Full text of "Adulterations detected; or, Plain instructions for the discovery of frauds in food and medicine"

See other formats

This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project
to make the world's books discoverable online.

It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject
to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books
are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.

Marks, notations and other marginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the
publisher to a library and finally to you.

Usage guidelines

Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing this resource, we have taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.

We also ask that you:

+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.

+ Refrain from automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.

+ Maintain attribution The Google "watermark" you see on each file is essential for informing people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.

+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liability can be quite severe.

About Google Book Search

Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web

at|http: //books .google . com/

ADULTEKATIONS DETECTED;

5;7/::"j-;3 i:;;;;::?3iTit

OR, PLAIN IKSTEircTIONa POB THE ^ _. i/.'Ji'QJI^ OhlVE

\fjj ALVO, UUF.

FOOD AND MEDICINE.

s-n

.it*/

ARTHUR HILL[HASSALL, M.D., Lond.

ANALTST OP *' THE LANCET BANITABT C03f UIS3I0X : "

AUTHOH or

lllft: RKI'OBTH or THAT COMMISKIUN, NOW prBMSIIKI> t'NDKR TIIK TITLE OF
** ruO» AND ITS AUULTEKATION'}) ;"

ALSO or

** A HI!«TURT or THE BRITISH yRKSIIWATKR ALG.Kj"

"the MICROHCOPIC ANATOMY Or THE HL'MAN BO I>V ; "
AMD OTHER VOBXS.

LAWl Ubi\ru*l- iJi....»^..L> Oii

i^VERSilY

LONDON:
LONGMAN. BROWN, GREEN. LONGMANS, AND ROBERTS.

1857.

rtff rl^ nf traiulathu it nanrmlt

eX ^i^4*«~e^.

-&«-H-

/adr

0>v^

miJML

^y»

ADULTEKATIONS DETECTED;

sv;-;-:.7j i: ;:-.-i:^3iTX

OB, PtllN INBTEUCTIONS POB THE ^ .^ j /.jjrj,^ ''luiVE

FOOD AND MEDICINE.

'*•>*/

ARTHUR HILL[HASSALL, M.D., Lond.

ASALTBT OP " THE LANCET SANITARY C0MMIS3I0X : "

i.UTROK Of

THE RErORTS OF THAT COMMIMIUN, NOW rUBI.ISHKIl UNDKR TIIR TITLE OF
" FOOD AND ITS ADKLTKHATIU.NH ; "

ALSO OF
** A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH FRRKHWATRR ALO.K ; '*

THR MICROSCOPIC AKATOMY OF THR HUMAN BODY;"
ASD OTHSB WOBKH.

LANE Liuun..V. o. j-u oiiiVERSlTY

LONDON:
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, AND ROBERTS.

1857.

Tk& Hf/U qf traiulatioH U rwMmif .

BRTXRU> AT 6TAT10NXKS !(ALI.

r\3

9P\

PREFACE,

TaE present work is not intended to supcrsedo my previous
book, entitled " Food and its Adulterations ; " the plans and
objects of the two works being distinct.

The principal objects of the Jirst and larger work were, and
•till are, to demonstrate the exist4>nce of extensive adulteration,
in all the more important articles of daily consumption, as
actually supplied by mtirchants and traders to the public ; to
show that adulteration largely affected the pecuniary interests
of the consumer and the revenue ; and that it was a question most
seriously affecting the public health. These objects tlie work
in question lias fully accoraplished.

Aaooe of the results of my former investigations, the import-
ance of the subject of aduUeration has been recently officially
■cknowledged by the ftppr>ihlment by the House of Commons of a
Select Committee to inquire into tbe matter. This Committee,
Wider the able presidency of Mr. Sclioleneld, M.P. for Birming-
huOf xealously prosecuted its inquiries ibr two sessions of
Parliament, and the result has been to confirm, to the fall
extent, the accuracy and fidelity of the investigations, in the
intMecution of which, mainly through the medium of ** The
lAncet** I have been engaged for so many years. The Report
of this Committee lias been laid before the House. It ac-
kAOwiedges that adulteration widely prevails; that the evil

k '2

PKEFACE.

requires to be dealt wiih by the Legislature ; and it containfl
suggestions and recommendations for the euppression of adulte-
ration.

The Committee state that they "cannot avoid the conclusion
that ndulteration widely prcvaiW "Not only is the public
health thus exposed to danger, and pecuniary fraud coinmiltcd
on the whole commnniry, but the public morality is tainted, and
the high commercial cliaructer of the country seriously lowered
both at home and in the eyes of foreign countries."

Thesti are ^rave statements and admiasions, made on the very
highest authority.

The chief purpose of M# present work is to furnish plain in-
structions, microscopical and chemical, embodying the results of
extended practice and experience, for the discovery of adulte-
rations in Food and Medicine.

To accomplish this object effectually, it will be necessary
that the adulterations to which each particular Jiriicle of con-
sumption or drug is subjected, should be described in as concise
yet clear ii manner as possible- The treatise will tberefore not
he limiteii to a mere description of the methods by which adul-
teration may be discovered, but will contain much infurmalion
in relation to adulteration in general.

The best method of putting a stop to adulteration is undoubt-
edly to destroy the security attending the practice of it.

The first step necessary for the accomplishmenl nf this object
is to supply the means requisite for the discovery of adulteration.

The happy application of the microscope to the subject of
adulteration, lias furnished tht*. means of detecting u host of
ndulterntioQS, the discovery of which had before, for the most
part, been considered to be impossible ; but still practical expla-
nations and details are required to enable others to employ the<
instrument with advantage for that purpose; and the same
remark applies to chemistry. Such necessary details and e\pla-

PUEFACE.

Vll

Tintionp, accompanied by a large number of microscopical
illustrations, it is hoped will be found in the pages of this
work, and that, through ita inBtrumentality^ the many huudreda
of microseopists and chenaists scattered over all parts of the
country, will be induced to upply themselves to the discovery of
adulterations in articles of food und medicine, in the resiipective
neighbourhoods and localities in which they reside. Should
this anticipation be realised, "a heavy blow and grcAt discour-
agement ** will be inflicted upon all adulterators, for the se-
cuiity in which their proceedings were formerly conducted
will bo for ever destroyed.

The more frequent discovery of adulteration will doubtless
lead, in many cases, to the publication of the names and addreftses
of the parties perpetrating it. It was this publication which
contributed so essentially to the success of my reports in " The
Lancet." By it direct responsibility was secured, the honest
tradesmaa was distinguished from his unscrupulous com-
petitor, and in many instances the olfence of adulteration was
brought home to the parties actually guilty of it.

This unparalleled proceeding was in the first instance, and
when science hud been but imperfectly opplied to the detection
of adulteration, attended with the utmost hazard, not only to
Mr. Wakley, who suggested the publication of the names, and
who incurred the legal risk attendant thereon, hut also to
myself, staking as I did reputation and prospects alike upon the
issue of a most arduous and responsible undertaking.

Id publishing the present treatise, and in thus supplying a
public want, I am realising a suggestion for the suppression of
adulteration which I made in evidence before the Select Com-
mittee on Adulteration, in July 18o5, namely, that a cheap
treatise on adulteration should be published, which *' should be
illustrated with wood-cuts showing the microscopicol appear-
ances and structure of the diiferent articles, both genuine and

vni

PREFACE.

adulterated^ and cont^ning plain directions f^r the discovery
of adaltpraiion."

The work to which I have given the title ** Food and its
Adulterations,^ comprista the R<*port8, carefully revispil^ of the
Analytical Sanitary Commission of " Tlie Lanuet." These
reports were publiethod a.t short intervals in that periodical for
a term of four years, commencing January 1851, and ending
December 1854, and they contained 2387 analyses, of which
2063 were of articles of food, and 324 of drugs.

Of these analyses, which were for the most part both micro-
scopicftl and chemical, 2222 were made by myself; and the
reports being all written by me, I retain the copyright of them
under a special agreement.

In the present work, the analyses above referred to are not
given, but merely the general conclusions or results derived
from those analyses : in addition to which, this work contains
the results of the analyses of several hundreds of samples of
articles of food and drugs which have never been published
in " Tlie Lancet," and the whole of which have been made
by myself during the years 1855 and lHo6.

Availing himself of a temporary misunderstanding betnrcen
myself and Mr. Wakley, Dr. Letheby put forward, some time
back, a claim of so exaggerated and incorrect a character for par-
ticipation in the work of '* The Lancet " Commission, which
claim heattemptedto support by the publication in "The Times"
newspaper of extracts from my private and confidential letters
addressed to him, that I, in justice to myself, consider it neces-
sary to define once more in this plac*) the extent and nature of
the assistance rendered by Dr. Letheby.

Having been on terms of intimacy with him for some years,
I employed liim occasionally to make certain analyses both
for myself and for "The Lancet," I sending him the samples,
and indicating the particulars required. Tlie results were in

PUEFACE.

all cases returned direct to me, the analyses charged for and the
accounts made out by Dr. Letheby in my name, be not holding,
during the whole time op in a single instance, tlie slightest
communication either with Mr. Wukley or with any person
connected with "The Lancet."

The accounts and other documents furnished by Dr. Lctheby
Jiving been fortunately preserved, they were submitted to the
tiny of Mr. George Bolton, the Rev. R. S. Daniell, 5LA.,
and others. The gentlemen whose names are given above
drew up a Report, embodying the results derived from an
examination of the accounts, &eM from which the following
is extracted ; — •

'• The accounts rendered by Dr. Leiheby, Ijeing so clear and
in his own handwriting, furnirih indi^^putable and conclusive
evidence of the actual number of analyses performed by him,
some of them being partial analyses only. Tl»ua it is dislinctly
shown that the entire number of chemical analyses performed
by Dr. Lctheby, viz. 16o« bears but a very small proportion to
the number of the analyses, as well microscopical as chemical,
j>eriormed by Dr. Ha^sall, viz. 24S1.

*' Of these samples 63 were of tobacco and snutT, and 53 of
opium; thur* leaving 48 samples of all other khids; but it is
to be especially noted tbat the analyses of these 53 samples of
opium are not recorded in Dr. Hassall's work on * Food and its
Adulterations.'

"As witness our hands this first day of August, One thou-
sand eight hundred and fifty-five.

•* Ratmond S. Damiell, M. A., Oxon.
"Gkoroe Bolton.

•* 9. Qaocn Street, Bronipton."

It is perhaps necessary to state that in the new analyses,
amounting to some hundreds, the results of which arc recorded

PREFACE.

in this work, ovpr anil above the 2481 before alluded to^ Dr.
Letheby has hnd no piirt whatever.*

For the informntion contained in this work respecting the
duties ujiuii, and consumption of the vnrioua articles treated o{\
we are indebted to Mr. T. C. Kent, of Upton-on-Severn, and
A, W. Fonblanque, Esq., of the Statistical Department of the
Board of Trade, to both of whom we tender our sincere and
cordial thnnka for the aid thus afforded.

The author baa spared no pains or expense to insure the
fidelity and cnrefu! execution of the wood engravings. Of tliese
about two-thirds were drawn on vrtyod by Mr. Henry Miller, un-
der the direct superintendence of the author, and the others by
Mr. Tuffen West, with the exception of the figures of liquorice,
which were drawn by Mr. Searson : they were all engnived by
Mr. Hart of Gloucester Street, Bloomsbury Square. Nothing
could exceed the care bestowed by each of I he artists named upon
the execution of the (igures, and the author believes that no
engravings of microscopic objects have Mtherto been produced
on wood superior, and but few equal, to those wfiich will bo
found dispersed through tlie pages of the present work.

It is not a little singtiliir that Mr, Miller and Mr. West, two of
the beat microscopic artists we have had, bulh commenced thtnr
careers as artists with the author. The first drawings from the
microscope made by Mr. Miliur, were for " The Microscopic Ana-
tomy of the Human Body*' about ten years since, from wliich
time until his death, which occurred recently, he continued, ex-
cept for a few short intervals, in tlie autiior's service. Mr. West
aUo resided with the author for a time, and his first microsco-
pical drawings were also for the work above mentioned.

Bennett Street, St. James's Street,
Jaiioaiy 12tli, 1857.

• For a fullrr rpfulntton of Dr. l*thrbr'i claim and irsnwurt of bll ronduci, tbc rraclrr
la rplvrrnt lo ii P-»niuhlci bjr JKmet Cnur UuniruJ, K»q.. BarrlMer. Juliii A. Power.
L. M.. M. A.. Cnntab. nn.l Karrnund 8. Danlall. M. A, Uson. ; publlihed by WUIIam
'i'rgjtand Co., S5. Quf«n Strcai, Chwpttdv.

CONTENTS.

Pago
Iktroditctobt RsacA&xfl - . . - - 1

On the MEiLNS bt which Adclteration hat be detected - 43
Food - - - - - - -63

Tea - - - - - - - 65

Coffee ...... ]05

CmooBT ...... 130

Cocoa ...... 155

Chocolate - - - - - - 171

SUOAS - - - - . - 181

HONET ...... 198

UiLK - - - - . . - 205

FlOUB A2TD BeBAD ..... 237

BimBK ...... 295

Labd ....... 301

Oatheal ...... 306

Abbowboot - - - - - -312

Saoo • - • • - - - 323

Tapioca - - - - . - 327

PBOPBIETABT AUHEKTABY FbEPABATIONS ... 330

AjfCHOTIES ...... 335

Potted Meats akd Fish - - - - - 341

MCBTABD ...... 344

Pbpfek - - - - - - 356

CATEmne ...... 368

CoKBT Powder - - - - - - 378

Tubmbbio - - - - - - 387

3U1 CONTKNT8.

Page
ViNEOAS ...... 390

PiCKLBS ...... 405

Oh PoisoNOtTB Bottled Froits ahd Veqetables - - 409

PB£8BRVB8 and JbLLIES ..... 414

Sauces ...... 419

Spices ...... 422

Isiholass ... ... 456

Gbi^tike ..... . 462

Annatto ...... 465

Cheese . . . . . -477

Coloured Sugab Coneectiohert ... - 484

Porter _....- 499

Alb .... ... 516

GiH - . . - - - - 524

Rum - - - ... . .539

Brandt ...... 540

WiNB -.--.-, 544
Drugs - - ..... 5^9

Tobacco .... - - 556

Skuff ---.--- 605
Ofiux . . . . - - .624

scaxmont ...... 647

Jalap ....... 656

Ipecacuanha ...... 668

coloctnth .---.. 675

compouitd scamhont powder .... 678

Aromatic Contection ..... 679

Liquorice ...... 679

List op Drugs - - - - - -691

Concludino Bekarks ..... 692

LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.

tber
. ami 13. Sfvtifin or llfiroartvd Cnflte Brrrjr - «

3. Frajcmrat of Koutrd Oiicrirf Koot ...

St«rch Grsaiilet nf Haranta Arrowroot ...
Tbe iane of Curruina or Fait India arrnwroot
The Hiao of Ttnuo or BrUUb ArrowrooC
L«aru of thr Tn Ptaut ....

Atum Tartpljr of the tnTno ....

Upptr larface of L^af of Tea . - - -

I'odcr »urfftCf of Mire . - - - .

Upptr fturfoce of CullT-develffip**! 1*'^ ...

ftrudure of foreign LeaffnuiMl In Lie Te«
The Mine of another foreipi Leaf found la Uc Tr«
Uppvr and Undnr Surfaces of Leaf of Camellia Soaanqua *-
'I'fie umc or riuni - • . • '.

Leavet o( rhlor.iti>hii* Inconipiciiui and C*an)eUU SitMnqua •
Imitjultm C'jinar, Gunpowder, or Lie Tea . - •

Leave* of Willow nod Poplar ....
Tbe umeof Pliuip aitd Oak . - . .

The ume of lUitthom, Sloe or Wild Pl.im, Bewh, KIdor, and Elm
L* Veno Beno ■..•-•
Tbr Oilopte BoUnlcal Powder ....
Porilon of the liueatlnK Meinbrtni! of the CoRiK Berry
Fraftment of RoaiCed Coffee _ . _ _

Structure and Ctiatactert of Geimlnn Ground Coffee .

B'uiMrd fcroutid Lupin Seed, called Colllna
Coffiy. «iluUrr»t(xl Willi t'hicory ....
Celli or MufrttliJ-Wiirirl Koot - . . -

CmAW adutirraled with Manfffjltl-Wuniel . . •

Tbe aoini- uiih Chirory and Fliiatled Wlirat
The tatae witli Chicorr and Roftited Bean*
The tame Willi flririinil Arum * . . .

Fraffmrot of Hoattnl Chicory Root, ahowlni tU CcHl
Frafrmeiir of (he ume, •howltif Ita l>otted Duct

ltn;tlOn of Clurorjr Kcxtt, ihowltifi the Vaui lactlcenMa
Chicorr adullcrued wltn Itoaited Wheat Farina

Tbe fiime adiiltrrated with a veg/Lable Subataace rviembUng Groand Acorn
Structurrs d«-tec:).'<(l m Oak Bark Povder - •

Tan known u Croiti . - . ■

Tubular Fibrei un lurlace of Cocoa Seed -

Th«> two outer Tunics, wfih the Muctlajtc-bearlne Cetli of the lluak of mom
«1. Cella, Woody Fltire, and Sftiral Vpatela nf H<-cnnd Membraiir of aame

43. 1'Mit Membrane cuvcrlng tbe Surface ai>d hotet of the Cocoa Seed -
41 Cell* which form the kernel of the Cocoa Seed
41. Cenutce Trinidad Cocoa ...

46. Unadulteraud FUked Cocoa

47. Soluble Ctiroa, iire(uireil by Steane. Da«U, artd O. •

44. Homieopalhic Cocoa, prepared hf Mr. G. B- White
49. Bolable CxKoa. nrrpared bf i. S, Frr and S<ini
to, HnmtropAtbir Cutfu. firefuml hy Taylor, Brother*
ftl. Uuiiu'i GonuiDQ Vnadulterated Chocolate
U. I'rir>t4l* of C!ane l^uitar ...
W. A FraKmvnt of Suiar Cane . . •
&«. Frafmrnta of the sugar Caue ...

PDIte
and I IS

- 47

- 49
49
AO

C7
71

7«
77
78

n
n
w

IIS

114
IIA
lift
IM
VJ&
\K

i-a

IM
lU
IM
137
141
142

144
139
■•W

161

ir.8
l«l

Ift4
16ft
171
174
I7A
1711
177
IM
IM
1*7

XIT

LIST OF ENGUAVINGb.

N amber

bi. A Portion of the Bpldnrmli afthv C4ne ...
M, Ov« and Younjt nftho Acjinia S.ir(^))&r( . . _

07. A Sugar liitcct - . . . .

M. The lame ......

n. Sporulei of the Fnngvu limnd in browTi Sugar

W. A Fragmfm of Woodj Hbre of the Fit •

01. CrjttMU o( Hnxipy • - . . .

n. HoMj colliiclctl princtpallf From a H«aih . - .

63. Boa«]t aduUetdlvd wltb C«ne Suyv ...

64. Good Mlik ......

e\ Poor Mllk-

6A. Cr«un ......

67. Curd of Milk ......

M, Coimtrum ......

CB. Common HvdrnniHrr .....

70. The Ontcsimal Galartornvter . . . -

71, Lactomctpr am) Siitnd • • • . .

75. The l.»oi' »c<>iK! . - - . .

73. Milk iwiutt< TAird wilh Slu^'i Braiiii ...

74. Tmu and SifbaUnce of Seed of NVbntI ...

76. 8tfticturt- and Appearance oflbe Surcli Graaulri of Wheat Flour
7R. Tola aod Surtare of Seed of Barley ...

77. Stnidura nnd Chimct^rt of Burlo; Siuch

78. Structure of TMta of Hjre . . - _
70. Structure and Characteri of tlie Stare)) Grauulci of Rjre Flour
80. TriU uf Oal .--.._
Ml. Struciure and Chamctpri cf the Starch Cnrpiitrlr* uf Oat FInur
^2. The lame of the Siarrh Oninul«of Indlaa Cvrn Hour

B3. Traiurorie 8ecliuo u[ Tetta of Indian C'urn

84. Hu*k of Hire ......

hi. Surch C^rpiiKrlPi and Crl]>of Rire ■ . .

n6. SUrch Oranulei of Raw Wheat Flour - - .

fl7. Trantvertr Scctinii or Krgot of Rye ...

89. Spurn of I'rrdo t^rict ....

Vd. The umo of L'redu Srcplum ....

yO. Wheat FInur infMtrd wllli Tuccliita Cramitill

91. Fuctinla Gramliiii .....

M. Fungus, commoDly found in iCnle tMvad ...
9$. Btiuctiite i<f the Grain of LuUucb TcmuleiituTu, «r Darnel
94. Kumcroui Vibilorci TrtUd - - - -

9J(, AcArut KAriuiD, or Meal Milo ....

9B. Acjuiii fioiii Flour .....

97, The Yewt Funs"" - . - . -

98, Adulteraird Coiiri Flour ....
Sit. QcAD Flour ■...-.

100. Wheat Fluur, adultemted with Beau Flour

101. The ftam«, ndultera'ed with Rii-e ...
lOJl. The aat»«. aduliarated wiih Indian Cora Flour

103. Wneat Bread adult»rat<>d wilh I'otato ...

104. Structure nf Seed of Durra ....

105. Lard, adulteratKl with Potato Starch ...
Oanoeal. adullcrntrd with Uartry Meal - . .
Starch Graniilet u( KlArnnla Arrowroot - - .
Canna, or Tout Ira Muu Arrowfoot ...
Curcuma Arrowroot .....

Taoca Arrowrout .....

Potato Armwroot ---•-.

Arum Arrowroot .....

Sajto Surr^i ......

Starch iiranulei of Sfigo - . - .

106.
107.
108.

I«t.

no.
lu.

112.
IIS.
J 14.

ll».

116.
1)7.
118.
ltd.
ISO.

111.

in. Fracnrat of outer mnr.bnine ors««l of Wbitt Muitard

Factltiout Safo ......

SUrch Graoulei of Minibot llt(lli>ima. or Tapioca

«Urch Graoiile* of Tapioca, altered tiy lb« b«at employed tn tu (weparatloti

Sample of Wtiarl'in'i hrvtlrnta • . . _ .

The »ame ol L)u Barry '» Revalenta Arabica ...

LMab'i AJImenlary Karhia, ur HomtBopathlc Farlnactout Food

The True AochoTy

■ IM)
191
IM

- 194

■ 19.t
300

■ Wl

ata

917

Sl»

219

. 220

sal

. 328

2S6
U4-2

•ua

344

tih
247
244
UAH
SM
Shi

s&a

SA4
3U
S»S
861
Ml
36S
364
a6ft
SOS
967

270
271
-JtU)
a87
288
289
'J90

■j$i

aoft

311

au
ai6

317

ai8

830

asi

325

as6

327
338
329
.132
.133
334
336

LIST OF ENOUAVINGS.

Number Pic«

1 9. FrRgmeuto of middle and liinvr tunln of Wbils MiutATd Si^l . . sir

Sftmpl« of (reniilne Ground Wblitt Miutanl .... 349

llu«k of IllAck Miiftt^nt Sr«l ...... 849

Samttle of "Double i>u[>\'r{)ne Miut^rd"- .... 3^

MuiiatdadultvratNl wttli wbMt flour, tiiriniftlc, and CajeniM • - 391

Hukkof ClivlockSMd ---.... it!

The tain* of Hup* Sflad --..-.. 3(9
The tautr uf East lodiui lUpr 8e«d reiriubUnr ■ ipecin ofMitttAnl • - SM

Tratuv«rtc aod Vvrllcal ftccUooi of Huik of MiuUrd S««d tntit witli In adutw.
mlvd r«M ........ yn

111. SvciiMi uf repp«r B^rrj- • • • • . - UO

ISS. Portion of cortex or I'vppvr &«rrr, ttiowiag the »!!• which rorm iu flrit and

i0c><nd Ujm ...-.•.. 3^0
Furtlon of (uurth Umlna of cortra of Pepper Berry, ihowiDC .the qU contained

In ih«ca>lilc» iifitir crIU ...*•. 3gt

Section of rentral ptjrtioo of Pepper Berry, ibowlQf th« two klndi of cetlft, and
tu JUQCtloD »l(h tne corieK ...... gg

Ground and un«dulter«led Ulacfc Pepper ..... jq

Structure of Ltnoeed --..... ggg

Epidennn of Captinim ..-..-. 370
Fracmcnt of KpidrrmU uf Cnpsicum Berry, rlewedoo Ita outer lurCice . X7|

The iimv, vlowed on it> iniipr •urbco ..... 373

P^renchjr ni* of L'apiicuni Berry • • • • . . 373

TniiUTerfe Hectioo ol Cap«icura Iterrf ..... 374

Verucal !»«ctlon of SUmd uf CaMlcum ..... 37^

Cmjeiina adulteralrd wlUi red lead, uround rice, and tumeric - . 375

Tran«Teri* r'ectiuD of Mcricnrp of lorlantter .... 379

Outer meiubruteand TtaoirerM Sdfkm of a Cardaraom Seed - . ail

1-17. Trani>«r>e SectlcA of 9jcricar]t at Cumin . - . . . ^g

IW. Outer Coat or 1>tta of a Fenugreek Serd ..... 3^4

rr«iu«ert«* St-rtkio of L/itte of fenugreek Seed .... 33^,

i»ectlon o( Tuber of rurntrric .--... ggg
Ciriiutnc Oiouiid TurmCTic •-..._ j|^

AcrliQer Model -----.. jt))

Uraiigv Marntalod*, adulterated with Apple or TUrolp • . 117

flrru Ibxit • - - - - • - -41ft

A pvrlinn nfche EptdencU of tlie Rlilxotnp of Gloger ... ^^

Spvt^r^l TUiur* uli*rr«Ml rntfff ing intu the foroiuiun of the Gtn|er IlhlKoiae,

deprived of m I-lpldcnitla •.-... |23

fjenulnr Grouml (Jiri^fr ...... |]g

Howilerrd (imger ndultrniteil with SBf{0 Powdrr • - . . 43^

The iiimt- nitiilct-nitM with Potato and Sbwo SUrrliea ... ^^

The (All ' 'I with (\iyttiic and Tapioca - - . . ^^

Luiigltii I I (:^nnamon carried Ir«ii»*er»ely through the tmrk . 431

ti<m(iliii I .\»dtT - - • - - _ I3S

ST- r*^ ' I ■■ HuJ ttkk of Ca*tU of the fiAlural kixe andappftarauce . 434

I <'(Jon of Cftiila ....

I jxjndof ....

bt. ;. .■..:i;]et - . . - -

Triim»fr»e >«ctlon of Maoe _ - - -

Prtjd uf Clu«(^•bud . . . - -

Transierte section ■>[ Flower -Halk of tha Clora

IfongUiidinal Sft-tion of Fliiufr>»lalk (>rthe Cluve >

Vertirai St'Ciion n( Hu»k of Pmientu L^rry

I'xTrioi) Di t|j.< Mi-_inlir«D«« on .Siirf«:i! n( the Seetl Proper

\ . .11 ul the Seed Proprr, of Ptmcolu Derry

I ■<>, or Alliptce ....

«.. II . -I >fivr . . - - -

S«^ti>>ni of hhrcd* of Ut-latlne and Iiinglast

itvcuon of Send 01 Atinalt'» ....

Annattoadiillrrnt'^l with Turmeric . - -

Til , '- ! Kir ....

ji 'ii(<oMd entirely nfAcaruk Slro M Omom Mite

^ liewi of Cheete Mite

I i.ui ajui K'»"d«or Hop ...

I u« of Leaf of Totucco ...

L^.-..i ^iirbce of tainv . . . • -

in.
in.

I«6.

117.

\tn.

1X1.

lao.

131.

116.

IM.
137.

im.

IK>.
140.

HI.
142.
143.
144.
l*\

iKt.

liQ.
Iftl.
Iftl.

153.
|IU.
IM.
IM.

|A7.
1^

1*1.
)0<l.

ir,i.

IQS.

1(3.
IM.
I(>V
IWL
HS7.
)(M.
It».
170.
171.
I7i
173.
174.
17*.
I7&
177.

in.

|k|

I- -

^^^mtAT

^^/OM

^^Tn

otfr

^t'/i

Gi-a/

suh

OZ)t;,

yeet

^-«ior'''^-»rC7^:'s-.^---^.r

'*ft.

0'/86

cr/OA^.

'-^^r:^?::-?Si?::;

•"otAe,

'^>Ve

lot

'•'«/» „.:: "'•''■we.

ters

sfoi'dp.. - "" "o' <v.-'": *""■'/

"*'i."?:sr-.^

''•Ijj

"Oil.

*"'^^,

•'•««

•"^■^ene^^'^^or

'«t4e

^*'<«i

arfo;.

""^ijt.

«er.

'^'«-«^

OQ,

i//tej,

«a:

<f/o,

'"''*'^.„:"^""-":>

^^'cA

•^/br

ttfl

^•"^o, I

LIST OF ENOUAVINGS.

Kutobvr 'l^

IB6. Trantvarfc SecUoo of Mid-rib of LMf Of Tobueo ... 47$

m. Portion of Tnin»»fne S«TUan uf M14>ribaf liMf nf Tobacco - - W7

lis. Longitudinal Srcllon of Nld-rlb of Luf of Tobacco . - . - B7S

INB. <;imulni' Cut TuImcco ..-..-- VT9

190. Pivtlnncif rndcr KuKacs of thfl l^Afrif th« Dock . . - .601

191, Trftnifn*'' tcctlonof Mld-rfbof L«af of Dnck • - - - Ktt
li». I'ortiuii of Trmuvvrte Section of M-d-ribof Uaf of Dock . . - iOt
190. LongttiKlinal M-rtiona(Mtd-ribof LeafofDock • - • • 8M
194. rortioii of I'lidiM* Surrac* of Rhubarb L#ar .... 3M

196. TranivcrM Section of MUl-rlb of IUiub4rb I.«af * • • - (W
1<|6. I'ortloa of U|ipt<r Sur tnc? of Leaf of CoUsfool - - • . A67

197. Poillon of t'lidrrStirf^ce of the Mm«. ..... 9M

IWi. TraniTtT»« SetUon ol one o( the VVlni of L«if of Coltsfoot - - - M»

lUO. Tliv wine of tbe Exlorn-il Sarf«c<« of the Pof^pf C«(>iula - - Oft

300. Tlir iMme of Inner Surface of thr Poppy Cjq»u1p . . * ■ ^^6

tOI. PorUon of Surfac« of out of the Piar«nla or DiM<T'lnt^t4 of Porpjr rapftiU • (17
KH Tfanivmc Sortlun through tlir Tlilckrir^ • nf a DUappimrmt of Poppy C«|ttuln - f^l^
SOB. 1'TaulTc^ft(^ Section of Uliseplmrot of Poppjr Cap>ulc - - - VfJ

tMt Fragment nf Poppy Swsd ...... (00

aOk S4Up)(! nf Opium aJ<ilU>rAt(Ml with Poppr CApiule • • • .614

30ft. Th« tame AdultoraCMl wttb Poppy CApinle and Whrnt Flnur • • • M(k

yi7. Kityplinn Oplntn. iitliiltrrKtixl vliti fiiini, Woody Fibre, and Wheat Flour • (M

SOfL Fureor ViriEin .Srammon) In Powdvr .... * flill

Ml. Scammony. largt'ly adulimtod vHu WhMt • • . . OAI

StO* Tniii*«rr»e SMtlun nl Jal-<p Tubrr, diowlDitlhe apr^^ranre and diilrib«(llon Of

the dark, and probably Ur«ln CrlU - - - - • Oa?

Sll. Tbp Miiio, «lH><rlii« th^ SlATch t^-lla, and iiltn the Ili^in CrIU • • fiM

319. All the Struciiirri and tloincnt* found In ti^nulne powdered JaUp • - AS

111. Powd*red Jalap, Ijrgcly Artiiltrrat^ uith wudl .... CBT
!I14< Ipfcacuanha Hoof, tranavrrivc Section ofthf Cortex ... &9

IIA. Tbe utni>, Aactlnni of tb« rcntral pait or Mc<lituUlum - . . 670

)i^ Oroutne urounct Ippou-uaiihA - . • • • - fiTl

317. TnnavcfM Section of Gourd of Colocjrnth • - - .671

aia. Portion of Surfacu of Gourd ..-.-. 674

))0. KvcUon of Sc«d of Colircyntli '- - - • • • 0T4

^10. Rhubarb ftdultetal«d with wlieat flour - . • • - 6T7

ni. Powdered Squilli adnltirnt'-ii nith wh«U (lour • > - . 67t

Tit. TranaTrrii* Mollcm of Koiit of Ll<)iioric« ... - - IM

3X1. LAnKUiMllna) S*-i.-(ton of LiquorKc Hoot ,- . - - - AM

SM. Irnntvrrtc Srclioii u( I.Kiniirire Ilntit . . . - ■ 1914

2Xa. Lti|tiortca Powder adulterated wttli iurni«rlci ai^<l Eut tadlui arrowroot . OW

ADUl/i'ERATIONS DETECTED,

r;ENERAL INTRODUCTION.

In this Introduction the subject of adulteration will be considered in
some of iti more general and imporunt iis{H?eLe defined, ita
prevalence sbowu, a clatisitication of articlef* employed for ndulterntion
;j;iTCn, the importance of the subject explained, and, lutly, the means
or remedies by which adulteration may be discovered and obviated
cODnidered.

Definition of AduUeration.

It may facilitate the clearer understanding; of the subject to define
nt the outstitwhutconstitute^ adulteration; but, before doing so, it may
btf well to cJlplttin what is not Hdulteratitm. This is the inure neces-
sary, since this part of the subject is involved in some degree of un-
certainty and confusion.

llie sale of one article in place of another is not an adulteration,
but a substitution.

Again the presence of substances in articles in consequence of im-
purities contained in the materials out of which they were prepared,
,iu^ for ejtample, of arsenic in the liydrochloric seid used in the prepa-
ntion oi unfertnent«d bread does not constitute adulteration : they
ore simply impurities.

I^asUy, the accidental presence of subitancea in any commodity does
not constitute adulteration.

Excluding then from the class of adulterations all cases of tuBstitutiony
of impurities^ and accidental coritamiiuttiofu, adulteration may be thus
di'fiiiud.

it consists ia the intentloniil addition tu an article, for ptnposes of

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

gain or deception, of any substAnpe nr .lubfltanccs the presence of
which is not ao-knowleilged in ihv nnme umler wliiclj lite article is t^old.

It ifl not easy so to frame n definilion as tliot it sbdl aiiply to every
case: that now given ilcies, Iiowtvcr, must t-ertninly embrai-c tbe grcjil
majority of adultcratiDtia practised, and it excludes subxtitutlons, iiu-
puritiea, and accidcntnl i*nntaminations, because it ppeciBes tliat the
addition niimt be iatentional,

ALH:ording to tliia definition the sale of cofTcc containing chicory
for and as coffee, of cocoa into which sugfar and starcU have been
purposely introduced, and of mustard containing flour rmd tumuTic,
as cocoa and mustard, constitutes bo many adulterations^ and as such
they oughr undoubtedly to be coniiidered.

llie consumer entering a ftbnp, and unking for any article, has a right
to ex[)ect that he will be .lupfdiod with that which he demandn, and
for which he pays, and be ought not to be furnished with a mixtureof
iirtictcs not acknowlcdj^ed in the name under whii-h the mixture is
sold, and the nature and prnpfirtions of ihe ingredients entering into
which arc often unkimwn tn him. This rlj/ht undeniably belongs to
the purchaser, and any wilful violation of it conRtituies adulteration.

The words coffee, cocoa, and mustard convey distiuct ide.is : these
names have been bestowed upon certain vegetable productions, — coffee
upon the berries of the coffee plant, cocoa and mustiinl upon the seeds
bruised and reduceil to powder of tbe cocoa and mustard plants: any
application, therefore, of these words to mixtures and compnunib is oh-
viuuply improper, and in many coses is in a liigb degree deceptive.

The plea that the addition of chicory to coffee, of flour and su^iar
to cocoa, (if turmeric and flour to mustard, a.s well as that numerous
other additions, constitute improvementft, ought not to avail. In
nineteen cases out of twenty, these whlitions are no improvements at
all ; and where they really arc so, the mixtures ought to be acknow-
ledged, wherever practicable, in the names under which «uch mixed
articles are sold ; and not only ought this to be done, but the propor-
tions uf the several ingredients should be stated.

Even with such regulations it is questionable how far the sale of
Euch mixtures ought to be permitted, except in cases where distinct
advantages can be shown to result from them, because, in the present
Btat« of science, it is fref[uently impossible to determine the truth or
falsehood of any statements which might be put forth respecting
prcKKirtions of the several ingredients contained in any mixture.

GENERAL IJJTUODUCTION. &

Prervdence of Adnlteration,

TTic following particulars will serve to convey some idea of the great
prevalence of ndulteration.

During the course of the last six years the author has examined mi-
nute]^ and scrupulously, microscopically and chemically, over 3000 sam-
pler uf the principal articles of consumption, oa well as many drugs ; and
lis theonegreat result of this somewhat extended experience, he alTirraa
that some inhorL time back there were few articles of cnnsumption the
odulterutiun of which was practicable, and which, at the same time,
could be rendered profitable, which were not extensively subjected
to adulteration.

True it is that adulteration does not now prevail to anything like
the extent it did when his investigations first coniuiented, — this
highly important and gratifying result being attributable*, in the first
instance, to the exposure? of adulteration made for so long a period in
" The Lancet," and subsequently in tlie evidence given before the
Select Parliamentary Committee on Adulteration.

The GTidence of ibe cxtcaaivc prevalence of adulteration does not,
however, rest upon the testimony, undeniable as that evidence has l>cen
shown to be, of a single inquirer ; but many scientific observers of un-
doubte<] capabilities, and in every respect trustworthy^ have testified
to the same effect : as in this country, Accum, Allichcll, Normandy,
Gray, O'Shaughnesay, Pereira, Thomson, Wartngton, Taylor, Calvert,
Quekett, Bustick, Gay, Phillips of the Kxcisc, and ntany others ; and
nbroaii, MM. Garnicr and Harel, and M. Cbevallier.

The numerous witnesses examined before the Committee on
Adulteration, with one or two unimportant exceptions, concur in their
statements respecting the gcncrnl prevalence of adulteration. Imleed,
so conclusive is the evidence deemed, thai the Cnnimittcc stale that
ibey have been constrained to acknowledge, as shown in tbe IVefaoe
to this work, that tlie statements made as to the extensive practice to
adulteration have been fully confirmed by the in({uiry, and that legis-
lation hfta been rendered imperative.

Of course no evidence can be more satisfactory or conclusive than
that of witnesses who speak to what they themselves have ascertained
in the course of their investigations: there is, however, evidence of the
existence of adulteration of another kind, nnd that is the occasionid
supply of ortidca of consumption to workhouses and other public

a 2

&EN'EltAL INTRODUCTIOX.

establialiracnls under market price. IVc are acquainteJ witb more than
*me instance of tbw kind, especially in tlic articles arrowroot and oat-
ineu! : tlie iliirLTuncc in price being ascertained to have been made up
hy udultii^ration.

