathetic rapport with it. Always, and of course especially now, at
this chief confession of a lifetime, he will strive, first of all, while
exerting the utmost care to ask no questions that may suggest error or
sin not previously known, to encourage each child to unburden his
conscience as honestly and unreservedly as possible. To acknowledge
a fault is to get it outside the better, inmost self, to begin to loosen
a burden, and to molt the old ego. If frank, the besetting sins are
seen, and the process of alienation begins. Real regret is almost sure
to follow, and care is taken that it be poignant, but not excessive or
morbid, for remorse, always a feeling of doubtful utility, is not for
this age. Wrong is deplored, because not only odious to a sinless
heavenly Father, but as in the face of infinite goodness and love
toward each person. After dealing discreetly and tenderly with the
nascent conscience, judging considerately causes and occasions of er-
ror, and generating not only repentance but good resolution, penances
are imposed. These are sometimes a given number of repetitions of
prayers, learning hymns, refraining from dessert for a time, a brief
daily season of self-communion, acts of self-sacrifice or service, that
the fresh impulses to right may find some expression before they fade.
Penance, too, must be administered with great wisdom and adapta-
tion to the nature, needs, and surroundings of the individual child.
Lastly comes the priestly absolution from past sins, and the candi-
date, pure and white of soul indeed, is ready for the ceremonial sac-
rament.

The day of first communion and confirmation, on which children
are to receive God in the eucharist, and to first taste the bread of
angels at the divine banquet of paschal communion, marks the epoch
when God takes possession of their chastened souls. The ceremonial
is a very special one for Church and family. It must be brilliant, and
with much outer pomp. Synods have declared that it must be " cele-
brated with all possible solemnity," for children's senses are at their
keenest, and they need external show. After final instruction con-

270 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

cerning their part and bearing during the ceremonial, they enter the
church in solemn procession and kneel in a line, the girls in white, as
a symbol of their new sinlessness, on the left of the sanctuary, and
the boys, in their best and darkest clothes, on the right. There are
sometimes certificates of confession. There are veils suggesting be-
trothal to Christ and the Church, candles reminiscent of the catacombs
where the Church was cradled, and symbols of the true light of truth,
their very wax, according to some liturgists, being an allegory of the
virginity of bees and of flowers, and the flame, of both the glory and
suffering of Christ, and the altar, which has always been a table on
a tomb.

Only a bishop can administer confirmation, and he makes episcopal
visitations for this purpose to each parish, at intervals varying some-
what with its size. The pontifical vestments are the miter or duplex
crown, the mozetta, symbolizing the light on Moses's brow when he
came from Sinai, the amice or allegorical shield, the tunic, which re-
calls the seamless robe woven for Jesus by his mother Mary, that was
not rent by the earthquake of the crucifixion, and for which the sol-
diers cast lots, the cincture of continence and self-control, the stole,
since the eighth century representing immortality, and always to be
put on with a stated prayer, and the cope, the significance of which
has been lost; he carries the crozier or pastoral staff, the symbol of
his authority. He lays aside his miter, and turning from the altar
raises his hands in benediction. He then explains the nature of the
sacrament, invokes all to make good use of its graces, and prays from
the ritual that the Holy Ghost, the descent of which is the chief and
central end of the ceremony, may rest upon the confirmed, as at Pen-
tecost, with all its fulness of gifts. Then, approaching the first boy
in the line, he dips his right thumb in a golden vessel held by a min-
istrant and containing chrism of oil and balm, the consecration of
which by the bishop forms one of the ceremonies of Holy Thursday,
and anoints each, in the form of a cross, on the forehead, to indi-
cate that he must openly profess and practise the faith, never be
ashamed of it, and die rather than deny it, saying, Signo te signo
crucis et coniirmo te chrismate salutis in nomine Patris et Filii et Spir-
itus Sancti. Then, making the sign of the cross over the person, he
gives him a slight blow on the cheek to suggest that he must be ever
ready to suffer all things for the sake of Christ, saying at the same
time, Pax tecum. The assistant wipes the oil, while the bishop passes
to the next. Like baptism, confirmation calls for sponsors, but of late in
America it is customary to have but two, a male adult for all the boys
and a female for the girls. The sponsor stands behind and lays his
hand on the right shoulder of each during this rite. While this cere-
mony is often performed with low mass and hymns, it is better with
the choir and organ of high mass, and comes after the three Kyries,
the Gloria in excelsis Deo, and Credo, with the offertory and preface;
sometimes the Vcni Creator Spiritus is here sung, and then, after
the Sanctus, and the elevation of the sacred Host and the consum-

CHURCH CONFIRMATION 271

mation of the eternal miracle of transubstantiation, the acts of con-
firmation are recited by the children, who at the supreme moment go
forward and partake of the blessed eucharist, receiving God into their
hearts entire, although under but the one form of bread, when the
Agnus Dei is sung. Sometimes another mass of thanksgiving is cele-
brated immediately afterward by another priest. The catechists then
lead the children out of the church, where their parents await and em-
brace them with tears, while priests and teachers return sadly to pray
alone before the deserted and silent altar. Often they are sent out
later in the day to do works of charity while the dew of consecration
is fresh on their souls.

Many accessories are modified, and in large places supplementary
services are held in the evening. Vespers and often the Magnificat
are intoned with responsions, a sermon is addressed to the children,
admonishing them to renew their baptismal vows, perhaps the for-
mula of consecration is recited by boys selected beforehand, and all
are formally recommitted to their parents, who are charged to keep
them as pure and religious as at that moment. Souvenirs and often
symbolic presents are given, very tastefully illustrated diplomas or
certificates picturing the ceremonies of baptism, first communion, and
confirmation, and there may be supplementary services next day.

The young communicant has now received the baptism of fire, as
formerly of water, and is under renewed and greatly increased obliga-
tion to observe fasts and festivals, to frequent confessions, which
every good Catholic must attend at least annually, and is in a position
to receive by grace the seven gifts of the Holy Ghost, which are wis-
dom, understanding, counsel, fortitude, knowledge, piety, and fear of
God, that he may bear in their due season the twelve fruits of the
spirit, which are charity, joy, peace, patience, benignity, longanimity,
goodness, mildness, fidelity, modesty, continency, and chastity, the
names of which have been memorized in early childhood, illustrated
later in Bible stories and lives of the saints, and if the proper stage
of higher scholastic study is reached are found still later to be the
basis of instruction in the systematic theological ethics of Aquinas.

To receive the sacrament with the consciousness of unforgiven
sin would be a sacrilege, and for its worthy and fruitful reception the
subject must be in a state of grace. Although confirmation and the
work of the Sunday-school, all of which leads up to it, is the palla-
dium of the faith which no child of Catholic parents must omit,
there is a growing sentiment, especially in this country, that effective
as all this is, the children must not be left at the dawn of adolescence
without further guidance, and hence in many places societies of per-
severance have been instituted, where studies of the ecclesiastical year.
Church history, selected points of canon law, hymnology, written ac-
counts of festivals, and a better understanding of the orders, insti-
tutions, and rites of the Church are imparted, and each engages in
works of beneficence and additional retreats. Some have lately advo-
cated so great an innovation as Sunday-school libraries, and urged

272 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

that whereas the Church has hitherto been far more prominent than
the Scriptures, a graded course be conducted in first-hand study of
both the Old and New Testaments, which are usually reserved from
direct use by children, at least till these post-communion classes, which
should be attended till marriage. The age of temptation to sin, it is
well said, is not ended but just beginning, and the influence of re-
ligion so well inaugurated should be sustained till character is set-
tled. Sometimes these are called Christian academies, and there are
first aspirants, then candidates, then auditors, and then full acade-
micians, a title especially prized in France; there are conferences,
debates, and honors, and various confraternities, sodalities, and clubs.
Precedents of these abound, for St. Sulpice, St. Charles Borromeo, St.
Vincent de Paul, and many others, were devoted to this work in the
past, and young people attended up to the age of twenty or even twen-
ty-five.

In 1884 the three hundredth anniversary of the foundation of a
Society of the Annunciation, which has multiplied in all Catholic
lands under the title of Sodalities of the Blessed Virgin, was observed.
These are for adolescents, and there are branches for either sex. The
papal bull creating them refrained from prescribing details of either
plan or purpose^ so that there are many local differences. Their gen-
eral purpose is to quicken piety, charity, and personal purity of heart
and life by increasing devotion to the Holy Mother, who asks the
young to join their hearts day by day to a more perfect likeness of
her divine Son. They are especially designed for youth from fourteen
to twenty, but there are branches for older youth in colleges, and even
for children who are younger. Constant war against passion, an an-
nual retreat, self-examination, cheerfulness, temperance, and religious
offices are prescribed, and they have a special devotional manual and
litany.

(C) In the Greek Russian Church, confession takes the
place of first communion and confirmation, and occurs at about
the age of eight. The many reHgious ceremonies of in-
fancy in Russia require sponsors, one of which is usually a
boy or girl of fourteen or fifteen, and this, as it is a solemn
office, involves full Church responsibility.

At the age of about twenty-four hours the infant is visited by the
priest, who names it after the saint on or near whose day it was born,
holds it before the sacred pictures, and has the sign of the cross made
over it and prayers read. In the christening ceremony, at the age of
eight days, the young godfather participates, and provides and puts
on the neck of the infant a tiny gold cross, which must never leave
it. Baptism must be administered at the age of forty days. First,
the priest, in cope, blows in the face of the naked infant three times,

CHURCH CONFIRMATION 273

crosses it on the brow, lip, and breast, and, laying his hand on its
head, reads the prayer of exorcising the devil and all his hosts from
the body and soul. The priest then asks the infant if it renounces
the wicked one, and the sponsor, looking to the west where the sun
sets in darkness, answers, " I have renounced him." They then blow
and make the gesture of spitting at man's great enemy in token of
hate and horror. The Nicene Creed is thrice repeated, and the spon-
sors say in responses that their young charge has confessed and be-
lieves in Christ. After prayers the parents, even though they be the
Czar and Czarina, leave the room, in token that the child is entirely
left to its sponsors and godparents. Then, in full canonicals, the
priest blesses the water by blowing on it, moving his hand through it,
and crossing its surface with a feather dipped in oil, symbolic of
peace and previously consecrated, and after a first anointment the
child is deftly plunged thrice completely under the water. Baptism
of water is immediately followed by that of the spirit or the anoint-
ing proper, which has its own litany and ritual. During the mass, a
small quantity of wine is passed with a spoon into the child's mouth
and the lips wiped by an assistant. Eight days later the hair, the only
offering an infant can make, is ceremoniously cut in four places in the
form of the cross. All these rites are detailed and performed with
music and prayer, paid for with small fees to the priests, and if the
mother wishes to be churched, the baby's face is pressed against a
silver-covered picture at the altar, and from behind the screen the
words are chanted, " The servant of God, A. B., is admitted to the
Church of Christ." The sponsors then assume, at least formally, a
serious responsibility, and must therefore set worthy example and give
wise counsel.

Communion in one kind is observed semiannually thereafter by
each child, who attends church and learns prayers, which are far more
numerous than those of the English Church, and more difficult in the
Slavonic dialect, also the Lord's Prayer, the Nicene Creed, the Ten
Commandments, hymns, and stories from the Old and later from the
New Testament. The expressions of piety are so formal and so many
that the children, who are imitative, and who are brought up in an
atmosphere charged with them, seem exceptionally religious, and
the parents' constant fear of their remorse and of its consequences
to their offspring, should they die unshriven, is so great that the
pressure of the home for early consummation of church membership
has crowded the first confession and full communion in both kinds
to the unusually early age customary here. The significance of these
infant rites here is that there is much reason to believe that many if not
most of them were once pubescent, and have been gradually removed
to an earlier age, like circumcision among the Jews. The priest comes
to the house twice a week for a month or two, where there are chil-
dren at the ages of from seven to ten, to explain the simple catechism,
teach the rudiments of sacred history, and interpret the child's prayers
and hymns. This special preparation may begin at Christmas and
57

2 74 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

last till Lent, during which the ceremony must occur. When the
feasting week of carnival festivities changes to the Lenten period,
when no food ever so remotely connected with animal life can be par-
taken, there are three days of devotional preparation, with early rising
and frequent daily church services. On Friday, after vespers, each
child goes alone behind a screen in the church corner, where the priest
awaits him, and after prayer exhorts that the confession be complete,
questioning each touching the chief sins of childhood ; some confessors
are indulgent, others severe, and most have special lines of misdeeds
for which they question. After this, if the confessor does not find
any of the one hundred and fifteen crimes and overt sins which debar,
and a real desire to lead a new life is apparent^ the priest lays his
hand, with the end of his cope beneath it, on the novitiate's head, as
a token that he is now under the protection of the Church, and pro-
nounces absolution, praying God to pardon, as his minister now does.
Each is signed with the cross, kisses the crucifix, and leaves a fee and
a candle. This is usually in the evening, and the penitents bathe, re-
tire early, and take no food till after communion at matins next day.
In the morning, not only children but parents array themselves in
their best, new dresses for the occasion being customary, and kiss
every member of the household as a token of good-will. At church,
the sacred elements are brought in with a solemn liturgy, the re-
cipient repeats slowly after the priest the articles of belief, stating the
nature and meaning of the sacrament, and a morsel of bread, moistened
with wine, is placed in his mouth with a spoon. He then rises and
passes to the reader's table, takes more wine and water, to rinse and
clear his mouth, and eats a tiny loaf, from the side of which the part
used in communion had been cut with the sacred spoon. At home,
congratulations and feasting follow, with vespers later and final mass
next day.

(D) Confirmation by first communion is required of all
children of the Episcopal Church in England and America.
Girls are rarely confirmed under twelve or boys under fourteen,
and the average age is probably a year or more older. It is
one of the most solemn duties of parents to bring their children
to what is one of the central rites of the Church. Both the
official requirements and the ceremonials, as found in the
prayer and service book, are simple and brief, so that what
may be called the minimum of both the preparation and the
initiation ceremony itself is somewhat slight and formal. This
not only leaves room for a wide range of individual practise,
but all the degrees of difference between the extremes of High
and Low Church views are expressed in the many manuals and
guides for confirmation.

CHURCH CONFIRMATION 275

The order of the Church demands only the memorizing of the
Creed, the Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the shorter
catechism. The latter sets forth that the sponsors at the baptism in
infancy also gave the child its name, and promised that it should re-
nounce the devil, worldly pomp and sinful lust, believe the articles
of faith, and keep God's will and law. These vows the child now
assumes for himself with solemn affirmation. In twelve questions
and answers, the nature of the two sacraments necessary to salvation
by baptism and the Lord's Supper is set forth. The minister of every
parish is required to instruct and examine on these essentials, which
are often greatly amplified by those who devote themselves to this
work with zeal.

The order of confirmation requires the presence of the bishop, be-
fore whom, as he sits near the Holy Table, the candidates stand. The
preface, stating the purpose of the rite, is first read, while the con-
gregation stand. The minister then presents the children, and the les-
son is read from Acts, on the gift of the Holy Ghost by the laying on
of hands. The solemn question is then put by the bishop : " Do ye
here, in the presence of God and of this congregation, renew the sol-
emn promise and vow, that ye made or that was made in your name
at your Baptism; ratifying and confirming the same; and acknowledg-
ing yourselves bound to believe and to do all those things which ye
undertook or your Sponsors then undertook for you? " and the momen-
tous words, " I do," are pronounced audibly by every candidate. The
bishop's prayer that follows is for the daily increase of each of the
gifts of the Holy Ghost, after which he lays his hands upon the head
of each, saying, " Defend, O Lord, this thy Child with thy heavenly
grace ; that he may continue thine forever ; and daily increase in thy
Holy Spirit more and more until he come unto thy everlasting king-
dom. Amen." After this follow the collects and benediction. It is
earnestly expected that every newly confirmed person shall attend the
Lord's Supper without delay.

At the High Church extreme, the instruction for first commun-
ion is elaborate and chiefly ecclesiastical, the manuals prescribing a
knowledge of the seven daily offices of the psalter from matin to com-
pline, and some historical matters, but especially and in great detail,
of the liturgy as celebrating the eucharist, which is the chief act of
worship, because it commemorates the sacrifice of Christ, which is the
central fact in Christendom. Unlike the Roman Church, the modern
English tractarian invites, on the part of the communicant, a high
degree of metaphysical activity, to which the mind of bright adoles-
cents is often so prone. " It is well," says Ewer,^ " for the class
to understand distinctly what the doctrine of transubstantiation is as
distinguished from transaccidentation, and to know why as Anglican
Catholics we decline to admit its truth." Hence, it is explained at
length that Christ is not impanated in the sacred species. His body,

^ Manual of Instruction for Classes preparing for Communion, p. 24.

276 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

soul, and divinity are not to be divided, as by the Roman theory of
communion in one kind, but are wholly present in the bread and wine.
Their res ipsissinia is not present under the outward form, the acci-
dents of which remain unchanged. The presence is real and objective,
not local, but supra-local. While the phenomenal color, form, taste,
smell and weight of the bread and wine remain unchanged, the noume-
nal "thing in itself" of the holy emblems is not absent, but actually
although mystically present. Water must be always mingled with the
wine to symbolize the union of divine and human. While the body
assimilates natural food, the process here is reversed, and the recipient
is himself assimilated and transformed into the higher divine life, and
the self of Christ is identified with his own.

The liturgy, which, like the Roman, constitutes the august rite of
mass, is traced back to the apostles, and represents the perpetual
obligation ; it is at the same time historically commemorative both
of the Last Supper of our Lord and of the later stages of his life,
his death, and his ascension. When the celebrant enters, he may medi-
tate of Jesus's entrance into the garden; when he bows over his se-
creta, he may think of Jesus's falling on his face in prayer ; when he
salutes the altar, of the treacherous kiss ; when the sacred vessels
are unveiled, of Jesus spoiled of his garments ; at the prayer, of Jesus
scourged ; at the lavaho, of Pilate washing his hands ; when he kneels,
of Jesus falling under the cross ; at the hymn, of his death ; at the
" Our Father," of his resurrection; at the Gloria, of his ascension; and
at the benediction, of the descent of the Holy Ghost. In the service
something goes up to God, though our thanks be no more than the
burnt offering of a grain of chaff, and something descends from God
to man, for the eucharist is a fountain of grace. To eat and drink
unworthily and without discernment is damnation. We must there-
fore lift up our hearts and hunger for the meat that perisheth not.
We were grafted into the true vine in baptism, but now the intus-
susception is complete, and every scion shoots as with spring-tide.

While the Greek Church permits only leavened and the Roman
only unleavened bread, the Anglican Church allows either. The com-
municant may stand or kneel, but never sit; must, as in most of the
churches since the apostles, only partake of it fasting, that it may sen-
sibly affect body as well as soul ; must receive the bread in the hollow
palm, supporting it with the other, and forming a cross, consume the
smallest particle, to avoid desecration, and offer some form of solemn
and adoring salutation. The priest only can place the elements on
the altar, because it is a sacrificial act, and can not be properly under-
taken by either the sexton or a woman. An odd number of collects
should be read, because the Lord's Prayer has an uneven number of
petitions ; the pro-onaphona must be said on the epistle side of the
altar; the protasis must commemorate some special attributes of God,
and the apodosis must ask a special blessing for the exercise of the
same attributes.

Careful self-examination, repentance, new resolutions, and the cul-

CHURCH CONFIRMATION 2? 7

tivation of faith and charity, and sometimes even penance, should pre-
cede. Afterward communion ought to be partaken at least thrice
yearly, and some partake weekly with advantage. Spiritual, as dis-
tinct from actual or sacramental communion, can be more frequent.
The former is like opening a door from a dark into a light room ; the
latter is like bringing in the light. The former is the slow rise of a
tide keeping pace with a river, and damming it so that it rises higher
and sets back ; the latter flows up and flushes the river as with a tidal
wave and with complete intermingling of waters.

(E) The Lutheran, the mother of Protestant churches, and
also the largest of them all, claiming seven million adherents
in America and fifty million in the world, confirms over three
hundred thousand children a year in Prussia alone, and expects
all Lutheran parents to cooperate in the preparation for this
rite. Save in a iew essentials, the polity of the Church varies
widely, the Scandinavian organization being episcopal, the
German consistorial, and the American synodical; the age,
preparation, and details of confirmation also vary much. The
Lutheran ideal is the Bible in the vernacular actively taught,
and hymns fervently sung in every household, especially with
children. Piety is first of all a family matter. This Church,
for the first time in history, sought to bring each indi-
vidual into immediate personal relation with the divine. In
its service, preaching became again very prominent, and the
congregation took active part in worship, especially in song.
Its liturgy is regarded as a form, unchanged for a millennium,
by which communion with God is sought as a bond between
the Christian past, present, and future, between the Church
militant and triumphant, visible and invisible.

The Lutheran children do not look forward to conversion. If they
have been baptized in infancy and daily nurtured, they must not be
assumed to be unregenerate, but as already in a state of grace. The
germs of a spiritual life were early planted, and have grown with
their growth, and they need no violent change or drastic religious ex-
perience. Religion is a growth, not a conquest; but adolescence is
the critical season of development, during which special care is need-
ful. Even confirmation is not indispensable, and although it has spir-
itual sanction and is almost a matter of course, it is not authorita-
tively enforced.

In Europe, confirmation at fourteen or fifteen is the rule, as it is
wherever there are good parochial schools to look after both pre-

278 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

paratory and subsequent training. Where these are lacking, as they
still are generally in this country, where there are yet but about three
thousand, the age is commonly from fifteen to twenty. It is preceded
by one or two winter courses of instruction by the pastors, who some-
times hear the catechumens in a Sunday-school class by themselves,
with extra work outside, for from four to six months, for one or two
years, with from one to three sessions weekly — some rules prescribing
one hundred hours in all. The essential subject-matter is Luther's
smaller catechism, which is chiefly an exposition of the Lord's Prayer,
the Ten Commandments, the sacraments, and the Augsburg Confes-
sion, which is the oldest Protestant creed. Lutheran and general
Church history are often added, and doctrinal, devotional, and eccle-
siastical matters frequently dwelt upon in the manuals rhost in use.
The form of instruction is catechetical, by questions and answers,
and considerable verbal memorizing is required, but the pastor seeks
chiefly to reach the heart.

The Lutheran Church rediscovered the Bible, causing a renaissance
of its study, and reversed former methods by making the sacred
book and not the Church and its institutions basal ; in its teaching
no religious body insists more strongly that Scripture contains the
very words of God, or is more impatient of the higher criticism.
Luther, at Worms^ with his hand on the open Bible and saying,
" Here I stand, I can not do otherwise. God help me, Amen," which
Froude calls the finest scene in modern history, fitly became the Spir-
itual father of a Church which has sought to mold its creeds, the-
ology, liturgy, hymns, and life more closely after the Bible than
any other, that can accept no theories of a fallible authenticity of its
divine oracles, or a human and merely exemplary Saviour, and that is
proud that it has no heresy trials, although originating in the same
fatherland where most heresies have sprung. With this cardinal
principle, we should expect great stress to be laid upon direct Bible
teaching. While this is done more than in the Catholic or perhaps
even Anglican preparations for first communion, it is mostly by way
of memorizing proof texts for sacraments and creed.

Toward revelation the chief Lutheran doctrine is faith that makes
for justification, and "not reason that makes skeptics. Faith, the
mightiest of all words in the soul's lexicon, is the key to man's lost
paradise; it conditions and is larger than conduct, is the source of
all the authority of conscience, the chief of all the duties, and has
done all the real miracles in history; it is the best criterion of the
vigor, health, and maturity of the soul, and man's only possible ground
of salvation. Faith enlarges the soul of the individual to the dimen-
sions of the race, enabling him to be a citizen of all times and a spec-
tator of all spiritual events, and is the organ by which we see and
apprehend, not facts of sense or proof of intellect, but the true mys-
teries or sacraments of instinct and feeling. By it Christ's propitia-
tory and vicarious sacrifice is imputed to us.

The focus of the Lutheran theology is the doctrine of communion

CHURCH CONFIRMATION 279

that Christ's body and blood are, as the Augsburg Confession says,
" truly present under the form of bread and wine." Some manuals
for first communion teach that the divine elements are invisible, or
inseparable, yet unmixed with the actual food elements, or that the
latter participate in the former, as Plato made real things partici-
pate in ideas, or that they inhere, as the schoolmen made attributes
inhere in substance ; the union is called not carnal but sacramental,
or they say that there is not a real change but a means of change,
while the doctrines of both transubstantiation and consubstantiation
are rejected. Faith is said to appropriate the passion and merits of
the divine sacrifice in an inexplicable way.

Instruction especially preparatory to first communion is also given
concerning the Church festivals, as Luther especially advised, viz.,
Christmas, Circumcision, Epiphany, Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost,
St. Stephen's Day, and October 31st, which is the day Luther nailed
up his ninety-five theses. There are also lectionaries for minor fes-
tivals, and of saints in the Lutheran Christian year, to bring the bio-
graphical element to pedagogical efficiency. Confirmation day is on
Palm Sunday. All Lutheran churches hold confession to be a fit pre-
paratory discipline for first communion. This is not imposed as a
necessity, but taught as a privilege, is general rather than explicit and
detailed, and all sins need not be enumerated. All Lutheran pastors
can give absolution for confessed sins, though this is not absolute,
only exhibitory. The disciplinary value of this is high, for it relieves
the conscience and evokes advice and comfort where most needed.
Luther places these rites next to the sacraments themselves.

Confirmation being preparatory to first communion, there is usually
a public examination of the children, held in the church immediately
preceding the ceremony or on the Sunday before, in order to see if
even the least gifted have been trained to enough knowledge of the
fundamental doctrine of the Church to partake of the sacraments prop-
erly. They stand before the altar, girls in white and boys in black,
and are addressed by the pastor; then, after the Lord's Prayer, the
confirmants are asked to renounce the devil and fleshly lusts and ac-
cept the Apostles' Creed. They assent to this, and vow to remain
true to God, the Church and its doctrine, and the congregation unites
in solemn prayer for them. They then kneel at the altar, and the
pastor places his right hand on the head of each, invoking the fear of
God and hope of eternal life ; they are then exhorted to partake of all
the blessings of church membership, and renew and assume for them-
selves the obligations of their baptism. Scripture by the congrega-
tion and a benediction conclude the service, after which each child is
given a certificate or diploma of confirmation as a memento.

The Lutheran Church has only lately begun the special work for
young people after confirmation. In New York city the " Young Peo-
ple's Union " was founded about ten years ago for this purpose, and
in the western part of the State associations for young men have been
extending for some years. These are now united in the Luther League

28o THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

of that State, with its own journal of that name. In Pennsylvania,
the Luther Alliance, and among the Germans the Young Men's Asso-
ciations and the Young Ladies' Societies, are inter-church organiza-
tions for the same end. Elsewhere central associations are formed. A
National Union, of which all these are members, is now formed. The
problems of this Church for older adolescents are somewhat unique,
and few religious bodies have so suffered from proselyting, which has
been a spur to this new effort.

The savage and Christian rites each need a volume, for
neither have yet been gathered. Here we are at the ethnic
beginnings of education, all of which have developed from
such initiations. While the Church sees clearly its moral
dangers, as primitive races relatively fail to do, both assume
a short and sharp rather than a prolonged period of transition
and lay stress on external and outwardly impressive cere-
monials. It was reserved for ultra and especially American
Protestantism, as the next chapter shows, to enter the soul at
pubescence and attempt to prescribe and normalize its states
and changes. The crying need of a broader comparative study
of all these regimens, inner and outer, to determine on the
.basis of a larger knowledge the better formulation of the pro-
portion of elements, and their maximal moral utilizations, is
already apparent, as is the higher standpoint to which we must
rise above all preference of race, sect, and creed if we would
discharge all our duty to youth.

CHAPTER XIV

THE ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION

Conversion under the New England theocracy — Jonathan Edwards — Revivalism
— Statistics and opinions of evangelists as to age of most frequent conversions
— Successive changes of heart — The Symposium — Twelve parallels between
religious and sexual phenomena — Great luminousness yet partiality of these
analogies. I. Conversion as a normal and universal process of growth — Pas-
sage from an autocentric to an heterocentric basis. II. Aggravation of this
natural transition by a sense of sin — The Seven Deadly Sins of the Church —
Impossibility of real counter conversion or devotion to evil — Craving for pen-
alty and confession — Sense of sin as hereditary most of all exasperating — Re-
lations of sin to melancholia — Rhythm of depressive and exalted states — The
reconstruction after abnormal anxiety perhaps on a lower plane — Increased
instability due to sexual aberration — The solutions of Gautama and of Jesus.
III. Doubt — Crude ideas of childhood — Pain of rectification — Superiority of
Catholicism — Havoc of dogma and need of larger ideas of {a) soul and {b)
Scripture. IV. External norms of conversion — Insect world — Spring — Dawn
— Plato's cave — The story of the Cross and its effect — Conversion in literature,
history, and philosophy. V. Degradations and fourfold perversions of con-
version— Causes and illustrations — Wide range of individual variations. VI.
Conversion as the philosophy of religion and history, and the germ of educa-
tional systems — Classification of definitions of religion — The wretchedness of
primitive man — Tragic guilt and the soteriological function of heroes — Pity and
sympathy basal for morals and religion — Characteristics of religious genius —
Bible supplemented by other ethnic religions — Mission pedagogy — Alien faiths,
like the Old Testament propaedeutic to the New, to be fulfilled and not de-
stroyed— The higher Christianity of the future.

Whether or not it be a restoration of apostolic concep-
tions, the modern idea of a re-birth as essential to the salva-
tion of the soul hereafter is chiefly a Puritan and more
specifically a New England orthodox Congregationalist idea.
Despite the examples of Paul and Augustine, conversion in
the Middle Ages and in Catholicism meant adoption of a creed
and submission to the authority of the Church, while early
Methodism, which did more than any other denomination to
develop the personal regenerative formula and motive, came in
a little later. The origin of the idea that there must be a
change so radical and transforming that it can be definitely

281

282 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

recognized, and yet wrought chiefly on and not by the subject
of it, and that may profoundly reconstruct character and con-
duct, can be fully traced in the history of what might be called
a culture epoch, beginning about 1735, which is of profound
interest and significance for the psychologist.^ The New Eng-
land theocracy permitted only church members to hold civil
office. To qualify, each must receive the Lord's Supper, and a
clergyman who withheld it upon request was liable to prose-
cution. The law admitted all who had been baptized, learned
the creed and catechism, and had not committed " scandalous
crime." The Church had such influence that it often attracted
the bad as well as the good into it. Piety declined under this
system, and men never converted in the modern sense entered
the ministry. Arminianism was wide-spread, and under the
free-thinking influences, culminating later in the French Revo^
lution, skepticism was on the increase. The majority who at-
tended and supported the Church thought that they could
achieve their own salvation by good works which lay within
the power of their own wills.

Jonathan Edwards first and alone seems to have grasped
the whole situation, and was peculiarly fitted by character
and learning to meet it. The alliance of the French Jesuits
with the dreaded Indians intensified the hatred for popery.
Unbelief was sufficiently wide-spread to suggest the appeal to
philosophical principles in justification of biblical standpoints
and theological doctrines which he was so well fitted to make,
and there is, I think, abundant evidence that he deliberately
decided to attempt a new use of the great Protestant prin-
ciple of justification by faith alone, to insist on God's abso-

^ Tracy: The Great Awakening ; Boston, 1 841. R. Baird: Religion in America ;
1856 ; especially chap. vi. H. F. Uhden : The New England Theocracy. W.
H. Conant : On Revivals in Colleges, 1859. J. Edwards : On Revivals and the
Distinguishing Marks of a Work of the Spirit of God, Narratives of Surprising
Conversions, and Thoughts on the Revival of Religion in New England, 1740. Gil-
lies : Memoirs of Whitefield, and Philips's Life and Times of Whitefield. The two
Lives of Wesley, by Moore and Southey respectively. W. B. Sprague : Lectures
on Revivals; New Vork, 1833. S. P. Hayes: An Hist. Study of the Edwardean
Revivals; Am. Journ. of Psy., October, 1902, p. 550 et seq. See also Porter's Lec-
ture on Revivals, Finney's Autobiography and Lectures on Revivals. Earle :
Bringing in the Sheaves. Fish's Handbook of Revivals. Hervey's Handbook
of Revivals.

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 283

lute sovereignty and " just liberty of election," and to teach,
in place of the current conception of human initiative, the no-
tion that all persons not specifically converted are sinners that
" have merited and now deserve instant damnation," that this
is wholly just, and that there is nothing to do but to call upon
God for mercy through Christ. The only indication that God
is disposed to withhold eternal punishment is the fact that he
gave his Son to die for men, and this alone can be pleaded in
prayer. All the virtues of the unregenerate man are vileness
and but filthy rags, giving absolutely no claim, and he must
be entirely resigned to his own condemnation to hell as the
only course possible to a just and sovereign God. If he is
saved, it will be an act of pure and spontaneous goodness on
the part of Deity, and the belief that this act of mercy
will extend to him is faith. Salvation comes to seem too good
for sinners, while their approval of the excellence of God's jus-
tice made them " almost call it a willingness to be damned "
(Tracy, p. 15), and they were brought to feel that " the glory
of his justice should not be sacrificed for their sakes." First
there comes the " legal distress," which may continue some
time, and then supervenes a holy repose of soul, a sacred dis-
position to fear and love God, and to hope for blessings and
salvation from both sin and its penalty, and a new aspiration
for holiness, which not at first but later is fully recognized as
divine grace redeeming the soul and working not only par-
don but progressive sanctification.

Edwards did not hesitate to appeal to fear. " If we should suppose
that a person saw himself hanging over a great pit, full of fierce and
glowing flames, by a thread that he knew to be very weak and not suf-
ficient to bear his weight, and knew that multitudes had been in such
a circumstance before and that most of them had fallen and perished,
and saw nothing within reach that he could take hold of to save him,
what distress would he be in ! How ready to think that now the
thread was breaking, that now this minute he should be swallowed up
in those dreadful flames, and would he not be ready to cry out in such
circumstances? How much more those that see themselves in this
manner hanging over an infinitely more dreadful pit or held over
it in the hand of God, who at the same time they see to be exceed-
ingly provoked ! No wonder they are ready to expect every minute
when this angry God will let them drop, and no wonder they cry out
at their misery, and no wonder that the wrath of God, when mani-

284 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

fested but a little to the soul, overbears human strength." * Else-
where ^ Edwards insists that " there is nothing that keeps wicked
men at any one moment out of hell but the mere pleasure of God."
The unconverted belong to the devil, and he is ready to seize them
the moment God permits. God is more angry " with many now in
this congregation " than with many now in the flames of hell. He
tells his people that some of them will, within a year, remember this
discourse in hell. "There will be no end to the exquisite, horrible
misery. The inhabitants of heaven and all the universe will look on
and praise God's justice. No prayer will mitigate God's hate and
contempt, for he can no longer pity. You would have gone to hell
last night had he not held you like a loathsome spider over the flames
by a thread. Every moment of delay accumulates wrath."

Before 1835 revivals had often occurred in America and
elsewhere, but they v^ere spasmodic, and their methodology
had not been well developed. Stern, doctrinal, and extreme as
Edwards was, he lacked and would surely disapprove the ex-
travagance of some methods of modern revivalism. The three
hundred who joined his church as the result of the six months
of awakening in Northampton, manifested a more radical
change than had hitherto been insisted on. Henceforth re-
pentance was urged as the chief and immediate duty and the
supreme necessity of life. It was described as giving the
heart to God, accepting the covenant or the promises, becom-
ing reconciled with Christ, laying hold on salvation, awaken-
ing out of sleep, a change of heart or getting a new one, giv-
ing up self, dropping a body of death, fleeing from wrath to
love, turning lest we die, passing from death to life, from the
power of Satan to God, escaping hell and securing heaven,
changing from doubt to belief, admitting the Holy Spirit, con-
forming the will to divine law, the fire and hammer breaking
the flinty rock, having a visitation from on high, a satisfac-
tion of the mourners, anxious seekers, etc.

On his arrival in New England in 1740 Whitefield com-
plained that " tutors neglected to pray with and examine the
hearts of their pupils, and that most schools and universities
had sunk into new seminaries of paganism, that their light

1 The Distinguishing Marks of a Work of the Spirit of God (applied to that un-
common operation that has lately appeared in the minds of many of the people of
this land). Boston, 1741.

2 Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God. Works, ed. 1807, vol. vii, p. 486.

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 285

had become darkness," etc. Harvard was at first impressed;
in 1 74 1 the overseers voted to meet and " spend some time in
humble thanksgiving to God for the effusion of his Holy-
Spirit." Later, when he declared that few clergymen were
converted, Wigglesworth wrote him, pointing out the dangers
of enthusiasm and censuring the " furious zeal with which
you had so fired the passions of the people and which hath in
many places burnt into the very vitals of religion," and the
" sudden and temporary turns of distress and joy." During
the great awakening from twenty-five thousand to fifty thou-
sand persons were converted and joined the Church, and the
piety of previous members was greatly increased. The fervor
spread to all evangelical sects, and hundreds of new churches
were founded. Itinerant evangelists from without, with in-
decent haste for immediate practical results, entered churches
and rivaled each other in the number of converts they won.
Separatists, like Wheelock and Davenport, arose. Other
parts of Scripture and doctrine were neglected, and exag-
gerated and surprising narratives of individual struggles and
experiences multiplied ; those applying for church membership,
and even clergymen seeking ordination, narrated their personal
experiences of this change for others to judge of. Nearly all
New England churches which did not become Unitarian came
to adopt this cult; it colored all the theology of the country,
and became the inexorable condition of church membership,
and all was ascribed to the form and shape of this special first
experience. Believers searched other hearts and their own
for inward sentiments, for Edwards's " new idea and new
feelings that did not come through the senses," often mis-
taking the vane for the compass, and there was giving of
testimony and loquacity about experiences of unaccountable
origin and abnormal impressionability, while " bodily mani-
festations," although much discussed and generally disparaged,
were not very strongly condemned, Edwards himself having,
from the trancoidal states of his wife, some sympathy with
them. Tennent's Log College, from which Princeton grew,
Dartmouth, and missions established among the Indians by
Brainerd and Sargent, were greatly developed. The reaction
was inevitable, as revivalism degenerated, and the mean be-
tween enthusiasm and lukewarmness, anarchy and despotism

286 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

in Church government was sought. In all this history there
was very little thought of any relation between age and con-
version. Old and young were affected, and no statistics of
age are on record.

The next fifty years were filled with wars and commotions,
and only near the close of the last century came the era of
modern revivalism. The crimes and passions of man, the ex-
cesses of the French Revolution and the skepticism which un-
derlay it, and wild and vague expectations among the young
of a new order of things with Christianity eliminated, pre-
pared the way for a new awakening. In 1 797 many churches
in Massachusetts and in Connecticut grew more earnest, and
the feeling slowly spread. In 1801 a revival of great in-
tensity, which was characterized by many irregularities due to
the rude state of society, spread over nearly the whole State of
Kentucky.

McMaster describes with scant respect a revival, in 1800, at Red
River, Ohio.^ At the words of one effective preacher, he says, faces
were wet with streaming tears at a pungent sense of sin, and the cries
for mercy were terrible to hear. " The floor was covered with the
slain. Some found forgiveness, but others went away spiritually
wounded, suffering uncontrollable agony of soul. Men fitted their
wagons and traveled fifty miles to camp. Crops were left half-
gathered, cabins deserted, and camp-meetings multiplied as the rage
spread." Services were held for seven days, and sometimes all night.
A girl of seven preached from a man's shoulders till she fell ex-
hausted, and a lad of twelve exhorted till he fell, and was then held
up and continued till the power of speech was lost. The flickering
camp-fires and the darkness of the surrounding forest, the sobs, groans,
and shrieks of those in the valley of the shadow of death, the songs
and shouts of joy of those who had found eternal joy in Beulah, were
too much for the excited imagination^ and circulation was affected
and nerves gave way; in the " falling exercise" many dropped to the
ground, cold and still, or with convulsive twitches or clonic contortions
of face and limbs, and at Cove Ridge three thousand were laid in rows.
At one meeting eleven hundred and forty-five wagons were counted,
and it was estimated that twenty thousand persons were present.
Many came to scoff, but remained to preach. The crowd swarmed all
night from preacher to preacher, singing, shouting, laughing, some
plunging wildly over stumps and benches into the forest shouting
" Lost, lost ! " others leaping and bounding about like live fish out of
water ; others rolling over and over on the ground for hours ; others

'A History of the People of the United States, vol. ii, p. 578 etseq.

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 287

lying on the ground and talking when they could not move; and yet
others beating the ground with their heels.

As the excitement increased it grew more morbid and took the form
of " jerking," or in others it became the " barking exercise," and in
yet others it became the " holy laugh." The jerks began with the
head, which was thrown violently from side to side so rapidly that
the features were blurred and the hair almost seemed to snap, and
when the sufferer struck an obstacle and fell he would bounce about
like a ball. Saplings were sometimes cut breast-high for the people
to jerk by. In one place the earth about the roots of over fifty of
them was " kicked up as if by a horse stamping flies." One scoffer
mounted his horse to ride away when the jerks threw him to the
earth, whence he arose a Christian. A lad who feigned illness to stay
away was dragged there by the spirit and his head dashed against a
wall till he had to pray. A skeptic who cursed and swore was crushed
by a falling tree. Men fancied themselves dogs and gathered about
a tree barking and yelping — " treeing the devil." They saw visions
and dreamed dreams, and as the revival waned, it left a crop of
nervous and hysterical disorders in its wake.

These extremes were unusual, and were condemned by all
sane religionists; but the revival cult was established, and, on
the whole, with great efficacy for good. In 1802, Yale Col-
lege was visited, and the salvation of the soul became the chief
topic of conversation. One-third of the students were con-
verted, and during the next forty years there were fifteen re-
vivals there. Princeton was no less favored. The traditions
of revivalism long lingered, and are yet strong in some of the
older American colleges. Durfee makes the early history of
Williams College to consist chiefly of efforts to secure the con-
version of students. Its dark periods are years of spiritual
drought, when " professors were hardly distinguished from
the great body of the unpenitent," and he describes with
great personal detail the seasons of awakening, as in 1825,
when there were " twenty converts in thirty days." Edward
Hitchcock, in his Reminiscences of Amherst, says : " The re-
ligious history of Amherst is more important and interesting
than anything pertaining to it ; " he enumerates fourteen re-
vivals up to 1863, and estimates that three hundred and fifty
began their religious life there. It was very hard to introduce
the study of morals or ethics into these colleges, for it implied
distrust of the Holy Spirit. Even the semi-theological ethics
of Mark Hopkins was a dangerous innovation to President

288 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Griffin, who thought conversion, which he could exhort so
powerfully, was better. " Works " were filthy rags, and Cot-
ton Mather was appealed to, who, in his diary in 1716, called
ethics " a vile form of paganism " — " impietas in artis formam
red acta." ^

Very important for this study is the age of most fre-
quent conversions. In answer to a request for information
concerning this topic, kindly inserted for me in the leading
weekly papers of the Methodist, Baptist, Congregational, and
Presbyterian denominations at various times during the last
few years, several score of valuable replies from clergymen
and evangelists have been received, containing individual opin-
ions, statistics of single churches, results of inquiries made
at educational institutions and at religious meetings.

The following are representative. Revivalist D. L. Moody wrote
me that he thought most conversions occur between the ages of ten
and twenty; that he had noticed no difference in age between the
sexes, but that nearly all the members of the Northfield school are
converted before they enter. Bishop D. A. Goodsell informed me
that it was his custom on crowded occasions of admission to full con-
ference membership to ask all converted at or under fifteen, ministers
and laity, to rise. " The proportion varies but slightly in different
parts of the country among whites, about three-fifths of all present ris-
ing at this call. I then ask those converted between fifteen and twenty
to stand with them. There are then few left. Recently in Newark
and Philadelphia, in audiences of seven thousand to eight thousand,
this preponderance was maintained with great unanimity." Rev. E.

E. Abercrombie writes that at the Holyoke Conference, held in April,
1893, in an audience of about five hundred Christian men and women,
a similar test showed that about two-thirds were converted before
twenty. Revivalist E. P. Hammond writes : " I frequently ask audi-
ences to testify at what age they were converted, and I find that most
of them became Christians before they were twenty." Evangelist G.

F. Pentecost, now of Yonkers, has kept no statistics, but writes : " In
an experience of thirty years of pastoral and evangelical work my
observation has been that three-fourths of all the conversions occur be-
tween the ages of twelve and twenty, the proportion of male to female
being about two to three. Comparatively few are converted after thirty
years, and beyond that period the number falls off very rapidly. My
further experience is that the best after-results in life and service
are found in those who have been converted early." H. K. Carroll,
of the Independent, thinks that " a large majority " of conversions

1 See my Hist, of Am. College Text-Books in Ethics, etc. Proc. Am, Anti-
quarian See, 1894, p. 137 et seq.

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 289

occur " before or soon after fifteen." Dr. J. L. Hurlbut, who has a
wide knowledge and experience in the Methodist Episcopal Church,
writes that in his opinion " far the larger number profess Christ
under twenty years of age, a smaller number between twenty and
thirty, and a very small number between thirty and forty." Editor J.
M. Buckley, of the Christian Advocate, who has knowledge of the
very rich literature of the Methodist Church, which has always paid
great attention to the conversion of children, writes that " all our
ministers, except a very few, were converted before they were
twenty, and the large majority of them before they were eighteen."
Evangelist M. S. Kees often takes tests which show that " the great
majority " of converts are between ten and twenty.

President Thwing, of Adelbert College, a few years ago addressed
a letter asking the age of conversion and admission to the Church of
each member of the quite composite American Board of Foreign Mis-
sions, an exceptionally representative body of Christian men. From
149 replies it appeared that 29 were converted " very young," 21 be-
tween eight and twelve, 26 between twelve and fifteen, and 132 before
twenty. At a large meeting Evangelist B. Fay Mills asked all who
had been converted under twenty to rise, and over 1,100 rose. The
call for those converted between twenty and thirty brought 180 to
their feet ; between thirty and forty, there were 35 ; between forty and
fifty, 14 stood; between fifty and sixty, there were 8. He writes that
not only by far the most, but the most active Christians, are converted
in the teens. At a recent Sunday-school convention at Hillsdale,
Mich., 98 workers were found to be converted at or before twelve,
41 between twelve and twenty, 13 between twenty and forty, and 2
later.

Spencer^ states that out of every 1,000 cases, 548 are converted
under twenty, 37 between twenty and thirty, 86 between thirty and
forty, 25 between forty and fifty, 3 between fifty and sixty, and i be-
tween sixty and seventy. Rev. Th. Simms, of South Manchester,
Conn., writes that at a session of the New England Conference, Rev.
C. M. Hall found, as the result of a census of 200 clerical members
of that body, that 173 of them were converted before twenty years
of age, 89 before fifteen, and 17 at or under ten, the average for all
being a trifle over fifteen years. Dr. Davidson thought more con-
verted before thirteen than after thirty. Dr. R. E. Cole, of Oakland,
Cal., ascertained the ages of those converted during a three weeks'
series of revival meetings in that place as follows: 109 from five to
ten, 372 from ten to fifteen, 283 from fifteen to twenty, 68 from twenty
to thirty, 29 from thirty to forty, 16 from forty to fifty, 11 from fifty
to sixty, 4 over sixty.

Brockman ^ found the age of most frequent conversion to be

' Sermon by Rev. Ichabod Spencer, D.D., vol. i, p. 392.

*A Study of the Moral and Religious Life of 251 Preparatory School Students
in the United States. Fed. Sem., September, 1902, vol. ix, pp. 255-273.
58

290

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

seventeen; from thirteen to fourteen the increase in frequency, and
from eighteen to nineteen the decrease, was greatest. He also found
in 244 students that seventeen was the age of greatest responsiveness
to rehgious ideas.

More specific are the data presented in the following table :

•a

■a

M

j<

c
0

c
0

Age.

0

0

1

1

Total.

1)

D.
0

3

E

M.

M.

M.

M.

M.&F.

F

M.

F.

6..

4

2

6

I

9

26

7--

^

9

2

17

I

24

41

8..

6

9

15

2

32

I

I

40

67

9--

14

4

30

2

50

3

I

51

97

10..

19

9

60

2

90

5

4

70

112

II..

34

12

51

4

lOI

9

13

S^'

81

12..

53

2,7

96

7

193

4

18

60

85

13--

43

32

108

7

190

II

18

47

64

14..

62

52

161

9

284

17

10

II

34

15--

56

46

214

20

336

30

4

12

25

ib..

93

59

289

7

448

25

16

II

16

17..

8q

47

298

5

439

29

6

6

5

18..

71

60

300

II

442

17

3

7

9

19..

57

48

265

II

381

17

I

9

8

20..

49

47

222

2

320

10

2

I

21..

39

34

172

0

245

8

I

5

3

22..

23

15

99

2

139

9

2

3

5

23--

16

II

103

6

136

II

2

4

3

24..

8

4

55

I

68

10

I

3

25--

6

53

59

I

6

3

2b..

6

27

..

32,

3

4

3

27..

I

26

27

3

3

I

28..

I
756

17

18

3

--

4

5

526

2,672

100

4>o54

228

100

445

697

The first four columns of the above table added in totals represent males. The
first column is compiled for me by Librarian Louis N. Wilson, from the Alumni
Record (i869-'95) of Drew Theological Seminary, which states the age of con-
version of nearly all those who were students there during the quarter century
comprised in the report. As only those would be likely to enter upon a course of
theological study who were converted early in life, the ages here probably average
younger than those of male converts generally. The same is doubtless true of the
results of the questionnaire circulated by Luther Gulick among members of the
Y. M. C. A.^ Mr. Ayres's column was compiled for me from the M. E. minutes
of the meeting of the fall of 1890 and represents clergymen ; it shows an age of
conversion which is also doubtless too young. Dr. Starbuck's^ column is based

^ The Association Outlook, December, 1897.
''A Study of Conversion, by E. D. Starbuck.
1897, vol. viii, pp. 268-308.

Am. Jour, of Psy., January,

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 291

Coe's ^ curves, like those of Starbuck, are quite irregular. In one,
where ninety-nine men report their own religious awakenings aver-
aging two each, the ages of most frequency are thirteen, seventeen,
and twenty; fourteen, e. g., showing hardly half as many as thirteen.
In eighty-four decisive conversions that could be dated, the age of
seventeen showed most frequency, nearly four times as great as four-
teen. Coe's average age of 1,784 men was 16.4 years. In fifty men
reporting a second religious experience, Coe shows the following ages :

Age 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

Second ex- )^ 00044 "M 45221 lOi
penence. ) -r -r -t t ^

Hence, he suggests a premonition at thirteen (the first adolescent
awakening), a second start at seventeen, with a maximum at twenty,
and concludes that " when the approaching change first heralds itself
the religious consciousness also tends to awaken. Again, when the
bodily life is in most rapid transition the religious instincts likewise
come into a new and greater life. Finally, when the fermentation of
youth begins to settle into the calmness of maturity, once more religion
makes its claim to be counted in the life." On the basis of facts so
far at hand this latter must be regarded as conjectural. We do not
know whether larger numbers would round the curves or deepen their
indentations for certain youthful years, so it is unsafe yet to infer
how the ages of, e. g., fifteen, sixteen, and seventeen differ from each
other. Again, not only are theological students usually composed of
those early converted, but we have no percentages based even on
church attendance of any religious community, race, or creed, while
the curves show only the age distribution of certain miscellaneous
or homogeneous groups of converts, and those mostly males. They
abundantly demonstrate, however, the great religious impression-
ability of the middle teens, and suggest that the child revivalist,
Hammond, whose largest percentage of conversions for both sexes
is at ten, cultivates precocity.

on only fifty-one cases, and I have followed his curves in presenting percentages,
so that the numbers in his column are almost twice too large. His cases were
carefully selected from a larger number, representing all ages, with much regard to
the fulness of the record. The column of Rev. L. A. Pope, of the Baptist Church of
Newburyport, Mass., includes both sexes and all ages in his church, but here again,
as women generally preponderate in the membership lists of all churches, and as
they seem to be converted earlier than men, his data represent, no doubt, an age
too young for the average male. Dr. Starbuck's column for females is based on
eighty-six selected cases, here presented in percentages. The last two columns are
compiled from the covenant book of Rev. E. P. Hammond, whose speciality is
revival work with children, which he kindly loaned me for the purpose. They
represent the converts in two series of meetings in two small cities. From our col-
umns of males, it appears that sixteen is the age of most frequency, while for Ham-
mond this age is reduced to ten for both sexes.

^ Geo. A. Coe : The Spiritual Life, New York, 1900, p. 39 ei seq.

292 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Out of 598 young people, Lancaster found 518 who
freely reported new religious inclinations, mostly between
twelve and twenty, and he concludes that " religion before
this age was a mere form. Now it becomes full of meaning.
It is a new interest, and very many speak of it as a sudden
awakening. It is often spontaneous, like the interest in art
or music, or the love of nature. Where no set forms have
been urged, the religious emotion comes forth as naturally as
the sun rises."

It is thus no accidental synchronism of tmrelated events
that the age of religion and that of sexual maturity coincide,
any more than that senescence has its own type or religiosity.^

^ Much as I detest priority claims, I can not resist the temptation, in view of the
criticism and even ridicule to which I was at first subjected for it, to state here that
I know of no attempt to demonstrate that adolescence was the age of religious im-
pressionability in general, and of conversions in particular, prior to the second of
twelve public Harvard lectures which I gave in Boston, February 5, 1881,
which was in good part based on data I had collected by correspondence, by study
of the records of the Fulton Street (New York) noon prayer-meeting, and upon the
analogy between the changes normal at this age and these specific religious expe-
riences. This conclusion was briefly restated in an article printed some two years
later in the Princeton Review,^ and has been amplified with a growing mass of
data in my teaching in the field ever since, as all my pupils know. At least five
of them — Burnham,^ Daniels,^ Lancaster,* Lueba,* and Starbuck,^ and others —
have made valuable contributions to the subject, as also have Coe,' and James.^

1 The Moral and Religious Training of Children and Adolescents. Reprinted
in the Fed. Sem., June, 1891, vol. i, pp. 196-210.

2 The Study of Adolescence. Ibid., pp. 174-195.

3 The New Life : A Study of Regeneration. Am. Jour, of Psy., October, 1893,
vol. vi, pp. 61-106.

* Psychology and Pedagogy of Adolescence. Ped. Sem., July, 1897, vol. v,
pp. 61-128.

5 A Study in the Psychology of Religious Phenomena. Ibid., April, 1896,
vol. vii, pp. 309-385.

®A Study of Conversion. Am. Jour, of Psy., January, 1897, vol. viii, pp.
268-308. Some Aspects of Religious Growth. Ibid., October, 1897, vol. ix, pp.
70-124.

'' The Spiritual Life.

8 Varieties of Religious Expression. London, 1902. So partial is James's
comprehension of this relation that while he states (page 199) that "conversion is in
its essence a normal adolescent phenomenon," he still so far illustrates the old view-
point as to say (page 12) "religious life depends just as much upon the spleen, the
pancreas, and the kidneys," as on sex. Although the most brilliant litterateur and
stylist in philosophy since Schopenhauer, unless it be Nietzsche, whose diathesis his

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 293

Nor is religion degraded by the recognition of this intimate
relationship, save to those who either think vilely about sex
or who lack insight into its real psychic nature and so fail to
realize how indissoluble is the bond that God and nature have
wrought between religion and love. Perhaps Plato is right,
and love of the good, beautiful, and true is only love of sex
transfigured and transcendentalized ; but the Gospel is better,
which makes sex love at the best the type and symbol of love
of God and man. This new insight into the parallelisms be-
tween religion and love and the concomitant or complemental
variations of these two is perhaps chief of the many contri-
butions made and impending by modern psychology to piety,
and is one of the most sublime and fruitful themes of our
day, which Kant would very likely have added to the starry
heavens and moral law within as a third object of supreme
awe, reverence, and interest. As Weismann subordinates the
entire soma as a mere servant of the germ, as the biology of
sex makes reproduction the consummation of life, — the raison
d'etre of all the secondary sexual qualities, — and as the psy-
chology of sex selection finds in it the caput Nili of all the
arts of animal and human courtship, the most unitary and
desiderated as well as the most intense psychic experience, so

so resembles, our leading American in this field, a most copious and judicious quoter
and such a masterly describer of his own even flitting and evanescent subjective
psychic processes, with both person and page invested with such irresistible charm,
his method, and many if not most of his positions here, seem to do no less violence
to fact than do his dicta concerning sex. Most of the cases and experiences which
constitute so large a part of his volume are abnormal and some teratological, from
which true religion, I believe, saves its followers. These pathological varieties of
religious experience can explain piety itself no more than the mental and physical
freaks of hysteria explain true womanhood, the Wiertz museum explain art, or the
effects of music on the insane show its real nature. That God is proven by an hal-
lucinatory sense of presence, that the religion of the healthy-minded is mind cure,
that immortality is demonstrated by ghostly telepathy, and that the lurid experiences
of pious St7-eberthum, saturated by affectation, impressionism, and the passion to
be unique and interesting, described in colors laid on with a trowel and all marked
by an abandon and superlativeness that throws scientific caution and moderation to
the winds, and which, at the best, are only a few of the most superficial phenomena
of the adolescent ferment — this seems to me the babel of Babylon or of Walpurgis
night, and not the music of the heavenly city. True, the psychopathic temperament
has advantages, but they are at best only literary, and it is itself essentially both
anti-religious and anti-scientific. Many if not most of these "experiences" are
the yellow literature of religious psychology.

294 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

religion at his highest potence is union with God, to which
everything in the rehgious life leads up as its goal or makes
its point of departure. Love is the greatest thing in the world
for both the religionist and the amorist. Its praise is in su-
perlatives, for all else is dross. We must love with all our
mind, might, and strength. Both furnish in their sphere the
strongest motive both to assert and to renounce the will to
live. They are exalted and degraded together, and the best
work of each is to keep the other pure. Religion is at its best
when its earthly image is most spotless and untarnished, and
love is at its best where religion is purest and most undefiled.
Just as this relationship seems to degrade religion only to
those whose ideals or cults of love are low or undeveloped,
so those who dispraise religion have not realized how indis-
pensabh it is to perfect love. How central this thought was
in the mind of Jesus many parables and sayings attest. True
piety is earthly love transcendentalized, and the saint is the
lover purified, refined, and perfected. To have attained this
insight, to have organized it into life, cult, and a Church, is the
supreme claim of Jesus upon the gratitude, reverence, and awe
of the human heart. No such saving service has ever been
rendered to our race, and we can see no room in the future
for any other to be compared with it. His diagnosis of the
chief danger that threatened our race was sure and true, and
the remedial agencies are the best yet in sight.

Perhaps few masterpieces in literature have been so much wiser
than the author himself knew than the Platonic Symposium. The
guests decide not to drink, and they dismiss the flute girl and devote
themselves to post-prandial discourse concerning love. Phsedrus al-
most chants of it as a mighty god, creating order out of chaos, quicken-
ing the sense of honor and dishonor in youth, irresistible in war if
men who are lovers stand side by side, sending Orpheus to Hades to
rescue his love, etc. Pausanias distinguished the older and baser
Aphrodite of the body from the purer Eros of the soul. The gods
allow lovers all liberties, and at their very perjuries great Zeus smiles.
Aristophanes, assuming that love is the greatest and best thing in
the world, invents the serio-comic myth of primeval androgynous
monsters with four hands and four feet, back to back, terrible in wars
against the gods. To humble their pride, they were split like a sorb
apple or an egg with a hair, and the skin gathered in a knot at the
navel. The two halves, man and woman, have ever since desired and
sought their other moiety, and would be molten over again into one

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 295

as of yore. Agathon sings of a deity who sets her feet, not like Ate,
upon hard skulls, but walks on the soft hearts of man, who has taught
mankind arts and medicine, and is the pilot, defender, savior, and
glory of gods and men. Last of all, Socrates describes procreation as
the principle of immortality in mortals. It is for immortality that
even animals die for their offspring. But if the conceptions of the
body are so loftily interpreted, what shall we say of those of the
soul ? Love is of the mind and not of the body, of ideas and not of
physical forms. It would bring to the birth fair thought to improve
the young and infect them with the passion for beauty in all and not
in one, till, as the soul draws near the eternal sea of beauty and is
smitten with the boundless love of wisdom, ever using all kinds of
beauty as stepping-stones up to absolute knowledge, it forgets food
and drink and the body, pants with ecstasy, is absorbed, translated,
and would lose itself in contemplation and close in again with its
divine source. The pangs of philosophy and those of love unite, rea-
son and passion fuse. Truly, before this mystic idealism, we may well
feel that current conceptions of love are either a very rudimentary
bud or else a crumbling ruin, but yet that the purest love and the
highest truth were created for each other, and that if the world is at
root real and sane, it will culminate in their union.

Christianity gives a yet higher interpretation of love — the
greatest power of the soul fixed upon the greatest object, God,
and next to him, man. Those both pray and serve best who
love most. To the Christian, God himself is love, and without
the Pauline charity or love, all is sounding brass or tinkling
cymbals. The very end and essence of both moral and re-
ligious culture is to conceive and cultivate love in the purest,
loftiest, and most all-comprehending way. We saw in Chap-
ter VI how often in fact the sting of sin lies in the sphere of
sex, and phallic worship shows how religion itself can grovel.
If true love is the religion of the flesh, true religion is the love
of the spirit.

Some of the similarities and covariants of religion and love best
seen at adolescence may be enumerated as follows :

I. Both suggest death, and may not only risk, but court, fly to,
despise, and triumph over it. In the subordination of this life to
the next and to posterity, both alike are reductives of individuality.
To modern biology the soma, or all that can become a corpse, is a
set of thanatic organs which the deathless germ plasma has developed
as its tool, and is a specialized and therefore a degenerate thing com-
pared with the genetic elements, which are continuous from the first
form of life to the last. They seem to whisper to the soul of youth

296 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

that he is only a link in an endless chain that connects his forebears
with posterity. Instead of the latter, religion now tells of the post-
mortem self, and that the present life is cheap and mean as immor-
tality is slowly brought to light. Greatly as the fear of death is now
increased, it also fascinates, and, as we saw, even the suicide-curve
rises sharply. Scott ^ found that of over two hundred cases, eighty-
nine had brooded on death during the early teens, as if this back-
ground thought was needed to bring out the resources of love. Plato
taught that the philosopher who is in love with general ideas is really
seeking death, so enamored is he of the transcendental. Some
religions, not satisfied with accepting death with joy as the inevitable,
court annihilation or would be dissolved into a mere diffusive power
to get in closer rapport with the universe ; so love in its extreme
hyperbole prompts its victim to wish to become the air that surrounds,
the breeze that fans, or the ornament that adorns his beloved.^

2. True love and religion both make the soul highly sensitive to
nature. The flowers, the stars, the wind, the sea, all remind the love-
sick swain of his Dulcinea; but to the religious soul they are mere
asseverations and texts, and not substitutive, because the mistress
appears sensibly, while God is hidden. All the poetry and metaphors
of love show the great importance of its scene-setting in nature, and
of the subtle symbolism and the rich material of comparison, that
pervades her whole domain. What could the amorist do, as we saw
in Chapter XII, without the moon, the azure sky which reflects his
mistress's eyes or the depth of her soul, the breeze that takes messages,
the snow that mirrors her purity; when she is absent, how tender his
heart becomes toward all these items of the environment with which
she has been associated, either in his experiences with her or in his
fancy. So, too, religion glorifies nature. Stars sing of God's love,
the firmament shows his work, the spring his bounty, the world is
full of his design and provision, everything that pleases under the
sky is a token of special providence to the newly reborn lover of God,
who is assured that nothing ill can befall him for he is in his Father's
house. It is He who makes the birds sing or the sparrow fall; who
arrays the lilies, and endows animals with their wondrous instinct;
that numbers our hairs, names the stars, and makes the most common
joys of life and the simplest bounties of nature mementoes and

^ Psychology of Puberty and Adolescence. Proc. of the N. E. A., 1897, p. 848.

^ Anger, too, may now prompt such feelings as in lovers' quarrels. A girl of
fifteen, offended by those she loves, goes to her room, locks herself in, lies on the
bed, folds her arms across her breast, breathes quietly, imagines that she is dead,
that the family rush in, regret that they parted in anger, kiss her passionately, the
neighbors gather and say, " Poor girl, to have died so young! " and the coffin
is heaped with flowers ; she knows the text of the clergyman and what he will
say ; the lid is screwed down, and only when the clods begin to fall on the coffin
does she feel better, and gets up and goes down-stairs with every trace of bad feel-
ing removed.

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 297

keepsakes, so that in the normal soul love of nature and love of God
are inseparable.

3. Both have their fanaticisms. The medieval knight wore the
color or the favor of his chosen one, sang her praises as fairest and
best in the world, and if another dared dispute and assert the super-
lativeness of his own mistress, only the wager of battle could decide.
So races have fought for their faith, and required autos da fe of
others, and the conqueror has forced the conquered to unwillingly
confess the supremacy of his Deity and do homage to him. There
is but one supremely good and beauteous to whom all must bow. Allah
is one and above all, Jehovah is God and there is no other, have been
battle cries; and the Lord from heaven has looked down with com-
placency upon the slaughter of those who denied him, and has given
strength to the arm of his defender and shown some special sign of
favor when the victory was won. Proclaim Jesus, preach the glory
of his life everywhere till the world shall acknowledge it, is the en-
thusiasm of the courtship methods of militant Christianity.

4. Lovers, almost from the lowest creatures that are sexed, are
nest-builders. They make bowers not only for their young, but for
their mates, or a cottage for two, the greater the love the smaller it
may be, decorated with abundant flowers, keepsakes, mementoes, and
manifold ornaments; this is the way in which love expresses its in-
stincts of shelter, protection, and symbiosis or life together. If not
this, there are trysting-places hallowed by association, and where for
either alone thoughts of the other are most vivid, and consecrated
by memories. So religion builds its towers, altars, chapels, dolmens,
stonehenges, cathedrals, and shrines, where God comes down to dwell
and meet the worshiper. These are richly dight with the products
of man's esthetic faculties, so akin is beauty to both piety and love.
The temple, too, must be symbolic of its inhabitant; its arches must
be lofty; its spire must point upward; the light must speak with all
the symbolism of color; and its permanence must suggest the per-
durable, if not the eternal.

5. Religion, like love and the sea, ebbs and flows, and modes of
abnegation are as characteristic as those of aggression and assertion.
The uncertain lover may wear, perhaps exhibit, himself with every
token of depression, humiliation, and despair; neglect his toilet, seek
solitude, and may mutilate himself, or court death either to excite
pity or in sheer despair of winning his mistress's favor. Erotic litanies
abound in expressions of love-melancholy, a passion to serve, to be
humiliated by the loved one. There are expressions of absence of all
worth by comparison with her merits. So the religionist immolates
and disfigures his body, offers up his possessions, magnifies all his
sins and shortcomings as if there were no good in him, and all to
win divine sympathy or favor, and in the hope that infinite goodness
will be drawn out to gloriously supplement every imperfection. Per-
haps all hope vanishes, and even death is sought because life is in-
tolerable without divine as without human love.

298 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

6. The soul is especially cadenced in both love and religion by
rhythm, which is potent for both. The lover vents his passion in
poetry and song, perhaps becomes for a time a serenading troubadour,
and many a dull soul has broken into verse as many birds do into
song only once in life, and that at the mating season. The dance in
many races originated in the service of religion, and when it lapses,
is prone to fall to the service of passion. The Christian Church
largely sang and marched its way into the hearts of the pagan world
of the West. Music is the language of the feelings as speech is of
the intellect, and the theme of by far the most music of the world is
either love or religion. The melodies of the one often strangely fit the
words of the other, while song and hymns have always been one of
the potent aphrodisiacs of religious affection, and will remain so as
long as man is thumic or pectoral and must have emotion.

7. Not only do both abase, but both exalt the self. The accepted
lover is proud, ecstatic, and fearless, and counts himself the happiest
of men. There are no human ills or dangers that he has not the
strength to cope with. He respects his own virtue, beauty, and grace,
because he is the chosen one among many. So the soul new-born to
religion walks on air, his face shines with the joy of acceptance, and
his sense of freedom from guilt brings purity and faith that he can
prevail with God, with whom he stands in a specially favorable rela-
tion, and perhaps has some private insight or revelation. This, too,
is the germ of most of the exalted types of religious insanity.

8. Both animal and human courtship have their most varied and
accurately prescribed forms of etiquette and ceremony. They con-
sist often of a series of acts so exceptional, even in animals, as to
almost seem like the customs and manners of another world. The
manner of approach, address, the modes of winning favor, of soliciting
marriage, gifts, tonsure, and dress, are elaborated with superfine
punctilio; violation of usage in minor details often gives offense and
endangers alienation. So in wooing the favor of the divine, there are
elaborate rituals, litanies, modes, postures, costumes, forms of phrase,
times and places to be scrupulously observed, and often a cycle of
more or less formalized acts for prayer and charity, and a repetition
of phrases and ceremonial righteousness generally.

9. The late painful studies of sexual aberration show us that almost
any act or object can be focused on by those who are perverted or
impotent, to inflame the body and soul with lust. Long lists of non-
phallic erotic fetishes could be made out from the literature — which
shall be nameless here — rings, tresses, handkerchiefs, and every article
of dress or ornament, any one of which may and has become the
only object capable of arousing genesic states. The very name
assigned them, amatory fetishes, is significant. So in the history of
religions, men have made idols of almost every object in nature which
has been focused on to arouse crude and perverse religious feelings
and sentiments. There is almost nothing that has not been wor-
shiped, and there is a long catalogue of even scatological religious

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 299

rites. Nearly every act and attitude have somewhere been regarded
as worship, and also have elsewhere been used as passional provoc-
atives. In both, the normative, central experience is undeveloped or
weakened and lost, and something more eccentric has been uncon-
sciously seized upon by the soul, which must have something to wor-
ship and to love, however unworthy. Thus there is a correspondence
that works out in great detail between amatory fetishism and the
several forms of idolatry, which resemble each other in many aspects
of their symbolisms.

10. We are told that by the methods of sexual selection the female
has made the male according to her own tastes, that man is always
passing woman's examination, that not only a large portion of his
conduct that is addressed to her, but very much which is not con-
sciously so, does not escape her keen observation and unconscious
merit-marking; and so conversely in other and manifold ways man
has made woman. Psychology is lately learning more and more of
the wide range and great power of this intersexual biotonic stimulus.
This, too, has its religious analogue in the relations of man to God.
Each in a sense and to a degree makes the other in his own image.
Man is ever unconsciously drawn into likeness of the object of his
worship, who is always an exemplar, whose perfections he would imi-
tate and emulate.

11. Nor must it be forgotten that many of these analogies are
best seen, not from the masculine, but from the feminine side. The
Christian loves as the woman does, quite as much, if not more than as
the man does. There is quiet, retirement, fond contemplation of the
image and perfections of the dear one. There is passivity, inward-
ness, and virtues cultivated in secret seen by Heaven alone in order
to draw down its benison or its favor. Heavenly love brings its griefs,
sorrows, disappointments, and anxieties, its hope deferred, its hours
when nothing is possible but placid resignation that can not act or
strive.

12. Once more, love and religion are analogous in that both can
vivify and lend the immense influence of their vitality to almost any
and every act or object, can become gross, material, eccentric, and
desiccated, and yet in periods of reawakening can slough off as dross
all accretions, withdraw into central heights, find reenforcement in
involution, and from thence develop newer forms of objective ex-
pression. Perhaps nearly, if not quite, all forms are deciduous and
need to fall away at times and be replaced by the new growths of
spring-time. The soul which can worship or kindle love in every
act or object needs to break away and fall back upon its own resources
at times appointed, in order to realize and increase its "own inner
forces, as reproduction brings regeneration.

Such parallels might be easily multiplied. Both love archaic
phrases that are conventionalized, but antiquated and absurd if scru-
tinized in the light of modern knowledge. The medieval courts of
love adjudicated lovers' quarrels and solved knotty points of manners

300 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

as if they were holy liturgy. The agape or love feast of the early
Church ; canticles like that of St. Francis, who sang that he burned,
languished, and pined of the wounds of love divine, would swim in
love's sweet sea, was its slave bound in chains of strong desire, would
die bound in its furnace sunk in love's sweet swoon, etc. ; hymns and
songs from that of Solomon down; lives of celestial erotomaniacs
like St. Theresa ; the analogies between marriage as an institution and
the Church ; the circumstance that pathology in either sphere is liable
to involve that of the other, that true rehgion is far harder and rarer
in childhood and senescence, that religion is the chief corrective and
regulator of degraded love — each of these might be heads of nev/
chapters showing in detail their unity.

Using this key, we find that just as earthly love is at core a mo-
ment of ravishing joy which created all the widening irradiations,
made all the gorgeous plumage, created song and all the complicated
phenomena of animal courtship, that has brought into being the
whole range of secondary sexual qualities and their uses, and made
the world beauteous with color and odor, as well as, perhaps, in-
spired art and all the esthetic world for man, so religion has as its
nucleus rare and ravishing moments of communion with the highest
experiences which abide long with us and are worth a life of toil and
sacrifice to attain, but which irradiate outward into a good life
through an endless range of rites, creeds, asceticisms, and cults for
the body and for the soul, perhaps idolatrous and pagan superstitions,
and fetish worship; yet all these are changing habiliments of heav-
enly love put on and taken off to fit the exigencies of race, culture,
environment. Both have their transports of bliss and rapture; both
have their pangs of pain, fear, despair; both alternate between a feel-
ing of absolute dependence and that of absolute freedom, between the
sentiment of the eternal worth of the individual, when life abounds
and may be violent, seeking to take the kingdom of heaven by force,
and abject Massochistic humility which longs to be servile and to be
passively seized and borne away by heteronomous powers. Both love
and religion delight in incense and swinging censers that appeal to
the sense of smell; both are liable to the extremes of orgy and sub-
sequent apathetic reaction. The sarcous and celestial erotics both
have their flagellations and their penances, and their beauteous vest-
ments. Both have their prelude of danger, uncertainty, and possible
loss. Both are borne up on the wings of music and song, and both
have their intonation and enchantments. Both worship and pray, and
readjust the individual will to that of the adored being. Both have
their manuals of devotion. Both hunger for a larger, fuller life, and
have their pathology, fetishism, and formalism, their hypocrisies, their
periods of revival, and their methodisms.

True and deep religious experience is almost impossible before
adolescence, and disturbances in either sphere are now liable to affect
the other. The birthday of the strongest passion is the day of the
greatest need of religion, and is also the period when the calentures

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 3°!

of both are in greatest danger of becoming confused one with the
other, so that devotional and passional states may become mutually
provocative. If we see how the lower rouses the higher in some of
the experiences of the medieval saints, monks and nuns, and other
ascetics, we also see how the appeal to the higher may rouse the lower
in some of the phenomena of modern revivalism, especially at camp-
meetings. Both are liable in youth to be predominantly emotional,
and the contiguity of emotional states is then most liable to produce
extension of excitement to other areas by contagion.^ Both are often
at their best and purest at adolescence. It is only in later life that
their spheres become more distinct.

On the other hand, their differences are, as the world better knows,
many and great. The object of divine love is not sensuous or transi-
tory, but spiritual and abiding. Precious as is the love of persons in
itself and for its own sake, it is a symbol of that which is higher.
If up to a certain degree of fervor, varying greatly with individuals,
each strengthens and normalizes the other, beyond this point too great
intensity of either interferes with the other. Some may put all the
ardor meant for husband and wife, and all the devotion due to chil-
dren, into the love and service of God and of a future heavenly state,
while nothing so emasculates piety as base or excessive eroticism.
Plato, Spinoza, and many others, have shown that there is an in-
tellectual love of the divine. God, however conceived, whether as
incarnate or as the Stoic soul of the world, is an object that appeals
to very different sentiments and faculties, and in a very different way
from those evoked by a human personality; prayer, worship, and
service take on new qualities and directions, and where the Divine
Being be conceived as of the same sex as the worshiper or unsexed,
the above analogies pale in significance.

I. In its most fundamental sense, conversion is a natural,
normal, universal, and necessary process at the stage when
life pivots over from an autocentric to an heterocentric basis.
Childhood must be selfish in the sense that it must be fed, shel-
tered, clothed, taught, and the currents of its environment set

^The first impulse of genius, says Lombroso,^ is often due to beauty or to love.
Petrarch became a poet when he was fourteen, upon seeing his Laura. Impression-
ability in general, as is plain for many cases, is now at its apogee. Youth is in a
state of latent explosibility. Effects, especially in the realm of religion, are often
instantaneous, like a sudden revelation disproportionate to their causes. Interme-
diate states come to the front temporarily and perhaps permanently. Emotionality
is extremely unstable and easily influenced. The sexual psychopath, especially the
fetishist, is often made so by a single vivid impression at this susceptible age,
when special incidents are not only vividly and permanently impressed upon the
mind, but become formative centers.

^ Alienist and Neurologist, April and August, 1902.

302 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

toward and not from it. Again, infancy is generic and
abounds in rudimentary physical and psychic traits com-
mon to many forms of higher animal as well as of human life.
In the adolescent infancy of the soul a similar totalizing tend-
ency appears on a higher plane. Youth seeks to be, know,
get, feel all that is highest, greatest, and best in man's estate,
circumnutating in widening sweeps before it finds the right
object upon which to climb. There are interpreted antici-
pations of greater joy which only true marriage and parent-
hood of body and soul can satisfy, foregleams of heroic
achievement and secret " excelsior " ambitions. It is the glo-
rious dawn of imagination, which supplements individual lim-
itations and expands the soul toward the dimensions of the
race. Some girls want to be romantically good and paragons
of piety and beauty. Occasionally a criminaloid boy secretly
resolves to commit all the crimes and vices ever heard of.
The mannerisms and affectations of superiors are put on.
There are dreams of leadership, victory, and splendor amid
the plaudits of an admiring world. All these more or less
flickering and iridescent trailing clouds of glory usher in a
new inner dawn, when everything seems turning to gold at
the touches of fancy, and that only poetry can ever describe,
which it has not yet adequately done, but which I believe it
is its very highest function to do. The flood-gates of higher
heredity are open. Before this age children often resemble
one parent or one side of the house, etc. ; but now the traits
of body or soul of the other parent or side appear, and the
less remote forebears are heard from, a vast cloud of wit-
nesses, so that it is no wonder, especially where ethnic stocks
are mingled, that cross-fertilization follows its law and pro-
duces variety within the individual soul. Hence prepotent
tendencies of diverse kinds clash or combine, as it were, at
all angles and with all degrees of mutual arrest or reenforce-
ment. It is thus well for adolescents to have a series of in-
terests, fevers, and even flings, because to find a life voca-
tion in the first new field that opens has been well called as
dwarfing as for a plant to go to seed from the first pair of
cotyledons. Now, too, come the reading crazes, the first at-
tempts at poetry, dramatic or other arts, ideas of wealth,
service, fame, and vows of sublime deeds. No age has such

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 3° 3

many-sided interests, and all without distraction. Nothing
human is alien, and all this stretching of the soul to larger
dimensions is nature's way of liberal culture to full-orbed per-
fection. The ego would, in Guyau's phrase, expand itself to
the uttermost, and act all parts in the Comedie Humaine. If
unchecked, in later life these ideals tend to exploit to the utter-
most every sense and all experiences, to utilize all the maxims
of expediency, like Marius the Epicurean, or to maximize in-
dividuality, like Goethe, and incline more to the best Hellenic
than to the Hebrew or Christian types of life.

But another voice is soon heard in the soul, which says :
Renounce and serve, life is short, powers and opportunities
are limited, suffering is needful to perfection, so obey, find
the joy of sacrifice, get only to give, live for others, subor-
dinate the will to live to love, or to offspring. Thus the
inevitable hour comes when all these vague masses of ances-
tral reminiscences which our very heredity suggests, and
which are so much vaster than any individual life can express,
must submit to what often seems the injustice or even the
pathos of slowly progressive separate personal definiteness.
The larger natura non naturata of the soul must gradually
decline to dim subliminal regions, and the hunger for a more
and fuller life and the desire to have the broadest possible
experience can not be gratified in our own sublunary exist-
ence. This suggests posterity as well as ancestry, or else an-
other life, as a kind of psychokinetic equivalent and a substi-
tute where these promises, bankrupt here, will be redeemed.
Hence this is the great opportunity for the teachers of religion,
of the family, and of social life. These earlier, tender dreams
nursed in secret, the incubation of which inclines to reticence
and to solitude, which should be not only respected but fa-
vored, are sure to pale or be shattered one by one by closer
contact with the real world. The sense of imperfection and
incompleteness which inevitably supervenes is one cause of
the mild melancholy so symptomatic of this climacteric period.
The ulterior law of service and self-sacrifice, which seems at
first to be contradictory of all that has preceded, begins to
loom up, and the prolonged period of readjustments and sub-
ordinations begins. Henceforth the race, not the self, must
become supreme.

304 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

All are thus born twice, once as individuals and once as
representatives of the species. Quetelet sagely says that the
best measure of the state of civilization in a nation is the w^ay
in which it achieves its revolutions. As it becomes truly civi-
lized they cease to be sudden and violent, and become gradually
transitory without abrupt change. The same is true of that
individual crisis which physiology describes as adolescence,
and of which theology formulates a spiritual aspect or potency
called regeneration and conversion. True religion is nor-
mally the slowest because the most comprehensive kind of
growth, and the entire ephebic decade is not too long and is
well spent if altruism or love of all that is divine and human
comes to assured supremacy over self before it is ended. Later
adolescence merges the lower into the higher social self. Com-
plex as the process is, a pivotal point is somehow discernible
where the ego yields to the alter. Normal and imperceptible
as this evolution is ideally, the transition is in fact the chief
antithesis in all the human cosmos. While it involves trans-
formation in nearly every sphere of thought, conduct, and sen-
timent, it may occur in one field after another, and be so slow
in each field as to occupy the longest and fullest lifetime and
then be incomplete. Indeed, this change fills and alone gives
unity to history, for Christianity marks the same pivotal point
in ethnic adolescence where self-love merges in resignation
and renunciation into love of man. Religion has no other
function than to make this change complete, and the whole of
morality may be well defined as life in the interest of the race,
for love of God and love of man are one and inseparable.

Even Huxley says the cosmic and the ethical processes are
antagonistic and we must resist the former. Perhaps the irenicon or
harmony between the two is for us what temperance and the golden
mean were for Aristotle. Seeley thinks Christianity inadequate and
that we should add, as it were, two more religions — that of the beauti-
ful and that of the true, otherwise we shall feel " that the great
companion is dead," and that " the sun shines from empty heavens
and lights a sullen earth," and the grudge of artists against morality,
and that of science against religion, will not be overcome. One of
the chief functions of morals and religion is to adjust these instincts.
Happily the best sense of the world revolts at both extremes, and
if they were really irreconcilable we should almost despair of human
nature. It is incalculable gain that we now see that they are not

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 3^5

disparate, but only belong to different strata of the soul, and culminate
in different periods of life. First, life is ascendent, and then, at the
period of involution, no one is harmonized with the law of his own
being who does not feel the passion of surrender.

II. When upon this background of normahty, which is
still discernible as the basis of our unfallen nature, is devel-
oped the pathology of sin, both the struggles and changes are
profoundly intensified, especially the negation motives. How
real and potent this factor is, especially its sexual note, we
saw in Chapters VI and VII. From vague impulsions toward
completeness and a moral life essentially objective, youth is
often smitten with a sudden sense of wrong within as if con-
science now came suddenly into function. Introspection di-
vides the soul into an ethical dualism. Reflection on right
and wrong in both the concrete and abstract brings home the
fact that general good-will and intention coexist with evil in
thought, word, and deed. The new moral world into which
the soul now breaks is a vast and complex one.

Kozle found some score or more German words expressing
childish and youthful faults than those specifying the seven
hundred and forty-nine diseases standardized by the English
Pharmacological Society. Most of all these, as well as the
seven deadly sins, the candid soul can detect, at least in germ,
in itself. There is pride, superbia, by which man fell when
the Tempter promised him that he should be as God, which
boasts, kills sympathy, leads to excessive adornment of the
body, arrogance of wealth, beauty, talents, and birth, and
which makes meekness and humility so hard ; avarice, the root
of evil, that makes cruelty, lust of conquest, slavery, covet-
ousness, and gambling, till men coin and sell their very souls
for lucre, although it is happily mainly a vice of the old and
not of the young, and can be best safeguarded in youth by
teaching that wealth is but a means to higher ends and that
the middle station between poverty and riches is best; envy,
or pain at another's good, very distinct from Nemesis as sor-
row at the prosperity of the wicked and joy in their fall,
which prompts murder, slander, gossip, and detraction, and
kills love of merit for its own sake ; appetite, which may take
the form of gluttony, for which the later Roman Empire was
59

306 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

so notorious, or drunkenness, next the most insidious vice of
modern youth, for which even partial pledges not to treat or
drink except at meals may save many; wrath, which is sinful
if in excess or wrongly directed, and easily degenerates to
peevishness and irritability at trifles; laziness, sloth, or ac-
cidie,^ psyche torpor, which predisposes to discouragement,
Weltschmerz and pessimism, the opposites of courage and
strenuousness ; and last and chiefly, luxury or licentious-
ness, which prompts insidiously to sin in thought, word,
and deed.

These seven sins, which the Catholic Church thought most
virulent, and from which it held all the others could be de-
rived, which were often elaborately personified, perhaps as
dancing in hideous mien about a " lusty juventus " or con-
tending with the seven cardinal virtues as to which of them
should rule him, are all of them easily found if the soul is
once morally introverted and enters upon a rigid self-exami-
nation to inventory them. The self-revelation that results is
often appalling. There is no more innocence, but self-accusa-
tion and indictment in countless forms. To be under con-
viction of sin was the first of the old formal steps that ended
in conversion. This stage has its familiar litany. There is
nothing good in us, all is corrupt, we are dead in trespasses
and sin. All we do, think, say, feel, is evil, to which we are
inordinately prone. At first we hold ourselves personally re-
sponsible, and later realize that our nature is corrupt, that
we are conceived and born in iniquity, that it is a taint that
dates from the origin of man. We are sold, led captive, en-
chained, poisoned to the heart with its virus, bound to a body
of death meriting only destruction. The descriptions of this
stage, sometimes even in Puritan environments, have been
often superlative and even yellow, so that if the emotional
utterances of saints concerning their own ethical state were
taken literally they would be everywhere cast out of society
as moral lepers.

The crude psychology of the Church describes, too, a kind
of counter conversion of souls that glory in their own utter
iniquity, and this was the signature of diabolism and witch-

* James Stalker: The Seven Deadly Sins. London, Igoo.

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 3^7

craft. Evil was exultant, accepted as good, as modern litera-
ture describes monsters who would exploit and exhaust every
possibility of vice and crime and diligently extirpate every
virtue and even semblance of it they could detect in their
own souls. The sense of sin is the most intense degree of
self-consciousness, and jaded and inverted natures, like Bau-
delaire's, have found the extreme of moral titillation in de-
scribing an au rebours world, where all that was worst was
regarded as best, everything most holy was the purest vicious-
ness, and flagitiousness was made the supreme object of pious
aspiration and endeavor. Every rupture with virtue gave
new exultation, and lives have been solemnly devoted to sin,
as its saints and apostles have vowed to cultivate only " the
flowers of hell." Happily there are not two different king-
doms in the moral world both alike primitive and organic,
and hence this is psychologically impossible. The morbid tis-
sue of disease is a product of growth perverted. It develops
only by the momentum of normal vitality. There are no in-
dependent morbific principles, but only symptom-groups of
decay, as death is simply the absence of life, and all persona-
tions of it are descriptions of the realm poetic, so that deprav-
ity can never from its very nature be total, so essentially
negative and self-destructive is it. Goodness, like life, tends
to survival, and evil is self-annihilating. Manicheism is as
heterodoxal to evolution as it has been, since Augustine, to
Christianity.

Thus the first and most immediate reaction in the soul to
this new sense of sin is pain, not pleasure. It expresses itself
instinctively, and always in some of its many forms of regret
— penitence, mourning, grief, compunction, remorse. It
pricks, stings, burns, wounds, brings restlessness and anxiety,
a sense of oppression, as under a heavy load. Psychalgia is in-
tolerable, and a sense of pure pain, if not per se impossible, as
some now argue, creates a tension that finds vent along lines
of least resistance, which varies with individual diathesis.
Sometimes physical symptoms of a convulsive or hysteroid
type predominate, or the involution may be so deep as to in-
hibit movement and cause the torpor of misery. While per-
sonal and avoidable sins are most prominent in consciousness,
a feeling of individual responsibility brings a sense of guilt

3o8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

into the foreground. Penalty is merited and feared, perhaps
in the vague form of nameless apprehension at first, slowly
taking on the definite imagery so familiar in sterner religious
environments; Deity is offended, God's wrath and hate fan-
cied, or a more impersonal justice violated, which must be
not so much appeased as compensated. It is in these condi-
tions that penance may become a veritable passion, and all
forms of self-denial and mortification, flagellations, fasting,
and exposure may become enthusiastic, that punitive venge-
ance be meted out to the offending body or soul. The heart
cries out for condign punishment ; because merited it must be
immediate, and if self-inflicted, there is added merit and a
reenforcement of the new good resolutions.

Thus the fruits of a sense of sin are: i, pain; 2, guilt;
3, craving for just punishment; and now 4, confession. To
proclaim what is bad in us is to exteriorize and alienate it.
The soul judges and condemns what was a vital part of itself.
The fission begins when we realize sin in our inmost selves;
and to set it forth in words openly to others is a much further
and often very costly step in its extradition. The psychology
of the confession that leads on to forsaking is deep and com-
plex. It exposes the penitent to censure and perhaps con-
tempt, upsets the good name rather to be chosen than riches,
brands as God's convict, and thus psychically isolates, and is
a declaration of moral bankruptcy that humiliates ethical
pride. By showing others how vile we seem to ourselves,
and taking them behind the veil of conventionalities, re-
straints, and hypocrisies which had disguised our leprosy, we
find at once a certain relief proportionate to the strain these
falsities had caused us, and some energy is freed for inner
reconstruction. Again, the social pain of avowal of evil is so
poignant and perhaps intolerable that it prompts to rebuild the
reputation we have shattered or impaired. But this is not the
most or best, for the very act of putting our sins into words
and acknowledging them to others means that the long-fes-
tering sores have suppurated into consciousness and are now
come to a head, broken and discharging, and healing processes
are already under way. Our loathsomeness is itself incipient
recovery. The rash and tetter of evil is salvative, and thus
again we see that consciousness is a remedial process, a thera-

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 3^9

peutic agent. The more vital a tissue, organ, or function the
less conscious we are of it, and the weaker or more decadent
it is the more it comes to the front.

A fifth symptom-group in the pathology of the sin-sick
soul is very grave, though not universal, when culpability for
all witting and unwitting personal sins leads on to a sense
of hereditary corruption, and we feel ourselves victims of an-
cestral vice. This presents to the sense of responsibility its
oldest and hardest problem, and has been the incentive to the
boldest of all the theoretical constructions of speculative the-
ology. The fact that we suffer for the sins of our forebears or
mid-parents back to Adam, or the amphioxus or even amoeba,
challenges every instinct of distributive justice, and has led
more souls to negation, revolt, and despair than any other
fact in the moral world. Repudiate all idea of justice and
goodness at the helm of things, curse and die, is the all too
obvious suggestion that unnumbered ingenuous hearts have
taken. This is also the tap-root of pessimism and sensualism.
The fall of man in the first was a mythopeic postulate to ex-
plain the origin, and his restoration through the second Adam
was a Pauline effort to explain, by a parallelism more rhe-
torical than logical, a mode of extinction of the inherited taint
of Eden. Here in our biological age, returns show that the
youthful seeker after righteousness is often most enmeshed.
If there is a cure as vicarious as the infection, and accessible,
on the easiest terms, to all, then there is no injustice to the
individual, no matter how contaminated his blood. The ben-
ison must be as nearly as possible the exact counterpart of
the malison. This stupendous problem with which Paul
grappled has yet had no other solution in the world save the
Oriental one of resignation and renunciation.

Our Western and democratic demand to be judged solely
on our own merits or demerits is a product of overblown
Titanic heaven-storming individuality; and its demand to
open the debt and credit account-book of life with a clean
page is itself preposterous. Even if we could conceivably ap-
ply antidotes for the evils we ourselves have brought upon
our own nature, we can never hope to neutralize those of all
our ascendents; while the very age of the human race as now
conceived and our long prehuman and animal pedigree make the

310 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

defects we inherit seem far more inveterate and helpless than
they ever could before.

Harmatophobia is intensified by calamity that brings out the next
world, prompting self-stupration and the misologism that loves to
see reason collapse and often plunges the soul into deep melancholy
and despair. Horror of sin may make self-mortification a frenzy.
It was this that made Loyola and his disciples develop the me-
chanics of devotion or self-immolation. We can not understand the
satisfaction that came to many a saint by never eating enough ; hold-
ing stones in the mouth during Lent ; saying the psalter in ice-water ;
in sleeping between corpses in a coffin or on a cross, and that never
enough; exposing himself to gnats; wearing crowns of thorns; or
the fanaticism that in the fourteenth century, as a result of the
black death, made men flagellants and developed many a spiritual
exercise. Thus the Marquise of Penalta was slowly possessed by
the impulse to desert her adoring lover and bare her back to daily
scourging by her maid. Men have rivaled each other in austerities,
self-torture, and even martyrdom. Recluses cuhivated a physical
morahty, saying the Church service one word at a breath ; meditating
on the hidden meanings of each syllable ; thinking of saints while they
ate ; fixing the eye almost to the point of catalepsy on skulls or sacred
symbols ; living in the dark ; kneeling, lying, praying in fantastic atti-
tudes, seeking purity and expiation. They coquetted not only with
hunger but with disease, forgetting that the first makes men irritable,
and the second often devilish. In Chartreuse, inspired by St. Bruno,
they vowed silence to all save God alone. They swore poverty and
chastity; reduced the surface of contact with the world to its minimum
to attain gnosis ; " held the flesh to be the devil's knight," in order to
put off the old man and his deeds, seeking to tame the carnal wolf,
to guard the Lord's flock. They hoped to be perfect through suffer-
ing, and in deliria of virtue strove for self-mastery, discipline, and
penitential atonement, for this world is inversely as the other, and
all this pain here will be rewarded by eternal joy.

Although Heinroth, the leading German authority on insanity in
his day, defended with great philosophical acumen the proposition
that all mental diseases are caused by sin, and Idler and Morel were
somewhat inclined to the same opinion, these views fell into general
neglect. More recently, however, Kraussold ^ has sought, with the
resources of expert knowledge of insanity at his command, to establish
a definite connection between melancholy and a sense of guilt, and
to thus effect a renewed junction between medicine, religion, and phi-
losophy which have been so long separated. He holds that the self-
accusations so common in melancholia, and which have so long been
thought to be imaginary, are often true and rest upon a basis of fact.
Melancholiacs, he urges, often see their own lives truly; their self-

' Kraussold: Melancholic und Schuld. 1884.

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 3"

reproaches are justified; they have been bad and sinned away their
youth or manhood. These writers, Hke many modern pessimists, in-
cline to the " luxury of woe " theory, and so consider mania and melan-
cholia as less contrasted on the alghedonic scale than most have
deemed them, but they rightly argue that it makes a great difference
in the proper treatment of each case whether the sin is real or is the
product of morbid fancy. Kraussold suggests that such cases now
prefer to consult a physician rather than a clergyman, because it eases
the conscience to be thought more sick than guilty. He made a com-
mendable, if but partially successful, attempt to penetrate the extreme
reticence which veils in such obscurity the causes of depressive states
of mind in order to find in specific cases the sin at its core. Under
the stimulus of a general sense of guilt patients examine all their
lives and fix upon some petty real or fancied case, where, if they
had done differently, dire results would have been avoided. This is
often enormously magnified by the morbid emotional state and by
friends ; normal associations, habitual memories, and lapses of thought
are powerless to reduce the hypertrophied ideas or impressions. Of
all delusions of depressive states, that of having committed some sin
or error that is physiologically or judicially unpardonable, some
think most common, and this is, perhaps, the most fit and adequate ex-
pression of the depressed tone of consciousness. Even if hypochon-
driacal disease or loss of property or reputation haunt the mind, this is
often thought to be self-caused and therefore culpable, or an expression
of retribution.

Although it is so extremely difficult to get at the mental states
of melancholiacs that we are very far from having the desiderated
statistics showing what percentage of cases have this genetic factor, we
may ask. Who is free from a sense of sin, error, or imperfection ? We
all have our weaknesses, and if change of occupation or failure in
business, or isolation, etc., free our thoughts from wonted channels, if
disease weakens our nervous fiber, and especially if misfortune, afflic-
tion, or sorrow arouse, as they always do (so animistic are we at bot-
tom toward the universe), the question, "Was this deserved?" then
remembered offenses long latent in memory often revive, the cate-
gorical imperative is heard from, and the gnawings of conscience
may deepen to remorse. Vain and wasteful though we are often
told regrets are, their strength is one of the great factors of life. Not
only grief, but atonement for the past, is as basal as the struggle for
survival, and self-inflicted penalties of every conceivable form attest
in man a real passion for punishment as a means of purification and
deliverance, which in abnormal cases vents itself in fantastic modes
of self-torture and even suicide. A sense of justice, one of the most
generic expressions of the social instinct, however wrongly inter-
preted in the past, always impels toward reparation, while all who
are sympathetically acquainted with the vicious and criminal know
that the " heavenly powers " are very real and often all-dominant in
the errabund soul, and that despair may rouse some minds to frenzy

312 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

and plunge others into apathy. Indeed, a sense of sin is only shown
to be more vital by having some power to explain, as Jesus did to
rule, the processes of those bereft of reason.

Kierkengaard, a theologian, had long before undertaken to treat
the psychology of sin and conversion as resting essentially on the
feeling of anxiety of which psychiatry now makes such comprehensive
use.^ Older writers — Cullen, Boerhaave, Aretee, Trales, and others —
have noted the tendency of depressive states of mind to be followed by
euphoria and exaltation, and now Ziehen argues for a sequent stage of
hyperthumia, or inordinate cheerfulness, in which most melancholiacs
recover, while most of the rest pass over to mania. Bevan-Lewis
thinks a depressive stage " precedes all forms of mental disease " ;
Fere " holds that anger in the insane is often a sthenic reaction to
depression; and Magnan,^ in a masterly study, has laid great stress
upon the tendency of melancholy with delusions of persecution to
change to anger and perhaps homicidal impulses when the victim
himself assumes the role of persecutor after reacting into more or
less full-blown delusions of greatness; he thinks that sexual rhythm
increases both the depth and extent of the denudation of the higher
centers, and makes the euphorious states, when the inevitable reaction
brings them on, all the more excessive and abandoned. It is in
periodic and more specifically in circular types of insanity, however,
that we find this tendency of pleasurable and painful states of mind
to react into each other, best illustrated." Each has many forms and
symptoms. Among periodic diseases those in which psychic symp-
toms play a prominent part form the largest class. Kirn thinks most
of them develop during adolescence, and that they are common again
at the climacteric.'^ The two extremes may or may not be separated
by a clear and normal interval. Interesting, too, although not conclu-
sive, is Koster's laborious statistical effort to show that these changes
from exaltation to depression coincide with the approach and re-
cession of the moon, which is from forty-seven to fifty-five thousand
miles nearer the earth in perigee than in apogee."

Morbid depression in its first onset often coincides with what
Bevan-Lewis calls a decline of object-consciousness and an in-
crease of consciousness of self. States of reverie or self-absorp-

^ Zur Psychologie der Sunde, der Bekehrung und des Glaubens ; tr. by Ch.
Schrempf, 1850.

'F^re: La Pathologic des Emotions. Paris, 1892, p. 352.

'Magnan: Psychiatrische Vorlesungen. Heft I. Especially Lecture VIL

^ For a concise characterization, see Kraepelin's Psychiatric, fourth edition,
1893, p. 363 etseq.

^ Ludwig Kirn : Die periodischen Psychoses. Stuttgart, 1878. Especially p.
37 et seq.

^ Ueber die Gesetze des periodischen Irreseins und verwandter Zustande von
Sanitats Rath. Dr. Koster, 1882. See also T. L. Bolton's Rhythms, Am. Jour,
of Psy. , January, 1894, vol. vi, pp. 145-238.

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 3^3

tion gain at the expense of interest in outer things. The mus-
cular factor of thought diminishes and the mind fails to grasp and
unite the factors of the environment. Volition is restricted, while
both mental states and automatisms become segregated and, as it were,
feralized from the control or domestication of attention and the ego.
Attempts to explain things result in a new nexus of ideas, and be-
cause the mental disaggregation makes problems seem simple and
therefore their solutions easy, there is a new sense of freedom, and
the old associative plexus is loosened as another self or a new per-
sonality emerges which as a product of devitalization is on a lower
level, because " a weakening of associative affinity arouses correlative
centers."

This illustrates three laws of great significance and pertinence:
(a) the power of conscience and especially of a sense of guilt, (b)
the dissociative action of depression upon the psychic plexus which
may prepare for a recombination of elements on a higher, as in mor-
bid cases it more often does on a lower, plane, and (c) the deep
tendency of our nature to react from pain to joy, which is the moment
of conversion, and all the more intense by contrast and resilience. Here,
again, especially in the abnormal oscillation, sex, if not a key, supplies
suggestive analogy. Nothing save hunger alone is judged from such
different standpoints by the same person, and reversal of view-point
is nowhere so sudden and extreme in so brief a period of time. Noth-
ing so upsets the poise and stability of the soul as excess, whether by
natural or unnatural methods. From passionate love and desire that
may reach an intensity that breaks through every restraint of interest
in the well-being of self or of one most loved, of decency and law, the
disequilibrated soul may pass in a brief interval to post-coital rage
against its beloved, of sometimes homicidal intensity, or to the depths
of self-abasement, despair, and perhaps suicide. It is sins in this
field, as we just saw, that are so often found to be at the heart of
melancholy where psychically induced by qualms of conscience, and
when somatic causes are primary and the depressive delusions
secondary, the latter are peculiarly prone to be of a sexual character.
It is a change in the wider irradiation of this function, especially at
adolescence and senescence, when its instability is greatest, that is so
often felt to need an explanation, which makes the hypersensitized
and abnormal soul in its illusions construe the universe as if it all
centered about his own person. In the moment of temptation, all tense,
eager, self-assertive and aggressive, resourceful and masterful in
overcoming obstacles or meeting objections, ready to make any pledge
or to violate any vow, to face any danger, to meet any enemy, and to
overrule every scruple; and then a little later, abject, contrite, a prey
to nameless fears, weak and irritable, perhaps with complete reversal
of feeling, temporary paralysis of will and a dull stagnation of
thought, and with a totally new scenery of images and associations as
if a new personality had supervened. These are not exaggerations
of what the exercise of a function normally healthful may and often

3^4 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

does become not only in the enfeebled, degenerate, and corrupt, but, to
some extent, in immature and callow natures as well, especially when
wrongly set in external circumstances and methods, and in the false
perspective of popular ignorance and misinformation. Here, then,
we must seek one of the keys not only to asceticism and celibacy,
much unhappy domestic life, and many of the secrets of divorce courts,
but to many of the more highly saturated and otherwise inexplicable
phenomena in religious life.

Gautama's long struggle with the problem of pain and evil
in the world led him to a very different conclusion in the law
of Karma. We have many lives behind us, as well as be-
fore. We reap only what we have sowed in the lives that
preceded the present. These have been such that no one can
make himself perfect in a single life. Many are needed to
work our way upward away from sin and sorrow. Therefore
let us be kind and compassionate, even to animals, practise
charity, temperance, eradicate evil and beautify our souls,
turn if possible all affection into one great compassion for all
that lives, and then we shall need no worship, prayer, priest-
hood, or even personal God, but can at last, when renuncia-
tion is complete, enter the great peace of which we know noth-
ing, and find the only comfort possible in the hour of death in
thinking on our good deeds.

The Christian solution, if we interpret it in terms of mod-
ern psychology rather than in those of dogma, may be thus
stated : Having tried to look the fact of our departure from
nature and our ideal squarely in the face, and realized how
far we are from what we would be, or might have been with
other antecedents — itself a discipline of the highest ethico-
psychic value — we shall all, even the best of us, find sooner
or later that our imperfections of nature and nurture are too
many and great to be overcome by any effort we can possibly
make. Habits and instincts are too much for our will. The
good we can do is partial, or lacks spontaneity ; it is an arti-
fact we have to force upon ourselves. Therefore, the only
course is to stop special and multifarious striving and fall
back on more generic and unconscious impulsion ; with a
changed heart and a new affection, having fallen in love with
righteousness, surrender to this new love; make it supreme
and complete; let it have free course, striving only to remove

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 3^5

obstacles ; feed its flame by pious exercise ; fan it by every in-
spiring example, especially by that of the great Exemplar;
be this love's slave, its victim, follow its every behest; trust
it blindly as the only pure and unfallen thing in us, feel its
very season supremely holy, and fix it on the highest object;
aspire even more than endeavor; emulate everything that in-
spires us, for love is as old as life itself and stronger, and is
therefore alone capable of reconstructing it from the bottom.
It is thus the power that makes for righteousness in the soul.
III. Intellectual reconstruction, or, in Herbartian phrase,
working over ideas, is almost a synonym of mental growth.
In childhood credulity amounts almost to hypnotic sugges-
tibility. Not only is everything believed, but the faintest hint
starts the exuberant imagination to vividness often hallu-
cinatory. This power to believe the false and even the absurd,
in infancy, is not defect, but excess of psychic vitality. The
narrow horizon of reality within the juvenile ken is not
enough, and the world of fancy and myth is needed to sup-
plement it. Never is receptivity so near to creative energy,
and this is why genius is defined as the preservation into ma-
ture years of the fecund mental spontaneity of childhood.

John Fiske says : " I remember distinctly the conception which I
had formed when five years of age. I imagined a narrow office just
over the zenith, with a tall standing-desk running lengthwise, upon
which lay several open ledgers bound in coarse leather. There was
no roof over this office, and the walls rose scarcely five feet from the
floor, so that a person standing at the desk could look out upon the
whole world. There were two persons at the desk, and one of them —
a tall, slender man, of aquiline features, wearing spectacles, with a pen
in his hand and another behind his ear — was God. The other, whose
appearance I do not distinctly recall, was an attendant angel. Both
were diligently watching the deeds of men and recording them in the
ledgers. To my infant mind this picture was not grotesque, but in-
effably solemn, and the fact that all my words and acts were thus
written down, to confront me at the day of judgment, seemed
naturally a matter of grave concern." ^

How very crude religious imagery of God, heaven, death,
hell, angels, ghosts, witches, prayers, Church ceremonies, etc.,
is, is well illustrated in a valuable and suggestive though

^The Idea of God as Affected by Modern Knowledge. Boston, 1886, p. 116

3i6 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

confessedly local and incomplete study of this in California
on a basis of 1091 compositions upon these subjects.^ God,
e. g., may be imaged as a benign or cruel gray-bearded, blue
giant; the devil as pictured on labels of deviled ham, or in a
Punch and Judy show, etc. While these crass conceptions
caused vague questionings sometimes as early as from four
years to ten, the doubting spirit in this field culminated at
thirteen or fourteen, when criticism seems more persistent than
later, and Earl Barnes thinks that at this period special effort
should be made to help the child to correct and adjust his most
grotesque ideas. The first appearance of this spirit is often
seen in the phrases : " I think," " have been told," " was
taught," " they say," " I used to think," and in the use of " if,"
" but," and " perhaps." Barnes thinks that " from fifteen to
eighteen there is no such persistent exercise of the critical
judgment in matters theological as there is between twelve and
fifteen," as if former perplexities had been temporarily laid
aside. The more gross and material the imagination and per-
haps the younger the child, when religious ideas are instilled
and imagery formed, the more inadequate the latter becomes,
and, therefore, the more drastic the conflict later. The con-
clusion of this paper is that " the period of most intense critical
activity in theological directions seems to be that of puberty.
Some special effort should be made at that time to rearranging
and adjusting philosophical and theological conceptions."
Doubts first appear as checks or inhibitions of the illusions of
extra belief or Aherglaube. The overblown bubbles of fancy
often break because they collide, and lose a given sum of arrest
in the familiar way described by Taine. In our modern and
especially in the American world, the spirit of questioning and
even criticising where children should only sympathetically
appreciate and admire comes all too soon. The rapid expan-
sion of the mental horizon and the new powers of body and
soul necessarily involve a change of standpoint and of belief.
Hence there is skepticism, which etymologically means look-
ing around, and doubt, which means hesitation between two

^Theological Life of a California Child. Ped. Sam., December, 1893, vol. ii,
p. 442. See also my Contents of Children's Minds. Ped. Sem., June, 1891, vol.
i, p. i6l et seq.

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 3^7

views or acts. This occurs at nearly all stages of life, but is
far more radical and comprehensive throughout this period,
which is its grand climacteric.

Rectifications concerning Santa Claus, fairy tales, clas-
sical gods and myths, and popular superstitions are made
naturally and almost unconsciously as the new desire for cer-
tainty slowly arises. Children seek proof by touching, quot-
ing, wagers, ordeals, ceremonial oaths, in ways which have
been described with much detail by Mr. M. H. Small.^ Crude
imagery is normally shed by vital processes, better described
as exfoliation and desquamation than by psychologic or re-
ligious terms, as growth substitutes larger and fitter ideas.
The reasons why religious doubt is so hard and sometimes
tragic are manifold; the bad pedagogy that insists on the
literal historic truth of all Scripture itself, due to the low
vitality of religious life, the way in which virtue is thought
to depend on belief, which makes reconstruction morally dan-
gerous, and the virus of orthodox theology, which makes no
provision for growth, — all this is calamitous for youth. The
gravest doubts of this kind are at first of certain miracles, the
morality of some of the Old Testament heroes, and perhaps
of Jehovah, or the goodness of God himself in permitting suf-
fering and sending so many to hell, special answers to prayer,
the Judgment Day, etc. Later come doubts of the Trinity and
the deity of Jesus, his resurrection, supernatural birth, fore-
ordination, and immortality. Where the clay of dogma is
tamped down too hard about the roots of the growing soul
either the latter is arrested or else doctrines are ruptured. Of
all the outrages and mutilations practised upon youth by well-
meaning adults, insistence on such dogmas upon pain of moral
offense is perhaps the very most disastrous and antireligious
in its results, for it enlists the conscience of the individual at
the age when it is most vigorous and tender, against his own
normal mental development.

As I write I have before me several hundred personal records
which I have been accumulating for years and others made for me by
members of other faculties, showing the acuteness of these struggles,

' Methods of Manifesting the Instinct for Certainty. Fed. Sem., January, 1898,
vol. V, pp. 313-380.

31 8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

which have led some, including three of my own students, to suicide,
and upset more for years, which they count as lost or as years of
mental obsession with permanent impairment of soul. In over seven
hundred returns from young men religiously reared and in Protestant
colleges, there were very few who had not wrestled with serious doubts
of one or more of these or kindred religious inculcations of their
parents. In healthy souls these struggles are in secret. Sometimes they
are mild, and sometimes almost desperate. Often skepticism is ex-
pressed and aggressive, but in the majority of cases the doubts are
silent and often half-unconscious, even in men who outwardly conform
to influences about them and perhaps actively cooperate in religious
work. Sometimes protestations of faith are thus made vehement, and
even attempted proof of a somewhat strident or falsetto nature may be
a weapon against one's own doubts. The heinousness with which such
scruples are still regarded in many academic and church centers has
begotten a strange psychosis, and unpedagogic treatment of this has
driven many of the best youth from religious associations and afifixed
a certain stigma to men of exceptional sincerity and candor. Happily
this state of things is now steadily improving and, we may trust, will
soon be past.

The Catholic Church at its best, with its voluminous pic-
torial and ceremonial expressions of the religious sentiment,
has certain advantage over the less objective Protestant cults
at this stage, and our own returns amply prove that the re-
ligious imagery of young Protestant children is more crude
and pagan in form than that of Catholics. The rate and
degree of progress from Rome toward reason, which fits
the needs or measures the vigor of each soul, would with
proper care and surroundings be no harder to insure than
from the more fetishistic point of departure commonly found
outside Catholicism. The ideal education of the religious
nature, if we ever attain it, will involve as one important fac-
tor much saturation of the juvenile fancy with the best cre-
ations of the mythopeic imagination, coarse at first, but with
increasing refinement with age, and progressive inferences
from what each symbol, picture, tale, image, rite, or dogma
says, to what it means, until the expanding mind has advanced
just as far toward complete enfranchisement from all supersti-
tion and doctrine, and in the substitution, point by point, of
immanence for transcendence, as its own mental powers
justify.

Children's religious conceptions should at least not be sys-

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 3^9

tematized or stereotyped, or growth will be checked. The
Bible for childhood should be pure literature, with no trace of
dogma. It is simply bad Bible pedagogy that makes children
precocious and strident skeptics about the grand stories and
miracles of Scripture, while tales from Homer, Shakespeare,
Greek tragedy, and Dante maintain their sway over the heart,
unchallenged by the callow intellect. The Bible moves, edifies,
and shapes the soul, and we are content to leave it to expert
scholars to inquire how much or how little historical validity it
has; and, whatever their verdict, it will have little effect on
our feelings or practical reaction to Scripture. The havoc
that dogma has wrought in the religious nature and nurture
of the young by regarding the Bible as a text-book of the-
ology rather than a guide to life, as itself literally inspired
rather than the most inspiring of books, is none the less dis-
astrous because well meant. The very idea of orthodoxy of
belief in this field or of formulated creed is ominous for youth.
Theology at its best is an attempt to describe religious expe-
riences, especially feelings and intuitions. The need of it
arises when the latter are past and lapse into the domain of
memory. When they are most vividly present they need no
explanation, for they are not symbols of something else, but
intrinsic and essential reality themselves. True religion cul-
minates in youth, and doctrine is its substitute and memorial
in maturity and old age. Youth has far more to teach in this
field, if it only knew how, than it can learn from age. The
sins of orthodoxy against youth were relatively unknown in
ancient Greece or in ancient India, but are a peculiarity of
Christian lands and centuries. But for this, yoiith has great
facility in changing its ideas. Indeed, the reality and the
rapture of growth and progress owe no small part of their
vital heat to the combustion of wide acreages of errors and
false beliefs that attend every step on the upward way of
mental development, for mental health and longevity consist
in a never-ending working over of the contents of conscious-
ness.

We may dream of intuitive natures, like Schiller's " es-
thetic souls," so ideally endowed and environed that they
have acquired nothing they later need to abandon; but such
a being is as much a psychological impossibility as the ideal

320 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

savage of Rousseau or St. Pierre. Natural selection among
thought-forms, choosing the best and rejecting the worst, hold-
ing at the same time many heterogeneous and even incon-
sistent ideas with degrees of conviction differing up and
down the long and complex scale of certainty, is most natural
with girls, who rarely ever regret outgrown concepts, but leave
them to slowly lapse down the scale; while it is chiefly boys
who feel called to evict all they can not use, and sometimes to
doubt their own doubts. This is the normal working of the
mental mill at this age, and the grain will all be ground and
bolted in whatever way best meets the needs of the individual
life, if no admixture of the scrap-metal of dogma impair the
machinery. Dead knowledge is simply useless and does not
putrefy, but only desiccates and needs no scavenger, and, as
long as it is not in the way, does not need ostentatious burial
or cremation. Teachings that are likely to remain perma-
nently alien and heteronomous, resting on externals, need not
interfere with the development of a sphere of internal author-
ity, unless the soul is very small. Probably all of us, even the
dogmatist, is at once, despite himself, pagan, pantheist, agnos-
tic, fetishist, and heretic generally, as well as Christian and
believer. Like rudimentary organs, these views, while rep-
resenting a lower stage, are the indispensable conditions of the
unfoldment of the next higher. At best, it is all a question of
prepotency and a safe working majority in the soul. Thus
doubt is perhaps never exclusion or extinction of a belief, but
a phenomenon of changing predominance and leadership
among the psychic elements, and that often only for a certain
function. Some of our many faculties are converted, and some
are unreclaimed. The worst are good, perhaps exquisitely sO'
in spots, and the best are unregenerate and depraved in part.
We believe, but pray for help for our unbelief. More trouble
here is due to inadequate ideas of what the soul really is than
to meagerness of soul life, and hence is removable by appro-
priating what psychology now has to teach.

But not only our ideas of soul but those of Bible need
vast enlargement and radical reconstruction if we would know
and serve youth aright. An ethnic and indigenous Bible is a
product of the folk-soul as now studied by the higher an-
thropology which seeks for primitive notions about funda-

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 3^1

mental problems. It originates in rules of organization and
worship, traditions of the past, genealogies, songs, prophecies,
and other expressions of what St. John calls the logos, Plato
the muthos, Grote the nomos, and Maurice the ethos of a race.
When this material shoots together, the psychic basis for a
period of culture is laid and a spiritual cosmos begins, and of
this same mother-lye theology is a crude intellectual formula-
tion, and a truly natural philosophy is only a yet broader and
more scientific expansion of it. No race ever flourished with-
out its classics or Bible as the pabulum for its higher humanis-
tic life. The people of modern Christendom have received
their Bible from an alien stock, and are, therefore, peculiarly
prone to bibliolatry and parasitic literalism, for the conception
of an entirely ab-extra revelation only reflects its exogamous
derivation. As it did not spring out of their own life and
grow with their growth, its very grandeur predisposes to a
superstitious reverence of it. It is a graft, and its intussuscep-
tion requires a special and transpeciating act of mind and
heart. Its position is therefore ethnologically unique, and it
has long been and still is more or less encysted and unappro-
priated.

It is, however, our great good fortune to live in an age
when our Bible is being slowly re-revealed as the best utter-
ance and reflex of the nature and needs of the soul of man, as
his great text-book in psychology, dealing with him as a whole,
body, mind, heart, and will, and all in the largest and deepest
relation to nature and to his fellow man, which has been so
misunderstood simply because it was so deeply divine. Now
that its study is not confined tO' the Sunday-school and pulpit,
but archeology, philosophy, comparative religion, criticism, and
anthropology have shown it, part by part, myth, history,
prophecy, song, and, above all, Christology, which is the heart
oi all, in a new and majestic light, there is a new hope that
when all these studies have done their work and their results
are duly certified and organized, we shall at last be able to
minister to the religious needs of academic adolescence in a
way that opens the door to a higher type of education and
of man.

Our need is practical, perfectly plain in its general fea-
tures, and indeed has already its historic prototypes. The
60

322 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Veda, e. g., is the Bible of India, and the Vedanta/ or phi-
losophy of India, means the end of the Veda, as metaphysics
was for Aristotle the end of physics. All must pass the stage
of discipleship to the Vedas before the higher Vedanta could
be entered upon. Those who remained in the lower stage of
apprenticeship were not scorned, nor were those who admired
and devoted themselves to deeper study to purify faith from
superstition and to develop its freest and deepest thought
deemed heretics, or obliged to conceal their ideas in esoteric
or in mystic guise. " It was recognized in India from very
early times that the religion of a man can not be the same as
that of a child." Yet the Upanishads, in which the Vedanta
philosophy is embodied, although they do not recognize the
gods of the Veda, and ignore and even reject parts of it,
are regarded " as perfectly orthodox, nay, as the highest con-
summation of the Brahmanic religion." It is in these that
the needs of the well-trained and intellectually elite adolescent
were provided for in this motherland of speculative philosophy
thus blossomed and ripened naturally into science, and in-
stead of conflict between them they were only different ex-
pressions of essentially the same content. " There are still
Brahmanic families," says Max Miiller, " in which the son,
learns by heart the ancient hymns, and the father performs
day by day his sacred duties and sacrifices, while the grand-
father, even though remaining in the village, looks upon all
ceremonies and sacrifices as vanity, sees even in the Vedic
gods nothing but names of what he knows to be beyond all
names, and seeks rest in the highest knowledge only, which
has become to him the highest religion, viz., the Vedanta, the
end and fulfilment of the whole Veda."

Despite its democratic character, which disfavors esoteric
views, Christianity abounds in analogous tendencies. The
very establishment of a ministry and priesthood, the ideals of
all types and perfectionists and special consecrationists, sug-
gests progressive stages of adeptness. " The Eternal Gospel,"
which described a third religious state to succeed the gospel
as the definite law of humanity, which some regard as the
most daring attempt at religious creation in the modern age,

^ The Vedanta Philosophy, by F. Max Miiller, p. 13 et seq.

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOEOGY OF CONVERSION 3^3

and which, though now lost in the original form, was em-
bodied, Renan tells us, in the spirit of Assisi, whose life was
a perpetual intoxication of divine love, " a prodigy of holiness,
who made it a carnival, and was a genius of devotion," was
meant for a third dispensation of the spirit and to originate a
higher religious life of both faith and practise.

Desjardins's Companions of the New Life represented a move-
ment among French students which also pointed toward the realiza-
tion of a kindred idea, and spread to Germany under the lead of Count
Engedi. The Church must be converted and become as of old, a nurs-
ery of love and liberty ; the moral consciousness must become universal ;
an inner Christianity must be worked out with absolutely no dogma,
at least at first, not even with theories, for then the whole catechism
will creep in, nor yet with Atheism, which is often a faith held with
passionate unction. About immortality we may feel as when " watching
a diver — sure he will come up, but uncertain just when, where, and
how." There are things more important than the divinity of Christ,
or even the personality of God. Men must become true Jews, true Cath-
olics, true Protestants, yes, true Buddhists, Confucians, etc., and that
will bring to a deep sympathetic unity which will be the true Church
universal. Starting with no creed but with an appeal to the natural du-
ties of man, which are well-nigh forgotten in the declamation concern-
ing his natural rights, the true faith must be slowly worked out by
obedience to duty, and then religion, which began among savages
as a cult quite apart from morals, will assume its rightful place as an
unique form of the moral life, and not a form of science. Be pure
in thought and life, be self-sacrificing, helpful to every nascent moral
impulse around you, and doing good works with ardor, as the voca-
tion of life, will reveal the doctrine. Be positive, not negative; re-
nounce individualism, which is a cul-de-sac, always a means and
never an end; be disinterested if not ascetic, in order to better culti-
vate associations and solidarity; if we feel that while duty is noble,
the chance is that it is not the most valid thing in the world, we
shall, like too many gilded collegiate youth, combine sadness with
badness, and the gloom will not be the romantic melancholy of Ober-
mann, born of doubt about metaphysical reality, but the dim and
perhaps unconscious sense that, so far as we are concerned, the
development of the human race has ceased. If we are to escape this
racial arrest and paralysis we must feel deeply that the future may be
more than the past, but that it is not a " gift but a conquest." While
Lotze was quite right that it was a doubtful service to seek to confer
upon God the honor of demonstrating his existence rather than to
leave him to that deeper region where not only reason but the whole
soul clings to him as its supreme postulate, and while we may, with
Mr. Fiske, almost imagine him praying to be saved from his friends,
still the rational needs of academic youth are not finally met by the

324 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Neo-Christian movement, which having done a great service is now
declining and its fine ethical spirit is giving way to new and refined
forms of nature-worship in Austria, while the need of academic youth
for gnosis as well as pistis is seen in the contemporary zest for re-
ligious philosophy, and especially for psychology, which is slowly
taking the place once held by theology as the intellectual expression
of the religious instinct.

Thus the second religious need of academic adolescence
could now be met by a concise, inspiring, and pedagogic use of
the results of what may perhaps best be termed the historical
school of Bible study as founded by F. C. Baur. This move-
ment, unlike English deism, French atheism, and German ra-
tionalism, was originated by mature professors of theology
and men of deep personal piety, Baur's own profoundly re-
ligious and pastoral character making him the idol of his stu-
dents and his sermons strangely edifying to all. This method
simply applies to Scripture the same canons of criticism that
are applied to all the other writings of antiquity. Arrested
as the movement was by the death of its founder, discredited
by the extreme and essentially unscholarly works of Strauss,
Bruno Bauer, etc., and by the orthodox reaction which fol-
lowed, it has nevertheless, Zeller tells us, convinced every
impartial person under forty-five who has thoroughly studied
it, and still points out the direction religious studies must take
if Protestant theology is to hold a respectable place among
other departments in universities. The religious life and be-
lief of the young men here considered does not in fact, and
never can, rest on miracles considered as interference with
Nature's laws by a personal ab-extra deity ; and the fear that
either Testament would be less edifying if the supernatural
elements were " allowed to quietly lapse from the Christian
consciousness," as Schleiermacher suggested, is as groundless
as that of the Emperor Julian, that classical literature would
be discredited if faith in ancient mythology were destroyed.
Youth, most of all, needs this greatest of human documents,
and needs to read it with absolute freedom and honesty of
mind ; and there is no danger but that the new light, already
shining from it and yet to be revealed by their methods, will
make the new to the old as astronomy to astrology, and will
make young men not skeptics but apologists.

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 3^5

The historic-critical school is now comparative, as almost
every scientific department that deals with life must be
(anatomy, physiology, psychology, philology, etc., as well as
religion in some sense, for to know one is to know none).
All the great religious themes, sin, sacrifice and atonement,
regeneration, the soul, ideas of a future life, of a golden age
past or future, theophany and revelation, the God-man, re-
ligious duties, rites, ceremonies, etc., are found in most
natural religions and can be traced through various stages of
development, and when sympathetically presented from a
copious storehouse of knowledge all this awakes an interest
at the proper age, the depth of which nothing can surpass.
When we see, too, what has been done in France since 1876
by M. Guimet with his now generously subsidized museum,
with its library, two reviews, extensive collections and corre-
spondence, and not only French but also indigenous pro-
fessors expounding and illustrating in full regalia all their
respective ceremonials, and when we see what a judicious pre-
scription of the higher criticism in all its pleroma of new light
and life can do and has done in many cases for a certain class
of college men, every intelligent and sympathetic friend of
youth will wish it a hearty, ungrudging, and reiterated God-
speed. Heber Newton thought all the Bible should never
have been translated, and no doubt many may be injured by
this critical reillumination of it ; but I can not say too earnestly
that he who doubts its beneficence for those souls in need both
lacks faith in the Word and has yet to learn the working of
the divine pedagogos, as Clement of Alexandria was wont to
call the Holy Ghost, that highest of all muses, in one of its
most important ministrations.

Then comes the need of some religious philosophy. We
may agree with Hatch and Arnold that this is an Hellenic
rather than a Semitic element, but we must ask, with Renan, if
we are not born to philosophize, for what are we born? The
religious life and growth of thought might be almost said to
consist in gradually transforming theological into psycho-
logical ideas, as Greek transcendence is gradually replaced by
the original Hebrew immanence. Thiel well says, " The sci-
ence of religion is not a natural but a mental science," and
it should be written over the door of every institution for

326 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

higher rehgious education : " Let no one enter here who does
not know psychology." Instead of the injunction of Neo-
Christian ethics, " Judge with all your might," for what ought
to be is more and higher than what is, we must philosophize
with all our might. Ever since, in some remote age, psychic
changes became more important than physical for evolution,
the life of the soul has been more than that of the body, and
man has been relatively more and more wretched if he failed
to grasp the higher meaning of life, to give it a psychical
exegesis, and to rise thereby to a loftier consciousness of the
world.

No one has ever yet realized this so adequately as
Schleiermacher, the greatest of all modern religious thinkers,
who urged that religion was the highest expression of man's
subjective states and the best hall-mark of their legitimacy.
Even theology to him was not constitutive but regulative, and
dogmas were but ancient shore-lines left by the tides of the
many sounding seas of human instinct and feelings. Not the
consciousness of freedom, which Hegel intellectually made the
sole criterion by which to measure all human progress, but
the feeling of absolute dependence upon the power at the heart
of the universe was for him the psychic principle that strug-
gles to expression in all myths, ceremonials, and doctrines,
that made not only natural religion but Christianity natural,
and was the only possible basis of complete and world-
wide religious unity. He cared little to prove the facts of
religion, but only the legitimacy of the psychic states they rep-
resented. Theologies are forms of interpreting pious feelings,
and religion is not theology nor yet ethics, but personal and
experimental. Its forms are to it as the world to God. In-
deed, to deny the objective truth of religious doctrine and
history may bring religious feeling to purer expression. His
deep Moravian fervor impelled him beyond even Plato to wor-
ship the fathomless infinite with Spinoza, and to suspect that
the entire universe of consciousness might be a mere allegory.
We must follow only the most universal human interest. The
different religions are only the one universal religion divested
of its infinity, and all are one if regarded sub specie ceter-
nitatis. Every advance in science is increase of God's glory,
and all things, when reduced to their last ground, end in the

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 3^7

sense of dependence, and help on man's spirit in its deep
propulsive struggle toward the infinite. In fine, he says : " If
man does not become one with the eternal in the immediate
unity of his intuitive feelings, he remains forever separated
from it in the derived unity of consciousness." This is the
monism that is in philosophy what monotheism was of old,
which asserts its supremacy above all dualism.

This movement, too, declined. Even its author reacted,
as did the Zeitgeist, and neither psychology nor the religious
consciousness of the age was sufficiently developed for it.
Part of it went into Feuerbach's shallow reiterations that the-
ology was only anthropology; part went into the affirmation
of Theodore Parker, who was withal too predominantly
negative and deficient in sympathy; and the rest went to seed
in sterile and sentimental mysticism, so that Schleiermacher's
early work seemed doomed to remain an unfinished window
in Aladdin's tower. But with the new birth of psychology
and sociology and the critical historical movement, many
more special workers have lately resumed it. The psycho-
logical basis of faith, of immortality, of sin, of inspiration, of
prophecy, of conversion, many broader conceptions of the
affectional nature that show not only the baser forms but the
higher relations of the Platonic eros, with the Pauline charity
and Jesus's profound postulate of love, and many others, al-
ready give promise that in place of the too-Docetically appre-
hended Christ, we shall before very long have a psychology of
Jesus which will restore his sublime figure from the degrada-
tion to which patristic metaphysics has so long banished him,
and of religion that will make it again central in the soul.^

1 We have many suggestive beginnings, e.g., in the story of relations between re-
ligion and abnormal states of mind, by Murisier, A. Roemer, Familler, Mantegazza,
Karl Holl, Hermann Gunkel, Heinrich Weinel, and in an unpublished treatise on
religious pathology, by J. Moses ; on the psychology of faith, by Vorbrodt, Payot,
and Bazaillas ; on miracles, by Schinz ; on sin, by Kierkengaard and Schinz ; on
worship, by Hylan ; on sects, by Sighele ; on inspiration, by Partridge ; on prophecy,
by Cornell; on death, by C. Scott and Bordeau ; on immortality, by Runze, Gratacap,
James, McConnell, Royce, Fiske, and many others ; on the religious consciousness,
by Hartmann, Harnack, Balden sperger, Inge, Granger, Grasserie, Sabatier, Kinast,
E. Koch, Flournoy, M. Jastrow, Leuba, Otto Ziemssen, and here, perhaps, we
should include Goldwin Smith, Mallock, Haeckel, Ostwald and Metchnikoff ; on
natural and anthropological religion, by Muller, Baring-Gould, D'Alviella, Lefevre,

328 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Youth needs a record of that Hfe, the greatest yet, the
most truly and philosophically historic, that will represent it
as the culmination of the entire series of organic forms of
existence, the species in one typical individual, as the revealer
of a new and higher cosmic consciousness, advancing the hu-
man ideal and opening the way to the higher destiny of man.
When this evolution is a little more evolved by a natural
growth, the new does not suffer from or discredit the old, but,
as in Scripture, is the revelation of what is prophesied but
concealed in it; and when the theme of the present chapter is
adequately understood, I believe that the Scripture itself will
be seen to be primarily addressed to youth, whose need far
exceeds that of all other stages of life.

In whatever sense Christ is divine, his humanity is peda-
gogically first, according to every known principle of educa-
tion ; and divinity is a surplusage after his humanity has been
filled to the utmost and all that is possible made out of and
ascribed to it, not so much as Aristotle wrote his physics and
then added a metaphysics as after or supplemental physics,
but as Jesus himself grew by degrees into full Messianic con-
sciousness, or as Scripture, as history shows, became the Bible
by its own intrinsic merit. The truly superhuman factor is,
in philosophic terms, the objectivization of what subjectivism
can not yet fully appropriate. Indeed, not only great religious
movements and awakenings, but psychology itself, consists in
realizing in the immanent here and now all prophecies,
dreams, standpoints, and ideals that have seemed remote,
supernal, and alien, and in the deepening insight that all that
has ever occurred will surely recur if the conditions can be
made the same. Thus every higher stage of development in-
volves not only re-interpretation but re-revelation on a higher
plane, and religious advancement is the consummation of hu-

von Czobel, Brinton, Hatch, Thiele, Gamble, Lippert, Wernle, Drummond, Saus-
saye, Strada, Stokes, Seeley, Wm. Mackintosh ; on regeneration, by Daniels, Lan-
caster, Starbuck, James, Heeler, and the school of Ritschl, R. Smith, Moberly ; on
Biblical psychology, by Delitzsch, Karl Fischer; on the psychology of Paul, by
Simon, not to mention the philosophies of religion, since Schleiermacher and Hegel,
and the many recent attempts to interpret the God idea in mere psychological terms.
To this psychological aspect of religion a new journal (already announced) and a
book in preparation will be devoted.

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 3^9

man development. It is far too drastic a test to be safe for
most of the best of us to ask, if all metaphysical and transcen-
dent elements were eliminated from a faith; if all of the so-
called historic factors and all miracles should fade, what have
we left? But just this very many young men are doing for
their ideal and for personal immortality, and the consolation is
that this " exercise " reveals to them that it is a most precious
and growing residuum, that must be no longer ignored. The
realm of nature has vastly increased not only in extent, but
what is far more important, in intent, so that most of what
was called supernatural now lies well within it, but so en-
riched, substantialized, and dignified that we hardly recognize
•it. Psychic influence in the cause and cure of many diseases ;
rapt states of trances, exciting and mental exaltations; the
deepened knowledge of what love is and means, that biology
has suggested; the laws of heredity; sin as decadence, de-
generation, and pessimism ; vicariousness as evolved in phi-
losophy, therapeutics, and esthetics since Aristotle's doctrine
of catharsis; the sacrament of communion, with its many
roots deep in the remotest past of human instinct Church
service and ritual, directly traceable, in its highest historic
antiquity, as Neale has shown, to some of the best sources;
Church organization and polity as analogous, feature by feature,
with Plato's ideal republic ; even orthodoxies in their prime as
perhaps the most economic of all psychic methods of coopera-
tion and service, faintly echoing that greatest of all human
affirmative theories, and even foreshadowing its philosophical
correlate, a spiritual monism — these and many more are at
least secure.

Bacon, Hobbes, and Newton, who inaugurated the " English way "
of separating by water-tight compartments in their own minds their
religious from their scientific life and thought, prepared the way for
the antagonisms between faith and knowledge so conspicuous in
Spencer, Tyndall, and Huxley; and favored by the current and per-
verse dualism of mind as over against matter, and by the influences
of the French Revolution, this " modern calamity " was not mitigated
by a national philosophy broad enough to embrace religion and
science as in Germany. This antagonism is utterly obsolete from
the standpoint of the new psychology, the chief and highest function
of which, I believe, is to be the elaboration not merely of reconciliation
or consensus, but of an union and identity so complete that we shall

33° THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

no longer suspect God to be a hypocrite who says one thing in his
Word and does another in his works, and we shall realize that science
must be taught in our theological schools for logic, for facts, for
reverence, and for true theories; while religion, the oldest and most
absorbing of human interests, will not only have a place in every col-
lege and university, but its spirit will pervade the laboratory and
observatory.

The care of souls is not yet an art. Pastors and the leaders of
religious organizations for young men do not yet understand the needs
of this yeasty stage of intense emotion and narrow mentality, nor
how different is the religion of a youth and a mature man. They do
not realize the viciousness of a conversion that teaches the child to
assume the airs, prayers, and preachments of adults, when in fact
he can be only a candidate for full humanity. We still lack real
ductores dubitantium who can preside wisely over the parturition
of the higher mental life of religion, holding the needs of youth
to be the highest of all needs, and the duty to serve it by renouncing
every obstacle and helping it to an ever higher maturity, to be the
chief duty of man, and believing that what ought to be is the surest
of all things to be. I could not lose heart even if I accepted Fair-
bairn's conclusion that but very few people in the world have yet
been true Christians, but that the glory of this religion is yet to be
achieved. Therefore, in the name of youth, I postulate and await
without a shadow of doubt or fear (i) broader conceptions of the
human soul, which in this field lives far more by feeling and instinct
than by reason, that faith, the greatest of all its faculties, be rescued
from present neglect and degeneration; (2) loftier ideas of Scripture
that shall make it not a fetish, but the true and living logos of the
human heart and will, never finished and complete in the past, but a
never-ending progressive revelation of which the prophets and Jesus
gave us only the beginning; and (3) eternal warfare upon ortho-
doxies and all dogmatic finalities, which are only the petrifactions
of faith, intimately connected in ways psychology is only just be-
ginning to see with the devitalization of life and mind caused by
past or present sinful excesses. If at any time in life, belief in God,
immortality, and a future state is grown into without special reve-
lation, it is now. Miracles seem to be more a continuation or aug-
mentation of natural processes when the latter seem themselves most
impressive, and if there is any time when he is a poor Christian who
can not believe in Jesus without their aid or can not be philosophically
true to himself, if he bases all upon them, it is at this stage of life.
If rightly conceived and taught, the human soul is so constituted that
it can never for a moment doubt the basal verities of religion, and the
energies of the ephebic age will be, as they should by its very nature,
more and more affirmative, and instead of tragic negation we shall
have only the normal and organic processes of eliminating broken-
down tissue when it has done its work.

Intellectual seems far more eradicable than moral error. Here

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 33 ^

we must be far less optimistic, for the sting of sin is deeper than
mind, and the causes of doubt will be removed long before those of
wrong conduct. Ethical conversion and mental reconstruction will,
perhaps, be forever needful in some form at this age, but they will be
more normal, complete, and salutary when no longer infected by
dogmatic surds.

IV. The external types, norms, and symbols of conver-
sion show it to be the very core of a true philosophy of human
history. Many analogies of this change are, and more may be,
drawn from the metamorphosis of insects, and here biology
supplies the best heuristic. Most non-oceanic grubs will later
fly. In the worm stage their sole business is to eat and grow.
The external skin at length hardens into chitin, which pre-
vents further growth. The larva then chooses some appro-
priate place and attachment, where it passes into a quiescent
state, perhaps remaining long through drought and winter. In
preparing for this pupa state some insects secrete or spin a
protection. They now undergo a more or less radical trans-
formation and acquire legs and wings. When the changes
are complete the old skin cracks, and the insect slowly ex-
tricates itself part by part, and, leaving the cast-off skin or
exuviae, emerges in adult or imago form, for a life destined
chiefly for reproduction, and usually very brief in compari-
son with the earlier developmental stages. For those who
love to grope in obscure regions by the aid of symbols, pre-
adolescence is the larva state chiefly for growth. The brain,
which developed from the ectoderm, and consciousness, born
of touch, tend to harden, like the derma, till growth is ar-
rested, and the impupation in habit, creed, becoming overspun
with acquired knowledge and convention, progresses.. New
life is growing meanwhile within, and if it has vigor enough
and the chitin be not too rigid and impacted, the old conscious-
ness with its customs is sloughed off, and the soul enters,
more or less transformed, its mature imago stage, to live for
the race and not for self.

Spring, and the resurrection of the world of plant and ani-
mal life from the death of winter, and all the innumerable
cults, rites, legends, based on this prefigure it. Dawn van-
quishing night equips other apperceptive organs for it. All
nature, life, and letters abound in tropes and metaphors of

332 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

it, the collection of which would make an important con-
tribution to our theme. Baths, lustrations, and aspersions
among savage and civilized races ; a banquet for the famish-
ing; successful operation for congenital blindness and deaf-
ness; discharge of debt; freedom from prison and tyranny;
ransom, emancipation from slavery ; cure of disease by a great
physician ; sudden wealth ; the bursting forth of fountains in
the desert ; the substitution of love for fear and hate ; the
quickening of seed and growth out of the dark earth ; efflores-
cence, fruitage, harvest; marriage to a celestial bridegroom;
impregnation by the spermatic logos; emergence from the
womb, and the new mode of larger and more independent life ;
rescue from shipwreck; finding a haven in storm; protection
in danger ; transition from the life of the body to that of the
soul; change of allegiance from a bad to a good prince — all
these, every one and countless more, are only efforts which
abound in the hymns, theologies, and ceremonies of all faiths
to describe some aspect of the law that necessitates this change
of dynasty and of constitution in the city of " Man-soul."

The best myth is a deeper and broader expression of hu-
man nature and needs than reason or history has yet at-
tained, and is thus the shape revelation might be expected to
take. Where it is an individual expression of universal
instincts, it is the highest use of the imagination. Plato's
myth of the den (Rep. vii, i), which describes men sitting
in a cave, chained, with their backs to the light, studying
and measuring shadows of outer things and events cast on
the wall before them, and then freed and turned about, or
converted, and led out to see real objects, and at last, as their
eyes grew stronger and their minds less bewildered, shown
the sun itself, had much to do in giving both the term and
concept to the early Christian idea of conversion. Some
think the myth of the reversal of all cosmic process, the old
growing young and the dead rising at the end of the cosmic
cycle (Politicus, 268), also contributed.

One of the dominant motives in this coming reorganiza-
tion of philosophy and history is the coordination of the
biologic changes of adolescence in the microcosmic individ-
ual and its macrocosmic analogue in the forces which center
in the era of dawning Christianity, when both national and

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 333

personal selfishness merged into a higher human consciousness
of universal brotherhood founded the new kingdom of man.
Adam in Eden perhaps thus represented prepubertal inno-
cence, ideally environed and sheltered, forbidden the prema-
ture exercise of genetic function or knowledge of it, and his
probation stands for that which is always essential for the
attainment of full maturity. Eve is the romantic first dream
of an ideal mate born from the development of part of his own
body, as woman can not fully exist for man before. His
temptation is the constant danger, and his fall the eternal
tragedy, of prematurity and the penalty it entailed on all man-
kind ; while the whole is the symbol of the arrested develop-
ment of our race due to violation of the biologic law of youth-
ful probationary restraint, from which heavenly love incarnate
later saves us.

Again, the Bible story as a whole, whatever else it is, is
also conversion " writ large." Abraham was a desert sheik,
nomad, and breeder of herds and men. The promise that if
he kept Jehovah's commands his seed should be as the stars
of heaven; the Sodomite episode; the rivalries, jealousies,
migration; the later apprenticeship in Egypt; the nomad life
in the desert; the revelation of the law; the work of Moses,
the great organizer of external righteousness; the evolution
of the theocracy and a temporal king; the growing impurity
of life and worship, are the prelude. With the prophets comes
the awakened conscience, intensified by its captivity (for ex-
ternal calamity always favors a sense of guilt), a deepening
conviction of sin, uncleanness, and misery, portending doom
and deepening toward despair. Then dawns the hope, light,
and joy of Bethlehem, which slowly spreads over the world.
All these are typical of nothing so much as the moral vicissi-
tudes of the adolescent period, of which Adam marks the
dawn, and the mature Christ the somewhat belated, but all
the more complete, culmination which had to end in supreme
self-sacrifice that the pilgrimage from selfhood to Altruria be
entirely accomplished.

The story of Jesus's life, psychologically treated, whatever
else it may be, is also another abridged and variant edition
of the same import. There is the glimpse of an early life
of natural growth in favor of God and man. At the age of

334 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

early Oriental puberty he is already characteristically ponder-
ing the highest themes with deepening sense of wrong and
human need, a glimmering, conscious, higher mission strug-
gling with temporal ambition, a long conflict of the noblest
adolescent idealism that ever was with the hard, inveterate
conservatism of a decadent age and senescent man, with
bigotry, hypocrisy, and shame, ending in defeat, the self-
effacement of a shameful death, then the inevitable resurgam
motive, at first incredulous and apparitional, with ascension
or sublimation as the climax, but which later became the very
substance of the Christian faith and the corner-stone of belief
in both Jesus's deity and our regeneration. As he conquered
death, so we may rise to the higher life of the race if the self
or flesh perishes. Indeed, the story of the Cross, psycho-
logically considered, is both provocative and regulative of the
soul's widest and most comprehensive oscillation from pain
to joy, these two sovereign masters of life. The soul once
well cadenced to this rhythm can never fall a victim to pes-
simism. In this masterpiece of pathos we find hunger, thirst,
homelessness, garments parted, betrayal, desertion by dis-
ciples, the solitary struggle in Gethsemane, all the incidents
of passion week and of the " stations " on the way to Cal-
vary, all cumulative and more effective than in any of the
great dramatic unities. Every item is a pathogenic pity-
fetish. Many young converts in our returns are chiefly
affected, e. g., by the nails, some almost to the point of stig-
matization. Some press nails against their hands to deepen
their sympathy, and one describes how a painful wound in
the center of the palm " brought me to Jesus." ^ The spear
is less prominent, but every item and detail of its thrust is
sometimes exquisitely if not neurotically felt. With some the
thorns are the apex of the pathos, with others the scourging,
the prayer, " If it be possible," or, again, the innocence and
purity of the victim.

This conquest of the world by pain and grief is still seen
in many a revival, where all this holy drama has been set in
scene and been made to live again for the imagination by
word-painting so vivid that men have not only groaned and

^ See my article on Pity. Am. Jour, of Psy., July, 1900, vol. xi, p. 534 ft seq.

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 335

swooned, but had visions that made the whole seem transport-
ingly reahstic. The spotlessness of the sufferer, who, while
deserving supreme good, is called to endure supreme evil,
makes pathos far greater than where the innocent suffer for
the sins of their ancestors, a theme which has played its great
role of havoc in the world of tragic sin, guilt, and atonement.

What was the mental state of Jesus's followers when he
died and while he yet lay in the tomb? The world-order
which the Jews thought rewarded virtue and punished vice
in this world was upset. The truth they relied on was branded
as folly and crime. Their hero was forsaken by Jehovah,
despite his agonizing prayer. The world must have seemed
the sport of malign chance or of a personal power of evil, and
death the end of all. It is doubtful whether, like the disciples
of Socrates, they could have organized victory out of such a
defeat. Dispersion, denial, miserablism, and absolute despair
must have followed, and the teachings of Jesus might have
been forgotten.

The resurrection reversed all this, and created perhaps the
greatest of all revolutions in history. While psychology has
nothing to do with its objective validity save so far as this
bears upon the intensity of belief in it, the latter is the car-
dinal psychic fact of early Christendom. Conviction may be
of every degree, from the faintest suggestion up to cataleptic
certainty. In the Homeric world mortality was feebly held
to, but it was better to lead a life of a mean man on earth
than to be ruler in the realm of the dead. However it came
about, faith in the resurrection became absolute, and every-
thing was vain without this, its chief affirmation. The great-
est of all the fears that prey upon the soul of man is that of
the king of terrors, just as the chief struggle of all creatures
is to survive. Perhaps no possible testimony could now vali-
date such an event in court, but the vital fact was the utter
belief in it, and this was the burden of the glad tidings pro-
mulgated by the first preaching. The, very suggestion of it
would have been a welcome relief to the tension of despair,
but the conviction that death and its cause, sin, had been van-
quished, and Satan even overcome in his stronghold, was an
evangel of unspeakable rapture. Bringing immortality to
light was the discovery of a vaster and far more glorious con-

33^ THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

tinent, the road to which was open to all. Heaven was now
first definitely established, and made real and organized. The
scope of justice, before limited to this world, was thus extended
to a superior realm, which must be included henceforth in all
moral judgment. Thus the key to the apostolic and early
patristic period is the conception of Jesus as the death-killer
and " the first fruits of them that slept." He had raised
others, and made the tomb a portal. In the presence of the
transcendent world this one shriveled. Hence the exhilara-
tion and even inebriation caused by the sudden removal of de-
pression which set bondmen free. Pentecost took off old fet-
ters, and as the mind was turned loose in new paradisal
pastures it gamboled in many forms, that seemed to the staid
religionist as pathological. It was an age of expansion for
each sense and faculty ; there were ecstasies, trancoidal states,
visions, and prophecies ; ebullitions that expressed themselves
in meaningless jargon and unknown tongues. As Weinel
and Gunkel have shown, there was folly and madness after
the outpouring of the Holy Ghost which soon came to have
its bacchantes if not its sibyls raving with froth and foam.
There were exuberant vaticinations, gifts, licenses, till it be-
came necessary to forbid gazing up into heaven expecting
Jesus's second coming, and to carefully test and distinguish
between spirits good and bad, true and false, and especially
to show forth fruits of the spirit and proclaim the glad tidings.
Thus the story of the descent of the Holy Ghost represents
the normalization of these effervescences.

So in order was " other-worldness " that heaven was longed
for and many would gladly have left all and migrated thither.
The present life was neglected, despised, demeaned. Reason
was as filthy rags compared to vision. Martyrdom — which
Tertullian said all Christians should strive to attain at last,
which Cyprian almost fulsomely eulogized, and which
crowned many otherwise unknown lives — was longed and
prayed for, courted and provoked. Many agonized whether
they could be counted worthy of it. It was a prize, a supreme
honor, a diploma " siimma cum laude." This contemplation
of death was no speculative thanatopsis, nor was it desired
as a mere euthanasia, but even its accompaniments, the charnel-
house worms, skulls, skeletons, and all its most terrible forms

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 337

were gloated over. When in sight it was rushed toward with
a cheer. This reversal of value scales involved a hitherto
unknown separation of the soul from the mortal part, and
a fuller, clearer conception of it as a spiritual body with
heaven as a soul-home. Soul was no longer a mere harmony
or so tenuous as to be liable, in Platonic phrase, to be blown
away if men died on a gusty day. This gave individuality a
transcendental value that it had never had before, and retrans-
lated morality as other-world conduct. Love idealizes, and
as the heart burns in memory of the dear dead they are trans-
figured, and it was inevitable that the man Jesus should be-
come to the soul the heavenly Christ. Finally, when the age
of the apocalypse was well passed, it was this thanatic idea
which inspired the organization of the visible Church as an
earthly replica of the invisible New Jerusalem, where were
stored up the treasures of the heart. What was at first a
dream, a suggestion, perhaps a pious wish, became more real
than anything else, and it is significant that just at the time
when Alaric conquered Rome, the last hope of the world,
Augustine wrote his City of God.

Thus the story of the Cross, which is the chief symbol of
Christianity known by multitudes who know nothing else of
Jesus, when relived and vitally participated in is the best
of all the initiatives to maturity. The older, lower selfish
self is molted and a new and higher life of love and service
emerges. The pain is a birth-pang and the joy is that a new
being is born. The Gospel story is the most adequate and
classic, dramatic representation of the truest formulas of the
most critical revolution of life, to successfully accomplish
which is to make catharses of our lower nature and to attain
full ethical maturity without arrest or perversion; this is
the very meaning of adolescence. As Jesus, the totemic em-
bodiment of the race, gathered, unified^ and epitomized in his
own life the many elements of the autosoteric motive that
were before scattered and relatively ineffective and made
thereby a new focus of history to which so many lines before
converged, from which they have since diverged, so each
youth can now, thanks to him, condense in his own life the
essential experience of the race by sympathetic participation

in this great psychopheme. His catabasis under the burden
61

33^ THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

of sin explored and idealized every stage of the thanatic
pathway we must all pass, and his anabasis of resurrection
from the depths of humiliation, renunciation, and self-immola-
tion to Deity itself is the Eternal Gospel, for it shows that
human nature, in what Reischle calls its thymetic core, is
sound, resilient, positive, and can not be overwhelmed. Now,
having attained a sense of fundamental impulsion as by a
higher power (which Jesus construed as sonship), feeling a
mission, an inner call (such as he found in realizing the Mes-
sianic ideals of his day), and seeking a sphere of influence
as he would found a new heavenly kingdom, youth is truly
adult and ready to enter upon his career.

Men will always differ concerning the proportion played
by objective and subjective factors in the deification of Jesus,
as to how much was given as historic data, and how much
is due to human reaction upon them. The latter element,
however, whether it be great or small, has an ineluctable basis
which no higher or lower criticism can ever impair, and even
if all the historic factors were to prove fallacious and be
abandoned there remains a Christ born within. To cling to
this is the new psychological orthodoxy. For weaker faith
historicity is indispensable. But there are already strong souls
for whom the very sibilance of the word suggests a lower and
almost ophitic stratum of the religious consciousness. But if
the latter pales there is now this consolation, that the smaller
the nucleus of fact the greater, and, we may even say, the
more divinely creative the soul of man, so far as it evolved
from its conscious — reenforced by its larger unconscious —
depths this supreme solution of its own greatest need. Just
as the power of appreciation is only a less degree of the same
qualities that create masterpieces or heroic deeds, so, whatever
history loses, we must ascribe to the productive genius of the
soul and substitute universal truth for particular facts. Thus
the soul seasons itself by exploring both extremes of suffering
and glory, reacts from depression to exaltation, from the cross
to the crown, expands temporal to eternal dimensions.
Thus the instinct of justice complements the agony of inno-
cence by transcendent joy, and when it is lost in iniquity
works out a program of salvation.

Again, literature, philosophy, and history abound in variant

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 339

editions of the same theme, which, ahhough relative and
partial compared with that of Christianity, illustrate certain
features of the ephebic metamorphoses more fully and might
be mosaicked into a new higher unity about this theme. Faust,
e. g., passed through a very different curriculum of lust of
knowledge, and of sense, sold his soul to sin, experienced the
moral chaos of Walpurgis night, and at last, having learned
the vanity of wealth and ambition and every egoistic impulse,
found atonement and joy in humble service. Parsifal, roused
from innocence by the suggestion of sinful love, developed a
higher life and became, as some " young Germans " think, a
" German Christ," representing a principle of Teutonic atone-
ment that, as presented by Wagner, they conceive destined not
only to supersede but even to save Christianity itself.

Dante, " the voice of ten silent centuries," whose work
" best expresses the heart of medieval Catholicism," is read
in a new light and invested with a new and higher charm,
as an allegory of adolescence, more ethical, richer, and more
concrete than Hegel's phenomenology, and with all its differ-
ences, still best studied as a Pilgrim's Progress for the cul-
tured. The many professorships established to teach Dante can
do best service by studying what the ephebic revolution, of
which it is on the whole the fullest consummate literary char-
acterization, really is, and means, and the needs of the sub-
jective processes of whatever else this " divine," and of all
secular books most frequently edited, masterpiece may be.
Rich, learned, titled, the author was overwhelmed by mis-
fortune and transformed by love. He " held heart-break at
bay for twenty years " to write a spiritual biography in the
true language of the soul, and uttered himself as few have
ever done. His soul, tempered by an amazing range and in-
tensity of typical human experience, slowly, and exhausting
nearly all the many stages of the process, passes through the
hell of torture, grief, and fear, sees the true and hideous
nature of every sin revealed in its fit retributive penalty
through all the long descending way of blood and tears,
learns the dialect of anger and blasphemy, till at the center
of the earth's gravity he clambers down Satan's shaggy sides,
inverts himself, and is suddenly transported four thousand
miles to the other side of the earth on the Easter morn,

340 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

under the southern cross, while the love planets incite to glad-
ness, and his blackened face is washed by the tears of grati-
tude and a deep new joy. The mountains of purgatory, the
highest in the world, and the only land in the new hemisphere,
with all its rich and varied landscape, are before him, but steep
and uncertain as the Hill Difficulty. Each terrace, with new
penitential expiation and comforting promises, marks pro-
gressive growth in grace and clearer vision, till at Lethe the
guilt of remembered sin and pain is washed away, and on the
summit the shadowy " sweet pedagogue," who had hitherto
guided him, commits him to the care of his old love, purified
and transfigured, with whom, now fully regenerate, he com-
mences the ascent through the nine heavens of Paradise to
the ineffable rose of dawn, and of the blessed at the apex of
the empyrean, lifted through every crystalline sphere by gazing
fixedly into the eyes of his celestial love, while his mind, dull
with false human doctrine, is opened to the awful mysteries
of divine science.

We have no space to characterize but only to name the legends
of the Holy Grail, King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table,
the Nibelung Hoard or Rheingold, the Golden Fleece, Prometheus,
Hercules, Theseus, Ulysses, GEdipus, Orestes, Iphigenia, Samson,
Beowulf, Hamlet and other Shakespeare story roots, and scores of
ethnological radicles from the Indie wars with King Balin, the
Sakuntala, and the legends of the descent of fire, to the Kalevala and
Hiawatha, and many more. They are in differing degree, either warp
or woof, nothing but allegories of the birth of sex and its higher
meaning, or are at least replete with allusions to which only the
psychology of adolescence can furnish the true key. They are quite
as adequate ethnic expressions of conversion as are many of the in-
dividual experiences of it in Starbuck, Leuba, Coe, and James. The
history of ancient philosophy is a very different rendering of a part
of the same theme, and shows the same sequence as its only unity.
First came the early Greek oneness with nature, represented in the
Homeric world, which had no state, church, school, Bible, literature,
science, inventions, but where all was solvent in personalities and
in the natural relation between men, with the rich nursery mythology
of Hesiod, which was not broken by the Ionic, nor hardly by all the
early schools. This harmony was ruptured by Socrates, Plato, and
Aristotle. But their solution of the tension was partial, and after the
decay of the Greek state, and the bankruptcy of the ancient culture, a
sense of incubation gave place to the Alexandrian parusiamania as the
transcendental world grew paramount, and thus paved the way to the

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 341

contempt of reason^ the passionate cultivation of ignorance, and the
repagination and repeasantization of Europe by monasticism in the
nascent period of the new consciousness brought by Christendom as
it slowly came to wield the accumulated resources of the Western
world.

Savage initiation ceremonies — creeping through the effigy of a
sacred cow in token of a new birth ; torture, mutilation, and ascetic
mortification of the flesh in the interest of a larger tribal or yet higher
spiritual consciousness ; inductions to civic and natural as superposed
on private and family membership and duties ; burial and resurgence
from baptismal waters ; renunciation of the old Adam and the putting
on of the new Christ, and all the vast repertory of solemn, artistic,
symbolic, allegorical, and metaphysical rites, descriptions, similitudes,
pilgrimages of man's soul — all witness by their very abundance to the
manifold significance of this change in human life, although each is
inadequate, often pathetically so, and often even repulsively gross
from the standpoint of the higher psychology which seeks to grasp
its vast range and scope for all the past, present, and future of man's
body and soul.

Here, perhaps more than anywhere else, consciousness is
a very poor witness to what takes place in the abysses of
soul-life. It struggles to reflect, describe, realize what is going
on below its threshold and beyond its ken. It strives for
clarification, self-expression, and feels that otherwise its in-
tegrity is threatened with dissolution. It has many an inkling,
perhaps even in the form of dreams, automatisms, psychic
tensions, and various invasions from subjacent meristic strata
that witness to the fact of a ferment, that it is powerless
to explain, although the curtain sometimes seems to rift or
lift a little. This is one reason why the remembered religious
experiences of individuals are so pitifully fragmentary and
puerile, and often so absurdly mistaken as to cause, process,
issue, and object. To the individual it means so much, and
to all others so little. This is why there often seem breaks
in character and reversals of motive that appear so abrupt;
why trivial incidents loom up so large in the mist; why they
grow so in the telling as the years go by, as if they really
expressed the experiences that once found in them some
momentary and accidental vent; hence, too, their intensity
under the great subliminal stress. The value of collections
of individual narrations is that, by tabulation, comparison, etc.,
the fragments may be so ordered and systematized by indue-

342 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

tion as together to furnish a basis of illation to the larger
unconscious life, on which consciousness floats, to sound and
dredge it, explain the tides and currents, map its depths and
shallows, study the known and unknown primal forms of life
that inhabit it, and better learn to navigate it. Consciousness
is of the individual; the substratum on which it is developed
is of the race. Subconscious processes are better compacted,
older, more inerrant. By their brooding and incubation the
conscious person communes with the species, and perhaps even
the genus to which he belongs; receives messages from and
perchance occasionally gives them to it; appeals to mighty
soul powers not his own, but which are so wise, benignant,
and energetic that he is perhaps prone to the pathetic fallacy
of interpreting the subhuman as superhuman, if, like the
English Psychic Researchers, he has nO' intimation of the
wisdom, depth below depth, that has been organized into our
bodies, brains, automatisms, and instincts, which is vastly and
incomparably greater than all that is in the consciousness of
all men now living combined, and if he deems the surface phe-
nomena in his own sapient soul to be its essential experience.
This is the larger self, if such an anthropomorphizing, self-
idolatrous term may be used, with which we are continuous.
It is beneath, and not above us, immanent and not transcen-
dent, and if only rightly interpreted it is veridical in a sense
and degree our voluble ratiocination knows not of. Its best
evolution is by the methods of lysis and not those of crisis.
It answers prayers because it made them. What successfully
appeals to it and receives its sanction, we caM sacred, divine,
biblical, and its messages are revelations. It is cosmocatop-
tric, and the most central of all biologic changes which we
are now considering, and the motifs of the choicest human
documents are due to its initiative and control.

V. But if there are now happily many approximations to
larger interpretations of conversion, there are still many
reductive tendencies. In fact and nature, all the adolescent
decade is none too long for its full development, even in
favored cases, (i) There are still theologians who deem it
instantaneous, as if the soul were shocked into righteousness
by a fulminating, convulsive change like the perhaps epileptic
Paul. An aura more or less describable, a spasm, and presto,

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 343

all is changed, as if the old soul were torn out and another
inserted in its place. It is all the work of the Holy Spirit,
which, we have been told, does not necessarily work in time.
According to this paroxysmal view, the process is miraculous,
but, in fact, it seems so only because its continuity is so
shattered in consciousness. Even where the change seems
gradual, there must be a moment, we are told, when the
powers of good become stronger than those of evil, and then
the lever tips, and though it does so ever so slowly there is
a mathematical and epochful moment, especially in saltatory
temperaments, full of latent reflexibility, when it crosses
the absolute horizontal and dips the other way. In practise,
however, most would concede hours, perhaps days, weeks, and
even months, to the processes. But the intemperate haste for
speedy results is strong. The danger of delay, the sympathy
that would shorten the period of pain and struggle, the haste
to get it well over and to pass on to the cultivation of the fruits
of the Spirit and the Christian graces as a post-graduate
course, all act as accelerants. No informed mind can for
a moment doubt the vast good that sudden conversions have
wrought, or that this method has reclaimed many otherwise
unreached. There are innumerable ways, all perhaps good,
and every new form means more feet led in the way of salva-
tion. But for most, and those probably on the whole the best,
the religious change is a growth rather than a conquest.

(2) Again, there is a tendency to intensify the symptoms
of this change to acute form, to represent depravity as total,
the danger great, the conflict with sin bitter, to appeal to fear,
to represent God as angry and hardly restraining himself from
inflicting condign punishment, to encourage violence in
storming the heavenly kingdom, to agonize in prayer, and to
maximize the joy and rapture of deliverance, etc. Many nar-
ratives of conversion told by exhorters and by converts about
themselves are not only sensational and yellow but twice
exaggerated, first from temperamental and environmental
causes, and still more from telling and retelling them. Here
the convert meets at the outset of the new life a very strong
temptation to make himself interesting. How subtly, yet un-
consciously, he feels his way along lines of most approval in the
callow stage of the first prayer-meetings, while trying to

344 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

formulate some account of the tumult he has passed through
that shall establish its legitimacy and impress and help others.
He would be truthful, but who can describe feelings, especially
of an utterly new kind and degree ? Perhaps he would prefer
silence and retirement awhile for orientation, it is all so
thymetic and pectoral, and to grow calm from the maenadic
muse that seized and transported him into another world.
But the new form of his dimorphic personality can not be
deemed securely established till he has " borne witness," so
he develops the legend or idyl of his allotropism, and into it
weaves the life story of his romance first with Apollyon and
then with the Holy Ghost. At such an hour and place, and
in such a setting of circumstances, his soul took its one flight
from death to life. The grand event of his entire existence is
in the past, and so hot was the battle that the great fatigue of
early senescence begins prematurely to settle.

(3) Very strong in the past have been the tendencies to
normalize the processes, to order the stages, to convention-
alize it all, to set up one or more orthodox and theological
types that should be accepted as current coin, and so to pre-
scribe its onset, progress, and outcome. Where this has been
done, attempts to erect new standards have caused the greatest
disturbance, like threatening the validity of titles, or disturb-
ing social rank and classes. Candidates are cross-examined
on the precise nature of their subjective evidences of personal
piety. This tends to throw the stress of the test upon belief
even more than feeling, because it is more examinable and
inclines to the undue emphasis of doctrinal soundness. But
recent studies abundantly show that profoundly religious and
even exceptionally Christian lives are led by those who have
almost any or almost no belief. Lives have been described,
which few could for a moment doubt were such, in which no
real belief in any article of the creed, even God or another
life, as Leuba shows, could be found. Many pious souls,
whom the Church could ill afford to lose, are utterly incapable
of assimilating dogma of any kind. They have a more vital
charge to keep. Service in the present life absorbs all their
energies, and they have no time to care for another. " One
life at a time " is their unspoken motto. They are sure of
another life if there is one and if that is best, and if not, why,

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 345

they mean to so wear themselves out in Christian work that
eternal sleep will be no whit less welcome. As to God, it is
a far cry. How can we know? The world is lawful, beau-
tiful, full of things to do and undo. Let theologians busy
themselves about such great, curious, and technical questions,
and the workers will wish and hope they are right. If
he exists, he will neither feel toward nor treat us differently
whether we know much or nothing of him. If his nature
accords with the character men give him, he wants us to do
good to our fellow beings, and this such Christians chiefly
love to do whether he is or no, for they have experienced the
great conversion from love of self to love of others, although
how, or by what agency, they neither know nor care.

E. M. Robinson well portrays the different and characteristic ways
in which youth enter the religious life. Some plunge in with definite
decision, settling once for all the problem of their relations to God
and of right and wrong; some wade in deliberately and cautiously,
step by step ; some run in a little way and then come out again, till
at last they swim off; some are forced in, and being in, may stay or
frantically struggle to get out; while some simply sit on the beach
and let the tide rise about them and float them off. It would also
seem from Coe's seventy-seven cases that the sanguine or prompt
and weak temperament is most favorable, the melancholic or slow
and intense next, and the choleric and phlegmatic least predisposed
to conversion; that expectation plays an important role and that each
type has its own way. If something is expected which the tempera-
ment makes impossible, there is, of course, disappointment. For some
it may be guided by external ritual, and for others be purely spontane-
ous. It may be almost solely ethical in the sphere of will and conduct,
or emotional and with the motivation of natural affection. Its stages
may slowly devolve through a lifetime or be almost momentary. The
change it works may be superficial or profound, complete or partial;
attended by innumerable symptoms or none; transient or permanent;
arrested at any stage for a time or for good ; or may be so unconscious
and gradual as to be unsuspected. It may be genuine, without any rag
of creed, in those who never heard of the Christian name or knew that
the necessity was even urged upon men.

(4) It may suffer displacement up and down the age
scale. Its true place is in adolescent years. Rightly under-
stood, it gives fulness and completeness to the moral changes
of these years as nothing else can do. At this time, as we saw,
are the great temptations, most incipient criminality and vice.

346 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF .\DOLESCENCE

and all races, even the lowest, focus all their educational
efforts here. It is especially the religious teacher's great op-
portunity. This is its nascent period. Thus both pre- and post-
maturity involve waste. If too early, it is sure to be super-
ficial and incomplete, and dwarfed afterward by childish asso-
ciations. To repeat John Stuart Mill's well-worn simile, such
children are like too early risers, conceited all the forenoon
of life and stupid and uninteresting all its afternoon and even-
ing. Precocious revivalism is a little like teaching school
children the duties and responsibilities of married life. At
their very best, falsetto notes like the piping of treble are
always found in the later utterances, if not in the lives of those
prematurely regenerated. When infant voices that have
shown no sign of mutation are encouraged to confess or pray
in the terms prescribed for the very young by a child revival-
ist, " I am covered with sin," " the leprosy of sin is in my
soul," " I come to Thee a poor lost sinner," " although I am
but a child I am very wicked," something is very wrong with
the child, its teacher, or both. It is usually the latter that
most needs our prayers. Indeed, to teach such a litany of de-
pravity before its day seems actually immodest and sugges-
tive. Conversion at too tender an age, at best, is like vaccina-
tion with the mild form of smallpox, in that it gives immunity
against graver forms of religious infection later when passion
wakes and needs its full and undeflowered force. Perhaps
this is the grossest case of the vast educational waste of trying
to pick open buds before they are ready to unfold, or teaching
with effort and labored supervision what will almost or quite
come of itself later when interest and need arise, like the
propitious moment when the Holy Spirit knocks at the door
of the heart. This is one of the causes of the traces of religious
infantilism so often found in the lives of otherwise mature
adults.

On the other hand, as is far better understood, the change
may come too late. Happily, it rarely harms, however post-
mature its subjects, and may transform those grown old in
sin whom nothing else can help, but its initiation is harder,
its completeness rarer, and the obstacles to its every stage
greater. It may have to rectify vocation, perhaps with suffer-
ing to the family, break habits and associations grown in-

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 347

veterate, and involves going back to the branching of the
ways before which youth normally lingers and ponders.
Hence, the physical and mental strain is greater, and the mor-
bidities are increased. The devil in each of us has had time
to make his intrenchments within stronger, and has grown
worldly wise and casuistical.

These tendencies to narrow the sweep of this great biotic
law, to make it a psychic fetish, a neurosis, a ritual of initia-
tion instead of a norm of life, till nothing more needs regen-
eration than both the theory and administration of regenera-
tion itself, have had many sad results. They often tend to
cultivate a gushy, religious sentimentalism of a unique type
that evirates character, favor flightiness, unctuousness, mobile
and superficial sentiments, incline to ultra-femininity and pa-
theticism, and to love of climaxes that react to apathy. The
cerebro-spinal and vaso-motor system is ensanguined in those
of erethic diathesis by temperamental eloquence, and tempo-
rary excitement takes precedence over impulsion to the nearest
duties. Such incitements to virtue are like a cloudburst that
only slightly irrigates faith or works which need its refresh-
ment, but makes the soul resemble landscapes where droughts
and washouts alternate and there is no storage system.

Feeling is basal and central in the new psychology of the soul, but
this is not feeling in this sense, but only its froth and sillibub. Or,
again, the healthful sense of imperfection, incompleteness, or in-
adequacy predisposes to focus upon some specific act or trait, for the
youthful intellect is very concrete. Single and often petty faults are
" fetished " till they seem heinous. Youth feel baffled or dejected, and
this suggests demerit or even penalty and fear, that may be acu-
minated. Lack of robustness of health, or even fatigue, are almost
always factors and often dominant. Anxiety, especially about their
life work or the future generally, easily becomes morbid. Perhaps
they take the reconstruction of their entire moral regimen into their
hands and would be literally and absolutely perfect. This stage of
legalism often appears in our data. They would do their full and
complete duty. But there are many duties which conflict, and some
must give way. Hence casuistry arises, and in their mental awkward-
ness they are driven almost to desperation by problems with which
their feeble powers can not cope, for a complete system of duties is
postulated. Again, conscience is hypersensitized and every little act is
good or bad, while there is no broad domain of ethically neutral acts
such as the Stoics strove so painfully to elaborate. Either or, sic aut
non, is the dilemma that suffices for all decisions. They become fin-

348 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

icky, overnice, are paralyzed and can not decide at trivial emer-
gencies. Rigid standards are set up for puerile details. This Coe
well illustrates by, e. g., a girl who would say " Thank you " for every
pin, every flower or bouquet; another who, having vowed to pray
each day at ten, would drop her pencil or make some excuse to touch
her knees to the floor every day at that time ; a boy who, starting from
the major premise that everything worth doing at all was worth doing
well, would leave the reaper he was running in the field and go back
to pick up every head of wheat behind; one who mttst pull every
tiniest weed in the garden; children who copy and recopy a page
many times if there is the least error, misplaced dot, comma, etc. ;
one who in a choir would stop singing if there was a sentiment in
the hymn he was not sure he believed, etc. In this state of nerves
and moral touchiness, youth often grow irritable and have bitter and
long conflicts with their tempers. Fears of having committed the un-
pardonable sin, in rare cases, become tragic. There is a veritable
obsession of the duty of deciding by some inner witness or outer
token whether they are really Christians, or what vocation to adopt,
and they often feel that right impels them to do something they dis-
like or are unfitted for. The moral imperative may provoke self-
effacement in many forms. A flitting thought of a possible crime
startles them with the dread that they might commit it. Thus the
young, if made to feel a moral strain to which they can not adequately
respond, often nag themselves into crankiness, which suggests the
overscrupulosity so characteristic of some forms of adolescent de-
generation, against which interesting occupations, objective life,
intelligent sympathy by insightful adults, and physical hygiene, are
the only prophylactics.

Sometimes this ethical perversion is directed to others. The lives
of religious people are found wanting, friends are criticized, social
forms and the artificialities of life are keenly felt and work their
disenchantments. The neophyte would reform his social environment.
His insights are true and his judgments correct, but he soon finds
that he can no more reform the world than he can himself. His
mental apercus are so far more developed than his will-power, that
he feels baffled, rebuffed, heated by social frictions, thrown back on
himself, whenever he tries to accomplish things. He is utterly unable
to meet the new demands he makes or recognizes, is impatient to
satisfy his ideals, can make no form of adjustment that is satis-
factory, and every efferent impetus is balked. He knows and feels
great things, but can do little or nothing. He feels the mighty im-
pulses of the everlasting ought and is ready to essay heroic tasks,
but can bring nothing to pass. He feels himself superior in penetra-
tion but very inferior in execution. All that he really could accom-
plish seems mean and homely.

Hence some form of renunciation is inevitable, for salvation is
not by works. Thus the striver may relax and relapse to the old life
of habit and the easiest way, and perhaps with a sense of wasted

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 349

effort because he has done his best and failed. He grows indifferent,
perhaps cynical toward the good life, or possibly revolts and makes
evil his good, and plunges into self-indulgence. There is often an
intercalary stage of religious and ethical neutrality for months or
years, during which the powers below consciousness are solving all
his problems by their slow method of growth and all unbeknown to
him, till, in the denouement, he is taken into partnership with his
own under-soul and achieves the second part of the process of re-
construction. Or, again, in the more classical type, at the point of
defeat and bankruptcy of effort to be wholly good and do all duty,
there is a sense of surrender to some deeper powers felt to exist in the
soul. There is recognition of older, surer, more potent agencies than
those which conscious effort can command. The whole case is non-
suited in the lower court and appeal taken to a higher and better one.
A new dynamism arises from the depths of the soul which takes the
place of conscious striving and seems like a new will or god working
in us. The young convert feels estranged to both himself and others,
because he is different from what he had so long been before. Hence
he is prone to deem himself peculiar and not like others, because
unlike his former self. He readily regards his mutation as super-
natural or miraculous, because it is too large for his mind to interpret.
There is a changed center of apperception. All these are normal
growth formulae, and all failures to achieve true conversion are forms
of mental, moral, or emotional arrest or perversion, while every good
motive or example of this age of life is an incentive to it. Thus in
religious thought, we must reverse current processes and argue from
fact to theory ; from below upward ; pass from man to God ; look to
the heart to explain creeds and not the reverse, for all religions are
formed to minister to human needs. Our quest should be from what
psychic facts did faiths arise. Religion is of the emotion and instincts
and not primarily of the mind. Buddhism is great and the teachings
of Jesus divine because each codified and organized a higher stage of
human growth. If proof is needed the soul of belief is gone. Sacred
truth is that which rings true to the heart, and many of the most reli-
gious people and the greatest doers are foolish at reasons. Creeds are
but crude interpretations of wordless music, and the soul responds to
the great religions as a violin rightly tuned responds by sympathetic
vibration to an orchestra. The thing is to awaken an echo. Faith tells
the secrets of the world in an unknown tongue, and Fielding Hall
argues that it dies out with natural and racial fecundity.

In some of our cases this psychic growth seems to be
purely spontaneous. On a walk, at a lesson, there is a sudden
sense of a new, larger, and purer life, and this may be re-
garded as the decisive moment. New aspiration which may
even impel ejaculatory prayer, new insights, ideals, waves
of love, resolves to do duty and attain perfection, and noble

350 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

ambitions, break out and may take possession of life. Or in
a quiet hour comes a sense of moral discontent with self, or
with companions, as if conscience sprung into function, or a
sense of increased reality of the world or of greater serious-
ness of life, a strange feeling of dependence upon some higher
power, a passion for service. Or old truths open up new
meanings, perhaps there are thrills or waves of joy or peace,
reveries and even dreams grow intense almost to visions,
phrases are automatically formulated, perhaps spoken, or, in
some cases, heard. Again, manifold depressions arise no less
spontaneously. Overblown personal vanity is suddenly con-
fronted by a feeling of inability to do anything worth while
and fears to disappoint all friendly expectation, while youth
agonize to find some latent talent in themselves. They feel
themselves dishonest, impure, slothful, guilty, or revengeful.
Again the world recedes, seems afar, unreal, indifferent, and
mechanical, so that all interest dies or all is a baffling mystery.
God suddenly seems gone, or is bad because he made hell. Is
there any truth or standard, or can I attain it? is a question
that often marks the moment when, turning from the childish
preoccupation with particular objects, the adolescent passion
for the general and universal arises and a love of logic and
self-analysis and an abhorrence of compromise come to the
surface. All this is, as Lipsius has well said, essentially " a
natural process of a higher order." It is growth, which has its
own dynamics which always defies ordinary logic, but which
here seems all the more mysterious because it is into a higher
nature, somewhat alien to all that had preceded. It tends to
no disorders of conscience or of life.

In an atmosphere charged with religiosity each of these may be
interpreted by the individual as the beginning or as the substance of
conversion and described in its technical phrases. Among Coe's and
other cases, one dreamed of taking an examination in his fitness to
go to heaven ; one had a vision of a broad and narrow^ w^ay, saw a
light out of a tomb, had a sense of presence, of some one dictating
thoughts, heard an inner voice, saw a luminous eye in the ceiling,
had a sense of being under two influences, one good and one bad, but
both objective; one experienced an outburst of defiance to God, shak-
ing the fist at the sky and telling him how unjust and hated he was.
The heart is often now too much for the intellect suggesting neurot-
icism, and feeble minds often develop casuistry, magnifying innocent

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 351

things to sins of deepest dye, or a finicky susceptibility " showing the
undue dominance of a major premise." When the brotherhood of
man dawns, young men in their warm beds are tortured into sleep-
lessness by the thought that some of their fellow men are cold.^ A
girl of twelve, on a visit, thought it sinful not to tell her hostess if
she had taken a pin. Another could not decide on fine points of ex-
pression in a composition and worked herself almost into a frenzy.
Another argued with herself on all small matters, and only learned to
make prompt decisions when they were necessary by riding a bicycle.
A young girl, impressed by a neighbor's suicide, was overwhelmed
with the fear lest she should kill her mother, which she quelled by
telling her of it. Another had fear of every post, avoided tracks, and
suffered a long hydrophobia.

VI. What contrast can be greater than when we turn
from these grimaces and tweaks of religiosity, to regard con-
version as the philosophy of history and religion and the germ
of all educational systems ? I have collected and have before
me forty-two definitions of religion. They are as varied as
the descriptions of religious experience. For some authorities
it is essentially noetic; for others it is in the realm of feeling
or volition ; for others it is chiefly moral. All are instructive,
or at least suggestive, but they, too, are so very diverse and
sometimes so contradictory as to be but broken lights, per-
haps because they also largely rest, as religion is peculiarly
prone to do, upon individual differences of character and life.
If so, they are valuable only as bases of classification, or as
data and material toward a real definition. Pending this, I
suggest that religion may be described from the view-point
of psychology as favoring the old and now often discarded
etymology of the word religion, as rebinding, bringing back,
or as restoration. As natural, it is reestablished unity with
nature; as ethical, a reunion of conduct with conscience;
as theoretical, it is a re-at-one-ment of the mind with truth;
as feeling, it is the ecstatic closing in again of the highest
love with its supreme object, or fresh impulse along a for-
saken but recovered path. The common element is atone-
ment with implication of previous estrangement or heteri-
zation, the ecstatic closing in by faith or intuition with
what is felt to be normative and central. The heart finds ob-

^ Coe : pp. 68, 69.

352 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

jects, the will duties, and the intellect truths to adequately
and truly express them, but all after more or less jeopardy or
loss. The reunion must be in the field of the higher nature,
and must generally be achieved with effort and anxiety. How
man came to deviate from his ideal, or the cause and extent
of his departure from it; the form under which the ideal is
conceived, whether subjectively or objectively; how the
rapprochement is begun; whether the process is transcendent
or immanent, objective or subjective — important as they are
for cult, theory, conduct, sentiment — are less central. Re-
ligion is the reinstallation of the individual or the race into
its true place in the world, recovery to health or wholeness.
Always and everywhere the iaW-motif is present, however far
in the background, and joy is always felt at the reascent.

The very idea of catholicity, Bible, and even religion
itself, means consensus, and assumes the same fundamental
needs, instincts, and experiences for all. Always there was
a primitive state of unity, harmony, joy, innocence; then a
tension, a sense of error, loss, estrangement or guilt, decay,
fear; then something once more or less integral or dear is
dropped, sacrificed, alienated, hated; thence results new life,
joy, love, and restoration; and lastly, there is growth along
new lines. These are cardinal, and each stage has countless
interpretations. The primitive state may be materially con-
ceived as one of nature, idyllic innocence, or instinct, and vari-
ously located in time and place, or as a psychic condition. Its
loss has been slight or total, ascribed to many internal, exter-
nal, and even transcendental causes, thought to be objective
and historic, or subjective and ideal, as deviation from a norm
or disobedience of the commands of an outraged Deity. The
sense of insufficiency may deepen to demerit and ill-desert,
reaching even a passion for punishment, not merely for pur-
gation but also for retribution, that justice may be done; or
a hunger may arise, no less intense, for the disclosure of a
better way and strength to walk in it. The third stage has
been described as losing a burden ; the surrender of a per-
verse will ; the mortification of the body, or even the loss of
an offending member; the sacrifice of possession, career,
friends, or poverty, chastity, and obedience ; the abandonment
of culture and knowledge, or the limitation of science ; the an-

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 353

nihilation of will and desire; the reversal of former loves, and
ambition, or the substitution of a passionate passivity in their
place, as the molt of the old self had to be more or less deep
or complete. The fourth stage begins with a sense of salvage
of something precious from the wreck. Despite all the loss,
there is a reservoir of life abounding that yet wells up from
its deep springs, which may be formulated as a biological
gift of nature or as by divine grace, with an hedonic sweet-
ness at the root that may make us jubilant in chains, disease,
pain, calamity, or even death. It is this euphoria of the soul's
life that transcends every gratification of sense, possession,
ambition, etc., as far as the life of the race upon which the soul
enters transcends that of the individual. Lastly, the sense of
growth and progress to ever new and higher planes, which
has made every conception of evolution so fascinating, is es-
sential to the vitality of interest, curiosity, love, achievement,
and of all our powers. All these are phases of the great
change of base from the egoism, normal and necessary to the
first stage of human life, to the self-subordination of the stage
of philoprogenitive maturity which is ripening to die for what
it lives for, where love has done its perfect work and self has
" passed to music out of sight," and where the Platonic eros,
PauHne charity. Buddhistic sympathy and pity, or Jesus's en-
thusiasm for humanity, that loves the Lord and neighbors
with all mind, might, and strength, have taken its place.
What more has life to give or its wisdom to teach?

There is a sense in which the story of primitive man, from
the troglodytes up, is a long passion history. For the most
part, what we call the prehistoric period is so because it is as
unhistorical as the story of kites and hawks. The struggle
for survival, beginning with the stern law in the animal
world. Eat or be eaten, shows that man has been a wolf to
his fellow man. The infant comes crying into the world with
the pain-field at first larger than the pleasure-field. The rem-
nant that survives is small ; the ape and the tiger in man's
nature have died hard, or too often still survive. The best of
us carry a heavy handicap of biological sin from our ancestors.
Tragic guilt in classic drama, like the curse of Atreus's house,
a theme now revived in drama by Ibsen, Hofifman, and others,
exhibits the physiological effects of the errors or vices of the
&2

354 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

past. Lucretius pities the estate of man craven by fear and
his soul darkened by superstition. Theology lately taught
that depravity may be total, and that, for most, the sufferings
of this world culminate in transcendental torture hereafter.
At best, life is short; man is preyed upon by hundreds of
diseases officially catalogued ; death is sure and often comes as
a relief. The inevitable hour, to many world-sick souls, makes
every tick of the clock pathetic and the very lapse of time
itself pitiful. The high aspirations and ambitions of adoles-
cence shrivel as life advances, and because many of its prom-
ises are unfulfilled, philosophers have urged that unless there
be immortality our nature is a lie. Modern industry does not
fit the hygienic needs of the body, nor mental work satisfy
those of the soul. Monsters of cruelty and rapacity have
been let loose as scourges of mankind and enemies of the hu-
man race, and thus melancholy has abundant food to batten on.
Many now urge that our race is decadent and degenerate, and
even impeach modern civilization. The wise men suffer from
an ignorance that is unfathomable, and to breaking hearts
it has almost seemed as if man were but a parasite upon this
clod of earth, whom the gods, if there be any, could not see with
a microscope even if they wished to. Thus even joy and beauty
are pathic and have a trace of woe in them, or even should not
have been, because they torture man with a sense of what is so
much better than he can possibly attain. So fallen is man,
growing ever farther from heaven as he leaves childhood be-
hind, that some, like Tithonus, would almost pray the gods
to take back their gift of immortality. World-woe may re-
gard creation itself as a blunder or a crime, and regret and
remorse not only rob man of all hope and self-respect, but
make autumn and even twilight ominously bodeful of his
darkening doom. If man be not an utterly lost and fallen
creature, he is at least wretched and an object of pity to
himself.

Now man's self-pity and sense of his own loss and imper-
fection are reflected, projected, ejected, or objectified in the
transcendental realm as ill-will, anger, or even among the
Greeks as jealousy of the gods, in fear of whom most have grov-
eled, and against whom only a few Titanic souls have rebelled.
But as human conditions slowly ameliorated and man asserted

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 355

his dominion over beasts and over nature, we find, besides
enmity, traces of pity in the gods and demigods whom he
reveres. Buddha was smitten with the anguish of pathos at
the thought of death, evil, and finitude, so that, abandoning
all that makes life attractive for most, he sought to find a
way out to peace. The labors of Hercules, Theseus, and
Prometheus were merciful and sympathetic acts. Jove can
remit his thunder and Jehovah grow slow to anger and com-
passionate upon the intercession of his favorites. Thor,
Siegfried, and even Beowulf, and many a culture hero, have
waged war against the enemies of man, and deep in the popu-
lar consciousness is the idea that the great souls, the saviors
of the race from evil, who have died, may some time return
to right things; reward those that have suffered unjustly, or
become intercessors with higher powers. Indeed, all great
men and heroes have a soteriological function in the world.
Wherever leaders appear, their followers are more or less pro-
tected and sheltered in their shadow. Those who advance the
kingdom of man by intellectual achievement, discovery, in-
vention, teaching how to think the world more truly and
economically; light-bearers who become the hermits and per-
haps the martyrs of truth ; reformers, legislators, founders of
religions, who reconstruct society on higher levels; the great
editors and re-editors of the sacred traditions of the race into
deathless classic form; all who live out the inner life of con-
viction; who are called, sent, or commissioned by the evolu-
tionary push upward, which is the oracle of the soul — all these
are immortal in the sense that their work is deathless ; and
when we reflect on what each century would have been with-
out a few, or, at best, a few dozen leaders, we may well call
them the caryatides in the temple of humanity, the true
aristarchy, and, in a way, the saviors of man, because express-
ing more fully his inner vocation. Many if not most of these
have loved their task better than life, have helped save men
from despair by widening the dominion of man and enrich-
ing his life ; have been comforters, and all who live in their
companionship, though it be across the centuries, are branches
of a true vine. Into their hands the destinies of the world
have been largely committed, and its history is to a great ex-
tent that of their own thousfhts and achievements. It would

35^ THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

be a bold task, far more so than to designate the hundred or
thousand best books, to name these leaders, as Comte attempts
in his worship of humanity. But while these men are the best
possessions of the world, it will never worship them. While
these names are revered as the strong are instinctively vener-
ated by the weak, and while the lives of many of them are
pathetic enough, service to the race has not always been the
all-dominating motive, and heroes scorn to either give or take
pity. Like Nietzsche's Zarathustra, they would so resent it
that to be pitied even by the gods would be matter for revenge,
because a being who could pity would lack due respect for
the object of his pity, and the latter would regard it as an
insult. Only the weak crave it. Beggars show their sores
and tell their stories, often more characteristic than their
names or photographs. Weak women invent and group
symptoms to excite the interest of doctors from an uncon-
scious craving that accepts pity as a pinchbeck substitute for
love. There is a real inebriation of pity, too, that makes it
infectious. It seemed to the Stoic sage a disease, and Aristotle
thought that, like fear, it needed purgation in the drama and
otherwise, lest it grow too strong and overmaster the serenity
and dignity of the philosophical mind. Spinoza thought it
unworthy, because it was passive, and the modern world knows
that it may take the form of a selfish inebriation that finds
no vent in efforts to relieve the suffering that causes it. The
very bodily manifestations, or, according to some theories, the
somatic causes of it, are unworthy ; hence, the hero is content
to feel that no evil can befall a good man living or dead, and is
satisfied to have attained salvation of his own kind in his own
way ; he rarely feels the pedagogical motive of helping others,
and perhaps confirms his own pride with some evolutionary
conception that the lowly, feeble, and weak are doomed to
extinction to make room for the elect strong. This, especially
in our overindividualized age, with egotism full-blown, is
one factor in explaining why some who have served the world
best have neither loved mankind nor been loved.

One characteristic of religious genius, however, has always
been its wide and deep human sympathy with man in all
stations. In them, love, which is perhaps most closely asso-
ciated with the care of the young, and has its best exempli-

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 357

fication in maternal sacrifice and in the purest love of sex,
has broadened to the phratry, deme, curia, gens, tribe, and
clan, and to the poor, sick, and defective ; it has developed the
function of helper, and in its culmination has passed even be-
yond national patriotism to philanthropy, and, perhaps, even
includes animals, and indeed all being. This " pathos of
resonance " a recent writer (Lyon) would make the charac-
teristic of genius, which is in a state of exquisitely sensitized
rapport with the entire human environment and feels keenly
all its joy and woe. This culmination is the result of long
development, because pity tends to be almost inversely as the
square of the psychic distance from its object. The young
can not pity because they lack experience with pain; the rich
can not sympathize with the poor because they have not known
poverty; and the poor have no feeling for the suffering of the
rich. Hence, the middle station in life is most favorable for
the wholesome exercise of this sentiment. Again, we see this
illustrated in the crude school penalties that have been devised
to correct it. The child who laughs at the lame has his own
leg tied, or if he scorns the hungry is himself made to fast.
Criminals of the pitiless type who torture and gloat over suf-
fering that should cause them to grieve, are arrested at this
stage and are callous to dolorific sensations. So the blind, be-
cause they can not see the expressions of pain, or the deaf,
because they can not hear them, often seem cruel. But true
sympathy, as Sutherland has shown, is as basal for morals as
Jesus made love the basal for true religion. The very essence
of youth consists in making this transit completely in all the
departments of its nature and effectively insuring itself against
relapse to either miserablism or sin. Every life is stunted
that has not experienced this metamorphosis in some form.
If the Church allows it to fossilize, psychology, when it be-
comes truly biological, will preach it. Indeed, the chief fact
of genetic psychology is conversion, a real and momentous
change of unsurpassed scientific and practical importance and
interest. It is one of the best criteria of the degree of culture
of different ages, races, religions, and communities, how it is
conceived, interpreted, formulated, and administered. It is
the inner meaning of the savage initiations described in the
last chapter, and from Paul's change of belief and Augustine's

358 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

change of life and creed down to Scherer, from the most
formal and external confirmation down to the most convulsive
colored Methodistic inner revolution, from the slowest anti-
crisis theories of growth to the most cataleptic instantaneous
reversal of life, the change has, at its core, an unchanged and
constant element beneath all its mutable fashions in different
ages, races, and sects, viz., growth from a life of self to one
of service. That it is so often administered by those who have
no conception of its vaster significance, or who lack all higher
sanctity, and indeed that it is so often effective when con-
ceived as a mere formal fetish or a windy mouthful of the
most hackneyed and time-worn phrases, shows a vitality such
as no other human culture-form has ever possessed. Even the
most partial, degenerate, and aberrant forms of it, while they
suggest that nothing so needs regeneration in all its ways,
means, and conceptions as regeneration, still have incompa-
rable efficiency when all else fails. If it often most needs
to be saved from its friends, it still more needs to be psycho-
logically restated and vindicated to both religious, scientific, and
pedagogic minds that have undervalued or even ignored and
scoffed at it.

Rightly understood, the historic period begins with the
dawning adolescence of the race, the gospel of its infancy be-
ing always and everywhere more or less mythic. If we could
organize the strategraphic stages of the development of con-
sciousness for all the historic record, somewhat as geologists
have organized their science; if we could correctly describe
the emergence of conscious mind from the primeval sea of in-
stinct and impulse; reconstruct the so evanescent " soft parts "
and determine all the genera and species of all the paleo-
psychic types from their fossils of implements, inscriptions,
etymologies, myths and rites, degenerate, neurotic reflexes,
excavated stonework, ancient manuscripts, etc. ; eliminate the
effects of all retrogression periods, of erosion, iconoclasm,
the fall of the Roman Empire, all dark and stationary ages,
as well as the submergence effects of unrecorded generations ;
account for gaps, flows, convulsions, inversion; point to the
best outcrop for every stage of mental evolution down
through all the ethnographic meso- and ceno-psychic strata;
and thus see some realization of the rude but magnificent

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 359

dream dimly and very diversely described by Hobbes as the
Leviathan, by Comte as la grand Eire, by Hegel as the phe-
nomenology of mind, by Hartmann as that of morals, by
Lilienfeldt and Schafer as the social man, of which each
individual is a cell and each institution an organ, etc., the
genetic psychology of such a cosmic homo-sapiens would be
a perfect, normal, and uninterrupted history of the human
soul. His association processes would work by no such rudi-
mentary laws as contiguity in time and space, but would co-
ordinate from every race and land every typical expression
by word or deed of every tendency, element, and stage. If we
could mark everything upon a common scale as Romanes
would correlate animals, infancy, and savagery, we should
then have a standard to measure and also to compare progress
in different civilizations; all categories would reveal their
stages in true relations of superposition, each, as in an ideal
geologic section, marked by its characteristic types, while the
diverse experiences of man would not seem lacking in unity or
too complex to have any character, as if its currents flowed
in all directions and any culmination were possible, but life
would be a consistent, continuous, complete, and self-support-
ing whole. For such a being, a citizen of all times and climes,
the doer of all deeds and the thinker of all thoughts, the logi-
cal and the psychogenetic order could never disagree, if, in-
deed, they were not absolutely and always identical. The
philosophy of history, education, and life would be their
aspect viewed from the standpoint of such a perfect, quasi
theanthropic consciousness, and man's curriculum would be a
complete organism or a science of all sciences, while his phi-
losophy would not be an eclectic mosaic of glimpses, like a dis-
sected map badly recomposed, but the true organic unity long
sought but still delayed. This is the ideal and goal of the psy-
chogenetic movement, which cross-sections previous modes of
studying the human soul. The achievements of geology and
of all the cosmogenetic sciences have not, perhaps, altogether
required the labor yet needed to accomplish this work, but
the currents of endeavor already setting in this direction,
and the actual progress now being made, have given birth to
a new hope in the world already big with promise. This
would be perpetual growth so rapid and manifold that, by

360 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

contrast with the slow and often broken average progress of
the race, any section of it would seem a period of spring-tide
and youth, of reformation and Sabbath.

Our Bible comes nearer fulfilling this ideal than any other
literature. Despite its deviations, redundancies, and gaps,
when measured on such a program, it depicts the development
of " Man-soul " in a way which, if it is rightly understood,
leaves the best classics of the best races far behind. The Old
Testament begins with the myth of cosmic origins and passes
to the agricultural and pastoral stage of Cain and Abel, the
heroics of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, Moses and Joshua, the
royalty of Saul, David, and Solomon, the legal stage of law
and justice which so appeals to boys, to dawning prophecy,
etc. It is all objective, strenuous, full of incident, battles,
dramatic incidents, and with a large repertory of persons.
There is fear, anger, jealousy, hate, but not love, and it de-
picts an age of discipline and authority. Later comes the
adolescent New Testament stage with its altruistic motives,
and, last, the philosophic age of Pauline and other doctrines
which appeal to the intellect. All this is normal and in
pedagogic sequence, the order of which should not be reversed
as is so often done in religious teaching. So, too, Jesus should
be taught first as a kind, noble, but natural man, for the at-
tribute of divinity makes him uncanny and sometimes mon-
strous to the child. But later the supernatural side of his
being is necessary to fit the age when the heart and intuition
so far outstrip the callow intellect.^

This can profitably be supplemented at certain points by
some of the best material from other great ethnic religions.
The passionate affirmation of monotheism in Mohammedan-
ism not only illustrates how passionate may be the belief in
one God, but it marks perhaps the next step above fetishism
and idolatry, against which the early history of Israel was a
long struggle. To pass from this lower paganism to the idea
of one supreme ruler of heaven and earth is a revolutionary
conversion for, e. g., African tribes, where Islam missions are
now making such rapid advances, as well as teaching temper-

1 This is all elaborated with reasons in my article, Some Fundamental Principles
of Sunday-School and Bible Teaching. Ped. Sem., December, 1901.

ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY OF CONVERSION 3^1

ance, as Christianity does not. Confucianism with its
reverence of age and worship of ancestors, its non-metaphys-
ical, practical religion of duties and forms of daily life, its
legalism and social conventionality, may fit the stage of boy-
life and supplement the rules of Jewish legislation. At the
top of the curve of life comes Christianity, forever supreme
because it is the norm for the apical stage of human develop-
ment, glorifying adolescence and glorified by it, and calcu-
lated to retain and conserve youth before the decline of the
highest powers of the soul in maturity and age. Buddhism,
with its doctrine of universal sympathy, renunciation, peace,
poise, and repose, has special messages to mature men and
women. The religion of the Brahmanic Vedanta is, as Max
Miiller shows, the form of piety in old age and may supple-
ment or at least tone the teachings of Paul and dogmatic
theology, for, inconsistent as the two are in theory, both appeal
to the nature of a Ciceronian old age.^

From all this I draw one more inference. Jesus sought
to fulfil and not to destroy, and so Christianity evolved from
Judaism as another and higher dispensation of the same con-
tent. In Hegelian phrase, a decadent faith was sublated in a
new ascendent one. Renan has shown how persistent in
Christendom has been the idea of a third and yet higher rev-
elation related to ours as it is to the Hebrew canon. This
achievement of Jesus will be not a less but a more sublime
pedagogic masterpiece if it is regarded not only as in itself
the most precious work of the spirit but as a pattern and in-
centive for us to do for other great but decaying religions what
he did for Judaism, and if missionaries strive to fulfil rather
than to destroy them. In some respects they are as susceptible
of being a propjedeutic of Christianity as Jesus made the Old
Testament to be. They, too, are full of symbols, types, and
prophecies, and if treated by the method of sympathy rather
than that of criticism could blossom into new life and be re-
generated in our faith, to which they point as directly and
which they need for completion as much as did the religion of

^ This is elaborated in an original and suggestive book, now in press, by a student
of mine, Dr. Jean Du Buy. Some, but not all, of these principles are worked out
in thesis by my pupil, S. B. Haslett. The Pedagogical Bible School, New York,
p. 381, 1904.

362 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Moses and David. The supreme mission problem to-day is
the same for them as that which Jesus faced in Judea. They
are degenerate and need an analogous new proclamation of
what they ignorantly worship. The true problem is evolu-
tion, not revolution, grafting and not uprooting, a revival of
the best in them in this best age and not a fanatical running
amuck. The missionary should proclaim that Confucius was
a great sage; that Mohammed was a servant, in his way and
day, of the true God ; that the Buddha was a religious genius
who opened up a new way of peace and blessedness. Thus
making sure that he is not ignorant of all the truth which
every faith contains, cordially and enthusiastically apprecia-
tive of all that is good, feeling all the devotion its worship
and sacred writings can inspire, as Jesus first exploited the old
cult, he will, if he is his true disciple, in his teaching seek to
advance to the next step and open a new gospel till old dead
stalks put forth green shoots, bloom, and bear fruit.

Finally, when this is attempted, as it is certain to be be-
cause it is the only true and right way, these new growths
will not always conform to Christianity as it is now under-
stood, but there will be new features in these indigenous new
evangels. That of the crude fetishistic races may be more
like a purified Mohammedanism, and the latter may ripen into
something like the ethical fidelity to duty of Confucianism.
This, in turn, may sometimes prove to be as good a prepa-
ration for our faith as Hebraism. The prematurely developed
philosophic creeds of India may need to be rescued from their
too early senescence and given a youth they never had. If
this be done with fidelity to these and all other systems, the
product will be something of priceless value in rejuvenating
old races and will seem at first new and strange to us, while
we in our turn may be converted to an enlarged and enriched
conception of our own faith as parts of which they will take
their place, as surely as it is adequate to the culminating
golden stage of life, and our pistis will also have a gnosis that
will meet the needs of academic youth to whom neither ex-
isting religious institutions nor our college philosophy now
adequately minister.

CHAPTER XV

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS

I. Self-consciousness, vanity, affectation, and showing off — Dress, manners — Feats,
bragging. II. Anger, pugnacity, repressals. III. Fear, shock, blushing, bash-
fulness, modesty. IV. Pity, sympathy — Reluctance to dissent — Susceptibility.
V. Love of home versus running away — Truancy, wanderers — Relations to
temperature and food — Animal and human migrations, nostalgia. VI. School
and teachers versus home and parents — Imitation — Like and dislike of teach-
ers. VII. Wider irradiations to adult ideals and plans for life — Ideals of
vocation — Influence of historic and biblical characters — Home and foreign
ideals. VIII. Property and the money sense. IX. Social judgment, cronies,
and solitude — Ideas of punishment — Work together and alone. X. First
forms of spontaneous social organizations — Gangs — Predatory clubs. XL
Student life and organizations — Banality, infantilism. Class feeling, hazing —
Secret societies — German student clubs — Secrecy, initiations, and the duel —
Town versus gown — Ideal relation of student and teacher — Caricature. XII.
Associations for youth devised or guided by adults. («) Captains of Tens —
(b) Agassiz Association — (c) Abstinence Clubs — (</) Princely Knights — {e)
Bands of Mercy — {f) Coming Men of America — {g) Harry Wadsworth
Club — {Ji) Young Men's Christian Association — (z) Christian Endeavor ; the
evils of its oath — (/) Epworth League — (^) Brotherhood of St. Andrew —
(/) Luther League — Conclusions. XIII. Material for moral and social cul-
ture in : A, Oratory — B, Drama — C, The Arthuriad — D, The Bible — E, His-
tory— A new standard of moral values.

In the last four chapters we have tried to describe the
great awakening of love of the other sex and of nature, and
the religious impressionability during adolescence, and to sug-
gest the proper treatment of these three feeling-instincts. None
of these undergo more characteristic developments than does
the social nature to the description and regimen of which we
now proceed. No creature is so gregarious as man, and we
can hardly conceive him except as a member of the family
and emerging, as the boy and girl now do, to become a socius
in tribe, society, or political and industrial communities. As we
have seen, individual differences of all kinds are now suddenly
augmented. The interval between the strong and weak, the
dull and bright, beautiful and ugly, becomes far greater than
it was before. This of itself impresses upon each that he has-

363

364 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

some rank in a scale, with some above and others below, and
he is very eager to know his place here. There is a new sense
of passing some kind of unwritten examination in the world's
school and a new rivalry to stand high and not low upon some
of these multiplying and lengthening scales. Each sex, too,
now feels itself rated by the other, and the approval of a larger
and more adult environment is also sought. The result is a
greatly intensified social self-consciousness which may be ex-
pressed in bashfulness, showing off, or affectation, according to
temperament, environment, etc. To win good-will and avoid
ill-will is now one of the strongest motives. Fame, glory,
renown, leadership, may now become ruling passions. Praise
is never so inebriating, and flattery is never so liable to cause
conceit and a dualized hypocritical life, while censure, derision,
or failures that suggest inferiority are never so depressive or
so liable to leave a permanent mark. Poise between indiffer-
ence to the good opinion of others and excessive regard for
it is never so hard as in this most plastic stage of both tempera-
ment and character.

I. Self -consciousness, vanity, affectation, and showing off.
One of the first and most serious of these new self-ratals in
girls concerns the gifts of heredity.^ They become conscious
of, ponder, and often discuss their eyes in color, size, expression,
movement ; their hair, its abundance, its hue, color, etc. ; their
complexion, teeth, form, dimples; and study to show or con-
ceal in most effective ways the good or bad that comes of
breeding, blood, and family. They earliest in life and much
more so than boys are conscious of their ancestors, parents,
relatives, etc., and this normally, because their bodies and
souls are in some sense better organs of heredity than man's.

Dress is always modified in a way that is sometimes very
obvious up the grades in school. The boy suddenly realizes
that his shoes are not blacked, or his coat is worn and dirty,
his hair unbrushed, his collar, necktie, or cap not of the latest
pattern, while girls love to flaunt new fashions and color com-

1 .See my study with T. L. Smith : Showing Off and Bashfulness as Phases of
Self-Consciousness. Fed. Sem., June, 1903, vol. x, pp. 159-199. Also J. J.
Hoppe : Die Eitelkeit und ihre Arten. Wiirzburg, 1890, p. 38.

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 3^5

binations and have a new sense for the toilet. The clothes-
consciousness sometimes becomes a matter of very exiguous
fastidiousness, and those who never cared how they looked
before become now very conscious of their attire. While dress
has a psychology of its own, it is its ornamental, decorative
function, however, which chiefly concerns us here. Very
challenging is the homology between the dress, which nature
provides for animals by an organic function, and that which
man, by the psychic function, which Schleiermacher was so
fond of paralleling with the organic, provides for himself.
Loudness and dandyism ill-adjusted to wealth, station, or to
good taste are frequent. The influence of dress upon be-
havior is now given a place in ethical text-books. That not
merely the quality of goods and their cut but their rigidity or
softness has much influence upon conduct, spirits, and even
circulation, respiration, and digestion, is plain, and the maxim
often advocated of so dressing wherever one is as to be utterly
unconscious of dress is probably unpedagogical even more than
it is at this age impossible to carry out. New styles of dress,
toilet, or coiffure fads, perfumes, ribbons, curls, souvenir pins,
rings, bows, motto-badges, new colors, charms, flowers, etc.,
quickly permeate a school community, as Small has described,
in the age of greatest plasticity to fashion.^

Manners are, of course, minor morals and should be from
within outward, and not products of external environment.
They belong intrinsically to character and are normally the
physiological economies of expressing the higher and better
sentiments. Here girls are more plastic than boys, more apt
in putting on and off vivacity, languishing moods, drawling
speech, fine ladyism, superior ways, accents, and airs of many
kinds; their penmanship, pronunciation, choice of words and
style are all subject to affectation; they are precise, easy, in-
dolent, mincing, boisterous, and readily fall into acting roles.
Both boys and girls often imitate even half-unconsciously
squints, position of lips, dialects, limps, coughing, stammering,
and other speech defects, and even choreic symptoms, especially
of favorite companions and teachers, or by way of mimicry

' The Suggestibility of Children. Ped. Sem., December, 1896, vol. iv, pp.
176-220.

366 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

of those disliked, sometimes almost to the point of impersona-
tion, to say nothing of every trade and occupation. Various
styles are often successively aped until one is found or made
by eclectic comparison that fits. Swagger ways, saccharinity,
mincing, affability, hauteur, domineering loftiness, stoic im-
perturbability, and perhaps hardness, callous apathy and
indifference, languor, poses for effect, affected smiles and
laughs thought to be fetching, every type of gait, poise and
carriage, lisps, staccato or presto styles of speaking, extremes
of primness and formality, and of abandon, everything by
turn and nothing long — these show this to be a polymorphic
stage of etiquette, bearing, and the style that does so much to
make the man, and perhaps still more the woman.

In feats, stunts, and " dares," boys lead and are most per-
sistent in seeking recognition. The cruder excellences of
strength and fleetness, biceps, athletic record, and physical
achievements become centers of intense social and self-con-
sciousness. True to man's pedigree, because in primitive
society the strongest was chief, they seek both distinction and
victory. Aristotle long ago pointed out that true courage was
the mean between foolhardiness and cowardice, and in early
youth we see both extremes before the mean is approximated.
If the former could be made as much a matter of reproach as
the latter, it would be well. The instinct of courage wrongly
directed by " dares," impulsions suddenly appealed to by sug-
gestion, and the list of risks and calamities in boy-life due
to crude and ignorant challenges of courage, show that fool-
hardiness, if often an insanity or form of mental arrest and
defect, is, however, susceptible of easy early remedy, caution
being the normal form of maturity. Thus, too, the presence
and new consciousness of the other sex and of adults greatly
intensifies as well as refines. Skills and accomplishments of
a higher nature have new social motivation.

The bragging, boastful lie is a psychosis by itself which
has of late been somewhat treated in the literature of psy-
chology. Here the truth is left behind and the imagination
Munchausenizes in the field of romance, heroics, and rodomon-
tade. Ruse and deception are only the fore-school to this form
of self-inflation. One of the most interesting groups of slang
words has for its function the puncturing of these bubbles of

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 3^7

fake achievements and experiences for which childhood and
youth have a keen sense and subject to summary treatment.
Sometimes this is connected v^ith impudence, often a form of
showing off, but which is normahy reduced in the teens.
Where it is persistent, aggressive, and defiant it is frequently
motivated by a stinging sense of inferiority, which at this age
may incline to malevolence. The philosophic and the scientific
man has a deep and basal desire to bring seeming and being
into complete coincidence, at least in most of the realms of life.
He would scorn to be admired for excellences which he does
not possess, but demands recognition for real virtues. Perhaps,
as a recent writer concludes,^ falsehood tends to develop in pro-
portion as society becomes complex, and its evil is that it
dwarfs the generous, esthetic, and social sentiments, and leads
to profound dissociation.

This instinct of self-exhibition to win commendation which now
becomes so dominant plays, of course, an enormous role at all ages and
at all stages of life. Courting and combat also belong here. Insects
and still more birds compete ; they are dressed by nature in more bril-
liant hues, and take a new interest in displaying every charm of color
or form. Male wasps, butterflies, moths, fishes, frogs, and snakes
abundantly illustrate all this. Birds acquire and show off new charms
at the beginning of the breeding season. Primitive man is tattooed,
removes hair or teeth, undergoes mutilations, wears ornaments, etc.,
under the stress of the same instinct.' There are men and women
whose manner, bearing, voice and whole nature undergo immediate
and sudden transformation in the presence of the other sex. Each
should thus be inspired both to be, do, think, and feel his or her best,
and thus each both supplements and complements, and helps to make
the other.

II. Anger undergoes characteristic changes in the teens,
and its expressions, before more alike in boys and girls, show
marked sexual differentiations. In boys the fighting instinct,
if unchecked, is more intense and has new motives. The
human being is no exception to the law of the animal world in
this respect.

1 Le Mensonge : G. L. Duprat. Paris, 1903, p. 183. Also Nordau, Conven-
tionelle Liigen, 1898.

^ See Scott: Sex and Art. Am. Jour, of Psy., January, 1896, vol. vii, pp.
153-226.

368 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Pugnacity is, in good part at least, a secondary sexual trait, arising
near maturity and chiefly in the male. Some male grasshoppers fight
so that, Darwin tells us, in China they are matched like young cocks.
Ants fight and are often found dead with mandibles locked, and so do
male beetles and butterflies whose wings are often injured thus. Many
male fish fight to the death during the breeding season and on the
spawning-grounds, and the teeth of the male adult salmon become
sharp and differ radically from those of the female. Male lizards can
hardly meet during the spring without fighting. Most male birds are
pugnacious in the spring, and use beak, claws, and spurs on both wings
and legs. With them the season of love is also the season of war.
The male of some species is better equipped to drive off all other males
than to woo the female. Most mammals are desperate fighters for the
females and often develop special weapons of offense and defense in
the spring. Male stags are found dead with their horns inextricably
locked. Stallions kick and bite, and mane is often protective. Bull
seals, elephants, male beavers, giraffes, whales, hares, bears, beasts of
prey, antelopes, walruses, buffalo, etc., all are known not only to follow
the law of battle often to the death, but to know just how to make the
most effective cut, thrust, blow, that their peculiar weapons, whatever
their position, make possible. Beards, dewlaps, some accumulations
of fat, callosities, and carapaces are essentially protective. Man's
anthropoid progenitor fought less with tooth and jaw as he became
confirmed in the upright position ; the hands were freed from the work
of locomotion and used to strike, and weapons were developed.

Long stories of struggles to suppress anger are most fre-
quent with girls. Where it has been yielded to with abandon
before, there are now manifold efforts to pause and weigh the
facts, attempts to bring up counter motives, struggles for
diversion, realizations of how painful its vents and even its
facial expressions are to others, and retirements to fight it out
alone or conceal its ebullitions. Often, and especially with
girls, there is an increased irritability that demands special
prophylactics, and explosions now are smothered into sulki-
ness. To veil it in smiles usually prolongs it. Revenge is
often fondly nursed and its gratifications more studied and
elaborate. Sometimes a single spasm of anger seems able
to expel affection forever beyond the power of pardon. Many
mention a peculiar mental inebriation or exhilaration in it
which makes them feel more alive, so that even where its
potential does not pass into its kinetic form, but is held in
leash, there is an increased sense of both exaltation and power.
Often there are a few spasmodic outbursts, which carry the

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 3^9

individual away into a frenzy of rapt passion, and then the
physical reaction of weakness, fatigue, shame, apologies, re-
grets for wounded friendships, are experiences which mark a
change to a steadier type. Above the sense of satisfaction that
justice has been done, the truth spoken, the basis for a new
and better understanding laid, arises now the view that, after
all, it may be left to others to right the wrongs of the world.
At adolescence anger grows more inward, and the effects are
less in the somatic and more in the psychic sphere in which
a far larger area of causes is now open, and expressions more
sanctioned and refined are found. As the mind grows large,
there is more space for the subjective expenditure of energy
and for thinking unutterable things. Tension is often vented
in prolonged physical exercise; religious and altruistic motives
are appealed to ; the childish forms of biting, striking, scratch-
ing, making faces, and all the involuntary modifications of
phonation, respiration, and salivation are changed. Often an
outbreak causes vasomotor disturbances that begin at this age
of instability, and especially during menstruation these psychic
weather-signs may affect secretions. One of the chief causes
is the thwarting of purpose and expectation, limitations of
freedom, a sense of injustice, invasions or repression of the
self, and as all these are greatly increased at this age the lia-
bilities to anger grow with them. Jealousy, although not
originating at this time, takes now a sexual form. Angry
feelings now seem to the subject often spontaneous, partly
because he can not analyze all the new and complex incite-
ments to it, but partly because there are new erethic needs of
the system that demand this tension. Now the sense of being
misunderstood, contradiction, the very presence of those who
are distasteful, distraction, and lofty ways are more liable to
inflame the temper. Even in the midst of its greatest heat, an
almost independent psychosis of philosophic reflection is often
carried on. Sarcastic things to say are thought of, and per-
haps written out, but not uttered, and if fury of an epileptic
type is not suppressed there is danger of criminality. Anger,
" sweeter than honey," as Homer calls it, may be nursed and
vented in fantastic schemes of revenge in which some find
it a luxury to revel. It is really an expression of egotism and
self-feeling, while the immense role that this invasion by what

63

37° THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

seems like an alien demonic personality may assume is seen in
the scores of words in English which indicate it.^ Only weak-
lings are incapable of it, and righteous indignation has done
much of the best work in the world. But as with love, pity,
and fear, a large part of the education of the heart consists
in directing it aright or against objects worthy of it. These
psychic storms sometimes seem to clear the mental air, give
a sense of strength and a keener appreciation of justice, and
prompt cowards to be heroes. Up the evolutionary scale they
have marked a point where our animal progenitors ceased to
flee in fear and turned upon their foe, so that those who ac-
quired the power to discharge the most volcanic reactions
against their enemies survived, while those who lacked it
perished.

III. Fear, or anticipatory pain, is probably the great educa-
tor in both the animal and the human world, even science being
developed in large measure for prevision or to eliminate shock
which is so disintegrating to the system.^ Those who fear
aright survive. At adolescence the fear system is modernized
and otherwise profoundly reconstructed, and becomes reason-
able. Fear of being lost passes over to fear of losing the
points of the compass ; fear of great animals, real and imagi-
nary, diminishes, and that of bugs, spiders, snakes, and creepy
things is augmented with the new dermal sensations for mini-
mal contact; fear and a desire for protection is less effective
in evoking love either for God or man. Dread of diseases,
which is often intense and secret, is greatly increased and may
become a causative factor, so that if the mind can cure the
diseases it can make in adolescence it does much. In general,
physical fears decline and social fears increase as do those
in the moral and religious realm. The new feeling for per-
sonality seems at first to make both God and ghosts more real.
There are far more fears that others will suffer. Objects of
fear are seen much farther off, and protective activities have
a wider range. Many fears are toned down into respect, rever-

1 See my Study of Anger. Am. Jour, of Psy. , July, 1899, vol. x, pp. 516-591.

' This I think a fair inference, although never yet drawn, from all the facts
gathered by Groeningen, Ueber den Shock; Wiesbaden, 1885, p. 255; and by
Oppenheim, Traumatische Neurosen ; Berlin, 1892, p. 253.

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 37 ^

ence, and awe, and an increasing proportion of dreads are of
psychic rather than of physical suffering. Every new desire
means a new fear of failure to attain it. Childish fears are
among the very oldest elements of the soul, and the fact that
they do not fit present conditions but do fit a past environment
so well is the basis of some of the strongest arguments for
psychogenesis. The plasticity of the psychophysic organism
in youth makes it often peculiarly convulsible.^ Children fear
strangers, but adolescents blush in their presence. The Swedish
blygsel means both blush and shame, which is partial fear. The
chief blushers are adolescent girls, especially in the presence
of those of whose sympathy and good opinion they are not
well assured. The blush at compliments is the vasomotor
survival of a state when to be admired meant danger.

Our data suggest that bashfulness in some directions may
go with ostentatious conduct in others. This, however, seems
to be exceptional, though not abnormal. Where the nascent
sense of the social-self takes the form of diffidence this in the
extreme may become almost cataleptic. Respiration, circula-
tion, eating and swallowing, speech, common industries like
sewing, ciphering, etc., lose precision, and are perhaps more
or less inhibited. Automatisms, like giggling, chewing the
nails, twisting the hair or clothes, writhing, trembling, and
awkwardness in its many forms, where the fundamental move-
ments are exaggerated as the accessory are reduced, may
appear. The sense of being observed more closely than usual
or by strangers or numbers of people is paralyzing to the
higher activities and may bring out primordial ones like cry-
ing, hiding, etc. All these effects are greatly heightened, not
only if the child has been unusually alone or neglected, but if
observation of its acts has generally been associated with dis-
approval, failure, defect, or has led to ridicule. The really
shy, retiring child is sometimes an only child or sickly and
undervitalized. Partridge says, " It is generally agreed that
blushing increases at puberty." ^ The diffidence of some very
genuine young men is almost incredible. They go far out of

' See my Study of Fears. Am. Jour, of Psy., January, i8g7, vol. viii, pp
147-249. Also L. Dugas : LaTimidit6; Paris, 1898; and P. Hartenberg: Les
Timides et la Timidite ; Paris, 1901.

' Blushing. Ped. Sem., April, 1897, vol. iv, pp. 387-394.

37 2 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

their way to avoid meeting a girl on the street who seems to
them a being almost too worshipful to speak to. Others can
not go into society without the stimulus of some intoxicant
to give them boldness. Some are sleepless in advance, imagin-
ing every embarrassing gaucherie they feel sure to commit.
Some country youth so dread new faces that they become
solitary in their habits. Some are so impressed by the su-
periority of all who have confident manners that they are
speechless in their presence, and their feelings may develop
into silent and unsuspected but intense hate. Both blushing
and flushing are subject to very wide variations in the manner
and place where they begin, in their causes, in the subjective
and somatic feelings that accompany them, and in their reac-
tions, mental and physical. In morbid blushers, there may be
tremors, mental confusion, chill, weakness, dizziness, stutter-
ing, etc. A perusal of this literature suggests to me when I
have never seen mentioned, that we have here in every respect
a perfect, though miniature and circumscribed, epilepsy with
its aura, its crisis, and its reactions, and that this adds a very
interesting point of attack for the further study of this inter-
esting psychosis.

Socrates thought modesty one of the very best adornments
of youth because it involved docility and a sense of something
above and beyond yet to be attained, while a too early sense
of confidence and lack of deference is often a sign of preco-
cious arrest. An interesting fact that seems brought out by
returns is that while boys in general are more prone to the
overt forms of showing off, they often incline in early
adolescence a little toward modesty, and girls, usually a little
more retiring at this period, now become for a time less so.
Possibly this may be reminiscent of a time when the human
female, formerly like the female in the animal world less
beautiful than the male, by ornament or a new access of attrac-
tion from nature became more so, and the initial forwardness
of girls may be a rudiment of the age when woman was the
active agent in domesticating man and developing the family
father in the way Bachofen and Drummond suggest. On this
view woman must once have had courtship proclivities for a
prolonged period after as well as before motherhood. Her
endeavor was to hold man by her own attractions to his duties

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 373

and responsibilities in the long ages that preceded marriage
which clenched these obligations. Thus the inherited effects
of a primeval desire to hold are now added perhaps by tachy-
genesis to the maiden desire to win him. If this be correct,
modern woman's wish to please is the survival of a not yet
spent momentum of her culminating achievement in the great
work of domestication.

Intense consciousness of others and perhaps even artificial
conduct are a necessary disciplinary stage, but excess makes
character hollow, dramatic, and attitudinizing. The tendency
of both extremes of this is toward a type recognized by
recent writers in characterology from Nietzsche to Ribery ^
as amorphous or unstable. Youth must also hew out their own
lives and develop personalities of their own without modeling
them too much on alien patterns, for thus only can they ac-
quire character which gives a basis to just self-confidence and
due self-assertion.

IV. Pity. Few sentiments undergo a greater increase
of both depth and range at this age than those of sympathy
and pity.^ These feelings are not highly developed in chil-
dren, but become exquisite in youth. Few of its former ex-
citants now lose power, but nearly all are greatly increased
and a vast number of new ones arise. Romance is usually now
more pathogenic than fact, because youth often has little per-
sonal acquaintance with poverty, illness, evil, and human
suffering generally. In Chapter XIII we saw what Passion
Week now means for this feeling. The irrevocableness of the
past, too, that makes every tick of the clock a requiem, the
self-pity of cramped conditions in one's own childhood, the
sense that our souls are larger than our destiny can be, that
we have the elements of a greatness we can never attain : all
this intensified by the sad autumn psychoses of falling leaf
and fading flower, and by that of twilight, often make youth
lacrimose and its very heart to wail, but it all seasons and
sobers us to maturity. Tenderness of heart should now sup-

' Essai de classification naturelle du caractere. Paris, 1902, p. 156.
" Pity, by F. H. Saunders and myself. Am. Jour, of Psy., July, 1900, vol. xi,
P- 554-

374 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

press callous ways. The latter are degenerative, but the
former, which brings the heart into sympathetic vibration with
every order of life, is the mark of superiority and even of
genius. The sad fact is, however, that instead of broadening
now to a full humanistic altruism and knowing how every
type of sorrow feels, this instinct may narrow to some few
fetishistic forms. It should ripen into benevolence, charity,
kindness, and universal good-will. Sympathy, if Sutherland
is right, is not merely an esthetic principle to be interpreted
on the narrow basis of Greek tragedy, but it is the germ of
all the moral faculties and strikes its roots deep down into
the world of gregarious animal life. Hence, more even than
fear and anger, it needs the most careful guidance in its stage
of efflorescence, and its problem is closely bound up with that
of moral education. Even the ideals of a gentleman and of
a lady often center in these powers of sympathetic apprecia-
tion.

One form of sensitiveness common in adolescents ex-
presses itself in an extreme reluctance to dissent from the
opinions or purposes of others, especially adults. Sympathy
is so quick and ready that all the mental energy is expended
in trying to get into the closest rapport with alien sentiments
and self-assertion is for a time almost entirely in abeyance.
We have many records of long statements of religious views,
judgments of character, purposes and intentions, interpreta-
tions of current events, verdicts by gossip of happenings in
small communities, which are held and perhaps actively as-
sented to and helped along in a way which sometimes causes
entire misapprehension by the adult; or they are mistaken as
promises where none were intended, and may utterly belie the
real interests, beliefs, and plans of the hearer, who effaces
himself to a degree that he finds an object of astonishment
afterward, and doing so only because his entire energies are
so focused in anticipating and reenforcing what is heard that
there is nothing left in him with which to dissent. This is
sometimes based on an almost morbid delicacy of feeling,
which makes any shade of disagreement seem a form of hardi-
hood that is too much of a strain upon the callow character.
With Rousseau, there seems to have been a spice of conscious
flattery in this sensitiveness. It often prompts people to say

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 375

what they think will please and to even swerve from the truth
to gratify a friend. Young women not infrequently acquire
the reputation of lying solely from their passion of accommo-
dating themselves to their guests or neighbors. This, too, is
now perhaps a legitimate expression of the social instinct
which has not yet found the true balance between adjusting
and adapting to the tastes of others and to just self-expression.
Some carry their self-abnegation so far that, divining by a
rapport that seems almost mystic, the lines of tastes and likes,
they develop almost a passion for saying only what ministers
to these. Their compliance can be sometimes so played upon
that they make the most self-contradictory statements. This
in extreme makes the social parasite and political henchman.
It was utilized by the Greeks by apprenticeship to a mentor
who must never do or say an unworthy act or word before his
protege, and suggests the need of hero-worship to rightly
direct the passion of admiration. The opposite instinct of
opposition, also strong now, is an outcrop in the psychic field
of the tendency to vary, in biology. Together they enable
man to adjust to new environments.^

V. Love of home versus the impulse to leave it. One of
the best measures of domestication in animals or of civiliza-
tion in man is the intensity of love of home. This is a very
complex feeling and made up of many ties, hard to dissect, or
even to enumerate. Kline ^ attempts to analyze the factors of
love of home, in the order of their intensity, as follows : love

1 Small's observations cited above are here in point. After talking of perfume
for suggestion, he sprayed distilled water in school-rooms, and asked classes up
the grades how many smelled the perfume. In the two lower grades the majority
did so, and there was only one to five per cent of skeptics. In the fifth, sixth,
and seventh grades the decline was most rapid, and in the eighth and high school
grades nearly all were skeptics. Unfortunately, Small's tests for illusions of sight,
taste, motion, heat, cold, and touch, were not carried up the grades, so that while
we may surmise a similar growth of incredulity with puberty in these respects, it is
not yet proved. From his studies of imitation and neuroses induced by sugges-
tion, dramatic imitation, and especially school fads, of which latter he studied one
hundred and eighty-two different forms, it would appear that certain kinds of imi-
tation are increased and others decreased at puberty, but we have not yet sufficient
data to formulate a law.

''The Migratory Impulse vs. Love of Home. Am. Jour, of Psy., October,
i8g8, vol. X, pp. 1-81. Historically the tribe precedes the family.

37^ THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

of parents, scenery, house, familiar ways, freedom of opinion
and conduct, relatives and friends, animals, pleasant memories,
sympathy, etc. We often find specified also the room, articles
of furniture, the garden, hills, trees, rocks, meadow, streams,
frankness of expression, leisure to do as one pleases, liberty
to arrange things to one's taste. All these make up the con-
tent of that magic word, home, of which the hearth with its
altar-fire is the heart. It inclines to settled habits of life, is
the converse of the roving instinct, and is largely woman's
creation.

It is, however, a recent development, and children, true to
their function of revealing the past, sometimes almost as soon
as they have acquired the upright method of locomotion as
if intoxicated by " out-of-doors," start off, and by some inner
impulse, go on and on with no idea of where or why, tempted
by an open gate or by the instinct to follow a man or vehicle,
or as a just-hatched chick follows any moving thing. Some-
times these outbreaks are periodic or due to being shut up too
much. When a little older they may sell all their trinkets,
and as they go leave their luggage, then coat, hat, shoes, etc.,
by the way, as if with progressive dislike of the accouterments
of civilization. When this truant instinct is strong and hered-
itary, as is often the case, tying will not prevent it, and where
the child feels the impulse to abandon everything and go with
the birds, dog, car, circus, clouds, or to see where the road goes,
to see what will come next, etc., this may be irresistible and
almost epileptic. Such children often have a weak instinct
for property, act by fits and starts, have few toys and little
spending money, perhaps are underfed at home, are indifferent
to rags and dirt, but may be bright, pretty, and well adapted
to beg and make their way in the world. One of the strongest
motives for running away from both home and school in young
children is, as we saw, to get to and play in the water. While
the blind impulse to be off and away, or to go for the sake of
going, is strongest soon after children can walk, and declines
pretty steadily during the early ^^ears of life, the summer leads
all other seasons, until from the ages of eight to ten. Spring
runaways then begin to exceed those at any, and at fourteen,
exceed those at all other seasons combined, continuing to do
so for some years. Ennui, malaria, space-hunger, horror of

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 377

familiar environments and habitual duties, and spring fever
are comparatively infrequent as long as children are sexually
neuter; but at puberty, reaction against the confinement of
winter impels many to leave the hibernating quarters and
makes some habitual vagrants.

At the dawn of adolescence this impulse to migrate or
wander shows a great and sudden increase. The restlessness
of spring is greatly augmented. Home seems narrow, monoto-
nous, intolerable, and the street and the motley passers-by
interest and invite to be up and away. Injured feelings,
woundtd 'amoitr propre, love of nature and solitude, a sense
that their environment is above or perhaps below them, anger
and resentment, reaction against authority; impatience of all
restraint, dread of tedium, and a desire — to use Kline's phrase
— " to shelve all old impressions," and " indulge a yearning
for and into space," an intensification of the motor-sense that
makes riding or going a charm and sedative, and, above all,
the impulse to test themselves by measuring their powers
with those of others, to find how they stand and rank, and
whether they are weaklings or heroes, to see the great world
and find out what it is, to find the luck that must be lurking
for them somewhere, or to set up for themselves and begin
life on their own hook — these are the motives, this the strong
reenforcement of the roving impulse, that makes the boy in
the school-room chafe like a caged bird in the season of migra-
tion. It is the age when by far the most children satisfy the
legal requirements of school attendance and leave it forever.

This instinct, if not normally developed and then reduced
again by the right correctives, has many strange forms of per-
sistence into adult life in the gad-abouts, globe-trotters, vaga-
bonds, rovers, gipsies, tramps, or those interesting psychic
species who move or change their vocation, go from country
to city, from housekeeping to boarding, the swappers and
traders of all they possess, an unique type of travelers, with no
purpose but to go, boatmen and trainmen, who for love of it
can not leave their vocation, the passionate shoppers, meeting
and funeral goers, gossips and newsmongers, hunters, fisher-
men, and other restless classes who are averse to all static
conditions, and in whom the home-making instinct is dying
out. Kline undertook to classify by age the strength of

3/8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

motives which impelled to first leave home. His curve shows
the love of adventure rising very rapidly to ten and almost
steadily thereafter to nineteen, when his survey ends. At the
latter age, this, he thinks, accounts for nearly sixty per cent
of all cases. The motive of seeing the opposite sex, which
begins at thirteen, rises at nineteen to nearly thirty per cent.
The motive of starting in life shows also a marked adolescent
rise, while the desire to see nature as a motive declines, and
loneliness, very strong in childhood, is almost extinct as a
motive at fourteen. Spring, of course, is the mating, as it is
the migrating, season. Most of the migrations of savage man,
in his three stages, frugivorous, fishing, and hunting, in whom
the Wanderlust is strong, and most of the great historic migra-
tions, from the old hypothetical home of man in Eurasia, oc-
curred in the spring. Vacant souls are at no season so irksome
to their possessors. Climatology, hunger, and need of a higher
rate of metabolism, and many other factors are, of course,
involved, but we can not fail to associate spring fever and the
increased love of freedom and independence at the onset of
puberty with the basal instinct, which shows itself statistically
in the vernal increase in the number of marriages and the
number of illegitimate children who are then begotten. The
scholares vagantes, who spent the vacations of the medieval
universities in roving, with specially granted licenses and im-
munities both to do so and to beg, sing, and write letters for
the unschooled peasantry, and who displayed their small learn-
ing and courted rural maidens, were manifesting secondary
sexual qualities and illustrating the courting and nest-making
instincts in their callow stirrings as truly as, though less ob-
viously, than the jongleuds and troubadours of the eleventh
and twelfth centuries, whose methods have been called the most
refined of all the expressions of mate-seeking propensities.

Notwithstanding many interesting recent special studies upon vari-
ous aspects of the subject, we still know far too little of the psychology
of the migratory versus the sessile instincts in men and animals. It
seems to be a biological law that animals require a certain range and
are injured by greatly transcending or restricting it. Young, in 1885,
showed that, other conditions being constant, and within considerable
limits, the larger the vessel in which tadpoles were reared the larger
they grew. Insular animals, too, are usually smaller than their con-

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 379

tinental congeners, and smaller trout are usually found in smaller
streams. Many animals reported by De Varigny, Jordan, Delboeuf,
and others, if not well domesticated, seem to be reduced in size by
captivity. Every form of animal life has its optimum temperature
most favorable to nutrition and growth, its optimum amount of average
light, moisture, oxygen, electricity, atmospheric pressure, quality and
amount of food and drink, and if any of these slowly change, or there
are changes within the organism itself with reference to these cosmic
or telluric conditions, there must be readjustment or re-acclimatiza-
tion during a period of more or less conscious discontent; hence the
changed metabolism, body temperature, and new appetites of pubes-
cence. Careful experiments show that poUiwogs and still lower forms
of life, in a trough of water some yards long, one end of which can be
cooled and the other heated, tend to settle at that intermediate point
where the temperature is most favorable for their growth, or seek their
metabolic optimum and migrate from one end of the trough toward
the other as this point changes, as lobsters migrate from deep to shal-
low water in the spring and back again in the fall. Sand-crabs come
down the hill to the water to lay eggs in the spring and return, leaving
the young to follow them later, a habit akin to that of the common toad.
Then, many forms of life on sea and land are drawn to the shore to
breed. Anadromous fish, like the mackerel, shad, bluefish, menhaden,
herring, migrate mostly horizontally, but often more or less bythmical-
ly, and so do many catadromous fish, like eels, which are born in the sea,
go up the rivers to mature and then return to the sea, which they never
leave. The salmon, that " king of fish " which can leap twelve feet
perpendicularly out of water, has a migration frenzy when pushing
from the sea up rivers sometimes more than a thousand miles, which
brings it to its destiny often with the skin in rags, and its fins, tail, eyes,
and head bruised and torn. Some of our birds, like the bobolink, go
north in the spring from Florida, and from the Middle or New England
States turn west, sometimes as far as Montana, returning by the same
circuitous route, because it was the way by which they entered the west ;
while eastern birds come and go via Texas and Mexico from and to
Central America, where they winter. Many birds leave the south when
weather and food are of the best to penetrate the bleak north too early
in spring with a regularity as sure as the almanac. The retreat of the
glaciers, which by annual freezing and thawing narrowed and widened
the subsistence areas, can not account for all of even bird migration;
neither can climate, for birds do not follow a constant temperature.
Their migrations are often east and west, but it is coming to be held
that it is changes in the reproductive organs that first upset the fit of
environment and separated food from breeding areas. While condi-
tions that make the food supply constant through the year often check
migration, sterility causes the barren members of the same group to
refuse to migrate. The lemming and about a dozen species of rodents
migrate, as do reindeer, antelopes, some squirrels, and wolves, while
horses, cows, sheep, dogs, cats, hens, ducks, and turkeys often revert

380 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

to the feral habit of wandering, especially in the mating season, and of
hiding their young.

Primitive man perhaps originated in the tropics, was frugivorous,
and, if he followed food, his migrations were seasonal. When he
learned to subsist on fish, especially from inland lakes, he became more
settled. The hunting stage, which may have persisted far longer than
civilization, placed an immense premium on wandering and the results
of a lucky arrow or find. The nomadic life preceded and very likely
was far longer than settled agriculture has been. Hehvald thinks
human migration has always been in the direction of the longest axis
of the continent. It has been thought that at sea, where temperature
and wind are more constant, tides and currents have contributed some-
what, as herds of cattle grazing on a prairie swerve to the right or left
with the wind. Wallace thinks that man migrated from some not very
well-defined area south or southwest of Siberia or the highlands of
Central Asia, to the south and east over India and China, crossing to
the islands of Australia, southwest to Africa, west to Europe, and
perhaps northwest to America, and there are several other schemes of
diffusion from other cunabula. In the background of the history of
nearly all lands, we have migration. Thus the migratory diathesis had
a long prehistoric incubation, and the Huns, Vandals, Goths, Crusades,
invasions, and emigrations show that it has not ceased within historic
times. The role of spring, at least in these north temperate wander-
ings, was marked ; the role of youth and love is less clear.

Calhoun, Tuke, Willis, Peters, Kline, and others, have
studied the symptoms of home-sickness, or nostalgia, and agree
in calling it one of the most complex and distressing of dis-
eases when severe. It destroys the appetite, brings nausea,
dizziness, palpitation, hallucination, localized pains, sensations
of smothering, night sweats, sobbing; in boarding schools,
factories, in camps of young soldiers, in hospitals, and on dis-
tant voyages, it is especially aggravated by nightfall, katydids,
frogs, crickets, the sough of the wind, a long storm, thunder,
a letter, waking from dreams of home, a friend, or chance
reminder of it, and may swoop down upon the soul like an
obsession, bringing melancholy and sometimes even death in
its train. At adolescence, when the heart is most sensitive to
a malingering form of it, the symptoms of home-sickness are
sometimes caused in neurotic girls by the loss of a pet, the
felling of a favorite tree, a rearrangement of furniture, change
of food ; while it often checks menstruation, reduces all ana-
bolic and favors katabolic processes, so that they literally ache
for home. The yearning soul would break away from the

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 3^1

body, and may lose sympathy with man and beast about it.
Idleness both intensifies and increases liability to it, while a
battle or a lively personal encounter is perhaps its most sure
and complete cure. The young yeoman, who has never left
his own glebe, dreads crowds, fears parents might die, or that
something tmtoward would happen if he was away, and pre-
fers his own ways and to entertain rather than to be enter-
tained.

Adolescence is really the age of nostalgia according to
Widal,^ and Kline ^ says, " My impression, based on medical
literature and other material, is that in quality or intensity
nostalgia is just as severe and, if allowed, will lead to as fatal
results before as after adolescence, but that the latter is more
predisposed to an attack than either childhood or manhood."
Papillon ^ says, " Nostalgia attacks by preference young peo-
ple and those just entering youth." Kline collected one hun-
dred and sixty-six cases, and found that eighty per cent of
these occurred for the first time between twelve and eighteen.
This, of course, is partly due to the fact that absence from
home, which is the condition of nostalgia, most frequently
occurs then.

An interesting expression of a kindred instinct in older girls for
a larger and freer social life under the repressions to which they are
subjected by modern conditions is seen in a volume of letters from one
hundred girls in answer to a personal advertisement requesting cor-
respondence without acquaintance with young women of means and
education, which is full of suggestiveness for the psychoses of this age
of life, whatever be our opinion of the method of collecting such data,
or of the propriety of publishing them.* Most of the writers are cul-
tivated, traveled, and not a few are college graduates, while nearly all
seem to be themselves entirely respectable and frequently have the best
of homes. Most are conscious of the recklessness of answering per-
sonals, but are fascinated by the mystery of the " locked box," or over-
come by their curiosity to penetrate the incognito of the advertiser,
who calls himself a " gentleman of high social and university position."
Many give their personal history, an inventory of their likes, dislikes,

' Die. Eng. des Sci. M^dicales, pp. 357-380.

'The Migratory Impulse vs. Love of Home. Am. Jour, of Psy., October,
1898, vol. X, pp. 1-81.

^ Pop. Sci. Mo., 1874, vol. V, pp. 215-220.

* Girls Who Answer Personals, by Arthur MacDonald. Washington, Decem-
ber, i8g7, p. 250.

382 THE. PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

accomplishments or points of beauty, and sometimes sign their true
name, enclose a photograph, or are ready to accept a call or clandestine
meeting or a walk. Most have little to do, and suffer from the monot-
ony of an aimless, idle, and psychically solitary life. Many have lost
one or both parents, so that home life is not satisfactory. Reserve or
imperfect relations of confidence toward those of nearer environment
tends to compensation by an almost confessional frankness to some
far-off unknown person. Nearly all, in obvious innocence, drift at once
to the eternal theme of love, and quote poetry, philosophical theories,
or current literature, or express social and personal opinions that seem
decidedly risque to maturer minds. Views of love, life, freedom, art,
death, marriage, and even sex are expressed with a dash and brilliancy
that is sometimes as fascinating as anything in the best current litera-
ture, and which shows that these young souls have leaped to the
realization of many of the deepest and truest insights which modern
culture can suggest, but are yet aimless, restless and vacuous, and
although with a passion for confessional outpourings of their own sen-
timents and impulses, are essentially without self-knowledge, self-rev-
erence, or self-control. The best elements of noble womanhood are
present in profusion, but the faculties which control, unify, and direct
them are elements which unfold later and now are either undeveloped
or are decaying from overripeness, so that some of these are as dis-
tinctly cases of arrested development as if commissures or association
fibers failed to appear to knit the brain regions together, so that this
organ acts as it were in spots, and without that harmony, moderation,
and balance which is a distinguishing trait of psychic maturity. In
others, impulsiveness, fickleness, vacillation, a passion for intensity and
superlatives in word and deed, reactions, perhaps from too prolonged
repression, have already begun the work of psychic disintegration, and
only a touch of hysteria and a little more self-coddling are needed to
make these lives a burden, even to those whom love may make uncon-
scious that they are so.

These two opposite instincts, which we may dub oiko-
tropic and oikofugic, between which the soul oscillates espe-
cially in youth, suggest again atavistic psychic stratifications,
and also a once earlier pubescence. The infant impulse to fol-
low or to be off may be a survival of an age when primitive
clans were on the move and the gregarious instincts of the
child were expressed in toddling after the mother as tribes
moved about seeking food or flying from enemies before a ses-
sile status was reached. The prepubescent reductives of this
instinct may stand for the evolution of permanent habitation,
and the rise of the curve again in or before the first teens sug-
gests a past age of earlier tropical independence. But of all

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 3^3

this we know as yet too little to speculate. Certain it is that
some years before parenthood is now normal all statistics on
the subject show a marked decrease of scoliotropism, when
docility to teachers and studies ends. While many homes are
not attractive enough and some are too much so, the school,
if it is the panacea for all individual and social ills and the con-
dition of higher development we deem it, is sadly lacking in
meeting the needs and interests of this transition age.

VI. School and teachers versus home and parents. In a
few aspects we are already able to trace the normal psychic
outgrowing of the home of childhood as its interests irradiate
into an ever enlarging environment. Almost the only duty of
small children is habitual and prompt obedience. Our very
presence enforces one general law — that of keeping our good-
will and avoiding our displeasure. They respect all we smile
at or even notice, and grow to it like the plant toward the
light. Their early lies are often saying what they think will
please. At bottom, the most restless child admires and loves
those who save him from too great fluctuations by coercion,
provided the means be rightly chosen and the ascendency ex-
tend over heart and mind. But the time comes when parents
are often shocked at the lack of respect suddenly shown by
the child. They have ceased to be the highest ideals. The
period of habituating morality and making it habitual is ceas-
ing and the passion to realize freedom, to act on personal ex-
perience, and to keep a private conscience is in order. To act
occasionally with independence from the highest possible
ideal motives develops the impulse and the joy of pure obli-
gation, and thus brings some new and original force into the
world and makes habitual guidance by the highest and best,
or by inner as opposed to outer constraint, the practical rule of
life. To bring the richest streams of thought to bear in inter-
preting the ethical instincts, so that the youth shall cease to
live in a moral interregnum, is the real goal of self-knowl-
edge. This is true education of the will and prepares the
way for love of overcoming obstacles of difficulty, perhaps
even of conflict. This impulse is often the secret of obstinacy.^

^Tarde: L'Opposition Universelle. Paris, 1897, p. 461.

384 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

And yet, " at no time in life will a human being respond so
heartily if treated by older and wiser people as if they were
equals or even superiors. The attempt to treat a child at
adolescence as you would treat an inferior is instantly fatal to
good discipline." ^ Parents still think of their offspring as
mere children, and tighten the rein when they should loosen
it. Many young people feel that they have the best of homes
and yet that they will go crazy if they must remain in them.
If the training of earlier years has been good, guidance by
command may now safely give way to that by ideals, which are
sure to be heroic. The one unpardonable thing for the adoles-
cent is dulness, stupidity, lack of life, interest, and enthusiasm
in school or teachers, and, perhaps above all, too great strin-
gency. Least of all at this stage can the curriculum or school
be an ossuary. The child must now be taken into the family
councils and find the parents interested in all that interests
him. Where this is not done, we have the conditions for the
interesting cases of so many youth, who now begin to suspect
that father, mother, or both, are not their true parents. Not
only is there interest in rapidly widening associations with
coevals, but a new lust to push on and up to maturity. One
marked trait now is to seek friends and companions older than
themselves, or, next to this, to seek those younger. This is in
marked contrast with previous years, when they seek asso-
ciates of their own age. Possibly the merciless teasing in-
stinct, which culminates about the same time, may have some
influence, but certain it is that now interest is transpolarized
up and down the age scale. One reason is the new hunger for
information, not only concerning reproduction, but a vast
variety of other matters, so that there is often an attitude of
silent begging for knowledge. In answer to Lancaster's ^
questions on this subject, some sought older associates be-
cause they could learn more from them, found them better or
more steadfast friends, craved sympathy and found most of
it from older and perhaps married people. Some were more
interested in their parents' conversation with other adults than

1 The Adolescent at Home and in School, by E. G. Lancaster. Proc. of the
N. E. A., 1899, p. 1039.

2 The Psychology and Pedagogy of Adolescence. Ped. Sem., July, 1897, vol.
V, p. 87.

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 3^5

with themselves, and were particularly entertained by the
chance of hearing things they had no business to. There is
often a feeling that adults do not realize this new need of
friendship with them and show want of sympathy almost
brutal.

Stableton/ who has made interesting notes on individual boys
entering the adolescent period, emphasizes the importance of sympathy,
appreciation, and respect in dealing with this age. They must now be
talked to as equals, and in this way their habits of industry and even
their dangerous love affairs can be controlled. He says " there is no
more important question before the teaching fraternity to-day than
how to deal justly and successfully with boys at this time of life. This
is the age when they drop out of school " in far too large numbers,
and he thinks that the small percentage of male graduates from our
high schools is due to " the inability of the average grammar grade or
high-school teacher to deal rightly with boys in this critical period of
their school life." Most teachers " know all their bad points, but fail
to discover their good ones." The fine disciplinarian, the mechanical
movement of whose school is so admirable and who does not realize
the new need of liberty or how loose-jointed, mentally and physically,
all are at this age, should be supplanted by one who can look into the
heart and by a glance make the boy feel that he or she is his friend.
" The weakest work in our schools is the handling of boys entering the
adolescent period of life, and there is no greater blessing that can come
to a boy at this age, when he does not understand himself, than a good
strong teacher that understands him, has faith in him, and will day by
day lead him till he can walk alone."

Small ^ found the teacher a focus of imitation whence many in-
fluences, both physical and mental, irradiated to the pupils. Every ac-
cent, gesture, automatism, like and dislike is caught consciously and
unconsciously. Every intellectual interest in the teacher permeates
the class — liars, if trusted, become honest; those treated as ladies and
gentlemen act so ; those told by favorite teachers of the good things
they are capable of feel a strong impulsion to do them ; some older
children are almost transformed by being made companions to teachers,
by having their good traits recognized, and by frank apologies by the
teacher when in error.

An interesting and unsuspected illustration of the growth of in-
dependence with adolescence was found in 2,411 papers from the second
to eighth grades on the characteristics of the best teachers as seen by
children.^ In the second and third grades, all, and in the fourth,

1 Study of Boys Entering the Adolescent Period of Life. North- Western Mo.,
November, 1897, vol. viii, p. 248, and a series thereafter.

''The Suggestibility of Children. Ped. Sem., December, 1896, vol. iv, p. 2ir.

* Characteristics of the Best Teacher as Recognized by Children, by H. E.
Kratz. Ped. Sem., June, 1896, vol. iii, pp. 413-418.
64 V

386 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

ninety-five per cent specified help in studies. This falls off rapidly in
the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades to thirty-nine per cent, while
at the same time the quality of patience in the upper grades rises
from a mention by two to twenty-two per cent.

Sanford Bell collated the answers of four hundred and fifty-three
males and four hundred and eighty-eight females as to who of all
their past teachers did them most good, and wherein ; whom they loved
and disliked most, and why. His most striking result is presented in a
curve which shows that fourteen in girls and sixteen in boys is the
age in which most good was felt to have been done, and that curves
culminating at twelve for both sexes but not falling rapidly until fifteen
or sixteen represent the period when the strongest and most indelible
dislikes were felt. What seems to be most appreciated in teachers
is the giving of purpose, arousing of ideals, kindling of ambition to be
something or do something and so giving an object in life, encourage-
ment to overcome circumstances, and, in general, inspiring self-con-
fidence and giving direction. Next come personal sympathy and in-
terest, kindness, confidence, a little praise, being understood; and next,
special help in lessons, or timely and kindly advice, while stability and
poise of character, purity, the absence of hypocrisy, independence, per-
sonal beauty, athleticism and vigor are prominent. It is singular that
those of each sex have been most helped by their own sex and that
this prominence is far greatest in men. Four-fifths of the men and
nearly one-half of the women, however, got most help from men. Male
teachers, especially near adolescence, seem most helpful for both sexes.

The qualities that inspire most dislike are malevolence, sarcasm,
unjust punishment, suspicion, severity, sternness, absence of laughing
and smiling, indifference, threats and broken vows, excessive scolding
and " roasting," and fondness for inflicting blows. The teacher who
does not smile is far more liable to excite animosity. Most boys dislike
men most, and girls' dislikes are about divided. The stories of school
cruelties and indignities are painful. Often inveterate grudges are
established by little causes, and it is singular how permanent and in-
deUble strong dislikes are for the majority of children. In many cases,
aversions engendered before ten have lasted with little diminution till
maturity, and there is a sad record of children who have lost a term, a
year, or dropped school altogether because of ill treatment or partiality.

Nearly two thousand children were asked what they would do in a
specific case of conflict between teacher and parents. It was found
that, while for young children parental authority was preferred, a
marked decline began about eleven and was most rapid after fourteen
in girls and fifteen in boys, and that there was a nearly corresponding
increase in the number of pubescents who preferred the teacher's au-
thority. The reasons for their choice were also analyzed, and it was
found that whereas for the young, unconditioned authority was gen-
erally satisfactory, with pubescents, abstract authority came into
marked predominance, " until when the children have reached the age
of sixteen almost seventy-five per cent of their reasons belong to this

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS S^?

class, and the children show themselves able to extend the idea of
authority without violence to their sense of justice."

VII. Wider irradiations to adult ideals and plans for life.
On a basis of 1,400 papers answering the question whom, of
any one ever heard or read of, they would Hke to resemble,
Barnes ^ found that girls' ideals were far more often found
in the immediate circle of their acquaintance than boys, and
that those within that circle were more often in their own
family, but that the tendency to go outside their personal
knowledge and choose historical and public characters was
greatly augmented at puberty, when also the heroes of philan-
thropy showed marked gain in prominence. Boys rarely chose
women as their ideals, but in America, half the girls at eight
and two-thirds at eighteen chose male characters. The range
of important women ideals among the girls was surprisingly
small. Barnes fears that if from the choice of relatives as
ideals, the expansion to remote or world heroes is too fast,
it may " lead to disintegration of character and reckless liv-
ing." " If, on the other hand, it is expanded too slowly we
shall have that arrested development which makes good ground
in which to grow stupidity, brutality, and drunkenness — the
first fruits of a sluggish and self-contained mind." " No one
can consider the regularity with which local ideals die out and
are replaced by world ideals without feeling that he is in the
presence of law-abiding forces," and this emphasizes the fact
that the teacher or parent does not work in a world governed
by caprice.

The compositions written by thousands of children in New
York on what they wanted to do when they were grown up
were collated by Dr. Thurber.^ The replies were serious, and
showed that poor children looked forward willingly to severe
labor and the increased earnestness of adolescent years, and
the better answers to the question zvhy were noteworthy.
All anticipated giving up the elastic joyousness of childhood
and felt the need of patience. Up to ten there was an increase
in the number of those who had two or more desires. This
number declined rapidly at eleven, rose as rapidly at twelve,

'Children's Ideals. Ped. Sem., April, 1900, vol. vii, pp. 3-12.
a Trans, of the 111. Soc. for Child Study, vol. ii. No. 2, p. 41,

388 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

and slowly fell later. Preferences for a teacher's life exceeded
in girls up to nine, fell rapidly at eleven, increased slightly the
next year, and declined thereafter. The ideal of becoming
a dressmaker and milliner increased till ten, fell at eleven, rose
rapidly to a maximum at thirteen, when it eclipsed teaching,
and then fell permanently again. The professions of clerk and
stenographer showed a marked rise from eleven and a half.
The number of boys who chose the father's occupation attained
its maximum at nine and its minimum at twelve, with a slight
rise to fourteen, when the survey ended. The ideal of trades-
man culminated at eight, with a second rise at thirteen. The
reason " to earn money " reached its high maximum of fifty
per cent at twelve, and fell very rapidly. The reason " be-
cause I like it " culminated at ten and fell steadily thereafter.
The motive that influenced the choice of a profession and
which was altruistic toward parents or for their benefit cul-
minated at twelve and a half, and then declined. The desire
for character increased somewhat throughout, but rapidly after
twelve, and the impulse to do good to the world, which had
risen slowly from nine, mounted sharply after thirteen. Thus,
" at eleven all the ideas and tendencies are increasing toward
a maximum. At twelve we find the altruistic desires for the
welfare of parents, the reason ' to earn money ' ; at thirteen
the desire on the part of the girls to be dressmakers, also to be
clerks and stenographers. At fourteen culminates the desire
for a business career in bank or ofiice among the boys, the
consciousness of life's uncertainties which appeared first at
twelve, the desire for character, and the hope of doing the
world good."

"What would you like to be in an imaginary new city? "
was a question answered by 1,234 written papers.^ One hun-
dred and fourteen different occupations were given; that of
teacher led with the girls at every age except thirteen and
fourteen, when dressmaker and milliner took precedence. The
motive of making money led among the boys at every age
except fourteen and sixteen, when occupations chosen because
they were liked led. The greatest number of those who chose

1 Children's Ambitions, by H. M. Willard. Barnes's Studies in Education,
vol. ii, pp. 243-253.

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 3^9

the parents' occupation was found at thirteen, but from that
age it steadily decHned and independent choice came into
prominence. The maximum of girls who chose parental voca-
tions was at fourteen. Motives of philanthropy reached nearly
their highest point in girls and boys at thirteen.

Jegi ^ obtained letters addressed to real or imaginary
friends from three thousand German children in Milwaukee,
asking what they desired to do when they grew up, and why,
and tabulated returns from two hundred boys and two hundred
girls for each age from eight to fourteen inclusive. He also
found a steadily decreasing influence of relatives to thirteen;
early adolescence increased in the personal motive of choosing
an occupation because it was liked, while from twelve in boys
and thirteen in girls the consideration of finding easy vocations
grew rapidly strong.

L. W. Kline ^ studied by the census method returns from
2,594 children, who were asked what they wished to be and
do. He found that in naming both ideals and occupations
girls were more conservative than boys, but more likely to
give a reason for their choice. In this respect country chil-
dren resembled boys more than city children. Country boys
were more prone to inattention, were more independent and
able to care for themselves, suggesting that the home life
of the country child is more effective in shaping ideals and
character than that of the city child. Industrial occupa-
tions are preferred by the younger children, the profes-
sional and technical pursuits increasing with age. Judg-
ments of rights and justice with the young are more prone
to issue from emotional rather than from intellectual pro-
cesses. Country children seem more altruistic than those
in the city, and while girls are more sympathetic than boys,
they are also more easily prejudiced. Many of these returns
bear unmistakable marks that in some homes and schools
moralization has been excessive and has produced a sentimental
type of morality and often a feverish desire to express ethical
views instead of trusting to suggestion. Children are very
prone to have one code of ideals for themselves and another

* Trans, of the 111. Soc. for Child Study, vol. iii, No. 3, p. 131.

" A Study in Juvenile Ethics. Pad. Sem. , June, 1903, vol. x, p. 239 et seq.

39° THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

for others. Boys, too, are more original than girls, and country
children more than city children.

Friedrich ^ asked German school children what person
they chose as their pattern. The result showed differences of
age, sex, and creed. First of all came characters in history,
which seemed to show that this study for children of the sixth
and seventh grades was essentially ethical or a training of
mood and disposition (Gesinmmgsimterricht) , and this writer
suggests reform in this respect. He seems to think that the
chief purpose of history for this age should be ethical. Next
came the influence of the Bible, although it was plain that
this was rather in spite of the catechism and the method of
memoriter work. Here, too, the immediate environment at
this age furnished few ideals (four and one-fifth per cent), for
children seem to have keener eyes for the faults than for the
virtues of those near them. Religion, therefore, should
chiefly be directed to the Gemiith and not to the understanding.
This census also suggested more care that the reading of chil-
dren should contain good examples in their environment, and
also that the matter of instruction should be more fully adapted
to the conditions of sex.

Friedrich found as his chief age result that children of the
seventh or older class in the German schools laid distinctly
greater stress upon characters distinguished by bravery and
courage than did the children of the sixth grade, while the
latter more frequently selected characters illustrating piety
and holiness. The author divided his characters into thirty-
five classes, illustrating qualities, and found that national
activity led, with piety a close second ; that then came in order
those illustrating firmness of faith, bravery, modesty, and
chastity; then pity and sympathy, industry, goodness, pa-
tience, etc.

Taylor, Young, Hamilton, Chambers, and others, have also
collected interesting data on what children and young people
hope to be, do, whom they would like to be, or resemble, etc.
Only a few at adolescence feel themselves so good or happy
that they are content to be themselves. Most show more or

1 Die Ideale der Kinder. Zeits. f. Pad. Psychologie und Pathologie, vol. iii,
p. 38.

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 39 ^

less discontent at their lot. From six to eleven or twelve the
number who find their ideals among their acquaintances falls
off rapidly, and historical characters rise to a maximum at or
before the earliest teens. From eleven or twelve on into the
middle teens contemporary ideals increase steadily. London
children are more backward in this expansion of ideals than
Americans,, while girls choose more acquaintance ideals at all
ages than do boys. The expansion these authors also trace
largely to the study of history. The George Washington
ideal, which leads all the rest by far and is greatly overworked,
in contrast with the many heroes of equal rank found in Eng-
land, pales soon, as imperfections are seen, and those now
making history loom up. This is the normal age to free from
bondage to the immediate present, and this freedom is one
measure of education. Bible heroes are chosen as ideals by
only a very small percentage, mostly girls, far more charac-
ters being from fiction and mythology ; where Jesus is chosen,
his human is preferred to his divine side. Again, it would
seem that teachers would be ideals, especially as many girls
intend to teach, but they are generally unpopular as choices.
In an ideal system they would be the first step in expansion
from home ideals. Military heroes and inventors play leading
roles in the choices of pubescent boys.

Girls at all school ages and increasingly up the grades pre-
fer foreign ideals, to be the wife of a man of title, as aristoc-
racies offer special opportunities for woman to shine, and life
near the source of fashion is very attractive at least up to
sixteen. The saddest fact in these studies is that nearly half
our American pubescent girls choose male ideals, or would
be men, or nearly three times as many as in England. Girls,
too, have from six to fifteen times as many ideals as boys. In
this significant fact we realize how modern woman has cut
loose from all old moorings and is drifting with no destination
and no anchor aboard. While her sex has multiplied in all
lower and high school grades, its ideals are still too mascu-
line. Text-books teach little about women. When a woman's
Bible, history, course of study, etc., is proposed, her sex fears
it may reduce her to the old servitude. While boys rarely, and
then only when very young, choose female ideals, girls' prefer-
ence for the life of the other sex sometimes reaches sixty and

392 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

seventy per cent. The divorce between the Hfe preferred and
that demanded by the interests of the race is often absolute.
Saddest and most unnatural of all is the fact that this state of
things increases most rapidly during just those years when
ideals of womanhood should be developed and become most
dominant, till it seems as if the female character was threatened
with disintegration. While statistics are not yet sufficient to
be reliable on the subject, there is some indication that woman
later slowly reverts toward ideals not only from her own sex
but also from the circle of her own acquaintances.

The reasons for the choice of ideals are various and not
yet well determined. Civic virtues certainly rise; material
and utilitarian considerations do not seem to much, if at all,
at adolescence, and in some data decline. Position, fame,
honor, and general greatness increase rapidly, but moral
qualities rise highest and also fastest just before and near
puberty and continue to increase later yet. By these choices
both sexes, but girls far most, show increasing admiration of
ethical and social qualities. Artistic and intellectual traits also
rise quite steadily from ten or eleven onward, but with no such
rapidity, and reach no such height as military ability and
achievement for boys. Striking in these studies is the rapid
increase, especially from eight to fourteen, of the sense of
historic time for historic persons. Those long since dead are
no longer spoken of as now living. Most of these choices are
direct expressions of real differences of taste and character.

VIII. Property, Kline and France ^ have defined as " any-
thing that the individual may acquire which sustains and pro-
longs life, favors survival, and gives an advantage over op-
posing forces." Many animals and even insects store up food
both for themselves and for their young. Very early in life
children evince signs of ownership. Letourneau ^ says that the
notion of private property, which seems to us so natural,
dawned late and slowly, and that common ownership was the
rule among primitive people. Value is sometimes measured
by use and sometimes by the work required to produce it. Be-

'The Psychology of Ownership. Ped. Sem., December, 1899, vol. vi, pp.
421-470.

'Property: Its Origin and Development. London, 1892.

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS

393

fore puberty, there is great eagerness to possess things that
are of immediate service, but after its dawn, the desire of pos-
session takes another form, and money for its own sake, which
is at first rather an abstraction, comes to be respected or re-
garded as an object of extreme desire, because it is seen to be
the embodiment of all values.

The money sense, as it is now often called, is very complex and has
not yet been satisfactorily analyzed by psychology. Ribot and others
trace its origin to prevision which they think animals that hoard food
feel. Monroe ^ has tabulated returns from 977 boys and 1,090 girls
from six to sixteen in answer to the question as to what they would
do with a small monthly allowance. The following table shows the
marked increase at the dawn of adolescence of the number who would
save it :

Age.

Boys.

GWs.

Age.

Boys.

Girls.

7...

. 43 per cent

36 per cent

12..

. 82 per cent

64 per cent

8...

- 45

34 "

I3--

. 88 "

78 "

9--

. 48 "

35 "

14..

- 85 "

80 "

10. ..

- 58 "

50 "

I5--

- 83 "

78 "

II...

- 71 "

58 "

16..

- 85 -

82 "

This tendency to thrift is strongest in boys, and both sexes often
show the tendency to moralize that is so strong in the early teens.
Much of our school work in arithmetic is dominated by the money
sense, and school savings-banks, at first for the poor, are now extend-
ing to children of all classes. This sense tends to prevent pauperism,
prodigality, is an immense stimulus to the imagination and develops
purpose to pursue a distant object for a long time. To see all things
and values in terms of money has, of course, its pedagogic and ethical
limitations, but there is a stage where it is a great educational advance
and it, too, is full of phylogenetic suggestions.

IX. Social judgment, cronies, solitude. The two follow-
ing observations afford a glimpse of the development of moral
judgments. From one thousand boys and one thousand girls
of each age from six to sixteen who answered the question as
to what should be done to a girl with a new box of paints who
beautified the parlor chairs with them with a wish to please
her mother, the following conclusion was drawn. ^ Most of
the younger children would whip the girl, but from fourteen

1 Money-Sense of Children. Will S. Monroe. Ped. Sem., March, 1899, vol. vi,
p. 152.

^ A Study of Children's Rights, as Seen by Themselves, by M. E. Schallenberger.
Ped. Sem., October, 1894, vol. iii, pp. 87-96.

394 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

on the number declines very rapidly. Few of the young chil-
dren suggest explaining why it was wrong, while at twelve,
one hundred and eighty-one, and at sixteen, seven hundred
and fifty-one, would explain. The motive of the younger chil-
dren in punishment is revenge; with the older ones that of
preventing a repetition of the act comes in ; and higher and
later comes the purpose of reform. With age comes also a
marked distinction between the act and its motive and a sense
of the girl's ignorance. Only the older children would suggest
extracting a promise not to offend again. Thus with puberty
comes a change of view-point from judging actions by results
to judging by motives, and only the older ones see that wrong
can be done if there are no bad consequences. There is also
a great development of the quality of mercy with increased
years.

One hundred children of each sex and age between six and sixteen
were asked what they would do with a burglar, the question stating
that the penalty was five years in prison.^ Of the younger children
nearly nine-tenths ignored the law and fixed upon some other penalty,
but from twelve years there is a steady advance in those who would
inflict the legal penalty, while at sixteen, seventy-four per cent would
have the criminal punished according to law. Thus " with the dawn
of adolescence at the age of twelve or shortly after comes the recogni-
tion of a larger life, a life to be lived in common with others, and with
this recognition the desire to sustain the social code made for the
common welfare," and punishment is no longer regarded as an in-
dividual and arbitrary matter.

From another question answered by 1,914 children^ it was found
that with the development of the psychic faculties in youth, there was
an increasing appreciation of punishment as preventive; an increasing
sense of the value of individuality and of the tendency to demand
protection of personal rights; a change from a sense of justice based
on feeling and on faith in authority to that based on reason and under-
standing. Children's attitude toward punishment for weak time sense,
tested by 2,536 children from six to sixteen,^ showed also a marked
pubescent increase in the sense of the need of the remedial function of
punishment as distinct from the view of it as vindictive, or getting even,

1 Children's Attitude toward Law, by E. M. Darrah. Barnes's Studies in Edu-
cation, pp. 213-216.

2 Class Punishment, by Caroline Frear. Barnes's Studies in Education, pp.

332-337-

^ Children's Attitude toward Punishment for Weak Time Sense, by D. S. Sned-
den. Barnes's Studies in Education, pp. 344-351.

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 395

common in earlier years. There is also a marked increase in discrimi-
nating the kinds and degrees of offenses; in taking account of miti-
gating circumstances, the inconvenience caused others, the involuntary
nature of the offense and the purpose of the culprit. All this continues
to increase up to sixteen, v^^here these studies leave the child.

An interesting effect of the social instinct appears in August
Mayer's ^ elaborate study made upon fourteen boys in the fifth and
sixth grade of a Wiirzburg school to determine whether they could
vi^ork better together or alone. The tests were in dictation, mental and
written arithmetic, memory, and Ebbinghaus's combination exercises,
and all were given with every practicable precaution to make the other
conditions uniform. The conclusions demonstrate the advantages of
collective over individual instruction. Under the former condition,
emulation is stronger and work more rapid and better in quality. From
this it is inferred that pupils should not be grouped according to ability,
for the dull are most stimulated by the presence of the bright, the bad
by the good, etc. Thus work at home is prone to deteriorate, and ex-
perimental pedagogy shows that the social impulse is on the whole a
stronger spur for boys of eleven or twelve than the absence of distrac-
tion which solitude brings.

From the answers of i,o68 boys and 1,268 girls from seven to six-
teen on the kind of chum they liked best,^ it appears that with the teens
children are more anxious for chums that can keep secrets and dress
neatly, and there is an increased number who are liked for qualities
that supplement rather than duplicate those of the chooser. " There is
an apparent struggle between the real actual self and the ideal self; a
pretty strong desire to have a chum that embodies the traits youth most
desire but which they are conscious of lacking." The strong like the
weak; those full of fun the serious; the timid the bold; the small the
large ; etc. Only children * illustrate differing effects of isolation, while
" mashes " and " crushes " and ultra-cronyism with " selfishness for
two " show the results of abnormal restriction of the irradiation of
the social instinct which should now occur.*

M. H. Small,^ after pointing out that communal are more intelligent
than animals with solitary habits, and that to even name all the irradia-
tions of the social instinct would be to write a history of the human
race, studied nearly five hundred cases of eminent men who developed
proclivities to solitude. It is interesting to observe in how many of
these cases this was developed in adolescence when, with the horror

1 Ueber Einzel- und Gesammtleistung des Schulkindes. Arch. f. d. Gesammte
Psychologie, 1903, pp. 276-416.

' Development of the Social Consciousness of Children, by Will S. Monroe.
North-Western Mo., September, 1898, vol. ix, p. 31.

^ Bohannon : The Only Child in a Family. Ped. Sem. , April, 1898, vol. v, p. 475.

* S. Delitsch : Schulfreundschaften, Kinder Fehlen, Bd. v, p. 150.

^On Some Psychical Relations of Society and Solitude. Ped. Sem., April,
1900, vol. vii, pp. 13-69.

396 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

of mediocrity, comes introspection, apathy, irresolution, and subjectiv-
ism. The grounds of repulsion from society at this age may be disap-
pointed hunger for praise, wounded vanity, the reaction from over-
assertion, or the nursings of some high ideals, as it is slowly realized
that in society the individual can not be absolute. The motives to self-
isolation may be because youth feels its lack of physical or moral
force to compete with men, or they may be due to the failure of others
to concede to the exactions of inordinate egotism and are directly pro-
portional to the impulse to magnify self, or to the remoteness of com-
mon social interests from immediate personal desire or need, and in-
versely as the number and range of interests seen to be common and
the clearness with which social relations are realized. While maturity
of character needs some solitude, too much dwarfs it, and more or less
of the same paralysis of association follows which is described in the
nostalgia of arctic journeys, deserts, being lost in the jungle, solitary
confinement, and in the interesting stories of feral men.^ In some of
these cases the mind is saved from entire stultification by pets, imagi-
nary companions, tasks, etc. Normally " the tendency to solitude at
adolescence indicates not fulness but want," and a judicious balance
between rest and work, pursuit of favorite lines, genuine sympathy,
and wise companionship will generally normalize the social relation.

X. First forms of spontaneous social organisations. Gulick ^
has studied the propensity of boys from thirteen on to consort
in gangs, do " dawsies " and stumps, get into scrapes together,
and fight and suffer for one another. The manners and cus-
toms of the gang are to build shanties or " hunkies," hunt with
shng shots, build fires before huts in the woods, cook their
squirrels and other game, play Indian, build tree-platforms,
where they smoke or troop about some leader, who may have
an old revolver. They find or excavate caves, or perhaps roof
them over; the barn is a blockhouse or a battle-ship. In the
early teens boys begin to use frozen snowballs or put pebbles
in them, or perhaps have stone-fights between gangs than
which no contiguous African tribes could be more hostile.
They become toughs and tantalize policemen and peddlers;
" lick " every enemy or even stranger found alone on their
grounds ; often smash windows ; begin to use sticks and brass
knuckles in their fights ; pelt each other with green apples ;
carry shillalahs, or perhaps air-rifles. The more plucky ar-

^ A. Rauber: Homo Sapiens Ferus. 1888. See also my Social Aspects of
Education; Fed. Sem., March, 1902. Also Krapotkin : Mutual Aid. London, 1902.
^ Studies of Adolescence. Classified Facts.

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 397

range fights beforehand ; rifle unoccupied houses ; set ambushes
for gangs with which they are at feud; perhaps have secrets
and initiations where new boys are triced up by the legs and
butted against trees and rocks. When painted for their Indian
fights, they may grow so excited as to perhaps rush into the
water or into the school-room yelling; mimic the violence of
strikes ; kindle dangerous bonfires ; pelt policemen, and shout
vile nicknames.

The spontaneous tendency to develop social and political
organizations among boys in pubescent years was well seen in
a school near Baltimore in the midst of an eight-hundred-acre
farm richly diversified with swamp and forest and abounding
with birds, squirrels, rabbits, etc. Soon after the opening of
this school ^ the boys gathered nuts in parties. When a tree
was reached which others had shaken, an unwritten law soon
required those who wished to shake it further to first pile
up all nuts under the tree, while those who failed to do so
were universally regarded as dishonest and every boy's hand
was against them. To pile them involved much labor, so that
the second party usually sought fresh trees, and partial shak-
ing practically gave possession of all the fruits on a tree. They
took birds' eggs freely, and whenever a bird was found in build-
ing, or if a squirrel's hole was discovered, the finder tacked
his name on the tree and thereby confirmed his ownership, as
he did if he placed a box in which a nest was built. The ticket
must not blow off, and the right at first lasted only one season.
In the rabbit-land every trap that was set preempted ground
for a fixed number of yards about it. Some grasping boys
soon made many traps and set them all over a valuable district,
so that the common land fell into a few hands. Traps were
left out all winter and simply set the next spring. All these
rights finally came into the ownership of two or three boys,
who slowly acquired the right and bequeathed their claims
to others for a consideration, when they left school. The
monopolists often had a large surplus of rabbits which they
bartered for " butters," the unit being the ounce of daily
allowance. These could be represented by tickets transferred,

^ Rudimentary Society among Boys, by John Johnson, Jr. Overland, Mo.,
October, 1883.

39^ THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

so that debts were paid with " butters " that had never been
seen. An agrarian party arose and demanded a redistribution
of land from the monopolists, as Sir Henry Maine shows often
happened in the old village community. Legislation and ju-
dicial procedure were developed and quarrels settled by arbi-
tration, ordeal, and wager, and punishment by bumping often
followed the decision of the boy folkmote. Scales of prices
for commodities in " butters " or in pie-currency were evolved,
so that we here have an almost entirely spontaneous but
amazingly rapid recapitulation of the social development of
the race by these boys.

From a study of i,i66 children's organizations described
as a language lesson in school composition, Mr. Sheldon ^ ar-
rives at some interesting results. American children tend
strongly to institutional activities, only about thirty per cent
of all not having belonged to some such organization. Imita-
tion plays a very important role, and girls take far more kindly
than boys to societies organized by adults for their benefit.
They are also more governed by adult and altruistic motives
in forming their organizations, while boys are nearer to
primitive man. Before ten comes the period of free spon-
taneous imitation of every form of adult institution. The child
reproduces sympathetically miniature copies of the life around
him. On a farm, his play is raking, threshing, building barns,
or on the seashore he makes ships and harbors. In general,
he plays family, store, church, and chooses officers simply be-
cause adults do. The feeling of caste, almost absent in the
young, culminates about ten and declines thereafter. From
ten to fourteen, however, associations assume a new char-
acter; boys especially cease to imitate adult organizations and
tend to form social units characteristic of lower stages of hu-
man evolution — pirates, robbers, soldiers, lodges, and other
savage reversionary combinations, where the strongest and
boldest is the leader. They build huts, wear feathers and
tomahawks as badges, carry knives and toy-pistols, make raids
and sell the loot. Cowards alone, together they fear nothing.
Their imagination is perhaps inflamed by flash literature and

^ The Institutional Activities of American Children. Am. Jour, of Psy., July,
1898, vol. ix, pp. 425-448.

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 399

"penny-dreadfuls." Such associations often break out in de-
cadent country communities where, with fewer and feebler
offspring, lax notions of family discipline prevail and hood-
lumism is the direct result of the passing of the rod. These
barbaric societies have their place and give vigor, but if un-
reduced later, as in many unsettled portions of this country,
a semisavage state of society results. At twelve the predatory
function is normally subordinated, and if it is not it becomes
dangerous, because the members are no longer satisfied with
mere play, but are stronger and abler to do harm, and the spice
of danger and its fascination may issue in crime. Athleticism
is now the form into which these wilder instincts can be best
transmuted, and where they find harmless and even whole-
some vent. Another change early in adolescence is the in-
creased number of social^ literary, and even philanthropic or-
ganizations and institutions for mutual help — perhaps against
vice, for having a good time, or to hold picnics and parties.
Altruism now begins to make itself felt as a motive.

XI. Student life and organizations. Student life is per-
haps the best of all fields, unworked though it is, for studying
the natural history of adolescence. Its modern record is over
eight hundred years old and it is marked with the signatures
of every age, yet has essential features that do not vary.
Cloister and garrison rules have never been enforced even in
the hospice, bursa, inn, " house," " hall," or dormitory, and
in loco parentis practises are impossible, especially with large
numbers. The very word school means leisure, and in a world
of toil and moil suggests paradise. Some have urged that
elite youth, exempt from the struggle to live and left to the
freedom of their own inclinations, might serve as a biological
and ethnic compass to point out the goal of human destiny.
But the spontaneous expressions of this best age and condi-
tion of life, with no other occupation than their own develop-
ment, have shown reversions as often as progress. The rupture
of home ties stimulates every wider vicarious expression of
the social instinct. Each taste and trait can find congenial
companionship in others and thus be stimulated to more in-
tensity and self-consciousness. Very much that has been
hitherto repressed in the adolescent soul is now reenforced

400 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

by association and may become excessive and even aggressive.
While many of the race-correlates of childhood are lost, those
of this stage are more accessible in savage and subsavage life.
Freedom is the native air and vital breath of student life. The
sense of personal liberty is absolutely indispensable for moral
maturity, and just as truth can not be found without the possi-
bility of error, so the posse non peccare precedes the non posse
peccare, and professors must make a broad application of the
rule abusiis non toUit iisiim. The student must have much free-
dom to be lazy, make his own minor morals, vent his disre-
spect for what he can see no use in, be among strangers to act
himself out and form a personality of his own, be baptized
with the revolutionary and skeptical spirit, and go to extremes
at the age when excesses teach wisdom with amazing rapidity,
if he is to become a true knight of the spirit and his own
master. Ziegler ^ frankly told German students that about
one-tenth of them would be morally lost in this process, but
insisted that on the whole more good was done than by re-
straint, for, he said, youth is now in the stage of Schiller's
bell when it was molten metal.

Of all safeguards I believe a rightly cultivated sense of
honor is the most effective at this age. Sadly as the unwritten
code of student honor in all lands needs revision, and partial,
freaky, and utterly perverted, tainted and cowardly as it often
is, it really means what Kant expressed in the sublime pre-
cept, " Thou canst because thou oughtest." Fichte said that
Faulheit, Feigheit, and Falschheit were the three dishonorable
things for students. If they would study the history and enter
into the spirit of their own fraternities, they would often have
keener and broader ideas of honor to which they are happily
so sensitive. If professors made it always a point of honor to
confess and never to conceal the limitation of their knowledge,
would scorn all pretense of it, place credit for originality
frankly where it belongs, teach no creeds they do not pro-
foundly believe, or topics in which they are not interested, and
withhold nothing from those who want the truth, they could
from this vantage with more effect bring students to feel that
the laziness, that while outwardly conforming does no real

' Der Deutsche Student am Ende des 19. Jahrunderts. Stuttgart, 1895.

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 4°!

inner work, that getting a diploma, as a professor lately said,
an average student could do on one hour's study a day, living
beyond one's means, and thus imposing a hardship on parents
greater than the talent of the sons justifies, accepting stipends
not needed, especially to the deprivation of those more needy,
using dishonest ways of securing rank in studies or positions,
on teams, or social standing, are, one and all, not only ungen-
tlemanly but cowardly and mean, and the axe would be laid
at the root of the tree. Honor should impel students to go
nowhere where they conceal their college, their fraternity, or
even their name, to keep themselves immaculate from all con-
tact with that class of women which, Ziegler states, brought
twenty-five per cent of the students of the University of
Berlin in a single year to physicians, to remember that other's
sisters are as cherished as their own, to avoid those sins
against confiding innocence which cry for vengeance, as did
Valentine against Faust, and which strengthen the hate of
social classes and make mothers and sisters seem tedious
because low ideas of womanhood have been implanted, which
give a taste for mucky authors that reek with suggestiveness,
and to avoid the waste of nerve substance and nerve weakness
in ways which Ibsen and Tolstoi have described. These
things are the darkest blot on the honor of youth.

Next to this comes inebriation. A well-known German
student song says he who has never been drunk is not a brave
man. Plato seems almost to counsel occasional inebriation be-
cause it removes reserves, reveals the whole soul, and because
conviviality makes men confidential, as 'men have sometimes
deliberated at night when drunk and decided in the morning
when sober. It is often said that intoxication a few times to
find one's limit is a part of self-knowledge; that drinking
together tends to idealize life, because it is a symbol of the
spiritual. It is somewhat akin to the overflowing joy of youth
which makes us glow with life, but, on the other hand, very
few drink to make themselves bold, to overcome pessimism,
or are inspired by any muse thereby. If total abstinence seem
a little too clerical, ascetic, or an undue restriction of academic
freedom, certain it is that excess weakens all the zest and
interest of life and makes the drinker more and more unin-
teresting. Strong drinks burn out the finer joys of life, if

65

402 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

they do not actually consume the substance of the neurones and
injure the elasticity of the blood-vessels. Stronger lights kill
weaker ones, and the exaltation of wine in excess makes in-
tellectual pleasures seem dim and pallid.

The years of academic life are like a high table-land or a
mountain ridge which we cross in passing from infancy to
old age. At each point on it we can see and feel both ways —
protensively toward the future and retrotensively toward the
past — as at no other stage of life. Childish memories and
feelings will soon become pallid, unreal, desiccated things for
memory, preserved as useless rudiments and consisting only
in a few chance images, or quite lost to view. Before this,
all adult life has seemed remote and unreal, but now the soul
is Janus-faced, looking before and after in a very peculiar
sense. Thus we may understand another new principle, which
I propose, viz., that of range and mobility up and down the
genetic ladder peculiar to this age. It is never so easy to sink
far below the normal or average common sense, intelligence,
or effort, to abject silliness, but these moods alternate with
the most strenuous and lofty aspirations toward the highest.
Collegians often seem to find distinct relief from the hardest
and most intellectual activity in a degree of banality that
would defy belief save among the circle of intimate friends
who had actually seen it. Perhaps those whose wisdom is
veined with the most prelusions of senescence are those who
can be most babyish. Some serious young men seem born old
and very early lose the power, if they ever had it, to be or feel
young, while others remain all their lives conserved youth, if
not children. This power of free and ready movement up and
down the Jacob's ladder of phylogeny I believe to be a resource
of very great economic value for achievement. This functional
reversion enables us, at it were, to tap the freshness and re-
sources of earlier years and prevents the ossification of each
stage of the past, like death closing in upon us.