Dr. Noriimiidy concludes bis evidence l^eiore tlie Parliamentary
Comuiittce wiib this remark : —

" Adulteration is a wide-spread evil, which has inrailcd every branch
of commerce : everything which can be mixed or uduUeruted or de-
bosed in any way is debased." To the general accuracy of this decla-
raiion our own experience compels ub to subscribe.

It may in the next place be considereti how it hupptnus that adultera-
tion i$ tv prevalent.

Various rco^onti have been assigned to account fur this prevalence:
the majority of these have been gu^;^esLed by parties more or le^s
interested iu adulteration, either directly (*r indirectly : the principal
i.f them we shall proceed to notice, and first tliose reaaona, or rather
excuses, which have been urged in defence of adulteration.

Excuses urged in Kztemtation of Adulteration,

One reason ossified in defeuce of nmny adulterutiona is that they
are practised in ubcdieaee to the wishes and tastes of thu public.

Another rea«)n is that the additions made to several articles con-
stitute improvements.

It is on the first of these plea<4 that the practice of colouring the red
sauces, potted meats, and fish with bole armenian ; chee.se with annatto;
])iokle&, bottled fruits, and vegetables, with copper; and sugar con-
fectionor)' with various pi;;menls consisting of suits of arsenic, copper,
zinc, and antimony, is excused.

Kow, aUh{]u;;h it may be true that the public, in some instances,
prefer the more highly coloured article, yet they do bo tu a mere ques-
tion of appearance, and in total ignorance of the means by which these
colours are obtained: these means explained, and the jiublie made
aware of the fact that ibey are produced by some of the most
]H)i8onous substances known, it is not correct to say that they would
knowingly sanction the use of these poisons, and would prefer, merely
for the sake of colour, articles which were known to contain injurious
substances to those which are pure and wholesome.

It is on the second of thesie pleas, viz., that the additions made to
several articles constitute so many improvements, that the addition of

GENERAL INTRODDCTION.

chicory to coffee U defended ; wLeat-flour and tarmcrio to mustard ;
Hupu" and starch to cocoa ; sulphuric acid to vinegar. We shall have
hereafter to speak of the addition of chicory to cofTee, and of sugar
and starch to cocoa : we shall show ihat it is very questionable whether
chicory U an improvement to cofl*ee, and whether it is not positively
hurtful; if it l>e an improvement, still it is proper that each of the
articles called chicory and cofTee should be sold by itself, and usiid
by the public or not as it might wish. In the case of cocoa it will be
shown that the au^r ami starch are employed in many cases Ut such
an extent that the compound of starch, Bus?ar, and cocoa, scarcely
retains the flavour or smell of the letter substance, while its colour
is so altered and reduced, that it becomes necessary to hare recourse
to coloured earths to bring it up to its proper standard.

The manufacturer telU us that mustard by itself is so disagree*
able that we could not eat it, and hence the use of wheat-flour and
turmeric. Uut the answer to this st^itemcnt is, that in some of the
so-called mustards, the tunneric and wbeat-llour are so out of pro-
portion that the compound scarcely retains the flavour of miutord.
Again, that genuine mustard cannot be so unpalatcahle a thing is
rikown by the fact that there are now a few mttnufacturers who
profess to sell nothing but the {renuine article.

Another plea urged in extenuation of certain additions is that they
are necessary in order to make the articles keep. It was on this
ground that the legislature was brought to fianction the addition of
sulphuric acid to vinegar ; but that it has no real foundation in
this case is proved by the fact that there are now manufacturers con-
ducting extensive establishments who do not add even the smallest
proportion of sulphuric acid to their vinegar.

Wlion, therefore, the manufacturer or «;eller defends any particular
admixture, or adulteration, on any of the pleas referred to, namely,
that it is practised to suit th«f public taste, that it is an improvement,
or that it is necessary in order to make the article keep, we would
advise our readers to look well into the matter for themselves; they
will be almost sure to find something wrong, some fallacy at the
bottom of these statements, — they will too often find that this pre-
tended rq;ard for the wishes and tastes of the public resolves itself
into a question of gain to the manufacturer or trader.

Another plea sometimes urged in extenuation of adulteration, ami

perhaps there is sometbing in it* but not much, is that it is impossible

u .1

GENERAL INTRODUCTIOK.

to supply genuine articles at tbc prices the pabUc is wiiliug to ipikj
for tbem.

No doubt tUe public likes to obtain wbat It requires at as cbeap a
rate as pott^iblc, — but it is for the trailer to fix llic prices at which
he can afford to »ct[ his goods, and not the public : further, if it ivere
explained to tl^e public hj the dealer thut he i>r)uld not answer for the
quality or puriiy of the very cheap articles sold, there are, we believe,
very few persons who would be so silly as to prefer the adulterated
to the genuine article, although the former might be apparently
the cheaper.

We say apparently cheaper^ because in many cases these so-called
cheap articles tire really the dearest In the end, for, owin^ to the extent
it} which they are adulterated, (hoy do not go nearly so far as j^enuine
nrtielra would do. The public, then, we ctmsider u but little at fnult :
it merely requires to be made acquainted with the true and actual state
of thinfFS, and there is no doubt but that in ninety-nine out of every
hundred case* it wduld prefer the genuine to the adulleratcfl com-
uuxlity, even allhou;.'!) for this a somewhat higher price had to be paid.

A further excuse sometimes urged in defence of certain adultera>
lions is, that they do no harm, fiy this plea wo suppose is meunt,
lliftt they are not hurtful to the health, but only to the pocket On
this ground the adulteration of milk with water is sometimes de-
fended : now we are of opinion tliat there are few more scandalous
and indirectly injurious adulterations than tliis. Milk is an important
and prime article of diet, full of ^ou^i^hraent, and in proportion as
water is added, so urc those who partake of the diluted compound
robbed of their proper nourishment.

Such arc some of the excuses employed in defence of odulterntinn.
That they should be urged by certain manufacturers and traders,
whose profits in some cases are so largely dependent upon adulteration,
is not so surprising : but whiit really is astonishing Is, that there should
be found some few men, very few we arc hiij>py to state, of mi»re
or less scientific repute, who, influenced by certain considerations of
interest, lend the weight of their names and use (heir ycientific attain-
ments in defence of adulteration,

Science is never so ri<;htly or so nobly employei:! as when tt ministers
to the wants and welUticing of mankind, and especially when it is
nsed for the protection of the public health. On the other hand, is
it not an unworthy and an ignoble use to make of sciencv, to employ

GKNEKAI. INTKODUCTlOJf,

it in defence of practices whtcli i*vcn those wbo defend Uietii moat in
ihcir own consciences must comJema? — and ytt there ore men who
thus deiotian liieinsolves.

That it would be* right to make public the names of those who thus
disgrace themselves, to refute their argunientA and reasonings, &ud
CO expose the motives in which tbeir conduct originat4;8, few will
deny : we fccl^ however, that this is »cnrce1_v a fitting^ place so to do,
and shall therefore rcfruin from pursuing this course : wc shall merely
refer, in a general way, and as briefly :is possible, to the kind of ar-
guments reported to by the per:tons to wliam we liave alluded. Of
course they employ the tlilTerent reasons, or rather picas, to which
we have referred, anfl the fallacy of muBt of which we have exposed;
but in addition to which they resort to other proceedings.

Thus ihcy endeavour, if possible, to get up a cry of exajfperation,
this in the face of evidence of ihe most conclusive and demon-
strative character.

Another course pursued ia t^) cite some of the leds important in-
stances of adultcnttion, as, for example, the addition of alum to bread,
of water to gin, and to argue from them as though they were not,
oa they really are, parts uf a system, but as though they were the worst
imtanoes of adulteration, and as though the entire case rt^'sted upon them.

Another favourite plea used in extenuation of adultcratiun is
that the quantilicii in which souie of the substances arc employed, as
those used for the sake of colour, nre too inconsidenible to be pro-
ductive of hurtful results.

This is so sometimes, but it ceiHaiuly is not the case in the ma-
jority of instances: in many coses injurious consequences have been
a«Ttually proved to euitue: thus mai^y persons have been poisoned
outright, nnri have lost their lives, from the use of r(dnure<l sugar
confectionary; others have been rendered seriously ill. Cases of
lead paralysis hove been produced by the lead pur^MWidy introduced
into snuff, and the same, it has been asserted, has occurred from the
uite of cayenne coloured or adulterated wiili red lead. A)in.\u,
illness of a senous, and even fatal, character bos been produce<l by
the use of poisonous adulterants not pijrments, as from lend in wine,
ci*ccu1us indicus in beer and spirits. ]ndce<l, instances might be mul-
tiplied to a large extent of disease ori;:inating in the use of substances
rmployed for adulteration. WTio can tell how many invalid.^ and tender
rhildren have fallen victims to the dangerous adulterations practised

n A

% GENERAL INTBODUCTIOK.

Upon fxHid, drinka and drugs, if the true causes nf premature death
could be traced out in all sucli cases? That- dyapeplie ailments often
owe tbeir origin to the acliiUerfttionof nrticles ol" (bod is unquestionable.

Besides, if the etni^loynient of jKiifuinons pigments and oilier
substances arc to be penuitted at all, what guarnntee or security have
we against accidents resulting from the careless and ignorant use of
such poisonous or injurious articles ? Theonly right and narc principle
upon which to act we maintain is to discard the use of all additions
to articles of consumption that are unnecit'iisary, and which may
|»os8ibly become a source of danger. Again, it must l)c remembered
that the ill eiTects of adulteration cannot be estimated by the quantity
of any particular ingredient contained in any one article ; so prevalent
is adulteration, that in the course of a singli; day it often happens
that several injurious ingredients are partaken of, and in onler to
arrive at any correct conclusion wo um:?t therefore take the sum
of the whole of these injjredients. See p. 21.

Lastly, in endeavouring to estimate the eOects of odalteration on
health, the fact must bu borne in mind that some of the metallio
poisons used are what are called cumulatire. See p. 20.

)Ve have been induced to enter into an examinution of the various
pleas on which tlie practice of adultvriition is wuK'times defended, in
Tjrder that when the readers of this work hear theui urged, as some
ot' them doubtless will, they nuy know wliat they are really worth,
and how they may be refuted.

Having noticed ihe various pleas on which adulteration is defended,
we have still to consider to what cause or causes ita prevalence is due.

Seal Catue* of Oa Prevalence of Adulteration.
The great cause which accounts for the larger part of the adul
tcration which prevaiU is the desire of increased profit; a second
cause is excessive and unfair competition. A trader, perceiving that
his neighbour in the same bu.*iines» is selling his gt>odB at prices at which,
if genuine, it would be impossible to realise a proGt, knov^s that this
can only be done by having recourse to adulteration, and finding that he
cannotcompetewith his unscrupulous fellow truiler, at longthhe himself
too ol\en has recourse to the same practice. We thus perceive how
dilUcult it is fur many tradesmen who desire to do so to conduct their
bosinetaet in a honourable way, and to resist the temptation to adul-

GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 9

terat«. The main cau»>s of the prevalence of adulteration are, then,
the dctire of increased profit and cxccsmvc and unfair competition.

Who are the Parties guilty of Adulteration f

The next question for wmsideration is, who are the parties guilty of
»lultcrAtion.

The answer is, in some cases, the manufacturers, and in others the
retail dealers. This dislinelion is of the utmo:it importance, especially
with reference to the means to be adopted for the discOTcry and sup-
pression of adulteration.

Some of the adulterations practised require to be so on the large
scale, and involve the use of extensive machinery, which the trades*
man does not possess ; and in consequence certain adulterations, aa of
. dour, of chicory, of cocoa, ot'nipices, and of many ilrugn, are practised by
the grinderti and roasters of those articles : there it« a claits of persona
known OB Sptce and Dru>; Grinders, with whom lies much of the fault
of the adulteration of spices and drugs.

in the drug trwle the practice at one time was very general, and
<t still prevails to some extent, of adding sawdust of <Iidcrent kinds, as
well aa other articles, in order, it wa<4 urged in excuse, to make up for
the varying and avcrai^e Iub» sustained by diflerent drugs in the
cour*e of drying and grinding to a uniform toss of 4 per cent. This
is called the 4 per cent, sytitcm ; however, the practice does not stop
here, but Iead.i to every species and degree of abuiie.

The adulterations of mustard, vinegar, annatto, snufT, coloured
sugar confectionary, and some other articles, ore also usually prac-
tised by the manufacturers.

There are good reasons why, in many caws, the manufacturer should
be the adulterator; not only has he the necessary machinery and the
means of performing the requlsjite operations iyn a large scale, but the
responsibility of adulteration is thus taken ofi'thc shoulders of the tens
of thousands of traders by whom the public is immediately supplie<l,
and is confined in s<mie degree to the comparatively small body
of manufacturers, whose proceedings are coiulucted in rL-tiremcnt and
•ecrecy, and whose premises are not accessible to the public.

The retail trader, however, takes in many coses his share in the
•work of adulteration ; as one example, we may mention that much
of the adulteration of beer and spirits is perpetrated by the pub-
lican. Kven in those cases in which the retailer does not himself

GENERAL INTRODUCTION,

adulterate, be often purchases of nduUcruting mcrclinnts with gtiiltj
knowledge ; thus, in many cascs^ he is swareof the fact that the article
he purchases is adulterated, from the price paid for it being less than
that at which the genuine article can be procured. In such eases
the tradesman i^ a party to the fraud, aud is as guilty as the actual
perpetrator of the adulteration.

It should be known thtUcvcn the purchnsin^^of articles of consump-
tion in the raw state b^ the trader nffurds no guarantee for the genu*
ineness of those articles, provided they are afterwards sent to the
grinder or manufacturer to be ground or manufactured. We have
known tradeHuitfu who, witihing to pretext themselves as fur as possible
against adulteration, have purchased the best cocoa beans and chicory
nibs, and have then sent them to the grinder to be prepared, bui^
upon being returned to them, tliey were found to be adulterated.
Messrs. Ridgwuy and Co., of Kin;; William Street, forwarded to the
author, some time §ince, some fliike fot-oa for oxaminntion : tins was
found to be adulteruteil with wbefll-flour. Measrs. Rid^'way then
stated that tliey purohnxed the best cocoa beans they could procure,
and sent them tn the munnfacturer to be nude \nto Jiitke cot*oa, which
should consist of nothing but cocoa. The miuiufacturer, in this case,
had subtracted some of the cocoa, and had replaced it with wheat-
flour. Since this occurred Messrs. Uidgway have had a mill erected
on their premises, and now make tlieir own flake cocoa.

Now it must 031 be inferred from these remarks, that there are
not many honest maiiufacLurcrs and traders connected with the manu-
facture and sale of articles of consumption. We ktiow that there nre
many such, and on In-half of some of those who either lire really
(:nilty of^ or who lend themselves to adulteration, the uxcusi^h may be
urged that utitil very rwently the legislature has been indiflerent to
this subject, that it dm*!* not protect t)ie honest trader, and (bat in
self-defence, and for very livelIh(K)d*8 sake, be is often driven to
adutternle.

CLASSiriCATIOK OF AdULTBKATIOX.

Not only is adulteration prevulent, but the substances employed are
very nnmerous; different kinds of substances being used for diflerent
purposes. The majority of substances used are so for one of three
purposes: either for the sake of hulk or weight, the articles used of
coarse being cheaper than tbusc to which they are added ; for the sake

QENEEAL INTRODUCTION.

oCcohur, that is, to heighten and imprtive the appearance of articles &s
it is consi<iere<I, often erroneously, the natural colour of such artinlcs
bv'ing frequently altered and reduced by dilution with other uUultcr-
itiag substances added for bulk and weight ; or, lastly, to increase the

agency of articles, and to heighten their ^ro^rftw and^immr.

The first kind of adulteration is the more usual fDrni, und is that
hy which the practice is rendered so prufiiabte ; the second, that which
consists in the addition of colouring matters of various kinds, is often
necessitated by the first kind, so that these two descriptions of adul-
teration frcfiuontly go logetber.

An example of the first kind uf adulteration is furni&hed by the
addition of roosted corn to chicory or coffee jKjwdens and of water to
milk.

Of the second, in the addition of red lead t<> cayenne, Venetian red,
umber, &c., to chicory and cocoa; while an example of tlie third form
of adulteration is met with in tlie addition of nlkalicji, as nl^o the
chromnles of |)otash, hellobure. uud powdered glass to snulf.

Now it is in the second class, viz., that whiuti consi^la in the em-
ployment iii colouring mattersi of various kinds, that the mdjority of
tho«ic adulterations are included which are prejudicial to health : this
will be 8*?en more clearly hereafter.

So numerous and various arc the substances employed for adultera-
tion that a classification of them according to the articles in which
tbey are encountered, an<l the purposes to which they are ajiplied, be-
comes uaeful. Such a i-liusifi cation is j;!;iven in the fidlowing tables.

The annexed Table contains only the names of thoso substances
which we have ourselves ascertained, by original ub$er>-ati(tns and
Analyses, to be actually employed for the adulteration of Articles of
Food; it does not include Drugs.

Clauijied List of the varimu Suhstancea ascertained hy Ourtelres to be
employed for the differeut Purpo»rs nf Adulteration : eix. /or Sulk
ami Weight, for Colour^ atulfor Smelly 7'aste^ and other Prpperliea.

Amiuttd.

VM BMlk and WetRbt.

rvCrfnv.

Rt«. WhPikt anil Bnrley
Floart, Tumicrlc. C«rbo-

nau and Sulphate uf
LlilM^ Had fornigiiiout

Tumwrie, Red fernjirf-
nou« Karlht, SoJL
Allull.

Sutphatc of Cop-
per.

C^^^^^l

• GENEEAL INTEODUCTION.

PvTmc. Knitll,

r« Bulk and wcgmt.

For Cotmir.

m4«tkrrVto.

Aknow-Root .

l«m*«.

Srito, Potato, nnd Tuploai

Srjucbet, and vHrt<iu«

niixrum and comhiriA-

Elciii* of t\\r*t with the lii-

Fi^rtor Arroik-ri-nU.

ANOMVItt

Dutch, Freurh.and Slelllaii

Bole Armpnton, Wnc-
tloJi Kfd.

IM*miT -

Wabpr . - - -

Burnt Snjtar.

Mmhrtl Potnlix^, nice,

A(unn. Hardiftivd

Hun*, fijrr, Iiidiin
Corn
W«er.

Stuff.

Bvmmrmvm

SaUa of CV>pppr,uiiiAll:r

Salt.

AKD ThiTA-

[h» Acetate or Sul-

BUtt.

phate.

Cn»iii .

- - - -

A'tnatto, Bole Armr-
olan. Vcuvtian H«d.

ClNKAHnN

CftMlii. ami moit orUie ar-
iicl0« m»n(lone«l under

Sptcri.

But tndu Arrow-mot,

CoehlDPAl. Lik», Tndl-

rftCnOHABY.

WbMl WKl Potato Fl«MJr,
Hjilrftted Sulfihate of

LtlDt.

)(■>, Pimi«Imix Hliif,

Antwerp Blttu. Artl.

flclfll rii;r.imjiriiir,

C«rli<>n>Tp oi Cii^ijifT

or Vi-rditrr, ('srbo-

natpof LiaitorWhliP
Lead, It.HlUad.Vrr
millon .Chroinp Yel-
low or Cbrnin'itp* of
LcHd.I.fmoii.DranMC'
anil lit'ep; (iamliDxtr;
Xap CirHciniJm th?ief

BrunRwkk, Crpen*,

Eintrrald flrern i>r

Arvpnlf* iif 4;of»ppr,

Indian R«^; bri>Hn
rernminrMi* farrhs,
cblvllj l^mbor, jlleii-
na, and Vniidykp
Brawn, and v«ri(>iii
cnmblnatiiui* ■)( the
abovt' pigmenlM.

Comx .

Chicory. Rout»d Wheal.
Ity4> and I'oiata Floiirft,

wiinel, Aninii

Burnt Suanr, or Blaclt
Jark.

CiiieoiT -

Riwtnl WhMt and Kfe
Flmira, Burnl Boaitt ami
Ai-urna, ttewduit, M«h(v<
g*)'Y ^awiliut. Carrot
Al4iiKi*l.wurs«).

Frrnigliioui rnrThi, nit
X'cnt'llMii Ued and
Vmi^fi, Burnt Sugar
or Black Jack.

COOttAANOCHO-

Maraiil«, Kott IndU, and

VfiiPtian Bed, Red

COL41B.

Taroi orTaittti Arrow-
moU ;Ti>u» Wt Mda; Iha
Flourt of WliMt, IndUn
Com. S«go, PnUtn. Jiml
TAnioca,arulTar|t>u*Mi\-
tiirci of thfw: SuKd'',
Ciiilcunr, Ccx'cia Htuki.
Ground nice. Muitardliiuk,

Oclirp. and ullwr f»"r-
ruglnou* carthi.

Catimni Tbp-

nv6 I>«d. VmnlKriQ

tUlL.

or RUulpfvtirpt nt
Mercury. Venelian
Red. Tumaark.

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B

~^^M

^^^^^ OENER^VL INTRODUCTION. ^^H

F«r Tarta, fn»itt

CotTAKn *»n

rwBalkMMlWrfffal.

rorCalMU.

•ailMhnrn.-

WVirar, Poraln, aod Rice

Ohrofn^ Yellow or

EOO PoWtlMD

Flour*.

Chromate of Lead,

Turmeric,

CUIKT rOWDU

Cmuod Uice, PoUlD-fariEia.
Sail.

Ked iMd

Salt.

Flovk

Hlcf, Bf-ani, Rrv. Iiiiliui-
Coro. Pouto VVur. i

- « - .

Alum.

GlMOM -

Whnut, Sua, iDd PnUto !
Flours, around Ulce,
MuMard HtuU.

Turmeric Povdvr.

flin . • .

W»ler, Sugar - - •

Cayenne, Taula
nr Cinnamon,
Su(n»r. and fla-
vourlufurdlFRr-
eot hlndi. hor
fining. Alum,
B«lt of Tartar.

HOMIY

Flour, C«iiP Sugar.

|MX<1L4U •

GcUUne.

L««* - .

Pouto-flour, Waier

• • " •

Salt.Carbonntfl of
Soda. Caustic
Line.

LiQunict

Whral-anur.l'otxto SUrrti.
tiDiM Starrh pnihnl.t)
' Rk*r .Chalk, uml GcHutiv.

MUlTjIlltl -

WI>CAi<flour, Turnif>rlc

Tunnerk.

MtLK ■ -

W«CT

Annalto.

MUL«AL4D> -

Pulp of Apple tir Titr nl p.
Barlpj'Bour, ajid ili* Inir-

' Oatmui -

gummu of Bulrr cAlled
Hubble.

ruHBK AND

Water

Sujtw, Trrula ■

Sugar, TrMcle,

Stoi'T.

bait.

PicftLa •

- - - -

Salt* o' Copper. UAU ally
(he Arcutv of Copper.

PorT«o MUT«

Flour, iirobjU>lr VlTiMt-

Duir ArtneuUii. ami

4«ii» Kim.

flnur boiled.

• 'tnetliuei VonutUu

Puntivui

Salit of Cu|ffi«r, Including
the Acetate.

Hed.

rtrrcB .

Wbeit afttl Pm Flour,
OriMind Hire, C.touml
MutUril Seedt, LlnHvU
Me«I. P. l>..or Peppcr-
D.ut.

&400 - -

Pouio-flour.

S»nrr

Th? CbroniAlet of Po-
luh, C'ltrocniite of
I**d. fetruginou*
Cdrtba, ehiclly litn-
l>erf, Ked and Yellow
OCbre. Ked Lead, or
Oxide of LMd.

The Chrnmatet
of Potash, Car.
boiule of Am-
monia. Ltme.
Pondered Glass
or Sile«, Pnw.
deredOrrli-root.

BlM - .

Water

- - - .

Carrnne, Burnt
Sugar.

KtOAB

Wheal-flnur lo two CUM

only, Poiato-flour. and

Tai'iocA-tUrcli, each in
" oQtfumplr.

ftnetm :

CuiYU - -

PDwAiDNl CloTe-«Ullu In

Ct%HAUoii -

CoMU, WbcAt-dnur. Sago-
mtoi, wild minture* of
(hr»e : KaK India Arrow-
root. Poialo-Aour.

OENEKAl, IN TKODUCTION.

List of Articles utttted hy Oikerx to hf employed fitr the different
Piir/Hfitea of Adulterutum^ but of the Use of which iio Pogitive
Erideme hoA been adduced^ idthough it i> extremely pj-i)Lable that
many of them haoe beeny or are occasinRnllyy had recourse to.

For Taiite. Smelk

FoBuUtmiWactii.

F« Colwif.

ud oLlwr Pn^

Aebow-Root .

pmin.

Ground Rlc«.

ANCHOnSS

Hrrats.

Bmuu

Burlpy, Onl. Pf* Flmir,
IMt.e Cfliiy, Pl*»t«r of

CoLOHBRD Con.

WbltP Potti-r'i rlay. Pi[n-

Ciihall, Smilt, UHr«.

rMrrio))A.ay.

Cliijr. or Cornith <Uy ;

mariiif, Litmua, (■*«•

Ch^lk. Flmtt-f or Parli.

pies Yellcm.

S«rd

Corrii - -

Ri>Ait<H) P«M, Co(fce
Grtiuodi, Parmiv-

ladder Rwt.

CmooRY -

Torreli«d Gnmnd Rier,

B«k«^ HorM-i Lirer,

Roftited BiH-ult. Oak Hnrk

Durai Blood.

1'an. EKiiAiutod. T«o,

called Crmui.

Cocoa akd Cbo-

OH ScR HlKMilB, Co«r*r

R«<) r.«Rd, Vermllloii,

COLATR-

BrAnnvFlour.AnimAlKoti,

KMf RDd Yvticiw

Rt TaIIow. Ijird, Tri-arlP,

Ochre.

Siilphatrof t.lmc, Thalk.

Flove

L"h*lli, IIon(? Earth, PIn«tfr
of I'arU, Po«der«l t HrU.

ftta . . *

AcPtatr of l>f»H.
Oil of Turpen-

UIM • ■ •

"''"•**

line.

Commnn ArtPtilc
■nd Prn<xld« u[

l^lTMcra

Mercuor.

MURTABO -

ppA- flour, I,tn»«d-tD«il,

Milk

Shcrp » Hralfu. ChRlk.

l»KrMii -

Ground Oil C^kp. CUy

RkllfllllRRT Jel-Llr

Cumiiit JHly -

Orri»-root

StOAt

Smid, hUiiT of P»rl»,

Sauchi •

riiRlk, |-U*(<-ro(Pari*.

RM I^aJ.

ToMACCO •

Thr lpfl%ir« of CRbb^iRP,

Llqiiortctf, Beet-root

Sr] AnmonUc,

Sw^werd. Rr««»rt Chi.

Drpei. Crtrchii, Ful-

Curboasta of

cocj'fDot, B»D, OAliuni,

ler'* Kuth.

Ammonia, NU
triit« of Ammo.
nt... &alt, Alka.
Ilfi. aa PolAih
and hixUi CatP-
chuirTerrAja-
[lonlca. Opium.

VlNBOAl -

Ai-Hlr, Pvriillpi.
iiroui, Hrdm-
rhloric. Sltrlc.
Rod Tarurk,
Acidly Cayenoe,

Salt.

GENEBAL INTRODUCTIOK.

List of Article* stated to be used^ but scarcely likelij to be emploj/ed^
for the Purpose of Adulteration.

AMHonn . . -
Brrrn - • •
Cumi
CmcviT

CAYIflhl -

Milk

PiMTIK Alio ALS -
VlftlOAH ...

For Bulk and W«l^.

r«» c«io«.

PluUiT or Parb.
Uud.

Mad*ter-root . . -
nrirh-dit*! . • . •
Brlck-tluil . - . ■
Mitk at Almonds, Gum, Oum Tra-

gucaiilb.
Opium. ,
Usalic Acid.

Mjuldfrmot.

Hrlrkdutt.
Brtck -duiU

Another nrrangemcnt or cloMificatioti of subslancM used for adul-
tcration is into those thnt arc not injurious, but the use of which is
simply fraudulent, and into those which are hurtful to licalth. A list
of alt the liiibfitjinces employer! for adultf^rution, which are more or
leas prejudicial to health, will be gtrcn hereafter.

Importakce of tub Subject or Auultkbatiopt.

The subject of odultomtion is undoubtedly one of bij^h impnrlflncr,
and in ita conseijuences it utlbrds much material which may fairly
engage the earnest thoughts of the financier, the aanitarian, and the
moralist.

The financier, Iwcause it involves to a large extent considerations
iff profit and toss; profit to the majiufacturer iind seller of adulterated
articles, and huts to the consumer and the revenue.

The saniturian, IxK'&use some of (he articles employed in adulter-
stioa are of an exceediuj;ly injurious character, and calculated to
aflect niiilerially the public health.

And the momlist, since the practice of adulteration involves decep'
tion, and even frnml.

Adulteration U iherefore u great national question, closely affecting
the pocket of the consumer, the revenue, and the health and moral:*
of the people. We sball nun- proceed to enlarge upon each of these
bends.

The pecuniary BeariugM of Adultemtiotu

Xbe pecuniary bearings of the subject of adulteration arc of very

J«

GENERAL IKTKODUCTJON.

great importance, and thcj relate to the consumer, ibc manufac-
turer, merchant, or tradesman, aiti] the revenue.

The great profit of adulteration arises from the sale of articles so
adulterated as to be greatly inferior in value to genuine commoditieft,
a price being denianOed for these mixetl floods }-ieIding a larjj^er profit
than could be obtained by the sale of uDmlullerated goods; in fact,
ihey are often sold at the rate of the pure arlii'le?. This increase<l
profit to the seller is just e>o much loss to the conHumer. This ma^
be illustrated bj the sale of mixed chicory and coffee as ^nuinc
coffee: chicory may be purchased for about 30^. the fwt., or about
3d, per lb. ; coffee for 80#^ or nearly 9c/, per lb. Now coffee, as fre-
quently S4.>ld, often contains 50 per cent,, and in many cases much morv
than ihiA, of chicory ; and for the mixture, half chicory and half coffee,
worth about Qd. or 7d, per lb., from Is. to 1«. Cff. is charged.

So great ia the loss of IhecoiiHumer arising out of the practice of
adulteration that it is questionable whether it does not amount in
most cases to more than the sum of the whole of his taxes. The
greatest lusers by adulteration are the humbler classes, the labourer
and the artisan, who are compelled to purchase the nrlicles they use
at the cheapest shops, where adulteralinn prevails to the greatest
extent. This practice therefore presses with peculiar hardship upon
the labouring portion of the population.

It is clear that the sellers of adulterated articles of consumption, be
they mnnufaciurers or retail dealers nre in a position to enhance
their profits by the practice of adulteration^ and are enabled to under-
sell, and too often to ruin, their more scrupulous and honest compe-
titors.

The question of the adulteration of food is therefore one which
vitally affects the interests of thf tturrt honest avfl respectable portion of
ike trading eommmxity^ who dt-'pend upon the manufacture and sale of
articles of consumption, and it bvlxoves them strenuously to exert
themselves to put an end to the prevailing system of adulteration
which is undermining the very foundation of trade, namely, Faitu im
CoMMKaciAi. iMTEoarrr.

The peeuniiiry interests of the State in (he question of adulteration
will become apparent when we remember thiit a large pnrt of the
revenue is derived from duties on articles of consumption. The more
ibe&e articles are adulteiated, the more is the revenue defrauded.

GENERAJ. INTRODUCTION.

lib not possible tocatiuute witlian/ degree of cerUinty tho precise
loss to the State arising out of adulteratioD ; but it is evident from the
millioDs of money derived from dudes on articles of consumption, and
from tbe extent to wbich adulteration has prevailed and still ])revails,
tbat tbe loss must amount annually to many hundreds of thousands
of pODmU. A calculation has been mado, whereby the loss to the
revenue from adulteratioD is cstimateii at two uiillions annually. The
author of the *' Food of London,*'* [». 1 38., stales that half the national
revenue is derived from articles of consumption. These few facts are
sufficient to show the paramount importance of adulteration to tho
national Excheijuer.

If the State loses so much, it is pretty certain that the public suiTera
a much greater loss.

The Sanitary Bearings of Adulteration.
We DOW come to consider the question of adulteration at it affects
tkepuhiit health. No doubt can possibly be entertained on this sub-
ject: no one who examines with sufficient care the facts, but mu&t
acknowledge that the subject of adulteration is of the liighusl import-
ance in a sanitary point of view^ and as a question of public health.

In the Jirti piaect the adulteration of articles with substances,
oltkougU harmless in themselves, ia frequently prejudicial, by reducing
nnd weakening tho natural pro[>erties of those articles. This is the
case when roasted corn or carrot is added in cofToe, and water to milk :
but the remark applies especially to medicines ; for in this case to
reduce tbe strengLh of a medicine by adulteration is to destroy or
modify the proper action of that medicine. The proper doses of dlf*
ferent remedial agents have been dotennined, in must cases, by coi'eful
observation and experiment ; and in diOcrcnt doses the same medi-
cine is known to produce very different effects. To adulterate medi-
cines, even with banuless substances, b to destroy the very foundation
of the healing art, and so to render nugatory the wisest and best
directed efforts of the physician.

/» the iecontl place, adulteration acta prejudicially to the public
health when substances are employed possessing injurious properties.
Now a itreat variety of such substances are used for the purpose of
Iteration. We have ourselves detected, amongst others, the follow-

* Bjr George Dodd. LongnuLQ & Co.
C 2

GENERAL INTUOUUCTION.

ing : — the three chromates of lead, the !hree Bninswick greens, which
areiuixturus of the cUroiuatvs of lead aird judigu or Pruesiaii blue* rM
oxide of lead or red lead, arsenite of copiicr, sulfthale of cop(>er, car-
bonate of copper or verditer, carbonate of lead or white lead, biaul-
phuret of mercur)' cinnabar or vermilion, acetate of copper, enlphuLe
of iron, gamboge, cayenne in spirits., bronze powders, which are allovs
of copper and zinc, sulphate of lime, carbonate of 1 ime, red fcmiginntii^
carth5, and other subatoncea more or less injurious. This list, it will
be observed, eontaiiiK Oie name!) of some of the most virulent poisong.
Sometimes the rjiiantiiies of these substances used is so uousiderablo
that immediate ill efT'ccts are produced : thus, as has alreailj been staled,
not a year passes but that serious, and even fatal* accidents arise out
of the practice 90 recklessly pursued of colourin'? sugar confeetionavy
witli poisonous pij^menta. More frcipicntly the ctleota are more slowly
developed: the substances, although taken perhaps in but minute
quantity, gradually and insidiously deteriorate the tteallh, giving rise
frequently, amongst other maladies to rarious f(triiis of 4lys|)ep5ia or
indigestion : sometimes, as in the case of lead, copper, mercurj*, and
•rvenic, they accumulate in the system until at Icngtlj serious con*
sequences arc produced; thus coses of paralysis have been recently
traced in the clearest manner to the use of snuiT adulterated with
preparations of lead ; some of these cases will be fouml recorded in
*• Food and its Adulterations:" other cases of lead paralysis, it has
been slated, have been produced by the use uf cayenne adulterated
with red lead.

The subji»ined Table contains not only the names of the sulwtnnceg
used In ailulleruLlun possessing more or lees injurious properties, but
also the names of the articles in which they have been discovered : it
wilt be perceived that the number of injurious substances thus em-
ployed ia very great.

Injurious Subskmee* aeltinUy detected in adulterated Articles of

Consumption.

Sttbttancet.

Cocculus Indicua.
ArsenitecfcopiM!r, emerald green,

or Seheelc's green.
Sulphate of copf>er or blue vitriol,

and acetate of copper or verdi-

grin.

Articles.
Beer, rum.
Coloured sugar confectionary.

FIckles; bottled fruits and vege-
tables; preserves; dried und
crystallised fruits.

^^^^^^^^^^^^^P"^^^^^^^^B

^^^^P QKNEllAL INTRODUCTION. 31 ^^^

^^K » Substance t.

Articles, ^^^|

^^^^ta^xmite of copper or verditer.

Coloured sugar confectionary and ^^^B
Custard powders, sugar confcc- H

The three chrotnaics of lead.

tionary, tea, and snutK H

Ued oxide of lead.

Cayenne, curry powder. H

lied ferru^inou-H earths, 05 Vene-
tian red, bole Ariuenian^ red

Ked suuces, as i^hrimp, lobster, H

anchovy and tomata sauces ; ^M

and yellow ochres, umber, &c.

and in' potted meats and 6sh, ^M
cocoa, chicory^ anchovies, an- ^^^H

natto, cheese, tea, and sntiff, &c. ^^^H

Carbonate of lead.

Sugar con foe tionary. ^^^^

Plumbago or black lead.

In certain black and Lie teas. ^^^H

BUuIphurct of mercury or cin-
nabar. .
1 Sulphate of iron.

Cayenne, sugar confectionary. ^^^H

Re-dried tea, and in beer. ^^^|

^H Sulphate of copper.

Bread, rarely ; annatto. ^^^H

^^ Cayenne.

Gin, rum, ginj^er, mustard. ^^^H

^^ Gamboge.

Sugar confectionary. ^^^^|

Chromatfis of potash.

Tea and snuff. ^^^B

The three false Brunswick greens

Sugar confectionary. ^^^|

being mixtures of thechroraates

^^^H

ofleodaad indigo, or Prussian

^^^H

blue.

^^^H

Oxychlorides of copper or true

^^H

Brunswick greens.

^^^H

Orpiment or sulphuret of arscni-

^^H

cum.

^^^^1

Ferrocyanide of iron or Prussian

^^H

blue.

^^^H

Antwerp blue or FruaiMaQ blue
and clialk.

Ditto. ^^H

^^^H

Indigo.

Ditto. ^^M

U Itraooarine.

Ditto. .^^H

Artificial ditto.

^^H

Hyrtrated sulphate of limp, mine-

Flour, bread, sugar confectionary. ^^^|

ral white, or plaster of Paris.

^^^^1

Alunu

Bread and flour. ^^^|

Sulphuric acid.

Vinegar, gin. ^^^H

^H itronze powders or alloys ofcopper

Sugar confectionary. ^^^H

^^P aod zinc.

^^H

r Now with eridence such oa the above, it is impossible to contend ^^^|

^^K that the use of such a variety of injurious, and cvou poisonous, sub- ^^^H

^^Bttances is unattended with danger, and tliat a<lulteration does not ^^^H

^H ^ ^ ^^1

tfl GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

affect the public health. It may so happen^ and it doubtl^'RS docs
Fuinctimes occur, that the sutnc person, in the course of a gingle day,
receives into his stomach some eight or ten of the articles above enume-
rated. Thus, with the potted meats and fish, anchovies, red sauces,
or cayenne, taken at breakfast, he would consume more or less bole
Armenian, Venetian red, red lead, or even bisulphuret of mercury. At
dinner, with his curry or cayenne, he would run the chances of a
eeconJ dose of lead or mercury ; with the pickles, bottled fruits and
veftetablcs, be would be nearly sure to have copper administered to
him ; while if he partook of bon Son* at dessert, there is no tellings what
nuuiber of poisonous pigments he might consume. Again, in his ten, of
mixed or green, he would certainly not escape without the adminis-
tration of a little Prussian bhic, and it might be worse things : if he
were a snulT-taker, be would be pretty sure to 1>c putting up him nostrils,
from time to time, small quantities of either some ferruginous earth,
bichromate of potash, chromatc of leadj or red lead r finally, if he in-
dulged himself with a glass or so of grog before going to bed, he would
incur the risk of having the coats of his stomach burned and irri-
tated with tincture of capsicum or essence of cayenne. If an invalid,
his condition would be still worse ; for then, in all probability, he would
be deprived of much of the benefit of the skill of bis physician through
the dilution and sophistication to which the remedies administered
for bis relief were subjected. This is no fanciful or exaggerated
picture, but one based upon the results derived from the repeated
analysis of diiTerent articles as furnished to the consumer.