This, of course, may be excessive and savor of neurotic instability,
but adults who can play renew the charm of youth and gather momen-
tum for great efforts to attain higher levels. This elasticity is one
trait in the psychology of genius. Play is essentially reversion, as we
saw in Chapter IIL Its charm consists in dropping back to older
levels, in leaving the stress of the battle line at the front and dipping

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 403

into the experiences of earlier stages of life. Thus the overflowing
animal spirits of young gentlemen with the first tender crop of beard,
and with faces that suggest an owlish and Minerva wisdom, often, in
songs, yells, or even in college journals, give vent to downright baby-
ism, imitate infant talk and even forms of crying, parody spanking and
putting to sleep with serio-comic nocturnes, ape the most silly and fatu-
ous effusions of maternal tenderness, etc. Early boyhood is imitated,
mocked and mimicked with great gusto by collegians. All the ways
of the good and bad pupil at school and the Sunday-school scholar are
the theme of many an extravaganza in game, college theatrical, etc.
At Yale, seniors for many student generations have taken pleasure
in reserving for themselves alone the right to play top, marbles, and
hoop. The annual peanut " bum " at Yale, the molasses-candy society
at Amherst, the hawkey-hurley club, are similar reservations. College
songs often abound in animal noises, made-up words, parodies and
caricatures of religion, bibulousness, society, the negro and Chinaman,
medleys which Lotze so deplored in modern life, ultra-feminization
and even impersonation in such detail of woman's ways and manners,
every act of the coquette and even the alliimexise, that they suggest
defective masculinity. Students lapse to inter jectural speech, gibber-
ish, mimic any dialect, brogue, defect and affectation of speech. The
bathos of nonsense or " silly cures " that flourish like rank weeds in
the mental acreage where professors strive to cultivate purity and
precision of diction, suggest that the mind may love to revert thus to
primitive chaos to find surcease from every constraint, even those of
sense and sanity. These are often so saponaceously silly that the
serious adult may be almost as much impelled to cry as to laugh. The
wine of life is now most actively fermenting, depositing its lees, and
evolving a higher spirituality.

Student social organizations, too, are often predatory, like
those of street boys. Sheldon ^ describes a cave elaborately
fitted up in a prominent college by a student society, with the
beginnings of a kitchen-middens of bottles and chicken bones,
the " ranters " of another old university who robbed hen and
turkey roosts, and committed other kinds of theft, clubs de-
voted to corn and watermelons and roast pigs, the collection
of gates and other forms of pilfering. In one code a fresh-

^See his Student Life and Customs ; New York, 1901, p. 366. A thesis for the
degree of Ph. D. in Clark University, with a select and critical bibliography of
forty-five pages. A work of great value and interest. See also Oskar Dolch :
Geschichte des deutschen Studententhums ; Leipzig, 1858, p. 300. Also the
works of Lerber, E. David, Forel, and the Akademische Monatshefte. I. Theile ;
1886, and following. See also my Student Customs; Proc. Am. Antiq. Soc,
vol. xiv, 1900, pp. 83-124.

404 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

man's room and even his trunk may be robbed of all valuables
and only pipes, collars, neckties, and canes kept. Edibles of
all sorts, whether a box from home or a class banquet, are
the property of whoever can get them by strategy or force,
while booty or plunder is sometimes preserved and handed
down to classes or societies as tokens of prowess. Some of
these societies are akin to the tribal system, others to the
medieval guilds.

In striking and most significant contrast to the mobility
of this age up and down the developmental stages, from in-
fantilism to the highest adult aspiration, and even the affecta-
tion of senescent wisdom, stands the opposite instinct of seg-
mentation and intense consciousness and accentuation of the
annual nodes of psychic evolution. This is seen in the way
in which each class looks upon the next lower class as a pit
from which he has been digged, and magnifies the really great
advance which at this period the mere growth of a year in-
volves. The sophomore has put off the freshman and all his
works and ways. All this is richly illustrated in academic
literature, sentiment, and custom. In Germany the Fuchs,
hrander Fuchs, junger Bursch, alter Bursch, bemooster Kopf,
almost mark great epochs in human evolution. The Bejanus or
yellow bill is a callow lout or hayseed who must be made over by
upper classmen into a civilized being. The freshman must be
salted, his greenness seasoned, his credulity and insouciance
satirized, and perhaps his innocence deflowered. The roll of
the ingenue and everything naive is never so contemptible as
when self-consciousness is developing by leaps and bounds.
The savage state of slavery long persisted in penalism and
still survives in fagging. The fags were once branded,
tattooed, beaten, sent on distant fake errands, must play or
sing and help their masters home if drunk. All must run
when any upper classman called and the last to arrive must
do his bidding, while now each is assigned to a member of
the upper form who protects him from alien imposition but
requires certain services definitely prescribed by tradition,
copying, serving breakfast, keeping accounts, etc.

Hazing, which literally means hamstringing, may be described as
breaking in raw student recruits, teaching them respect and obedience.
In the ancient universities of Paris and Bologna the newcomer was

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 405

described as a wild beast to be tamed or subjugated to the harness. He
was dressed as a boar, his ears were cHpped, his teeth filed, his hair
or beard cut, or even singed. He was green grass to be cured, wood to
be seasoned, unclean and in need of purification ; he was scoured with
soap and sand, and bodily mutilations, sometimes leaving scars for life,
were occasionally inflicted. In early German universities, he must be
passive and let others work their complete will upon him. He was
made to eat dirt and grass, to drink from a shoe, and to make him drunk
was a common diversion. In one old New England college the custom
of parodying the " infare " still exists, and the new student is finally
put to bed with a pumpkin nightcap. In another institution a similar
custom still survives, with the variant that portions of his body are
smeared with molasses. In the colonial college he was mulcted, and in
one large institution still has to supply balls and bats for the upper
classmen. In various others, certain articles of clothing are forcibly
appropriated. The Yale freshman was elaborately tutored, the upper-
class orator expatiated for his benefit in a mock heroic way first upon
the dangers, second upon the honors of college life, and then came a
program of physical treatment. Every one knows the current modes of
smoking out, enforced speeches and songs, tossings in a blanket, isola-
tion in remote places blindfolded, perhaps bound and gagged, etc., the
suppression of which neither law, college discipline nor the disapproval
of the academic sentiment of the overwhelming majority can effect.

The class as an organization, now dying out under the in-
fluence of the elective systems and secret and other inter-class
societies, had its golden period in the first three-fourths of the
last century. The very term classmate suggested lifelong
ties when the class was small enough so that all members were
mutually acquainted, and reunions, triennials, class-books,
histories, gifts, and memorials to the Alma Mater represented
a form of comradeship especially valuable because of the wide
range of types represented. Sheldon thinks three-fourths of
the conversation in this charmed circle was of each other, and
that to judge character and eternally revise estimates of in-
dividuals is a great school of human nature. Again, subordi-
nation of educational stages, each lower to the next higher,
favors docility, keeps open sutures which might close pre-
maturely, brings pliability, offsets tendencies to precocity and
a sense of attainment and finality, keeps the psychophysic
organism young and growing, and impresses humility without
humiliation, because self-respect can keep itself in countenance,
if endangered, by turning to the stage below. Again, and what
is perhaps more important, this tends to widen sympathy hori-

406 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

zontally, as it were, so that the tendency to exhaust at each
stage all its possibilities before advancing to the next is favored.
The American Greek letter fraternities are an unique or-
ganization, developing to some extent at the expense of
the old debating societies, a little as the Corps grew from
the Burschenschaften. Sheldon estimates that there are
now one hundred and thirty thousand fraternity men ; thirty-
eight different organizations for men and fourteen for women,
with more than five million dollars expended in buildings.
Few things were once so hotly debated as their net good or
evil. All the anti-Masonic sentiment has been directed against
them, and it was this that compelled the Phi Beta Kappa to
drop its secrecy. By students outside them, they often are
called undemocratic, exclusive, and clannish as developing
closer friendship between those alike, narrowing sympathy and
knowledge of other types and classes of men, and making life
seem cold and hopeless. They are accused of unduly influen-
cing college politics or of rivaling commencement exercises in
attraction for visiting alumni, of developing luxurious habits,
and perhaps worse, under the guise of secrecy, of injuring class
sentiment, of short-circuiting the expressions of the powerful
social instinct which might otherwise be turned into religious
work or larger literary organizations, and of narrowing
loyalty that ought to be broad enough to include the entire col-
lege. On the other hand, many of the ablest and most judicious
men in the country have not only been members, but keep up
their interest by large subscriptions and annual visits to the
society houses, and several experienced authorities, like Presi-
dent White, have vigorously defended them.

Their strength is great. The effort of Purdue in 1881 to compel
freshmen to sign a pledge not to join the fraternities met with disas-
trous failure. California in 1896 was defeated in this issue. Vander-
bilt strove to prevent members from competing for college honors.
Michigan once expelled all members, and the Masons in retaliation
expelled the president. Princeton, which abolished these organizations
in 1855, is perhaps the only large college to prohibit them. In some
small colleges they may have great power over the administration.
The movements against these societies are spasmodic and sometimes,
if organized, end in the formation of a new secret society. The charm
of secrecy is great and the discipline of reticence perhaps has some-
thing to be said in its favor. Its fascination is greatly heightened by

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 4° 7

wearing the badge somewhat concealed or by never referring to the
organization to outsiders, as is the custom among members of the
" Skull and Bones " and of the " Scroll and Key " societies of Yale.

I have elsewhere advocated at length as an experiment worthy of
trial the appointment of some graduate member, who perhaps has
specialized abroad and is waiting for a professorship, as resident tutor
or mentor in a few of these larger society houses. The expense would
be slight, and the presence of such a member would be a most salutary
tonic to the morale of the organization ; he could have ample time and
opportunity for advancing his own studies and could set apart an hour
for coaching fellow undergraduate members in his field. If several
adjacent chapter-houses, representing different fraternities in the same
college, each had such a member, a specialist in different branches,
interfraternity cooperation, and exchanges might be arranged. In
this way the strength and wealth of the fraternity might be made to
support the academic work of the institution, the college might possibly
find here suitable candidates for vacant places in its professorial staff,
and the friction now often felt between the administration and the
fraternity might be reduced. Again, the growth of these organiza-
tions, if it continues, may develop ultimately into powerful institu-
tions which may some day become the analogues of the colleges of Ox-
ford and Cambridge, which the tutorial methods here might represent.

Initiations can best be treated as a class of subjections by them-
selves. The more we know of savage life the larger we find the role
of such ceremonies. Not only the great cycle of initiations, sometimes
occupying weeks, by which boys are inducted to early manhood, but
many a secret order constructs ceremonials of a very high degree of
symbolic significance, designed to impress those without, and, of
course, especially the candidates themselves, as well as the tribesmen
within, of the great importance of membership. A ritual is composed
mainly from such elements as we see unorganized in hazing, and to
this a sacred character attaches. This was the case with the Eleusinian
and other ancient mysteries. The novice is observed and studied, and
his eligibility is the result of diverse comparative estimates. He then
sometimes undergoes a period of probation, with certain duties or
restrictions. The ceremonial is generally made up of two parts : one
that is elaborately prescribed and must be followed with the utmost
precision, and another that is extemporized and sometimes with special
individual adaptations. The impressiveness, and sometimes the terrors,
of mystery are always appealed to. There are perhaps elements from
judicial procedure, like accusation and defense; statement of the can-
didate's good and bad traits ; sometimes he is symbolically condemned,
executed, nailed into his coffin, and perhaps buried and resurrected to
a new life. These procedures are well concealed, but those I know
bear plain traces of a depressive minatory or descending phase, which
are sharply contrasted with an ascending, regenerative, and restorative
one. The ethnopsychic relationship between these rights and those
indicating the new birth of the soul, with a background to both of the

40 8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

resurrection of spring following the death of autumn, or the Balder
motive, is unmistakable.

The Nations were spontaneous and democratic associations of
students in the great medieval universities, who came from the same
place. They found themselves without political rights in a strange
town, with their property and even life insecure; hence they united
for mutual protection, to tend the sick, defend the weak, help the
poor, and soon succeeded in establishing a kind of artificial citizen-
ship which obtained legal recognition. These were most fully de-
veloped in Italy, where the power of student organizations was great-
est and where the Cismontanes had seventeen and the Ultramontanes
sixteen Nations. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries they
were strong in the University of Paris with its four Nations — French,
Normans, Picards, and English or Germans. At Oxford they were
feeble, and the two organizations — the Boreals and Australes — fused
in 1274. In Aberdeen the Nations lingered until the nineteenth cen-
tury, and traces of them are still found in the Finnish Universities
of Helsingfors. In Prague and Vienna, the two oldest German uni-
versities, these societies existed; in the former the Czechs and the
Germans have been opposed for six centuries, and in 1409 the German
students withdrew to Leipzig. In England in the fifteenth century the
college slowly succeeded the Nation as a unit of student organization.

The Landsmannschaften, the German analogue of the Nations, after
an eventful career, were forbidden in the eighteenth century, but
dragged out a long subterranean existence. They were originally ter-
ritorial and soon adopted some of the features of penalism for their
novices inducted to full membership with initiation ceremonies, held a
catechism on the beer Komment, with awful condemnations to infamy
of all " renoncers " or betrayers of secrets or those who refused to obey
orders of the council, and had their ribbons, caps, ciphers, and a cere-
monial kiss. The Landsmann could be decreed dishonorable on sixteen
points; knew no obligations to Philistines or townsmen; was a good
swordsman, the best of them ambitious to score a hundred duels ; must
fight all former colleagues if he wished to enter another society; and
was sometimes guilty of riots, marauding, and of excesses, occasionally
almost bestial, in his beer duels and other drinking habits. It was
two of these societies that the philosopher Fichte actually persauded to
disband and give their regalia to him.

The Burschenschaften, which originated at Jena in 1816, sought to
introduce higher and reformatory ideals. The famous Wartburg fes-
tival was held in 1817, on the three hundredth anniversary of Luther's
defiance of the Pope, just at the period of Germany's most intense re-
action after the fall of Napoleon. The Burschen delegates partook of
the sacrament, listened to an oration by a fellow tribesman, Riemann,
already knighted by the Iron Cross for bravery in the French wars,
who invoked Luther to hear his vow, in behalf of all, to serve the spirit
of truth and justice, to repel invaders, and not to be dazzled by the
splendor of the monarch's throne from speaking the strong free word

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 409

of freedom and individuality. In the evening twenty-eight books,
thought to contain un-German views, were burned, and not long after
the Russian court chancellor, Kotzebue, whose book had been burned
with the others, to the great scandal of the court, was stabbed by a
Burschen theological student. Sand. Before this a small minority led
by Carl Follen, a leader of the blacks or extreme left wing, a disciple
of Fichte, and who afterward taught gymnastics at Harvard College,
advocated an appeal to force to accomplish at once a republican form
of government, which the moral reason demanded. The government
accordingly, in 1819, abolished the order, removed suspected profess-
ors, appointed an inspector for each university, and banished or im-
prisoned those who still maintained membership. Although the Tu-
gendbund of 1822 sought to perpetuate the salvable part of the organ-
ization, the Burschenschaften soon died out, after having greatly
reduced gambling and dueling, and having otherwise moralized stu-
dent life.

The more aristocratic Corps developed as this latter organization
declined. These are the outgrowth of an extravagant chivalric sense
of personal dignity, self-respect and honor, of the passion to enjoy life
at the stage of it when hilarity is most attractive, of a desire to knit
the ties of friendship as closely as possible and with a love of sentiment
unknown to our American life. The Corps, almost as much as the
Nations, had power to boycott. As representing the student body they
could launch the ban of excommunication against a student, city, or
landlord ; they developed a beer-drinking Komment with an elaborate
ritual, and held that dueling was the only dignified way of resenting an
insult. Some American writers have defended it as preferable to
hazing, but the code lapsed to decreeing as insults the most fanciful
of offenses, and even to the arrangement of almost utterly causeless
encounters for the delectation of spectators.

The duel was originally an invocation of a divine judgment and
flourished on religious and romantic grounds. It assumed that victory
proved righteousness. Now that we know that the bad often conquers,
it means staking life upon one's honor. It appeals to youth. Although
physical and moral courage do not always go together, the former is
often a good fore-school for the latter. Jacob Grimm, Treitsche, Bis-
marck, Paulsen, and the theologian Schrempf advocated it. In a
country with a standing army which sanctions it, it has a certain
nimbus which it lacks here. To refuse to give satisfaction for an
insult is disgraceful, but a court of honor that could arbitrate and
determine and declare dishonorable, might serve to keep alive the high
chivalric sense of personal self-respect, which at no age is it so
injurious to grievously wound. Secrecy has in the past given the
duel an heroic glamour. In 1800, Ziegler tells us, a Corps of sixteen
members fought two hundred duels in seven weeks. A wholesome
course of physical training with real achievement and glory for the
victors gives some hardihood in carrying off the slight and inevitable
frictions of student life, which the habits of the Komment so aggravate.

410 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Academic history abounds in illustrations of the instinct of combat.
In 1345 the Oxford students disliked the wine which the college pro-
vided. A mug was thrown at the head of the steward and the broil
grew into a battle between town and gown, where books were torn,
buildings pillaged and burned, students migrated, and the Pope with-
drew privileges. As late as 1854, in a row, a Yale student stabbed a
rioter ; the mob tried to loot the college and to batter its building with
a cannon, which was fortunately spiked by the police. For years the
Yale bully club, captured in a scrimmage with the sailors, was trans-
mitted from class to class to the strongest man. Residents of a college
town, as a class, are often dubbed muckers, barbarians, philistines, and
have always been victims of destructiveness, vandalism and sometimes
outrage, especially where the town was too small to easily dominate
morally and physically the hostile instincts of students. The latter as
a class are more select, learned, clever, richer than the average resi-
dents of their age, and are preferred by the young ladies who live
there, so that jealousy in its most acrid form is almost inevitable on the
side of the town, while this is repaid with contempt and anonymous
and protected insult on the part of the better organized and usually
more resourceful students. Between boarding-house keepers and their
guests, tailors and the haberdashers of all sorts, and students, there
is always a large surface of friction where antagonisms are gener-
ated, and all is heightened by the license and irresponsibiUty of
the more transient collegians, their exuberant animal spirits, practical
jokes, etc.

Group antagonisms with each other are still more frequent and
take many forms from the elaborate code of the duello in its several
academic forms, rushes between classes, cane fights, bowl fights as in
the University of Pennsylvania, and the personal scrapping involved
in these and actually incited by football, especially when between
sophomore and freshman classes. Class battles under various names,
now only a survival, are still sometimes carefully arranged by seconds
and set rules enforced, whereby the parties are equally matched.
Wrestling contests which once played an important role are now prac-
tically extinct, and pugilism has never flourished save under the strict
control of the gymnasium as boxing. At Princeton, freshmen, for
generations, challenged the sophomores to fight, in immense posters
surreptitiously placarded at night in letters that could be read a mile
■off, although interest centered mainly in the challenge and its efface-
ment. Personal dignity, honor, prescriptive and traditional rights, a
factitious and testy honor still arouse hostile sentiments, now generally
kept in leash. The same propensity in a still more attenuated form is
seen in the tendency of debates to lapse into petty wrangles and per-
sonalities, in the rivalries and competitions of emulation between the
various organizations, and in intercollegiate contests of various kinds.
Sedentary habits predispose to every kind of outbreak and excess
especially in youth, and the evolution of the college gymnasium from
the feeble beginnings a few decades ago at Amherst, Princeton, and

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 4ii

Yale, and the athletic movement, have proven the best safety-valve and
aid to college discipline. The best ideal in this respect is now seen
in England, where many if not all of the colleges of Oxford and Cam-
bridge often have their own crews as well as other teams and inter-
collegiate races, which attract great attention and in which the repre-
sentatives of the university teams are selected; here all types of
mankind meet and mingle in the most democratic fashion, and, in
general, the position of a college on the river is the best index of its
intellectual status. Before this ideal is realized, we have a long way
yet to travel in the abandonment of all secret practise and tricks, the
cultivation of a true spirit of sportsmanship, the appreciation of the real
points of the game by the public, too often animated by the same zest
that has sustained ancient gladiatorial contests in modern bull-fights
and pugilism, active participation of larger numbers of students
through this entire course in the benefits of these forms of exercise,
and the more complete subordination of the passion for individual
distinction to that of winning honor for the team and of making the
glory of the team tributary to that of the college, on the principle
that the larger and higher the unit toward which the loyalty is de-
veloped, the better the moral training of athletics. The removal of the
real dishonor so often revealed by the disqualification of men tainted
with professionalism, less perfervid Americanitis at games and in
celebrating victories, less newspaper exploitation and a better regula-
tion of the rapidly growing pecuniary side of these spectacles — these
yet remain to be accomplished here.

The ideal relations between student and professor are those
of the antique friendship as described by Socrates, Aristotle,
and Cicero. The teacher, as it were, incubated the pupil's soul,
loved him and was loved in return. The joy of infecting the
youthful mind with the insights of maturer years is, as Phillips
has shown, the culminating function of parenthood. Induction
into the mysteries of the universe more than the transmission
of information was the ideal. The instructor dealt out knowl-
edge as stages of initiation into the esoteric mysteries of life,
and thus not only was youth taught, but the inculcator himself
felt inspiration to avoid everything unworthy in word, deed,
or manner, and to be an heroic ideal, if not an object of worship,
for his protege.

Academic teaching has lapsed far from this ideal, partly
because it is no longer individual but in ever enlarging groups,
partly because, instead of being chiefly ethical guidance and
inspiration, it has declined to merely conveying information,
or lower yet, to lesson setting and tests for assigned tasks

412 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

prescribed in laboratories and libraries. Now pupils are driven,
not led. Their highest powers of endeavor were once evolved ;
now they are often suppressed. Hard as is the doctrine for
us pedagogues, I am convinced that, in general, disciplinary
troubles have been inversely as the power of teachers to rise
to the ideal of their vocation. The history of academic life
shows that just at those periods when curricula have been
most impoverished, method most unnatural, and matter most
remote from the great natural springs of human interest,
student life has degenerated. Just in proportion as young
men are absorbed in intellectual interests, and as professors
are able and inspiring enough to dominate these, this antago-
nism diminishes. It increases just in proportion as the chief
interests of students are outside the special work of the class-
room, laboratory, or seminary, and as the professor becomes
arid and barren. We often see the spectacle of new men or
new subjects acting as the nucleus of a radical change of senti-
ment throughout the student body in this respect. Youthful
sentiment is right. There is nothing more worthy of being
the butt of all the horse play of ephebic wit or practical joke
than an instructor from whose soul the enthusiasm of hu-
manity has vanished, who has ceased to know and grow, and
who serves up the dry husks of former knowledge and peddles
second- and third-hand information warmed up from year to
year, rather than opening new living fountains in which the
burning thirst of youth can be slaked. The latter's instincts
are far wiser than they know, for iconoclasm is never better
directed than against the literalist, formalist, and sophronist.
The well-fed mind, like the well-fed body, settles to a state
of complacency and satisfaction, while hunger of mind, like
hunger of body, is the greatest incentive of restlessness and
discontent. In this direction a work of inner reorganization
in our large colleges and universities, far greater and harder
than the late magnificent exterior development, is the inevi-
table next step. Masses of students and scores of profess-
ors absorbed in the mechanics of teaching, increasing even
more rapidly than numbers of studies, examination and reci-
tation methods that belong to lower grades, faculties kept
on the alert in striving to outwit the ever new and fertile
devices of laziness and laboring to exact of preparatory

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 4^3

schools a degree of industry they can not stimulate in their
own students; this is not the university invisible, not made
with hands, but only its whited sepulture.

In place of the ideal amity, students and professors have ceased
to trust and have even grown suspicious of each other. Within very
recent decades and often now, student censure is meted out to those
who call upon an instructor socially, or seek information about reading
or studies from one who if he made a friendly call on a student would
be suspected to be a spy, and the familiar terms — bootlicks, blues, cur-
riers, piscatores — indicate the ostracism experienced by those who seek
the good-will of instructors. Wide-spread convention sanctions reti-
cence and perhaps even lies to the faculty, and every act known only to
one's fellow students is almost as secure of betrayal as if done in some
organization pledged to secrecy. The earher history of American col-
lege life abounds in both open and covered hostilities, sometimes with
personal assaults upon the members of the faculty, but more often in
the form of concerted rebellion. College revolts of old were based
more often upon complaints regarding commons' food, but suspicions
of favoritism, any increase of the wonted stint of study or augmented
rigor of examination, suffice. The latter caused the famous Harvard
outbreak of 1790 which was not settled for seven years. The Harvard
rebellion of 1766 interrupted work for about a month. Still more
serious rebellions occurred there in 1807 and 1830. In the Southern
colleges riots have been not infrequent. In 1808 about one-half the
students were expelled from Princeton; in 1845 all the students but
two freshmen were expelled from another institution ; a State univer-
sity not many years ago expelled the entire senior class. An attempt a
few decades since to pledge each college to refuse admission to students
expelled from another soon failed, and in many faculties there is still
a fear that the whole student-body is capable of being unified and ar-
rayed in organization against their authority.

In Bologna and in Paris there were student strikes and boycotts,
and more than once the entire body, under the lead of the Nations,
withdrew from town and either dictated terms before they would re-
turn, defying sometimes even the Pope, or withdrew to another seat.
The migration of five thousand students from Prague to Leipzig and
the hegira from Williams to Amherst are also in point in more recent
times. Oxford asserted the right of appeal from the chancellor. Stu-
dent life always insists upon privileges which of old were granted in
abundance in the form of immunities from taxation, arrest save by the
university beadle and in the college prison with trial by a college
court. Until very recent years the German student who had offended
the city's ordinances merely showed his legitimation card to a police-
man and thereby escaped arrest. Free passes, exemptions from military
service, reduced fees at theaters and concerts, were almost universal.
To-day wherever students are threatened with the withdrawal of what

4H THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

seem prescriptive and traditional rights, they assert themselves with a
force that few faculties can successfully cope with, as witness the
efforts at Purdue and elsewhere to exterminate secret societies. The
right to celebrate important events in very irregular ways is an im-
memorial tradition perhaps even more difficult to suppress than hazing.

Most American colleges, despite the growing freedom of life and
efforts at self-government, still insist upon a state of pupilage, es-
pecially in matters of study, which favors the tendency to regard teach-
ers as natural enemies. Resident tutors and night-watchmen about
dormitories, attempts to control hours of study and retiring now gen-
erally abandoned, the time of being in, of rising, attending chapel and
recitation, punctuality, etc., devolve a mass of disciplinary details upon
college and university faculty which ought to be outgrown. One of
these institutions had lately eighty-three punishable offenses specified
in its rules, and the parental theory requires great discretion in its
administration. The New England professor of the old type feels that
there is almost no folly of which a class is not capable.

Professorial inadequacy to know the nature and meet the real needs
of youth is not only one theme but one cause of the spirit of parody,
caricature, and satire which is so essential a trait of academic youth.
Mock heroics and serio-comedies have this advantage, if high themes
are essayed, that they afford a ready shelter for the disappointed sus-
ceptibilities of ambition. Efforts of this class are effervescences of
good-natured cleverness, but they are often directed against objects,
ideals, or sentiments which are not deeply felt by their authors, and
this instinct is a beneficent agent in destroying the old clothes of cul-
ture, and doing its May-day house-cleaning. There is always much in
every age and community that greatly needs to be executed and buried
and yet is so entrenched that only the shafts of ridicule can reach it.
While this often goes too deep and attacks that which is intrinsically
and always good, true, and beautiful, on the whole its benefits probably
outweigh its harm. We live in an old age of civilization that has ac-
cumulated vast cultural impedimenta that ought to be given to some
wholesome scavenger agency of oblivion. The second best ought now
to pall on the palate. This instinct, too, performs the gadfly function
which Socrates praised in spurring on arid professors to keep their
powers mobilized, to grind out ever new and better grists, and to
touch the deeper powers of appreciation and affirmation.

Recent efforts at self-government by students are essentially an
American experiment and have taken many different forms. One is
that of a student court like that of the junior and senior classes at
Trinity; another is the selection of student representatives to confer
with the faculty on matters within fields carefully defined; in still an-
other form the faculty selects an advisory board and invests it with
power to determine and control certain matters along with members
of the student body. Disciplinary committees with power over certain
offenses, even vigilance committees to patrol the halls, censors, as in
the University of Virginia with its unique honor system, in vogue since

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 4^5

1865, a student Senate and House like that of Amherst with power to
enact laws, illustrate the various types and degrees of student auton-
omy. Other interesting forms are on trial at Stanford, Maine, South
CaroHna, Indiana, and elsewhere. Nearly one-half of the smaller
American colleges have adopted some form of self-government, which
in some is carried to an extreme. There is great diversity of need and
capacity in this respect between different institutions and different sec-
tions of the country. Many irregularities of student life, especially
outbreaks of lawlessness and sometimes dishonesty in examinations,
have been materially checked. Students can best detect and best judge
students. The success of all these schemes depends very largely upon
the tact and discretion of the president and faculty. In some institu-
tions students on entering are requested to sign a form of contract ; in
others they pledge adherence to carefully drawn rules. The indefinite
and volatilized freedom, which is advocated for the period of student
life in continental Europe, it is often said, is less needed in a land where
the liberty of subsequent life is so unrestricted as in a republic. One
of the last sentiments to be developed in human nature is the sense
of responsibility, which is one of the highest and most complex psychic
qualities and in the development of which our carefully nurtured and
protected youth of student age, although perhaps more matured in this
respect than in any other land, have had little training. Necessary as
is the discipline of this experience, the college is less fitted to give it
than the outside world. The learner is necessarily receptive, under
authority, in a state of pupilage, and premature independence is always
dangerous and tempts to excesses.

Morals and religion have had a very diverse history illus-
trating all extremes ; at several periods almost every form of
dissipation has existed. Drunkenness has sometirr\es prevailed
in its most repulsive form, where at stated bouts students drank
out of their boots or the shoes of dissolute women, under their
arms, or lay upon the floor while their mates poured beer into
their mouths through a funnel to enable them to win a drink-
ing wager. Gambling has been a passion, burglaries have
abounded in open day. During a good part of the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries the habits of German students were
particularly bad, and when Vienna undertook to expel harlots
from town for the benefit of students, it was unsafe for women
to go on the streets unprotected. All the more elegant dissi-
pations of club life have promptly found their way into aca-
demic circles, and conviviality and gourmandism have run
riot. Special forms of sexual vice have at several times and
places wrought their devastations, and cock fights, falcon hunt-

4i6 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

ing, the chase with dogs and birds, bowhng, poaching, and
man}'- other practises which fashion sanctioned, but which
sometimes a too strict morahty condemned, have found a con-
genial home in the universities.

The opposite extremes have been no less accentuated. The
ecclesiastical character of early university life insisted upon
almost every monastic rigor, was marked by fast days, early
matins, and later, college prayers before daylight, hard beds,
no fire, the severest parietal regulations, and enforced the rule
of poverty, chastity, and obededence. In the Scotch universi-
ties most students were poor, sometimes walked to the college
barefoot to save their shoes, carried all their possessions,
worked hard, and had no time for play. The old Lycurgus
society at Yale advocated a plain Quaker-like dress and life,
but the costume was so unbecoming that the custom died out.
Amherst had a vigorous anti-venerean society, and benevolent
organizations in great numbers flourished.

Religious reactions have been extreme. After the French
Revolution a wave of skepticism swept over nearly every Eu-
ropean and American institution of learning. Freethinking
was the fashion, while the very small minority who strove to
be religious were ridiculed, dubbed religiosi, or lap-ears, and
held prayer-meetings, if at all, in secret. In 1813 Prince-
ton had grown very lax till four young men met covertly
for prayer and started a religious movement. In 1802
a society was founded at Harvard to arrest the decay of
religion. In 1850 the Wingolf societies of theological stu-
dents only were established in Germany for the cultivation of
religious sentiments. The data are not at hand to trace all
these fluctuations. In general, in Anglo-Saxon lands religious
sentiments have dominated at nearly all times and in nearly
all seats of learning, while on the Continent, especially in Ger-
many, universities have been seats of free thought. Perhaps
the greatest laxity in early times was that which Puritanism
at its rise strove so hard to correct. We have elsewhere seen
the effects of revivalism on the American colleges since the
days of Whitefield.

Thus the history of student life shows clubs, sodalities,
associations of almost every conceivable sort and for all pur-
poses, clubs for eating, drinking, hunting, hawking, for every

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS A^7

kind of indoor and outdoor sport, for the most diverse political
ends, for all social reforms, clubs representing nearly all of the
great philosophical systems — stoics, cynics, skeptics, platonists,
scholastics, idealists, and all the rest — clubs for banterers, for
drinking young hyson and stronger beverages, gambling,
shooting, fishing, acting, playing practical jokes, nonsense
clubs, wine clubs, essay clubs, associations for dietary reforms,
for fighting, for wearing plain or eccentric clothing, elaborate
organizations for those who stand lowest in class, clubs of liars,
of petty pilferers, associations for charity, for the propaganda
of religion and even atheism, for traveling, for every special
branch of intellectual culture, and interest both in the sciences
and the humanities, and besides these, hundreds of pure funk
organizations with nothing about them but high-sounding
names and officers, who never had a meeting and were never
elected — all these bear witness to the intense pleasure at this
age of life of simply being together or even imagining social
bonds. It is a pathetic fact that ethical teaching which should
so largely consist in developing the social instincts aright has
not treated and but slightly influenced this side of academic
life, which for the average student perhaps outweighs all other
college influences, but still hovers about abstract theories of
morality.

XII. Associations for youth devised or guided by adults.
Here we enter a very different realm. Forbush ^ undertakes
an analysis of many such clubs which he divides according to
their purpose into nine chief classes : physical training, handi-
craft, literary, social, civic and patriotic, science-study, hero-
love, ethical, religious. These he classifies as to age of the
boys, his purview generally ending at seventeen, discusses and

^ The Social Pedagogy of Boyhood; Ped. Sem., October, 1900, vol. vii, pp.
307-346. See also his The Boy Problem, with an introduction by G. Stanley
Hall, Boston, 1901, p. 194. Also Buck (Boys' Self-governing Clubs, New York,
1903), who thinks ten million dollars could be used in training club advisers who
should have the use of schools and grounds after hours and evenings, conduct ex-
cursions, organize games, etc., but avoid all direct teaching and book work gener-
ally. This writer thinks such an institution would soon result in a marked increase
of public morality and an augmented demand for technical instruction, and that for
the advisers themselves the work would be the best training for high positions in
politics and reform. Clubs of boys from eight to sixteen or eighteen must not
admit age disparities of more than two years.
66

41 8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

tabulates the most favorable number, the instincts chiefly
utilized, the kinds of education gained in each and its percent-
age of interest, and the qualities developed. He commends
Riis's mode of pulling the safety-valve of a rather dangerous
boy-gang by becoming an adult honorary member, and inter-
preting the impulsions of this age in the direction of adventure
instead of in that of mischief. He reminds us that nearly one-
third of the inhabitants of America are adolescents, that three
millions are boys between twelve and sixteen, " that the so-
called heathen people are, whatever their age, all in the adoles-
cent stage of life."

A few American societies of this class we may briefly char-
acterize as follows :

(a) Typical of a large class of local juvenile clubs is the " Cap-
tains of Ten," originally for boys of from eight to fourteen, and with
a later graduate squad of those over fifteen. The " Ten " are the
fingers ; and whittling, scrap-book making, mat-weaving, etc., are
taught. The motto is, " The hand of the diligent shall bear rule " ; its
watchword is "Loyalty"; and the prime objects are "to promote a
spirit of loyalty to Christ among the boys of the club," and to learn
about and work for Christ's kingdom. The members wear a silver
badge ; have an annual photograph ; elect their leaders ; vote their
money to missions (on which topic they hold meetings) ; act Bible
stories in costume; hear stories and see scientific experiments; enact
a Chinese school ; write articles for the children's department of re-
ligious journals; develop comradeship, and "have a good time."

(b) The Agassiz Association, founded in 1875 "to encourage
personal work in natural science," now numbers some 25,000 mem-
bers, with chapters distributed all over the country, and was said by
the late Professor Hyatt to include "the largest number of persons ever
bound together for the purpose of mutual help in the study of nature."
It furnishes practical courses of study in the sciences ; has local
chapters in thousands of towns and cities in this and other countries ;
publishes a monthly organ. The Swiss Cress, to facilitate cor-
respondence and exchange of specimens ; has a small endowment, a
badge, is incorporated, and is animated by a spirit akin to that of
University Extension ; and, although not exclusively for young people,
is chiefly sustained by them.

(c) The Catholic Total Abstinence Union is a strong, well-
organized, and widely extended society, mostly composed of young
men whose pledge required of all members explains its object. " I
promise, with the Divine assistance and in honor of the Sacred Thirst
and the Agony of our Saviour, to abstain from all intoxicating drinks
and to prevent as much as possible by advice and example the sin

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 4^9

of intemperance in others and to discountenance the drinking customs
of society." A general convention of the Union has been held an-
nually since 1877.

(d) The Princely Knights of Character Castle is an organiza-
tion founded in 1895 ^'^^ boys from twelve to eighteen to " inculcate,
disseminate, and practise the principles of heroism — endurance —
love, purity, and patriotism." The central incorporated castle grants
charters to local castles, directs the ritual and secret work. Its offi-
cers are supreme prince, patriarch, scribe, treasurer, director, with
captain of the guard, watchman, porter, keeper of the dungeon,
musician, herald, and favorite son. The degrees of the secret work
are shepherd lad, captive, viceroy, brother, son, prince, knight, and
royal knight. There are jewels, regalia, paraphernalia, and initia-
tions. The pledge for the first degree is, " I hereby promise and
pledge that I will abstain from the use of intoxicating liquor in any
form as a beverage ; that I will not use profane or improper language ;
that I will discourage the use of tobacco in any form; that I will
strive to live pure in body and mind ; that I will obey all rules and reg-
ulations of the order, and not reveal any of the secrets in any way."
There are benefits, reliefs, passwords, a list of offenses and penalties.

(e) Some 35,000 Bands of Mercy are now organized under the
direction of the American Humane Education Society. The object of
the organization is to cultivate kindness to animals and sympathy with
the poor and oppressed. The prevention of cruelty in driving, cattle
transportation, humane methods of killing, care for the sick and aban-
doned or overworked animals, are the themes of most of its voluminous
literature. It has badges, hymn-books, cards, and certificates of mem-
bership, and a motto, " Kindness, Justice, and Mercy to All." Its pledge
is, " I will try to be kind to all harmless living creatures, and try to pro-
tect them from cruel usage," and is intended to include human as well
as dumb creatures. The founder and secretary, with great and com-
mendable energy, has instituted prize contests for speaking on humane
subjects in schools, and has printed and circulated prize stories; since
the incorporation of the society in 1868, he has been indefatigable
in collecting funds, speaking before schools and colleges, and prints
fifty to sixty thousand copies of the monthly organ. In addition to
its mission of sentiment, and cO make it more effective, this organiza-
tion clearly needs to make more provision for the intellectual element
by well-selected or constructed courses, or at least references on the
life, history, habits, and instincts of animals, and it also needs more
recognition that modern charity is a science as well as a virtue.

(/) The Coming Men of America, although organized only in
1894, now claims to be the greatest chartered secret society for boys
and young men in the country. It began two years earlier in a
lodge started by a nineteen-year-old boy in Chicago in imitation of
such ideas of Masons, Odd-Fellows, etc., as its founder could get
from his older brother, and its meetings were first held in a base-
ment. On this basis older heads aided in its development, so that

420 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

it is a good example of the boy-imitative helped out by parents. The
organization is now represented in every State and Territory, and
boys travel on its badge. There is an ofificial organ, The Star, a
badge, sign, and a secret sign language called bestography. Its secret
ritual work is highly praised. Its membership is limited to white
boys under twenty-one.

(g) The first Harry Wadsworth Club was established in 1871
as a result of E. E. Hale's Ten Times One, published the year before.
Its motto is, " Look up, and not down ; look forward, and not back ;
look out, and not in ; lend a hand," or " Faith, Hope, and Charity."
Its organ is the Ten Times One Record ; its badge is a silver Maltese
cross. Each club may organize as it will, and choose its own name,
provided it accepts the above motto. Its watchword is, "In His Name."
It distributes charities, conducts a Noonday Rest, outings in the coun-
try, and devotes itself to doing good.^

Within the last third of a century the Christian Church has
awakened to the fact that its duty to the young is not complete
when they are confirmed or even converted, but that they need
organizations of a kind very different from those of adults, and
these have now been developed in every great religious body.
They are not only initiated but largely sustained by older peo-
ple, but unfortunately, like the Sunday-school, almost always
by those who have little knowledge of adolescent nature or
needs. Most of them make later adaptations to fit academic
students, but these are still inadequate. The spirit of these
societies is warm-hearted, positive, optimistic, enthusiastic,
and loyal to the great Head of the Church. This is their glory.
Most of them have progressively recognized the need of
amusement, recreation, and athletics to counteract the tempta-
tions of city life, and a more youthful buoyancy and a broader
charity have thus been given to the Church. Classes, lectures,
evening homes have been opened ; special directors and trainers
are increasingly competent and give expert training, and per-
haps this is the most important advance of the Church in the
last generation. Far more than teachers in high school or
college, or pastors, these leaders are ready to profit, as far as
their still too limited training permits, by every aid that recent
ephebic studies can offer. When the stage of external or-
ganization is less absorbing and more effort can be given to

1 See Young People's Societies, by L. W. Bacon; New York, 1900, p. 265.
Also, F. G. Cressey; The Church and Young Men; New York, 1903, p. 233.

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 42 1

improving the quality of real inner work, these recent organ-
izations will perhaps sometime lead all others in ministering
to the deepest needs of youth. Their attractiveness to people
older than those primarily in view shows how in maturity
men love to hark back to this best age of life, both to make
up what they missed at its true season and to conserve into
age the freshness of earlier years. Even the affected fervor
and efifusiveness of hearts that have begun to show the chill of
age and the sometimes gushy and shallow enthusiasms that
persist well on into the great fatigue that slowly supervenes
with advancing senescence, are an often pathetic testimony to
the fact that in our age and land youth rules, and all love to
pay an almost passionate tribute wherever it holds sway. I
can here specify, and that very briefly, only a few of the most
characteristic of these new societies.

(h) The Young Men's Christian Association^ was founded in
1844, in London, to meet the needs of clerks and other young men
who had been drawn from the country by the fascinations of the city,
and many of whom had few opportunities for forming fit acquaint-
ances, had no home but a bedroom, and so no place to go to, and
were exposed to the fiercest temptation. In 185 1 it was established
in this country and has now spread to every civilized land. In 1800
one in twenty-five of our population lived in cities of 8,000 or over,
and in 1880 one in four. The attraction of cities, those great hives
of industry and trade, where great stakes are lost and won, where life
is so hot and fast, where the nerves are tense and tingle, and compe-
tition and vice both stimulate and enervate, is shown by the fact
that from eighteen to twenty per cent of our great urban population
is made up of males between fifteen and thirty-six, while in the coun-
try this class constitutes only about fourteen per cent. The American
associations now own property valued at nearly thirty million dol-
lars, and hold musical and other public entertainments, sociables, meet-
ings, Bible classes, evening schools, and occasionally conduct hospitals,
issue traveling certificates, act as employment bureaus, and organize
local and departmental centers for railroad men, students, etc. There
are now (1903) 28,000 active student members out of 62,000 evan-

^ Fifty Years' Work among Young Men in all Lands. Published in June,
1894, on the occasion of the semi-centennial of the founding of the Y. M. C. A.;
London, 1894, pp. 326. Year-Book of the Y. M. C. A. of North America, 1903.
History of the Y. M. C. A., by L. L Doggett, Ph.D., 1896, vol. i, p. 191.
Continued in some sense in his Life of R. R. McBurney, 1902. See also, for
principles and method, Religious Work for Men, with Bibliography, New York,
1903, p. 90.

422 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

gelical church members in nearly 450 colleges of this country where
these associations exist, or about one-fourth of the entire collegiate
body. That there are no more members, despite all the efforts put
forth, shows that the needs of academic youth are not yet met. This
organization flourishes best in the State universities where religion
can not be officially taught. Four or five thousand young men are
pledged to the work of foreign missions and engaged in their study,
a far greater number than can be employed. The ideals of militant
Christianity are in a measure here revived. Their intercollegiate
meetings, summer conferences, receptions to freshmen, their wisdom
in abstaining from class politics, their hospitable buildings, have in-
troduced a new spirit of confraternity. Very often Sunday-school
and reform work is undertaken of an aggressive kind, and headed
by the Prospect Union at Harvard, valuable extension work is done
among laboring men, women, and clerks. In August, 1895, just forty
years after the World's Alliance of the Y. M. C. A. was formed,
there was organized at a congress of delegates in Sweden a World's
Student Christian Federation representing 33,000 members,^ which
has since steadily increased.

In Germany these organizations were established chiefly to meet
the strong wave of reaction against religion that pervaded that coun-
try, a movement that was so aggressive, especially in 1848, as to
threaten social and political as well as religious institutions and
beliefs. In Japan, India, and Catholic lands they have had to resist
the influences of preexisting faiths, in industrial centers, the grow-
ing indifference or hostility of working men to religion, and toward
the western frontier where men exceed women, lawlessness and vice
are entrenched and have to be met. The interdenominational char-
acter of this organization opened a new field of fellowship with an
inspiration both strong and new. A new force of lay-activity, which
inherited all the best traditions of revivalism of the Puritans and the
original Protestant and early Catholic propaganda movements, was
harnessed and put to work; honor, conscience, and Christianity were
advocated in the methods of business, that monster that so dominates
the modern world, whose organizations, motives, laws are as yet,
despite all our studies, so little known, fruitful affiliation effected with
the Bible, Tract, Sunday-school, and other societies, and by these
and other co-ordinate efforts the dwindling percentage of male mem-
bers of Protestant churches, now estimated at only thirty-five per
cent of all, sensibly increased. It permits no theological discussions,
and accepts no responsibility for the dogmatic beliefs of its members.

(i) The Christian Endeavor Society was practically the first of
a new type of religious organization for both sexes. It owes alle-
giance only and altogether to the church with which it is connected and
to which it reports, and all its acts are subject to revision and veto by

» Strategic Points in the World's Conquest, by J. R. Mott. New York, 1897,
p. 218.

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 4^3

the church of which it is a part. Its fellowship with sister organiza-
tions throughout the world is based on a common pledge, methods,
organization name, and State, national and international conven-
tions. Its junior branch of boys and girls under fourteen reports
to it. It has information, Sunday-school, calling, prayer-meeting,
music, missionary, flower, temperance, relief, good literature, and
sometimes other committees, each of which is expected to magnify
its office into more or less of a specialty, both for its own benefit
and that of the society and the local church. Active members must
believe themselves Christians, associate members must be of worthy
character, and affiliated or honorary members need be " no longer
young." There are badges, charms, banners, a copious literature
of books, and especially leaflets and periodicals, songs, diplomas,
programs for rallies and other special meetings, masses of sugges-
tions, " credit systems," " next steps," methods, temperance pledges,
etc. The devotion and organizing ability of the founder are undoubted.

The preparatory members, whose parents are not ready to approve
the full pledge, sign the following : " I promise to be present at every
meeting when I can, and to be quiet and reverent during the meet-
ing." The model constitution says " they will be expected to
attend meetings regularly." ^ Thus the first duty of these young chil-
dren, mostly from seven or eight to twelve, is meeting-going when-
ever they " can " — a word of as many meanings as there are tempera-
ments and moods. The temptations to juvenile casuistry here opened
as to what they can and can not do are already enough studied to
show that at least in some cases a tender conscience often becomes
either flabby or callous under this precocious strain.

Each Junior member signs a pledge " that I will pray and read
the Bible every day," and " I will be present at every meeting of the
society when I can and will take some part in every meeting," as well
as that he will try to lead a Christian life and do what Jesus would
like. The response to every monthly roll-call is considered a renewal
of the pledge. Against this last Gesinnungs promise to try added
for this grade I have nothing here to say. It probably does good
and is a vow of a very different order. Some soon doubt whether
Jesus wishes them to take part in every meeting, because it is too
hard or because others can edify so much more, and fear thus that
in keeping one part of the covenant they violate another. They find
themselves reading Scripture and praying daily because they prom-
ised, and so are sometimes constrained to do both when it must be
under such adverse conditions as to be mechanical, or they do it be-
cause they fear the awful sacrilege of a broken vow to God. They
might do both on Sundays with due solemnity of spirit and under-
standing, and they often wish this had been the extent of their cove-
nant. It is not quite clear to me that the average normal child of

1 The Christian Endeavor Manual, 1903, and Training the Church of the Future,
1902, both by Francis E. Clark, D. D.

424 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

these tender years ought to be constrained to pray or read the Bible
daily alone, still less to do the former in public, or that he can do so
without rubbing some of the bloom off these solemn exercises at the
time when they acquire a great access of inner meaning, for reasons
stated in Chapter XIV; nor am I sure of the propriety of his attend-
ing and taking part in every meeting under pain of expulsion for
three consecutive and unexcused absences from monthly meetings,
or of the nature of the work of the committee to obtain excuses and
reclaim those grown indifferent to their pledge. Some can be true
Christian " endeavorers " without participating in or even attending
meetings, and this recruiting feature is made too central. This kind
of pledge to a specific ecclesiastical function is indeed a new thing
in religious history. Children are impressionable and easily guided
by adult or clerical advice to mortgage their lives in the interests of
the Church, and the evils of an analogous pledge to attend school and
to recite or to study at home daily would be apparent.

To do such things because they have been vowed is to act from
a relatively low motive. The phobia of breaking a pledge is often
intense, as we saw in Chapter IV. This obscures higher motives
and robs these acts of the spontaneity that is half their charm and
all their virtue. The rewards of conscience for doing them are those
of simple honesty, which is very different from the exaltation of soul by
true worship. One meeting, prayer, testimony, or one Bible-reading
a year, out of a full heart, expresses and fosters more true piety than
a daily but constrained service. For parent or religious teacher to
ask it on this motive is also a lazy shirking of their higher duty to
develop these exercises on the basis of love and spontaneity. Would
an iron-clad oath upon honor in a French class in a boarding-school
to speak French only, at breakfast, and in English to read a little
Shakespeare daily, or to attend every exercise when they can on pain of
expulsion, promote a love of these things, and would teachers thereby
tend to more or less impulsion to make their work interesting and
attractive for its own merits? As I have observed the working of
this part of the Junior pledge, it seems sometimes a cheap and easy
and almost cowardly trick to ease the conscience of parent or religious
teacher by devolving on the child what they should do themselves
by higher but harder motives ; and the smug complacency of adults
at having secured and counted these pledges as if they had thereby
discharged in any sense their duty seems a pious delusion that veils
a partial abdication of the highest function of parenthood. For the
young child it is giving his religious life and nurture precociously
over into his own keeping at the very age when he most of all needs
constant adult aid and is least able to assume responsibility for the
keeping of his own soul.

The vow of the full active member, called the backbone of the
society, repeated in concert and each phrase made the basis of exegesis
and exhortation, is still more formidable, and is as follows [italics
mine] :

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 425

"Trusting in the Lord Jesus Christ for strength, I promise Him that I will
strive to do whatever He would like to have me do ; that I will make it the rule
of my life to pray and to read the Bible every day, and to support my own church
in every way, especially by attending her regular Sunday and mid-week services,
unless prevented by some reason which I can conscientiously give to my Saviour ;
and that, just so far as I know how, throughout my whole life, I will endeavor to
lead a Christian life."

"As an active member, I promise to be true to all my duties, to be present at,
and to take some part, aside from singing, in every Christian Endeavor prayer-
meeting, unless hindered by some reason which I can conscientiously give to my
Lord and Master. If obliged to be absent from the monthly consecration meeting
of the society, I will, if possible, send at least a verse of Scripture to be read in
response to my name at the roll-call."

The associate members' pledge is as follows :

" I promise to attend the prayer-meetings of the society habitually, and declare
my willingness to do what I may be called upon to do as an associate member to
advance the interest of the society."

Preparatory and associate members vow only meeting and society
duties, and here, too, these are, relatively to Christian living, far too
prominent. An oath to support one's own church in every way may
involve unchristian conduct in many an emergency; to do all duties
is absolutely impossible, as any knowledge of ethics would show, and
to vow to do what is asked by another member is a gross violation
of the high prerogative of personal liberty. Any real religious or
moral maturity requires that great personal problems like these be
not prematurely closed. The religious oath-craze may go further,
and those who desire may become " Comrades of the quiet hour " by
vowing as a rule of life " to set apart at least fifteen minutes every
day, if possible in the early morning, for quiet meditation and direct
communion with God." The vow of the Tenth Legion is the
" practise " " to give God the tithe." The Home Circle pledge is to
endeavor " to maintain family worship in the home, and to strive to
make it, through kindness, courtesy, and mutual helpfulness, a house-
hold of God."

Add all these oaths, which with their implications cover the entire
field of life, and we have almost a non posse peccare without incurring
the awful curse of perjury. The judicial oath to tell the whole and
only truth in a specific case, supported by ordeals and compurgating
wraithsmen, contracts to pay or do definite things ; pledges of general
loyalty, fidelity, allegiance, and of good endeavor, all have their
place, as do temperance and white cross pledges, perhaps as individual
remedial instrumentalities. Society and business rest upon trust and
confidence and the fulfilment of promised obligations. The Jewish
dispensation was a contract with Jehovah.^ The oath instinct that

i Das Eid im Alten Testament, von Julius Happel, p. 92.

426 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

violates the precept " swear not at all " is very strong in youth,' and
its moral leverage is great and needs more study to utilize aright, but
the endeavorer's method, even if more good than harm is done on the
whole, is clearly and certainly unfavorable to those capable of higher
moral and religious development.

(;) The Epworth League originated in 1872 in an effort toward
a uniform organization of the young people of the Methodist Episco-
pal Church, and received its formal endorsement of the General Con-
ference which made it a part of the Church work in 1892. Its ob-
ject is " to promote intelligent and loyal piety in young members and
friends of the Church, to aid them in the attainment of purity of
heart and in constant growth in grace, and to train them in works
of mercy and help." There are prescribed reading courses with diplo-
mas therefor with seals affixed, suggestive plans for meetings, etc.
The league is offensive and defensive, and exists to increase love to
every Christian Church, and to make its own a power in the land.
Although in relations of cordial sympathy with the Christian En-
deavor Society, which it resembles in spirit and methods, it has its
own badges, pledges, literature, methods, etc. The Epworth Guards
is an auxiliary organization to develop Christian manliness in young
men and boys who are members and adherents of the Methodist Epis-
copal Church, and is organized in companies, regiments, battalions,
etc. The Junior pledge is as follows :

" I do hereby promise, with the help of God, to try always to do right ; to pray
every day ; to read every day in the Word of God ; to abstain from profane lan-
guage, from the use of tobacco, and from all intoxicating liquor; to attend the
morning church service and the regular meeting of the Junior Epworth League."

The regular pledge is :

" I will earnestly seek for myself and will do what I can to help others attain
the highest New Testament standard of experience and life. I will abstain from
all those forms of worldly amusement forbidden by the Discipline of the Methodist
Episcopal Church. I will attend, so far as possible, the religious meetings of the
chapter and the church, and take some active part in them."

Every member of the Guards must, in the presence of an officer,
both repeat and sign the following obligation:

"I do, upon honor, solemnly promise and pledge that, while a member of the
Epworth Guards, I will not use tobacco, profane or obscene language, or intoxi-
cating liquors as a beverage ; that I will keep myself pure, will be loyal to my
country, will obey faithfully the laws and rules of the Epworth Guard, and all of
the ofificers over me; and that I will, at all times, endeavor to be an example of
good conduct, and strive to develop Christian manliness in myself and others."

Here, too, besides the pledge of effort to lead a moral and relig-
ious life, there are still more specific pledges, even that to abstain

1 M. H. Small: Methods of Manifesting the Instinct for Certainty. Ped. Sem.,
January, 1898, vol. v, pp. 313-380.

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 4^7

from forms of amusement which the Church disapproves and obe-
dience to the rules of the order, so that on the whole this pledge is
perhaps most objectionable of all.

(k) The Brotherhood of St. Andrew is an Episcopal organiza-
tion and originated in Chicago in 1883 on St. Andrew's Day. In 1897
there were 1,223 chapters with 13,000 members pledged to pray and
work together. The national brotherhood is simply a federation of
parochial societies, and holds an annual meeting. Every member
must pledge to obey only two rules so long as he shall belong to the
society. The first is, " to pray daily for the spread of Christ's king-
dom among young men, and for God's blessing upon the labors of
the brotherhood." The second rule of service is, " to make an earnest
effort each week to bring at least one young man within the hearing
of the gospel of Jesus Christ as set forth in the service of the Church
and in young men's Bible classes." It is thus a praying band with a
mission motive of bringing individuals to the Church. The order
was without precedent in this Church, and was from the start ag-
gressive, and had to antagonize many prevalent modes of life and
thought. It, too, has a boys' department, and for all, there is a special
service of admission, and a litany for chapter meetings. Altogether
it helps to spread the ideal of a simple, manly, earnest Christianity
and Churchmanship. A university settlement has been proposed for
the study of social facts.

(I) The Lutheran Church undertook this work only in 1888, and
its national league was organized in 1895. It lays less stress upon
oaths. The object sought is to stimulate the young to greater activity
in their respective churches ; to assist in keeping those who have been
confirmed true to their vows; to secure the active aid of youth in
advancing local church work, to cultivate friendship, and to guard the
young against vice and unbelief.

Usually where these societies elect their own officers they
must first be approved by the church, which not only organizes
but otherwise controls their actions as much as college
fashions and requirements dominate fitting schools, often to
their great harm, as we shall see in the next chapter. Many if
not most of the younger societies are led by women at an age
when, if adult dominance is desirable, a man is a far more
wholesome influence for boys. At this age, too, no sponta-
neous boys' organizations that really represented their spirit
would admit girls. The most fluent in public talk and prayer
are often just those that need repression, and to tiptoe up to an
experience that is beyond them and does not fit their stage
of progress makes the present seem more unreal. True re-
ligious experience seems at this age to come and go in great,

428 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Strong, but unfrequent rhythms with a cadence that is perhaps
more nearly seasonal than diurnal or weekly. The juvenile
branches of these oath-clubs are not only " girly " in spirit,
in the boys' sense of that term, but they offer little incentive
or opportunity for physical or athletic exercise, which is a
necessary ingredient of everything which captivates a boy's
soul, and do little to cultivate moral fiber, to promote ethical
or civic and communal virtue, or to awaken and feed the in-
tellect, but they center in ecclesiastical functions. Children
should minister in every helpful way to the Church, but should
not be indentured to it in ways analogous to those which
factory laws forbid in industrial life. The long contract
system of securing labor from aborigines may be as cruel as
slavery itself despite the signed agreement into which the
innocent human nature is beguiled.

The above list could be greatly extended, and embraces
juvenile associations of all kinds, from those for some one
specific object to fairly complete organizations of the entire
life, like the George Junior Republic. Girls accept earlier and
far more kindly than boys organizations made by their elders
for their benefit. Some societies are more, and some less, ex-
otic, and there is always danger that virtues thus cultivated will
be premature and of the hothouse variety, incapable of bearing
much strain and liable to languish later in life. In several in-
stances such clubs have flourished with every sign of vigorous
life, and then, on the death or marriage of some good woman
who had put her life into them, have suddenly died and left
no visible sign even of regret. Modern city life, to a degree
which it is hard to realize, is artificial and unnatural for youth.
His racial forebears at the stage he represents were rollicking,
fighting, hunting, courting, as they roved with wild freedom
in the open in quest of adventure. He is especially divorced
in city life from the steadying laws of recapitulation which
insure emergence in due season into a higher state, and so
is all the more plastic, helpless, disoriented, and in need of suc-
cor. Hence, in large part, comes the immeasurable waste of
adolescent life. Church, home, school, and all social life ought
to be organized about youth like placenta, and should restore,
if possible, all of the lost phyletic elements that are needful,
while adult leaders should strive to actually get back to the real

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 4^9

life of youth, which is almost like another incarnation, such as
theology describes as the supreme deed of Jesus. Most
grown-ups are unnatural in their talks and even attitude to
youth, and it is not the true self of the latter that goes out in
response to such efforts. Teaching is commonly a falsetto
thing and not an infection. So, too, if reserves are not re-
spected youth responds by disguises, unconscious though they
be. Too much adult invasion makes boys artificial, while their
deeper nature cries out for guidance that is not coddling.
Youth is in the ethical far more than in the spiritual stage,
and this the religious shepherds of the young find it almost
impossible to realize, and so leader and led sustain a long and
mutually pleasant flirtation with each other that does not ripen
even to that deep and lasting friendship which the young so
readily develop, with lifelong and enthusiastic gratitude for
those that really serve them. Experience is slowly teaching
some elements of the wisdom as to ages, numbers, the propor-
tions and themes for personal work, its modes and degrees,
ends, organizations, the focalization of effort in " key-boys,"
fruitful and unfruitful topics, etc., that need to be collated and
sifted from organizations of all kinds, and expert knowledge
is contributing an ever growing body of facts and laws, but
both need to be welded into a born genius for tact, taste, and
sympathy of a rare and special type before we have a true
mentor able to preside aright over the budding social instincts
of this most gregarious of all periods of life.

The following conclusion at least seems warranted. Every
adolescent boy ought to belong to some club or society
marked by as much secrecy as is compatible with safety.
Something esoteric, mysterious, a symbolic badge, counter-
sign, a lodge and its equipment, and perhaps other things
owned in common, give a real basis for comradeship. This
permits, too, the abandon of freedom in its yeasty stage, which
is another deep phyletic factor of the social instinct. Innocent
rioting, reveling with much Saturnalian license, vents the
anarchistic instincts in ways least injurious to the community
and makes docility and subordination more easy and natural
in their turn. Provision of time and place for barbarisms or
idiotic nonsense without adult restraint helps youth to pass
naturally through this larval stage of candidacy to humanity.

430 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Their celebration of their dawning future in an ascendent
age and race is in many a curious way the counterpart of the
Indian ghost dance which invokes and worships a lost glory
in its evening twilight. The commemorations of the lost para-
dise of the red men of the stone age are in some respects a re-
markable intaglio of the perfervid ways in which youth hails
the golden age to come.^ Such an organization must select its
members according to the natural instincts of affinity, with
power to discipline or expel those found too unlike-minded.
It will probably have a ritual of initiation, with grades of ap-
prenticeship in the novitiate, the lowest involving much sub-
serviency, almost like that of a villein to a manorial court, and
all perhaps symbolic of putting off the old isolated self by
regeneration into a larger new social existence. There will
be intense consciousness of the machinery of organization,
constitution, by-laws, rules of order and procedure, debate,
election, and perhaps ritual, etc. If such a spontaneous organ-
ization of boys in the later teens has any inner work, it is not
likely to be the direct promotion of piety or any form of out-
side social service, but is most likely to be dramatic or musical,
or next to this, to promote debate or declamation, and to cul-
tivate a peculiar form of group-honor, the best form of which
for this age, as we shall see later, is the idealized court of King
Arthur. In cultivating friendship intensely for a small circle,
conscious of representing the corps to others, as gentlemen
practising noblesse oblige, many academic youth would owe
more to this circle than to the curriculum and faculty. But
as enjoyment and self-culture must slowly yield to service,
so neither this nor any one type suffices, and every youth should
connect himself with as many other associations of diverse
kinds as is practicable, for at this age, while individuality may
be lost in one group only, it is saved and developed by several.
In fine, group-selfishness is the first step in overcoming
individual isolation. The clansman's group-loyalty involves
some, and perhaps the first subordination and renunciation
of self that is free and not enforced by those older, stronger,
or wiser. Hence, tribal allegiance means the spirit of con-

1 James Mooney : The Ghost Dance Religion. Report of Bureau of Ethnology,
1892-93, pp. 653-1104.

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 43 ^

fraternity where each is a member of a larger whole. The
exquisite pleasure of merely being, thinking, feeling, acting
together, with at first a wide, miscellaneous range, and, with
increasing age, more specific spheres of associations, tends to
broaden and exhaust each stage of development before passing
to the next and thus makes against both extreme precocity and
tardiness. For most, humanity is too large a sphere of altruism
to have more than a sentimental development, and to-day, when
so many interests are taking on cosmic dimensions, may be
liable to weaken demotic or yet narrower spheres now within
the range of practical every-day duties. Metchnikoff,^ Ost-
wald,2 Des Jardin,^ Giddings,* Laponge,^ Rene Worms,®
Novicow,'^ Boutroux,^ and others, have presented aspects of this
theme which suggest that, as philanthropy may be so diffused
as to interfere with plain, humble obligations to do the nearest
and most immediate thing, so, too, many organizations may
direct sympathy in so many ways at once as to paralyze practi-
cal service. The biological school of sociologists, Lilienfield,
Schaffle, Worms, which emphasizes the analogy between cells
in a body and individuals in society, suggests a limitation of
personal range of coordination to avoid hypertrophy of the
soma or of an organ in it, and Le Bon shows how a crowd
lowers the standards of every member in it. Youth is pecul-
iarly prone to enthuse for great and distant causes and grow
myopic for homely every-day social duties, and to seek only
personal enjoyment in this companionship. The social in-
stincts of girls are perhaps now still more in danger of too wide
irradiation, for their normal sphere of influence is more per-
sonal. A weak glow of zest in all that is great and good, true
and beautiful, at the expense of fidelity to the small and dis-
agreeable, and the American rage for overorganization and
social machinery, to act with Church, party, class, secret order,
trade or industrial order, business consolidation or trust, or

^The Nature of Man. New York, 1903, chap. xii.

^ Naturphilosophie. Leipzig, 1902, p. 452.

^ Le Devois Present de la Jeunesse, in Boutroux's Morale Sociale, chap. xi.

* Inductive Sociology. New York, 1901, chap. iii.

^ Les Selections Sociales. Paris, 1896, chaps, viii-xv.

* Organisme et Societe. Paris, 1896, part v, p. 313.
' Conscience et Volontes Sociales. Paris, 1897.

" Morale Sociale. Paris, 1899.

432 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

society fashion, in a way that interferes with individual free-
dom, private judgment, and personal conscience, are forms of
degeneration now too common.

XIII. In view of all this, what is the true inner purpose
and ideal of social organizations for youth? Left entirely
to themselves they tend to disorder and triviality, and con-
trolled too much by adults they tend to lose zest and spon-
taneity; thus the problem is to find the golden mean between
both, so that the teaching instinct, one of the noblest and
strongest in adults, shall best utilize its counterpart in adoles-
cents, viz., the passion to push on to the standpoint of ma-
turity and learn of it. The opposite tendencies are also always
present and often dominant. Adult guidance, as by an iron
law, always tends to become formal, technical, and contentless,
to rule instead of to inspire, to make requirements, like the
present invasion of the high school by the college, that demand
precocity to meet them, and to distrust freedom and autonomy,
while youth reacts by excluding or defying such guidance, so
that curricula and student life separate and then both degener-
rate, as we now see in many American colleges, which, because
they are large, gravitate all the more to the mechanical, school
methods of teaching and disciplining masses of students.

Now one chief purpose of this chapter is to propose, as a
partial solution of this problem, a radical change of base in the
pedagogy of the vernacular language, literature, and history,
and I urge that the prime purpose in all this field which should
determine every choice of matter and method is moral, viz.,
to so direct intelligence and will as to secure the largest meas-
ure of social service, advance altruism and reduce selfish-
ness, and thus advance the higher cosmic order. Youth loves
combat, and this may be developed into debate; it loves dis-
tinction and to exert influence, and this suggests oratory;
it loves to assume roles and to widen sympathy by represent-
ing at this circumnutating stage, with its keen sense of char-
acter, manifold types of human life, and has a passion for the
theater, and this suggests the drama, which always has this
supreme moral quality — that the good is victorious. Its very
best safeguard and its highest ideal is honor, and this has
its best expression in what may be called the ethnic Bible of

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 433

the Saxon race in its adolescent stage, the Hterature of chiv-
alry. Its religious instincts are at their very best, and to these
our Scriptures make the noblest appeal. One or all of these
four have been cultivated in all the better spontaneous organi-
zations of youth, and in some fashion all have at the best
periods of education constituted the best and most central
subject-matter; while taught without them, or when the
method or matter is bad, education rings hollow. Let us
briefly glance at each,

A. Rhetoric means oratory. Its object is to persuade intel-
lect, will, and heart. As Aristotle conceived it, it comprised
the methods of giving truth the superiority which belongs to
it by its nature. Quintilian understood it to involve all things
concerning the good, the beautiful, and the true, which could
be brought into controversy. It has often been called the
parent of liberty, which it is one of the prime duties of a free
State to foster and one of the chief duties of a good man to
cultivate. It inspires action, and at its best is impelled by a
sense of duty. Every youth with high and true ambition, and
with that nobility which classic rhetoric conceived as inherited
distinction, turns to it instinctively. In Rome it had in some
respects its most favorable environment. There was the Forum
with all its temples and porticoes, monuments of victories,
statues of great men, every spot historic, with always forenses
or loiterers, who made a tumultuary audience. The comitia
or assembly of the people for the enactment of new laws; the
senate or conscript fathers with powers greater than the
Areopagus or most modern parliamentary bodies; the danger
to every citizen of accusation, and to every officer of impeach-
ment, so that each must cultivate this art of self-defense; the
wide range of topics and of methods of treatment; the free-
dom of the judges from constraint by law, which made the
appeal to common sense, equity, discretion, and even their
emotions, more effective, in striking contrast with the 240,000
points which Hardwicke says the modern judge and lawyer
may be asked to consider from the six hundred volumes of
law reports; the open-mindedness and influence which is now
sometimes reversed in the fear of the hearer lest he shall be
deceived by the orator's arts — no wonder that under such con-
ditions the triumphs of eloquence were almost unprecedented.

434 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

The Athenians, roused from apathy to the unanimous cry to
be led to Hberty or death against Philip; the bestowal of the
golden crown despite the plea of ^schines; the precipitate
flight of Catiline ; the voluntary exile of Verres, etc. ; these
incidents we all know, and they fire the heart of youth.

In Greece, Rome, and in modern times it was after the
golden period that teachers of rhetoric arose who gradually
grew trifling, artificial, and sophistical. One prime secret of
the achievements of the ancient orators was that the best of
them were good men, honest, disinterested, patriotic, and loved
liberty. Quintilian deemed it a crime against the public to
give skill in speaking to bad men. All that they said was reen-
forced by their character, and often by their acts. Rhetoric
was directly based upon ethics and enriched by literature and
history. In Rome there was no other education from the
cradle than to be an orator. Higher than proof stood virtue
and credibility. Some of the most eloquent Stoics lacked, if
they did not despise, every personal and stylistic grace, but
spoke concisely and with an intensity of conviction and
solidity of judgment that carried everything before them.
The best rhetoricians of classic times not only argued and
arrayed motives of action, but knew how to work upon the
heart as we do not. The earliest preparation for this was
by teaching music, including rhythm, harmony, lyre-playing,
modulation of the voice, and often dancing, to give harmony
and grace to the body and to cadence the soul. Youth were
told legend and history, paraphrased Homer and the drama-
tists, and formed their style upon the content of this backbone
of ethnic culture. They were apprenticed to orators, who felt
it their duty to let no great and noble deed go without eulogy
or no hero die without a panegyric. They must also influence
the emotions. Aristotle, as we can not too often remember,
defined education as teaching men to fear aright. The orator
must see public danger afar off and sound the alarm, wherever
power became united with criminal disposition. Prudence is
to some extent anticipatory pain. To direct this, one of the
most fundamental instincts of the soul, so that all dangers and
vices shall be feared in the right proportion and with rightly
graduated intensity, sometimes to inflame fear to a panic, but
more often to allay it — this was one of the orator's chief tasks.

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 435

Again, he must guide anger in the same way against those
objects which are most worthy of righteous indignation. The
noble man or State will brook no insult or insolence, will resent
spite and contempt, and will feel strong, deep rage only at great
wickedness. The orator was thus in a sense the keeper and
director of the public and sometimes private ire, which might
now be kindled in invective or impeachment and fanned to
a flame of retaliatory rage, or, where irascibility was excessive,
it must be placated. Pity, too, had wide range which the ora-
tor must control. Pleaders tore open the clothes of their
clients in the Forum to show their wounds, or brought in tear-
ful wives and children and described in glowing terms the
cruelties and tortures that procurators and others had inflicted
upon their victims, often addressing the sympathy of the
judges or the people rather than law. Pathos is one of the
strongest passions of the human soul, which may be wrought
almost to a frenzy, and of which Christian oratory has the
story of the Cross as its masterpiece. To love aright is religion
as taught by Jesus and Paul; so of shame, benevolence, emu-
lation, right ambition, of all these the orator should be master,
and he must play upon the heart and bring out all its rich
diapason of emotion and make the good and the true and beau-
tiful glow and everywhere prevail.

When the pugnacious instincts develop, and when, as we
shall see in the next chapter, reason begins to knit the mental
centers to a higher unity, both ethics and logic have here a new
union and a new function. Controversy is often a rage, and
disputation is a higher vent for the new zest for conflict. The
charm of a thesis to be defended before the world, of pointing
out a flagrant fallacy, of refutation and rebuttal, was the life
of the old academic debating society, of which down to the
last third of the last century nearly every college and prepara-
tory school had two, with weekly discussions of great political,
moral, and literary themes of current interest, and with fre-
quent joint debates. These societies in the days of their prime
were always the centers of interest for some of the best men,
and generally brought to the surface another class of leaders
than those who excelled in scholarship. Here all social dis-
tinctions were forgotten ; courses in rhetoric and even logic,
and perhaps history and related subjects, were given a new

43^ THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

interest; the library was ransacked for authorities and points
for citation ; competition prompted men to buy and beg books
for society Hbraries, and a new order of champions and of
hero worship was sometimes developed. As these societies
declined, debates became less studied and serious. The social
features that had made their very names attractive paled
before the closer friendships of the Greek letter fraternities,
in some of which debates still hold a place, but they are sus-
tained with abated ardor, perhaps because conversation has
steadily developed in range of topics, freedom, and animation,
so that the growing social instincts afford other vents and
channels for the same interplay of facts and opinions.

In all the German universities, Vereine exist for the dis-
cussion, formal and informal, of general and of special topics.
The " unions " of Oxford and Cambridge, which have existed
with unabated interest for a number of decades, are organized
and conducted in every possible detail like Parliament. Ques-
tions take the form of bills which are in the end passed or lost
by vote. When these were organized, they were almost the
only medium of intercourse between the different colleges,
many of which had their own debating clubs. These unions
are often able to bring down leading members of Parliament
to defend bills which they are advocating at Westminster, and
statesmen have found themselves attacked here always with
the greatest freedom, and sometimes with a rare force and
acumen. Here, as in all such organizations, young men are
great sticklers for rules and technicalities, and the details of
parliamentary usage are insisted on with extreme strictness
and literalness. The Scotch universities have always shown
great fondness for these organizations and for discussion.

Since 1889, on the initiative of Harvard College, which had
for a few decades conspicuously neglected if not disparaged
this work, a new stimulus has been given, and over one hun-
dred colleges are now organized into a league for inter-
collegiate debate. This movement has introduced a new
method and even style of work. Champions are very care-
fully chosen after a competition which animates a good deal
of previous preparation, and the subject is divided so that each
debater presents a definite part of it. College rivalry is much
involved, and generally its representatives are very carefully

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 437

coached by the professors, under whose tuition they rehearse
and are prepared to meet the arguments of the other side.
This work has reacted upon the curriculum, and in 1898
Sheldon found twenty-seven colleges offering one hundred and
four courses in forensics and allied subjects. These debates
rarely reach a high level of interest or ability, and are sadly
lacking in spontaneity. Unlike the Oxford and Cambridge
discussions, they are very rarely enlivened by a free play of
wit and humor or repartee.

The dangers of these academic debates are great and ob-
vious, but not insuperable. Often individuals have no free-
dom of choosing their own sides, and occasionally young de-
baters prefer to talk against their convictions as an exercise
in cleverness. It is unfortunate, too, to become prematurely
interested in one side of any great open question, but perhaps
the gravest evil is the danger of cultivating too great readiness
in speech. This tends to superficiality, loose thinking, and
rabulistic ratiocination. It is a mental calamity to be able to
talk glibly upon any subject. Form should be based on and
come after matter, and the judicial type of mind which finds
or maintains equanimity against the widest diversity of view
is not favored. Young debaters, especially of the preparatory,
and, to a less extent, of the collegiate stage, are also too prone
to wrangle, to raise specious, factitious, and even verbal issues,
and sometimes to lapse to personalities.

The modern instructor of elocution or declamation is as
unqualified as his colleagues, who teach English, rhetoric,
ethics, or logic, to meet this need. Only a reconstruction and
new focalizing cooperation of these can effect what is required.
The present tendencies in this direction are perhaps the very
best in the field, but are still feeble.

As I write, I have before me twenty-eight text-books,
mostly new, for high school and college, devoted solely or
chiefly to what is usually entitled rhetoric. Many frankly as-
sume that the chief business of the teacher of English is " with
the art of composition strictly understood." It is his function
to make what the pupil has to say tell for all it is worth, and
it is no part of his function to supply the pupil with something
worth saying. One says that rhetoric teaches " proper words
in proper places." The teacher must be " all the time on the

43^ THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

watch for errors " and never let one pass. He confesses that
not one student in ten thousand has anything to say; that
during the preceding eleven years, up to 1884, after reading
thousands of students' themes, " an onerous and thankless
task," he found only a " tedious mediocrity " ; and states that
every year a certain college sends out men, some of them high
scholars, whose manuscripts would disgrace a boy of twelve.
A college " can not conduct an infant school for adults," etc.
These are precisely the results which a method so degenerate,
all form and no substance, is calculated to produce. Even
Abbott, who insists that clear writing can be reduced to fifty-
six rules and taught, states that this " does not imply think-
ing clearly." Nearly all expatiate on the comma, colon,
semicolon, period, and, especially of late, the paragraph, to
which one devotes nine chapters; some treat of spelling and
give copious details about proof-reading, and many have one
or more chapters on English grammar. Nearly all discuss
style under the captions of clearness, force, and elegance; or
purity, propriety, and precision of diction, and expatiate on
the differences between narration, description, and argument.
Some discuss versification, elocution, and figures of speech.
Good use is often defined at great length with copious ex-
amples of vulgarisms ; some are nearly half made up of quota-
tions from eminent writers largely borrowed from other text-
books, which use them as a common fund of example and illus-
tration. One has over 250 topics for composition, and another
author prints original compositions of his own for illustra-
tive purposes. Some give long vocabularies of words often
misused. One gives six lines on invention ; another treats the
art of authorship, and lays great stress on a schematic analysis
of topics preparatory to writing compositions upon them.
Long lists of reference books are sometimes given. In one,
Whittier's Snow-Bound suggests sixty-seven different topics,
and composition from pictures is a specialty. Some lay
great stress on purity and would exclude every foreign phrase
that has an English equivalent. Euphony is emphasized by
another, who also declares that to warp a word from its estab-
lished usage is like defacing a public monument. A few treat
of beauty and sublimity. One would give practise in writing
book reviews, analyzing sermons, and expatiating on proverbs.

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 439

Nearly all the modern works proclaim in the preface that they
are more " practical " than other works; some that they have
aimed to be chiefly interesting and stimulating ; and many that
they are expressly intended to meet the needs of both high
school and college. Many modern works on rhetoric have
nothing to say of oratory in any of its aspects, and but few
speak of the drama. These things have their place, but the
decadence is that they have usurped the central places and all
perspective and proportion are lost.

B. The drama (from drao, I act) at its best represents
moral collisions and their results, and is a kind of solution
of ethical problems which often best takes the place of experi-
ence, the fees of which are high. To be impressive its theme
must be lofty and its treatment ideal. It ought to express
national life, although it has done so only in Greece, Spain,
and especially in England, where it has been most national. In
its early modern development it was a powerful tool in the
hands of the clergy in the days of the mysteries in presenting
religious ideals, with its three platforms, representing heaven,
earth, and hell. In the moralities, where it was laicized, it
was more or less a school of virtue. The many hundred char-
acters that have been created for the stage are typical more
than personalities in life or history; the unity of time, place,
and action is greater and more condensed than in novels; the
clash of opposing individualities, the crises of action, and the
whole ethology of hypocrites, misers, heroes, soldiers, shrews,
cowards, pedants, misanthropes, doubters, optimists, pessi-
mists, beggars, irascibles, villains, saints, spendthrifts, who
are set in action, are greater. At its best the drama presents
events that are typical or central in interest for human life,
perhaps those which are cardinal or epoch-making in history,
or even national. It always involves conflict, collision, and
passion between good and evil characters and motives. Per-
haps the denouement of the tragedy involves an apparition
of fate in which the great but hard lesson is taught that the
individual is forever subordinate to the race or social com-
munity. Perhaps the conflict is between sense and duty; be-
tween innocent purity and bedizened vice ; between the meshes
of conventional lies and honest truth. Tempests of passion,
which sometimes howl through human life, are let loose, but

440 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

in the end there is a great calm because we rise to a higher
plane. All true tragedy, therefore, is one of the most effective
ways of teaching morals, of revealing God to man. It pre-
sents beauty and sublimity for the sake of truth ; it can not be
separated from morals or entirely from religion without lan-
guishing and lapsing. The drama ought to be truer than
history. Art is man's addition to nature; it is his contribu-
tion to the continuance and consummation of creation; it
anthropomorphizes nature and history on ever higher planes
by humanizing both more and more.

The drama thus reveals the human heart and will, and
teaches the way of the power that makes for righteousness
in the world. It strengthens, inspires, perfects, and gives
moral exaltation. We leave an ideal dramatic presentation
with nervous tension physically relieved. We have had a great
moral experience by proxy, and feel that the good rules. We
have fought Apollyon vicariously and seen him fly, and we
glow with a wholesome ethical exhilaration. Everything has
converged toward the end in a climax, after which rewards
are meted out with poetic justice in a way that gives ethical
satisfaction. The emotional nature, which so tends to grow
dull and inert or to vent itself in partial and thus over-intense
expression, has been broadened, deepened, and sanified. If
similar experiences await us, we are predisposed and our
decisions preformed aright, and the suspense is not tediously
protracted to the point of moral enervation as in a long novel.
The reforms of the drama have been to dethrone artifice, af-
fectation, formality, and above all, flippant and mawkish melo-
dramatization of novels that represent only physical emotion,
tawdriness and vulgarity, and its object still is to hold a
" mirror up to nature; to show virtue her own features, scorn,
her own image, and the very age and body his form and
pressure." Lamb was perhaps right that much of Shakespeare
is obsolete and hardly suited to represent modern life on the
stage, and that the Greek drama rightly edited is more akin to
our own life; and yet acting, says Froude, has been the special
amusement of the English and was the " result of the strong,
tranquil expression of their lives, of their thorough power
over themselves and power over circumstances." Thus,
troubled with no speculations or social problems, and ex-

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 44 1

uberant and vigorous in spirit, " they were able in the strict
and hteral sense of the word to play with life." " Thus the
lesson given by long experience, by the certain punishment of
ill-doing, by the rewards that follow on bravery, forbearance,
and self-sacrifice, is on a mimic stage conveyed to men; and
thus every actor, who is more than a mere machine, and who
has an ideal of any kind, has a duty which lies beyond the
scope of his personal ambition. His art must be something
to hold in reverence."

The decay of the modern theater from this high ideal is
most unfortunate for youth, the nature and needs of which,
few institutions in history have ever been so adequate to deal
with in a helpful and exalting way. Not merely for literature
but for life, it is well for academic youth to interest them-
selves in the way great actors conceive and interpret great
characters on the stage; to see true love glorified and made
ideal and triumphant; to see hate, rage, and jealousy over-
whelmingly defeated ; to hear taught in song what great lives
have learned by suffering; to feel the influence of noble per-
sonalities that " pay with what they are," and of smaller ones
that pay with what they do; to thrill with the triumphs
of moral and even physical heroes; to criticize and compare
characters and plots, and the degree of stageability of the crea-
tions of Shakespeare, Goethe, Schiller, Tennyson, and Ibsen;
to define the personalities of Siegfried, Parsifal, Othello,
Senta, Goetz, Egmont, Faust, Cymbeline, Miranda, Ophelia,
Hamlet, Tell, and some scorces of others, as a lesson in the
study of characters that are clear, generic, and simple, per-
haps the personification of only a single motive, less intricate
than the problems of life but a good preliminary to them. Cor-
son thinks that the time will come when the only examina-
tion in literature will be oral impersonation.

A recent writer demands a theater in every high school,
where young people should be encouraged to read and some-
times act parts, and to assume in fancy the roles of the char-
acters of great men. Others have urged that if we could have
a national drama conducted by the state which directs schools,
railroads, libraries, museums, post-offices, art galleries, etc.,
that the Government itself would be helped by placing noble
political ideals upon the stage and giving them worthy repre-

442 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

sentation. We are often reminded that the Greek theater was
a place of worship; that entrance was free, paid for from the
pubHc treasury; that relaxation and even amusement can just
as well be secured on a high educational plane, and that even
recreation can be made to elevate taste, spread knowledge, and
dignify ideals. The ideal pedagogy of the social nature of
youth demands a national drama as a school of domestic, civic,
and patriotic virtue. The lack of this devolves upon educa-
tion the arduous duty of developing from the best dramatic
literature of the world a school canon composed of the best
plays, acts, and scenes so edited as to be most effective, not
primarily for art or literature but for morality, and giving its
various parts such varying degrees of dramatic rendering from
merely reading up to full impersonation of parts — staging,
scenery, etc. — as may be practicable to fit the all-dominant
nature and needs of youth of different ages,

C. I am persuaded that Quintilian was right when he de-
clared that the simple reading of great works, such as national
epics, " will contribute more to the unfoldment of students
than all the treatises of all the rhetoricians that ever wrote."
At the dawn of adolescence I am convinced that there is noth-
ing more wholesome for the material of English study than
that of the early mythic period in Western Europe. I refer to
the literature of the Arthuriad and the Sangrail, the stories of
Parsifal, Tristram, Isolde, Galahad, Gawain, Geraint, Sieg-
fried, Brunhilde, Roland, the Cid, Orlando, Lancelot, Tann-
hauser, Beowulf, Lohengrin, Robin Hood, and Rolando.
This material is more or less closely connected in itself, al-
though falling into large groups. Much of it bottoms on the
Nibelungen and is connected with the old Teutonic mythology
running back to the gods of Asgard. We have here a vast
body of ethical material, characters that are almost colossal
in their proportions, incidents thrilling and dramatic to a
degree that stirs the blood and thrills the nerves. It is a
quarry where Chaucer, Shakespeare, Spenser, Scott, Tenny-
son, Wagner, Ibsen, and scores of artists in various lines have
found subject-matter. The value of this material makes it al-
most Biblical for the early and middle teens, and is increased,
from whatever point of view we scrutinize it, for this purpose.
In a sense it is a kind of secular New Testament of classical

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 443

myths. Lancelot's quarrel with Arthur parallels in more
modern form that between Achilles and Agamemnon, The
skalds, bards, troubadours, meistersingers, and old chroniclers
and romancers compare with the Homeridse ; the quest of the
Grail with the argonautic expedition for the Golden Fleece;
Vivian with Circe; Merlin with Nestor; Asgard with Olym-
pus. The northern myths are more sublime and less beautiful ;
content predominates more over form; there is more of the
best spirit of modern romance, and woman's position is higher.
This rich field represents perhaps the brightest spot of the
dark ages and the best expression of feudalism. It teaches the
highest reverence for womanhood, piety, valor, loyalty, cour-
tesy, munificence, justice, and obedience. The very life blood
of chivalry is heroism. Here we find the origin of most of the
modern ideas of a gentleman, who is tender, generous, and
helpful, as well as brave ; the spirit which has given us Bayard
and Sidney, as well as the pure, spotless, ideal knight, Sir
Galahad. These stories are not mechanically manufactured,
but they grew slowly and naturally in the soul of the race.
They, too, shape and direct fear, love, pity, anger, essentially
aright. The Anglo-Saxon writer never legislates more wisely
for the feelings or for the imagination than when he is in-
spired by and uses this material well. It stirs those subtle per-
ceptions, where deep truths sleep in the youthful soul before
they come to full consciousness. Although they have no very
definite geography or date, so that such events and persons
existed nowhere, they might be realized anywhere. To the
mind at this stage of growth nothing seems quite complete or
quite actual. The air whispers secrets of something about
to happen, because to nascent faculties the whole world seems
a little mystic, though very friendly. It is this kind of muthos
that is the mother of poetry, religion, art, and, to some extent,
of morals, philosophy, and science. It is not very examinable
material, for it works too deeply and unconsciously, and the
best and largest objects of the soul have not yet come to con-
sciousness at this age, but the great lines of cleavage between
right and wrong, beauty and ugliness, truth and falsehood,
are being controlled, and the spiritual faculties developed.
Morals and esthetics, which are never so inseparable as at
this period, are here found in normal union.

444 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

This material educates the heart at an age when sentiment
is predominant. The very mingHng of some of the best pagan
with some of the more rudimentary Christian elements gives
it added power. The spirit of fealty and piety in it is very akin
to that which animates the best religious organizations of
young men. It stimulates what the French praise in gloire
and the Germans in Gemuth, combines esthetic and ethical
enthusiasm in a wholesome way, ideally subordinates form to
content, and is the best expression of the adolescent stage of
our race. If we have anywhere the material for an ethnic
Bible left at the most interesting and promising stages of in-
completeness by the advent of the alien culture material
brought to the Teutonic races by Christianity, it is here. I
have looked over eight of the best known popular digests of
all or principal parts of this matter and many lesser para-
phrases, but do not find quite the right treatment, and I be-
lieve that a great duty is laid upon high school teachers now,
namely, that of reediting this matter into form that shall be
no less than canonical for their pupils. Pedagogic art is often,
as Walter Pater says of art in general, the removal of rubbish.
Excrescences must be eliminated, the gold recoined, its culture
power brought out, till, if the ideal were fully realized, the
teacher would almost become a bard of these heroic tales, with
a mind saturated with all available literature, pictures, and
even music bearing on it, requiring written and oral reproduc-
tion from the pupils to see what sinks deepest. Some would
measure the progress of culture by the work of reinterpreting
on ever higher planes the mythic tradition of a race, and how
this is done for youth is a good criterion of pedagogic
progress.

This spirit is organized in and its fitness shown in the
growth and success of the Knights of King Arthur, an unique
order of Christian knighthood for boys,^ " based upon the
romantic hero-loving, play-constructive, and imaginative in-
stincts which ripen at about fourteen." " Its purpose is to
bring back to the world, and especially to its youth, the spirit
of chivalry, courtesy, deference to womanhood, recognition

1 Described in The Boy Problem, by its founder, William B. Forbush, Chicago,
1901, p. 91.

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 445

of the noblesse oblige and Christian daring of that kingdom
of knighthness which King Arthur promised that he would
bring back when he returned from Avalon, In this order he
appears again." It is formed on the model of a college
Greek letter fraternity, with satisfaction for the love of ritual,
mystery, and parade. The boys march into their hall in* con-
clave and sit in a circle in imitation of the Round Table, with
a king at their head, with Merlin, an adult leader, at his side,
and the various functionaries of the castle in their places.
There is constant rotation in office. Each boy takes the name
of a hero, either an ancient knight or a modern man of noble
life, whose history he must know and whose virtues he must
emulate. The initiation is brief, but impressive, with the
grades of page, esquire, and knight, and room for the con-
structive instinct in making regalia, banners, swords, spears,
throne, etc. " Hero worship is developed by a role of noble
deeds, a castle album of portraits of heroes, the reading to-
gether of heroic books, the offering of ranks in the peerage,
and the sacred honor of the siege perilous for athletic, schol-
arly, or self-sacrificing attainments. The higher ranks can
be attained after probation by those who voluntarily accept
a simple covenant of purity, temperance, or reverence. The
instinct of roaming and adventure is in part gratified by ex-
cursions to historic sites and deeds of kindness." In the sum-
mer-camp the environs are the land of the Paynims, to be pro-
tected and not ravaged. The ball team is the castle army, and
its victories are celebrated by a mild wassail.

D. The Bible is coming to be understood, not only, as we
saw in the last chapter, as man's great text-book in psychology,
but as a library which justifies its supreme title by its merits.
It is marvelously adapted to successive ages ; the earlier parts
of the Old Testament for childhood, the Prophecies and the
New Testament, with its great message of love, for adolescence.
Progressive ignorance of it is amazing, especially in view of
the fact that its literary form as well as its content is adapted
to the nature and needs of youth like nothing else. We have
lately had many revelations of amazing ignorance of the Bible
among the young, so that the school itself now often takes up
the work of its study. The London School Board has a full
syllabus of it occupying half or three-quarters of an hour daily

446 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

with semiannual examinations, portions being selected upon
which denominations agree. Prussia requires five hours a week
of religious instruction, a good portion of which is biblical, by-
teachers specially trained and examined for eight years, largely
by the method of narration with subsequent examinations,
while the Schulz-Klix Biblische Lesebuch reached its fifty-
third edition in 1896. Even in France, despite the recent
laicizing movement where religious instruction is forbidden
in the school, every ' Thursday entire is a holiday, so that
parents can have their children taught the religion they prefer
outside the school, but the instructors, although selected by
their respective churches as in Germany, must pass an exami-
nation. In the volumes of the Chicago Educational Union and
in Moulton's well-known selections we have the beginnings of
pedagogic adaptation of this material. In Germany the Rhine
system spends one of the first three years of school entirely
on the Old Testament. Ahrens would place classical literature
between the Old and New Testaments as helping connection
between them, and one of our largest universities is satisfied
with the English admission requirements of youth who know
the English Bible only.

E. The studies reported above in Section VII suggest that
history also at this time of life should first of all both follow
and guide the social instincts, should go backward from the
temporal, and irradiate from the spatial present as its point
of departure, instead of starting with antiquity and the East
and reaching our own country in the last high school year,
when two-thirds of the pupils have dropped out, as the college-
dominated committee of seven prescribe. Heroes with bio-
graphic elements prominent, decisive events, great institutions,
movements with a unity of their own, are felt long before
the unity of the historic whole, and the method and stand-
point of chroniclers and the idealizing literary treatments pre-
cede much appeal to original sources or the scientific methods
of Stubbs and Gardiner, or even Freeman and Green. For
the larger movements of history greater use should be made
of all kinds of charts, tables, diagrams, maps, and especially
of physico-geographical influences, and perhaps even of the
glimpses and apergus of the various philosophers of history,
from Hegel to Henry Adams, partial and inadequate as they
are to scholars. Social organizations and spiritual and ethical

SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND INSTITUTIONS 447

direction should be the prime ends sought, and the appeal to
the heart should only slowly and late give place to the intellect.
Historic scholarship itself is too noble a thing to ripen properly
without this long incubation, and to develop political and com-
munal virtue is higher and should be ever its condition pre-
cedent. To train youth to social service as useful members
of society is primarily the education of the feelings and the
will, that are both larger and older than the intellect, which
is their servant, and even self-interest rightly understood
ripens naturally into altruism.^ The few years of schooling is
only the very end of a process that in a sense has run through
eons. The school merely puts on the final touches; for all
organic evolution may be regarded as educational. Letour-
neau speaks of spontaneous and organic training. Nature
first adjusts the body to the physical environment; then the
social adjustment marks a higher stage. The body is now
essentially complete. Heredity is stored-up experience. The
second stage or division of education we may call, with I. W.
Howerth,^ artificial or telic. Art is here teleological control
of nature; if directed by another it is altrotelic; and when it
becomes subjective, it is autotelic. The telic aspect begins
when we enter the social sphere.

Literature and history should teach moral experience by
proxy and should shed the light of other days on present duties,
so that we may avoid error and waste and organize our social
relations and institutions aright. Faithful as the historian
may be to his task of letting no good example or warning go
unrecorded, zealous as literature may be to set forth all man's
reactions to his environment, and greatly as all their products
exceed the utmost power of individual comprehension, each
soul abounds in traces of long series of events in the history
of the race that are utterly lost, and of impulsions not yet ex-
pressed in all the world of letters and institutions. There are
momenta in each soul from phyletic periods that have utterly
lapsed from racial memory, unconscious, half-organic pro-
cesses and instincts, the correlates of which in the macrocosm
now seem hopelessly lost. The individual who has studied his
own stages of development as faithfully as Goethe did his to

^ See my Methods of Teaching History. Boston, 1889, pp. 391.
* Educational Review, January, 1902.

448 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

acquire the maximum of self-knowledge of each stage in the
attainment of maturity, always finds much he can not explain,
and even when he turns to the history of the race for additional
help there is still residuary mystery. So the effort to explain
all the present by the historic past is forever, at best, but
partially successful. Only the superficial half of history is past
politics, only a part of the rational has become real, and the
final philosophy has not taught all its lessons by example.
When men thought they were doing these things by these
means, it was later apparent that they were really doing very
different things by different means. History, in fact, is at every
period very different from the history of the conscious pur-
poses of those who made it. Hence it must ever be rewritten
from new and higher standpoints. So the literature, philoso-
phy, and institutions of one age become only data, like
questionnaire returns, for the psychological critic of the next,
who finds in them very different meanings from those in the
intent of their makers. The conscious intellect and will of an
individual, a period, or a race are only a partial and inadequate
expression of the whole soul, and one must always reason from
what is said to what is meant in quest of another and deeper
continuum, always finding what were thought to be causes
turning out to be only effects, what seemed finalities to be be-
ginnings or means, forces deemed supreme only provocatives
of others that lie deeper. Could we reconstruct the buried ob-
jective, phyletic correlates of all the social and other tentatives
that stir in the soul of youth, we should have the real and truly
formative history of that period which is, for every age, of
greatest practical importance, and if we can ever create the
literature and the types of associations that best express youth-
ful needs, it will be the realization of the highest of all human
ideals. Youth, when properly understood, will seem to be not
only the revealer of the past but of the future, for it is dimly
prophetic of that best part of history which is not yet written
because it has not yet transpired, of the best literature the only
criterion of which is that it helps to an ever more complete
maturity, and of better social organizations, which, like every-
thing else, are those that best serve youth. The belief that
progressive ephebic needs will be met is the chief resource
against pessimism in the modern world, for there is no better
standard of the true worth of every human institution.

CHAPTER XVI

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION.

Curiosity the bud of mind — Training from the age of eight to twelve — Intellectual
changes of puberty. I. The vernacular language and literature the root of
education — Present degeneration in command of the English language due to:
(a) translation English, (i^) the subordination of literature and content to lan-
guage study, (c) too early substitution of reading and writing for hearing and
speaking, {d) restriction of language work to sense and action — Children's
favorite words — Slang, its age curve and its moral purposes — Development of
the sentence-sense — Stories by children — The pubescent reading craze and its
forms — An ideal series of readers. II. Other new mental aptitudes — Begin-
ning of the historic sense — Reason — Drawing — Art— Puzzles — Collections —
Superstitions— Growth of the power to define — Attention and seasons. III.
Memory, for digits, for a narrative — Changes of mental quality — Loss of early
and permanence of memories of pubescence and their kinds. IV. N'ormal
Schools — Their defects — Psychology — Place of history of education — Methods
— Central place of the model school — Needed changes — Relation to universities
and pedagogic chairs. V. High Schools — Growth — Excess of girls — Curves of
diminution up the grades and of candidates for college — Fallacies of the Com-
mittee of Ten and evils of college dominance : («) for colleges and professors,
{b) for high schools and teachers, {c) for pupils — The next step needed. VI.
The college. VII. College philosophy : its history and central function : {a)
the aberrations of epistemology and its causes, {b) the six necessary postulates,
(l) space, (2) ether, (3) force, (4) law, (5) fulness of life, and (6) good-will
seen in the survival of the best, (<r) the proper philosophy (i) of nature, and (2)
of mind, in colleges. VIII. The university : its methods and present dangers
from the standpoint of culminating adolescence.

Of all the conventional groups of psychic activities, the
intellect, next to the senses, has been most studied, but its
genesis is perhaps even less known than that of the feelings
and will. The latter are better representatives of the race,
while intellect is more a product of individual experience and
culture and hence varies more with age, education, etc. It is,
however, a more partial expression of the soul as a whole,
many and perhaps most of the activities of which do not in
any given person or even period rise to consciousness. On
the other hand, it expresses more fully those that do emerge.
Intellect is thus related to the more unconscious psychic life

68

449

450 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

somewhat as accessory are related to fundamental movements.
So far as thought involves playing upon muscular tonicity,
and as attention means tension (as we saw in Chapter III),
this is more than an analogy. From the oldest trophic and
vaso-motor functions and organs mediating pleasure and pain
and perhaps other fundamental feeling-instincts, up the com-
plex hierarchy of powers when the projection system itself
slowly comes under some, perhaps tangential, organ of
thought, and during adolescence when a suddenly widened
area of life is governed and perhaps reconstructed by intelli-
gence, this viaticum is easily and rapidly passed in normal
psychogenesis, but for the full understanding of it the entire
animal series extinct and extant, comparatively and exhaust-
ively studied, is none too large a basis. Conscious thought,
noetics, intellect, reason, are popular and provisional terms for
the last or neopsychic stages in this process, and all their
higher forms are probably rarer and developed later in the
average human being than is usually held.

Their bud is curiosity, often seen in the animal world, and
in the infant its first dim prelusion is the reflex victimization
of the eye by any patch of light. Staring, experimenting with
sensation, surprise, active observation, the passion to touch,
handle, taste everything, often apparent cruelty due to the lust
to know, the question mania which may become a neurosis at
about the earliest school age, anxiety to know the origin of
life that is suppressed to stealthiness at about the same age
when it really grows more intense, bafifling theological queries,
interest in death and in theological questions, in the hozv of
mechanical processes that often motivates what seems destruc-
tiveness, desire to travel, the conquests of timidity by curiosity,
its function in prompting to take the first drink, as Partridge
has shown,^ truancy and runaways, according to Kline ^ and
Arnett ; ^ all these expressions of a pure desire for knowledge
are phenomena of the crepuscular dawn that precedes the sun-
rise of reason in adolescence.^

^ Psychology of Alcohol. Am. Jour, of Psy., April, 1900, vol. xi, p. 320.
2 Am. Jour, of Psy., October, 1898, vol. x, pp. 1-81.
^ Ped. Sem., September, 1902, vol. ix, pp. 324-365.

* See Curiosity and Interest, by T. L. Smith and myself. Ped. Sem., September,
1903. Vol. X, pp. 315-358.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 45 1

The mental operation of very young children can be described in
the terms of logic. Gale ^ finds at first only associations in time and
place, and that this very slowly passes to reasoning by associations of
similarity. From remote analogy to the inductive method of agree-
ment, and then even to the method of difference so characteristic of sci-
ence, he finds even in the fifth year that the process is slow. Children
at least conform to Mill's contention that we really reason from partic-
ulars to particulars rather than through a major premise. This of-
server even found the methods of residues and concomitant variations
before the school age. Children observe keenly, and this involves
analysis and regrouping. They are often religious skeptics at ten, as
Barnes showed (chap. xiv). They ask why, what for, how, in ways
that reveal the causal idea, and the abstract logician easily finds every
deductive mood and figure and all forms of syllogism implicit in infant
mentation. But on the other hand, children's ideas of size, perspective,
and of time and space are so narrow, the multitude of impressions so
overwhelming,'' their superstitions so many, their credulity so great,
they are so victimized by sense, so bound down to verbal literalness,
their experience is so small, they have so little control of their atten-
tion, and their minds are so permeated with error and ignorance, that
it is scarcely too much to say that almost up to puberty they can hardly
think at all in any proper sense. Practically, Pestalozzi, who assumed
that they were susceptible to little but mechanical drill, was nearer
right than Alcott's school, where their minds were thought surcharged
with Wordsworthian intuitions that needed only to be explicited to
become conscious reason.

Just as about the only duty of young children (Chapter
III) is implicit obedience, so the chief mental training from
about eight to twelve is arbitrary memorization, drill, habit-
uation, with only limited appeal to the understanding. After
the critical transition age of six or seven, when the brain has
achieved its adult size and weight and teething has reduced
the chewing surface to its least extent, begins an unique stage
of life marked by reduced growth and increased activity and
power to resist both disease and fatigue, which, as was set
forth in Chapter I, suggests what was, in some just post-simian
age of our race, its period of maturity. Here belong dis-
cipline in writing, reading, spelling, verbal memory, manual
training, practise of instrumental technique, proper names,
drawing, drill in arithmetic, foreign languages by oral methods,

^ Early Reasoning of Children. Jour, of Adol., July, 1902.
^ H. W. Brown: Thoughts and Reasonings of Children. Fed. Sem., Decem-
ber, 1893, vol. ii, pp. 358-396.

452 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

the correct pronunciation of which is far harder if acquired
later, etc. The hand is never so near the brain. Most of the
content of the mind has entered it through the senses, and
the eye- and ear-gates should be open at their widest. Au-
thority should now take precedence of reason. Children com-
prehend much and very rapidly if we can only refrain from
explaining, but this slows down intuition, tends to make
casuists and prigs and to enfeeble the ultimate vigor of reason.
It is the age of little method and much matter. The good
teacher is now a pedotrieb, or boy-driver. Boys of this age
are now not very afifectionate. They take pleasure in obliging
and imitating those they like and perhaps in disobliging those
they dislike. They have much selfishness and little sentiment.
As this period draws to a close and the teens begin the average
normal child will not be bookish but should read and write
well, know a few dozen well-chosen books, play several dozen
games, be well started in one or more ancient and modern
languages, if these must be studied at all, should know some-
thing of several industries and how to make many things he
is interested in, belong to a few teams and societies, know
much about nature in his environment, be able to sing and
draw, should have memorized much more than he now does,
and be acquainted at least in story form with the outlines of
many of the best works in literature and the epochs and per-
sons in history.^ Morally he should have been through many
if not most forms of what parents and teachers commonly call
badness and Professor Yoder even calls meanness. He should
have fought, whipped and been whipped, used language offen-
sive to the prude and to the prim precisian, been in some
scrapes, had something to do with bad, if more with good
associates, and been exposed to and already recovering from
as many forms of ethical mumps and measles as, by having
in mild form now he can be rendered immune to later when
they become far more dangerous, because his moral and re-
ligious as well as his rational nature is normally rudimentary.
He is not depraved but only in a savage or half-animal
stage, although to a large-brained, large-hearted and truly

^ See my Ideal School as Based on Child Study. Proc. of the N. E. A., 1901,
p. 475 et seq.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 453

parental soul that does not call what causes it inconvenience
by opprobrious names, an altogether lovable and even fascina-
ting stage. The more we know of boyhood the more narrow
and often selfish do adult ideals of it appear. Something
is amiss with the lad of ten who is very good, studious, indus-
trious, thoughtful, altruistic, quiet, polite, respectful, obedient,
gentlemanly, orderly, always in good toilet, docile to reason,
who turns away from stories that reek with gore, prefers adult
companionship to that of his mates, refuses all low associates,
speaks standard English, or is pious and deeply in love with
religious services as the typical maiden teacher or the a la
mode parent wishes. Such a boy is either under-vitalized and
anemic and precocious by nature, a repressed, overtrained,
conventionalized manikin, a hypocrite, as some can become
under pressure thus early in life, or else, a genius of some kind
with a little of all these.

But with the teens all this begins to be changed and many
of these precepts must be gradually reversed. There is an out-
burst of growth that needs a large part of the total kinetic
energy of the body. There is a new interest in adults, a
passion to be treated like one's elders, to make plans for the
future, a new sensitiveness to adult praise or blame. The
large muscles have their innings and there is a new clumsiness
of body and mind. The blood-vessels expand and blush-
ing is increased, new sensations and feelings arise, the imagi-
nation blossoms, love of nature is born, music is felt in a new,
more inward way, fatigue comes easier and sooner, and if
heredity and environment enable the individual to cross this
pons successfully there is sometimes almost a break of con-
tinuity and a new being emerges. The drill methods of the
preceding period must be slowly relaxed and new appeals made
to freedom and interest. We can no longer coerce a break, but
must lead and inspire if we would avoid arrest. Individuality
must have a longer tether. Never is the power to appreciate
so far ahead of the power to express, and never does under-
standing so outstrip ability to explain. Overaccuracy is
atrophy. Both mental and moral acquisition sink at once too
deep to be reproduced by examination without injury both to
intellect and will. There is nothing in the environment to
which the adolescent nature does not keenly respond. With

454 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

pedagogic tact we can teach about everything we know that
is really worth knowing, but if we amplify and morselize in-
stead of giving great wholes, if we let the hammer that strikes
the bell rest too long against it and deaden the sound, and if
we wait before each methodic step till the pupil has reproduced
all the last, we starve and retard the soul, which is now all
insight and receptivity. Plasticity is at its maximum, utterance
at its minimum. The inward traffic obstructs the outer cur-
rents. Boys especially are often dumb-bound, monophrastic,
inarticulate, and semi-aphasic save in their own vigorous and
inelegant way. Nature prompts to a modest reticence for
which the deflowerers of all ephebic naivete should have some
respect. Deep interests arise which are almost as sacred as
is the hour of visitation of the Holy Ghost to the religious
teacher. The mind at times grows in leaps and bounds in a
way that seems to defy the great enemy, fatigue, and yet when
the teacher grows a little tiresome the pupil is tired in a mo-
ment. Thus we have the converse danger of forcing knowl-
edge upon unwilling and unripe minds that have no love for
it, which is in many ways psychologically akin to a nameless
crime that in some parts of the country meets summary venge-
ance.

(A) The heart of education as well as its phyletic root is
the vernacular literature and language. These are the chief
instruments of the social as well as of the ethnic and patriotic
instinct. The prime place of the former we saw in the last
chapter, and now pass to the latter, the uniqueness of which
should first be considered.

The Century, the largest complete dictionary of English, claims to
have 250,000 words, as against 55,000 in the old Webster's Unabridged.
Worcester's Unabridged of i860 has 105,000; Murray's, now in L, it
is said, will contain 240,000 principal and 140,000 compound words,
or 380,000 words in all. The dictionary of the French Academy has
33,000; that of the Royal Spanish Academy, 50,000; the Dutch diction-
ary of Van Dale, 86,000; the Italian and Portuguese, each about 50,000
literary, or 150,000 encyclopedic words. Of course, words can really
be counted hardly more than ideas or impressions, and compounds,
dialects, obsolete terms, localisms, and especially technical terms,
swell the number indefinitely. A competent philologist ^ says, if given

^ Charles P. G. Scott : The Number of Words in the English and Other Lan-
guages. Princeton Univ. Bull., May, 1902.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 455

large liberty, he " will undertake to supply 1,000,000 English words
for 1,000,000 American dollars." Chamberlain ^ estimates that our
language contains more than two score as many words as all those
left us from the Latin. Many savage languages contain but a very
few thousand, and some but a few hundred, words. Our tongue is
essentially Saxon in its vocabulary and its spirit, and from the time
when it was despised and vulgar, has followed an expansion policy
swallowing with httle modification terms not only from classical an-
tiquity, but from all modern languages — Indian, African, Chinese,
Mongolian — according to its needs, its adopted children far outnum-
bering those of its own blood. It absorbs at its will the slang of the
street gamin, the cant of thieves and beggars ; is actually creative in
the baby talk of mothers and nurses; drops, forgets, and actually in-
vents new words with no pedigree like those of Lear, Carrol, and
many others.^

In this vast field the mind of the child early begins to take flight.
Here his soul finds its native breath and vital air. He may live as a
peasant, using, as Max Miiller says many do, but a few hundred words
during his lifetime, or he may need 8,000, like Milton, 15,000, like Shake-
speare, 20,000 or 30,000, like Huxley, who commanded both literary
and technical terms; while in understanding, which far outstrips use,
a philologist may master perhaps 100,000 or 200,000 words. The con-
tent of a tongue may contain only folk-lore and terms for immediate,
practical life, or this content may be indefinitely elaborated in a rich
literature and science. The former is generally well on in its develop-
ment before speech itself becomes an object of study. Greek literature
was fully grown when the Sophists, and finally Aristotle, developed
the rudiments of grammar, the parts of speech being at first closely
related with his ten metaphysical categories. Our modern tongue had
the fortune, unknown to those of antiquity, when it was crude and
despised, to be patronized and regulated by Latin grammarians, and
has had a long experience, both for good and evil, with their con-
serving and uniformitizing instincts. It has, too, a long history of
resistance to this control. Once spelling was a matter of fashion or
even individual taste, and as the constraint grew two pedagogues in
the thirteenth century fought a duel for the right spelling of the word,
and that maintained by the survivor prevailed. Phonic and economic
influences are now again making some headway against orthographic
orthodoxy here ; so with definitions. In the days of Johnson's diction-
ary, individuality still had wide range in determining meanings. In
pronounciation, too, we may now pronounce the word tomato in six
ways, all sanctioned by dictionaries. Of our tongue in particular it is
true, as Tylor says in general, condensing a longer passage, " take
language all in all, it is the product of a rough-and-ready ingenuity

^ The Teaching of English. Ped. Sem., June, 1902, vol. ix, pp. 161-168.
'See my Early Sense of Self. Am. Jour, of Psy., April, 1898, vol. ix, p.
351-395-

456 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

and of the great rule of thumb. It is an old barbaric engine, which
in its highest development is altered, patched, and tinkered into ca-
pability. It is originally and naturally a product of low culture,
developed by ages of conscious and unconscious improvement to
answer more or less perfectly the requirements of modern civili-
zation."

It is plain, therefore, that no grammar, and least of all
that derived from the prim, meager Latin contingent of it, is
adequate to legislate for the free spirit of our magnificent
tongue. Again, if this is ever done and English ever has a
grammar that is to it what Latin grammar is to that language,
it will only be when the psychology of speech represented, e. g.,
in Wundt's Psychologic der Sprache, which is now compiling
and organizing the best elements from all grammars, is com-
plete. The reason why English speakers find such difficulty in
learning other languages is because ours has so far outgrown
them by throwing off not only inflections but many old rules
of syntax that we have had to go backward to an earlier and
more obsolescent stage of human development. In 141 4, at
the Council of Constance, when Emperor Sigismund was
rebuked for a wrong gender, he replied, " I am King of the
Romans and above grammar." Thomas Jefferson later wrote,
" Where strictness of grammar does not weaken expression
it should be attended to, but where by a small grammatical
negligence the energy of an idea is condensed or a word stands
for a sentence, I hold grammatical rigor in contempt." Brown-
ing, Whitman, and Kipling deliberately violate grammar and
secure thereby unique effects neither asking nor needing
excuse.

By general consent both high school and college youth in
this country are in an advanced stage of degeneration in the
command of this the world's greatest organ of the intellect, and
that despite the fact that the study of English often continues
from primary into college grades, that no topic counts for
more, and that marked deficiency here often debars from all
other courses. Every careful study of the subject for nearly
twenty years shows deterioration, and Professor Shurman, of
Nebraska, thinks it now worse than at any time for forty
years. We are in the case of many Christians described by
Dante who strove by prayers to get nearer to God when in fact

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 457

with every petition they were departing farther from him.
Such a comprehensive fact must have many causes.

I. One of these is the excessive time given to other lan-
guages just at the psychological period of greatest linguistic
plasticity and capacity for growth. School invention and
tradition is so inveterate that it is hard for us to understand
that there is little educational value, and perhaps it is deeduca-
tional, to learn to tell the time of day or name a spade in several
different tongues or to learn to say the Lord's Prayer in many
different languages, any one of which the Lord only can under-
stand. The polyglot people that one meets on great inter-
national highways of travel are linguists only in the sense
that the moke on the variety stage who plays a dozen instru-
ments equally badly is a musician. It is a psychological im-
possibility to pass through the apprenticeship stage of learning
foreign languages at the age when the vernacular is setting
without crippling it. The extremes are the youth in ancient
Greece studying his own language only and the modern high
school boy and girl dabbling in three or perhaps four lan-
guages. Latin, which in the eight years preceding 1898
increased one hundred and seventy-four per cent in American
high schools, while the proportion entering college in the
country and even in Massachusetts steadily declined, is the
chief offender. In the day of its pedagogical glory Latin was
the universal tongue of the learned. Sturm's idea was to train
boys so that if suddenly transported to ancient Rome or Greece
they would be at home there. Language, it was said, was the
chief instrument of culture; Latin, the chief language and
therefore a better drill in the vernacular than the vernacular
itself. Its rules were wholesome swathing bands for the
modern languages when in their infancy. Boys must speak
Latin only on the playground. They thought, felt, and de-
veloped an intellectual life in and with that tongue. But how
changed all this is now. Statistical studies show that five
hours a week for a year gives command of but a few hundred
words, that two years does not double this number, and that
command of the language and its resources in the original is
almost never attained, but that it is abandoned not only by the
increasing percentage that do not go to college but also by the
increasing percentage who drop it forever at the college door.

458 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Its enormous numerical increase due to high school require-
ments, the increasing percentage of girl pupils more ready to
follow the teacher's advice, in connection with the deteriorating
quality of the girls inevitable with their increasing numbers,
the sense that Latin means entering upon a higher education,
the special reverence for it by Catholic children, the over-
crowded market for Latin teachers whom a recent writer says
can be procured by the score at less rates than in almost any
other subject, the modern methods of teaching it which work
well with less knowledge of it by the teacher than in the case
of other school topics, have been attended perhaps inevitably by
steady pedagogic decline despite the vaunted new methods;
until now the baby Latin in the average high school class is a
kind of sanctified relic, a ghost of a ghost, suggesting Swift's
Struldbrugs, doomed to physical mortality but shriveling and
with increasing horror of all things new. In 1892 the German
emperor declared it a shame for a boy to excel in Latin com-
position, and in the high schools of Sweden and Norway it
has been practically abandoned. In the present stage of its
educational decadence the power of the dead hand is strongly
illustrated by the new installation of the old Roman pronun-
ciation with which our tongue has only remote analogies,
which makes havoc with proper names, which is unknown and
unrecognized in the schools of the European continent, and
which makes a pedantic affectation out of mere vocalism. I
do not know nor care whether the old Romans pronounced
thus or not, but if historic fidelity in this sense has pedagogic
justification, why still teach a text like the Veri Romce, which
is not a classic but a modern pedagogue's composition?

I believe profoundly in the Latin both as a university specialty and
for all students who even approach mastery, but for the vast numbers
who stop in the early stages of proficiency it is disastrous to the ver-
nacular. Compare the evils of translation English, which not even
the most competent and laborious teaching can wholly prevent and
which careless mechanical instruction directly fosters, with the vigor-
ous fresh productions of a boy or girl writing or speaking of something
of vital present interest. The psychology of translation shows that
it gives the novice a consciousness of etymologies which rather im-
pedes than helps the free movement of the mind. Jowett said in sub-
stance that it is almost impossible to render either of the great dead
languages into English without compromise, and this tends to injure

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 459

the idiomatic mastery of one's own tongue, which can be got only by
much hard experience in uttering our own thoughts before trying to
shape the dead thoughts of others into our language. We confound
the little knowledge of word-histories which Latin gives with the far
higher and subtler sentence-sense which makes the soul of one lan-
guage so different from that of another, and training in which ought
not to end until one has become more or less of a stylist and knows
how to hew out modes of expressing his own individuality in a great
language. There is a sense in which Macaulay was not an English-
man at all, but a Ciceronian Latinist who foisted an alien style upon
our tongue ; and even Addison is a foreigner compared to the virile
Kipling. The nature and needs of the adolescent mind demand bread
and meat, while Latin rudiments are husks. In his autobiography,
Booker Washington says that for ten years after their emancipation,
the two chief ambitions of the young negro of the South were to hold
office and to study Latin, and he adds that the chief endeavor of his
life has been against these tendencies. For the American boy and
girl, high school too often means Latin. This gives at first a pleasing
sense of exaltation to a higher stage of life, but after from one to three
years the great majority who enter the high school drop out limp and
discouraged for many reasons, largely, however, because they are not
fed. Recent studies of truancy have shown a strong but strangely un-
conscious association between runaways and a bad dietary at home.
Defective nutrition of the mind also causes a restlessness, which en-
hances all the influences which make boys and girls leave school.

II. The second cause of this degeneration is the subordi-
nation of literature and content to language study. Grammar
arises in the old age of language. As once applied to our
relatively grammarless tongue it always was more or less of a
school-made artifact and an alien yoke and has become in-
creasingly so as English has grown great and free. Its ghost,
in the many text-books devoted to it, lacks just the quality of
logic which made and besouled it. Philology, too, with all
its magnificence, is not a product of the nascent stages of
speech. In the college, which is its stronghold, it has so in-
spired professors of English that their ideal is to be critical
rather than creative till they prefer the minute reading of a
few masterpieces to a wide general knowledge, and a typical
university announces that " in every case the examiners will
treat mere knowledge of books as less important than the
ability to write good English " that will parse and that is
spelled, punctuated, capitalized, and paragraphed aright.
Good professors of English literature are hard to find, and

46o THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

upon them philologists who are plentiful look with a certain
condescension. Many academic chairs of English are filled
by men whose acquaintance of our literature is very narrow,
who wish to be linguistic and not hterary, and this is true even
in ancient tongues.

At a brilliant examination, a candidate for the doctor's degree who
had answered many questions concerning the forms of Lucretius, when
asked whether he was a dramatist, historian, poet, or philosopher,
did not know, and his professor deemed the question improper. I
visited the eleventh recitation in Othello in a high school class of
nineteen pupils, not one of whom knew how the story ended, so intent
had they been kept on its verbiage. Hence, too, has come the twelve
feet of text-books on English on my shelves with many standard works
edited for schools with more notes than text. Fashion that works
from above down the grades and college entrance requirements are in
large measure responsible for this, perhaps now the worst case of the
prostitution of content to form.

Long exposure to this method of linguistic manicure tends to make
students who try to write ultra-fastidious, seeking an overrefined
elaboration of petty trifles, as if the less the content the greater the
triumph of form alone could be. These petty but pretty nothings are
like German confectionery, that appeals to the eye but has little for
taste and is worse than nothing for the digestion. It is like straining
work on an empty stomach. For youth this embroidery of details is
the precocious senescence that Nordau has so copiously illustrated as
literary decadence. Language is vastly larger than all its content,
and the way to teach it is to focus the mind upon story, history, ora-
tory, drama, Bible, for their esthetic, mental, and above all, moral con-
tent, as shown in the last chapter. The more unconscious processes
that reflect imitatively the linguistic environment and that strike out
intuitively oral and written vents for interests so intense that they
must be told and shared, are what teach us how to command the re-
sources of our mother tongue. These prescriptions and corrections
and consciousness of the manifold ways of error are never so pecul-
iarly liable to hinder rather than to help as in early adolescence, when
the soul has a new content and a new sense for it, and so abhors and is
so incapable of precision and propriety of diction. To hold up the
flights of exuberant youth by forever being on the hunt for errors is,
to borrow the language of the gridiron, low tackle, and I would
rather be convicted of many errors by such methods than to use them.
Of course this has its place, but it must always be subordinated to a
larger view, as in one of the newly discovered logia ascribed to Jesus,
who, when he found a man gathering sticks on Sunday, said to him,
" If you understand what you are doing, it is well, but if not, thou shalt
be damned." The great teacher who, when asked how he obtained
such rare results in expression, answered, " By carefully neglecting it

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 4^1

and seeking utter absorption in subject-matter," was also a good prac-
tical psychologist. This is the inveterate tendency that in other ages
has made pedagogic scribes, Talmudists, epigoni, and sophists, who
have magnified the letter and lost the spirit. But there are yet other
seats of difficulty.

III. It is hard and, in the history of the race, a late
change to receive language through the eye which reads instead
of through the ear which hears. Not only is perception measur-
ably about three times slower, but book language is related to
oral speech somewhat as an herbarium is to a garden or a mu-
seum of stuffed specimens to a menagerie. The invention of
letters is a novelty in the history of the race that spoke for
countless ages before it wrote. The winged word of mouth
is saturated with color, perhaps hot with feeling, musical with
inflection, is the utterance of a living present personality, the
consummation of man's gregarious instincts. The book is dead
and more or less impersonal, best apprehended in solitude, its
matter more intellectualized ; it deals in remoter second-hand
knowledge so that Plato reproached Aristotle as being a
reader, one remove from the first spontaneous source of origi-
nal impressions and ideas, and the doughty medieval knights
scorned reading as a mere clerk's trick, not wishing to muddle
their wits with other people's ideas when their own were good
enough for them. But although some of the great men in
history could not read, and while some of the illiterate were
often morally and intellectually above some of the literate, the
argument here is that the printed page must not be too sud-
denly or too early thrust between the child and life. The plea
is for more oral and objective work, more stories, narra-
tives, and even vivid readings, as is now done statedly in more
than a dozen of the public libraries of the country, not so often
by teachers as by librarians, all to the end that the ear, the
chief receptacle of language, be maintained in its dominance,
that the fine sense of sound, rhythm, cadence, pronunciation,
and speech-music generally be not atrophied, that the eye
which normally ranges freely from far to near be not injured
by the confined treadmill and zigzag of the printed page.

Closely connected with this, and perhaps psychologically
worse, is the substitution of the pen and the scribbling fingers
for the mouth and tongue. Speech is directly to and from

462 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

the soul. Writing, the dehberation of which fits age better than
youth, slows down its impetuosity many fold, and is in every
way farther removed from vocal utterance than is the eye from
the ear. Never have there been so many pounds of paper, so
many pencils, and such excessive scribbling as in the calamo-
papyrus pedagogy of to-day and in this country. Not only has
the daily theme spread as an infection, but the daily lesson is
now extracted through the point of a pencil instead of from
the mouth. The tongue rests and the curve of writer's cramp
takes a sharp turn upward, as if we were making scribes,
reporters, and proof-readers. In some schools teachers seem
to be conducting correspondence classes with their own pupils.
It all makes excellent busy work, keeps the pupils quiet and
orderly, and allows the school output to be quantified, and some
of it gives time for more care in the choice of words. But is
it a gain to substitute a letter for a visit, to try to give written
precedence over spoken forms? Here again we violate the
great law that the child repeats the history of the race, and
that, from the larger historic standpoint, writing as a mode of
utterance is only the latest fashion.

Of course the pupils must write, and write well, just as they must
read, and read much ; but that English suffers from insisting upon this
double long circuit too early and cultivates it in excess, devitalizes
school language and makes it a litle unreal, like other affectations of
adult ways, so that on escaping from its thraldom the child and youth
slump back to the language of the street as never before. This is a
false application of the principle of learning to do by doing. The
young do not learn to write by writing, but by reading and hearing.
To become a good writer one must read, feel, think, experience, until
he has something to say that others want to hear. The golden age
of French literature, as Gaston Deschamps and Brunetiere have lately
told us, was that of the salon, when conversation dominated letters,
set fashions, and made the charm of French style. Its lowest ebb was
when bookishness led and people began to talk as they wrote.

IV. The fourth cause of degeneration of school English
is the growing preponderance of concrete words for designat-
ing things of sense and physical acts, over the higher element
of language that names and deals with concepts, ideas, and
non-material things. The object-lesson came in as a reaction
against the danger of merely verbal and definition knowledge
and word memory. Now it has gone so far that not only

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 4^3

things but even languages, vernacular and foreign, are taught
by appeals to the eye. More lately, elementary science has
introduced another area of pictures and things while industrial
education has still further greatly enlarged the material sensori-
motor element of training. Geography is taught v^ith arti-
facts, globes, maps, sand boxes, drawing. Miss Margaret
Smith ^ counted two hundred and eighty objects that must be
distributed and gathered for forty pupils in a single art lesson.
Instruction, moreover, is more and more busied upon parts
and details rather than wholes, upon analysis rather than
synthesis. Thus in modern pedagogy there is an increased
tyranny of things, a growing neglect or exclusion of all that
is unseen.

The first result of this is that the modern school child is
more and more mentally helpless without objects of sense.
Conversation is increasingly concrete, if not of material things
and persons present in time and even place. Instead of deal-
ing with thoughts and ideas, speech and writing is close to
sense and the words used are names for images and acts. But
there is another higher part of language that is not so abjectly
tied down to perception, but that lives, moves, and has its being
in the field of concepts rather than percepts, that, to use Earle's
distinction, is symbolic and not presentative, that describes
thinking that is not mere contiguity in space or sequence in
time but that is best in the far higher and more mental asso-
ciations of likeness, that is more remote from activity, that,
to use logical terminology, is connotative and not merely
denotative, that has extension as well as intension, that re-
quires abstraction and generalization. Without this latter
element higher mental development is lacking because this
means more than word-painting the material world.

Our school youth to-day sufifer from just this defect. If
their psychic operations can be called thought it is of that ele-
mentary and half animal kind that consists in imagery. Their
talk with each other is of things of present and immediate
interest. They lack even the elements of imagination which
makes new combinations and is creative because they are

iPed. Sem., The Psychological and Pedagogical Aspect of Language, Decem-
ber, 1903, vol. X, pp. 438-458.

464 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

dominated by mental pictures of the sensory. Large views
that take them afield away from the persons and things and
acts they know do not appeal to them. Attempts to think
rigorously are too hard. The teacher feels that all the content
of mind must come in through the senses, and that if these
are well fed, inferences and generalizations will come of them-
selves later. Many pupils have never in their lives talked five
minutes before others on any subject whatever that can
properly be called intellectual. It irks them to occupy them-
selves with purely mental processes, so enslaved are they by
what is near and personal, and thus they are impoverished in
the best elements of language. It is as if what are sometimes
called the associative fibers, both ends of which are in the brain,
were dwarfed in comparison with the afferent and efferent
fibers that mediate sense and motion.

That the soul of language as an instrument of thought
consists in this non-presentative element, so often lacking, is
conclusively shown in the facts of speech diseases. In the
slowly progressive aphasias, of late so carefully studied, the
words first lost are those of things and acts most familiar to
the patient, while the words that persist longest in the wreck-
age of the speech-centers are generally words that do not
designate the things of sense. A tailor loses the power to
name his chalk, measure, shears, although he can long talk
fluently of what little he may chance to know of God, beauty,
truth, virtue, happiness, prosperity, etc. The farmer is unable
to name the cattle in his yard or his own occupations, although
he can reason as well as ever about politics, can not discuss
coin or bills, but can talk of financial policies and securities,
or about health and wealth generally. The reason is obvious.
It is because concrete thinking has two forms, the word and
the image, and the latter so tends to take the place of the
former that it can be lost to both sense and articulation without
great impairment, whereas conceptual thinking lacks imagery
and depends upon words alone, and hence these must persist
because they have no alternate form which vicariates for them.

In its lower stages speech is necessarily closely bound up
with the concrete world, but its real glory appears in its later
stages and its higher forms, because there the soul takes flight
in the intellectual world, learns to live amidst its more spiritual

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 4^5

realities, to put names to thoughts, which is far higher than
to put names to things. It is in this world that the best things
in the best books live, and the modern school-bred distaste
for them, the low-ranged mentation that hovers near the coast-
line of matter and can not launch out with zest into the open
sea of thoughts, holding communion with the great dead of
the past or the great living of the distant present, seems almost
like a slow progressive abandonment of the high attribute of
speech and the lapse toward infantile or animal picture-
thinking. If the school is slowly becoming speechless in this
sense, if it is lapsing in all departments toward busy work and
losing silence, repose, the power of logical thought, and even
that of meditation, which is the muse of originality, this is per-
haps the gravest of all these types of decay. If the child has
no resources in solitude, can not think without the visual
provocation, is losing subjective life, enthusiasm for public,
social, ethical questions, is crippled for intellectual pursuits,
cares only in a languid way for literary prose and poetry,
responds only to sensuous stimuli and events at short range,
and is indifferent to all wide relations and moral responsi-
bility, cares only for commercial self-interest, the tactics of
field sport, laboratory occupations and things which can be
illustrated from a pedagogic museum, then the school is dwarf-
ing, in dawning maturity, the higher powers that belong to
this stage of development and is responsible for mental arrest.
In this deplorable condition, if we turn to the child study
of speech for help, we find that, although it has been chiefly
occupied with infant vocabularies, there are already a very few
and confessedly crude and feeble beginnings, but even these
shed more light on the lost pathway than all other sources
combined. The child once set in their midst again corrects the
wise men. We will first briefly recapitulate these and then
state and apply their lessons.

Miss Williams ^ found that out of 253 young ladies only 133 did not
have favorite sounds, a and a leading among the vowels, and I, r, and
m among the consonants. Eighty-five had favorite words often lugged
in, 329 being good. Two hundred and twenty-one as children had

' Children's Interest in Words. Ped. Sem., September, 1902, vol. ix, pp.

274-295.

69

466 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

favorite proper names in geography, and also for boys, but especially
for girls. The order of a few of the latter is as follows: Helen, 36;
Bessie, 25; Violet and Lilly, 20; Elsie and Beatrice, 18; Dorothy and
Alice, 17; Ethel, 15; Myrtle, 14; Mabel, Marguerite, Pearl, and Rose,
13; May, 12; Margaret, Daisy, and Grace, 11; Ruth and Florence, 9;
Gladys, 8 ; Maud, Nellie, and Gertrude, 7 ; Blanche and Mary, 6 ; Eve-
line and Pansy, 5 ; Belle, Beulah, Constance, Eleanor, Elizabeth, Eva,
Laura, Lulu, Pauline, Virginia, and Vivian, 4 each, etc.

Of ten words found interesting to adolescents, murmur was the
favorite, most enjoying its sound. Lullaby, supreme, annannaman-
nannaharoumlemay, immemorial, lillibulero, burbled, and incarnadine
were liked by most, while zigzag and shigsback were not liked. This
writer says that adolescence is marked by some increased love of
words for motor activity and in interest in words as things in them-
selves, but shows a still greater rise of interest in new words and
pronunciations; "above all, there is a tremendous rise in interest in
words as instruments of thought." The flood of new experiences,
feelings, and views finds the old vocabulary inadequate, hence " the
dumb bound feeling of which most adolescents at one time or another
complain, and also I suspect from this study in the case of girls, we
have an explanation of the rise of interest in slang." " The second
idea suggested by our study is the tremendous importance of hearing
in the affective side of language."

Conradi ^ found that of 273 returns concerning children's pleasure
in knowing or using new words, ninety-two per cent were affirmative,
eight per cent negative, and fifty per cent gave words especially
" liked." Some were partial to big words, some for those with z
in them. Some found most pleasure in saying them to themselves
and some in using them with others. In all there were nearly three
hundred such words, very few of which were artificial. As to words
pretty or queer in form or sound, his list was nearly as large, but
the greater part of the words were different. Sixty per cent of all
had had periods of spontaneously trying to select their vocabulary
by making lists, studying the dictionary, etc. The age of those who
did so would seem to average not far from early puberty, but the
data are too meager for conclusion. A few started to go through
the dictionary, some wished to astonish their companions or used
large new words to themselves or their dolls. Seventy per cent had
had a passion for affecting foreign words when English would do
as well. Conradi says " the age varies from twelve to eighteen, most
being fourteen to sixteen." Some indulge this tendency in letters, and
would like to do so in conversation, but fear ridicule. Fifty-six per
cent reported cases of superfine elegance or affected primness or pre-
cision in the use of words. Some had spells of effort in this direction,
some belabor compositions to get a style that suits them, some memo-
rize fine passages to this end, or modulate their voice to aid them,

' English. Fed. Sem., October, 1903, vol. x, pp. 359-404.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 4^7

affect elegance with a chosen mate by agreement, soUloquize before a
glass with poses. According to his curve this tendency culminates at
fourteen.

Adjectivism, adverbism, and nounism, or marked disposition to
multiply one or more of the above classes of words, and in the above
order, also occur near the early teens. Adjectives are often used as
adverbial prefixes to other adjectives, and here favorite words are

40
30
20
10

/

\,

/

s

/

i

\
\

\

//

/

V

\

\

V

tj

**^

/

'♦...

\

\
\

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^

/

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N

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Age 8 9 10 11 13 13 14 15 IG 17 18 19 30 |

, Slang

Reading Ci'aze
. Precision

marked. Nearly half of Conradi's reports show it, but the list of
words .so used is small.

Miss Williams presents an interesting curve of slang confessed as
being both attractive and used by 226 out of 251. From this it appears
that early adolescence is the curve of greatest pleasure in its use,
fourteen being the culminating year. There is very little until eleven,
when the curve for girls rises very rapidly, to fall nearly as rapidly
from fifteen to seventeen. Ninety-three out of 104 who used it did
so despite criticism.

Conradi, who collected and prints a long list of current slang words
and phrases, found that of 295 young boys and girls not one failed to
confess their use, and eighty-five per cent of all gave the age at which
they thought it most common. On this basis he constructs the above
curve, comparing with this the curve of a craze for reading and
for precision in speech.

The reasons given are, in order of frequency, that slang was more
emphatic, more exact, more concise, convenient, sounded pretty, re-
lieved formality, was natural, manly, appropriate, etc. Only a very
few thought it was vulgar, limited the vocabulary, led to or was a
substitute for swearing, destroyed exactness, etc. This writer at-
tempts a provisional classification of slang expressions under the sug-

468 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

gestive heads of rebukes to pride, boasting and loquacity, hypocrisy,
quaint and emphatic negatives, exaggerations, exclamations, mild
oaths, attending to one's own business and not meddling or interfer-
ing, names for money, absurdity, neurotic effects of surprise or shock,
honesty and lying, getting confused, fine appearance and dress, words
for intoxication which Partridge has collected,' for anger collated by
Chamberlain," crudeness or innocent naivete, love and sentimentality,
etc. Slang is also rich in describing conflicts of all kinds, praising
courage, censuring inquisitiveness and a school of moral discipline, but
he finds, however, a very large number unclassified ; and while he main-
tains throughout a distinction between that used by boys and by girls,
sex differences are not very marked. The great majority of terms are
mentioned but once, and a few under nearly all of the above heads
have great numerical precedence. A somewhat striking fact is the
manifold variations of a pet typical form. Twenty-three shock exple-
tives, e. g., are, " Wouldn't that you ? " the blank being filled

by jar, choke, cook, rattle, scorch, get, start, etc., or instead of you
adjectives are devised. Feeling is so intense and massive and psychic
processes are so rapid, forcible, and undeveloped that the pithiness of
some of these expressions makes them brilliant and creative works
of genius, and after securing an apprenticeship are sure of adoption.
Their very lawlessness helps to keep speech from rigidity and desicca-
tion, and they hit off nearly every essential phrase of adolescent life
and experience.

Conventional modes of speech do not satisfy the adolescent, so that
he is often either reticent or slangy. Walt Whitman ^ says slang is
" an attempt of common humanity to escape from bald literalism and
to express itself inimitably, which in the highest walks produces poets
and poems " ; and again, " Daring as it is to say so, in the gro.wth of
language it is certain that the retrospect of slang from the start would
be the recalling from their nebulous condition of all that is poetical
in the stores of human utterance." Lowell * says, " There is death in
the dictionary, and where language is too strictly limited by conven-
tion, the ground for expression to grow in is limited also, and we get
a potted literature, Chinese dwarfs instead of healthy trees." Louns-
bury asserts that " slang is an effort on the part of the users of lan-
guage to say something more vividly, strongly, concisely than the
language existing permits it to be said. It is the source from which
the decaying energies of speech are constantly refreshed." Conradi
adds in substance that weak or vicious slang is too feeble to survive,
and what is vital enough to live fills a need. The final authority is the
people, and it is better to teach youth to discriminate between good
and bad slang rather than to forbid it entirely. Emerson calls it lan-

' Am. Jour, of Psy., April, 1900, vol. xi, p. 345 et seq.

2 Am. Jour, of Psy., Jan., 1895, vol. vi, pp. 585-592. See also vol. x, p. 517.

3 N. A. Rev., vol. cxli, p. 431.

* Introduction to the Biglow Papers, series ii.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 4^9

guage in the making, its crude, vital, raw material. It is often an
effective school of moral description, a palliative for profanity, and
expresses the natural craving for superlatives. Faults are hit off and
condemned with the curtness and sententiousness of proverbs devised
by youth to sanctify itself and correct its own faults. The pedagogue
objects that it violates good form and established usage, but why
should the habits of hundreds of years ago control when they can not
satisfy the needs of youth, which requires a lingua franca of its own,
often called " slanguage " ? Most high school and college youth of both
sexes have two distinct styles, that of the classroom that is as unnat-
ural as the etiquette of a royal drawing-room reception or a formal call,
and the other that of their own breezy, free, natural life. Often these
two have no relation to or effect upon each other, and often the latter
is at times put by with good resolves to speak as purely and therefore
as self-consciously as they know, with petty fines for every slang
expression. But very few, and these generally husky boys, boldly try
to assert their own rude but vigorous vernacular in the field of school
requirements.

These simple studies in this vast field demonstrate httle
or nothing, but they suggest very much. Slang commonly
expresses a moral judgment and falls into ethical categories.
It usually concerns ideas, sentiment, and will, has a psychic
content, and is never, like the language of the school, a mere
picture of objects of sense or a description of acts. To restate
it in correct English would be a course in ethics, courtesy,
taste, logical predication and opposition, honesty, self-posses-
sion, modesty, and just the ideal and non-presentation mental
content youth most needs, and that the sensuous presentation
methods of teaching have neglected. Those who see in speech
nothing but form condemn it because it is vulgar. Youth has
been left to meet these high needs alone, and the prevalence of
these crude forms is an indictment of the delinquency of peda-
gogues in not teaching their pupils to develop and use their
intellect properly. Their pith and meatiness are a standing
illustration of the need of condensation for intellectual objects
that later growth analyzes. These expressions also illustrate
the law that the higher and larger the spiritual content, the
grosser must be the illustration in which it is first couched.
Further studies now in progress will, I believe, make this still
clearer.

Again, we see in the above, outcrops of the strong pubescent
instinct to enlarge the vocabulary in two ways. One is to
affect foreign equivalents. This at first suggests an appetency

47° THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

for another language like the dog-Latin gibberish of children.
It is one of the motives that prompts many to study Latin or
French, but it has little depth, for it turns out, on closer study,
to be only the affectation of superiority and the love of mys-
tifying others. The other is a very different impulse to widen
the vernacular. To pause to learn several foreign equivalents
of things of sense may be anti-educational if it limits the
expansion of thought in our own tongue. The two are, in
fact, often inversely as each other. In giving a foreign
synonym when the mind seeks a new native word, the peda-
gogue does not deal fairly. In this irradiation into the mother
tongue, sometimes experience with the sentiment or feeling,
act, fact, or object precedes, and then a name for it is
demanded, or conversely the sound, size, oddness or jingle
of the word is first attractive and the meaning comes later.
The latter needs the recognition and utilization which the
former already has. Lists of favorite words should be
wrought out for spelling and writing and their meanings illus-
trated, for these have often the charm of novelty as on the
frontier of knowledge and enlarge the mental horizon like
new discoveries. We must not starve this voracious new
appetite " for words as instruments of thought."