Moral Bearings of Adulteration.

The third and last aspect in which adultemlion is to be considered
is the mural.

It is impossible for a man to be guilty of adulteration and yet be an
honest and a moral man. Can it even be said of the adulterator, be he a
manufacturer or a roaster and grinder of chicory and coffee, or be he a
retail tradesman who sophisticates the goods wbich be sells and mixes
them with roasted com or beans, Venetian red, &c., that he is guilty of a
less oflenee than the common thief? The last takes but our property,
while the former not only robs us of our substance but sometimes
destroys our health as well.

GENERAL INTBODUCTION.

Rat BtluIUratioD not only nukes those who practise it dishonest,
but other very wrious evils oft«n ensue '. thus it begets a loss of
eonfidence on the part of the buyer in those with whom be deals.
In this way sometimes not only doea the honest trader come to be
looked upon with the same suspicion as the adulterating merchant
or tradesman, but the itatug of the whole of that portion of the
-trading community engaged in the sale of articles of consumption
is lowered^ and it is looked upon with misgiving in all its transactions;
lastly, the character of the whole nation for integrity in it« dealings
■uffers tn consequence of adulteration.

There is, then, scarcely an individual whose interests are not deeply
enneemed in the subject of adulteration. The interests of large
public institutions of alt kinds are vitally affected by adulteration, as
our hospitalsand other charitable establishments, workhouses, barracks,
shipping, lunatic asylums, public schools, and simitar institutions.
Many of these establishments are supplied by contract with diHercnt
articles of consumption, as tea, sugar, coffee, cocoa, arrowroot, oatmeal,
tptoet, &c. Now it often happens that the articles, and especially
oatmeal and arrowroot, supplied under these contracts, arc adulte-
rated, and this is frequently to be explained by the fact that these and
Other articles are sometimes purchased under market price, and
conaequontly cannot possibly be genuine.

Taking into consideration, therefore, all the circumstances of the
case, we believe it to be almost impossible to orer-cstimate the im-
portance of the subject of adulteration, viewed either as a question
of public health, of pecuniary loss to the consumer and the revenue,
or aa one of morality. To sum up, it is not too much to say that the
question of adulteration is one which affects the health of thousands,
and even the lives of many ; that hundreds of thousands of pounds
are annually lost to the consumer and the revenue by the practice
of adulteration ; and that by its prevalence the moral ttatut of the
eODUoerciat portion of the community of this country is lowered in
the eyes of the world.

Tub Remedies fob Adulteration.
The means to be employed for the suppression of adulteration are
of two kinds, viz., those which are required for the ducove/y of
adulteration, and those for its //umxhtat'iU*

c 4

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

The prindpttl incnns to be adoptei] for the detection of nduttornt'ion
are, First, — The appointment in the priiicijwii towns and di&cricts of
the United Kingdom of inspectors and anal_f&t«. The duty of the
inspectors would be, to procure articles of food and medicine, to
forward them to the analyst of his district for his analysis and report,
nnd to bring cases of mlulteration before the pn)pt!r authorities fur
a<ljudication. In our impr>rt towns a principal udditionol duty of the.
inspector would be, to watch over articles of food and medicine
brought to this country, and, in doubtful cases, to forward them to
the analyst for his npinion. Lastly, the inspector, like the present
Excise officers, should, in certain coses, have the power of entry on
suspected premises ; in general, however, the samples collected for
analysis shouhl be procured, in the presence of a witness, in the
ordinary way, by purchase, and the power of entry would rarely
require to be enforced. The Excise obtains its evidence of adultera-
tion chiefly by the seizure of articles in the warehouses, &c., forcibly
entered, of the adulterator ; in this respect a very great difference
would exist between the proceedinr^ of the Excise and that of the
authorities now proposed to be called into operation.

While it would l>c requisite that every i:hier lown and district
should be provided with its inspector, it woulJ not be necessary to
appoint an e<|ual number of analysts, as the same analyst could, in
many eases, act for several towns. In the appointment of analysts,
special regard should be had to their qualifications, and none should
be appointed who were not conversant with the application of the
microscope to the detection of adulteration.

The appointment of the inspectors and aiudysts to be vested in the
municipal or other local authorlLios.

Second, — That a Metropolitan Board of Insjjcctors and Analysts
be appointed, its sppointment to be in the hands of the Government.
To this hoard should be confided the charge (if dealing with the
subject of the aduUerutioii td' the food and medicine of the metro-
polis and its suburbs. The board should publi<;h periodical reports of
its proceedings, these reports containing the particulars of the articles
WuUysed, including tlm names and atldressus of the parties of whom
they were procured, and this whether they proved to be genuine or
adulterated. Further, the local inspectors and analysts should be
required to make periodical returns of their proceedings to the

GENERAL INTItODUCTlON,

Metropolitan Board. Bj this means a rast amount of u»eful in-
formation in regard to adulteration would bo accumulated^ and the
several local authorities would bu k<!pt up to thti full measure o(
their duties. Lastly, in the Central Board the local analysts
would poAseos an authority on adulteration of the highest ohu-
racier, which they might consult at ail times in cases of doubt and
difficulty. We consider the institution of this Board absolutely
indispensable to the successful working of any scbeme designed fur
the repression of adulteration. Without it, although local inspectors
and analysts might be appointed, but little good would be effected,
because there would be no sufficient authority over thorn to ascertain
whether they discharged their duties properly and efEciently.

Further, the services of the dilTerenc Boards of Health, the various
sfpitary officers, and inspectors of nuisances, might be made avail-
able to some extent in procuring articles of food and medicine sus-
pected to be adulterated.

Fo^Uie prevention and punishment of adalteration, the following
are^flphasures which appear requisite.

' That all cases of adulteration should be disposed of aumuiarily
before the Justices of the Peace, but with a right of appeal to the
Court of Quarter Sessions.

That a system of publication of the names and addresses of all
persons whose goods hare been analysed should be adopted, and this
whether the articles on examination proved to be adullcruledorgenuine.

That the sellers of adulterated articles should be punished by the
infliction of fines, and the actual adulterator by fine or imprisonment,
especially in the cose of second oflTences.

That it should be rendered imperative on persons convicted of
selling adulterated articles that they should keep a placard con-
taining the text of the judgment condemning them posted up in the
most prominent part of their windows for three, six, nine, or twelve
months at a time.

Few methods of punishing fraudulent tradesmen could be devised
more effectual than this, and which, we have been given to understand,
has been enforced in France.

The above is a short outline of the chief measures which appear to
bft necessary for the discovery and prevention of adulteration. The
iMinisbmeuta proposed should extend to all kimls of adultvrationi

GENEKAL INTEODDCTJOK,

wheiber injurious t^ healthy involving pecuniiiry loUf or whether
simply deceptive ; in fact, tbo tleHnition ofmlultcraCion alreail^r given,
«nd which ni»y here be repealed, should be adhered to.

*' AdultemtioD consists in the intentionid addition to an article,
for purposes of gain or deception, of any substance or substances the
presence of which is not ucknoirledgcd In the name under which the
article is sold,"

According to this definition, the fltle of mixed artielct tinder the
name of one only of the ingredients entering into the composilion of
the mixture would be punishable. We regret exceedingly to find
tliat the Parliamentary Committee on Adulteration propose to attach
punishments to certain adulterations only, — those involving pecuniary
loss to the purchaser, or which arc injurious, either directly or in-
directly, to health.

It is not pmposed to afEx any punishment to adulterations with
substances of a cheap and innocuous ehnracter ; provided "the public
derive the full benefit of this cheapness in a lower price.** It is not
even recommended that such mixed articles should be sold as mixturesi
the label aOUcd to them s|)ecirying the cotnptwiition of the mixture.

That is to say, supposing tlie recommendations of the Cimimiltce to
be acted upon, it will aiill be lawful to sell a variety of mixed articles,
as tea, coffee, chicory, arrowroot, &c., wliieh are not what, by the
name under which Ihey are sold, they prwfess to be, and what as-
suredly they ought to l>o. Thus for a very largo proportion of the
adulterations actually proctised, not only wuuld no remedy be pro-
vided, but a positive legal licence would be given for their perpetration.

The Committee acknowl<*ge that " the public morality is tainted,
and the high oommcrciat character of this country seriously lowered,
both at home and iu the eyes of foreign countries," through adulw-
raiion. We very much fear ibat the recommendation of the C<»m-
milte« respecting "innocuous" adulterations is by no means calcu-
latcd to take nwuy ibis national n*pronch.

Besides, this distinction of adulteration into harmless and hurtful
opens the door to perpetual oonllictfl of itj»inion and litigation aa W
what constitute innoeuou* and what injurious adulterations; wbereaa
there is no commercial adultcrnliim which can l>e practise*! tb»l w
not ii^jurious in some sense or other, either to public morality, to the
pocket, or to health.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

■

To make rach a distinction as this is to leave untoucbtxl tbc dh-
lionesty necessarily inTolved in !h« practice of adulteration of every
kbd. According to our views, all adulteration ia to be condemned,
because it involves at least intentional and designed deception; bul
the Committee would indirectly sanction, and altnuat legalise, a large
class of deceptive adulterations, and thus, in some respects, matters
woald be rendered worse than they even are at present There are
few persons who do not feel that in practising adulteralion of any kind
ibey are guilty of that which is wrong, and which they wimld hi'
ashamed to avow openly ; but the Committee would take away thifi
Mnse of shame, aud tell us that uiauy sdulteratioiis are not reprehen-
wble, aikd ought to 1>e connivcil at by tltc Legi<ilaturc.

It is true the Committee throw in a kind of saving clause, and
state, ** provided the public derive the full benefit of this eheopiiess in
a lower price." It is well known that most articles are sold in the mixed
state chiefly to enhance profits, and that almost consUuilIy the public
are loaert by such mixtures ; but the great difficulty will be to pro-
duce satisfactory proof of the i>ecuniary loss sustained. Inmany cases
it is not possible to determine the proportions of the several ingredi-
ents in a mixture, and these being undetermined, it is imi>ossible to
ascertain the value of the mixture.

We are decidedly of opinion, therefore, that under the bead of "in-
nocuous '* adulterations, the public would be defrauded to an enor-
mous extent.

A single good purpose served by this distinction of adulteration
into innocuous and hurtful we cannot perceive. It appejirs to us
that Qo real difficulty exlstd either in de6ning what constitutes adul-
teration, or in determining how to deal with it. The course dictated
by common sense should be followed — viz., that of re(|uinng that every
article should be what it professes to be, and what ihc public under-
stand it to be by the name under which it is sold. Ou this point, thure-
fure, we consider that the Committee have fiiUen into a grave niistiikc.

Wc much regret that the Committee should have involved tbem-
aelves in this difficulty, seeing that the right course to pursue is so
plain and obvious, — namely, to require that every article should be
what it professes to be by the name under which it b vended. If it
be told u muatcrd, arrowroot, or cocoa, it should be one or the other
of tlMMC articleii «nd nolhijig else.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

If it be rijiht to allow the sale of mixed articlea, it is dnubtleas
only commonly honest and just that tbesc articles shouM be soM u
mtjctures, fimJ tUeir L'om[)09ttion sjiecified.

In aJopling this course, no real difficulty whatever exists, as it
would be ens/ to devise names auflieiently appropriate by wlucli
these mixtures might be distingnisbpd, aa — "mixed mustard, cousist-
iiiff of muslarj, wheat-flour, and turmeric ;" " mixed cocoa, consisting
of cocoa, sago, and sugar."

But we would go further than this, and require that the proportions
of the several ingTLMlients should be specified thus : '■'Mixed Mustard^
containing mustard 50, wheat-flour 40, and turmeric 10 parts ; and the
same with coffee and some other mixtures. Now tlie labelling of
articles in this way has already been sanctioned by the legislature,
which re((uire8 that mixed coffee and chicory should be sold only as
thus labelletl : "This is sold as a mixture of cliicory and cofFcc." All
that is needed, therefore, is an extension of the some syitem.

With regard to tlie punishmi'nts for adulteration, we perceive that
the only punisbnjent which the Committee recommend to be iuBioled
is that by fine.

The Report of the Committee states: " A summons shall be issued,
and the case be investigated before the justices, who shall have
power to inflict summary punishment, by fine or imprisonment, in
every case where pecuniary fraud or danger to hcaith shall have been
proved,"

We fear that it must be concluded, from the wording of the ibore
jmragraph, that the punishment of imprisonment is only proposed t-o
be iiiUicted in default of payment of the fine. If this be so, then our
conviction is, that pecuniary fines ore a most inadequate punishment;
they neither are adequate to the serious nature of the offence com-
mitted, nor will they scnre to check adulteration to any extent. The
system of fines has been repeatedly tried, and hoft hitlierto failc<l. Of
what moment is a fine of a few |K>unds to an adulterating merchant,
spice or drug grinder, who, probably, before the discovery of his guilt,
has been engaged for years in adulteration, whereby he has realised
hundreds and thousands of pounds? Besides, to adulterate is to com-
mit fraud, and surely it cannot be right to compound with fraud by a
money payment. What ia required is, that adulteration should be
braniled as a crime, and this can only be done by affixing to it some

QfeNBKAL INTHODUCTION.

punishment which shall entail personal discredit and disgrace, such as
that of imprisonment. Wo are therefore decidedly of opinion ihat
impriDonuienl ought to furni one of the puui^ihuii^iits for adulteratioiii
it being reserred fop the worst oases, and for second offences. The
pumsbmeut by fines only will effect little or nothing for the suppres-
sion of adulteration. On referring to thu laws in force against adul-
teration in France, Belgium, Prussia, lloUand, Uamburgh, and even
New York, we find that imprisonment is onct of the punishments en-
forced against adulteration. Why then, we ask, are adulterators
in EngUud — a country formerly presumed to set a pattern of coiu-
meroiol inte^^rity to the world — to be dealt with so gently ? The
Cnmtailtee, who have taken great pains to collect the laws in force iu
other countriesi could, we should supjKJse, scarcely have failed to
notice the efficient character of those laws, as contrasted with their
own feeble recommendations. Amongst other penalties intlicted iu
most countries, are the confisi'iatiou of the adulterated goods, and the
prohibition of confirmed adulteraturs from following their trades or
callings. The Report of the Committee is silent on both these points.

The parties whom the Committee recommend to be punished are
ike actual adtdterator anil, with certain restrictions^ the teller. It is
not pro|josed thst tlie seller should be held responsible when "he
can afford satisfiictory proof that he has himself been deceived, and
was not conscious of the adulteration practised, unless he has evinced
A culpable knowledge of the trade which he professes to follow.'*

In legislating upon the subject of adulteration, it should be remem-
bered that the seller is frecpiently as much a party to adulteration as
the actual adulterator. This is shown by the fact that he often buys
articles at prices ai which be knows it is impossible that they can be
genuine. Again, it should lie recollected that it is often the interest
of the seller to screen the iidulterating wholesale merchant or manu-
facturer, he, in many case?, being largely in his debt. In the course of
the publication of the reports of " The Lancet " Sanitary Commission
we met with many cases in wliich the seller preferred to incur the
risk consequent upon the publication of his name, rather than divulj^e
the names of the parties by whom he was supplied. Tlie seller,
therefore, must not be let off too easily, especially when he attcm]>(s
to screen the perpetrator of adulteration.

GENERAL IIH'RODUCTIOK.

The fttlhwing are the ttept recommended by the Commiitee/or the
JJiiCQvery and Suppression of Adulteration,

" Tt will be desimblc," states the Report, " therefore to empower mu-
nicipal or other local or district autliorities, to appoint an ofBcer or
officers, who, on complaint mude, nr in cases of resaonable su^^picion,
shall pnx'uro ponions of any articles supposed to be adulterated, with
A view lo their exaiuination or amily^iis by some duly qualified person
appointed for that purpose. On the report of Buch person, if h
confirm the suspicion of adulteration, a suniinona i^hall }fc issued
and the case be investigated before the justices, who shall have power
to inflict summary punishment, by fine or imprisonment, in every case
where pecuniary fraud or danger to health shall have been proved.
It ia essential that a right of HppeM should lie lo the Court of Quarter
Sessions.

" With regard to coloured confeclionary, your Committee recom-
mend that authority should be given to local boards of bealtli op
other governing bodiea to forbid the use for colouring of all mineral
matter, and all poi(ioning vegetable matter.

"But although your Comtiiitlee desire to leave the execution of the
law against adultemtion in the hands of the local authorities, they
are of opinion that very valuable assistance would be afforded to
such bodies in ascertaining the fact of adulteration, if one or more
K'ientific analysers were to be appointed under the anthority of the
Generttl Boar<l of Health, to whom the local authorities might refer
whenever they thonghl fit.'*

The Committee do not moke any special recomraenda lions inr^anl
to the adulteration of drugs.

** Your Committee are of opinion that no inspection at the outporia
would guarantee to the consumer the purity of commodities pasiting
through the hands of intermediate particH ; and the exclusion of im-
pure drugs would operate injuriously, by interfering with the supply
obtained by scientific processes, calculated to extract valuable matter,
even from products seemingly almost worthless."

On this point also we differ from the Committee, bccaasc we believe
that a system of inspection would be found to opei-ate most benefi-
cially. Jt hao already been tried in America, and the jdan has worke«l

U. Supposing that, in accordance with the opinion of the Com-

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

mittee, no inspection at the chief places of import is established, what
will bap[K.'i) ? Adulterated drugs will be iin|>ortcd as heretofore, and
will find purchuers ; they will pass into the handi) of the wholeaala
drngf^ists. from them, again, into those of the retail chemist, and thus
they will reach the consumer, who, finding that be has been supplied
with an vlulterated drug, will have no rt.'niedy ; for, according to the
report, the seller is not to be held rcfiponsible for adulterations of
which he hiu no knowle<lge. Theitc remarks apply, not only to drugs,
but to mmny articles of food occasiimiUly imported in an adulterated
condition.

The suggestions of the Committee doubtless contain much that is
good, as far as they go ; but they do not go far enough, and hence
I bey will not prove effectual. ITieir great defect is that they do not
include any provision for a central board or authority such as we
conceive to be essential. The urganisation proposed in connection
with the General Board of Health is, considering the magnitude of
the evil, of too limited a character to effect much good. It is essen-
tially ncces»ary tlial there should be some well organitted central
authority, having a competent head : the construction and duties of
this body have already been indicated. SuppoM?, in accordance with
the recommendations of the Committee, the various local oiTieers to be
.appointed ; who is to determine whether they do their duty or not ?
Who is to advise and guide them in the discbarge of that duty P And,
finally, in what way arc the facts in regard to adulteration, brought
to light through their labour?*, to be made available for the general
gOO<l ? Now the formation of a board such as is indicated does not
necessarily imply the institution of a new authority : the Auuly-
ticftl'Board of the Excisei if remodelled and placed on a broa<lcr
basis, might be made to answer the puri>osc fully. The reorganisa-
tion of this board is imperatively deroandeil ; in its present state it is a
diagrace to the country. The correctness of this sutemcnt we shall
proceed to prove.

The question may next be considered to what extent the new mtiehi'
nery proposed to be called into operation for the attppregsian of adidtf
ration trill cIobH with the duties uud jMtsition of the Eiciae in regard to
aduJirrutitm.

One of the chief dutiea entrusted to the Excise is the protection of
the revenue (of which no uiconsidcrable portion is derived from du-
tiea on exciseable articles ol' consumption) from loss arising out of

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

flduhoration of those articles. Amongst the articles bearing ui Ekciso
duty, niid for the aduUeratioa of which the Excise are respobsiblef aro
tea, coffV*, cocoa, pepper, spirila, and tobacco, including snuC Now,
It maj be inquired, do the Committee propose that the purchasers and
analysts whom they desire to be appotntud should occupy themselves
with the adutterntion of the several articles enumerated !* If so, they
would be actually discharging the duties for which the Excise are paid
and rvsponsible, and thus that body would be, to a great extent, supcr-
»oded. On the other hand, Riipposing that these articles nre still
rcsenred for the Excise to deal with, what would then be the state of
the case? Just this, tlial the revenue would still continue to be de-
frauded to a Unje extent, and the public health injured, as they have
iHwn for years past, by the prevalence of an enormous amount of
aduUoriitiou in exciseable articles, and nearly all of which adulter-
ations, under a thoroughly cfrecltve system of management, might be
prevented. This brings us to consider the question, hma far the
£xcis« has hitherlo protected the revenue from loss throtigh adtdter*
ation.

The articles under Excise supervision have already been enumerated-
Of these articles, tea is still subject to considerable ailulteration,
while the extent to which the public are defrauded in coffee and
cocon is notorious; they are also lai^ely defrauded in pepper, spirits,
and tobacco, as is proved by the following results of analyses of those
(uiirles as supplied to tl»e public, and as rejiorted in " The Lancet."

Of nnnicroiis Bomples of black and white pepper analysed, fully one-
half were adulterated with ground rice, pea-dour, wheat-flour, UnscL-il
meal, nml mu.>>ttuM husk.

Of thirty-eight samples of ^'k examined, a very large proportion
were adulterated, some of them being reduced in strength une-holr,
whik' »even uf them cnntaineU caycunc pepper. The same was thu
caao with rttm and braiut^.

Of forty-three different Mti^jtexnmined, nearly all were adulterated,
the adulterating in<:rodients used being, for the most part, salt, alka-
lies, silica, red and yellow ochre, red lead, chromate of leod, and
t.>hroniHtL' uf pularh.

'n>0 Excise, then, hns most signally failed in its principal duty —
namely, the protcolion of the revenue against adulteration.

The pnnif tbut it has thus foiled is furniBhcd in the fact ihat,at the
iUuc of ihe pttblicatiou of the author's reports in " The Lancet,'* adul-

GENERAL INTRODUCTION,

>n was ascertained, on evMence the nio»t incontrov^rliblu, ioprc-
every one of the articles subject to the supervision of the Excise.
Now this stale of things ought not to bo, and it ia one which i^ di^
creditable to the Government of thi» country.

The causes of the failure of the Excise may next be considered : they
arc several; but we do not pro]H)9e to do more at present than just,
in the briefest possible manner, refer to one or two of tho«e causes.

One reuiion is the want of sutfieient activity and vigour in enforcing
the powers with which they arc intrusted. Compared with the prc-
[Yolencc of odutteration, how selilom do they moke exposures of aduU
[teratiun, and institutii prosecutions !

Another reuson is thut they do not »ufficiently employ the resource*
of science for the discovery of adulteration. They rely too much
upon the information of Excise ini^pectors, and too little ujKin science,
upon the resources of chemistry-, but more ctspccittlly u)>on a know-
ledge of vegetable structure as ruvcoled lo the competent ob-
server by menus of the microscopu.

From not eni]duying science enough* the Excise has, for the most
pnrt, in order lo discover evidence of adulteration, been driven
to adopt A system of eifpionn^e, and to tlie rude and inquisitorial
proceeding of entering forcibly ui>on susiMJCtvd premises, and of
seizing on any adulterated articles or sulistances employed in adul-
teration, and which, pcrcliance, they might find in the course of their
search. The method adopted by **The Lancet" Commission was in
sli'iking contrast to this. It simply purcliased the dilTerent articles
as sold in ilie ordinary way of business, and applied to their analyses
all the resources of science, especially the microscope and chemistry.
iJy this proceeding it was not necessary, as in the case of the Excise,
^) maintain un army of '* 4000 " Excise inspectors, neither was it requi-
site to violate the sanctity of men's private dwellings.

That the P^Ixcise hml not employed science, either sulBciently or
eS^ctively, for the detection of adulteration, at the period of the
Commenceujent of our investigations, is proved by many circum-
^Itances.

Thus we found a variety of chemical adulterations to prevail, of
which the Excise possessed no knowledge ; but it was in respect to the
nsc of the microscope, as an instrument for the discovery of adultera-
tioo, that its knowledge was the roost defective. Of this ignorance

GENEEAL INTEODUCTIOy.

it has itself furnished a memorable and striking proof. In ]$50

repeated remonstrances were addressed to the Government to prohibit
the iiduUnration of coflVe with chicorj. The Government cxcutcd
itself from Interfering* on the pleu, publicly urged by the then
Chancellor of the Kxchequer, Sir Churles Woodj in the House of
Coromnns, that, neither by chemistry, nor by any other means, was
the adulteration of coiTcc wiih chicory to be detected. This statement
was maile on the strength of a report, jirocured at the instance of the
Excise, from three of the most distinguished chcmiitts of the thiy ; the
real (act at the aame time being, that nothing h more easy or certain
than the discovery of the ailulteration in question, by means of the
microscope. Further, we have within tl>e last few years brought to
light, with the aid of the microscope, huiidreila of Hdulterations, the
existence of which was utterly unknown to tlic Kxcise, Even now,
although we have done so much to teach thiit h(»\y the use of the
microscope, it has as yet failed to afford the public any evidence
to show that it is capable of em]>Inying that instrument nri;;!)! for the
discovery of adulteration. It not unreasojiubly nn^ht have been
expected, that a numerous ami public body like the Excise, instituted
and paid for the special work of discovering adult emtio n, with the
most innple opportunities and facilities, would not have required to
be tttu^lit ita business by those engaged in prosecuting the subject of
adulteration in a private und unolTicial capacity.

It might also have been reusoriably expected not only that it woald
not require to be taught itself, but that it would have published from
time to lime, for the information and guidance of the public, some in-
stmctions calculated lo put it on its guard against adulterations, and
to teach it, to some extent, how tn detect them.

We learn from the Report of the Select Committee on Adulteration,
that, " in addition to about 4000 officers scattered over the country, the
Board (of Excise) employs about sixty to seventy analytical chemists,
whose numbers arc recruited by students educated for the purfMJse at
University College, lo the number of lourteen in every year." AVhji
here is a whole army nf inspectors and analysts! With such huge
machinery as this, the wonder Is that adulteration should exist in any
degree, much less that it should be all-prevulent 1 Had we the
organisation and control of such an enormous staff, we would under-
take to all but eradicate adulteration from the land.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

Now, it mu9t be remembered tbKt the chief dutj of th'ia large force is
timply to protect tbe revenue agfiirijit fraud in some halfdozcn articles of
eon»uiuption. Willi uduUeration, as Buub — with the great mass of adul-
.terfttioriR, whether they are injurious to health, or wliether detrimental
to the revenue — the Excise concerns itself not. Sinf^ular to relate,
thi:re are a variety of articles of eoneuniptiou which pay duty to the
8tat«% which help to augment the revenue, and which are nolorii>nsly
adulterated, and yet the Excise docs not talcc cognisance of the adul-
Icralion of Euch articles.

It thus appears that the Excise has the smallest possible amount of
idutj to perform in connection with aduUeraiinnf and yet thi^ small
ts it i«, is most inefBciently performed, llicre is no reason whatever
why this discrcditjiblv state of things should exist. The present
machinery of the Excise, remodelled, might be made to act against
iduheration with enormous eflfect.

Annther reason is ihnt it does not avail itself eufliciently of
llie advanloties to be derived from free publicity. We are dis-
pOKd to rely more upon the regular publication of the namr's and
iddreaaes of those whose goods have been analysed, for the sup-
pression of adulteration, than upon any other means, in conse-
i^aence of the excellrnt effects which have undoubtedly resultetl from
the publication in "The Lancet," for a period of four years, of the
auBOB of upwards of 2000 merchunts and iradesmen. So great has
Wen the effect of this publication, combined with the recent exposures
Wfore the Parliamentary Cunuuittee, that we are of opinion that not
•twentieth part of the adulteration now prevjiils^ in the metropolis at
that did at the time when the reports of *'The Analytical Sanitary
Commisiion " first ap|>eared. In some articles the improvement is
■ktaifcet to the eye alone, as in the red sauces, pickles, bottled fruits
■od Ttgetables, and coloured sugar confectionary.

TIm foHowing remarks, in reference to the publication of tbe names
of traders in " The Lancet " ami the effect j>ro<luccd by the micio-
Mofie, occur in tlic" Qunrierly Review "for March, 1855, in a review of
ibr autiior's work entitled " Fo<.pd und its Adulterations."

"A gun suddenly fired into a rookery coulil not cause a greater
eomnotion than did this publication of the names of dishntiest mules-
■CD; DOT docs tiie daylight, when you lid a stone,startle n^\y and loath-
things more quickly than the pencil of light, streaming through a
D 3

GENERAL INTKODUCTIOX.

quarter-inch lens, 8uq>riscd in tbeir native ugliness the lliousftnil
andone illegal sul»tnnt-e»wlii('h enter more or less into Dvcry ck'scrip-
tion of food which it will piiy to adulterate. Niiy to sucli a pitch of
refinement has the art of f»bric.iLion of alinientary substances reaclii.*il,
that the very nrtiolus used (n adulterate ore Uieriiaelves adultenited;
and while one trn(k*sman is plckinjj the pockets of his cnstomeri
a still more cunnin<^ rogue is, unknown to himself, deep in his own."

No objection, we believe, exists to the suheiue which we bave briefly
set forth for the discovery and prevention of adulteration, on tbe
score of expense; on the contrary, wbile nn imnieniic saving would
ensue to the consumer, the revenue would be greatly benefited and
the public health i)roIci*ted. The reijuisitc machinery is in existence
at the present lime: as has bofore been -ilatod. there Is an enormous
and costly maohinery at work for the prevention of the adultera-
tion of some half dczcn exciseable articles, — that nf the Excise, — con-
aiatin^ of some 70 ehcuiists and 4000 inspectors. The Excise however,
has failed to accum[jlish, to a frreat extent, this single object: further,
it takes no LOgnisauce of the ndulterntion of many duty-pMyiiig
articles, as spicea, on*owroot, &c., nithounh this immediately airecls the
revenue; uor does it notice those adulterations whieh are simply
frauds upon the consumer, or which are delrimental U> thu pubtic
health: thus it does not interfere with the adulterations of drugs,
nor does it inlertUct the u.se of poisonous pipncnts in the crtloiiring
of sugar confectionary, &c. Nearly all. therefore, that appeiint to be
requisite in order to insure, to a very great extent, (he suppression of
adulteration, m to remodel the ileteetice and wudytical dcpartmeuUt nftht;
Excise^ ami to enlarge the sphere of its operntiowi. The atialycical
department should be made to take copiisance of all adultenitions,
whether in duty-paying articles or in ariitl«-s free of duty. The best
way would he either to plnce the remodelled amdyLiral department
of the very unpopular Excise under the Hoard of lleiihh, (he vnrious
Customs and Excise detective inspectors coramnnicaliiii; with the
reconstituted Board, or else to render it indepemlent and distimt.

Some such change as that here recommended is tinperiitively de-
manded, and must ere Inng Uike place. It is impossible to allo'nr the
Analytical Hoard of the Excise to remain much hmgiT in its present
anomalous and most iuetBcient condition. Xliia change cfTected, the
Board would lose its arbitrary and objectionable character; it would

ccasti'to be reg'arded as an engine for tbe extortion of money; but
wliile it really and eflectually protected the revenue, it would at the
some lime protect the interests of the bonest trader, of tbe consumer,
and al«o become a guardian of the public heattb.

We are sorry that our views difier so much from those expressed
by the Select Committee of the House of Commons on Adulteration;
but we have felt ourselves constrnined to give tree expression to
our opinions on this ({ueatiou which so closely concerns the interests
of the public, and which are paramount to nil other con,-iiderationfl.
With abundant evidence of a most conclusive character, wiili a cose
which the Committee themnelves acknowledge to be fully proved, it
must be confessed that the Report is a very weak and timid one,
when the gigantic character of the evil to be remedied is considered.
It would appear na tliDUgh the Committee, from the universality
of the practice 'of adulteration, and from its extensive ramifications
throughout the highest and the Inwei^t branches of trade, had become
alarmed, and shrank from grappling with it in a bold and compre-
hensive manner. Notwithstanding, however, that the Report falb
short uf what is required, it is yet a highly important document, and
one which must be folhtwed by legislation. The grateful thanks, there-
fore, of the public are fully due to the able chairman of th'it Com-
mittee, Mr- Scholefieid, M. P., and bis colleagues, namely. Viscount
Ebrington, Viscount Goodench. Lord Claude Hamilton, Hon. C. P. Vil-
liers, Hon. W. Cowper, Mr. Alderman Cubitt, Mr. Gregson, Mr. Kin-
naird, Mr. Knight, Mr. Peacocke, Mr. Otway, Mr. SwifV, Mr. Sheridan,
and Mr. Wise. Mr. MofTut, we suppose, was placed upon the Committee
to represent the case of the adulterators. For two sessions these mem-
bers of (he Jlouse of Commons— uU volunteers for the duty — were
unremitting in their attendance at the meetings of the Committee,
and tbey elicited from the various witnesses, by their well-directed
inquiries, a mass uf most valuable evidence, which cannot but result
ere long in a great public benefit.

Various grounds exist, which render it imperative that some
elTective legislation should promptly be carried into effect fur the
suppression of adulteration.

Legislation on the subject is required —

First. — For the Frutectiun of the Public IleuUh. — The evidence given
before the Parliamentary Committee on Adulteration proves that the

l> 3

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.

deadliest poLions Are daily resorted to for purposes of adulteration, to
the injury of the health, and the dcstnicrion of the lived, of thuuitandB.
There U scarruly a paitjiiiiuuci pig-iuyiit kiiuwii in these islaadtt vrhich
is not thus employed.

Second. — For the Protection of the Rnenw. — Thl* will be readily
acknowledged when it id known that nearly half the natioiml re-
venue is derived from taxes on food and bevera;;c3. It has alrendy
been shown that not long since ad u Iteration was rife, and it still exists
to a large extent in nearly all articles of consumption, both solid and
fluid, and including even those under the enpervisJon of the Excise.

Third. — In the Interests nj" the Iloii^xt Mcrvhaut atul Trader. — The
upright trader is ])lui:ed in a most trying and unfair position in con-
se<jiuence of adult(;rati«>n. lie is exposed to the most ruinous and
unfl^'mpulous competition; too often he is undersold, and his business
thus taken from him. It is therefore to the interest of the honest
trader that eO'eetive legislation should tuko place, and not only is it to
his interest, but we can state that tt is his must anxious desire tlmt
adulteratii>n should be aboli»hc<l. In advocating the suppression of
adulteraticfn, we arc therefore advocating the rights and interests of
all honourable traders.

Fourlh. — For the sake of the Consumer — lliat the consumer U
extensively robbed through adulteration, sometimes of his hcidth, but
always of bis money, is unquestionable. It ii>, however, the poor man,
the labourer, nnd the artisan, who is the most extensively defrauded ;
for, occupied early and late with his daily labour, often in debt with
those with whom he deals, he has no time or jjower to help himself in
the matter, and if he had the tin»e he still would require the requisite
knowledge. The subject of adulteration, therefore, while it coucernfl
all L'lasses, is eminently a pour nian's {)ue&'tion ; the extent to whicli
be is cheated through adulteration is re»llj enormous.

Fifth. — Oh the Grourul of PnMic Morality. — Adulteration in»
volves deception, ^lishonesty, fraud, and robbery, and since adultera-
tion is so previilent, so equally must these vices prevail, to the
•crinna detriment of public miirality, and to the injury of the cha-
racter of the whole nation, for probity, in the eyes of the world.
Under this head we cannot do better than quote the langu^e of the
Parliamentary Committee on Adulteration. *'Not only," states the
Report, "is the public health thus exposed to danger* and pecuniary
fraud committed on tlie whole couimuuityt but the public morality is

GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 39

tainted, and <be high commercial cbarncter of this country seriously
lowerc<i, both at home and in the eyes of foreign countries." We
repeat^ then, that some prompt^ active, and efficient legislative
interference is demanded, for the snke of public morality, and the
character of this country amongst the nations of the world.

But there arc yet other reasons for legislation. It cannot he
doubted but that, in makin;; known the imtiue of the adulterations
practised upon a variety of articlest although we have doterrt'd some,
yet have we also taught many the way to adulterate, and nf this
knowle<ige they will not be slow to avail themselves, especially in the
absence of any aulfirient check. The recent startling and frightful
exposures, although they have done good for a time, will, if unsup-
ported, serre but to increase the evil at some future day.

A reluctance is expressed in some quarters to grapple with the
giant evil of adulteradon from the fear lest it should interfere with,
ond impose restrictions on, trade. This fear we believe to be ground-
less ; and even if there were some foundation for it, yet it ought not
to be allowed to prevail against what our consciences tell us to be
right. Trade is one thing, poisoning our food another. Surely there
is no necessary connection between the two; and if conne<!ted, the
sooner the connection is severcil the better — the better on all grounds,
and especially it will be to the advantage of trade itself. We main-
tain, however, that the connection which now exists is entirely un-
natural, that it has sprung up under a careless and loose state of
things, and that it is the duty of the State to interpose its authority
fur the prevention of adulteration.

Now it should be clearly understood that it is not necessary for the
suppression of adulteration that restrictive measures should be
resorted to, calculateil to interfere with trade, or to impede the
liberty of the subject, beyond those already in existence ; indeed
some of the restrictions now in force, and interference at present in
uperationt might, under a better organisation, be discontinued.

Let us recall to mind the powers already conferred for the suppres-
sion of adulteration. The Excise is at liberty to enter, by force, upon
any premises, where the adulteration of an exciseable article is
suspected to be carried on, or where adulterated goods are supposed
to be deposited; the adulterators or sellers of adulterated articles

D 4

GENERAL INTRODUCTION^

may be apprehended, punished by fines, which are sometimes Tery
heavy, or imprisonment ; uU the aUuUernled artltles may be confis-
cated, as well as the im[)leme«ta emph)ycd in their preparation. The
fioard may lock up a manufacturer's premises taking the keys away,
even when be in not practicing adulteration, and it may control the
processes of luanufacture therein pursued. Here ia interference
•with the freedom of trade and the liberty of the subject, with a
vengeance !

Again, magifttrates or peace officers, by warrant, under the Rread
Act, may search any premises and seize any ndultcratcd Hour or
bread, search for any forbidden ingredient, inflict the penakios of tine
and imprisonment ; and lastly, they may publish the namey of the
olTonders.

To prevent smuggling, — an ofl*encB which, in it& effects u|>on the
revenue, is allied lo adu!tera:ion, — a large force, armed to the teeth, Is
stationed all around the coasts of these islands: it may seize the
smuggler, and, if he resist, kill him ; or it may take his contraband
goods from him, and, on cunviclion, cast him into prison. Here,
again, is interference wJtli the liberty of the subjert ; and, remember,
in smuggling, the revenue only is defrauded, and but little is thought
of public health or morality.

Lastly, recall lo mind the powers exercised, nnd properly so, in the
oofles of bad or diseased meat, and of short weights and measures,
which, be it known, often go along with adulteration. In such cases
there is the power of entering upon suspected premises, of seizing and
oonfiscAting the articles, and of punishing the wrongdoers by fine or
imprisonment.

It may be inquired, how comes it that, with such powers of re-
pression, adulteration so prevails ? The answer is, that the laws in
force respecting adulteration are partirU only in their operation; that
they relate only to certain articles; that they are for the most part
but seldom enforced; and that some of them have even fallen into
desuetude. AVhut concerns everybody, what is evorybtxly's business,
becomes, in fact, according to the old adage, nobody's business.

The cries of "freedom of trade" and *' the liberty of the subject,*'
in connection with adulteration, are in reality unmeaning termi', used
OS bugbears to frigbten the timid and to throw the public off their

GENERAL INTRODCCTlON.

^nard* Wc repeat, then, ftESTRicTtrK m£A6URE1« betoetd tdobg

Ai'READT ISV EXISTSHCB, CALCULATED EITHEB TO IMrSDE TMB
TKZEDOK OZ TBAD£ OE TO CtBTAlL THE J-t&liBTy HT TUt TKAUES
Ott TUS SCBJECTf A&E MOT RE<4t[lRGE> TOR THE gUPFKESSlOR OF
ADULT£BATION. WlIAT IS DEEDED 18 AN EFFECTIVE SCLEHTIFIC
OROA!fl3ATiON FOR THK rUflCOVEHT Of ADBI,TEKAT10N, AVU THE
ADEQUATE fCTflBlIHEAT OF TU£ OFf&NCS.

ON THE 31EANS BY WHICH ADULTERATION
MAY BE DETECTED.

Thsbb are two principal means by whit'li the discovery of adultera-
tion is efTc'Cied, chemistry and tIil* rnicrmcope.

Cht'tiiititry lias betn long employed for the detection of adulteration,
and it was upon tbis means of iuvestij^tiun thut the earlier observers
almost exclusively relied.

The application of the microscope to the detection of adulteration
is campurativcly new, and dates chiefly fr<im the penml at which my
pa{>er on the Adulteration of Coffee was communicated to the Hota-
nical Sfjciety of London, that is from August, I8i0.* This is certainly
the most practical and important use which has ever beiu made of
that imifriimeiit ; for by its means hundreds of adulterations have beea
discovered, the detection of which wiis beyond the power of L-hemiatry,
And which had previously eluded all the efforts of science. The author
believes that be may claim to have been the Hrst to employ on a large
•Cftle the microscope for the discovery of lulidlersitian ; on tbiis point,
however, the lanfftiage of others may be employeil.

" The Lancet/ in reviewing the author's work on the AduUcmtian of
Food, writes, January, 1855 : " It is now unnecessary to say how com-
pletely Dr. Uassall dispelled the delusion as to the circumscription of
science, and how he demonstrated that the microscope, wieliled by the
skilful naturalist and chemist, was able to unravel and to analyse the
coni|>onent structures of substances thnt bid defiance to the blow-
nipe and the lest-tubc alone. U is the jrrcat and orij^'inal merit of Dr.
llussall to hare applied the microscope to important uses tn inquiries
of this nature, and to have i<hown, by it^ uses^ not only many things
previously L*onsidered impossible to ^luw, but many things uut pre-
viously suspected to exist."

The " Quarterly Review," in an article on the same subjeet, remarks :
" It is in the application of the mioroseope that consists Dr. Hassall's
advftotagc over all previous investigators in the same field. The
precision with which he is enabled to state the results of his labours
lemves no appeal." — March 1855.

The " Dublin Ueview " remarks : " The secret of his succew has
been that, in otldition to chemical analysis, he has used the microscope
in his intpiiries; and his merit not only consists in the able manner
in which he has employed the instrument, but in his being the first to
use it practically and to such an extent for this purpose.**

"The microscope,'* writes "The Timca," t rclerrmg to our labours,

• Sm " Timrs." Auput 8. 18&a t Juljr M. lfiS&.

41 MEAKS FOE THE DETECTIOX OF ADULTERATION.

" seems to have been the more cfTeclive instrument in the work. Less
ihun five years ago it woulti, we are told, have VMit'ti inj|K)ssible to
detect the presence of chicory in t'offec. In iUct, tlie opinion of three
clistin-iuisheU ithemiiits Wiis actually f|Uoletl in the House (>f Commons
to that effect ; whereas by the use uf th^j niicroEiCu|ie the dtderencee of
Btructure in these two substances can be promptly disoerneti."

Lastly, the following remarks from the pen of a very able writer.
Dr. Robert Barnes, may be fpioted: *' The scientific originulily of
Dr. Hassolfs labours in laying bnrc the health-destroying anrl fraud-
ulent adulterationa of fooil and drug», is, if {>fl89ible, stiU more
inerituriuu» ; and it would be difficult to over-estimntu the public im-
]Kjrtance of tlie results obtained. The means previously relied upon
to check these adulterations were, the cumbrous and coiiitly uiacluiiery
of the Excise, and the subsidiary aid which cheiubtry could aOV^nl,
The officers of the Excise were, for the most part, *iriven to seek for
evidence by forcible entry and the seizure of articles found on sus-
pected premises. When the art of the chemtat failed, science was
practically e.thiiustcd. So late aa 1851, the then Chuiicellor of the
£xche<[uer was able to <piote in the House of Comtnniis, us the de-
liberate opinion of three of the most distin^uiif^hed chemisUa of the day,
who had oeen B[>ociaUy recjue-sted to report upon the subject, 'WW
neither by chemistry nor by any other meaits amUi the admisture of chi'
cory with cofffic he detected.'^ How completely lliis foregoue conclu-^ion
has been exploded by the labours of Or. Hassallj as Analyst of the
Sanitary Commission of " The Lancet," is notorious. There is now
nothing in Bcicncc more certain and precise than the discrimination,
by meaus ol' the microscope, of the various forms of vegetable tissues, no
matter to what extent they may be pulverised^ mixed, or even roastu<i.

" The interest of Dr. llassairs researches is universal. They have
benefited tlie public revenue, every man in lieaUh or in sickn(!S3, and
the physician who trusts in the properties of the a>;entj(, wheth<^r me-
dicinal or dietetic, which he prctoribes ; and Ptirliamcnt has been in-
formed thn>ugh them of new grounds ond new principles of legislation.
The jrreat importance of the subject of the adulteration of food» drink,
and droits, has already been recoj^nised by ParUament, and this nminly
tliruugb tlie labours of Dr. Uassalt."

Ok tob ApruciTiOH or thb MicRoscors to tub Djbtsction of
Adultkratiok.

The microscope is dpecially suited to the detection of orgnnised
structures or substances, as the several part^ of animals and plants : it
is with the latter that we shall chiefly have to do In the course of the
present work.

When we surrey with our unaided vision any animal or plant, we
detect a variety of evidences of organisation or structure ; but there is
in every part of every animal or vejietable production an extra-
ordiuary amount of organisation, wholly invisible to the unarmed

BT THE MICROSCOPE.

»ic:hl, and which 19 revcnied only to the powers of the mtcrofcope.
Nuw this ininuto »n*l microKopieal or^uuisation is diifL'rcnt in dii-
f^rent ]Mirts of the same animal or plant, ami different in iHHerent
animals and plants, so that by means of these tlifi'eriMices, rightly
understood^ the ex[)urit'nced microscopic id observer is enabled to
identify in many castas infinitely minute portions of iininiid or vi^yetable
tiruiues, and to rvft*r them to the pjirt.i »ir snet-ies to which they belong.

Thus, by raeaiH of the nuo-rosco|>e, one Icinil of root, stem, or leaf
may trcnerally be di:§tingui<^hed from another, one kind of starch or
Hour troni unother, one seed from unuiher, und so on. In thid wuy^
the microscope becomes an iuvaluable and indispcuttuble aid in the
discovery of adulteration.

Applying the microscope to food, it appears that there ia scarcely a
vegetable nrticle of consumption, not a liquid, which may not be
distin^^iished by means of that instrument. Further, thnt all thtwe
adultiTutions of these articles wliich consist in the addition of other
vegetable substjinees, and which ciKistitutc by fur the muiority
of udulteratioas practiaed, may likewise be discovered and discri-
mirmted by the same means.

Tlio same remarks applv to all the vegetable drugs, wliether roots,
barks »et?d«, or leaves. \Ve are not acquainted with one such drug
iuch may not be thus di<|(i^i.'^ui^)K'tl.

JTbe seeds even hclonf;inji to dilferent species of the same genus
*iBty fn-quently be distinirui^ticd fmrn each other by the mii'r<isrope,
ajKiint in some cases of very great importance. A remarkable instance
of this has fallen under our observation. The SGe<ls of the dilferent
8|)eciL^ of mustjinl, rape, &c. may all be diijtinguiahed under the nii-
crtiecojM} by difi'ercnces in their organisation. To hhuw the im-
fHtrtance of the discrimination in »ome cases, the following instance
may be cited. Some cattle were fe<l with rape cake, and died with
symptoms of inllammati4in of the stomach and bowels. Nothing
of u poisonous nature could be detected on anal vsls ; but it was sus-
pected that the cake might be adulterated with mustard husk,
altliough even this point could not be clearly established by chemical
research. Under tiiese circumstances the cake w:ih sent to the author
ibr examination, wito had but little dilTicully in a^*ertaining that it
was adulterated with mustard seed, which, from tbe large quiintity
consumed, was doubtless the cause of the fatal inflammation. Not
only can the seeds of different plants of the same genus l>e frcnnentlj
discriminated by the microscope, but in some cases those belonging
even to mere mhetiet of species.

The microscope in some cHBes can even inform us of the processes or
affente to which certain vegetable Mibalances have been sulyected.
llIu.^trations of this are aflorded by the starches of wheat and barley :
it can be determineil by the microscope whether these are ruu\ btiked^
nr hitUed^ or whether uuilted or nnmuUefl. Illustrative figures will be
found in the articles on Urb\d and Bbkb.

Again it is not only when the articles are in a separate state that

46 MEANS FOE THE DETECTION OF ADULTERATION.

they can be thus distinjruishetl i but even when ;nixed tngelher in
difforent proportions. We have 8ucc*;e»led in det-cetiniy in certain
TegelAblc powders no loss than nine different vegetable prwluciions.

So great and mnniloitt itre the difTerenoes ri^vealed by ihc micro-
scope in different vegetable substances, tbaU with ordinary care and
some uinuiint «}!' preliminary knowledge, the discriniinution become! a
mutter ut'die ;;reutesi enise and the mo^t abaulute cerluinty.

This will appear even from an examination of the fivefoUowingfigures.

Fig. 1.

^^-S-"

^^^^/i:?

Scebon of tTtrioiircp Corrn BmKr, •howEng the aUr *oA form or thi ctUi, u viTl
u tlir drop* (if oil contained wIlhlD llieir <»vUm«. Ormvii vUh the Cuoer* LueklA,
and fRBcnlfled 14ll diameten.

The abovefigure represents a section or fragment of the unroasted coffee
berry: if the reader will contrast this with the next figure, which repre-
sents a small fragment of chicory root, he will perceive how great is the
difference ; so with the starch granules of the difiercnt arrowroots ; of
wheat, rye, rice and Indian corn Hours ; with jiitap and rhubarb ; and
with a variety, we might say ahost,ofotherfnjb3tanees. Now chemistry
could not fiirni.thuswith the nameof even one of these different starches.
Further, wonderful to relate, the grinding and pulverisation, and
even the charring, of many vegetable siibstanceB, does not so destroy
their structure as to render their identification by the microscope im-
possible. Chicory and coffee may be thus roneti'd niul pulverised, and
vet each may be subsequently identified with the grreateat case, they
being in fact but little changed, except in colour, and in the case of
coffee by the dispersion of the droplets of oil visible in the cells of the
unroosled berry.

BY THE MICROSCOPE.

Again, lubsUnces may be discoTcred bj meana of the microfioopc,

rhen introduced into arliclcii for the purpose of adulteration in

Ltremeljr minute qnantities : the case of soine njustard forwarrled by n

lufiu^turer to "The Lancet'* «ome time since furniebed a remarkable

lastrftlion in point.

Fig. 2.

Ttwtmmmt of Kaamo Cnicort Root, Ukvn from ■ Mmple of ftdiiltcnUd
mSm», ilMwIiic Uifl or/J« vt whkh It li prindpsltr convlltutcd.
Dr»vii vtth the C«aiCTm Lucldi, uid ina<iilfic«l l«l dkmoUrn.

TVe nrastAfd was atnteil tobe j^enuine ; hut on examination with the
inier«KOpe» it was found to contain a small (luanlity of turraeric. The
manufacturer, when informed of the fact, Tcry candidly and properly
■cknnwledged that thia was the case, and stntcd that he had added '^ tjcif
KnatttMi^ (vrmeric tt> Jifty-six pouiuh of seeds, not for the purpnse of
;.'.iin or adulteration^ but simjdy to enliven the colour and mnke its
^['pcarance more acceptable; " that is, the (piantity of tuniiuric present,
am) discovered by the microscope, consisted of only one part in 448 of
thcquantity examined.*

Tbe Ust illustration — and a very sfrikin;; and beautiful one it is^ al-
tJxMi^ not immediatelr coaneeled wiih the subject of adulteration, —
vhicn we shall adduce m order to show the oxtruonlinary character of
liic information furnished in somu cases by tbe microscope is supplied
by honey.

* Food 1114 111 AUultvraUooi. p. IX).

48 MEANS FOR THE DETECTION OF ADULTEKATION*

Honey is the saccharine exudation from the nectaries of flowers : the
bees in collecting iL carry away some of the pollen of the flowers
visited by them. Now tliis pollen consists of cells or vesicles, difTering

Fif. X

Slarvh franulM nr MkR^KTA, cmll«d commonly W«^ Indltn ftrromoot.

I>r«vn «hh llw Ostnuk LwciiU, wmI i

iW lUuiietcr*. ,

in size, form, and slruclure, nccordinp ti> ihe plaiita from which it is
derived, rcrtuiii plants being chanicterisud by polJeii [•nitiulL'? of a cer-
tiiin eunfigiirttiinn and organisation. Hy the pnlteii jiresent in honey,
therefore, ihc scientific microscopist acquainted wiili thv fhuracter-
istics of the pollen of different plants Is enabled to decide In many in-
stances upon the nature of the plants from whirli the honey has beoQ
procured, and whether it has been collected from the llowersof the field,
the garden, the beathf or the mountain. See article Honet for figure
inilluBtrutiim.

There is still another use to which the microscope may be applied
in the detection of a<)ulteration ; it may frequently be made to serve
8fl an auxiliary to ehemiciil researches : tbu!*, for example, when
we want to owertain whether any (tubstance contains starch, carbo-
nates, phosphuti'S &c^ it is often the quickest and most c»»rtnin way to
apply the reit^icnts to a small quautity of the substance while this
is under the field of vision of the microscope.

Wh&t the microscope is capable of cO'ccting in the discovery of

BT THE MICHOSCOrE.

lulturation having been thus explained, the mode of the applica*
~ vf thai instmmenl to the subject may next be considered.

•nuwroPti oofiunnDly ib-tinnilnBt4>l Rut rndlKO ftrrovTOoL
Qunafa I.uclJa, uid nu4[uilSwJ 'IM) dlamclen.

ll wAold be out of place to ^ve any description in this work of the
npon which ihe microscope lias been constructed; the most
nopk' details on thiii subject are to be found in the Bevertil works
which treat of the tncchuuiitm of the mifToscope. It will he suOioient
thit tiiv titles »f Booie of these works should be indicated, as thoso
gitefi Inflow.

"The Microscope, its Ilistory, Construction, and Appllpationa."
Bj J>»-*7 Ho^ir. I.:,(i., M. U. C. S. Price 7«. 6^/. Uoutledge & Co.
" Tl ' -pe;' By Dr. Beale. John Chnrohill.

**A i 1 rtiatise on the Microscope." By Prof, tiuekctt. Price

31#. ii , Rcjient Street.

Ic i- however, that a few remarks should be nmde upon

Tpry iiin>"r uiiit subject of tite cost of amicroscu[>e suitable for the
fury ol ftdidteranon.
The co*t of a microscope suitable for the purpose varies much ac-

50 MEANS FOB THE DETECTION OF ADDLTEEATION.

cording to the makers tlic charncter nf the stant], antl the nnturfi nnd
number of the object- glasses or powers with which it is furnished.

Fit.b.

Potato Mnomro&L. oommflnly eancrf BrItUh mmmmol. Drawn with
the Cuncrm Liidda. mnd in*ctilfled 9fO dUoMten.

If supplied with French or German achromatic object-glasses, it may
be put down at about I Of.

M. Pillischcr, of New Bond Street, supplies a Stud^jiU^ or Medical
miertarope^ suiBcient for oriliaary purposes, for 7/. 7». It consists
of microsoopG stand complete^ but wiihuut etage movcmenta, quarter
and inch object-plasseB, one eye-piece, and mahogftny case.

Mr. Maker, of lligh llolborn. stifipliea Studentji microscopes suitable
for nhyHiulo^icnl purposes, and furnitihed with cuac* and three achro-
matic powers, 1-inch, I*, and ^-incb, for 4/. Ijx.and 5i. \5x. each. The
objcct-glawcs may als«> be purehiised separately of Mr Baker.

The Sticiety of Arts prize microscojH', manufacluri'd by R. Field
and Son, of 113. New Street, Birniingbara, is furni.shcd with case,
two cjc-pieces, and two object-glasses, at a cost of Si, ^. This in-
stnimciit we have not seen.

Binilh and Beck's Educational microscope consists of two object-
fflasses^the l-inch and J-iucU; two eyc-piecws; a firm stand, with a joint
for varying the position, quick and slow motions to the body ; a stage

Br THE MICROSCOPE.

with springs that allow any motion to he p^ven to the object ; concaTe
mirror ; a aide condensing tens ; forceps, glass plutcis ph'ers : all packed
in mahogany cose. Its coeit is lU/, Address, 6. Coleman Street, City.

Messrs. Powell and Lealand turniffh, for 13/. IJji., an instrument of
the followin<j: description. It has n very firm triptHi »tun<], willi euarse
adjiistment by rack and pinion ; two eye-pieces ; two object-jxlussea,
naiuelr, J- and 1-inch ; iliapliragm nnd gtnps : the whole packed in ma-
hogany case. For 2/. 2j?. more tlie jj-inch object-glass may be sutjsti-
tuted for the inch. Addres.s, 4. Seymour iMuce, New Knad. The
fflas?^ supplied by Messrs. Smith and Beck, and Muisrs. FowcU and
Lealand, arc English made.

It does not appear that Mr. Ross manufactures any cheap microscope
suitable fur Xhv purpose.

A very excellent and cheap microscope stand, which we are much in
the habit of recommending, is made by \Ir. Byle^ of 9G. St. John
Street Uoarl. It has tbe double stage movemcnLs, the advantage of
which is very great, a fine adjustmcnc, and an excellent mirror, and is
remarkably cheap at 61. 3s. For 2/. 7jr. miire, two verj good German
achromstic glasses may be procured of Air. linker, namely, tbe ^
and |-inch. This microscope is very well suited for the detectiou
of adulteration.

It is desiruble, although not nbsoltitely necessary, that wlmtever
microscope may be purchafleil shouli) be furnishtKi with a polari.vope,
as this will be found extremely useful in the discriniinatioii of some of
the starches.

The object-glasses most useful for tlie detection of aduUeralion arc
the |- and |-inch glasses ; it is not very often that the ^-iiich gla.^ is
require<i, oJthough it is necessary in some cases, as in the exa*
mination of the smaller sfarcb granules, as those of rice, liquorice, &c.

For different objects different magnifying powers are requisite.
What these should be may l>e ascertaintd in gL-neral by reference to
ihc descriptions attached to the various cngrarings scattered through-
out the work. It is well to accustom oneself as far as possible t4> the
examination of objects with tbe same glasses, as in this way different
objects may be more readily eompared the one with the other.

The examination of objects is in some ca^es facilitated by employing
in the first instance an object-glass of low magnifying power, as the
)-incb or ^-incli, and subsequently having recourse to a higher
power to nmke out the details.

It is desirable oUaq thnt tbe microscope used should be provided
with two or three eye-pieces, as by this means we are furnished with
intermediate ranges of niaj;nirying powers.

The maker supplying tlie instrument should always furnish a printed
table fltatinc the nnmlwrof diameters which each object-glass and eye-
piece mngnifies. The following table shows the extent to which the
different object- glasses and eye-pieces are usually made to magnify. It
Applies more particularly to the glasses manufactured by Mr. Koss.

K 3

52 MEANS FOR THE DETECTION OF ADULTERATION.

Bfc-flauM.

ObI«t.gI»*i«.

Un.

l-in.

i-lB.

Kn.

l-to.

*-ln

B.
C.

Value or
each Kpac«
in the mi-
crOBJetcr
cye-glflfia
with the
Tfthoasofa-
ject-ghiM..

60
80

too

■IHHU31

100
130
160

■0005303

230

350
SOO

■0002325

-I20

670
900

•oooiiu

In mlditinu to ihe niicroscope, it Is Dccessor^ thnt the observer
filiouhl bf furnidbeil willi ^lass slides, celU, and thin^luAs covers, with
mouiituU iieeillLfsi, and also, it" be dt.'«>irc8 to preserve p-erm;im:)iUy any
of ibe objtTts ht> moeLs with, with a preserving fluid, ami with a
cement Ui secure the ctlla and covers. The cells, slides, and covers,
may be ohtuined of most inicroscftpe niakci-s, of Air. Bilker, Itullxtrn,
or of Mr. Bender, 0. Brunswick Places Ciiy Koad.

Several Jiuids are used for the «xLibitiou and prcserv'ntion of
microseupic objects.

One ot these is Canada 1}a1snm, diluted wJth turpentine to sucb a
consistency as to allow of its droppio;; readily from a pencil.

Mr. Deane rei-ommends the ffiUowing conipoKitinn for preaerving
dry or moist animal or vegetable Bubstonces :— Of White's patent sixe
or gelatine 6 ounces by weight, boiiejr 9 ounces, n little spirits of wine,
and a few drops of creosote ; mix and fdli^r whilst hot,

Another composition Is thus nnule : — Pure glycerine 4 iluldounces,
distilled water 2 ounces, j^elutlne 1 ounce by weight ; dissolve the
gelatine in the water made hot, then add the glycerine and uze.

Or pure glycerine only may be used.

The glycerine may alao be used with the addition, when desirable,
of salt, corrosive sublimate, creosote, or i?pirit.

Other preserving Uuids are weak spirits and wator; creosote and
water, in the proportion of a drop or two of the former to 6 oz. of
water ; or creosote, a little spirit and water.

A very useful iluid fi>r mounting cryytals of salts ts castor oil,
first recommeniled by Mr. Waringlon.

The following are the receipts for the well-known snlutions of
Goadby. No. 1. Hay salt 4 oz., alum 2 oz., corrosive sublimate *2 grs.,

BT THE MICBOSCOFE.

boiling wntcr, I quart; mix. No. 2. The proportionH of salt and
alum are the same, but the quantities of corrosive sublimate and water
art! doubled.

Professor Queketfe preservative fluid j» nimle ol'creosote 1 ^drachms,
wood naphtha 2 oz^ distilled water 32 oz., chalk hs much as h required
to make the creosote and naphtha into apuste ; before arlding llie water
the solution is allowed to i^tjind tor a day or two, and h then fdtcred ;
two small lumps of camnbur are ihon added, and oAcr the lapse of a
week the solution is aurain filtore<], when it is ready fur use.

Of the several sulutiuns rmtntfdi, none are so ^<>*^ f(>r the preservation
of most vegetable preparatiuiis nn those containing glycerine or gelutine,
either separately or combined. One advantage of p;lycerine is that it
is not so hi^fhly refractive as Canada biilsam, and another that moist
objects may be put up in it without any previous drying.

The next best is perhapa Quekett's preservative fluid.

There are aUo several cemejiti employed for closing the cells : one of
these is shelMac varniRh ; this is usually made by (iissolvinr> black
sealing-wax in rcctiticd npirit: it is best prepared, however, from the
shelldoc itself. Two or tliree coatings or layers of this varnish should
be used, applied in succession as the previous coating bos become
dry. It is not acted upon by weak spirit.

Another cement is ^nld sire.

Gum-copal disjiolved in nil of lavender also furnishes a useful cement.

Marine glue, much used for cementing the cells to the glass slideSf
coDsisis of equal parts of shcU-lac antl India-rubber, dissolved in coal or
mineral napuiho, the solution b\.'iii;jr irurefully mixed aflerwiirdi by
means of best. It may bu rendered thinner by the addition of more
uaphlhu, snd when bard it is readily disserved by naphtha or ether.
This is the cement used by Goadby.

The cement employed hv Mr. Quekett for deep ce\U U made by
melting together 2 ok. of black resin, I oz. of bees-wax, and 1 oz. of
vermilion.

Mr. C Brooke's cement consists of Brunswick black, to which a little
lodia-rubber dissolved in mineral naphtha has been added.

Mr. llelt makcH usv of dark-coloured and old jupanners* size, for
•ecuring the upper thin gla.-'s covers, and marine glue for the cells.

In using the cements care should be Utkvn to select tliose which do
not exhibit any atHnity for the preserving fluid c<mtaine<l in thecfUs :
tlius no resinous cement should be employed when the contained fluid
is spirituous.

For securing the gloss cells to the slides marine glue is a good
cement, and shell-lac varnish for closing tlie edges of the covers, where
glycerine or casUir oil is used.

For more det.ailcd practical instructions in the mounting and pre-
scn'aiion of niicroscopic object,s, the reader is referred to the excelleut
work by Mr. Hogg, the title of which is given on page 49.

The various vegetable articles employed cither as food or medicines,

Z 3

34 MEAKS FOK THE DETECTION OP ADULTEBATIOK.

as well ail the iubstanccs used for their adulteration, are moatly put
up in some jircscrving fluid ; and in general, as tbey consist citticr of
thin sections or 6ne powdeni, celU are not required. All thnt is in
generui re<.iui»ite lA to deposit tbe section or a luinute portion of tbe
powder, taking care to dilTu^e it cquoJly, in a drop of tbe li<{uid
placed in tbe middle of tbe glass slide ; to cover tbis with a square
or circle of ibin f^lass, observing; tbat no air lies beneath it ; to remove
tbe superMuoua moisture around the edge« of tbe glass with blotting
paper, and when quite dry to apply the cement by means of a iine-
pointud brusb.

The inmle orprcpariti<x the objects for examination with the micro-
8C(y:>e may next be considered.

Before proceeding to the examination of any article with a view to
discover wbetber it is ndulterated or not, it is necessary to acquaint
ourselveii thf)rougbly with the appearance and structure of the article
itself. If thl8 be in tbe state of powder, a^ tbe different kinds of flour
and arrowroot, notbing more is necessary than to place a very minute
portion of it upon Jhe gbk*s slide, to add a drop or two of water, dif-
fusing the powder evenly through it in u layer so tbin that tbe light
easily passes Llirougli it, to \;ovcr the object witli one of tbe thin glass
covers, and to place it in u proper position under tbe micro^cupe for
observHtioQ, If tbe vegetable substance be a solid one. aa a root, stem,
or seed, tlien it is necessary to make some thin secrinns of it, deter-
mining the structure from these. These Fcctions are best prepared by
means of a sharp and thin-backed razor : of these sections some should
be longitudinal, others transveriie, and others should embrace tbe sur-
faces of tbe object, both external and internal, where tbe latter
exists. The exatuinutiou is fucilitiited in sinne cases by tearing some
of tbe sections in pieces with neeiUes and also by examining them
in glycerine in place of water, this renderinjr the structure more
distinct. Lastly, where the article is one employed in the form of
powder, it is necessary to prepare sonic of the genuine powder, and
to moke ourselves familiar with its structural churucterislics.

Having progressed thus far in the examination of the article., we are
in apoeiiion to strrutinise samples ofii, with a view to the detection of
adulteration. Knowing well the structures wbiuh ore met with in the
genuine article, we shall exjjtiriencc but little difhculty in determining
whether the sample contains any foreign or extraneous vegetable sub-
stance, or consists entirely of the one article.

Having determined thnt it docs contain such foreign substance,
the next thing is to endeavour to ascertain the nature of this, an<l to
refer it to the jilant or substance to which it belongs. The faciliij
with which this is done depends upun the extent of our acquaintance
with other vegetable substances. If this be considerable, a glance is
oilen sullicient to determine this point.

However, it is not requisite in oM cases that we should posseu
a knowledge of the structure and appearances presented by any very

BY CHEMISXaY-

great number of vegetable prMluctions, since a few articles are con*
stantly emploveil for adullerauon in the oaac of very many and widely
dlficrent artides, such as wheat flour, (wtato starcb, sapo powder, rice,
&C. ; and all that is necessary in such cases is that we should be ablo to
recognise these substances when we meet with tbem.

Most Tegetiible substances are made up of certain structures and
element?, as cellular tissue, woody rthre, vessels, statx-h ij^anides, &c.
In leaves we liAve stomata and often hair-like appDndage<<, and in needs
there are two or more membranes. In endeavouring to discriminiite
between difTcrcnt vegetable substances, wo must examine and com-
pare mnst carefully these several tistfues and structure^! the one with
the other. We must compare, UmIx for size and structure^ the cellular
tissue of one vegetable substance with that of anotheri and the same
with the woody fibre, the vessels, tbe starch, &c.

Before proceeding to determine the minute structure of any vej^e-
tablc substance by means of the microscoi)c, we would Ktron^ly re-
commcni] the observer to look over some work on Structural Botany,
and thus to become acquainted with the cbarnuteri sties of the principal
tissues and elements which enter intu tbe orgtinisution of ihu several
component parts of ve*;etabie». He uliouM iiutiuoint hiuHt'll with the
characters and structure of cellular tissue, woody tibre, va&oulur tissue,
sclerous tissue, of starch granules, with the general structure of
roots and stems, leaves, Itowers iiu'ludinr; the pollen, and particu-
larly with seeds. He will finil a liille preliminary study of vegetable
anatomy facilitate ^^reatly his sub^erjuent and more special inquiries.

Any of the following works will be found suitable for this purpose.

"Outlines of Structural and Physiological Botany/* I'rice 10«. 6d,
By A. Henfrey. Van VoorsL

"Descriptive and Physiological Botany." Lardner's " CyclupiBdia."
By Prof. Henslow. Longmans & On,.

Scbleiden's " Principles of Scienlitic Botany.** By Lancaster. Long-
mans & Co,

Balfour's " Structural and Physiological Botany.'* Price U, lis. 6J.
Loogmons & Co.

Ok the Afpucatiok or Chemistbt to thb Dbtectiok or

Adultebatioit.

Chemistry is adapted particularly for the <letection of tbe various
chemical substances and salts used for adulteration : the microscope,
on the other hand, as has been already state<l, is specially suited to the
detection of all organised structures and substances, whether animal
or Tcgctabie. Xow it is precisely in this branch of investigation that
chemistry fails to afford us any considerable aid.

Chemistry can tell us whether starch is present in any substance,
but it is very seldom indeed that it can furnish us, as the microscope
90 constantly does, with the name of tbe plant from which tbe starch

E 4

56 MEA>-8 FOR THE DETECTION OF ADULTERATION.

was derived : it pan indeed olfto moke ii< arqiiflinted with the fact that
womly fibre is contnined in any porticulariirtide, but it cannot furnish
Ufl with the name of the tree or plant of which it forme*! a constituent.

Another great advantage of the niicroscope over chemistry is the
greater ppee'l with whicli results may be arrived at. JIany chemicftl
analyses occupy days^ while most microscopical examinations may be
made by the practise*! observer in the course of a few minutes. With
the author's present knowledge, there are but few articles of which ho
could not examine readily 100 samples per week.

Nevertheless, the information supJ^lied by chemistry in connection
with adulteration is of the hi;;he»t miportance, and it is impossible
ncoeasfully to study the subject of adulteration without having re-
course const&ntly both to the microscope and chemistry.

The importance of chemistry » as npplied to the discovery of adul*
terAtion. is shown by the fnrt that the majority of the substances in-
jurious to health employed for adulteration can be detected with
certainty only by chemical methods of research.

It will perhaps save los>s of time hereafter, prevent disappointment,
find remove soinediflicultiett which muy lie in the wiiy of the beginner,
if we now make a few observations on the chemical apnaratus re<iuired
iur the detection of adulteration, aud on certain chemical operations or
prooeMea constantly employed.

On the Chemical Apparatus required.

It is not necessary that the manner in which the laboratorj' should
be fitted up should be described ; this of coursemust be suppfied with
both gas nnd water, with benches and tables, the gas must be Liid on
At difl'erent points, and the jeta provided with burners of different
kinds.

Chemical analysis is of two kinds, qualitative and quantitative ; the
object of tlie iir^t, as the name implies, is to ascertain the nature of
the several comjMment parts of any given compound ; that of tfaesecond
ia to determine the prufiortions or quantities of such comjwnents.

The operations of quallt.'itive chenneal analysis are easier and oc-
onny leas time than thoHC of quantitative analysis; and in many cases
it 18 aufficicmt for our pur[)OHe to determine the nature of thi? cltemical
substance use<i for atlidteration, arvd wc need not go on to ascertain
the qunntily present in any article; although, when wc di'sire to go
thoHMiglily into the subject of adulteration, this also will in some
instances be necessary.

The apparatus enumerated below includes the greater part of that
which is required for both purposes.

For drying and evaporating. — A water, a sand, an air, and an <^I
bath, evaporating dlsoea of various sizes, and watch glasses.

For weighing and meaxuring — A pood bnlanee(if for weighing very
accurately fractions of a grain, Ocrtltng's is the best); weights of brass

\jK\it LlL»ui»»U *>iru;iu>xU u»i»»u

iOl

BT CHEMISTRY.

and pintinum ; a specific gravity bottle, graduated pipettes, flatktt ffl
of various sizes and measures; densimeters, as a saccharometer, galHcto-
meter anrl urinomoter.

for titration. — Funnel stands, funnels, and filtering paper.

For pulverisatioH.-^-Mitrtars ; a mill.

For distiUation. — A still, retorts, and condensers.

For Incineration. — JVlutHes, jwrccluiii and platinum crucibles and
dishes.

In addition to the above apparatus, test tubes, a lactometer, iher-
inomcter (one not mounted, and bavin/r a Inng range of degrees), a
vnsh bottle, and a drop tube, will be required.

When it is probable that a large number of samples of the same
article will have to be examined, and many similor operations con-
ducted at the same time, it is desirable that ifpfcinl arrangements
should be made with this view, and that we should be furnished with
aeries of crucibles, glasses, diKhen, &c. of the same size.

Any information which may be re(]uired respecting the apparatus
employed may be readily obtained from the manufacturers and sellers
of chemical apparatus.

On the Chief Prelimifiary Chemical Operatioiu.

The chief preliminary chemical operations are those of weighing,
I'measuring, desiccation, cvaporntion, nitration, decantation, distillation,
»nd incineration. A few observations may now be madc^upon each of
theje proteases.

Weighittg. — The precautions to be observed in weighing are, for
'the most part, of a tolerably obvious character and require no fipL'cinl
description. The substance, especially if it be in a dish or capsule,
should not be weighed while warm ; if it l>e one likelj to absorb water
It should be weighed enclosed in watch glasnes { and if its weight is
not determined immedioUdy after being dried, it shoidd be kept under
a bell gliws near to a dish of sulphuric acid. These prernutions of
course need not be observed in cases where the exact weight is not of
ittatcriul consequence, or where the quantity of the substance weighed
M considerable ond where it is not hygroscopic.

Mettmhng, — This jirocess is hnif recourse to in the case of fluids,
MA it is more expeditious than weighing. 'l*be instruments used for
this purpose are the graduated pif>ette, the graduated burette or
dropping glass, the grailualed c}-liiider or measure, and the graduated

In measuring lir^uids in glass vessels, the dark zone formed by the
adhc«ion of ihc Huid to the inner walls of the glass should be tuken
into account. The measuring is most occurote when the mark-lino
of the measure coincides with the lower border of the dark rone.

Dtnccation, — Most substances contain more or less superfluous
water, that is, water which is simply in a state of mechanical ad-

56 MEANS FOR THE DETECTION OF ADCLTERATION.

mbiture, and not chemically combined with the substance; most solid
bodies, tberefore, require to be deprived of this non-e^-scntiid water
befiare tber can be quantitatively analysed; and this is e0bcted by the
upwution of drying. With the constitutional water we of course must
BOC, ill genottl, interfere.

To acDompliah this object satisfactorily, it is requisite that we should
be acqaainted with the pro^icrtie:! of the substance operated upon,
wkelber it loses water simply in contact with the atmosphere, in air
dried to 312°, or at a red beat These data will »erve to guide us in
tW sdectJotn of the process of desiccation best suited to the substance
VB^er ezanunation.

Sntlaaoea are dried by means of blotting paper, under a bdl jar
m f—tf t witfa sulphuric acid, in the exhaosted receiver of an air
in tbc valer, air, and oil baths.

B^ority of substances with which we shall hare to deal being
loK water at 21:2" F. and are decomposed at a re^ btat ; eon-
flBfaottlj ^hey require to be dried in a water bath. When higher

iwialiiii i are needed, as in rendering certain salts anhydrous, the

r or ofl ha»k» must he had recotirse to.

TW aad bub, although useful in many cases, rcqiHres to be em*

as it is not ea^y to regulate its teMperaciure, and
placed upon it are rvadity charred aM desirored.
or dish contaioing the substance to be dried aaoold
Snedj npoa tbe sbelf of the water cr oil b«tb, bat a
recuin dasb sbould be interposed.
EraporataoB mav be elTected eitbcr n the water
or orer the flame of a gas or spirit
fron boiltng or spurting. Aa

mtm <■■» m tm mly tbe beat by mean$ of a Hamw

care being
way in

tbe erapotaiing dish ftam caaUaimaAmmj dost
meBetmrj to protect tbe disb ai mam way; tUs
bf covcnof it vitb a dieet ofilwii^ VV tvnied

; or a glaas rod twisted iato a traimidar abate
and Be paper Mnead over it aad bcfft n poailion ay
mi lad acnea; bvt a atill beUcr way is to secare tlie
tmm mmM baapa fitting desely tbe «m orer tbe otber.
nsoMMto are aqiaiaied oaos wnv bv aaa ai tvo
y by ilB^Maardecaatarioa Iba immms of a goad

to JBM tbroi^gb rt; tbera ii a yaat d»r-

«!■» VaaMr ■paved, mmiiii wmmmnKimmAmhat^
If ■ uifTailli ifMi r m - ^^"T i r -^ - - i

IVk ia

'mmi

BT CHEMISTRY.

wirm distillod water previous to drying. These operations arc best
conilactetl by placing a number of SUcrs in a glass funnel.

It will be fuund convenient to prepare a number of filters in this
way and to ke^p theiD of <]il]'tfrent sizes, regictertng the weights of the
asltes, corrcspomliui; to the several sizetf. Tbia may be readily done
by preparing some circular pieces of cord-board to serve aa patterns
tor the iHrveral sises.

Before prooeedinj; to filter any liquid for the purpose of separating
a precipitate from it, it is in general advisable to allow the precipi>
tate to subside to a great extent : in this way it is less liable to pass
tlirouffh the filter or tbe filter to become clogged.