The sentence is affected by the more voluminous mentation
of the teens. It seems always to grow longer and more
intricate and sometimes to become for a time inordinately
involved till periodicity is almost lost. This is sometimes
preceded by increased simplification. The simpler forms of
intrication come first. Often there is oscillation between
different types of construction, and the propensity to quote
fine extracts and to ape favored adult friends and authors sug-
gests a subtle plasticity and susceptibility to styles for which
there is no pedagogic direction except exposure to good pat-
terns of many different kinds that the instinct of imitation
may have a free field and a long rein. The few and meager
data, so far at hand, are the following :

J. A. Hancock ^ examined papers written for the purpose, according
to a special plan, of 542 boys and 590 girls from ten to fifteen, in order

^ Children's Ability to Reason. Ed. Rev., New York, October, 1895. See also
his article on Children's Use of Written Language Forms. N.-W. Monthly,
June, 1898, vol. viii, p. 646.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 47 ^

to study the development of the sentence sense. He found that the
use of simple sentences decreased about thirty per cent from ten to
fifteen ; that the years of greatest change were from thirteen to four-
teen, especially for boys who developed rapidly in this respect. Curi-
ously enough, there was here a year of arrest, if not retrogression. He
found that " the increase in the use of the compound sentence is rapid
from ten to eleven, but is nearly all lost during the next year. From
twelve to fourteen the increase is again rapid for the boys, while a yet
greater gain is made by the girls from twelve to thirteen." The cul-
mination of the curve for girls precedes that of the boys by about a
year. The adverbial subordinate sentence was the form most fre-
quently used by children of all ages, it being most common at twelve
and from thirteen to fifteen decreasing for boys. From eleven to
twelve there was great increase in the proportion of the substantive
subordinate sentence, especially in boys. There was a marked tendency
to increase the number of words in a sentence with age, which seemed
to " reflect in some measure mental peculiarities of puberty and early
adolescence." The long sentences at this age are often highly in-
volved and complex, as if many mental items were struggling for sug-
gestion but tended to break down old limits. In extreme instances,
sentences of very great length are used. Sherman's Analytics of
Literature concludes that the percentage of simple sentences in good
English literature has increased from four per cent to thirty-three and
one-third per cent; that the average number of predicates has fallen
from five and a fraction to two and a fraction per cent; that the
average sentence length has decreased about sixty-six and two
thirds per cent, as written now tends to approach the characteris-
tics of oral speech. This conclusion, if true, has immediate practical
bearings.

Mr. Sanford Bell writes, " My experience during eleven years of
teaching and supervising convinces me that the language curve drops
below the thought curve in the fifth grade, when the child is eleven
or twelve, and continues there for some years." He expresses the
opinion that the elaborate analyses of grammatical matter and of
arithmetical processes seriously interfere with the progress of the
child, and that "five times as much work" as is usually prescribed
can be done in arithmetic, if the children are allowed to take any
short cuts they please to solve the problems, either mentally or with
the pencil, and are freed from the obnoxious formulas. He also thinks
that the requirements of grammatical accuracy seriously interfere not
only with the function of language to express thought, but with
thought itself.

Of Conradi's 133 reports on the long sentence habit, more than
two-thirds were reminiscent and rather more than half were before
the teens. The causes were imitation, ignorance of sentence structure,
impetuosity, etc. Closely connected with this is the love of quoting
pretty phrases and album poetry. Conradi gives many interesting
specimens and quotes many of these under the captions : Wise sayings,

472 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

despondency, optimism, altruism, heroic self-affirmation, love, with
many miscellanies.

The sentence-sense is often weakened along with the power of
sequent logical thought and the construction is often changed.
Thought can not be stated in concise form but is spun out with copu-
las and no periodicity, and jargon, provincialism, and often profane
and obscene expressions occur that owe a large part of their charm
to the fact that they are tabooed in good society; diction is stilted
or poetic, there are endless iterations, words used with remotely
suggested meanings, or sheer nullity of thought. Verbigeration alter-
nates with taciturnity and even mutism, fatuity with flashes of genius,
animals' noises, cars, machinery, wind, etc., are imitated often with
more or less virtuosoship.

Of Conradi's returns twenty-eight per cent had aped some stylistic
writer either consciously or unconsciously. Some were charmed by
the periods of Hugo, Macaulay, Dickens, Addison, Emerson, Mark
Twain, Mrs. Southworth, Miss Alcott, or many others, or cultivated
newspaperism or the forms of polite letter-writing, etc.

Just fifty per cent of Conradi's cases, mostly in the early teens,
had tried their hand at spontaneous original poetry generally concern-
ing either living persons, nature, or religious themes. Many of the
first class are humorous, of all of which this writer prints suggestive
samples.

This propensity for narration has been very strong in the youth
of many eminent authors. Goethe spun long tales for the delectation
of not only children but adults, one of which he tells at length in his
autobiography. Beth invented incidents and personated in costume
the characters of her plots. George Sand and the anonymous author
of the Autobiography of a Child, and many others, excelled in this,
when the latter became interested in genealogy, invented a family
named L'Estrange, who came over with William the Conqueror, and
the chief of which as a certificate of chivalry fought at the Battle of
Hastings. He had shining armor and golden hair and wondrous eyes,
and they married him to an imaginary heroine. To stimulate their
imagination a cemetery was founded with wooden tombstones for all
the L'Estranges since, where every one after his history had been
developed as far down as the Battle of Bosworth Field, was buried.
The epitaphs they devised showed that all their heroes were brave
as lions, mild as lambs, and stainless as Galahads.

Children sometimes float off in complete absorption in some realm
of fancy. One girl, as she stood by the window, was a captive princess
in some palace waiting for a fairy prince to release her, and at the
same time catching flies. Boys' tales are of hunting, adventure, vast
wealth, power, cunning, fights, and the improbabilities gradually de-
cline with advancing age. Following are a few observations :

In a very interesting study of the continued story,' Miss Learoyd

^ Am. Jour, of Psy., October, 1895, vol. vii, pp. 86-90.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 473

found ninety-three adults who had formed the habit of carrying on
narratives in their minds, and that nearly two-thirds of all the children
did so. The narratives are imaginative, unwritten, and may be of the
type of the fairy tale and Marchen common in childhood, or of the
romance and adventure peculiar to adolescence ; ideal at all ages, but
more practical in later life. In childhood the habit is nearly as com-
mon among boys as among girls, but in maturity nearly three times as
frequent among women. Some continue one story for weeks, and sixty-
four prolonged them for years. Others have hundreds of short stories.
Solitude and night are favorable. The starting-point may be some-
thing read or real life. The habit is sometimes thought helpful, but
occasionally is deemed adverse to sleep, and tends to absent-minded-
ness. Some develop almost illusionary intensity; the characters grow
with the child ; often there is hardly any plot and the story moves on,
weaving itself, the weaver often being the hero around whom every-
thing centers, and visualizing the minutest details about the charac-
ters. It may end with the hero's death, and then often another is
started.

One hundred and thirty-seven children, well distributed between
the ages of six and a half and fifteen, were asked to write a story on
any topic of their own choice. The younger children mostly wrote of
personal experiences or general topics, while the experiences of others
came into prominence near the dawn of adolescence. At that time the
stories showed a marked increase in length, complexity of plot and
climax. The aim was more real and dominant, and occasionally de-
scriptions were interspersed. While the young children had used
mainly verbs and especially nouns, mostly names of persons and
familiar objects, personal pronouns, articles, and prepositions increased
with age, and adjectives, which first refer chiefly to size and beauty,
come into dominance, as do conjunctions, which are very rare with
younger children.^

One girl of fifteen, who was much alone in the country, was in the
habit of beginning and thinking out long social romances involving
a dozen or twenty people. Each of these had his own name and
characteristics, and she would think out a section of the story involv-
ing incidents chronologically connected. Everything could be dropped
any time, but was always begun on the next occasion exactly where
it left ofif. Another girl at the same age told her stories to groups
of school children, who came at stated times once or twice a week,
and whom she held enchanted sometimes for an hour or two. A boy of
fourteen developed unusual power in telling tales full of wonder and
stilted heroism to his mates. These he was able to begin without
premeditation at any time and to carry the plot on to an almost indefi-
nite length, but every session brought forth a new story. Another, at
the age of fourteen, had great infatuation for stories of the Sylvanus

* Children's Stories, by S. W. Eaton. Fed. Sam., October, 1895, vol. iii, pp.
334-338-

474 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Cobb and Mrs. Southworth order, and covered nearly half a ream of
paper one spring and summer in working out the romance of Devil's
Dare. It was a tale of incredible prowess and adventure, underground
passages and hair-breadth escapes, and written in red ink to symbolize
the gore which flowed so freely through its pages. His mother found
out what he was doing and undertook to read it, but her maternal in-
terest was not quite equal to the task of finishing it. This, however,
was accomplished by a somewhat younger girl cousin, who professed to
await with eager interest every new section, and always longed for
more.

Interest in story-telling rises till twelve or thirteen, and
thereafter falls off perhaps rather suddenly, partly because
youth is nov^ more interested in receiving than in giving. As
in the drawing curve we saw a characteristic age when the child
loses pleasure in creating as its power of appreciating pictures
rapidly arises, so now as the reading curve rises auditory
receptivity makes way for the visual method shown in the rise
of the reading curve with augmented zest for book-method of
acquisition. Darkness or twilight enhances the story interest
in children, for it eliminates the distraction of sense and en-
courages the imagination to unfold its pinions, but the
youthful fancy is less bat-like and can take its boldest flights
in broad daylight. A camp-fire, or an open hearth with tales
of animals, ghosts, heroism, and adventure can teach virtue,
and vocabulary, style, and substance in their native unity.

The pubescent reading passion is partly the cause and
partly an effect of the new zest in and docility to the adult
world and also of the fact that the receptive are now and here
so immeasurably in advance of the creative powers. Now the
individual transcends his own experience and learns to profit
by that of others. There is now evolved a penumbral region
in the soul more or less beyond the reach of all school methods,
a world of glimpses and hints, and the work here is that of
the prospector and not of the careful miner. It is the age of
skipping and sampling, of pressing the keys lightly. What is
acquired is not examinable but only suggestive. Perhaps noth-
ing read now fails to leave its mark. It can not be orally
reproduced at call, but on emergency it is at hand for use. As
Augustine said of God, so the child might say of most of his
mental content in these psychic areas, " If you ask me, I do
not know ; but if you do not ask me, I know very well " — a

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 475

case analogous to the typical girl who exclaimed to her teacher,
" I can do and understand this perfectly if you only won't ex-
plain it." That is why examinations in English, if not im-
possible, as Goldwin Smith and Oxford hold, are very liable
to be harmful, and recitations and critical notes an imperti-
nence, and always in danger of causing arrest of this exquisite
romantic function in which literature comes in the closest
rapport to life, keeping the heart warm, reenforcing all its
good motives, preforming choices, and universalizing its sym-
pathies.

R. W. Bullock ^ classified and tabulated 2,000 returns from school-
children from the third to the twelfth grade, both inclusive, concern-
ing their reading. From this it appeared that the average boy of the
third grade " read 4.9 books in six months ; that the average falls to
3.6 in the fourth and fifth grades and rises to a maximum of 6.5 in
the seventh grade, then drops quite regularly to 3 in the twelfth grade
at the end of the high school course." The independent tabulation of
returns from other cities showed little variation. " Grade for grade,
the girls read more than the boys, and as a rule they reach their maxi-
mum a year sooner, and from a general maximum of 5.9 books there
is a drop to 3.3 at the end of the course." The age of maximum
reading may be postponed or accelerated perhaps nearly a year by the
absence or presence of library facilities. Tabulating the short stories
read per week, it was found that these averaged 2.1 in the third grade,
rose to y.y per week in the seventh grade, and in the twelfth had fallen
to 2.3, showing the same general tendency.

The percentage tables for boys' preference for eight classes of
stories are here only suggestive. " War stories seem popular with
third grade boys, and that Hking seems well marked through the sixth,
seventh, and eighth grades. Stories of adventure are popular all
through the heroic period, reaching their maximum in the eighth
and ninth grades. The liking for biography and travel or exploration
grows gradually to a climax in the ninth grade, and remains well up
through the course. The tender sentiment has little charm for the
average grade boy, and only in the high school course does he ac-
knowledge any considerable use of love stories. In the sixth grade
he is fond of detective stories, but they lose their charm for him as
he grows older." For girls, " stories of adventure are popular in the
sixth grade, and stories of travel are always enjoyed. The girl likes
biography, but in the high school, true to her sex, she prefers stories
of great women rather than great men, but because she can not get
them reads those of men. Pity it is that the biographies of so few

^Some Observations on Children's Reading. Proc. of the N. E. A., 1897, p.
1015.

47^ THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

of the world's many great women are written. The taste for love
stories increases steadily to the end of the high school course. Beyond
that we have no record." Thus " the maximum amount of reading
is done in every instance between the sixth and eighth grades, the aver-
age being in the seventh grade at an average age of fourteen and one-
tenth years." Seventy-five per cent of all discuss their reading with
some one, and the writer urges that " when ninety-five per cent of the
boys prefer adventure or seventy-five per cent of the girls prefer love
stories, that is what they are going to read," and the duty of the teach-
er or librarian is to see that they have both in the highest, purest form.

Henderson ^ found that of 2,989 children from nine to fifteen, least
books were read at the age of nine and most at the age of fifteen, and
that there was " a gradual rise in amount throughout, the only break
being in the case of girls at the age of fourteen and the boys at the
age of twelve." For fiction the high-water mark was reached for both
sexes at eleven, and the subsequent fall is far less rapid for girls than
for boys. " At the age of thirteen the record for travel and adven-
ture stands highest in the case of the boys, phenomenally so. There
is a gradual rise in history with age, and a corresponding decline in
fiction."

Kirkpatrick ^ classified returns from 5,000 children from the fourth
to the ninth grade in answer to questions that concerned their reading.
He found a sudden increase in the sixth grade, when children are
about twelve, when there is often a veritable reading craze. Dolls
are abandoned and " plays, games, and companionship of others are
less attractive, and the reading hunger in many children becomes in-
satiable and is often quite indiscriminate." It seems to " most fre-
quently begin at about twelve years of age and continue at least three
or four years," after which increased home duties, social responsibili-
ties, and school requirements reduce it and make it more discriminating
in quality. " The fact that boys read about twice as much history and
travel as girls and only about two-thirds as much poetry and stories
shows beyond question that the emotional and intellectual wants of
boys and girls are essentially different before sexual maturity."

Miss Vostrovsky^ found that among 1,269 children there was a
great increase of taste for reading as shown by the number of books
taken from the library, which began with a sharp rise at eleven and
increased steadily to nineteen, when her survey ended ; that boys read
most till seventeen, and then girls took the precedence. The taste for
juvenile stories is declining and that for fiction and general literature
is rapidly increased. At about the sixteenth year a change took place

'Report on Child Reading. New York Report of State Supt., 1897, vol. ii,

P- 979-

* Children's Reading. North-Western Mo,, December, 1898, vol. ix, p. 188,
and January, 1899, vol. ix, p. 229.

' A Study of Children's Reading Tastes. Ped. Sem., December, 1899, vol. vi,
PP- 523-535-

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 477

in both sexes, " showing then the beginning of a greater interest in
works of a more general character." Girls read more fiction than boys
at every age, but the interest in it begins to be very decided at adoles-
cence. With girls it appears to come a Httle earlier and with greater
suddenness, while the juvenile story maintains a strong hold upon boys
even after the fifteenth year. The curve of decline in juvenile stories is
much more pronounced in both sexes than the rise of fiction. Through
the teens there is a great increase in the definiteness of answers to
the questions why books were chosen. Instead of being read because
they were good or nice, they were read because recommended, and
later because of some special interest. Girls relied on recommenda-
tions more than boys. The latter were more guided by reason and the
former by sentiment. Nearly three times as many boys in the early
teens chose books because they were exciting or venturesome. Even
the stories which girls called exciting were tame compared with those
chosen by boys. Girls chose books more than four times as often be-
cause of children in them, and more often because they were funny.
Boys care very little for style, but must have incidents and heroes.
The author says " the special interest that girls have in fiction begins
about the age of adolescence. After the sixteenth year the extreme
delight in stories fades," or school demands become more imperative
and uniform. Girls prefer domestic stories and those with characters
Hke themselves and scenes more like those with which they are fa-
mihar. " No boy confesses to a purely girl's story, while girls frankly
do to an interesting story about boys. Women writers seem to appeal
more to girls, men writers to boys. Hence, the authors named by each
sex are almost entirely different. In fiction more standard works were
drawn by boys than by girls." " When left to develop according to
chance, the tendency is often toward a selection of books which unfit
one for every-day Hving, either by presenting, on the one hand, too
many scenes of delicious excitement or, on the other, by narrowing
the vision to the wider possibilities of life."

Out of 523 full answers, Lancaster found that 453 " had what might
be called a craze for reading at some time in the adolescent period,"
and thinks parents Httle realize the intensity of the desire to read or
how this nascent period is the golden age to cultivate taste and inocu-
late against reading what is bad. The curve rises rapidly from eleven
to fourteen, culminates at fifteen, after which it falls rapidly. Some
become omnivorous readers of everything in their way; others are
profoundly, and perhaps for life, impressed with some single book;
others have now crazes for history, now for novels, now for dramas
or for poetry; some devour encyclopedias; some imagine themselves
destined to be great novelists and compose long romances; some can
give the dates with accuracy of the different periods of the develop-
ment of their tastes from the fairy tales of early childhood to the
travels and adventures of boyhood and then to romance, poetry, his-
tory, etc. ; and some give the order of their development of taste for
the great poets.

47 8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

The careful statistics of Dr. Reyer show that the greatest greed
of reading is from the age of fifteen to twenty-two, and is on the
average greatest of all at twenty. He finds that ten per cent of the
young people of this age do forty per cent of all the reading. Before
twenty the curve ascends very rapidly, to fall afterward yet more
rapidly as the need of bread-winning becomes imperative. After
thirty-five the great public reads but little. Every youth should have
his or her own library, which, however small, should be select. To
seal some knowledge of their content with the delightful sense of
ownership helps to preserve the apparatus of culture, keeps green early
memories, or makes one of the best of tangible mementoes of parental
care and love. For the young especially, the only ark of safety in the
dark and rapidly rising flood of printer's ink is to turn resolutely
away from the ideal of quantity to that of quality. While literature
rescues youth from individual limitations and enables it to act and
think more as spectators of all time, and sharers of all existence, the
passion for reading may be excessive, and books which from the silent
alcoves of our nearly 5,500 American libraries rule the world more
now than ever before, may cause the young to neglect the oracles
within, weaken them by too wide reading, make conversation bookish,
and overwhelm spontaneity and originality with a superfetation of
alien ideas.

The reading passion may rage with great intensity when
the soul takes its first long flight in the world of books, and
ninety per cent of all Conradi's cases showed it. Of
these, thirty-two per cent read to have the feelings stirred and
the desire of knowledge was a far less frequent motive.
Some read to pass idle time, others to appear learned or
to acquire a style or a vocabulary. Romance led. Some
specialized, and with some the appetite was omnivorous.
Some preferred books about or addressed to children, some
fairy tales, and some sought only those for adults. The night
is often invaded and some become " perfectly wild " over
exciting adventures or the dangers and hardships of true
lovers, laughing and crying as the story turns from grave
to gay, and a few read several books a week. Some were for-
bidden and read by stealth alone, or with books hidden in their
desks or under school books. Some few live thus for years
in an atmosphere highly charged with romance, and burn out
their fires wickedly early with a sudden and extreme expan-
siveness that makes life about them uninteresting and unreal,
and that reacts to commonplace later. Conradi prints some
two to three hundred favorite books and authors of early and

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 479

of later adolescence. The natural reading of early youth is
not classic nor blighted by compulsion or uniformity for all.
This age seeks to express originality and personality in
individual choices and tastes.

Suggestive and briefly descriptive lists of best books and
authors by authorities in different fields on which some time
is spent in making selection, talks about books, pooling knowl-
edge of them, with no course of reading even advised and
much less prescribed, is the best guidance for developing the
habit of rapid cursory reading. Others before Professor De
Long, of Colorado, have held that the power of reading a
page in a moment, as a mathematician sums up a column of
figures, and as the artist Dore was able to read a book by turn-
ing the leaves, can be attained by training and practise.
School pressure should not suppress this instinct of omniv-
orous reading, which at this age sometimes prompts the re-
solve to read encyclopedias, and even libraries, or to sample
everything to be found in books at home. Along with but
never suppressing it there should be some stated reading, but
this should lay down only kinds of reading like the four em-
phasized in the last chapter or offer a goodly number of large
alternative groups of books and authors like the five of the
Leland Stanford University and permit wide liberty of choice
to both teacher and pupil. Few triumphs of the uniformita-
rians, who sacrifice individual needs to mechanical convenience
in dealing with youth in masses, have been so sad as marking
off and standardizing a definite quantum of requirements here.
Instead of irrigating a wide field, the well-springs of literary
interest are forced to cut a deep canyon and leave wide desert
plains of ignorance on either side. Besides imitation, which
reads what others do, is the desire to read something no one
else does, and this is a palladium of individuality. Bad as is
the principle the selections are worse, including the sac-
charinity ineffable of Tennyson's Princess (a strange expres-
sion of the progressive feminization of the high school and yet
satirizing the scholastic aspiration of girls) which the virile
boy abhors, books about books which are two removes from
life, and ponderous Latinity authors which for the Saxon boy
suggest David fighting in Saul's armor, and which warp and
pervert the nascent sentence-sense on a foreign model. Worst

480 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

of all, the prime moral purpose of youthful reading is ignored
in choices based on form and style, and a growing profusion
of notes that distract from content to language, the study of
which belongs in the college if not in the university, de-
velops the tendencies of criticism before the higher powers
of sympathetic appreciation have done their work.^

(B) Other new mental powers and aptitudes are as yet
too little studied. Very slight are the observations so far made
of children's historic, which is so clearly akin to literary, in-
terest and capacity. With regard to this and several other
subjects in the curriculum we are in the state of Watts when
he gazed at the tea-kettle and began to dream of the steam-
engine ; we are just recognizing a new power and method
destined to reconstruct and increase the efficiency of education,
but only after a long and toilsome period of limited successes.

Mrs. Barnes ^ told a story without date, place, name, or moral, and
compared the questions which 1,250 children would like to have an-
swered about it. She found that the interest of girls in persons, or the
number who asked the question " who," culminated at twelve, when
it coincided with that of boys, but that the latter continued to rise to
fifteen. The interest to know "place where" events occurred culminated
at eleven with girls, and at fifteen, and at a far higher point, with boys.
The questions " how " and " why," calling for the method and reason,
both culminated at twelve for girls and fifteen for boys, but were
more infrequent and showed less age differences than the preceding
question. Interest in results of the action was most pronounced of all.

1 Perhaps the best and most notable school reader is Das Deutsche Lesebuch,
begun nearly fifty years ago by Hopf and Paulsiek, and lately supplemented by a
corps of writers headed by Dobeln, all in ten volumes of over 3,500 pages and con-
taining nearly six times as much matter as the largest American series. Many men
for years went over the history of German literature, from the Eddas and Nibe-
lungenlied down, including a few living writers, carefully selecting saga, legends,
Mdrchen, fables, proverbs, hymns, a few prayers, Bible tales, conundrums, jests,
and humorous tales, with many digests, epitomes and condensation of great stand-
ards, quotations, epic, lyric, dramatic poetry, adventure, exploration, biography,
with sketches of the life of each writer quoted, with a large final volume on the
history of German literature. All this, it is explained, is " statarie" or required to
be read between Okotava and Oberseciinda. It is no aimless anthology or chrestoma-
thy like Chambers's Encyclopedia, but it is perhaps the best product of prolonged
concerted study to select from a vast field the best to feed each nascent stage of
later childhood and early youth, and to secure the maximum of pleasure and profit.
The ethical end is dominant throughout this pedagogic canon.

2 The Historic Sense among Children. In her Studies in Historical Method.
Boston, 1896, p. 57.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 481

culminating at twelve in girls and fifteen in boys. Details and time
excited far less interest, the former jointly culminating for both sexes
at eleven. Interest in the truth of the narrative was extremely slight,
although it became manifest at fifteen, and was growing at sixteen.
The number of inferences drawn steadily increased with age, although
the increase was very slight after thirteen. Both legitimate and crit-
ical inferences increased after eleven, while imaginative inferences at
that age had nearly reached their maximum. Interest in names was
very strong throughout, as in primitive people. Boys were more curi-
ous concerning " who," " where," and " how " ; girls as to " why."
In general, the historic curiosity of boys was greater than that of girls,
and culminated later. The inferences drawn from an imagined finding
of a log-house, boat, and arrows on a lonely island indicate that the
power of inference, both legitimate and imaginative, develops strongly
at twelve and thirteen, after which doubt and the critical faculties are
apparent; which coincides with Mr. M. A. Tucker's conclusion, that
doubt develops at thirteen and that personal inference diminishes about
that age.

The children were given two accounts of the fall of Fort Sumter,
one in the terms of a school history and the other a despatch of equal
length from Major Anderson, and asked which was best, should be
kept, and why. Choice of the narrative steadily declined after eleven
and that of the despatch increased, the former reaching its lowest, the
latter its highest, point at fifteen, indicating a preference for the first-
hand record. The number of those whose choice was affected by
style showed no great change from twelve to fifteen, but rose very
rapidly for the next two years. Those who chose the despatch be-
cause it was true, signed, etc., increased rapidly in girls and boys
throughout the teens, and the preference for the telegram as a more
direct source increased very rapidly from thirteen to seventeen.

Other studies of this kind led Mrs. Barnes to conclude that children
remembered items by groups ; that whole groups were often omitted ;
that those containing most action were best remembered; that what
is remembered is remembered with great accuracy; that generalities
are often made more specific ; that the number of details a child carries
away from a connected narrative is not much above fifty, so that their
numbers should be limited ; and from it all was inferred the necessity
of accuracy, of massing details about central characters or incidents,
letting action dominate, omitting all that is aside from the main line
of the story, of bringing out cause and effect, and dramatizing where
possible.

Miss Patterson ^ collated the answers of 2,237 children to the ques-
tion " What does 1895 mean? " The blanks " Don't know " decreased
very rapidly from six to eight, and thereafter maintained a slight but
constant percentage. Those who expanded the phrase a little without

* Special Study on Children's Sense of Historical Time. Mrs. Barnes's Studies
in Historical Method, p. 94.
70

482 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

intelligence were most numerous from eight to ten, while the propor-
tion who gave a correct explanation rose quite steadily for both sexes
and culminated at fourteen for girls and fifteen for boys. The latter
only indicates the pupils of real historic knowledge. The writer con-
cludes that " the sense of historical time is altogether lacking with
children of seven, and may be described as slight up to the age of
twelve." History, it is thought, should be introduced early with no
difference between boys and girls, but " up to the age of twelve or
thirteen it should be presented in a series of striking biographies and
events, appearing if possible in contemporary ballads and chronicles,
and illustrated by maps, chronologic charts, and as richly as possible
by pictures of contemporary objects, buildings, and people." At the
age of fourteen or fifteen another sort of work should appear. Orig-
inal sources should still be used, but they should illustrate not " the
picture of human society moving before us in a long panorama, but
should give us the opportunity to study the organization, thought,
feeling, of a time as seen in its concrete embodiments, its documents,
monuments, men, and books." The statesmen, thinkers, poets, should
now exceed explorers and fighters; reflection and interpretation, dis-
crimination of the true from the false, comparison, etc., are now first
in order; while later yet, perhaps in college, should come severer
methods and special monographic study.

Studies of mentality, so well advanced for infants and so
well begun for lower grades, are still very meager for adoles-
cent stages so far as they bear on growth in the power to
deal with arithmetic, drawing and pictures, puzzles, super-
stitions, collections, attention, reason, etc. Enough has been
done to show that with authority to collect data on plans
and by methods that can now be operated and with aid which
should now be appropriated by school boards and teachers'
associations, incalculable pedagogic economy could be secured
and the scientific and professional character of teaching every
topic in upper grammar and high school and even in the early
college grades be greatly enhanced. To enter upon this
laborious task in every branch of study is perhaps our chief
present need and duty to our youth in school, although in-
dividual studies like that of Binet belong elsewhere. Below
is a description of the few tentatives that suggest mental
changes of puberty relative to a few of the above topics, rea-
soning power, etc.

J. A. Hancock * undertook a statistical study of children's ability
to reason by giving them a number of carefully devised sums in arith-

»Ed. Rev., October, 1896.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 4^3

metic. He found in going up the grades the greatest oscillation of in-
crease and decrease in the number of failures and apparently in the
power of numerical analysis. But his figures showed that the rate of
decrease in error is most rapid at thirteen and fifteen, although at four-
teen errors are nearly as numerous as at twelve. Girls improved till
they were ten and then lost, but after a year improved again. From
this work it would appear that children can not reason much beyond
their experience and environment until about the age of puberty.
These conclusions are based on returns studied for the purpose of 500
or more children of each age from seven to fifteen. Queyrat in his
Logique chez I'enfant, Paris, 1902, chap, iii, abundantly illustrates the
lack of reasoning power in children, indisposed as he is to await
maturer season.

Voris ^ found that the seventh school year was more accurate in
fundamental operations of arithmetic, and that the subsequent year
shows not only no progress, but a tendency to decline. More errors
were indicated in the lower work of the high school than in the eighth
grammar grade, and there was little progress from the fifth to the
eighth, indicating a stationary period.

Dr. Hoffmann developed a simple story as a result of careful study
of children's interests, which strongly appealed to them." This Barnes
translated, and had it read twice to children, who were told to draw
whatever pictures it suggested. He collated these from 6,392 children,
who drew 15,218 scenes, the meeting with the dog and rescue after a
fall into the river predominating. While at six each child drew an
average of 1.6 scenes, the latter increased in number, culminating in
girls at thirteen and boys at fourteen, each of whom averaged more
than 3 scenes each. This number declined until seventeen, when the
census ended as if the children became less daring in expression.
" The courage to express ideas through drawing increases in Califor-
nia children until they are thirteen or fourteen years old, and then
steadily decreases." Lukens ^ and others have confirmed this point.
All who decHned to draw were over thirteen. Other studies show that
at this age there is a change of ideals, and that children more fully
realize that they can not execute what they see. Collating 12,740
faces, full faces decreased and profiles increased till at thirteen there
were twice as many of the latter as of the former, the equality point
being between nine and ten.

Miss Herrick* classified 1,324 drawings of 451 children made to
illustrate the same poem and on the same conditions. There were in
all 1,313 faces in these drawings, tabulation of which showed that

1 Unpublished Dissertation. Study of Children's Errors in Examination Papers.
Indiana University, 1900.

- See his Der Struwwelpeter. Hans Guck-in-die-Luft.

''A Study of Children's Drawings in the Early Years. Ped. Sem., October,
1896, vol. iv, pp. 79-110.

* Children's Drawings. Ped. Sem., October, 1895, vol. iii, pp. 338, 339.

484 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

whereas young children always tend to draw the full face, profile
seems well established by nine, and rather tends to increase up to
fourteen, when this census ends.

Indian children ^ were found to draw the maximal number of fig-
ures at six or seven, and then interest in drawing somewhat declined
as they learned to write, but later returned; the greatest variety of
objects drawn was found in girls of eleven and boys of twelve, but
this later declined till sixteen. Animals, birds, and man were often
chosen by the boys in the earlier years. Flowers were most frequent
for girls from twelve to fifteen, and conventional figures were domi-
nant for both sexes at fifteen.

Miss Maitland ' was able to study the spontaneous drawings of 65
Eskimo children. Up to ten, thirty-three per cent were picture
stories, and this " catalogued frieze " work predominated over repre-
sentative work. Up to ten or eleven, drawing is a language and
represents their own environment. There are very many human fig-
ures, and both men and animals are full of action.

Lancaster's returns ^ indicate that fifty to seventy-five per cent of
young people are profoundly moved by art at this stage of life, al-
though the fervor usually lasts but a few months or at most a year
or two. It was not a sign of artistic ability, but only of the awakening
emotional nature. The change in pictures was generally from the
bright-colored pictures of action to quiet scenes of sentiment. Now,
a picture may be interesting without animals or a person in it. Those
pictures that show deep emotion or are thought to reveal the heart
are preferred. Some now become very conscious of inartistic archi-
tecture, wall paper, etc., and make new demands upon their home or
environment. Classical pictures, which have sometimes passed unno-
ticed or even been hated, now begin to move the soul. " In our house
hung Angelo's Madonna. I hated it and would make terrible faces at
it as a child. At fifteen it suddenly struck me with a beauty that
nothing else has ever made me feel. The Madonna came to be my
ideal." Many speak of now loving landscapes for the first time.

A study of children's passion for collecting^ was made on a basis
of 607 boys and the same number of girls, as measured by the number
of things collected, which reached its greatest intensity at ten and
declined, although with considerable persistence, through the teens.
Two hundred and fourteen kinds of collection for each sex were
studied and sexual differences stood out more markedly at adolescence.
At eleven or twelve there was more interest in the things than in

' Favorite Drawings of Indian Children, by Louisa McDermott. North-West-
ern Monthly, September, 1897, vol. viii, p. 134.

* Notes on Eskimo Drawings. North-Western Mo., June, 1899, vol. ix, p. 443.

' Psychology and Pedagogy of Adolescence Fed. Sem. July 1897, vol .v, p. loi.

*The Collecting Instinct, by Caroline Frear Burk. Ped. Sem., July, 1900,
vol. vii, pp. 179-207.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 485

the mere collecting. The possession idea develops into love of quan-
tity, so that the largest collections come now and imitation is potent.
From twelve on interest begins to pass from the things themselves
to their relations, classifications, and explanations, but in general the
impulse " continues into adolescence as a vestige, as it were, a remnant
of the real instinct. It dribbles off into sentimental lines as in the
collection of party souvenirs, theater programs, etc., and into social
fads as in the collection of spoons, hatpins, etc." The spontaneous
nature interest largely dies out except in the case of birds' eggs, where
other instincts, as roaming and hunting, continue to supply incentive.
The collecting mania is perhaps a natural beginning in any subject,
and the logical, analytical, literary, and esthetic interests come later,
but are often initiated by collections of books or pictures which should
by induction lay the base for true appreciation later. To encourage
this instinct is often, therefore, a method of generating interest. Girls
are more prone to receive, and boys to hunt or trade for their objects,
while dickering and buying are predominant in adolescence with more
faddism and larger commercial, scientific, and sentimental interests,
and often with more systematic arrangement of collections.

From 556 returns to a questionnaire upon interest in puzzles,
Lindley ^ found that the curve of greatest interest in guess games
and original riddles culminated at about seven years of age; that in
the standard riddles culminated at about ten ; that in mechanical puz-
zles about two years later, and that in geometrical puzzles a trifle
later yet. Language puzzles, exclusive of riddles, seemed to reach
their maximum interest at about fifteen, while last of all came arith-
metical puzzles, which indicates with a high degree of probability
that the culmination of the puzzle aspect of the mental play instinct
falls in the immediate prepubertal stage of growth. It marks the close
of the period just preceding adolescence. Curiously enough the cul-
mination coincides with the period of highest specific intensity of life.
Perhaps " it is fair to assume a priori that the system of cortical asso-
ciation fibres now begins to develop more rapidly, and indeed Wer-
nicke states that at about the twelfth year there is a marked increase
in the medullation of these fiber systems, which must be present before
there is a great activity of reason." Being a boy or a girl had " be-
come easy, and the energies are not all taxed to maintain the equi-
librium of life. Thus there is a mental surplus, which expends itself in
play. May not this prepubertal intellectual play activity bear direct
and propaedeutical relations to adolescence ? "

From 692 papers on superstitions of children, the number stated
rose rapidly from eleven onward, and the increase " does not seem due
merely to the child's ability to express himself more easily as he grows

^ A Study of Puzzles with Special Reference to the Psychology of Mental
Adaptation. Am. Jour, of Psy., July, 1897, vol. viii, pp. 431-493.

486 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

older, but to his actually acquiring more superstitions," girls always
leading.^ Up to the dawn of puberty superstitions are very simple and
vague, but at this period ghost fear develops rapidly, and later come
superstitions of love and marriage. The curve of disbelief in, e. g.,
pin luck, rises very rapidly from eleven onward in girls and from thir-
teen in boys, and the number of superstitions called untrue rises rapidly
from thirteen in boys and from twelve in girls. The critical spirit at
first insists on only a single test or coincidence, and evidence to the
contrary is not thereafter ignored. " This reliance on a single proof
continues through the seventeenth year." In affairs of the heart,
adolescent boys do not rely on love lore as girls do. The latter rarely
express contempt for superstitions as boys do, who nevertheless seem
to have more faith in the supernatural.

Barnes ^ collated returns from 2,000 children from six to fifteen
who were asked. What is a knife, bread, doll, water? etc. — thirty-three
objects in all. Young children defined things almost entirely by their
use; at eleven, definition by a larger, more generic term is well de-
veloped, as is definition by stating the substance of which a thing is
made, while at fifteen most of the definitions for both sexes were by
invoking the larger term, indicating a marked adolescent rise in the
logical mode of thought.

Shaw ^ spoke and immediately wrote upon the blackboard names
of things, requiring the pupil to write at once as rapidly as possible
whatever the term suggested to his mind. In studying these returns,
it was found that the younger child's interest was self-centered in
individual and particular acts, while older children recognized general
or universal use. The following are the results which differ most
widely from those of Barnes. Use was predominant at all ages, and
definition by the larger term, although it increased with years, was
rare. While action led at all ages, quality increased with age and was
most prominent in adolescent children. Substance also increased with
age, and mere sentence-making declined.

Kratz * shows that children's preferences in their studies up to and
including the eighth grade by no means followed that of their teacher,
and that in the last two grades this divergence became more marked.
In these grades the motives of interest and utility came stronger to
the front.

Schuyten ^ and Lobsien " show that the energy of attention reaches

• A Study of Children's Superstitions, by Clara Vostrovsky. Barnes's Studies
in Education, pp. 123-143.

^ A Study on Children's Interests. Studies in Education, p. 203.

3 A Comparative Study of Children's Interests. Child Study Monthly, 1898.

"•A Study of Pupils' Preferences. North-Western Monthly, September, 1897,
vol. viii, p. 143.

^ Bull, de I'Acad. Royale de Belgique, vol. xxxii, 1896.

*Pad.-Psy. Studien, July and September, 1892.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 487

its low-water mark once a year in July. Schuyten's dynamometer
tests for 54,200 children, mostly between twelve and sixteen years of
age, stimulated by rivalry, showed an ascending curve from October
to January, a sharper rise in February, and a fall in March. Psychic
and physical development increase from October to January, and fall
from January to March. The curves then separate and take opposite
directions. While attention diminishes during the summer months,
muscular power increases in a remarkable way to June or July. The
atmospheric temperature of summer thus seems to depress attention
and stimulate muscular power. This is very suggestive for the order
of work through the school year and for vacations. The body needs
care in March and April in order that it may do its best in June and
July. The curve of psychic activity has two apexes, the higher in the
spring and summer and the lower in the fall and winter. Hence, in
March should come a shorter and before October a longer vacation.
From October to March mental work can increase, but should then
diminish till July, the best time for work being from December to
April.

In a long-continued study of the mental apparatus, processes, and
content of two girls, aged twelve and thirteen, Binet ^ sought to esti-
mate variability and stability, good sense and caprice, alternation and
imagination, the relations of internal and external life, etc. He care-
fully noted what they thought of, their vocabulary and idealism, how
thought developed, its relations to imagery, and the character of the
latter, abstract, spontaneous, and voluntary mentation, power of de-
scription, of voluntary attention, and of memory. In one of these
psychic portraits he saw clearly a pronounced bias that would later
become scientific, in the other the basis of a literary career, that logical
thought was asserting its independence of and dominance over images,
that the work of thought was not sufficiently represented by the mech-
anism of association of ideas, that it may interpret and may even be
opposed to its laws. Individual psychology, which would penetrate
the secret of personality more than statistical methods based on large
numbers can do, seems here to find in intention or the general direction
of thought its chief determinant. Perhaps this comes as near as any to
Taine's idea of a master faculty from which the entire mental organ-
ization can be deduced. The prevailing direction of attention, which
expresses the tendency to vary, is the basis of the explication of char-
acter. Emotional tone is another determinant. Unstable tempera-
ments pass soon from pleasure and interest to indifference or revul-
sion. Images associated by ambiguity, and resemblance and contrast
are conservative factors. The tendency to change and the conserva-
tive influence of association and emotional tone are the three root
explicants, on the basis of which our mental life unfolds, a somewhat

' L'Etude exp^rimentale de I'intelligence. Paris, 1903, p. 309.

488 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

restrictive view for the power of education and even for the primacy
of consciousness.

(C) The studies of memory up the grades show character-
istic adolescent changes, and some of these resuhs are directly
usable in school.

Bolton ^ tested the power of 1,500 children to remember and write
dictated digits, and found, of course, increasing accuracy with the
older pupils. He also found that the memory span increased with age
rather than with the growth of intelligence as determined by grade.
The pupils depended largely upon visualization, and this and concen-
trated attention suggested that growth of memory did not necessarily
accompany intellectual advancement. Girls generally surpassed boys,
and as with clicks too rapid to be counted, it was found that when
the pupils reached the limits of their span, the number of digits was
overestimated. The power of concentrated and prolonged attention
was tested. The probability of error for the larger number of digits,
7 and 8, decreased in a marked way with the development of pubes-
cence, at least up to fourteen years, with the suggestion of a slight
rise again at fifteen.

In comprehensive tests of the ability of Chicago children to re-
member figures seen, heard, or repeated by them, it was found that,
from seven to nine, auditory were slightly better remembered than
visual impressions. From that age the latter steadily increased over
the former. After thirteen, auditory memory increased but little, and
was already about ten per cent behind visual, which continued to in-
crease at least till seventeen. Audio-visual memory was better than
either alone, and the span of even this was improved when articula-
tory memory was added. When the tests were made upon pupils of
the same age in different grades it was found in Chicago that memory
power, whether tested by sight, hearing, or articulation, was best in
those pupils whose school standing was highest, and least where
standing was lowest.

When a series of digits was immediately repeated orally and a
record made, it was found ^ that while from the age of eight to twelve
the memory span increased only eight points, from fourteen to
eighteen it increased thirteen points. The number of correct repro-
ductions of numbers of seven places increased during the teens, al-
though this class of children remain about one digit behind normal
children of corresponding age. In general, though not without excep-
tions, it was found that intelligence grew with memory span, although
the former is far more inferior to that of the normal child than the

» The Growth of Memory in School Children. Am. Jour, of Psy., April, 1892,
vol. iv, pp. 362-380.

3 Contribution to the Psychology and Pedagogy of Feeble-minded Children, by
G. E. Johnson. Ped. Sem., October, 1895, vol. iii, p. 270.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 4^9

latter, and also that weakness of this kind of memory is not an espe-
cially prominent factor of weak-mindedness.

Shaw ' tested memory in 700 school children by dividing a story of
324 words into 152 phrases, having it read and immediately repro-
duced by them, and selecting alternate grades from the third grammar
to the end of the high school, with a few college students. The maxi-
mum power of this kind of memory was attained by boys in the high
school period. Girls remembered forty-three per cent in the seventh
grade, and in the high school forty-seven per cent. The increase by
two-year periods was most rapid between the third and fifth grades.
Four terms were remembered on the average by at least ninety per
cent of the pupils, 41 by fifty per cent, and 130 by ten per cent. The
story written out in the terms remembered by each percentage from ten
to ninety affords a most interesting picture of the growth of memory,
and even its errors of omission, insertion, substitution, and displace-
ment. " The growth of memory is more rapid in the case of girls than
boys, and the figures suggest a coincidence with the general law, that
the rapid development incident to puberty occurs earlier in girls than
in boys."

In a careful study of children's memory, Kemsies ^ concludes that
the quality of memory improves with age more rapidly than the
quantity.

W. G. Monroe tested 275 boys and 293 girls, well distributed, from
seven to seventeen years of age, and found a marked rise for both
visual and auditory memory at fifteen for both sexes. For both sexes,
also, auditory memory was best at sixteen and visual at fifteen.

When accuracy in remembering the length of tone was used as a
test, it was found there was loss from six to seven and gain from
seven to eight for both sexes. From eight to nine girls lost rapidly
for one and gained rapidly for the following year, while boys were
nearly stationary till ten, after which both sexes gained to their maxi-
mum at fourteen years of age and declined for the two subsequent
years, both gaining power from sixteen to seventeen, but neither
attaining the accuracy they had at fourteen.''

Netschajeff* subjected 637 school children, well distributed be-
tween the ages of nine and eighteen, to the following tests. Twelve
very distinct objects were shown them, each for two seconds, which
must then be immediately written down. Twelve very distinct noises
were made out of sight; numbers of two figures each were read;
three-syllable words, which were names of familiar objects, objects

1 A Test of Memory in School Children. Ped. Sem., October, 1896, vol. iv,
pp. 61-78.

'Zeits. f. Pad. Psychologie und Pathologic. Heft i, 1900.

' See Scripture : Scientific Child Study. Handbook of the 111. Soc. for Child
Study, May, 1895, p. 32.

* Experimentelle Untersuchungen iiber die Gedachtnissentwickelung bei Schul-
kindern. Zeits. f. Psychologie, 1900, vol. xxiv, p. 32.

490

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

11

10

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Age 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 |

GIRLS

that suggested noises, words designating touch, temperature, and
muscle sensations, words describing states of feehng, and names of
abstract ideas were also given them. The above eight series of
twelve each were all reproduced in writing, and showed that each
kind of memory here tested increased with age, with some slight ten-
dency to decline at or just before puberty, then to rise and to slight-
ly decline after the six-
teenth or seventeenth year.
Memory for objects showed
the greatest amount of in-
crease during the year
studied, and words for feel-
ing next, although at all
ages the latter was consid-
erably below the former.
Boys showed stronger
memory for real impres-
sions, and girls excelled
for numbers and words.
The difference of these two
kinds of memory was less
with girls than with boys.
The greatest difference be-
tween the sexes lay be-
tween eleven and fourteen
years. This seems at eight-
een or nineteen to be slight-
ly increased. " This is
especially great at the age
of puberty." Children from
nine to eleven have but
slight power of reproduc-
ing emotions, but this in-
creases in the next few
years very rapidly, as does
that of the abstract words.
Girls from nine to eleven
deal better with words than
with objects ; boys slightly
excel with objects. Illu-
sions in reproducing words
which mistake sense, sound,
and rhythm, which is not
infrequent with younger children, decline with age especially at
puberty. Up to this period girls are most subject to these illusions,
and afterward boys. The following tables, in which the ordinates
represent the number of correct reproductions and the abscissas the
age, are interesting.

—x Objects

_ Sounds

Numbers

Visualized Words

-Sound Concepts

+ + + + +Touch

— . , Feeling

1 r Abstract Ideas

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Age 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 10 17 |

BOYS

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 49 1

Lobsien^ made tests similar to those of Netschajeff, with modifi-
cations for greater accuracy, upon 238 boys and 224 girls from nine
to fourteen and a half years of age. The following tables show the
development of the various kinds of memory for boys and girls :

Boys.

Age. Objects.

Noises.

Number.

Visual
Concepts.

Acoustic
Concepts.

Touch
Concepts.

Feeling
Concepts.

Sounds.

13-H'A
12-13
II-I2
lO-II
9-10

92.56

76-45
89.78
87.12
64.00

71.89

57-33
57-19
55-33
53-33

80.67

72-33
70.22

49-33
49.09

73.00
69.67
59-67

55-11
46.56

74-78
64.89
63.00
48.44
43-78

75-33
73.67
73-33
57-11
43-67

75-44
58.67
55-33
38.33
27.22

40.56

37-67

19.99

12.44

7.22

Normal )
value. (

82.2

59.02

64.8

60.6

59-4

64.2

31.2

24.0

Girls,

n-WA

99-56

82.67

87.22

96.67

71.44

82.00

70.22

41.33

12-13

92.89

75-56

74-89

77-22

63.11

74-67

67-33

34-89

11-12

94.00

56.00

73-56

72.78

72.11

70.89

73-33

23.22

10-11

75-78

46.22

62.44

56.22

54.78

58.78

43.22

10.44

9-10

89-33

46.22

50-44

54-22

38.22

60.2

5I-II
67.2

32.89

6.89

91.4

62.2

71.8

71.0

59-4

23.8

The table for boys shows in the fourteenth year a marked increase
of memory for objects, noises, and feelings, especially as compared
with the marked relative decline the preceding year, when there was a
decided increase in visual concepts and senseless sounds. The twelfth
year shows the greatest increase in number memory, acoustic impres-
sions, touch, and feeling. The tenth and eleventh years show marked
increase of memory for objects and their names. Thus the increase
in the strength of memory is by no means the same year by year, but
progress focuses on some forms and others are neglected. Hence
each type of memory shows an almost regular increase and decrease
in relative strength.

The table for girls shows a marked increase of all memory forms
about the twelfth year. This relative increase is exceeded only in the
fourteenth year for visual concepts. The thirteenth year shows the
greatest increase for sounds and a remarkable regression for objects
in passing from the lowest to the next grade above.

In the accuracy of reproducing the order of impressions, girls
much exceeded boys at all ages. For seen objects their accuracy was
twice that of boys, the boys excelling in order only in number. In
general, ability to reproduce a series of impressions increases and
decreases with the power to reproduce in any order, but by no means

^ Exp. Untersuch. ii. d. Gedachtnissentwickelung bei Schulkindern.
Psychologie, Bd. 27, Heft 1-2, 1901.

Zeits. f.

492

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

in direct proportion to it. The effect of the last member in a series
by a purely mechanical reproduction is best in boys. The range and
energy of reproduction is far higher than ordered sequence. In gen-
eral girls slightly exceed boys in recalling numbers, touch concepts,
and sounds, and largely exceed in recalling feeling concepts, real
things and visual concepts.

Colegrove ^ tabulated returns from the early memories of 1,658
correspondents with 6,069 memories, from which he reached the con-
clusions, represented in the following curves, for the earliest three
memories of white males and females.

In the cuts below, the heavy line represents the first memory, the
broken the second, and the dotted line the third memory. Age at the
time of reporting is represented in distance to the right, and the age

BOYS

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1 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
GIRLS

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of the person at the time of the occurrence remembered is represented
by the distance upward. " There is a rise in all the curves at adoles-
cence. This shows that from the age of twelve to fifteen boys do not
recall so early memories as they do both before and after this period."
This Colegrove ascribes to the fact that the present seems so large
and rich. At any rate, " the earliest memories of boys at the age of
fourteen average almost four years." His curves for girls show that
the age of all the first three memories which they are able to recall
is higher at fourteen than at any period before or after ; that at seven
and eight the average age of the first things recalled is nearly a year
earlier than it is at fourteen. This means that at puberty there is a

1 Memory : An Inductive Study, by F. W. Colegrove.
New York, 1900, p. 229. See also Individual Memories.
vol. X, p. 228 et seq.

Henry Holt & Co.,
Am. Jour, of Psy.,

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 493

marked and characteristic obliteration of infantile memories which
lapse to oblivion with augmented absorption in the present.

It was found that males have the greatest number of memories for
protracted or repeated occurrences, for people, and clothing, topo-
graphical and logical matters ; that females have better memories for
novel occurrences or single impressions. Already at ten and eleven
motor memories begin to decrease for females and increase for males.
At fourteen and fifteen motor memories nearly culminate for males,
but still further decline for females. The former show a marked de-
crease in memory for relatives and playmates and an increase for
other persons. Sickness and accidents to self are remembered less by
males and better by females, as are memories of fears. At eighteen
and nineteen there is a marked and continued increase in the visual
memories of each sex and the auditory memory of females. Memory
for the activity of others increases for both, but far more strongly for
males. Colegrove concludes from his data that " the period of adoles-
cence is one of great psychical awakening. A wide range of memories
is found at this time. From the fourteenth year with girls and the
fifteenth with boys the auditory memories are strongly developed. At
the dawn of adolescence the motor memory of boys nearly culminates,
and they have fewer memories of sickness and accidents to self.
During this time the memory of other persons and the activity of
others is emphasized in case of both boys and girls. In general, at
this period the special sensory memories are numerous, and it is the
golden age for motor memories. Now, too, the memories of high
ideals, self-sacrifice, and self-forgetfulness are cherished. Wider in-
terests than self and immediate friends bcome the objects of reflec-
tion and recollection."

After twenty there is a marked change in the memory content.
The male acquires more and the female less visual and auditory
memories. The memories of the female are more logical, and topo-
graphical features increase. Memories of sickness and accidents to self
decrease with the males and increase with the females, while in the
case of both there is relative decline in the memories of sickness and
accident to others. From all this it would appear that different mem-
ories culminate at different periods, and bear immediate relation to the
whole mental life of the period. While perhaps some of the finer
analyses of Colegrove may invite further confirmation, his main results
given above are not only suggestive, but rendered very plausible by
his evidence.

Statistics based upon replies to the question, as to whether pleasant
or unpleasant experiences were best remembered, show that the former
increase at eleven, rise rapidly at fourteen, and culminate at eighteen
for males, and that the curve of painful memories follows the same
course, although for both there is a drop at fifteen. For females, the
pleasant memories increase rapidly from eleven to thirteen, decline a
little at fourteen, rise again at sixteen, and culminate at seventeen,
and the painful memories follow nearly the same course, only with a

494 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

slight drop at fifteen. Thus, up to twenty-two for males, there is a
marked preponderance of pleasant over painful memories, although
the two rise and fall together. After thirty, unpleasant memories are
but little recalled. For the Indians and negroes in this census, un-
pleasant memories play a far more and often preponderating role
suggesting persecution and sad experiences. Different elements of
the total content of memory come to prominence at different ages.
He also found that the best remembered years of life are sixteen to
seventeen for males and fifteen for females, and that in general the
adolescent period has more to do than any other in forming and fur-
nishing the memory plexus, while the seventh and eighth years are
most poorly remembered.

It is also known that many false memories insert themselves into
the texture of remembered experiences. One dreams a friend is dead
and thinks she is till she is met one day in the street; or dreams of a
fire and inquires about it in the morning; dreams of a present and
searches the house for it next day ; delays breakfast for a friend, who
arrived the night before in a dream, to come down to breakfast ; a child
hunts for a bushel of pennies dreamed of, etc. These phantoms falsify
our memory most often, according to Dr. Colegrove, between sixteen
and nineteen.

Mnemonic devices prompt children to change rings to keep ap-
pointments, tie knots in the handkerchief, put shoes on the dressing-
table, hide garments, associate faces with hoods, names with acts,
things, or qualities they suggest ; visualize, connect figures, letters
with colors, etc. From a scrutiny of the original material, which I was
kindly allowed to make, this appears to rise rapidly at puberty.

Perhaps nothing in the history of the world has ever been
supported by a consensus of behef more universal than that
which sustains education to-day and which has almost attained
the semper ubique, et ah omnibus which the early Church strove
for in vain. The world goes to school. This has become the
method of colonization and completes the work of conquest by
armies. When Germany won a part of Poland, and then
Schleswig-Holstein, and Alsace-Lorraine, she founded or re-
created at lavish expense the universities at Breslau, Kiel, and
Strassburg respectively to show her new subjects what she
meant by education. France thus strives to civilize Algiers,
and England her possessions everywhere. Professor Fitch de-
claring the schools of Madagascar now probably the best or-
ganized in the world. I have seen good schools in the east
and south of Russia and in Finland, that all must commend.
France soon after the war of 1870 increased her educational
budget over seven hundred per cent. In China education

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 495

has long been the basis of the civil service, old men striving,
in the thousands of individual booths erected for the pur-
pose, to attain the degree of Han Sin, and all with a fervor
that suggests that, if modern culture should ever be the grist
ground in these mills, Europe must look out for her laurels.
The success of republics is especially dependent on the edu-
cation of their citizens, and refusal to send to or attend school
is civic recreancy akin to refusal to pay taxes or fight when
the Fatherland is in danger. Schools are often the best things
and housed in the best buildings in town, although but lately
many doubted whether high schools should be supported at
public cost. We have just passed a period of renaissance
in secondary education, and the recent multiplication of col-
leges and the increase of students is startling. It is almost
a heresy to urge that there are some who should not go
to school at all, or that many who are there would be better
off elsewhere. Most permanent results, however, are staked
on whether this material installation, numerical expansion,
and mechanical organization are to be regarded as finalities
or recognized as only promising first steps, as we gird our-
selves to the yet greater and longer task of internal develop-
ment and progressive reconstruction till a qualitative that is
proportionate to the quantitative development is attained.
This is the most vital and burning question, and may well give
pause to all those who hold a brief for youth and work in their
cause and name. A hasty glance at one or more aspects of
each of the three stages of education that spans the interval
from thirteen to twenty-one must here suffice.

(D) Normal Schools. The professional training of teach-
ers seventy years ago marked an epoch ; this work has enlisted
the services of some of the best men and women, and some
of these private and public institutions could hardly be im-
proved, while others are not only wooden but petrified. Most
entirely lack efficient inspection. On the Continent the state
always follows up all its growth by tests, but here many of
these public institutions are essentially private. Male teachers
are diminishing and male pupils are in many if not most of
them a negligible quantity. A large but never ascertained
proportion of teachers are not graduates of colleges but only
of normal schools, perhaps the very one in which they teach,

4-96 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

and colleges are perhaps nowhere held in such doubtful esteem.
The philosophy of education taught under various names is
sometimes as obsolete as if in schools of theology only
patristics was studied. There are definitions that triangulate
vast vacant spaces in the teachers' minds, conspectuses of
human faculties, metaphysical theories of mind inherited from
the pedagogic fathers. The departments of human knowledge
are classified, correlated, coordinated, and educational value
is discussed in an abstract way, with an aloofness for detailed
externality that is an anachronism in a concrete age, while the
cult of Herbart and Froebel flourishes as a finality instead of
a prologue to a great drama now well on in its first act.

The most fatal infection to which normal schools are liable
is that of teaching to dissect large living wholes, which pubes-
cents crave, into elements, which they abhor. This involves
logic chopping, formal steps, analysis of processes that should
never be analyzed, and overexplanation. The soul naturally
storms its way to the center of things with a rapid impetuosity,
but the methodaster and macerator blunts the intuitions, the
best thing in youth, drags down thoughts that fly and makes
them crawl at a slow, senescent pace. More yet, it tends to
pedantry that shields ignorance from exposure, teaches the
art of seeming wise with empty minds, brings complacency
that tends to arrest in the teacher, and whips up a modicum
of knowledge to deceptive proportions, as the barber's appren-
tice was dubbed master when he could make two ounces of
soap into two barrels of lather. Scholarship tends to be in-
versely as mechanical methods. By demanding a prede-
termined way the pupil is exhausted, and, in Plato's phrase,
there is no true parturition but only a wind-birth. The arid
wastes of short steps and sequences and weary morselization
of rudiments better represent the second childhood of senility
than the golden dawn of divination with which childhood is
endowed, but which is so easily blighted.

Psychology is rightly called the teacher's Blackstone, but
as the whole of biology, chemistry, or physics is too large for
the farmer, electrician, photographer, or dyer to know, al-
though their calling is permeated by the principles of these
sciences, so the teacher needs to know chiefly specific things,
memory, attention, association, something of feelings and

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 497

will, a little about reason, but more of hygiene, nutrition,
enough to be a defender of health, very little about the brain,
enough of logic to name its tools, simple tests of eye, ear, and
motor ability, juvenile abnormalities, and moral perversions
enough to detect defects, and something of Froebel, but with-
out being a symbolist, either in a state of clairvoyance or
muddle, or seeking to hatch out beautiful souls when the body
most needs attention and the mind least. The teacher should,
therefore, know something of nursing, the schools of which
now require higher conditions of entrance, and longer and
richer courses than kindergarten schools, should know some-
thing of muscles as organs of the will, and of the psychology
of play, habit, imitation, imagination, the organ of all that is
absent in time and place, and some outlines of heredity and evo-
lution, especially that of mind in animals and children. These
are perhaps more easily taught to young women than to young
men, for the former are less specialized and more generic,
richer in intuition, and psychically nearer the child. Much
of this lies so near the soul of normal youth that, once taught
by the easy way of hints, it sinks deep and is never forgotten.
It is akin to tact and taste, and should make these training
classes the best of all schools for all the parental instincts. The
good teacher learns far more from the children than he can
ever teach them. We should remember, too, that we are not
teaching the psychology of the adult mind, which at its best
works logically, but the genetic philosophy of the young and
growing mind where perception, intuition, and spontaneity are
at their very best and the powers of introspection are weakest.
This inculcates due respect for the child to whom, as the old
proverb has it, the maximum of reverence is due. It teaches
us to discriminate between the wide range of individual differ-
ences and capacities from subnormal and defective to budding
talent, and thus will tend to make the school, as it always should
be, a life and career-saving station.^

Next to this, the heart of professional teacher training,
should be the history of education to give a repertory of mo-
tives and modes of approach. Rightly taught, this sl^uld in-
spire high ideals for this most philosophic vocation of man.

'A C. Ellis : The Normal School Course in Psychology. Proc. Ed. Ass'n,
December, 1901.
71

498 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

It also has a very high culture value in itself. There is a sense
in which the history of the world is the history of its great
teachers, religious as well as secular. From Plato down some
of these great heroes, whose names are landmarks, are often
the very best expression of the aspirations of their age. These
things enter and live again in the soul of the young teacher.
I have heard several normal principals in Germany teach this
subject, there often central. I will try to illustrate their spirit
and matter in introducing a class to Pestalozzi and to Fichte
in this course, as follows :

More than a century ago a remarkable story appeared in Europe.
It was prolix after the fashion of that day and is now rarely read.
Yet its characters and action were as real and as new in fiction as
Kipling's best, while the author's passion for moral and social reforms
was as all-controlling as Tolstoi's. It was a tale of homely life in a
Swiss village, of peasants who beat their wives, and of dirty children
who stole potatoes, and only on gala days had the cream left on their
milk. The good preacher was growing duller, the doctor more quack-
ish, the schoolmaster more mechanical. The squire, who also kept
the beer house, was getting every one in his debt and extracting and
using for his own wretched ends all domestic secrets. There was the
gossip, the hypocrite, the liar, the fool, the sot, and everywhere in-
creasing superstition, scandal, intrigue, and vice.

But there was one good woman in this dismal hamlet, Gertrude,
the mason's wife, who taught her children cleanliness, courtesy, max-
ims, hymns, prayers, and simple industries with such devotion and
success that the neighbors begged that their children might come too,
and soon began to come to see for themselves. An old nobleman
visited her home-school and found a real vocation in starting a school
himself. The pastor grew interested, and realized that his sermons
had been dry, and began to preach in earnest. The spirit of home life
and mutual improvement appeared. The beer house ceased to be the
center of the village life. A few citizens met weekly to discuss the
larger educational questions of public and private weal. At length a
Royal Commission was sent to study Bonal, which had become the
thriftiest village in the realm, and reported that they had discovered
here the true principle of reform, prosperity, and universal govern-
ment in education, with Gertrude's school at the root of all.

For Bonal is the world. All its degradations are but the natural
offspring of ignorance, and Gertrude is the good teacher by whom
alone society, state, and church can be regenerated. This tale of
Pestalozzi's ^ shows us what a simple and unlearned man can do if he
is in earnest, and if his cause is great. It was read everywhere; it
was wept over; royal personages came to see the author, and gave

^ How Gertrude teaches her children.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 499

him presents and decorations, and many greater men than he have
since lit their torches at the fire he kindled.

Sixteen years later, in 1806, the power of Prussia was shattered
at a blow by the battle of Jena. Its army was swept away ; its allies,
industries, and trade gone. The country was impoverished and ex-
hausted and its capital garrisoned by French soldiers. Its soil had
never been fertile nor its spirit practical. Its military situation, with
strong nations on all sides, was the worst in history and its record
had shown more discord than unity. The race had never felt such
humiliation and the future had never seemed so dark. But the German
stock was still vigorous and on every hand the cause of this unexpect-
ed collapse was explained. Scharnhorst began to plan a comprehensive
reorganization of the military system on its present basis. Stein set
about reconstructing the land laws and the status of the peasants.
Jahn founded everywhere his patriotic Turner societies and preached
again the gospel of ancient Greece, that only strong muscles can make
men great and nations free. But the key-word which guided and uni-
fied all was spoken by Fichte in his so-called " addresses to the Ger-
man nation," which were given in Berlin every Sunday evening for
an entire winter to large audiences of the best classes, with Napoleon's
sentries at the door, and his spies scattered through the hall. He said
in substance this :

We have yet left us German bodies, large, strong, and healthy to
the core, a marvellous language all our own and not agglomerate of
many tongues like English, and a pure blood never mixed with other
races. We have wrought out the Reformation, the greatest task the
human spirit has yet achieved, and our ancestors call to us not to let
the work they died in doing be in vain. We carry the light and the
hope of the world. If we sink, freedom and humanity sink with us.
There is one plain and only one way for patriotic recreation. It is not
primarily by armies or legislation, but we must rise like Bonal by the
slow and sure processes of national education. We must live for our
own children, training their bodies and minds as was never done in
the world before. Schools have been the one product in which the
German spirit has already excelled. We have set the human spirit
free, have preached, taught, lived, and believed in ideas and ideals.
We must make education our supreme task, our duty of duties. We
must realize the platonic republic where the wisest ruled and educa-
tion was the chief problem of statesmanship. This policy must be our
destiny. Our leaders must be priests of Truth and in her pay. They
must think fearlessly in all directions; must investigate and discuss,
do and suffer all in the world's great holy cause of science and learn-
ing. To this end he invoked all ranks and classes. For thus not only
the united Fatherland, long hoped for, long delayed, could become real,
but men of a higher type and order of existence than had yet appeared
would be developed.^

* Addresses to the German nation.

500 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Thus Fichte, idealist and enthusiast, spoke and was heard as no
man had spoken or been heard since Luther. For him education was
the one divine cause in the world; a new dispensation of religion
itself. In accordance with his conceptions, but by far more practical
men than he, the University of Berlin was founded and a national
policy was defined making education the test of all. Along these lines
the Fatherland has become the most effectively governed state, and its
army the strongest since ancient Rome. Just as the Reformation
slowly pervaded other lands, so Germany has set the educational fash-
ions for most nations of continental Europe, not to speak of Japan
and South America. Her methods and ideas have been especially
transforming since the war of 1870 made manifest the strength this
policy had developed in half a century. Her conquests are now
spreading to the world of industry and trade, and France has shown
her true greatness by wise imitation of her conqueror.

Upon this introduction followed discussions, details, refer-
ences, reproductions, and so through the year, five hours a week.
These young teachers went out full of their mission. They
were potentialized to do their best and worthiest, feeling that
their cause indeed was the chief one in the world.

A model school, the very idea of which is essentially op-
posed to a practise school, or an experiment station or peda-
gogic laboratory, where tyros learn their trade, should be the
core of every kind of pedagogium. It should be first in time,
and seek to be ideal, a Mecca where the best processes can
be demonstrated object-lesson-wise to visitors, and developed
slowly upward from the lowest grades with teachers enough
so that each can take time to demonstrate and answer questions
to strangers, and from these shorter and then longer courses
should be the germ of the normal school, which should grow
out of it, and not vice versa. Every teacher here should be
more or less specialized. In this respect I would try to imitate
the German gymnasia, which permit only university graduates
to teach boys from eight to nine on, and most topics should
be taught intensively and with but little reference to teaching
it to children, but that precious little should be by the special
expert with the equivalent of a Ph.D. degree. About this, as
the cloister and cathedral schools grew up about the medieval
churches, as some of the best modern churches are now de-
veloping about social settlements, and as the best equipped
trade schools are under the wing of the great industries, so
my teacher college should develop about these grades of an

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 5° I

Utopian school, and the training of apprentices should be
developed very gradually and at first be by the grade teach-
ers of the school in superfluous hours which the corps should
be numerous enough to have. But here I would stop, and not
train for high school grades. The aspirations of independent
and isolated normal schools to do this should be generally
checked. That some of these institutions aspire to do such
work seems to me rather an abandonment of their chief func-
tion, when we reflect that the younger the age of the pupils
the more attention needs to be paid to adapting knowledge
to them ; hence the most truly normal work must always serve
the lower grades. The experience of other countries, notably
of the College of Preceptors in London and the Pddagogium
in Vienna, shows that training for secondary education es-
pecially needs an academic atmosphere. Several of the larger
normal schools in this country are, no doubt, in these days of
educational federation and combination, soon to join universi-
ties, just as everywhere within the last few years special
schools of medicine, law, theology, and technology are being
organized or affiliated, and sometimes moved to universities.
The other schools of town and night schools should serve as
practise schools, where these normal pupils should serve their
apprenticeship, including if possible a little work in hospitals
and with defectives.

Every normal school should have a small and a few central
museums, or perhaps the state should have a large pedagogical
one. Russia has a vast central one now in its forty-first
year, where conferences, lectures, and expositions of toys and
games are held, demonstrations of all kinds of hygienic and
illustrative apparatus are given, and which publishes memoirs
and makes special researches. France has a museum with
a room each set apart for geography, natural history, physics,
chemistry, model school laboratories, desks in all thirty rooms,
a library of 50,000 titles, building plans, ideal tables for
science; its publications make it a center of information; its
collections comprise foods, flora and fauna, and maps; and it
has many thousand lantern slides in circulation on all kinds
of topics, with many branches in the provinces. Some schools
in Europe make a point of collecting exhaustively plants, birds,
animals, rocks, soils, trees, etc., of the locality as a basis of

502 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

instruction, and some have curious and suggestive alcoves or
rooms set apart for things that children have made spontane-
ously. Perhaps, if most were likely to serve in country regions,
I would try to develop an ungraded model school. Some stu-
dent pupils might teach in night schools, but with not too much
consciousness of the presence of the critic teacher. I would
have them practise every year and every week, and rise, either
up the grades, beginning with the lowest, or grow in inde-
pendence from helpers to control of a room, or possibly in some
places up the social classes, according to their teaching ability,
scholarship, etc. But in place of much criticism I would en-
large the time of observation in all the grades of the model
school, for women are more intuitive as well as more imitative
than men, and more in danger of being either spoiled or intro-
verted by too much self-consciousness about their work. The
summer vacation should be far shorter than now, both for the
sake of the children, that relapse in three idle months, and for
the convenience of visitors whom a summer session for their
benefit should aid in attracting. All should be done in the
light of a wide comparative study of other, even foreign in-
stitutions, and under the wing of a university with a strong
pedagogic department.

This latter is also prone to its own peculiar forms of decay
and perversion.^ The academic professor of pedagogy should
not be chiefly a traveling drummer of recruits for the freshman
class or an inspector of preparatory schools, nor an agent for
placing the graduates of the institution he represents. He
should not limit his interest to feeders or even to secondary
grades of education, but should fit for expert work in super-
intendence, college pedagogy, normal chairs, and should offer
courses that all intending high school teachers would wish to
attend, should extend his interest to the lowest grades, to insti-
tutions for defectives and criminals, and represent the largest
view of education. The president should allow him the widest
academic freedom and not discourage him for discussing the
highest university problems, even though his own methods and
policy be criticized. He should not, like most German pro-

^ See A. J. Kinnaman : Pedagogy in our Colleges and Universities. Ped.
Sem. , September, 1902, vol. ix, pp. 366-373.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 503

fessors of education, be a proselyte, for his own department
for a special type of philosophy, or for either the sciences
or humanities as against the other. He should engage in orig-
inal educational research and always have one or more prob-
lems under investigation. He should have a model high school,
and here all professional training for teachers in these institu-
tions, as well as in normal schools, should be given. He should
know philosophy, but be a doctrinaire in no school of it.
That this subject receives such scanty attention in colleges for
women, a majority of whom teach for a time, is in striking
contrast to the views of the late President Francis A. Walker,
who urged in an able paper that the study of education should
be central and that the subjects immediately connected with
it should be the only higher education of women, even for
those not destined to teach, both for its supreme culture value
in itself and for its practical worth for life.

{E) High Schools. The first public high school was estab-
lished in Boston in 182 1. In i860 there were forty in the
United States; in 1880 less than 800, and in 1900, 6,005, with
519,251 pupils, their number having increased about one hun-
dred and fifty per cent, that of schools over one hundred and
thirty per cent, and that of teachers more than one hundred
per cent since 1890. The increase in the number of studies
has probably kept pace with the above increment, as has that
of the proportion of those who take Latin and algebra. In
secondary schools of all kinds there were, in 1900, 719,241
adolescents, or six and one-half times as many as in all State
and private colleges, universities, and technological schools
combined. In 1889-90 less than three-fifths of one per cent
of our population was enrolled in secondary schools; in 1899-
1900, nineteen-twentieths of one per cent was so enrolled, and
in eighteen States this proportion was more than one per cent.
"If the figures at hand are correct, this is not only by far the
largest number, but by far the largest proportion of any nation
to be found pursuing studies of this grade, Prussia showing a
little less than one-half of one per cent and France a trifle less
than Prussia." ^ While the percentage of the population in

^ Elmer E. Brown : The Making of our Middle Schools, Longmans, Green
& Co., New York, 1903, p. 465.

504 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

private schools increased in the decade from 0.23 to 0.25, the
percentage in the pubHc high schools increased in the same
period from 0.36 to 0.70. As Professor Brown well says, " For
the past ten or twelve years we have seen middle school prob-
lems occupying a central place in the thought of the great cul-
ture nations. We have had a decade or more of middle school
reforms. The great mile-stones in the progress of these re-
forms have been the December Conference at Berlin in 1890,
and the revision of the Prussian curriculums which followed;
the report of our own Committee of Ten in 1893; the report
of the English Parliamentary Commission on Secondary Edu-
cation in 1895, and the establishment of the English Board of
Education to give effect to recommendations which this com-
mission presented ; the report of the Committee on College
Entrance Requirements of our National Educational Asso-
ciation in 1899; the report, in 1899 and 1900, of the commis-
sion appointed by the French Chamber of Deputies ; the
Brunswick Declaration and the Kiel decree, of 1900; the
establishment of the College Entrance Examination Board
and the Commission on Accredited Schools in the year just
past (1902). It is a most remarkable record, and warrants
the belief that we have juct been passing through one of the
greatest formative epochs in the history of secondary schools.
In America it has been not a time of crisis, as in the nations
of Europe, but rather a time of unparalleled progress."

The cry against taxation for those who do not send to
school is as old as the district school, was raised, too, by the
parochial school, and was a few years ago greatly in vogue
against the extension of the high school movement as well as
against State universities. But now no one doubts their con-
stitutionality, both voter and taxpayer have adopted them, and
they seem destined to become free local colleges for the people.
Statistics show that in the West, while many of them are no
more local in their attendance than some colleges, they appeal
more strongly to local pride. The age of high school pupils
has also increased. With three years for law and three or
four for medicine and theology, now pretty well established,
all agree that the average young man is too late in entering
upon his work. Yet few or none find the lost two years, that
have been sought or found in every earlier and later stage, to

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 5^5

be here, but nearly all advocate an expansion policy for high
schools. President Harper would shorten the elementary
school from eight to six years and extend the high school
downward. It is possible for most children in this country to
leave the school forever at fourteen, common law require-
ments being thirteen or fourteen, and parents often represent
children of twelve as having fulfilled these requirements. Most
do leave at this age never to return, and many of them are
never again interested in educational pursuits.^ Some would
add the freshman and perhaps sophomore years from the col-
lege, thinking the high school could do the work as well and
that this would increase their dignity. In a recent census of
principals made by Professor Bolton, of Iowa, seventy-five per
cent favored adding two years at the top, the chief reason be-
ing that more would be benefited because many would stop
whenever the high school ended. Some thought the course
was not long enough for those who do not go to college. Some
claimed that the State ought to educate till a legal majority of
twenty-one, and a few of these institutions already confer the
A. B. degree.

In the high schools of this country the girls conspicuously
outnumber the boys. This disparity is increasing, and it is
rare indeed to find a class in which the sexes are equal. From
1890 to 1897 the number of boys in the public schools of
this country averaged about forty-one per cent; this pro-
portion has changed but little, and does not vary very greatly
in different parts of the country as a whole. The proportion
of boys decreases very rapidly during the course.^ Girls pre-
ponderate especially in English, Latin, algebra, and French
classes, so much so that in a few places boy sentiment decrees
it good form to avoid some of these as " sissy " courses.

In 244 high schools of Massachusetts, McDonald estimated
that in 1897 there were 33,369 pupils, of whom 13,082 were
in the first year, 9,151 in the second, 6,343 in the third, and
4,820 in the fourth and higher classes, the percentages being
respectively 38, 27, 19, and 15. In Missouri this percentage

^ Age at which Children Leave School, by F. H. Law. Ed. Rev. , January,
1898, p. 40.

' Where are the High School Boys ? by F. E. DeYoe and C. H. Thurber.
School Rev., April, 1900, p. 234.

5o6

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

shrunk from 41.4 per cent in the first to 9.7 per cent in the
fourth year; in Kansas City from 40 per cent in the first to
14 per cent in the fourth, and these figures are typical.^
Greenwood found that the older pupils who enter the high
schools of this country are more liable to fail or leave during
the first year than those who enter younger.

The causes of leaving most often specified by girls are
sickness, while most boys leave to go to work. Poverty seems
to weaken children's interest in education and their apprecia-
tion of its value, for ideal elements are lacking and short-
sighted material considerations come into power; G. E.
Gay found thirty-four per cent left from loss of interest in
the work. Next for both sexes together comes inability to
do the work. Of those who leave from this latter cause most
fail in mathematics, next most in English, third in ancient and
modern languages, fourth in the natural sciences, and fifth in
history, etc. Some depreciate stopping places and would have
as few as possible, like the gymnasia, Real school, and lycee,
which are continuous from the age of eight or nine for ten
years and so grade uninterruptedly from the primary through
the university, while others praise the American system on
account of the break which they would place at the dawn of
puberty when the young crave change. The School Report
of St. Louis, in 1901, presents a valuable table and curves of
attendance up the grades in three representative cities where
the dawn of puberty is marked by the greatest steepness of the
curve of leaving, as follows :

Grammar Grades.

High Schools.

«•

■M a

•a a

.aS

i" 0

m u

-'

^

>

>

>

>

">

><

>-

>

St. Louis,

years 1879-1881..

100

67

63

44

20

9

8

5

3

2

2

"

" 1887-1890..

100

67

55

28

20

12

10

5

3

2

2

"

" 1898-1900..

100

93

»3

50

29

21

14

7

4

3

2

Chicago,

" " " ..

100

91

7H

71

52

37

2b

12

7

5

3

Boston,

" " " . .

100

97

93

^5

74 59

44

25

15

10

4

The

; proportion who enter college seems also declining. Of

22,575

male graduates of American high schools in 1900, 8,592

> Report on High School Statistics, by J. M. Greenwood. Proc. of the N. E,
A., 1900, p. 340.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 5^7

only were in college preparatory courses. Of the total number
of male students 13.44 per cent were in preparatory courses.
From 1890 to 1899 the percentage of pupils even in private
high schools who were preparing for college fell from 61.37
per cent to 46.52 per cent, or nearly fifteen per cent. In the
public high schools the total number preparing for college
fell between 1890 and 1900 from 14.44 to 10.82 per cent.
The percentage of those who graduated fell from 12.60 to

Grammar Grades High School Years

II III IV V VI VII VIII I II in IV

90
80
70

3 60

a

2
® 50

40

30

20

10

^

\
\

\

\

>

\
\

\

Vv

\

>

\

\
\
\

\

\
\

\ \ ^

V

\

\

\ \

\

\

\

\
\
\

\

■

* 1

\
\

'v^

\

\2

\

\
\

5 V.

k

\

\

\
\

\

\

\

s

\

--^^

=^

■^^^

:i--^~-

I, Boston, 1901 ; 2, Chicago, 1901 ; 3, St. Louis, 1901 ; 4, St. Louis, 1891 ;
5, St. Louis. 1881.

11.89 P^"" cent. The total number in public and private
high schools preparing for college fell in the same decade
from 18.66 to 11.53, o^ more than seven per cent. Accord-
ing to the late report of Secretary Hill upon the subject,
in the year 1899 there were 13,563 persons who entered
the 244 high schools of Massachusetts, of whom only 4,655,
or about one-third, entered the last year. How many of this
latter number fell out and how many graduated, statistics do
not state. In the same report it is stated that, in 1899, 818

S08 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

entered college from Massachusetts high schools. In 1901,
the secretary says, " I am led to infer that the proportion of
high school graduates who do not go to college is gaining
slowly upon the proportion that do go," and he adds that while
the ratio of girls who enter college from Massachusetts high
schools showed an increase for some years, it has now " sub-
stantially ceased."

The last decade has witnessed a remarkable new move-
ment on the part of colleges to influence high schools, which
began with the Report of the Committee of Ten, printed in
1893. We have also had Reports of the Committee of Seven,
Nine, Twelve, Fourteen, Fifteen, besides that of the National
Education Association in 1890 on entrance requirements
which invoked the aid of the American Historical and Philo-
logical Associations. In general these influences have worked
from above downward, the dominating influence and the initia-
tive in most cases coming from colleges or universities. That
this movement did good for a time no one can deny. It has
made many junctures between secondary and higher educa-
tion ; greatly increased the interest of faculties in high schools ;
given the former fruitful pedagogic themes for their own dis-
cussions; brought about a more friendly feeling and better
mutual acquaintance; given slow colleges a wholesome stimu-
lus; made school courses richer, given them better logical
sequence; detected many weak points; closed many gaps;
defined standards of what education means; brought great
advantages from uniformity and cooperation, and no doubt,
on the whole, has improved the conditions of college entrance
examinations and aided in continuity.

One interesting result is the standardizing of high school
knowledge, as hardware and even agricultural products, food-
stuffs and machines are standardized by sizes, weight, and
other measures — six weeks, twelve chapters, four or six hun-
dred pages, forty weeks, eighteen courses, seventy experi-
ments, four hours a week, three and four years of preparatory
study, with 3,200 periods, fifteen credits, age eighteen, average
mark seventy, so many Latin and Greek words to learn a
month, so many minutes of recitation, home work, courses,
text-books and examination tests all reduced to arithmetical
or quantified dimensions. Knowledge is no longer bullion

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 509

from the mine, but is minted with a hall-mark of at least some
numerical committee. Everything must count and so much,
for^ herein lies its educational value. There is no more wild,
free, vigorous growth of the forest, but everything is in pots
or rows like a rococo garden. Intellectual pabulum has lost all
gamey flavor and is stall-fed or canned. These bales or blocks
of condensed and enriched knowledge, which are used to cali-
brate the youthful mind or test its lifting or carrying power,
seem to it stale; the stints become monotonous, mechanical,
factory work to the pupil, but to the teacher they acquire an
excessive value, as if the world of knowledge had been canon-
ized and certain things set apart as more sacred than other
fields of knowledge. Some institutions allow more options
between the blocks and assert greater freedom because they
offer more patterns and more sizes of essentially the same
material. Such scientific goods as can be metered, inspected,
and examined by mass methods, tabulated and schematized,
always soon seem shopworn to youth who want somewhere
room for individuality, if not for distinction, and resist cur-
ricularization and, as the French call it, the canalization of
knowledge. The pupil is in the age of spontaneous variation
which at no period of life is so great. He does not want a
standardized, overpeptonized mental diet. It palls on his
appetite. He suffers from mental ennui and dyspepsia, and
this is why so many and an increasing number refuse some
of the best prepared courses, like the ducks in James Russell
Lowell's story, for which a chemist had demonstrated by long
study that celery was the most nutritious of all possible foods,
but when his farm was well stocked it was found to be about
the only thing " the derned things wouldn't touch," and they
pined and died when it was injected with a syringe. As we
saw above, truancy is often due to a restlessness which, all un-
conscious of the cause, is really where the home dietary lacks
nutritiousness. To enforce a curriculum without interest sug-
gests the dream of a great Leipzig psychologist who predicted
that sometime foods could be prepared so like chyme as to be
inserted into the veins through a stop-cock, dispensing with
the digestive function of the alimentary canal, and thus the
time of eating would be saved and energy set free for a new
upward march of culture greater even than that caused by

510 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

cooking and the control of fire which the legend of Prometheus
marks. It is now often painful to set limits to science, and
results as surprising as all these may emerge in the future, but
they will be different and by yet undiscovered methods. Once
beneficent, college entrance requirements, as now enforced in
some parts of our country and in some respects, are almost an
unmitigated curse to high schools, exploiting them against
their normal interests and the purpose of the people who sup-
port them, and thus perverting their natural development, en-
forcing artifacts of both method and matter, and sacrificing
the interests of the vast majority who will never go to college.

This invasion and subjection has been rendered plausible even to
its victims by three extraordinary fallacies, (o) The Committee of
Ten " unanimously declare that every subject which is taught at all
in a secondary school should be taught in the same way and to the
same extent to every pupil so long as he pursues it, no matter what
the probable destination of the pupil may be or at what point his
education is to cease." This is a masterpiece of college policy. But
in the first place this principle does not apply to the great army of
incapables, shading down to those who should be in schools for dul-
lards or subnormal children, for whose mental development heredity
decrees a slow pace and early arrest, and for whom by general consent
both studies and methods must be different. To refuse this concession
to the wide range of individual differences is a specious delusion,
which in a democracy may be perfectly honest. Difficulties must be
omitted, the interest of the hour more appealed to, illustrations multi-
plied, and different beginnings, means, and goals early sought. Nor
does this principle, of course, apply to geniuses. The school is not
constructed for such. They go by leaps and find their own way.
We must consider, then, only pupils that lie between these extremes.
Again, this is unknown in other lands, where it would bring the direst
confusion. European systems seem constructed on the converse prin-
ciple that subjects should be approached in as many different ways
as there are ultimate goals, while choices between academic and other
careers are made before the teens, and methods and matter in the
same topics diverge increasingly up the grades. The courses in Eng-
lish public secondary schools differ as much in method from those of
the great endowed fitting schools as they do in matter. So the gym-
nasia and Real schools differ from each other, and both still more from
the Volk schools, and as do the lycee and polytechnic schools in France,
while text-books on the same subject are radically different. Besides
the distinction between those destined for technical and professional
careers and those who study for culture purposes, there are many
species and varieties of difference. Again, in the vast number of
monotechnic, polytechnic, commercial, and other courses, some of the

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 511

departments of physics and chemistry, which are of immediate apph-
cation, are emphasized. The horological school course emphasizes
vibrations; the great Hthograph school of Vienna lays stress upon
light, and that in certain aspects ; the schools of telegraphy, upon elec-
tricity; those of wine culture, upon the chemistry of fermentation;
those of agriculture, upon the practical problems of chemistry involved
in fertilization; secondary schools for art, upon the geometry con-
nected with perspective; those for the lower order of engineering,
upon mechanics; and so on indefinitely, all selecting those parts and
principles, and even sub-aspects and methods, from the fields of these
great sciences that lie nearest to and shed most light upon practise,
and with comparatively little matter in common with some sciences.
With all this precious development the principle of the Committee of
Ten would make havoc, lacking as it does all proper conception of the
magnitude of each science and its vast variety of approaches. In
topics like astronomy and physics, even the question where to begin
the mathematical side, how much stress to lay upon it, or whether to
omit it entirely, like Tyndall, is largely a problem of destination.

Even in teaching modern languages there are recognized differ-
ences of both method and matter, whether the pupil needs to be taught
chiefly and first to speak and hear the language or to read and command
its literary resources. Geography might almost be called in its best
modern development the introduction to various sciences, and I think
there is now general agreement that much more stress should be laid
upon it for those who finish their education early than for those
who continue. So in English, children who leave school early have,
as we saw above, an inalienable right to some knowledge, slight though
it be, of the general moral lessons of the great masterpieces which
those who go on have other means of attaining. Who would say that
if a child has six months or one year to learn what the Latin or Greek
world really means, he should begin as the pupil would who is to
specialize in these topics later? Not only thus does this principle fail
to recognize how vast as the mind itself the great departments ot
knowledge are, but how the pedagogic instinct almost inclines to the
belief that there are perhaps almost as many ways of approach to them
as there are minds, and that it would not be an insanely wild thesis
for those not ignorant of the anthropology of youth to maintain that
every individual mind has ideally its own best personal way of ap-
proach to every science, because each mind not only has, but is, its
own method. There is especially the great fundamental distinction
between those approaches that begin with practise, art, skill, and in-
dustry or for those who are motor-minded, into whom the great func-
tion of the teacher is to instil as much scientific knowledge and as many
principles as can be made of practicable service, and the professional
and the other culture groups who can follow a logical order. In looking
over the text-books for these two kinds of minds or " destinations,"
one is struck with the very limited amount of subject-matter which
is common, and also with the fact that these dififerences rest on funda-

512 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

mental differences of constitution, and that to force them into one
mold would be wasteful, undemocratic, and pedagogically immoral.
This principle ignores the fact that the average youth of high school
age, and especially in the early teens, has not so far reached the age
of reason that logical methods can be made supreme, but that genetic
methods which cross-section it must also be largely relied on. Some
need far more popular science or can not depart from utilities. But
minds destined to high development grasp and follow the order and
logic of science far earlier than others. In general the more vigorous
and capable of high development is an adolescent mind, the less appeal
is needed to this kind of interest — i. e., the smaller the mental area
necessary to cultivate, to generate interest in the great spring of
mind. The female intellect, in general, is far more in need of this,
and develops specialized and abstract interest later than that of the
average boy.

(&) Closely associated with this is the principle that "all subjects
are of equal educational value if taught equally well." This, too, has
been reiterated until with some it has almost become a dogma. It
is especially startling to those who have accepted the Herbartian view
of grades of culture values, for it means that in themselves and when
rightly taught, shorthand, Greek, agriculture, mathematics, sewing
and surveying, elocution and drawing, the humanities and science,
pure and applied knowledge, and all the newest as well as the oldest
branches, if taught alike well, have equal educational worth. Here,
too, the counter assertion that no two topics have or can ever be given
equal culture value is probably somewhat nearer the truth. Were
the above precept sound, the supreme desideratum in the world would
be good pedagogic methods, for they would be all that is necessary
to transform the meanest bread-winning to the best culture topic. A
great teacher-scholar has sometimes made the world seem to pivot
on a new species or a Greek particle, but this art can never make these
themes rank with, e. g., evolution, the renaissance, religion, or mathe-
matics, even if poorly taught. The history of education is rich in
warnings, but I can recall no fallacy that so completely evicts content
and enthrones form. If true, the greatest educational battles from
I the Greeks to the present time have been fought for naught, and seas
of pedagogic ink will have been spilled in vain.

(c) Another related surd that has acquired wide vogue and
wrought only mischief is that fitting for college is essentially the same
as fitting for life. Indeed, life, it is said, is preparing for an examina-
tion. The lawyer crams for his cases; the doctor for his critical
trials; the business man for crises. Life itself is an examination.
Therefore, that state of man where he is fitting for college is really
the best school for life. This involves the colossal assumption that
the college has so adjusted itself to the demands of the world as it now
is, that the old maxim — non vitas sed scholce discimtis — presents an
antithesis which no longer exists, and the schools and teachers that
complain that they must fit for college rather than fit for life are non-

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 513

suited. This would be true if, e. g., the high school best fitted the vast
majority who now leave to do so with least loss and with the greatest
advantage at any point during or at the end of the course, for this
would, in present conditions, be the greatest good for the greatest
number. But this would involve the radical revolution of beginning
every topic with its practical, industrial, or applied side, and reserving
pure science of every kind till the last. If this be the ideal and ulti-
mate system, colleges are farthest from and will be the last to accept
it. Here the counter assertion is that to fit for present entrance ex-
aminations involves an at least temporary unfitting for life. It is too
sedentary, clerical, bookish, and noetic, and above all, arbitrary and
by an alien master who offers at best only a limited range of choices,
all of which may fail to appeal to the best powers of youth. Life is
not coaching nor cramming, and very few of its tests consist in get-
ting up subjects and writing them, while too many examinations stunt
and clog, and if too prolonged, make real life seem tenuous and afar
because it lacks the vital element of decision and application.

Again, in one of the most important of recent educational books,
Demolins ^ urges that an education which fits for life in existing insti-
tutions is bad and must fail because it makes men tuft-hunters, place-
seekers, searchers for soft snaps, takes out the blood and iron of their
nature, and he demands an education that fits for nothing, for only
that is truly liberal, in a way that suggests Lowell's definition of a
university as a place where nothing useful is taught. For him it
should exhaust all the possibilities of the present and overflow natu-
rally into the future. It is filled with an ideal of what Mr. Kidd calls
projected efficiency. Its sentiments preform history. Those who es-
cape bondage to past and present alike and who are best fitted for
life want, no matter with what degree or at what stage their appren-
ticeship ends — every man Jack of them — to go out into the world and
make careers for themselves. They go West, to the colonies, the
slums ; devise new enterprises, sometimes almost want to peasantize
themselves and fall in love with wheel-grease and the smell of the
barnyard ; want to sweep the office and run on errands ; their instinct
to be fundamental impels them to start so low that they can sink no
lower, so that every change must be a rise. Academic enervation
and anemia is seen when youth desire simply to fit for ready-made
positions instead of striking out new ones. Napoleon organized the
schools of France to give him civil servants, and the incubus of the
French educational system, which all the best teachers of that land
now deplore, is that the young baccalaureate and his parents have
from the first only a snug little berth in view, and those who fail of this
low kind of success eat their hearts out. Their parents, instead of
wanting to see them safely housed and married to a dot, should cut
the navel-string and toss them out into the current, to sink or swim
according to their merit. One college graduate of this mettle wagered

^ Anglo-Saxon Superiority. London, 1898.

514 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

that he would start naked in a hotel bathroom and, unaided, pay his
way around the world and return in one year with $5,000, and won
his wager. With academic wealth comes taste for luxury, enervation,
distaste for strenuosity, taste for pemmican courses, the habit of
dawdling, and in the end the realizing sense that one has been born
just too late and has spent his life in trying to make up the lost quarter
of an hour.^ Education should cease to fit for the past that its gradu-
ates should, in Sturm's ideal, be at home if transported to ancient
Greece or Rome. Nor should it be content to fit for the present, which
will all too soon be an emeritus deity. This enthusiasm for a larger
future alone banishes ennui and disenchantment. This is fitting for
life, but it is not fitting for college or even for present times.

These three so-called principles thus turn out to be only
clever recruiting precepts, special pleas of able advocates hold-
ing briefs for the college rather than the judicial decisions of
educational statesmanship. The strategists of this policy urge
that social classes are favored by European schools, and that
it is an American idea of unique value that every boy should
as long as possible feel that he is on the high road to the bache-
lor's degree and will reach it, if he does not stop, just as we
teach that he may become president, but they ignore the fact
that there are as great differences in natural ability as those
artificially created in any aristocracy, and that the very life
of a republic depends on bringing these out, in learning how
to detect betimes, and give the very best training to, those
fittest for leadership. If all topics have equal culture value
and fit equally well for life and college, every youth would
naturally select whatever topics the college suggests, and
every teacher would adopt any methods it prescribes, for all
other differences are obliterated. The growing preponderance
of scholastic topics, the increase of high school classes in
the first year, and the augmented subserviency of secondary
teachers, who here find the uniformity so dear to the inert
mind — because its ready-made scheme, supported by the most
respectable pedagogic authority, relieves them from the vaster
problems of local and all other adjustments — show the tri-
umphs, and the growing percentages of those who drop out
from loss of zest show the havoc wrought by these master-
strokes of college politics. The voters, who have lately so
multiplied high schools, were at first pleased with the dignity

' See Vol. I, p. 173.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 515

of the fitting function that seemed to make academic hfe so
accessible, but the people are slower and their interests less
enlightened and less sharply defined. Their real voice has not
yet been clearly heard, and their unformulated purpose has
not yet been accomplished. It is an infinitely greater prob-
lem to fit for life than to fit for college, and requires far more
thought and a larger accumulation of experiences. It was
natural, therefore, that college interests, which are so simple
and easy, should be the first on the ground and should come
to power. The evils of this dominance are now so great and
manifest that they must be transient.

(a) Effects on Colleges and Professors. — While the pres-
sure of Avork in the high school has been greatly increased,
this very fact has been to some extent the cause of decreased
pressure of work inside the college. Professor Byerly ^ says,
" It is commonly and, I believe, correctly asserted that a stu-
dent of fair ability entering college from a good preparatory
school, choosing his courses with discretion, using borrowed
or purchased lecture notes, and attending one or two coaching
' seminars ' for a couple of evenings before the mid-year and
final examinations, can win our A. B. degree without spending
more than half an hour a day in serious study outside of the
lecture and examination rooms." " Why," he adds, with all
the distractions, " should a young man without strong intel-
lectual interests ' live laborious days ' when he sees his com-
rades gaining their degrees on such easy terms ? He naturally
becomes a butterfly, and by his attractive example makes it
harder for his fellow ants to pursue the diligent tenor of their
way." In a large college on the elective plan, with many be-
ginners and advanced courses, " discretion " in selection can
no doubt do a great deal, and does, at least in extreme cases.
Not only are many too well prepared, but they have brushed
the bloom off many subjects and become a little blase thereby,
and sit down at the college table with appetites slightly dulled.
Could the above statement be made in any preparatory course ?
and if not, by what right do the colleges bind heavy burdens
upon the high school and refuse to bear them themselves ? All
up the grades the question has long been. Where are the two

^ Harvard Graduates' Magazine, December, 1902.

5i6 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

or more lost years that have been sought Hke the lost tribes?
Can any grade put forth a stronger claim for them than the
college, if this statement be true ? The high school, as we saw,
weeds out more than three-fourths of those who enter, before
the completion of its course. How many leave the college,
which now has the enormous motive of tuition fees to retain
all it can? Again, colleges have of late an unwholesome af-
fectation of rating themselves by the raw material which they
receive from the high school, when their own merits should be
tested by the finished products they turn out at the end, finis
coronat opits. The entrance question ought to be. What is the
boy fitted to receive? quite as much, if not more than. What
does he possess? whereas it is when he leaves, if at any time,
that the test should be what he has attained. The exclusiveness
of mere high standards of entrance is a false basis of supe-
riority, for it by no means of itself implies superior work
within. That standards are maintained too ostentatiously high
for the interests of the college itself, there is much reason to
believe. Again, the colleges which have been most exacting
here are just those which have also led in the cutting off at the
top, in the form of concessions to students attending profes-
sional courses, provided they take them at the same institution.
Thus the fourth year is often sacrificed a little too much as if
it were a bribe to the student to take his law, medicine, or
theology at the same institution, because in that only his
fourth year can count credits in both at the same time. Thus,
what President Tucker and many others so strenuously insist
upon as the integrity of the college unity, is to-day most im-
periled, while we discuss, as Professor Penniman says, whether
to serve its mental pabulum in the table dliote of the old-
fashioned fixed college course, in the European plan a la carte
of the three years' elective system, or the quick lunch of the
proposed two years' course. The same colleges that turn over
what was once freshman's study to the high schools are also
readiest to turn over severer work to the professional schools.
Again, high school problems have become an important
topic for college faculty discussion, and in every large institu-
tion a number of professors now specialize upon high school
work as guardians of collegiate interest. In the West many
institutions employ an expert in pedagogy who divides his time

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 517

between instructing students within the walls who are likely
to become high school teachers and in traveling about the
State inspecting schools, advising, incidentally paving the way
from the high schools to the college he represents, and placing
its graduates in vacancies, or conducting a teachers' bureau.
I have been greatly interested in the kind of pedagogy taught
in these chairs. It almost all centers or bears upon the rela-
tions of high school and college. Problems of the lower
grades, the larger educational questions of the day, and funda-
mental principles, and those of higher education generally are
either untouched or interpreted in severe accordance with the
interests of their institution. The last two years have seen
striking developments in this respect which can not fail to
bring department education into the respect it deserves.

Again, most of the recent text-books for high schools have
been written by college professors, occasionally with the co-
operation of a high school man. In the remarkable develop-
ment of the last decade this has been both a useful and a
lucrative field, but I believe we see two baleful effects : first,
these authors have a strong interest which can not be quite im-
partial, scientific, or educational, and in all texts and methods
are special pleaders whose minds are no longer open, who are
advocates rather than judges, and bring the authority and pres-
tige of their position to bear in ways that are not entirely
wholesome. One who has merely expressed an educational
opinion can change more easily, if he sees reason, than one
who has given that opinion elaborate embodiment in a set of
methods by writing a text-book. More or less of the book-
agent element has sometimes seemed to be almost inexpug-
nable from public discussions. But this, I hasten to say, is of
course not true of the best, and not consciously true perhaps
of the most, who would scorn themselves if they detected such
a bias, but even this too often impairs the opinion of their
candor which their hearers entertain.

Next, a college author of a high school text-book in his
department can hardly refrain from giving at least some hints
of the best thoughts in his mind. He has sought to ele-
mentarize his specialty, to interest beginners, and this I believe
in the judgment of most of the best men of science is not
favorable to the best teaching in college. If professors should

5i8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF .^OLESCENCE

devote themselves to writing high school texts, why should
they also admit and teach beginners in their own courses?
Pupils who have gone through their professor's book in high
school can often afford to dawdle when they take his course in
college. It is sometimes said that only true greatness can ele-
mentarize. Certainly it is a difficult thing and habituates the
mental vision to another focus. I believe it is one of the great-
est services and perhaps ought to be made a duty, or even a
point of honor, by successful college teachers, before they close
their career, to put down the best of their teachings, enriched
by their own experience, in a text-book, which is in a sense
their life-book, as Le Conte did in geology, Ganot in physics,
Schwegler in philosophy, Dana in mineralogy, and many
others ; and I hold it a bad habit for professors in their prime
to emit a long graded series of text-books, from the various
rudiments up to the greatest height to which they can tiptoe,
because in fact the best teachers must by long experience ad-
dress themselves to but one, or at most a few, grades of work
to do their best. The fact, too, that young men in high schools
intending to enter a certain college prefer the text-book of their
coming professor does not seem to me an entirely wholesome
fact, although this evil is not great. High school youth com-
monly need to approach great departments by genetic rather
than by logical methods, and of this great fact, as well as how
to meet it, the profession is usually ignorant. From one to three
years later, however, the latter method, which would fail be-
fore, can accomplish such results that not a few of the ablest
academic teachers prefer virgin minds in their pupils with noth-
ing to unlearn. Thus, again, it is often only an affectation that
goes with limited knowledge, ignorance of youth, mechanic
methods, and low pedagogic ability that demands a prolonged
novitiate as a condition precedent to admission to one's courses.
The present absorption in the work of prescription for
lower grades is bad for every truly academic aspiration of the
college, and still more of the university, that in its present par-
turient stage needs all the care of all the best faculties and for
lack of which it is now in great danger and pain, to say nothing
here of the higher duty of research, so different from teaching
that in our academic work they are rarely combined, but at
best only juxtaposed, as vocation and avocation. Internal has

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 5^9

by no means kept pace with external academic organization,
and the college president of the external type never was so
distant from and so inadequate to cope with the inner work
of stimulating his faculty to ceaseless growth, facilitating
investigation, insuring the stimulus of interselection and
migration between institutions as well as between departments
oi the same institution, turning from the wearying quest of
students and dollars, the notes of which ring in everything
done and said, to the many and vast questions now just emer-
ging wherever those who love truth supremely and labor in her
service and pay constitute the germ of the true university,
invisible, not made with hands, but eternal as science, and
which is the supreme need of this country. How shall the pro-
fessional schools be manned, by those who give all their time
to their work, and not by the practitioners, especially in law
and medicine, who give a moiety to it? Until this question is
solved, the professional school has no right, I think, to demand
college graduation for entrance. Were they strong enough
to erect and enforce these standards and apply to the college
tests corresponding to those they have applied to the high
school, another vast, though also no doubt temporary, stimulus
would be given to academic work. Let them take up seriously
such questions as distinguishing between pass and honor men,
some form of which seems absolutely inevitable. Let them
conduct pedagogic laboratories or experiment schools them-
selves where they can apply in each topic some of the plans
recommended so freely to teachers. Let them try vigorous,
able, original men in their pedagogic chairs, and give them
liberty, even to discuss college and university policy and with
the same freedom presidents enjoy, even though their views
may conflict with his, rather than the soft pedagogy now too
often given for the special benefit of fitters. Let some large
institution lead the way to better quality of work by admitting
frankly, as Berlin and Paris have done, that there are grave
dangers in numbers and that there are limits of student aggre-
gation which can not be safely transcended, and concede that
there are higher aims than horizontal expansion, and that the
phenomenon of altitude should have more attraction. In a
word, let them look up, not down, squarely face the future
and step out from the trammeling influence of the past. Let

520 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

them purge themselves of professors who ought themselves
to be in the high school, and take more interest in education
and less in instruction. Let them add to love and knowledge
of the subject-matter the love and observation of student life
about them, and realize that adolescence has a new message of
humanism to the world from a source richer and more original
than that opened to teachers by the Renaissance, and that it
reinterprets and enlarges all the traditions of liberal education
by insisting that the only way to fit for the next stage is to
exhaust the possibilities of the present one.

Perhaps no institution in modern times ever itself needed
inspection, visitation, and in general such scrutiny as have been
lately given to high schools as the private endowed American
colleges themselves. This they have never had, but although
the age of their students has increased they have clung to the
school methods of lesson-setting, recitation, minute marking,
and criticism is howled down by the college yell as disloyal, or
if by a graduate of influence, passed lightly as an idiosyncrasy.
Such inspection has been done with the greatest thoroughness
within a few decades for the universities of Italy, France,
Germany, Russia, and England, and in every case it has
been followed by immense good and marked an epoch of re-
form. In this country the Government will never do this work,
but such scrutiny as is possible from intelligent high school
judgment below and professional school influence from above
is greatly to be desired. Some of these old colleges, whose
outer expansion has been phenomenal, have failed of corre-
sponding inner growth. Grave evils have crept into college
life; student habits and traditions have undergone changes, at
the very least, not all for the better. The growth in the num-
ber of students has been so rapid that their individual needs
are not met. In France and Germany we already have strong
opinions against the evils of large numbers. Excessive wealth
in a university is also a source of dangers no less grave.

(b) Effects on Secondary Schools and Teachers. — These
once had an individual life all their own, but this is now gone,
and courses and methods, and even sports and student life, are
" made at Harvard or Yale " or other scholastic fashion-set-
ting centers, although happily this habit of subjection is not
" made in Europe," where entrance examinations in our sense

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 5^1

are unknown. Michael Foster justly claims the credit of
abolishing the last vestige of them at Cambridge, and on the
Continent the leaving examination of the school itself admits
to the university without even a certificate save that it has
been passed. Here the evil often culminates in the atrocious
prescription of a fixed number of years of study as a condition
of admission to examinations, so that talent and intensive
study are robbed of their natural reward, and those of whom
it may be said the college goes through rather than that they
go through it, are excluded till the tale of years in Latin or
science is accomplished. Pedagogic originality and inde-
pendence are denounced as a whim, and no teacher who fails
to fit, whatever else he may do, can hold his place. Uniformity
is deadening to pupil and teacher alike. Sadler says " almost
every secondary school in England is a type by itself " ; it is
an idea that to be understood must be studied in its history.
Its principal is a man of eminence and known throughout the
country. Here each should have an individuality, a local
color, not be merely a building, a corps of teachers, or an
institution, but a state of mind. While it should have the same
liberty to prepare for college as for anything else, it should
not be a feeder nor a mere link in the educational chain. The
first result of the college invasion was increase of interest, new
topics, a new bond of union too much lacking before; but
among the later results has come the sterilization of educa-
tional interest. Requirements for admission have in my judg-
ment almost ceased to be pedagogic themes, and yet in the later
proceedings of high school and college teachers' association
meetings, it is hardly an extravagance to say that no matter
where discussion starts it always settles upon the technicalities
of admission. The themes have narrowed in range, lost vital-
ity ; great open questions have been closed by colossal assump-
tions, and the jingle of the college warden's keys is always
heard. The proceedings have lost interest save to those per-
sonally and practically concerned. Where this regime is most
perfect, qualities of college fidelity and service are brought to
the front, and those who study problems and attempt new solu-
tions fall to the rear, find their best endeavors slighted and
thwarted, pine for freedom, lose interest, and perhaps acquire
contempt for their work. A recent writer thinks this one rea-

522 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

son why so many of the ablest young men abandon these posi-
tions for more independent careers. There is httle incentive to
study individual pupils, educational philosophy, or anything
else outside the prescribed courses, for what boots learning off
the narrow cram-lines, or for those who have lost initiative,
autonomy, and personal force. Thus those of scholarship and
fortitude labor on, silently praying for a day of relief but
slowly stiffening in the mold. The college claims credit for
occasionally varying the dietary of requirements to make
headway against this process. To some types of character this
situation brings a sense of grateful relief from responsibility.
They have simply to do what they are told by men whose judg-
ment they respect and to which they must conform. So those
who should be teachers tend to become exactors of work under
absentee legislation slightly mitigated by mutual visitations and
courtesy. They are lay figures in the councils of their own
government, honored by the confidence of their feudal masters,
working under orders enforced by a sure but unwritten pen-
alty for insubordination. Those of more supple fiber grow
supine, proud to wear the mental, as in France they have
asked to wear the textile, livery made for them by the uni-
versity whose behests they anxiously await, happy of signs
of her approval and content to be called good and faithful
fitters, loving the jingle of the college warden's keys heard in
every joint-meeting, increasingly clerkly, bureaucratic, and it
is already possible, as lately claimed, that a majority of them,
but not the best, would vote that all but college fitting was a
by-product. The hope of the future lies with the minority,
now happily growing in power and numbers, who set better
examples, successfully resist in their own lives and studies
all these downward tendencies, and some of whom boldly and
openly point out and challenge them.

(c) On the pupils who should be our chief concern all
these evils of the mechanics of tutoring and of the overorgani-
zation that kills life fall with greatest force. As we have seen,
one of the laws of the biological world is that overfeeding is
the best known cause of sterility, whereas nothing so tends
to make plants go to seed and animals fecund as reduced diet
or even slow starvation. Our academic youth have occasion
too early to feel the vanity of erudition. Their minds em-

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 523

brace too much but hold too Httle. The mill-stone of condi-
tions about their neck is dreaded, if not experienced. There
are many things that it is impossible to do and remain a boy.
The Greeks called their teachers inspirers because they deemed
enthusiasm the only vitalizer of the mind. To feel that he is
to be certificated or passed on what he knows rather than on
what he can do, to be held up the first year in the high school
by work that is intensely uninteresting, so that most who leave
do so at the end of the first year, to have the memory pouches
too full to swallow, the reason a little forced, and the mind
empty, to be drilled in masses, not to be able to differentiate
their sex by being always yoke-fellows with girls in every
class-room from which the boy of this age revolts, to feel in-
stitutionalized when individuality begins to burgeon, to feel
that his mind is going to fat when it ought to go to mental
muscle, to have little time for himself which is not occupied in
assigned tasks, to work non-excusable knowledge, and perhaps
even to have teachers so good, kind, and feminine that he is
loth to exercise the prerogative of his age even in deceiving,
despising, or defying, with student life at its minimum and
work at its maximum, makes a tame life at this age. An undue
amount of language work brings to those whose chief training
is in words a failing sense of reality. Their minds are spoiled
for other kinds of scholarship. They have no stomach for con-
tent studies as distinct from those that are formal. With the
few best pupils and those least apt to fall by the way in the pre-
paratory and perhaps classical courses, taught by the best
teachers and kept hardest at work, the residual majority daw-
dle. It must be of this most obvious element that Cecil Grant,
head master of Keswick, writes in Sadler's volumes, although
he deems it true in classics and mathematics as well, an account
of the vast number of branches. He says " nothing is more
striking to the English visitor in American high schools than
the comparatively elementary nature of the work done in the
highest form." " This," he says, " is also due to the some-
what gentle, give-and-take style of teaching, making no strong
demands either upon the learner's attention or previous in-
dustry in preparation," and also to the fact that " boys have to
sink to a standard purposely set low for girls." ^

^ A recent case is typical of the victimization of the majority of pupils by college

524 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

The chief misfit is between the new public high schools and
the old conservative, richly endowed Eastern colleges and
universities. Some of them have even joined in prescribing
courses in science for which they refuse to give entrance
credits; at least three of these a year ago gave no credits in
science in their academic courses, so that Darwin and Spencer
would have been excluded, and Huxley, had he not known
Latin. How many credits are accepted in science, and how
few are required in dead languages, is one standard on which
this disparity can be measured. Another evil chargeable
in part to this cause is the excessive and perverted use
of text-books. Here we can learn from Germany even if
the opposite habit is extreme. There teachers teach, and
do not hear recitations. These I have heard compared to
regurgitation of food. The teacher of pubescent boys is
almost always a man, and often a doctor of philosophy, him-
self a living book, an authority and not an echo, and regards
the practise of commending students to self-help in finding
out new lessons alone as a device of the teacher's laziness. All
study follows class work. Many teachers in some branches
forbade the use of all text-books till a governmental rescript
was necessary to require their use for reviews. Study hours
at school are unknown, and those at home are for revision and
details only. Everything comes orally from the teacher, whose
method is Socratic and heuristic and keeps every member of
the class alert. The books are not crutches for lame knowledge
on the teacher's part; small compounds, skeletons, tables, and
the use of dictionaries in examinations in languages is often
freely permitted, so subordinated are mere vocabularies. It is
quantitative standardizations like those described above that

aggression. In a public high school a large musical association gave both voca
and instrumental concerts with results beneficent not only for members, but felt by
the whole school, who were thus educated in this greatest "language of the heart."
The normal department of a neighboring college heard of it and bestowed the
boon of preparing a course of harmony which conferred entrance credits. This
was eagerly demanded by leaders in the association, and one who had other plans
actually decided to try for college on this new hope. To study musical theory as
prescribed, they must withdraw from the association, which thus collapsed. The
college "took in the slack" and the teacher felt honored, but this margin was
eaten up to the loss and greater subjection of the school.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 5^5

favor, if they do not compel, the teacher to be more or less of
a lesson setter and hearer.

The inherent and historic primacy is with the institutions
that train in the teens where education, as we have seen, begins
widening up and down with advancing civilization. It is the
most plastic, vernal age for seed-sowing, budding, and trans-
planting from the nursery to the open field, but this requires
an ever longer time during which youth is neither child nor
man. Many of these changes focus at about eighteen. To
prescribe for these years as if they were simply a continuation
of childhood, or as if they were like the college age, minus a
few years of rectilinear progress, is the fundamental mistake
to which many of the great evils from which we are now suf-
fering are due. Under the old postulate of Roman origin, that
knowledge should be imparted to boys according to a theoret-
ically prescribed method and succession, approved by the
mature human intellect on a plan which seems to it most use-
ful later in life, college instructors, and indeed too often those
in the high school, fail to see even the very existence of these
problems. For both these, the high school is an elastic struc-
ture connecting the grammar school and the college as best it
can — a machine to instil a budget of carefully prepared knowl-
edge and thereby convert grammar-school graduates into
freshmen. Conditioned by the material ascent up to it from
the lower grades and by the stints assigned it from above, it is
in danger of losing all its independence, and, sheltered thus on
both sides, of being the last to respond to progressive influences
which so often affect higher and lower grades first. It rarely
even considers the question, what is intrinsically best, although
the problems of adaptation here are unique and far more
difficult than in the college where logical methods are more
in order than genetic. No stage of life so demands study or
suffers so much from lack of appreciation and knowledge of
it. From this standpoint the high school should primarily fit
for nothing, but should exploit and develop to the uttermost
all the powers, for this alone is a liberal education. It
should follow the nature and needs of youth far more closely
than is necessary either before or after, make this work its
vocation, and be the defender of this age against aggression.
"The function of secondary schools is distinct in itself and

526 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

will one day establish its independent right when it has rid
itself of the vicious term and still more vicious idea of college
preparation." ^ The dangers that now threaten are that the
work will become mere routine of stated tasks and will seem
to the pupil an artificial program imposed by the will of
others, the purpose of which he fails to see. He should see
that his work stands on the same basis as that of any man, and
that it has a meaning and value in itself to which each day
contributes its share. Leaders must not concern themselves
chiefly with scholastic matters, but rise to the largest views of
educational questions. " It is evident that the high school has
come to be an immensely significant factor in our American
life, raising our standard of living, giving currency to higher
ideas and ideals, increasing the range of selection in all occu-
pations calling for the intermediate and higher grades of
intelligence, and forcing the wider differentiation of our cur-
riculums by the very immensity and variety of the demands
for instruction which must be satisfied." ^

In view of all the facts, what should be the next step? I
believe it should be the organization of the public high schools
by themselves, or at least with as much care that their interests
predominate, as has been exercised in the various joint com-
mittees that the college predominate. Their question should
be how best to serve one unique age of life, and thereby to do
the greatest good to the community and to their pupils. Their
problems are as distinct from those of the private or endowed
fitting schools as the new English Government schools are from
Rugby, Harrow, and Eton. Continental schools are over-
saturated with privileges and buy attendance by the increasing
number of civil offices open with each new grade, and they
bifurcate classes and masses too early and irrevocably. Ours
should now rise in their might, win back their sold birthright,

^See a good article by F. Whitton, School Rev., 1900, p. 261.

'See articles on this subject by W. J. Shearer, School Rev., March, 1901, p.
137 et seq. Also my articles. How Far is the Present High School Adapted to the
Needs of Adolescence ; School Rev., December, 1901, pp. 649-665. Ideal School
as based on Child Study ; Proc. of the N. E. A., 1901, pp. 475-488. The High
School as the People's College versus the Fitting School ; Proc. Am. Ass'n of
Superintendence, February, 1903. See also G. H. Locke: Bibliography of Sec-
ondary Education, Chicago University Press, 1903.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 5^7

repay with interest whatever debt they owe to grades above,
become more than four rungs in Huxley's ladder from the
kindergarten to the university, and help the old colleges, most
of which are struggling out of their primary formation, in
molting their old soul and bringing a new one to successful
delivery. We have had of late some judicial statements,
especially from the West, where this reaction is well advanced,
as, e. g., in the utterance of President Jordan, that if the public
high school wants to fit for college, well and good, but that is
not its object. If either bend to the other, the college should
bend. The high school should say to it, Here is our product,
take it or leave it; we have done the best we are able at this
stage. We are reminded that England, that land of examina-
tions, long since practically abolished them for the university
because, as Mark Pattison showed, they were no test of power.
High schools should magnify the dignity of their own diplo-
mas. The public high schools do not begin yet to realize their
advantage of position and power in this or other regards. Let
the tides that have so long flowed from above downward now
turn and flow upward. From the time they insisted on doing
the best they could for this age in their own way, the ob-
structant colleges would come to their standards within a year.
The blood of a new life would flow through their veins. The
high school would be, as it ought to be, master and not serv-
ant, and in the position of control of supplies. That this next
step will be taken and will do great good, I have not a shadow
of doubt.

(F) The College. — We have seen that the nineteenth year
in boys is marked by the practical cessation of growth for a
time, although it is often resumed a little later, by some decline
in the curve of health and by other phenomena that seem
characteristic and suggest that, having achieved adult size,
there is likely to be a period of slightly reduced vigor as if to
rest and adjust after being cast up by a flood-tide on the shore
of manhood a little exhausted. Faint analogies are suggested
between this age and that of the beginning of the prepubescent
increment of height and weight. At this point perhaps the in-
dividual represents the phyletic stage where, in its survival
value in the struggle for existence, the advantages of increased
size and strength began to be surpassed by those of a higher

528 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

mentality and the main current of evolution swerved thought-
ward. Moreover, the proportionate growth of the different
parts and organs of both body and soul which had been lost
for five or six years is being restored in a new unity on the
higher plane of adult life not again to be upset. Cohesions
that were loosened are being recompacted and new associa-
tions of all the just acquired feelings, impulses, and ideals are
being knit into individual character and personality. Thus
this age is again more or less liminal, but in a new way which
it would be premature to attempt to fully define, yet which is
pretty clear in some of its larger lineaments. It suggests
another slight pause for wider orientation, leveling up arrears,
developing, in Balfour's phrase, a mental framework, and
rounding out symmetrically, ensuring the full benefit of every
advantageous factor of heredity, acquiring self-knowledge and
perfecting self-control, perhaps, above all, seeking an en-
vironment most favorable for ensuring and utilizing to its
uttermost the last upward push of physical growth, which is
so very easily lost, and for nursing every new-born spontaneity
of the soul, so liable to be aborted or perverted. For the
chosen few who can do this, vocations must not be too insistent
nor outer exactions too rigorous, but the pressure of both
should remit a little and there should be leisure enough to allow
natural tastes and aptitudes to be heard from, and the vision
should range wide enough to include as many lines of endeavor
as possible, that every form of ability and inclination may
either find or strike out a new way with the least loss from
misfits, because with the wrong choice of life the strongest
fail, while on the right course the weakest often succeed.

If this diagnosis is right, the college, to fit it, should stand
for extensive more than for intensive study. Its noble tradi-
tions of liberal training suggest something analogous to the
nuptial flight of many species of insects before they lay off
their wings and begin their life work. It implies knowing
something of everything more than everything of something.
It is not the place for specialization or technology.

The college should address itself chiefly to the ages of from
eighteen or nineteen to twenty-one or twenty-two, for the age
of legal majority bears many external, if not internal, signs of
being also nodal. It should not insist on inserting itself be-

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 529

tween the secondary school and the university, but stand a
Httle aside with doors hospitably open to those who have time
to pause for it on the road to a profession, or to spend a period
of culture and acquire an avocation before entering a career,
and also to earnest young men who have not yet acquired the
tools of learning and still need topics that belong to the dis-
ciplinary stage, and who would make up arrears. To all
these its doors should open on easy terms. It can hardly
exclude even gilded youth who would spend this period of lull
and physiological incubation in a profitable, social, and insti-
tutional atmosphere. Entrance standards should admit all
who are in a stage of development to profit more by its grade
of work than by a lower. To these ends poll and honor work
should both have a place and be duly distinguished. Social
opportunities should be many and open, and numbers should
not be so large that the faculty are not freely accessible to all.
The latter should set examples of simple and morally ex-
emplary lives, and everything should be pervaded by ethical
influences, for these years are in some respects the hardest of
all the trying, probationary period between puberty and
nubility. The peculiar nature and needs of just this stage of
life should be studied by every method now available, and its
essentially transitional character understood and adjustment
made to it, for it is only provisional and preliminary to ma-
turity. Especially at this age many need to broaden by retard-
ing, and some even to be mere amateurs and loiterers, who will
get more from academic life as a school of human nature than
from courses. In a sense not true of specialized education
later, everything is propaedeutic and preparatory, hence culture
is here more process than result.

While no one can predict what they will become, it is not
so hard to sketch briefly and in large outlines what colleges
should be if they are to fit the needs of youth, although our
knowledge of the latter is still too meager for any finalities.
They should first, in my opinion, renounce all acuminated
specialization and let teaching have its perfect work. This
lofty art should culminate here, and to this professors should
completely subordinate all their university aspirations. On the
other hand, the grinding schoolmaster, the lesson-setter, and

recitation-hearer, with his daily marks, should be repressed,
73

53° THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

and the teacher should teach, demonstrate, address his efforts
more to the upper and less to the lower half of his class, forage
widely and incessantly, and bring everything within reach in
his field to them. Every good illustration from popular science,
charts, diagrams, curves, tabulations, apparatus, and the full
resources of the library should be turned on, the lecture
method purged of its admitted limitations, made the most of,
being conversational and designed to provoke reaction by fre-
quent personal questions, even repetitions or discussions on
the spot, if necessary to insure complete conveyance, trans-
lations, and perhaps readings by the instructor in class, and
every zest-provoking device should be in his repertory of re-
sources. He should teach every topic broadly and comprehen-
sively, and instead of disparaging mere information, it should
ooze from his every pore. Instead of the affectation of mi-
nute and exhaustive detail, he should brave the charge of su-
perficiality, and even just this should sometimes be the muse he
invokes, because in many topics it is the natural and psycho-
logical beginning, if not sometimes the end, and hints,
glimpses, and suggestions are often more in order than ex-
haustiveness. Mental awakening should be his goal, and he
should inspire to read for pleasure, for the only real measure
of culture is the number and kinds of things done for the love
of them. The stock of knowledge is to-day so vastly enlarged
and growing at such an unprecedented rate that new occasions
should teach him new and larger duties than can be found in
any academic precedents. Frontier questions galore should
be raised that can not be answered. Answers should be few
and problems many, for the reverse practise stunts by a sense
of finality. The ideal college teacher will go to the limits of
his knowledge and let these be plainly seen, for this is one
of the strongest provocations to the student to attempt to go
farther. The test of success here is the number of interests
and the intensity of curiosity aroused far more than the size
of the body of knowledge laid away in the memory. The
breaking down of prejudices, religious, political, philosophical,
literary, social, and the postponement of discipleship to any
school or view in every field where there are many held by
intelligent and sincere men, should result in all-sided sympa-
thetic appreciation which should have free course before the

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 531

spirit of criticism, which is often the foible or forte of the
feeble.

The American college in fact is very different from this;
indeed, the president of Columbia declares that it " hardly ex-
ists nowadays." While trying to subordinate the high school
it has been led into a yet sadder captivity by lapsing, as if by
a nemesis, to be itself only a " link," if not a hybrid, between
the grades below and those above. The younger generation
oi professors are experts inspired by ideals of a highly
specialized culture which should not dominate here. The uni-
versitized college is encroached on from below till Presidents
White, Harper, Butler, and others, would abandon the first
one or two years, while the senior year is often given over to
the professional school. If the older and larger colleges were
not so firmly entrenched in the devotion of their graduates
whose very self-respect as well as filial piety would suffer
if their Alma Mater came to grief, if they were not rich and
independent exactly in proportion to their wealth, if they
lacked the association of age, the buildings and equipment that
only years can bring, if they were not so wrought into our his-
tory and habits of thought, and were stripped of the prestige of
the A. B. degree, in none of which the essentials of education
consist, but were new fiat institutions otherwise just as they
now are, it is painful to think what their status and prospects
would be.

(G) A few years ago I gathered and printed a list of two
or three hundred text-books on philosophical subjects that
have been used in American colleges, and more than a score
of which I have used myself.^ In nearly all of the eighteen
colleges of the country in 1880, and in most since founded,
these have been the culminating subjects of the A. B. course
taught the last year or two, and commonly by the president,
around whom everything centered. In some of their many
forms these studies of man's nature are the fitting close of an
education that is truly liberal, and they still constitute perhaps
the most marked difference between the college and the tech-
nical school. From 1642, when the Harvard degree required

^ The History of American College Text-Books and Teaching in Logic, Ethics,
Psychology, and Allied Subjects, with List of Texts. Proc. Am. Antiq. Soc, 1894,
vol. ix, pp. 137-174. See also a series of five articles in the Forum, 1900.

532 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

a synopsis of logic, this the oldest of these topics has also
been the most persistent. It was the organon of law and
theology. Disputations were at first weekly, and interest cen-
tered in fallacies and syllogistic reason, and the rules of de-
duction were the norms of all thinking, divine as well as hu-
man. It was the culmination of the higher education and the
only recognized method of investigation. This met a real need
of youth. The charm of personal encounter and rejoinder and
colloquy ever since the sophists and the forensics of the school-
men needs rules. Logic presided over rhetoric and oratory,
taught to deal with categories and intellectual species, and
from its forms of predication grammar was first evolved. Later
came the revival cult conveniently marked by the arrival of
Whitefield, in 1740, as described in Chapter XIV. In the stress
of youthful emotion a supernal cult is necessary, for to regard
duties as divine commands appeals to the subrational parts of
the soul now dominant. It teaches respect for duty, and avoids
all the hypersubtleties of speculative ethics which volatilize
moral sanction. The third movement was the introduction of
ethics by President Clapp, of Yale, in 1755, and later the
establishment of the Alford chair at Harvard in 1789. Al-
though morals was theological, " virtue is not by nature but
by divine gift," it encountered great opposition, for works
could not save men, and this prejudice was greatly increased
when deists attacked the clergy in the name of ethics and
natural religion. Goodness was likeness to God, his will its
warrant, and impenitence and unbelief were among the chief
sins. It was established, however, by the aid of the Unitarian
movement and the Declaration of Independence, which turned
men's thoughts to political virtues. The transition from the
view that morality was a code revealed in Scripture, to the
idea that it was seated in innate intuition in the soul of man,
progressed for two centuries. Dreary as Clarke, Shaftesbury,
Cudworth, Hutchinson, Beattie, Mackintosh, and even Paley,
now seem, they humanized ethics. The fourth cult dates from
1 7 14, when a copy of the first edition of Locke's Essay was
given to Yale, two years before Jonathan Edwards entered as
a lad of thirteen. This he read with a joy such as "the most
greedy miser finds when gathering up handfuls of silver and
gold," and at the age of seventeen drew Berkeley's conclusion

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 533

without having read him. It was long before this hne of
thought, which Hume and Kant completed, was installed in
American colleges. This tedious detour was short-circuited
by the Scotch school, which non-suited the whole question of
reality of the external world, self, and God, etc., by an imme-
diate appeal to common sense. Under Porter, McCosh, and
others this view was represented in many texts and courses
and was maintained as an amiable if not fructifying modus
Vivendi with religion, science, ethics, and the new psychology,
and gave to education its most prevalent philosophic basis.
It was only after the history of philosophy had been tried and
found unsettling, " teaching students to hold no opinions on
any subject really vital," that the reality cult really began its
remarkable academic development. This at first seems hard
to account for in our practical land; but it is here, as in the
days of the sophists and Abelard, explained by the environ-
ment.

Youth has a passion for callow ratiocination. The fee of
Enathlus, the lying Cretans, the syllogismiis crocodilus, the
heterozetic fallacy, the Brundisian ass, Cratylus seeing and not
seeing at the same time with one eye shut, delight the junior
sophistes. The dialectic fledgling's forensic passion to subject
all things to proof and to cross-examine is sometimes so strong
that it lapses to verbal quibbles that would do credit to
Euthydemus or Hudibras, for youth easily almost comes to
feel, as Plato said, that a dissatisfied pig is better than a satis-
fied man. He is becoming conscious of associative activities
hitherto latent, and loves to propound and maintain theses of
his own. Reason is just coming to seem a universal solvent,
and he would everywhere substitute the mediate for the im-
mediate, and subordinate intuition to understanding, as if he
faintly anticipated Fichte's ideal state with no habit or instinct,
but wherein knowledge and consciousness, with the world's
purpose fully revealed, ruled all in a community of free beings.
The tender intellect sometimes crepitates and grows dizzy in
the orgy and flux and loses its orientation and may waste
powers in unifying the irreconcilable, in elaborating distinc-
tions that have no existence, or giving the best arguments to
the worst cause, and a kind of reasoning mania is easily
possible.

534 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

When rationalistic parents and teachers ask me when they
should cease to command and when begin to explain common
grounds of morality, I am almost tempted to the extravagance
of replying that there are things for which no reason should
be given till the youth is strongest and can whip his elders, for
these theories seem invented by senescent parents to make the
weakness of old age respected after physical strength is no
longer able to compel the right, and argument is sometimes a
poor and cheap substitute for respect to personal authority.

Again, the very isolation of student life weakens the sense
of reality. Not only has touch, its mother, given place to the
eye with which Berkeley could juggle when men became eye-
minded, but within academic walls a still further remove is
effected and youth grow bookish and assume that all wisdom
can come by reading or by theory, and that all things can be
learned in the library or imparted by teaching. Apprenticeship
means appropriating the ready-made material of culture. His
receptive powers are long overworked amidst a mass of
products far higher than youth can ever hope to create, and
thus the carrying activities are loaded in a way that stimu-
lates emotional susceptibility, and he is cloyed with little
opportunity for reaction or efferent drainage. As the body of
learning increases and tutelage taxes all his powers to under-
stand, he grows flaccid, limp, servile to authorities, and prone
to take things in a bookish way. His activity is imitative and
examinations prevent the normal abiunt studia in mores. With
overdocility comes proneness to accept heteronomous stand-
ards and to parasitic objectivism toward a knowledge that is
acquired but not assimilated. All his mental possessions, there-
fore, are a little like snow not yet melted and absorbed by the
soil, and his soul seems to herd ghosts. All this is increased
directly in proportion to the length of the status pupilaris and
the rapidly growing size of the body of culture-material to be
acquired. Again the life of the professor is still more perma-
nently withdrawn from the world and, anthropologically, we
are all hypertrophied in intellect and anemic in will. As
salaried, too, we are removed from the hot palpitating struggle
for existence and the intense life of feeling and passion that
surges about us. Hence, like the isolated Hindus of old, we
dream when we wake and wonder if the world exists and if

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 535

reality is really real. We grow bulbous-headed and over-
cephalized and teach alien and not indigenous living systems,
and our hypertrophied self-consciousness falters and is not sure
of even itself. We have been so long so warm in our hospi-
tality to all kinds of thoughts by others that the proprium of
our individuality has been submerged, and at best we only
sort, classify, and present alien ideas. Thus we incline to
involute when we should evolute ourselves.

It is under such conditions that the modern morbus academi-
cus of ultra epistemology has taken root and flourished.
Berkeley's ephebic paradox was suggested by theological
questionings in the vain, but since too common, endeavor to
parallel the spiritual and the material world, which in fact rest
on bases so distinct that even analogies between them are
danger signals. Hume showed the absurdity of, and Kant,
with German seriousness, brought the wisdom of age to bear
to correct, this seductive extravasation of the speculative
passion of the youthful Irish genius. Should youth suffer this
disenchantment, and is this an essential part of a truly aca-
demic training in this field? Should they agonize with prob-
lems that only age can solve, and that but imperfectly and
with infinite intrication, or is it a handicap? While cloistered
youth easily take infection with the bane, is it possible to so
administer the cure as to make it effective within a year or two
so that the subject of it shall be well and immune enough to
do his work in life with no diminution of impulsion? All this
I utterly disbelieve and hold that the loss far exceeds the gain,
that the destruction of mental and moral tissue by the negation
which any philosophaster can cause, can not be made good by
any pedagogic art yet known to man, and that the process is
precocious for youth, if not what history will regard, whenever
it has been taken seriously, as an aberration of the adult in-
tellect. The process may be roughly characterized as follows :

I. The solipsistic hopo is one of the strangest pot-holes
in the roaring, eddying currents of human thought. It is at-
tractive to the same class of mildly paranoiac minds that of old
muddled themselves with Zeno's paradoxes. The spirit that
always denies and that applies rigorously the Cartesian prin-
ciple of doubting to the uttermost, finds that his mind does not
strip well. Reduced from a state of buoyant confidence to an

53^ THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

ignorance that seems hopeless, denuded of every vestige of his
earher beliefs, his mental eyeballs seared by the sight of this
hell of adolescence, nature seems deflowered of its freshness
and bloom, and whole-souled devotion to any of the objective
sciences is thenceforth impossible. This experience, it must
be admitted, is often a strange exhilarant for thought and
poetic and metaphysical expression. There is a quaint and
moving pathos about those who have ever really stood, or even
affected to stand, in this Ultima Thiilc of self-involution.
Formerly the ecstatic worked himself up to the seventh heaven
and lost the earth in the contemplation of God and super-
essential being. His modern congener is lost to all else in the
contemplation of his own inner states. The latter alone are
real and true, and if he ever acquires any other knowledge or
belief, it must be laboriously manufactured out of this mother
lye of experience. He is reduced back not to the condition of
primitive thinkers before all we call culture existed, but to a
hypothetical mesh of weltering, amoeboid, psychic rudiments
from which he must evolute himself. Many literary novelties
impossible before are now easy. Do these psychic states, in
themselves utterly unconnected, drift together in shoals by
chance, or are they bundled up into personalities by bodily or
brain sequences on which we must rely for everything causal ?
What a vast and almost megalo-maniacal respect for them-
selves human aggregations of atomic mind-states acquire,
when it is realized that the whole vast cosmos, even space
itself, is essentially and really created by and projected from
them as caryatides, bearers of the universe! How plastic
everything, even natural and moral law, seems! There are
as many possible cosmoses as there are combinations and per-
mutations among all these its elements, and how far above
the old delusion of any absolute truth, duty, law, etc., we have
ascended ! How supreme over its base creation, matter, mind
becomes ! How near the divine creative energy is each think-
ing subject! How dull the souls that labor with matter as if
it were ultimate, or with human opinion as if it could be taken
seriously !

This state of mind stimulates brilliancy and paradox be-
cause everything is an open question and the other side of
every problem is perhaps true. It goes with a special proclivity

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 537

for insoluble questions instead of for those that may be re-
solved. A vital soul thus flayed knows no rest till it can at
least cicatrize. Most who have been thus suddenly out of their
depth and had to swim for their lives or sink, have felt utterly
lost in this charmed circle of agnosticism and instinctively seek
some " urposition " or residuum incombustible in the hottest
fire of skepticism. Some lose heart at the exhortation to drop
all tradition, custom, inclination, instinct, and feeling, at an
age when these latter are at their best, despair of building
up again the world they have lost out of its acosmic elements,
and commit suicide because they can not endure the pangs of
an ingrowing intellect, or with a bajffled sense of failure turn
aside to some practical calling. Others shoot the chutes by a
salto mortale into some saturated orthodoxy, for the mind now
is like a chemical element in the nascent stage, ready to com-
bine with substances with which it ordinarily has little affinity,
or they may accept some professor's private patent way out
of agnosticism. The religious " ways out " are manifold, but
all postulate an analogy between a belief in an external world
and that in God, soul, and perhaps other theological and meta-
physical concepts, which are made unwarrantably close, if in-
deed they exist at all. A pleasant pathway of ascent through
Wundt's theory of attention and Fichte's conception of will has
a profitable historic background and leads in sight of some rich
laboratory material, but it implicates what God made plain,
requires a struggle for psychic existence that is too intense for
many, and is essentially sophronistic. Those who win out and
achieve full epistemological salvation become adepts, with a
certain aloofness. The sense of reality the vulgar have and
the things they strive for are hardly worth while, and even
though they follow after them, an unique, residual indifference
is felt. They deal in reasons good or otherwise for what
healthy souls believe by instinct, because a life unexplained
is no longer worth living and no act can be virtuous if not
based on knowledge. All must be done in or by or go through
consciousness, and there is eternal warfare against all that is
naive. So their minds are rily at the bottom and frothy at the
top. Just as dogmatic assertion tends to paralyze the sense
of veracity, so to work out by reason what nature gives by
instinct both weakens and teaches distrust of the best things

538 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

in the soul. The world rings a little hollow, the logical char-
acter of the universe is a subject of anxiety, and occasionally
the gnostic soul falls a prey to the night terrors of the bafHed
ontologists. Initiates slowly adjust themselves to an altitude
so high that there is danger of mental asphyxia, where the view
is vast but nothing can be clearly seen for distance and haze.
Although physically they frequent the haunts of men, they are
really Mahatmas living in remote places and prodigies of pre-
mature and extreme senescent wisdom.

Now, this treatment of the adolescent mind is wrong be-
cause it turns the soul inward at a stage which nature designed
to be most objective. It needs an atmosphere that has not
lost its full proportion of oxygen. It is psychically starved
when hunger and assimilative powers are at their maximum.
An impoverished diet makes for cephalization, but prevents the
final molt. Those who know the true Georgics of the mind
devote themselves to positive work and leave the negative
processes of decay to care for themselves. At this age the
powers of the soul are measured by the capacity to believe
rather than to doubt. How much real knowledge the mind
can absorb to its saturation point, and not how little, is the
criterion. Our problem as teachers is how to conserve all the
freshness of life now nearing its culminating point, and not
how the sad wisdom of years can be affected in the earliest
twenties. Volo, or sentio ergo sum, or stmi ergo cogito is now
better than cogito ergo sum ; the natural thinking is better than
treating consciousness, like a St. Martin's stomach, by pulling
out and examining its contents to study the stages of assimi-
lation. The old fiddling on the categories, the raucous, idle
proclamation of what knowledge truly is, debate whether we
can really know and what is the essential nature of mind, the
disposition to hold up the work of science till the spurious
mortgage, which the theory of knowledge affects to hold, is
canceled, should now yield to the view that whatever nature
is, we are, that it is the truth of all things, and what does not
agree with it is by every token false. Truth is now profitable-
ness, and the purest philosophy is that which applies most im-
mediately to the problems of right living. It is thinking the
universe in the easiest and most effective, and not in the hard-
est and most abstract way.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 539

Probably Aristotle had such cases in mind when he in-
sisted that no young man should be allowed to study the high-
est philosophy, and so doubtless did Plato, who would flog
youth who continued this study too long. When the instinct
of ratiocination buds and the callow youth loves to play with
arguments, he should have his fling and be inducted into the
largest problems in the history of philosophy, but the pang of
it all should at this age be in a benign, homeopathic form.
Plato allowed the citizens of his ideal state to return to it at
the age of fifty, after they had been duly seasoned in the world.
Everything we know of the stages of life indicates that serious
and prolonged study of such problems has its place, but it is in
maturity and old age. Perhaps we may grant that a little
more of it has been justifiable here to free the mind from dog-
matic fetters than in ages and among races where the youth-
ful mind has been less wound about by the cerements of
religious orthodoxy. But just as long after the doctrine of
total depravity had been mitigated, religious cults insisted
upon a very radical re-creation of life ; so after the late dangers
of hide-binding creeds have abated, philosophers continue their
exorcisms of natural thinking, even the errors of which are
far more harmless than their methods imply, while many of
them still regard healthy common sense a little as clergymen
once regarded the natural man.