It la in some cases necessary to promote and assist the speedy
Md complete subsidence of the precipitate. Heating the precipi-
tate with its menstruum will of^en produce tbe desired effect ; in
othrr casciff as with chloride of silver, agitation may be hurl recourse
to with advantage ; lastly, in some ini^tanccs reagent;^ may be added, as
alcohol added to water to imlucc complete precipitation uf clil(»ri(le of
pUtinun and ammonium, chloride of Iea<l, and sulplmte of lime,
or anuBOoia, to ensure tbe precipitation of phospLaie of ina<;^ne9ia
and aaamonia. Again, a precipitate may somettmea be prevented
tnm pMsing throu^h a filter by modifying the menstruum : thus, the
teadeDcy of sulphate of harytii, when filtered from an aijueous solution,
to pwa throuffn the Biter, mny be prevented in a great measure by
tbe addition of chluride of ammonium.

Substances which have been precipitated from hot solutions arc
OMally best filtered while hot, since hot duids run through the filter
more rjuickly than cold ones.

Lajily, tlie precipitate should be repeatedly washed with fresh quan-
of tlie proper menstruum, — usually distilled water, — until there
txace uf a dissoWed substance to Ite detected in the last rinsings.
J^cantaHun, — The second method by which precipilates may be
ktrd is by dceanlation : this will be found in many cases a very
itious and accurate method of soparaiion. The precipitate
be allowed to subside completely bcl'ure pouring off tbe supcr-
lik^uid, and should subsetpieully lie washed repeatedly.
^ larger amount of water buMng required for washing precipitates
ed by decantatioo than is the cose with pi-ecipitates washed upon
1% it li Deoeaaory, where the former pnxress is adopted, that
precipitates sbould be insoluble. For the same reason decanta-
tion o not ordinarily resorted to in cases where, besides the amount
i ti the prrdpitaled substance, we have to dctermiue the amount of
I oClbff ooostatneota contained in the decanted fluids.
\ DitittUdiotL. — Tbere are three iwrticulars which require to be care-
^■hOy attended to in the distillation of alcoholic liquids, including

^^^ One of these i^ to close completely tbe opening between tbe beolc of
the retort and tbe neck uf the receiver ; this is well effected by mcsng

60 MEANS FOB THE DETECTION OF ADOLTERATION,

of ft perforated cork, by which the two vessels arc Joined, the junction
bein^' well secured by a lule of Unseed meal made into a paste.

Another purttcuiar is to take eure that all the ulcohol hns really
passed over before suspending the diaulliition. Before thiti is fully
accomplished it is ffenerally necessary that three-fourths of the spi-
rituous liquid should be distilled o\'or; and even then it is advisable,
where the strictest accuracy is desired, to distil over a fresh but
email quantity of the liquid,— that which first passed orer having
been reinoveil, — and to take its Bpecific gravity.

The third point h to re;njlatecxa<;tly the temperature of the Bpirit
to a fixed standard before proceeding tu the determination of its
specific gravity, by means of the specific gravity bottle.

Incineration.— ~'V\\vre are two objectji to be kept in view in the
incineration of organic atihstanccs, the ashes of which are intended for
analysis or the weight of which is required to be determined with
accuracy.

These are, the complete destruction of tlie carbon, without alteration
or decomjHWttton of the wdta composing the ash,

The combustion, therefore, while it is eomjilete, must be effected at
the lowest practicable temperature, that ia^ at a dull red heat. There
are several waTS in which these objects may be aocompUshed. It will
be necessary only to notice one or two of the best and most con-
renient methods. One method ia aa fallows : —

The organic Bubstance. beingproperty dried at 212'* F. and weighed,
is to be charred in a platinum or Hessian crucible at a gentle red
heat. The charred mass ia then to be transferred to a shallow pla-
tinum ilish ; over this is to be placed a glairs chimney supported on ft
triangular piece of platinum wire ; the tlame of a gas or spirit lamp
is to be applied tfl the dish. The increased current of air caused by
the chimney suffices to eflect the complete incineration of most or-
ganic substftnt'es.

In a second method the muffle is employed.

The Huhstanee to be incinerated Is placed on a plutinum ur porcelain
dish or capsule; this ia introduced into the muflle, which in gruduu-lly
heated in the furnace. When the evolution of the empyreumatic pro*
ducts of combustion ceases, the beat ithould be Increased, but not be-
yond a ▼ery faint redness, visible only in the dark. At this tempera-
ture, no salts except the carbonates — the carbonic acid being partially
dissipated — are decomposed, and the cnrbon, which burns with a feeble
incandescence, is destroyed in the course of a few hours.

When great accuracy is not required, the incineration may be con*
ducted in a porcelain capsule, nver an o|)en fire or flame.

When the substance to be in«tnerated is too large fur the moflle, it
may be first chtirred, and its bulk thus reduced.

That the careful regulation of the temperature duriag incineration
is a matter of juueh imjiortancc, is shown by the fact that when the
beat is increased much beyond a dull redness, the metallic chlorides

BY CHEMISTRY.

«re in part volatilised, as may be also a portion of the phosphoric and
lulpbiiric ocid^s of the phnsnhutes nntl sulphates : besides/excessive
heat causes the metallic cblorido^ and the phosphates of the aikaliefl to
l\itie : and the fused mass encU>sing the carbon, greatly impedes iM
ooDibiution.

MoHt of the salts and substances present in the ashes of plants were
unquestionably constiluenis of (lie plants from which the iisbes were
procured. In regard to some others, it is uncertain whether they
were originally present in the plant, or owe their formation to the
incineration ; while, with respect to otliers, it is certain that they owe
ibeir oripn entirely to that process.

Thus the sulphates, and even the carbonates, may have been original
consiilucnUiof the plants; or they may have been forme*), and this they
no duubt are to some extent, iii the process M' iiicineriiiion by tlie de-
struction of Bolts With organic acids, and by the oxidation of the
sulphur present in all plants.

The metallic sulphides are certainly forme<l by the action of the
charcoal u(>on the sulphates, the supply of oxygen bein^ limited.

It was formerly considered that the presence of carbonates in the
ash of n plant not coiituining carbonates might invariably be regarded
as a proof of the presence of h&Ud with organic acids in the liuiiiierated
pliiot. It bos been abowu, however, that ulkuline carb^^iatos and lyyro'
phosphates are formed when tribasic alkaline phosphates are ignited
with a large excess of sugar, or with the corbou of sugar.

Bf agents required for the Detection of Adulteration.
It had occurred f-o us to enumerate the rea;;ent9 reijuired for the
detection of adulteration. These mi;/ht htive been arranjred either under
the names of the articles subjected to cxaminiition, the several pur-
for which the reagents are etnployed being at the same time
ery briefly indicated ; or they might have been clasMlied under the
eaxU t'f (be dilforent chemical substances employed in ailulteration.
^On full consideration, however, it does not appear that any suHiuiont
or treat advantages would result from either of the propoieddaasifi-
cationi of the reagents rcquireil ; these will of course be specified in
conmx'tion with the description of the means to be adoptedlor the dis-
covery of the adulterations practised upon the various articles of food
and me<licine described in the course ot the work.

The preceding observations relatin;? to the chemical apparatus, pre-
liminary chemical processeri, and the reagents emphiyed for the
;overy of adulteration, are of course iiitcniletl not for professed
lists, hut rather for thf infuniiEition of students and beginners,
■iesire to become acquainted only with as much chemistry as will
ibic them to detect adulteration in arlielea of food and ntt-Ulcine.
ho|H.il that they will facilitate the labours of the inquirer, who
object in view.

62 MEANS FOB THE DETECTION OF ADULTERATION.

The special instruction!!, inicri>scopit'al and rbcmicat, necessai^ for
the discovery of the adulteraiiohs to which the several ariielcs oifood
anil metlicine examined are subject, will be found under the names of
the articles themselves.

As, however, occasional doubts and difficulties may arise, nnd par-
ticularly M the student may desire to extend bis investigations hL-yond
the limits of this treatise, it would be well tliat he should provide
himself with the Rnf];lish translations of Fresenius' works on crncmioal
analysis, the one entitled " Elementary Instruction in Qualitative
Chemical AualysiB," and the other "A System of Instruction in QuanU-
taiive Chemical Analysis.*' These works abound in practical inscruc*
tioti of the first importance, and therefore are invaluable to the student
of chemistry.

PAET I.
FOOD AND ITS ADULTERATIONS,

On Ike McojiM pur Kued ill procuring Samples for Analyxis^and in arriving
ai the Rendu recorded in the present Wurk.

BxroKx proceeding to describe the oduUerAtions practised upon each
of the more important articles ofconKiimptint), whether aoIl^Ls UqiitdH,,
or medicines, it mty be premised that we nhall chiefly describo those
irfnltcrationi which, in thu course of six yt-'ara* continuous appticatiou
to the vubject, we Iiive ourselves ascertained, on the strictest investi-
gation, to be actually prartiiie<I.

We ma^ state also, briefly, the method pursued in order to arrive at
the mnlti about to be placed before the reader.

The method pursued to detect aiiulterution was as follows. A con-
■derable number of samples of each article submitted tn examination,
wcrv purchased in the ordinary way at shops of ail ilencription^, some
of ibeie being establishments uf tlie first class, and others shops tit
which the general public obtained its goods. In many instances,
all the dkopa of one kind in whole roods and streets were visited with-
out exception in succession.

These purchases were made in the presence of witnesses, — vre our-
MlreSi for greater socurtty, and knowing well the fearful rejpontiibility
which rested upon us, accompanying the purchasers on all occa-
fioML. Immediately that any article was pun'hased, the names of
iht porchasers were placed ujHjn it, the date of the purchase, and the
prioe paid for it Subflequentty each sample wtia subjected to careful
Bucrotcopical and chemical examination, tlie results of the analysis
being published from time lo time in "The Lancet," together with
~ addresees of the merchants or traders from whum the
made.

64 MEA.N8 PUESUED FOR PROCURING SAMPLES.

The publienttoii of the severul Reports, which for a long time came
out almost wuL'kly, extendetl over k i)eriod of four years. The last of
our reports which appeared was publieibed in " The Lancet" in De-
cember^ 1H54. Since that period we have been incessantly occupied
with the sul>ject, and httve published two works on adulteration,
AS well fia artieles, the substance of which will be found recorded
in the pages of this work, on the adulteration of Cones tlour, ea«o and
tapioca, annatto, cheese^ honey, rum, brandy, wine, liquorice, coloeynth,
compound scummonv powder, and ntlier dru<^,

Tne conclusions, then, at which we haTe arrived, are based, not u[ion
the results of the e^camination of a single or even a few samples of aiiv
particular artiide, but upon tlie rigorous examination of an extendetl
neTU's of samjileH, these amounting, in the a<>grc^te, to abe>ub 3000
Bpeeimeiis nf all kinds.

Our readers will, we arc osrured, a^ee with us, that it was im-
pos&ible lu proceed in a more business-like or impartial manner
lliau tliis, or to ofler stronger guarantees of the accuracy of the I'esuhx
obtained.

We would now state that although the names of between two and
three thouannd traders have been thus piil>li«hed:, the publication
extentlingj as already stated, over a |>eriod of more than four yt-ara, in
one case only were any legal procceuings resorted to, and even in this
flingle instance the action was abandoned at an early date, without
any acknowledgment being made of error having been coinmitted..
I'ursiiing such a system, and with such resullA, we would nsk, is
it possible that the conclusiuns arrived at could be otherwise than
correct? On the contrary, is it not certain that, if mistrtke^i hail been
madi^ they would have Leen quirkly exposed, and Mr. Wakloy the
Editor of " The Lancet" and ourselves visited with the consequences,
vhich would have been nothing short of utter ruin and disgrace.

Arrangement o/Artielea of Food,

Articles of food are divisible into snlids and liquids. The solids may
be further separated into those which are deriveil from either the
vegetable or animal kingdom, and the liquids into natural and manu-
factured drinks.

As no particularly iksefiil purpose would be served by following the
above arrangement, we do not propose to confine ourselves to it, but
will treat of the several arlicles rather in the order of their use at the
breakfast or dinner table. By adoptin;j tbia course, a tolerably natural
arrangcmen- will be secured. Thus tlie several natural and manu-
factured drinks, the condiments. &c., will follow in order.

The consiiJeralion of the articles consumed at breakf:utt brings us
to the description of the adulterations of tea, cotlee, chicory, cocoa,
sugar, honey, milk, tlour, bread, butter, lord, o&tmeal, imcbovies,
potted meats, and tisb.

TEA, AND ITS ADOLTEBAT10N8.

Wherever practicAble, the following course or order will be adopted
in tliG trcAtnient of each artic-te.

First. Its chemical comp(>sition and peculiarities, f^cneral or mi-
criwcopiciU structure, nnd itd properties, will be described.

Second. Its adultiTutions.

Third.' The muthnds, microscopicELl and cbcmioal, employed for
the diacoTCry of its aduHenitionB.

TEA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.
Gaowm akd I'serARATioN of Tea.

Tbb tea-plant, TTiea ■Siwwww. ami of which T. Bohea and T. riri-
ftis ore but varieties, is a hardy, evergrrwn, and Ipafy shrul>. which
att^init the hvipht of from three to six feet, and upwards; it belongs
tfi the natural family Cuiutnniferte^ Temstromtacete of Liiidley, whieh
includes the Caniellius. It is generally propng.itcd from seed; the
seedling are pliinted out in row?, three or lour feet apart when n
year old, and the plants come to maturity in trom three to four years,
yieldiu;*. in the cour!(C of the seusnn, three, and, in aome cases, four
crops of leaves. The cropping is seldom continued beyond the tenth
ur twelfth year, when the old treea are dug up and replaced by seed-
lings.

The first pathering takes place very early in the spring, a second in
the beginning of May, a third a1>out the middle of June, and a
fourth in August. The leaves of the first pothering are the most
vulunbUs anil from these. Pekoe tea, which consitits of the young leaf-
buds, as well as black teas of the highest quality, are prepared :
those of the last gathering are large and old, and, consequently,
inferior in flavour and value.

*' It was after the year 600 that the use of tea became general in
China, and early in the ninth century (I^IO) it was introdueed into
Japan. To Euro[te it was nut brought till about the be'^iiiiiinj^ of the
seventeenth century. Hot infusions of leaves had l>cen already long
familiar as drinks in European countries. Dried sapc-Ieaveswei-e mueh
in u<«e in Knplund, and are even said to have been CArrit;tl as an article
of trade to China by the Dutch, to be there exchanjied for the
Chinese leaf, which has since idniust entirt?lv BUperscded them. A
Kussian embassy to China also brought baelc to Mojteow some care-
fully packed green tea, which tvoa received witli great acceptance.
Awl in the some century (]Gti4) the Knglish £a»c India Company

6S TEA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

OODBidered it lu a rnre gift to present the Queen of Englukd witli two
pounds of ten,*'* — Johnsion.

F(g.6,

T^AVKi or THE TkA'PLAHT.

j1 , jTODiii leaf I fi, iMf of blitck tva ortii«<liu(n lite 1 t', illtto of Ujjtr growtlt |
/i, leaf of th« grrvn vuioty vf the tM-|iluit.

The leaves vnry considerablj? in size and form, necordinp to »ge :
the jfoungest leiived are narrow, convoluted, and downy ; those next
in Hge mid size litivu their edges dehcutelv >ei*rated, wiiii the venation
acwcfly perci.'p)ib!e ; in tiioee of nicdiuni and large sizes the veniition
is well marked, u series of characterifitic loops being formed alougeocb

• ThcPlui.br SchlddMi. Second Edttlon, p.l43.

TEA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

raarpn of the leaP, and the serrations are atronger and deeper, and
placed at greater intervals.

FtK.J.

LMfof Um AtMtm TKrtrtj'of th»TKA-i'L\^T i the Ttnitiflii li theMtoe u tn the
kl>ck uid cr««n T&fwtie*. but their U <k tlicht diOttmcc in tfac •emtlotM,
vbich Kre Blt«mal«ljr Uifc asd md&II — s ililllemia» wliich i* tmbabl; not

The principal varieties of black tea are Boheo^ which is the com-
raonest, and coarsest description, Conj»ou, Souchonrf, Capor, and Padre
Souchong, and Pekuo, which are of the highest quality, the last eon-
aisting of the very younf; and uncxpanded leav&s, and which, when
clothed with down, confuilute flowery I'ekoe.

The principal varieties of jrrt'en tea are Twankny, Hyson-skin,
Young Hyson, Hyson, luiperinl, and Gunpowder, wliich, in green tea,
corresponds with flowery Pekoe in black. Inipmal, Ilyaon, and
Young Hyson, consist of the second and third gatherings, while the
light and inferior leaves, separated from Wvytn by a winnowing ma-
chine, constitute Hyson-skin, a variety in considerable demand
amongst the Americans.

There is, according to most writers, but one species of ten-plant,
from which the whole of the above, and many other varieties of tea,
axe obtained, the dififerences de[woding upon soil, climate, age of the
leaves, and mode of preparation.

The plants from which black teas are prepared are grown chiefly
on the slopes of hills and ledges of mountains*, while the green tea-
shruhs are cullivated in manured soils. TTpon this circumstance
many of the diU'erences between the two vorictiM depend.

Other dilfercnces are occasioned by the processes adopted in the
preimratiun :ind roosting of the leaves. Thus, while black tea is first
roasted in a shallow iron vessel, called a Aho, and peeondly in sieves.
over a bright charcoal fire, green tea does not undergo the second
method of roasting, but only the first — that io the Auo.

* There ii a range called Ihr Dohes Motintalna, rrom wblcb Bohu tM takei its nune.

w S

TEA, AND ITS ADCLTEEATIONS.

The leaves of blaek tea undergn a species of fermentation before
their final dryinp, and it is this which occaiions them tn assume so
dark a colour: those of frreeii tea do not undergo this preliminary
fermentation, beinp dried wiiile iti n fresher state : but the leaves, as
thus prepared, arc of a yellowish or olive green tint, rery unlike the
colour of the green leas imfnorled into this country.

An in)j>ortant part of ihe iimiiuracture often consists in the roUiitg
the leaveflL^'^ ^ 'o iini)art to (hem tlieir cklTractenstic twisted shtii}e.
'ITiis is eflected by subjecting the leavea to pressure, and rolling by
•the bands in a nartleiilnr manner. The first effect of the appliralion
of heat to the leaves in llie Am«, is t« render tliem soft, and flaccid;
when in this stnte, ibcy are rentnved frmn the vessel, and subniitted
to the first rolling =^ an operation which, after the renewed action of
the Alio on each occasion, is three or four limes rei>ealed, with superior
teas, before the process Is considered to be complete.

SeetUitig of Tea.

There are several kinds of scented tea: thow with whieh we are
best aequajnted in tins coiintry are scouted Caper or Chulan, and
flCenU'd orange Pekoe. The scent is cnnununiiyileil to tliese teas by
mean^ of the Chuhin flower, Chlnranihtm iHconHpieiius. The flowers
of other plants are, however, used for the purpose ; amongst tliesc may
be niLincd those of Olca /ragraiUj Gardenia florida, and Jasminum
Sambac.

The process pursued varies In dilTerent cases. Sometimes the fresh
flowers are strcxvn between successive layers of tea; the tea and
flowers are then Coasted until the flowers become crisp, when they are
sifted out. In other cases the flowers arc dried, powdered, and then
sprinkled over the tea. For further purticulars retspecting the scenting
of tea, the render is referred to Mr. Uull's ^ Account of the Cultivation
and Manufacture of Tea in China."

Analysii of Tea.

The Infusion mode from tea contains gum, glucote^ or saccharine
matter, a large quantity of /uwrtift, ro/o/iVf oi/, and a peculiar nitro-
genised principle called thtine; this is identical with caffeine^ and
upon its presence many of the properties of tea depeniL

The amounts of gum and riinnin contained in a given sample of tea
afford data by which its qualily may, to some extent, be determined.

The percentage of (lu-se substances may be obtaineil in die iollow-
uig manner: One hundrt^d grains ol tea, dried by meaits of a water-
bath, are to be boiled for some time in about a ijuart of tlistilled
water; this tlis^olves out the gum and tannin, but dues not affect the
lignin, which, re-dried in the same way iit a tt-niperiiture of 21*2°
Fohr., and weighcnl, gives the amount of that substance present in the

TEA, AND ITS ADULTERATtONS.

hundred ^ains, and shows by the loss of weight, the combinod quan-
tities of t Be pum and tnnitii). The deooction is now to be evaporated,
and the rcatduuni treateil with ulrohul; this will take u[i the tannin
and colouring matter, but leavt; the guQi> the weight of which being
ascertained, af^er drying, gives the p«r>centaj£e of tannin.

Should it be desired to estimnte the quantity of tannin separately,
thin moy be efleeted either by evupomting the alcoholic solution and
drying the residue in the ordinary xray, or eljic by the preeinitation of
the tannin from the decfx'tion, by a sulutioii of gelatine. The preci-
pitate being washed aud dried ut a steoui heat, indicates the quantity
of tannin, 100 graiua of the precipitate being equal to 40 grains of
tannin.

The determination of the amount of nitrogen in any tea should
form part of a ri^jid analysis; for this purpose, 100 grains, dried in.
a water-batli until it ceases to loee weight, ia to be incinerated with
aoda-liuie, and iis oontcnta in nitrogen locn ascertained.

While the average amount of nitrogen in tea exceotU five per eent^
that in rloe, hawthorn, and elder leaves is seldom over three per
cent., and in the fl^^t tww is nearly always much under this quantity.

The fullowing nre the methods of proceeding adopted by dilferent
chemi&ts iur obtaining the active principle of tea, theine^ and fur esti-
mating its amount : —

Mulder obtains it from tea by lienting the evaporated extract by
hot water, with calcined magnesia, tiltering the mixture, evaporating
to dryness the liquor which passes through, and digesting the residuum
with ether. This solution being distilled, the ether of course paasea
over, and the theine remains. This principle may be extracted iu
the same wuy from raw ground coffee.

Dr. Sleiihouse obtains theine by adding acetate of lead to a decoc-
tion of (<'a, evaporating the filtered liquid to a dry extrarl, and ex-
pMing this extract to a subliming heat in u (shallow iron pan, whose
mouth is covered with porous pnper, luti^d round the edges aa a
filler to the vapour, and surmounted with u cap of c(mii>act paper, aa
ihe receiver. According to ibis method, l>r. Stenhouse obtained only
1 '37 per cent, of theine.

M. I'eligot, remeniberiug that the quantity of nitrogen contained in
lea-leaves frequently amounted tu 6 percent., was hence led to be-
lieve that much more theine existed in them than had hitherto been
separated, and he adopted the following improved method of extrac-
tion : —

To the hot infusion of tea, subacetatc of lead and then ammonia
were added; the liquid was tillered, and the lead tseparated by means
of sulphuretted hydrogen; after a second filtration, the clear liquid,
being evaporated ut a gentle heat, aflurded, on cooling, ait abumlant
crop of crystals. Qy re-evaporation of the mother liquid more
cryatals were procured, amounting altogether to from 5 to 6 per cent.

According to Mulder't atudyns, 100 partd of tea conaial of —

r 3

TEA, Aim ITS ADULTERATIONS

Grcm.

BU^.

IWntial oil (to wliich the flavoor u

idue)

- 0-79

0-60

CMoropbylle -

. 022

1-84

Wax

- 0-28

—

Resin

• —

- 2-22

3-64

Gum

- 8-56

7*28

Tannin

- 17-80

12-88

Tlieine

. 0-43

046

Extractiye -

- 22-30

19*88

Do., dark- coloured

1-48

Coltmrable matter,

separable by hydrocblo-

ric acid

- 23-60

1912

Albumen

* •

- 3-00

2-80

Vepetable fibre

- 17-08

28-32

Ash

• 5-56

5-24

1000

The iketne ta obviously rnucb underrated in JIulder's analyses.
According to Stenhoiise, the teas of commerce contain, on an average,
about 2 per cent of theine.

Thetne, when pure, crystaHiscs in fine needles, glossy. Ukc white
silk; the crystals lose, nl -21.2'', 8 per cent, of their weight, or two
utoma of water of crystallisation ; tiiey are bitter but have no smell;
they iiiwlt at 550° F., and sublime at 543*^ without deconiposing ; dried
at 350°, they dissolve in 98 parts of cold water, 97 vV alenhol, and
194 parts tif ether. Tlieine is a feeble base, and is precipiiable by
tiuinin alone from ita .solutions.

The volatile oil is not prcsiMit in fresh tea, but is developod \n the
course of dryin^ and roa-stinp ; it is to it that the aromtt and Uuvoup
of tea are mainly due : 100 poundii of tva distUied with water yield
about 1 pound uf this oil.

Slructwe of the Tea-leaf.

The characters of tlie tea-leaf visible to the naked eye* such as its ve-
nation and the crenution of the edges, have already been described.

Examined with the microscope, the following is aeeertaiiitid to be
its {general structure. It is made of epidermic cells, sloniata, paren-
chyTuatous rellfi, and hairs.

The epidermic cclU yary much in sire, accordinij to the age and size
of the leaf: in the leaf of nicdtuni age and size the cells are small and
slightly angular only, while in the hard and old loaf they are very
much lar};er, more angular, and the walls of the cells arc more
didtiuctly visible.

The utotnata are confined principally to the under surface of tlie
leaf, they are rather numerous, small, and are formed of two reuifurm

TEA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

celU, which leave a very decided aperture between them. Theepider-
lic ceila arifuml the atumata are much elongated and curved like the
eells of the stomatA themselves.

The hairs are abo confined to the under surface of the leaf: in the
verj joung leaf they are very nunieruufi, hut in those of middle age
»fthey are much leas abundant, ajid indeed in some eases are nearly
"Itogelher WMntlng ; ihey are short, and, when not broken, [minted and

idivided.

The celU forming the substance or parenchyma of the leaf resemble
of most other leavee, and do not present anything remarkable*

Fig.%.

i» and the next figure represent the tea-leaf as it appears under
micnwcope as met with in most black tens.

J^ropertien of Tea.

Lo-Ta, a learne<l Chinese, who lived in the dynasty of Tanff, a.p.
to 90G. j?ire« the foUnwin;; a^rrecable account of the (pialities and
fcctJ «>f the infusion of the leaves of the tea-plant : —

|i'ro|>ers the spiriU, :ind harmonises the mind ; dispels lassitude,
plieve* fMtiaue ; awakens thought, and prevenla drowsiness ;
or refre*he.«i the bo<ly, and clcnrs the perceptive faculties.**
Tereira's "Materia Medica" we find the following remarks re-
UlinfF to the properties of tea: — " Ita astrinpcncy is proved by its
"* lical properties. Another quality possessed, especuilly by areen
b that of diminishing the tendency to sleep. Tea appears to

TE^i AND ITS ADULTEKATIONS.

posKM a sedative influcocc with regard to the vascular sYfltem.
btrong green teu^ taken in large <[uaiit>ties, is capable, id Bomo con-

Vntlrrwmfact AfTEA-iJiAr, afaovlDi th« alnmAU uwl edit of UU« porUoB oT Iht
leaf, u veil M « pan of oue uf Ibc luUn bj wbioli Uila lurfhea U elotbfd.

RtitutionSf of producing most distressing feelings, and of operating as
a nareiitic "

Pru^e^so^ Johnston gives the following deseription of tbe propcrlia
of lea : " It exiiilarntes without genaibly intoxicating. It excitet ike
brain to increused activitj^, and pruduces wiLkcfuIiicss. Hence itt
usefulness to hard studL'uts, to those who have vigils to keep, and to
persons who labour much with the head. It soothes, on the cnntrarj,
and stills tlie vu<iculur system ; nnd hi'nce its use in inflnmniatorT
diaeaacs, and as a cure tor headache. Green tea, when taken strong, acts
very powerfully upon some constitutions, prtnlucing nervous treiiv
blings and other distressing Bytiiptoms, ueting as a narcotic, and, in
inferior animals, even pnxlucJtig p:iridysis. Its exciting effect upon
the nerves makus it uneful in cuunteracting the elTects of opium and
of fermented liquors, and the stujwr sometimes induce<l by (iever.***

The properties and cifecis of tea are due to the conjoined nciidn of
at least three active chemical constituents, nmnoly, tbe volatile vil^
Acintr, and tannic acid.

The special action of the volatile oil bos not yet been scientifically

• ChMDlflr; of ComnoD LUb. BUckwood.

TEA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

led ; but in Professor Johnston's " Chemist ry" we meet with
tb« following remarks rt'latire to il« prfnit-rties :J— " That it does exert
paverful, sod most likely a narcotic, mtlucnce is rendered probable

TtM-t.%AT.

jt , m^^mmutttm at tanf-dfvclopcd leaf, rvpmnHDf tht etlli of vhleh It U oon-
■MvMt t A, mnitt nirtiMx, kboviaf Ita ccUt maii UontAta i V, cltloropbyU*

ij known fact*. Amonf; them T mention (he headaches and
to which tea-tastertt are Bnhj(»ct ; thu attax^ka of paralysis
afler a few years, those who are employed in packing and
««p«ckisie chests of tea arc found to be liable ; and the circumstance,
mmdf aOudtfd to. that in China tea is rarely used till it is a year
old, b^CTMC of the peculiar inloxicftting profwrty which new t£a
fomtmm, TTw efletl of tiiis keeping upon tea must be chiefly to
aHoir a portion of the volatile infiredients of the leaf tx» escape. And
loMlr, toat there i* a [towcrful virtue in this oil is render(>d probable
b^ ibtt &et ikai the similur nil of coffee has been found by cxperi-
»f^t f*j puwpm'f nsrrotic prrt|>ertie9.'*

n of the second active constituent of tea — thein^
: by direct experiment. In ihe (luantity in which
ti t» lajly «:<jtt-iiM(...| liy most tca-drinkorp, tlnit if, some four or five
|Tmin«, — a quantity onlitmrily presentin alKmt half an ounce of good
tra, — H haa been found lo diminish the waste of tissue, the ncceasity
for food to rrpair the waste bein;; lessened in an etiuul proportion :
«■« of tho efleclf of tea is, therefore, to save food.
If M aach as eight or ten grains of theine be token doily ,^a quan-

74 TEA, AKD ITS ADULTERATIONS.

tity present in iiboiit one ounce of loa of gf)uJ (juiilil y. — it givea rise to
tbe tulluwing Kyiiijitiiins: the pulse \» reinlerecl mure rre<|uenL, the actioD
of the heart stron^tTi trembling ensues^ and there is a perpetual in-
clination to micturalioii. "At the sanietime» the imtt;riiiation is ex-
cited ; and after awhile the ihcmshts wander, visions be;;iii to be seen,
and a peeulifu* fitate of intoxication coiueit on. All these symptoms
are followed by, and pass off In, deep sleep." It is evident, therefore,
that the ejects of slrong tea are attributable in a great measure to
the over-d(»»e of theine intrfiduced thniugli it into the stomach.

The third active principle of tea is the tannin or tannic acid: it is
this which imparts to tea its astringent tiute, and which cause* it to
exert n slightly conslipating elFect upon the boweU. It is the more
completely extracted the longer the tea is infused.

A fourth not uiiim[i(>rtatit earistituerit of the tea-leaf id p;luten,
which forms no less than one-roiirlb of the weight of the dried leaves.
As tea is generally consumed in thi^ country, the benefit of this
substance is for the uio.«t part Imt to the sysLcm, it nut being
dissolved by the hut wuter^ but remaining behind in the leaves,
with which it is usu:illy thrown away. On this account the use
of soda has been recommended, this dissolving a larger proportion.
of the gluten. In some countries the tea-leaves, either whole or in
powder, from which the infusion ha.^ bet^n made, are themselves eaten ;
and in this way the whole of the beneficial pruperties of tea are secured.

"The wealthy Chinese simply infuse the leaves in an elegant
porcelain i.'iip, which ha^ a cover of the Eiaine niuteriul ; the leaves sink
to the bottom of the eiip, and geuerally rennuu there without incon-
veniencet though oceasiunally suine may float or rise to the surface.
To prevent this jnconvenicnce, sometimes a thin piece of silver, of
filagree, or open work, is placeil imi]iediut<?ly on ihem. AVhere
economy is necessary to Ix* stti<iied, the tt-aptyt is use^l. The wealthy
Japinese continue ine ancient mode of grinding the leaves to powder;
and after infusion in a cup, Mt is whip^wed with a split bnmboo, or
denticulated instrument, till it cream*, when they drink both the in-
fusion and powder, as coffee is used in many parts of Asia.'"*

In China, as appears from the following extract, tea is the common
bcTerage of the people. The late Sir George Staunton informs us
"that tea, like beer in England, is sobl in public -houses in every
town, and along ])ublic roads, and the banks of rivers and cnnid.^ nnr
is it unusual for the burdened and weary traveller to lay down his
load, refresh himself with a cup uf warm tea, and then pursue his
journey." f

The Atliltbratiom or Tea.

Much skill and ingetmity are displayed, its we shall shortly perceive,
both at home and in China, in the adulteration of tea.

■ B«n. o«i tht L'ultlvallcn «M MAnurMlurr of Tm, p 15.
t Lord Mscannfy'i EmtNuij' to FeUn, toI. U. p. 96.

TEA, AKD ITS ADULTEBATIONS. 75

The principal adulterations of tea are the work of the Chinese
themselves ; but otber adulteratlonii arc performed nearer home, by,
in fact, Kritish fubricalonj of spurimis len, lioiii bliick and ^reen.
Thoee ululterationH may be described in the first place which are of
Chinese nrijiin.

The SouclwngB and Congous which form the groat bulk of the black
tea consumed in ihis country are rarely adulterated.

There are, however, vurieties of blLiik tea imported into this
country fruni Cbinu which are never utherwi.sc than adulterated;
these are the black Ounpowtlen Capers or Chuian*^ and scented orange
Pekoe,

Adulterations practised fry the Chinese.

The flduiterationi practiaed with tea by tht! Chinese are of three
very distincc kindd : one conoistsin the inteniiixtun^ with genuine tea
of leaves other than those of the tea*plant; a gecomi Is the manufac-
ture of spurious articles denominated Lie tea ; while the lliird kind
of adulteration conaibtii in glazing, painting, or artificially colouring
the surface of the leaves with various pigmentary substances.

Adulteration with Foreign Leaves.

In reference to the use of leaves other lima those of the tea-plant the
eridence of Dr. Dickson may be quoted, who states : "The Chinese
annaolly dry many millions of pounds of the leaves of diiTerent pliints
to mingle with the genuine, as those of the ash, plum, &c. ; so that all
epurious leaves found iu parcels of bad tea must not be su])pose<l to
be introduced into theni by dealers in this county. While the tea-
trade was entirely iu the minds of the East India Company, few of
these adulterated teas where iihipped fur Ibis country, as experienced
and competent inspectors were kept at Canton to prevent llie exporta-
lion of such in the Company's ships ; but since the trade has been
opened, all kinds Jind a ready outlet; and as the demand oAen
exceeds the supply, a manufactured article is furnished to the rival
crews," •

Notwitlistonding, however, the occasional use of foreign leaves, we
can state, from the careful examination of a liir<,'e number uf samples,
that the ^reat bulk of the tea iuii>or(ed^ especially the black tea, is
but little affected by this adulteration. We have, however, on several
occasions, met with foreign leaves and paddy-husk in some of the
inferior descriptions of green tea, an<i in samples of the article to be
described hereafter, manufactured by the Chinese, and denominated
Lie tea.

The first tea in which we discovered foreign leaves was a sample
of Gunpowder fWoping tea). Subse*|uently four different samples of
of low (juatity, as imported into this country from China, were
• Aitklo " Tea," U pMoy C^yolopadta.

TEAj AND ITS ADULTEHATI0X8.

8ubject«J to micro<tcopic examinntion, and were all found to be adul-
lorated with forLnj^n leaves.

In a sample of (iuripowder fragments of two kinds of foreign leaves
were detwleil. 'i'lie tea m question coiisjisted in part of leaves, and
partly uf Lit; tea. Now those foruign leaves formed not only the
greater portion of the loose leaves, but also oiitcred largely into the
composition <tf the little masses of wliich Lie tea is carifltilutcd,
pcarcely » particleof tea-leaf itself having W-en observed in the sample.

The stnicture of two of thuae leaves ia show-n in the two tlfllowing
figures.

Fig. 1 1 .

FoKKiOB Liir IV Lib Tea.
a. vpppr toTfliot of Wtf I ^ lowtr nirfiM. khcvlrc the kHi vlth their iltiititlr-
bM<1c<l tnftrjrlnk tif which U ia amtiOKd i r. rhlcrnrihyllc i-clU. to >ll*pa«Fd M
to fonii Terj- luge tnolm ; d, «lannl«l c*ll« Umtui on iij)p«i lurfaer of the
l««f in Ihf courw Arth«T«lM i ', ipIkI vmwI ■/, mII of tiirm«Tle i o, Tngmtnt
Of t'roMUD Mm t A. pArtieJc* of the whiU powilu, prolMbljr Ckimt day.

A sample of " Lie (ea^*^ admixed with a few pmall fragments of
leaves, conHisting principally of portions of the leai", much broken up,
is represented xujig- 12.

In A eampte of Ttmnhay, in addition to those of tea, the leavea of
three other plant,i were detected, two of which we identified, the one
was Cnmetiin Sajtanqita^ x\\^ other a kind of plum: they are repre-
sented in^A. 1^. and 14.

TEA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 77

A second sample of ^ Ttranfiay'* vrna asceruincd to consist of tea
mixed with paddv-husk, purtioiia of seed-vessels, and other substances:
the leaves were of a coarse description, and wnntcd the peculiar twist
characteristic of the more cnrefully prep:iri'<l kini]^ of tfta.

The leaves of Chloranthu* iacauKpicuun^ o-s well as of CamfUia 5a.
Ma/it/ua^ have hecn known to be emfdnyed in the adulteration of tea,
and the^ differ from tea-leaves chicUy in their venation Fig, 15.

Tlie second kind nf adulteration consieta in the luiumfaeture of
artjcles m;ide up in imitation of tea, oa the different varieties of Lie tea.

FOMIOX LlAF IF Lll TiA.

a. upper lurflMt of iMf I h. lower luifBoe i r, chlurDphvlle aeUi : 4, tlong*tfld

mm, f. |MJrti(inn/o««arih« t<r«ncbt«] ftod tiHiKPUilwIn ritUKlH uii ihd iui<lcr

mrftn «* ilw lr»f i /. c«ll af tuimuic j v. fncnwM <rf PrtwdMi Uim i A, i«r-

tklM cT Uw kA.jk pMnkr. "

Adulteration with Lie Tea.

Now Lie lea i» so caUed because it is a spurious article, and not tea
at all : it consists of the dust of tea-leuves, sometimes of fcireign leaves,
and sand made np by means of starch or gum into little massefl.
which ore afterwards painted and coloured so as to resemble either
black or green Gunpowder. The skill exhibited in the fiibricntion of
this spurious article U very great, and we have met with at least a

TEA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Fig. 13.

I.EAf or Camkllia 8A«A)ig4iA, found Id Bunpt« of TVraMibiy.
><, tipper ■urfkc* of leaf, i>Knrins tlw will of vhich l( la maipOMd i if,
■arhcKt extilUUag )U cclu ■d<1 flomtU i C. chjorophjrik vk\\%.

Fig. 14.

LaAr or Vunt, ftmnd In Sunple of 7VvtNi»w.
JtiipptriurliuMof Icafi /(, tuidcrturfMai C* elUorofiiyllfl eelb.