II. This is not the place to state my own philosophy, which
I reserve for another work. Every system bases on certain
postulates believed by the author to have peculiar advantages
for grasping more of the complex modern world of thought
and fact with greater mental ease and certainty and in better
order than any other and securing most moral effectiveness.
But while their scientific exposition belongs elsewhere, the
pedagogic value of certain fundamentals for college adoles-
cents seems to me so great and indisputable that, with power
to do so, I might be almost capable of enforcing my orthodoxy
here against all heretics by methods condemned by modern
ideas of the freedom of individual thought. So lost are we
to all genetic perspective in education, and particularly in this
department of it, in opening everything intellectual to every-
body, with no reference to stages of development or grades
of ability, that it is high time to remember that youth have a

540 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

certain non possumus that it is dangerous to longer ignore.
The articles of this creed may be roughly and dogmatically
stated as follows :

( I ) There is one infinite background or tabula of the uni-
verse— the most objective and ineluctable of all the data of
consciousness — and that is space, or sheer, pure extensity,
which seems infinite and which is a perfect continuum. To
try to think it away, to make it at root subjective, a mental
projection or mere form of sensory, is fatuous, and has been
a product of speculation which has involved endless waste of
effort and confusion of thought. God, soul, thought, every-
thing that truly is, is somewhere, although we can neither
locate it nor define its form. All that exists, or ever has or can,
must be present somewhere, in room, in certain directions from
us, and this absolute space must be received as a universal,
logical postulate, and as a genetic prius to all vigorous logical
thought*. It is common three dimensional space subject to
Euclidean laws throughout. It makes motion possible; it is
simple, undecomposable, unaffected by any content, uniform
throughout, permeable alike in all directions, and one in a
sense true of nothing else. No thing or thought is so neces-
sary. Every negation, if complete, ends in its affirmation. It
is certainty. It is perhaps the only object which can neither
be transcended nor thought away. It is so immediate and pre-
suppositionless that it is beyond proof, non-relative, and un-
conditioned. Anything so aboriginal can, of course, never be
adequately stated or described, because language is only a tool
by which we handle its content. It is a merely verbal logic
that either identifies it with nothing or denies it, merely be-
cause blank nothing can not be said to exist. Even though it
be a special kind of nothing — a nihil privativum — it is not sub-
stantialized by the subtle connotations of the predicate of the
substantive verb to he, when we say it is. It is also the principle
of negation and the purest nothingness conceivable. Were
there naught else. It might be full of light or dark, and neither
thought nor words could distinguish one from the other. Con-
ceived as the fathomless Abgrimd or abyss, it has not even
direction and nothing to orient by, while its infinity has been
intoxicating, and not only Oriental and ancient Greek, but
Western thought, from Bruno and Eckhart down, has reveled

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 541

in the monstrousness of it all. Everything must submit then
to the category of space, which takes precedence over that of
being. Nothing is real that has no position or that is confined
to an absolutely mathematical point. Thus deity, sentiments,
ideas, and force are either mere abracadabra or word-stuff, or
else they exist somewhere in this most extensive and least
intensive of objects. This, then, is the first article of a new
creed in which science and religion can now unite: I believe
in space. The most disastrous modern sin against it has been
Kant's fallacy of subjectifying it, when in fact nothing is so
indifferent to the very existence of man and his little mind as
space. If it is not real and objective in the sense above
described, nothing is or can be so. That we are in space is
perhaps the most a priori and native of all deliverances of the
soul as well as its most axiomatic. We are in space in a larger
and earlier sense than that in which space is in us. To deny
the void was an early heresy, and this proton pseudon of modern
epistemology is a decadence akin to the fatal hubris which
Greek tragedy makes the gods condemn in those who try to
think thoughts not suitable to man's estate. No proof can
strengthen a healthy mind's belief in it. For the ingenuous
student to doubt is to mortgage his life-work with a contract
he can never absolve, which will make everything else seem
a little less real. Modern efforts to analyze the space radical
are aberrations of our day which have involved great and
wasteful strain.

(2) So abstract a tabula will not stay rasa, and thought
so abhors a vacuum that it persistently gives it color, form,
conceives it as perhaps arched, laminated, granular, and so
forth. This may help the mind to welcome the conception
of ether, which etymologically suggests an all-encompassing
empyrean fire. For Hippocrates this was continuous with air,
and grew subtle and charged with immortality, as we ascend
mountains, where man is literally inspired by breathing in the
same atmosphere which the gods inhale. When imponderable
gases were discovered, thoughts of ether faded. In the
seventeenth century, however, many ethers less metaphysical
than that of Descartes were conceived for planets to swim in
as media, and as vehicles for magnetic influences or sensations,
until in the eighteenth they had been multiplied like scholastic

542 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

entities and the mind revolted against them. But Newton
needed ether to explain gravity, and Huyghens, as a light-
bearer, and modern magnetism demands it, so that nov^ it ap-
pears to have a secure place as the largest of all objects we
know, containing the whole visible universe, not perhaps infi-
nite, but the least material of all that exists, known only to
mind and not sense, far less dense than the radical solar nebula
which Lockyer makes 1/200,000,000 as tenuous as hydrogen.
Indeed so frictionless is it that it can not transform molar mo-
tion into heat or be heated itself, so that density and inertia lose
their meaning when applied to it. It is non-atomic, structure-
less, homogeneous, and so continuous that were it ever so mag-
nified it would show no pores. It dissolves and absorbs
nothing, is isotropic with no distinction of direction. It is non-
magnetic, non-luminous, non-gravitative, and non-material.
While it is so tenuous that it can not be defined, it can main-
tain immense stresses going through it in all directions
without interference. Perhaps atoms are vortexes in or other
transformations of it, and all physical and vital energy comes
from and is ultimately resolvable into it. Although without
temperature, weight, or other property, it is a reservoir of
vastly more energy than has yet appeared, so that new uni-
verses may erupt from it almost anywhere. Thus it is the
source and destiny of all things, a kind of omnipresent, super-
nal substance or natura non naturata, which, although its prop-
erties are still unharmonized, satisfies man's long quest for nou-
menal, ontologic, and purely metaphysical reality. The Vedas,
Parmenides, Hegel, Spinoza, Jonathan Edwards, would have
found here the pleroma or fulness of being which they sought.
It fits every philosophical definition of substance or ultimate
reality that is valid. Every distinction between Sein and Nicht-
sein describes its relations to infinite space. It meets all the
ontological arguments for the being of God. It makes the
soul happier and more at home because it is so much more
positive and nearer to life than vacuous space. It is a new
plenum that fills the world of thought, because the universe
seems charged to its maximal with a being compared to which
all that the senses can know is relative, defective, and unreal.
Paulsen suggests that the perhaps 22,000 million stars which
it is conjectured a forty-inch telescope can see are cells in the

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 543

brain of a divine Autos, but all that is here maintained is that
the modern concept of ether gives the mind a satisfaction that
is deep and profoundly more religious than vacuity. It is
existent to a degree that our puny theories dream not of. It
makes philosophical nihilism henceforth impossible, so that the
second article of our new creed is : I believe in being or ether.
(3) The world as the senses know it is essentially dy-
namic. All life and perhaps all forms of existence follow the
law of the conservation of energy. Dynamism largely takes
the place of materialism in modern physics and chemistry.
There is probably no dead or inert matter. Though perhaps
all the force we know was developed from ether, it appears
to be a fixed and unchanging quantity under this law, so that
now none is lost or created. It appears also that the greatest
quantum of force possible in such a world as we know exists
either latent or patent. Perhaps matter itself is an eddy hover-
ing or floating in these great tides, an accident, it may be, of
temperature. Vortexes are stored with apparently inexhausti-
ble energy. Suns and worlds, conjecturally at least, a million
times larger than our sun hurtle through space, some of them
perhaps several hundred miles per second, and when they col-
lide they are resolved into some unknown but apparently ultra-
gaseous state by the heat evolved. Planetary paths may be
the tracks of selective movements, countless impacts, accord-
ing to Pruss, having eliminated all orbits not fitted to survive.
The potencies of many and perhaps more worlds than now
exist are hovering diffused in the great sea of ether and will
shape themselves from out the void in time, for time is motion.
Practical science consists largely in diverting tiny rills of force
and making it serve man's purpose ; the rills are lamps by which
we study some of its great tides. This dynamic view of the
physical universe brings it still nearer to man. He must for-
ever interpret force in terms of will, and is even prone to postu-
late a nisus or effort behind it. Both animism and philosophy
show this inveterate instinct. Not only this, but man often
delights to consider himself as a pillar of dust thrown up by
an eddy or whirlwind of cosmic forces, and to feel that in the
end he will be resolved back into their play when the kinesis
he has diverted shall turn again to its original home, and he will
sink back like a cloud, the spindrift of a passing wave or a

544 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

bubble, into the wide sea. From such concepts, imperfectly
grasped before the day of modern science, theology formed its
ideas of omnipotence as an attribute of the divine. If the
force in the universe can be made to take any direction it can
accomplish anything that has ever entered into the mind of
man to conceive and vastly more. The world energy knows
no fatigue. Its flux makes change the law of life. It takes
all the Protean forms, man and perhaps mind being one, and
then all are changed like vestments and something we call
higher or lower takes their place. It sometimes seems too vast
to have any law at all as if our science were concerned only
with its small rivulets, or where its momentum was nearly
spent, and as if it were all a postulate or fiction for man's self-
deception; but to grasp the great thought that everything is
dynamic brings the divine to a higher potence still nearer man,
so that if we can add to our creed a third article^ — I believe in
energy — we thus in some sense humanize the world and
approach still nearer to the divine with augmented com-
placency.

(4) Experience with and reflection on the phenomena of
nature, the organization of society, and especially modern
science, have brought law into the world, so that the play of
forces is not mere cosmic weather. There is now no Miltonic
chaos, no tohu vabohu, no chance, no limbo, where anything
can happen with no sequence. The great epochs when man
discovered the rotation of the earth about the sun, and gravity,
brought the phenomena of physics and chemistry under exact
law, slowly developed all the tables of constants, detected the
evolution of worlds, chemical elements, geologic strata, the as-
cending orders of life, integration and disintegration, and was
able to control conditions with absolute certainty that results
would then follow ; these have convinced us that even where
we do not know it the universe is lawful to the very core. This
feeling Helmholtz makes the heart of even esthetic pleasure.
Science, set like a great and growing island in the middle of
a stormy, foggy sea, is the most precious achievement of the
race thus far. It has made nature speak to man with the voice
of God, has given man prevision so that he knows what to
expect in the world, has eliminated shock, and, above all, has
made the world a uni-verse coherent and consistent through-

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 545

out, not the prey of caprice and supermundane beings, and
not the victim of the conflict of good and evil powers in
the world, but a great whole with a logical character, working
in every part, could we but know it, with the exactness and
regularity of a machine. Thus, from the inadequate stand-
point of a mechanical view of the universe, man is further con-
soled, as if eternal arms were beneath him, and not merely
the unknown but the intrinsic character and nature of the
world is thus made so akin to his own reason that he can grasp
it with increasing objective truth. All sequence involves a
cause, and thus we feel still more at home in our world and
can affirm with fulness of heart almost in direct proportion to
our knowledge of science that we believe in reason, law, and
cause in the universe.

(5) The mechanical view, although, as Lotze urged,
always present, is always subordinate, at least in our present
state of knowledge. The mysterious spirit of life hovers over
it and is ever evolving a higher order of existence. Many
biologists have shown its exuberance which leaves no possi-
bility unexhausted for plants or animals. Creatures adapt
themselves with marvelous plasticity to inhospitable and
changing environments. They migrate, hibernate, haestivate.
If one per cent of one per cent of the 6,000,000 eggs of the
cod matured, in less than 100 years all the seas would be packed
like a pork-barrel with cod. Each year we are told 3,000
million million menhaden visit the coast of North America.
Averaging five estimates, each herring, of the countless shoals
that rove the sea, lays 27,800 eggs per year. A recent writer
calculates that if all the human beings in the world were fed
to all the forms of animal existence in the sea and on the land,
our race would last them but a few seconds. If the careful
balance of life with its cruel law, eat or be eaten, is disturbed,
rabbits swarm in Australia, locusts destroy the crops in vast
areas, microbes sweep away the race in pestilences. Various
writers have estimated the number of animal species in the
past and present as from 900,000 to 100,000,000. Life so
abounds that it sometimes seems to our fancy almost as if it
threatened to make the whole inanimate universe over into
vital forms of life, as Pryor conceives it was in the beginning,
and that all inanimate existence is secondary and derived from
74

54^ THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

decadent life. Not only that, but in the struggle for survival
everything seems impelled upward and onward to higher and
fuller life with which we all wish to tingle and glow. To be
sure, we can not now develop dead to living things by abio-
genesis, but the world of life seems utterly inexhaustible and
inconceivable. It is as if everything, in the terms of Schelling's
philosophy, struggles up to blossom into life.

This, then, is another of the great affirmations which make
themselves irresistibly felt in the modern soul. We hunger for
the maximum of life. We want it in all its depth and breadth,
now and forever. The thought of extinction of life is horrific.
At the very top of the organic series, the most complex of all
tissues, we have the brain, the most intricate chemically and
morphologically, with its several thousand million cells and
fibers, with its wondrous power of using up the energies that
flow to it from the blood, the mouthpiece of the absolute in the
world, through which all revelations have and must come, and
which is the apparatus through which we apprehend nature.
Thus with an ever fuller conviction the man truly instructed
in science must afiirm his faith in life abounding as a yet
higher law of the world.

(6) Nothing so reen forces optimism as evolution. It is
the best, or at any rate not the worst, that survive. Develop-
ment is upward, creative, and not de-creative. From cosmic
gas onward there is progress, advancement, and improvement.
Even the most arrant systems of pessimism place absolute pain
in atomic disintegration at the beginning and perhaps at the
end of things, and regard organization as amelioration of
agony even if it never yields a surplus of pleasure. For the
normal individual, animal or man, the very will to live and
the competitive struggle for life indicates excess of enjoyment
over pain. In his present mundane life, man rarely has
need of falling back on Stuart Mill's convention that a little
pleasure at long intervals outweighs ages of floods of pain.
Statistics show that the average length of human life is slowly
increasing. Modern hygiene makes what vital capital we in-
herit more efifective and prevents the ravages of the great joy-
killer, disease. Again, though in early infancy there are more
tears than smiles, growth itself, to say nothing of culture,
is marked by a steadily widening field of pleasure. Pain tends

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 547

toward extinction and pleasure measures the abundance of life.
Few men have suffered such fear of death as the arch-misera-
bilist, Schopenhauer, who could taste real joy only in the fleet-
ing contemplation of works of art embodying Platonic ideals.
Nature's vis medicatrix that heals wounds, expels disease,
brings the balm of comfort in sorrow, and the recurrence of
spring which awakes beauty in the world and love in the heart
of everything that lives ; all these make for optimism. Hence,
to-day more than ever, as we see in every field that retrogression
and hard times are relative and transient and that every prin-
ciple of growth is benign, the conviction is borne in upon the
soul, consciously, and perhaps more unconsciously, that there
is something like good-will or beneficence at the root of things ;
that man is a favored, protected, and chosen being, whose
supremacy in nature is not an accident ; that there is a power
that makes for his unfoldment and welfare as if it were inter-
ested in or friendly to him ; and thus he feels more at home in
the place nature has prepared for him and more disposed to
trust that all that is beyond his ken is well ; that real evil can
not befall the good men, living or dead ; and that he can afford
to be glad and euphorious that he is alive. Thus the ground
is prepared in the soul for those who desire them for the more
anthropomorphic doctrines and arguments of divine love, of
which these sentiments are the dim prelusions.

It makes little difference whether we call these formulae of
this simple grammar of assent articles of faith, a new kind of
theologia prima or first principles of science or philosophy, or
mere psycho-pedagogic Anlagen for atoning reason and relig-
ion. If they do not satisfy all the demands of all the watch-
dogs of Zion, who often demand the whole or nothing, they
are very much farther from blank negations and skepticism.
They tend to win back a world growing indifferent to it, to re-
ligion, and to give poise, peace, and sanity, and restore its lost
unity to the soul. They lessen the waste of double bookkeeping
for the Diesseits and the Jenseits that sets the body over against
the soul, tend to close the yawning chasm between them and
to cleanse its marasmic marshes of superstition rank with the
unsightly weeds of spiritism, theosophy, faith cures, telepathy,
and what Kant thought the appalling explanation of the appari-

548 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

tion and hallucination of visionaries by the speculations of
metaphysicians. This takes us at once far beyond the age of
Tyndall and Huxley on the one hand, and of religious dog-
matists on the other, makes religionists who speak of " sci-
ence falsely so called " and scientists who sneer at religion,
relicts of a vanished stage of culture, and, above all, heartens
youth, whose mental integrity has suffered most.

III. In Chapters X and XII is implied something of the
standpoint from which I would have courses m the philosophic
field enlarged and more positive teachings given. It is the
crown of a purely liberal as distinct from both special and
professional study. A living and indigenous philosophy differs
with every age and ethnic basis, but without it youth fail to
glimpse the larger logic in which all systems move. It unified
the Greek and later the Teutonic spirit. It is the best ex-
pression of the passion for the ideal. At its largest it is a
natural science of man. Our own land has not yet thus sum-
mated itself, and till it does so and depends less upon alien
systems its pedagogy of academic youth must remain incom-
plete. Russia sees the evils of a too radical unsettlement and
so forbids modem philosophy in her universities till she can
evolve one that expresses her own life and her needs in the
same spirit that many of our guild cry, back to Kant, Aquinas,
or even Plato, nature, etc., for a new start, pending a better, a
larger systematization.

(i) The work needed is an outline of each chief science
in its place in a larger system. The general principles, methods,
and results served up as in the best popular science by the best
masters come first, and not the meager matter and tedious
detail or logical first steps so entrenched in the conventional
beginnings. Every great expert should feel it his duty to put
the best that is in him in a form most interesting and profitable
to a cultured lay audience, and such matter should be the staple
of this course. From the different sciences it should be ordered
in evolutionary sequence into an unitary whole as an up-to-date
philosophy of nature. First, perhaps, should come astronomy,
now pedagogically almost dead in school and astro-physicized
in college, with its great lessons of vast times and space of
which the average student has but wretchedly dwarfed and
puerile ideas, utterly inadequate to the purposes of modern

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 549

culture, especially in the case of those who grow glibbest in the
arguments for their subjectivity. The first principles of force
and matter, some account of life and work in the great observa-
tories, the difficulties and triumphs of their devotees past and
living to date, what is lately done and now doing, the lessons
from nebulae, variable stars, the motions of systems, the birth,
growth, and death of worlds, and curious speculations, true,
and perhaps sometimes those that are false : all these can and
perhaps sometime will be easily set forth aright by the astrono-
mer himself, and his pedagogic problem now ignored should
be recognized as having a special importance and dignity of
its own. From the great celestial clockwork to the geologic
evolution of the world is the natural next step. If the college
geologist brings out the true culture value of his field, as
Le Conte could so well do, and if all had taken this course, it
could be hastened over, but if he has abdicated the high func-
tion of education and lapsed to petrographic or paleontological
specializations, the philosophic propsedeutist should find here,
too, a new duty to do his best for edification. The same is
true in meteorology, physical geography, and of studies of the
sea. Physics and even chemistry often need this supplemental
office in college. Not only is the culture value of these topics
often failed of by experts, but many graduates A/ho do not
take them are doomed to go through life in dense and utter
ignorance of what these great sciences mean in the world.
Thus for nearly twenty years I have given lectures entitled
the pedagogy of each of these sciences, which consist largely of
compendious statements from diligent and non-expert reading
of text-books and semi-popular literature, and have made of
this course, despised by some of my expert colleagues in their
fields, matter which I must believe, from the testimony of my
students, has helped to fill chasms of ignorance and open new
fields of interest, and that has made their thought both more
sure-footed and wider in range. It is a rescue work alike from
the premature distortions of specialization and wretched home-
opathy of hyper-elementarizing methods. My lectures on ether,
atoms, nebute, the sun, moon, extinct plants, animals, with
biographic and historic matter, on a few geological types, the
sea, air, etc., are, from the standpoint of science, cheap and
wretched compilations which some of my pupils would affect

550 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

to despise from a layman, and such as would cause most to
think me very superficial, if I did not either assume that they
had the knowledge and only pretended to tell them how to teach
it and to suggest its pedagogic value, or else introduced it in the
attempt to broaden the history of philosophy, so as to include
that of science. Some who take this work disparage all, as
perhaps all do some parts of it, but my sense of service and
my conscience and my conviction that it has a great and in-
evitable future survives despite all this. Should it ever merit
the more academic title of cosmology or the philosophy of
nature, or if I admitted the fact that my work in its present
form really belongs in the last year of the normal or high
school, and that I am really trying to help make up arrears
that date here, all would perhaps be better.

When we come to life the pathway is smoother and
broader. What is botany — commercial, agricultural, physio-
logical, experimental rather than merely structural — doing ; its
general problems and results and culture values? These are
problems of which every college youth should know something,
if he takes no special courses; and biology is still more im-
portant, conditioning, as it does, all views of life, health, repro-
duction and disease. In the latter the choice that must be made
between blank nescience and elaborate technic is pathetic.
Sometimes both alike end in almost equal ignorance of what
the great ideas of Darwin, Huxley, Spencer, and Weismann
and their followers are and really stand for and are inspired by,
and the incalculable culture-value of their writings is unfelt,
while anthropology, in which evolution culminates, is almost
unknown in college courses. Even if the development theory
were false, its economic value in enabling the mind to grasp
vast masses of vital facts into a unity as the simplest way of
thinking the universe, demands that it should be taught with
intensity and devotion. Cowardice, stupidity, and laziness are
the only true causes of our colossal failure to rise to this new
opportunity. The waste ineffable is most pathetic when we
realize that here is a new basis of teaching practical morality,
the highest aim of all education, and that springs of enthu-
siasm, of ethical impulsions, and of deep religious sentiments
are lost. Animals, children, savages, laboratory psychology,
defectives, psychic devolution in degeneration, and disease

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 551

mental and moral can be understood only in their develop-
mental perspective, and they, too, should be more fully sur-
veyed, but on this background.

(2) On the side of the history of philosophic thought, once
deemed a system in itself, and which some modern extremists
on the other hand would abolish, great stress should be laid,
but the topical rather than the chronological method should
be observed, and, of course, each great man, system, and
standpoint should be taught sympathetically. The story of
man's efforts to comprehend the world under categories in-
tuitive or innate or a priori ideas is perhaps the greatest ro-
mance of the human spirit. These first entered philosophy as
simple efforts at definition under the obstetric art of Socrates.
In Plato they were more developed and hypostatized in his
doctrine of ideal forms. In another way they appear in Aris-
totle's categories, half deduced and half based on an ob-
jective study of what people talked of in the market. Kant
assumed a table of them without criticism and with too little
change. The universals, exemplary forms and species of the
schoolmen, Hegel's diamond network or ganglionic thought
centers, which made the universe real because it made it ra-
tional, and even the natura ipsissima of God himself to know
which was conscious immortality: all these are only different
stages in the history of these unique products. They are no
less historically represented in the theor}^ of fixed types in na-
ture which have constituted the chief obstacle evolution has
to encounter in every field and form. This assumption of
fixed substantial norms, precious partly because products of
such severe travail of soul, by some conceived as immanent,
and by some transcendent, here in the field of nature, there of
mind, partly inherited from the Greeks, yet instinctive in
every soul, is the key of much of the thought and many of the
great controversies of the world, and properly treated is of the
highest educational value.

These ultimate fundamental concepts, or primeval posit-
ings of the soul, are great words, the history of which has
value unsurpassed in all the discipline of higher culture.
Matter is one, the history of its conception from the non-being
of Greek idealism all the way to modern materialism, as told
by Lange, now the only reality, here passive and inert, there

552 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

purely dynamic, a Democritic chaotic rain, now a few score
elements, the combination of which follows laws strangely
analogous to those of the solar system, by some even Christian
orthodoxies, from Tertullian down, constituting the essence of
souls, and by others the extreme polar opposite of everything
psychic, a shibboleth not only of philosophic creed but of vir-
tue or bestiality, illustrate the persistent and all-pervasive
power of an abstract idea. Another group of radicals, no
less mighty, are the concepts of energy and its many deriva-
tions, including force and motion, attraction and repulsion,
etc. Substance with its specifications, the thing-in-itself,
monads, reals, and the ontological group constitute another.
Cause in all its forms, material, final, personal, is another
standpoint. In biology are life, hunger, love, and even hered-
ity, sex, cell-development, and manifold other apperceptive
centers. In the psychological field are pleasure, pain, will,
feeling, instinct, conscience, duty, good, reason, the ego,
Gemiith, progress, law, truth, beauty, consciousness and
unconsciousness, faith, friendship, monism and pluralism,
quality and quantity, inherence, freedom, etc. To know and
realize what these soul-compelling concepts have been and
done in the world is the highest philosophic culture, and to see
them all completed and coordinated into an organic unity now
seems sure to be something like the final stage of philosophic
evolution, a science of human experience. Thought and dis-
cussion free language from its bondage, to serve disexiled
above and make it an instrument of the intellect. Some kind of
metaphysics is essential for both mental and moral health, and
without it thinking tends to be superficial.

There are, of course, ultra-categorical minds and books
in which philosophizing consists only in adopting one or more
root ideas, and pigeonholing in them all the facts of life and
mind that fall within a narrow ken. Such men, if they teach,
do so as if they were initiating hierophants into esoteric mys-
teries and jealously guarding metaphysical orthodoxies, and
all with an air of repressed omniscience, easily explainable by
the fact that they live on a plateau of higher certainty, that
is so narrow that they can rarely lose sight of its precipitate
edges. Easily made changes in the order, prominence, or, if
worst comes to worst, the number of these norms, meet any

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 553

exigency of controversy, for few as they are and many as
are the books, the combinations are by no means exhausted or
the vast intehectual spaces, that can be triangulated by these
definitions, yet ah explored. Whether decomposable by fur-
ther psychic analysis or not, whether they mark the point
where knowledge starts or stops, knowledge and experience
can no more become objects of science without them than can
physical nature without the concept of forces and laws ; but no
definitions of them can possibly be so exact as to sustain long
trains of arguments unswervingly, and whenever we study
their fit or consistency, rather than their validity, we interfere
with their formulation, which should be steadily progressive,
and which the history of philosophy shows has been generally,
though not always, arrested whenever they have been knit up
into concatenated systems.

Not all should be subjected to this discipline, but those who
are should have felt sympathy for, if not have been for a time
by turns, materialists, spiritualists, positivists, dogmatists,
optimists, pessimists, necessitarians, freedomists, realists and
idealists, Hellenists and Hebrewists, dualists and monists,
hedonists, intuitionalists, empiricists, dynamists, Platonists,
pantheists, Spinozists, associationists, and all the rest; should
have realized how the world looks from each of these stand-
points, and have felt their partial truth far more than their lim-
itations. Every soul contains the germ of all these, as we saw
in Chapter XIV it does those of all religions and sects, and
needs something from them all. Here breadth, toleration, hos-
pitality of mind, and not early discipleship to one system and
indoctrination with the arguments of one against all others,
should be sought. Circumnutation should again be the watch-
word. The lesson of history here, that all are right in most
that they affirm and wrong in most that they deny, should be
heeded, or else narrowness, bigotry, and stupration, and not
enlargement of soul, result. The real tragedies of this field
are not so much the loss of old beliefs as premature partizan-
ship. The history of philosophy presents an anthology of
types of mind and standpoints, to be all known and felt, so
that the individual sees his bearings in the macrobiotic world
of thought. Thus insemination, not incrustation, is the goal,
and the young man who feels an inner call to enlist in the war

554 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

of one view against the rest is precocious, for of all fields con-
scious maturity comes last in this, and slow unconscious cere-
bration, experience in life, and the gradual development of
mental character are the basis of every true and natural sys-
tem of philosophy, which is the completest of all the expres-
sions of matured personality, and to evolve a philosophy that
utters it is the supreme charm and dignity of old age.

Picard, in the Grande Salle des Fetes, in the Hotel de
Ville of Paris, well represents true philosophy or wisdom-
love, not as a conventional hoary sage, burdened with solutions,
but as a youth carrying a glowing torch of science into a dark
cave, while all the enemies of culture clutch at his feet, seek
to snatch and hurl back his torch ; sirens allure to idleness, but
he presses on, resolute to defy every danger and overcome
every difficulty, feeling that before and in him lies the hope of
the world and determined that it shall not fail. This is cor-
rect. Youth is the pioneer, often the discoverer, capable of
passionate love of truth, turns naturally to expert mastery as
the best way of forging out a new and recognized place for
himself in the intellectual world near the frontier which it is
his very nature to love. But the great systematizers in both the
fields of nature and mind whom all specialists great and small
expect and serve, in whom all the promises in the world of
thought await their fulfilment, will be ideal senescents in the
earliest stages of involution which complements the culmina-
tion of adolescence. Each is incomplete without the other, and
proper cooperation of the best type of each at their best age is
the essential problem of the true university.

H. The University. — Science, in the largest sense of that
term that includes the humanities, is the greatest achievement
of the race thus far. It includes the important facts that
are certain and exact, the verified laws, and all that has
the highest culture power for the feelings and will as well as
for the intellect. It makes the best-welded cohesions and the
most compactly woven cerebral tissue. Of this, universities,
"the noblest term in the vocabulary of our age," in what
abroad are called their philosophical, as distinct from all pro-
fessional faculties, are the peculiar organs. To them are com-
mitted the highest interests of man. They became and re-
mained the asylums of free thought and conviction when

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 555

Rome and all privileged orders declined, and their germs were
brought and piously and early planted here by our fathers.
They are the best nurseries of talent, where is kept alive the
holy fervor of investigation, that in the passion for truth is
fearless of consequences, and that has never been more truly
and loftily ideal than now, when some of the objects of study
are crassly material. It is their quality that chiefly determines
the status of the technological and of all the so-called learned
professions. It depends largely upon them whether a land is
cursed with medical quacks, pettifogging lawyers and politi-
cians, a superstitious and bigoted clergy, incompetent engineers
and architects, or whether these professions fulfil their noble
ideals. More and more the trained expert who has attained the
mastery that comes by specialized concentration speaks the de-
ciding word in every critical stage and in all departments of life.
Experience here reiterates and enforces the conclusion of the
largest of all the English Parliamentary Reports, that of all
the great popular charities university education has proven
safest, wisest, and best, and that for two chief reasons : first,
because the superior integrity and ability of the guardians who
consent to administer such funds, the intelligence and grate-
ful appreciation of those aided by them, and the general inter-
est and resulting publicity, all three combine to hold them
through the ages truest to the purpose and spirit of the founder ;
and, secondly, because by improvement here, all other good
causes are most efficiently aided.

Of all the many ways of advancing this highest grade of
education personal aid to select students is one of the most ap-
proved. The University of Leipzig has over four hundred
distinct funds for this purpose, the oldest, still carefully
guarded, dating from 1325. Oxford and Cambridge provide
for some eighteen hundred fellows and scholars and other
stipendiaries. Since the first endowment of learning in the
Athenian porch and grove, thousands of such donations have
been tangible witnesses to the sentiment that in all the world
there is no object so worthy of service as eugenic, gifted
youth, for in them is the hope of the world, and to bring them
to ever fuller maturity is the surest guarantee of progress.
For such, the idea was early developed that nothing was too
good, and so they have also enjoyed many exceptions from

556 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

taxation, military service, criminal law for minor offenses,
and also special privileges of theaters, travel, etc. To aid such
young men into the established learned callings is a very differ-
ent thing from developing non-professional specialists and in-
tending professors, and on just these our academic system has
till lately been unprecedentedly hard. Mostly from the middle
classes, their means v^ere usually exhausted before the severest
stage of apprenticeship, needful for those who would extend
the boundaries of knowledge by research and devote their lives
to the pure service of truth, was passed. Many of the choicest
of these spirits have worn out their bodies prematurely by
privation and their minds by worry and the drudgery of tutor-
ing, never so lifeless and mechanical as under our college sys-
tem. They have never even enjoyed the rights of docentship,
which permits competition for the suffrages of students' favor
with the established professors, which is such a wholesome
stimulus to both. Therefore, when the Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity focused attention on just this choicest but most neg-
lected class of adolescents in the last stages of this develop-
ment, it marked an epoch, and not only added a new and
higher story to our educational system, but gave to them at a
period of life so precious, but so easily repressed or perverted,
the possibility of a fuller intellectual maturity. This was the
beginning of true university life in this country. Laboratories
and seminaries are the workshops of the Holy Ghost for youth,
and this influence was felt and these methods copied through-
out the whole field of higher education, and will always mark
this spot and these early years as the brightest in the history of
the academic development of this country. Here the vocation
of the scholar found the leisure and seclusion amidst largest
opportunities, which it needs, and if the supremest pleasure in
life is, as Fichte said, to see the best youth unfold the highest
powers and grow by increments that can be seen each month
and almost every week, as it always does if given a fit environ-
ment, this bliss was here experienced.

But the young investigator, even in the best environment
too, no matter how great his talent, is often, in the widening
field of knowledge, as helpless as a new-born babe, and needs
at first daily guidance and help to prevent waste of effort and
discouragement. To do this involves a higher pedagogy, un-

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 557

known before, abounding in vast new problems and requiring
the whole time and energy of those devoted to them. The
new charity, which is also a science, insists that we have no
right to give doles to the poor unless personally or by agencies ;
to that end we follow each case to see that good and not harm
is caused thereby. Just so it is not enough to provide leisure
by stipends and fellowships even for the best, and this may be
even positively injurious unless we also accept the responsibil-
ity of laborious and protracted individual help. We must ex-
haust all our own resources of suggestion and references to
sources, devise new apparatus, impart all our best thoughts
with no reserves, criticize, encourage, ceaselessly confer, act-
ively forage for material to feed every new development of
interest, wisely appeal to emulation, renounce for all such stu-
dents every claim of priority, be content to see our choicest
ideas appropriated without thanks or even without conscious-
ness that they came from us, renounce all thought of self, and
be Aquarii that water and, if need be, become very dung to fer-
tilize the rich soil whence talent burgeons. Half the battle, per-
haps, is the selection of topics that will not abort, that are special
enough to bring all powers and resources to a sharp focus,
but with a broad background of wider interest to insure gen-
eral culture-effects quite apart from particulate results in a
way not always wholly directed toward original contributions
of knowledge, which the older investigator may have wholly in
view. The theme must, if possible, have a deep root of per-
sonal zest, perhaps of long but half-unconscious incubation.
The novice must keep up constant and intense mentation and
not lapse to a mere counter, tabulator, collector of slides or
quotations, nor skirt too closely every indentation of the coast-
line of fact, but launch out a little from the shore. He must
not be a famulus, to fetch and carry for his professor's larger
work, but his epistle known and read.

A real new result, achieved and published as it should be
very promptly, often marks an epoch in the life of a young
student. Success is like the first taste of blood to a young
tiger. The sense of having contributed ever so tiny a stone
to the temple of learning is the beginning of a new intellectual
life, and marks a kind of majority. It brings a sense of being
an authority and not an echo, and teaches what mental free-

55^ THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

dom really means. It harks back to the feeling of pristine
newness in the youth of the world, and makes the luxury of
merely knowing pale before the joy of doing. The thesis is a
kind of royal accolade when the Alma Mater's salute is, " Stand
erect on your feet and look about you through your own eyes
and henceforth light your own way by independent knowl-
edge." Education that does not end in some such experience
is incomplete, for it makes the master and not the servant of
knowledge, marks the advent of a new citizen in the world of
the higher culture, all the more docile in all other respects be-
cause in some ever so small matter he can teach all men and
be taught by none. This step is the close of the last stage of
psychic adolescence, and manhood is now fully achieved. The
finished Ephebos is not an alien or even a guest, but hence-
forth a member of the university invisible, not made with hands.

Thus the fellowship should not interfere with the freest
working of the law of natural selection between universities.
Each graduate student should ponder and compare with care
to find where he can really do best, and there he should be
found. The doctorate should be the highest intellectual
honor the older can confer upon the younger generation of
scholars, and the aspiration of the university should be to ad-
vance the kingdom of man. The teacher should so marshal
his pupils that he learns far more from them collectively than
he can ever hope to teach them, and so that in the group where
their knowledge is well pooled they will owe more to each
other than to his lectures or demonstrations. The spirit of
research blows where it listeth, and rules and overorganiza-
tion are fatal to it. It can never be administered or controlled
from without. Very few professors indeed can either inspire or
conduct successful research, and failures here are more or less
inevitable. Of this the brevet who conducts platoons of students
through text-books can know nothing. Pedants of method can
never know how the world looks from the frontiers of human
knowledge, and mere scholarship is selfish to the core.^

To degrade the noble word investigation, to mean doing

' AH this is fully described in my Confessions of a Psychologist, Ped. Sam.,
March, 1901, and What is Research in a University Sense and How may it Best
be Promoted? Address at the Ass'n of Am. Universities, Ped. Sem., March,
1902.

INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT AND EDUCATION 559

over what has been done a tliousand times, is really only a
wasteful new ctirriculization of second-hand knowledge, is
holding old forts and not conducting offensive and defensive
warfare in new fields. The way to treat new protocols is never
laid down in logic. The Rubicon is crossed only when a divi-
ning mind has thought the data all out, till they grow hot in
the process, and are then forged into a new unity. Many
gather at the foot of the mount, some ascend a little way, but
only a chosen few can scale the summit above the clouds and
bring down the tables of the law for those who wait below.
There is a veritable aristocracy of mind above the peddling
knowledge of the schools, which democracy can never oblit-
erate and which examination can not test. Mere knowledge is
superficial and even vulgar, and it often makes conceited and
unpractical, for great learning in little minds brings psychic
and moral wreckage, and is sometimes inversely as creative-
ness. But, the best is also the hardest to maintain. The ideal
was " the more and better books, apparatus, collections, and
teachers, and the fewer but more promising the students, the
better the work and the greater the highest service to the com-
munity." Numbers mean mechanism, dealing with masses in-
stead of individuals, and tlie withdrawal of the professor from
close personal intercourse. The college-dominated high school
will, in the end, work out its needed autonomy, but the uni-
versitized college is dragging its anchor, has lost its chart
and compass, and is at the mercy of the elements. In the mad
race for wealth and numbers, the university, the promise of
which was the dawn of the brightest hope in all the history
of our republic, is being progressively mergered as a depart-
mental annex of the great colleges, and the apex of our na-
tional system of education is still in Germany. Its primacy, the
absolute freedom of thought and investigations, which is its
life, is unrecognized and imperiled by overorganization ;
standards of quality are subordinated to those of quantity, and
the interests of the few score professors and the few hundred
picked and ripened adolescents who could and would live
solely for research and the advancement of the kingdom of
man and of truth in the world are too often lost in the grow-
ing academic crowds. Our largest institutions are already
both too populous and too rich for their highest interests, and

56o THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

have lately acquired wealth faster than they have learned how
to use it. With best advantages, the sense for individual-
ity of students, even in the bestowal of the highest degrees,
is lost, and the need of place-hunting for the learned prole-
tariat already swarming at the exits of some departments, has
had to be met by teachers' bureaus and experts for placing
their own young doctors in a market small at best, but cheap-
ened by competition of the half-competent with the best. There
are professions and lines of research that have been paralyzed
by endowments, creative talents that are sterilized by the
luxury of too much knowledge, departments that have lost
vigor and life by architectural installations and even by too
much manufactured apparatus, and that have grown con-
fused amidst a too copious literature and too insistent library-
opportunities, because resolute neglect of everything that is
only second best is the scholar's only safety. But even despite
all these disheartening tendencies, there is a precious remnant
of the elect, and we are not left entirely to the last resource
against pessimism that God and the destiny of America will
bring us through the darkest hour all right.

CHAPTER XVII

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION

I. Differences of the sexes in strength, mortality, brain, senses, agility, mental
traits, crime, disposition, variability, conservation, progressive sexual diver-
gence. II. Medical and biological views in other lands and in this country since
Dr. E. H. Clarke. III. Health and its tests — Danger of overdrawing reserves.
IV. Marriage of educated women — Latest statistics or nubility rates of male
and female colleges — Comparisons and lessons. V. Fecundity in earlier
generations in America — Sterility in this and other countries, and its causes
and stages — Best age for parenthood in mother and in father — Effects of over-
nutrition and mental strain — Statistics of children of graduates of girls' col-
leges compared with rate of reproduction of male graduates — Dangers of late
marriages and of only children — Fertility as a test of civilization — Individua-
tion versus genesis — Dominance of the instinct for marriage and motherhood
in normal women and substitutes provided for it. VI. Education — New Eng-
lish opinions — Coeducation of various degrees — Its advantages and dangers
for both boys and girls — The age of eighteen — Changes to the dollish, disap-
pointed, and devotee type — Dangers of aping man-made education and of com-
placency— Arrest in the first stages of a movement just begun — Training for
spinsterhood and self-support versus for maternity — Hints and general out-
lines of a higher education for girls based on their nature and needs and not
on convention or the demands of feminists — Branches of such a curriculum —
Methods — Hygiene.

I. The Biological and Anthropological Standpoint. — Our
modern knowledge of woman represents her as having char-
acteristic differences from man in every organ and tissue, as
conservative in body and mind, fulfilling the function of see-
ing to it that no acquired good be lost to mankind, as anabolic
rather than katabolic, or disposed to assimilate or digest on
a higher plane, as normally representing childhood and youth
in the full meridian of its glory in all her dimensions and
nature so that she is at the top of the human curve from which
the higher super-man of the future is to evolve, while man is
phylogenetically by comparison a trifle senile, if not decadent.
Her sympathetic and ganglionic system is relatively to the
cerebro-spinal more dominant. Her whole soul, conscious and
75 561

562 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

unconscious, is best conceived as a magnificent organ of hered-
ity, and to its laws all her psychic activities, if unperverted,
are true. She is by nature more typical and a better repre-
sentative of the race and less prone to specialization. Her
peculiar organs, while constituting a far larger proportion of
her body than those of man, are hidden and their psychic
reverberations are dim, less localized, more all-pervasive. She
works by intuition and feeling; fear, anger, pity, love, and
most of the emotions have a wider range and greater inten-
sity. If she abandons her natural naivete and takes up the
burden of guiding and accounting for her life by conscious-
ness, she is likely to lose more than she gains, according to the
old saw that she who deliberates is lost. Secondary, tertiary,
and quaternary sex qualities are developed far beyond her ken
or that of science, in a way that the latter is only beginning
to glimpse. While she needs tension that only the most ad-
vanced modem psychology sees to be sexual at root, we shall
never know the true key to her nature until we understand
how the nest and the cradle are larger wombs; the home, a
larger nest; the tribe, state, church, and school, larger
homes and irradiations from it. Biological psychology al-
ready dreams of a new philosophy of sex which places the
wife and mother at the heart of a new world and makes her
the object of a new religion and almost of a new worship, that
will give her reverent exemption from sex competition and
reconsecrate her to the higher responsibilities of the human
race, into the past and future of which the roots of her being
penetrate; where the blind worship of mere mental illumina-
tion has no place ; and where her real superiority to man will
have free course and be glorified and the ideals of the old
matriarchates again find embodiment in fit and due degree.
Patrick ^ has summarized the salient points of difference
between men and women as follows : The latter are shorter
and lighter save for a brief period at about thirteen, as we
have shown in Chapter I. Her adult height to that of man is
as about 16 to 17, and her weight as 9 to 10. Her form is
rounder, she has more fat, more water, less muscle ; her dyna-

^ The Psychology of Woman. Pop. Sci. Mo., June, 1895. See also Ellis ;
Man and Woman. London, p. 409.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 5^3

mometer strength foots up about two-thirds that of man ; her
trunk is relatively slightly longer; the pelvic bend makes her
a little less erect ; the head is less upright, and her gait slightly
less steady; her plantar arch is flatter; her forefinger is rela-
tively longer than the other three ; the thyroid larger ; the lung
capacity relatively less ; the blood has less red corpuscles ; her
bones a little less specific gravity ; she is more anemic, and her
pulse is faster. In the United States about 105 boys are born
to 100 girls, but through life the male death-rate is higher,
so that in nearly every land, after the first year or two, there
are more females than males. She is more liable to whooping-
cough, scarlet fever, phthisis, diphtheria, but resists diseases
best and dies less often than man at nearly every age.
Ballod ^ shows that the average increased duration of life
in the last decennium is for women and not for men, and
that large cities and factories tend to shorten average male
longevity. Hegar (Geschkchtstrieb) concludes that before
forty, married, and after forty, unmarried, women are more
liable to die, but that married outlive unmarried men. He
is more prone than she to rheumatism, cancer, brain troubles,
sudden death from internal or external causes, can less sur-
vive severe surgical operations and grows old more rapidly;
his hair is gray earlier and he is more prone to loss of sight,
hearing, memory, senile irritability, to deformities and anoma-
lies, is less hardy and less resembles children. Woman's skull
is smaller, especially at the base, but large in circumference at
the crown, which is flatter and more angular ; her forehead is
more vertical ; the glabella and superorbital ridges are less, as
are the occipital and mastoid prominences and the parietal
prominence; her face is smaller and a little lower, and she is
slightly more prognathic. Her absolute brain weight to that
of man is about as 9 to 10, but her smaller size makes her
brain about equal, if not heavier, in weight. The lower cen-
ters are larger in women, and in nearly all these respects
women differ less among themselves than do men. Martin
and Clouston found the female brain slightly better irrigated
by blood, especially in the occipital regions, although the num-
ber of its corpuscles as compared to those of man was as 9

^ Die mittlere Lebensdaur in Stadt u. Land. Leipzig, 1897.

564 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

to 10. The anterior regions of the brain were best supplied
in man. The specific gravity of the gray matter of all parts
of the brain was less in women, but in the white matter there
was no difference. The female brain has more bilateral sym-
metry, i. e., its right and left hemispheres are more alike. In
all save the occipital regions the male has more secondary gyri
and probably the convolutions are deeper. In most forms of
lunacy the male brain is most wasted at death^ and four men
to one woman die of general paralysis between thirty and fifty.
Women are more often insane, but men most often die of in-
sanity, while women who die in lunatic asylums more often
die of body diseases. Mental stimulus, according to Warner,
more readily lowers their general nutrition. Mobius,^ on the
other hand, who sees danger in the emancipation movement
of the feminists, thinks that the fact that they have accom-
plished so little in the world of art and science is not due to
subjection but to inferiority. He lays stress on Rudinger's re-
sults, viz., that in infants the convolutions about the Sylvian
fissures are simpler, with fewer bends, that the island of Keil is
smaller, less convex, and simpler, as is the third frontal gyrus,
and the whole parietal lobe is inferior in females at all ages
to that of men, these being the portions most closely connect-
ed with mentation. The sexes have the same convolutions,
but of different sizes, and the same powers, but in differing
degrees.

Women seem slightly more obtuse in sight, touch, and
hearing, and less sensitive to pain. Concerning taste discrim-
inations, investigators differ. Ellis and Galton conclude that
she has less sensibility but more affectibility and nervous irrita-
bility. Only about four-tenths of one per cent of women are
color blind as against three and a half per cent of men. In
visual discriminations in the indirect field of vision, she excels,
indicating that the retinal function is less focused in the fovea.
With her eyes fixed straight ahead on the streets she observes
persons and things farther right and left than man can do.
Bryan found that in rapid movements, she excelled from five
to sixteen, except at about thirteen, while in precision boys
slightly excel. Gilbert concludes that boys tap fastest at every

' Ueber den physiolog. Schwachsinn des Weibes. Fifth ed. Halle, 1903.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 5^5

age, and that reaction time is less at all ages for boys. Ellis
concludes that in dexterity, as shown in cotton spinning,
woolen weaving, cigar and cigarette making, and other fine
work, man excels where opportunity and numbers are equal.
In quick reading, where the sense of a paragraph is to be
grasped in minimal time and with equal knowledge of the
subject, woman excels in quick apprehension of wholes.
Women go in flocks, and in social matters are less prone to
stand out with salient individuality. They are more emo-
tional, altruistic, intuitive, less judicial, and less able to
make disinterested and impersonal judgment. Girls are most
likely to know their environment, while the boys oftenest show
surprising gaps in knowledge of what is right about them and
unexpected acquaintance with something afar, special or un-
usual.

Miss Thompson ^ found from laboratory tests that men ex-
cel women in strength, rapidity, and in rate of fatigue, and
slightly in accuracy, but the latter are superior in new motor
combinations; that men have the lower sensory threshold for
light, and women for distinguishing two points on the skin,
in sweet, salt, sour, and bitter taste, in smell, color, and pain
by pressure, and in discriminative pitch and color. Men excel
in distinguishing lifted weights, sweet, sour, and bitter.
Women excel in memory. This writer becomes feministic in
crediting abstract deductions and taking Lourbet's jesting re-
mark that the smaller and more agile male cell might better
represent the female and the larger ovum the male, seriously,
and defies Weismannism by ascribing sexual differences of
type of mental action to the differences of the influences that
surround the sexes in early years.

Her thought is more concrete and individual and she is
more prone to associations in space, and man in time. Men
are more prone to bring things under general rules and with
regard to symmetry. Her logical thought is slower, but her
associations quicker than those of man, she is less troubled
by inconsistencies, and has less patience with the analysis in-
volved in science and invention.

Of 483,517 patents recorded in Washington up to October,

' The Mental Traits of Sex. Chicago Univ. Press, 1903.

566 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

1892, 3,458 were by women. In education men have made
most of the reforms, while recent developments show that
they can excel even in dressmaking and cooking. Woman
has rapid tact in extricating herself from difficulties; girls
speak quicker than boys ; old women are likely to be talkative,
old men glum; men progress most after graduation; women
are very prone to lose accomplishments and special culture and
training, are more punctual in school and college, more reg-
ular in attendance, and in higher grades have the best marks,
but vary less from the average; they excel in mental repro-
duction rather than in production ; are superior in arts of con-
versation, more conservative and less radical; their vaso-
motor system is more excitable; they are more emotional,
blush and cry easier; are more often hypnotized; quicker to
take suggestions; have most sympathy, pity, charity, gener-
osity, and superstitions. Male crime to female is as 6 to i,
woman exceeding only in poisoning, domestic theft, and in-
fanticide. She is about as superior to man in altruism as she
is behind him in truth-telling, being more prone to ruse and
deception. She is more credulous and less skeptical, more
prone to fear and timidity, and has greater fidelity, depend-
ence, reverence, and devotion. She dresses for adornment
rather than use. In savage and civilized life, her body is more
often mutilated and she is more primitive. Her hair is long ;
she is more prone to wear ornaments which show wealth
rather than to dress solely for protection or concealment; is
still fond of feathers, skin, and fur, flowing garments, and
partial exposure of person, so that she betrays rank and wealth
more often than men. She still pinches her waist and feet;
uses pins, powders, and perfumes, neck ornaments, beads,
overshoes, and sometimes shoes that are not rights and lefts;
is more subject to fashion; her work is far less specialized
than that of man and less reduced to mechanism or machinery.
Man is best adapted to the present; woman is more rooted
in the past and the future, closer to the race and a more ge-
neric past. Thus again, in very many of the above traits,
woman is far nearer childhood than man, and therefore in
mind and body more prophetic of the future as well as remi-
niscent of the past.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 5^7

Professor Pearson^ condemns as a superstition the current idea
of the greater variability of man than of woman. He first eliminates
everything characteristic of sex and all that is pathological, and
focuses on size alone. Even color blindness, which is characteristic
of sex, he sets aside. By so doing and measuring the limited number
of persons, he finds slightly more variation in females than in males
and so excoriates the common belief that the reverse is true. That
his method is profoundly mistaken, if it does not indeed prove the
contrary, will, I think, be plain to all biologists. Some have thought
that every variation from the parental type was slightly abnormal.
Certainly, normal and pathological shade into each other by imper-
ceptible degrees, and Professor Pearson merely eliminates those classes
of facts on which the whole question rests. As Ellis ' well says, the
real question of organic variational tendencies is untouched. If in
size woman is more variable, it may be due to her less severe struggle
for existence, or to the fact that male children being larger make
greater demands on the mother and, therefore, have harder conditions
to surmount. The biometric method, which Pearson so ably repre-
sents, miscarries here because the preliminary basis in the selection
of facts is fundamentally wrong.

W. K. Brooks,^ approaching the subject from the stand-
point of biology, characterized the female body, instincts, and
habits as conservative, devoted to keeping what has been ac-
quired by successive generations as new^ layers of snow are
added to glaciers. Thus woman is best in acting and judging
in ordinary matters; man in those that are extraordinary.
The male is the agent of variation and progress, and transmits
variations best, so that perhaps the male cell and sex itself
originated in order to produce variation. Influence is more
potent than argument with women. An ideal or typical male
is hard to define, but there is a standard ideal woman. Be-
cause her mind is, more than that of man, essentially an organ
of heredity, we find that, although she may sometimes seem
volatile and desultory, the fact that her processes seem to be
unconscious emancipates her from nature less than is the case
with man. Her thought is a mode of thinking. Brooks pre-
sents the following suggestive scheme :

^ The Chances of Death.

'Variation in Man and Woman. Pop. Sci. Mo., January, 1903.
' The Condition of Woman from a Zoological Point of View. Two articles,
Pop. Sci. Mo., June, 1879.

568

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

The power of

to foresee the conduct
of or to influence

is greater than
the power of

to foresee the conduct
of or to influence

Women
<<

Women
Men

Men

Men
Women
Men
Women

Hyatt ^ says that " men and women, like the males and
females of most animals, show by their organization that they
have been evolved from a type in which both sexes have been
combined in the same individual. The separation of the sexes
did not destroy this dual nature, as is demonstrated by the
development of secondary male characters in the old age of
many species of animals, and of women in extreme age, and
of feminine characters in aged men. This opinion can also
be supported by the structure of the tissue cells in the body,
the nuclei of which are made up of paternal and maternal
parts. This dual structure enables us to understand the fact
that secondary sexual characters are latent in both males and
females." He also urges that " in the early history of man-
kind the women and men led lives more nearly alike and were
consequently more alike physically and mentally than they
have become subsequently in the lives of highly civilized peo-
ples. This divergence of the sexes is a marked characteristic
of progression among highly civilized races. Coeducation of
the sexes, occupations of a certain kind, and woman's suffrage
may have a tendency to approximate the ideals, the lives, and
the habits of women to those of men in these same highly
civilized races. Such approximation in the future, while per-
fectly natural and not in the common sense degenerate, would
not belong to the progressive evolution of mankind." They
would be convergences, and although they might bring intel-
lectual advance would tend to virify women and feminize men,
and would be retrogressive. We find gerontic changes even
in the younger stages of adults, when the phylum is declining,
or in its epacme. Perhaps, he thinks, a type like an individual
has only a limited store of vitality and a cycle, so that we can

^ The Influences of Woman in the Evolution of the Human Race. Natural
Science, August, 1897, p. 89.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 5^9

speak of phylogerontic stages. If man is approaching this
stage, it is especially important that every degenerative influ-
ence be avoided, because our organisms may be such that we
can not rely upon continuous or certain progress, one neces-
sity of which is that the sexes be not approximated, for this
would inaugurate retrogressive evolution.

II. The Medical Standpoint. — Even the demands of the
new-school hygiene now represented by so many experts, new
journals, conferences, etc., have revealed nO' point of such
wide divergence between doctors and current methods and
ideals as in the education of adolescent girls. We have no
space for even the outline of or history of this holy war, one
of the most important of many that physiology and biology
have had to wage with ignorance and well-entrenched custom,
but must be content with sampling a few of the most repre-
sentative medical opinions in chronological order since this
issue was so fairly and opportunely raised. What follows in
this section is immediately connected with Chapter VII.

Dr. Storer,^ one of the first and most sagacious American
writers in this field, urged that girls should be educated far
more in body and less in mind, and thought delicate girls fre-
quently ruined in both body and mind by school. He was
not only one of the first to urge that surgery should be per-
formed at the uterine ebb which afifected the system even dur-
ing pregnancy, but to hold that education should be regulated
throughout with reference to monthly changes. An epoch,
however, was marked by Dr. Clarke's ^ book in 1873, and the
reply to it by Miss Brackett ^ and twelve other ladies eminent
in the movement for the higher education of girls. The for-
mer was a not very scholarly, but a simple and sensible, plea by
a practitioner of experience that woman's periods must be
more respected. It appeared at the height of the movement
to secure collegiate opportunities for girls, was suspected of
being unofficially inspired by the unwillingness of Harvard
College to receive them, and reached a seventeenth edition

1 Female Hygiene, by H. R. Storer, M.D. California State Board of Health,
1871, and in many other publications.

* Sex in Education, or a Fair Chance for the Girls, by Edward H. Clarke, M.D.
Boston, 1873.

'The Education of American Girls. New York, 1874.

57° THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

in a few years. The women who replied took very diverse
views. To one it was an intrusion into the sacred domain
of womanly privacy. To another it seemed insolent and
coarse, an affront to the sex. To another it was only a sneer,
not doing as men would be done by, for the vices of men were
worse, twitting them of their sex, throwing sex in their teeth ;
" these things must not be thought of in this wise." One
writer deplored that women had not said this for and of them-
selves, and advised that they study physiology, etc. On the
whole. Dr. Clarke raised the most important issue in the his-
tory of female education, and his book is still a shibboleth of
a woman's attitude on most questions pertaining to her sex
and its so-called sphere. The misery of being a girl, said
Byford,^ consists in feeling at this age that she is prone to
pain, depression of spirits, bears a badge of inferiority which
must be endured, must wear corsets, pads, and long clothes
that impede her movements and that must never be soiled or
rumpled by free activity to which she was accustomed as a
girl. Her studies are laid on her sensitive consciousness and
her pride and self-respect prompt her to overwork. Girls'
schools are governed too much, for girls need now not less
but far more freedom than boys. Some parts of the body
are clothed too thickly, and some too little for health. No-
where in the world do men work so hard or girls and women
do so little useful work or render so little real service to the
community as in this country. Young men are often fastid-
ious and unpractical, and are attracted by accomplishments
that fall off and are lost soon after marriage, while they do not
know how to seek or recognize what is useful, and thus defer
matrimony as a too expensive luxury. In this self-imposed
celibacy they become dangerous to the virtue of the debili-
tated if not degenerate girls in the community.

Dr. Beard ^ says, after sending many circulars and study-
ing the returns they brought : " Nearly everything about the
conduct of the schools was wrong, unphysiological and un-
psychological, and they were conducted so as to make very
sad and sorrowing the lives of those who were forced to attend

' The Second Decade of Life. Cincinnati Lancet and Observer, 1877, p. 342.
'American Nervousness : Its Causes and Consequences. New York, 1881.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 571

them. It was clear that the teachers and managers of these
schools knew nothing of and cared nothing for those matters
relating to education that are of the highest importance, and
that the routine of the schools was such as would have been
devised by some evil deity who wished to take vengeance on
the race and the nation. . , . Everything pushed in an unsci-
entific and distressing manner, nature violated at every step,
endless reciting and lecturing and striving to be first — such
are the female schools of America at this hour. The first
signs of ascension or of declension in nations are seen in
women. As the foliage of delicate plants first shows the
early warmth of spring, and the earliest frosts of autumn,
so the impressible, susceptive organization of woman appre-
ciates and exhibits far sooner than that of man the manifesta-
tion of national progress or decay." Nathan Allen ^ urged
that while in men everything depended upon bodily vigor, this
was even more important for girls, for in them we were edu-
cating the race. The best balance for weak nerves or other
organs was well-developed muscles, and in this at proper
periods he saw the way of safety for the well and of salvation
for the sickly. Stated and out-of-door and not excessive phys-
ical culture he thought had a normative influence upon the
monthly function, and he, too, held to periodic remission of
work for mind, heart, and muscles.

The current prejudices that menstruation is a disagree-
able function or a badge of inferiority, Dr. Galippe ^ thinks
arose from educational establishments for girls. The senti-
ment, which prevails in these schools, is that it is somewhat
shameful and at least not worthy of serious and respectful
consideration by well-bred minds. Instead of indicating her
state to some person selected for that purpose and receiving
from her the delicate, hygienic instruction and consideration
needed, the pubescent girl conceals it and is left to herself,
and metrorrhagia or anemia and often local states result which
are simply pathetic. Girls do not complain of easily remov-
able suffering, thinking often that pain is inseparable from

* The Education of Girls as Connected with their Growth and Physical Develop-
ment. Sanitarian, 1879.

2 De la Menstruation dans les Etablissements Consacr^s a I'Education des Jeunes
Filles. Rev. de Hygiene et de Police Sanitarie, 1880, ii, p. 605 et seq.

572 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

this function, and take part in all the exercises of the school,
both physical and mental, when they have crying need of all
the highest functions of true motherhood to teach them the
effects of fatigue and excitement, the need of rest, and proper
regimen and toilet. It is vain to assume that because savages
or peasants can live in a state of nature, that well-born girls
at school can be thus abandoned. Civilization in some respects
is an artificial state and needs new habits and functions be-
cause it involves greater susceptibility.

Dr. F. C. Taylor ^ presents some pertinent considerations
as follows : Civilization is hard on woman, and constantly
stimulates her beyond her strength, nres her with ambitions
she can not realize, and robs her of the tranquillity she needs.
Imperfect sexual hygiene is a prolific source of evil to the
individual woman and to the race. If the latter deteriorates
it will be through the degeneration of woman. In her, sex
and its wider irradiations overshadow all else during her
ripening period, is an ever-present influence controlling mind
and body, and in old age is the glory of the declining day of
life. If the sexual life is lowered or suppressed, a tonic
needed for vigor in all directions is lost. Owing in part to
the fact that her organs are internal and therefore less or
later known, they are less often consciously connected with
impressions that are indirectly if not directly sexual, and there
is greater convertibility of emotions. Women can remain in
what is really a suppressed semi-erotic state with never-cul-
minating feeling, so scattered in their interests and enthu-
siasms that they can not fix their affections permanently.
Particularly repressed molimina may become vicarious and
issue in estheticism and all kinds of noble or ignoble interests.
Women are sometimes led astray when their feelings are made
especially delicate by bereavement, and on the other hand, ex-
cessive erotic sensations sometimes cause loss of power in the
limbs. Unmarried women are, and ought to be, great walk-
ers, but wives and mothers expend the same energy normally
in other ways. Where the normal exercise of functions is
unduly restrained, it finds, therefore, many other outlets. Dr.

» Effects in Woman of Imperfect Hygiene of Sex Functions. Am. Jour, of
Obstet., 1882, p. 161.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 573

Taylor thinks, however, that the difference between boys and
girls in learning self-abuse on account of the more obvious
anatomy of the former is overestimated, and that the latter,
more commonly than is thought, not only find their organs
and use them improperly, but are more difficult to cure of
this vice.

Clouston, in various articles and books, has expressed him-""
self in very trenchant terms. Each generation, he premises,
can use up more than its share of energy, and women have a
peculiar power of taking out of themselves more than they
can bear. All should carry a reserve to meet emergencies and
not use up all their power, and thus rob future generations.^^
His conception is also that human life is divided into stages,
each of which must be lived out in such a way as not to draw
upon the later stages. We should ask what nature aims at
in each period and surround each by its own ideal conditions,
and see to it that in no stage we strive for what belongs to
another later one. Again, any organ like the brain or repro-
ductive parts, if overworked, may draw upon the vigor of
others. Each individual stage and organ has just so much
energy. We should strive sedulously tO' keep the mental back
in all and especially in females, and not " spoil a good mother
to make a grammarian." In the United States, Clouston
thinks that most families have more or less nervous taint or
disease ; that heredity is weak because woman has lost her
cue, although nature is benign and always tends to a cure if
we have not gone too far astray. Adolescence is more im-
portant for girls than for boys. Science and learning are
happily less likely to take a dominating hold of woman's
nature, because they are not along the lines on which it was
built. Clouston is fond of reminding us that none of Shake-
speare's women were learned, that even Portia describes her-
self as " an unlettered girl, unschooled, unpractised." Most
great men's mothers were women of strong mind, but not
highly educated. Would their sons have been better, he asks,
had the mothers been schooled ? Would they have been really
better companions for men, and is learning bought at the

' Female Education from a Medical Point of View, by T. S. Clouston, M.D.
Pop. Sci. Mo., 1884, two articles, pp. 214, 319.

574 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

expense of any degree of cheerfulness, which is the best sign
of health, not too costly? "There is no time or place of
organic repentance provided by nature for sins of the school-
master." A man can work if he is one-sided or defective, but
not so a woman. " If she is not more or less finished and
happy at twenty-five, she will never be." Parents want chil-
dren to work in order to tone down their animal spirits, and
it almost seems to Clouston as if the devil invented the school
for spite. He quotes approvingly Oliver Wendell Holmes,
who refers to the " American female constitution which col-
lapses just in the middle third of life and comes out vulcanized
India-rubber, if it happens to live through the period when
health and strength are most wanted," and thinks girls' brains
should be put to grass for a few generations. Fun is to the
mind what fat is to the body. A large part of study should
be what to omit and skip and not to know. Possibly we may
be developing an unique kind of girl, a different species. A
true fully developed woman is very hard to mature, but when
ripe can stand very much.

Thorburn ^ fears disproportion between the development
of muscle and of nerve in w^omen. Girls should do hardly any
steady work for one year before and two after puberty. They
can not work without peril for about one-fourth of the time,
and should adjust themselves to this law of their nature and
plan to lie fallow about a quarter of the time. Teachers and
others should not wait to be asked before excusing them from
their task, but should command it without request. Girls
should cultivate the festina lente of poise and develop the dig-
nity and the efficiency of going slow, but this should be in no
wise construed as inimical to their education. This problem
we shall not have solved until there is no more danger of
college unfitting women to be wives than of its unfitting men
to be husbands.

Most frequent among all the menstrual disorders of schoolgirls,
Dr. Wilson '^ thinks, is dysmenorrhea. Next comes suppression, while

> Female Education from a Medical Point of View, by John Thorburn, M. D.
Manchester, 1884.

2 Menstrual Disorders in Schoolgirls. The Texas Sanitarium, June, 1885.
J. T. "Wilson, M. D. See also subsequent discussion.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 575

menorrhagia is rare at this age. He urges more attention to physical
development before puberty. Constipation, headache, sallowness, acne,
leucorrhea, insomnia, perversity of appetite, dyspepsia, overtension of
nerves, tea-ism, coffee-ism, cold feet, emotional strain, he finds amaz-
ingly prevalent in the schools. American girls come to this crisis
without having known much control or restraint, and with their habits
and actions almost entirely unsystematized. They appear rosy and
healthy because energies, that should go to perfecting other parts and
functions, have been diverted to cerebration. Influences from those
about her tend to make her give up free and girlish sports and romp-
ing, and to feel herself a woman too suddenly. Her dress interferes
with portal circulation, digestion, respiration, and favors displace-
ment at a time when her entire system is most susceptible to disturb-
ances, which it did not heed before. She is thrown on her own re-
sponsibility, is often among strangers, her emotional nature is excited
by music and art. From childhood, she is petted, pampered, and
spoiled, thought cute and cunning, can not submit to restraint, and often
has a small body of misinformation about herself, which is far worse
than ignorance. She is made egotistic and superficial, is distracted by
the beginnings of many sorts of knowledge. She lays the foundation
of invalidism at a time when she should become a mother, has a horror
of maternity, partly instinctive and partly induced, hankers for pastry,
sweets, and hot bread that insult and vex the stomach, and dreads
the recurrence of periods which bring irritation and depression. She
does not turn to her mother for care or advice, for unconscious in-
stinct teaches her that there is no help from that source. Probably
most American girls now have, Wilson thinks, more or less hereditary
tendencies towards functional disorders, so that to inaugurate a proper
hygiene that should lead to healthy and vigorous womanhood in most
cases needs nothing less than medical supervision ; while gynecologists
agree in recognizing a steady increase of female troubles, as well as
the increased use of drugs or patent nostrums, their own endeavors
tend less to specific and more to general regimen.

The views of Dr. S. Weir Mitchell ^ are well known and
have been often expressed. Woman, he holds, is physiolog-
ically other than man and no education can change her. No
one knows woman who does not know sick woman. She takes
to being a patient naturally and comfortably, although if long
ill she warps morally. Her doctor must often read the riot
act to a mob of emotions ; must look beyond drugs, for she is
prone to think three pills a day easier than diet or regimen.
He must listen and sympathize with her ills and with the joy

^ See e. g. his Doctor and Patient. Philadelphia, i8S8, passim, and many other
of his writings.

S76 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

of convalescence in order to be of real use to her. He must
recognize how prone nervous and feeble women are to crave
pity and love power ; how prone, like all who have not learned
the great lesson of bearing pain, they are to some narcotic
habit. Out-of-door life, the camp cure, sewing for its moral
value, and all that pertains to regimen and psychic influence
must be at her doctor's command.

Grant Allen ^ insists that there ought to be a woman ques-
tion and movement, but it must accept the fact that most adult
women will be wives and mothers. In any ideal community
the greatest possible number of women must be devoted to
maternity and marriage, and support by men must be assumed
and not female celibacy. The accidental and exceptional must
not be the rule or the goal. This is only a pis aller. It is not
so much the unmarried minority that need attention as the
mothers. We must not abet woman as a sex in rebelling against
maternity, quarreling with the moon, or sacrifice wifehood to
maidenhood. The whole question of sex must be reconsid-
ered. This woman will never do, nor will she go as far as
men in emancipating herself. He even goes so far as to sug-
gest that, wives or not, we must have mothers. Men must
be made more virile, women more feminine, and sex dis-
tinctions must be pushed to the uttermost. Woman must not
be allowed to cramp her intellect or her waist. What seem
to men feminine idiosyncrasies must be unfolded. She must
be set free from her craven fear of the Grundian goddess.
Her sexuality is in danger of enfeeblement. She eschews
marriage often from the want of a normal physical impulse.
Instead of the ideal of becoming a self-supporting spinster,
she ought to be married at twenty-five and plan to be. It is
a shame to any normal woman not to long to be a wife and
mother, and not to glory in her femininity, or to prate of those
who insist on the laws of nature " as traitors to their sex,"
and " casting sex in their teeth." Allen estimates that about
six children per marriage are necessary to keep up the popu-
lation, as more than one-half die before maturity. If the best
abstain from child-bearing, then the population is kept up by
the lowest. Savages make but little provision for their

^ Plain Words about the Woman Question. Pop. Sci. Mo., December, 1889.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 577

women, so that analogy would lead us to suppose with Comte
that in the highest state women will care only for children,
and men do all the work.

Le Bon ^ pleaded that the education we now give to girls
consists of instruction that fits brains otherwise constructed,
perverts womanly instincts, falsifies the spirit and judgment,
enfeebles the constitution, confuses their moods concern-
ing their duties and their happiness, and generally disequili-
brates them. It charges the brain with too much information
that is useless, fails to give what can be applied, and fits
them neither for domesticity nor for gaining their livelihood.
It makes them misconceive their role in society and in the
family, and often jealous of man and at heart inimical to the
social order, and threatens future degeneration of the race.

In a suggestive series of ten articles. Dr. James Crichton
Browne ^ defies Weismannism if it mitigates the woe that
impends to a land if mothers decay. Girls, he says, suffer far
more change and instability at the onset of puberty than boys,
and he deprecates sowing the tares of ambition for careers in
girls. He finds headaches far too common among young girls
from ten to seventeen; advocates the abolition of evening
study; finds danger that the ovum and sperm cell may have
their activity so reduced before meeting- that the infant comes
to life old and without a fair chance. Despite the average
increase of life for men, and still more for women, during the
last forty years, he finds that beyond middle life there is little
reduction of death-rate and that wear-and-tear diseases are
increased; that even cancer is perhaps coming to have a
nervous element; that neurasthenia and functional nerve
troubles are augmenting ; he thinks all " voluminous states " of
nerves or souls are harbingers of epilepsy and especially de-
plores the propensity to take short-sighted views seeking im-
mediate causes ("the lobster salad did it") for the outcrops
of troubles of long and perhaps of ancestral incubation.

He ^ also holds that differences between sexes are involved
in every organ and tissue, and deprecates the present relentless

1 Revue Scientifique, 1890, p. 460.
^Brit. Med. Jour., vol. i, 1892.

^ Sex in Education, by Sir James Crichton Browne, M. D. Educational Re-
view, 1892, p. 164.
76

57^ THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

zeal of intersexual competition, concerning the results of
which it is appalling to speculate from a medical point of
view. When the University of St. Andrews opened its theo-
logical department to woman, it was not a retrograde move-
ment, because our ancestors did no such thing, but a down-
hill step fraught with confusion and disaster. He quotes with
approval Huxley's phrase that " what has been decided among
prehistoric protozoa can not be annulled by an act of Parlia-
ment." This is a condition that no senatiis academicum can
obliterate by pen strokes. In unicellular organisms the con-
jugating cells are alike, but forms become more and more
dimorphic. As we go higher sexes diverge not only in pri-
mary and secondary sex characteristics, but in functions not
associated with sex. Reciprocal dependence increases as does
harmony, and each is in some respects higher and each lower.
In union they are strong; in competition mutually destructive.
Warner, he thinks, is right in saying that " mental stimulus
applied to children lowers their general nutrition." Gastric
troubles and anorexia scholastica increase, and all the abdomi-
nal viscera become more or less exhausted until often apathy
passes into mild coma, " the cyclone of mania, the anti-cyclone
of melancholia, the hurricane of morbid impulse, or the settled
bad weather of moral perversion." Work is man's greatest
enemy when he is worn out or fatigued. On this point he
believes there is a growing consensus of opinion, although
admitting that direct and trusty evidence is hard to obtain.
Valuable, too, is the observation ^ that women are prone
from their physical constitution and their lives to desire what
they have not, and for that reason alone they particularly need
absorbing occupations, and are spoiled by idleness and vacuity
of mind, which makes them either lazy, phlegmatic, and un-
ambitious, or else restless. Their education should not aim
to cultivate the thinking powers alone or chiefly. Woman's
work is all-round work, but friendship between men and
women is a great power, and intellectual oneness increases
all the fruitions of married life. Men are at fault because
they do not realize this possibility and are prone to be less

'The W'aste of Woman's Intellectual Force, by M. G. Van Rensselaer, M.D.
Forum, 1892, p. 616.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 579

interested in the minds than in the bodies of women. Love
should be less haphazard and less purely sentimental, and
happy marriages should be bulwarked by mental affinity, but
this does not mean the higher education as now administered
for women. Women are weaker in body and mind than men,
but they can achieve great things even intellectually, and
might take courage from examples like that of Darwin, who
did much of his best work in years of such weakness that
he could apply himself for only an hour or two a day. Some
men, however, will perhaps always respond to the charm of
weakness and even ignorance in women.

Edson ^ avers that if our race is to go on and up, no
matter what our ideals, the animal basis must be kept pure and
wholesome. From iSSq-'qo the birth-rate in the United
States decreased from 36 per thousand inhabitants to 30, and
Billings thinks the chief factor in this decline is the voluntary
avoidance of child-bearing. From 1875-85 in Massachu-
setts this decline was from 20.6 to 18.47. ^^ ^he United
States as a whole from 1860-90 the birth-rate declined from
25.61 to 19.22. Many women are so exhausted before mar-
riage that after bearing one or two children they become
wrecks, and while there is perhaps a growing dread of partu-
rition or of the bother of children, many of the best women
feel that they have not stamina enough and are embarrassed
to know what to do with their leisure. Perhaps there will
have to be a " new rape of the Sabines," and if women do not
improve, men will have recourse to emigrant wives, or healthy
girls with stamina will have an advantage equal to that of
pretty girls now.

Jankau^ thinks that great suffering and even unhappy
marriages are due to lack of knowledge of puberty and sex by
teachers and youth, the essentials of which he seeks to supply
in an illustrated 68-page book, which he would have the
mother and not the father give to pubescent boys. In no way
can she secure greater and more lasting gratitude than by very
frankly stating normal facts and fully warning of dangers.

1 American Life and Physical Deterioration, by Cyrus Edson, M. D. North
Am. Rev., October, 1893.

* Anatomic, Physiologic und Hygiene des Geschlechtsreifen Sohnes. Miinchen,
1894.

580 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Every youth, he asserts, indulges at least once in self-abuse,
and it depends on his heredity, character, training, and instruc-
tion whether or not it becomes a confirmed habit. The symp-
toms and progress of gonorrhea, syphilis, chancre and its
three stages, modes of treatment and even of preventive
methods to be employed in intercourse are described; but in
every case and stage the young sufferer must turn to his
mother, if he has one, and then without delay to the physician,
and must not be despised but treated with sympathy and pity.
The more the father has himself sinned and suffered, the more
severe and the less compassionate a counselor will he be.

Prof. E. Hegar ^ advises definite instruction in sexual hy-
giene for the pupils of the middle schools, based on demon-
stration on the cadaver ; this he thinks would solemnize all the
teaching in both anatomy and physiology necessary for the
proper regimen, and check morbid direction of curiosity. Dr.
W. Stekel, of Vienna, would have children watched by day,
and especially by night, for a few years, and thinks that the
sexes should never be taught in the same classes. This, too,
Hegar seems to approve.

To prevent the seeds of mischief in girls at this most pe-
culiarly sensitive age. Dr. Playfair ^ says, in substance, we
must constantly bear in mind the highly emotional and sensitive
nervous organization which distinguishes woman from man and
affects the nature and progress of every disease to which she is
subject, and especially those of the reproductive functions.
Regimen during the settled establishment of the great func-
tion of menstruation determines whether she shall have stam-
ina and powers of resistance, or perhaps, with the appearance
of health, collapse to invalidism at every strain. The prime
and alarming fault of the heads of high schools and colleges
for girls is that they, consciously or unconsciously, assume
the absolutely untenable theory that the sexual question is of
secondary importance, and that there is little real distinction
between girls and boys from fourteen to twenty. The dis-
tinction caused by the menstrual functions, says Dr. Playfair,

' Der Geschlechtstrieb : Eine socialmed. Studie, 1895.

^ Remarks on the Education and Training of Girls of the Easy Classes at about
the Period of Puberty. Brit. Med. Journal, vol. ii, 1895, p. 1405 ei sej.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION S^i

is absolute and should be systematically attended to, while in
fact the feeling of school-mistresses is directly antagonistic to
every such admission. Their point of view is that there is no
real difference ; that what is good for one sex is good for the
other; or if there is a difference, it is a relict of an evil past
where woman has been cruelly denied many advantages open
to man, and that identity of opportunity and occupation will
open a new and happy era, when such differences as remain
will vanish. Why is it then that the most characteristic dis-
eases of girls, anemia and chlorosis, associated with menstrual
disturbances, are almost never seen in boys? Physical exer-
cise out of doors should be required, for girls are often list-
less ; muscular activity is the best antidote to^ the sentimental-
ism and morbid fancies so liable after puberty. For all school-
girls, every form of corset should be absolutely forbidden.
The first danger signals should be carefully watched for, and
when they appear everything should give way till perfect
health is restored. The recent expression of a female prin-
cipal that if the function was in abeyance for a time in the
teens, it was of no great consequence, for she had noticed
that it came around all right afterward when the girls left
school, it is feared represents a point of view far too com-
mon, but which bodes the greatest danger for the future.
The development of ideal lawn-tennis girls would be a bet-
ter goal for modern institutions than scholars made at such
a cost.

Taylor,^ who also bases his opinion on large experience,
holds that school modesty often promotes habitual constipa-
tion, and thinks the enfeeblement, lack of luster, debility,
squeamishness about food, lack of interest in life, languid con-
fidence and lack of incentive, clammy hands so common
among pubescent girls, should be combated by romping, ball,
beanbags, battledore, hoops, running, golf, tennis, bicycling,
self-bathing in cold water, deep-breathing exercises once or
twice a day, etc., rather than by systematic physical culture;
that too early interest in the refinements of life arrests devel-
opment and that nothing should be undertaken, especially at

1 Puberty in Girls and Certain of its Disturbances, by J. Madison Taylor, M. D.
Pediatrics, July 15, 1896.

582 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

this age, by girls which can not be entered into with great
heartiness and spontaneity. Interesting, too, are his sugges-
tions on the psycho-pedagogy of flattery. Dr. Smith ^ states
that " a very large per cent of females in every physician's
practise are affected more or less by mental troubles, owing
to menstrual disorders."

Henry T. Finck ^ insists that women attach far too much
importance to politics; that their sphere is domestic, ninety-
four out of every hundred marrying; that they control the
all-determining first five years of a child's life and manners,
which are almost as important as morals. One of the great
functions of motherhood, he says, is to find husbands for
daughters. The latter are often neglected, and vanity, which
prompts American girls to dress like heiresses, produces, in
his opinion, nearly as much unhappiness as whisky. In great
cities superfine dressing opens pitfalls of temptation. He
thinks the sufifragists should take hold of solvable problems like
that of servants and of gastronomy, until the kitchen is trans-
formed into an art studio. They should develop the arts of
entertainment, none of which are complete without a woman.
Instead of becoming greedy money-makers, they should serve
as an antidote to our extreme commercialism and politicism.
Ten per cent more girls than boys are on the way to college
in our high schools. Men's right to decide what women
should be like is " inalienable and eternal." Men will con-
tinue to make women what they want them to be by marrying
those who correspond to their ideals ; thus real womanly
women are not doomed.

Max O'Rell denies that Paris is a paradise of women, but
declares that if he could be bom again and select his life, he
would be born an American woman. The female is higher
than the male and represents more nearly than he the type
which man is approaching. Woman's virtues are of a much
higher quality than those of the male. In ancient days the
virtues most admired were masculine — courage and patriot-
ism ; but now, with Christianity, the female virtues oi mod-

' Menstruation and Some of its Effects upon tfie Normal Mentalization of
Woman. M. M. Smith, M. D. Memphis Med. Month., August, 1896, p. 393.
^Independent, May 30, 1-901.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 583

esty, charity, chastity, etc., take precedence. Finck agrees
with Ruskin that there has never been " a loveHness so vari-
ably refined, so modestly and kindly virtuous, so innocently
fantastic, and so daintily pure as the present girl beauty of
our British Isles," who is " nothing but soul and tenderness."
Heine's poem " Du bist wie eine Blume," where woman is
likened to a flower, Finck says has been set to music nearly
two hundred times, or more often than any poem in existence.
This writer objects strongly to Miss I. H. Harper's statement
that most women would gladly devote the years necessary to
rearing two or three children, but object to giving up more
time to this function. He thinks that sex in mind is no less
marked than that in body and is steadily unfolding.

Prof. A. W. Small thinks that to train women to com-
pete with men is like poison administered as a medicine,
the evils being quite as bad as the disease. He doubts that
on the whole women are better than men, because you can not
compare things so different, and each have an equal right to
do what they can do. The question of voting is merely one
of social expediency. " The distinctively social mission of
college women is to counterpoise women." The latter is so
absorbing that none exclusively devoted to it can lead rounded
lives. Women must be stewardesses of the mysteries of ap-
propriate human life, so that aspiration for its adornments
be not arrested. Men are weak in spiritual elements which
college women may enforce. She is too ready to surrender
her leverage.

HI. Health and its Tests. — In view of this consensus of
professional opinion, let us turn to the question of the health
of educated American women, which is the chief criterion of
the value of all institutions which affect it. The first com-
prehensive statistical investigation ^ on college women was
made in 1882 and included 705 graduates of 12 colleges, who
answered 40 questions of a circular. Of these, 44 per cent
said they did not worry over studies, 60 per cent reported
having had some disorder, and those who studied hard had
bad health. Of the whole number, 239 abstained from phys-

1 Health Statistics of Women College Students, by Annie G. Howes. Boston,
1885.

584 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

ical, 2 from mental labor, and 73 from both, during their
periods. Of the 705, only 169 never had any trouble at these
times, and of course more had been sickly during the age of
first menstruation than in college.

Professor Dewey found that of 290 college girls,^ those
who reported good health on entering college were 78.1 per
cent ; those during college, 74.9 ; those after graduation, 77.9.
Again, 19.6 per cent reported deterioration of health during
college; 44.4 per cent reported that they did not worry. In
the period of pubescence, 53 per cent were troubled by pains,
irregularity, etc. ; during college life, 66 per cent, and after
it, 64 per cent. Of those who entered college one or two
years after the commencement of menstruation, 20.5 reported
bad health; of those who entered from three to five years
after, 17.7 per cent; of those who entered five years or more
after, 15.4 per cent. Of those who entered at sixteen or less,
28 per cent lost in health and 17 per cent gained; of those who
entered over twenty, 18 per cent lost and 28.5 per cent gained.
After graduation, 83 per cent reported good health and 17
per cent bad. Among female colleges 55 per cent reported
abstinence from study or exercises during menstruation, and
in coeducational colleges 25 per cent. In coeducational col-
leges 33 per cent studied seriously, as did 26 in female col-
leges. On the whole, Dewey concluded that one-third more
break down from emotional strain in female colleges than in
coeducational institutions.

A later investigator ^ found a far more hopeful state of
things. Of over 200 college girls it was found that 57 per
cent suffered no prostration; 29.8 per cent were free from
pain; y2.'] per cent were regular; and that only 2.75 per cent
dropped out from ill health as against 2.85 per cent of college
boys from Amherst. Of the causes for the interruption of
studies, nervous debility leads, and headaches and imperfect
eyesight follow. Of the complaints of 1,000 students who
consulted the author during her six years at Smith, 30.8 per
cent were for catarrhal disorders, 17 for digestive, 11 for

' Health and Sex in Higher Education, by John Dewey. Pop. Sci. Mo., 1886.
" The Influence of College Life on Health, G. A. Preston, M. D. Communica-
tions of Mass. Med. Soc, Boston, 1895, p. 167.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 5^5

menstrual, 8 for nervous, etc. Scanty was far more common
than excessive flow, and this excess is greatest in the autumn,
where most of the suppressions fall.^

Mrs. Sidgwick in England and Miss Hayes ^ in this country
asked 32 and 42 questions respectively, the former addressed
to 4 English and the latter to 12 American coeducational
institutions. The results show that the Americans are better
throughout, although it is possible that the 15 per cent of the
English students and the 45 per cent of the American students,
who did not answer the questionnaire, may have contained a
large proportion of those who were ill. The American girls
enter three and a half years younger than the English. The
older worry more about personal and family matters. In the
United States more improve than deteriorate during college,
while the reverse seems true in England. We do not know
whether a higher average of health is implied in the desire to
go to college. In the following Miss Hayes has shown the

^ Miss Preston describes typical cases of girls who ought not to go to college.
One gave up her leisure for months to entrance conditions, and overwork brought,
overwhelming desire to systematize. Everything has its exact place, and if a caller
moves it slightly, the discomfort is intense until she can replace it. If she writes
a letter, she prefers a friend present so that she can have courage to seal it at
once rather than look it over again and again to make sure that everything is just
right. If not, she would be dissatisfied, tear it up, write another just as inac-
curate, and so on. Every night she arranges a precise program for all the next
day, and is miserable if it can not be carried out to the letter. She is obliged to
make a bedtime review of even the trivialities of every day, striving to recall
every word she has heard or spoken. This began as a memory drill, but is now
an obsession. She also has to make lists of everything she has done or intends to
do, and hoards these up for reference knowing it is very silly, but she just can not
help it. All these habits are stronger just after a recitation or a visit. If she
wakes at night, she must go through some painful routine ; translations must be
many times revised, and even then she made poor recitations. She was at last
prevailed upon to give up study and quite recovered.

Another student of nervous debility, in love with an intimate girl friend as
morbid and nervous as she, had cervical and spinal pressures, twitchings in the
right arm, indigestion, etc. She stopped study a year and was greatly improved.
Another delicate girl student living at home was subject to strange fears, had always
to count the steps upstairs and feared terrible things if the last one was an odd
number and had to go back and end with an even one. When away from home,
she was always alarmed at the ringing of a door-bell or a knock, fearing ill tidings
from home.

« Health of Woman Students in England, by Alice Hayes. Education, Janu-
ary, 1 89 1.

586

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

relative healthfulness of these women on entering, during,
and after college.

On entrance. . .
During college
Present health.

Good, excellent health.

Am.

78.16
74.89

77.87

Eng.

68.20
63.08
68.02

Fair.

Am.

1.98
7.80
5-II

Eng.

22.08
26.15
22.08

Poor, bad, dead.

Am.

Eng.

19.86 9.72
17.31 10.77
17.02 9.90

From this it appears that maiden students are slightly
healthier than their married sisters. It should not be for-
gotten, however, that the above numbers are too few for
general conclusions; that the mode of determining general
healthfulness was unsatisfactory ; that perhaps often the home-
staying sisters bore additional burdens and, it may be, added
to the support of their collegiate sisters, although on the
other hand the physically feebler may often have gone to
college.

Dr. Mary P. Jacobi insists " there is nothing in the nature
of menstruation to imply the necessity or even the desirability
of rest for a woman whose menstruation is really normal,"
and advises college girls never to pursue a course of study
that can not be kept up during this period. Graduates, it is
urged, ought to have superior health, and female colleges
should not admit invalids. She coincides with Miss Hayes
that there is nothing at all in university education especially
injurious to the constitution of women or involving a greater
strain than they can ordinarily bear without injury, so that
they often pass through college without its affecting their health
either way. Colleges probably tend to check rather than favor
hysteria. Mental training disciplines the feeling and increases
the will power, and sometimes transforms a weak, sentimental
girl into an honest, healthy woman. Many claim to be better
during their college course than at entrance upon it. This is
ascribed partly to change of climate, but more to the influences
of interesting employment, freedom from petty home cares,
congenial companionship, and learning how to take care of
their health. Surprisingly different are the results of Dr.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION

587

Engelmann's ^ study of 4,873 cases of school and college girls.
He found irregularity in about 50 per cent and far more are
retarded. His table is as follows :

Group.

College

In business

College

Nurses

State Norm. School . .
State Norm. School..
Norm. Sch. of Gym..

Norm. Sch. , City

College

Normal School, City. .
High School

Number.

100
800

SO
169
105

306

r 1000
I 125

i 223
I 45
I 103

539

Class.

5 Freshman

\ Higher classes.

( Less hrs. gym.

( More hrs. gym

Freshman

( Junior

I Senior

j Junior

I Senior

Percentage of Sufferers.

During school
or college.

950

83.3
74.0
80.0

73-0

81.0

77.0

71.4

67.1

64.7

66.0

60.0—

57-84

57-0

56.0

54-IO

53-02

42.0

32.0

Before
entering.

90.0

71-5
69.0
60.0
69.1

70.5
76.0
66.0

57-4
58.2

60 +

67.0

The highest per cent in the above table is for one higher
institution of learning. Probably all discomforts were con-
sidered, but " the figures are correct, as this investigation was
made with the utmost care by one of the medical officers of the
institution." The more exacting the work or study, the higher
the per cent. This agrees with Kennedy, who found 78 per
cent of sufferers in a Worcester high school,^ and with Dr.
Boismont, who found yy per cent in Paris in 1842. The
trouble seems worst in the middle classes where parents wish
their girls to advance beyond their own standards.

Engelmann urges that " progress of surgery and reduction
of mortality have been considered too much and woman and
her morbidity too little." Prevention, which is now the watch-
word, must be based on a study of conditions which interfere

• The American Girl of To-day. President's Address, Am. Gyn. Soc, Wash-
ington, 1900.

' Ped. Sem., vol. iii, June, 1896, p. 469.

588 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

with a healthy performance of the female function during the
great waves of sexual life. " Many a young life is battered
and forever crippled in the breakers of puberty; if it cross
these unharmed and is not dashed to pieces on the rock of
childbirth, it may still ground on the ever-recurring shallows
of menstruation, and, lastly, upon the final bar of the meno-
pause ere protection is found in the unruffled waters of the
harbor beyond the reach of sexual storms." He holds mental
stimulus to be the chief cause of sexual precocity in girls. He
finds from the census of 1890 there were 32,751 young women
in American colleges and 341,736 in secondary educational
institutions, and it is these, he thinks, who preeminently need
attention, although there are about 1,000,000 more between
fifteen and twenty who are working for wages. The effects
of mental strain in schoolgirls are most seen in increased fre-
quency of menstruation. In college the freshman year is
marked by most irregularity, and change of surroundings al-
most always delays the courses, often amounting to amenor-
rhea for two or three months. Schrader found this in 57 per
cent of his 114 cases. Dr. Wood writes that it is surprising
how quickly college life affects this function. Debility, on the
other hand, shortens the intervals and increases the pain and
amount of the flow. Examinations, Engelmann thinks, are
" more deleterious to functional health than any other one
cause in college life."

On the basis of a long study, Celia D. Mosher, M. D.,^
prints some interesting preliminary conclusions concerning
menstruation, that a rhythmic fall of blood pressure at defi-
nite intervals occurs in both men and women. Along with
this, subjective observation of the sense of well-being shows
concomitant variations, the sense of maximum efficiency of
the individual, corresponding to the time when the pressure
is high, and lessened efficiency to the periods of low pressure,
the latter in both sexes being a period of increased suscepti-
bility. If symptoms of any kind appear, they should come
at the point of least resistance, or low pressure. This is true
of digestive disturbances, catarrh, etc. The author believes

' Normal Menstruation and Some of the Factors Modifying it. Johns Hopkins
Hospital Bulletin, April, May, June, 1901, p. 178.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 5^9

that the tradition that women must suffer and be incapacitated
at these times tends to increase the sense of lessened efficiency,
especially in women without education and without absorbing
occupations. Much, usually ascribed to dysmenorrhea, is
really a coincident functional disturbance of other organs,
induced perhaps by the favoring condition of lowered gen-
eral blood pressure occurring near the periods.

A college girl or graduate confronted with a questionnaire
knows well that if she confesses pain or ill health, it may con-
tribute to increase the prejudice against the cause of educa-
tion which she has dearly at heart, and normally is as reluc-
tant to confess illness as a boy is to confess muscular weak-
ness. The latter, however, can be tested, while there is no
good criterion of health, which more perhaps than anything
else in the world is especially dependent on subjective and un-
controllable factors. Every psychologist knows that pain is
hard to gauge and harder yet to remember, and that general
euphoria and disphoria are more matters of disposition, en-
vironment, habit of control, time of the month, etc., than of
true symptomatic value. Again, confession of real illness is
the last thing a normal girl will make. It means the abandon-
ment of hope and life prospects, and is usually concealed even
to herself as long as possible. Hence I attach very slight value
to questionnaire returns in this field, and therefore think it
more probable that the doctor's objective and personal tests
and opinions are nearer the truth. If so, we must reluctantly
conclude that it is, to say the very least, not yet proven that
the higher education of women is not injurious to their health.

But even if she is personally as well or even better than
man, the question is not settled, for she is far more liable than
he to overdraw her reproductive power and consume in good
looks, activity of mind and body, and other augmentations
of her individuality, energy meant for the altruism of home
and of posterity. The danger of this subtle process, so attract-
ively masked and insidiously disguised from both the victim
and her friends, is probably far greater and more common
than any form of measurable deterioration. Almost the only
indexes we have of this change are found in marriage-rates
and natality, and if we apply these tests higher education for
women must be more severely judged.

59° THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

IV. Nitbility of Educated Women. — Mrs. Howes found
about one-fourth and Dewey concluded that 23 per cent of the
graduates of women's colleges marry; 21 per cent go into the
professions; 28 per cent of coeducation girls marry, and 12
per cent go into the professions. From coeducational colleges
48 per cent teach as against 42 from the women's colleges.

The editor of the Overland Monthly ^ found from the reg-
ister of the year 1890, including 1,078 names of the New Eng-
land coeducational colleges, that 24.7 were married as against
14.8 of the graduates of the women's colleges. In New York,
of the graduates of the preceding twelve years, these percent-
ages were 25.7 and 20.6 respectively, and of all coeducational
colleges 34.8 were married as against 22.9 of the women's
colleges. If middle-aged women are excluded and the survey
limited to the graduates of the eight years preceding 1889,^
the New England female colleges showed 1 1 per cent married,
coeducational colleges 26 per cent, the New York female col-
leges 1 5. 1 per cent, and the Western coeducational colleges 36
per cent. Dewey ^ makes 26 per cent of the graduates of
twelve American collegiate institutions at an average age of
twenty-seven and six years out of college married, and 74
per cent single. Dr. Smith * gathered statistics from 343 col-
lege-bred and married women from thirty colleges and from
their sisters, cousins, and friends otherwise trained, in order to
compare equal social classes. Before 23 she found the number
of non-college women married in proportion to married grad-
uates as 30 to 8 per cent ; from 23 to 32 as 64 to 83 per cent ;
and over 33 as 5 to 7 per cent. The age of most frequent
marriage for non-college women is 23 ; for college women 25 ;
and the mean age of marriage for the former is 24.3 years;
of the latter, 26.3 years. The average number of years of
married life of college-bred girls is 9.6, three years less than
their sisters ; two less than their cousins ; and two and a half
less than their friends. More than half the college women

^ A Comparison of Coeducation and Women's Colleges. Overland Mo., 1890,

P- 443-

''Overland Mo., May, 1889, p. 556,

3 Pop. Sci. Mo., 1886, p. 606.

* Statistics of College and Non-College Women. Am. Statistical Ass'n, June,
1900,

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 59 ^

studied were teachers and three- fourths had secured economic
independence before marriage. Seventy-seven per cent of the
graduates married college men as against 51 per cent of the
non-graduates.

Miss Shinn ^ later studied the marriage-rate of the Associ-
ation of Collegiate Alumnae comprising fifteen leading colleges.
Of 1,805 enrolled in 1895, only 28 per cent were married, the
rate for the country at large for women over 20 being nearly
80 per cent; she concluded that "under 25 college women
rarely marry," and " that but a small proportion of them have
married." Of 277 of the latest three classes but 10 were
married; taking only those graduates past 25, 32.7 per cent;
after 30, 43.7; after 35, 49.7; after 40, 54 per cent were
married. " The ultimate probability of a college woman's
marriage, therefore, seems to be below 55 per cent as against
90 per cent for other women." Taking five-year periods,
most of them marry between 25 and 30. Of all the 1,805
considered, 1,134, nearly 63 per cent, are from colleges for
women alone, and of these only 25.7 were married against
32.6 of those from coeducational colleges, although the latter
average 0.7 of a year older than those from the women's
colleges. College women marry least of all in the North
Atlantic States, 23.7 per cent as against 37 per cent of the
graduates of the Middle States colleges. Many of these
graduates become teachers, and for no station in life save
that of a nun, we are told, is marriage so unlikely as for resi-
dent teachers in a private girls' school, although this is a posi-
tion mostly preferred by graduates from women's colleges,
while women graduates from coeducational institutions prefer
teaching in the public high schools. Miss Abbott ^ found that
of 1,022 Vassar graduates 37.6 per cent taught, and suggested
that the association of alumnae may be recruited largely from
teachers. Her conclusions agree with those of Miss Shinn,
that college women marry late and in far less ratio than others.

Bryn Mawr ^ reports that in January, 1900, of the class

^ Marriage-Rate of College Women. Century, October, 1895, p. 946.

^ College Women and Matrimony again, by Frances M. Abbott, M. D. Cen-
tury, 1896, p. 796.

* Education of Women, by M. Carey Thomas. Monographs on Education in
the United States, 1899, p. 36.

592

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

of 1889, its oldest class, 40.7 per cent were married; of the
first six classes ending with graduation in 1894, 30 per cent;
of the first nine classes, 20.9 per cent ; and of the first eleven
classes ending in 1899, 15.2 per cent. This shows the impor-
tance of time and also how exceptionally old these graduates
marry. The same result is shown by the following table :

Percentage of
graduates married.

Vassar

Kansas

Minnesota

Cornell )

Syracuse >•

Wesleyan )

Nebraska

Boston ,

Wellesley )

Smith f

Radcliffe

Bryn Mawr ,

Barnard

Leland Stanford Junior
Chicao-o

35-1
31-3
24-5

31.0

24-3
22.2

18.4
16.5

15-2

10.4

9-7
9.4

This suggests that the rate of marriage of college women
is decreasing and that the age at which marriage occurs is
becoming steadily later. Miss Abbott (Forum, vol. xx, p.
378) showed that of 8,956 graduates of 16 colleges, 23 per
cent were married.

It may be wrong to infer that if a small percentage of col-
lege women marry, it is the college that diverts them or that
they are less desirable to men. Some who go to college desire
marriage less or single careers more, so that one writer ^ is
surprised that there is not less marriage among girl graduates
and thinks college education actually promotes it by making
many marriageable who would not be so otherwise. College
girls certainly have a prolonged period of probation with di-
verted interest. During their course, according to another
writer, very many receive and reject propositions of marriage
in order to complete their education, but of course no statistics
are available upon this point. Yet another says ^ that college

^ The Marriage of Women College Graduates. Anon. Nature, September 24,
1890.

2 College Women and Matrimony again, by Frances M. Abbott, M. D. Century,
i8q6.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 593

women as a class need less to look to marriage as a means of
support, and most who must at once earn their living teach.
A woman, who was earning $60 a month and resigned to
marry a man earning $40, exhibited rare devotion. Whether
mercenary motives are increased by the luxury and expensive
tastes and interests of college; whether, having tasted the
fruits of the tree of knowledge, women are not less inclined
to renounce it for domestic life, can not be discussed on a basis
of facts or statistics.

By corresponding with class secretaries and correlating
their data with those kept at the college offices, I have gath-
ered the latest and perhaps the fullest data yet published on
the marriage and fecundity of female graduates for three lead-
ing colleges.^ If there remain errors they are those of incom-
plete returns and show rather too few marriages, births, and
deaths than too many, but great effort has been taken to re-
duce this error to a minimum. If such a census includes all
graduates up to within a year or even two of its date, the total
number of marriages rarely exceeds one-fourth, for those who
wed are slow to do so. The last ten classes to graduate, if
taken by themselves, would show a yet far smaller proportion
married. From Vassar there were 323 graduates in the first
ten classes, i^Sy-yS, of whom, in the spring of 1903, 179,
or 55.4 per cent, had married. In the next ten classes there
were 378 graduates, of whom 192 were married, 50.7 per cent.
In the third ten classes, i887-'96, were 603 graduates, of
whom 169, or 28 per cent, were married. In Smith College,
during the first ten years ending with the class of 1888, there
were 370 graduates, of whom, in the spring of 1903, 158, or
42.7 per cent, were married. Of the next ten classes, includ-
ing that of 1898, there were 1,130 graduates, of whom 331,
or 28.3 per cent, were married. In Wellesley, during the first
ten years ending with the class of 1888, there were 436 grad-
uates, of whom, in the spring of 1903, 203, or 46.5 per cent,
were married. In the next ten classes, ending with the class
of 1898, there were 1,162 graduates, of whom 296, or 25.4 per

' See for details the study of Dr. Theodate Smith and myself on Marriage and
Fecundity of College Men and Women. Ped. Sem., September, 1903, vol. x, pp.

275-314-

77

594 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

cent were married. From these data it appears that not very
far from one-half of the graduates of ah these colleges who
marry, or about a fourth of all, do so after they have been
out of college from ten to fifteen years, at an age of at least
thirty, and that a large part of the other fourth who marry
do so as late as forty. The results of this late age upon fecun-
dity is, as we shall see later, about what might be inferred.

The tu qiioque retort which many women love to make
to men has too much basis, although the facts show results
only about half as bad. Mr. Deming's admirable figures for
Yale show 21.6 per cent of the Yale classes from 1861-79 ^-s
unmarried, and the Harvard record from i870-'79 is 26.5
per cent. President Eliot's figures for the Harvard classes
of i872-'77, although we find them somewhat unfavorably
erroneous, show 28 per cent, mostly now between forty and
fifty years of age, unmarried. This proportion has greatly
increased, for at Yale only about two per cent of the men of
corresponding age in the last century were unmarried. Then,
also, men married earlier, and it was customary for clergymen,
who constituted a far larger proportion of graduates than
now, to marry immediately after ordination, the average age
of graduation being twenty-one. Indeed, this was necessary,
for domestic service was rare, especially in rural districts, and
a wife was necessary to do the work of housekeeping. " The
average age of marriage for women was under twenty-one,
many marrying in the teens, and several marriages at the age
of fourteen are recorded." ^ " Remarriage was almost uni-
versal for both men and women, economic conditions rendering
it a necessity." " Forty per cent of the wives of Yale graduates
from i70i-'o5 did not live to bring up their children, and it
took a second, and frequently in large families a third woman,
to complete the work. The problem of superfluous women did
not exist in those days. They were all needed to bring up
another woman's children." Of the wives of Harvard grad-
uates between the years i658-'90 37.3 per cent died under the
age of forty-five.

V. Fecundity of Educated Women. — Here the matter is
M'orse yet for educated women. Natality rates show the

iMiss Smith : Op. cit., p. 280.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 595

springs of national growth or decay, and only the constant
influx of foreigners prevents us from reahzing the ominous
forebodings with which France is facing the problem of a
steady decadence of birth-rates, which prompted and circu-
lated such a book as Zola's Fruitfulness. In a significant
paper by Dr. Allen,^ on the New England family, which was
the germ of American civilization, and where for two hundred
years the homes were well-nigh models, it is shown how the
birth-rate has steadily declined for half a century and that at a
very rapid rate until it is lower than that of any Euro-
pean nation, France itself not excepted. In 1875, there were
359,000 families in Massachusetts ; of these, 23,739 consisted
of only one person, 115,456 of only two, and 140,974 of only
three persons. Dr. Allen estimated that only one-half of the
New England mothers could properly nurse their offspring,
and that the number who could do so was constantly decreas-
ing. While failure to do so might be often due to lack of
wish, it was usually due to undeveloped mammary glands,
feeble digestion, and nervousness. This state of things, he
assures us, can be found to anything like the same extent no-
where else and among no other nation or race in history.
Foreign families, especially if they acquire property, approach
this condition a few years after they land on our shores. The
Jews and our grandmothers thought barrenness a curse, but
now the bearing and rearing of large families is felt to belong
to low life. Love of offspring is less intense ; woman's organi-
zation is changing under new conditions. Housekeeping, es-
pecially as a vocation which used to be one of the most hygi-
enic and ennobling occupations for body and mind, is despised
and evaded, and the influence of home is diminishing. Modes
of life are artificial and too expensive, so that marriages are
later as well as fewer, the death-rate of infants among old New
England families is increasing, and sO' are abortions and di-
vorces. Invalids make poor home-builders, poor husbands,
wives, and worse fathers and mothers. From 1886 to 1891,
both inclusive, 103,733 children w^ere born in families where
both parents were natives; 104,884 where both were foreign;

* The New England Family, by Nathan Allen, M. D. New England Magazine,
1882.

59^ THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

39,292 in families where one parent was native and the other
foreign. During the same years 156,225 native-born inhab-
itants of Massachusetts and 40,716 foreign bom died. The
deaths of native Americans exceeded the deaths of the foreign
born by 29,796, which, adding half the deaths of unknown or
mixed parentage among the foreign of the State, make the
births exceed the deaths by 87,824. The foreign-born inhabi-
tants of the State, including less than one-fourth, give birth to
more than one-half of the children.^ First among the causes
of the decline, Dr. Ellis ^ places physical and mental inability
to bear and care for children, at the proper period, and sec-
ondly, he places unwillingness to sacrifice ease, freedom, and
enjoyment involved in parenthood, the disposition to put
pleasure in place of duty, the effeminacy of wealth, the new
woman movement, and foeticide, and he pleads for domestic
labor as one of the best correctives. Comparing the forty
years ending 1890, the native marriages average 2.3 children
each, while those of the foreign born average 7.4 each.

Sterility ^ is of all degrees, from total up to inability to
produce a goodly number of children who mature well
through adolescence and can themselves produce healthy off-
spring. It is vastly more complex in woman than in man,
and, according to the averages of statistics from many sources,
Duncan concludes, is due to the wife about six times as often
as to the husband. In Great Britain, one of the most prolific of
all lands, about one-tenth of all marriages are now unfruitful.
The relative sterility of the one-child system occurs in Eng-
land once in about thirteen fruitful marriages, and those with-
out offspring sixteen months after marriage are beginning to
be sterile, as also are those who do not at their best period
bear a child every twenty months. The average age of cessa-
tion in Great Britain is thirty-eight years, and a woman who
begins to bear children at the age of twenty to twenty-five
should continue for ten or fifteen years. Fertile marriages
in England average, in fact, about six living children each.

1 Vital Statistics of Massachusetts from 1856 to 1895, by S. W, Abbott.

2 Deterioration of Puritan Stock and its Causes, by Dr. Ellis. New York, 1894.
Published by the author.

^ Sterility in Woman. Gulstonian Lectures, by J. Matthew Duncan. London,
i88q.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 597

The first child is a source of danger to the mother, about one-
fifteenth of whom die, while only one in forty-eight die at the
second birth.

The chief cause of all degrees of unfertility is, according
to Duncan, overnutrition, and this is true down through the
animal and even in the plant world. Overfeeding or fat pro-
duction in the female is not only unfavorable to fertility, but
illustrates how undue emphasis laid upon individuation is
antithetical to generation. The relative childlessness of heir-
esses is a case in point. Excessive sexual indulgence and ex-
citement are potent deterrents. Excess of desire and pleasure
are often compensated by defect in reproductive energy, and
so are too early marriages. " Women married under twenty
years of age have much more sterility than women married
from twenty to twenty-four, and the sterility of marriage be-
fore twenty is less than that after twenty-four, and from this
point it gradually increases with the age of marriage." Pre-
mature and postmature women, too, have smaller children.
Sterility is not a specific disease, but is the intricate product
of causes as complex as modern civilization. While the rapid
progress of gynecology has shed floods of light upon it, its
larger problems are yet very far from solution.

Duncan had previously found ^ that the mortality of chil-
dren was less if the mother's age was twenty-one to twen-
ty-five than at any other quinquad; that the age of least
puerperal mortality was twenty-five, and increased above and
below; that the number of twins reached its maximum be-
tween twenty-five and twenty-nine; that children of mothers
in these years were heaviest at birth and grew tallest; that
the greatest viable fecundity was at twenty-six, the fathers
being thirty-one and three-tenths; that although the shortest
interval between births was when the mother was twenty-six,
marriage when she was below twenty-five was more fertile
than after, and that the quinquad of greatest fecundity was
twenty to twenty-five. In his Republic, Plato said men should
bear children from thirty to fifty-five and women from twenty
to forty, while Aristotle thought the man should marry at
thirty-seven and the woman at eighteen. Duncan said that

•Fecundity, Fertility, Sterility, etc., 1877.

598 THE PSYCHOLOGY OEc ADOLESCENCE

while thirty-three women attain the age of eighteen, only
twenty-eight men live to be thirty-seven; that in nine meas-
urements the womb grew after twenty (although Hecker
thought the number of pregnancies was a factor) and con-
tinued to grow in length till near the end of the fertile period ;
that the mortality of first confinements was twice that of all
subsequent ones, and that mothers died least often in second
confinement between twenty and twenty-five. Many who
marry before twenty have no children, but if only those who
do so are included, the years from sixteen to twenty are most
fertile.

According to the very careful statistics compiled by Or-
schansky,^ the rate of productivity or rapidity of births is
greatest in women married at eighteen, and decreases gen-
erally afterward. The stature of both boys and girls at birth
is greatest when the mother's age is twenty-seven to twenty-
eight, and also with the fifth or sixth child born, as most pelvic
diameters continue to grow to this age. The productive period
ends earlier with mothers who begin to bear children young.

Korosi,^ who tabulated data for 71,800 married couples,
found that the maximal natality of mothers began between
the ages of eighteen and nineteen, when the annual probability
of birth was 44.6 and 42.2 respectively. This means that
nearly one wife out of two will give birth to a child within a
year from marriage. From twenty this probability declines,
and at twenty-five is only 31.5 per cent; at thirty it is 24; at
thirty-five it is 16; and at forty, 8 per cent. Comparable sta-
tistics for Berlin and Sweden, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Norway,
and Denmark, resembled closely those of Budapest. With
fathers, the highest natality is at twenty-five, when it is 38.9
per cent; at thirty it is 31.7; at thirty-five, 2^; and at forty,
15 per cent. We may bet, says Korosi, 70 to i against a
child being born of a mother aged forty-five, and 7 to i against
a father having a child during his fortieth year. Bigenous
natality, i. e., where the age of both parents is considered,
gives results quite different from these monogenous tables.

* Etude sur I'her^dite. St. Petersburg, 1894.

' An Estimate of the Degrees of Legitimate Natality, etc. Phil. Trans, of the
Royal Soc, B. Part II, 1895, pp. 781-875.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 599

By making the complex combination necessary, it was found
that for every year between twenty and forty, mothers ac-
quired the highest natahty possible to their age with fathers
under thirty; while the latter reach their maximal natality
with women under twenty, so that men between thirty-five
and forty-five should choose wives between twenty and twen-
ty-five, and those of forty-five to fifty, wives of twenty-five to
thirty. His data also shows the interesting result that women
under twenty-eight should choose older, and those above twen-
ty-eight, younger husbands than themselves, while men at all
ages have the greatest chance of offspring with wives younger
than themselves. The most prolific marriages are when the
woman is eighteen to twenty and the husband twenty-four
to twenty-six. In a separate research Korosi showed that if
healthy children, or those who lived to mature, be considered,
the age of greatest fecundity fell about a year later.^ If the
father's age goes up, that of the mother declines, but not quite
in the same degree, i. e., if the father is thirty-one, the mother
should be thirty-one, total, 62; if he is forty, she should be
twenty-four, total, 64. These lines plotted, Galton calls iso-
gens.^ If these are based on sufficient data, we can calculate
the plus or minus age distance of the husband from his wife at
each year which is likely to result in most children.^

40
•S 35
,,>? 30
gig -25

li f,

SfH 10

^ 5

•--^

...^

-^^

.Fatheri

^^^^

=^-^

■■

^Mother

s

"•--^^

^^,.^

"-^

"~- — -___

'^--

■ — — -_

Age

l^

20-24

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55-59 1

60-64

The following table combines two of Korosi's, based on
10,000 marriages, showing the average fecundity of both sexes
for different ages, being reduced at thirty to nearly half its
initial rate at nineteen for women, and falling off one-half
for men from twenty-seven to forty.'*

^ Ueber den Einfluss des Elterlichen Alters auf die Lebenskraft der Kinder.
Jahrbuch f. Nat. Oekon. u. Statistik. Third ser. , vol. iv, p. 518.
' Proc. Royal Soc. , vol. Iv, p. 18 et seq.
^ Maurel,* in an interesting study of the conditions which modify masculinity.

* Rev. Scientifique, April 4, 1903.

6oo

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Compiling from the census reports a table regarding the decreas-
ing average in the size of famiHes in the several sections of the country
we have the following:

AVERAGE SIZE OF FAMILY

New England 4

New York 4

Pennsylvania 5

South Atlantic States 5

Ohio 5

Indiana 5

Illinois 5

Michigan 4

Wisconsin 5

Minnesota 5

Iowa 5

Missouri 5

North Dakota 4

South Dakota 4

Nebraska 5

Kansas 5

1900

4.6

4

4

5

4

4

4

4

4

5

4

4

4

4

4

4

According to this, New England does not show either the largest
decrease in ten years nor the smallest average size of families. The
decrease in New England is but two-tenths of one per cent. In New
York it is five-tenths of one per cent; in Pennsylvania, three-tenths;
in Ohio, six-tenths; in Indiana, seven-tenths; in Illinois, five-tenths;
in Michigan, five-tenths; in Wisconsin, three-tenths; in Iowa, six-
tenths; in Missouri, seven-tenths; in Kansas, four-tenths. The aver-
age size of families in New England is larger than in New York, Ohio,
Indiana, and Michigan, and equal to that in Iowa and Kansas. But
this reckoning includes all races, and has no value with regard to rela-
tive size of the families of long establishment in the country as com-
pared with those of later immigration.

finds it to be augmented by the youth of the parents, especially the father, when
conception takes place nearest the period of marriage, also by the complete matur-
ity of the ovum and perhaps also of the male element, and the vigor of the parents
The higher classes develop less masculinity in general than the lower. He also
finds that the proportion of male to female births, which in Europe and India is
greater in about the same degree, does not hold of the African races. Reduced
masculinity means real social deficit, and is, therefore, one of the best criteria of the
vigor of a class of the population. Emigration, which in general favors natality,
diminishes masculinity, while crossing among the Neo-Latin races and precocious
marriages increase it, and syphilis, alcoholism, and arthritism diminish it. He
holds that femininity is a product of enfeebled fecundation, and that paternity is a
more important fact in sex determination than maternity.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 6oi

R. R. Kuczynski ^ shows that in the period from 1883
to 1897 the general marriage-rate of the foreign-born in this
country wa-s three- fourths higher than that of the native-born.
From 1887 to 1889 the native-born in Massachusetts have the
smallest general marriage-rate. In the three censuses of 1885,
1890, and 1895, the proportion of the married among the
natives was less than one-third, while the proportion among
the foreign-born exceeded one-half. The native population
of Massachusetts has a special birth-rate of 6.3 births for one
hundred adult women in child-bearing age, whereas in Berlin
the annual rate of ten for every hundred women was proven
to be not quite sufficient to keep up its population, so that
this State is dying at a rapid pace. The number of adult
native men living in wedlock in 1885 to 1895 was three-fifths,
of foreign-born, two-thirds. The proportion of native adult
women living in wedlock was six-thirteenths ; of foreign-born,
seven-thirteenths. In 1895 the number of women who were
married but childless was one-fifth among the natives, and
two-fifteenths among the foreign-born. " The average num-
ber of children born to every foreign-born married woman
was two-thirds higher than for the natives, viz., four-sevenths
higher among German women, six-sevenths among Irish,
twice as high among French Canadian women." From 1883
to 1897 the special birth-rate of foreign-born adult women was
more than twice as high as for the natives.

Engelmann,^ from 1,700 cases, found that a little over
twenty per cent of married women in America are childless,
although his definition of sterility was the condition of those
married three years without offspring. (Simpson's standard
rate of sterility is eleven per cent.) Thus, he concludes that
" the extremes of sterility are reached in this country."
Among the laboring classes in St. Louis he found 2.1
children per married couple, in Boston he found it 1.7; in
Michigan, 1.8 in recent years, but for the twenty-five years
ending in 1895, 2,1. Mrs. Smith finds that among college

1 The Fecundity of the Native and Foreign Born Population in Massachusetts.
The Quart. Jour, of Economics, November, 1901, and February, 1902.

* The Increasing Sterility of American Women. Jour, of Am. Med. Ass'n,
October, 1901.

602 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

female graduates the lowest fecundity prevails, 1.6. The
relatives of these girls, who do not go to college, are more
prolific, 1.89. In England, among female college graduates,
there are 1.53 children to a marriage, while the average fertil-
ity of English women in the Victorian Year-Book is put down
as 4.2. In Engelmann's genealogical records from 1600 to
1750, he found each marriage producing on the average at
least six children, a number which at the beginning of the
nineteenth century was reduced to 4.5. Benjamin Franklin
stated that, one and all considered, each married couple in
this country produced eight children. Indeed, Malthus uses
the United States and Canada as the basis of his theory for
super-fecundation, and, according to his table, the United
States leads with a fecundation of 5.2. French Canadians
to-day probably exceed all others, with an average fecundity
of about 9.2 children per child-bearing mother. In a recent
Russian district there were 7.2; in Norway, 5.8 children per
family.

Herbert Spencer declared that " absolute or relative
infertility is generally produced in women by mental labor
carried to excess." This has probably been nowhere better
illustrated than by college graduates. Miss Howes found that
of 705 graduates, 196 were married, but 66 of these had no
children, while the remaining 130 had 232 living children, or
1.7+ each, and had borne 31 who had died. On the important
topic of the age of marriage, she says nothing. In Mrs. Sidg-
wick's census only 10.25 per cent of the English graduates
and 19.5 per cent of their sisters were married, and of these
72.4 and 63.2 per cent respectively had children and of these
9 and 3 1 per cent were dead. An anonymous writer ^ com-
putes that of the 27.8 per cent of 2,000 college women who
married, 66 per cent had no children. Dewey found that of
the married, whom he studied, 37 per cent had no children,
although the average number of years of married life was
6.2; 109 bore 202 children, of whom 12 per cent died, and
of those who died about one-quarter died from causes con-
nected with parturition. If all married female graduates in
this report were taken together, there would be 1.2 children to

» Health and Fertility of Educated Women. Med. Record, 1885, p. 407.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 603

every five years of married life. If we exclude those bearing
no children, there are two children to seven years of married
life. The non-graduate English sisters of the four colleges
Mrs. Sidgwick included in her survey bore 64 more children
than the same number of married graduates. President
Thomas, in her valuable monograph, ignores this topic, and
there are no available statistics on this subject for Bryn Mawr.

While from the knowledge at hand it is plain that our race
would be speedily extinct if it depended upon the rate of
replenishment of the educated classes, this is met by the wide-
spread view expressed long ago by an intellectually gifted
woman,^ that further human evolution requires a decline in
fertility. High nervous development augments the complete-
ness, intensity, and fulness of individual life, but weakens the
power of its transmission. " Evolution is thus seen to pro-
vide for the intellectual elevation of woman by constantly de-
creasing demands upon her for the performance of those
functions which are purely physical." When only an average
of two children is required, the barrier to woman's intellectual
development will be slight. And she even adds that her sexual
life is often in danger of unfolding at the expense of intellect,
etc. Is not the reverse true of this class ?

Two cultured German ladies,^ who undertook a compre-
hensive psychological and sociological study, with the aid of
an international committee and questionnaire, have collected
opinions and data concerning actresses, female musicians,
artists, poets, women devoted to science, journalism, agita-
tion, and essay writing, from all of which they are led to
conclude that mental work on the part of women in any of the
above fields does not interfere with fruitfulness or with
nursing. Culture, they deem absolute necessity, and its ideal
harmonization with the life of woman a problem practically
solved. The individual testimonies are numerous, varied, and
interesting, but are by no means all in the line of these con-
clusions. The professional women, chiefly considered here,
certainly on their own testimony have generally excellent

^ Woman and Skilled Labor, by Frances E. White, M. D. Penn. Mo., July,

1875-

* Mutterschaft und geistige Arbeit, von Adele Gerhard und Helene Simon.
Berlin, 1901, p. 333.

604 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

health; some even insist that pregnancy gives added power
of vv^ork. To be sure, some testify, the children of such
women lack imagination, moral quality, affection, and other
powers, not perhaps so easily obvious to parents as to others.
Indeed, a report might be made out from these data that
would strongly confirm views almost exactly the reverse of
the conclusions of these authors.

My statistics,^ gathered, like those on marriage-rate, from
three colleges by correspondence with the class secretaries, are
as follows: The total number of children born to the 55.4
per cent of Vassar graduates of the first ten classes ending
with that of 1876 who married was 365, or 3.09 per mother,
or 2.03 per married member, 58 married members having
no children. Of the next ten classes, ending with that of
1886, 294 children had been born up to the spring of 1903,
2.57 per mother, or 1.53 per married member, 78 married
members having no children. The 28 per cent married of the
graduates of the next ten years, ending in 1896, bore 135 chil-
dren, or 1.58 per mother, or 0.79 per married member, 84 mar-
ried members having no children. Of the Smith graduates
of the first ten years, ending with the class of 1888, had been
born in the spring of 1903, 315 children, 2.08 per mother, or
1.99 per married member, 7 having no children, and 26 chil-
dren having died. Of six of the next ten classes ending with
that of 1898, reporting, there were 161 children, or 1.22 per
mother, or 0.77 per married member, 78 married members
having no children, and 9 children having died. Of the eight
out of the first ten classes of Wellesley, ending with that of
1888, reporting, there were 311 children, or 2.37 per mother,
or 1. 8 1 per married member, 40 married members having no
children, and of these children 25 were dead. Of five of the
ten Wellesley classes, ending with that of 1898, reporting,
there were 176 children, or 1.67 per mother, or 1.04 per mar-
ried member, 64 married members having no children, and 1 1
children having died. These figures need no comment.

Turning to male colleges, we find that of the Harvard
classes graduating from i860 to 1878, the average number

' See Marriage and Fecundity of College Men and Women. Ped. Sem., Sep-
tember, 1903, vol. X, pp. 275-314.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 605

of children per married man ranges between the extreme
of 1.83 and 2.71. The classes 1870 to 1879 average 1.95
per married man and 1.43 per graduate. Amherst shows a
steady decline from four and five children in the earlier
decades till, for the six classes ending with that of 1878, the
extremes are 2.4, and 2.92 per father. At Wesleyan the
six classes ending with that of 1870 show a maximum of 2.71
and a minimum of 1.37 per married man. At Yale the classes
1872 to 1878 average 1.96 per married man, and 1.27 per
graduate. At Bowdoin the classes 1871 to 1877 average only
1.23 per class member. The size of families of male grad-
uates has greatly declined, those of six and more being once
frequent and now very rare, while families of one, two, and
three children only have increased. This is due to many
causes, economic and other. Engelmann concludes that the
" male college graduate does more toward reproducing the
population than does the native American of other classes." ^
But these data for native fecundity are based only on certain
classes in two cities and are therefore too meager, while this
standard of comparison should be the country. The delay of
marriage is often very marked, and the increasing number of
men who do marry and have no children now ranges all the
way from 10 to 30 per cent. The record of children who die
is too incomplete for inferences or comparisons. It would
certainly seem that college men who do marry have little if
any advantage in fecundity over college women, and that the
higher education is sterilizing in its results for both in nearly
the same degree. Even families where either parent is a
graduate, especially if infant mortality is taken into account,
fall- considerably short of reproducing themselves, while if
we consider classes as wholes, women are nearly twice as
far from doing so as men, because but half as many of them
marry. Any college that depended on the children of its
graduates would be doomed to extinction, less than one-
seventh of the entering classes of Harvard, e. g., being de-
scendants of previous graduates. Colleges have grown and
educated classes increased till some professions are over-
crowded, but old families are being plowed under and lead-

^ The cause of race decline is not education. Pop. Sci. Monthly, June, 1903.

bob THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

ers are recruited from the class below, so that the question of
race suicide is a very different matter, and the bearing of these
facts upon the question of shortening the college course less
direct. Perhaps the inference from all these facts is that
the stage of apprenticeship to life should be prolonged, if
graduates represent the advance guard of progress, bearing
the chief burden of the advance and often falling in the front
line of battle, because success is ever harder and progress ever
more costly. To give $10,000 tastes and aspirations on
$1,000 incomes tends to delay and perhaps repress the desire
for a family, and the best years for genesis are lost. Once
marriage and children were felt to be religious, if not also
patriotic, duties, and now many, but not all, bachelors who
shirk it without adequate excuse should perhaps be taxed pro-
gressively beyond a certain age. In the best periods of the
best races, too, there has been a wholesome sentiment that
both wedlock and parenthood were needed for the full matur-
ity of the individual, and that if this stage of development was
not attained, the moral, mental, and physical nature was liable
to warp.

(a) Galton has shown us by convincing figures that if a
woman is not married before twenty-eight and the man a few
years later, even the most fertile races are doomed to extinc-
tion far sooner than those with low natality, because there are
not enough children born after this age to keep up the popu-
lation. " Postponement of marriage on the part of a woman
conduces to infertility, as the reproductive system, if unused,
becomes inoperative." About one-fourth of the children born
are of mothers whose age does not exceed twenty-four, ac-
cording to Coghlan,^ and before women pass their twenty-
eighth year they give birth to one-half their offspring. Women
who marry after thirty can not expect more than two children,
and after twenty-six not more than three. The age of women
at marriage is the chief factor in determining the number of
her children, the younger the more numerous the offspring,
and this rule appears to hold even where the woman marries
at an immature age. The proportion of fertile marriages is
becoming very gradually less in most civilized lands.

> Child?jirth in New South Wales. A Study in Statistics. Sydney, 1899.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 607

(b) Again, unless we insist on extreme Weismannism,
as few biologists now do> we must admit that children born
of generations of cultured ancestry have some advantage,
even though their parents do not live to see their birth, over
those born of the lowest classes, postnatal environment and
nurture being the same in the two cases. If this be so, each
generation ought to add a little, infinitesimal though it be, to
progress in that most ancient form of wealth and worth which
birth bestows, so that rotation of classes, while it may have
many advantages, is thus bought at a very dear price.

(c) Another principle involved, suggested by the statistics
of natality and by biological considerations, is that, while
children born of parents slightly immature are liable to remain
undeveloped, or, at least, have peculiar difficulties in coming
to full maturity of powers of mind and body, those born of
parents in slightly post-mature years tend more or less to pre-
cocity. The generalization here important is that by youthful
parents heredity is more confined to older and lower qualities,
so that those who attain sexual maturity early do not advance
the phyletic series. Species and individuals, on the other
hand, that attain propagative power late, make for progress
of the stock, because they have not only the wealth of heredity
in its completeness, but contribute individual additions, in-
finitesimal though they may be. Very early marriages, there-
fore, tend to the decay of culture and civilization, and all con-
ditions that make for its '* neotenia " are retrogressive, and
each generation must reacquire everything anew because
young parents transmit nothing not transmitted to them.
Conversely, if we follow Mehnert,^ hyperheredity due to long
delay of propagation may be a factor for accounting for the
overgrowth of the horns of certain stags, some of the mon-
sters of the geologic past, and other hypertrophied organs of
individual species and functions, even those of genius.

(d) Closely connected with this is a law brought out with
ominous suggestiveness by child study, viz., that only children,
and, to some extent, offspring limited to a pair of children,
tend to be feeble and need special care.

(e) Another general consideration also pertinent in this

' Biomechanik. E. Mehnert, Jena, 1898.

6o8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

discussion is, that the children of the rich tend to be prema-
turely or over-individualized, and those of the poor to be
under-individualized by their postnatal environment, even
where the age of parenthood remains the same.

(/) Not only are families produced by parents who marry
late, small; but another consideration, often overlooked in
this discussion, is that they are still more outbred by those
who marry young, because, while the latter have four or some-
times even five generations per century, the former have per-
haps three or even less. This reduces still more the ratio of
increase.

(g) Yet another principle which I think may be sug-
gested as following from the above is that if the children of
post-mature parents mature early, such children themselves,
if they marry, should do so earlier than those who mature late;
hence, if they marry at the same age at which their parents
did, they are biologically and psychologically older when they
do so than were their parents, so that the evils of post-mature
fertility increase in successive generations even if the age of
marriage remains the same.

(h) One test of the complete domestication of an animal
species is not only that it tends to grow larger than its wild
congeners, but to breed well. This, too, is a test of the possi-
bility of permanent captivity. Now, if we consider civiliza-
tion as the domestication of man by himself, we may apply
this criterion as an effective test of its soundness. This prin-
ciple, too, would seem to apply to any trade or industry, or to
any social class, or to educated classes. If so, it follows either
that education is per se bad, when considered from a large
racial point, or else that a postulate is laid upon us to find,
as the right way of education, one which shall not tend to
sterility. Otherwise, if higher education became universal,
posterity would gradually be eliminated and the race pro-
gressively exterminated by schools and teachers.

With these ideas in view a peculiar pathos attaches to
those who early in life have not wanted offspring, but do so
when it begins to be a little too late. Many such parents con-
sole themselves by lavishing upon one or two care enough for
half a dozen children. The result of this is, that instead of
broadening by retarding their development, their offspring are

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 609

robbed of many elements of a proper childhood, pass too rap-
idly over the developmental stages, and are hastened on to
maturity by the excessive stimulus of too much adult environ-
ment and influence and too little wise neglect. They are in-
fected too early with the insights and sometimes even the
sentiments of early senescence, and show all the mingled
charm and sadness of precocity. Their life has the flavor of
fruit that ripens before its time. The buds are picked open
and the tree of knowledge blooms and bears its fruit too early.
A larger view is that we must develop such a system of higher
education as shall conserve youth and increase not only viabil-
ity but natality.

Excessive intellectualism insidiously instils the same aver-
sion to " brute maternity " as does luxury, overindulgence, or
excessive devotion to society. Just as man must fight the
battles of competition, and be ready to lay down his life for
his country, so woman needs a heroism of her own to face the
pain, danger, and work of bearing and rearing children, and
whatever lowers the tone of her body, nerves, or morale so
that she seeks to escape this function, merits the same kind of
opprobrium which society metes out to the exempts who can
not or who will not fight to save their country in time of need.
In an ideal and progressive state those exempted from this
function would be at the bottom among those least fitted to
survive, but where the birth-rate goes down in proportion to
intelligence and education, either the principle of the survival
of the best is false or else these classes are not the best, or
are impaired by their training or environment. While we
need not consider the cranky and extreme left wing of this
movement, which strives to theoretically ignore and prac-
tically escape the monthly function, or the several coteries of
half-cultured scientific women, personally known to the writer,
who devote time, money, and effort to investigating artificial
methods of gestation (which will probably be arrived at when
Ludwig's humorous dream of injecting prepared chyme into
the veins and dispensing with eating and the alimentary tract
to release lower nutritive energy for higher uses is realized),
we find wide-spread among the most cultured classes the one
or two child system which would atone for numbers by lav-
ishing wealth and even care to safeguard and bring the few

78

6iO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

to the highest possible development. But only children are
usually twice spoiled — first by enfeebled heredity at birth, and
second by excessive care and indulgence, as Bohannon ^ has
shown. The enfeebled nature of only children often needs
exceptional incubating all through childhood and youth, but
with the decline of reproductive vigor not only the wise neg-
lect but the sound motherly good sense in treatment is prone
also to lapse toward the senile and grandmotherly overfoster-
ing, so that partial sterility always involves the danger of
perverted motherly instincts. From a biological point of view,
there is an unutterable depth of pathos in the almost morbid
oversolicitude of the invalid and highly educated mother for
an only child to whom she has transmitted her enfeebled exist-
ence, and among the decadent families of New England this
spectacle is not infrequent.

As Augustine said, the soul is made for God and is not
happy till it finds rest in him, so woman's body and soul are
made for maternity and she can never find true repose for
either without it. The more we know of the contents of the
young woman's mind the more clearly we see that everything
conscious and unconscious in it points to this as the true goal
of the way of life. Even if she does not realize it, her whole
nature demands first of all children to love, who depend on
her for care, and perhaps a little less, a man whom she heartily
respects and trusts to strengthen and perhaps protect her in
discharging this function. This alone can complete her being,
and without it her sphere, however she shape it, is but a hemi-
sphere; she is a little detraque, and her destiny is more or less
disarticulated from her inmost and deepest nature. All ripe,
healthful, and womanly women desire this, and if they attain
true self-knowledge confess it to themselves, however loath
they may be to do so to others, and some who attain it too
late wear their lives out in regret. Nothing can ever
quite take its place, without it they are never completely
happy, and every other satisfaction is a little vicarious.
To see this is simple common sense and to admit it only com-
mon honesty. In an ideal society, with ideal men in it,
woman's education should focus on motherhood and wifehood,

•The Only Child in a Family, Ped. Sem., April, 1898, vol. v, pp. 475-496-

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 6li

and seek in every way to magnify these functions and to invest
them with honor.

But the world is not right, and this career is not always
optimal. Man is not always manly, but prone to be selfish and
even sensuous, and so woman must strive to make the best of
the second best and follow the principle of cypres, which
English law admits for wills when it is impossible to carry
them out exactly according to the testator's intent. This by
no means signifies that every woman who takes to other
absorbing pursuits has been disappointed. Happily for her,
perhaps she often does not know her true rights but miscon-
strues them. She often loses a little light-heartedness, but
is not consciously, or it may be even unconsciously, wearing
off heartache. She feels a little lack of purpose. She had
tasted adoration and felt her womanhood a noble thing, and
in its place comes a little distrust, her self-respect is not
quite so invincible, and she catches herself at self- justifica-
tion that she is unwed. Her yesterdays seem a little dusty
and her to-morrows a trifle faded. She craves something dif-
ferent and afar, and drags her anchor and perhaps slips adrift.
Her joy in the many substitutes provided for her true happi-
ness is nervously intense, yet she is harder to please and feels
a trifle at odds with the world. As the years pass she perhaps
grows fastidious and lavishes care upon herself, her regimen
and toilet, and becomes, what I believe there is justification
for calling, overcleanly in her person and all its surroundings
in a way that suggests misophobia. She craves the costly; if
unoccupied, grows inactive, luxurious, capricious, and freaky
even in appetite, or gives herself up to Vanity Fair and de-
velops a peculiar Americanized type, or else, in store or office,
goes a trifle off in dress or form. Her disposition sags from
its wonted buoyancy and the haze of ill health slowly gathers
in her horizon. Her opinion of men is less favorable, and
she perhaps at last falls a conscious prey to the gospel of the
feminists, and learns that for ages woman was a drudge and
man a brute whom women should now rise and subdue or
at least insist for herself on all his rights and positions.

Fortunately few and now ever fewer reach this extreme.
Among the greatest achievements of our race, I esteem the
work of woman, largely in the last generation or two, in work-

6i2 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

ing out manifold new careers for herself, wherein those whom
men exclude from it can rebuild so fair a substitute for their
original Eden. So happy can the unwed now be in self-support-
ing vocations of charity, teaching, art, literature, religious and
social vocations, and lighter manual callings requiring skill,
fidelity, taste, in many of which lines she naturally excels
man, that she finds not only consolation but content and joy.
Here she is making the best possible original solution of her
great problems, imposed on her by existing conditions, while
many declared she could never do so, and no lover of his kind
can fail to bid her so hearty a godspeed in all these endeavors.
Those who see most clearly that bad conditions have forced
her to compromise with her ideals, most fervently trust that
her success in so doing may never make them forgotten.

VI. Education. — The long battle of woman and her friends
for equal educational and other opportunities is essentially
won all along the line. Her academic achievements have
forced conservative minds to admit that her intellect is not
inferior to that of man. The old cloistral seclusion and exclu-
sion is forever gone and new ideals are arising. It has been
a noble movement and is a necessary first stage of woman's
emancipation. The caricatured maidens " as beautiful as an
angel but as silly as a goose," who come from the kitchen
to the husband's study to ask how much is two times two,
and are told it is four for a man and three for a woman, and
go back with a happy " Thank you, my dear " ; those who love
to be called baby, and appeal to instincts half parental in their
lovers and husbands ; those who find all the sphere they desire
in a doll's house, like Nora's, and are content to be men's pets ;
whose ideal is the clinging vine, and who take no interest in
the field where their husbands struggle, will perhaps soon sur-
vive only as a diminishing remainder. Marriages do still
occur where woman's ignorance and helplessness seem to be
the chief charm to men, and may be happy, but such cases are
no farther from the present ideal and tendency on the one
hand than on the other are those which consist in intellectual
partnerships, where there is no segregation of interests but
which are devoted throughout to joint work or enjoyment.

A typical contemporary writer^ thinks the question

1 David Starr Jordan: The Higher Education of Women. Pop. Sci. Mo., Dec, 1902.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 613

whether a girl shall receive a college education is very like the
same question for boys. Even if the four K's, Kirche, Kinder,
Kuchen, and Kleider, are her vocation, college may help her.
The best training for a young woman is not the old college
course that has proven unfit for young men. Most college men
look forward to a professional training as few women do. The
latter have often greater sympathy, readiness of memory, pa-
tience with technic, skill in literature and language, but lack
originality, are not attracted by unsolved problems, are less
motor-minded; but their training is just as serious and im-
portant as that of men. The best results are where the sexes
are brought closer together, because their separation generally
emphasizes for girls the technical training for the profession of
womanhood. With girls, literature and language take preced-
ence over science; expression stands higher than action; the
scholarship may be superior, but is not effective ; the educated
woman " is likely to master technic rather than art ; method,
rather than substance. She may know a good deal, but she
can do nothing." In most separate colleges for women, old
traditions are more prevalent than in colleges for men. In the
annex system, she does not get the best of the institution. By
the coeducation method, " young men are more earnest, better
in manners and morals, and in all ways more civilized than
under monastic conditions. The women do more work in a
more natural way, with better perspective and with saner in-
centives than when isolated from the influence of the society of
men. There is less silliness and folly where a man is not a
novelty. In coeducational institutions of high standards,
frivolous conduct or scandals of any form are rarely known.
The responsibility for decorum is thrown from the school to
the woman, and the woman rises to the responsibility." The
character of college work has not been lowered but raised by
coeducation, despite the fact that most of the new, small,
weak colleges are coeducational. Social strain, Jordan thinks,
is easily regulated, and the dormitory system is on the whole
best, because the college atmosphere is highly prized. The
reasons for the present reaction against coeducation are as-
cribed partly to the dislike of the idle boy to have girls excel
him and see his failures, or because rowdyish tendencies are
checked by the presence of women. Some think that girls do

6 14 THE PSYCHOLOGY OlF ADOLESCENCE

not help athletics; that men count for most because they are
more apt to be heard from later; but the most serious new
argument is the fear that woman's standards and amateurish-
ness will take the place of specialization. Women take up
higher education because they like it; men because their
careers depend upon it. Hence their studies are more objec-
tive and face the world as it is. In college the women do as
well as men, but not in the university. The half-educated
woman as a social factor has produced many soft lecture
courses and cheap books. This is an argument for the higher
education of the sex. Finally, Jordan insists that coeducation
leads to marriage, and he believes that its best basis is common
interest and intellectual friendship.

From the available data it seems, however, that the more
scholastic the education of women, the fewer children and the
harder, more dangerous, and more dreaded is parturition, and
the less the ability to nurse children. Not intelligence but edu-
cation by present man-made ways is inversely as fecundity.
The sooner and the more clearly this is recognized as' a uni-
versal rule, not, of course, without many notable and much
vaunted exceptions, the better for our civilization. For one, I
plead with no whit less earnestness and conviction than any
of the feminists, and indeed with more fervor because on
nearly all their grounds and also on others, for the higher
education of women, and would welcome them to every oppor-
tunity available to men if they can not do better; but I would
open to their election another education, which every compe-
tent judge would pronounce more favorable to motherhood,
under the influence of female principals who do not publicly
say that it is " not desirable " that women students should
study motherhood, because they do not know whether they
will marry; who encourage them to elect " no special subjects
because they are women," and who think infant psychology
" foolish."

Various interesting experiments in coeducation are now
being made in England.^ Some are whole-hearted and en-
courage the girls to do almost everj^hing that the boys do in

' Coeducation. A series of essays by various authors, edited by Alice Woods.
With an introduction by M. E. Sadler. London, 1903, p. 148 et seq.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 6i5

both study and play. There are girl prefects, cricket teams
are formed sometimes of both sexes, but often the sexes
matched against each other, one play-yard, a dual staff of
teachers, and friendships between the boys and girls are not
tabooed, etc. In other schools the sexes meet perhaps in reci-
tation only, have separate rooms for study, entrances, play-
grounds, and their relations are otherwise restricted. The
opinion of English writers generally favors coeducation up to
about the beginning of the teens, and from there on views are
more divided. It is admitted that, if there is a very great pre-
ponderance of either sex over the other, the latter is likely to
lose its characteristic qualities, and something of this occurs
where the average age of one sex is distinctly greater than that
of the other. On the other hand, several urge that, where age
and numbers are equal, each sex is more inclined to develop
the best qualities peculiar to itself in the presence of the other.
Some girls are no doubt far fitter for boys' studies and
men's careers than others. Coeducation, too, generally means
far more assimilation of girls' to boys' ways and work than
conversely. Many people believe that girls either gain or are
more affected by coeducation, especially in the upper grades,
than boys. It is interesting, however, to observe the differ-
ences that still persist. Certain games, like football and box-
ing, girls can not play ; they do not fight ; they are not flogged
or caned as English boys are when their bad marks foot up
beyond a certain aggregate; girls are more prone to cliques;
their punishments must be in appeals to school sentiment, to
which they are exceedingly sensitive; it is hard for them to
bear defeat in games with the same dignity and unruffled
temper as boys; it is harder for them to accept the school
standards of honor that condemn the tell-tale as a sneak, al-
though they soon learn this. They may be a little in danger
of being roughened by boyish ways and especially by the crude
and unique language, almost a dialect in itself, prevalent
among schoolboys. Girls are far more prone to overdo ; boys
are persistingly lazy and idle. Girls are content to sit and
have the subject-matter pumped into them by recitations, etc.,
and to merely accept, while boys are more inspired by being
told to do things and make tests and experiments. In this,
girls are often quite at sea. One writer speaks of a certain

6i6 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

feminine obliquity, but hastens to say that girls in these
schools soon accept its code of honor. It is urged, too, that
in singing classes the voices of each sex are better in quality
for the presence of the other. In many topics of all kinds
boys and girls are interested in different aspects of the same
theme, and therefore the work is broadened. In manual
training girls excel in all artistic work; boys, in carpentry.
Girls can be made not only less noxiously sentimental and
impulsive, but their conduct tends to become more thoughtful ;
they can be made to feel responsibility for bestowing their
praise aright and thus influencing the tone of the school.
Calamitous as it would be for the education of boys beyond
a certain age to be entrusted entirely or chiefly to women, it
would be less so for that of girls to be given entirely to men.
Perhaps the great women teachers, whose life and work have
made them a power with girls comparable to that of Arnold
and Thring with boys, are dying out. Very likely economic
motives are too dominant for this problem to be settled on its
merits only. Finally, several writers mention the increased
healthfulness of moral tone. The vices that infest boys'
schools, which Arnold thought a quantity constantly changing
with every class, are diminished. Healthful thoughts of sex,
less subterranean and base imaginings on the one hand, and
less gushy sentimentality on the other, are favored. For
either sex to be a copy of the other is to be weakened, and
each comes normally to respect more and to prefer their
own sex.

Not to pursue this subject further here, it is probable that
many of the causes for the facts set forth are very different
and some of them almost diametrically opposite in the two
sexes. Hard as it is per se, it is after all a comparatively easy
matter to educate boys. They are less peculiarly responsive
in mental tone to the physical and psychic environment, tend
more strongly and early to special interests, and react more
vigorously against the obnoxious elements of their surround-
ings. This is truest of the higher education, and more so in
proportion as the tendencies of the age are toward special and
vocational training. Woman, as we saw, in every fiber of her
soul and body is a more generic creature than man, nearer to
the race, and demands more and more with advancing age an

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 617

education that is essentially liberal and humanistic. This is
progressively hard when the sexes differentiate in the higher
grades. Moreover, nature decrees that with advancing civi-
lization the sexes shall not approximate, but differentiate, and
we shall probably be obliged to carry sex distinctions, at least
of method, into many if not most of the topics of the higher
education. Now that woman has by general consent attained
the right to the best that man has, she must seek a training
that fits her own nature as well or better. So' long as she
strives to be manlike she will be inferior and a pinchbeck imi-
tation, but she must develop a new sphere that shall be like
the rich field of the cloth of gold for the best instincts of her
nature.

Divergence is most marked and sudden in the pubescent
period — in the early teens. At this age, by almost world-
wide consent, boys and girls separate for a time, and lead
their lives during this most critical period more or less apart,
at least for a few years, until the ferment of mind and body
which results in maturity of functions then born and culminat-
ing in nubility, has done its work. The family and the home
abundantly recognize this tendency. At twelve or fourteen,
brothers and sisters develop a life more independent of each
other than before. Their home occupations differ as do their
plays, games, tastes. History, anthropology, and sociology,
as well as home life, abundantly illustrate this. This is normal
and biological. What our schools and other institutions should
do, is not to obliterate these differences to make boys more
manly and girls more womanly. We should respect the law
of sexual differences, and not forget that motherhood is a very
different thing from fatherhood. Neither sex should copy nor
set patterns to the other, but all parts should be played har-
moniously and clearly in the great sex symphony.

I have here less to say against coeducation in college, still
less in university grades after the maturity which comes at
eighteen or twenty has been achieved, but it is high time to
ask ourselves whether the theory and practise of identical co-
education, especially in the high school, which has lately been
carried to a greater extreme in this country than the rest of
the world recognizes, has not brought certain grave dangers,
and whether it does not interfere with the natural differentia-

6l8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

tions seen everywhere else. I recognize, of course, the great
argument of economy. Indeed, we should save money and
effort could we unite churches of not too diverse creeds. We
could thus give better preaching, music, improve the edifice,
etc. I am by no means ready to advocate the radical abolition
of coeducation, but we can already sum up in a rough, brief
way our account of profit and loss with it. On the one hand,
no doubt each sex develops some of its own best qualities best
in the presence of the other, but the question still remains, how
much, when, and in what way, identical coeducation secures
this end?

Girls and boys are often interested in different aspects of
the same topic, and this may have a tendency to broaden the
view-point of both and bring it into sympathy with that of the
other, but the question still remains whether one be not too
much attracted to the sphere of the other, especially girls to
that of boys. No doubt some girls become a little less gushy,
their conduct more thoughtful, and their sense of responsibility
greater, for one of woman's great functions, which is that of
bestowing praise aright, is increased. There is also much
evidence that certain boys' vices are mitigated ; they are made
more urbane and their thoughts of sex made more healthful.
In some respects boys are stimulated to good scholarship by
girls, who in many schools and topics excel them. We should
ask, however, what is nature's way at this stage of life?
Whether boys, in order to be well virified later, ought not to
be so boisterous and even rough as to be at times unfit com-
panions for girls; or whether, on the other hand, girls to be
best matured ought not to have their sentimental periods of
instability, especially when we venture to raise the question,
whether for a girl in the early teens, when her health for her
whole life depends upon normalizing the lunar month, there
is not something unhygienic, unnatural, not to say a little
monstrous, in school associations with boys when she must
suppress and conceal her feelings and instinctive promptings
at those times which suggest withdrawing, to let nature do its
beautiful work of inflorescence. It is a sacred time of rever-
ent exemption from the hard struggle of existence in the
world and from mental effort in the school. Medical special-
ists, many of the best of whom now insist that through this

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 619

period she should be, as it were, " turned out to grass," or
should lie fallow, so far as intellectual efforts go, one-fourth
the time, no doubt often go too far, but their unanimous voice
should not entirely be disregarded.

It is not this, however, that I have chiefly in mind here,
but the effects of too familiar relations and, especially, of
the identical work, treatment, and environment of the modern
school.

We have now at least eight good and independent statis-
tical studies which show that the ideals of boys from ten years
on are almost always those of their own sex, while girls' ideals
are increasingly of the opposite sex, or also those of men.
That the ideals of pubescent girls are not found in the great
and noble women of the world or in their literature, but more
and more in men, suggests a divorce between the ideals
adopted and the line of life best suited to the interests of the
race. We are not furnished in our public schools with ade-
quate womanly ideals in history or literature. The new love
of freedom which women have lately felt inclines girls to
abandon the home for the office. " It surely can hardly be
called an ideal education for women that permits eighteen
out of one hundred college girls to state boldly that they would
rather be men than women." More than one-half of the
schoolgirls in these censuses choose male ideals, as if those
of femininity are disintegrating. A recent writer,^ in view
of this fact, states that " unless there is a change of trend, we
shall soon have a female sex without a female character." In
the progressive numerical feminization of our schools most
teachers, perhaps naturally and necessarily, have more or less
masculine ideals, and this does not encourage the development
of those that constitute the glory of womanhood. " At every
age from eight to sixteen girls named from three to twenty
more ideals than boys." " These facts indicate a condition of
diffused interests and lack of clear-cut purposes and a need
of integration."

When we turn to boys the case is different. In most pub-
lic high schools girls preponderate, especially in the upper

^ The Evolution of Ideals. W. G. Chambers, Ped. Sem., March, 1903, vol. x,
p. loi et seq. Also, B. Warner: The Young Woman, &c.. New York, 1903,
pp. 218.

620 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

classes, and in many of them the boys that remain are prac-
tically in a girls' school, sometimes taught chiefly, if not solely,
by women teachers at an age when strong men should be in
control more than at any other period of life. Boys need a
different discipline and moral regimen and atmosphere. They
also need a different method of work. Girls excel them in
learning and memorization, accepting studies upon suggestion
or authority, but are often quite at sea when set to make tests
and experiments that give individuality and a chance for self-
expression, which is one of the best things in boyhood. Girls
preponderate in our overgrown high school Latin and algebra,
because custom and tradition and, perhaps, advice incline them
to it. They preponderate in English and history classes more
often, let us hope, from inner inclination. The boy sooner
grows restless in a curriculum where form takes precedence
over content. He revolts at much method with meager mat-
ter. He craves utility, and when all these instincts are denied,
without knowing what is the matter, he drops out of school,
when with robust tone and with a truly boy life, such as pre-
vails at Harrow, Eton, and Rugby, he would have fought it
through and have done well. This feminization of the school
spirit, discipline, and personnel is bad for boys. Of course, on
the whole, perhaps, they are made more gentlemanly, at ease,
their manners improved, and all this to a woman teacher seems
excellent, but something is the matter with the boy in early
teens who can be truly called " a perfect gentleman." That
should come later, when the brute and animal element have
had opportunity to work themselves off in a healthful normal
way. They still have football to themselves, and are the
majority perhaps in chemistry, and sometimes in physics, but
there is danger of a settled eviration. The segregation, which
even some of our schools are now attempting, is always in
some degree necessary for full and complete development.
Just as the boys' language is apt to creep into that of the girl,
so girls' interests, ways, standards and tastes, which are crude
at this age, sometimes attract boys out of their orbit. While
some differences are emphasized by contact, others are compro-
mised. Boys tend to grow content with mechanical, memor-
ized work, and excelling on the lines of girls' qualities, fail to
develop those of their own. There is a little charm and bloom

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 621

rubbed off the ideal of girlhood by close contact, and boyhood
seems less ideal to girls at close range. In place of the mystic
attraction of the other sex that has inspired so much that is
best in the world, familiar camaraderie brings a little disen-
chantment. The impulse to be at one's best in the presence
of the other sex grows lax and sex tension remits, and each
comes to feel itself seen through, so that there is less motive
to indulge in the ideal conduct which such motives inspire,
because the call for it is incessant. This disillusioning weak-
ens the motivation to marriage sometimes on both sides, when
girls grow careless in their dress and too negligent in their
manners, one of the best schools of woman's morals, and when
boys lose all restraints which the presence of girls usually en-
forces, there is a subtle deterioration. Thus, I believe, al-
though of course it is impossible to prove, that this is one of
the factors of a decreasing percentage of marriage among edu-
cated young men and women.

At eighteen or twenty the girl normally reaches a stage of
first maturity when her ideas of life are amazingly keen and
true; when, if her body is developed, she can endure a great
deal ; when she is nearest, perhaps, the ideal of feminine beauty
and perfection. Of this we saw illustrations in Chapter VIII.
In our environment, however, there is a little danger that this
age once well past there will slowly arise a slight sense of
aimlessness or lassitude, unrest, uneasiness, as if one were
almost unconsciouly feeling along the wall for a door to which
the key was not at hand. Thus some lose their bloom and,
yielding to the great danger of young womanhood, slowly
lapse to an anxious state of expectancy, or they desire some-
thing not within their reach, and so the diathesis of restless-
ness slowly supervenes. The best thing about college life for
girls is, perhaps, that it postpones this incipient disappoint-
ment, but it is a little pathetic to me to read, as I have lately
done, the class letters of hundreds of girl graduates, out of
college one, two, or three years, turning a little to art, music,
travel, teaching, charity work, one after the other, or trying
to find something to which they can devote themselves, some
cause, movement, occupation, where their capacity for altru-
ism and self-sacrifice can find a field. The tension is almost
imperceptible, perhaps quite unconscious. It is everywhere

622 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

overborne by a keen interest in life, by a desire to know the
world at first hand, while susceptibilities are at their height.
The apple of intelligence has been plucked at perhaps a little
too great cost of health. The purely mental has not been quite
sufficiently kept back. The girl wishes to know a good deal
more of the world and perfect her own personality, and would
not marry, although every cell of her body and every uncon-
scious impulse points to just that end. Soon, it may be in
five or ten years or more, the complexion of ill health is seen
in these notes, or else life has been adjusted to independence
and self-support. Many of these bachelor women are mag-
nificent in mind and body, but they lack wifehood and yet more
— motherhood.

In fine, we should use these facts as a stimulus to ask more
searchingly the question whether the present system of higher
education for both sexes is not lacking in some very essential
elements, and if so what these are. Indeed, considering the
facts that in our social system man makes the advances and
that woman is by nature more prone than man to domesticity
and parenthood, it is not impossible that men's colleges do
more to unfit for these than do those for women. One cause
may be moral. Ethics used to be taught as a practical power
for life and reenforced by religious motives. Now it is theo-
retical and speculative and too often led captive by metaphys-
ical and epistemological speculations. Sometimes girls work
or worry more over studies and ideals than is good for their
constitution, and boys grow idle and indifferent, and this pro-
verbially tends to bad habits. Perhaps fitting for college has
been too hard at the critical age of about eighteen, and require-
ments of honest, persevering work during college years too
little enforced, or grown irksome by physiological reaction of
lassitude from the strain of fitting and entering. Again, girls
mature earlier than boys, and the latter who have been edu-
cated with them tend to certain elements of maturity and com-
pleteness too early in life, and their growth period is shortened
or its momentum lessened by an atmosphere of femininity.
Something is clearly wrong, and more so here than we have
at present any reason to think is the case among the academic
male or female youth of other lands. To see and admit that
there is an evil very real, deep, exceedingly difficult and com-

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 623

plex in its causes, but grave and demanding a careful recon-
sideration of current educational ideas and practises, is the
first step, and this every thoughtful and well-informed mind, I
believe, must now take.

It is utterly impossible without injury to hold girls to the
same standards of conduct, regularity, severe moral accounta-
bility, and strenuous mental work that boys need. The priv-
ileges and immunities of her sex are inveterate, and with these
the American girl in the middle teens fairly tingles with a
new-born consciousness. Already she occasionally asserts her-
self in the public high school against a male teacher or prin-
cipal who seeks to enforce discipline by methods boys respect
in a way that suggests that the time is at hand when popu-
larity with her sex will be as necessary in a successful teacher
as it is in the pulpit. In these interesting cases where girl
sentiment has made itself felt in school it has generally carried
parents, committeemen, the press, and public sentiment before
it, and has already made a precious little list o£ martyrs whom,
were I an educational pope, I would promptly canonize. The
progressive feminization of secondary education works its
subtle demoralization on the male teachers who remain.
Public sentiment would sustain them in many in loco parentis
exactions with boys which it disallows in mixed classes. It is
hard, too, for male principals of schools with only female
teachers not to suffer some deterioration in the moral tone
of their virility and to lose in the power to cope successfully
with men. Not only is this often confessed and deplored, but
the incessant compromises the best male teachers of mixed
classes must make with their pedagogic convictions in both
teaching and discipline make the profession less attractive to
manly men of large caliber and of sound fiber. Again, the
recent rapid increase of girls, the percentage of which to popu-
lation in high schools has in many communities doubled in
but little more than a decade, almost necessarily involves a
decline in the average quality of girls, perhaps as much greater
for them as for boys as their increase has been greater. When
but few were found in these institutions they were usually
picked girls with superior tastes and ability, but now the aver-
age girl of the rank and file is, despite advanced standards of
admission, of an order natively lower. From this deteriora-

624 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

tion both boys and teachers suffer, even though the greatest
good for the greatest number may be enhanced. Once more it
is generally admitted that girls in good boarding-schools, where
evenings, food, and regimen are controlled, are in better health
than day pupils with social, church, and domestic duties and
perhaps worries to which boys are less subject. This is the
nascent stage of periodicity to the slow normalization of
which, during these few critical years, everything that inter-
feres should yield. Some kind of tacit recognition of this is
indispensable, but in mixed classes every form of such con-
cession is baffling and demoralizing to boys.

The women who really achieve the higher culture should
make it their " cause " or " mission " to work out the new
humanistic or liberal education which the old college claimed
to stand for and which now needs radical reconstruction to
meet the demands of modern life. In science they should aim
to restore the humanistic elements of its history, biography,
its popular features at their best, and its applications in all
the more non-technical fields, as described in Chapter XII, and
feel responsibility not to let the moral, religious, and poetic
aspects of nature be lost in utilities. Woman should be true
to her generic nature and take her stand against all premature
specialization, and when the Zeitgeist insists on an ad hoc
training for occupative pursuits without waiting for broad
foundations to be laid, she should resist all these influences
that make for psychological precocity. Das Ezvig-Weibliche
is no iridescent fiction but a very definable reality, and means
perennial youth. It means that woman at her best never out-
grows adolescence as man does, but lingers in, magnifies and
glorifies this culminating stage of life with its all-sided inter-
ests, its convertibility of emotions, its enthusiasm, and zest for
all that is good, beautiful, true, and heroic. This constitutes
her freshness and charm, even in age, and makes her by nature
more humanistic than man, more sympathetic and apprecia-
tive. It is not chiefly the 70,000 superfluous American women
of the last census, but representatives of every class and age
in the four thousand women's clubs of this country that now
find some leisure for general culture in all fields, and in which
most of them no doubt surpass their husbands. Those who
still say that men do not like women to be their mental su-

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 625

periors and that no man was ever won by the attraction of
intellect, on the one hand, and those who urge that women
really want husbands to be their intellectual superiors, both
misapprehend. The male in all the orders of life is the agent
of variation and tends by nature to expertness and specializa-
tion, without which his individuality is incomplete. In his
chosen line he would lead and be authoritative and rarely seeks
partnership in it in marriage. This is no subjection, but
woman instinctively respects and even reveres, and perhaps
educated woman is coming to demand, it in the man of her
whole-hearted choice. This granted, man was never more
plastic to woman's great work of creating in him all the wide
range of secondary sex qualities which constitute his essential
manhood. In all this the pedagogic fathers we teach in the
history of education are most of them about as luminous and
obsolete as is patristics for the religious teacher, or as methoHs
of other countries are coming to be in solving our own pecul-
iar pedagogic problems. The relation of the academically
trained sexes is faintly typified by that of the ideal college to
the ideal university, professional or technical school. This is
the harmony of counterparts and constitutes the best basis of
psychic amphimixis. For the reinstallation of the humanistic
college the time has come when cultivated woman ought to
come forward and render vital aid. If she does so and helps
to evolve a high school and an A. B. course that is truly liberal,
it will not only fit her nature and needs far better than any-
thing now existing, but young men at the humanistic stage of
their own education will seek to profit by it, and she will thus
repay her debt to man in the past by aiding him to de-univer-
sitize the college and to rescue secondary education from its
gravest dangers.

But even should all this be done, coeducation would by no
means be thus justified. If adolescent boys normally pass
through a generalized or even feminized stage of psychic de-
velopment in which they are peculiarly plastic to the guidance
of older women who have such rare insight into their
nature, such infinite sympathy and patience with all the symp-
toms of their storm and stress metamorphosis, when they seek
everything by turns and nothing long, and if young men will
forever afterward understand woman's nature better for living

626 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

out more fully this stage of their lives and will fail to do so
if it is abridged or dwarfed, it by no means follows that inti-
mate daily and class-room association with girls of their own
age is necessary or best. The danger of this is that the boy's
instinct to assert his own manhood will thus be made prema-
ture and excessive, that he will react against general culture
in the capacity for which girls, who are older than boys at
the same age, naturally excel them. Companionship and com-
parisons incline him to take premature refuge in some one
talent that emphasizes his psycho-sexual difference too soon.
Again, he is farther from nubile maturity than the girl class-
mate of his own age, and coeducation and marriage between
them are prone to violate the important physiological law of
disparity that requires the husband to be some years the wife's
senior, both in their own interests as maturity begins to de-
cline to age and in those of their offspring. Thus the young
man with his years of restraint and probation ahead, and his
inflammable desires, is best removed from the half-conscious
cerebrations about wedlock, inevitably more insistent with con-
stant girl companionship. If he resists this during all the
years of his apprenticeship, he grows more immune and inhib-
itive of it when its proper hour arrives, and perhaps becomes
in soul a bachelor before his time. In this side of his nature
he is forever incommensurate with and unintelligible to
woman, be she even teacher, sister, or mother. Better some
risk of gross thoughts and even acts, to which phylogeny and
recapitulation so strongly incline him, than this subtle evira-
tion. But if the boy is unduly repelled from the sphere of
girls' interests, the girl is in some danger of being unduly
drawn to his, and, as we saw above, of forgetting some of the
ideals of her own sex. Riper in mind and body than her male
classmate, and often excelling him in the capacity of acquisi-
tion, nearer the age of her full maturity than he to his, he
seems a little too crude and callow to fulfil the ideals of man-
hood normal to her age which point to older and riper men.
In all that makes sexual attraction best, a classmate of her
own age is too undeveloped, and so she often suffers mute
disenchantment, and even if engagement be dreamed of, it
would be on her part with unconscious reservations if not with
some conscious renunciation of ideals. Thus the boy is correct

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 627

in feeling himself understood and seen through by his girl
classmates to a degree that is sometimes quite distasteful to
him, while the girl finds herself misunderstood by and disap-
pointed in men. Boys arrive at the humanistic stage of cul-
ture later than girls and pass it sooner, and to find them
already there and with their greater aptitude excelling him,
is not an inviting situation, and so he is tempted to abridge
or cut it out and to hasten on and be mature and professional
before his time, for thus he gravitates toward his normal rela-
tion to her sex of expert mastership on some bread- or fame-
winning line. Of course, these influences are not patent, de-
monstrable by experiment, or measurable by statistics, but I
have come to believe that, like many other facts and laws, they
have a reality and a dominance that is all-pervasive and in-
eluctable, and that they will ultimately prevail over economic
motives and traditions.

To be a true woman means to be yet more mother than
wife. The madonna conception expresses man's highest com-
prehension of woman's real nature. Sexual relations are brief,
but love and care of offspring are long. The elimination of
maternity is one of the great calamities, if not diseases, of our
age. Marholm ^ points out at length how art again to-day
gives woman a waspish waist with no abdomen, as if to care-
fully score away every trace of her mission; usually with no
child in her arms or even in sight ; a mere figurine, calculated
perhaps to entice, but not to bear; incidentally degrading the
artist who depicts her to a fashion-plate painter, perhaps with
suggestions of the arts of toilet, cosmetics, and coquetry, as if
to promote decadent reaction to decadent stimuli. As in the
Munchausen tale, the wolf slowly ate the running nag from
behind until he found himself in the harness, so in the dis-
oriented woman the mistress, virtuous and otherwise, is slowly
supplanting the mother. Please she must, even though she
can not admire, and can so easily despise men who can not
lead her, although she become thereby lax and vapid.

The more exhausted men become, whether by overwork,
unnatural city life, alcohol, recrudescent polygamic inclina-
tions, exclusive devotion to greed and pelf; whether they

* The Psychology of Woman. London, 1899.

628 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

become weak, stooping, blear-eyed, bald-headed, bow-legged,
thin-shanked, or gross, coarse, barbaric, and bestial, the more
they lose the power to lead woman or to arouse her nature,
which is essentially passive. Thus her perversions are his
fault. Man, before he lost the soil and piety, was not only
her protector and provider, but her priest. He not only sup-
ported and defended, but inspired the souls of women, so ad-
mirably calculated to receive and elaborate suggestions, but
not to originate them. In their inmost soul even young girls
often experience disenchantment, find men little and no he-
roes, and so cease to revere and begin to think stupidly of
them as they think coarsely of her. Sometimes the girlish con-
ceptions of men are too romantic and exalted; often the in-
timacy of school and college wear off a charm, while man must
not forget that to-day he too often fails to realize the just and
legitimate expectations and ideals of women. If women con-
fide themselves, body and soul, less to him than he desires, it
is not she, but he, who is often chiefly to blame. Indeed, in
some psychic respects it seems as if in human society the proc-
esses of subordinating the male to the female, carried so far
in some of the animal species, had already begun. If he is
not worshiped as formerly, it is because he is less worshipful
or more effeminate, less vigorous and less able to excite and
retain the great love of true, not to say great, women. Where
marriage and maternity are of less supreme interest to an in-
creasing number of women, there are various results, the chief
of which are as follows :

1. Women grow dollish; sink more or less consciously to
man's level; gratify his desires and even his selfish caprices,
but exact in return luxury and display, growing vain as he
grows sordid; thus, while submitting, conquering, and tyran-
nizing over him, content with present worldly pleasure, un-
mindful of the past, the future, or the above. This may react
to intersexual antagonism until man comes to hate woman as
a witch, or, as in the days of celibacy, consider sex a wile of
the devil. Along these lines even the stage is beginning to
represent the tragedies of life.

2. The disappointed woman in whom something is dying
comes to assert her own ego and more or less consciously to
make it an end, aiming to possess and realize herself fully

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 629

rather than to transmit. Despairing of herself as a woman, she
asserts her lower rights in the place of her one great right to
be loved. The desire for love may be transmuted into the
desire for knowledge, or outer achievement become a suc-
cedaneum for inner content. Failing to respect herself as a
productive organism, she gives vent to personal ambitions;
seeks independence; comes to know very plainly what she
wants; perhaps becomes intellectually emancipated, and sub-
stitutes science for religion, or the doctor for the priest, with
the all-sided impressionability characteristic of her sex which,
when cultivated, is so like an awakened child. She perhaps
even affects mannish ways, unconsciously copying from those
not most manly, or comes to feel that she has been robbed of
something ; competes with men, but sometimes where they are
most sordid, brutish, and strongest; always expecting, but
never finding, she turns successively to art, science, literature,
and reforms; craves especially work that she can not do; and
seeks stimuli for feelings which have never found their legiti-
mate expression.

3. Another type, truer to woman's nature, subordinates
self; goes beyond personal happiness; adopts the motto of self-
immolation ; enters a life of service, denial, and perhaps morti-
fication, like the Countess Schimmelmann ; and perhaps be-
comes a devotee, a saint, and, if need be, a martyr, but all with
modesty, humility, and with a shrinking from publicity.

In our civilization, I believe that bright girls of good en-
vironment of eighteen or nineteen, or even seventeen, have
already reached the above-mentioned peculiar stage of first
maturity, when they see the world at first hand, when the
senses are at their very best, their susceptibilities and their in-
sights the keenest, tension at its highest, plasticity and all-sided
interests most developed, and their whole psychic soil richest
and rankest and sprouting everywhere with the tender shoots
of everything both good and bad. Some such — Stella Klive,
Mary MacLane, Hilma Strandberg, Marie Bashkirtseff — have
been veritable spies upon woman's nature; have revealed the
characterlessness normal to the prenubile period in which
everything is kept tentative and plastic, and where life seems
to have least unity, aim, or purpose. By and by perhaps they
will see in all their scrappy past, if not order and coherence.

630 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

a justification, and then alone will they realize that life is gov-
erned by motives deeper than those which are conscious or
even personal. This is the age when, if ever, no girl should
be compelled. It is the experiences of this age, never entirely
obliterated in women, that enables them to take adolescent boys
seriously, as men can rarely do, in whom these experiences are
more limited in range though no less intense. It is this stage
in woman which is most unintelligible to man and even un-
realized to herself. It is the echoes from it that make vast
numbers of mothers pursue the various branches of culture,
often half secretly, to maintain their position with their college
sons and daughters, with their husbands, or with society.

But in a very few years, I believe even in the early twenties
with American girls, along with rapidly increasing develop-
ment of capacity there is also observable the beginnings of loss
and deterioration. Unless marriage comes there is lassitude,
subtle symptoms of invalidism, the germs of a rather aimless
dissatisfaction with life, a little less interest, curiosity, and
courage, certain forms of self-pampering, the resolution to be
happy, though at too great cost; and thus the clear air of
morning begins to haze over and unconsciously she begins to
grope. By thirty, she is perhaps goaded into more or less
sourness ; has developed more petty self-indulgences ; has come
to feel a right to happiness almost as passionately as the men
of the French Revolution and as the women in their late
movement for enfranchisement felt for liberty. Very likely
she has turned to other women and entered into innocent Pla-
tonic pairing-off relations with some one. There is a little more
affectation, playing a role, and interest in dress and appearance
is either less or more specialized and definite. Perhaps she has
already begun to be a seeker who will perhaps find, lose, and
seek again. Her temper is modified ; there is a slight stagna-
tion of soul ; a craving for work or travel ; a love of children
with flitting thoughts of adopting one, or else aversion to them ;
an analysis of psychic processes until they are weakened and
insight becomes too clear ; a sense of responsibility without an
object; a slight general malaise and a sense that society is a
false " margarine " affair; revolt against those that insist that
in her child the real value of a woman is revealed. There are
alternations between excessive self-respect which demands
something almost like adoration of the other sex and self-

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 631

distrust, with, it may be, many dreameries about forbidden
subjects and about the relations of the sexes generally.

A new danger, the greatest in the history of her sex, now
impends, viz., arrest, complacency, and a sense of finality in
the most perilous first stage of higher education for girls,
when, after all, little has actually yet been won save only the
right and opportunity to begin reconstructions, so that now
for the first time in history methods and matter could be rad-
ically transformed to fit the nature and needs of girls. Now
most female faculties, trustees, and students are content to ape
the newest departures in some one or more male institutions
as far as their means or obvious limitations make possible with
a servility which is often abject and with rarely ever a thought
of any adjustment, save the most superficial, to sex. It is the
easiest, and therefore the most common, view typically ex-
pressed by the female head of a very successful institution,^
who was " early convinced in my teaching experience that the
methods for mental development for boys and girls applied
equally without regard to sex, and I have carried the same
thought when I began to develop the physical, and filled my
gymnasium with the ordinary appliances used in men's gym-
nasia." There is no sex in mind or in science, it is said, but
it might as well be urged that there is no age and hence that
all methods adapted to teaching at different stages of develop-
ment may be ignored. That woman can do many things as
well as man does not prove that she ought to do the same
things, or that man-made ways are the best for her, Mrs.
Alice Freeman Palmer ^ was right in saying that woman's
education has all the perplexities of that of man, and many
more, still more difficult and intricate, of its own.

Hence, we must conclude that, while women's colleges
have to a great extent solved the problem of special technical
training, they have done as yet very little to solve the larger
one of the proper education of woman. To assume that the
latter question is settled, as is so often done, is disastrous. I
have forced myself to go through many elaborate reports of

^ Physical Development of Women and Children, by Miss M. E. Allen. Am.
Ass'n for Phys. Ed., April, 1890.

* Forum, September, 1891. See also Bunge : Die zunehmende Unfahigkeit der
Frauen ihre Kinder zu stillen. Miinchen, 1903, 32 S. Also President Harper's
Decemial Report, p. XCIV., et seq.

632 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

meetings where female education was discussed by those sup-
posed to be competent, but as a rule, not without rare, striking
exceptions, these proceedings are smitten with the same sterile
and complacent artificiality that was so long the curse of
woman's life. I deem it almost reprehensible that, save a few
general statistics, the women's colleges have not only made
no study themselves of the larger problems that impend, but
have often maintained a repellent attitude toward others who
wished to do so. No one that I know of connected with any
of these institutions, where the richest material is going to
waste, is making any serious and competent research on lines
calculated to bring out the psycho-physiological differences be-
tween the sexes, and those in authority are either conservative
by constitution or else intimidated because public opinion is
still liable to panics if discussion here becomes scientific and
fundamental, and so tend to keep prudery and the old habit
of ignoring everything that pertains to sex in countenance.

Again, while I sympathize profoundly with the claim of
woman for every opportunity which she can fill, and yield to
none in appreciation of her ability, I insist that the cardinal
defect in the woman's college is that it is based upon the
assumption, implied and often expressed, if not almost uni-
versally acknowledged, that girls should primarily be trained
to independence and self-support, and that matrimony and
motherhood, if it come, will take care of itself, or, as some even
urge, is thus best provided for. If these colleges are as the
above statistics indicate, chiefly devoted to the training of
those who do not marry, or if they are to educate for celibacy,
this is right. These institutions may perhaps come to be train-
ing stations of a new-old type, the agamic or even agenic
woman, be she aunt, maid — old or young — nun, school-teacher,
or bachelor woman. I recognize the very great debt the world
owes to members of this very diverse class in the past. Some
of them have illustrated the very highest ideals of self-sacri-
fice, service, and devotion in giving to mankind what was
meant for husband and children. Some of them belong to the
class of superfluous women, and others illustrate the noblest
type of altruism and have impoverished the heredity of the
world to its loss, as did the monks, who LesHe Stephens thinks
contributed to bring about the Dark Ages, because they were

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 633

the best and most highly selected men of their age and, by
withdrawing from the function of heredity and leaving no pos-
terity, caused Europe to degenerate. Modern ideas and train-
ing are now doing this, whether for racial weal or woe can not
yet be determined, for many whom nature designed for model
mothers.

The bachelor woman is an interesting illustration of Spen-
cer's law of the inverse relation of individuation and genesis.
The completely developed individual is always a terminal rep-
resentative in her line of descent. She has taken up and util-
ized in her own life all that was meant for her descendants,
and has so overdrawn her account with heredity that, like
every perfectly and completely developed individual, she is
also completely sterile. This is the very apotheosis of selfish-
ness from the standpoint of every biological ethics. While
the complete man can do and sometimes does this, woman has
a far greater and very peculiar power of overdrawing her
reserves. First she loses mammary function, so that should
she undertake maternity its functions are incompletely per-
formed because she can not nurse, and this implies defective
motherhood and leaves love of the child itself defective and
maimed, for the mother who has never nursed can not love
or be loved aright by her child. It crops out again in the
abnormal or especially incomplete development of her off-
spring, in the critical years of adolescence, although they may
have been healthful before, and a less degree of it perhaps
is seen in the diminishing families of cultivated mothers in
the one-child system. These women are the intellectual equals
and often the superiors of the men they meet; they are very
attractive as companions, like Miss Mehr, the university stu-
dent, in Hauptmann's Lonely Lives, who alienated the young
husband from his noble wife; they enjoy all the keen pleasures
of intellectual activity; their very look, step, and bearing is
free; their mentality makes them good fellows and compan-
ionable in all the broad intellectual spheres; to converse with
them is as charming and attractive for the best men as was
Socrates's discourse with the accomplished hetsera ; they are at
home with the racket and on the golf links ; they are splendid
friends ; their minds, in all their widening areas of contact, are
as attractive as their bodies ; and the world owes much and is

634 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

likely to owe far more to high Platonic friendships of this kind.
These women are often in every way magnificent, only they
are not mothers, and sometimes have very little wifehood in
them, and to attempt to marry them to develop these functions
is one of the unique and too frequent tragedies of modern
life and literature. Some, though by no means all, of them
are functionally castrated ; some actively deplore the necessity
of child-bearing, and perhaps are parturition phobiacs, and
abhor the limitations of married life; they are incensed when-
ever attention is called to the functions peculiar to their sex,
and the careful consideration of problems of the monthly rest
are thought *' not fit for cultivated women."

The slow evolution of this type is probably inevitable as
civilization advances, and their training is a noble function.
Already it has produced minds of the greatest acumen who
have made very valuable contributions to science, and far more
is to be expected of them in the future. Indeed, it may be
their noble function to lead their sex out into the higher, larger
life, and the deeper sense of its true position and function, for
which I plead. Hitherto woman has not been able to solve her
own problems. While she has been more religious than man,
there have been few great women preachers; while she has
excelled in teaching young children, there have been few Pes-
talozzis, or even Froebels; while her invalidism is a complex
problem, she has turned to man in her diseases. This is due
to the very intuitiveness and naivete of her nature. But now
that her world is so rapidly widening, she is in danger of
losing her cue. She must be studied objectively and labo-
riously as we study children, and partly by men, because their
sex must of necessity always remain objective and incommen-
surate with regard to woman, and therefore more or less the-
oretical. Again, in these days of intense new interest in feel-
ings, emotions, and sentiments, when many a psychologist now
envies and, like Schleiermacher, devoutly wishes he could be-
come a woman, he can never really understand das Ezvig-
Weibliche, one of the two supreme oracles of guidance in life,
because he is a man, and here the cultivated woman must ex-
plore the nature of her sex as man can not and become its
mouthpiece. In many of the new fields opening in biology
since Darwin, in embryology, botany, the study of children,

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 635

animals, savages (teste Miss Fletcher), sociological investi-
gation, to say nothing of all the vast body of work that re-
quires painstaking detail, perseverance, and conscience, woman
has superior ability, or her very sex gives her peculiar advan-
tages where she is to lead and achieve great things in en-
larging the kingdom of man. Perhaps, too, the present train-
ing of women may in the end develop those who shall one day V
attain a true self-knowledge and lead in the next step of de-
vising a scheme that shall fit woman's nature and needs.

For the slow evolution of such a scheme, we must first of
all distinctly and ostensively invert the present maxim, and
educate primarily and chiefly for motherhood, assuming that if
that does not come single life can best take care of itself, be- ^
cause it is less intricate and lower and its needs far more easily
met. While girls may be trained with boys, coeducation
should cease at the dawn of adolescence, at least for a season.
Great daily intimacy between the sexes in high school, if not
in college, tends to rub off the bloom and delicacy which can
develop in each, and girls suffer in this respect, let us repeat,
far more than boys. The familiar camaraderie that ignores
sex should be left to the agenic class. To the care of their in-
stitutions we leave with pious and reverent hands the ideals
inspired by characters like Hypatia, Madame de Stael, the
Misses Cobb, Martineau, Fuller, Bronte, by George Eliot,
George Sand, and Mrs. Browning, and while accepting and
profiting by what they have done, and acknowledging every
claim for their abilities and achievements, prospective mothers
must not be allowed to forget a still larger class of ideal
women, both in history and literature, from the Holy Mother
to Beatrice Clotilda de Vaux, and all those who have inspired
men to great deeds, and the choice and far richer anthology
of noble mothers.

We must premise, too, that she must not be petted or
pampered with regimen or diet unsuited to her needs; left
to find out as best she can, from surreptitious or unworthy
sources, what she most of all needs to know; must recognize
that our present civilization is hard on woman and that she
is not yet adjusted to her social environment; that as she was
of old accused of having given man the apple of knowledge
of good and evil, so he now is liable to a perhaps no less

636 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

serious indictment of having given her the apple of intellec-
tuahsm and encouraged her to assume his standards at the
expense of health. We must recognize that riches are prob-
ably harder on her, on the whole, than poverty, and that poor
parents should not labor too hard to exempt her from its
wholesome discipline. The expectancy of change so stamped
upon her sex by heredity as she advances into maturity must
not be perverted into uneasiness, or her soul sown with the
tares of ambition or fired by intersexual competition and
driven on, to quote Dr. R. T. Edes, " by a tireless sort of
energy which is a compound of conscience, ambition, and de-
sire to please, plus a peculiar female obstinacy." If she is
bright, she must not be overworked in the school factory,
studying in a way which parodies Hood's Song of the Shirt;
and if dull or feeble, she should not be worried by precep-
tresses like an eminent lady principal,^ who thinks girls' weak-
ness is usually imaginary or laziness, and that doctors are to
blame for suggesting illness and for intimating that men will
have to choose between a healthy animal and an educated in-
valid for a wife.

Without specifying here details or curricula, the ideals that
should be striven toward in the intermediate and collegiate
education of adolescent girls with the proper presupposition
of motherhood, and which are already just as practicable as
Abbotsholme or L'Ecole des Roches, may be rudely indicated
somewhat as follows.

First, the ideal institution for the training of girls from
twelve or thirteen on into the twenties, when the period most
favorable to motherhood begins, should be in the country in
the midst of hills, the climbing of which is the best stimulus
for heart and lungs, and tends to mental elevation and breadth
of view. There should be water for boating, bathing, and
skating, aquaria and aquatic life; gardens both for kitchen
vegetables and horticulture; forests for their seclusion and
religious awe; good roads, walks, and paths that tempt to
walking and wheeling; playgrounds and space for golf and
tennis, with large covered but unheated space favorable for
recreations in weather really too bad for out-of-door life and

1 Forum, 1891, p. 4.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 637

for those indisposed ; and plenty of nooks that permit each to
be alone with nature, for this develops inwardness, poise, and
character, yet not too great remoteness from the city for a
wise utilization of its advantages at intervals. All that can
be called environment is even more important for girls than
boys, significant as it is for the latter.

The first aim, which should dominate every item, peda-
gogic method and matter, should be health — a momentous
word that looms up beside holiness, to which it is etymolog-
ically akin. The new hygiene of the last few years should be
supreme and make these academic areas sacred to the cult of
the goddess Hygeia. Only those who realize what advances
have been made in health culture and know something of its
vast new literature can realize all that this means. The health
of woman is, as we have seen, if possible even more important
for the welfare of the race than that of man, and the influence
of her body upon her mind is, in a sense, greater, so that its
needs should be supreme and primary. Foods should favor
the completest digestion, so that metabolism be on the highest
plane. The dietary should be abundant, plain, and varied, and
cooked with all the refinements possible in the modern cook-
ing-school, which should be one of its departments, with lim-
ited use of rich foods or desserts and stimulating drinks, but
with wholesome proximity to dairy and farm. Nutrition is
the first law of health and happiness, the prime condition and
creator of euphoria, and the appetite should be, as it always is
if unperverted, like a kind of somatic conscience steadfastly
pointing toward the true pole of needs.

Sleep should be regular, with a fixed retiring hour and
curfew, on plain beds in rooms of scrupulous neatness re-
served chiefly for it with every precaution for quiet, and,
if possible, with windows more or less open the year round,
and, like other rooms, never overheated. Bathing in modera-
tion, and especially dress and toilet should be almost raised to
fine arts and objects of constant suggestion. Each student
should have three rooms, for bath, sleep, and study, respect-
ively, and be responsible for their care, with every encourage-
ment for expressing individual tastes, but with an all-domi-
nant idea of simplicity, convenience, refinement, and elegance,
without luxury. Girls need to go away from home a good

638 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

part of every year to escape the indiscretion and often the
coddhng of parents and to learn self-rehance, and a family
dormitory system with but few, twelve to twenty, in each
building, to escape nervous wear and distraction, to secure
intimacy and acquaintance with one or more matrons or
teachers and to ensure the most pedagogic dietetics, is sug-
gested.

Exercise comes after regimen, of which it is a special form.
Swedish gymnastics should be abandoned or reduced to a min-
imum of best points, because it is too severe and lays too little
stress upon the rhythm element in forbidding music. Out-of-
door walks and games should have precedence over all else.
The principle sometimes advocated, that methods of physical
training should apply to both boys and girls without regard to
sex, and with all the ordinary appliances found in the men's
gymnasia introduced, should be reversed and every possible
adjustment made to sex. Free plays and games should always
have precedence over indoor or uniform commando exercises.
Boating and basket-ball should be allowed, but with the com-
petition element sedulously reduced, and with dancing of many
kinds and forms the most prominent of indoor exercises. The
dance cadences the soul; the stately minuet gives poise; the
figure dances train the mind; and pantomime and dramatic
features should be introduced and even specialties, if there are
strong individual predispositions. The history of the dance,
which has often been a mode of worship, a school of morals,
and which is the root of the best that is in the drama, the best
of all exercises and that could be again the heart of our whole
educational system, should be exploited, and the dancing
school and class rescued from its present degradation. No
girl is educated who can not dance, although she need not
know the ballroom in its modern form.^

Manners, a word too often relegated to the past as savor-
ing of the primness of the ancient dame school or female
seminary, are really minor or sometimes major morals. They
can express everything in the whole range of the impulsive
or emotional life. Now that we understand the primacy of
movement over feeling, we can appreciate what a school of

* See vol. i, p. 213 et seq.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 639

bearing and repose in daily converse with others means. I
would revive some of the ancient casuistry of details, but less
the rules of the drawing-room, call and party, although these
should not be neglected, than the deeper expressions of true
ladyhood seen in an exquisite, tender and unselfish regard for
the feelings of others. The ideal of compelling every one
whom they meet to like them is a noble one, and the control of
every automatism is not only a part of good breeding, but
nervous health.

Regularity should be another all-pervading norm. In the
main, even though he may have " played his sex symphony
too harshly," E. H. Clarke was right. Periodicity, perhaps the
deepest law of the cosmos, celebrates its highest triumphs in
woman's life. For years everything must give way to its
thorough and settled establishment. In the monthly Sabbaths
of rest, the ideal school should revert to the meaning of the
word leisure. The paradise of stated rest should be revisited,
idleness be actively cultivated ; reverie, in which the soul, which
needs these seasons of withdrawal for its own development,
expatiates over the whole life of the race, should be provided
for and encouraged in every legitimate way, for in rest the
whole momentum of heredity is felt in ways most favorable
to full and complete development. Then woman should
realize that to be is greater than to do; should step reverently
aside from her daily routine and let Lord Nature work. In
this time of sensitiveness and perturbation, when anemia and
chlorosis are so peculiarly immanent to her sex, remission of
toil should not only be permitted, but required; and yet the
greatest individual liberty should be allowed to adjust itself
to the vast diversities of individual constitutional needs. (See
Chapter VII on this point.) The cottage home, which should
take the place of the dormitory, should always have special
interest and attractions for these seasons.

There should always be some personal instruction at these
seasons during earlier adolescent years. I have glanced over
nearly a score of books and pamphlets that are especially
written for girls ; while all are well meant and far better than
the ordinary modes by which girls acquire knowledge of their
own nature if left to themselves, they are, like books for boys,
far too prolix, and most are too scientific and plain and direct.

640 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Moreover, no two girls need just the same instruction, and to
leave it to reading is too indirect and causes the mind to dwell
on it for too long periods. Best of all is individual instruction
at the time, concise, practical, and never, especially in the early
years, without a certain mystic and religious tone which should
pervade all and make everything sacred. This should not be
given by male physicians — and indeed most female doctors
would make it too professional, and the maiden teacher must
forever lack reverence for it — but it should come from one
whose soul and body are full of wifehood and motherhood and
who is old enough to know and is not without the necessary
technical knowledge.

Another principle should be to broaden by retarding; to
keep the purely mental back and by every method to bring
the intuitions to the front; appeals to tact and taste should
be incessant ; a purely intellectual man is no doubt biologically
a deformity, but a purely intellectual woman is far more so.
Bookishness is probably a bad sign in a girl; it suggests arti-
ficiality, pedantry, the lugging of dead knowledge. Mere
learning is not the ideal, and prodigies of scholarship are al-
ways morbid. The rule should be to keep nothing that is not
to become practical ; to open no brain tracts which are not to be
highways for the daily traffic of thought and conduct ; not to
overburden the soul with the impedimenta of libraries and
records of what is afar off in time or zest, and always to follow
truly the guidance of normal and spontaneous interests wisely
interpreted.

Religion will always hold as prominent a place in woman's
life as politics does in man's, and adolescence is still more its
seedtime with girls than with boys. Its roots are the senti-
ment of awe and reverence, and it is the great agent in the
world for transforming life from its earlier selfish to its only
really mature form of altruism. The tales of the heroes of
virtue, duty, devotion, and self-sacrifice from the Old Testa-
ment come naturally first; then perhaps the prophets para-
phrased as in the pedagogic triumph of Kent and Saunders's
little series; and when adolescence is at its height then the
chief stress of religious instruction should be laid upon Jesus's
life and work. (See this topic in Chapter XV.) He should
be taught first humanly, and only later when the limitations

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 641

of manhood seem exhausted should his deity be adduced as a
welcome surplusage. The supernatural is a reflex of the
heart; each sustains and neither can exist without the other.
If the transcendent and supernal had no objective existence,
we should have to invent and teach them, or dwarf the life
of feeling and sentiment. Whatever else religion is, there-
fore, it is the supremest poetry of the soul, reflecting like
nothing else all that is deepest, most generic and racial in it.
Theology should be reduced to a minimum, but nothing denied
where wanted. Paul and his works and ways should be for
the most part deferred until after eighteen. The juvenile as
well as the cyclone revivalist should be very carefully ex-
cluded, and yet in every springtime, when nature is recreated,
service and teaching should gently encourage the revival and
even the regeneration of all the religious instincts. The mis-
sion recruiter should be allowed to do his work outside these
halls, and everything in the way of infection and all that
brings religion into conflict with good taste and good sense
should be excluded, while esthetics should supplement, reen-
force, and go hand in hand with piety. Religion is in its
infancy, and woman, who has sustained it in the past, must
be the chief agent in its further and higher development. Or-
thodoxies and all narrowness should forever give place to cor-
dial hospitality toward every serious view, which should be
met by the method of greater sympathy rather than that of
criticism.

Nature in her many phases should, of course, make up a
large part of the entire curriculum (see Chapter XII), but
here again the methods of the sexes should differ somewhat
after puberty. The poetic and mythic factors and some
glimpses of the history of science should be given more promi-
nence; the field naturalist rather than the laboratory man of
technic should be the ideal especially at first ; nature should be
taught as God's first revelation, as an Old Testament related
to the Bible as a primordial dispensation to a later and clearer
and more special one. Reverence and love should be the
motive powers, and no aspect should be studied without be-
ginning and culminating in interests akin to devotion. Math-
ematics should be taught only in its rudiments, and those with
special talents or tastes for it should go to agamic schools.

80

642 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Chemistry, too, although not excluded, should have a subordi-
nate place. The average girl has little love of sozzling and
mussing with the elements, and cooking involves problems in
organic chemistry too complex to be understood very pro-
foundly, but the rudiments of household chemistry should be
taught. Physics, too, should be kept to elementary stages.
Meteorology should have a larger, and geology and astronomy
increasingly larger places, and are especially valuable because,
and largely in proportion as, they are taught out of doors, but
the general principles and the untechnical and practical as-
pects should be kept in the foreground. With botany more
serious work should be done. Plant-lore and the poetic aspect,
as in astronomy, should have attention throughout, while Latin
nomenclature and microscopic technic should come late if at
all, and vulgar names should have precedence over Latin ter-
minology. Flowers, gardening, and excursions should never
be wanting. Economic and even medical aspects should ap-
pear, and prominent and early should come the whole matter of
self cross-fertilization and that by insects. The moral value of
this subject will never be fully understood till we have what
might almost be called a woman's botany, constructed on lines
different from any of the text-books I have glanced at. Here
much knowledge interesting in itself can be early taught, which
will spring up into a world of serviceable insights as adoles-
cence develops and the great law of sex unfolds.

Zoology should always be taught with plenty of pets,
menagerie resources, and with aquaria, aviaries, apiaries,
formicaries, etc., as adjuncts. It should start in the environ-
ment like everything else. Bird and animal lore, books, and
pictures should abound in the early stages, and the very pro-
lific chapter of instincts should have ample illustration, while
the morphological nomenclature and details of structure
should be less essential. Woman has domesticated nearly all
the animals, and is so superior to man in insight into their
modes of life and psychoses that many of them are almost
exemplifications of moral qualities to her even more than to
man. The peacock is an embodied expression of pride, the
pig of filth, the fox of cunning, the serpent of subtle danger,
the eagle of sublimity, the goose of stupidity, and so on
through all the range of human qualities, as we have seen.

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION &43

At bottom, however, the study of animal hfe is coming to be
more and more a problem of heredity, and its problems should
have dominant position and to them the other matter should
grade up.

This shades over into and prepares for the study of the
primitive man and child so closely related to each other. The
myth, custom, belief, domestic practises of savages, vegetative
and animal traits in infancy and childhood, the development of
which is a priceless boon for the higher education of women,
open of themselves a great field of human interest where
she needs to know the great results, the striking details, the
salient illustrations, the basal principles rather than to be
entangled in the details of anthropometry, craniometry, phi-
lology, etc.

All this lays the basis for a larger study of modern man,
history with the biographical element very prominent through-
out, with plenty of stories of heroes of virtue, acts of valor,
tales of saintly lives and the personal element more prominent,
and specialization in the study of dynasties, wars, authorities,
and controversies relegated to a very subordinate place. Soci-
ology, undeveloped, rudimentary, and in some places suspected
as it is, should have in the curriculum of her higher education
a place above political economy. The stories of the great re-
forms, and accounts of the constitution of society, of the
home, church, state, and school, and philanthropies and ideals,
should come to the fore.

Art in all its forms should be opened at least in a propae-
deutic way and individual tastes amply and judiciously fed,
but there should be no special training in music without some
taste and gift, and the aim should be to develop critical and
discriminative appreciation and the good taste that sees the
vast superiority of all that is good and classic over what is
cheap and fustian.

In literature, myth, poetry, and drama should perhaps lead,
and the knowledge of the great authors in the vernacular fos-
tered. Greek, Hebrew, and perhaps Latin languages should
be entirely excluded, not but what they are of great value and
have their place, but because a smattering knowledge is bought
at too high a price of ignorance of more valuable things.
German, French, and Italian should be allowed and provided

^44 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

for by native teachers and by conversational methods if de-
sired, and in their proper season.

In the studies of the soul of man, generally called the phil-
osophic branches, metaphysics and epistemology should have
the smallest, and logic the next least place. Psychology should
be taught on the genetic basis of animals and children, and
one of its tap-roots should be developed from the love of in-
fancy and youth, than which nothing in all the w^orld is more
worthy. If a woman Descartes ever arises, she will put life
before theory, and her watchword will be not cogito, ergo sum,
but Slim, ergo cogito. The psychology of sentiments and feel-
ings and intuitions will take precedence of that of pure intel-
lect; ethics will be taught on the basis of the whole series of
practical duties and problems, and the theories of the ulti-
mate nature of right or the constitution of conscience will have
small place.

Domesticity will be taught by example in some ideal home
building by a kind of laboratory method. A nursery with all
carefully selected appliances and adjuncts, a dining-room, a
kitchen, bedroom, closets, cellars, outhouses, building, its
material, the grounds, lawn, shrubbery, hothouse, library, and
all the other adjuncts of the hearth will be both exemplified
and taught. A general course in pedagogy, especially its his-
tory and ideals, another in child study, and finally a course in
maternity the last year taught broadly, and not without prac-
tical details of nursing, should be comprehensive and cul-
minating. In its largest sense education might be the heart of
all the higher training of young women.

Applied knowledge will thus be brought to a focus in a
department of teaching as one of the specialties of motherhood
and not as a vocation apart. The training should aim to de-
velop power of maternity in soul as well as in body, so that
home influence may extend on and up through the plastic years
of pubescence, and future generations shall not rebel against
these influences until they have wrought their perfect work.

The methods throughout should be objective, with copious
illustrations by way of object-lessons, apparatus, charts, pic-
tures, diagrams, and lectures, far less book work and recita-
tion, only a limited amount of room study, the function of
examination reduced to a minimum, and everything as sug-

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 645

gestive and germinal as possible. Hints that are not followed
up; information not elaborated into a thin pedagogic sillabub
or froth ; seed that is sown on the waters with no thought of
reaping; faith in a God who does not pay at the end of each
week, month, or year, but who always pays abundantly some
time ; training which does not develop hypertrophied memory-
pouches that carry, or creative powers that discover and pro-
duce— these are lines on which such an institution should de-
velop. Specialization has its place, but it always hurts a
woman's soul more than a man's, should always come later,
and if there is special capacity it should be trained elsewhere.
Unconscious education is a power of which we have yet to
learn the full ranges.

In most groups in this series of ideal departments there
should be at least one healthful, wise, large-souled, honorable,
married and attractive man, and, if possible, several of them.
His very presence in an institution for young women gives
poise, polarizes the soul, and gives wholesome but long-cir-
cuited tension at root no doubt sexual, but all unconsciously so.
This mentor should not be more father than brother, though
he should combine the best of each, but should add another
element. He need not be a doctor, clergyman, or even a great
scholar, but should be accessible for confidential conferences
even though intimate. He should know the soul of the adoles-
cent girl and how to prescribe ; he should be wise and fruitful
in advice, but especially should be to all a source of con-
tagion and inspiration for poise and courage even though
religious or medical problems be involved. But even if he
lack all these latter qualities, though he be so poised that im-
pulsive girls can turn their hearts inside out in his presence
and perhaps even weep on his shoulder, the presence of such a
being, though a complete realization of this ideal could be only
remotely approximated, would be the center of an atmosphere
most wholesomely tonic.

In these all too meager outlines I have sketched a human-
istic and liberal education and have refrained from all details
and special curriculization. Many of the above features I
believe would be as helpful for boys as girls, but woman has
here an opportunity to resume her exalted and supreme posi-
tion, to be the first in this higher field, to lead man and pay

646 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

her debt to his educational institutions, by resuming her
crown. The ideal institutions, however, for the two will
always be radically and probably always increasingly di-
vergent.

As a psychologist, penetrated with the growing sense of
the predominance of the heart over the mere intellect, I be-
lieve myself not alone in desiring to make a tender declaration
of being more and more passionately in love with woman as
I conceive she came from the hand of God. I keenly envy
my Catholic friends their Maryolatry. Who ever asked if the
holy mother, whom the wise men adored, knew the astronomy
of the Chaldees or had studied Egyptian or Babylonian, or
even whether she knew how to read or write her own tongue,
and who has ever thought of caring? We can not conceive
that she bemoaned any limitations of her sex, but she has been
an object of adoration all these centuries because she glorified
womanhood by being more generic, nearer the race, and richer
in love, pity, unselfish devotion and intuition than man. The
glorified madonna ideal shows us how much more whole and
holy it is to be a woman than to be artist, orator, professor,
or expert, and suggests to our own sex that to be a man is
larger than to be gentleman, philosopher, general, president,
or millionaire.

But with all this love and hunger in my heart, I can not
help sharing in the growing fear that modern woman, at least
in more ways and places than one, is in danger of declining
from her orbit; that she is coming to lack just confidence and
pride in her sex as such, and is just now in danger of lapsing
to mannish ways, methods, and ideals, until her original di-
vinity may become obscured. But if our worship at her shrine
is with a love and adoration a little qualified and unsteady,
we have a fixed and abiding faith without which we should
have no resource against pessimism for the future of our race,
that she will ere long evolve a sphere of life and even educa-
tion which fits her needs as well as, if not better than, those
of man fit his.

Meanwhile, if the eternally womanly seems somewhat less
divine, we can turn with unabated faith to the eternally child-
like, the best of which in each are so closely related. The

ADOLESCENT GIRLS AND THEIR EDUCATION 647

oracles of infancy and childhood will never fail. Distracted
as we are in the maze of new sciences, skills, ideals, knowl-
edges that we can not fully coordinate by our logic or cur-
riculize by our pedagogy; confused between the claims of
old and new methods; needing desperately for survival as a
nation and a race some clue to thrid the mazes of the manifold
modern cultures, we have now at least one source to which
we can turn — we have found the only magnet in all the uni-
verse that points steadfastly to the undiscovered pole of human
destiny. We know what can and will ultimately coordinate
in the generic, which is larger than the logical order, all that
is worth knowing, teaching, or doing by the best methods, that
will save us from misfits and the waste ineffable of premature
and belated knowledge, and that is in the interests and line of
normal development in the child in our midst that must hence-
forth ever lead us ; which epitomizes in its development all the
stages, human and prehuman; that is the proper object of all
that strange new love of everything that is naive, spontaneous,
and unsophisticated in human nature. The heart and soul of
growing childhood is the criterion by which we judge the
larger heart and soul of mature womanhood, and these are
ultimately the only guide into the heart of the new education
which is to be, when the school becomes what Melanchthon
said it must be — a true workshop of the Holy Ghost — and
what the new psychology, when it rises to the heights of
prophecy, foresees as the true paradise of restored intuitive
human nature.

CHAPTER XVIII

ETHNIC PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY, OR ADOLESCENT RACES
AND THEIR TREATMENT

Present status of one-third of the race — Analogies with Homeric society — New
cosmic consciousness — Value of primitive stirps. I. Extirpation of wild ani-
mals, past and present, compared to that of primitive people — Conceit of civili-
zation— Beothuks, Tasmanians, Australians, Maori, Samoyeds, II. Hawai-
ians and their history and present state. III. Filipinos — Opinions and policy.
IV. Africa — Effects of contact with higher races^The Belgian policy — The
English course — Traits and tribal organization of representation — Tribes —
Slavery — The negro in America — Educational methods. V. American abo-
rigines— Eskimos, Patagonians, Aztecs, Huichols, Peruvians, Nicaraguans,
Canadian tribes and those of the United States — History — Spanish laws —
Views of various writers — Duncan and the Metlakahtlans — Indian education —
Indian ethnologists and their work. VI. India — Benefits and evils of British
rule from official records — Incommensurability of Orient and Occident — Eura-
sians— Leitner's educational experiment — Fielding Hall and the Burmese —
The Straits Settlement — Colonial policies past and present — Effects of the
world's now being all known and partitioned — What is savagery? — Ascending
and decadent races — Curricula of race pedagogy and hygiene — Points of fric-
tion between higher and lower races — Race improvement by stirpiculture —
Value and need of the higher anthropology for education and as the basis of
dealing with undeveloped people. VII. Missionaries — History and present
state of mission work — Criticisms of attitude and methods — Education of mis-
sionaries— Their work in China and India — The true ideal, aim, and method
of propagating Christianity — Need of study and care of lower races as we
study childhood and youth — They may succeed us in wielding the resources of
the world.

No study of adolescence can be complete without some
study of nearly one-third of the human race, occupying two-
fifths of the land surface of the globe, now included in the
one hundred and thirty-six colonies and dependencies of the
world, that are in a relation of greater or less subjection to
a few civilized nations. Nearly all habitable lands are now
discovered and their peoples known and partitioned among
the powers. This process has gone on with amazing rapidity
since the great competitive scramble for land which began in
648

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 649

1897. Christianity and mission enterprise have long dreamed
of universal dominion, and now business and trade, coinage,
weights and measures, postal system, fashions and educa-
tional methods are taking on cosmic dimensions. Back of
politics, and even of history, are looming up far greater
ethnological and genetic problems, which give a vastly
deepened background and an enlarged horizon to history, all
of which is but news of the day compared with the past ages
through which heredity has been doing its silent work. All
this summons us to larger views, and marks the present and
near future as by far the greatest of all the historic periods
and opens the most magnificent opportunities ever presented
to education and to a new constructive statesmanship. Ideally
the two are one and inseparable. As we are gradually putting
the child-world into schools of the latest type, so the primitive
men and women of the world are coaxed or constrained to
take up the burden of the white man's civilization, and those
who can not or will not are following to extinction the larger
wild animals about them that resist domestication.

Most savages in most respects are children, or, because of
sexual maturity, more properly, adolescents of adult size.
Even stirps generally agTeed to be decadent often exemplify
the symptom of dementia prcEcox (Chapter VII) magnified
to macrobiotic dimensions. Their faults and their virtues are
those of childhood and youth. They need the same careful
and painstaking study, lavish care, and adjustment to their
nature and needs. The inexorable laws of forcing, precocity,
severity, and overwork, produce similar results for both.
Primitive peoples have the same right to linger in the para-
dise of childhood. To war upon them is to war on children.
To commercialize and oppress them with work is child labor
on a large scale. Without them our earthly home would be
left indeed desolate. They live a life of feeling, emotion, and
impulse, and scores of testimonials from those who know
them intimately, and who have no predilection for Rousseau-
like views, are to the effect that to know a typical savage is to
love him. The individual is always merged in the tribe, and
only the chief, and often not even he, can give pledges or
make bargains. Their condition is very much like that which
Homer describes, in which law, literature, religion, science,

650 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

ethics, art, and all the other elements of culture are not
specialized, but implicit in the daily life and mind of each
individual. If unspoiled by contact with the advanced wave
of civilization, which is too often its refuse, and in which
their best is too often unequally matched against our worst,
they are mostly virtuous, simple, confiding, affectionate, and
peaceful among themselves, curious, light-hearted, amazingly
religious and healthful, with bodies in nearly every function
superior to ours and frequently models for the artist, and
the faults we see are usually those we have made. Even the
sixty troglodyte skulls that Horsley measured showed great
development, and demonstrated that the art of trephining was
well understood and practised. The best of the lower races
represent that most precious thing in the world — stocks and
breeds of men of new types and varieties, full of new promise
and potency for our race, because heredity so outweighs civi-
lization and schooling. Such were the Germans who in the
days of Tacitus just escaped Roman imperialism; the in-
habitants of England in the days of Roman occupation, and
even in the time of Alfred the Great; and the Japanese in 1840,
when the powers would have divided their land among them-
selves could they have agreed on terms and shares, and thus
robbed the world of modern Japan.

I. Extinctions. — For years the great auk, now known to
be the key to many biological problems, was killed by ship-
loads, but in 1844 became extinct, only seventy-two specimens
existing to-day in all the museums of the world. Every few
years we have lists of species and varieties of animal life
newly exterminated. In the Smithsonian Museum hangs a
copy of the painting by J. H. Moser, called The Still Hunt.
It is of a man hidden and secure on a high rock, shooting
buffalo, and beneath it is inscribed, " This illustrates the
method by which the great Southern bison herd of about five
million animals was almost utterly exterminated in five years
(1871-75), and the Northern herd totally destroyed in 1881-
'83." The wild ass, zebu, giraffe, ostrich, seals, all the higher
apes — chimpanzee, gibbon, orang, and gorilla — gnus, elands,
mountain zebras, and many other forms, have a rapidly nar-
rowing habitat, or are in danger of extinction for hides,
plumes, ivory, and often for the sole pleasure of killing For

ADOLESCENCE ARTS AND THEIR TREATMENT 651

South Africa it was found necessary for the seven great
nations most concerned, to form, in May, 1900, a pact against
exterminations. Second only to commercial motives is the
hunting passion, which in prehistoric times exterminated the
mammoth, Irish elk, cave bear, woolly rhinoceros, etc., in the
long, hot struggle by which man became the lord of the
animal creation. His war for survival against the creatures
next below him in the scale of being has been so successful
that he has wiped out his own phylogenetic line of ascent, and
separated himself from his animal forebears by many a missing
link which science can not yet recover. The fact that he can
not trace his line of descent is a ghastly monument to the
relentlessness with which he has waged this war of extermi-
nation. Man is the only known creature that has destroyed
his own pedigree. Only the few score of animals which
primitive woman domesticated for food or service can thrive
beside him, and his clubrooms and dwellings are still deco-
rated with the products of his head-hunting prowess against
creatures whom Schelling called our older brothers, and whom
all totem-worshiping savages revere as the fathers of all
their life and light. Even laws against illegitimate methods
and wholesale and useless destruction, which have multiplied
so fast in all civilized lands in the last few years, are hard
to enforce. Colonel Farrington states that about five thou-
sand hunters each year pursue moose and deer in Maine
alone, and that close time and protection laws are a farce.

Now all this is in many respects paralleled by the relation
between civilized and savage man. Never, perhaps, were
lower races being extirpated as weeds in the human garden,
both by conscious and organic processes, so rapidly as to-day.
In many minds this is inevitable and not without justifica-
tion. Pity and sympathy, says Nietzsche, are now a disease,
and we are summoned to rise above morals and clear the
world's stage for the survival of those who are fittest because
strongest. The supreme good, says Guyau, is diffusum sui.
The world will soon be overcrowded, and we must begin to
take selective agencies into our own hands. Primitive races
are either hopelessly decadent and moribund, or at best have
demonstrated their inability to domesticate or civilize them-
selves. History shows, too, that each of the great races has

652 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

developed upon a basis of a lower one, and our own progress
has been so amazing that in it we read our title clear to
dominion. If they linger, they must take up our burden of
culture and work. This sentiment has found several remark-
able expressions in Europe within the last few years, both
by soldiers and thinkers. Let us pause to glance at a few
illustrations of complete and impending exterminations.

The aborigines of Newfoundland, and especially the Beothuk tribe,
afford an illustration of the utter extinction of an ethnic stock of
unknown origin and affinities, which some think a branch of the
Algonkins or that they had Eskimo blood, who perhaps descended
from the cavemen of Europe. They are doubtless the same people,
maintaining their organizations unchanged from the time of the voyage
of Cabot, who first saw them.' The Government, says Mr. Hatton,
considered that loyalty to England made it imperative to depopulate
Newfoundland, and down to about one hundred years ago the subtle
policy of the fishing admirals was to destroy all houses, suppress colo-
nization, and make all this great island a fishing station. This condi-
tion, added to the fact that the whites regarded the natives as vermin,
whom their fierce neighbors, the Micmacs, helped to exterminate, re-
duced a population estimated at thousands to a single female, named
Mary Marsh, captured in 1819, whose vocabulary was carefully re-
corded, and with whose death in 1828 the race ceased to exist. Like
other lost tribes, they have had no historian and even no Ossian, and
are without any representation in literature. They were first disposed
to be friendly, and had they been met in the spirit of William Penn,
there is every indication that they would have welcomed all the factors
of civilization which they could have understood and entered upon a
line of development. But they were shot like beasts by ruthless hunts-
men, who kept on their gun-stocks tallies of the " heads " of Indians
they had killed. The settlers neither knew nor did missionary work,
because any degree of civilization would render the natives more for-
midable. The pathos of this case is to many greatly heightened by the
fact that the entire race died without having heard of Christianity, and
that no Beothuk blood runs in anybody's veins, but all cries to us
from the ground.

In 1642, Tasman, a Dutch sailor, discovered Van Diemen's Land,
since called Tasmania, the aborigines of which thought themselves
alone in the world. Tasman himself never saw them, and a French-
man, Marion, in 1772 was the first to communicate with them. They
were very abject savages, for the most part utterly naked, rarely
making more than wattled huts or sleeping under trees, nomadic,

^ Hatton and Harvey : Newfoundland. G. W. Patterson : Red Indians of
Newfoundland. Proc. Roy. Soc. of Canada, 1891.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 653

ignorant of metals, with pointed wooden spears and whirling sticks
for weapons, never cultivating the land or domesticating any animal,
producing fire by friction, etc. ; but they were bright, with a highly
developed language, with abundant food provided by the kangaroo,
fowls, and many forms of plant life. They were monogamic, their
women almost absolutely chaste and almost as supreme in domestic
as men were in extra-domestic affairs. Like so many savages, they
were great mimics ; loved practical jokes ; took such pleasure in killing
beyond their needs as to almost exterminate some useful animals;
burned half-breed babies; were prone to attack departing guests, as if
flight incited them ; their women both climbed and swam better than
the men. They held large gatherings and chanted at the full moon
with a kind of incantation. The greatest bully was their chief;
they greased their bodies for war ; their women tried to spare the lives
of captives; they could eat and drink enormously upon occasion, and
moved from place to place to avoid their offal. The French authors,
to whom we owe the fullest and earliest accounts of this extraordinary
people, were not, like many Anglo-Saxons, disposed to believe the
worst about aborigines, but rather the best. The young girls are
described as affectionate, with interesting and often " spirituel " physi-
ognomies, gifted with coquetry and attractions which quite carried
away some of the early writers.^

The disposition of this very interesting people was entirely amica-
ble, and I can find no credible cases of hostility begun by them until
they were provoked by a long series of wrongs and outrages. It was
their custom to assemble in large numbers to take kangaroo and also
for their corroborees. These gatherings were often mistaken by the
earliest white residents for hostile demonstrations and were fired upon.
In 1810 this people, too independent to be conquered or enslaved, had
become thoroughly aroused and hostile. Their resentment had been
greatly increased by the general practise of robbing them of their
children. To this provocation, jealousy due to the misuse of women
by the sailors, adventurers, and even convicts ; the degradation caused
by intoxicants and the diseases of civilization; the aggressions of land-
grabbers — all fanned the flames of the first black war, which is the
old, old tale of provocation and revenge. The destruction of the
Guanches on the Canary Isles by the Spaniards; the extermination
policy of Napoleon against the Zulus ; Las Casas in his destruction of
the Indies, every line of which is said to be written in blood— all this
was paralleled if not exceeded here. To the avarice and cruelty of
the white man, blasting this simple life, had been added the outrages
of the penal convicts who were released in 1806, in a season of famine,
to hunt kangaroo. Brutal white stock-keepers and others shot abo-
rigines almost on sight. Soon bands or parties were organized, osten-
sibly at first for defense, then avowedly for carrying out the role of

^ James Bonwick : The Lost Tasmanian Race. London, 1884. H. Ling-Roth :
Tasmanians. West : History of Tasmania.

^54 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

punishing the death of every white by that of ten blacks, and scores
of atrocious cruelties and many utterly nameless outrages not only on
men, but on women and children, are chronicled in detail. Like all
weak people, however brave, the Tasmanians depended on guile and
strategy rather than on meeting their foes in open field. Their only
weapons were sharp sticks with fire-heated points and waddies. Bor-
derers, bushrangers, cattle stealers, and prisoners, who abound on the
outskirts of civilization, were the points of contact between the two
races.

At last a line of demarcation was laid down across which the
natives were not to be allowed. Beyond this line, banished from their
summer homes and the graves of their fathers and the richer hunting
fields, they were on no account to trespass. All who did not keep
bounds were to be captured and brought in at five pounds a head. So
hard pressed were the natives that they often relentlessly slew their
young children that their cries might not betray their whereabouts,
that they might not delay forced marches or fall into the hands of
their enemies. Not a single white woman was ever known to have
been abused by any native. Gradually they were driven into a corner
by a cordon and many were captured. Three thousand white men in
one hundred and nineteen squads, each with its leader, were con-
tinuously engaged in line operations. Many philanthropists objected
with the utmost vehemence to this policy, and an intelligent brick-
layer, G. A. Robinson, undertook a policy of conciliation. Quick to
recognize a friend, the natives hung about his workshop, and he was
finally given a very small salary by the Government to devote his
entire time to mitigating the bitterness of the natives' hostility.
He went from place to place, interviewed and expostulated with
representatives of the different tribes, and had many hair-breadth
escapes. In 1832 many captive and other volunteer aborigines were
transported to Flinder's Island. This colony grew under Robin-
son's directorship, and in 1835 the very last of the Tasmanians were
brought in. These denizens of the thicket and forest, with no mari-
time tastes and with only the hated waters on every side, pined in
their rocky prison. They would sit all day gazing across the sea to
their native hills. Home-sickness, the lack of activity here, where
everything was provided for them, caused them to die off rapidly —
their enemies said, in the sulks or from sheer spite. The missionary
and teacher now had free access to them; they were protected from
strong drink ; married in due European form ; and glowing accounts
were printed of their progress in letters, religion, and industry. Their
sudden development here was compared to that of Athens under Peri-
cles, and everything pointed toward another miracle of civilization,
which, it was prophesied, would soon be realized here but for the " only
drawback of the great mortality among them." Good catechists taught
them fluent answers to the points of Bible history and orthodox the-
ology. Of the two hundred captured in 1835, there were only one
hundred survivors. In 1847 the forty-four survivors were removed

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT ^55

from Flinder's Island to Oyster Cove. Here they continued to learn
gardening, the value of money, cleanliness, and cloth-making, but
diminished rapidly in numbers. They were more exposed to the " bad
vi^hite fellows," who here stole their clothes and made them drink.
The survivors became discouraged because no one cared for them.
From Bacon and Puffendorff downward, it had been asserted that
cannibals were beyond law and could be legally slain, and English
law asserts that native hunting tribes have no right nor title to the
land on which they dwell if they refuse to till it. The forcing system
with natives completely in the power of their instructors produced
several limp prodigies, but self-respect and hope were gone. One
pupil who took prizes at Sydney College, spoke good Latin and be-
haved like a gentleman, returned to the bush, socially ostracized, and
wished he had never been taken from it. It was a pseudo civilization,
and the cry to rescue the remnant came too late. William Lanny, a
magnificent physical specimen, descended from a chief, became a
whaler. He was young and handsome, proud of the gold band around
his cap, but, worn out with dissipation, died at the age of thirty-four in
1869. He was the last male. The scandal attending his funeral and
the disappearance of his head from the hospital are suggestive. The
last Tasmanian woman, Truganina, or Lalla Rookh, died in 1876, and
in her a race unique, and with perhaps great possibilities of develop-
ment, was utterly wiped out.

The inhabitants of Oceanica, says Keane, have no future but in
heaven. Missionaries are hastening and tell us they will soon be
Christianized, and anthropologists add that a little later all will be
dead. Three captains confessed to Dr. Paton that they had repeatedly
landed measles patients at different points " to sweep these creatures
away and let the white man occupy the soil." Darwin thought some
mysterious influence at work and that human varieties exterminate
each other as do different animal species. The weaker sink before
the stronger, just as the older and far more interesting Polynesians,
with their wealth of tradition, sank before the Malays.

The Australians are among the most interesting of primitive people,
but they are fast dying out, and the twenty-eight remaining will soon
follow the Adelaide, Burra, Rupus, and other extinct tribes. Lum-
holtz ^ says " the same fate as that which overtook their brothers in
Tasmania is in store for the natives of Australia. They are without
a future, without a home, without a hope — a doomed race. After a
few generations, his race will have disappeared from the face of the
earth." He declares that once or twice colonists offered to shoot
blacks for him so that he could get their skulls. " On the borders of
civilization men would think as little of shooting a black man as a dog.
The law imposes death by hanging as the penalty for killing a black
man, but people live so far apart in these uncivilized regions that a
white man may in fact do what he pleases with the blacks." " In

' Among Cannibals. Four Years' Travel in Australia. London, 1889,

656 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

North Queensland I often heard this remark: The only treatment
proper for the blacks is to shoot them all. They are unwilling to
work, I have heard colonists say, and hence they are unfit to
live." " There are instances where young men have employed the
Sunday in hunting blacks not only for some definite purpose, but also
for the sake of the sport. The blacks have also been killed with
poison." " A farmer whom I met at Lower Herbert boasted that he
had cremated some blacks that he had shot." " The murder of in-
fants increases, syphilitic diseases become common, and the women
having become prostitutes cease to bear children." The natives are
by no means immoral by themselves, and the " young black women had
originally a certain amount of modesty," but the frontier white man
is rather brutal, and as soon as he comes " immorality knows no
bounds and the black race hasten on to the inevitable ruin awaiting
them." " Sometimes the most brutal settlers even make use of the
revolver to compel the natives to surrender their women. Sometimes
they even kill the black man if he makes resistance." Matthew says : '
" It seems probable that in Victoria and New South Wales, at least,
there will not be a single pure aborigine surviving fifty years hence."

New Zealand is the Switzerland of the southern hemi-
sphere and the most advanced social democracy on earth.^
P. W. Reeves tells us that the native Maori, once numbering
about one hundred and fifty thousand, will soon be as extinct
as their own moa. " Partial civilization has blighted their
natural life," says E. Hodder,^ " while with one hand his
English brother has ennobled the Maori, with the other he has
destroyed ; his Christianity has striven to say, ' Arise and go
to the Father/ civilization has actually said, ' Succumb and
go to the devil.' " Macaulay's prophecy of the native viewing
the ruins of London from the bridge will be unfulfilled. J.
Grattan Grey * gives a vivid picture of the court where they
can deed away their land, stimulated thereto by licensed liquor-
houses near by, which reap a golden harvest. The work of
W. Colenso and Rusden and others have given their char-
acter, myths, and customs a pathetic charm.

' Eagle-Hawk and Crow. London, 1899, p. 288.

^ H. D. Lloyd : Newest England. New York, 1900.

» The Long White Cloud. Ao Tea Toa, 1898, p. 30.

*See also The Maori at Home, 1901. Also in this connection, H. Mager:
Le Monde Polynesien, 1902; Swettenham : The Real Malay, London, 1900 ;
Codrington: The Melanesians, Oxford, 1891 ; W. W. Skeat : Malay Magic, Lon-
don, 1900.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 657

Dr. A. Jacoby ^ described the Samoyeds of a generation
or two ago as among the most fortunate and interesting of
primitive people, and thinks they would still be so could the
Russian laws concerning them be carried out. They migrated
hundreds of miles over the steppes each year, some families
possessing two or three thousand reindeer to which new set-
tlers brought anthrax, and robbed them of the rich pasturage
they must have in the fall, and sapped the roots of their
strange religious idealism, so elaborately developed in the
meditations of the long arctic nights. The contempt of the
new settlers is their death sentence, and they will not long
survive, save a remnant in the Greenland of Denmark, which
best knows how to treat the northern races. Nisbet describes,
like the others I name, not as a partizan or even historian, but
merely as an anthropologist, the Papuans of New Guinea —
their government almost identical with that of the old Scotch
clan, their courtesy, affability, Spartan simplicity, admirable
bodies — but the twilight of their race is already well ad-
vanced. The same story is told by Keate of the Pelew Island-
ers; by Gautier of the Hovas, the best of the native races
in Madagascar, which Wallace thought Lemuria, the original
home of the human race; and of the Todas of India, whom
some call proto-Aryans, with remarkable physical develop-
ment, and now reduced to a few hundred individuals.

II. The Hazvaiian Islands have lessons of unique psycho-
genetic as well as pedagogic interest for us.

No navigator was ever welcomed as was Captain Cook in 1778,
and " no greater opportunity than his was ever offered to a civilized
man to impress better ideas upon a savage people." ^ Cook " was treat-
ed as a god, as the long-looked-for Lono who had departed generations
ago and was waited for with a sort of Messianic instinct. While the
natives, true to their Spartan training, stole whatever they could lay
their hands on, they withheld nothing from him, for his ships were
loaded with their gifts. They turned on him only when he stole their
chief; they killed him because, when they struck him with a stone, he
gave a cry of pain. ' Gods do not cry,' they said, and stabbed him
in the neck. His visit was the seedtime of the fatal disease that has

' Ueber das Erloschen der Naturvolker des hohen Nordes. Archiv f. Anthro-
pologic, vol. xxiii, 1895, p. I et seq.

2 Lessons from the Hawaiian Islands, by S. C. Armstrong.
81

658 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

diminished the population from his estimate of 400,000 (probably far
too large) to about 43,000 in 1883," and 39,504 in 1896. Long after
his death ships avoided the islands from fear, but firearms and far
more deadly fire-water were in demand, and trade gradually pressed
in and made for peace. Vancouver in 1793 refused to sell liquor or
guns; landed the first cattle, sheep, poultry; gave new seeds, settled
quarrels, and saw in the same prince that Cook thought a brutal savage
an enlightened sovereign. " The golden age of Polynesian barbarism
was undoubtedly from 1800 till the death in 1820 of Kamehameha I,
whose equal as a warrior or ruler has never appeared in the annals
of Oceanica." He was a conqueror and a wise colonizer ; forbade the
premature cutting of sandalwood, a point of great importance here;
prohibited drink; broke up taboo; and his heathen subjects were far
more amenable to Christianity than the outcasts of civilization. He
uprooted idolatry so that his subjects presented the rare spectacle of
a race with great ability without a religion. The results of pursuing
labor, which began in 1820, were slight until 1837, when the emotional
natives broke out into a religious frenzy which swept the islands, the
complete Christianization of which is one of the standing missionary
marvels without parallel in history. With his changed religion, the
native's habits of indolence and licentiousness were not much modified.
It was soon found that " the commercial instinct of New England was
far stronger in Hawaii than its religious enterprise," yet the Christian-
ization was wholesale and unprecedentedly sudden and complete, but
the old warfare between the teachers of religion and the lust of gain
broke out. The missionaries were denounced and the lowest passions
of the natives appealed to, so that Christianity declined for a time
as rapidly as it had grown. As epoch-making as Kamehameha anni-
hilating taboo by the single act of conspicuously sitting at the table of
the women on a great occasion, was the defiance of Pele by his queen
after his death, who descended alone into the crater Kilauea to prove
to her people the folly of their superstitious fear. " In spite of their
persuasions and threats of vengeance awaiting her, she accomplished
her purpose, singing, as she went to face the wrath of the goddess, a
Christian song, and returned unharmed, a living witness against the
false gods from whose sway she had so lately escaped."

Christianity changed the character of these people, transmuting
their pride into humility and kindness, so that in 1843 the king volun-
tarily gave what other races had to fight for — a constitution and lib-
erty, relinquishing also two-thirds of his individual property and
private lands. Among tropical races, not ignorance, but weakness of
character, idleness and the vices it breeds, is the chief difficulty. The
missionaries have often planted but not watered, and have neglected
the patient and vigilant paternal care which these adult children need.
The savage's intellect is quick and ready and his memory strong, and
knowledge gives him emancipation and a great sense of power, but
his moral nature is inert and sluggish. He lacks self-control, so that
if higher education is attempted at all among backward races it must

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 659

be with a constant sense of proportion. " Long before 1850 a church
was in sight from every hamlet ; the Bible was in every hut ; and the
people were giving more to religious charities according to their
means than any people in Christendom. There were over 10,000,000
printed pages in their own language, mostly educational matter, and
in 1843 18,000 children attended school. This was the maximum.
There were (I follow here, in the main, Armstrong) all the outward
signs of a nation of steady habits, but the energy of the whites was
behind and sustained it all ; the people were passive, plastic, and prac-
tically infants. Of the white man's signatures on the public pages of
that day, one-half were made by marks, while only one native failed
to write his own name. In reading and writing the natives were the
equals of the average New Englander, but being made of very unequal
stuff the growth was not from within outward. The two races were in
effect two thousand years apart in real civilization. The Hawaiians
in their little Pacific paradise were, like Adam and Eve in Eden, with-
out hardship, and it is a question whether humanity can develop well
under paradisical conditions. They accepted civilization but did not
adopt it ; they did not know what it meant." " The action of the
American Board must in the light of results be put down as a mistake
as to facts and an error in judgment." " In thirty years they had
received into church membership 50,000 souls, of whom 20,000 had
died, while 8,000 had been excommunicated." " Not that the natives
were altogether hypocrites, but hospitality and desire to please are
national traits, and they easily took the point of view of their guests."
There was too little training in practical life, and no training can
" make heathen into Puritans." " A maxim of mission work might
wedl be, ' Ideas take root in a moment, habits only in generations.' "
The period of decay, which began about 1850, gathered momentum.
Intermarriage with a stronger race is changing the native's mental and
bodily traits as in Siam, while education divorces him from his early
traditions. It also increases his aversion to manual labor and makes
him " shun the field as the owl does the light of day." He prefers
clerkships, and is utterly unable to compete with the Chinaman, who
in Hawaii monopolizes the trades, the money, and the women, the
offspring with whom is, like many Eurasian compounds, better than
either parents. The lower class woman married to a Chinaman, or one
of the upper class to a white man, becomes an excellent wife and
mother, and nowhere else are race distinctions more completely oblit-
erated, so that every cross is possible. The Chinaman who came in
as a laborer soon hired his former employer, brought up a good class
of children, and soon outnumbered the male population of all other
nationalities. Probably the period that C. L. Brace describes has
already been reached, but the moral condition of a decadent race
" seems to be beyond the reach of any system of morality or of the
purest religion." The whole history is summed up in " a swift adop-
tion of the externals of civilization going hand in hand with a steady
physical decline, and a promising but suddenly arrested moral develop-

66o THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

ment." The first stage of mission work, which acts upon the head,
and perhaps upon the heart, is liable to bring conceit and self-confi-
dence; while the second stage, which works upon the life, is incal-
culably more difficult.

The missionaries in Hawaii destroyed heathen temples, built
churches, and preached humanity and Christianity. " The Kanaka
was impoverished, while his converters came into possession of vast
territories which brought in yearly golden harvests." The silk cul-
ture ^ was introduced by the English with everything in its favor and
developed very rapidly until the missionaries forbade Sunday work,
and by the methods here necessary the silkworms had to forego their
Sunday food and died, and with them the industry became extinct.
Every missionary report enlarged upon the great advantages of civili-
zation and Christianity, but omitted to mention the steady decline
of the native population.

Twombly ' says of the Hawaiian " that the white man fastened on
them an ineradicable curse. There have never been snakes on the
island, but the most venomous serpents would have been a merciful
visitation in comparison with the vipers in human form who, for
more than thirty years, poisoned their bodies and contaminated
their minds." The missionaries came a generation too late. Now in
their degradation they care little even for the possession of land,
and where the aboriginal soil is held by others there can be little
national aspiration. " In no respect are the native Hawaiians holding
their own or making progress." " The native to-day is an anomaly
in civilization; he can not understand its significance or adjust himself
to its requirements." " The native neither fights his destiny nor his
enemies. These happy people laugh and sing; they deck themselves
with flowers without a thought of the future and not much more for
the present hour. It is not fatalism, but a want of mental and physical
energy. Such are the 30,000 natives invested by Congress with a
political power that no other Polynesian race ever possessed." Their
character has been marked by striking contrasts. " A mirthful people,
they had a most somber religion; they loved flowers, but worshiped
hideous idols ; poetic in temperament and delighting in their bards,
they had no written language; kindly, they propitiated their gods by
bloody sacrifices ; holding women under strict taboo, their customs
concerning kinship and inheritance were generally in favor of the
female lineage ; docile and amiable, they delighted in warfare ; their
weapons were rude but effective; they ate little meat and yet were
strong."

^ Neuhauss : Die Hawaii-Inseln. Virchow und von Holtzendorff, Sammlung
Wiss. Vortrage, Berlin, 1886. See also Hawaiian America, by Caspar Whitney.
New York, 1899; The Real Hawaii, by Lucien Young, 1899; A Brief (School)
History of the Hawaiian Republic, by W. D. Alexander.

2 The Native Hawaiians of Yesterday and To-day. Read at the Mohawk Con-
ference. October, 190 1.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 66 1

L. F. Alvarez, M. D./ reports a circular of the Board of Health
to physicians all over the Sandwich Islands, asking their view of the
cause of the decrease of the natives. They placed first the kahuna.
By this system occult sorcerers, as it is believed, can pray to death
any one they choose, their prayers being secretly supplemented some-
times by poison. It is a kind of crude faith-cure by which nostrums
are often given to a sick man's relatives. Although the law forbids
the practise of medicine without a license, the trial by jury of natives
makes conviction impossible. No law against this can be enforced.
The modern kahuna differs from the old in that he takes the medicine
himself, which is chiefly the intoxicating awa. Although they also
give it freely to patients with whom it is often fatal, especially with
children and old people, who are not accustomed to its alcoholic poison,
they teach their countrymen that Hawaiians are subject to Hawaiian
diseases and can not be cured by foreign remedies. The next most
common form of extinction of the natives is syphilis, which is aggra-
vated because few apply to the physicians, and their methods of eating
poi with their fingers out of the same calabash, sleeping on the same
mat, passing the family pipe from mouth to mouth, etc., keep up the
contagion. In all the Hawaiian Islands in 1841, smallpox carried off
100,000 inhabitants, and this disease has broken out on the average
every five years since. In 1898 nearly one-fourth of the population,
or eighty per cent of all affected, died of measles. Here, too, about
seven per cent of the school children were found leprous, and the
forced removals to Molokai, from which there is no return and which
is almost certain death in from three to fifteen years, often separate
husband and wife, parents and children. Compulsory clothing in
place of the more or less adamitic costumes has been as deleterious
to the Hawaiians as it would be to compel Europeans to adopt native
costumes. The islanders regard dress as ornament, to be paraded by
day and laid aside at night, and colds and influenzas galore result.

Infanticide, one of the inveterate customs of Hawaii, arose, as
with many other Polynesians, because the limited territory forced
this, or else famine or inter-tribal warfare, to keep down the popula-
tion. The missionaries estimated that when they came nearly two-
thirds of the children were put to death either before or after birth.
A change from natural to artificial conditions reduces reproductive
power, and so it came that those races that were first civilized soonest
became childless. To these causes of decline are added licentiousness
and its resultant diseases. Malo,'^ the native historian, stated that
" all the people of the island are miserably diseased. Foreigners have
lent their whole influence to make the Hawaiian Islands one great
brothel." " This statement," adds Elkin, " is borne out by the facts." ^

1 The Hawaiians : Why they are Dying Out. Pacific Medical Journal, July,
i8g3. ^ Hawaiian Spectator, 1839.

^ An Inquiry into the Causes of the Decrease of the Hawaiian People. Am.
Jour, of Sociology, November, 1902.

662 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

" The civilization which the missionaries thrust upon the Hawaiians
was the mongrel offspring of a fossil theology and a laissez-faire
economics. The missionaries taught them by precept how to lay up
treasure in heaven, and the missionaries' children taught them by ex-
ample how to lay up earthly treasure," although the field left them
for the latter operation was very limited. The recent slight check in
the decline of population is likely to be temporary. Blackman,^ a sin-
gularly competent writer, describes modern Hawaii as a struggle for
survival between three irreconcilable elements: the aboriginal cult,
Christianity and civilized skepticism, and greed and vice. The full-
blooded Hawaiians in 1896 owned but 0.06 of the soil of the islands,
having in three generations been dispossessed by foreigners. Nearly
eighty-two per cent of the children between six and fourteen are now
compelled to go to school. Yet after fifteen years of teaching there,
C. M. Hyde says he had met but one native who merited the name of
student. Our abstract and implacable system assumed that the edu-
cation best fitted for man was best for the Kanaka in his taro-patch.
Each of the many incoming races, males always greatly exceeding
females in number, has contributed its own peculiar vices. Three
periods in the last century promised prosperity and ended in lasting
injury. " The sandalwood trade slew its thousands, the whaling
industry its ten thousands, and the sugar industry now threatens to
exterminate the remnant. As if to hasten the process, the Govern-
ment, now territorial and thus appointive, is persistently carrying out
a wholesale policy of liquor licenses. Inaugurated in the later days
of the so-called republic, the number of these has increased almost
sevenfold during the last six years — as if to administer an opiate to
the victim before the sacrifice." Thus here, too, civilization " eats
up the savage." The other Sawaiori races will not long outlast them,
as the parent race from which they all spring is long extinct.

III. The Philippines, with one thousand islands, perhaps
two thousand tribes, many tongues, great heat, nearly five
per cent of its 8,000,000 inhabitants illiterate, yet many of
them better started on the path of education and religion by
the Spanish — who have raised them far above the level of
most eastern islanders — than we are prone to admit, presents a
difficult problem to a nation with no colonial experience and
inclined to believe that in the records of other nations there
is little to learn. From our experience with Indians our
soldier has learned severity, and from contact with the negro
we have learned contempt for dark skins, and this is a bad
preparation for dealing with the very intricate problem in

' The Making of Hawaii. New York, 1899. See pp. 75-240.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 663

these islands. Perhaps we should have cooperated with
Aguinaldo or formed a protectorate, and were wrong in in-
sisting on absolute surrender before any and everything else,
but the time for this is irrevocably past.

Professor F. Rinne, of Hanover,^ compares the diversities of the
Philippine races to those of the different German states a century
ago, and suggests that the problem of unity must be worked out slowly
from within in these islands, as it was by the Teutons. He thinks
that the pride and love of freedom of the Tagalogs will make har-
monious relations between victors and vanquished forever improbable,
especially in view of the hauteur of the Americans, who regard even
the cultured natives as niggers, but this comparison suggests nothing
practical. EngHshmen point us to Sir Andrew Clark's work in estab-
lishing the federated Malay states, but this is practicable only where
there are recognized rulers, be they Khedives, Sultans, Datos, or
Rajahs; but in the Philippines the masses have no hereditary chiefs
such as invited Great Britain to intervene in the Malay states. Each
of the latter are veiled crowned colonies, the British really forcing
their advice upon each ruler. Blumentritt^ urges that it is against
the very nature of the Anglo-Saxons to give up power once committed
to them. He states that there is less illiteracy among the Filipinos
than in the Balkan Peninsula, in Russia as a whole, in many provinces
of Spain and Portugal, or than in the Latin republics of South Amer-
ica, and that the Filipinos have shown a better prima facie right to
form an independent state than many a European and American
state has shown.

D. C. Worcester declares that " one might imagine that morality
would be at a low ebb among a people whose women are almost with-
out modesty, and where all alike agree that there is no future life
nor any sure retribution for evil deeds in this. Nothing could be
further from the truth. Such a thing as a faithless wife is almost
unknown. Again and again we left, wholly unprotected, enough prop-
erty to make a dozen of them very wealthy according to their stand-
ards, yet they never stole a penny's worth from us. On the whole,
after making somewhat extensive observations among the Philippine
natives, I am inclined to formulate the law that their morals improve
as the square of the distance from churches and other so-caleld ' civ-
ilizing influences.' " ^ But these statements, while they may be to
some extent true of the Tagalogs, or possibly the Visayas and Slo-
canos, can hardly apply to the Negritos or to the wild, lewd, barbarous
and cannibal tribes of the interior and the smaller islands.

^ Zwischen Philippinos und Amerikanern auf Luzon. Hanover, 1901, p. 46
ef seq.

* Die Filipinos. Hamburg, 1900.

' The Philippine Islands and their People, New York, 1898, p. 413.

664 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Schurman, who presided over the admirable work of the first
Philippine Commission, insisted that " any decent kind of a govern-
ment of Philippines by Philippines is better than the best possible
government by Americans." Those who debate whether the natives
can ever be loyally American at heart, who limit their studies of them
to the degree of pacification, the intensity of animosity caused by
war, the percentage of illiteracy, their capacity to work, or their
courage and disciplinability as soldiers, important as these questions
are, realize neither the full complexity of the problem before us, or
see its true and only method of solution, or feel the urgency of our
present duty.

Under Spain there were 1,914 teachers, and in theory, but not in
practise, education was compulsory from ten to twelve. There were
six secondary private colleges, sixty-nine private Latin schools for
boys and a few for girls. There were two Spanish normal schools
in Manila, which were free, and paid each pupil ten dollars a month.
In 1888 education cost 124,963 Mexican dollars, and the agricultural
schools alone spent 113,686 more. There were two colleges estab-
lished in 1601 and 1610 respectively, one for theology and jurispru-
dence and the other for pharmacy, intended primarily for Spanish
youth, but to which natives were admitted. Besides these there were
eight agricultural stations, a nautical school for pilots, very important
here, and with a three-year course, a school of painting and sculpture,
and a military academy.

Blumentritt's twenty years' study of the Filipinos convinces him
that as soldiers they are courageous, economical, and entirely ame-
nable to strict discipline, with a perseverance that disaster can not
overwhelm. This was General Gordon's opinion of them when they
fought under him in the Taping rebellion. Under the Spaniards they
were for fifteen years accustomed to a system akin to the Austrian,
which gave them an army of from 12,000 to 18,000 men in peace,
with at least 100,000 in war. This jarmy, whose services the Ameri-
cans could have had as compensation for the naval protection of a
young republic, would have cost far less than the extravagant Ameri-
can volunteers and been more mobile.

The logic of the situation is plain and unequivocal. We should
express our national independence of Old- World tradition by develop-
ing a new colonial policy based not upon precedent, although learning
all its lessons. We should, like the framers of our Constitution and
Declaration of Independence, go back to first principles and steer by
stars and not by coast-marks. Assuming that those islands are to be
developed for the interests of their inhabitants, renouncing the policy
of making them pay the hundreds of millions which the war cost,
and of voting away their property and franchises, as the Taft Com-
mission proposed, without their consent and hearty cooperation, not
disposing of their most important business before they are admitted
to participate or taken into active partnership, for even " to give them
good government from above without evoking their own active co-

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 665

operation, as England has done for the people of India, is to sap
and atrophy their own capacity for self-government," we should first
of all study the native customs, traditions, sentiments, and ideas, and
utilize everything possible, fulfil and not destroy, as becomes a race
professing Christianity. We should not only have a blue-book con-
taining the opinions of Spanish and American soldiers, pastors, priests,
and teachers, and exhaust all sources of testimony according to the
best English precedent, but the Government should utilize its able
corps of anthropologists in expeditions to report on tribal organiza-
tions, native industries, marriage customs, all cults, religious ideas
and practises, and diseases. We should study the situation, political
writings and parties of the twenty-five years preceding 1896, and be
sure that we know and sympathize with everything good or vital
enough to graft into the native life. If war has made this hard, and
if we admit that this is even in part our fault, we should feel all the
more morally constrained and zealous in this work to undo past mis-
takes and close the chasm. All native helpers and suggestions should
be preferred so far as possible to those of alien and especially ab-
sentee origin. They should be immune from the arbitrary power of
Congress, which the best of them so dread. Schurman well says, our
first obligation is " to understand the character and circumstances of
the people, realizing sympathetically their aspirations and ideals. A
government to stand must be firmly rooted in the needs, interests,
judgment, and devotion of the people." " There is no instance in
history of a successful government of a colony where profit to the
parent state or the citizens has been a leading consideration." While
we remain, it must be for the good of the inhabitants. We must re-
member that their aspirations are legitimate and that " struggling
nationalities are the jewels of history, the hope and promise of the
world." The humanitarian motive, which prompted our first inter-
vention, should be not only conserved but put to work. The conceit
that we can do anything because we have money and that we are
shrewd when we have only been lucky, the mouthings of platform
demagogues, the interests of political platforms and elections, whoop-
ing up the flag, our first experience with real natural interests and
responsibilities on the other side of the globe that to our myopic minds
is so far away that it seems, as James well says, only a painted pic-
ture, the bigotry that censured Schurman, who saw the Sultan of
Sulu and saved the great southern islands from revolt, because he
did not then and there insist on the emancipation of slaves, which
would have provoked a terrible Mohammedan war — these are not
auspicious.

But genetic psychology, which is at root only common sense at
the same time simplified, magnified, and reenforced by examples here
as everywhere, has only the plain precept, study and adapt, to develop
the best that is indigenous, be patient, adopting a long-ranged pohcy
that does not forget that a century with a race is no more than a
year with an individual. In education we should not, as do existing

666 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

programs, so carefully score away the Spanish language, but develop
all that can be done with it; nor should we force out the native
tongue and teach only English in the lower grades. We should do
our utmost to develop the best indigenous languages, help gather
traditions and myths, as Virchow, P. T, Harvey, G. S. Kayme, and
others have begun to do; reject at first no native custom not phys-
ically immoral or unhygienic, emphasize every native industry and
teach better methods and technic, and strive to develop good Fili-
pinos who will make the most and best of life in that environment.
We should teach them respect for their own heroes and patriots as
well as for Washington, Adams, and Jefferson, and incubate not only
self-respect but pride rather than shame of their own race; employ
native teachers, and emulate the ideals and practises of Leitner in
the Punjab, later described. Every argument for child study at home
as the basis of educational methods and matter is greatly reenforced
for children and adults of an alien race.

IV. There are three Africas, says Drummond, the north
where men go for health, the south for money, and the center
for adventure. The first is that of Augustine, Carthage, and
the Pharoahs ; the second that of the Zulus and diamonds ; and
the third that of Livingstone and Stanley, which is half
as large again as all North America, with some 12,000,000
square miles and a population estimated at from 140,000,000
to 160,000,000, although nearly one-third are Semites or
Arabs. It has perhaps thirteen persons per square mile.
North America has eleven, Asia forty-nine, Europe ninety-
six. The Sahara almost equals the United States including
Alaska. Quite as characteristic as the Hamites of the north
are the great Bantu race occupying most of the south and
middle, especially the highlands. Ratzel, Reclus, and nearly
all authorities call them ascendent races.

They are naturally domestic, quiet, vegetarian, but not guiltless
of cannibalism, polygamy, fetishism, and belief in witchcraft. Never-
theless they are, according to Dr. Tyler, " in mental as well as phys-
ical ability in no respect inferior to the whites. They are as capable
of a high degree of culture as any people on the face of the globe.
They are not only emotional but logical, and have retentive memories,
and can split hairs equal to any Yankee lawyer." Poultney Bigelow
said: "The Zulus are by nature ladies and gentlemen; that is to say,
they are better mannered, speak more gently, are more graceful in
their movements, and are altogether better company than any room-

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 667

ful of my own people that it has ever been my good fortune
to meet."

According to Theal/ the black man is generally large, erect, with
wondrous symmetry, strong, with reasoning powers in defending him-
self in a controversy quite equal to those of the white. He is dom-
ineering and vain. Most tribes have a chief, although his power is
little felt beyond his own village in times of peace. The people are
the property of the rulers, so that any violence against their persons
is atoned for by a fine to the chief. The Bantu religion rests on the
belief in spirits and ancestors and chiefs that can interfere with
mundane affairs. The greatest of these controls the lightning. When
the ghosts are hungry they send plague or calamity till sacrifices ap-
pease their appetite. It is impious to mourn for one who dies by
lightning, for he is specially sent for. Nearer than spirits, the dead
chiefs, or ancestors is a host of goblins, water sprites, and malevolent
demons that meet the Bantu everywhere. There is no fairyland, but
all are ministers of evil. Belief in witchcraft is universal. Occasion-
ally one believes and makes others believe that he has a revelation
from the spirit-world. Many of the tribes circumcise at fifteen or
sixteen. The youth then leaves the society of women and is admitted
to manhood. For two months they have license to steal if unde-
tected, then are lectured and become men, with presents to give them
a start, and free rein is then given to immorality. The folk-lore fills
many volumes, but it is neither moral nor useful. Animals play a
large role in it. Cattle are their chief wealth. They weave baskets
and manipulate metals.

They have had great leaders— Tshaka, Dingyswago, and, perhaps
ablest of all, Moshesh, born in 1793, a man of uncommon presence,
who welded many tribes, was cruel in war but mild and judicious in
government. Theal says, the Bantus "increase by natural means
without parallel elsewhere." Their states of mind are but little ex-
plored, they do not realize the power of the whites, submit only by fear
and are restless under restraint, so that the dread of a great native
uprising is not idle. According to J. A. Hobson,' in one section of
the Christian Church in the Transvaal a resolution was lately passed
excommunicating all who should evangelize the heathen, and in the
constitution of the Transvaal all equality in church or state was for-
bidden. The colored people could not enter a Dutch church or even
walk on the sidewalk, trade, or own any land in a country that two
generations ago was all their own. The Boers almost enslave many
of them and regard them almost as animals to be used for their benefit.
To this section the British never go, but regard them as a low human
type, and allow them to buy liquor, which the Dutch forbade. " We
must compare the old tyranny of the Boer farmer with the new tyr-

^ History of South Africa, 4 vols. See vol. ii, p. 134 et seq.

''The War in South Africa ; Its Causes and Effects. New York, 1900.

668 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

anny of the mining capitalist." The cheap black miners are still
huddled in compounds and exposed to vice, but their masters are
growing anxious about temperance, for liquor impairs their efficiency.
According to a late Blue BooV lung disease, rheumatism, and syphilis
are increasing, and education and church building go with " deplorable
demoralization on the part of young men." Even rudimentary school-
ing is thought dangerous, and the wish of the natives to manage their
own churches is beginning to be thought almost rebellious. Mr.
Rhodes ridiculed " the peculiar class of human being, the Kaffir par-
son." " The entire system of South African society stands on the
various modes of coercing natives to work for the whites," placing
them where they can not refuse wage work. Those who believe in the
educability and future of the natives are thought faddists, not yet
dangerous because so few. " Indeed, manual labor has already be-
come a badge of shame for the whites, degrading them to the level
of the blacks." Hobson presents an array of facts to show that the
South African press, theaters, mining, liquor, and all other interests
are largely in the hands of the Jewish race, who have mostly refrained
from direct participation in politics, but will soon add this to their
other lines of business. " The one important object is to secure a
full, cheap, regular and submissive supply of Kaffir and white labor."
Premiums are paid to Kaffir chiefs if there has been a shortage of
labor. Captive Bechuanas are indentured by force if charged, though
not convicted, of rebellion. One writer considers it humanity that
they are not killed, but made to do three months of honest work in
the year.^

Belgium, which subsidized Stanley's exploration and which is now
supreme in the Congo Basin, with a population of from 8,000,000 to
27,000,000, has, in violation of treaty, made this region a huge net-
work of monopolies.^

The great interest is rubber, and to this almost everything else
seems sacrificed. If a tribe refuses to furnish its quota, it is said to
be in rebellion and punitive expeditions are organized which lay
waste the villages, burn huts, and slaughter men, women, and chil-
dren. We are told that not only does the state itself engage in cap-
turing slaves, but it encourages and officially protects the traffic. " On
the Lualaba I have seen hundreds of large canoes coming down from

iG. 31. 1899, p. 76.

* See, too, the publications of the Aborigines Protection Society, organized in
1837, especially his accounts of the past treatment and present condition of South
and West African natives under European influence, by the secretary of the society,
H. R. Fox Bourne. Almost every traveler there since Sir Richard Burton tells
the same story. Compare also Clive Day, The Dutch in Java, New York, 1904,
PP- 434-

^ The Curse of Central Africa, by Captain Guy Burrows. With which is incor-
porated A Campaign Amongst Cannibals, by Edgar Canisius. R. A. Everett &
Co., London, 1903, pp. 276.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 669

Nyangwe and Kassongo laden with slaves packed together like sheep.
The Arab or his niampara in charge of the convoy was armed with an
official passport signed by the commissaire de district, and bearing
his official seal. These passports generally set forth that the bearer
was authorized to ' recruit ' labor, and all agents of the state were
required to aid him. Of course, as there is no voluntary labor in the
country, the Arab purchases his cattle in the cheapest market. The
universal principal is ' that of placing the burden of everything upon
the natives.' The latter are cannibals, with a very strong craving
for animal food, which, as they have no domestic animals except dogs,
they can not get except in time of war." Details of many cannibal
feasts are described. " The greatest delight of these negroes is to be
in a position to domineer over their fellow blacks of another tribe."
They seem to have an exquisite pleasure in witnessing human suffer-
ing. It has been " fortunate for the white man that the negro invari-
ably detests his neighbor of another tribe with a deep and lasting
hatred, prompting him to take part in any scheme likely to give him
power over his brother black. It has been solely by playing tribe
against tribe that the whites have been able to maintain a footing in
Africa. The day is perhaps coming when the aborigine will see the
folly of this; and should he ever do so the reign of the European is
over, so far at least as tropical Africa is concerned. I am convinced
that that day is not so distant as some enthusiastic colonizers affect
to believe." We are told that the quality of men sent by King Leo-
pold, who has the greatest personal interest in the profits accruing
from this colony, is far inferior to those sent by England, that they often
become discontented and irritable, and, having little moral courage,
often give way to nostalgia. In one conflict, in which 114 were killed,
" seven tons and more of human meat were cut up into roasts, steaks,
chops, and cutlets." In one expedition of native soldiers, led by a few
white men, the record is, " We had undergone six weeks of painful
marching and had killed over nine hundred natives — men, women, and
children. But the enemy and disease had destroyed half of our own
force, and the expedition was a failure." Had it succeeded, it would
have " added fully twenty tons of rubber to the monthly crop," until
the impossible was required of the tribe and they revolted and re-
sumed their massacres.

The tortures described and photographed in this heart-rending
book, of natives scalped alive, slowly cut and stabbed to death, and
hacked to pieces, with portions of the bodies of other victims tied
about their necks, make painful reading. We are not surprised that
this book has been suppressed, and we must add that at least one of
the two authors seems animated by personal resentment connected
with his leaving the Belgian service, so that the animus of the book
may be suspected. It has happened that such conditions have brought
out facts, notorious on the ground, but which the public has great
difficulty in learning. Most of the facts here stated seem not incredi-
ble, and many are vouched for by official records, competent persons.

670 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

or photographs, but the question always is, How far are they repre-
sentative ? ^

Joseph Thomson,' who has carefully studied Africans on the spot,
has little respect for the popular claim of civilization, progress, the
good or conversion of the negro, or the habit of calling the trader
" the pioneer of civilization, thinking only of the native first and of
himself afterward." We see the work of other nations, he says, in its
true light, when they bespatter the ruined homes and jungles with
the blood of the people, all for the good of the negro. He contrasts
this with the early Portuguese expansion to advance God's kingdom,
when missionary zeal rose to a pitch never surpassed, till there was a
chain of mission posts almost around the coast line and far up the
Congo and Zambesi. With the fall of Portugal, England, Spain,

^ Two English soldiers, A. G. Leonard ^ and F. W. Sykes,* have written amaz-
ingly frank books which show in every chapter contempt of the natives and the
dominance of commercial interests over every humanitarian point of view. The
stories of midnight massacre, captains burning native kraals, and the appearance
at the dramatic moment of Cecil Rhodes, the peace lover, the modern Colossus,
with his intense magnetism and his splendid cuisine — all reveal a state of the Saxon
military mind, in which, were it supreme, the native can read his swift doom. The
splendid book of Sir Harry Johnston,^ the discoverer of the Okapia half deer and
half zebra, is written in a spirit in extreme contrast with that of Fielding Hall or
Furniss. To him the natives have too little interest to make it worth while to get
into sympathetic rapport with them. Very different is the frankness of Miss
Colenso,® who describes the twenty years of peace between the Zulus and the colo-
nists of Natal. When the former refused to give up two refugees, war broke out,
in which one of the young men was killed and the other captured and set free with
no punishment. " Rivers of blood flowed to enforce demands that were in the end
put on one side as utterly valueless." It is a long and sad story in which the
natives " showed immense courage and the highest warlike qualities and were well
led by Cetewayo, one of the ablest leaders of men." The culminating tragedy of
the war, the death, and the final capture and isolation of Cetewayo, gives it all a
pathetic close.

When General Gordon found the work he was expected to do among the Ba-
sutos was unprovoked and unjust, he wrote that he could not do it " without sink-
ing his conscience," and so resigned.' He declared that " government by coercion
is essentially rotten," and that " the history of the South African wars is essentially
that of wars undertaken in support of unjustifiable acts."

''The Results of European Intercourse with the African. Contemporary Re-
view, March, 1890.

^ How we Made Rhodesia. London, 1896, p. 356.

'' With Plummer in Matabeleland. An account of the operations of the Matabele-
land relief force during the rebellion of 1896. Westminster, 1897, p. 291.

* The Uganda Protectorate, 2 vols., pp. 1018. London, 1902.

^ History of the Zulu War and its Origin, by Frances E. Colenso. London,
1880, p. 491.

'' Boulger : Life of General Gordon, vol. ii, p. 77 et seq.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 671

France, and Holland were hard at work perpetrating " one of the
most gigantic crimes that has ever stained the annals of history."

Mr. Blyden/ our colored minister to Liberia, in a recent article
shows how superior the Mohammedan methods have been in many
respects over white civilization in Africa, and the repressive
effects of our methods there. They have not abolished polygamy nor
slavery, but it should not be forgotten that both have their partial
justification, and at a certain stage slavery may be the best discipline
for lowly races. Bartle Frere," in discussing laws relating to the
differences between savage and civilized life, as bearing on the deal-
ing of colonies with aborigines, has to admit that in temperate cli-
mates on islands where the English settle, although not so much in
hot climates, the natives are seen slowly to disappear. The whites
check black races by Europeanizing them, and the latter react and
drag the whites down.

Perhaps the best record of the customs of the Bantu, Zulu, and
other South African tribes is the Blue-Book report of Sir Bartle
Frere, published in 1883. All sources of information — natives, mis-
sionaries, judges, soldiers, etc. — were utilized to find whether the
aboriginal customs of marriage, land tenure, criminal procedure, local
government, etc., should be legalized or superseded. The result was
a surprise, for it was found that in tribes that had not been disturbed
by outside white influences all these and other matters were regu-
lated by unwritten but rigid tradition, and that in many, if not most,
respects the whites had more to learn than to teach. The chief, while
absolute in some respects, can make no laws and is subject to all that
exist when he comes to power. His conduct is in most matters con-
trolled by hereditary headmen or councillors, who are themselves
governed by the opinion of the people. A chief who decreed without
consultation would find his decision defied if it did not chance to
coincide with the popular whim. All rests on oral traditions of old
men, and so conservative are they that in one tribe but one change
was made for fifty years. Each tribe has its territory, and after
selecting his portion the chief allots districts to sub-chiefs, who assign
it to individuals, who build their kraal and hut, sub-allots to younger
brothers, etc., who plow and till but do not exchange or sell. As
land is not manured, and mealies exhaust the soil in a very few years,
moving is easy and land has little value. Each kraal reserves its own
grazing land, sharply marked off from cultivated areas. Primogeni-
ture prevails, and all its contingencies are provided for. Each wife,
son, and daughter has well-defined rights and duties. They do not
countenance wills. All is so provided by custom that it would be
impossible for a man in his last weak moments to disturb the regula-
tion. The giving of cattle for a wife insures a father's interest in

^ See Journal of the African Society, 1901.
^Jour. Anthrop. Inst., 1882, pp. 313-354.

672 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

his daughter's chastity, without which his dower is smaller. If she
is treated badly she can run away and the husband does not receive
back his cattle, but he does if she misbehaves, so her relatives have an
interest in her good conduct. The wife takes pride in the size of
the gift and does not respect herself till it is all paid. When this
custom is disregarded, as is often the case under missionary influence,
conjugal unhappiness follows. Divorce is very rare, and adultery is
fined. The wife owns all her father gives her. Each sex has its own
duties, and the women work hard only about eight weeks per year,
so that " the actual labor performed by the women bears no compari-
son to what is performed by the women of the lower class in Eng-
land." Polygamy is always believed in and often practised. Women
favor it, for it is their pride to belong to a large establishment.
Women at about thirty-six years of age often " retire " from wed-
lock and go to live with the children. She aids her husband to find
and dower a second wife, stays a year to direct her, and then with-
draws. The kraal to which she goes treats her with great respect.
A man is entitled to take the widow of his deceased brother, and the
children born to him are legally those of his brother. Crimes are
graded according to the dignity of the person against whom they are
committed. Every man must report to his superior any wrong or
unusual act, and if he does not do so is held responsible for it. In
native tribunals accuser and accused are heard and examined, as are
all their witnesses, and the chief retires and renders his judgment in
private. Torture in obtaining evidence is unknown save for witch-
craft. The spoor law tracks stolen cattle, their only wealth, to a
kraal, which is collectively liable if it can not show that they passed
on. If the trail is lost between two villages, both are liable. Thus
cattle are almost always rescued. The EngHsh object to being re-
sponsible for others, and so, as the community have no interest in
informing, theft multiplies. An English reviewer ' says, " Any candid
reader of the Blue Book, after considering the evidence of the magis-
trates and missionaries who lived for years in constant contact with
the Kaflirs, must rise from its perusal with a feeling that the native
is neither vicious nor hopelessly lazy. His faults seem to be in great
measure the faults of children or animals when acting under the
influence of fright, hardly knowing what they are doing. The con-
tact of Europeans with the native has in the first instance, at least,
not tended to improve him." But even this writer, with a character-
istic English eye to utility, adds that " the native, if treated intelli-
gently, with due regard to his history and traditions, will undoubtedly
prove a valuable asset in the labor market in South Africa."

In February, 1903, twenty-six African chiefs were summoned in
council to answer the question, " Can native owners of land sell
outright; that is, part with land in perpetuity for themselves, their

* E. Blackwood Wright : Jour, of the African Society, April, 1903, p. 274.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 673

children, their family, and tribe ? " Each chief gave a clear and in-
telligent negative answer, some detailing reasons. All, without ex-
ception, said land could not thus be sold, that this was a foreign cus-
tom. A writer holds that " in a new country like Africa, where mil-
lions of people are to be ruled by a very few white men, whose work
can not be continuous owing to the climate, so deleterious to Euro-
peans, and where the means of enforcing law and order are chiefly
conspicuous by their absence, it is indeed a serious thing to sanction
new measures in place of those which the natives have worked out
in the course of centuries for themselves. It is beginning to be better
understood than it was in old times that the best means of governing
the people is through their own chiefs." ^

Allen Upward, late resident administrator in Kabba, reports ^ sin-
gular indifference to the interests of the natives, even merchants
losing trade to foreign rivals because they do not consult the tastes
of their customers. He was urged by Mr. Aitken, agent of the Church
Missionary Society, to induce the natives to embrace Christianity by
Government proclamation as the Mohammedans did, insisting that
they would not appreciate the difference. Mr. Upward found the
natives mostly honest and sensible, with a high standard of morality.
He quotes Lieutenant Drysdale, who says of the Basutos that " the
worst class of natives is the converted one, as is often the case. They
are generally very dishonest and also very dirty," and he adds for
himself the extreme view that " in the face of all the evidence it is
difficult to resist the conviction that the person who lends any help
to Christianize the African is a wilful evildoer." " To say that we
are in Africa for the good of the native is cant. It is cant of which
Englishmen are much too fond, and foreigners find it easier to par-
don our greed of dominion than the unctuous professions by which
we love to disguise the truth from ourselves."

Sir Harry Johnston' thinks the negro more than any other race
is marked out by mental and physical traits as a possible slave. He
has " great physical strength, docility, cheerfulness of disposition, a
short memory for sorrows and cruelties, and an easily aroused grati-
tude " ; has little homesickness provided he is well fed; can toil hard
under the hot sun and in an unhealthy climate ; has little race fellow-
ship ; and makes not only a good workman but a good soldier. They
have been and are still sold throughout the Mohammedan world, and
captured and often treated with the greatest cruelty. They began
to be imported into America as early as 1503, and the trade was regu-

1 English Governors and African Chiefs. Col. J. G. B. Stafford, Jour, of
the African Society, April, 1903.

* The Province of Kabba, North Nigeria. Jour, of the African Society, April,
1903.

^ A History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races. Cambridge, 18994

pp. 146.

83

674 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

larly established by Charles V in 1517. Dr. Robert Brown ^ estimates
that from 1680 to 1786, 2,130,000 negro slaves were imported into
the English-American colonies. Near the end of the eighteenth cen-
tury over 70,000 a year were imported into America. Occasionally a
negro prince was captured. It is hard to say whether slaves have
suffered more when transported by sea, where many of them have
perished or been thrown overboard to escape detection, or by the in-
human methods of land traffic. Boys are in chief demand in the
East, and they are usually made eunuchs before they are sold, and
sometimes branded, insufficiently fed, and subjected to nameless hor-
rors; and only in the early part of the century was the traffic defi-
nitely abolished. England has attempted to do penance by founding
Sierra Leone and by helping Liberia. Denmark first forbade the
trade for her subjects in 1792; in 1804 the United States forbade the
introduction of more slaves; in 1807 Parliament abolished the trade
so far as British subjects were concerned; in 1815 Napoleon ended
the trade; it was abolished in all the British dominions in the '30s,
and Spain and Portugal were paid to abolish the traffic. France gave
it up in all her possessions in 1840. It continued in Portuguese pos-
sessions till 1878 and in the United States till 1863. This traffic
across the Sahara has been greatly reduced; the slave raids of the
Zulus and Angoni ended ; but the Arabs in east Central Africa still
continue their raids. This business has filled Africa with war and
suffering. Johnston holds that a slight modicum of good has been
mixed with the great evil in its prosecution. The races that will not
work are made to. In general, the negro has now been given back
his freedom, but if he does not use it aright and continues his heedless
life, his subjection in some form or other is certain.

William Torrens ^ gives us many interesting details of the efforts
within recent years to suppress this traffic, especially by British
cruisers, and characterizes the endeavors of the different nations of
Europe. Very often men are slain, and the traffic largely consists of
boys, who are made eunuchs, and of girls. Thomson's summary state-
ment is, " I unhesitatingly affirm in the plainest language that so far
our intercourse with African races, instead of being a blessing has
been little better than an unmitigated curse to them." The frightful
miscarriage of the desire of religious people has been due to the
nature of commerce, to the slave trade, the gin trade, and gunpowder.
" Chiefs have been tempted to sell their subjects, mothers their chil-
dren, men their wives. Tribe was set against tribe." " Twenty mil-
lions of human beings probably underestimates the number of killed
and captured for European gain, and his was not the most fortunate
fate who lived to become a slave. For him was reserved the spectacle
of slaughtered relatives and a ruined home."

Now it is precisely drink that Mohammedanism most strenuously

' The Story of Africa.

' The East African Slave Trade. Fortnightly Review, vol. xlix, 1888.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 675

and successfully sets its face against, so that, as compared with its
progress in Africa, Christianity is at a standstill. Mohammedan seed
seems to have all taken root, but Christianity has ever been a delicate
exotic. The reason is that Mohammedanism has been elastic and
adaptable ; it asks apparently little, but really very much. Its very in-
feriority as a religion has caused its success; it has given just what
could succeed. The Christian, on the other hand, has done so little
because he tried to do so much, and has so little comprehended his
problem. He has great enthusiasm, but great ignorance and errone-
ous ideas. He ignores all pedagogical principles, and acts as if in a
single generation he could lift individuals or even races from the
bottom to the top of the culture ladder and graft Christianity upon
brutish brains. At best he has only stupefied them with doctrine be-
yond their grasp. " Before any great advances will be made in the
Christian propaganda of Africa a total revolution in the methods of
work must be accomplished. Surely the time has come when pro-
fessorships for the preparation of missionaries should be founded,"
so that they be freed from the unworkable traditions of the past and
from the hampering influences of unsuitable theological training. At
bottom the negro is very religious. He can accept the lofty idea of
God which Islam presents.

In 1900 the negroes in the United States numbered 8,840,789,
and they are increasing at the rate of about 150,000 per year. Mr.
C. D. Warner,^ while commending the progress made since the time
it was an offense to teach the negro the alphabet because it made
human property insecure, insists that the education of the children
of the negroes of this country should be of the lower and not of the
higher kind. They are, he says, an inferior race. While Africa has
seen the civilization of the Egyptians, Carthaginians, and Saracens,
and while a negro emperor ruled the large and well-ordered empire
of Songhay on the Niger in the fourth century, he urges that no
negro ever invented an alphabet; that they have been relatively un-
affected by higher races ; that while by nature the negro is cheerful,
contented, fond of music, very emotional, he is also shiftless and irre-
sponsible, lacks stamina and trustworthiness, is injured by the mere
top-dressing of culture as well as by being the pawn of politics, and
should not be treated like superior races. His training should be
essentially practical, domestic, agricultural, chiefly if not entirely in-
dustrial, and he makes no provision even for the training of the few
exceptional negroes.

In slavery the negro did not worry; was not fired by ambitions
about his possible future, but led a humble if somewhat animal life
in his little cabin. There were many hygienic restraints ; habits were
regular and food and clothing, though often plain, were sufficient for
the master's interests in his well-being if no more. He was kept in-

^ The Education of the Negro. President's Address, Am. See. Sci. Ass'n,
Washington, May 7, 1900.

676 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

doors at night, and there were no Hquor saloons for him to frequent,
and in sickness he was cared for. When he became free and invested
with the duties and responsibilities of citizenship, new and heavy-
demands were made upon his intellect. Many heads were turned by
roseate dreams of the future. During the flush times immediately
following the war, when cotton was high, this increase was not noted,
but with the depreciation of farm products and the loss of labor which
followed he has often lost his mental equilibrium, and that from
stress and strain which would not affect a race mentally stronger.
Religious excitement is often ascribed as one cause of insanity, and
while this is sometimes true of the negroes, the relation of cause and
effect is often just the reverse of this. His disease expresses itself
often through his highly emotional, religious nature. Perhaps his-
tory presents no parallel to the sudden creation of a nation in a day
by the proclamation of emancipation, but the fact of mental inferior-
ity according to the established standards of measuring culture and
civilization is unquestionable. The negro is excitable and lives in
his emotions, and his insanity is of a more demonstrative type, states
of exaltation being vastly more frequent than those of depression.
Paresis, from which the negroes used to be thought exempt, is now
abundantly demonstrated among them, and seems essentially a metro-
politan disease. The problems of the Southern insane asylum are
peculiar. Their lack of education restricts the means of diversion,
and most are farm hands unable to take up the ordinary hospital
occupations; but on the other hand, while the inmates are unusually
recalcitrant against negro attendants, they are especially amenable to
white control. Heredity seems more dominant with them than with
the more cultivated races. Emancipation seems to have greatly in-
creased disease. " As compared with insanity in the whites, mental
disease among the negroes has risen from one-fifth as common in
1850 to one-half as common in 1890." ^ Consumption, now the scourge
of the race, has also increased.

On the other hand, the Atlanta University publications on the
negro question are of great value. In 1890 there were 25,000 colored
teachers, and they now practically conduct the schools for their race.
In the second quarter of the century many Southern States made it
a penal offense to teach the negro or permit him or cause him to be
taught. From 1870 to 1899 the negro school systems of the former
slave States have not cost the white taxpayers a cent, except possibly
in a few city systems. " It is a conservative statement to say, then,
that American negroes have in a generation paid directly $40,000,000
in hard-earned cash for educating their children." Negro teachers
are needed to teach their race. On the whole, they are far less
trained and less paid than whites, so that one great and growing need

^ G. F. Miller, M. D. : The Effects of Emancipation upon the Mental and
Physical Health of the Negro of the South. An Address before the So. Med.
Psy. Ass'n, Asheville, N. C, September, 1896.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 677

is training schools for teachers. " The backwardness of education
of the white people is in no degree due to the presence of the negroes,
but their presence has actually been contributing to the sustenance of
the white schools."

There is now reason to believe that the educational opportunities
afforded to negroes in the South along industrial lines are better
than those enjoyed by the poor whites, and indeed in some significant
pedagogic respects the best in the world, as I pointed out in Chapter
III. Slavery made labor degrading for white men, and to engage in
it they would forfeit race standing. Now the negroes are in a sense
a wedge dividing the whites of the poor from those of the upper
class. If the negroes — thanks to Tuskegee and Hampton — attain the
means of better industrial and social well-being than the poor whites,
race hate on their part will be intensified. No one familiar with these
schools and with the lowest whites in the South can doubt that the
latter are likely to be soon outstripped in education and prosperity by
the blacks. The future of the entire black race is to-day more hopeful
than ever before, chiefly from the work of one negro, Booker Wash-
ington, who is perhaps solving not only our negro problem but that
of the Dark Continent, as well as providing object-lessons for colonial
statecraft the world over. As autocrat of the Philippines he would
probably accomplish what armies and white pedagogues and Congress
can never do. At any rate, no one can study the above two institu-
tions without increased respect for the race and without dreams of a
possible new type of higher civilization for them. There is danger
that race hostility will be intensified, and that the poor whites will be
led to desperate efforts to assert the superiority of their color. Few
desire less for the negro, but only more, while the necessity of indus-
trial education for the children of the poor whites is clear and strong.

V. Of all the aborigines of America those o£ Greenland
have been known ever since Eric the Red reached them from
Iceland in 986. The Eskimos, numbering some 40,000, very
widely spread yet very unique, homogeneous in language and
custom, are perhaps preglacial and descended from cave-
men. They are cheerful, peaceful, kind to each other, per-
haps because of their stern environment, and, according to
Rink,^ " before their degeneration by contact with the whites
they were truthful and honest." They have a Shamanistic
religion, with definite belief in another life, which anthropolo-
gists have suggested might be utilized in many ways by mis-
sionaries— whom Rink thinks helpful, and to whom Nansen
charges up most evils. No more interesting people exist, and

' Esquimaux Tales and Traditions.

678 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

a few anthropologists have rivaled religious teachers in their
zest and self-denial in studying them. In the tenth century-
there were twelve Christians in Greenland, and in 1900 the
Moravians withdrew considering their work complete,^ but
they are prone to lapse to old ways.

In Patagonia, at the other end of the New World, there
are no ruins or any other indications of a once higher civi-
lization. The natives, the tallest race on earth, living on the
pampas a life that has such fascination that no one having
once tasted can ever forget it, are passing to extinction,
chiefly from rum and smallpox. H. H. Prichard ^ says " it
is probable that I may be their last chronicler." Their de-
pendence on the guanaco is very analogous to that of the
Eskimo on the seal, and their relation to horses, which they
ride so much that their lower limbs are often undeveloped and
bent, is like that of the Eskimo to his kayak. The latter has
never seen a horse, and the Tehuelche never used a boat. The
fat hunger of both is sometimes almost an obsession.

Prichard calls them " a kind-hearted, docile, lazy race, invariably
most courteous. Treat them as you desire to be treated and you will
always receive grave, quiet consideration." " To see a race so kindly
picturesque and gifted with fine qualities of body and mind, absolutely
at hand-grip with extinction, seems to me one of the saddest results
of the growing domination of the white man." " One of the strongest
feelings which I brought away with me from Patagonia was a hatred
of the trader, who battens upon the failings of the Tehuelches." If
he hears of a festival or any tribal ceremony, he arrives on the spot
with drink. He trades the vilest liquor for horses, and when the men
are well steeped he makes some magnificent bargains. The horrors
of the wars of civilization would pale beside their cold-blooded slaugh-
ter. The pioneer trader with his stores of cheap, maddening liquor
is free to sell as much as he pleases, although it is a well-known fact
that such trading means ruin and extermination to the unhappy,
ignorant folk who buy.

When the Argentine was unable to subdue the Patagonians some
years ago, says Beech, a foreigner undertook this task by planting
large areas with potatoes, from which a spirit was distilled that was
very fatal to the natives.

The Indians of the two continents are generally well developed
physically. Child life among them has peculiar charms. Despite

^ H. P. Beach : Geography and Atlas of Protestant Missions. New York, 1901.
'Through the Heart of Patagonia, 1901.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 679

some common traits, their languages are more numerous than all
those of Europe and Asia, and nearly all have the quality of holo-
phrasm or encapsulation in high degree. They have little literature,
but many myths. Their life is generally tribal or communal. The
most common element of their religious life is totemism, often mer-
ging into zootheism. They adore the heavenly bodies, have number-
less prayers, fasts, and terpsichorean worship, and many call them
the most religious people on earth. In Canada these men of the stone
age, numbering over 100,000, have been treated kindly, after the
French method. Agents are trained and kept in office for life, farms
are allotted, liquor forbidden, and there is no Indian question. Their
race is not very fecund or viable, and depression from feeling them-
selves doomed is often thought a chief cause of their decline. Dr.
Brown urges that too great cleanliness is especially unwholesome for
them, and that to remove the dermal excretions too carefully is often
fatal.

Indigenous culture was most highly developed among them in
Mexico and Peru. " The first effect of the voyages of Columbus and
his successors," says Fiske,^ " was to arouse the spirit of romantic
curiosity to a fever heat." The Toltecs or builders are compared to
the Pelasgi, to whom Greek historians ascribed all their troublesome
problems of origin. Over against this Toltec empire in Mexico were
the Chichimecs or barbarians, who were not members of the con-
federacies of the Pueblo towns. When Cortez landed he had the
immense advantage of answering in outer respects the requirements
of the national legends of Quetzalcoatl. His blond complexion, light
hair and beard, all suggested the national sun god. He was a strange
combination of bravery, craft, endurance, unscrupulousness, fertility
of device, and devotion. Through his mistress, a native, he learned
that the Aztec confederacy bore heavily upon the tributary towns, but
burned all his ships and set forth like a quixotic knight-errant with
four hundred and fifty mail-clad Spaniards, twelve small cannon, and
fifteen horses. The latter, being unknown, seemed frightful monsters
to the natives. When the chief was captured under the Indian system
but not killed, his office could not be filled and the native phratries
were paralyzed. At first the Spaniards were thought invulnerable,
and Cortez faced vastly superior numbers successfully and released
human victims caged and fattening for sacrifice in town after town
among these people more than two ethnic periods behind his own,
as if a modern German army had attacked ancient Nineveh, Babylon,
or Thebes. The glory of the ancient Mexican civilization has no
doubt been magnified, and it is so extinct that the facts can never be
completely ascertained. Despite the awful blot of cannibalism devel-
oped into an elaborate and imposing ceremonial, the civilization of
Montezuma was in some respects superior to that of the Spaniards
even in this age of their glory. He was war chief and high priest in

^The Discovery of America, vol. ii, p. 214.

68o THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

one ; the elaborate tribal system which here attained one of its highest
developments focused in his person; and his capture, while it was an
achievement of dazzling prowess, was an outrage upon every principle
of international ethics, honor, or courtesy. The motive of the Span-
iards to diffuse a higher Christian civilization was alloyed by the
most heinous atrocity, and even if on the whole the Inquisition was
better than' cannibalism and human sacrifice, this and all missionary
motives were here mere tinsel gilding of the buccaneering sentiments
which underlay and actuated this invasion.

Bastian' estimates that the conquest of Mexico cost about 150,000
lives; that the Spanish governors of Salazai and Chirino worked
15,000 Indians to death; that by the export of slaves to the West
Indies Panuco was almost depopulated; and that many thousands
died of the hard labor to which the Spaniards condemned them in
Mexican mines. Smallpox, introduced in 1545, is said to have slain
80,000, and the epidemic which began in 1576 to have swept away
about 2,000,000 more. The Spaniards did not understand the complex
system of native irrigation, and the droughts and floods caused by their
destruction of it caused famines, while the sudden disturbance of all
social and industrial relations, the banishing of natives used to the
warm valleys to the cold plateaus, and sometimes conversely, were
fatal to many more. D'Alva estimates that King Ahuitzotzin had
about 80,000 war captives slain to dedicate his new temple — a lust of
murder that, as Bastian well remarks, would shame the despot of
Dahomey. " As we bore the banner of the cross," wrote a contem-
porary Spanish historian, " and fought for our faith, God gave us
victory and we slew great multitudes of the heathen." On one Ash
Wednesday order was given, " in honor of the day, to shoot about 300
wretched excommunicants." " It is," says Bastian, " an indisputable
fact that the introduction of Christianity into Mexico, instead of
fulfilling its mission of exalting the race, demoralized the inhabitants
and introduced the condition of dull apathy in which we now see the
Indians sunk."

The Peruvians were probably the first in all America to rise above
barbarism and develop a truer nationality than any other, despite the
fact that they had no system of writing save the knotted cords or
quipus. In a region about Lake Titicaca, not far below the summit
of the Matterhorn in elevation, still marked by colossal architecture
which is comparable in magnitude and as imperishable as the Pyra-
mids and the Colosseum, the Incas had slowly developed a most unique,
interesting, and instructive life, with food, dress, government, religion,
habits, and social customs distinct from anything else known in the
world. They had, moreover, abolished cannibalism, established garri-
sons to secure their conquests, built military roads comparable with
those of Rome, storehouses and barracks, and, though ignorant of the
principals of the arch, their masonry defies modern methods. In many

1 Mexico. Virchow und von Holtzendorff : Sammlung Wiss. Vortrage, 1874.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 68 1

other respects besides their colonial system, the Peruvian poHty was
not unlike that of ancient Assyria. Pizarro was inspired by the ex-
ample of Cortez, but he was less educated, fonder of gold, and prob-
ably less under the influence of religious motives. He was less subtle
and more brutal. From the captured Inca he took some $15,000,000
worth of gold besides the silver as a ransom, and then put his captive
to death. The splendor of gold dazzled Spain, and Spaniards flocked
to the New World by ship-loads, seizing estates, spoiling the tem-
ples, enslaving the people, and always aiming at the control of the
mechanism of native administration. At best the story is a sickening
one, and the apologetic attitude of Fiske seems utterly unwarranted
by the facts which he himself records.

The infernal picture of slavery in Hispaniola is one of the blackest
pages in human history, and is marked by hideous cruelties and tor-
tures usually unpunished. In 151 1 the Dominican, Montesino, began
his scathing impeachment of the slave trade, and one of his first con-
verts, Las Casas, once a slave owner, himself began his extraordinary
crusade for the abolishment of negro slavery. His work diminished
the amount of slavery and mitigated its evils, and though it by no
means led to its abolition, made the torch of Wilberforce, Garrison,
and Lincoln burn the brighter.

Even here we have the most striking contrast, such as has since
been so common, between admirable laws made at home and the most
flagrant violation of their spirit and letter in every item by those
actually in contact with the natives. No part of American colonial
history, says Captain Bourke,^ has been more neglected than that
which relates to the laws of the Spanish dominions. These show that
the Spanish crown from the first aimed at the elevation, civilization,
and Christianity of its new subjects. An elaborate code in four vol-
umes, published in 1681, shows that assimilation and not destruction
was deliberately aimed at, and that many aborigines were sensibly
improved by the Spanish introduction of horses, cattle, sheep, goats,
hogs, and chickens, planting of orchards, and new trades like carpen-
try, wagon-making, blacksmithing, stone masonry, etc. In 1504, in
Queen Isabella's will, all are solemnly charged that " they neither con-
sent nor allow any of the Indians, native of or resident in said isles and
mainland, to receive any harm whatever, either in person or property,"
but that they be treated justly, compensated for injury, etc. The laws
enforced monogamy; forbade the sale of daughters; compelled Spanish
men to support women who had children by them ; urged schools for the
aborigines in every village; established the Universities of Lima and
Mexico in 1551, as before this Charles V had established the Fran-
ciscan University of Tzintzontin, which " had become the great uni-
versity, whose ruins are among the most impressive on our conti-
nent." The sale of Indian captives taken in war was forbidden in

' The Laws of Spain in their Application to the American Indians. American
Anthropologist, 1894, p. 193.