TEA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

rft

dozeu varieties of it, differing from eacli other in the size and colour-
ing^oftbe little masses.

This article, flUhnnfjh the rhcits contJiining it nro bronded with
the words " Lie tea," wiis at a recent period extensively imported into
this country, and of course found purchasers.

It is exnresslv manufactured for aduUerationi and it ie largely
employed for this purpose by the Chineac tlieuiselves, who mix it
with the dilVerent (jiunjMiwUer tea.-, black and jireen ; which are so far
genuine that tliey ronlain no other k-af than that of tea, oltboujjh they
are artificially colnured. Gunpowder tens, even notL\ are frequently
met with containing various proportions of Lie tea.

Fig, 1»,

<4.L*af orCnLOiAvrmrt lACDxiricLTm i 0, ditto of Camkllu SAiAjrqvAt I«itm

IM9(1 tu MlatMr&u Ice.

Mr. Warington, in a communication read before the Chemical
Society of London, May, 1851, states : —

" On inquiry, I have learnt tliat about 750,000 lbs. weight of Uiese
te«s have been iui]>urted into this country within the last eighteen
months, their introduction being tjuitcof modern origin ; and I under-
stand that attempts have been made to get them passed through the

TEA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

customs as manufacbtrcd goodg^ and not tu teas; ft title which they
certainly richly merit, although it must be ovitiont, from a moment's'
consideration, ilmt the revenue would doubtless be defruuded, iuas-
inuoh us the cousunier would have tt* buy them as ttjas from the
dealer. IL is to be feared, hi>wever, that a uiurket for them is found
elsewhere. The Cliinese, it uppoars, would not sell them except as
teas, and have the candour to upecify them as Lie teas; and if they
are mixed with other tens of low quality, the Chinese merchant
f^ives a certificate, stating the propnrtitm of the Lie tea present with
the genuine leaf. This manufacture and mixing is evidently prav*
tiaed to meet the price of the English merchant. In the case of

Ffc. IB.

\ J

$T^

Tmitatiox Cafsb oe OusrowDiiu

« A, fraffTBenU of Die tea-ln\f or in%fdm»t; hh, putlclc* of »«md; ec>
oMVMidw; drf, grnnp* of grmnulwof Mnrir-iaMf; r r, panicle* ot nira-lAt
nMtttn://, otUaoT tmniMrie; 9 a. rnfmenU at iiuUif?. UatfulOed 310

the above samples^ the black ii called by the Chinese, Lie Flotrer
Caper i the green, Lie Gunpowder; the average value is from 8rf. to U.
per lb. The brokers have adopted the curious terms g^um and dusU as
applied to tlie^e Lie teas or their mixtures, a cognomen which at first
1 Dad some diHiculty in understanding:, from the rapid manner in
which the Grat two word* were run Icigether,"

TEA, AND ITS AD0T.TERATIOXS.

"Mr. Ripley, tea broker, in evidence before ihe ParltamentAry Com-
mittcCf states that tlio importfttion of Lie'Jca in 1847 amounted to about
100,000 lbs., after which it increased about tbrecrold, and eventually
it became as lar^ as 400,000 or 200,000 lbs.

Artificial Colouration and Adttiieraiion of Tea.

The third principal kind of adultcraCton to which tea is liable
consists in the glassing, painting, or artificial colouration of the leaves.
This practice is had recourse to for the purpose of improving, as some
consiaer, the appearance of certain descriptions of tea, especially the
inferior kind.^ and for the better concealment of some of lU adulter-
ations, OS where foreign leaves arc used, and to disguise more effec-
tually the nature of Lie tea.

The substance employerl in the glazing of the varieties of black lea
known as scentt^d Caper or black Gunpowder, orange Pekoe and the
black variety of Lie tea, U one with which houseniaidii are particularly
familiar, viz. fp*uphitc, plumbattc, or black>lead. The teas coated with
this substance present a jmruliarly smooth and glossy appearance.

OccasioDuIly small quantities of Prussian blue or indigo, turmeric,
China clay, or some other yellow and white powders, are useil, as well
as the blaok'lead, in order to impart a somewhat different appear-
ance to Cliulnn and black Lie tea.

Bui it is with greeu tea that the practice of artificially colouring the
leaves is carried to the greatest extent. The varieties of green
tea imported into this country from China are Twankay, Hyson-skin,
voung Hyson, Hyson, Imperial, and Gunpowder, Now the colour of
the whole of these teas, without a single exception, is artifieial, and
caused by the adherence to the leaves of various colouring matters.

The usuitl colouring matters employed an; fcrrocyanidc of iron or
Prussian blue, turmeric, and China clay; these nrc mixed in various
proportions, so as to pruduce different shades of blue und green ; the
surface of the leaves being moisteneii, they are then agitated with the
mixtures until they become faced or ghi«ed, as it is termed.

Occasionally other substances are employed by the Chinese, aa indigo
and nilpbatc of lime, or gypsum. In proof timt it has long been the
pmctice fref|uently to colour preen tea arti6cia]Iy, we have the evi-
dence of various travellers; but the must conclusive and complete evi-
dence, both as to the extent of the practice and the nature of the
ingrc'liont* used, has been suppUed by meuns of the microscope.

Amongst the writers who have noticed the subject of the iirdficial
colouration of tea may be mentioned Dr. Horsfield. Dr. Koyle, Mr.
Davis, Mr. Bnicc, Mr. Ball, Mr. Fortune, and Mr. Warington.

In Dr. Horsfield's translaticm of n Dutch work on'tlie subject
of the cultivation of tea io Java, tlie following dialogue occurs : —

^ Visitor* — Is It indeed the case that tea is so much adulterated
in China y

AND ITS ADULTERATIONS,

" SuperinUndeht. — UrKiuuslinnntlyTbul nol in the interior provinces,
for ihore exist rijrid laws oj^ninst the uduliorution of tea ; and all tens,
as tliey come out of the planlntions, are examined on the part of the
povernment, to determint; whtiihor they are genuine; but in Canton,
which is the emporium of teas, nnd especially at lIoni\n, muny fiorts,
indeed most tea.% are pxeatly aditlterated, and that with injrredienta
injurious to healthf especially if too much of these ingredients be
added. This is especially the case with the ^'reeii tea, in order to
improve the colour, and in this manner to add to the vidue of the teu
in the eyes of the common consumers.

" Visiitfr. — Are these ingrecJienis known ?

** Superijitrmlent. — Most of ihem are certainly known; they have
been communicated to government (the Dutch government), while at
the same lime the privile^ti has been requested that they might not
be employed here; ami although this occasions loss, the retjuest has
been gnutted, and it has been ordered by government, that not the
least admixture should take place, cither to improve the colour or
taste of llie tea, even in such coses where this mijrht be desirable." •

Dr. Royle writes t» " The Chinese in the neighbourhood of Canton,
ore able to prepare u tea which can be coloured and made up to imitate
various quuUlie^ of green tea, and large quantities are thus yearly
made up.

"Young Hyson," states Mr. Davis J, "until spoiled by the large
demand of the Americans, wos a delicate genuine leaf, and as it could
not be fairly prociuced in any large quantities, the call for it on the
part of the Amencanfl was answered by cutting up and silling other
green teas through sieves of a certain size, and as the Corapany*8
inspectors detected the imposture, it formed no portion ot their
London importation. But the &buse became still worse of late, for
the coarsest blark tea-leaves have been cut up, and then coloured with
a pre]>aration rcsemhling the hue of green tcad."

*' but (his was nothing," continues Mr. Davis, "in compariflon with
the ertrontery which the Chinese displayed in carrying on an extensive
manufacture of green teoM from (hinutged hbivk leave*^ at ft village or
suburb called llon&n.

" The remission of the tea-duties In the United States occasioned,
ia the years 1832 and 1833, a demand for green teas at Canton,
which could not be supplied by arrivals frnm the provinces, The
Americans, however, were obli^e<l to sail with cargoes of green teas
within the favourahle season; they were determined to have the teas,
and the Chinese were determined that they should be supplied. Certain
rumours being allout concerning the manufacture of green tea from
old black leaves, the writer of this became curious tu ascertain the
truth, and with some difficulty |M;rsuftded a Hung tiierehnut to conduct
liim, accompanied by one uf the inspectors, to the place where the

• Eiuy rvn th« CuUlvaUnn und NaDH&ictun!> or Tm Iq Jiti. Traoilittftt from the Dutcb.
t Tea, MMllclnil aud DietetlmL — ^awv CifCloMdia,
1 Darli* Chln«»e, vt>l.lL \>. 4Si.

TEA, AND ITS ADULTEnATIOXS.

itiorw were cftiried on. Entering one of these laborataries of
fictitiotiB Hrson, the pnriies were wiinessw! to a tttranjcu scene. I'be
dtmaged buck tea-leaves, after being dried, were trsn^ferreil to a
CMt-iron pan, placed over a furnai'(*, and stirred rapidly with the
huid« a fiinnll quantity of turmeric, in powder, having been previnusly
'fttrwlure*!. This gives the It^avcs n yellowish or ornnge ting*-, hut. they
ren.' 9tiU to be made (rreen. For this purpose some lumps of fine blue
producedf together with a substance in powder^ which from the
given to them by workmen, as well as thuir at>|>earunce, were
m at once to be Prussinn hlue and jiypsuni. These were tri-
irated finely together with a suiall [>estle, in such pru[iortion:* (is
lid the djrk colour of the blue to a light shade ; ami a quuntity
lo a teftspoonful of the powder being added to the yellowish
, theM were stirred as before over the fire until the tea had
the fine bloom colour of Hyson, with very much the mme xcent.
prevent all positibilicy of error regarding the substances employed,
»!«• of them were carried away from the place. The Chinese
quite conscious of the real character of the occupation in
they were engaged; for on attempting to enter several other
where the came process was going or, the doors were speedily
ti|>on the jtarty ; indee<l, had it not been for the iniloence of the
it who (jr>nducted them, there would have been little chance of
ig as mncb as they did.**

!r. Bruce stateti, that " in ihe last operation of colouring the green
a mixture of sulphate of lime and indigo, very finely pulverised,
lift«<<i through fine muylin, in the proportion of three of the
ftrroer to one of the latter, is added ; to a pan of tea, eontaiiiirig seven
p-'Un'U, alxiut half a teaspoonful of this mixture is put, iiod rubbed
«.nd roilo^l along with the tea in the piin for alwrnt an hour. The
aUvfe mixture is merely to give it a unifonn colour and ap[K?arance.
Tlie indigo gives it the colour, and the itulphnte of lime files it." •

In Mr. Ball** vHluoble work, already (juoted, we meet with the fol-
lo«in|^ ob«erraiions relating to the artificial or factitious colouring of
cotaui desariptions of erecu tea : —

**The Utter — vix« The Singlo Hysons and * Superior Twanktiy' —
lunre fi^nently a glazed appearance, vla also the Singlo Gujif>ow-
Au% which I imagine may formerly have arisen more from the (pia)ily
of Cbc I{»f than from any factitious means emplovetl to produce the
eelaar, Slill in some casen a small quantity ol colouring matter may
ksTc been used. It has al&o 1>ccn snown that the tea made from the
HooAb IcATca bod a glazed appearance. It nevertheless is true, that
when the leaf is deficient in tne requisite colour, the Chinese do not
beitUitc to employ colouring nuiltifr to improve it.

** Again, Ki fii-r as the churai'teristic colour of gi'cen tea rs concerned,
die node of producing it has been explained and e»tubli»hed. If fac-
titioai meant ore now generally or almost universally adopted to imi-

* Rtfion en lh« 3l»ntirMture of Tea
O 2

TEA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

tAte or increase the eCTect of tlie natural colour, it may be considered
tu a great and novel obuse, and ought to be discouraceU hy brokers
and dealers. It is injurious to flavour. Whether the Chine.st? do em-
ploy oolonrinf; matter or not for the teas they use thcinsclvt-s, there
can be no doubt tbtit the bulk of the Hyson teas of the present day,
and indeed all destTiptiona of green tea, arc now glazed to a
dcj^ec which would have insured their rejcctiun by the East India
Company/*

Tien Hing, described by Mr. Ball as a respectable tea merchant
and factor, in his account of the method of making Twankiiy tea,
writer, —

*' In the seventh or eijibtb moon (August and September) each
parcel is compared together, when such aa correspond in quality and
colour are formed into one pile, roaated three cA^Aian^, the dust sifted,
and the tea pai:ked (hot) In chests for Ciinton. The Iciived of the
Becnn<l patherings have no juices, are light, thin, and of no sulistance;
the infusion weak and tasteless, the colour red, ami the infuseil leaves
black. If very coinmnn and old, colonring nuitter is tlien U5ed. ITie
factitions colour is produced by a mixture of Ma Ivy Hocy, Tien Hoa
(indigo), and She Kno powder (calcined foliated pypsum). Tlic
smallest quantity put into the kuo at one time is one or two tea-
spoonfuls, and the largest three or four. The colour then changes
to a light blue. The fire niust be mode of charcoal, and much atten-
tion paid to (be roasting. Now, if the chest^n be not in readinesif. it ia
to be feared the tea may be mixed with falso leaves, the smell thereby
injured, and the tea rendered unhealthy. But I must refer you to abler
men than myself for instruction on that point. I have no information
on Buch practices."

Mr. Ball then goes on to state ** that most other nierehanlA or
TactorB ain'ee with the foregoing account of the Twankay teas, and
particularly as to the circumstance of their being portly glazed or
coloured by artificial means, and also that some chops arc mixed with
leaves that are not tea-lenves." •

Another writer, Mr. Fortune, who also saw the colouring of tea
performed in Chinri, and who has described the process minutely,
states that during one part of the operation the hand.s of the work-
men are ijuite blue. " I could not help thinking," he remarks, "tliat
if any green-tea drinkers had been present during the operation, iheir
taste would have been corrected and improved.

'* One day an English gentleman in Snanhae being in conversation
with some Chinese from the green-tea country, asked them what
i^easons they had for dyeing the tea, and whether it would not be
better without undergoing this process. They acknowledged that
tea wa.** much better when prepared without having any such ingre-
dients mixed with it, and that they never drank dyed teas ihemBclvea ;
hitt remarked that as foreigners seemed to prefer having a mixture of

* Oo Uir CalUv»ti(Hi and Miuiufaclar« of Tea.

TEA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 81

Prussian blue and gynsimi with Uieir ten to mukc it look uniform ami
prettjt and as these ingrefiients were cheap enough, the Chinese Imd
no objection to supply tliem, especially aa such teas always fetched a
hieher price." *

Air. AVarint^n communicBted a valuable paper, on the artificial
colouration of tea, to the Chemical Society, in 1844. He writes, —

" In examining lately some samples of tea which had been seixed
froin their being supposed to be spurious, my attention was arrested
by tf»e varied tints which the sample of green tea ejthibited, extending;
from a dull olive to a bri;;ht ijreenishblue colour. On submitting
this to the scrutini^sin;; test of examination by the microscoi* with a
magnifying power of one hundred timed linear, the object being iltu-
mioaied bv reflected light, the cause of this variation of colour wo^
imroediatefy rendered apparent, for it was found tbat the curled leaves
were entirely covered with a wbite powder, haviiig in places a sliyhlly
glistening aspect, and these were interspersed with small granules of a
bright blue colour, and others of an orange tint; in the folded and
conse<pienlly more protected parts of the curled leaves these were
more distinctly visible,"

Mr. Warincton subsenuently examined several other samples of
green tea as miported, the whole of which be found to be arliBci&lly
col uu red.

Lastly, in the Museum of Economic Botany attached to the Kew
Botanical Gardens, tlieie are some 9[>ccimens of tea dyes, used by
the Chinese to colour their green teas. These were procured by
Mr. Berlhold Seeman from one of the tea factories at Canton.
They consist of Prussian blue, turmeric, chalk, and cither China clay
or gypsum-t

It appears, therefore, from these examinations that the green teas, as
imported, are very frecjuently faced or coloured artificially. Our own
investi^'fltions, embracing a great variety of samples, show thot nearly
the tvkffc of the green feas imported into this country^ ax retailed in
the MhojiHy are tkwi coloured; and that when not thus coloured, there
is but little in appearance or colour to distinguish green from black
tea : the chief difference in colour being that the former is sometimes
inclined to olive.

In the Museum at Kew will be found a series of samples of block
and green tea, also of several didercnt varieties of l^ie tea, all artifi*
cially cdoured, being some of tho<ie met with by ourselves in the course
of our investigations into the subject of the adulteration of tea.

It is a question deserving consideration, how far the colouring
BAtten employed exi>lain the injurious effects which result in some
cases from uic use of green tea. The Chinese themselves never make
of these glazed teas — a rather significant fact

• T« Countrir* of China.

t Sm Food and lu AdultentioDi, p. aSS.

u 3

TEA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Adultcrationt of Tea practised in Oiia Country,

We now pass on to the consideration of Aose aduUerntioM which are
practised in thin country.

Fig. IT.

^.LmToPWillov I R, dllto of TorLAB.

AduIterntorB in this country have succeeded in imitating with con-
siderable skill the practices of the Chinese.

Thus they sometimes use foreijzn leaves to mix with {genuine tea,
and they face the fabricated article willi various colouring matters,
ACcnrdinjT oa it is to resemble bliirk or green ten.

These leaves, with the exception of sh»e leaves, arc never useil
whole; but they are broken up, mixed wiih gum and catechu, and
itiadti int-o little masses like those of Lie tea; these are subsequently
coloured either black or green as may be requiretl.

It is of but little conscijuence what kind of leaf is employed for

i purpose ; any leaves that are readily procurable will answer the

•e. The following leaves have been det^»cled ut dilTerent times,

Uy by llic Exci:iCi eDterin<; Into the formation of spurioiu teas

TEA, AND IT8 ADULTERATIONS.

of British fabrication :— Beech, elm, horse-chesnut, plane, bastard
plane, fancy oak, willow, poplar, hawthorn, and sloe.

Fig. I«.

C, L««f oTpLAirat D, ditto of Oak.

Some of the leaves above named are represented in the accompany-
ing engravinga.

The colouring matters employed are often more injurious than
those use<l bj the Chinese : the fiiibstanccA aclually detected are the
followihp : rose pink» Dutoh pink, catechu, chromutcof lend, Bulphate
of iron, Venetian red, soap-stone or French chalk, carbonate of lime,
carbonate of magnesia, carbonate of copper, arsenite of copper, the
chromates of potash, Prussian blue, and indigo.

Dutch pink, rose pink, catechu, sulphate of iron, carbonate of lime,
carbonate of magnesia, soap-^tone, PruMian blue, and indigo have been
repeatedly met with in adulterated tea, in some instances by the
Kxcise authorities.

The following particulars in reference to the use of Boap-stone or
French chalk are taken from an article in the " Household Words **
under the title of "Death in the Tea Pot :*' —

•' By the belp of Mr. Slivers, we were enabled in a recent number
to ex|)Ose to an injured public some of the ingre<lient« of metropolitan
milk — * London Genuine particular.* A correspondent now makes a
further revelation uf how our tea-jKits are defiletl when it is innocently
mppoted thai a pure bcTeragc is in course of concoction.

Q 4

68 TEA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

** *A short time s'moe/ he saj?, *a friend of mine, a chemist in
Manchester, ivoa applied to for a quantity of French chalk, u species

A, Leaf of the IlAVTBni* i It, dllto of Ike Sloe, or Wild Pum i T. ditto of Uw
Bum I />. ditto of ttM ELCiKii : A', ditto of tb« Eui.

• • Til' «ho1e iir the IrKTM, rievut tbftt uf tlie nunellla. ate flfitrM] OB Ibilr
unJVr ■urfuw*. Ttic dm. pluM, uiil o«k Ic&tim, frocn vhldi th« tkvtehM wva
prcpBKilt wtrc of email u«c.

of talc, in fine powder; the party who purchased it used regularly
several pounds a week. Not being an article of usual sale in Mieh
quantity, our frieDd became curious to know to what use it could be
aM>Ued; on asking the wholesale dealer who supplied hiint he stated
his belief, that it was used in "^fing-" tea (the last piocess of con-
verting black tea into^reen), and that within the last month or two,
he hml sold in Manchester upwards of a thousand pounds nt' it. Our
fnend the chemist then instituted a series of experiments, and the re-

TEA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

suit proved tbnt a great deal, if not nil tho common green tea, used in
this country, is coloured artilioiully. The vory first experiment do-
suoDDtrjted fraud. The plan adopted was as follows : — A few sjjoon-
iulii of green tea at five shillings a pound, were placed on a soiult
[SteTeii and held under a gentle stream of cold wnter flowing from a tap
[lor the space of four or five minutes. The tea quickly changed itj
^eolour from green to n dull yellow, and upon drying with u very
sentlc heat gradually assumed the appearance of ordinary black tea.
On making a minute microscopic examination of the colouring
matter washed from the leaf, and which was caught in a vessel bcluw,
it appeared to be CDui]]0sed uf tlirec substances, particles of yellow,
blue, and white. The blue was proved to be Prussian blue ; the
yellow thought to be turmeric ; and the white, French chalk. If the
two former be mixed together in fine powder, thoy will give a green
of anj required 6h»dc. It is made to adhere to the tea-leaf by some
tdheaivc matter, nnd then it is ^* faced " by the French chalk, to give
it the pearlv appearance so much like<i.

" ' This simple experiment any one can perform. A gentleman »a-
sured me that a friend of bis a short lime since happened — though
quite unintentionalty on his port — to walk into a private room con-
nected with the establishment of a wholesale tea-denier, and there be
saw the people actually at work converting the black tea into green ;
the proprietor soon dLicnvered his presence in the room, and before
him. in no measured tenns, severely rcpriuiandcd the workmen for
having permitted a stranger to enter.* "

Carbonate of cop|«fr (X'curred to the extent of 35 per cent, in some
tea which was seized in London by the Excise in 1843.

The tea into the facing of which the chromatea of potash entered
wa5 seized in Manchester in 1845.

The following articles were likewise seized on the premiacs, evidently
intended to be used in the colouring of adulterated tea : —

A mixture of chromate of lead and carbonate of lime.

Arsenite of copper.

A mixture of indigo, chromate of lead, and carbonate of lime.

A mixture of arsenite of copper, carbonate of magnesia, and
Venetian red.

In lft48 other soizurea of adulterated green tea occurred.

In some instances the colouring matters employed to face the tea
have amounted to 7, 8, and even to 9 per cent.

Sometimes an infei-iur black tea, or a re-dried black tea, ia luiificially
coloured, and so converted Into a green tea.

AthiUtroHon with Exhaustefl Tea~Uuve».

At other times exhausted tea-leaves are treated with sulphate of
iron, catechu, and gum, to give them colour, ostringency, and gtotf,
and sold again as black tea, or, when coloured^ as green tea.

TEA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

The clicmical composition of a tea tlvus made up from exliausted
leaves^ t3 of course very diflTfrent from genuine and unused black teo,
as appears from the following analyses : —

Unused Black Tea,

By Frank.

By Phillipa,

Tannin

40-6

Lignin

46-8

Gum - - _

6-3

Gum - - -

5-9

Woody fibre -

4-1-8

Tannin

425

Glutinoua matter -

6-3

Albumen and co-

Volatile matter and

louring matter •

4-8

loss - - .

]00-0

1000

Genuine green tea contains about the same proportion of gum as
black.

Exhausted Slack Tea, re-dried and made vp tcith Gutn,

By Phillips.
Lignin - - . - 78-6 . 78*1

Gum ----- 15-5 - 20-5
Tannin and colouring matter 5-9 , - 1*4

100-0 100-0

"When the re-dritMl leave.v in addition to being made up with gum,
are artilioially coated or coloured, nearly the same different^es of eom-
poaition exi»t.

Contrasting the analyBcs of exhausted tea-leaves made up vr'ilh gum«
vith those of genuine teu, it will be seen that while the amount of
tannin in the I'onner ia very much reduced, the r[uuutity of liguiu,
and also of gum, is greatly increased.

The following observations in reference to the eroplovment of ex-
hausted tea-leaves, ore by Mr. George Phillips, of the Inland Revenue
Office: —

"In the year 1843, there were many coses of re-dried tea-lcavcs,
which were prosecuted witli vigour by this board, and the result was,
so far as we could ascertain at the time, the !iuppre:$siou of the trade.
It was supposed, in 1843, that there were eight manufactories for the
purpose of re-drying exhausted tea-leaves in London alone, and several
Desides in various parts of the country. The practice pursued was iia
follows ; — Persona were employed to buy up the cxnnustod leaves
at hotels, cofiee-housc!*, and other places, at '2^<I. and Ori. |>er pound.
These were taken to the factories, mixed with a solution of gum, nu<i
re-dried. After this, the dried leaves, if for black tea, were mixed
with rose pink and black-lead, to face them, as it is termed by the
tra<ie."

TEA, AKD ITS ADULTERATION^.

I
I

These fahricnted tea.s nrc seldoui sold alone to the public, but are
used for mixing with tlie riKtre genuine teas.

Adtd/fmtion wUh Foreign Leaces.

As illufltmting iLe adulteration of tea villi foreign leaves, the fol-
lowing case» may be cited : —

On ibe 18ib of December 1820, a seizure of spurious tea was made
by the Excise in Liverpool, on the premises of John Stevens, where a
regular mnnufnctory was carried on. Samples nf the articles seized
were presented to us by Dr. Muspratt and Mr^ Phillips of the Inland
Revenue. One of the samples consisted of a mixture of the entire
dried leaves of the sycaraure, and hnrse-cbcsnut. In another specimen
the leaves were so broken Ouwn that it was searculy possible to iden-
tify them without the aid of the niieroscoj>e. A third sample con-
sisted of large tumps of Irregular size and shape, fnnned of thtf broken
leaves, including even the stalks, agglutinated by means of catechu.
In another specimen these masses were broken down into smaller
masses or fragments, resembling tho^e of gunpowder tea. In this state
the article was ready cither for mixing with genuine black tofi, or for
being fflce<l, in imitation of green gunpowder ; lastly, otiier samples
were coloured with indigo.and very closely resembled the green gun-
powder tea of the Chinese.

In this case, then, we have not only the use of foreign and worthless
leaves, but these were forraetl into masses resembling those of Lie tea ;
and lastly these masses were artificially coloured after the manner of the
Chinese.

But seizures of adulterated tea of Briti.sh fabrication havf been
made even more recently than that above referred to. The Aillowing
account of proceedings of the Clerkenwell Police Court, is copied from
" The Times " of May. 1 85 1 : —

" Kdward South, and Louisa, his wife, were placed at the bar, before
Mr, Combe, charged by Mr. Inspector Brennan, of the G division,
with being concerned in the manufacture of spurious tea.

" It appeared from the statement of the inspector, that in conse-
quence of information that the prisoners and others were in the
habit of carrying on an extensive traffic in manufacturing spurious
tea on the premises situate at 27^. ClerkenwelUcIoiiie, Cterkenwell-
green, on Saturday evening, at about seven o*c]uck, the witness, io
company with Sergeant Cole, proceeded to the house, where they
found the prisoners in an apartment, busily engaged in the manufac-
ture of spurious tea. There was an extensive furnace, before which
was suspended an iron pan, containing sloe-leaves, and tea-leaves
which they were in the practice of purchasing from coflee-sbop keepers,
after being lued. On searching the place, they found on immense
quantity of used tea, bay-leaves, and every description of spurious
ingredients* for the purpose of manufacturing illicit tea, and they

TEA, AND 1TB ADTTLTEEATIONS.

were nilied with solution of gum and a quantity of copperas. Tlie
heal of the place was so excessive, that the officers could scarcely

F(f. 90.

La Vhxo Hiiro,
a «. frkcmeau of tlie nmafJt ^m rr> ; & h, MTtieka of gam cai<itku :
c I', cry^ott uiualljr pincnt iu mUcUti. MifnUlcd 3A0 dtunttm.

remain in it, but the prisoners did not seem at all oppressed by it.
The woman was employed in stirring about the bay>letLves and other
compositions with the solution of gum in the pan ; and in one part of
the room there waa a lar^e quuntity of spurious stuff, the exact
imit-ation of gtfnuine tea. In a back rw>ui tbcy found nearly 100 lb?,
weight of re-dried tea-leaves, bay-leaves, and sloe-Jeuves, all spread
on the door drying. The inspector told the prisoners that he was a
{}o1iceol^cer, and also un inland revenue ofhcer, and he must take
them into custody, together with the whole of the ingredients and
apparatus for makinf^ the spurious tea. Mj-. Brennan ftiliied that the
prisoners had pursued their nefarious traflic most extensively, and
were in the bal>iL of deattnrr largely with (jrocers, chandlers, and
others, especially in the counlry. llie various articles produced,
prior to their completion, had the most disgusting appearance, and
were evidently prejudicial t^ health. He had communicated with the
Excise authorities, who considered it a case of such importance to

TEA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS-

fhe puWic, tliat they requested the witbJrawal of the present char^,
in order that they might prosecute the prUonera uuder the Excite

F,K. 21.

ToB Cnam Botaxical Fuwhr.

a 8, tUrdnwrpo^clwef M*ea>;^*. ff«gn>w>t»ofcgfecAM;cg, fryiteZ*. Mifnllcd

810 diuiMten of Mme.

laws; being determined, if possible, to put a stop to such abominable
proceedings."

Before concluding the subject of the adulteration of tea, two
articles sometimes employed in its adulteration have to be noticed,
viz.. La Vena Benoy and Cliinese Botanical Powder.

Lit Vmn Beno is a coarse powder of a reddish-brown colour, and it
coQsista of between SO and 90 per cent, of catechu, and the remainder
of fra^cnts of sumach leaf.

It 19 rccoiuiiiended for its strengthening properties, especially for
strengthening the nerves and the voice, but above all for its economy ;
a threepenny packet, it is asserted, will go as far as a (juarter of a
pound of tes, with which it is rocoommended that it should be mixed.

The Chintie Botanical PoiLtfer^ is a preparation got up in imitation
of La Veno Beno, and is principally used for the same purpose*

TEA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

nDmclTt to mix with tea. It consists of catccha and whcut-flour. The
directions for its use are aa follows: — Take hulf n teiupuouful of the
]:K>wder, 1o two teuspKCinlTula uf tea, ami it will jiruduce (dO runs the
advertisement) a streriylh efjiial to foui' teaspoonfuis of tea.

Both these powders are very astringent, and (berefore their penornl
use in highly objectionable ; thej are, in fact, active medicinal prepara-
tions.

RUULTS OF TBB EXAMlHATIOlf or SaUPLBS A8 BOLD TO TBK

Pliilic, &c.

The results of (be inierosconical and chemical exunicatton of Bome
hundreds of »iiui|ilet< ol'tea tid iiu]<ortedf and as gold to the consumer,
in Ihia country, briellv summed up, are iis follows: —

That the j^eat bufk of the Slack teas used, as the Congous and
Souch'mj;*, are genuine.

Tbiit the Black tca5, known as Scented Coper, and Scented Orange
Pekoe, are invariably glazed or faced with piuiuhugot and soinctiiucs
with a little Prus»ian blue or indigo, turmeric, auU s^dphate o/litne^ or
China clay.

Further, that Scented Caper or Chuinn is often adulterated with
lAe tea, padtly^hmky and havei Mher than those of tea.

That xeceral varieties of a spurioyu Caper, or black Gnnpt>rcder^ are
prepared^ which consist of tea-dtut, and »nmetimej the diiKt of other
leapes, and sand., made up into little masses with ffum., and f^ced or
glazed with plumbago^ Frutsian blue, and turmeric- powder : in some
coses these imitations are sold separately, but most frequently they
are used to mix with and adulterate the better i|ualitiea of Caper —
viz. those which are made of tea faced with plumbago only.

With rc*|H?ct to Oreert tea the principal conclusions tire-
That these teas, with the exception of a few of British growth and
manufacture, from Assam, ore invariably adnlieratcd — -that is to aay,
■re g;lu7ed with colouring matters of dtfTcront kinds.

Thus in this country there is really no such thing as a green tea —
that is, a tea which poesesses a natural j^reen hue.

That the colnnritig ttiattem HJted are in eeneral Prusxinn hlWy indigo^,
turmeric •fMwder, snlphate of lime, and China clay, other ingredients
being sometimes but not frequently employed.

That green teas, arul more e/tpecirdly fne Guupoialers^ in atldition to
being faced andglazed^ are more subject to adulteration tii other ways
than black teas, excepting Caper, <u by admisture with leaves not those
ofteu^ wilh paddy-husk, and particularly icith Lie tea.

That Lie tea is prejjared mo ax to rraembie green tea, and u extemively
used by the Chinese themselves to adulterate Gunpowder tea ; it was also,
until recently, sent over to this country in vast riuantities, and wat
employed for the same purpose by our own tea-dealers and grocers.
It ts still sometimes met with, especially in mixed green teas.

TEA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Tliftt inferior samples of green lea» especially Twankay, arc not only
artificinlly coloured, but they also sometimes contain foreign leaves^
paddy 'husk^ and other foreign matters.

Thv above are the inort* mi|X)rtaDt conclusions as to tbe condition of
btark auvt «;rueii teas ut> iiu[.>ort«d, but tbtse articles undergo further
deterioration in our own country. Tbus it has been shown —

Thnt exhansted tea-leaves are sometimes made up with gum, &c., aitd
rfsnld to the puldic as genuine black tea, and, when artificially coloured
awl glazeji, even as green tea.

That the substances employed in the colouring are in many cases rery
much more objectionable and injurious than (hose used by the Chinese^
being sometimes highly poisonous.

That it is no uncommon thing for tea, both black and green, to be fa-
bricatedfrom various British leaves, leaves not those of tea, and possessit^
no properties in common with the leaves of that plant.

That black Chulan and Lie tea, when coloured, have been known to be
employed by our own dealers and grocers for the adulteration of green
tta.

Of the adulterations noticed, those practiced by tbe Chinese are of
course by far the most important, because they extend to a very con-
siderable portion of the tva consumed in this country; at the same
tioief the frauds resorted to by our own dealers must not be lost
sight of

It has thus been shown that tea is subject to a ktrge amonnt of
adulterutiou.

It is interesting to contrast the so-called f^een teas of China with
the green teas somutimes im|iorted from Assuiu, but, more particularly,
with the lea call ed Kumaon. Tbe dilTuiencc of appearance is Uitually
Tory great; the leaves of these feus are of a dull and yellowijib-^rreen
colour, 90 diflerent from tlie Chinese tciLs, tlmt they would sciircoly be
recognised by an ordinary observer as f;reen tea at all. This marked
diflercDce arisen from the fact that the Kumnnn and Eomctiiues (he
Assam teas are not usually coloured or gl»zed like the Chinese teas,
althougli the Assam are so nut unt're<{uently to some extent.

One beneficial retiult which hus folluwed from the publication of our
Report on the adulteration of tea in "The Lancet" and in the
authors work entitled *' Food and its Aflultcrations" may now be re-
ferred to; it is one which scarcely could have been anticipated.

ll appears that the Chinese themselves have within the last year or
90 begiin to give up the practice of colouring or glazing their green
teas. This is shown, first, by the fact that notunfreouently they now
send to this country chests of uncoloure<l green tea, the chestscontain-
ing it even bcine branded with the word " uncohniretl ; " and secondly,
by the improve*! appearance projiiented by many of those teas which
ore coloured or glazed, the pro|)oriion of colouring matters now used
bcin^ much less.

Uaculuurud gn:en teas arc even commonly advcrtiBed for sale : it

TEA, AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS.

should be known, however, that in many cases these are nothing more
than ordinary green tcoa, from which the colouring matter has been
reiuovuJ by nieona of steam.

Ok tue Detection of the Adultsbatioks op Ibx.

Tho detection of the adulterations of tea may be considered under

the four following heads : vir. the detection of forei^ leaves ; of the
various subatnncea emploj-cd for the facing or glazing of tea; of ex-
hausted tea-leaves; and of Lie tea.

On the Detection of Foreign leaves.

The teas in wbich foreifrn leaves are most WkiAy to be met with, are
those of low nuiUity; as Twaiikay, inferior Gunpowder, Cliulan, and
Lie tea; also in teas of British fabrication.

The leaves may occur in two stiites, either more or less entire, or
broken up into Irapnents which may be found either loose in the
(lust of tea, or che a<;;;lutinated by means of a solution of gum or
starch into mosses artificially coloured.

For the detecti(»n of foreign leaves a thorou^Ii acquaintance with
the tea-leaf itself is necesaiiry, its shape and various sixes, the vena-
tion of the cJgeft, the dii^tribution of the veins and lastly^ its micro-
scopical structure, embracing parliculurly the size of the cells,
stomato, &c. All these points are well delineated in the figures of the
tea-leaf already given.

In order lo facilitate the identification of any foreign leaves met
with, a knowledge is desirable of the characters of tbc leaves most
likely to be encountered. For this nurpose it will bo well to examine
carefully the engravings of foreign leaves actually detected in adulte-
rated tea contained Jn ihis work.

To discover foreiv'n leaves in a more or less entire state, the
tea should be infused in luit water for a few minutes, and all su.<tpiciotis
pieces unrolled ant] exaniine<l, and compnreil with the tea-leaf itself;
regard being had especially to the distribution of the veins, and the
edges of the leaves or portions of leaves.

To detect foreign leaves much broken up^ ns In Lie tea and in tea-
dustt the microscope must be resorted to ; if in Lie tea, the maai^es must
be disiutegrated by means of hot water, and the fragments torn up
with needles, and examined diligently and carefully with that Instni-
menL

On the Detection of Substances entering into the Facing of Tea,

As has already been stated, a rery great variety of substances is
employed in the facing of tea. Of these, some occur in teas of Chinese

:Aj akd IT8 Adulterations.

manuracttirc ; bat others — and those sometimes of a more injurious
character — liuve been met with in tea fabricated at home.

The principal ttubstanceit used by the Chinese arc, for preen tea,
Prussian blue^ indigo, turmeric, unci some white |)ow(ler, usuullv
Kaolin or Chiim oUv, but occasionally pypsum or sulphate of linio; and
for c<;rlain black te;ia, black-lea*!, as well as in some cases sioiUlyr quan-
tities of the pij^meiUs previously mentioned.

By the mixture of blue, yellnw, and white colours, green pigments
or dyes are produced of various tints.

The dcieetiun of all the substances referred to, is by no means dif-
ficult.

The first thin^ necessary is to ascertain whether the tea be really
artificially coloured or not.

For this purpose, if the leaves be coated to any considerable extent,
it will be sutHcient simply to view one or two of them, as opnrpie objects,
with a piiiss of one inch focus, when tho colourinj;^ nifitters entering
into (he comiK)5ition of the facing will be detected as minute specks or
particles, each rcflcctin" its nppropriute tint.

Another nicthwi of Ueiertitiiiinp the s:ime jioint is to scrape gently
the surlnce of two or three of rhe leiivea with ii [leiikiiife, when, if they
be faced, the colouring matters may be detect^fd in the {wwder thus
separated, viewed as an upiique object.

A third method is to place five or six leaves on a slip of glass,
moistening them with a few drops of water, and after the leaves have
became softened, firtnly fl<jueezin^ the water out between the finj^er
and thumb; thi^ will then be found to contain more or less of the
ingredients forming the fucinjr, shoubl such Imve been employed.