682 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

extreme and emphatic terms; those thinking themselves oppressed
could write directly to the king; liquor-selling was forbidden; natives
were not allowed to sell their property holdings save in due legal form.
An Indian servant could break a contract if he did not receive proper
medical treatment when he was ill; his master had to pay all dues
and had no further claim upon his services when he recovered. The
dark side was the progressive reduction to imprisonment, which is
little less than another name for slavery for debt.

In Mexico the native Indian population, now some forty-three
per cent of the whole, has been steadily decreasing during the cen-
tury, although as a whole this race is very prolific. During the sixty-
five years ending in 1875 the European race, now nineteen per cent,
nearly doubled; the mixed race, thirty-eight per cent, trebled; but
the native race diminished slightly but steadily. If, however, we
include mixed bloods, they are steadily increasing, and a recent esti-
mate places the pure whites at only twenty per cent of the population.
The causes usually assigned to this decrease are bad food, shelter,
medical treatment, especially the ravages of smallpox, and premature
marriages. Of the perhaps one hundred and fifty tribes originally
here, the Spaniards give us records of thirty-three, but these are dying
out, as did the edible dumb dog when the Spaniards began to tax it.
Members of an Indian tribe rarely mix with white races but inter-
marry among themselves, and this prevents assimilation. Starr has
revived the old theory that all inhabitants of the New World are grad-
ually assuming the Indian type, and some hold that in Peru, Bolivia,
and Mexico Indian blood will ultimately rule. The Mexican of
Spanish descent is generally less energetic and less vascular than the
Spaniard, just as the American is less so than the Englishman; so
that it would seem that the problem of acclimatizing Anglo-Saxons
here, and perhaps in the New World generally, is perhaps not yet
solved. The American in Mexico, who often excites fears of ultimate
dominance, is always a speculator and a " dreamer of golden dreams."
He introduces improved hotels, electric lights, and better modes of
transportation, but much farther than this he rarely goes, for his push
and restlessness find insuperable barriers of climate and tradition.
He does not take kindly to the midday siesta or the many feasts,
saints' days, and holidays, while the very productiveness of nature
neutralizes one of the chief incentives to work, and the monotony of
the seasons does not compel extra effort in summer to prepare for the
winter. Such facts, with others, incline Le Plongeon to regard the
natives, despite their present decline, as likely to survive the less
adapted Europeans, and the vast and mysterious monuments of Cho-
lula, Palenque, Teotihuacan, and Mitla prompt him to reverse the
once current view that the natives were of Asiatic origin and to urge
that the empire "of the Mayas centering at Yucatan was the original
source of civilization, which proceeded thence to India, Egypt, Greece,
etc. It is certain that the Mexican Indians have lost a well-developed
civilization and literature, and that many of their languages have be-

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 683

come primitive and others died out, and that since the Spanish con-
quest they have fallen into a semi-barbarous state/ No historian or
philosopher can ever estimate the loss to the v^^orld by this wreckage
of an ancient and highly developed civihzation, so completely exter-
minated that we can never know very definitely what it was, contain-
ing for us perhaps priceless scientific and practical lessons which
might do us as much good in dealing with this race as what they got
from us did them harm. Race pedagogy has irretrievably lost we
know not what arts of irrigation, taxation, high tribal organization,
native agriculture, industries, new solutions of family, social, and
ethical relations. Even the Aztec religion would very likely seem
less repulsive if we knew it fully and in the inner sympathetic way
in which religions are now studied. The new solutions of so many
of our own problems, dimly seen here, should suggest how many
more things than our philosophy dreams of or our history records
have been in and vanished from the world, and wring our hearts with
pity not only for vanished races but for ourselves.

With the experience of years of travel in Australia, Lumholtz *
made good use of the provisions for his five years of exploration
among the relatively unknown inhabitants of the mountains of Mex-
ico, many of them, at least, supposed to be descendants of the ancient
Peruvians, whose semicivilization was destroyed by Pizarro. The
most representative of these tribes, the Huichols, are remarkable for
their vast body of legendary lore, which is to them gospel, truth, and
history; their music and the great endurance of the singing shamans,
who can sing each night for at least a fortnight of " how the gods in
the beginning composed the world out of chaos and darkness " ; how
they instituted the customs of the Huichols and taught the people all
they had to do to please them ; to build temples, hunt deer, go for the
hikuli plant, to raise corn, make bows and arrows, and ceremonial
objects. " There are no written records kept of these traditions.
They live on the lips of the people as national heirlooms, passing
from one generation to the next as originally did the sagas and folk-
songs of the ancient Northmen. The gods are supposed to be stand-
ing all around the horizon seeing and hearing everything, and the
shaman in his prayers turns toward the four quarters or the four
winds of the world, because if one god does not respond another may.
Rarely does he address a long prayer to any one direction. The gods
are angry with man and begrudge him everything, particularly the
rain, which is of paramount importance to the very existence of the
tribe, but when the shamans sing of their deeds they are pleased and

^ Matias Romero : Geographical and Statistical Notes on Mexico. 1898.

* Unknown Mexico, by Carl Lumholtz. 2 vols. Charles Scribner's Sons,
New York, 1902, pp. 530 and 4S7. See also Sappel : Mittelamerikanische Reisen
u. Studien, Braunschweig, 1902, p. 420. Also K. v. d. Steinen unter den Natur-
volkern Braziliens, Berlin, 1894. Also, e.g., Squier's : Peru, New York, 1877.
Also Paul Marcou : Travels in South America, New York, 1875, 2 vols.

684 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

relent, and they liberate the clouds, which they have been keeping
back for themselves, and rain results." " Taking it all in all, their
great gift of music, combined with their ready response to emotional
influences, the immense wealth and depth of their religious thought
and their ingenuity in expressing it pictorially, can not fail to fasci-
nate the observer." They are secretive, and it is very hard to gain
their confidence. " Will these natives," exclaims Lumholtz, " ever
reveal to me their thoughts and throw any light on the early stages
of human culture ? " In some of their great feasts and fasts they
would " rise and pray aloud with so much fervor that they and all
the rest would be moved to tears. Frequently, too, they would make
circuits inside of the temple, stopping in front of little chairs and
talking to them as if the gods were sitting in them." The philosophy
of their entire life may be summed up in the sentence which one of
their shamans once gave utterance to, " To pray to Grandfather Fire
and to put up snares for catching deer, that is to lead a perfect life "
(p. 46).

Their customs and ceremonials are extremely numerous and elab-
orate, with a ritual minutely prescribed. " Every man among the
Huichols is the son of some special god; every woman the daughter
of some goddess, and their names often indicate this." The main
ideas of these people are religious. Their life is " one continual wor-
ship." " No woman ever undertakes any handiwork without first
asking the gods for help in her undertaking." Their ceremonial
arrows stuck upright in the ground, the sacred plumes of which they
make great use in their worship, the symbolic eyes of God, the prayers
for luck in weaving and textile work — everything is religious. " No
flower is ever plucked unless with some pious intention" (p. 215).
" Religious feeling pervades the thoughts of the Huichols so com-
pletely that every bit of decoration he puts on, the most trivial of his
every-day garments or utensils, is a request for some benefit, a prayer
for protection against evil, or an expression of adoration of some
deity. In other words, the people always carry their prayers and
devotional sentiments with them in visible form."

It appears that the Huichols were better off before than after the
white man's arrival, when there was not much to steal, when there
was nothing for judges to " grab," neither cattle nor money, and when
there were no police and no prisons. In building a house, they pause
to pray with every level and row of thatch. Every one has an idol
buried in his fields. They are also kept in the houses, and especially
in the granaries. It is ill luck to show, and still more to part with,
these monos. In their religious festivals, which are often strangely
fused with Catholicism, they sometimes proceed on bare knees for
miles. " It makes an ethnologist sad to think how completely the
ancient customs have been destroyed in the course of a few centuries
by the Spanish friars." They made the pagans forget the profound
thoughts their ancient ceremonies at once hid and revealed by sub-
stituting the gorgeous splendor of their feasts without the inner mean-

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 685

ing of Christianity. " Nothing but a senseless jumble remains of the
splendor of the olden times. Then every movement, every adornment,
even the clothing itself, had its special object and meaning. Now the
intellect of the race has become blunted and the Indian himself de-
graded and poor. His religious devotion alone remains unchanged.
He dances to-day before the Miraculous Christ v^ith the same zeal as
his ancestors did before the same gods and for the same purpose, to
acquire health, and for the same benefits." " Many an Indian here is
capable of composing music that would delight civilized audiences.
This devotion to music imparts to the general character of the masses
in Mexico a gentleness and refinement of manner that distinguishes
them favorably from the plebeian in the big cities of the North " (p.
388). "It seems to me, after my long experience with the Mexico
Indians, that in their natural state they are in certain points superior
not only to the average Mexican half-caste, but to the common run
of whites. We are brought up to look upon primitive people as syno-
nyms of all that is crude, evil, and vicious. Nothing could be more
erroneous. I could cite a heathen tribe in India who consider a lie
the blackest dishonor, and a tribe on the islands of Bering Sea who,
when discovered by Russian missionaries, were leading a life so
nearly in accord with the Gospel of Christ that the teachers con-
fessed they had better let them alone." An otherwise fanatical mis-
sionary, the Monk Duran, in his book on Mexico, written sixty years
after the conquest, in referring to the false opinions of the Spaniards
regarding the native Indians, said : " There never was a nation in the
world where harmony, order, and politeness reigned so supreme as
in this infidel nation. In what country of the world were there ever
so many laws and regulations of the state at once so just and so
well appointed? In regard to their laws and ancient modes of living,
all is much changed or wholly lost. Nothing but a shadow remains
now of that good order."

Says Lumholtz : " It is a very common mistake to look upon a
barbarian as a third-rate white man. The Indian's physique is better
developed and his senses are better trained than the white man's.
His intellect and clearness of thought average higher than the com-
mon people of Europe and America. The mental gifts of many In-
dians would entitle them to fill responsible positions. Primitive man
is as modest in his ambitions as he is in his demands upon nature."
The aborigines here have a high artistic sense, as shown in their
textiles, which live among the remains of their former greatness.
Some beautiful bits of pottery are sometimes excavated from the
mounds. The patterns are infinitely varied, but all have a meaning.
Monogamy is the recognized basis of the family. " What we call
their vices are due not to depravity but to their religious practises.
Personal modesty is innate in the race; justice with them is inexor-
able; immortality of the soul is universally recognized. In their
religious fervor the aborigines of Mexico have no equals, certainly
not among Christians. Their entire life is one continuous worship

686 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

of their gods, that they may gain happiness. Every act in their lives,
every work undertaken, is guided by rehgious thoughts. All that we
should call ornament on their clothing and implements owes its very
existence to the prayerful thoughts it expresses. Of all that man has,
the gods get their share. No crop is so scanty but that some of it
is ungrudgingly sacrificed to the deity who gave it. When I saw
them perform their religious dances indefatigably for days and nights,
and when I heard them in their humble temples invoke divine help in
tears, I felt in my heart that their pitiful appeals would be as readily
answered as the most eloquent oration of the high priest at the most
elaborate altar Christianity ever raised to the greater glory of God.
In drifting into the new condition of life, the native may lose his
worldly possessions, but he still retains the wealth of his religiosity
and is as eager to comply with the new code as he was with the
worship of his ancestral idols. ' The Indians have too much religion,'
a padre once said to me, ' and they want more than is good for them.'
When the chief of the Zuiiis, whom Mr. Gushing had taken to Boston,
was asked what had impressed him and his companions mostly in the
great city of the whites, he replied, ' That the people are not religious.
Great crowds are constantly hurrying hither and thither, but no one
is praying. I had thought that they would be very religious because
they sent missionaries to us, but I find they are not.' It is not among
primitive races that we have to seek for the lowest types of humanity.
The most depraved and degenerate individuals are found in the slums
of the great cities. People who live in close touch with nature are in
fact not capable of being as perverted as civilized criminals are in
mind and body." The work of missionaries is often needed much
more among the conquering soldiers and the prospectors, brandy
traders, and adventurers that follow in their wake than among the
unsophisticated barbarians. " Doubtless there are no natives on earth
so wicked as those who profess Christianity," said James Russell
Lowell.

Belt,^ who was an observer of long experience, care, and training,
says : " Probably nowhere but in tropical America can it be said that
the introduction of European civilization has been a retrogression ;
and that those communities are the happiest and the best governed
who retain most of their old customs and habits. Yet there it is so.
The civilization that Cortez overthrew was more suitable for the
Indians than that which has supplanted it. Who can read the ac-
counts of the populous towns of Mexico and Central America,
in the time of Montezuma, with their magnificent buildings and
squares ; their gardens, both zoological and botanical ; their markets,
attended by merchants from the surrounding countries ; their beau-
tiful cloth and feather work, the latter now a lost art; their cunning
artificers in gold and silver; their astronomical knowledge; their
schools ; their love of order, of cleanliness, of decency ; their morality

^ The Naturalist in Nicaragua. 1874, p. 282.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 687

and wonderful patriotism, without feeling that the conquest of Mexico
was a deplorable calamity; that if that ancient civilization had been
saved, it might have been Christianized and purified without being
destroyed, and to-day have stood one of the wonders and delights
of the world. Its civilization was self-grown, it was indigenous, it
was unique; a few poor remnants of its piety, love of order, and self-
government still remain in remote Indian townships, but its learning,
magnificence, and glory have gone forever." Now they carry stones
for miles to finish a Catholic church as they once did to build cairns.
They love flowers, and decorate altars, temples, and schools as of old
they did their prayer-houses, and worship saints and idols as of old
they did their ancestral idols.

In all these regions, as well as in Canada, where 40,000 are Cath-
olics, and South America, the Catholic cult has permeated the life
of the people vastly more than the Protestant, the latter having but
the slightest hold in South America. Warneck says that native In-
dians are " more accessible to Christianity than any other people."
All " betray that gloomy and incurable sadness that seems to hang
over natives destined to perish." Some of the prominent men in
Central America, like President Juarez and General Moreles, are pure
Indians. There is little prejudice, and if educated they intermarry
freely with the best Spanish families. The University of Mexico was
founded in 1553, eighty-three years before Harvard, and in 1824
Humboldt said no country of the new continent, not excepting the
United States, presents scientific establishments so great and solid
as those of the capital of Mexico. Often " paganism was baptized
and Christianity was paganized." In Central America, the size of
Spain, " an epitome of all other countries and climates of the globe,"
an old god is paralleled to each Christian personage. The sun is
God the Father, the moon the Madonna, the stars tutelary saints.
Many natives think there are two gods, one of the forest especially
devoted to them, and the other for the whites. In Guatemala, in 1899,
the Goddess of Wisdom was venerated in an anti-Roman festival as
an " apotheosis of free thought, the one possible factor in our national
culture." In Argentina, nearly fifteen times as large as New England,
with its superb climate, its silver mines, that of Potosi alone having
yielded 15,000 million dollars since the Spanish came, where Reclus
thinks men are found containing a great number of characteristics
of all races, a center of so amazing a development that some think
that the Spanish tongue will one day rival English as a world
language (one estimate being that in 1920 it will be spoken by
180,000,000), there is the greatest desire to emulate North American
and European ideals. In general. South America shows extreme
religiosity. A great mine is named Jesus Crucified. Streets are
named Christ, Rosary, Cross. Men and women are named Jesus,
Conception, Mary. A popular play is entitled the Face of God.
Cathedrals in every stage of decay, and feasts, fasts, and saint-days
abound, the latter being so numerous as to greatly interfere with

688 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

business, a coffee raiser having abandoned his enterprise because he
could only count on two hundred days of work a year. Catholicism
is generally the state religion, with only modified freedom allowed
to other forms of worship, and a small number of incomers quite
alienated from, and perhaps hostile to, all religion.

Averaging the sixteen best estimates, our own Indians
number 315,000, although the Indian Bureau in 1900 reports
only 270,544. Each family of five, if they owned and divided
the States exclusive of Alaska, would have a manor of forty-
eight square miles, or 30,720 acres. Rhode Island, e. g., would
be divided among twenty-six Indians, while it now has 69,101
families. Cyrus Thomas says, " The fact that the country was
inhabited by and in possession of a native population does not
appear to have been taken into consideration in the solution
of this problem." The low culture status of the aborigines
afforded an excuse for Europeans to claim ownership, assum-
ing that they made ample compensation by bestowing the
benefits of civilization and Christianity. The history of
treaties, cessions, legislative and supreme court decisions on
this subject is long and abounds in fluctuations and incon-
sistencies. As these claims are tribal rather than individual,
they were till 1871 treated by a legal fiction as sovereign
states. France alone never attempted any settled policy of
extinguishing Indian claims.

The Indian title to all the public domain is now obliterated save
in 162 Indian reservations and those acquired by the Indians through
purchase. Of these, 51 were established by treaty or agreement, 56
by executive order, 28 by act of Congress, and the others in various
ways.^ Parkham says that " Spanish civilization crushed the Indian ;
English civilization scorned and neglected him; French civilization
embraced and cherished him." A nomad or agricultural race is
never allowed long to monopolize a land that could support a denser
population. The half million Indians in North America when the
white man came were immensely impressed by his mysterious ships,
more wonderful arms, and perhaps most of all by the horses, then
unknown in the New World. The red men little realized, when they

^ Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. i896-'97, part ii.
Full and minute maps of all these reservations, together with a complete sched-
ule of Indian land cessions, many hundred in number, from the first in 1784 to
August, 1894, are printed.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 689

were discovered by Columbus and his followers, that the twilight of
their race had begun. The tubes that shot lightning, the canoes with
wings, the black clothed medicine men, the new dress, all impressed
them as something supernatural at first, but they soon found that the
white manitous were not only human, but insatiably greedy of gold
and slaves, malignantly cruel, and their gift of fire-water, which
became the mammon of the natives for which they would make any
sacrifice, was perhaps the most important agent in the downfall of
the aborigines, among whom drunkenness had hitherto been a vice
unknown. This new, intense appetite made them dependent on traders
and agents, and with a keg of rum the white man could accomplish
what diplomacy and war both failed to do. Added to all the friction,
distrust, and rupture, there always lurked this insidious and baleful
foe which makes men first fools and then beasts. Civilization always
" takes barbarism by the hot end," and here the difference between
the custom of the whites and the Indians was too great. First wel-
comed as gods, the whites were soon regarded as devils. In 1494
Columbus sent home twelve ship-loads of Indian slaves; the same
year Cabot, with two loads of English convicts, landed and carried
home kidnapped Indians. In 1500 Cortereal took home fifty-seven
hospitable natives, " admirably calculated for labor," for slaves. De
Soto, bankrupt, butcher, tyrant — taught as a hero in our text-books —
always returned welcome, with all his treachery, and was immensely
devoted to what he called " this sport of killing Indians." We are
proud if in our American ancestry we find Indian fighters ; but while
we are proud of their heroism we ought with equal candor to de-
plore their massacres of braves, who had rather be shot than beg for
mercy or toil in servitude. The Puritans, although they did not, like
many pioneers, use every means to annoy and persecute them, still
considered them " doomed and unconverted heathen " whom it was
their duty to dispossess, " since the enemies of the Puritans were the
enemies of God."

In 1607 Popham's men on the Maine coast hunted the Indians with
dogs and imposed on them in every barter. Rev. Samuel Stod-
dard, of Northampton, as late as 1703 advised hunting the Indians
with dogs because they were thieves, murderers, acted like and must
therefore be dealt with as wolves. The cruelty of Endicott, culminat-
ing in many acts of treachery and aggression, alienated the Pequots
and caused their war. All the horrors of the French and Indian
wars, culminating in 1754-58, were directly caused by the unwar-
rantable aggressions by the colonists. Both France and England used
savage allies to do more bloody work than they cared for the repu-
tation of doing themselves. The Indian was almost never the ag-
gressor till forced to retaliation; the brutal massacre of the Indians
at Pavonia the unbiased historian must ascribe to the cowardice of
Van Twiller. The Esopus War of 1663 was due to rum on the part
of the Indian and the brutality of the colonists. The massacre of
1652 in Virginia was due to white cruelty and rapacity. In the Caro-
83

690 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

linas the colonists purchased the friendship of single tribes, whom
they employed to war against others. Both the Spaniards in Florida
and the French in Canada tortured Indian captives and mangled their
bodies. The Puritans exulted over King Philip's grief for the loss
of his wife and child, whom they had sold into West Indian slavery.
Virginian cavaliers, Swedes, and Dutchmen alike regarded the In-
dians as having no rights they were bound to respect. Even in the
soul of William Penn there was a strange union of business shrewd-
ness and benevolence. The fact that all Indian land was owned by
the tribe and not by individuals was an excuse for many territorial
aggressions.

The barbarities of trappers and the villainies of fur traders and
the vices of borderers are mainly responsible for the present bad
character ascribed to Indians. The conspiracy of Pontiac in 1763
was due to the aggressions of fur traders, soldiers, and settlers; the
war with Tecumseh was an open violation of the land treaty; the
Creek troubles in Georgia in 1813 were due to the National Govern-
ment's effort to extinguish all Indian titles in that State; the Black
Hawk War in 1832 was caused by endless insults and aggressions of
pioneers upon this ancient chieftain; the Seminole War in 1835 was
one of the most outrageous aggressions of lawless frontiersmen; the
Cayuse massacre of Oregon missionaries in 1847 was due to Jesuit
priests; the California massacre of 1851 to gold hunters; the Sioux
and Cheyenne massacres in 1854 to the Mormon outrages; the Oregon
and Klickitat wars of 1855 to attacks of white traders; the Digger
War of 1858 was simple slaughter of inoffensive Indians who drove
off cattle found eating their acorns; the Navajo revolt of 1858, the
Apache outbreak of 1861, the Sioux War in 1862, the Arapahoe and
Cheyenne attacks in 1864, the Sioux War in 1866, the Blackfeet out-
break in 1869, the Modoc War of 1872, the Sioux War of 1876, the
Nez Perce War of 1876-77, perhaps the worst of all, were due almost
solely to the weakness or dishonesty and folly of agents : every one
of these was essentially causeless and could have easily been avoided.^

Civilization seems certain to fall out with savagery, and although
the Indians may number about as many to-day as they did when the
country was discovered, so that their decline in numbers is relative,
their decline in virtue and stamina is absolute. General Crook, whose
life was largely passed among the Indians, declared that they were
the intellectual peers of the other races that we have assimilated.
Others have urged that they have the right of sending a delegate to
Congress, and General Wordsworth declared that there were many
Indian chiefs who would not disgrace its floor. In some of their
later wars they have displayed a skill and courage that evoked uni-
versal praise, adopting many of the white man's methods, scalping

^ See E. S. Brooks : Story of the American Indian, his Origin, Development,
Decline, and Destiny. Boston, 1887. Also G. Friederici : Indianer u. Anglo-
Amerikaner. Braunschweig, 1900, p. 147.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 691

no one, and freeing women and children. The very quintessence of
the spirit of chivalry lives still among the Indians, and plenty of
instances of highest honor are shown. Huxley was right in de-
claring that if he had to choose between life in the worst quarter of
a great city and life with the most barbarous tribe known, he would
undoubtedly choose the latter, for the savage has sunshine, light, air,
and freedom. Spotted Tail, Red Jacket, Samoset, Massasoit, Anilco,
Tomochi-chi, Pontiac, and many other famous Indians, have been
distinguished for courtesy, eloquence, honor, cordial hospitality, and
Crooks calls King Philip the American " Rob Roy." Black Hawk,
as restless as Philip and as ambitious as Pontiac, is called one of the
last warriors of the early Indian school, and his patriotism is well
compared to that of Scanderbeg or Winkelried. Osceola was a half-
breed, more cunning than honorable, but with great ability. We have
treated the Indian neither as a citizen nor as a foreigner ; for cen-
turies they had occupied the entire continent, whereas now in this
country they are restricted to some 250,000 square miles.

Joaquin Miller ^ spent five years among the Modocs, whom he
describes as a " truly gentle savage," and who, he thinks, killed one
white man to every hundred Indians slain on their many a St. Bar-
tholomew's Eve. Every white man's hand was against him, and he
had hair-breadth escapes for his friendliness to them. He describes
the border desperadoes removed from all control by law, public opin-
ion, and the press, and in whom every vile passion was let loose. He
tells of their exalted religious conception under the brow of Mt.
Shasta, their hospitality, their children so rarely needing correction
because exempt from all temptations of civilization and having nat-
ural outlets for their activities, their noble interpretation of totemism
and of the Great Spirit, their contempt for a god that needs to send
or sign a paper. He pleads for a real reservation which no white man
should enter, where their habits and beliefs should be unmolested and
where they be left to adopt such of our customs as they saw fit. It
should be a great park in which they should be protected and allowed
to work out their own destiny, to instruct us, and to teach others, as his
life among them did the author, to hold aloof from many features of
civilization, to love nature, and hate the " moral cannibalism where
souls eat souls." The beauty, devotion, and pathetic death of Paquita
in the chaparral, Calle Shasta, the last of her race, pathetically alone,
lost and out of place, her heart full of memories, with none living
who knew her native language, appeal to the heart if not to the an-
thropologist.

Helen Plunt's ^ sad story of broken faith and treaties may well
make us wonder that men can so trifle with justice or with God's
anger. Even our soldiers have often found it hard to fight those they
knew were in the right. Bishop Whipple calls the Indian the noblest

'Life Among the Modocs. An unwritten history. London, 1873, p. 400.
» A Century of Dishonor. New York, 1885.

692 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

type of heathen man on earth. To read the outrages, butcheries,
nameless crimes and torturings which are compiled from official rec-
ords makes the mouth grow dry, the eyes wet, the heart throb, the
teeth and fists clinch, and the soul to cry out whether there is no
justice in heaven or on earth.

If these books present the worst, the story of Metlakahtla shows
perhaps the best of all modes of treatment. In 1857 these savages,
3,000 to 4,000 in number, were cannibals, dog-eaters, devil dancers,
abjectly subject to their shaman. William Duncan, hearing of them,
left a promising business career and sailed around Cape Horn to
them, and was the first to study their tongue. Taking his life in his
hand, he ventured among them from the fort, told them that he
came to them with a letter from God, and chiefly studied their lives
to obtain a sympathetic insight into their points of view. Finding a
few who accepted his chieftainship, he made a log schoolhouse for
children and for adults, and was esteemed a man with a new magic.
Mr. Wellcome ^ tells of many hair-breadth escapes, misconceptions, the
desperate opposition of the medicine men ; how he became interpreter
for the traders ; was local magistrate ; healed many quarrels ; treated
sequestered patients for measles and smallpox; set up a sawmill;
taught the Indians to make a large bar of soap for sixpence for which
the company had charged two dollars, and thereby improved their
extreme filthiness; waged a far more bitter war with the whites who
sold drink than with the Indians themselves; tried to mitigate the
sexual degradations that were developed by proximity to the whites,
and finally decided to evade some of the obstacles that beset his path
by establishing an isolated model community twenty miles from the
fort, with good fishing, hunting, harbor, and gardens. He required
all who entered it to pledge that they would cease gambling, drinking,
the practise of deviltry, savage medicine; to rest and go to church
on Sunday; send their children to school; be clean, industrious, peace-
ful, and honest; build a house and pay the tax. Fifty at first em-
barked to this asylum and were soon joined by others. Mr. Duncan
organized a village council of twelve, including three chiefs, and a
native constabulary; built two hotels for visiting traders and Indians
to prevent contamination ; dug wells ; formed a common and play-
ground where many games were encouraged; fought slavery in a
very degraded form which existed all about him ; prevented the sell-
ing of children, and the reckless giving away of all property at great
potlatches ; imprisoned liquor dealers ; built a trading vessel ; formed
a stock company and a bank, with blankets for money; allowed all
officers to wear a badge; himself publicly flogged offenders; went to
the old country to learn blacksmithing, coopering, brush and broom
making, weaving, spinning, and many other arts, which he taught

^ The Story of Metlakahtla, by Henry S. Wellcome. London and New York,

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 693

his people; organized a brass band of twenty-one instruments, and a
fire brigade; his little company soon grew to ten or twelve hundred
people, and their influence began to leaven the surrounding tribes
far into the interior, and up and down the coast the white man's ways
were pronounced good.

Mr. Duncan proved himself a great practical missionary genius.
He was not only pastor, but treasurer, teacher, physician, trader,
judge, and friend. He reformed their funeral methods, where widows
and slaves were sometimes burned on a bier; slowly transformed the
tribal system ; improved cooking ; established an immense salmon can-
nery; never told them that his God was better than theirs, but that
he was one who stocked the sea and rivers with fish and the forests
with game; taught by the example of his own pure and honest life;
was a good bookkeeper and kept his records open to all. He soon
organized a rifle company, a two-gun battery, a cooperative store ;
did not transform their totem post dwellings at first, but gradually
improved them by introducing chimneys, windows, doors, floors above
the ground, flowers in the front and gardens in the rear; built a
market house and a small calaboose; organized a police system; and,
layman though he was, grasped and put in practise the true science
of civilization.

Traders, liquor dealers, and the Church sought to drag him down.
An English bishop insisted that he must introduce the full English
ritual. Mr. Duncan objected that he dare not use the sacrament of
wine because of their passion for it and the well-settled law by which
all who touched it were imprisoned. Neither did he dare teach the real
presence of Christ's body in the bread to former cannibals, but pre-
ferred to endure the charge of teaching a false and mutilated Chris-
tianity and chose to be evangelical rather than ecclesiastical.

During one of his absences a cyclone evangelist almost destroyed
his work by a few weeks of fanatical preaching. The English Church
Missionary Society by false representations was induced to ask him
to resign, but every soul in his church urged him to stand by them
in their supreme peril and trial, and he consented. The resident
bishop set up a rival school and tempted his chief teacher by higher
wages; strove to cripple the financial resources of the church; and
finally, after a long series of insidious misrepresentations in England
and Canada and efforts to undermine Mr. Duncan in his own field,
succeeded in inducing Sir John Macdonald to take possession in the
name of the Crown of the lands on which the settlement was built
without offering any compensation. Denunciations of robbery and
comparisons with the policy of the States in always buying Indian
lands were of no avail, and at last it was decided to remove the entire
colony into Alaska, a distance of about thirty miles, so as to come
under the jurisdiction of the United States. Mr. Duncan preached
their cause in the influential churches in the East, where he secured
sufficient support to move, although Canadian law was so interpreted
that they could not take down and transfer their houses, but at last

694 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

with secure tenure they became established in their new home in
1888 and a new era was begun.

This treatment by the Canadian Government almost provoked the
Indians to commence warfare and relapse to their old savage con-
dition. The real trouble was not with the Indians, but with the white
man, who was blinded partly by insatiable greed and partly by igno-
rance of all Indian nature and ways. The whole secret, Mr. Duncan
declares, is to look at the Indian as a whole, body and soul, to study
and above all to trust him. The missionary must not attack their
customs, even the bad ones, at first, until he has some vantage-ground
on which to work, and must be filled with the spirit of compromise.
Our method of doling supplies to Indians as bribes to be quiet and
to terrorize them if they are not, is the worst possible way, and the
present state of most Indians in this country is a disgrace, not to
them but to us. Their ability to make noble men of themselves has
been demonstrated over and over again. In some respects they are
our superiors, but we have developed their bad and allowed their
good qualities to languish or become extinct.

Says E. W. James : ^ " So complex, indeed, is the Hopi's religious
life that we have no complete calendar as yet of all the ceremonies
that he feels called upon to observe. Every act of his life from the
cradle to the grave has a religious side. Fear and the need for pro-
pitiation are the motive powers of his religious life, and these, com-
bined with his stanch conservatism, render him a wonderfully fertile
subject for study as to the workings of the child-mind of the human
race."

Much as our Indian policy, bureau, and special schools have
improved, noble as have been the endeavors of individuals and of the
Mohawk Conference, these are all yet very inadequate and sometimes
as wrong as they are well meant. So hostile is Colonel Pratt of the
Carlisle School to the tribal system that he would stamp it out and
prevent the young brave from returning to his tribe. Morgan has
shown the vast chasm that separates this consanguineous clan system,
which has pervaded the ancient world, even Greece and Rome, from
our modern organization. Some of the New York Indian tribes have
lived in the midst of white civilization for seventy-five years without
impairing their integrity as a tribe. The Numas also show its per-
sistence by an unique dual organization. A chief regulates all internal
affairs on the old basis, while the medicine man is specialized to
represent the tribe in all matters relating to the whites about them.
The present Superintendent of Indian Schools advocates compulsory
education of all Indian children, especially industrially. But their
own industries, now languishing, are, as I have shown in Chapter III,
if not more numerous and more truly educative than the trades we
have learned to teach, at least their own. They could be thus self-sup-
porting, for the demand for their products far exceeds the supply.

' The Indian of the Painted Desert, 1903, p. 82.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 695

The refinements of a modern cooking-school are distasteful to an
Indian girl, and sloyd for them is pedagogic vanity. The plan of
creating distaste for the Indian mode of life and breaking up the
home, and allowing basketry, pottery, bead work, moccasins, flint
chipping, weaving, bow, arrow, and canoe making, skin dressing, and
all the rest to go the way of the lost arts is not on the line of devel-
oping natural tastes and abilities. Their unique music, too, will soon
be lost.^ Zitkala-sa has told us of the modes of wigwam training, the
unfettered individuality of really artistic self-expression in baskets,
pottery, loom work, and drawing, which the wisest of us can profit
by. She says her mother required original designs for her lessons
in beading; made her finish everything that was begun; had no pa-
tience with lack of symmetry or insufficient characterization; made
her feel responsible and dependent on her own judgment; and treated
her as a dignified little individual as long as she was good. When her

^ Indian songs are spontaneous and arise from story or ceremony which are
their matrix. They take us back of the music of antiquity, and are, like wild flow-
ers, never domesticated. Their themes are of love, peace, war, death, heroes, ani-
mals or birds, thunder, prayers, children. Alice Fletcher says that music envel-
opes the Indian's individual and social life like an atmosphere. Some of these
songs have been harmonized by J. C. Fillmore and by Arthur Farwell.^ Many
songs are wordless, vocables being used only to float the voice. They have no in-
struments save only the voice, drum, and rattle, and anything like poetry is still
less developed. They show that music arose, like language, from mental necessity.
Here, as in so many other fields, America is a " fossil bed " abounding in prehis-
toric records to which scholars look to fall gaps. Indian songs are very numerous
but brief and abrupt. They break out in the climax of a dramatic story at a point
where words are not sufficient. The most pathetic song is that of the ghost dance
blended from several old ceremonials. It is an appeal to the unseen world to comfort
those doomed to slow extinction. In the trance that follows they see the landscape
of ancient days before the paleface came, abounding in game, and meet the spirits
of their ancestors. It is " the cry of a people forsaken by the gods in which they
once trusted." It is essentially peaceful. The Indian singer is not making a
musical presentation to an audience. He simply pours out his feelings regardless
of artistic effect. All is subjective. Choral music is in unison, the men singing an
octave lower. The voice constantly stirs from one tone to another, and singing is
mostly out of doors amidst the voices of nature, often drowned by it and the
sole accompaniment of the drum. Each tribe and each society has its songs with
initiating rites, and the right to songs is bought, the sellers teaching it to the pur-
chasers. Fines are imposed for incorrect singing. The voice is commonly pulsed
creating a rhythm within a rhythm. When the Indian hears our music his atten-
tion is distracted by the thud of the hammer, beats, the disconnection of tones and
other noises which he finds it hard to ignore. Our harmonization suggests unison
and makes his melodies sound natural.

^ See Indian Story and Song from North America. Alice C. Fletcher. Boston,
1900, p. 126. Also Am. Indian Melodies. The Wa-Wan Press, Newton Centre,
Mass.

696 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

musical talent had " brought her into the iron routine of the buzzing
civilizing machine, she felt like an animal driven by a herder or a
mummy bound up for burial; like a slender tree uprooted from her
mother nature and God. No one now reasoned w^ith her quietly as
her mother used to do." No Indian child " v\^as ever disrespectful to
his parents until he had come under the civilizing influence of the
whites," who have failed to preserve the native virtues of the teepee.
We have robbed the Indians, but never so wrongly as in forcing their
children from their homes without parental consent to imprison them
in a remote school, which should be brought to them and not they
to it.' Welling' makes a most incisive criticism on mission work
among them and says none can do good but only harm, unless based
on mechanical and practical arts and schools.

The Indians are not all alike, but as different as Turk and German.
None now live as nomads or hunters. In the reservations, very like
Weyler's concentrado camps, they are corraled and impounded, and
can not leave, paint, or celebrate their dances, which are holy passion-
plays to them, must cut their hair, and have little incentive to activity
of mind or even body. Hamlin Garland' tells us that nearly every
tribe is divided into radicals and conservatives. The latter are the
oldest, strongest, bravest, most dignified and intellectual, with spirits
unbroken though they are in rags — real patriots. Said one northern
chief, " I will not clean the spittoons of the white man's civiHzation."
When they lose self-respect, they sink to vagabondage; if we break
their wills, we destroy them. " The allotment of lands in severalty,
which began in land lust, and is being carried to the bitter end by
those who believe a stone-age man can be developed into a citizen
of the United States in a single generation, is in violent antagonism
to every wish and innate desire of the red man, and has failed of
expected results." It is somber and pitiful to isolate a Sioux tribes-
man to the lonely life of the poor Western rancher. No man is more
sociable or gregarious than the red man. He dreads solitude, which
was the old tribal punishment; hence their reluctance to the Dawes
land theories and the clinging to the lodge.

" When an ethnologist," writes J. Walter Fewkes in a letter to
me, August, 1900, " lives isolated for many months among primitive
people for the purpose of studying their customs, he puts himself in
sympathy with their race-thought in order that he may look at nature
as they do. When this is long continued, the whole world assumes
a different aspect; the wind, rain, snow, lightning, etc., come to be
seen through the eyes of primitive men, and to have a meaning very
different from that taught by science. One thus comes to think as an
Indian thinks, in a way which a student without this experience can

^ City and State, June 7, 1900.

" Smith. Misc. Coll., vol. xxv, 1883. Trans. Anthrop. Soc, Washington, vol. i,
p. 46.

"The Red Man's Present Needs. North American Review, April, 1902.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 697

never understand. If this influence is so great with an educated eth-
nologist, how much greater with uneducated men ! The influence of
the Indians on the teachers in our Indian schools shows this. Unlike
the ethnologists, they have little sympathy with aboriginal customs,
no matter how intimate their contact with tribal Indian life, because
their business is to break up these customs. White children brought
up with Indian children in equal numbers would be influenced far
more than they would influence. The Hopi can teach the Kansas
farmer how to raise corn in a desert, and whoever tries to farm in
his ancestral home, Arizona, must adopt the methods of irrigation
which the ancestors of the Hopi used before America was discovered.
A primitive man familiar with the environment knows its possibilities
better than an incoming civilized man, whose life has become adapted
to different conditions. The arctic explorer adopts Eskimo habits
to keep warm, to travel, and to provide food. It would take a large
book to enumerate all the benefits of American frontier life which
can be traced to the Indians. In short, every primitive race pro-
foundly affects every civilized race with which it comes in contact, as
every individual civilized man who lives with Indians is himself influ-
enced as much as he influences. Much is now said about the good
Indian schools do the red men, but I hope the time is near when we
can consider in a scientific frame of mind what we owe to the primi-
tive race which our ancestors found on this continent."

The late Mr. Gushing, whose genius for sympathetically working
his way into the very arcanum of the savage soul is unsurpassed in
all literature or history,^ insists that tribal prejudice must be first
known, then respected ; that the spirit of people, however low, should
not be broken; that the teacher should pass a long apprenticeship as a
student among those whom he is to serve; must be passionately fond
of helping them; neither show nor have any sense of superiority;
and must make them earnestly wish for his teaching. He must study
everything in their lives as a grafter studies all the most favorable
points in a well-grown tree of wild stock to insert new scions. He
insists that all who know the Indians well must love them; declares
that they are at bottom profoundly religious, with the utmost fidelity
to all their sacred teachings; and that their deep religious feeling,
which animates all their minutest customs and which is instinct with
a crude yet sublime philosophy, must not be weakened. We must
assume that our religion is only another form of theirs ; must under-
stand how tragic and destructive all sudden transitions to culture are ;
that they love their traditions incalculably more than we do our own,
and that most of their customs work for morality and are based upon
their myths.'

^Twenty-eighth Report of the Indian Bureau, 1896, p. 209.

' The Zuiiis, for instance, tie and gag a drunken man on the theory that thus
his soul will not wander and be lost. This is bad psychology, but keeps them
temperate. Their girls and women have a habit of lowering their face and shak-

698 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Our opinion of Indians is too analogous to that of Cal-
vinists concerning the depravity of infants. But if they are
bad, we are responsible and we should have them on our con-
science and feel accountable for their future. To always live
on the edge of the last ditch is to cultivate the qualities of a
wild animal at bay. Had we developed their best rather than
their worst traits, had we made it our rule to win their delib-
erate approval for our measures, had we recognized their
many and essential contributions to our civilization,^ had we
seen that, as A. L. Benedict concludes, " the aborigines are not
in all respects our inferiors," and that " the key-note to the
Indian character is his religion," had we conserved at least
the best of their industries (Purdy says the Pomos attained
the highest art in basketry ever reached and that now it is
rapidly becoming a lost art), had we learned earlier from
them, what savagery has but just taught Sorel and Hirn, that
the highest mission of art is to ennoble labor, how incon-
ceivably different all would have been. I have before me as
I write a manuscript volume of Indian prayers collected by
Samuel P. Hayes. They are addressed to the Great Spirit,
to the sun, moon, the soul of vegetation, animals, the ghost
of the dead, but the soul of every true Christian must be
warmed and at the same time rebuked by this fervor and
faith.^ To uproot all this would be a crime against the soul.
Happily it is impossible. We must not cut the Indian off
from his past, must cultivate native amusements, not break
the power of the chiefs, and " make him an admirable red
man as Booker Washington is trying to make the negro an

ing their hair over it in the presence of strangers, and did not respond readily to
Eastern teachers ignorant of their customs, who told them to hold up their heads
and look boldly into the faces of strangers as if they had nothing to be ashamed of.
Under their matriarchal system to do this was brazen, wanton, and indecent, worse
than to invite a man to marry them. Again, their dances, which prudes condemn,
are like holy passion-plays, wherein they rehearse the great deeds of their gods
and heroes, and revive their golden age in the same spirit as that which has made
the success of Wagner's operas.

^ A. F. Chamberlain : The Contributions of the American Indian to Civiliza-
tion. Proc. Am. Antiquarian Soc, 1903.

''Has the Indian been Misjudged? Int. Journal of Ethics, 1901. See also
G. B. Grinnell: The Indian of To-day, New York, 1900, pp. 185; The Childhood
of Jishib, by A. E. Jenks, Madison, Wis., 1900, pp. 130 ; Articles by native Indians
and others in the Southern Workman.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 699

admirable black man." We should not suppress but develop
the reservation, but not forbid him to leave it, or to smoke,
or give up his teepee or skin clothing, or go to church. To
educate by teaching children not to honor but to abhor their
parents is monstrous and unchristian. Their teachers should,
as Hamlin Garland urges, rescue perishing forms and symbols,
and if possible develop new ones based on the old. These
would give self-respect and make him feel that he is worth
while. They and negroes need a training about as different
as any two native races that could be found, and to educate
them together is especially hard on the red man.

From Catlin and Schoolcraft down to Powell, Mason,
Wilson, Horatio Hale, Brinton, Pilling, Dorsey, Gushing,
Fewkes, Fletcher, Stephens, Mooney, Hough, Matthews,
Holmes, James, Boas, McGee, Mindeleff, Ghamberlain, Voth,
Goues, and many others, the Indian has been studied with
an interest, sympathy, and insight probably quite unparalleled,
by men whose love of truth and whose self-denial and hard-
ships in its pursuit is as genuine as the missionaries' love of
souls. While generally subsidizing this work, our Govern-
ment has not used its results; but the Indian Bureau, when
not a corrupt ring, and even legislators, have rarely consulted
these experts, who seldom appear even on the Lake Mohawk
programs. The mind of the missionary has been so pre-
possessed with his own apergus that he has often been singu-
larly incompetent to profit by the results of these studies,
which should have been a part of his professional training.
Most of all impervious is the mind of the average teacher of
Indian children, although in all these fields there have been
exceptions well known and unknown. At root the " Indian
question " can not be solved by Gongress, the army, the clergy,
or the pedagogue. It lies mostly beyond the ken of the his-
torian. The only real authority in the field is the ethnologist
who has lived with the Indian as he lives, won his confidence
and taken his point of view and read the literature about him.
Even the anthropologist who devotes himself to the work of
digging open mounds, comparing arrow-fleams or the modes
of releasing the bowstring, measuring skulls, bodily dimen-
sions, acuteness of sense, often has no light in his soul that
is not darkness, and some seem indifferent to the welfare of

700 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

the aborigines. From the standpoint of this book this is un-
scientific, because in all studies of man's psychic life moral
distinctions are supreme. Arduous as is the work of accurate
observation and sympathetic interpretation (Fewkes thinks all
previous studies of the Moqui snake dance, painstaking as
they have been, were radically wrong), it is not complete till
we are told what in it is good and what bad for the savage,
what next higher cult it most resembles, or how the best of
its psychic content can be given a better interpretation or
alternative expression. To do this requires far wider knowl-
edge and a far higher order of mind, but the purest and the
only complete science, a true psychology must now insist, is
practical, and pedagogic applications are not open to the
charge of utilitarianism, but it is precisely in these that the
culture of to-day and still that of to-morrow culminates as
surely as the will is the key to the intellect. The Indian has
been sympathetically studied far longer than has childhood
and youth, but this rich body of knowledge remains unused.
Experts like Gushing and Miss Fletcher are not heard even
as to what not to do. Were they mute if asked what next
steps to take in order to fulfil and not destroy, the sociologist,
genetic psychologist, and the student of comparative religion
should take up their work and address themselves to the task.
One of the chief functions of religion is to conserve the past
in history and to see to it that the older and deeper powers
of the soul that can make for righteousness are not repressed,
but brought out.

VI. India. — From what has just preceded it is plain that
race pedagogy needs a far fuller treatment, which I have long
planned and hope to attempt. We must pause for a yet more
cursory glance at what is commonly regarded as the world's
masterpiece of colonization where extinction is not threatened
or hardly possible. India contains 294,000,000 inhabitants, or
nearly one-fifth of the human race. We little know the vast-
ness of even calamities in Asia. In 1877 the Yellow River,
long been walled till it had deposited a bed high above the
country, broke loose and flowed in some places 30 miles wide,
10 feet deep, and 20 miles an hour, destroying, the Times said,
10,000 square miles, from 1,000 to 3,000 villages, 7,000,000
persons, and most of their cattle.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 7^1

Of its many tongues and dialects only eleven are spoken
by as many as five millions each, and English is twenty-eighth,
being the language of but 224,000. All these people are ruled
by 1,500 officials in black and 65,000 soldiers in red. England
has broken up wars between hostile races, enforced order and
taught respect for justice, broken up a few customs abhor-
rent to civilization and developed a few colonial adminis-
trators of the highest type, James Brooke, Stanford Raffles, Sir
Andrew Clark, Sir George Grey, and others. Nowhere have
the problems of life been more pondered, and there is no depth
of crime or height of virtue not found in India. The people
mostly live in small villages and religion dominates life.

William Digby,' who has had long personal acquaintance in India,
presents an astounding array of facts and figures from official records
to show that India is progressively worse off for being a province of
the Crown, and takes as his motto.

Earth is sick and Heaven is weary

Of the hollow words that states and kingdoms utter

When they talk of truth and justice.

He insists that the country is certain to do worse in the future than
in the past. From an income of two pence per head per day in 1850,
the country had sunk in 1882 to one and one-half pence, and in 1900
to three-fourths of a penny per head per day. Mr. Digby had access
to many reports, marked confidential, and refused in the House of
Commons. From the many tables and careful analyses, province by
province, he shows with apparent impartiality that England has more
or less completely suppressed .murder of parents and children, human
sacrifices, suicide, voluntary and involuntary torments, and slavery.
Among his indictments may be summarized the following: From the
eleventh to the eighteenth century, before British rule, there were
from one to four famines in a century, nearly all local, immunity
from death being generally secured by the universal habit of hoarding
in advance for lean years. But as a result of English methods, and
especially the taxation and extortion, which have made hoarding im-
possible, in the nineteenth century there were five famines in the
first quarter, causing about 1,000,000 deaths; two in the second,
causing about 500,000; six in the third, with 5,000,000 recorded
deaths ; and from 1876 to 1900 eighteen, in which about 26,000,000
died. His maps, showing progressive area and severity, are appall-
ing. He intimates that the actual number of deaths have been far
greater than the above figures, and gives painful details of localities

1 " Prosperous " British India. London, 1901, p. 661.

702 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

where, despite the vaunted Enghsh Famine Code, " the people died
like flies." Indeed, very rarely do the masses of the people off the
lines of common travel have enough to eat even in seasons of plenty.
During the ten years 1891-1900, 19,000,000 deaths by famine occurred
in India, v^^hile in all the world, during one hundred and seven years
ending in 1900, the deaths by war were only estimated as 5,000,000. In
India the old law of Manu levied on a sliding scale paid after the crop
was taken each year, large if the crop was good and zero if it was
a failure, which comes about once in five years. The English thought
they knew better and struck an average for all years, exacting a tax
when there is no crop at all. Moreover, " the meshes of the great
fiscal net " are made smaller and smaller until " we are now taxing
the rag which the wretched peasant wraps about his loins, and en-
forcing a salt tax at a rate of four thousand per cent." ^ This shows
Mill's meaning when he said that the despotism of a free country
over a conquered state can easily become the worst of all because
exercised at a distance and in ignorance of the facts. Famine in
India comes on the average with more or less severity about once in
five years, and should be provided for better than by the farcical
famine fund, which the English Government in India has expended
in the vicious expedition to Chitral, and later lets its subjects stretch
its skeleton hands to the world.

The Indian Office expends £16,000,000 in England, and the total
English land tax is not quite sufficient to support this absentee land-
lordism. The charge so often made, that the natives still hoard, is over-
whelmingly refuted. Lord Curzon's figures state that the average in-
come of the people is forty shillings per year, but the results of a more
careful examination of official figures show it to be only twenty-two
shillings. By insisting upon the use of British-made fabrics and other
goods, which can be supplied cheaper, many native industries have
been killed. Again, the Government has put money into railroads,
because these have yielded a more immediate return, instead of devel-
oping irrigation, the practicability of which has been abundantly
proven, and which would be for the good of the natives. Without
going into detail, if Digby is right, rents have enormously increased;
foreign rule is a growing scourge; vast currents of wealth flow into
England; the prosperity of India is English and not Indian; visitors
only see the Anglo-Indian colonies and not real India; the eulogies
of moral and material welfare in the Blue Books apply only to Anglo-
stan and not to Hindustan ; nearly ninety-nine per cent of the gross
produce is taken for rent by landlords, who pay one-half to the British
Government; official publications are pitfalls for the unwary, and
many instances of untrustworthy official figures are shown; the real
yield in all India together is barely two-thirds the estimated yield;
and the writers that claim unstinted praise for England for the grow-

1 M. A. M. Marks : The Treatment of Subject Races. Int. Jour, of Ethics,
July, 1900.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 703

ing prosperity of India are victims of misrepresentation, for at least
100,000,000 of the population are living in extreme poverty. In some
provinces rents have been increased four and five hundred per cent,
and the propertied classes been almost destroyed; the price of foods
enormously increased; the natives more and more excluded from all
official positions and influence; their leading classes especially dis-
credited, impoverished, and incapacitated; and the pathos of it all is
that the people, growing more and more helpless, often have a touch-
ing faith in political and material redemption through Great Britain,
despite their slow and systematic starvation.

Whatever be true of Digby's work, it must be admitted that his
analysis of figures is extremely ingenious and effective; his command
of the subject great; his quotations from the literature in the field
show that he represents a large and old party of dissent that has
hitherto been pretty effectively suppressed. The prices and products
in detail are eloquent and contain the gist of the whole matter. In
most places there is not even any appearance of prosperity, or even
comfort. The people, all borrowing money and losing their lands, are
in nameless dread of the tax-collectors ; are utterly unable to store
anything for emergencies; and everything is tending for the worse
and not for the better.

R. C. Dutt ^ has forcefully drawn attention to the overassessment
of agricultural holdings in India and gathered abundant testimonies
indicating that the best remedies for famines there were more moderate
rents, increased irrigation, and longer leases. In Bombay the land
revenue now represents between twenty and thirty-three per cent of
the gross produce ; in Madras, from twelve to twenty per cent for dry
lands and from sixteen to thirty-one per cent of the gross produce on
wet lands; in the central provinces, the last assessment, soon after
1890, was very largely enhanced, often exceeding one hundred per
cent. The expending party is permanently in power, the retrench-
ment party without control, and yet retrenchment is a case of life
and death. In Great Britain the public debt was reduced £160,000,000
within forty years after the Crimean War, but in India the public
debt went on increasing. " A greater danger than the mutiny of
1857 not only threatens, but has actually overtaken India in the
impoverishment of the people both in the frequency and intensity
of recent famines, and the highest type of courage and statesman-
ship, such as was evinced by a Canning and Lawrence in the past,
will be needed once more to save the empire, to moderate rents and
taxes, to reduce debt and expenditure, to deal with India as England
deals with her other colonies in financial matters, and to associate
the people in the control of their finances and in the administration
of their own concerns." " We hear constantly of the elasticity of the
Indian revenues and of the recuperative power of the Indian people.

' Famines and Land Assessments in India. London, 1900. See also his Eco-
nomic History of British India. London, 1902.

704 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

but the famines of 1897 and 1900 are a terrible answer to such con-
soHng but unsound and untrue representations."

This writer gives in detail the history of the various famines since
that of 1770. A study of the death-rates shows that within the last
generation deaths have been most numerous and famines most intense
in those places where the cultivators are least protected against over-
assessment. Most of the population of India depend upon the soil, and
its peasantry is the most frugal perhaps on earth. " It is a sad but
significant fact that the last famine of this century (1900) is also the
most wide-spread and severest famine that has ever visited India."
The rule in Madras is that assessments should not exceed one-third
of the gross produce of the soil where the land is not irrigated at
Government cost. There has been undue enhancement, with no judi-
cial check in these assessments. The Madras famine of 1877 stirred
the Government to levy a new famine tax and pledge that its pro-
ceeds should be expended for no other purpose. The pledge was
broken soon after it was given. Excluding that paid as interest on
Indian railways, the total money spent in fifteen years fell short of
the grant pledged and raised by over eight millions of tees of rupees.
The protective railways have been mostly constructed and pro-
ductive roads seem now in order. Over seventeen thousand acres
of land are now irrigated, although many of the old irrigation
works were constructed by Hindu and Mohammedan rulers. It is
often pleaded that no agriculturists should be forced to use and pay
for water from these works against their will, as is now the case.

T. Morrison ^ has written a work of great value. He assumes
that in the background of the English mind is the belief that India
should be so governed that one day she may govern herself and take
her place in a British confederacy. No statesman would dare to
advocate perpetual vassalage. He does not believe, however, that
the present policy is tending to give India this power, but rather
the reverse. She lacks all sense of nationality. Morrison asserts
universal discontent of the Indian people and the resentment of all
the educated young Indians. " The people do not acknowledge that
our rule has been beneficial to them." Especially in late years the
Government has been " losing the confidence of the people." " The
educated classes now denounce the English and all their works in
India with ferocity." He describes a growing interest in political
questions, and with it says that the " unpopularity of the British
Government is rising at an accelerated pace." As another observer
recently said, " every educated Hindu is a rebel." " We have not
based our dominion upon principles which commend themselves to
the political instincts of the people, and hence our Government has
failed to take root in the country; it rests upon the top of the people,
and by its massive weight keeps them in their places and prevents

' Imperial Rule in India, being an examination proper to the government of
dependencies, Westminster, 1899, p. 147.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 7^5

commotion, but it draws no nourishment from the soil, and the people
have not come to look upon it as a part of themselves." The Moham-
medans and Hindus especially could never subordinate their religions
and racial jealousies for the common good unless under the strongest
provocation of danger. The Pax Britannica is really increasing the
antagonism of the races, especially these two, and the higher English
education, as well as the principle of popular government, is doing
the same. Free institutions mean growth of parties, and these
formed along preexisting lines of cleavage, which in India are race
and religion. Thus the very antipathies and jealousies which are the
greatest obstacle to India's ever becoming a nation would be in-
creased. The English and Mohammedans are both beef-eaters, and
the Hindu papers often arouse a wide-spread horror by statistics of
the murder of cows. These have caused riots, and the leaflet entitled
" The Cry of the Cow " has been widely circulated and is very in-
flammable. In a hot country, it is said, beef-eating can suit no one,
and it is done out of spite. An impartial observer would say that
England had acted on the principle divide et impera. The natives
often say that no Englishman has ever yet been hanged for the murder
of a native, while no jury fails to convict where the reverse occurs.
The Austro-Hungarian monarchy has found liberalism and parlia-
mentarism to only aggravate the differences between Germans, Mag-
yars, Bohemians, Poles, Croatians, and Italians. Diaz in Mexico was
wiser, although all who worship formulae will condemn every step
though they praise the result. He even suppressed newspapers, as
Crispi did in Italy, because they tended to disruption. Is anarchy
growing underneath in India? Will a foreign yoke be increasingly
necessary to save her from it? Switzerland is free, yet a nation,
though perhaps not, as Renan says, " from communitive historic ante-
cedents." The Ottoman Empire has fused without it. Only in the
oligarchic classic world were patriotism and religion fused by epon-
ymous ancestors. Tamerlane founded the great Mogul Empire, as
did Akbar his in tlindustan, although both were foreign conquerors;
but they so identified themselves with the people they subjugated
that they came to take their glories as their own. Forcible conversion
to Christianity will not eliminate religious strife. The English are
too haughty. They will not allow a native to carry an umbrella over
his head in their presence, insist on salaams which they will not re-
turn, and in general the English have failed to identify. East of
Suez, where Kipling says there are no Ten Commandments, the heart
and soul of order means honoring and worshiping the ruler. There
must be monarchy, power, centralization. There have been few polit-
ical ideas in India because the one elevating conception which gives
pathetic interest to all the sad story of bloodshed called Indian history
is the devotion of the followers to their head. Imperialism casts a
spell upon them. They still glory in the traditions of the Empire of
Delhi. One can still see this in their intense delight at the very
sight of their local ruler princes as they pass. The people's saluta-
84

7o6 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

tion shows joy and rapture. Morrison thinks this might have been
centered in Queen Victoria had she gone to India and addressed the
rulers in the terms he suggests. As it is, however, he beheves that
the Government has been of late losing in the esteem of the upper
classes until now they have only a cold, unsympathetic criticism for
the Government, which is often hostile, and for all of which the
pseudo-liberal policy is directly responsible. The most successful In-
dian administrators, like Henry Lawrence, Nicholas, Sir Henry Ram-
say, whose names were a spell over half a province, were all soldiers,
unsophisticated, and with fresh minds and no sectarian ideals.

The native press rarely supports the British. Many native gradu-
ates are turned out of school who can find no post, and so write their
discontent in the press. Some would have the colleges turned over
to natives, and let the principal enforce the Hindu religion and pro-
hibit what Brahminical law forbids. Thus morals would be more
effectively taught than by eclectic systems of ethics made in England,
because in India no moral code can stand without the sanction of
religion.

Meredith Townsend,^ after fifty years of observation, thinks Eu-
rope has never materially influenced Asia, and that if the spell of
English invincibility were broken in India the best native friends of
Great Britain would spring at her throat as did the Sepoys, and soon
no trace but impoverishment would be left for all her years of do-
minion. Here and in China, all that Europe has effected is " to create
an impression that the whites are intolerably fierce and cruel, and
that they understand nothing but making money." The Asiatics dis-
like Christianity, and even in India take more naturally to Islam.
To be a Christian, a native must leave caste and become a man with-
out a country, but he can become a Mussulman without doing so.
The former is too individualistic. To Europeanize the Hindu would
be like flinging an aged nun upon the world to earn her bread. The
missionary is divided from the native by a Chinese wall as great as
that which separates a Chinaman, with his dress, color, and thought,
from a New Yorker. He never becomes anything like an Indian.
He starts all manner of useful industries, is schoolmaster as well,
and aims at the total Europeanization of the natives. He can not
resist the desire to make them English in language, literature, and
science, and wishes to saturate the East with the West, so that those
with whom he succeeds are a hybrid class, neither one nor the other,
with originality destroyed, self-reliance weakened, aspiration wrenched
in a new direction, as if Chinamen should attempt to convert us, not
only to accept Confucius, but to become Chinese.

A very competent authority ^ states that the administration of
criminal law in India among the Mohammedans had until recently

' Asia and Europe. Westminster, 1901.

' Sir James Fitzjames Stephens : History of Criminal Law in England, 1883,
vol. iii, ch. xxxiii.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 70?

many advantages over the English system. The penal code is alw^ays
one of the most delicate of all the problems of colonial administra-
tion, and is indeed a " grim present for one people to make to another,
and little calculated to excite affection." The code now adopted is
not only an immense improvement upon the attempted revival of the
old institutions by Warren Hastings in 1774, which had to be abol-
ished seven years later, but also upon the English home code, in that
it is far simpler, made by young men often not lawyers, well cal-
culated to be administered by simple magistrates, and just as good
and as hard to evade as if more expHcitly, elaborately, and politely
phrased.

Thus, after eighty years, no great missionary of the Church with
distinct independent vitality has arisen, and if all retired the work
might soon be undone. We have produced bahoos passing excellent
examinations but limp, when to produce permanent results they should
be Christian fanatics, wondering, arguing, and commanding. These
races can accumulate experience for practical purposes; they have
built great cities, perfected agriculture, invented letters and many
arts, reconciled masses to a hard destiny, and meditated eternal prob-
lems, so that every creed save fetishism is Asiatic and was first
preached by a brown man. But his progress is easily exhausted, his
society stereotyped, his brain paralyzed with conceit, he stagnates,
is polygamous, he lacks real pity. The chasm between the brown and
white has always existed, and intermarriages are rare, and always
with a sense of wrong. " There is no corner of Asia where the life
of a white man, unprotected by force either actual or potential, is
safe for an hour; nor is there an Asiatic state which, if it were pru-
dent, would not expel him for once and forever." The Europeans
distrust native power. Their bruskness, inaccessibility, and econ-
omy of time and lack of ceremony is intensely disliked.^

^ Very typical is the description by a well-informed Englishman of an event he
witnessed that seemed to him not comic, but simply bewildering and strange. The
Rana of Oodeypore is the highest Hindu, not a Pope, but his fiat is necessary to
consecrate any Hindu sovereign. Neither is he a Mikado, for he is not a Son of
God. To insult him would shock every Hindu, and the extinction of his race
would be felt as that of the house of Othman would be by all the Turks. Practi-
cally, the line of Ranas has been unbroken since perhaps about 1200 B. C, although
some think it 600. Thus Popes and Bourbons are parvenus. The death of this
ruler is an event to all Hindus and an appalling woe to the 1,500,000 people, whom
he immediately rules. They can not think his death natural, and the whole com-
munity gives itself up to the wildest emotion. Nobles beat their breasts ; priests
flock in ; frenzied women insist on their right to the funeral pyre ; the whole popu-
lation, among whom to insult the beard brings instant murderous vengeance, sub-
mit for woe to the last earthly humiliation of shaving. This Englishman, Yate,
describes all this as a spectacular tragedy with no trace of unkindness, but simply
says the men "were howling and beating their breasts"; the women jumped
about ; the men looked " funny " without their hair, as did the red umbrellas. He

708 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Graham Sandberg^ describes, as one fruit of European conquest,
the Eurasians as mostly descended from English men and Indian
women, often speaking English and calling themselves Christian;
sometimes so white that it is hard to detect the Oriental taint in their
blood. Like most mixed races, they bear the disabilities of both.
Their rehgion and social system debars them from native industries,
while their color and antecedents disqualify them from European
industries, so that they are often despised by both races. The Por-
tuguese founded the Eurasian community, although many have been
reabsorbed. Pride of European birth is generally strong, although
it has not developed that respect and prosperity found in the half
Dutch Singalese of Ceylon. Toward the latter half of the eighteenth
and the first decades of the nineteenth century British civilians could
set up a harem, if they chose, here, and schools were established for
their children; but latterly soldiers, sailors, and low conditions of
men have been chiefly fathers of modern accessions. It should not
be forgotten that some Eurasians are legitimate children of honest
parents, but the richest and most polished of them are nevertheless
under a taboo, although it is far less rigorous than in the southern
part of our own country. For in the Presidency many a well-edu-
cated lady with a splash of purple in her blood is met in society, and
there are all grades of mixture, from half white to " four cents in the
dollar." What to do with the festering hordes of low-class Eura-
sians, mostly the fruits of sin, the very sediment of pagan Asia, the
best of them constantly roving, often begging with effrontery from
Englishmen as if they had claims upon them, often with hereditary
languor and constitutional laziness, is a burning question.

The Anglo-Indians live with the natives, know their
language, and come into all kinds of external relations with
them; "and yet they know next to nothing about them. In
the whole century of intercourse no Anglo-Indian, whether
official or adventurer, has ever written a book which in the
least degree revealed to his countrymen the inner character,
or wishes, or motives of any considerable section or any great
single class of this immensely numerous people." Nobody
has explained their unique ideas of society, property, right,
for Europeans are by nature and the will of God stupid.
Such a book would give to its author fame and fortune, but

believes the Rana's reign began 1500 years or so ago (when his ancestors were tat-
tooed savages loving human sacrifices like the Maoris). There is nothing for him
pathetic or suggestive. It is a big crowd in a very lovely region with preposterous
rites, and it seems especially strange that two claimants to the throne should
await Colonel Wright's decision between them. Yate is in an unknown world.
'Our Outcast Cousins in India. Contemporary Review, vok Ixi, 1892, p. 880.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 709

it will never be written, for the English do not understand the
people they govern so well.^ It is simply one race fitting its
ideas to those of another whose hearts the European does not
in the least degree comprehend, and knows and admits that
he does not. He only knows justice, mercy, tolerance, and
firmness, and applies them, and the native in a way approves.
Clive knew nothing of any native tongue, and the examina-
tion Wallah who speaks the language so well understands no
better. There is an invisible but impassable wall like that
which separates the coach dog from the horse he lives and
runs with. The Indian erects this wall, deliberately secluding
his mind which he never unlocks. A few cultivated Euro-
peans have married and lived happily with native wives, but
they are on different sides of this wall. The caste spirit is
involutive and separative, and has led to self-shrouding as if
revelation were blasphemy. The loneliness and isolation of
the mind is great, and all Englishmen go home as soon as
their work is done.

Yet now R. J. Wilkinson ^ urges that the English methods of edu-
cating in the East are unpractical, make people litigious, arrogant,
averse to manual and technical work, and develop a class of literary
malcontents. Western training weakens by disuse the very acute
powers of observation they inherit. They often lose the very names
of plants and animals ; the old literature perishes, and there is nothing
to take its place that strikes root. Many vernacular teachers have

^ Since this was written one such book has appeared, not of the Hindu, but of
the cognate Burmese Buddhists,^ which should mark an epoch in understanding a
subject people and should be the vade mecum of the administration, and especially
of the missionary. It shows how new creeds are embroidered on older, and these
on yet older ones, and so on below what we popularly call mind down into the
depths of the soul. It shows how all religion sprung from pain and want, and how
Buddha found the great place by renunciation and opened a way for thronging
millions. It makes this old faith glow again in the hearts of its own disciples, as
well as of foreigners, and all who feel a gospel mission to these lands should first
ask themselves the challenging question how to restore, and then how to improve
on, this ideal of life. One such sympathetic masterpiece for all other races and
faiths would be the first step, for all I plead for in behalf of undeveloped races is
what I have striven to write for youth.

^ Education of Asiatics. Special Reports on Educational Subjects, vol viii, p.
685. London, 1902.

' The Soul of a People, by J. Fielding Hall. London, 1899.

710 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

but a very limited vocabulary, and know little but the books they
teach. Scientific instruction does not efface superstitions.

Conquest will not vivify Asia. Grant Duff complains that
the graduates of Madras University do not know how to use
their alien attainments. One of the most interesting efforts
to develop indigenous talent was made by Dr. Leitner/ who
undertook to revive native schools in the Punjab in place of
the inferior and hated English Government schools. He
arrived in India in 1864 and found that under the influence
of the policy of their conquerors to force upon them a foreign
culture based on physical science, industry, and trade, which
they thought fit only for the older classes, under inspectors
who banished privacy, even placing boys and girls side by
side, teaching the children a strange tongue and a still more
obnoxious creed, it was no wonder that in a few years their
own schools had declined from one to every 1,440 inhabitants
to one in 9,028. The Punjab is classical, teeming with noble
and ancient memories, where the priest was professor and
poet, and where education was both a religious and a social
duty. Fakirs, yogis, minstrels, genealogists, astrologists,
almanac makers, pundits, and even Brahmans teach, but with
no classes which reduce intellect to a dull common level, in
huts, markets, homes, on ship, and every male child save
the outcast alone was taught not only to read and write in a
difficult language and to compute, but a mass of traditional
literature and morals. Teaching made the Brahman caste,
which Leitner thinks is still maintained only by their monop-
oly of learning. It is a sacred duty for those who know to
teach, and by virtue and education in four stages ending in
asceticism and meditation, it is possible to reach the gods.
Elementary teaching often began with a form of contract with
God ; the alphabet is sacred and new letters have almost upset
religious belief. In so subtle and complicated a language,
grammar is philosophy, and as the sage passes on in the cur-
riculum and progresses correspondingly in virtue, he may attain
a point whence he studies downward and backward till his
knowledge culminates in being focused upon the child whom

' History of Indigenous Education in the Punjab since Annexation and in 1882,
by G. W. Leitner, LL. D. Calcutta, 1883.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 7^^

he teaches, and thus reincarnates his soul, which might be
reborn over and over by love of youthful studies. Genius is
common in India, v^hich only lacks means of communication
to bring it to fame, and a savant's life is often so devoted to
study that his curriculum is his biography, and his culture,
instead of making him restless like that of the West, gives him
poise and repose. Teaching is essentially secret, and even the
native shorthand, bookkeeping, lexicography, poetry, litera-
ture, and rhetoric are regarded as the crown of all human
possessions.

These ideals, and schools which represented them, Leitner
found in danger of extinction and devoted himself to their
revival, adding only a little English and a few scientific rudi-
ments as a happy combination between the East and the West.
He retained old teachers, methods, and subjects, simply in-
creasing the teachers' fees wherever the new topics were
added. This policy, however, did not conform to England's
idea of forcing her Hindu subjects to take up the white man's
burden, and was not only abandoned, but I have looked in vain
through later Government reports, and even in Chamberlain's
more or less official History of Education in India, published
in 1 90 1, to find any reference to Leitner or the great move-
ment started in about 1,000 schools.

In even the Straits Settlement, where so much has been
accomplished in so short a time, the very situation is demoral-
izing.^ In the words of a recent writer, " the relation of con-
queror to conquered is an odious one and closely resembles
that of master to slave. It inevitably makes the one overbear-
ing, arrogant, and unscrupulous, and the other deceitful and
time-serving. . . . No man can bear to be constantly reminded
of his inferiority, but neither can any man bear to be constantly
reminded of his superiority."

Conquered people have in the past been often slaughtered
and enslaved, but often, even in antiquity, amalgamated.
Castes in India, Helots in Sparta, and aboriginal people, who
have been overslaughed when other races multiplied so fast

*The Growth and Political Organization of the Federated Malay States, by
Francis B. Forbes. Submitted to the Senate with the President's Message, Janu-
ary 4, 1899. Also Sidney Brooks : The Example of the Malay States. Forum,
April, 1902.

712 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

they had to trek, have led some theorists to assume that human
evolution required a lower servile and alien race. The dis-
content of subjugated races is in strong contrast with the alle-
giance of emigrants.^

In his chapter on the government of dependencies by a
free state in his Representative Government, John Stuart Mill
declares that a government of a people by itself has a mean-
ing and reality, but such a thing as a government of one
people by another does not and can not exist. One people,
he continues, may keep another as a warren or preserve or
human cattle farm for its profit, but this is very far from
securing the good of the governed. How, he asks, would the
English be ruled if they knew and cared no more about their
own affairs than they do about those of the Hindus? Those
who go to foreign parts to get rich are those who most of
all need restraint, and are prone to think it monstrous that
any rights of the natives should stand in their way. More-
over, " the settlers, not the natives, have the ear of the public
at home."

" A dependency," says C. F. Adams,^ " is not merely a
possession but a trust, to be dealt with in a large altruistic
spirit. I submit that there is not an instance in all recorded
history, from the first precedent to that now making, where a
so-called inferior race or community has been elevated in its
character or made self-sustaining and self-governing, or even
put on the way to that result, through a condition of depend-
ency or tutelage."

" It is a curious fact," says Dilke,' " that the English races have
more generally destroyed the native races with vv^hich they have
come in contact in their young settlements than has been the case
with other colonizing peoples, but have destroyed the natives only
afterward to enter into a conflict with other dark or yellow races
whose efficiency as laborers seems equal to their own. While the
destruction of the native races by the British races in countries where
the English can labor out of doors is generally complete, it is the
fact that other European races who have set to work to destroy the
natives in similar countries have not succeeded, and that the English

1 H. C. Morris : History of Colonization. 2 vols. New York, 1900.

* An Undeveloped Function. American Historical Review, January, 1902.

^ Problems of Greater Britain, p. 535.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 713

people have often destroyed them when trying hard to keep them in
existence." He deplores that while in British colonies many inter-
esting political and social experiments are being tried, the colonies
of the Crown know little of each other.

In England the evolution of the idea of colonies has passed
three stages. The old system closed with the revolt of
America, before which colonies were conceived as existing
solely for the benefit of the sovereign state. They were an
asset to yield as much profit as possible. In the next stage
there was a strong body of British sentiment in favor of cast-
ing off colonies. In 1870 Froude insisted "that our colonies
are a burden to us and the sooner they are cut adrift from
us the better." The third stage, Ireland ^ thinks, was reached
about 1897. It grew indirectly out of the scramble of the
continental powers for parts of Africa, which began in 1884,
for it was then that France became animated with the old
colonial idea that had made her great in the seventeenth
century, and which was expressed in 1882 by Leroy-Beaulieu,
who said that colonial expansion was now " a question of life
or death for France." In England the celebration of the
Queen's Jubilee, in 1897, was a powerful stimulant to the
imperial idea, and it is now felt that the task of civilizing
lower races is a thing to be attempted.

Russia's method has been almost purely agricultural, with
heavy blows followed by great mildness and toleration. She
excels all others in the East, says Reinsch, because she is semi-
Oriental and not far above the Asiatic tribes. Her mastery
of Oriental diplomacy is complete, and the splendor of her
system impresses the East more than do the simple business
methods of the Briton. Germany wins her way by her fin-
ished commercial, mercantile, and industrial methods. Her
Government follows her people. Her rule is too military and
bureaucratic, while the French love home too much, and if
abroad wish to feel the administration always behind them.
In all colonies now the question of labor is coming to the
front, and this is ominous for the natives, and institutions to
train for colonial life are multiplying.^ This began in Eng-

1 Tropical Colonization. New York, 1899.

* Colonial Civil Service. A. L. Lowell. New York, 1900.

714 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

land with the college at Haileybury in 1806. France estab-
lished its Cambodian in 1885, and the Dutch had one long
before, and now Britain has the new London School of Tropi-
cal Medicine founded in 1899. These institutions are slowly
coming to admit more and more matter from the country
trained into their curriculum, expensive as this differentia-
tion is.

Just now the white race is gathering itself up for an ex-
traordinary new unity and a further step in advance. Man-
kind is endeavoring to realize its past and its present, and to
anticipate its future. This new cosmic slogan impavidi pro-
grediamur is now understood as never before in biological
experiments in heredity, in partitioning all that yet remains
unappropriated of the world among a few leading powers,
and in compelling the remnant of humanity to subject itself
as a corpus vile to the Hat experimentiim of colonization and
education. This makes the end of the century epochful and
momentous. Everything must henceforth have world-wide
dimensions and be seen in cosmic relations. What a few over-
grown races call civilization seems likely to be forced upon
the entire world.

The recent transition from nationalism to imperialism and
the attempts at unwilling assimilation of races, like the Irish,
Poles, and Finns, are certainly hardly reconcilable with the
philosophy of universal peace as proclaimed by Saint-Pierre
and Kant, nor indeed with the world community ideas of
international law since Grotius and Suarez. The Nietzsche
view that victorious force is the simtmiim honuni well comports
with the ideas of various German historians, that superior
nations must civilize inferior by force if necessary. Says a
recent writer,^ " It is an inexorable law of progress that in-
ferior races are made for the purpose of serving superior, and
if they refuse to serve they are fatally condemned to disap-
pear." This view, that each nation must assert itself to the
utmost, assumes that force is the only criterion of fitness, and
ignores the fact that civilization must from time to time change
both its agents and its nature. Under the influence of this
spirit, modern statesmen are seeking to found empires, as a

'Quoted in World Politics, by Paul S. Reinsch, p. 12.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 715

few decades ago they did to found nations. Hence, sea power
has a new importance as compared with standing armies, and
all appreciation of the real virtues of humble races is rapidly
being lost. All this had undoubtedly been influenced in part,
and in part expressed by the aristocratic tendencies of the new
philosophy of the survival of the best and the view that the
interests of the world are favored by the full development of
great individuals rather than by the happiness of the multi-
tude, which our cherished ideas of democracy have hitherto
made supreme. The age almost appears as though its con-
sciousness was to be again the helpless victim of historical
forces or destinies, which were to rush it along too rapidly for
intelligence to fully grasp the meaning of tendencies. Pobye-
donostseff's recent book ^ is pervaded with the conviction that
the Western world is dying with the fatal diseases of anarchy,
infidelity, individualism, and corruption, and that Russia with
her autocracy, piety, and village community system is to bear
the light of the world.

Nearly all the world inhabitable by man is now known.
There can be no more great voyages of discovery as in the
fifteenth century save only toward the poles, barren of life.
Expeditions like those of Livingstone and Stanley are now
forever impossible. On the map of the Geographical Society,
the areas of land designated as unexplored are few and grow-
ing rapidly smaller. Although, of course, a vast body of
scientific knowledge concerning mineral resources, fossil
remains, plant and animal species, manners and customs, etc.,
is yet awaited, the preliminary survey of the world of man
is essentially complete. This fact alone marks a great epoch
in the world's history. The expansion of knowledge has seen
here a limit which had never been realized before. We are
now practically sure that there is no living pithecanthropoid
or even Neanderthal race, and as our knowledge of man is
rounding up we realize his isolation and uniqueness as a
species by himself, who has surpassed all animals and been
the most ferocious and deadly in the use of his sovereignty
over the animal world, exterminating species that he could
not domesticate, and himself the author of the wide and still

1 Reflections of a Russian Statesman.

7^6 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

widening gap between the lowest of his species and the high-
est animals, because he has killed off the missing links.

One of the first effects of realizing this new limit has
been the competition of the leading nations to appropriate all
available territory, or to acquire spheres of paramount inter-
est wherever that of other dominant races was not confirmed.
But one remarkable fact of the new century is a new cosmic
consciousness with many manifestations and a new sense of
solidarity among all the peoples of the earth. Christianity
has long dreamed of universal dominion, remote as this ideal
still is of realization, and uncoordinated as are yet the efforts
of the various missionary bodies, the efficiency of which, co-
operation between them would vastly increase. The con-
viction that Christianity is an ultimate and final form of
religion beyond which there can be no better or higher one,
on the one hand, and that it is fit for the needs of all people,
on the other, is ineradicable from Christian faith. The laws of
disease, especially of those that are contagious, are essentially
the same for all men, so that medical regulations, it is urged,
should be universal. Universal weights and measures for the
world have their ardent advocates. Sympathy with suffering
and calamity in its remotest part is now world-wide. Postal
regulations almost give us a world postal system. Commerce
knows no limitations save those of tariff and is knitting the
world into closer and closer dependency. Inventions, me-
chanic arts, and labor-saving devices immediately become
international and are everywhere encroaching upon rude or
indigenous forms of industry. The weather bureaus hardly
recognize national lines; fashions ignore them, and so do the
sciences. We have had many tentatives toward the formation
of a world language or Volapiik; ^ world coinage; a universal
religion and philosophy; a world police that should fight
famines as well as suppress disorder; while arbitration, in-
ternational law, and philosophy are all beginning to think
more deeply and broadly and have new dreams of finality, and
of a new meaning of the old Catholic idea, semper ubique et
ah omnibus; while we hear much that is vague concerning a

' See a tentative universal phonetic system to express the sounds of all languages,
in Pad. Sem., December, 1903.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 71?

new world ethics, world conscience, world politics, of the
Atlantic as an Anglo-Saxon sea, and the Pacific as a new
Mediterranean, of globe-circling in sixty days, etc.

All these injfluences make for growing homogeneity
among mankind. Costumes and manners lose their local pro-
vincial types and approximate. Customs, ancient beliefs, and
even religions weaken in their hold, and men tolerate all
things because they doubt. The so-called higher races force
the lower to take up the white man's burden, and soon the
latter vie with the former in their worship of Mars, Bacchus,
and Mammon. Low races are imitative and superficial re-
semblances soon deepen. The school, which England
especially and most colonizing nations use as a method of
promoting conformity, is so uniform wherever it is found that
the school system, provided for the savage but vanishing
Maori in Madagascar, was lately called by Sir Joshua Fitch
the most complete and perfect in the world. Uniformity is
for many the most inspiring ideal and the brightest of all goals
of endeavor. It is also simple and easy. Accept baptism and
the creed, refrain from certain open gross forms of vice, and
the Hottentot is a Christian. Add to these a few windy
mouthfuls of effusive phrases, and the half illiterate southern
negro becomes an exhorter, although the spirit of voodoo in-
cantation dominates in both his own soul and that of his
hearers. It will be a dreary and monotonous world if the
dreams of the jingoes of modern culture and uniformity are
realized. As we travel around the world, everywhere we
shall have steam and electricity; modernized costume and
custom ; the schoolhouse and the three R's ; the Sunday church
bell; the individuality of races slowly fading; their ideas
growing pale in a common menstruum ; possibly war elimi-
nated by the parliament of man in a world federation; the
food supply and population enormously increasing; no illit-
erates— this is a millennium which has little charm for the
biologist.

No race ideal has ever been more narrow, provincial, or
banausic. It is a colossal assumption that what we call civi-
lization is the end of man, or the best thing in the world. If
history has any lesson larger and more impressive than all
others, it is that both races and national types of culture have

7i8 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

their day, grow old and die. Each form of civilization culti-
vates certain powers of man, perhaps excessively, while others
lie dormant or are even repressed. Every race, where fertility
or the number of viable offspring is declining, is descendent
or decadent, and has failed in more factors of the great prob-
lem of human development than it has succeeded in. The
nations they represent may grow by immigration and increase
in wealth and power, but it is all factitious and artificial. The
world belongs to the fertile races. The best test of the success
of the methods of treating subject races is fertility. Just as
no animal can be domesticated that does not breed in cap-
tivity, so no race is really helped by the dominance of another
if reproduction declines. If, on the other hand, population
increases more rapidly in a subject race; if the average of
longevity is augmented, we have the cardinal signs of benefit
from the relation. We of the highest civilization have left
as it were large brain areas fallow; culture factors of the
highest importance have been neglected, and indeed perhaps
always must be where supreme excellence in others is at-
tained, so that " barbarism with electric lights " is always and
everywhere possible. Our type of civilization may be better
in most, as it certainly is in some, respects than any other, but
it is at best only a certain group of excellences, and although
we are the bearers of the world-consciousness at present, it
by no means follows that the highest human perfectibility
is along the lines that we have thus far followed. Greece and
Rome were just as confident of their own eternal superiority
over all barbarians, but if they had conquered the Germans,
progress would have had no relay when the ancient states fell.
In its very nature, civilization must perhaps rise, culminate,
and then decline ; not primarily by reason of extirpation from
without but by exhaustion from within, or perhaps because
certain areas or granules of the brain, which may itself be
still developing, are overworked and others must be developed.
Ratzel urges in substance that we have treated the gap
between the natural and civilized races with an indolence that
was content with the mere record of novelties and romantic
interest. Toward the end of the last century popular belief
was profoundly influenced by Rousseau, who thought the
happiest existence to be a state of nature remote from civi-

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 7^9

lization. As interest in this problem became intellectual
rather than sentimental and under the influence of evolution-
ary theories, the opposite view prevailed. Origins, which are
everywhere sought, it is believed are approached just in pro-
portion as we find human races degraded. While those who
study religion and language now incline to the theory of
decadence and degeneration, evolutionists, if they do not hold
that there is everywhere only progress and no decay, are most
interested in the lowest races which are thought nearest to
the brutes. This distinction of upper and lower must yield
to the distinction between forward and belated. Primitive
races must now be regarded rather as on an equal stage of
evolution, or at least one that does not differ much from our
own, but as deprived of their share of culture, hence arrested
and stunted. We must drop the view that seeks in the lower
races missing links between animals and man. " There exist
Europeans morally degraded below the level of the Austra-
lians. This sad faculty of being or becoming like the brutes
is unhappily present in all men, in some a little more and in
others a little less, whether it manifests itself with more or
less frequency and plainness depends merely on the degree
of acquired capacity of dissimulation, which often corresponds
to that of civiHzation." The idea, therefore, of natural races
" involves nothing anthropological or physical, but is purely
one of ethnography and civilization." Natural races are na-
tions in the process of development. " The thousands of
tribes whom civilized men lightly call savages, correspond to
different periods of existence set out at regular distances on
the roadway of ages." The old Germans and Gauls appeared
no less uncivilized beside Roman civilization than do Kaffirs
or Polynesians beside ours. " The gap which differences of
civilization create between two groups of human beings is in
truth quite independent, whether in its depth or in its breadth,
of the difference in their mental endowments." " Let us only
look outside the border of the brief and narrow course of
events which we arrogantly call the history of the world and
we shall have to recognize that members of every race have
borne their part in the history that lies beyond — the history of
primeval and prehistoric times."

Savage tribes as a rule have little wealth, slight class dis-

720 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

tinctions, no laws or courts, no ignorance or learning, but, as
Wallace urges, usually have great respect for others' rights.
They may be unprogressive, but may have reached a perfect
solidarity where each loves and works for all and equilibrium
has been established. The arts may be only rudimentary;
there is little variety, yet in justice, well-being and happiness
these large tribal families, both prehistoric and contemporary,
closed to outsiders, are at the very least in some cases and in
some respects ahead of us. They may be as unprogressive as
Ranke says history is, which he argues shows no real improve-
ment, but it is certain that the slums of modern cities abound
in people really lower and often far more degraded than those
we call savages. It seems at any rate to be a law that the
lower stratum of the more civilized people do not progress,
although many will deny the statement of Reclus that on the
whole civilization shows no moral advance beyond savagery.
While in many cases it is hard to distinguish between
ascending and descending races, in many instances the differ-
ence is manifest. Ploetz ^ thinks that the Frenchmen and
Yankees are sinking, and most West Aryans, European Jews,
English, Dutch, and Scandinavians are rising races. The
Zufiis, the descendants of the ancient Peruvians and of the
old rulers of Yucatan, are oft-cited illustrations of decadence.
Virchow thought Lapps and Bushmen pathological and de-
graded by hunger and want. Sir H. Bartle Frere ^ thinks
there is no limit to the improvement of the Kaffirs and in-
stances the extraordinary career of Tyo Soga. Although he
holds that most African races were descending when the
Europeans came, he instances the remarkable vigor of all the
great Bantu family, and especially the Bechuanas, the best of
the Zulus, and the rare ability of such chiefs as Chaka, who
united many tribes, had a coward-tree where all who mani-
fested fear were slain after every battle, and who ruled with
great justice and sagacity, and Cetewayo who for some time
kept England at bay. The difficulty of making this discrimi-
nation causes us constantly to confound ethnic infancy with
old age. Reclus ^ tells of an experienced traveler who found

' Tiichtigkeit unserer Rasse und der Schutz der Schwachen. Berlin, 1895.
2 Jour. Anthrop. Inst., 1882, p. 313 et seq.
*Comptes Rendus, 1896, p. 761.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 7^^

a fine and happy tribe in Africa really living close to nature,
who was philosopher enough to declare that they would be
justified in killing him for discovering them, and few will
dissent from his statement that the American Indians would
be better to-day had they never met white men.

Very interesting is the suggestion of Professor O. T.
Mason.^ Lower races, he premises, feel chiefly emulation or
despair in the presence of higher ones. Their chronology,
technology, speech, social system, and industries are all
challenged and bettered. When we try to develop them, he
thinks, we should follow a definite program or curriculum
and begin with food and hygiene, then should come dress,
then shelter, and then in further sequence war, industry,
ornament, the arts of gratification, traffic, family, organiza-
tion, government, and, last of all, religion. The first of these
are easiest and the last progressively hardest to change, but
to leap consecutive stages in this order or to invert its cate-
gories is fatal in many ways, because it opens discouraging
chasms between the point attained and the goal, and because
of the unnatural strain to both the physical and psychic
organism. Moreover, if by reason of mixed blood or great
ability a subject of an inferior is forced up to the status of a
higher race, he is usually ostracized from his own and also
from the dominant people with whom he can not compete,
Overstimulated savages generally perish miserably or lapse
to a lazy vegetative existence in the presence of higher stocks.
Function varies easier than structure, and family, church, and
religion are the hardest and last to change. Perhaps the best
only should be selected for these hothouse processes. Few
anthropologists would venture yet to thus formulate the stages
of evolution, and few experts or laymen will agree with this
suggestion, though it may be a tendency in the right direction.

Race hygiene in the large sense which culminates in
human stirpiculture as an art is yet to be developed. From
Plato down to Grant Allen, who even goes so far as to urge
that the race can best be improved by marriages only during
the good-will of both parties ; to Hegar, the gynecologist, who

1 The Savage Mind in the Presence of Civilization. Trans. Anthrop. Ass'n,
vol. i, 1 88 1, p. 44-
85

722 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

advocated better sexual selection in marriage ; to Wallace,
who thinks judicious natural selection between races might
result in more and better posterity; and in many an ancient
colonial policy, modern community and venturesome social
theory, intimations of the possibility of man's domesticating
himself so as to breed more effectively have been mooted, but
these schemes must remain only poetic until the laws of
heredity are established upon foundations solid enough to
bear the full weight of human society. We do already know,
however, that fundamental human qualities are acquired best,
if not alone, through heredity. What is no less certain, but
not yet practically recognized, is that every race has some
qualities of body or soul that civilized races lack but sorely
need. In ancient times, and still among savages, conquest was
followed by commingling of bloods. Conquered races were ab-
sorbed and assimilated by intermarriage as in the colonies of an-
cient Rome and among savage tribes, who kill the males among
their enemies and marry the females. This process requires
a long time and also requires peace. Reclus states that for
pure outlines of form and grace of movement many savages
surpass civilized man. We have also a large body of evidence
of the very superior stamina and mental vigor produced by
some race mixtures. The bad qualities of half-breeds are gen-
erally due to prejudice and social ostracism. That the Beothuk
and Tasmanian blood now flows in nobody's veins, the biologist
considers an irreparable loss, and holds that these two very
vigorous stocks must on general principles have contained very
precious elements that might have revitalized some decadent
or accelerated some other ascendent stock, or been quickened
themselves if wisdom or chance had effected the proper com-
bination.

The Ainos of Japan, who are vanishing by amalgamation,
are a very different and more primitive type than the Japa-
nese, and both appear to be benefited by the process of absorp-
tion. The Portugese and the Dutch have been intermarrying
for several centuries in farther India to the advantage of both
races, as is true of the Russians with the older natives of
Siberia. The mixture of Arabs with the North Africans has
produced the Moors; many crossings of the Turks, the
mixture of the Spaniards and Indians in South America and

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 723

Mexico, especially in Chile, which have resulted in Neo-
Indian and Neo-Aryan types, show how favorably the crossing
of races may act if differences are not great and if both sexes
of both races marry with each other instead of only the men
of one with the women of the other. While the negro and
American Indian are not infertile, the results here are more
in doubt, and perhaps the same may be said of the French and
African that has produced the creole. The Anglo-Saxons
are a mixed race; the Germans and even the Jews have
mingled their blood with many other people, so that cross-
fertilization seems to be the law of human races.

The friction points between higher and lower races are
many. Very prominent, if not first, is sex. The great mutiny
in India was very largely due to this cause. Often in this
inflammable field governments are influenced against their
best judgment by popular clamor, as when vast numbers of
British matrons petitioned for the abolition of child marriages,
or when Mrs. Fawcett braved public censure by advocating
the contagious diseases act which involved the recognition of
prostitution sufficiently to bring it under medical control, or
as is seen in our chronic Mormon problem, and the many
fanatical efforts to enforce European modes of marriage and
divorce among lower races at a stage of development when
they are either meaningless or would be offset by greater
injury. Another friction point is property, which with lower
races is tribal or communal. Land, if not assumed to be
owned by the discoverer, has been bought for a bauble, and
then, if the civilized conscience was stirred later, redress has
been by doles, pensions, grants, or grazing leases, which have
tended to pauperization, stagnation, and decay. Our failure
to understand the tribal society, the phratry, gens, and sept,
which was the mode of union of Latins, Sabines, Dorians,
Spartans, and Hebrews, is another source of disastrous mis-
understanding. Labor is another and growing source of
trouble. Savages are either idle or work and act by long
rhythmic periods and abhor our regular daily system. Lan-
guage is a great barrier, and the prejudices, outbreaks, and
wars caused by failure to understand make another long and
sad chapter. Race prejudice is very strong among primitive
peoples. They are peaceable and affectionate with each

7^4 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

other, but suspect or abhor aliens as enemies, and their
customs and traditions are a tribal palladium they are loath
to jeopardize. Religious diversities have generally seemed
greatest of all. Differences that we are coming to regard as
but branches of the same stock, or degrees of development
of a cognate content, to the primitive mind often seem abso-
lute. Externals, like Sabbath-keeping, a new chronology,
church and school going, seem to have little common ground
with previous customs, although we are now coming to study
and utilize every psycho-kinetic equivalent or analogue be-
tween the higher and the lower faith. Again primitive races
live in their feelings and instincts, and their organization of
their life is more complete and settled. The life of sentiment
and impulse is contrasted at every point with the methods of
the intellectual life. Thus cultured and uncultured minds
must at first radically misunderstand each other. While we
must beware of pushing the analogies too far, for they are at
best restricted, we can not fail to see that some of these same
disparities exist between maturity and youth, especially in the
mattoid and criminaloid types. The latter tends to sexual law-
lessness, to consort in gangs hostile to other gangs, with a
leader and often with common possessions, while the religious
nature of youth, though intense and sincere, often has low
intellectual forms of expression and can be fanatical toward
what is the normal religion of adult life. So in hygienic regu-
lation, where civilization and savagery conflict, youth is
normally predisposed to violate these precepts and to fail to
appreciate them when presented. Precautions against con-
tagion are not the young man's forte. So in their suscepti-
bility to drink and to microbes and their disposition to believe
in nostrums and quacks there is some parallelism. Dress and
undress is another friction point. It is hard for us to under-
stand that a man in a breech-cloth may be a philosopher, or
a woman almost nude a prude in her modesty and virtue,
although we know better how ornament may defy comfort.
The homologues of these tendencies in youth have been else-
where in this book repeatedly pointed out.

Dumont ^ considers that the increase of population is the

^ La Morale Bas^e sur la D^mographie. Paris, 1901.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 7^5

best criterion of the customs, manners, and habits of a people ;
that it is, in short, a veritable ethnometry. A true science of
morality, therefore, or ethics will determine those causes that
make for the increase in numbers and quality and the develop-
ment of races up the scale of evolution. We shall then have
a science of duty that will be categorically imperative and
reliable.

In answer to the problem of " the possible improvement of
the human race under the existing conditions of law and sen-
timent," Sir Francis Galton ^ insists that anthropologists
should regard human improvement, the grandest of all ob-
jects, as a subject to be kept squarely in view. Dr. Farr
elaborately estimated the worth of an average Essex baby to
be about five pounds. By a similar method, Galton calculated
that the baby of superior talent would be worth thousands of
pounds. He insists that the vast gain which England re-
ceived by the Huguenot immigration would be slight com-
pared to the annual addition of a few hundred children of the
highest class. He gives an elaborate and most ingenious
scheme to show how, while extremes both of degeneracy and
superior talent tend to be reduced, intermarriage between the
better classes constantly raises the level. The possibility of
improving a race or a nation is thus dependent on the problem
of increasing the fertility of the best stock, and this is more
important than that of repressing the worst. He thinks if a
very deep interest and enthusiasm in this subject could
naturally express itself by diplomas to select young men and
women, and moderate dowries to encourage early marriages
among them, this cause might well arouse a sense of religious
obligation and work against the tendency in costly civiliza-
tions to shrink from marriage on prudential grounds or from
reluctance to sacrifice freedom or leisure. The advantage of
early marriage, besides a direct increase in fecundity, means
that the span of each generation is shortened so that perhaps
six or seven generations take the place of five or six. He
shows how the towns sterilize rural vigor, and how most
women of the better class in England usually at least have

^ The Possible Improvement of the Human Breed under the Existing Condi-
tions of Law and Sentiment. Nature, vol. Ixiv, p. 659. Also Pop. Sci. Monthlyp
January, 1902.

726 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

one additional child. Again, if wealthy people would aid
gifted young men in an honorable way, augmented social effi-
ciency would result. Noble families might avow it a point
of honor to collect fine specimens of humanity about them.
No doubt there is here a great power " capable of being di-
rected with vast benefit as soon as we shall have learned to
understand and to apply it " in improving the breed of the
human race.

The customs, institutions, and beliefs of primitive peoples
are related to ours somewhat as instinct is related to reason.
Our civilization is a novelty, full of artificialities and there-
fore more or less superficial. It rings hollow when subjected
to strain and test. Its conventionalities are insincere and
many of them a lie. The field for hypocrisy is large and the
tendencies to it incessant and insidious. The religion we pre-
tend to follow is often a form and routine, and its profession
the rankest cant. It came from the Orient, and from antiquity
and from an alien race. A revival song of the colored people
runs, " Give me Jesus and you take all the rest." The Jews
long since did the first and now seem destined to do the second
for Christendom, and are inheriting the earth because they are
the most mundane and most devoted of all races in history to
making the most of this life regardless of another. The In-
dian is constitutionally at the other extreme, and so over-
mindful of higher and supernatural powers that he can not
attain worldly prudence. There is little acculture, but all is
naive and too automatic to be called even second nature. That
is his perennial charm for a sophisticated age. He is almost
a magnified stage of boyhood which would be incomplete
without it, and here again each helps to explain the other. If
primitive races become extinct, they will take out of the world
with them so much power of sympathetic appreciation of
youth in its yearly stages that we may well be appalled for the
future of the young.

With all this vast body of culture material of the very
highest educational value it is strange that anthropology has
still so feeble and inadequate representation in academic facul-
ties. It is a wholesome check to excessive specialization. As
F. Russel has shown, it gives a precious kind of self-
knowledge, corrects undue self-complacency, broadens re-

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 7^7

ligious prejudice, and deepens the sense of universal brother-
hood. As Bastian has urged, for many years it deepens our
ideas of God, soul, fate, duty, death and mortuary custom, re-
birth, prophecy, sacraments, rewards and punishments, and
scores of other concepts basal for both religion and psy-
chology. This is the broad comparative spirit in which
Pfleiderer has treated the golden age; W. F. Warren, para-
dise ; Tylor, animism ; J. Curtin, creation ; L.efevre, the Holy
Grail, the roots of which conception he finds everywhere
" consecrated by liturgy and divinitized by long memory " ;
Robinson, totemism; Chamberlain explains the tendency of
brain-workers to toil intensively for days and weeks and then
relax to the primitive rhythm of activity and idleness; Mc-
Ritchie finds in the lore of fairies, trolls, goblins, and monsters
racial memories of the missing links in man's pedigree and
of extinct dragons and mammals. If we find fetishism per-
vading the popular conception of religion, as O. Colson ^ has
shown ; that we have inherited many, if not most, of our ideas
of the soul from savages, as Bastian ^ thinks ; that many, if not
most, races have ideas of a post-mortem journey of the soul,
as V. Negelein ^ shows ; that the dead have great and definite
powers ; ^ that, as Andree, Userer, and others have seen, ideas
of a deluge as a punishment for sin abound in many if not
most races ; that prophetic dreams are believed by many tribes,
which some think ancestral much in the sense of Letourneau,^
as are sacred waters and lustrations ; if we find, with v. Jaekel,®
that primitive priests incline to feminine things, flowing robes,
long hair, ornaments, female cast of countenance, to dwell
indoors, and sometimes wear veils and gloves, use fans, ape
woman's walk, ride mares only ; if we realize, as Hirn '^ and
Westermarck have shown, that " at a stage of development
where nudity is the normal state, veiling must necessarily sug-

^ Wallonia. Li^ge, 1901, ix.

'^ Seelenbegriffe in der Ethnologic. Ethnolog. Notizblatt, Berlin, 1901.
' Reise der Seele in den Jenseits. Zeitsch. f. Vergl. Volkerkunde, 1901, p. 149.
* Biirlitz : Was Konnen die Todten. Zeitsch. f. Vergl. Volkerkunde, 1900, p.
149.

'Vashide u. Pieron : Bull, et Mem. See. Anthropol. Paris, 1901, pp. 194-

293-

^Studien zur Vergleich. Volkerkunde. Berlin, 1901, p. 144.
^ Origin of Art, p. 205.

728 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

gest the same emotion as unveiling in civilized society " ; un-
derstand all the parallels and see how almost even the quintes-
sence of virtue is to be found in savages as low as the Veddahs,
as described in the splendid study of the brothers Sarrasin
between childhood and savagery ; ^ conceive the great power
of the mind over the body as shown in savage medicine more
fully than in modern mind and faith cures; realize what a
potent and precious apperception organ for understanding the
vjtal relations of church membership are the consanguinity
and relations of tribal society, and how totemism explains to
the savage that of the believer to Christ ; all these things and
scores more not only augment our respect for savagery but
increase our confidence in and our wonder and admiration of
our own religion, which has so effectively edited and organ-
ized these primitive conceptions, and should incite us to
attempt in some humble degree to prepare the way for, if not
to participate in and contribute to, this supreme work of the
very highest type of genius, viz., so conduiting these primi-
tive religious instincts that they shall irrigate life and incite
to virtue.

VII. Missionaries, or those sent forth with new glad tid-
ings from heaven, have constituted a very prominent function
of Christianity since the appointment of the apostles and the
commission to the seventy. Paul represents the ideal about
whose methods those of all Christian progaganda since have
centered. The methods have been very diverse in different
periods and among different races. In many of the wholesale
conversions of early times the people were construed to have
gone over to the new faith with the ruler. The method of the
sword has been widely used, and the persecuted faith has
sometimes become in turn a persecutor. Religions, deeply
rooted and persistent as they are in the human nature, wax
strong and die like races. Jupiter, Diana, whose great image
fell from heaven, Baal, and even Thor, have perhaps not
a single worshiper on the earth to-day, and yet it is only
sixteen centuries since the Emperor Julian defended the
religions of antiquity and thought that if they perished class-
ical literature, if not philosophy, would go with them. In four
centuries Christianity had converted the Roman Empire, and

1 Muthesius : Kindheit u. Volksthum. Gotha, 1899, p. 54.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 729

its diffusion north, south, east, and west was pressed with great
vigor. We know as Httle of the methods of Saint Patrick,
Columba, Ulfilas, and Boniface as we do of those of Lully,
who was the first to devise a philosophico-pedagogic system
for persuading non-Christians. Having finished his ars major
and summary, he invited the Mohammedan doctors and
teachers of the Koran at Tunis to a disputation and over-
whelmed them with both his logic and his fervor. Anselm
wrote an interesting dialogue between a Jew and a Christian ;
Aquinas prepared his summary against the Gentiles ; Erasmus
wrote his missionary treatise with wise counsels concerning
methods; Walaeus was the first, in 1 612, to establish in Leyden
a college for the training of missionaries, protesting that it
was not sufficient to prepare students for home parishes. The
early Protestants, and especially the Moravians, inspired by
their passionate leader Zinzendorf, were most effective in this
work before the dawn of modern missions. From Lully down
Mohammedans have been the hardest to convert. Heresy and
apostasy from koranolatry is here treason, but Islam can not
be regarded as the mental and moral cul-de-sac; it is often
thought to be, for there is progress in it or beyond it.

The Catholic Church was stimulated by the Protestant
movement to renewed activity, and Xavier roused new zeal
and enthusiasm and sacrificed himself with passionate fervor
and love, but never mastered any of the Eastern languages
among which his chief work was done and was often without
an interpreter. Protestants have still much to learn from the
elaborate and well-developed methods of the Roman propa-
ganda founded in 1622, which sought to diffuse Catholicism
in all parts of the world and has from the first had the great
advantage of unity. Most Christian countries in Europe and
most large denominations in America have missions among
Gentile peoples, and the names of many pioneers in new lands
are now household words. In this country an Indian college
was early erected at Harvard, and provision was later made
at Dartmouth for the Christian nurture of the native races.
It is a pathetic fact that the first Bible printed in America,
in 1663, was Eliot's translation into the Natic, a dialect of
the Mohican — a tongue which became extinct by the death
of the last of the tribe, whose story Cooper has told in his

73° THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

famous novel, and which probably no man now living can
read.

Droysen declares that the highest achievement which antiquity in
its own strength has been able to attain is the fall of heathenism.
Even when infidels were closing in upon Christendom in the days
of Charles Martel, monks were leavening, if not their Saracen ene-
mies on the south, nevertheless the wild northern tribes. When
Clovis and Valdemir were converted, " Russian peasants were driven
into the Dnieper by Cossack whips and baptized by force." When
the revival of classical learning brought the Church into closer contact
with the original Scriptures, it also gave it a taste for acquiring
Oriental languages and understanding the spirit of other races. Mis-
sion work has, of course, been closely connected with politics, trades,
and explorations in ways that have, despite some great exceptions,
made each on the whole helpful to the other. Now missionary ideals
are cosmic, and include all mankind. Steam and electricity have
made the world one, and the ideal is to interlace all lands into a
divine confederacy.^

The study of missions has almost attained the rank of a theological
discipline. The vast literature, with lectureships and chairs and its
study in colleges, seems developing a type of manhood that is admira-
ble for its heroism, zeal, and fervor. The grand summary, according
to a recent authority,^ shows that there are now 558 missionary so-
cieties in the world with an income of $19,500,000; 6,027 ordained
missionaries, and, including women, physicians, and laymen, a total
of 18,164; 78,350 native helpers; with a total number of communi-
cant and non-communicant native Christians of all ages of 4,514,592.
Mission work includes 94 universities and colleges, with 35,537 pupils;
375 theological and training schools, with 11,965 pupils; 879 boarding
and high schools and seminaries, with 85,091 pupils; 18,742 elementary
or village day schools, with 904,442 pupils. The Bible has been trans-
lated, in whole or in part, into 516 languages, and the entire Bible
into 99 languages. Mission publishing houses issue an annual total
of 381,000,000 papers, and 10,800,000 copies of various tracts and
publications of all kinds. The total number of missionary magazines
and papers is 397, with a circulation of 250,000. There are now 379
hospitals and 783 dispensaries, treating a total of 2,347,780 patients.

* For ampler statement of this and the next few paragraphs, see Modern
Missions in the East : Their Methods, Successes, and Limitations, by E. A. Law-
rence, D.D. New York, 1895. This ardent and able writer resigned a pastorate,
and at his own expense and independently of any organization, spent two years in
actively studying this subject in all Oriental lands, coming home to devote himself
with new insight and ardor to the work of city missions and poor relief at home,
only to die in 1893.

* Centennial Survey of Foreign Missions, by James S. Dennis, D. D. New
York, 1902. See also his Christian Missions and Social Progress, 2 vols., New
York, 1897.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 73 *

There are 247 orphanages, fotindUng asylums, and homes for infants
in missionary lands, with 16,916 inmates; 100 hospitals and asylums
for lepers and homes for their untainted children ; 30 schools for
blind and deaf-mutes; 156 opium refuges, homes for widows, converts,
insane asylums, and institutions for rescue work; and 118 miscella-
neous guilds and societies. There are between 30 and 40 missionary
ships and steamers; about 100 training institutions in Christian lands,
not including theological schools and seminaries. There are now
51 American missionary organizations — 14 in Germany, 14 in Hol-
land, 2 or 3 each in France, Denmark, Norway and Sweden, besides
many isolated missions, with over 600,000 native communicants, in
non-Christian lands. Five hundred million, or about one-third of the
human race, are at least nominally Christian. Among these are the
Scandinavians and English, who have multiplied fivefold in the cen-
tury; the Russians, who have grown threefold; the Germans, two
and one-half. The wealth of Christian races has fully kept pace with
their numerical growth. Christians have about doubled within the
past century, and these are the colonizing, spreading races, so that
the future is in the hands of Christian peoples.^

J. S. Dennis (in his Centennial Survey of Foreign Missions, New
York, 1902) compiles the following table for the United States:

Name.

Income.

Date of first
organization.

Number of
societies.

1. Denominational :

Baptist:

Union

Conference

Other societies (7)

Brethren

Christian

Church of God

Church of the Disciples

Church of the New Jerusalem

Congregational

Episcopal

Evangelical

Friends

German Evangelical

Lutheran

Methodist (14)

Moravian

Presbyterian

Reformed

Seventh-Day Adventist (i). . . .

Unitarian

Universalist

Total (93)

2. Interdenominational (11) . , , . . ,

3. Miscellaneous and special (23). .

ji,259,504

44,965

248,559

95,744

17,822

1,000

254.070

5,708

999,202

932,637

215,828

41,498

33,906

227,500

2,213,626

12,251

1,731,495

245,000

37,681

78,962

62,439

18,761,397

1,062,582

483,702

1814
1833

1853
1886
1890
1875

1810

1835
1876

1873
1867
1841
1819

1787
1836
1832
1887
1825
1890

1816
1863

5
3
9
4
I
I
2
I
4
5
4
I
I
13
15
I

17
4
2

I

3

97
13
28

1 See Short History of Christian of Missions, by George Smith, Edinburgh.

732

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

ENGLAND.

Income.

Date of first
organization .

Number of
societies.

1. Denominational :

Baptist

Church of England

Congregational .

Methodist

Moravian

Presbyterian

Unitarian

Total

2. Interdenominational (34)

3. Miscellaneous and special (48)

1493,720

4.404,735

131.485

1,093,645

102,940

156,910

24,295

^6,407,730
3,407,690
1,957,700

1792
1649
1836
1813
1 741

1847
1825

1795
1733

5

37
3
8
2

3
I

59
37

53

From the map of distribution of mission societies, according to
fields, we find that India leads, with 114 societies; Africa has 104;
China, yy; Central and South America, 39; West Indies, 33; Malay-
sia, 24; Turkey and Australasia, 18 each; Mexico and Syria, 14 each;
Oceanica and Ceylon, 11 each; Burma and Canada, 9 each; Mada-
gascar, 7; and Persia, 4. Territorially, the portions of the habitable
globe totally unreached are Tibet, Afghanistan, portions of Central
Africa and Central South America, and many Pacific islands. If we
consider population instead of territory, we find there are very many
unoccupied sections in all the denser lands.

The Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions was
planned in 1886, but organized in 1888 at Mount Hermon. It aims:
(i) To awaken among all students of the United States and Canada
interest in foreign missions; (2) to enroll enough to meet demands;
(3) to help those intending to go to foreign fields to prepare for their
life work, and secure their aid in awakening interest in the home
churches; (4) to arouse a sense of responsibility in ministers and lay
workers at home. It has done valuable service in promoting a sys-
tematic study of missions among students. A special secretary. Rev.
H. P. Beach, now supervises 309 classes, with an average attendance
of 4,212, for whom text-books have been prepared and libraries
begun in many colleges. A kindred British movement has been be-
gun, and others have followed in the chief countries of Europe. The
World's Student Christian Federation was formed in Sweden in 1895,
and federates all national evangelical student movements. It aims
to unite students, collect data of all kinds, and to deepen interest.

Concerning the attitude of missionaries toward ethnic religions,
the sanest and most advanced statement I can find is that of Dr.
J. L. Barton, secretary of the American Board, who believes that
every missionary is " eager to find and emphasize the excellences
that he found in the religions of the people to whom he was sent."
Many, he declares, search the sacred writings of the races with whom

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 733

they labor, to prove to them that they are not Hving up to the best
they have, sometimes taking texts and teaching the heart of the pagan
audiences by showing to them their own unworthiness as measured
by their own standard. But he goes on to say that they do, and
should hasten to add that Christianity is better. There is, however,
abundant reason to fear that this spirit of sympathetic appreciation
is still too rare. But yet rarer is the reserve that withholds the higher
truth until sufficient preparation has been made for its reception in
the native soil.

Hopkins ^ says the missionaries " presented Christianity as a se-
vere legal Jewish religion." " In their rigorous Sabbatarian view of
the Lord's Day, in their desire to enforce a Maine liquor law, and in
some other matters, they have attempted to infringe upon the natural
rights of men and have reproduced in native eyes the detested taboo
system, the nightmare from which the nation escaped in 1820. They
have been wrong in their hothouse plan of forcing Christianity upon
an unprepared people; endeavoring to make them run before they
could walk or even stand alone; pouring water out of buckets on
small-mouthed vials, and by using the methods of secular punishments
and espionage, converting the nation into hypocrites instead of Chris-
tians." The legislation they have used has been repressive ; they long
set their face against the teaching of the English language, and in
many cases, although with striking exceptions, their missionaries had
personal disqualifications. They have been mostly Puritan Yankees,
and their churches are plain naked buildings, the congregation sit-
ting through the whole service, taking no part in prayer or hymn.
The Catholic Church, which came in later, enlisted very many of
the native faculties which Protestantism did not touch. The former
encourages the natives to come in whatever dress they have; urges
all to kneel, stand, read; and has sent a class of missionaries of
whom all speak with respect. Protestant missionaries taught fiercely
and insisted on a severe blue law code of morals, which the native
temperament did not resist but evaded, and which has neither devel-
oped the crude but strong ideas of right and wrong and other native
virtues and industries in the men, nor maintained fecundity in the
women. Men must learn to listen to conscience and treat the disease
and not its symptoms. They must teach life and not the subtleties
of theology; convert individuals and not masses; and not be too
impatient of showing rapid and immediate results.

Lieut.-Colonel Maekler-Ferryman gives a sickening account of
the long competition of Protestant, Catholic, and Mohammedan mis-
sionaries to win the court of the Uganda chiefs, Mutesa and his suc-
cessor Mwanga. In 1876 Stanley had suggested this as a great mis-
sion-field, and Mackay's work here is well known. Like the Japanese,
they desired to renounce their old beliefs and to select a religion that

^Hawaii: Its Past, Present, and Future, by Manley Hopkins. New York,
1869.

734 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

would suit them best. Had the two sections of the Christian world
not quarreled one of the most marvelous conversions of an entire
population the world ever saw would have occurred here. The Cath-
olic and Protestant faction warred on each other, and many were
slaughtered, till the latter prince denounced all alien faiths and threat-
ened both Mohammedan and Christian with extermination. In 1889
the Arabs were masters. Later the king became a Catholic and
sought to divide the land and offices between the three religions.
Then a plot was laid to exterminate the Protestants. At last, in 1900,
Lugard, a Protestant, backed by the British arms and a Christian
company, pacified the factions. With the triumph of English influ-
ence, the Protestant missionaries made very rapid progress. In 1902
there were two hundred churches, with congregations estimated at
20,000, and 2,408 native teachers. Catholic missions have also pros-
pered. Now the country is Christian, although, but for the tact of a
Lugard, " in all probability the Christians in Uganda would have
exterminated themselves." The writer asks in conclusion, " Is it the
role of the teacher of religion to prepare the way for annexation
following after bloodshed ? Why should not missionaries restrict their
work in Africa to the enormous tracts of pagan countries that have
been brought under the direct jurisdiction of the several European
powers instead of endeavoring to rush ahead in search of fresh
ground? Yet Great Britain has hitherto considered it her duty to
get missionaries out of difficulties, and will doubtless continue to
consider it her duty to do so. For that reason missionaries should
be chary of involving their country." ^

If there is ever a science of missions, it must be based on
the same kind of study but yet more detailed and psychologic,
as that of which the work of Lawrence is such a stimulating
and suggestive beginning. Mission work must not be all proc-
lamation, but must carry on the work to results and have
the ideal of independence. It must teach men to count three
before talking to them of the trinity; it must grapple with
the Chinese language, " which has four thousand words for
vices and passions and none for spiritual graces " ; the gospel
must first be presented to the understanding because that is
the only way to the heart; it must be disinterested, and not
always study what we get for what we give; it must not be
sustained because it creates a native demand for foreign goods
sometimes computed as averaging so much a year for each
missionary. There should be for each candidate for the field,
first a physical examination and certificate of health as for an

* Christianity in Uganda. Jour, of the African .Soc. , April, 1903.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 735

arctic expedition ; robust common sense ; a good deal of
power in learning foreign and uncouth languages to the point
of mastery; an enthusiasm that often greatly quickens talent,
and a far greater degree of freedom in the field for all such
men than they now enjoy. Special seminaries for missionary
instruction are needed as well as far more trained university
men; careful and sympathetic study of comparative religions
and the philosophy and, perhaps still more, the psychology of
belief; and as much medical and handicraft knowledge as
possible, so that missionary work be given greater breadth,
complexity, closer relation with home and personal life.

Every novice ought to have a manual of condensed mis-
sionary experiences as his vade mecum. No history of mis-
sions gives this, but most are taken up with statistics of the
number of converts and sentimental panegyrics of the saving
power of the gospel. The whole burden of heathendom should
press upon the newcomer in a strange land, so that friends
seem far. He should serve a prolonged apprenticeship under
experienced masters, who should at least prevent him from
learning three hundred Chinese characters upside down, as did
one. During the probationary period the language must be
well learned, so that natives may not pray, as one did, for
mercy upon their linguistic blunders. Soul and body must
be laboriously acclimated. The educational work should
generally be increased relatively to evangelization as a dis-
cipline for the missionaries alone ; were there no results, these
stations would be worth while.

The proper attitude toward heathen customs and religions is one
of the gravest questions, and the heart of the educator sinks to see
how small consideration these seem entitled to receive even at the
hands of the most liberal and enlightened writers. A few recommend
the reading of a very limited number of the standard Indian and even
Chinese works, but for most the conception of a rushing and ag-
gressive emotional campaign is thought better. Dr. J. Thomson ^
says : " In west South Africa the missionaries pursue with astonish-
ing blunders the most impracticable and visionary methods and ex-
pect a Pentecostal awakening from the inherent virtue of the great
truths they preach instead of preaching what can be comprehended."
In general, this criticism might be passed upon the missions in all

ijour. Anthrop. Inst., 1886.

73^ THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

lands. Many conceive it their first duty to upset native faith. " What
is your attitude," I asked of a missionary returned from twenty-five
years in China, " toward native Confucianism and Buddhism?" " Our
first duty," he replied, " is to exterminate them root and branch,
make a tabida rasa, because only then can we begin to lay the true
foundations." This is psycho-pedagogic barbarism and brutality. Only
the most ignorant and bigoted do not now recognize the sympathy
of religions or realize that there are many psychic and ethical roots,
trunks, and even branches that should be preserved and grafted on to.
To upset any religion is not only psychological wastefulness, but
generally involves the gravest moral dangers. The whole soul of
the religious propagandist must first of all be thoroughly vernacular-
ized, although without loss to the positive matter.

The variety of work in the mission field is amazing. Every prac-
tical and manual facility is helpful; preaching, organizing power,
tact, scholarship, knowledge of human nature, and all this differs
vastly according to the race and degree of civilization of the people.
Adaptiveness or the power to be all things to all men, love of rough-
ing it, the necessity of first civilizing and then Christianizing or basing
evangelism on the alphabet and education, is the pedagogic way, and
the reverse method has only a logical sanction. Disease and religious
thought are so closely combined in primitive minds that every mission-
ary should have a medical education, although he should not shrink
into a mere doctor. The apex of the entering wedge of the Catholic
mission by which it breaks its first way is its ritual, confession, and
catechism; the Protestant's is practical life and the need of a divine
suffering Saviour. Some missionaries have worked a lifetime and
won hardly a single real convert, but this is what gives inspiration
and encouragement. I have no disposition to either deify or abuse
missionaries, but am saddened that, although all reforms involving
practical applications of psychology are slow, the last few centuries
have seen so little advance in these respects. It is of the utmost con-
sequence that natives should not be denationalized or their usefulness
among their own people impaired; that none should be unfitted for
home life; that churches should become self-supporting as soon as
possible; and that it should be borne in mind with great races that
forests and not annual plants are being cultivated. Mission work is
far more comprehensive than home work.

Many have insisted on teaching the English language, but the
problem how far is a grave one; others have insisted on Hebrew or
the classical languages; some on teaching indigenous religious and
secular literature; some encourage the best students to finish their
training in America or Europe. Problems like these require the
largest, most statesmanly thought. Another class of questions is
what words shall be used for sin, heaven, soul, God, baptism, church,
and scores more; shall translations be literal, or free; what is the
relation between theology and the plain Bible without note or com-
ment— these are problems that require a rare combination of philolog-

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 737

ical knowledge and common sense. There certainly ought to be a
chair on missions in every important theological school in Christen-
dom. There should be a high-toned missionary journal far above the
cheap mixture of alleged facts and statistics with cheaper sentimental-
ity. There should be plenty of opportunity for studying comparative
religions and each of the great religions sympathetically. In the great
religious school centering in the library and collections of the Musee
Guimet in Paris, there are elaborate presentations of non-Christian re-
ligious ceremonials by native priests in costume, and students and
visitors try to feel the sentiments and think the thoughts of native
worshipers. This noble institution supplies in an ideal form one of
the ingredients of missionary, and even theological, education indi-
cated here. There should also be some historical and philosophical
teaching concerning pantheism, agnosticism, the various forms of
skepticism.

No race, says Emile Barbe,^ has manifested any such aversion to
what the Occident terms civilization as the Chinese, and yet centuries
ago Catholicism gained very many believers among them. Instead
of being a " negligible quantity," the Chinese, if Europeanized, would
create an economic and perhaps a culture crisis that would be beyond
all precedent. It is a calamity that in France colonial questions are
the exclusive appanage of politicians and dominated by parliamentary
combinations. Who knows but that, if progress be truly ethnographic,
the yellow race may not outstrip the white? W. F. Lord has lately
urged that our civilization must eventually be replaced by that of a
race less overrefined but more vigorous. It is certainly rash to say
that there is no salvation outside the white race. To reduce necessi-
ties is practically equivalent to the increase in the sources of their
supply, and certainly superiority of evolution is not measured by the
increase of wants and needs. The politics of the future must not aim
at suppressing Asiatic competition. It is idle to separate, by a Chinese
wall, this race from our own, for that would be not only to reestablish
the ancient class distinctions, but to make them more obnoxious on
the industrial as well as the social plane.

There is every indication that the mission problem has not been
solved in China, that land where " silks were worn while the Britons
still wore skins," and even that missionary ignorance and blunders
are largely responsible for present disturbances in that country.
Japan, which never permitted an invading army and was long under
the influence of China, is now psychologically the open door of en-
trance. China is not only the home of one of the largest races, but one
of the greatest colonizers, of whom General Grant said after his visit,
" that while progress in the Mississippi Valley might be that of an ava-
lanche, in the valley of the Yang-tse it could only be that of the gla-
cier " ; and Napoleon declared that when China moved, it would change

^ Le Lutte ethnographique et economique des Blancs et des Jaunes. Revue
Scientifique, vol. lii, 1893, p. 513.
86

1'i'^ THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

the face of the world. A prominent CaHfornian lately said that " we
must drive them out or they will drive us out, for they have all of our
virtues and none of our vices." In all psychic respects they are our
antipodes ; their speech, religion, temper, and customs are still essen-
tially unknown. Their self-righteousness destroys the sense of sin
and quenches all such religious longings as characterize India. Their
patriotism and conservatism make them hate innovations as insulting,
treasonable, impious, and dangerous.

Henry Norman^ says that the missionaries insist that foreign in-
fluence, especially of a moral kind, has declined to nothing in China ;
that heathenism and immorality are both increasing; that China is
learning evil far faster than good; and that the country never can
be Christianized. He asserts a growing epidemic of ill-will of this
fourth of the world toward the rest of it. " Foreign missionary effort
in China has been productive of far more harm than good. Instead
of serving as a link between Chinese and foreigners, the mission-
aries have formed a growing obstacle." The results of missionary
enterprise are summed up as having produced " for the Chinese Gov-
ernment perpetual foreign coercion; for the Chinese nation, an in-
cessant ferment of angry passions and a continuous education in
ferocity against Christianity; for the foreign missionaries, pillage
and massacre at intervals, followed by pecuniary indemnification —
an indefinite struggle with the hatred of a whole nation, compensated
by a certain number of genuine converts to their faith." " The
Roman Catholic missionary goes to China once for all; he adopts
native dress, lives on native food, inhabits a native house, supports
himself upon the most meager allowance from home, and is an ex-
ample of the characteristics which are as essential to the Eastern
idea of priesthood as to the Western — poverty, chastity, and obedi-
ence. . . . He meets native superstitions half-way by amalgamating
the worship of ancestors, which is a vital part of every Chinaman's
belief, to the worship of the saints; and by teaching his native con-
verts a prayer for the Emperor of China, which concludes with the
petition ' that he may be preserved to a happy old age, and the pros-
perity of his empire prolonged to the end, that they may later enjoy
with him the eternal peace.' " Norman, an ardent member of the Eng-
lish Church and predisposed against everything Catholic, conceived
great and growing respect for the missionaries of the Roman Church,
and less for the Protestant missionary. He found him too fond of
comfort, enjoying not only wife and children, but servants, foreign
food, with a stipend that often increased with every addition to his
family, jealous of Protestant rivals, etc. Protestantism has made the
great mistake of distributing the whole Bible in Chinese, as much
of it is held up to public ridicule. In Shanghai there were seven
missions, representing seven denominations ; seven Sunday sermons,
seven daily prayer-meetings, seven sets of schools, seven sets of

^The Peoples and Politics of the Far East. New York, 1895.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 739

buildings, seven sets of expenses, seven hymn-books, and four or five
different versions of the Bible. " The Chinese themselves bracket
missionaries and opium together as the tv^^in curses of the country."
While there have been a few Protestant missionaries of high charac-
ter and scholarship, many are " ignorant declaimers in bad Chinese,"
and few have attained the sinological scholarship which is the only
open door of success in this country. While some of the converts
are genuine and sincere, others adopt Christianity as a profession
which brings them new activities and revenue, and still others only
lose native virtues to acquire foreign vices in their place.

Among the most remarkable travels of modern times are those
of Mrs. J. F. Bishop.^ This lady organized an expedition of her
own and penetrated many hundred miles, where no European has
ever traveled, into the heart of China. Most of her trip was by boat,
but much by sedan chair. She assumed the Chinese costume, and
prints one hundred and sixty new photographs taken by herself. The
hardships she endured were almost unprecedented. Everywhere she
encountered bitter prejudice against foreigners, which often broke out
into insults and sometimes into attacks, one or two of which almost
cost her her life. Her volumes are extremely objective and are en-
tirely devoted to her own observations, although she is very familiar
with Hterature upon China. Perhaps the work will be most of all vaki-
able to those interested in business and traffic, although the anthropol-
ogist will be a close second. Her descriptions of foods, costumes,
occupations, and mode of life, the shrines, curious buildings, the modes
of navigation and bargaining, the crops, etc., leave little to be de-
sired.

She holds that the Roman Catholic missionaries, although handi-
capped by the exorbitant indemnity for the damages of Sze Chuan in
1895, the claim of the hierarchy to be placed on a level with the
mandarins in dignity and reverence, the non-admission of heathen to
their church services, and the last rites of the Church, and, like the Prot-
estant missionaries, growing unpopular, are nevertheless more appre-
ciated for their celibacy, poverty, and asceticism than the Protestants,
and declares that every religious teacher save one, who has made his
mark in the East, has been an ascetic, because the Orientals always
begin to seek righteousness by self-mortification. Lonely men who
have left all home ties and devoted themselves for life to the people
among whom they live and expect to die are contrasted favorably by
the Chinese with most Protestant ministers, who live in comfort in
what to them seems luxury in treaty ports with their families,
going home every five or seven years, and who always intend to pass
their old age and to die at their old homes.^

There are 2,488 Protestant workers, including wives, and 80,632

•The Yang-ze Valley and Beyond. 2 vols., New York, igoo.
2 Vol. i, p. 152 ^^ seq.

740 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

native communicants, but Christianity is generally felt to be a de-
structive and socially disintegrating power. Since the v^^ar with
Japan, however, interest in the " Jesus religion " has increased, and
there are very many inquirers. The missionary's knowledge of the
Chinese language is generally very imperfect, but the methods of all
the denominations are so similar that the Chinese see little distinction.
Their lives are true, patient, and devoted, and are more eloquent than
their tongues. The fame of their pay from home without trouble or
diminution is admired. Baptism is generally regarded as a complete
confession of faith and a break with heathenism. There are many
annual relapses, and those who are employed by the missionaries as
servants, gate-keepers, etc., are least likely to do so. The native
Christian Chinese are more capable of self-help, but it is these who
must Christianize China. The obstacles are the natural vanity and
contempt of everything foreign as barbarian, the immense influence
of Confucius, the difficulty of the alphabet, and the absence as yet of
a vocabulary that shall express Christian ideas and not be offensive,
universal education in indigenous directions, and the universal an-
cestor worship. From a period of suspicion, eight years of African
travel have caused Mrs. Bishop to believe in the general efficacy of
missions. She was influenced, however, more by the great need and
the hopelessness of native systems than by the good missionaries have
done, and is convinced that there is no resurrection or power in the
natives' faiths, which, noble as they were at the start, have decayed
past all hope. In a few esoteric systems there are seekers for better
things, those who abstain from current evils and exhort chastity,
good works, the conservation of the mental energies by rest and re-
flection. The progress heretofore made is almost entirely among the
lower classes, and the literati who are the leaders in China, where
reverence for letters is phenomenal, have not been reached. The many
missionaries always incapacitated or home on a furlough, or the
considerable proportion of the total number who must spend a few
years in learning the language, cripple the work. Almost none are
able to converse with the learned men upon their own level, but many
are content with a limited command of the colloquial speech of the
coolies. The Chinese language ought to be begun at home under
competent native teachers, whether one is going to China to trade
or to preach. Any unmarried woman who does not live under her
father's roof is exposed not only to suspicion, but to assault upon the
street. A uniform, at least for woman missionaries, is recommended
that should indicate the class to which she belongs. In no country
do violations of etiquette lead so often to dangerous outbreaks as
here. One of the most popular dramas at Shanghai a few years ago
was a missionary preaching to natives and making all kinds of jeered
and satirized blunders. There are no halls, traditions, or opportuni-
ties for preaching, but work must be personal and must adopt Chinese
methods, conserve carefully every custom not contrary to its spirit,
ally itself to everything not evil in Chinese life, and uphold Chinese

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 74 1

nationality, nor seek to perpetuate the differences between Western
churches.^

The contrast between China and India is also extreme. The
latter is the most heterogeneous of all lands with race strata super-

1 An interesting little book, purporting to be written by a Chinaman, has at«
tracted much attention.* He says his countrymen profoundly mistrust and dislike
our Western civilization. Their institutions have given a stability unknown in
Europe, and whether our religion is better or not, it has less influence on our soci-
ety. There, moral relations come first, and here, economic interest rules and
morality is grafted on. No Westerner is content or has leisure, and these traits
to a Chinaman are a mark of barbarism. Much as our sciences and arts are supe-
rior, they would not compensate China for the loss in imitating our institutions.
In China, a man begins and ends life a member of his family group, which has its
common property, altar, and tribunal for settling disputes. Progress would be
bought too dearly if it left no leisure from the work of acquisition of the means of
living for life itself. They never sought intercourse with the West either to pros-
elyte or to trade. They produce what they consume and consume what they pro-
duce, and are stable because economically independent. We believe not only that
our religion is the only true one, but would impose it on others. To open a new
market is the only essential motive of the West in its dealings with China. England
is still blinded by the wealth it has derived from India. But China is homogeneous,
and India is not. Our legislature is chiefly an effort to regulate the disorder of
our economic system. "Your poor, drunk, incompetent, sick and aged ride you
like a nightmare. You have dissolved all human and personal ties and try to
replace them by the impersonal activity of the state. The salient characteristic of
your civilization is its irresponsibility. You are liberated from your own control
and are caught in your own levers and cogs. In every department you substitute
for the individual the company, and for the workman the tool. The competition
for market promises to be a more fruitful cause of war than was ever in the past
the ambition of princes or the intrigue of priests. The peoples of Europe fling
themselves like hungry beasts of prey on every yet unexploited quarter of the
globe, and when nothing is left to divide they will fall upon one another. Their
armaments have brought them within sight of a general war of extermination."
In China, thousands of communities live without any law save that of custom and
propriety. The first question considered when change is proposed is its effects on
morality. In England, all that is not urban is parasitic or else moribund. We
are divorced from nature, but unreclaimed by art ; instructed, but not educated ;
assimilative, but incapable of thought. Trained in the traits of a religion not really
believed. Western morals are as conventional as creeds. There is everywhere means
and nowhere ends. In a riot China sent not policemen but a delegate to learn the
rioters' point of view. They were found right and the required guarantees were
given. The Chinese are trained to perceive the finest relations of life, to enjoy
nature and work. This can not be given, but it can easily be taken away.

In China government is almost dispensed with, and if it ceased to exist the life
of the people would go on, and many would hardly miss it. It can impose nothing

' Letters from John Chinaman. London, 1902, p. 63.

742 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

posed and erupting, where ethnology has many analogies with geol-
ogy. Caste makes life of naturally repellent social units dominant
with one great idea, stamps everything with irrevocable heavenly
sanction, and has elaborated tribes, clans, septs, castes, subcastes,
outcastes, religious orders, devotional brotherhoods, occupations with
no end of ceremonial rules and prescriptions, tabooing many common
acts of life, making it necessary for a Western schoolmaster to throw

on the people against their will and customs. The law obeyed is that of the sub-
jects' own nature. Education fits to govern but it often disqualifies to carry elec-
tions. Religion should be the soul of the state, its body. There are everywhere
superstitions and beliefs in rites, but these are extraneous to true religion. Con-
fucius discouraged occupation with the supernatural. All live eternally, so ances-
tor worship is a symbol of an immense social idea of humanity, past, present, and
future, like Comte's grand etre. Humanity mediates between heaven and earth.
Brotherhood and the dignity of labor are its corner-stones. The Western idea of
life makes it an episode whose centre is elsewhere. In the ferment of early Chris-
tian centuries the ideal was worsted. The West separates religion and State and
abandons society to economy and politics. Those who take Christianity seriously
are driven to revolution. Jesus was inexperienced, untraveled, young, unlearned ;
and yet his noble ideal was more inspiring than any other, but he was unfit to guide
a commonwealth. So in the West temporal and spiritual powers are arrayed against
each other. Jesus condemned violence and would turn the other cheek, but we
hold force essential to preserve society. Confucianism has made the nation one,
has taught horror of violence and made right so well supported that it has no need
to appeal to might, and by honoring father and mother the days of the race have
been long. Now, " In the name of Christ you have sounded the call to arms, in
the name of Confucius we respond." The Chinese think the Westerners little
better than pirates. The opium the West introduced is a curse to the land. When
smuggling was evaded the stock was destroyed, and as a result of the opium war
thus caused, Hongkong was taken.

Suppose China had permanently occupied Liverpool, Bristol, and Plymouth,
had placed there thousands of men independent of English laws, driven out our
vessels, admitted whisky duty free, placed agents at all points to counteract the
teachings of our Church and undermine our society ; in such conditions it would
not be surprising if the Chinese legation in London were surrounded by a howling
mob. Let Jesus himself judge between us. Religion is used in the West as a
weapon of war. The cross is the pioneer of the sword. The proudest nation in
the world has been humiliated. Its people have been treated not as Western
nations would treat each other, but like barbarians. Has there ever been a greater
breach of international comity ? With the spectacle of a Christian Kaiser sending
his troops on an errand of revenge, and conjuring them, in the name of him who
bade us turn the other cheek, not merely to attack and kill, but to kill without
quarter, how idle to claim that the Western religion in its essence is higher than
Eastern ! It is not Christian.

On this see the i6 Reports, ending September 30, 1903, of the Society for the
Diffusion of Christian and General Knowledge among the Chinese. Also J. I.
Ball, Things Chinese, 1893; Harlez, Anthropologic Chinoise, 1896; Lemire, Les
Moeurs du Indo-Chinoise, 1902.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 743

sods at the low-caste boys in his room lest those of high caste should
deem him contaminated by touch. The Brahmans can only walk
abroad at midday, when their reduced shadows can not be defiled,
but in the morning and evening, when they lengthen, they must hide
themselves with their shadows to more isolated retreats. Everything
here is tangled, disordered, incongruous, with a din of discordant
rites, with a mob of gods, " who abhor a fly's death and those who
still delight in human sacrifice"; where religions are jumbled to-
gether, history is disfigured with wild mythology, poetry treated as
literal prose and plain fact, and science mystified, most of it permeated
by later Mohammedan rule, but now under the sway of a few Eng-
lishmen who are hated but revered for the seeming quality of justice,
and whose psychic conquest is represented by the prohibition of
burning widows, killing daughters, or burying lepers alive. Here,
as in the later Roman period, many faiths have taught toleration and
even hunger for novelties in religion, where each has somewhere dug
a well and made an oasis. India is not only as heterogeneous as
China is homogeneous, but it is mainly composed of villages and rural
people, while China is essentially municipal. Several millions of the
brightest minds of India are already infected with Occidental science,
culture, and civilization. Moreover, they are of our own Aryan blood.
Oldfield, who went to India full of mission faith and zeal, saw the
other side, and pronounces mission work in India a real failure, yet
holds that if Jesus and Paul appeared there they would find a waiting
world and would win over the heart and mind of the whole race.
The missionary assumes that his type of Christianity is the only true
religion and that all other modes of seeking God are heathen idolatry.
He knows far less of the Shastras and the Vedas than the Hindus
do of the Bible. The latter read the reports of the missioners and
consider them dishonest in claiming to have accomplished too much
and painting native life in too dark colors. Their course is compared
with that of a Hindu missionary who should begin his work in Eng-
land by gloating over the faults of Moses or Abraham, ridiculing the
miracles of Jonah, and finding lewdness in the doctrine of the Im-
maculate Conception. They kill animals and eat flesh. Some suc-
ceed among outcasts while nearly all fail with the higher and edu-
cated classes. The saintly lives and ascetic practise of the early
Christian fathers would win their way, for they would appear to
represent a higher and not a lower religion. As Jesus praised the
beautiful teeth of the carcass of a dead dog, so we must begin by
learning the good in other faiths. Our pagan ancestors were won
by having their heathen practises sanctified and not ridiculed. Of
their own teachers they expect a life of devotion to spiritual study,
to fathom divine mysteries, but a group of natives won a wager from
Oldfield by finding the Christian missionary at a club in flannels with
a tennis racket. Paul would not eat flesh or drink wine if it made
his brother to offend, but missionaries do not bathe or re-dress before
eating, and associate largely with their own countrymen. Early

744 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Christendom won its way by martyrdom and pure and simple lives/
Agnosticism was overcome because most of what was best in it was
assimilated. Religious propaganda must find in contemporary life
elements that can be employed as media for expressing its inner self.
" Born of the spirit," says Harnack/ " the Church learned to conse-
crate the earthly " and mold the environment. Indeed, of old it went
so far in this work as to incorporate as essential what was only the
product of accommodation. By this course, as always, the Church
at first gained, but later had to pay the penalty. Again, in a yet
larger sense, our age is cosmopolitan, and we have to know the early
Christianity for a new lesson of variety of appeal and the power to
select the many and varied coefficients from a very complex environ-
ment. Otherwise Christianity can never become a universal religion.
At the same time everything must be simplified, for the history of
religion shows that its really vital core is narrow. Thus only uni-
versalism that finds nothing entirely alien to it can be also intensive
and its subsequent systematization abiding. Is it possible that all the
lessons of anthropology count for nothing here? Have there been no
improvements in methods since John Williams, Judson, Carey, and
Moffat, or are they still ideals? Has not the work of Neesima in
Japan and Crowthers in Africa taught us the immense advantage of
natives trained in Europe in reaching their fellow countrymen ?

Mission work should be regarded as a part of pedagogy
and be included in the work of this department in every uni-
versity and college just as the psychology of lower races
should be included in every course in psychogenesis. The
human soul is indefinitely vaster and more complex than it
ever entered into the heart of any psychologist to conceive it.
The germs of every faith are in every soul to a degree un-
known in religious Philistia or philosophic Bohemia. Lives
of missionaries have for me always had a peculiar charm. It
would be easy to collect appalling and disastrous blunders of
those who have as it were gone to Mohammedanism with a
gospel bound in pigskin, to Buddhism with one bound in calf-
skin, who have offended every prejudice and admitted no
explanation but the worst. To one, India is a wounded cobra
that would strike back, a perfect type of the old serpent with
the sting of sin. Another sees nothing but " pure abomination
worship " in Mohammedanism. Another finds " only folly,

* The Failure of Christian Missions in India. Hibbert Journal, April, 1903.

* vSee Harnack's Die Mission u. Ausbreitung des Christentum in den ersten drei
Jahrhunderten. Berlin, 1902.