Or, should it be detiireU to obtain the results on n Urge scale, half
an ounce or so of the leaves may be iij^itated in a litde water for a few
minutes; this will <letuch much of the facing, without unfolding the
leaves, and after a time the facing will collect as a sediment at the
bottom of the vessf^l.

Laiitly, the tea-dust, more or less of which is present in nearly every
sample of tea, is usually found to contain the ingredient^} used in the
facing in considerable quantity, and from its examination satisfactory
results may in general be very readily obtained.

Having by one or other of the above processes determined whether
the sanifHe of tea be faceil, the next step is to ascertain the nature of
the iKubsfances used for this purpose.

Ferrocjfanide of iron or PruiAiau bluf. — The blue colouring matter
has generally Im^co found to be either Pru.ssian blue or indigo, but
most iVixjneiuly the former.

Fru.'isiaQ blue may lie recognised under the microscope by the an-
gular form of the fragments and by their brilliant and transparent
blue colour, but nioBt deciiiedly by the oclioti of liijuor poLasna;, wijich
cjuicLly destrovs the blue, turning the frogiuenls of u dull reddiah-
brown colour, the original colour being restored ou the addition of

TEA, AND ITS ADLLTERATIONS.

dilute sulphuric aciil. These reagents may be readily applied in verjr
minute quaiitiiios to the smallest fractions of Prussian olue visible in
tht field uf the microscrpe.

In geiicnd, the iileiitiliL-nlion of the Prussian 1jIu(% hy the inetinsjust
pointed (JuL, is Huni(:i(.-tit, but In some cOJHfa a more direct oheiuic&l
ftnalysis may bi^ required.

For this purpose the fnllowlng proceedinpt must be adopted^ which
applies equidly to indigo and any other pigment or atibstance with
which the tea may be glazed, ivnd which is required to be procured
in a gcpHmte state in considerable quantity.

An ounce or more of the tea is u* be ajjitated for several minutes
with warm water, the leaves Reparated by straining, and the liquid set
aside at rest fi»r some hours, until the colouring matters have com-
pletely aub.siiled. The^e nmy be olitftini-*<l by decantation, and after
wa.^hin<r m:Ly be dried in reuilineiw for analysts.

The fullnwiiig are the i^heniirol projjerties of ferrocyanideof iron, or
Pnissionbluer—U is insoluble in water, in alcohol, and in dilute acids.
Concentrated sulphuric acid ihrms with it a white pasty mans, from
which wjler u<:uiti separates it unaltered i nitric acid decomposes it ;
concentrated hydrochloric acid ultimately abstracts part of its iron;
sulphuretted hydrogen, iron and z'uif fdiiig.-', r-^nder it wliite, in conse-
quence of the abstraction of part of llie cyanogen. It is not de-
colourised by chlorine. The alkalies discharge its colour. (Jeetniipose it
into soluble ferrocyanidc», and oxide of iron, which is precipitated.

ludiffo. — ThisBubstanceisdistiriguidbcd undertlie microscope by the
irregular form of the particles, their granular texture, and ^reeiiish-
blue tint, but chiefly by the fact that the colour is not discbarged by
liquor potaesflB at ordinary temperatures.

The following are some of the more important chemical cbarncter-
istics and properlies of indigo : — It exhibits a coppery lustre on being
rubbeil with the nail ; it is not soluble in water, dilute acids, ether, or
alcohol ; it is not attacke<l by Iifpior potassa.' at ordinary lemjieratures,
but, distilknl therewith, it is decompo&etl and converted intoa yellowish
brown biiuidy aniline is formed^ as shown by the develujinjent of a
beautiful vioIet*blue colour on the addition of a sohition uf chloride
of lime. It is freely di.«solvcd by strong sulphuric acid, forming a deep
blue solution ; is bleached by chlorine : heated in a test tube, it sub-
limes in rich violet vapours.

Turmeric. — The only cert^n meana by which turmeric powder
when mixed with other articles can be discovered, is furnished by the
microscope. A description of (he minute structure of turmeric will be
given hereafter : in the meantime it will lie sufhcient to stale that tur-
meric may be at once identilied by means of the large yellow cells of
which it IS mainly cumposed, nnd the form of the starch granules
with which these are filled.

There are no chemical test.<( by which turmeric may be identified : it
becomes brown un (he addition of alkalies, in which respiict it com-

TKA, AND ITS ADnLTEIlATlONS. 99

porU itself like moat other Tcttotr vi^rr^ralile oolonrin^ inntt«rs: its
decoction lK»coincs much dnrkonol by iodine, showing the presence of
Blarch ; by this character, imJecil, turmeric niny in some cases be dU-
titiguishet) from certain other vegciable yellow pigments which do
not cnntain Btarch.

Bl>ick-lea(l. — Graphite, plumbago, or black lead, the substance »o
familiar to hniirtemaicU, contti»l8 of oarbon and ir<in, uJiuallv in the
proportion trf 1)5 per cent of the Inrnier to 5 ]>er cent of the hitter.

The jet-black glossy and meiallic apf>eariinre oftlim substance is so
characieriritic^ as to serre in nia^r coses for it.s iilentificaiion.

Apart from the evidence of the [ire^onee of thia substance afforded
by tfto eye alone, it may be detected in other ways.

If a thin slice be removed from llie surfjice of one of tlic leaves
faced with this (*iil>slaiioe, and placed under ihu riilera«ico[n», i( will be
eeen to be thickly studded with nunieroii-* riiimite black particles.

A^in, if one or Iwo teaspoonfuln ol lilmk-lcmli'd leu be infused in
boiling water, the liijuid, after « time, wil! in inmiy ciises, where the
quantity of farin;; is oon-*iiU'rahio, ar-fpiire a hlm-ki^ih hue, and on
evanorution, the bitttnin of the vessel containin;:; it will be found tu ex-
hibit the dark, nhininir. ami <harnctcn?tic coating of hlark-lenil.

Lastly, if a small tpiantiiy of it be weighed and ignited, the whole
of the carbon will be di^i^ipated, in or about the proportion of 95 per
cent., and the iron in the state of oxide will remain behind.

Chtwt Cloy^ or Knolin, is prepared from deciiyinir granite, and ts
the result of the disintegration and parllal decomposition of the feUpar
and mica of that mineral.

Talc or Mica occurs, as is well known, in laminatefl plates; it re-
fractA the light powerfully, and exhibits a considerable amount of
iridtfM:enoe. It eonsisiii of silicate of alumina, witli («rBilicate of
potjissu.

FtUpar resembles very closely mica in its composition, and i» com-
poscil of single equivalents of the neutial silicates of pota^ish and
aluntina.

If the whlio powder facing the tea consist of China clay, wc must
proceed iw follows to deierndite its nature : — A quantity of the tea dye
having lieen separated either by washing or by shaking some of the
teaal>oui in the dry ftJite, it mu^t be heated to redness; by this means
the turmeric and Prussian blue will lie destroye<l, and the white
powder obtained nearly pare, containing chiefly the iron derived
from the Prussian blue.

The powder muH be acted upon with very dilute hydrochloric
acid; the silica will remain undissolvi'd, but the alumina and oxide
of iron will be taken up, but are precipitated on the addition of am-
monia. Such an analysis as this is seMom required, as the determi-
nation of the exact composition of the white jxiwder used is rarely
necessary.

Sulphate of Lime. — The leavea of tea, especially those from Assam,

u 2

100

TEA, AND ITS AOrLTERATIONS.

are somelimDS dusted oi-er with sulpliate of lime, and this in aome
castis where no other onhiurlnn^ substance is employed.

Tills salt t«hon1d he dissolveil in wviik hydrncmdHc acid, the Holution
furthfi" diluted with waii?r;one part of tbt: 9i>lution must be lejited
with chloride of biiritiia for Miiphuni:aci(J, and the olhiir wiih oxalate
of nmmotiia for hine. It is not often, in the cnae of tea, :h»t this
analysis is required, any more thun that fur China clay or bluck-lead.

It now remains that the niethotls by which the Rcveral gubstance*
which have hen discnvereil, from lime to tiiiit*, entering into the facing
of tea of Ilritt^ll fahrieiition, shouhl be <'(ni?»idered.

Thf prineinal of those sulistanneHi are Duteh jmik, rose pink, logwood,
tnrmene, curlionaie of lime, carljooiue i>f ma;;nesia, steatite, soap-stone
or silicate of nin^nc^ia, chruinate ^>1' luai!, ihu cUromatea of potitsUf
ferrwyanide of iron, iudij^u, carbunate of copjivr, acetate of copper,
artenile of top|»or.

As carbonate, acetate, and arsenite of copper, uhromate of lead, and
the cKrouiates of potash, nre rarely nsed for the faoinp of tea, and as
the methods of detecting; these poisonous salts arc given under the ar-
ticles Sii<rar Confecttutiary and SitutT, It ia not neccttsary to introduce
them in this place.

The [trocesses for the detection of Pnissinn blue, imlin-o, anrl ttir-
nicrie, have nlready been given ; then' remiiids to describe, iherefore,
those only for the detertion of Dutch pink, rose pirik, logwood, the
<;arboniUes of lime and mu-ineMji, wnd French chtdk or nonp-slone.

Dntch Pink. — Although called Dutch phik^ this ?ubstance is of a
brijjht yfllow colour; it cou'iists of a vegetable dye in cmnhination
with chalk or oarhnnntc of lime. It is the yellow pigment most fre-
quently used in this country in the fucinf: of spurious green tea.

For its detection the folluwloj^ method shauhl be pursued;^ An
alkali should first be apjilied t<i thi: yellow dye, in order to determine, in
the first place, whether it be vt'^jetable or not: if it turn brown, there
is no doubt about its Vfjfetuhle clmrHcter In the next place, ii minute
portion of itshould he ex:iiuined under the microscope, with the view
of ascertaining whether it is tunneric or not: if the celh of lurmeric
are not visible, and if it effervesce with on acid, there is no doubt that
the dye is vej»etable. and inosi probably Dutch pink.

Rote Pitik and Loetcooil. — Uose pink consists of the colouring
matter of logwood in cnmbination wi(h carhoiiate nf lime. An in-
fusion of the wood is hrst prepared throuLih which the liiijoi^ diffused,
and this in subaitling carries down with it tin- coloiirin^r matler.

This pigment is distin^'uiihed by the action ofncidji which intensify *
its reil colour, and of alkalies whicli turn U brown, as well as by the
presence of carl)onate of lime or ciudk.

Kxtraet of logwood, Dr. Normandy states, ia sonictimcs used in the
adulteration of teas represented jls Souchong and Pekoe.

'iliifi luay be detected by moistuuing a few uf the leaves with water,

TEA,

AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

101

and rubbing them uj)on a piece of white papor, which, if logwood is
proficitt^ will be stainod bluisb-hlai*k. Moreover, a Tew drops ot'suU
pbuiiv acid added to a concentrated infusion of the tea cause it to
turn red.

Citrbonnte of Zime or Chalk. — If on the addition of an acid the

?articli's uf white jiowder etfL-rveace, it most probably conaiots of chalk,
n order to reiidcr the detcrininntinn ii mutter of certainty, however,
the powder niubt be dissolved in weak hydruchluric aeid, und the lime
prveipituted by lueuiis of u^ulule of ammoniu : ibis reairenl does not
precipitate luaguesia, shuuM that ulkuliijie earth hjipjwn lo be in
•olulton.

Carbonate of Magnesia. — T!ie powder must first be dissolved in
dilute hydrochloric acid, the solution treated with chloride of ommci-
nium^ and ummonia iidded in sili^ht excess ; the iun^nesi:i i>j then pre-
eipititted by means of phosphate of soda ; the precipitate uiusl bo
collncted and eonvtfried into the pyrophosphate by ignition, from
which the carbonate of magnesia is ealculnted. Should lime altto be
present, tliis must first be removed by means of oxahite uf ainuionia.

French Chidby Soap'Htone^ or Silicate of Magnejtia. — The indigo or
Prussian blue and turmeric having been destroyed by ignition, the
residuary powder is to Itc treated with dilute hydrochloric acid ; the
magncitia will be diKsolved, but nut the silicic arid. The magnesia
may tlicn be precipitated us bclbre, care being taken to remove ihe
lime should any be presentf and the sUicic acid ignited and weighed.

On the Detection of Exhausted and lie-dried Tea-leaves.

KxhauHtod tea-leaves occur in two forms. Usually they are made
up in iiiiiuitiou of blutk lea, but oceasiunully of •^reen ulso : the
detection is easier in the former than in the latter ease. In the ease
of bluck lea the imitation can ollyn be detected by the eye alone, but
in other cases a cbt^mical analysis of the leaves is uecest^ary.

One ehiiracter by which the re-dried leaves nmy be known, is the fold
or roll of tlie leaves: this is less rtHrulnr anil uniform than that of
uniued tea, the surfaces being agglutinated together, and many flat
piece* nf leaves occur.

Another character is the glossy appearance presented by the leaves,
due to the gum with which they are almost constantly made up. By the
roUortwi*it of the leaves, and by ihe glossy appearance presented by
tbeni, re-drietl tea may in general he easily recogniset! ; but when
a chemical analysis is requisite, the following pro<reeding must be
odopted. The \wt centago of tannin, of gum, and of wmxlr fibre must
be lietermined : if the leaves be really exhausted there will be a great
deficiency of tannin, and an excess of woody libreand especially of gum.

In genuine and unused tea, according to the quulity, the tunnin bus
beenuscertained to vary from 30-0 to 450 |>er cent in the ease ufsuj>erior
teas ; in used tea to range I'rom 7"J to 07 per cent ; or the tea may even

H 3

103

TKA, AND ITS ADULTERATIOK8.

be completely exhausted of its tannin. Tbepum ranges from 6"31o 59
per cent, in the one 0U5e, unfl inun 20"5 to 1 1"G |)er cent in the other.
LnHtiT, the wooiiy fibre in unused tea varies from 448 to 4G'y» and in
exhausted tea from 9*2 8 to 7*2 !> j^cr cunt. The process for rleterniining
the aniuiint.s oftnnnin, gum, fin<l insoluble residue or woody tibre, will
be found deaeribed at p. Q8. Green ten iiaualljr' euntams About the same
proportion of gum as black tea, but leas tunniu.

AnalytiK of Oreen Teoy by Mr. Phillips.

Ligniu

iJiini -

Tannin anJ alhuraen -

Colounn>! maiLur

55-3
5-4

371
2-2

1000

nut other matters are noroetituea tnliled to exhausted tea-leaves
besides g:uin, as catechu and sulphate of iron, in order to moke up for
the deficiency of lannin,

Detet'tion jtf Cntechu. — Catechu consists in preat purl of tannin :
tlierc will be -.'round Uiv behevin;! thnt (Ijia Mib^tauce has beeuiMnpluyed
if, on imulysiii, both tlie;;uni and tannin are in excess ; for the one is not
likely to be einplnyed without the other. The presence of ciileelm
may olito be iut'errcd when, there being no excess of gum, the tauuiu
is itself greatly in excess.

A certain rourrhness and astringency in the tea is likewise indicative
of the jiresenee of caleidiu.

When a siilmii>ii of sulphate of iron ta broupht into contact with a
solution ctf tannin or one of tea which contains a large amount of
tannin, the liijuid becomes deeply coloured ; and it is on Uiis uccount
that the sulphate of iron is sometimes added to exhausted tea-leaves,
to give an ajipeuronce of strength.

Dftrvliun tif fyu([ihate nf Iron. —If the infusion mnde from the ex-
hausted ten present u ceriiiin darkness of npjicurancc, the presence of
sulphate of iron niny be suspected ; if on nddin^^ ii little tincture of gallfl
the colour is heiphtciuMl. but litlk' doubt reujsiins. Lastly, it" necessary,
whieh is but bchhim the case, — the iurintiun uf ihc leaves uuiy b€
analysed J'or Kul[>huri<; acid, ami llie ash of the evaporated infusion
for iron, b<'th of which must be determined ijUJtntitntivcly. The sul-
phuric acid must be thrown «K»wn by inenns of clilnritle of barium or
nitrate of baryta, the precipitate wei^jhcd^ and the quantity of
sulphuric acid calculated ironi it. It should be remember^.-*! that tea
naturally t^ontains a ^nli1]l quantity of sulphuric acid, uhielly in the
combined state, derived ]>artlv from the leaves, but principiuly frum
the water used in making the uifusion.

The presence uf iron may be determined by means of tincture uf galls,
M already noticed, or uf lerrocyanide of potassium, which gives a blue

TEA, Aia> ITS ADULTERATIONS.

103

precipitate of ferrocyanide of iron or Prussian blue. The quantity of
iron coiiUined in the tea umy hii (Ihib asiigrtaiiieil : — A (ino4 aiul
weighed jmh tion oftlie teu is inciniTiiieU : if iiiut'h Iruu is pre&iiiit.tliu ash
will be coloured more or loss with the red oxide of that metal. The ash
is next boiled with dilute bydroehloric acid : this take* up the iron and
Alumina, and pho^iphutos, which are nguin precifiitated on thi- atlilition
of excess of ammonia: the precipitate must b« collected, ignited, and
weighed. Iron is usually dctcruiined in combination with alumina, and
the phosphates occurring in tea are in general not so large as lu affect
inateriully the accuiw:y of the result, Thu phoi^phateti may however
he removed previous to the precipitntion of the iron and alumina, by
digesting the ash of the incinerated tea in an exceedingly weak solu-
tion of hyilrochloric ncid, — su weak that it will not affect the iron and
alumina. For further details refer to p. I*i9.

When exhausted ton-leaves have been faced, and so converted into
an imilaiinn of greeci tea, the deteclinn of the fraud by the eye alone
is more difljeult than in the ca^e of black tea, as, ulthou^li we have btill
the irregular form of thu leaves, we have not the uiiuaturul gloss to
guide us. In this case, therefore, we must resort to chemiuiil analysis.

Exhausted tea-leaves are of course not only deficient in tunnin, but
likewise in iheine; in some eases, therefore, it may be desirable to de-
termine the amount of that important constituent of tea present, which
may be done by following one or other of the proceobcs described ftl

On the Detection of Lie Tea.

The detection of Lie tea is by no means difficult : In some cases
it may be diiicriminaie<l by the in*cgularity in the lorin of the particles
or masses, and by their increased weight owing to the sand wbtch they
contain.

Before pronouncing an opinion as to the nature of any sample, it
is however in all cases necessary to act on the masses with hot w»ler.
When hot water is applied to genuine tea, the masses quickly unfold
and expand into leaves or portions of leaves; when to Lie tea, they
break down and become disinteLrntted ; no leaf appearing, and the
residue is heavy, gritty, and dirty-h)oking. Again, if one of the
masses be placed between the teeth it feds gritty.

But since Lie tea often occurs, us already stated, mixed with other
teas, it is necessary to lrx>k them well over and lo pick out all the
masses which present a suspicious appearance, and to treat them with
hot water.

Having ascertained that the tea under examination consists either
entirely or in part of Lie tea, it becomes necessary, in those cases in
which we desire to carry the analysis further, lo very carefully
examine the leaf-dust, which the masses always contain, with the nii-
crosco{}e, iu order to determine whether any foreign leufdust be
present.

n 4

lOi

TEA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Ash of Genuine Tea.

Gunpowder
Kemuoii H^son

Scented Caper

5-0

€0

Lastly, in some oases we may desire to know the per-centajjeof sand
which niay be present. For IUjs purpose a weiglied portion of the
tea must be incineralcd, and the ash weighed. Genuine tea fur-
nishes oil an average about 5 per cent of aab, and Lie tea oa much in
some cases as 50 per cent

The following results were obtained by Mr, Warinf^ton from
the incineration of a variety of teas. They will be fouud useful for the
purpose of comparison : —

Ath of Lie Tea, or Tfa aduUeratfd

with Lie Tea.

Lie Guni>owder No. 1. - 45*5

No. 2. - 34*0

Lie flower Caper - - 37"5

Mixtures containing these f 11*0

Lie teas - - \l'15

In Lie tea of British fabrication the leaves are almost always foreign,
and the mrts**fl rarely rnntnin satirl.

For the detemiiimtiftn of tlie nature of the substances employed in
the facing of Lie tea when rhi>sc liave been used, reference should
be made to tlie remark:^ coininoucin^ on p. 96.

In consciiucnce of the war, a retrograde step in the duty was
enacte<l, and it stands at U. 9J. per lb. until the 5th of AprlU 1857 ;
after that day it will b« U. W. until 5th April, 185S. Xhoncefor-
wanl \». per lb.

Home consumption 1854, 61,970,341 lbs. Duty U. 6rf. after 5th
April of that year.

In 1855, (>3,454,035 lbs. Duty 1<. Orf.

First 9 months of 1856, 48,0H3,784 lbs., which is a slight diminution,
the consumpiion for ihe same 9 months of 18:55 being 48J40,'}88 lbs.

The followiii;; tjuestion, and autiwer by Mr. George Phillips, will
serve as an illustration of the gross ignorance of the Excise, even in
regard to the adulteration of tlie few articles of consumpiion under its
supervision.

Air. Mnffatt. " Is it within your experience that no poisonous sub-
stance is ustnl in the facing nf tea at the present lime?

Jiephj. " It is po.^sible there might be some samples found now
coloured with Prussian hluc ; but / hove not seen any ti/vfielf.''^

Now let the reader remeiBU;r that all the green teas m this country
are artificially coloured, and ibut one of the sulistanct's used is in
ninety-nine out of q hundred case.* Prussian blue, and he will have
some notion of the ignorance and incompetence of the Excise.

Again, it appears by the returns jtlaced iK'fore the Committee by
Mr. George Phillips, that in twelve year.f the Kxcitse, with its 70
chemists and 4000 inspectors, examined only — and this in a very
superficial way — 142 samples out of 900,000, the number of packages
imported.

COFFEE; AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

105

II h

^^ in I

COFFEE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Tub bererage coflTee consuU of an infusion in Loiliog water of the
roAsted sc«^l9 of a plant which htm ri'L-eivcl tin? Hutunical name of
Coffta Arahtcn^ find which is said to be indi-^f luma fn certain dislricU
of Southern Abyssinia^ where it j;rows, with the profusion of a wild
weed, iner the rucky surface of ihc country.

Id AbyssiniJiT coffee has been in use from lime immemorial ; in
Persia it wa* in use as early as 875 ; it was iiitrnducLd into Arabia
about the fifteenth century; nnd about the luiUille oT the sixtefnth
Cftnturv it began to be employed iii Omstantinoplo ; white we learn,
on the authority of Professur Johnston, it wiu nnt iintU llie latter
" alf of the seventeenth century that it made it^ way into Europe,
first iuto London, and some yciu-s i<ubt$e(}uently to Marseilles.

In Johnston's "Chemistry of Common Life" we meet with Ibefol*
towing description of the cofi'ee plant or tree: —

The coflee tree, when in good health and full grown^ attains a
height in some countries not exceeding ei^dit or ten feel, but in others
averaging from fifteen to twenty feet. It is covered with a daric,
smooth, shining, and evergreen foliajje. It is sown in nurseries,
transplanted when about six months ohi, in three years conies into
full 1>euring, and in favourable circumscunces will continue to bear
fur twenty years. It delights in a dry S'lil and n warm situation; its
flowers are pale, white, fragrant, and rapidly fading; its fruit lilce
that of the cherry tree, but it grows iu clusters ; wiihin the fruit are
the seeds or berries. On dry antl elevated pai'ts the berries are
smuller and have a better Bavour, but berries of all sizes improve in
flavour or rrptfii by tceeping. The small berries of Arabia will ripen
in three yeans; but the worst coffee produced in America will in from
to fourteen years become * as good, nod acquire us high a flavour,

the best we now luive from Turkey.' " — EUi».

The seeds, improperly culled berries, of Arabian or Mocha colFee are
small, and of a dark yellow colour; tliot^e of Java, and East Indian
arc larger, and of a puler yellow ; while those of Ceylon, West Indian,
and llrazilian coffee possess a bluish or greenish-grey tint.

The dried fruits or berries are rarely imported : occasionally, how-
ever, the seeds contained in their endocarp or husks are met with in
comiuerce.

Recently the very important fact has been made known that
the leaves possess, to a certain extent, the com|)osition as well as
many of the properties of tlie seeds, and hence their Inlroduc-
liuii into this country has been proposed. It appears that a beverage
umdi! from roasted cofl'ee-leaves hoA long been used in the Eaateni
Archipelago, esncclally iu Sumatra.

Mr. Ward, wlio hia been many years settled in Sumatra, stateftj^

lOfi

COFFEE, ANT> ITS ADULTKRATIONS.

"As a beverage the natives universally prefer the leaf to the berry,
giving as u reason tliat it contain:^ more of tlie bitter principle^ rtkI is
more nutritioua. In tlie lowlands, tolFee Js nuL ptuntcd for llie berrv»
not bein^ sufficiently productive, but Ibr tine leuf; the yjeople plant
it roiina their houses for their own use. It is an undoubted fact,
that everywhere they prefer the leaf to the berry." *

Chcpuad Composition and Properties of the Coffee Seed.

The foUowing quantitative analyses of coffee are by Schrader and
Pajen ; f —

Rate Coffee.

Roasted Coffee

Schrnder.

Sch roller.

Pcouliftp cflffeio prin-

CafTeic ]iriuciple -

12'50

ciple

17-58

Extractive

4.80

Gununjr and mu-

(jum umi muciliLgu

10-42

cilaginous extract

364

Oil and resin

208

ExlrMctive

0-62

vSulid residue

68-75

Resin

0-41

Loss

1-45

Fatty oil -

05t2

Stdid residue

66-66

100-00

Loss water

1057

100 00

Payent Analysis of Raw Coffee.X
Celiidose ...--- 34-000

Water hygroscopic ----- 12*000

Fatty substances - - - - - 10 to 13000

Glucose, dextrine, and undetermined vegetable acid - 15'J00

Legumine, easeine (glutine) P ... 10*000

Chiomgenate (eaflesite) uf potash, and caffeine - - 35 lo 5*000

Nitrogenous substance ----- 3*000

Free caffeine - .... - 0*800

Concrete ewential oil - - - - - 0 001

Aromatic fluid, essential oil - - - - 0002

Mineral substances ----- 6*097

Acconling to Messrs. Graliam, Stenhouse» and Campbell, raw coffee
contains as much as from fi to 7 per cent of cane sugar ; this is cither
entirely destroyed by the roasting, or it rarely exceeds 1*12 per cent.

According to the same authorities, the nitrogen In roasted coffee
lies between 2^ and 3 per cent.

The following analyses of the €uh of coffee are by Messrs. Graham
and Slenhouse : § —

* rhannarruttrfti Journnl, rol. vlll. p.m.

f ChemlcA! Ouvttc. vol ir. p. U.. mi?. X Ibid.

( Chomtotl Itqxirt oo tb« mode of detecting VegeUble SulMtaocet mixed with Coflbe.

COFFEE, A>D ITS ADULTEBATI0N8,

Analytes oftXt AmH of Coffee.

lo;

turn

j»^

Klra.

Umcbt.

■fctrr,.

PMa»b -

6*- 10

&i.7U

i4-00

M30

M^«

51 -M

U-M

ScnU

UlM

4 10

4-aii

4 11

4r,|

610

6-M7

ft-6B

M«tDeda •

i-«

H-46

»«0

8-66

frW

RH7

a-49

8«fqgloxkla ot Iron

0«

0-W

073

0*63

044

U-44

0^1

Sulphuric add

S1i8

4 '45

S49

a-fti

lin

ffMi

a-iB

rhii.ilne -

) II

0<IS

O^ii

1 (JO

072

0-.W

OiSO

CirlKMllL- «rtd

I7'4r

1&93

IHU

16M

IBM

I6-9S

M-9S

Phoaphurk-acU -

lO-M

LI13U

1106

I0«0

11-13

W-I.'i

10-B&

Silk»

.,-•,

—

&«n.t

—

lotrfis

Kwao

W-97

W06

100- w

ViJBh

IOO<t4

The chief peculiarities of the composition of the aih of coffee, are
the absence of soda anil the itinall i|uiinrity of silica present : thia, in-
deed, is so small as to reii<lcr it ilouhtful whether it cnntains any but
that vbich is sccirlenfally ndlierent to ihv; bcnrie?. Contrastetl with
the ash of chicory, Bcvt-ral other jicc'iilinrilie> prosont thcinfldves, such
A3 the small quantity of t'hh»rine iind *»f se^iiuloxide of iron, and the
lariie quantity of carbonic acid coniaiiicd lit ihc ash of cufTee.

'rhe three most important cunstiluciits nf tlie cofluc-bcrry arc, the
ToUUiU oily called caffeotte; the coffric acid, uiiulogous to tlic tannin
of tea ; and the cafftxne^ idfuticol with tbc thclne of tea. AVc &huH make
ft, few observations on each of these constituents.

The properties of coffee seetl are mucli nllt-rcd by roasting : the
principal products of torrefaciion are a bniwn bitter principle^ de-
rived principally from tlic conversion of the sugar into carninel, and
tht arumatic oil, called aiff'eane.

The propertica of the infusion of the roasted coffe« seeds are thus
summed up by Pereira: —

** Rousted coffee posKcsses powerfully anti-»oporific properties :
hence its use as a drink by thoitc who <le!<irc nm*turnal study, and
■8 an antidote to counteract the effects of opium and other naicotics,
and to relieve intoxication. Jn thoiie unaccustomed to its use, it is
apt lo occasion thirst and constipiition. On some persons it acts aa a
sfiffht purgative. It is occasionally useful in relieving headache, es-
pecially the form callefl nen'ous. It has also been employed ^as a
febrifuge in interniittcnts, as n stomftchiu in someformsof dys|H'^i8ia and
B» a stimulant to the cerebro-spinttl system in some nervtius diMirdera.
Fliiyer, Dr. Pcrcival, and others have used it in spasmoilic asibma ;
and Luenncc !«iiy8, ' I have myself seen ^everal cases in which coffee
was really useful. The immoderate use of coffee is said to produce
Denrous symptoms, such as uixieCy, tremor, disordered vision, palpita-

COFFEE, AXB ITS ADULTEHATION'S.

tian and feverisbness." * Cofie*; is also supposed to counteract the
tendonrjr to the rormation ofgrarel and stone.

The propertiefl nnd effecta of coffee are lUud described by Profesaor
Johnitton : —

*' Ir exhilarates, arouses, and keeps awake ; it counteracts the stupor
occavioiied by fuligue, by disvasc, or by opium ; it allnys hunjrt?r to a
certain extent, jjives to the weary increased slren^rth and vi-jnur, and
imparts a feeling of comtbrt and repose. Its physiological eflects ujxjn
the system, so far as tbpy have been investi^'iUtf!, njjpear to be. that
while it ninkes the brain more active, it Honthes the budy gonerally,
makes the t'Uan;;e nnd vraato of iuatti;r alower, and the deuiand for
food in consei[ueiiru It-M. All those elTects it owes to the conjoined
action uf three ingredients very .siniihir U) those containe<I in tea."

WluMi rousted cofltje is di&tilled with water, the volatile urtmuitic oil
or cafffoue pusses over, and by drinking the oil and water together
its enects may be ascertnined.

When the quantity of oil obtained from two ounces of coffee was
taken in a day, it was found In protluce an agreeable exeitement mid
ffcntle perspiration, to dispell the sensjiiioTi of hunger, and to imive thu
bowels. **In its exhihiraiin-r nclion upon tht? brain, it affVuls the iuia-ji-
nation less than the reasoning powers." — Johaton,

When the dose of oil was doubleil, violent perspiration comes on,
with sleejile^sness and symptoms of eongettion.

Lehmann, by a series of careful obeervationg and experiments on the
urine, ascertained that it exercised an etfcct eiiual to that of cuffeine
in retarding the waste of the tissues.

The raw cotfce seeds contain al)out 5 per cent, of an astringent acid,
— the caffeic or caflcn- tannic, — which diflt'rs from ordinary tannic acid
in that it docs not blacken a solution of iron, as the iril'ii.'iiun uf tea
does, but renders it jjreen, and does not precipitate j^eUiiiie from its
solution. This acid, although changed somewhat by the roasting, yet
retains to some extent iljt a^rringent properties. " Chemists gcneraUy
are disposed to refer the tlavour and peculiar propt-rties of coffee as a
beverage more to its acid — the ctijfeic acid {particularly after that
substance is modified in it.i properties by roasting) thao any other
constituent." — Gruhnm and St/nihouM,

Caffeic ncid. like the acid of the cinchona barks — kinic acid, yields
kinone when the syrupy exira'*t of coffee is mixed in a retort with
about four times its weight of binoxiile of maniranese and one pint of
sulphuric acid, diluted with an equal quantity of water, and the
mixture ia subjpcteil to di'itillation. The Kinone passes over into the
receiver in the form of yellow crystal;*, which mlhere to the neck and
aides of the retort, as well as a bright yellow liquid containing kinone
with much formic acid. Kinone is distinjruishedl by its volatility and
acrid oduur, resembling that of chlorine. AVitb mumonJa thesoiutionof

• Mstoria Medtcs. vol tt. p. tecA , ml ediuon.

COFFEE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

109

kinnne gives a sepia black ooloar, converted into reddish-brown by
»ul|itiurf:tted b^dro^ou. It is dischar^l br sulphurous acid.

Tbc ftxtriiigent acid in coifee is muuh losi< itiun in tea, and hence it
docrt not retard, to the same extent, tbc uctiun of the bowels, especially
wl«in ill* ofieration i» counteracted by the volatile urumatic oil, whica
txerts an fl(>crient tendency.

Caffeine is a weak nlkuloid of a white colour, crystflllises in long
«ilky needles, fusible, volatile, and suluble in water, alcohol, and ether.
llj aqueous wlutiun is precipitated by tannic acid.

The pro[»orliun of caHeine obtained in fivu cxperiiueiits, in it de by
Me^tfrv. Grabtun and SteiUiouse, upon dilferent samples ofcolTeei was

follows : —

Caffeine in Haw Coffee.
Native Ceylon

Plantation Ceylon

0-80
0-80
101
034
0-83

■ Tlic proportion of the annlogons principle in tea — thcine — is usually

H over *i per cent; ihat ifl, tea contains (in the average fully twice as
H much of this alkaloid as coflce.

H •* By rubbing common roasted coffee in a mortar, with a fifth of its

V weight of ftloked liiue, and then boiling llie tiiixlure in alcohol,
about J per cent of theine may be readily extracted. Weight for
weijibl, iLercfore^ tea yields about twice at nmeh theine as roa&(ed
ei>fiee does to the water in which it is infused. Rut as we generally
vte a greater weight of eoHee than we do of t^-a in prcpjrin;^ our
beTcragvs, a cup of coflee of ordinary stren^rt^h will probal>ly contain
lu much theine as a cup of nnlinary Englisli tcA. A cup of ntrong
French coffee will contain twice as much caffeine as a cup of weak
French tr-a." — Johnston*

■ The action of cafll-ine is nearly identical with that of theine, the

crperation of which on the system bos already been described,
rtde p. 7fl., rt srrfintiir.

We meet with, in Pereira'a " Materia M«*dicfi,'*t th*-* following olwer-

I rations in relation to the properties of cafffinc : —
** Mulder gave a grain of it to a rabbit; the animal ale but little the
next d.ny, and alwrted the day atTer. Liebig has suggested that it
probably contributes to the formation of taurine, the nitrogenised
constituent of bile. Acconlingto Lehmann{,oatreine in doses of from
2 to 10 grains causes violent excitement of the vascular and nervous
systems — palpitations of the heart; extraordinary frequency, irregu-
larity, and oucn intermission, of pulse ; oppression of the chesty polos

• Chomlitry of ComiDon Lffr. p. MB.
t Vol. li. p. ItWj Ard ittltinn.
t PliytivtuificBl Cfbcmiitrr, troniUtcd by D. Dar, red. i p. 136. CavrndUh S0CU171 ■*&!•

COFFEE, AND ITS ADULTEEATIOKS.

'm the bend, confusion of the senses, sinking in the etra, sninlUlations
before the eyes, sleeplessness, fliui delimim. Fri nil cases mn augiuen-
tatioii was found ui the ani'tuiit of ureft weorelod."

Extraction of Caffeine. — The follnwin;; is the process adopted for
the extraction of caffeine by Messrs. Graham and Sfenhousc : —

The raw coflee was pround fine, havinjr been previously well dried
at 212" F. to I'ucililAte thmt operation. A decoction was then mmleof
1000 grains, by the repeiitcil application of boil in;; water, so as to ex*
haust the rofice of all Holtible matter. The t'oliition was concentrated
a little by evaporation. The acid uf the coffet? and certain other sub-
stances were now entirely precipitated by the addition, 6r»t, of the
neutral acetate of lead, and then of the subacetate of lead. These in-
soluble nistters were removeti from thi- liipiid by filtration. The excess
of lead in solution was then thrown down by means of hydrosulphuric
acid. The lit^uid, after this preparation, was evaporated to drynes*, and
the drv niatier left wns exhai]<cied by means of strong spirits of wina
CSp, Gr. 0'840). Tlie iilcolinlic solution was concentrated bv evapo-
ration, and iillowcd to stand in ii nearly syrupy state for about tea
days, in order to cry!«tnllise. The crystals, which are caffeine, were
collected upon a sniiiU filter, and compressed j>owi'rfully to remove
the mother liquor. These crystals were re-dis«olved in a small quan-
tity of water; the Roliition evaporated and crystallised anew. It?xve
nImoHt nothing but cafl'eine, in long silky white needlcSf witli little or
no rolour.

"Wbc-n it ia merely desired to extract cnfleine from raw or roasted
coQce witiioui resanl to ({uantily, the general pr<M'ess for the extrac-
tion of organic bases, by means of ether, sutfiees. Lime is adde<l to
the infusion of coffee, which is then evaporated to dryness uptm i
wat«r-bath. The extract may be divi(U*d by means of clean rood,
and then agitsted with ether. The caffeine crystallises as the ether
evanoruteSf or it may l>c rc-dissolved in water, and crystallised afraiit.
"We believe," write Mosj^rs. Graham and Stenhoune, " that the catTeine
fromlOpercent. of cofftre in a uiixturc might bo extracted, in sufficient
quantity for its identification, bv the preceding simple proces.
Oaffeinef when once obtainefl, is fully recognised by its easy sublima*
tion, and also by its action with nitric acid, in which it resemblei
uric acid. When the solution of caffeine in niinc acid is evapfu'ated
to dryness, and exposed to ammoniacal gas, it is covered by a pink
blush, likt^ murcxiile.**

The coffee seed likewise contains about 13 per cent, ofglt^en^ which,
being for the luo^t part in<tolub1e in boiling water, is contained in ike
coffee grounds. In some countries the grounds are drauk as well as
the coffee.

The following analyses show the comparative and average
position of the unroasted coffee-berry and the tea4eaf, ai imported
into Europe : —

COFFEE, AND ITS ADDLTERATIONS.

Tea,

Coffee

Mulder.

Payeu

Water

1-2

Gum andflugar

15*

Gluten

2fi

Theine

Fat and volatile oil

Tannic acid -

Woody fibre

Ash

]()0

100

The quantity of coffee exhraotive oblaintnl from the cofTee seed by
Iter, differ* Tcry much in differerit sampii-s, — a ibfferL'noe not ex-
plwned by tlie extent of roasting of the »eeda. The addition of an
alkali — ai soda — to the water, incrcoaea the auionnt of extract, and
a itrongcr inAuion.