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 745

blindness, and superstition " in Burma, and one tells us that
among the followers of Confucius " every vice is tolerated if
not sanctioned." Brahmanism is " a tangle of absurd and
meaningless mythologies." It is grueling to feel the havoc
such stodgy religious buccaneers must have wrought on the
souls of those they so desired to save. But work like that
of A. Mackay in Uganda, of G. L. Mackay in Formosa, J. E.
Paton in the New Hebrides, and a score more of the best
modern heroes of the mission field, and all the new awaken-
ing, marks the present as a time of epoch-making progress.
But far better things yet must impend.

As with the other topics of this chapter, space has for-
bidden here more than to take a very hasty and utterly in-
adequate glance at a vast field full of complex and now very
rapidly growing interests. It suffices, however, for my
present purpose simply and in fine to urge that the psychology
of religious growth is now teaching us the desirability of
laying long and chief, though not exclusive, stress upon the
Old Testament in dealing with pre-adolescent children, and
reserving the most intensive teaching of the New Testament
for the teens. Savages are children and youth, and the races
that live under the influence of the higher non-Christian
ethnic faiths also especially need to be kept in the pupillary'
state toward their own faith long enough to make it a kind
of Old Testament propaedeutic to the New. For a long
period in the Christian Church the Old Testament was com-
paratively neglected, but is now coming to abundant honor,
both among scholars and as subject-matter of religious teach-
ing. We realize anew how every intelligent conception of
Christianity rests upon it, and how the wondrous pedagogic
genius of Jesus used it as a basis for his sublime evangel of
love to God and man. His standpoint may be indefinitely de-
veloped along the lines of impulsion he gave, but we can not
conceive how it can ever be transcended, because it rests on
the strongest and most essential elements of the human soul.
In making the Hebrew rites and writings the propaedeutic
to his new religion, he should be regarded not only as the
founder of a new faith but as having given the world an
object-lesson of how to relate the gospel to other indigenous
faiths. If Christianity is ultimate and is fit to be a universal
religion, it must be shown to be related to Buddhism, Brah-

746 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

manism, Confucianism, and other and perhaps all indigenous
religions somewhat as it is to Judaism. It must be shown to
be prefigured, anticipated in each, and each must be shown
to be fulfilled in it in analogous ways. Those who proclaim
it must be as sympathetic and as instructed in the letter and
spirit of the native faith as Jesus was in that of Hebraism,
and have served an apprenticeship like his to it. This postu-
lates a long and hard work yet to be done. There will be
many new emphases and exegeses. Much that we have tried
to destroy will have to be fulfilled, and our own religion
will be inconceivably enlarged and glorified by new insights
and reveal new power. We shall exalt Mohammed, Kung-tsi,
Buddha, and scores of great ancient seekers after God in
many lands, ways, tongues, and centuries, as antetypes, law-
givers, prophets, or forerunners of Jesus, who will be all the
more exalted because all ethnic lines and not one alone will
converge in him. Sympathy with the good, and not criticism
of the bad, should be as much the rule as in both the new and
old studies of the Jewish Scripture. Perhaps canonical will
have to be distinguished from low level production now
revered as the Jews set apart Talmudic and Massoretic texts
from the Pentateuch, Psalms, and Prophets, or as early
Christians distinguished apocryphal literature from the sacred
books. Here is an opportunity to emulate the best that the
heroes of Christendom have accomplished from the times of
the fathers to our own, and more and better yet to vie with
the methods of Paul himself, who made Greek culture a pro-
paedeutic of the new faith somewhat as Jesus did that of the
Hebrews, only in less degree. His missionary triumphs
among the Gentiles were because he could reach the intelligent
classes and did not confine his activity to the ignorant, de-
graded, and outcast. Perhaps Jesus was wiser than his
mundane self-consciousness realized, and perhaps his light
shone forth far brighter than it would have done had the Jews
not rejected him and thus laid on him the necessity of unfold-
ing the latent potentiality of their faith into universality. But
if he had been born into any other of the great religions of
the world and been so treated, it is impossible to conceive that
he would not have made it blossom into the same gospel he
taught and have shown it, whatever it was, to be just as open
and natural a preparation for his teaching as he showed Juda-

ADOLESCENT RACES AND THEIR TREATMENT 747

ism to be. Some of them perhaps to his transcendent genius
would have revealed even more prelusions and have opened
up yet broader as they certainly could have done more popu-
lous highways of approach. (See Chapter XIV.)

Finally, not only has progress been most glacierly slow,
but it is not yet adequately defined. If too rapid, it is sure
to be bad for virtue, health, and the most valuable knowl-
edge. Reclus thinks civilization on the whole no whit in
advance of savagery, so much lower than it are slum denizens ;
and Ranke doubts all real progress in history, believing it to
involve extreme differentiation of classes which is itself mor-
bific. It is not pessimistic to realize that our civilization is
not only a doom and disease when forced precociously upon
lower races, but that it has created scores of diseases, made
cities biological furnaces where life is consumed, and in gen-
eral has a dark as well as a bright side. What if Pobye-
donostseff's impeachment of Western civilization has even a
grain of truth? What if civilization is at root morbific and
sure to end in reaction and decay, as a clever writer urges ? ^
There are those who hold that any type of civilization is only
a dim candle in one corner of the vast museum of " Man-soul,"
leaving most of it obscure and some of it pitchy dark. Per-
haps he has a mean idea of our race who does not believe in
the possibility of very different types of culture and civiliza-
tion than ours, but just as good; and may not he be the real
barbarian who deems his own age, race, or faith the best and
last, to which all must be brought, and insists, with a fanati-
cism worthy of the Mahdi, on holiness after our type, or else
death? Perhaps our very religion must be more or less re-
orientalized to fit the East. Does might so make right that the
worst in the victor is better than the best in the victim? Is
there anything whatever of great value in the world that has
not a deep and ancient ethnic root, and is not everything alien,
artificial, and is it not a better ideal to make a good red man,
negro, Lapp, or Kaf^r, than an indifferent European, and per-

^ Civilization : Its Cause and Cure. London, 1891. See, too. Prince Kropot-
kin, Mutual Aid. London, 1902, p. 346. Also Crozier, Civilization and Prog-
ress. London, 1894, p. 464. Perhaps no one has seen more clearly how child-
hood and youth both resemble and need more knowledge of primitive people or
made a more praiseworthy effort to meet the need than L. Frobenius in his Aus
den Flegeljahre der Menschheit. Hanover, 1901, p. 416, 400 cuts.

748 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

haps even a good heathen than a bad Christian ? Is there any
barbarism that equals that caused by premature and forced
civiHzation, or any fallacy greater than that those are not
cultured who can not do or do not know or revere what we
do? The uniformitarians not only have a very dull, monoto-
nous world, but their policy lacks prudence, and especially
forgets the law of future or projected efficiency on which Kidd
has just laid due stress. Galton, Grant Allen, and others urge
that the best primitive stirps be preserved as relays where, if
our culture becomes effete, it can recuperate its energies, if
need be, " by a new rape of the Sabines." Statistics show
that college men in our own communities do not even repro-
duce their own numbers, so antagonistic is over-individuation
to genesis.

Thus, before, back of and independent of all current ques-
tions, may we not urge that the time has now come for us to
consider occasionally problems of statesmanship and religion
and history from the broad standpoint of the education of
races with whom a thousand years are hardly as a day ? Our
democracy needs a type of historical study that glimpses
these larger questions, and, while hopeful, does not assume
that we are the beati possidentes, or our age the culminating
period of history, but rather that its brightest pages are yet to
be written because the best and greatest things have not hap-
pened yet. Nor does this necessarily imply that even our own
blood or our own institutions will dominate the far future. In
many lands the victims have been the real conquerors. In
later ages other stocks now obscure, and perhaps other tongues
now unstudied, will occupy the center of the historic stage,
appropriating the best we achieve, as we learn from Semites,
Greeks, and Romans. If this be true, every vigorous race,
however rude and undeveloped, is, like childhood, worthy of
the maximum of reverence and care and study, and may be-
come the chosen organ of a new dispensation of culture and
civilization. Some of them now obscure may be the heirs of
all we possess, and wield the ever-increasing resources of the
world for good or evil somewhat perhaps according as we now
influence their early plastic stages, for they are the world's
children and adolescents.

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

Abnormalities of growth, i, 126.
Aborigines vanishing, ii, 650.
Abstract words, need of, ii, 462.
Acceleration of growth, i, 16, 24, 42.
Accessory and fundamental move-
ments, i, 154.
Accuracy of movement, i, 144.
Acquired characters and adoles-
cence, i, 50.
Acromegalia, i, 81.
Activity of children, motor, i, 158.

of giants and monsters, i, 41.
Adolescence, acquired characters
and, i, 50.

biography and, i, 513.

coordination loosened at, i, 127
et seq.

exhaustion at, i, 276.

friendships of, i, 318.

idiocy at, i, 281.

in intellect, ii, 453.

literature and, i, 513.

nonsense in, i, 317.

time and space in, i, 154.

variations in, i, 46.
Adolescent insanity, i, 293.
Adolescents, psychic changes in, ii,

70-
savages as, ii, 649.

Africa, puberty rites in, ii, 245.

African, traits of, ii, 666.

Age and death-rate, i, 249, 251.

of fertility, i, 508.

liability to diseases of, i, 239.

lung growth and, i, 97.

of memory, ii, 492.

of menstruation, i, 474.

of pulse, frequency and, i, 91.

of reason, i, iii.

of responsibility, i, 396.

of sickness, i, 243 et seq.
Agoraphobia, ii, 216.
Agriculture, i, 172 et seq.
Albumen in urine, i, 115.
Alcoholism, i, 367.
Alternations of psychic states, ii, 75

et seq.
Altruism, ii, 81.
Amalgamation, ii, 721.

Ambidexterity, i, 125.

Amenorrhea, i, 496.

American aborigines, puberty with,

ii, 232.
Amphimixis, ii, 124.
Anagenic processes, i, 48.
Anger, i, 220 et seq., 354; ii, 367.
Animal noises, ii, 25.

psychology, ii, 52.
Animals and children, ii, 220.

and man, missing link between,

ii, 91-93-

masturbation in, i, 435.

menstruation in, i, 472.

migrations of, ii, 378.

noises of, ii, 25.

pubescent growth in, i, 18.
Anthropoid and human, ii, 91.
Anthropometry, ideal of gymnastics

and, i, 193.
Anxiety, a neurosis, i, 284-285.
Ape-like qualities, i, 57.
Ape traits in savages, i, 57.
Appetite, i, 252; ii, 10.
Aquatic organs in man, ii, 192.
Arbor Day, ii, 219.
Arboreal life, ii, 214.

life and the hand, i, 155.
Archeology of mind, ii, 61.
Archeopsychisms, ii, 65.
Arctic spring, i, 118.
Arms, growth of, i, 65.
Art study, i, 179 et seq., 186.
Arterial tension and tone, i, 94.
Arteries, growth of, i, 93.
Arts and crafts movement, i, 179.
Ascending races, ii, 720.
Associations devised by adults, ii,

417.
Astrology, pedagogic place of, ii,

165.
Astronomy, ii, 167.
Asymmetry in growth, ii, 88.
Asynchronism of growth, i, 55.
Athletic festivals in Greece, i, 203.
Athletics as a conversation topic,
i, 229.
dangers and defects of, i, 229.
records in, i, 198.

749

750

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Attention, ii, 66.

Autobiographies of boyhood, i, 533.
Autocentric to heterocentric, ii, 301.
Automatisms, causes and kinds of,

i, 159-
causes of, i, 163.

control and seralization of, i, 162.
danger of premature control of,

i, 162.
many desirable, i, 161.
motor, i, 158.
nature of, i, 160 et seq.
new theory of, i, 160.
Autumn growth in thickness, i, 21

et seq.
Axiagraph, i, 145.
Axial system, i, 58.

Back lift, i, 134.

Balance of functions, i, 126.

Bathing, i, 225.

Bathmism, ii, 90.

Beauty, type of, i, 125.

Belief, habit and muscle, i, 132.

Bible and love, ii, 126.

place of, ii, 320, 445.

as psychological text-book, ii,
360.

study, critical, ii, 324.
Bilateral growth, i, 125.

hand power, i, 147 et seq.
Bile and age, i, 117.
Biography and adolescence, i, 513.
Birth, i, 5.
Blood, changes in, i, 94.

corpuscles and puberty, i, 95.

sex differences in specific gravity
of, i, 96.

vessels, growth of, i, 88.
Blushing, ii, 20.
Body training, Greek, i, 203.
Bone girths, i, 66.

growth, hygiene of, i, 82-83.
Bones, growth of, in puberty, i, 58

et seq.
Botany, teaching of, ii, 210.
Boxing, i, 218.
Boy life settled, i, 48.
Boyhood, autobiographies of, i, 533.

older than youth, i, 47.
Boys, dangers of coeducation for,
ii, 619.

girls, and differences between, ii,
569.

Greek, i, 513.

in Plato, i, 513.

unsymmetrical, i, 242.
Brachycephaly and height, i, 3c.

Brain, cell division in, i, 107.

cells, growth of, i, 106-107.

cortex and sense centers, i, 109-
no.

growth of, i, 105.

growth of, in plasticity at puber-
ty, i, 108.

increase of fibers, i, 108.

levels and epilepsy, i, no.

medullation, order of, i, 109.

psychic functions of, i, no.

in starvation, i, 119.

tangential fibers and puberty, i,
108.
Brains of idiots, i, 109.
Breadths, growth in, i, 52.
Buddhism, puberty in, ii, 245.
Bullying, i, 358.
Burschenschaften, ii, 406.
Bushido, i, 219.

Cake walk, i, 223.

Camorra, i, 363.

Canary and child, ii, 227.

Capillaries, variability of, i, 89.

Caprice, ii, 89.

Carbonic acid and puberty, i, 104.

Caressing, i, 120.

Castration, i, 424.

effects of, i, 430.

functional, i, 428.

of idiots, i, 427.
Cat and child, ii, 224.
Catagenic processes, i, 48.
Categories, ii, 551.
Catholic Church and confirmation,
ii, 265.

mission methods, ii, 729.
Cell division, i, 2.

generations, i, 2.

theory, limitations of, i, 2.
Character, muscles and, i, 131.
Chest circumference, i, 100 et seq.

girth, i, 69 et seq.
Child-bearing, dangers of post-ma-
turity in, ii, 607.
Child, canary and, ii, 227.

cat and, ii, 224.

cry of new-born, i, 5.

dog and, ii, 222.

rabbits and, ii, 226.
Childlessness of women, ii, 601.
Children, animals and, ii, 220.

faults of, i, 344 et seq.

logical mentation of, ii, 451.

love of, ii, 134.

motor activity of, i, 158.

motor defects of, i, 164.

selfishness of, ii, 452.

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

751

China, mission work in, ii, "jzi-

Chivalry, ii, 443.

Chlorosis, i, 260.

Chorea, i, 157.

Christian Endeavor, criticisms of,

ii, 422.
Christianity, muscular, i, 189.
Chums and cronies, ii, 395.
Church, femininity in the, i, 225.
Circulation, time of, i, 95.

variability of, i, 89.
Circumcision, i, 467.
City life and stature, i, 30.
Civilization, dangers of, ii, 718.
Civilized men, savages physically

superior to, i, 169.
Classic training of epheboi, ii, 249.
Climate, growth and, i, ^iZ-
Climbing, hill, i, 227.

power and puberty, i, 138.
Clitoris, changes of, i, 422.
Closeness, fear of, i, 104.
Clouds, ii, 179.

Coeducation, dangers for boys, ii,
619.

dangers for girls, ii, 621.
Coitus and masturbation com-
pared, i, 440.

and size of thymus, i, 122.
Cold and heat, ii, 186.
Collections, ii, 484.
College dominance and its evils, ii,
515, 520.

English requirements of, ii, 479.

needed reconstruction, ii, 529.

philosophy, ii, 531.

present dangers of, ii, 528.

societies, ii, 404.
Colonial methods, ii, 713.
Color changes, ii, 35.
Combat among students, ii, 410.
Compensation in growth, i, 24-25,

44-
Competition of parts and organs, i,
241.

among tissues and organs, i, 309.
Concentration, i, 234.
Conduct, bad, and reactions from
it, ii, 82.

good and bad, i, 345.

and weather, i, 347.
Confession in therapeutics, i, 279.
Confessionalism of young women,

i, 555-560.
Confirmation, Catholic Church and,
ii, 265.

Episcopal Church, ii, 274.

Greek Church, ii, 272.

Confirmation, among Jews, ii,
262.

Lutheran, ii, 277.
Conflict, i, 216.
Conscience and guilt, ii, 313.
Consciousness a poor witness of
soul life, ii, 341.

unorganized, ii, 67 et seq.
Consent, age of, i, 374.
Conservation and radical instincts,

ii, 87.
Consumption, age of, i, 257.
Contagion, psychic, i, 265.
Contrectation, i, 450.
Control of movements, i, 145.
Conversion, ii, 281.

age of, ii, 288.

instantaneous, ii, 342.

of intellect, ii, 315.

too intense, ii, 343.

too normalized, ii, 344.

natural, ii, 301.

precocious, ii, 345.

psychology of, ii, 349.

wider analogies of, ii, 331.
Coordination loosened at adoles-
cence, i, 127 et seq.
Corporal punishment, i, 399, 402.
Corps, ii, 406.
Cosmic uniformity, ii, 716.
Courtship, ii, 120.

love and, ii, 139.
Cranial capacity, i, 72, 105.
Crime, age of responsibilty, i, 396.

causes of, in youth, i, 386, 406.

degeneration and, i, 343.

and education, i, 407.

flogging for, i, 399, 402.

juvenile, causes of, i, 33 et seq.

juvenile forms of, i, 332.

juvenile statistics of, i, 325 et seq.

juvenile types of, i, 389.

menstruation and, i, 498.

and reading, i, 408.

and sex, i, 339, 431. _

sex anomalies and, i, 415.

treatment of, i, 341 et seq.
Criminal, the juvenile, psychic

traits of, i, 339 et seq.
Criminality, juvenile, i, 45.
Criminals, diseases of, i, 343.

juvenile, traits of, i, 335.
Critical Bible study, ii, 324.
Cross, story of, ii, 337.
Cruelty, ii, 85.

Cry of new-born child, i, 5,
Culture heroes, ii, 355.
Curiosity, ii, 85, 450.
Curvature of spine, i, 256.

752

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Dancing, i, 213 ct scq.
Dares, ii, 366.
Darkness, ii, 173.
Day-dreaming, i, 311.
Deadly sins, ii, 305.
Death, growth and, i, 4.

and love, ii, 128.

love of, ii, 336.

rate, age and, i, 249, 251.
Debate and pugnacity, ii, 433.
Defectives, killing of, i, 394.
Degenerates, killing of, i, 394.
Degeneration and crime, i, 343.

juvenile, i, 336 et seq.
Delinquents, types of, i, 389.
Dementia prsecox, i, 300 et seq.

criticism of current theories, i,
303 et seq.

preventive causes of, i, 306.
Dendropsychoses, ii, 217.
Dentition, i, yj.
Dependencies, ii, 711.
Depilation, ii, 6.
Depression, ii, 80.
Dermal habits, ii, 7.

hairs, ii, 8.

troubles, i, 261.
Descending races, ii, 720.
Detumescence, i, 450; ii, 124.
Diet, growth and, i, 21.
Dip, power of, i, 135.
Disciples of Jesus, adolescents, i,

523.
Disease and disproportionate

growth of parts, i, 240.
Diseases, of adolescence neglected,
i, 238.

age liability to, i, 239.

of body and mind, i, 237.

of girls, ii, 569.

and loss of weight, i, 240.

of the school grades, per cents,
i, 243 et seq.
Dismenorrhea, i, 499.
Disphoria, ii, 77.
Dissociation, i, 322.
Dog and child, ii, 222.

training, age of, ii, 228.
Dogma, dangers of, ii, 320.
Doing and knowing, ii, 86.
Dolichocephaly and height, i, 30.
Doll curve, i, 208.
Domestication, ii, 222.
Doubt, extreme, ii, 48.
Doubting insanity, i, 291.
Drama, educational value of, ii, 439.
Dramatic instinct of puberty, i, 317.
Drawing, ii, 483.

curve of stages of, i, 184-185.

Dreams, monthly periods and, i,
502.

and puberty, i, 262.

spontaneous emissions and, i, 454.
Duel, ii, 409.
Dueling, i, 218.

Eastern islanders, traits of, ii, 655.
Eating habits controlled, ii, 14.
Education, crime and, i, 407.

of girls, ii, 561, 612, 636.

Greek, ii, 249.

Indian, ii, 694.

industrial, i, 170 et seq.

of races, ii, 721.

universality of, ii, 494.
Educational value of the theatre, ii,

441.
Ego, nature of, ii, 69.
Eighteen, age of, i, 10.
Elbow, growth in girth of, i, 66.
Embryo, growth rate of, i, 3.
Emotion, ii, 40 et seq.
Endurance and size, i, 38.
Energy and laziness, ii, 75.
English, causes of pedagogic degen-
eration, ii, 457.

language and literature, peda-
gogy of, ii, 454.

requirements of college, ii, 479.

sense language, dangers of, ii,
462.
Envy, i, 357.

Eozoic bases of heredity, i, 58.
Ephebeitis, i, 308.
Ephebic rites in Greece, ii, 249.
Epics, educational value of, ii, 442.
Epilepsy, i, no, 273.
Episcopal Church confirmation, ii,

274.
Epistemology, ii, 46.
Equilibrium upset, i, 47, 49.
Erect position and tree life, i, 155.
Erethism, i, 151.
Ergograph curves, i, 150.
Eskimo, ii, 677.
Ether a philosophical assumption,

.ii, 541-
Ethical judgments, ii, 394.
Ethics and love, ii, 132.
Ethnic stocks declining, ii, 654.
Eunuchs, i, 424.
Euphoria, ii, 76.

and exercise, i, 196, 205.
Evening, ii, 173.
Evolution and optimism, ii, 546.
Exactness of movement, i, 144.
Exercise, health.,and, i, 169.

measurements and, i. 193.

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

753

Exercise, music and, i, 190.

rhythm and, i, 190.
Exhaustion at adolescence, i, 276.

and youthful insanity, i, 299.
Exhibitionists, ii, 97.
Expectoration, i, 118.
Extermination of primitive races,

ii, 650.
Exterminator, man the great, ii, 93.
Eye troubles, i, 259.

Face, growth of, i, 72.

Families, size of, ii, 600.

Farm work, i, 172.

Fastidiousness, ii, 80.

Fat, i, 123.

Fatigue, power to resist, i, 149.

variability of, i, 151.
Faults of children, i, 344 et seq.
Favorite sounds and words, ii, 305,

465-
Fear, ii, 370.

Fears, forms of sex, i, 451.
Fecundity of college women, ii, 594.
Feeling and instincts, ii, 61.

and theology, ii, 326.
Feelings, ii, 40 et seq.

psychology of, ii, 58.
Female coyness, ii, 116.

differences, male and, ii, 562.
Femininity in the church, i, 225.
Feminists, ii, 624.
Femur, growth of, i, 66.
Fertility, age of, i, 508.
Fetishes, love, ii, 113.
Fighting, i, 216 et seq., 356.
Fire-gazing, ii, 188.
First-born, size of, i, 6.
Flogging for crime, i, 399, 402.
Flowers, human traits of, ii, 206.

language of, ii, 205.

psychology of, ii, 202.
Folly and wisdom, ii, 88.

changes in, ii, 11.

growth and, i, 32.
Food and puberty, i, 252 et seq.
Foot, changes in growth of, i, 68.
Force as a philosophic postulate, ii,

543-
Foreign languages, dangers of, ii,

457- _
Forests, ii, 214.
France, secondary education in, ii,

513-
Freedom, ii, 89.

Friction points between races, ii,
723.

87

Friendship, antique, ii, 411.

love and, ii, 133.
Friendships of adolescence, i, 318.
Frogs' legs, study of, i, 129.
Frost, ii, 186.
Fundamental and accessory, i, 88

III, 154-..
Future life, ii, 44.

Games, i, 202.

group, i, 221.

Panhellenic, i, 200, 203.
Gangs, i, 360 ; ii, 396.
General paralysis and puberty, i,

292.
Genetic psychology, obstacles to, ii,
41 et seq.

theory of public growth, i, 44.
Genius, i, 309.

early development of, i, 537.

and insanity, i, 320.
Geography, ii, 151.
Giants, i, 38, 41.

and activity, i, 41.
Giggling, ii, 78.
Gill-slits, ii, 192.

Girl graduates, aversion to mar-
riage, causes of, ii, 592.

fecundity of, ii, 594.

sterility of, ii, 596.
Girls and boys, differences between,
ii, 569.

dangers of coeducation for, ii,
621.

diseases of, ii, 569.

education of, ii, 561, 612, 636.

education of, more difficult than
boys, ii, 616.

education most humanistic, ii,
645. .

education, manners in, ii, 638.

education, nature in, ii, 641.

education, religion in, ii, 640.

first largest, why, i, 42 et seq.

health of, ii, 569.

health statistics of students, ii,

. 583.

in high schools, predominance of,
ii, 506.

menstruation of, ii, 571.

natural selection and pre-pubertic
growth in, i, 43.

overdraw their energy, ii, 573.

and questionnaires, ii, 589.

regularity in education of, ii, 639.
Glabella, i, 78.

Gland growth in puberty, i, 114.
Glands, lachrymal, i, 121.

754

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Good conduct and reactions from

it, ii, 82.
Good-will as a philosophic postu-
late, ii, 546.
Grammar, place of, ii, 456.
Gravity center in the human bodv,

i, 61.
Greece, athletics festivals in, i, 203.

ephebic rites in, ii, 249.

initiation in, ii, 249.

puberty in, ii, 249.
Greek body training, i, 203.

boys, i, 513.

Church confirmation, ii, 272.

education, ii, 249.
Grip, power of, i, 139.
Group games, i, 221.
Growing-pains, i, 80 et seq., 88.
Growth, abnormalities of, i, 126.

acceleration of, i, 16, 24, 42.

affected by food, work, diseases
etc., i, 32-34-

age of maximal, i, 14, 24, 42.

of arms, i, 65.

of arteries, i, 93.

asymmetry in, ii, 88.

asynchronism of, i, 55.

in autumn, in thickness, i, 21
et seq.

bilateral, i, 125.

of blood-vessels, i, 88.

bone, hygiene of, i, 82-83.

of bones in puberty, i, 58 et seq.

of brain, i, 105.

of brain-cells, i, 106-107.

of brain in plasticity at puberty,
i, 108.

in breadths, i, 52.

cessation of, i, 25-28, 55.

in chest girth, i, 8.

and climate, i, 2>2>-

and comfort, i, 31 et seq.

complexity of, i, 28 et seq.

control of, i, 34.

criticisms on statistics, i, 13.

and death, i, 4.

determinants of, i, 29 ct seq.

and diet, i, 21.

disproportionate, as cause of dis-
ease, i, 240.

equilibrium of, i, 36.

of face, i, 72.

of femur, i, 66.

of first two years, i, 5.

fluctuations in, i, 33-35, 42, 53.

and food, i, 32.

of foot, changes in, i, 68.

in girth of elbow, i, 66.

Growth, gymnastics and its effect

on, i, 196 et seq.
harmonious, i, 124.
of head, i, 71.
of heart, i, 88.
and height mass measurements,

i, 7, 8.
in height, spring, i, 21 et seq.
last stages of, i, 25 et seq.
later stages most human, i, 39.
in lengths, i, 52.
limited knowledge of, i, 29.
literature on, i, 6.
of liver, i, 117.
of lower jaw, i, yy.
made up if retarded, i, 24.
malnutrition and, i, 20.
is maximal size desirable? i, 36.
and mental ability, i, 27-
of mental powers, general, i, 138

et seq., 141.
of muscles, i, 83.
and natural selection, i, 45, 46.
of naval cadets, i, 26.
of neck, i, 79.
of nose, i, 78.
of ovaries, i, 121.
of pelvis, i, 69, 71.
periods, i, 23.
plasticity of, i, 2>Z-
prenatal, i, 3-4.
prepubertal decrease in rate of,

i, 23.
prepubertal, and retardation, i,

42-44, 4S_, 47, 59-60.
pubescent increment, causes of, i,

42 ^^ seq.
is the race increasing? i, 34.
races and, i, 34-35.
is rapidity advantageous, i, 35.
rate of embryo, i, 3.
rate of parts, i, 51.
and retardation age, i, 41.
rhythms, i, 24.
seasonal changes in, i, 22.
seasons and, i, 21-22, 2)2)-
sex differences in, i, 16-19, 42.
of skin at puberty, i, 112.
of skull, i, 72 et seq.
of skull, sex differences in, i, 45.
of soldiers, i, 35.
of span, i, 66.
statistics, methods of, i, 12 et

seq.
of Swedish boys, i, 16 et seq.
of symmetry, i, 125.
of tallest and shortest races, i, 30.
of testes, i, 122.

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

755

Growth, theories of prepubertal, i,
42-44, 47.

of thoracic girdle, i, 6g.

in weight, i, 7 et seq.
Griibelsucht, i, 314.
Guilt, conscience and, ii, 313.
Gymnastics, i, iii.

and its effects on growth, i, 196
et seq.

and its four unharmonized ideals,

i, 195-
ideal of, and anthropometry, i,

193- . „

military ideals and, i, 189.

patriotism and, i, 189.

for proportion and measurement

criticized, i, 194, 200.
Swedish, i, 187 et seq., 192.
Gynecology and its needs, i, 504.

Habits, dermal, ii, 7.

and muscle, i, 132.
Hairs, dermal, ii, 8.
Hand and arboreal life, i, 155.

power of, i, 139.

power, right and left, i, 147 et
seq.
Hanging power and puberty, i, 138.
Haramatophobia, ii, 310.
Hard and soft water, i, 83.
Harmonious growth, i, 124.
Hauser, Kasper, i, 282-284.
Head, growth of, i, 71.
Headache, i, 246 et seq.
Health and exercise, i, 169.

of girls, ii, 569.

statistics of girl students, ii, 583.
Hearing, ii, 21.
Heart and arteries, relations of, i,

93-

beats, strength of, i, 91.

growth of, i, 88.

masturbator's, i, 443.

troubles in puberty, i, 254.
Heat and cold, ii, 186.
Hebephrenia, i, 268.
Height, brachycephaly and, i, 30.

decrease during day, i, 8.

dolichocephaly and, i, 30.

measurements, limitations of, i,
12.

measurements, value of, i, 19.

related to long and broad heads,

. K 30-

sitting and standing, i, 61.
and social class, i, 8.
and vital capacity, i, 103.
Heredity, eozoic bases of, i, 58.
puberty and, i, 27, 308.

Heterogeny, i, 156.
High school. Committee of Ten,
three great fallacies, ii, 510.
standardization of knowledge, ii,
508.
High schools, ii, 503.

college dominance and its evils,

ii, 515, 520.
Committee of Ten criticized, ii,

508.
curves of leaving, i, 507.
need of emancipation from col-
lege, ii, 526.
predominance of girls in, ii, 506.
statistics and curricula of, ii, 505.
Hill-climbing, i, 227.
Hindoos, ii, 700.

Historic interest, growth of, ii, 480.
History, ideal reconstruction of, ii,
447-
value and method of, ii, 446.
Home, love of, ii, 375.
Homesickness, ii, 380.
Homogeneity of races, effects of, ii,

717.
Honor, ii, 443.
Hoodlums, i, 319.
Horse, pedigree of, i, 48.
Humerus, growth of, i, 65.
Hydropsychoses, ii, 196.
Hymen, changes in, i, 423.
Hysteria, i, 275.
sex and, ii, 121.
talking cure of, i, 279.

Ideal education of women, ii, 636.
Idealism, its pedagogy and dan-
gers, ii, 535.

ultra, ii, 46.
Ideals of adult life, ii, 387.
Idiocy at adolescence, i, 281.
Idiots, best age for growth of, i,
260.

brains of, i, 109.

castration of, i, 427.
Imagination, i, 313, 350.

play and, i, 234.
Imitation at puberty, i, 316.
Immortality, lust for, ii, 41.
Impregnation, i, i.
India, ii, 700.
Indian education, ii, 694.

nature, ii, 698.

songs, ii, 695.
Indians, ii, 688.
Individual psychology, ii, 487.
Individuality overblown, i, 315.
Individuals, measurements of, i, 14
et seq.

756

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Industrial education, i, 170 et seq.
Industry and movement, i, 166.
Inhibition, i, 162.

of reflex movements, i, 145.
Initiation in Greece, ii, 249.
Initiations to puberty, ii, 232.

of youth, Jewish, ii, 260.
Insanity, adolescent, i, 293.

doubting, i, 291.

genius and, i, 320.

and masturbation, i, 445.

and puberty, i, iii.

pubertal, i, 270 et seq.

youthful, exhaustion and, i, 299.
Instability, i, 47.
Instincts, ii, 40 et seq.
Intellect, adolescence in, ii, 453.

conversion of, ii, 315-

sense and, ii, 87.
Intemperance, i, 367.
Intense states, love of, ii, y^.
Interests, ii, 85.

Intestinal changes in puberty, i, 113.
Invalid, the New England, i, 286.
Itching, i, 120.

Jaw, growth of lower, i, 77.

upper, i, 78.
Jealousy, i, 357.
Jesus, adolescents disciples of, i,

523.
youths' need of, ii, 328.
Jewish initiations of youth, ii, 260.
Jews, confirmation among, ii, 262.
Joints, rate of movement in, i, 142

et seq.
Juvenile penology, i, 341 et seq.
theft, i, 330 et seq.

Katatonia, i, 268.
Kennen and Konen, i, 204.
Kidneys in puberty, i, 114.
Killing of defectives, i, 394.
Knee, height of, i, 67.
Knightly ideas of youth, i, 532.
Knowing and doing, ii, 86.
Knowledge and love, ii, 136.
Korea, puberty in, ii, 244.

Lachrymal glands, i, 121.
Language through eye and hand,
dangers of, ii, 461.

love and, ii, 134.

precision curve, ii, 467.

versus literature, ii, 459.
Landsmannschaften, ii, 408.
Lapsed movements, i, 161.

states of mind, ii, 66.
Latin, danger of, ii, 458.

Laughing, ii, 78, 95.

cult, i, 169.

intensity, curve of, J, 251.
Laughter, i, 232.

Law vs. chaos as a credo, ii, 544.
Laziness, energy and, ii, 75.
Leadership, i, 36, 38, 39, 40.
Leap, i, 137.
Leg strength, i, 136.
Lengths, growth in, i, 52.
Lies, i, 351.

Life a philosophic postulate, ii, 545.
Lifting from wrist, i, 136.

power, i, 133.
Limbs grow faster than body, i, 62.
Lime, appetite for, i, 83.
Literary men, youth of, i, 537, 562.

women, youth of, i, 546.
Literature and adolescence, i, 513.

on growth, i, 6.

language vs., ii, 459.
Liver, growth of, i, 117.
Lives of saints, i, 524 et seq.
Logical mentation of children, ii,

451;
Longevity, i, 41.
Lordosis, i, 82.
Love, ii, 95.

of being, ii, 135.

Bible and, ii, 126.

of children, ii, 134.

of community, ii, 134.

and courtship, ii, 139.

death and, ii, 128.

of elders, ii, 105.

ethics and, ii, 132.

fetishes, ii, 113.

and friendship, ii, 133.

knowledge and, ii, 136.

and language, ii, 134.

medical definitions of, ii, 115.

of music, ii, 23.

and nature, ii, 129, 144.

nature, and pantheism, ii, 163.

in Plato, ii, 294.

and religion, ii, 127, 295.

stages in development of, ii, 102.

and war, i, 221.
Lung growth and age, i, 97.
Lungs and sex, i, 99.
Lutheran confirmation, ii, 277.
Lying, ii, 366.

Machinery and movement, i, 166.

Mafia, i, 362.

Male and female, differences, ii,

562.
Malnutrition and growth, i, 20.
Mammae, changes of, i, 419.

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

757

Man once a pigmy, i, 49.
Manners, i, 165; ii, 365.

in girls' education, ii, 638.
Manual training, i, 174 et scq.

defects and criticisms of, i, 177.

difficulties of, i, 175.
Marriage, delay of, dangers of, ii,
628.

of girl graduates, statistics of, ii,
590.

of male graduates, ii, 604.
"Mashes," ii, 107.
Massochism, ii, 112.
Masturbation, i, 432 et seq.

in animals, i, 435.

causes of, i, 436.

and coitus compared, i, 440.

and despair, i, 457 et seq.

effects of, i, 436.

evils of, i, 447.

extent of, i, 453.

insanity and, i, 445.

and quacks, i, 460.

and religion,, i, 452.
Masturbator's heart, i, 443.
Maternity deferred, dangers of, ii,

607.
Maturity, effects on offspring, i, 50.

of different organs, i, 55.
Measurements and exercise, i, 193.

height, limitations of, i, 12.

height mass, growth and, i, 7, 8.

height, value of, i, 19.

of individuals, i, 14 et seq.
Medical definitions of love, ii, 115.
Medullation, brain, order of, i, 109.
Megrim, i, 261.
Memory, age of, ii, 492.

development of, ii, 488.

kinds of, ii, 491.

sex curve of types of, ii, 490.

of youth easily lost, i, 535.
Men, monthly periods in, i, 501.

and women, differences between,
ii, 562.
Menstrual wave, i, 486.
Menstruation, age of, i, 474.

in animals, i, 472.

and crime, i, 498.

and equilibrium, i, 294.

of girls, ii, 571.

physiology of, i, 482.

premature, i, 478.

regimen of, ii, 580.

among savages, i, 479.

and shame, i, 511.

and specific gravity of blood, i,
96.

theories of, i, 485.

Mensur, i, 219.

Mental ability, growth and, i, 27.

Metabolism and capacity, i, 98.

studies of, i, 14.
Metorrhagia, i, 479.
Mexicans, ii, 679.
Micturitional ojjscenities, i, 116.
Middles Ages and youth, i, 532; ii,

259.
Migrations, i, 45.

of animals, ii, 378.
Military drill, i, 222.

ideals and gymnastics, i, 189.

training of youth, ii, 259.
Milt, i, 118.

Mind and motility, i, 131 et seq.
Missing link between animals and

man, ii, 91-93.
Mission methods, ii, 361.

work in China, ii, 72)7-

work, extent of, ii, 731.

work, pedagogy of, ii, 735.

work, student volunteers, ii, 732.
Missionaries, ii, 728.

mistakes of, ii, y2>2)-
Missions, Catholic methods, ii, 729.

to utilize all that is best of ethnic
faiths and customs, ii, 745.
Modesty, ii, 118, 372.
Money sense, ii, 392.
Monophyletic theories, i, 57.
Mons, changes of, i, 421.
Monthly cycle, abnormal, i, 492.

cycle, normal psychology of, i,
492.

period and Sabbath, i, 502.

periods and dreams, i, 502.

periods in men, i, 501.

periods in non-sexual parts and
organs, i, 490.
Mood in puberty, i, 297.
Moon, ii, 175.

of myth, science and pedagogy,
ii, 175-
Morbidity curves, i, 251.

tables, i, 246 et seq.
Mortal sins, ii, 305.
Motherhood, training for, ii, 636.
Mothers, natality of, ii, 597.
Motor activity, primitive, i, 167.

automatisms, i, 158.

defects of children, i, 164.

defects, general, i, 168.

economies, i, 192.

powers, general growth of, i, 138
et seq., 141.

precocity, i, 157.

psychoses, muscles and, i, 131.

recapitulation, i, 205, 228.

758

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Motor regularity, i, 213.

vigor, sex and, i, 132.
Mountains, ii, 200.
Movement, accuracy of, i, 144.

exactness of, i, 144.

industry and, i, 166.

in joints, rate of, i, 142 et seq.

precision of, i, 144-148.
Movements, control of, i, 145.

lapsed, i, 161.

precocity of, i, 165.

reflex, inhibition of, i, 145.
Muscle girth and breadth, i, 86.

related to bone growth, i, 88.

tension, thought and, i, 156.
Muscles of arm and leg, i, 85.

body per cent by v^reight, i, 131.

and character, i, 131.

growth of, i, 83.

inflexors, i, 84.

and motor psychoses, i, 131.

small, and thought, i, 156.

tense and relaxed, i, 87.

variability of, i, 84.

weight of, i, 84.

and will, i, 131.
Muscular Christianity, i, 189.
Music and exercise, i, 190.

love of, ii, 23.
Mutation, ii, 24.

regimen of, ii, 30.
Myopia, i, 259.
Myth, nature and, ii, 153.
Myths of Plato, ii, 254.

Narration craze, ii, 472.
Nascent periods, i, 35, iii, 128.
Nasion, i, 78.

Natality of mothers, ii, 597.
National epics, ii, 442.
Nations, ii, 408.

Natural selection, growth and, i,
45, 46.

selection and prepubertic growth
in girls, i, 43.
Nature in girls' education, ii, 641.

as humanism, ii, 150.

love and, ii, 129.

love of, ii, 144.

love and pantheism, ii, 163.

and myth, ii, 153.

philosophy, ii, 147.

poetry, ii, 148.

study and race history, ii, 151.

technical nomenclature, ii, 148.
Naval cadets, growth of, i, 26.
Neck, growth of, i, 79.
Necrosis, nutrition and, i, 4.
Negativism, i, 283.

Negro, traits of, ii, 675.
Nephelopsychoses, ii, 181.
Nerve signs, i, 261.
Nerves of sex, special, i, 448.
Nervousness, i, 247 et seq.
Neurasthenia at puberty, causes of,

i, 290.
New birth, puberty a, i, 127.
New England invalid, i, 286.
Night psychoses, i, 264.
Nipple, changes of, i, 420.
Noises of animals, ii, 25.
Nonsense in adolescence, i, 317.
Normal museums, ii, 501.

schools, ii, 495.

schools, diseases of, ii, 496.

schools, history of education,
how to teach it, ii, 498.
Nose, growth of, i, 78.
Nostalgia, ii, 380.
Nudity, ii, 96.
Nutrition, nature of, i, 252.

and necrosis, i, 4.
Nutritive struggle among tissues
and organs, i, 4, 36.

Obedience, ii, 451.

Obstacles to psychology, ii, 41 et

seq.
Odor, i, 1 19-120.
Old and new organs, i, 55.
Onanism, i, 432.
Onychophagia, i, 260.
Optimism, evolution and, ii, 546.
Oratory, pedagogic value, ii, 433.
Organs, law and time of growth,
i, 127.

in man, aquatic, ii, 192.
Orthodoxy, dangers of, ii, 319.
Ossification, i, 80.
Osteomalacia, i, 81.
Ovaries, changes in, i, 423.

growth of, i, 121.
Ovulation, i, 424.
Ovum, size and weight of, i, 3.

Pain reacting to pleasure, ii, 76.

sensibility, ii, 4.
Paleoatavism and infancy, i, 50.
Palpitation, i, 255.

at puberty, i, 92.
Pancreas, i, 118.
Panhellenic games, i, 200, 203.
Parts, growth rate of, i, 51.
Passive movements, i, 226.
Patagonians, ii, 678.
Pathos, power of, ii, 334.
Patriotism and gymnastics, i, 189.
Pauperism, i, 385.

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

759

Peace, not war, man's normal state,

Pedagogy of mission work, ii, 735.

of philosophy, ii, 531.

of physics, ii, 154.
Pelagic vestiges, ii, 192.
Pelvic girdle, i, 69 et seq.
Pelvis, growth of, i, 69, 71.
Penology, juvenile, i, 341 et seq.

past and present, i, 391.
Periodicity, i, 472.
Personality, its elements, i, 309.
Peruvians, ii, 679.
Phallicism, ii, 98.
Philology, dangers of, ii, 459.
Philosophic propaedeutic, ii, 548.

schools, ii, 553.
Philosophies, types of, ii, 551.
Philosophy, epistemology, noxious
for youth, ii, 535.

pedagogy of, ii, 531.

preys on sense of unreality, ii,

531-

safe ultimate postulates of, ii, 539.

solipsism, dangers of, ii, 535.

teaching, history of, ii, 532.
Phobias, i, 291.
Phyletic correlates, ii, 93.

influences in sex, ii, loi.
Physics, pedagogy of, ii, 154.
Pigmentation, i, 121.
Pigmy, man once a, i, 49.
Pithecoid, ii, 91.
Pituitary body, influence on growth,

i, 81.
Pity, ii, 272>-

of self, ii, 354.
Plants, ii, 202.
Plasmata, i, 411.
Plasticity of growth at puberty, i,

127.
Plato, boys in, i, 513.
Play, i, 202.

course of study, i, 231.

and imagination, i, 234.

and prehistoric activity, i, 202
et seq.

problem, i, 227 et seq.

and sex, i, 223, 230.

stages and ages, i, 209 et seq.

and work, i, 232 et seq.
Plays and games, codification of, i,

230.
Pleasure, pain reacting to, ii, 76.
Points de repere, i, 53-54.
Pole and swastika, ii, 166.
Polymasty, i, 421.
Popular delusions, i, 265.
Popular science, ii, 153.

Post-maturity in child-bearing,

dangers of, ii, 607.
Power to press arms together, i,

136.
Precision, dangers of premature, i,
165.
of movement, i, 144-148.
Precocity, i, 26, 31, 36, Z7, 48, 59.
76, 81.
causes of, i, 321.
motor, i, 157.

in the motor sphere, i, 207 et seq.
of movements, i, 165.
, in sex, ii, 102.
Predatory organizations, i, 360; ii,

403.
Prenatal growth, i, 3-4.
Prepubertal growth and retarda-
tion, i, 42-44, 45, 47, 59-60.
Prepubescent retardation, causes

of, i, 41.
Pressure power of knees, i, 137.
Primitive motor activity, i, 167,

races, ii, 648.

races exterminated, ii, 650.
Probation system, i, 400.
Property, psychology of, ii, 392.
Proportion, i, 124, 127.
Prostitution, i, 370.
Psychic activity, seasons and, ii,
487.

changes in adolescents, ii, 70.

contagion, i, 265.

dangers of puberty, i, 271.

research, ii, 43.

research, errors of, ii, 342.

states, alternations of, ii, 75
et seq.
Psychology, animal, ii, 52.

of conversion^ ii, 349.

of feelings, ii, 58.

genetic, obstacles to, ii, 41 et seq.

individual, ii, 487.

of property, ii, 392.

of savages, ii, 51.

of sentiments, ii, 58.
Pubertal insanity, i, 270 et seq.
Puberty with American aborigi-
nes, ii, 22,2.

blood corpuscles and, i, 95.

in Buddhism, ii, 245.

carbonic acid and, i, 104.

causes of neurasthenia at, i, 290.

climbing power and, i, 138.

dramatic instinct of, i, 317.

dreams and, i, 262.

food and, i, 252 et seq.

general paralysis and, i, 292.

gland growth in, i, 114.

760

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Pubertj' in Greece, ii, 249.

growth of skin at, i, 112.

hanging power and, i, 138.

heart troubles in, i, 254.

and heredity, i, 27, 308.

imitation at, i, 316.

initiations to, ii, 232.

insanity and, i, iii.

insanity of, i, 270 et seq.

intestinal changes in, i, 113.

kidneys in, i, 114.

in Korea, ii, 244.

mood in, i, 297.

a new birth, i, 127.

palpitation at, i, 92.

plasticity of growth at, i, 127.

psychic dangers of, i, 271.

and race, i, 10.

rites in Africa, ii, 245.

rites in Eastern islands, ii, 239.

in Rome, ii, 256.

sleep and, i, 262.

suggestiveness of, i, 310.

temperature and, i, 123 et seq.

urea in, i, 115.

urine in, i, 115.

weak-mindedness at, i, 291.
Pubescence, neoatavistic, i, 50.
Pugnacity and debate, ii, 433.
Pull up, power of, i, 135.
Pulse, frequency and age of, i, 91.
Punishment, corporal, i, 399, 402.
Punishments in school, causes of, i,

346.
Putting power, i, 135.
Puzzles, ii, 485.
Pyromania, i, 366.

Quacks, masturbation and, I, 460.
Questionnaires, girls and, ii, 589.

Rabbits and child, ii, 226.
Race education, ii, 721.
history, nature study and, ii, 151.
puberty and, i, 10.
stature, sex selection and, i, 45.
type and, i, 13.
Races, effects of homogeneity of, ii,
717-
friction points between, ii, 723.
and growth, i, 34-35-
primitive, extermination of, ii,

650.
tallest and shortest, growth of,
i, 30.
Radical and conservative instincts,
ii, 87.

Rapes, i, 373.
Rauhe Haus, i, 395.
Reaction time, i, 152.

time and sex, i, 153.
Reading age, ii, 474.

crime and, i, 408.

curve, ii, 467.
Reason, age of, i, iii.

development of, ii, 482.
Reassociation, i, 280.
Recapitulation, i, 2-3, 44-45, 48-49,
50, 55-57, 89.

and motor heredity, i, 205 et seq.
Records in athletics, i, 198.
Rectifications of religious ideals, ii,

315-
Reformatories for youth, i, 327.

theories of, i, 397 et seq.
Regeneration, ii, 314.
Regularity in education of girls, ii,

. 639-
Rejuvenation, i, i.
Relapses to water, ii, 195.
Religion, definitions of, ii, 351.

in girls' education, ii, 640.

love and, ii, 127, 295.

masturbation and, i, 462.
Religious genius, ii, 356.

ideals, rectifications of, ii, 315.
Reproductive age and size, i, 49.
Respiration, costal and abdominal
types of, i, 104.

frequency of, i, 103.

sex differences in, i, 104-105.
Respiratory surface and power, i,

102.
Resurrection, psychic results of, ii,

335-
Retardation, i, 23-24, 27, 42, 56.

need of, i, 321.
Reverie, i, 111-112, 311.
Reverie, i, 111-112, 311.
Reversion, i, 47, 49.

increased liabilities to, i, 47.
Revivals, ii, 284.
Rhetoric, teaching of, ii, 433.
Rhythm and exercise, i, 190.

in primitive activities, i, 211.

of work and rest, i, 213.
Rhythms, antithetic, ii, 75 et seq.
Rickets, i, 80.
Right- and left-hand power, i, 147.

et seq.
Rivalry, i, 357.
Rocks, ii, 197.

Roman law and youth, i, 395.
Rome, puberty in, ii, 256.
Rudiments, i, 49, 52.
Running away, ii, 376.

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

761

Sabbath, monthly period and, i, 502.
Saints, lives of, i, 524 ct seq.
Salivary glands, i, 117.
Savages, ii, 648.

as adolescents, ii, 649.

ape traits in, i, 57.

extinction of, ii, 650.

menstruation among, i, 479.

physically superior to civilized
men, i, 169.

psychology of, ii, 51.

as relays of civilization, ii, 747.

the youth of the race, ii, 747.
Scholarship, size of skull and, i, 76.
School, aversions to, ii, 383.

causes of punishments in, i, 346.
Scientific men, youth of, i, 544.
Scoliosis, i, 82, 256.
Scrotum, i, 416.

Seasonal changes in growth, i, 22.
Seasons and growth, i, 21-22, 2)2i-
Seasons and psychic activity, ii, 487.
Sebaceous glands, i, 119.
Second birth, ii, 304.

breath, i, 151.
Secondary education in France, ii,

513. See also High schools.
Sedentary life, i, 166.

life and leg muscles, i, 137.
Self-abuse. See Masturbation.
Self-assertion and size, i, 38.
Self-feeling, ii, 79.
Selfishness, ii, 81.

of children, ii, 452.
Senescence, i, 23, 26.
Sensations, strong, craved, ii, 37.
Sense and intellect, ii, 87.
Senses, changes of, ii, i.
Sensitiveness, ii, 85.
Sentence sense, its growth, ii, 470.
Sentiments, psychology of, ii, 58.
Sex anomalies and crime, i, 415.

antipathies, ii, 114.

associations and their explanatory
power, i, 286.

aversions, ii, 114.

competition, evils of, ii, 583,

conflicts, ii, iii.

crime and, i, 339, 431.

culmination, ii, 122.

curve of types of memory, ii, 490

development, i, 411.

difference in vital capacity, i, 98
99, 10 1.

differences in bilateral symmetry
i, 126.

differences in carbon exhaled, i
104.

differences in growth, i, 16-19, 42

Sex differences in growth of skull,

i, 45-
differences in respiration, i, 104-

differences in size of waist, i, loi,
102.

differences in specific gravity of
blood, i, 96.

fears, forms of, i, 451.

and hysteria, ii, 121.

lungs and, i, 99.

motor vigor and, i, 132.

nerve centers of, i, 449.

organs, abnormality of, i, 414.

organs, functions of, i, 413.

organs, variability of, i, 414.

pedagogy, i, 468 et seq.

phyletic influences in, ii, lOi.

play and, i, 223, 230.

precocity in, ii, 102.

psychoses, i, 278.

reaction time and, i, 153.

regimen, i, 463.

secondary qualities, ii, no.

selection and race stature, i, 45.

against sex, ii, 576.

and sin, ii, 102.

and smell, i, 120.

special nerves of, i, 448.

theories of, ii, 141.
Sexual maturity, i, 41.

selection in man, i, 224.
ShaTcespeare, youths in, i, 533.
Shame, menstruation and, i, 511.
Showing off, ii, 104, 364.
Sickly age, i, 243 et seq.
Sickness in school grades, per cents,

i, 243 et seq.
Silliness in adolescence, i, 317.
Sin and insanity, ii, 310.

sex and, ii, 102.

universal, ii, 353.
Sitting height, curve of, i, 63 et seq.
Size and endurance, i, 38.

and fertility, i, 37.

and intelligence, i, 36-38.

judgments of, ii, 34.

and self-assertion, i, 38.
Skin, development of, ii, 5.

at puberty, growth of, i, 112.
Skull, abnormalities of, i, 76.

growth of, i, 72 et seq.

length and breadth of, i, 75.

size of, and scholarship, i, 76.
Slang curve, ii, 467.

value of, ii, 468.
Slavery, ii, 673.
Sleep, proper time of, i, 263.

and puberty, i, 262.

762

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Sleeplessness, i, 246 et seq.

Sloyd, origin, aims, criticism of, i,

178.
Small and large men, psychological

differences, i, 38.
Smell, changes in, ii, 15.

sex and, i, 120.
Social activities, i, 360.

instincts of youth, ii, 363.

organizations of youth, ii, 396.
Society and solitude, ii, 83.
Sociology, schools of, ii, 431.
Solar heroes, ii, 172.
Soldiers, growth of, i, 35.
Solipsism, causes, ii, 45 et seq.
Solitude, ii, 393.

and society, ii, 83.
Soma, evolution of, i, 2, 40.
Soul, interest in its future, not its
past, ii, 41.

much of it lost, ii, 64.

nature of, ii, 63.
Sounds, favorite, and words, ii, 305,
465-

in nature, ii, 22.
Space a psychologic prius, ii, 540.

psychoses, ii, 159.
Span, growth of, i, 66.
Speech changes, i, 318.
Spendthrifts, i, 319.
Spermatic fluid, i, 419.
Spermatozoa, i, 418.
Spermin, nature of, i, 441.
Spine, curvature of, i, 256.
Spirometer tests, i, 100.
Spleen, i, 119.

Spontaneous emissions and dreams,
i, 454-

emissions, normal, i, 456.

emissions; rhythm of, i, 454-
Sports, i, 202.

codification of, i, 230.
Spring growth in height, i, 21
et seq.

and morbidity, i, 244.

restlessness, ii, 378.
Spurtiness, i, 150, 157.
Squeeze, power of, i, 139.
Stammering, stuttering and, i, 258.
Stars, interest in, ii, 164.
Stature, city life and, i, 30.
Sterility of girl graduates, ii, 596.
Sterility and hard water, i, 83.
Stirpiculture, ii, 725.
Stones, ii, 197.
Storm and stress, illustrations of, i,

555-589.
Story-spinning, ii, 473.

Strength and cross-section, i, 137.

of legs, i, 136.
Struggle-for-lifeurs, i, 173.
Student life, disorders of, ii, 413.

volunteers, mission work, ii, 732.
Students' associations, ii, 399.

religious life, ii, 416.

vices, ii, 415.
Stuttering and stammering, i, 258.
Subjectivism, evil of, ii, 538.
Suggestiveness of puberty, i, 310.
Suicide, ii, 194.

causes, forms, seasons, etc., of,
i, 374-
Sun, the, ii, 169.

in myth, science, and pedagogy,
ii, 169.
Suprarenal capsules, i, 116.
Sutures, close of, i, 75.
Swastika, pole and, ii, 166.
Sweating, i, 120.

Swedish boys, growth of, i, 16
et seq.

gymnastics, i, 187 et seq., 192.
Swimming, i, 225.
Symmetry, i, 20, 53, 124-125.

of growth, i, 125.

Tachygenesis, i, 3.

Talent, early development of, i, 537.

Tallness, disadvantages of, i, 20.

Tapping, i, 142.

Taste, ii, 9.

Teachers, aversions to, ii, 386.

training of, ii, 495.
Team spirit, i, 221 et seq.
Teasing, i, 358.

Technical courses, need of, i, 187.
Teeth, i, 77 et seq.

wisdom, i, 254.
Telegraphic skill, curve of acquisi-
tion, i, 181.
Temibility, i, 409.
Temperament, ii, 89.
Temperature and puberty, 1, 123

et seq.
Testes, growth of, i, 122.
Theater, educational value of the,

ii, 441.
Theft, i, 363 et seq.

juvenile, i, 330 et seq.
Theology, feeling and, ii, 326.
Thermal sense, ii, 7.
Therotropic movements, i, 160.
Thoracic girdle, growth of, i, 69.
Thought and muscle tension, i, 156.
Thyroid gland, i, 122.
Tibia, curve of, i, 67.
Tickle sense, ii, 6.

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

763

Tickling, ii, 95-

Time and place orientation, per-
sistence of, i, 319.
Time, reaction, i, 152.

reproduction, i, 153.

and space in adolescence, i, 154.
Toga virilis, ii, 256.
Torturing, i, 359.
Touch, changes in, ii, 2.

paleopsychic, ii, 5.

sense, i, 120.
Toxic agents in dementia prsecox,

i, 306.
Toys in physics, ii, iS7-
Training of teachers, ii, 495.
Transitory nature of youthful ex-
periences, i, 535.
Tree life and erect posture, i, 155.

relics of, in man, ii, 214.
Trees, ii, 208.

in psychology, ii, 211.
Tremograph, i, 145.
Troglodyte life, ii, 91.
Trophic background of life, i, 252.
Truancy, i, 348; ii, 376.
Trunk, length of, i, 61-65.
Truth-telling, i, 352.
Turner movement, i, 187.
Twins, size of, i, 6.
Type and race, i, 13.
Types of delinquents, i, 389.

Unity in the mind, i, 323.

of mind lost, ii, 68.

of mind, place of, ii, 90.
University, ii, 554.

publications, ii, 557.

research, ii, 558.

stipends, ii, 555.

students' relations to professor,

ii, 557-
Unmarried women, dangers to, ii,

628.
Urea in puberty, i, 115.
Urinal fears, i, 116.
Urine in puberty, i, 115.
Uterus, changes of, i, 422.
Utilities, study of, ii, 153.
Utility dominates thought, ii, 486.

Vagabondage, i, 349.

Vagina, changes of, i, 422.

Vagrancy, i, 349.

Variability of circulation, i, 89.

Variation, ii, 89.

Variations in adolescence, i, 46.

Venery, ii, 125.
Vertebrae, changes in, i, 82.
Virility in the Church, i, 225.
Vision, ii, 32.

Vital capacity, sex difference in, i,
98, 99, lOI.

index and capacity, i, 97 et seq.
Voice, change of, ii, i, 24.

range of, ii, 27-30.

Wandering, i, 275.
War, love and, i, 221.
Water, hard and soft, i, 83.

psychoses, ii, 191.
Weak-mindedness at puberty, i, 291.
Weather and conduct, i, 347.
Weight decrease and disease, i, 240.

of muscles, i, 84.
Will to live, i, 252.

muscles and, i, 131.
Wind, ii, 184.
Wisdom and folly, ii, 88.
Women bachelors, ii, 623.

childlessness of, ii, 601.

college, fecundity of, ii, 594.

as ideal, ii, 646.

ideal education of, ii, 636.

long-bodied, i, 62.

and men, differences between, ii,
562.

young, confessionalism of, i, 555-
560.
Work at its best is play, i, 235.

play and, i, 232 et seq.

and rest, rhythm of, i, 213.
Wrestling, i, 220.
Wrist, growth in girth, i, 66.

Yawning, i, 170.

Young Men's Christian Associa-
tion, ii, 421.
Youth of literary men, i, 537, 562.

of literary women, i, 546.

Middle Ages and, i, 532; ii, 259.

military training of, ii, 259.

reformatories for, i, 327.

Roman law and, i, 395.

of the race, savages the, ii, 747.

of scientific men, i, 544.

social instincts of, ii, 363.

social organizations of, ii, 396.
Youthful experiences, transitory

nature of, i, 535.
Youths in Plato, i, 513.

in Shakespeare, i, 533.

INDEX OF NAMES

Abbott, ii, 438.

Abbott, Frances M., ii, S9I, 592.

Abbott, S. W., ii, 596.

Abel, ii, I33-

Abelard, ii, 533-

Abercrombie, E. E., ii, 288.

Adams, C. F., ii, 712.

Adams, Henry, ii, 446.

Adams, John, ii, 666.

Addison, Joseph, ii, 459, 472.

Adolphus, Gustavus, i, 540.

Aeschines, ii, 434.

Agassiz, i,_545; ii, 4i8.

Agathon, ii, 295.

Aguinaldo, ii, 663.

Ahrens, ii, 446.

Ahuitzotzin, ii, 680.

Aitken, ii, 673.

Akbar, ii, 705.

Alaric, ii, 337.

Albertoni, i, 449.

Alcibiades, i, 516.

Alcott, A. Bronson, i, 579; ii, 451.

Alcott, Louisa M., i, 550; ii, 472.

Aldrich, Thomas B., i, 534.

Alexander of Abonuteichos, i, 265.

Alexander, W. D., ii, 660.

Algeri, i, 495.

Allen, Grant, ii, 199, 200, 211, 576,

721, 748.
Allen, James Lane, i, 581.
Allen, Miss M. E., ii, 631.'
Allen, M. W., i, 471.
Allen, Nathan, ii, 571, 595.
Allin, Arthur, i, 232; ii, 78.
Althaus, ii, 16.
Alvarez, L. F., ii, 661.
Alzheimer, i, 292.
Anacreon, i, 368.
Andersen, Hans Christian, i, 580,

584.
Anderson, W. G., i, 34.
Andree, ii, 248, 727.
Andrews, i, 424.
Angus, ii, 96.
Anilco, ii, 691.
Anthony, i, 387.
Apathy, i, 112.
Appel, i, 55.

765

Appelius, i, 398.

Aquinas, ii, 271, 548, 729.

Arago, ii, 177.

Aretee, ii, 312.

Aristogeiton, i, 537.

Aristophanes, i, 432 ; ii, 258, 294.

Aristotle, i, in, 175, 448, 481, 513,
522; ii, 31, 41, 63, 149, 174, 251,
258, 304, 322, 328, 329, 340, 356,
366, 411, 433, 434, 455, 461, 539,
551, 597-

Armstrong, S. C, ii, 657, 659.

Arnett, L. D., ii, 450.

Arnholdt, ii, 249.

Arnold, A. B., i, 467; ii, 249.

Arnold, Matthew, i, 131 ; ii, 325.

Arnold, Thomas, i, 217; ii, 616.

Ascher, i, 371.

Aschrott, P. F., i, 397.

Aubry, i, 2,2>7-

Augagneur, i, 371.

Auvard, A., i, 424, 471, 480, 497,

498. .
Avanarius, ii, 190.
Aveling, i, 483.
Ayres, S. G., ii, 290.

Babcock, ii, 103.
Babinski, i, 112.
Bach, i, 259, 3ii-
Bachin, G., i, 443.
Bachofen, ii, 117, 372.
Bacon, Francis, ii, 329, 655.
Bacon, L. W., ii, 420.
Baer, i, 381, 431.
von Baer, i, 423 ; ii, 62.
Bailey, H. T., i, 176.
Bailey, ii, 211.
Baillarger, i, 108, 277, 291.
Baird, R., ii, 282.
Baker, ii, 157.
Baldensperger, ii, 327.
Balfour, ii, 528.
Ball, i, 388.
Ball, J. L, ii, 742.
Ballod, ii, 563.
Bancroft, C. P., i, 289.
Banks, i, 540.
Barbe, Emile, ii, y27-

766

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Baring-Gould, S., i, 524; ii, 327.

Barker, i, 112.

Barnes, Earl, i, 184, 185; ii, 102,

316, 387, 451, 483, 486.
Barnes, Mrs., ii, 480, 481.
Barres, i, 387.
Bartel, i, 388, 502.
Bartley, i, 385.
Barton, J. L., ii, Ti'^.
Barus, i, 4Q6.
Bashkirtseff, Marie, i, 554, 562,

585; ii, 629.
Basset, i, 474, 481.
Bastian, ii, 680, 727.
Bastian, ii, 190.
Bateson, i, 46.
Baudelaire, ii, 307.
Bauer, i, 344, 471.
Bauer, Bruno, ii, 324.
Baur, i. 241, 320.
Baur, F. C, ii, 324.
Baxter, i, 12.
Bayard, ii, 261, 443.
Bazaillas, ii, 327.
Beach, H. P., ii, 678, 732.
Beard, ii, 157.

Beard, G. M., i, 290, 369; ii, 570.
Beattie, ii, 532.
Beaunis, i, 419, 449.
Beck, i, 199.
Becker, i, 248.
Becker, W. A., ii, 250.
Becquerel, i, 420.
Beecher, Henry Ward, i, 538.
Beer, ii, 178.
Behnke, ii, 30, 31.
Bell, Sanford, i, 405, 471 ; ii, 13,

102, 103, 104, 106, 386, 471.
Bellarmine, Cardinal, ii, 266.
Belt, ii, 686.
Bemies, C. O., i, 230.
Benecke, i, 90, 93, 114.
Benedict, i, 72.
Benedict, A. L.,\ ii, 698.
Benseman, i, 434.
Berger, i, 434-
Bergson, ii, 249.
Berillon, i, 159, 260.
Berkeley, ii, 46, 532, 534, 535.
Berkhan, i, 270.
Bernard, i, 388.
Bernays, ii, 190.
Bernheim, ii, 249.
Berry, i, 371.

Bertillon, i, 341, 366, 393.
Bessey, ii, 211.
Bethe, ii, 53.

Beyer, H. G, i, 26, zi, 38, 40, 97,
100, 197.

Beywater, ii, 190.

Biart, Lucien, ii, 239.

Bibra, i, 80.

Bickerton, A. W., ii, 230.

Bierent, i, 71, 138, 419, 422; ii, 27.

Biese, ii, 147.

Bigelow, Poultney, ii, 666.

Billings, ii, 579.

Billroth, i, 546; ii, 23.

Binet, ii, 482, 487.

Binswanger, i, 285, 290, 308.

Bischoff, i, 84, 105, 117.

Bishop, i, 19.

Bishop, Mrs. J. R, ii, 739, 740.

Bismarck, i, 218; ii, 409.

Bizzozero, i, 34.

Black Hawk, ii, 691.

Blackman, ii, 662.

Blackwell, Elizabeth, i, 471, 480.

Blake, Clarence, ii, 22.

Blanford, i, 270, 296.

Blaschko, i, 433.

von Blomberg, A. M., i, 560.

Blood, i, 312.

Blumentritt, ii, 663, 664.

Bluntschli, i, 131.

Blyden, ii, 671.

Boal, i, 429.

Boas, Franz, i, 6, 13, zi, 78; ii, 699.

Boerhaave, ii, 312.

Boettischer, C., ii, 136.

Bohannon, E. W., i, z^, 345 ; ii,

395, 6ro.
Boismont, i, 475; ii, 587.
Bolton, F. E., ii, 193, 196, 505.
Bolton, T. L., i, 125; ii, 312, 488.
Bon jean, i, 386.
Bonnet, i, 411.
Bonwick, James, ii, 653.
Bordeau, ii, 327.
Borelli, i, 137.
Bossuet, ii, 266.
Bouchet, i, 481.
Boulger, D. C, i, 575 ; ii, 670.
Bourke, Captain J. G., ii, 681.
Bourne. H. R. Fox. ii, 668.
Bourneville, i, 415.
Boutroux, ii, 431.
Boveri, i, 34.
Bowditch, H. P., i, 6, 12, 16, 18,

30, 31, 62, 240.
Boyd, i, 99.

Boyesen, H. H., i, 539; ", §5-
Brace, C. L., ii, 659.
Brace, Julia, ii, 20.
Brackett, i, 145.
Brackett, Miss, ii, 569.
Bradford, i, 19.
Bradford, A. H., i, 386.

INDEX OF NAMES

767

Brahe, Tycho, i, 544; ". 168.

Brainerd, ii, 285.

Brandt, i, 232.

Braune, W., i, 61.

Brehm, ii, 222, 229.

Brethean, i, 240.

Breuer, J., i, 233, 278, 279; ii,

Brewster, i, 544-

Brinton, Daniel G., i, 231 ; ii,

328, 699.
Broca, ii, 92.

Brockman, F. S., i, 434; ", 28?
Bronte, Charlotte, ii, 635.
Brooke, James, ii, 701.
Brooks, E. S., ii, 690.
Brooks, Sidney, ii, 711.
Brooks, W. K., ii, 567.
Brosius, i, 271.
Brouardel, i, 339.
Brown, Elmer E., ii, 503, 504-
Brown, H. W., ii, 45i-
Brown, Lenox, ii, 30, 3i-
Brown, Miss, i, I49-
Brown, Robert, ii, 674, 679.
Brown, Thomas, ii, 5.
Brown-Sequard, i, 448.
Browne, C. E., ii, 186, 224.
Browning, Robert, ii, 456.
Browning, Mrs., ii, 635.
Brunetiere, ii, 462.
Bruno, ii, 540.
Bruns, i, 275.
Bryan, W. L., i, 142, 146, 147,

165, 182, 183; ii, .S64.
Bryant, William C, i, 539; ii, 8
Bryant, W. M., ii, 161.
Biicher, i, 215.
Buchholtz, ii, 253.
Buck, ii, 417.

Bucke, W. F., ii, 222, 223, 224,
Buckley, Edmund, ii, 99.
Buckley, J. M., ii, 289.
Budge, i, 448, 449.
Bullard, i, 145.
Bullock, H. L., i, 373.
Bullock, R. W., ii, 475-
Bunge, i, 260; ii, 631.
Burgerstein, i, 11, 244.
Burk, Caroline Frear, ii, 394, i
Burk, Frederic, i, 6, 8, 11, 32,

155, 185, 207, 216, 358, 359.
Burke, i, 116.
Btirlitz, ii, 727.
Burnett, Frances Hodgson, i,

551.
Burnham, William H., i, 536,

ii, 292.
Burns, i, 237.
Burrows, Captain Guy, ii, 668.

121.
133,

149.

227.

109,

534,
543;

Burton, Sir Richard, ii, 668.

Bushnell, Horace, i, 579.

Butler, Nicholas Murray, ii, 531.

Biitschli, i, 88.

Buxton, Thomas, i, 540.

du Buy, Jean, ii, 50, 361.

Byerly, ii, 515.

Byford, ii, 570.

Byrnes, i, 366.

Byron, Lord, i, 541 ; ii, 148.

Cabot, i, 430.

Cabot, Sebastian, ii, 652, 689.

Cagliostro, i, 350.

Cajal, S. Ramon y, i, 107, 112, 208.

Calderini, i, 475.

Caldo, i, 431.

Caley, i, 412.

Calhoun, ii, 380.

Calle Shasta, ii, 691.

Calmeil, i, 266, 268.

Camerer, i, 12, 14, 22 ; ii, 12.

Cameron, Jane, i, 368.

Campbell, ii, 20.

de Candolle, ii, 92.

Canisius, Edgar, ii, 668.

Canning, ii, 703.

Capes, W. W., ii, 250.

Carey, ii, 744.

Carlyle, Thomas, i, 180, 568.

Carlyle, Mrs., i, 208.

Carman, Ada, ii, 4.

Carman, Kate, i, 158.

Carr, H. A., i, 233.

Carrara, i, 365.

Carroll, H. K., ii, 288.

Carroll, Lewis, ii, 455.

Carstadt, i, 12.

Cartwright, i, 540.

Carus, i, 450.

Cassell, ii, 157.

Catiline, ii, 434.

Catlin, ii, 699.

Ceni, i, 112.

Cetewayo, ii, 670, 720.

Chabas, ii, 249.

Chadwick, i, 475.

Chaka, ii, 720.

Chalmers, Lillian H., i, 208.

Chamberlain, ii, 711.

Chamberlain, A. F., i, 79, 474; ii,

98, 455, 468, 698, 699.
Chambers, W. G., ii, 390, 619.
Charcot, i, 248, 275, 276; ii, 121.
Charles, H., i, 67.
Charmides, i, 514.
Charpy, i, 421
Chatterton. Thomas, i, 538.
' Chaucer, Geoffrey, ii, 442.

768

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Chestnutt, C. W., i, 580.
Childe, R. L., ii, 233.
Christian, J., i, T.},'], 303.
Christopher, W. S., i, 36, 2,1, 148,

151, 266.
Cicero, ii, 411.
Claparede, ii, 249.
Clapp, i, 199.
Clapp, President, ii, 532.
Clark, Sir Andrew, ii, 663, 701.
Clark, Campbell, i, 270, 445, 498,

501.
Clark, Francis E., ii, 423.
Clarke, ii, 532.

Clarke, E. H., ii, 561, 569, 570, 639.
Cleinias, i, 514, 515.
Cleveland, Duchess of, i, 283.
Clive, ii, 709.
Cloquet, H., ii, 15.
Clouston, T. S., i, 242, 257, 258, 259,

261, 269, 270, 271, 275, 338, 446,

500, 501 ; ii, 109, 563, 573, 574.
Clovis, ii, 730.
Cobb, Misses, ii, 635.
Cobb, Sylvanus, ii, 474.
Cobbe, Miss F. P., i, 491.
Cobden-Sanderson, i, 180.
Cockayne, ii, 209.
Codrington, ii, 656.
Coe, George A., i, 314; ii, 291, 292

340, 345, 348, 350, 351.
Coghlan, ii, 606.

Cohn, Hermann, i, 23, 433, 434, 437.
Cole, R. E., ii, 289.
Colegrove, F. W., ii, 492, 493, 494.
Colenso, Frances E., ii, 670.
Colenso, W., ii, 656.
Coleridge, Hartley, i, 350, 565.
Coleridge, Samuel T., i, 312, 566,

567.
Collet, Mary, i, 578.
Colson, O., ii, 727.
Columbus, ii, 679, 689.
Combe, i, 11, 12, 18, 33, 246, 262.
Combe, George, i, 542.
Comstock, i, 374.
Comte, i, 534; ii, 135, 194, 356, 359,

577, 742.
Conant, W. H., ii, 282.
Conder, C. R., ii, 198.
Conradi, Edward, ii, 466, 467, 468,

471, 472, 478.
Cook, i, 118.

Cook, Captain, ii, 657, 658.
Cooper, James Fenimore, ii, 729.
Cooper, Peter, i, 539.
Cope, i, 46, 50, 56, 241.
Cornell, ii, 327.

Corre, A., i, 326, 329, 334, Z7Z, 379.

386, 391.
Corson, ii, 441.
Cortereal, ii, 689.
Cortez, ii, 679, 681, 686.
Coues, Elliott, ii, 699.
Cowles, Edward, i, 290, 291, 389.
Cox, ii, 170.
Cox, C. N., ii, 17.
Cramer, F., ii, 250.
Creery (Sisters), i, 265.
Cressey, F. G., ii, 420.
Crichton-Browne, James, i, 263,

312; ii, 577.
Crispi, ii, 705.
Crook, i, 199.

Crook, General, ii, 690, 691.
Croswell, T. R., i, 210.
Crowthers, ii, 744.
Crozier, ii, 747.
Cudworth, ii, 532.
Cullack, i, 259.
Cullen, ii, 312.
Cullerre, i, 270.
Currier, A. F., i, 475.
Curtin, J., ii, 727.
Curzon, Lord, ii, 702.
Cushing, ii, 99, 686, 697, 699, 700.
Cyprian, ii, 336.
Czermak, ii, 4.
von Czobel, ii, 328.

Daffner, i, 12, 64, TJ.

D'Alva, ii, 680.

D'Alviella, ii, 327.

Damm, i, 79.

Dana, ii, 518.

Daniels, i, 429.

Daniels, Arthur H., ii, 292, 328.

Dante, ii, 339, 456.

Daraskiewicz, i, 303.

Darrah, E. M., ii, 394.

Darwin, Charles R., i, 215, 502, 542,
586; ii, 25, 55, 62, no, 138, 210,
368, 524, 550, 579, 634, 655.

Darwin, G. H., ii, 178.

Daudet, i, 173.

Davenport, ii, 285.

Davenport-Hill, Florence, i, 401.

David, E., ii, 403.

David, N., i, 326.

Davidson, ii, 289.

Davy, Sir Humphry, i, 312, 541.

Dawson, G. E., i, 45, 174, 338-

Dawson, Sir John W., ii, 92.

Day, Clive, ii, 668.

De Fleury, i, 405.

Deharbe, ii, 267.

Dejerine, i, 112.

INDEX OF NAMES

769

Delauney, ii, 27.

Delboeuf, i, 449; ii, 379-

Delbriick, i, 266.

Deleal, ii, 150.

Delitsch, ii, 395.

Delitzsch, ii, 328.

De Long, ii, 479-

Demetz, i, 396.

Deming, ii, 594.

Demolins, ii, 513-

Demoor, i, 336, 344-

Dennis, James S., ii, 730, 731.

Denomme, i, 275.

Deny, G., i, 303-

De Quincey, Thomas, i, 563, 565.

Dercum, i, 112.

De Sanctis, i, 262, 276, 380.

Descartes, ii, 45, S3, 54, 215, S4i,

644. ..

Deschamps, Gaston, u, 462.
Desjardins, ii, 323, 431.
De Soto, ii, 689.
Despine, i, 366, 370, 394, 396.
Deuschle, ii, 254.
Dewar, A. R., ii, 230.
Dewey, John, ii, 584, 590, 602.
Dexter, E. G., i, 347-
DeYoe, F. E., ii, 505.
Diaz, ii, 705.

Dickens, Charles, i, 577; ii, 472.
Diderot, i, 191.
Dido, i, 208.

Digby, William, ii, 701, 702, 703.
Dilke, Sir Charles, ii, 712.
Dingyswago, ii, 667.
Diotima, ii, 254.
Dittenberger, ii, 250.
Dobeln, ii, 480.
Doggett, L. L., ii, 421.
Dohm, i, 199.
Dohrn, ii, 191.
Dolch, Oskar, ii, 403.
Dollo, i, 46.

Donaldson, H. H., i, 107, 207.
Donath, i, 35, 275.
Dore, ii, 479.
Doring, i, 502 ; ii, 122.
Dorsey, ii, 699.
Douglass, Frederick, i, 580.
Down, J. Langdon, i, 274, 281, 283.
Drahms, i, 328, 329, 330.
Drelincourt, ii, no.
Dresslar, F. B., i, 158; ii, 34.
Drew, Frank, ii, 113.
Droysen, ii, 730.

Drummond, Henry, ii, 328, 372, 666.
Drysdale, Lieutenant, ii, 673.
Dubarry, A., i, 363.
Du Bois, i, 475.

Diickelmann, i, 471.

Duff, Grant, ii, 710.

Dugas, ii, 133, 371.

Dugdale, i, 342.

Dumont, A., ii, 250, 724.

Duncan, J. M., ii, 596, 597.

Duncan, William, ii, 648, 692, 693,

694.
Dupenlin, i, 440.
Dupenloup, Mons., ii, 268.
Duprat, G. L., ii, 367.
Duran, ii, 685.
Durfee, ii, 287.
Dutt, R. C, ii, 703.
Duval, i, 413.
Dyer, T. F. Thiselton, ii, 209.

Earle, ii, 282.

Earle, ii, 463.

Eaton, S. W., ii, 473-

Ebbinghaus, ii, 395.

Ebers, Georg, i, 563, 584, 585.

Eckhart, ii, 162, 540.

Edes, R. T., i, 286 ; ii, 636.

Edinger, i, 112.

Edison, i, 538.

Edson, Cyrus, ii, 579-..

Edwards, Jonathan, ii, 281, 282,
283, 284, 28s, 532, 542.

Eliot, ii, 729.

Eliot, Charles W., ii, 594.

Eliot, George, i, 536, 538; ii, 635.

Elkin, ii, 661.

Ellis, A. C, i, 208; ii, 497-

Ellis, G. Harold, ii, 201.

Ellis, Havelock, 1,278,451,470,471,
480, 481, 491, 500, 501; ii, no,
116, 119, 139, 141, 194, 562, 564,

565, 567-
Ellis, John, ii, 596.
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, i, 550; ii,

167, 468, 472.
Emminghaus, i, 269, 276.
Emreich, Katherine, i, 265.
Endicott, ii, 689. ^
Enebuske, i, 196.
Engedi, Count, ii, 323.
Engelmann, George J., i, 250, 477,

478, 487, 509, 511; ii, 587, 588,

601, 602, 605.
Erasmus, ii, 729.
Erismann, Fr., i, 11, 12, 99, 124,

134, 140, 141.
Esquirol, i, 267, 491.
Eulenberg, i, 256, 259, 311.
Evans, E. E., i, 283.
Ewald, i, 336.
Ewer, ii, 275.

770

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF .\DOLESCENCE

Falret, i, 277.

Familler, ii, 327.

Farr, ii, 725.

Farrington, ii, 651.

Farwell, Arthur, ii, 695.

Fasbender, i, 6.

Fawcett, Mrs., i, 491 ; ii, 723.

Fechner, Gustav T., ii, 53, 208, 210.

Fehling, i, 12.

Fenelon, i, 521 ; ii, 266.

Fere, Ch., i, 141, 471 ; ii, 16, 140,

312.
Ferran, i, 578.
Ferrero, i, 211, 357, 474.
Ferri, i, 329, 388, 389.
Ferriani, i, 340, 352, 357, 365, 370,

371, 393.
Feuerbach, ii, 327.
Fewkes, J. Walter, ii, 237, 696, 699,

700.
Fichte, ii, 51, 82, 147, 400, 408, 409,

49§, 499, Soo, 533, 537, 556.
Fick. i, 268.
Fielding, H. {See Fielding Hall),

i, 225, 563, 571.
Fillmore, J. C, ii, 695.
Finck, i, 270, 303.
Finck, Henry T., i, 471, 586; ii,

.115, 134, 582, 583.
Finklestein, i, 490.
Finney, ii, 282.
Fischer, Karl, ii, 328.
Fischer, O., i, 61.
Fischer, Th. A., ii, 197.
Fish, ii, 282.
Fiske, John, ii, 315, 2^z, 3V, 679,

681.
Fitch, Sir Joshua, ii, 494, 717.
Flammarion, ii, 177.
Flamsteed, i, 545.
Flaubert, ii, 196.
Flechsig, i, 107, 109, no, in, 112,

208.
Fleischer, C, ii, 262.
Fletcher, Alice C, ii, 235, 635, 695,

699, 700.
Fletcher, Robert, i, 125.
Flood, i, 427, 428, 429.
Flournoy, ii, 327.
Fock, i, 125.
Folkard, ii, 209.
Follen, Carl, ii, 409.
Forbes, Francis B., ii, 711.
Forbush, W. B., i, 407; ii, 417, 444.
Forel, i, 318; ii, 53, 230, 403.
Forlong, i, 470 ; ii, 98.
Fornelli, i, 319.
Foster, Michael, ii, 521.
Fournier, i, 433, 443, 470.

France, C. J., ii, 392,

Franklin, Benjamin, i, 539; ii, 86,

602.
Eraser, Alexander, ii, 5, 46.
Frazer, James G., ii, in, 245, 253.
Frear, Caroline. {See Caroline

Frear Burk.)
Fredericq, i, 419.
Freeman, ii, 446.
Frere, Sir Bartle, ii, 671, 720.
Freud, S., i, 233, 278, 279, 285 ; ii,

121.
Freund, i, 427.
Friederici, G, ii, 690.
Friedreich, i, 354.
Friedrich, J., ii, 390.
Friend, Hilderic, ii, 209.
Frobenius, L., ii, 747.
Froebel, i, 176, 231, 585; ii, 81, 496,

497-
Froschammer, ii, 47.
Froschmer, i, 350.
Froude, ii, 278, 440, 713.
Fuchs, Arno, i, 282.
Fuerbach, i, 354.
Fuller, Margaret, ii, 635.
Fulton, Robert, i, 539; ii, 86.
Fiirbringer, i, 433.
Fullness, ii, 670.

Gale, Harlow, i, 208; ii, 451.
Galileo, i, 544; ii, 168.
Galippe, ii, 571.
Gall, i, 448, 501.

Galton, Francis, i, 11, 16, 27, 40,
47, 76, 201 ; ii, 188, 564, 599, 606,

725, 748.
Gamble, Miss E. B., i, 471, 491; ii,

116, 328.
Gamgee, i, 250.
Ganot, ii, 518.
Garbini, ii, 30.
Garcia, G Manuel, ii, 30.
Gardiner, ii, 446.
Garfield, James A., i, 539.
Garland, Hamlin, ii, 696, 699.
Garner, J. L., ii, 239.
Garofalo, i, 409.
Garraud, i, 388.

Garrison, William Lloyd, ii, 681.
Gattel, i, 278, 285.
Gaule, J., ii, 174.
Gaume, ii, 267.
Gautama, ii, 314.
Gautier, i, 442.
Gautier, ii, 657.
Gavarret, i, 104.
Gay, G. E., ii, 506.
Geddes, i, 278, 418; ii, no.

INDEX OF NAMES

771

Gegenbaur, Carl, i, 546.

Geigel, Richard, i, 414. ^

Geissler, Arthur, i, 11, 12, 18.

Gerhard, Adele, ii, 603.

Gerhardt, i, 22.

Gerson, Chancellor, ii, 266.

Gibson, W. H., i, 54i-

Giddings, ii, 431.

Gifford, i, 538; ii, 85.

Gilbert, J. Allen, i, 12, 92, 135, 136,

143, 146; ii, 4. 33, 34, 36, 564-
Gildersleeve, Basil L., i, 203, 520.
Gillies, ii, 282.
Gilman, i, 172.
Girand, i, 388, 499.
Girard, Paul, ii, 250.
Glaevecke, i, 430.
Godard, E., i, 417.
Goddard, ii, 235.
Godfernaux, i, 318.
Godin, P., i, 8, 53.
Goethe, i, 72, 172, 338, 533. 563,

S8i, 582, 583, 58s ; ii, 35, 78, 174,

303, 441, 447, 472.
Goetze, W., i, 177.
Goldie, i, 34.
Goldsmith, Oliver, i, 541.
Gomme, ii, 98.
Goodman, i, 199.
Goodsell, D. A., ii, 288.
Gordon, General Charles G., i, 575 ;

ii, 664, 670.
Gottheil, G., ii, 262.
Gotze, C, i, 185.
Goubert, i, 239.
Goudin, i, 466.

Gould, George M., i, 501 ; ii, 202.
Gowers, i, 274, 275, 445.
Grahame, i, 534.
Granger, ii, 327.
Grant, Cecil, ii, 523.
Grant, U. S., i, 542; ii, 737.
Grasberger, L., i, 200, 203; ii, 250,

252, 257. __
Grasserie, ii, 327.
Gratacap, ii, 327.
Gray, ii, 210.
Greely, i, 38.
Green, ii, 446.
Greenwood, i, 262.
Greenwood, J. M., ii, 506.
Grey, Sir George, ii, 701.
Grey, J. Grattan, ii, 656.
Griffin, President, ii, 288.
Griffing, ii, 34.
Grigorescu, i, 140.
Grimm (Brothers), ii, 98.
Grimm, Jacob, i, 218 ; ii, 409.
Grinnell, G. B., ii, 698.

Groeningen, ii, 370.

Groos, i, 129, 160, 202, 235.

Grote, i, 201 ; ii, 321.

Grotius, ii, 714.

Guidi, i, 255.

Guimet, M., ii, 325.

Guinard, i, 428; ii, 140.

Gulick, Luther H., i, 138, 206, 209,

225, 407, 471 ; ii, 99, 290, 396.
Gunkel, Hermann, ii, 327, 336.
Gurney, i, 266.
Gurriesi, i, 78.
Gutsmuth, i, 201.
Guy, i, 91, 343.
Guyau, a, 133, 303, 651.

Haddon, ii, 239, 240.

Haeckel, ii, 327.

Haeker, i, 475.

Hagen, i, 270, 271.

Hale, Edward Everett, ii, 420.

Hale, Horatio, ii, 699.

Hale, Lord, i, 373.

Hall, A. C, i, 405.

Hall, C. M., ii, 289.

Hall, Fielding, ii, 245, 349, 648, 670,

709. (See H. Fielding.)
Hall, G. Stanley, i, 125, 149, 208,

264; ii, 78, 176, 417.
Hall, Marshall, ii, 53.
Hall, W. S., i, 19, 25, 59, 61, 66,

67, 68, 125.
Haller, i, 120, 425.
Hamilton, ii, 390.
Hamilton, A. M., i, 274.
Hamm, i, 418.
Hammond, i, 269, 433, 501.
Hammond, E. P., ii, 288, 290, 291.
Hancock, John A., i, 145, 164; ii,

470, 482.
Happel, Julius, ii, 425.
Hardwicke, ii, 433.
Harlez, ii, 742.
Harmodius, i, 537.
Harnack, ii, 229, 327, 744.
Harper, Miss L H., ii, 583.
Harper, William R., ii, 505, 531,

631.
Harris, i, 427.
Harris, W. T., i, 320, 579.
Harrison, i, 491.
Harrison, General, ii, 199.
Hartenberg, P., ii, 371.
Harter, i, 182.
Hartmann, i, 305, 375, 398, 409, 440 ;

ii, 327, 359-
Hartwell, E. W., i, 125, 149, 248,

250, 259.
Harvard, i, 470.

772

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Harvey, P. T., ii, 652, 666.
Haslett, S. B., ii, 361.
Hastings, Warren, ii, 707.
Hastings, W. W., i, 53, 103, 135.
Hatch, ii, 325, 328.
Hatfield, i, 511.
Hatton, ii, 652.
Hauptmann, i, 587; ii, 633.
Hauser, Kasper, i, 282, 283.
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, i, 539; ii, 85.
Hayes, Alice, ii, 585, 586.
Hayes, S. P., ii, 282, 698.
Heape, i, 473.
Hecker, i, 12, 265, 266, 267, 303;

ii, 598.
Heeler, ii, 328.
Hegar, ii, 563, 580, 721.
Hegel, i, 305, 542; ii, 51, 55, 102,

147, 326, 328, 339, 359, 446, 542,

551-
Heidi, i, 534.
Heine, i, 542; ii, 583.
Heinroth, i, 353 ; ii, 310.
Heiser, i, 257.
Helfericht, ii, 250.
Helmholtz, i, 152; ii, 544.
Helwald, ii, 380.
Hemmeter, i, 546.
Henderson, i, 282.
Henderson, H. C, ii, 476.
Heneoch, i, 237.
Henle, i, 75.
Henry, Joseph, i, 539.
Henry, Patrick, i, 538; ii, 85.
Henry, W. O., i, 429.
Henter, i, 67.

Heraclitus, ii, 64, 124, 190, 191, 197.
Herbart, i, 162, 242, 309; ii, 58, 496.
Herbert, George, i, 578.
Hering, i, 94.
Hermann, ii, 250.
Herrick, Miss, ii, 483.
Herschel, William, i, 545; ii, 174.
Hertel, Axel, i, 11, 12, 17, 18, 243,

244, 245, 250.
Hertwig, j, 57.
Hervey, ii, 282.
Herzen, i, 152.
Hesiod, ii, 340.
Heubner, i, 255.
Hill, Frank A., ii, 507.
Hille, H., ii, 136.
Hinsdale, i, 145.
Hippias, i, 191.
Hippocrates, i, 227, 265, 432, 503 ;

ii, 541-
Hirn, ii, 698, 727.
Hirsch, i, 320.
Hirt, i, 241.

Hitchcock, Edward, i, 7, 26, 62, 86,

97, 133, 134; ii, 287.
Hobbes, i, 578 ; ii, 46, 329, 359.
Hobson, J. A., ii, 667, 668.
Hoch, i, 292.
Hodder, E., ii, 656.
Hodge, C. F., i, 18; ii, 53, 211.
Hoffmann, ii, 353.
Hoflfmann, H., ii, 483.
Hoffmann, Louis, ii, 158.
Holder, C. R, i, 545.
Holl, Karl, ii, 327.
Holmes, J. L., ii, 244.
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, i, 539; ii,

574-
Holmes, W. H., ii, 699.
Holtzendorfif, i, 397, 408.
Homer, ii, 369, 434, 649.
Hood, ii, 636.
Hopf, ii, 480.

Hopkins, E. Washburn, ii, 245.
Hopkins. Manley, ii, 733.
Hopkins, Mark, ii, 287.
Hopkins, N. M., ii, 158.
Hoppe, J. J., ii, 364.
Horace, i, 432.
Horn, ii, 12.
Hornemann, i, 244.
Horsley, ii, 650.
Horsley, J. W., i, 369.
Horwicz, i, 394; ii, 137.
Hosslin, i, 433.
Hough, ii, 699.
Howard, ii, 98.
Howard, F. E., ii, 32.
Howe, i, 471.
Howe, i, 478.

Howells, William Dean, i, 534.
Howerth, L W., ii, 447.
Howes, Annie G. (Mrs. Annie H.

Barus), ii, 583, 590, 602.
Hoyt, M. A., ii, 147.
Hrdlicka, i, 63, 69, 126; ii, 238.
Hiickstadt, E., i, 431.
Hughes, i, 217.
Hughes, James L., i, 577.
Hugo, ii, 472.

Humboldt, i, 542; ii, 150, 687.
Hume, i, 375 ; ii, 46, 47, 533, 535-
Hunt, Helen, ii, 691.
Hunt, Holman, i, 576.
Hunter, John, i, 538, 542.
Hurlbut, J. L., ii, 289.
Hutchinson, ii, 532.
Huxley, Leonard, i, 545.
Huxley, Thomas H., i, 62, 142, 541,

545; ii, 214, 304, 329, 455, 524.

527, 548, 550, 578, 691.
Huyghens, ii, 542.

INDEX OF NAMES

773

Hyatt, i, 56; ii, 418, 568.
Hyde, C. M., ii, 662.
Hylan, John P., ii, 2)2T.
Hypatia, ii, 635.

laffe, ii, 249.

Ibsen, i, 447; ", 353, 40i, 441, 442.

Icard, D. G., i, 480, 498.

Idler, ii, 310.

Ignatieff, i, 383-

Ilberg, G., i, 237, 303.

Infeld, i, 292.

Inge, ii, 327.

Inglesant, John, i, 577, 578.

Inman, ii, 98.

Ion, i, 515-

Ireland, i, 260, 282, 360.

Ireland. Alleyne, ii, 713.

Irons, I. W., i, 478.

Irving, Washington, i, 541.

Itard, i, 284.

Jackson, Hughlings, i, 108, no, in,

112, 207, 304.
Jacobi, i, 483, 486, 504; ii, 53-
Jacobi, Mary P., ii, 586.
Jacoby, A., ii, 657.
Jaeger, ii, 16, 19.
Jaeger, Gustav, i, 68, 82, 120, 203
Jaeger, O. H., ii, 250.
von Jaekel, ii, 727.
Jagemann, i, 397.
Jahn, i, 129, 187, 188, 196, 540;

ii, 499.
James, Alexander, i, 257.
James, G. W., ii, 665, 694, 699.
James, William, i, 457; ii, 44, 292,

327, 328, 340.
Janet, Pierre, i, 276, 277, 278, 280,

394-
Jankau, ii, 579.
Jastrow, M., ii, 327.
Jayle, i, 430.
Jefferson, Thomas, i, 539; ii, 456,

666.
Jeffries, i, 563, 569; ii, 85, 135,

150, 162.
Jegi, ii, 389.
Jenks, A. E., ii, 698.
Jennings, i, 470; ii, 98.
Jessen, i, 268.
Joan of Arc, i, 265, 540.
' Johnson, G. E:, i, 160, 231, 232,

407; ii, 488.
Johnson, Jr., John, ii, 397.
Johnston, C. A., i, 487.
Johnston, Sir Harry, ii, 670, 673,

674.
Johnston, O. W., i, 485, 486.

Joly, i, 320, 328.

Jones, Lloyd, i, 96.

Jones, William, ii, 198.

Jordan, David Starr, i, 56; ii, 379,

527, 612, 613, 614.
Joubert, C. H., i, 476.
Jouin, ii, 267.

Jowett, Benjamin, i, 513; ii, 458.
Juarez, President, ii, 687.
Jiidd, Charles H., ii, 49.
Judson, ii, 744.
Jukes, i, ZiT, 342, 343-
Julian, Emperor, ii, 728.
Julliard, i, 379.
Just, Karl, ii, 76.

Kaan, i, 290, 466.

von Kaas, i, 171.

Kaes, i, 107, 108, 109, III, 112.

Kafemann, ii, 32.

Kahlbaum, i, 267, 269, 301.

Kaiser, i, 107.

Kakuskine, i, 474.

Kamehameha I., ii, 658.

Kandinsky, i, 350.

Kant, Immanuel, i, 5; ii, 41, 42, 45,

51, 82, 147, 293, 400, 533, 535, 541,

547, 548, 551, 714-
Kayme, G. S., ii, 666.
Keane, ii, 655.
Keate, ii, 657.

Keats, John, i, 538; ii, 85, 149.
Kees, M. S., ii, 289.
Keibel, i, 55.
Keill, i, 501.
Keim, Theodor, i, 523.
Keith, i, 474.

Keller, Gottfried, i, 563, 585.
Keller, Helen, i, 554.
Kemsies, ii, 489.

Kennedy, Helen P., i, 475; ii, 587.
Kent, ii, 640.
Kepler, ii, 168.
Kern, i, 502.
Ketterer, i, 472.
Key, Axel, i, 11, 12, t6, 17, 18, 23,

24, 25, 31, 244, 245, 246, 248, 250,

259, 260, 511.
Khayyam, Omar, i, 368.
Kidd, ii, 513, 748.
Kierkengaard, ii, 312, 327.
Kiernan, i, 500.
Kinast, ii, 327.
Kind, i, 260.
King, i, 483.
King, G. F., ii, 198.
Kinkead, T. L., ii, 268.
Kinnaman, A. J., ii, 502.

774

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Kipling, Rudyard, ii, 456, 459, 498,

705.
Kirkpatrick, E. A., ii, 476.
Kirn, Ludwig, i, 388; ii, 312.
Kisch, E., i, 255.
Klein, i, 276.
Kleinpaul, i, 450.
Kline, L. W., i, 33, 45, 141, 348;

ii, 194, 375, 377, 380, 381, 389,

392, 450.
Klive, Stella, ii, 629.
Knapp, F., ii, 233.
Kneipp, Father, i, 255, 466.
Knight, ii, 99.
Koch, i, 239.
Koch, E., ii, 327.
Koch, M., ii, 136.
Kolk, H. E., i, 171.
Kolliker, i, 112.
Korosi, ii, 598, 599.
Kosinzoff, i, 383.
Koster, i, 502; ii, 312.
Kotelmann, L., i, 11, 12, 59, 69, 85,

87, 99, 123, 136, 137, 138, 140.
Kotzebue, ii, 409.
Kovalevski, P. L, i, 291, 388, 491,

495, 499-
Kozle, i, 345; 11, 305-
Kraenzlein, i, 199.
Kraepelin, Emil, i, 237, 301, 302,

303, 304, 306, 310, 323, 344; ii, 312.
Krafft-Ebing, i, 286, 295, 303, 318,

388, 426, 433, 449, 470, 495, 499-
Kratz, H. E., ii, 385, 486.
Krause, ii, 250.
Kraussold, ii, 310, 311.
Krieger, i, 475,^ 476.
von Kries, J., i, 280.
Kroemer, i, 426.
Krohne, i, 398.

Kropotkin, Prince, ii, 396, 747.
Krug, i, 256.
Kuczynski, R. R., ii, 601.
Kiihne, i, 232.
Kiilpe, ii, 37.
Kurnig, i, 440.
Kurufa, i, 171.

Laas, ii, 41.

Laborde, i, 481.

Lacassagne, i, 388.

Lacenaire, i, 387.

Laden, L'Abbe, ii, 268.

Lafayette, i, 540.

Lallemand, i, 432.

Lamb, Charles, i, 312; ii, 440.

Lancaster, E. G., i, 99, 253, 337, 426,

459, 475, 535, 537, 543, 544 ; ii, 23,
77, 292, 328, 384, 477, 484.

Landois, i, 93, 105.

Landsberger, i, 12, 14, 61, 66, 67, 71,

72, 75, lOI.
Lange, C, i, 457.
von Lange, Emil, i, 11, 18, 23, 26,

42.
Lange, F. A., 11, 551.
Lange, K., i, 184, 185.
Lanny, William, ii, 655.
Laponge, ii, 431.
Larsen, Viola, i, 501.
Lasalle, ii, 190.
Las Casas, ii, 653, 681.
Lavelle, M. J., ii, 268.
Law, F. H., ii, 505.
Lawrence, E. A., ii, 730, 734.
Lawrence, Henry, ii, 703, 706,
Laycock, i, 121, 501.
Lear, E., ii, 455.
Learoyd, Miss, ii, 472.
Le Bon, ii, 431, 577.
Le Conte, ii, 518, 549.
Le Dantec, i, 471.
Lee, F. S., i, 424, 472, 483.
Lee, Joseph, i, 226, 228.
Leeuwenhoek, i, 418.
Lefevre, ii, 147, 327, 727.
Lefifingwell, i, 380.
Legrande du Saulle, i, 277, 291.
Leitner, G. W., ii, 648, 666, 710, 711.
Lelut, i, 320.
Lemire, ii, 742.
Lemoine, i, 394.
Lemon, J. S., i, 348-
Leonard, A. G, ii, 670.
Leopold, ii, 669.
Lepelletier, ii, 258.
Le Plongeon, ii, 682.
Leport, i, 413.
Lerber, ii, 403.
Leroy-Beaulieu, ii, 713.
Lesbonax, ii, 253.
Lesgaft, i, 247.
Letourneau, ii, 392, 447, 727.
Leuba, James H., ii, 292, 327, 340,

344-
Leusbuscher, R., i, 266, 268.
Levinstein, i, 270.
Levy, i, 496.

Levy, Miriam B., ii, 175.
Lewis, Ida, i, 540.
Lewis, W. Bevan, i, 273, 299; ii,

312.
Libby, M. F., i, 533.
Liharzik, i, 18, 23, 25. 53, 61, 67,

75-
Lilienfeld, ii, 359, 431.
Lilienthal, Max, ii, 263.
Lincoln, Abraham, ii, 681.

INDEX OF NAMES

775

Linde, A. v. d., i, 283.

Lindley, E. H., i, 158, 166, 317; ii,

192, 485.
Ling, i, 102, 192, 201.
Ling-Roth, H., ii, 653.
Linnaeus, ii, 210.
Lippert, ii, 245, 328.
Lipsius, ii, 350.
Liveing, i, 261.

Livingstone, David, ii, 666, 715.
Lloyd, H. D., ii, 656.
Lobsien, ii, 486, 491.
Locke, G. H., ii, 526.
Locke, John, i, 58; ii, 46, 532.
Lockyer, ii, 542.
Lode, i, 418.
Loeb, i, 112; ii, 53.
Loewenthal, i, 483.
Loisel, G., ii, 109.
Lombroso, i, 320, 321, 334, 335, 357,

359, 365, 371, 387, 390, 401, 431,

433, 474; ii, 4, 92, 301.
Long, i, 199.
Longkanel, ii, 222.
Lord, W. F., ii, ^Z7^
Lorey, i, 117.
Lortet, i, 425.
Loti, Pierre, i, 588.
Lotze, ii, 9, 51, 97, 323, 403, 545.
Louis XIV., ii, 177.
Lounsbury, ii, 468.
Lourbet, ii, 565.
Low, Leopold, ii, 265.
Lowe, F. H., i, 393.
Lowell, A. L., ii, 713.
Lowell, James Russell, i, 541 ; ii,

468, 509, 513, 686.
Lowenfeld, i, 285, 433.
Loyola, ii, 310.

Lubbock, Sir John, ii, 198, 213.
Luckey, G. W. A., ii, 35.
Lucretius, ii, 354, 460.
Ludwig, i, 129 ; ii, 97, 609.
Lugard, ii, 734.
Liihrmann, i, 292.
Luigi, i, 99.

Lukens, H. T., i, 184, 185 ; ii, 483.
Lullies, i, 475, 476.
Lully, ii, 729.
Lumholtz, Carl, ii, 655, 683, 684,

685.
Luther, Martin, i, 523; ii, 31, 42,

278, 279, 408, 500.
Luys, i, 449.
Lycurgus, i, 465.
Lyell, i, 542; ii, 92.
Lyon, ii, 357.
Lysis, i, 514.

McBurney, R. R., ii, 421.
McConnell, ii, 327.
McCosh, ii, 44, 533-
McCulloch, O. C., i, 2>ZT.
McCurdy, J. H., i, I97-
McDermott, Louisa, ii, 484.
MacDonald, Arthur, i, 365; ii, 381.
Macdonald, Sir John, ii, 693.
McDonald, ii, 505.
McGee, W. J., ii, 238, 699.
McGhee, i, 211, 230.
McKay, i, 265.
McKenzie, ii, 28, 30.
McKim, W. D., i, 394.
MacLane, Mary, i, 559; ii, 629.
McMaster, ii, 286.
McRitchie, ii, 92, 727.
Mabille, i, 388, 499.
Macaulay, ii, 459, 472, 656.
Macdougal, ii, 211.
Mackay, A., ii, yz},, 745.
Mackay, G. L., ii, 745.
Mackintosh, James, i, 350, 540; ii,

532.
Mackintosh, William, ii, 328.
Macmillan, Hugh, ii, 211.
Madden, i, 95.
Maedler, ii, 178.
Maekler-Ferryman, Lieut.-Col., ii,

Mager, H., ii, 656.

Magnan, i, 285, zyj, 449, 450; ii,

312.
Magnus, ii, 15.
Mailander, i, 375.
Mailouch, i, 440.
Maine, Sir Henry, ii, 398.
Mairet, i, 288.
Maitland, ii, 98.
Maitland, Louise M., ii, 484.
Malling-Hansen, i, 21, 22, 32, 34.
Mallock, ii, 327.
Malo, ii, 661.
Malthus, ii, 602.
Manaceine, i, 262.
Manilus, Senator, i, 465.
Mann, Horace, i, 236.
Mannhardt, ii, 214, 253.
Mantegazza, i, 419, 502; ii, 16, 134,

327-
Marci, i, 495.
Marcon, Paul, ii, 683.
Marholm, Laura, ii, 627.
Marie, i, 81, 427.
Marion, ii, 652.
Marius, ii, 307.
Marks, M. A. M., ii, 702.
Marquardt, ii, 250.
Marro, i, 69, 81, 104, 115, 133, 153,

776

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

225, 237, 260, 272, 284, 296, 297,

298, 299, 304, 330, 331, 333, 345,
357, 364, 390, 414, 415, 419. 426,
427, 448, 466, 474, 489; 11, 3, II,
17, 18, 27, 109.

Marsh, Mary, ii, 652.

Martel, Charles, ii, 730.

Martin, ii, 563.

Martineau, Harriet, i, 542; ii, 635.

Marwedel, i, 471.

Masetti, i, 78.

Masini, ii, 27.

Mason, O. T., ii, 92, 699, 721.

Massasoit, ii, 691.

Masselon, i, 283.

Mather, Cotton, ii, 288.

Mathew, John, ii, 656.

Mathews, R. H., ii, 240, 243.

Matthews, i, 477.

Matthews, Washington, ii, 699.

Matusch, i, 271.

Maudsley, i, 131, 270, 293, 294, 304,
446.

Maupas, i, i.

Maurel, ii_, 599.

Maurice, ii, 321.

Max, Gabriel, i, 265.

Maxwell, i, 540; ii, 155-

Mayer, August, ii, 395.

Meeh, i, 112.

Mehnert, E., i, 55; ii, 607.

Melanchthon, ii, 31, 647.

Melinard, ii, 20.

Meno, i, 515.

Mercier, i, 157.

Metchnikoff, ii, 327, 431.

Meyer, i, 82.

Meyer, Adolf, i, 303, 304, 306, 338.

Meyer, L., i, 474, 496, 511.

Meyer, R. M., i, 585.

Meynert, i, 108.

Michelet, ii, 134.

Mickle, W. J., i, 292.

Mies, i, 105.

Mill, John Stuart, i, 432, 563, 565,
566; ii, 86, 346, 451, 546, 702, 712.

Millais, i, 576.

Miller, i, 185.

Miller, G. F., ii, 676.

Miller, Hugo, i, 388.

Miller, Joaquin, ii, 6gi.

Mills, B. Fay, ii, 289.

Milton, John, ii, 455.

Mindeleff, ii, 699.

Mitchell, S. Weir, ii, 575.

Mitter, i, 534.

Moberly, ii, 328.

Mobius, i, 237, 278, 429 ; ii, 564.

Moffat, ii, 744.

Mojon, i, 427.

Moliere, i, 214.

Moll, i, 278, 286, 433, 434, 450, 481,

500; ii, 117, 140, 141.
Monin, ii, 19.

Monroe, W. S., ii, 393, 395, 489.
Montaigne, ii, 140.
Montcalm, i, 540.
Montesino, ii, 681.
Moody, D. L., ii, 288.
Moon, i, 19, 59, 62, 66, 67, 68, 85,

97, 100, loi, 134, 13s, 136, 137,

138.
Mooney, James, ii, 237, 430, 699.
Moore, ii, 282.
More, ii, 140.
Moreau, i, 239, 276.
Morel, i, 254, 267, 300, 324, 491 ;

ii, 310.
Moreles, General, ii, 687.
Morgan, i, i.
Morgan, L. H., ii, 694.
Morgan, Pierpont, i, 543.
Morley, i, 471.
Morris, H. C., ii, 712.
Morris, William, i, 180.
Morrison, i, 331, 332, 401, 403, 404.
Morrison, T., ii, 704, 706.
Morselli, i, 320, 378.
Mortimer, A. G., ii, 268.
Mosca, i, 476.
Moser, J. H., ii, 650.
Moses, L S., ii, 262.
Moses, Josiah, ii, 327.
Mosher, Celia D., ii, 588.
Moshesh, ii, 667.
Mosler, i, 115.
Mosso, Angelo, i, 467.
Mott, J. R., ii, 422.
Moulton, ii, 446.
Miihlmann, i, 3, 4, 59, 84, 90, 97,

106, 113, 117, 118, 121.
Miiller, i, 166; ii, 30.
Miiller, Max, i, 563, 585; ii, 146,

170, 322, 327, 361, 455.
Mumford, ii, 192.
Munger, Theodore F., i, 579.
Murisier, ii, 327.
Murray, Alexander, i, 538.
Mutesa, ii, 733.
Muthesius, ii, 728.
Mwanga, ii, 733.
Myers, F. W. H., ii, 43.

Nacke, i, 500.

Nansen, i, 540; ii 85, 677.

Napoleon, i, 542; ii, 408, 499, 513,

653, 674, 737-
Nathanson, i, 261.

INDEX OF NAMES

777

Neale, i, 213; ii, 329.

Neesima, ii, 744.

von Negelein, ii, 727.

Negri, Ada, i, 560.

Neison, ii, 178.

Nelson, Horatio, i, 540.

Nelson, Julius, i, 454, 502.

Neoptolemus, i, 513, 520, 521.

Nesterofif, i, 246, 247.

Netschajeff, ii, 489, 491.

Neuhauss, ii, 660.

Newton, Heber, ii, 325.

Newton, Isaac, i, 544; ii, 85, 86, 149,

329, 542. _
Nicholas, ii, 706.
Nietzsche, ii, 82, 292, 356, 373, 651,

714-
Nisbet, i, 320.
Nisbet, ii, 657.
Nitobe, Inazo, i, 219.
Noel, M.,_ii, 268.
Nogues, ii, 249.
Nolan, i. 272.
Nordau, i, 353; ii, 367, 460.
Norman, Henry, ii, 738.
Novalis, i, 375.
Novicow, ii, 431.
Nuel, i, 419.
Nuttall, Zelia, ii, 166.

Oettingen, i, 388.

Oken, ii, 50.

Oldenberg, ii, 245.

Oldfield, ii, 743.

Oliphant, Alice, i, 568.

Oliphant, Laurence, i, 563, 568.

Oliphant, Margaret O. W., i, 568.

Oliver, i, 484.

O'Neill, John, ii, 166, 198, 200, 213.

Oppenheim, ii, 370.

Oppenheimer, i, 84.

O'Rell, Max, ji, 582.

Orschansky, ii, 598.

Orton, i, 199.

Osceola, ii, 691.

Ostwald, ii, 327, 431.

Ovid, i, 432.

Page, i, 199.

Pagliani, i, 11, 12, 99, 140, 474, 475.

Paine, Thomas, i, 581.

Paley, ii, 532.

Palmer, Alice Freeman, ii, 631.

Papillon, ii, 381.

Paquita, ii, 691.

Parent-Duchatelet, i, 370.

Parker, i, 280.

Parker Theodore, ii, 327.

Parkham, ii, 688.

Parmenides, ii, 542.

Partridge, ii, 327.

Partridge, George E., i, 145, 151,

261, 312, 317, 367, 368, 369; ii,

20, 238, 371, 450, 468.
Pascal, i, 540.

Pater, Walter, i, 563, 575 ; ii, 444.
Paton, ii, 655, 745.
Patrick, ii, 190.
Patrick, G. T. W., ii, 562.
Patterson, i, 563.
Patterson, G. W., ii, 652,
Patterson, Miss, ii, 481.
Pattison, Mark, i, 573; ii, 527.
Paulsen, E., ii, 20, 28.
Paulsen, Friedrich, i, 218 ; ii, 44,

163, 409, 542.
Paulsiek, ii, 480.
Pausanias, ii, 294.
Payot, i, 475; ii, Z'^J.
Pearson, ii, 567.
Peckham, George W., i, 6, 12, 23,

31, 64.
Peeples, D. L., i, 478.
Peirce, C. S., i, 412; ii, 136.
Pele, ii, 658.
Pelham, i, 341.
Pellico, i, 392.
Pelmann, i, 388, 499.
Penalta, Marquise of, ii, 310.
Penn, William, ii, 652, 690.
Penniman, ii, 516.
Pentecost, G. F., ii, 288.
Peper, ii, 157.
Pepper, i, 274.
Perott, Joseph de, i, 8.
Perry-Coste, i, 501.
Pesskoff, i, 99.

Pestalozzi, i, 174, 345; ii, 451, 498.
Peters, ii, 380.
Pfeifer, W., i, 396.
Pfister, i, 105.
Pfleiderer, ii, 'J2'].
Pfliiger, i, 482, 483; ii, 53.
Phasdrus, ii, 294.
Philebus, i, 516.
Philip, ii, 434.
Philip, King, ii, 690, 691.
Philips, ii, 282.
Philipson, David, ii, 262, 263.
Phillips, D. E., ii, 135, 411.
Phillips, P. C., i, 35.
Philoindicus, i, 388.
Philpot, ii, 214.
Picard, ii, 554.
Pickett, i, 299.
Pierquin, ii, 54.
Pike, L. O., i, 341, 366.
Pilger, i, 243.

778

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Pilling, ii, 699.

Pindar, i, 204.

Pinel, i, 267.

Pitt, i, 254.

Pizarro, ii, 681, 683.

Plato, i, 26, 34, 204, 238, 313, 320,
384,414,505,513,514, 515,519,533;
ii, 31, 41, 51, 74, 85, 106, 132, 174,
190, 204, 253, 254, 255, 258, 259,
267, 279, 293, 296, 301, 321, 326,
329, 2,2,2^ 340, 401, 461, 496, 498,
533, 539, 548, 551, 597, 72 1.

Plaw, i, 199.

Playfair, i, 476; ii, 580.

Pliny, i, 481.

Ploetz, ii, 720.

Ploss, i, 470, 479; ii, 8, 98.

Plotinus, ii, 162.

Plumb, P. £., i, 478.

Poatain, i, 91.

Pobyedonostsefif, ii, 715, 747.

Poehl, A., i, 442, 448.

Polimarchus, i, 517.

Polus, i, 516.

Pomeroy, Jesse, i, 358.

Pontiac, ii, 690, 691.

Pope, L. A., ii, 290, 291.

Popham, ii, 689.

Porter, Noah, ii, 282, 533.

Porter, William T., i, 6, 12, 20, 36,
2,7, 63, 66, 69, 72, 73, 75, loi, 135.
140, 141.

Pouillet, i, 433.

Powell, ii, 699.

Pratt, Colonel, ii, 694.

Preston, Miss G. A., ii, 584, 585.

Preyer, i, 158, 443.

Price, i, 479.

Prichard, i, 239.

Prichard, H. H., ii, 678.

Priestley, i, 541.

Pritchard, ii, 239.

Pritchett, Henry S., i, 170.

Proal, i, 344, 357, 379, 387.

Proclus, ii, 162.

Pruss, ii, 543.

Pryor, ii, 545.

Puech, i, 121, 423, 496.

Puffendorff, ii, 655.

Purdy, ii, 698.

Pyle, i, 501.

Pythagoras, ii, 177, 247.

Quain, i, 75, 95.

Quantz, J. O., ii, 214.

Quatrefages, ii, 246.

Quetelet, i, 12, 14, 18, 25, 31, 66,

67, 72, 75, 132, 137, 139, 147; ii,

304.

Queyrat, ii, 483.
Quintilian, ii, 433, 434, 442.

Raciborski, i, 466, 477, 481.

Radestock, i, 262, 320.

Rafifles, T. Stamford, ii, 701.

Ramenaux, i, 91.

Ramsay, Sir Henry, ii, 706.

Ranke, i, 62 ; ii, 720, 747.

Ransom, Arthur, i, 523.

Ratistinse, S. I., ii, 268.

Ratzel, ii, 666, 718.

Rauber, A., ii, 396.

Raymond, F., i, 278.

Reclus, ii, 98, 666, 687, 720, 722,

747-
Reddersen, i, 397.
Red Jacket, ii, 691.
Reed, T. B., i, 540.
Reeves, P. W., ii, 656.
Regis, i, 270, 271, 295.
Regnard, Paul, i, 266.
Reid, Thomas, ii, 5.
Reik, J. O., ii, 22.
Reinke, i, i.
Reinl, i, 485.

Reinsch, Paul S., ii, 713, 714.
Reischle, ii, 338.
Remak, i, 485.
Rembrandt, i, 131 ; ii, 146.
Remondino, P. E., ii, 248.
Renan, i, 588; ii, 201, 323, 325, 361,

705-
Retzius, i, 67, 112.
Reuter, I., ii, 268.
Reyer, ii, 478.
Reynolds, i, 274.
Reynolds, M., ii, 148.
Rhodes, Cecil, ii, 668, 670.
Ribbing, i, 433.
Ribery, ii, 2>73-
Ribot, ii, 393.
Richard, i, 372.
Richmond, i, 471.
Richter, i, 234.
Rieger, i, 72.
Riemann, ii, 408.
Riis, Jacob, i, 349, 361, 362, 580;

ii, 418.
Rink, ii, 677.
Rinne, F., ii, 663.
Ripley, i, 30, 73.
Ritschl, ii, 328.
Rittenhouse, i, 539.
Ritter, i, 117.
Roberts, i, ^7'^.
Roberts, Charles, i, 11, 12, 25, 31,

99, 102, 119, 13s, 207.
Roberts, G., i, 427.

INDEX OF NAMES

779

Robertson, i, 477.

Robertson, F. W., i, 131.

Robinson, ii, 727.

Robinson, E. M., ii, 345.

Robinson, F. W., i, 368.

Robinson, G. A., ii, 654.

Robinson, Louis, i, 142; ii, 214.

Rocco, ii, 98.

Roemer, A., ii, 327.

Rohleder, Hermann, i, 432, 433, 437.

Roland, Madame, i, 547.

Rollet, i, 407.

Romanes, ii, 359.

Romero, Matias, ii, 683.

Romilion, ii, 266.

Rosenbach, i, 433.

Ross, i, 157.

Rossetti, i, 576.

Rossi, i, 326.

Rothmann, i, 261.

Rousseau, i, 246, 538, 555, 585, 587;

ii, 320, 374, 718.
Roussel, i, 372.
Routledge, ii, 157.
Roux, J., i, 4, 241, 309, 449, 450;

ii, 16, 141.
Rowe, J., i, 449, 471.
Roy, P., i, 303.
Royce, Josiah, ii, 137, 327.
Riidinger, ii, 564.
Runze, ii, 327.
Rusden, ii, 656.
Ruskin, John, i, 180, 235; ii, 146,

181, 583.
Russel, F., ii, 726.
Rutherford, Mark, i, 574.
Rylands, L. G., i, 369, 397.

St. Agnes, i, 525.

St. Ambrose of Sienna, i, 530.

St. Anselm, i, 527; ii, 729.

St. Antony i, 525.

St. Artemas, i, 525.

St. Augustine, ii, 266, 281, 307, 337,

357, 474, 610, 666.

St. Basil, i, 213.

St. Benedict, i, 526; ii, 119.

St. Bernard, i, 527.

St. Boniface, ii, 729.
St. Bruno, ii, 310.

St. Catharine, i, 530.

St. Charles Borromeo, ii, 272.

St. Christina, i, 528.

St. Clara, i, 529.

St. Colette, i, 530.

St. Columba, ii, 729.

St. Columbanus, i, 526.
St. Cuthbert, i, 527.

St. Dominic, i, 528.

St. Dunstan, i, 527.

St. Edmund, i, 529.

St. Elizabeth of Hungary, i, 529.

St. Ephraem, i, 525.

St. Euphrasia, i, 526.

St. Euphrosyne, i, 526.

St. Frances of Rome, i, 530.

St. Francis of Assisi, i, 529.

St. Francis of Paula, i, 531.

St. Francis of Sales, i, 532.

St. Godrick, i, 528.

St. Gregory, i, 213

St. Hilaire, i, 24.

St. Hilarion, i, 525.

St. Hildegund, i, 528.

St. Ignatius, ii, 266.

St. Isidore, i, 526.

St. John, ii, 321.

St. John Chrysostom, i, 526.

St. Julian, i, 525.

St. Juliana, i, 530.

St. Kentigern, i, 526.

St. Louis, i, 530.

St. Martian, i, 525.

St. Martin, i, 525.

St. Notker Balbulus, i, 527.

St. Oringa, i, 530.

St. Patrick, ii, 729.

St. Peter Damiani, i, 527.

St. Peter Nolasco, i, 530.

Saint-Pierre, i, 587; ii, 320, 714.

St. Rose of Lima, i, 532.

St. Sulpice, ii, 272.

St. Theresa, i, 531.

St. Ven, i, 528.

St. Veronica, i, 531.

St. Vincent of Paul, i, 532; ii, 272.

St. Walaric, i, 526.

St. Werburga, i, 527.

Sabatier, ii, 327.

Sachs, Hans, i, 180.

Sadler, M. E., ii, 521, 523, 614.

Samoset, ii, 691.

Samuel son, i, 367.

Sanborn, i, 579.

Sanctonius, i, 501.

Sand, George, i, 548, 574; ii, 472,

635-
Sandberg, Graham, ii, 708.
Sandis, E. B., ii, 244.
Sandow, i, 191, 196.
Sanford, E. C., i, 60.
Santayana, ii, 136.
Sappel, ii, 683.
Sargent, ii, 285.
Sargent, D. A., i, 27, 39, 62, 66, 67,

68, 71, 75, 79, loi, 102, 195, 229.
Sargent, John S., i, 125.
Sarrasin, ii, 728.

■jSo

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Saunders, ii, 640.

Saunders, F. H., ii, 373.

Saussaye, ii, 328.

Savage, i, 271, 296.

Saville, i, 291.

Savonarola, i, 537; ii, 85.

Scanderbeg, ii, 691.

Schaeffer, i, 511.

Schafer, ii, 359.

Schaffle, ii, 431.

Schallenberger, M. E., ii, 393.

Scharling, i, 104.

Scharnhorst, ii, 499.

Schelling, i, 305; ii, 51, 147, 546,

651.
Scherer, ii, 358.
Schiele-Wiegand, i, 93.
Schiff, ii, 16.
Schiller, i, 437.
von Schiller, J. C. F., i, 542; ii, 168,

319, 400, 441.
Schimmelmann, Countess, i, 549 ;

ii, 629.
Schinz, ii, 327.
Schleiermacher, ii, no, 127, 136,

324, 326, 327, 328, 365, 634.
Schlitz, i, 72, 78.
Schmey, i, 489.
Schmidt, ii, 177.
Schmidt, Emil, i, 11.
Schmidt, K., ii, 250.
Schmidt-Monnard, i, 12, 247, 248.
Schneider, i, 267.
Schnepf, i, 99.
SchcEnichen, W., ii, 230.
Scholt, D. J., ii, 268.
Scholz, i, 291, 303.
Schoolcraft, ii, 699.
Schopenhauer, i, 131, 213, 375, 411,

444; ii, 63, 117, 200, 292, 547.
Schouppe, ii, 267.
Schrader, ii, 588.
Schrempf, i, 218; ii, 312, 409.
Schroder, i, 12.
Schroder, F., i, 489, 490, 495.
Schiile, i, 272, 303.
Schultz, i, 328.
Schultze, ii, 179.
Schurman, J. G., ii, 664, 665.
Schurtz, ii, 98.
Schuster, ii, 190.
Schuyten, ii, 486, 487.
Schw^ann, i, 117.
Schwarz, ii, 256.
Schwegler, ii, 518.
Schweibe, ii, 26.
Schwinge, i, 9.S.
Scott, i, 46.
Scott, Charles P. G, ii, 454.

Scott, Colin A., i, 278, 384, 471 ; ii,

no, 296, 327, 367.
Scott, Walter, i, 180, 540; ii, 86,

442.
Scripture, E. W., i, 149; ii, 489.
Scukits, i, 475.
Sears, C. H., i, 346; ii, 24.
Seashore, i, 153.
Seaver, J. W., i, 27.
Sedgv^^ick, Ellery, i, 581.
Seeley, ii, 304, 328.
Seerley, F. N., i, 414, 434, 443, 452,

461 ; ii, 97.
Seggel, i, 259.
Seglas, J., i, 237, 301.
Seguin, i, 282.
Seiler, ii, 32.
Selager, i, 495.
Semper, ii, 14.
Senator, i, 489.
Seppelli, i, 269.
Serbski, V., i, 237, 301.
Sergi, ii, 92.
Serieux, i, 237, 300.
Seuvre, i, 479.
Seward, W. H., i, 542.
Shaftesbury, ii, 532.
Shakespeare, i, 533; ii, 340, 440,

441, 442, 455, 573.
Shaler, N. S., ii, 137.
Shapcott, Reuben, i, 574.
Shattuck, i, 199.
Shaw, J. C, ii, 486, 489.
Shearer, W. J., ii, 526.
Sheldon, i, 199.
Sheldon, Henry D., i, 360, 549; ii,

398, 403, 405, 406, 437. .
Shelley, i, 537; ii, 85, 148.
Sheridan, i, 542.
Sherman, L. A., ii, 456, 471.
Shinn, Miss, ii, 591.
Shorthouse, J. H., i, 577.
Shute, D. K., ii, 230.
Sibillot, P., ii, 198.
Sidgwick, Mrs., ii, 585, 602, 603.
Sidis, Boris, i, 280, 281.
Sidney, ii, 261, 443.
Siegert, i, 345.
Sieveking, i, 273.
Sighele, i, 371, 387; ii, 327.
Sigismund, ii, 18.
Sigismund, Emperor, ii, 456.
Sikorski, i, 326.
Silva, i, 489, 490.
Simms, Th., ii, 289.
Simon, i, 432.
Simon, ii, 328.
Simon, Helene, ii, 603.
Simpson, ii, 601.

INDEX OF NAMES

781

Skeat W. W., ii, 656.

Slaughter, J. W., ii, 176.

von Slupecki, Hans, i, 395.

Small, A. W., ii, 583-

Small, M. H., i, 409; ». 3i7, 365,

375, 38s, 395, 426.
Smedley, i, 25, 36, 98, 126, 148; 11,

33-
Smidt, i_, 276.
Smith, ii, 590.
Smith, George, ii,_ 731.
Smith, Goldwin, ii, 327, 475.
Smith, Margaret K., ii, 463.
Smith, M. M., ii, 582.
Smith, R., ii, 328.
Smith, R. H., i, 511.
Smith, Mrs., ii, 601.
Smith, Theodate L., i, 149, 264;

ii, 174, 364, 450, 593, 594.
Snedden, D. S., ii, 394.
Socrates, i, 204, 341, 5i3, 5H, Si5,

516, 517, 518, 519; ii, 41, 174, 178,

255, 295, 335, 340, 372, 411, 414,

551, 633-
Sollier, i, 282, 283, 415, 449.
Sorel, ii, 698.
Sorensen, i, 96.
Soury, ii, 16.
Southey, ii, 282.
Southworth, Mrs., ii, 472, 474.
Souza-Leite, i, 81, 427.
Spencer, i, 230, 367.
Spencer, Herbert, i, 540; ii, 25, 26,

41, 199, 329, 524,. 550, 602, 633.
Spencer, Ichabod, ii, 289.
Spenser, ii, 442.
Sperry, i, 471.
Spiess, i, 187.

Spinoza, ii, 128, 301, 326, 356, 542.
Spitta, i, 262.
Spitzka, i, 105, 445, 446.
Spitzner, i, 237, 308.
Spotted Tail, ii, 691.
Sprague, W. B., ii, 282.
Sprengel, i, 116, 266, 448; ii, 210.
Springer, i, 425.
Squier, ii, 683.
Stableton, ii, 385.
de Stael, Madame, ii, 635.
Stafford, Col. J. G. B., ii, 673.
Stalker, James, ii, 356.
Stall, i, 471.

Stanford, Senator, i, 183.
Stanley, Henry M., ii, 666, 668, 715,

733-
Starbuck, E. D., ii, 290, 291, 292,

328, 340.
Starr, ii, 682.
Stein, ii, 499.

Steiner, K. v. d., ii, 683.

Stekel, W., ii, 580.

Stemham, i, 484.

Stendhal, i, 387; ii, 134.

Stenzl, i, 237.

Stephen, Sir James Fitzjames, i,

576; ii, 706.
Stephen, Leslie, i, 576; ii, 632.
Stephens, ii, 699.
Stephenson, i, 486, 487.
Sterz, i, 303.
Stevenson, i, 232.
Stevenson, Mrs. M. C., ii, 237.
Stewart, Colin C, i, 18.
Stewart, P., i, 292.
Stillman, W. J., i, 578.
Stirner, Max, i, 39; ii, 82, 133.
Stoddard, Samuel, ii, 689.
Stokes, ii, 328.
Stolz, J., ii, 262.
Storer, H. R., i, 471 ; ii, 569.
Strada, ii, 328.
Strafford, i, 578.
Strahan, S. A. K., i, 381.
Strandberg, Hilma, ii, 629.
Strange, Alice le, i, 569.
Strauss, ii, 324.
Striimpell, i, 237, 344, 345.
Stuart, Dugald, ii, 5.
Stuart, Ruth McEnery, i, 581.
Stubbs, ii, 446.
Sturgis, i, 447.
Sturm, ii, 457, 514.
Suarez, ii, 714.
Sully, i, 232, 548.

Sutherland, A., ii, 85, 190, 357, .374.
Swedenborg, ii, 127.
Swettenham, ii, 656.
Swift, E. J., i, 404, 541, 542.
Swift, Jonathan, i, 542; ii, 119, 458.
Sykes, F. W., ii, 670.
Symonds, i, 249.
Symonds, John Addington, i, 563,

575 ; ii, 208.

Taine, i, 161, 242, 309; ii, 68, 316.

487.
Talbot, E. S., i, 336.
Tallack, William, i, 400, 409.
Tamburini, i, 427.
Tamerlane, ii, 705.
Tanzi, i, 427.
Tarchanoff, i, 449.
Tarde, i, 316, 389; ii, 383.
Tardieu, i, 373.

Tarnowski, i, 286, 433, 470, 475.
Tasman, ii, 652.
Tassin, Wirt, ii, 198.
Taverni, i, 339.

782

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Taxil, i, 371.
Taylor, ii, 390.
Taylor, F. C, ii, 572,, 573-
Taylor, J. Madison, ii, 581.
Tecumseh, ii, 199, 690.
Teichmiiller, ii, 190.
Telemachus, i, 513, 520, 521, 522.
Tennyson, Alfred, i, 180; ii, 441,

442, 479.
Terquem, ii, 249.
Tertullian, ii, 42, 98, 336, 552.
Thackeray, William M., i, 581.
Thales, ii, 197.
Thayer, Alice, ii, 203.
Theaetetus, i, 518.

Theal, George McCall, ii, 247, 667.
Theckla, i, 525.
Theile, i, 84.
Thiele, ii, 325, 328.
Thoma, i, 90.
Thomas, Cyrus, ii, 688.
Thomas, M. Carey, ii, 591, 603.
Thompson, i, 418; ii, no.
Thompson, Benjamin, i, 539.
Thompson, Francis, i, 518.
Thompson, Miss, ii, 565.
Thomson, Bruce, i, 343.
Thomson, Joseph, ii, 670, 674, 735.
Thorburn, John, ii, 574.
Thring, ii, 616.
Thurber, C. H., ii, 387, 505.
Thurston, i, 187.
Thurston, Father, ii, 268.
Thwing, President, ii, 289.
Tilt, i, 475, 481.
Tissot, i, 432 ; ii, 26.
Toldt, i, 12.

Tolstoi, i, 538 ; ii, 401, 498.
Tomochi-chi, ii, 691.
Torok, i, 72.

Torrens, William, ii, 674.
Townsend, Meredith, ii, 706.
Tracy, ii, 282, 283.
Trales, ii, 312.
Traube, i, 94.
Treitel, ii, 32.
Treitsche, ii, 409.
Treitschke, i, 218.
Trendelenburg, ii, 41, 191.
Trettien, A. W, i, 155, 227; ii, 217.
Triplett, Norman, i, 347.
Trollope, Anthony, i, 563, 573.
Trommer, i, 237, 302.
Trousseau, i, 270.
Trowbridge, i, 274, 296.
Trowbridge, J. T., i, 539.
Truganina, ii, 655.
Triiper, i, 239, 345.
Truslow, Walter, i, 93.

Tschisch, i, 303.

Tshaka, ii, 667.

Tucker, M. A., ii, 481.

Tucker, William J., ii, 516.

Tuckerman, i, 475.

Tuckwell, Gertrude M., i, 399.

Tuke, i, 388, 499; ii, 380.

Turner, i, 57.

Turner, J. M. W., ii, 148.

Twain, Mark, ii, 472.

Twombly, ii, 660.

Tyler, ii, 666.

Tylor, E. B., ii, 455, 727.

Tyndall, ii, 156, 329, 511, 548.

Tyo Soga, ii, 720.

Ufer, i, 345.

Uhle, i, 115.

Uhlitzsch, Richard, i, 11, 12, 18.

Ulfilas, ii, 729.

Upward, Allen, ii, 673.

Userer, ii, 727.

Ussing, J. L., ii, 250.

Vachon, ii, 131, 146.

Valdemir, ii, 730.

Van Gehuchten, i, 112.

Van Rensselaer, M. G, ii, 578.

Van Twiller, ii, 689.

de Varigny, i, 34 ; ii, 191, 379.

Vasilyew, i, 102.

Vassey, ii, 78.

de Vaux, Beatrice Clotilda, ii, 635

Venn, J., i, 25, 76, 134, 140.

Venturi, i, 286.

Vespa, B., i, 380.

Vernois, i, 420.

Verres, ii, 434.

Viasemsky, N. W., i, 10.

Vierordt, K., i, 22, 23, 51, 53, 59, 61,
-JT, 89, 92, 94, 97, 103, IDS, 106, 114,
119, 135, 137; ii, 12, 2T, 30, 32.

Villerme, i, 25.

Virchow, i, 46, 57, 483; ii, 666, 720.

Vittorino da Feltre, i, 543.

Voisin, i, 282.

Volkmann, i, 91.

Volquarsden, ii, 254.

Vorbrodt, ii, 327.

Voris, ii, 483.

Vostrovsky, Clara, ii, 476, 486.

Voth, ii, 699.

de Vries, i, 46.

Vulpius, i, 107, 108, III, 112, 162.

Wachter, ii, 136.
Wadsworth, General, ii, 690.
Wadsworth, Harry, ii, 420.

INDEX OF NAMES

783

Wagner, Charles, i, 471-

Wagner, Richard, i, 180, 203, 541,

586; ii, 339, 442.
Wahl, i, 22.
Waitz, ii, 116.
-Walseus, ii, 729.
Walker, A. R., ii, 239.
Walker, Francis A., ii, 503.
Wallace, ii, 380, 657, 720, 722.
Wallin, J. E. W., ii, 180.
Ward, Mrs. Humphry, i, 581.
Warneck, ii, 687.
Warner, B., ii, 619.
Warner, Charles Dudley, i, 534; ii,

675-
Warner, Francis, i, 76, 126, 160, 261,

262, 263, 282; ii, 564, 578.
Warren, i, 471.
Warren, W. F., ii, 727.
Washington, Booker T., i, 543; ii,

459. 677, 698.
Washington, George, 11, 391, ooo.
Watts, ii, 480.
Weber, i, 475, 476.
Weber, E. H., i, 61, 137; », 2, 3-
Webb, ii, 177.
Weete, ii, 250.
Wefers, i, 199.

Weinel, Heinrich, ii, 327, 336.
Weisbach, i, 57.
Weismann, i, 4, 41, 419; ii, 25, 26,

138, 293, 550.
Welcker, i, 3, 17-
Wellcome, Henry S., ii, 234, 692.
Welldon, i, 523.
Welling, ii, 696.
Wernicke, ii, 485.
Wernle, ii, 328.
Wertheim, i, 87.
Werther, i, 387.
Wesley, ii, 282.
West, ii, 653.
West, Gerald M., i, 6, 12, 23, Zl, 63,

17>, 74, 75, 274-
West, I. P., i, 433-
Westcott, ii, 254.
Westermarck, ii, 98, T2T.
Westorp, ii, 98.
Westphal, i, 388, 499-
Westphalen, i, 484.
Wey, i, 429.
Weyler, ii, 696.
Wheelock, ii, 285.
Whipple, Bishop, ii, 691.
White, i, 280.

White, Andrew D., ii, 406, 531.
White, Frances E., ii, 603.
White, William Allen, i, 534, 535.
Whitefield, ii, 282, 284, 416, 532.

Whitehead, i, 475.

Whitman, Walt, ii, 149, 456, 468.

Whitney, Caspar, ii, 660.

Whittier, John G., i, 539 J "» 438.

Whitton, F., ii, 526.

Whytt, ii, 53.

Wichern, i, 395, 396.

Widal, ii, 381.

Wiedersheim, G. R., i, 52, 7°, 76,

^^, 84; ii, 215.

Wiener, Christian, i, 14, 18.

Wigan, i, 330.

Wigglesworth, ii, 285.

Wilberforce, William, ii, 681.

Wilcox, i, 471.

Wilder, i, 471.

Wilkinson, R. J., ii, 709.

Willard, H. M., ii, 388.

Wille, i, 237, 270, 271, 294, 295, 304,

331.
Williams, John, ii, 744.
Williams, Lillie A., ii, 465, 467.
Williamson, i, 576.
Willis, ii, 380.
Wilson, Sir Daniel, ii, 699.
Wilson, J. T., ii, 574, 575.
Wiltshire, i, 480.
Windelband, i, 320.
Windsor, i, 199.
Wines, F. H., i 299, 328, 339.
Winkelried, ii, 691.
Winslow, i, 330.
Wintrich, i, 99.
Wise, I. M., ii, 262, 263.
Wittenberg, H., i, 431.
Wolfe, i, 540.
Wolfe, H. K., ii, 34, 35.
Wood, ii, 588.
Wood, J. G., ii, 244, 247.
Woods, Alice, ii, 614.
Worcester, D. C, ii, 663.
Wordsworth, William, i, 542, 574;

ii, 148, 200.
Worms, Rene, ii, 431.
Wretkind, i, 22.

Wright, E. Blackwood, ii, 672, 708.
Wundt, i, 162, 262; ii, in, 456, 537.
Wyneken, G. A., ii, 136, 137-

Xavier, ii, 266, 729.
Xenophon, i, 205 ; ii, 257, 259.

Yate, ii, 707, 7o8.

Yoder, A. H., i, 18, 404, 407, 534;

ii, 452.,
Young, ii, 378.
Young, ii, 390,

784

THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADOLESCENCE

Young, Lucien, ii, 660.
Yung, i, 34.

Zadek, i, 94.

Zak, N. v., i, 8, 102, 247.
Zanardelli, i, 407.

Zeissing, i, 12, 23, 25, 53, 61, 66, 67.
Zeller, Edward, i, 265; ii, 136, 147,
324-

Zeno, ii, 535.

Ziegler, i, 218; ii, 400, 401, 409.

Ziehen, ii, 312.

Ziemssen, Otto, ii, 327.

von Ziemssen, i, 260.

Zinzendorf, ii, 729.

Zitkala-sa, ii, 695.

Zola, i, Z2,7; ii, 595-

Zwardemaker, ii, 17.

(1)

THE END

''A SUBJECT GREAT AND FASCINATING/'

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