Structure of the Coffee Seed.
Two parts are tobediseriniinated in tht; coffee- berry — the substance
the berrv, and the testa, or investment by vrhieh it is surrounded.
The herry^ previous to roasting, and even after it hiu been aoaked
a lon^ tiroe in water, t!( hard and tough, in which reitpect it dillera
1 all tbc>«c substimcea which enter itito the adullcr^lion of coffee,
which become suftenLil by immersion in cold water, the hardness
retained subsequently to tlie cburrinrr, and \-a 80 great, that by
ebaracter alone the fra^nents of the [ground and roasted coffee-
may be readily distinguished from tnose of cbieury.
cxmsisU of an asftemblaze of vesicles or cells of an tinffvlar form,
b adhere ao firmly together tli.-it iher break up into piWes rather
■eparate into distinct and jierfet-t ceils. The {*avilies of the cells
ude, in the form of liitle diopn, a considerable ipiantity of aromatic
latile oil, on the presence of which the frajjrance iind many of the
five priociplefl of the berry mainly depend. Fig. 2i.

c Uitn^ or investing menibnuie, presents a structure very distinct
that of the sulistanc>4 of the berry itself, and when once seen it
be confounded with any other tissue which has vet been ob-
entering into the adulteration of coffee : it is made up princi*
Itv of elongated and adherent cell*, forming a singii.' layer, and
Ting oblique markings upon their surfaceii ; these cells rest upon
otl>er thin membrane which presents an iudidtinct fibrous Ktructure.
cen the berry and its covering some essential oil is generally
I. Fi^. 23.

The quantity of this membrane present in a broken and divitletl
in any lample affords, therefore, some clue to tlie atuouut of
oootained in it.

ret)

112

COFFEE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS,

It has been proposed to deprive the berry of this mcinbnine, and a
patient luis uetually been taken out Ibr tiiis purpose — a process of

Ar.*s>.

BeetloD of UxxoastU) CorrKB Biikt. ahoirini the dH naA Airra of
Iha cell*, k* wll u th« drop* at oil ouoUlittd wilhin thtir ekvt-
Um. Dnwn wiUi tiw C«nwra Lucid^, uid nutgnUkd 140 dU-

somewbat doubtful utttUy, because tbo removal of this tissue cannot
be eflVclcil withrmt the loss of the greater part of the essential oil
Ivinff between it and (he berrjr, and usually udlicrent to the former.
In the act of roasting, however, more or less of ilii.H membrane ht-
comes uparated from the berry, when it h termed by the roasten
•• flighu/"

In the c>*'>"ve which runs alonp each berry, a few small vessels^ each
formed of n stnglu and continuous spiral thread, are usually to be met
with ; it is impossible, however, to eonfoHnd these with the tJuct« here-
after to be described, and which occur in certain other vegetable
tissues.

Now tlic roasting of the berry does not tdtcr its structure ; tlx
tissiicf) are indeed partially clmrred, but they fftill pres"rve their chief
characteristics. The eit^entiul oil, however, is no lonjrer visible in the
cells in ihe form of niiiuUe drops vr spherules. This has, in part,
been dissipated by the henl einplnyed in the prt>ce»» of roasting, and
in part is more gcrierully dilfiist.'i] thrim;:bout the cavities uf the
cells; that it i« not entirely dirtsipalt'd and destroyed is evident from
the fact, that in ground roasted colTee, dilTuaed m a little water, tlM

COFFEE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Ai] iDAy b« roadilj detected in considernble quantitjr in a. partially
l(i««d BUtte, in litde masses uf irregidar size and form. Fig. 24>

/)jr-33.

i<4lfc«Ij>T««Ti<(a MuHBtitrEorth^cnOlM benj. ahovlnf lu •tmotnic.

Cm TBS ADn.TEBATioH oT CorrsB.

Tli«re Are few articles or consumption moro subject to extenflive
adullcnuion, and ilits of the grostie^t kind, than cofT<ie.

At the time when we lirst directed uur Attention to theadultoration
of OptfeCi ttbuut aix jcars «ince, it was Hciircclj' |K)BAible to procure
I Miapla ni g^nMind ccQ've, no matter what the price paid for ic or
irWrc it WMf puirhiiK'tl, that w;is not hir^cly ndultt^ruteij.

Ad/$iiemlnfH u'tih Chicnry. — The most prcvali-nl uilultcratton of
«o(b^ t* wiib chicorj. lu nearly nil the sample.s tlien examined
iUeory formetl a large proportion of the aitii-le, while in many in-
ttanOM it coosisttfl uhnn-t cntirelr of chicory. At the present time
cotfcc i» still much adulterated with chicory, while the eoni|H>und ftoM
vith Hut UbeU now pre8i-ritK.'d by the law, '^ i'his is a mixture of
ducory uid culTee,** vfieo cousisla of little cLm; than chicory.

114

COFFEE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Even the grinding of coffee in the presence of the purchaser affonU
DO certain guarantee for the genuineness of the articJc, as not un-

Fig.a.

^ir-yv

^^^r

A fragment of Roai tbd CorvsR. Drswn vlih the CAinem LadiU, KOd macnlflMl
llOdUmctcn.

frequently the grocer ndniitly convey* into the null, from a box placet!
close to it, a» mnny chicory nibs oa he pleases, and which, owing to
their resemblance in size and colour to coffee berries, are not readily
distinguiehotl at a short distance.

Even whole roasted L-uffce has been ndulteratcd with chicory: In
this ca«e the berrieF [ire cumprL'ssed into tht' form of coffee berries. In
18dOt Messrs. Duckworth, tif Liverpool, lo<>k out a patent for mould-
ing chicory into the ahape of berries : tliey appear Irt have been induced
to do so in consequence of the existeiii;e in 1650 of a Treasury
minute, wliich allowed of the sale of chicory mixed with coffee with-
out any restriction.

It has been loudly nnd repeatedly urgfd in extenuation of this
adulteration, csi>ecially by grocers, that the addition of chicory to
coffee is a great improvement. Tliere are undoubtedly some few per-
sons who consider that it dues iniiirove the Oavour by making the
infuiiion more bitter, allhimgh that is not our npiniun, imh- tbut of the
great majority of persons. We believe, moreover, tlii-t the taste of
those persons who really prefer the mixture, has been vitiatetl, mid that
had they the opportunity of partaking of well prepared and unu<lul-
tcrated coffee, they would not be hm;; before tncy acknnwledjxed the
infinite superiority of the genuine beverage even as a matter of taste.
When the relative propt-rttes of cofiee and chicory are taken into ac-

COFFEE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

115

oountf no doubt whatever can be entertained aa to which U the supe-
rior article. The composition and properties of chicory will be shortly
considered.

TUi ncnffaic czhiblta the itraetan ud ckknetan of rfufci- fmaid Come

Again, it has been asserted that in France and other continentAl
countries the use <»f chicory is almost universal. We have taken con-
siderable painSf when abroad, to ascertain how far this statement is
correct, and we will new state with what results. We found that in
ail the good hotels in Frfince and Germany the coffee served up was
genoinCf and did not contain a particle of chicory ; also, that chicory
wu not mixed with coffee in the houses of the wealthy, but that it
vas largely enipIoye<l, either separately or mixed with co6ee, by poor
persons, and amongst the dooiestica, not beeauj« it was considered to
De an improvement, but on the score of economy, chicory costing about
2d. or tki per lb., and coffee four or five times as much. This is the
real secret of the use of chicory abroad, and not because of any
preference, or that it improves the flavour of coffee. Where money
IS not an object^ and where the best coffee is required, chicory is but
•eldoin had recourse to. The practice, then, abroad is the very
reverse of what lins been asserted, and it affords no countenance
to the statement that coffee is improved by the use of chicory.

1 2

116

COFFEE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Afsin, if ri?n1ly an improvement, as some persons consider, it woiiUl
only be ao wben uni))Ioyudin certiiiri pruportionn. Now in the ground
coffee sold in the shops in this country^ it is met with in every
proportion, it constituting sometimes over 90 |i*r cent, of the article.
The ftllepalion that chicory improve*! the flavour of coffee^ would
not warrant its use to nnytliing like thnt extent.

It cannot therefore be doubted for a moment that the Tcnl cause
of the extensive employment of chicory in this country, is that by
its means gnwers are enabled to enhance yresilly their profils.

But we will suppose, for sake of arpumentT (hat it in a decided im-
provement ; yet thia does not justify the sale of a mixture of chicory
i\n<l coffee, a* nnd under the name of coflfee, coflee frequently
forminfj but a smidi per-centa<;e of the article. Such n mixture^ if
permitted at all, shouUt not only be sold Itdiclled as u mixture, but the
projjortions of each in^fredient should be specified.

We consider that few persona will be tliajjused to question the rijiht
of the purchaser, when lie enters a shop and n»ks for a particular
article, to expect that he will be supplied with the article he de-
mnndri ; and that if he oj^ks for coffee he will be supplied with coffee^
and not with a mixture of two articles in the must uncertain and
indr'finite proportions.

Let the two articles, therefore, be sold separately, nnd let them be
purchased by the public ut their respective price». This is the simple
and Htraigbtturward course to pursue, and is that which is adopted on
the continent.

At length, and after years of labour and argument, the government
has been driven tn acknowledge the imprnpriety of permitting chicory
lo be sold under the name of coffee, and frfqiieiitly also at the price of
that article; and within the last two ycurs or so, it h&s been required
that the mixed article should be sold lnl>ellcd *' This is a mixture of
Chicory and Coflee."

But tlii» regulation by no^ means fulliU the requirements of justice,
because the mixture is often pabned off when coffee only is asked
for, and because the proportions of the inprcdients are not stated.

There is one circumsrance which nhtiidd be fiarticularly remembered
in considerinj; the question of the adulteratitm of ciiffee with chicory,
namely, the difference8,Jehemieal and physiological, which exist between
the two article?.

Coffee and Chicory cnntniMed. — Coffee Is the seed of a plant, and it
contains essential oil or catfeone, caffeic aciil, and a peculiar print-jple
termed caffeine ; each of the^e constituents possesses different nnd
highly impf^rtant properties, upon which the value of cofft-e mainly
depends.

Chicory Is the root of a plant belonping to the family of the
dandelions. It contains no essentiid oil, tannic acid, or alkaloid
analogous to that of coffee. The chief constituenta of which it is

COFFEE, AND IT8 ADULTEBATION6,

lt7

mude up when roMtoii, nre a liltle giim, stirrftr partly bume<l and
reduced to caramel, colouring matter, and insahibfe veiietable tissue.

Between the two artii:les, therefore^ there U no andc^ whatever;
and in proportion as the strength of coffee 19 reduced bv admixture
with chicory, so are the active properties of colfce diminished.

It ift to the presence of constituents similar to thu»c of coffee that
tea, as has already been pointed out, und ulso cocoa, owe their active
propertieH, and which has led to the ulmost uuirersal employment of
either t£a, coffee, or cocoa over nearly the whole of the inhabited por-
tions of the globe.

But coffee is subject to adulteration with a variety of other articles
besidcit chicory.

Aflulieratiun with RiHutetl Grainy RooU^ Acorns, Suwdunt, ^r.
Thus it is not unlreiiuently udult^-ruted with rotuted grant, princi-

fally wheats and also with scorched peat and beant ground into powder.
,eM coinmonly roasted carrotXy mawfold'Wurzrl^ ry<r, and acorn* have
been employed, and even woody fibre, or sawdust, especially mahogany
sawdust. We have ourflclvca delected sawdust on two occasions,
and the other substances mentioned in several instances.

Other articles whiuh have been forwarded to us, and which it has
been stated have been used in the adulterution of coQ'ee, are, first, an
article termed '^coffiiuiP oaX-bark tatiy exhausted tan termed croatSf and
baked kttrxes lioers.

The article on which the name of coffina was* bestowed, was intro-
duced into this country in IS^l, and was expressly made for the adul-
teration of coffee. It was ilcscribcNl as the seed of u Turkish plant,
which was found to be highly nutritious. On subjecting it lucxiimi-
n»tion with the microscope, it was ascertained to consist of liie roasted
seeds of some leguminous plant, probably a lentil.

Of this article we were infnrmed that no less than eighty tons were
oflercd for sale by a Scotch hou*; at abiiut I '2/. per ton ; that is, at about
l^rf. per lb. On this single transaction the revenue would be de-
frauded of no less u sum than 4480/., and the public of ut least four times
that umount, namely 18,000/.

The importation of about one hundi*ed tons of lupin seed from Kgypt

into GloA^ow, has led, writes a correspondent, to the conjecture that

this cofUua wns made from it, — a conjecture most probably correct,

since the structures met with in cofBna exactly resemble those of lupin

ed.

The same firm to which the coffina was sent was offered, at about
the same time, five hundred tons of forei;rn acorns at &L per ton, or
leas than three farthinpi per lb. Should these have found a pur-
chaser, the revenue would have been cheated to the extent of t28,ObO/.,
and the public to thut of 112,000/. The acorns, when rfia.tted and
powdtreil, were intended to be used in the adulteration of coffee.

In a little work, publishciJ some four or five years since, entitled

1 3

113

COFFEE, AND IT8 ADULTER A TI0N9-

** Coffee as it U and as it on^ht to be," the following observations

iK'Cur in reference Ut the u»e of baked horses' anil bullocks' livers; —

"In various parts uf the meLropolis, but more especially in the east,

are to be found liver bakers. These men take the livers of oxen and

Fif. 9L

Drkwn with the C»Tncn Luci^Ik, bikI tnBgnilled'14'i dJiiiiittfn.

horses, bake I hem, and grind them into ft powder which they sell to
the low-priced coffee-shop keepers at from 4rf. to Gt/. per lb., horses*
liver coffee beiiring the highest price." It may be known, tlie
writer states, " by allowlnjr the coffee to stand until cold, when a
thick y>enicle or akin will l>e found upon the top. It goes further
than coffl'e, and is generally mixed with coffee and other vegetable
imitations of coffee."

The adulteration of coffee in some oases alten* and reiluces so greatly
the colour iind appearance of the article, as well a:< of the infusion made
from it, that the use of colourinp niatter3 is fret^uently necessitated.

One of these is burnt Htigar, familiarly known in the grocery trade
and by coffee-shop keepers as BInck JacK.

It is sold to the coffee-shop keepers usually in tin canisters at 1«.
per lb.: it is sometimes dtfuuniinatud tho coffee refiner { it is, however^

COFFEE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 119

rather a coIovirJiif; oj^cnt, and it ia employed to impart colour and bit-
terness to bevunig(?6 uiude iVoni adultiTaUHl conijc, these being the
qualities wliich in the ejres of superSoiul observers denote strength
aiid goodness.

Sugar is sometimes added to coffee berries while underrroiiig the
process of roasting, and, being then burned, is converted into a cofTee
colourer.

Another article used to give increased colonr to adulterated ground
coffee is V'enetian redy or some other analogous ferruginous earth. Vf'a
have not only ourselves obtained repeated evidence of the use of this
substance, but we shall presently quote a passage from the writings of
the late Dr. Pereira in reference to its employment.

In the latter part of IS^Othe inithor read a communication to the
Botanical Society of Lnndnn on tlio uduUerntion uf cnlfee ; that is
some months before the puhlicatinn of the fii*Ftof his Rcporuin "The
Lancet" on adulteration. In thh the auifiur dc^crilM.'u, tor the first
time, the results at which he had been enabled tu arrive by the ex-
amination of cufieu by means of the microscope. These results wer&
as follow : —

BendU of the Microacopieal Examination of thirty-four different
Coffees of all QualUie* and Prices^ and avid under the fuUowing at-
tractive Titiet :

Coffeeg of High Price,

1. Finest Mocha Cnffee, No adulteration.

2. Noted Old Mocha. No adullcraiion.

3. Finest Jnmaica Coffee. No adutteration.

4. Hich Old Mocha, Of chicory, a good deal.
6. Beit Ohi Mocha. A little chicory.

6. Fitte Old Turkey Coffee. 3Iuch chicory.
7- Vtry Fine Mocha. Much chicory.

8. Genuine Old Mocha. A little chicory.

9. Finest Turkey Coffee. Contains chicory.

10. Celebrated Old Mocha. A good deal of chicory.

Ciffeet of Medium Price.

11. Co0ta Rica Coffee. Nearly one-half chicory.

13. Fine Jamaica Coffee. Contains a considerable quantity of
roHsted com.

13. Veliriouw Coffee. Roasted beans and chicory, forming about

one-third of the article.

14. PlaiitatinH Coffee. Of roasted corn much, with some chicory,

both together forming not \&n than a third of the sample.
16. Finest Turkey Coffee. Much chicory, and some roasted com;

very little cotlee.
16. Celebrated Jamaica. Very little coffee, principally chicory.

I 4

1B0<

COFFEE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

About one-half coiFL^c, much chioor/,

17. Finest Berhiee Coffee.

and some wheat,

18. SpUndid Turkey Coffee, About one-hulf c< flue, the rest chicory.

19. Fine Plantatum Coffee. Oiie-tbirii coflee, ihe rest chicory,

with a little rousted corn.

20. Beantiful Jamaica Ctffee. Two-thirds cofTee, ihe rest clucorj,

witJi u little corn.

21. FiueMt Jam Coffee. Half cofiec, much roasted corn, with a

little chicory.

22. Superior Plantation Coffee, Three-fourths coffee, the remainder

chicory.

Coffees of Low Price.

23. Fine Mountain Coffee. Fotir-tiflli§ coffee^ one-fifth chicory.

24. Pantian Coffee. Princijmliy cbicoiy and corn ; very little

coffee.

25. Superb Coffee. The principal port corn and chicory ; very

little cotTce.

26. Rieh drinking Coffee. One-third coffee, the rest chicory, with

some roasted <.'urn.

27. Very excellent Coffee. Oue-half coffee, the other mostly chicory,

28. Delicious Fantity Coffee, Ouc-fuurth Cufftie, three-fourths chi-

cory.

29. Fine Ceylon Coffee. Very little coffee, a great deal of chicory,

with 9UI11C roa$tod corn.

30. Fine Jaca Coffee. AIucU chicory and aome roasted potato ; very

liillc coffee.

31. Coffee a» in France. Principally chicory.

32. Very excellent Coffee. PriiK-ipally cliicory.

33. Fine Plantation CeyUm. Nearly all chicory ; very little coffee.

34. Delicious drinking Coffee. A large quantity of chicory, and

much roasted corn.

From an examination of this Table it appears —

Iftt. Tiiat of the thirty-four coffcca, thirty-one were adulterated.

2nd. That chicory wus present in thirty-one of the samples.

3rd. Roasted com in ttrelce.

4lh. Hcans and potato llnur, each in one sample.

5th. That in sixteen cases the adullornlinn consisted of chicory only.

6tb. That in the remainiiigyr/lr^^N sampler, the adulteration conhislcd
of chicory, and either ro:iste4l corn, bean.x^ or [totatoea.

7th. That in many instanci'S the quantity of coffee present was very
small; while in others, it formed not more than one-fil'lu,
fourth, third, half^ amtso on of tlie whole artlile.

We are satisfied that the gross ag^^ri-wat*? of the adulterations
detected did not amount to leas than one-third of the entire bulk of
the quantity piu'choscd. Now, on referring to the Kevenue Ketunu,

COFFEE, AND ITS ADULTEKATIONB.

ISl

Snd tbat tbe mm derired from the duty on cotTee for 1855 wna

•IHL 1 1*. 9</., an amount wliicli welmve no beHitation in sny)ngnii<flit

e been enormously increuscd liy vigilance in ihe (i*.*U;i:liun of the

ultoration of thid important article, and by pun't«hixient of the fraud

en detected.

Since Uie da(« referred to, we have exurniued t^ome liumlrotls of
plea v( ground cofl'ee.* Until witliin thu last year or two, we always
found a very Lu-jje proportion of tbe samplesi to lieaduiterat-ed. Mure
recently, however, the cotiditioti of the urticlu has ^'rently iNi[)roveil ;
the groaaer adulterations, — whatever may be the state of things in the
vifkoea, — M far as the metropnlis is concerneili ure now much less
tlCftlly prartifted : the principal adulteration iti that with i-huory,
is Mill mixed with eodee, and sohl without the prescrilied label
soffee. This improved eiato of thiugii is undonhtcdJy due to
repeated exr>u>ures made witliin tbe \asl four or tive years. But
it not perfectly certain, if these exposures were to cease, that mailers
iiM ff«xin become even worse than belbre, and that t!ie •»cnndalou8
i nefarious practices which once prevaded iii the adulteration of
this article would speedily l*e rife again ?

The adulterations by means »( roasted com, beans, coffee oolonrcr,
snd Venetian red are altogether indefensible, .since the only thinj:; in
c«nnmon between most of these and cofiee is the colour which they
II infusion or decoction.
- !<; rears tiace, roasted corn, principally rye, was largely sold,
axid employed to make a beveraijeT which, by a Bction, was digni&ed
by tbe name of coffee ; the chief argument, independent of price,
Bf^ed in fttvour of it, was its supposed nutritive properties.

Whim it is recollected that the starch of roasted corn is in part
rrUttCvd to the condition of charcoal, it will at once be perceived that
it* natritive qualities cannot be very great, and chat a smgle uioutblul
le bread contains more nouribhment than a dozen cups of
nude from roasted com.

i " roaxted com " is now no longer sold openly, yet, as we

i>een. the grocer has not failcfl to uviiil himself of it fur his

»efit, but to the great disadvantage of llie public,

atbilteration of coflce bv subs-tances so chtap and. for the pur-

U* Hhi<-li tht-y are applied, worthlc:*s as these, is a gross fraud,

iplmtie condemniition, and, when ascertained to be proc-

u)g exposure and punishment.

On the Deiectum of the Adtdterationa of Coffee*

^AtflMUks to be resorted to fir the detection of the adulterations
0f«oSW, ftre of three kinds : namely, certain physical characters and
ptmarnnuni preaeute^l by adulterated samples ; the microscope ;

* IW iwtlcMtes at Umm MuaOiMtioui are recorded io " Food sod lU Adullcrmtloiw. '*

132

COFFEE, AND ITS APCLTERATI0N9,

and chemistry. By the first, we ascertain in ftomc casea the pcncml
fact whether the sumplc Ja rtduPerated or not; and by the others,
eiipeciiilly by tho microscope, we leurn the nature of the pariiculHr
adulturalioD or adulteratioiiB practised.

The first means consist in noticing whether the esmple in the mass
cakes or coheres, whether it floats in water or not, ami the colour of
the infusion.

If the ground coffee cakes in the paper in which it is folded or
when pre:tsed between the fingers, there w jrood reason (or believing
that it is adulterated, mt»st probably with chicory.

If, when a few pinches uf the suspected cuflee are placed upon some
water in a wine-;;la.H», part tloats and part liinks, there is rea^n to
believe that it is adulterated: it may be either with chicory, rr>astcd
com, or Minic other Jinid«^(tus subslnnces. The colTrc does not im-
bibe the water, but floats on the aurloce, while the other substances
absorb the water, and jrT'aiiuully subside to the bottom to a greater
or less extent. Ususdly, hnwevLT, part «f the colTee subsidw with the
chicory, and h jHtrtion of the latter remains on the surtui:e with the
coffee ; and atYer the lapse of a short time, in general, both cuffec and
chicory fall to the bottom.

Again, if the rnid water to which a portion of ground coffee has
been adde<l, quickly becomes deeply coloured, it is an evidence of the
presence of somo roasted vegetable substance or burnt sugar ; for
when coffee is added to water, it. becomes scarcely coloured fur some
time.

Lastly* if in a few grains of coffee, spread out on a piece of glass and
moistened with a few tlropa of water, we are enabled lo pick out, by
mean<i(>fa nee*IIe, minute pieces nf substance of a soft cnnsistence,
the coffee is iloubtless adulterated ; for the particles of the cotlee seed
are hard and resii^tlng, and do nut Iwcomc soft oven after prolonged
immersion in water.

AVhen, therefore, any sample cakes into a mass, quickly furnishes to
cold water a deep-coloured S"lution. or is found to contain, when
moistened with water, sufl particK's like those of bread-crumb, there
QUI be no question as to the existence of adulteration.

The general characters of genuine grouinl coflee are, therefore, the
reverse of the above.

By these general means, and without hnving recourse to science,
the observer is ot\en enabled lo state whether any sample of coffee is
adulterated or not ; but in order to iletermine the cluiructer of the
adulteration practised, wo must employ either the microscope or
chemistry. In the ca^e of coffee, by far the most imp''jrtant inform-
ation is furni-Oied by the miiroscope ; indeed, chemjstry affords no
certain means for the iilcniiljcalion of the miijnriiy of the vegetable
substances emiiloyed in ibe adukeralion of coliee, and did it do so, it
would hardly be required, since these may be so readily detected bj
the microscope.

COFFEE, AND ITS ADO LTE EAT 1 0KB.

1 33

Grahxtn, Stenbouse^ and Campbell h»ve instituted some
^>ecial cheniicul inquiries on the mode of detecting vegetable sub*
stances mixed with coffee: these will be found rct'erred to, at some
length, under the nrtifle Chicory.

The result ol' these invcslipations is, tliat it is easy enou;;b to ascer-
tain by means of chemistry the general fact of adulteration, but that
it is not possible by the same means to detumiioe tbe nature of the
adulteration practifict), even that with chieury.

The general fact of adulteration may be determined in a variety
of ways; as, in addition to tlie colour of the infusion and by its specific
Ifravity, by the quantity oi sugar contained in it, and the composition
of the ash.

The quantity of augar in roasted coffee rarely exceeds 1*12 per
cent, white in tbe saccharine rooia used in the adulteration of coffee —
as those of roasted chicory, carrot, parsnip, and mangold-wurzel — it
Tarie» from 9 to 1 8 per cent.

The mont distinctive peculiarity of the composition of the ash of
coffee, is the small ([uantity o( silica contained to it : "the presence,"
state Messm. Gnilium and Stenhnuse, **or 1 per cent or upwardn of
silica in the ashes of coffee is a proof of adulteration; that the adul-
terating substances which increase the proportion of silica moat
considerably are oats and barley, then chicory and dandelion, wbich
are followed by r)-e and wheat ; but turnips and carrots would produce
a small aud less decisive effect."

DftertninaHon of the Sugar in adultmratrd Coffee.

The foUnwinc process may be pursued for the deicrmination of the
mgar: — Two thousand grains of the article are to be infiisod iu three
separate pints of water, tbe Grst cold, and tbe second and third warm.
To this infusion udd about ime-eighth part of brewers yeast, weighed
after being dried by pressure in n calico bag. Tbe fermentation is to be
continued for fortv-eight hours, the infusion being kept at a temfierature
of from 80 to90°Fahr. The liquor is then to he di-^tifled twice, the alco-
holic solution weiched, and il^ ppecifu^ gravity taken at a temperature
of WO" Fahr. When the quantity of pu;:ar and the amount of alcohol
developed is yery small, recourse oiay be Lad to tbe fermentation
test.

The articles which have been detected entering into the adul-
teration of ground coffee, have already been enumerated: they are
roots of ditierent kinds, parlicularly chicory and mangold-wurzel ;
vorioas farinaceous substances in the roasted and puwdcretl state, as
wheat flniir, beans, and acorns, besides woody fibre or sawdust, burnt
sugar, and Venetian red, or reddle.

On the Detection of Chicory — Some five or six years since, an
outcry having arisen in consequence of the substitutinn to an enormous
extent of chicory for cofl'ce, and government being called upou to in-

1S4

OOFFEEy AMD ITS ADULTERATIONS.

terfcre, the (juestion as to whether the presence of chicory in ground
coffee was iliscovcruble or not by means of science, was rcftfrred by
the Chancellor of the Exchequer of the time to a coniwission of
chemists.

These chemists reported, that " neitlier by chemistry nor by any other
means whs the oflmixture of chicory with coffee to be detected." This
report was publicly quoled by Sir Cfiftrics Wooil in the House of
Common:!, and on the mrength of it the guvemment refused to inter*
fere in the prevention of the adulteration of coffee. Now at the some
time the nuthur showed, in the moat conclusive manner, that nothing
is more en8y and certain than the detection of chicory tu coffee by
means of the microscope.

The structure of cuffee baa already been fully described ; that of
chiwiry will shortly lie considered : it may be stated now, however,
that it differs in every respect from coffee, in the rounded form and
easy scpar^tbitity of its component cells, and in the presence of dotted
ducts, and vosa lucticentia.

Tlte differences will be sudJcieally obvious on an examination of the
following figure.

ng.v.

awvf U« ilnictatM In « Mmpli gf Co9wn nikttnMta wM CHICOU.
<> 1. eont ! b ft, cbkofy.

Detection of Matigold-WurzeL^-Thh root differs from cbicor; i«

COFFEE, AND ITS ADULTEKATIONS.

12:

TCfT much Iiipgcr nze of the cells, and in the absence of milk vessels
lacticcQtic. J^'igt. 2b. and 29.

Aff. 96.

YWb fl(a>* ■■hlkiV th* qbIU of vhtch th» rvA of MAVooLivmnkL li chfmtj
mnme • 11 «UI ti vtmmA tliftt ti\«y ut mvmuI uni«a iwgcr th«n Umm of

Dtdediim of Cnrrot nnii Parimip. — The tuber of carrot fliffers
cfait^orv rhiellv in the absence of milk vessels ; that of parsnip in
tbe«b«enci* of Ihe »iinie vessels, aiul in the presence in the cells of
ftfnilftHT formed starch corpuf^oles of sinall f^izo.

On the Defectum vf Wheat Flonr^ d^'c. — It ih generallj stated thut the
pTf'^fnce of roasted com or aiiy other substance contiiintn;: a lorpe
^^|fr|H>rl4i>n of starch, niny be detected bv the blue coh>ur produce<l on
^Hbe addition of a solution ol' iodine to the cold decoction. We have
^ElDt found this to be correct in all coses, for on adding inline todccoc-
^Hpons of tire ddferent colFees iiscertained to be adulterated with ronsted
^"iMix. tiie li(|uids did not become blue, but almost blmk, with a tinge
oTbrovn or olive. This api^ears to ame from the obscuration of the

Ci^r?E£, AKD ITS ADULTERATIONa.

^-' 1 nt to whether the presence of chicory in ground

Slit^ il'le or not by meano of science, was referred by

Ul« ^ftivuwUor uf (he Exchequer of the time to a commtMion of

These chuiuiiitt roporlod, that "neither by rhemirtry nor by any other
tu«»H>'.* w lid iht) iidmixturo of chicory with coffee to be detected." This
'* UK piiblii'ly (pitted by Sir Charles Wood in the Himse of
, uitd nn tlio (tirength of it the goveriiiuent refueed lu inier-
I'ls (It the |iu(Vttntion of the adultcrution of coffee. Now at the same
liuiti thn uullmr showed, in the nio:(t conclusive manner, that nothing
iH luuro t'i*»y ithil certadn than the detection of chicory in coffee by
Uiuuuk of the hticroBiutjH}.

Thvi ilrurltiru of coffee has already been fully described ; that of
ektt:'iti7 will ttlmrtly be cotisidere*! : it iniiy be stad^d now, however,
thitt it dilVi-m in overy res|»ect from cotlee^ in the rounded form and
ii4iiy •e|iui.thiliiy of its component cells, aad iu the preiieuce of dotted
dut-.u, uimI vuia lactiocntia.

Thu thlffruiiueg will be sufficiently obvious on an examination of the
fciiluMiiig ligurti,

rtg.ar.

tium tht rtnictiiru tn b wmpl* t.f Corn* «tf«Jfcr^«f wOA CwroRr.
a u. coOfee ; b b, eliltwry.

Detection of Mangold- WurzeL— This root differs from chicory in

COFFEE, AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS.

127

be ffUI«d, generally, that those of wheat consist of rounded and llat-
tened discs of various sixes. The appearances which they present ore

Fdf.ao.

■—111 of Q^« mOiMtniiai wM hoA CmcuKr om/ roaated WitUT.
• a. MAa 1 * 1^ olikorT l e c, whe«t fluur.

^NK^tinct from the cells of either coffee or chicory, as will be seen
IH^Be annexed engruviof;. Fig. 30,

dH fil* Drieetion of BtMn Flour. — The substance of the seed of the
bcmn b BUide ap of cellis each of which contains several litArch cor-
piBclcs. The fomi and chorocters of these nre very distinctive ;
ihe^ uv fur the oiomI part either ova) or unifurni, with n central
vity of an elongated form, and from the margin of which eborC
9» or pmccoM* may be seen radiating. So long in some of the
aniile* of medium size is this cavity, that they appear to be com-
pletely bisected; occasionally a few strongly marked concentric
najTB ore visible. Some uf these characters arc exhibited inT^^'. iM.

Om lAr Pfteciion of RiMtxtttl and Ortmml Acorn — 'tUa prcacnce of
liitj Dubfttmnce is distin<;ui»hed by the lorni and bizeti uf the starch
corfwiftde^, which form so Urge a part of the acorn, /i^, 32.

On the Detectwn of Savdiul. — The detection of sawdust, especially
mabojrany lawilust, U extremely easy; the presence of woody fibre of
•umc kind or other is sure to be discovered h hen the suspected samplefl

COFFEE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS

come — as they always ought — to be ^aminetl with the microscope.
The presence of sawdust hftving been thus asceruined, a pound or bo of

F4r>ai.

CVtr B^wlte^ali^ wUk both CmcoiT iMrf roaaltj Bt.kir%.
astuoflkai bk^iiUtary t cf. TOMMdtaui lour.

the coflee should be spread out on a slip of glass, and moistened with
wal*r, when the fra;7nii»nl:9 of wrBwly fibre uiut pynemlly be pick<!d
out bv mean* of a netMJlc ; they .nliould then be subjected to a more
careful microscopicjil sorutiny.

The woo«ly fibre of plants, like the cellulose, starch corpnsctes, and
vc»9cls» frequently no?sosses distinctive chnractcrs, viHible un<lcr the
inicroBunpe, by whicn tlie plant or tree furniehin^ it may be identified.

In the cft'^e of malinjt[fiiiy sawdust the ideiitificution is easy enouph ;
the eompnrlness of the Utile masses of fibre, the utrong rross markin{^,
and the n.lour are sulHcicntly charnctcrislic.

It should be remembered that chicory, especially the older roots, con-
tains a small proportion of woody fibre, so that care roust be exercised
not to confound this fibre with exlraneous woody fibre or sawdust intro-
duced for the purpose of adulterutiun. If the quantity of fibre
present be very small, and it a^n'ees with that of chieory in its struc-
ture OS seen under the micrn^enpe, there can be little doubt but that the
fibre beloni:s tn the root of chicory.

On the Detection of Caramel or Burnt Sugar. — When the water

COFFEE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

129

added to auv f^ainplc of fjroundcoirec becomes deeply and quickly co-
loured, and when on examination witb tbe microscope it la ascertained

Fig. XI,

Sunrle oC Onf<*t otttJumud tHiJt ^^und Acoas. a o, oolite i b 6, eklOdlT |

that no foreign vegetable is present, there will be good reason fur sap-
posing that it contains burnt sugnr.

Again, wht'o shining black purticles are perceptible in the coffee, and
these slowly dissolve in water, pivinjj ri»c ton dark-coloured solution,
it undoubtedly contains the snlfslani-c in question. Soinelirnes, when
the particles are too small to be tliscerncd by the naked eye, tbey maybe
seen under the microscope, and their solution iu water watched.

Again, the presence of burnt su^or may be dctecte<l by adopting
the loUowing j)roce»9: — From a weighed ({uantity of dried coffee an
infuaiun in cold water is to be prepared : this must be eva|>orat«d
in a woter-batb, dried, and lasted. If the extract bo dark-coloured,
brittle, and possess the bitter taste of burnt sugar, no doubt remains
as to the presence of that substance.

Wfe are unacquainted witb any process by which the quantity of
burnt suffiir prL'sent con be accurately determined, seeing that the
extract funiishe<l by pure coffee vai-ie3 very greatly, and that of
■dalterated coffee to a stiU more considerable ext«nt ; while ftUo the

L»0

COICOEY, AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS.

composition of the burnt sugar is so much chonj^d, that its nmoait
cannot be deter tniiied in thv &ume umniiur as ^apc su^or.

On the Deduction of Vertctmn Red. — .Sniuetmics mt hen the Venetian
red haa been t'iireles;*ly i(ieor[>orutetI with tbe cotlVe, particles of it
maj bti detected with the naked eye ; but it h not often tbat it can be
dbcovered in this way. The process to be adopted in ordinary cases
is as follows : — A |M>ption of tlie suspectoft'.fe is to be incinerated,
and the colour of the ash noted : if this be deoi>ly coloured and of a rusty
red or yellovrish hue» then Venetian red, reddle^ or some unologotu
earthy substance baa been mixed with the Loflce.

If we desire to form &ome opinion oa to the amount of this present,
the cofl'ee must be dried ina wuter-bsitb, 500 'jin. incinerated, nnd the
ash weighotl and analyseil ; thy weight may be compared with that of
the ash of vjenuine coffee, and the usb tbeti tested i|u:Lntitativcly for
iron, and, since the Venetian red is »(>metimt\t ilfldf adulternted with
chalk, fnr it also. The process for the quuntiiative estimation of iron
will befonnd detailed at pp. 10*2. and 141>., and that for chalk at p. lOt.

It has thus been shown that coffee \i liable to a liirjjd Aud scon*
dahius amount of adulteration.

Tbe duty on coffee is -id. [H^r lb. until April 5th, 1657. Thereafter
3(/. per lb.

Lbi.

Home consumpLion 1854 duty 3J. 37,471,014.

,» 1855 35,87fi,-i87.

9 months of 1 8 JG 2<>,522,8-2 J .

„ 1S55 27,598,417.

Duty 4d. on and after April 21dt, 1855.

CHrCORY, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

CmcoRT, succory, or wiM endive, Cychorium Tntyhus, belong<i to
the same natural family of plants as the donilelion, a M^ry chorac*
rcristic and familiar cognomen of which we refrain from moutiouiof.
Like the dan<leliun, chicory is indigenous, and may be seen {rrowlng
in various pai-Ut of the country, by llie road or hed;i:e side \ it uiaT
be recognined by the cwnipound chamcter of its tlower», and their
bright anil 1>t^autiful blue coloin*. It blossomi in tlie months of
August and September ; and uny person detiiring to |;et a sight of
this very notorious vcgcUble, may grntify bis curiosity by a walk
along tbc banks cif the Thamc*s, from Kew tor about u mile or «o in
the direction of Kichuiond.

'* Tliia plant," says M'Culloch, " is found rrrowing wild on calcareous
soils of Eo{:Iand, and in mo6t countries ofKurupe. In its nalund Atate
the stem riiK^s from one to three feet higb^ but when cultivated it shuota

CHICORY, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

131

to the heifi;ht of Ave or eix feet* Tlie root runs deep into iho groiiud,
and is white, und flciihr, undyii^ldii a milky jiiicti, It is cultivtitijd to
some extent in thiii couiitrv as an herbnge jilaiit^ its cxeollence in lliis
re!4p*!t;t having been strongly insisted upon by tlielute Arthur Ynung.

" Hut in Gi'minny, and in some pinM^i of th<? KetheHand-. and Kriuioe,
it is extensively eultlvuted lor the 6uke of ilb root, which is utied as a
suU'-tilutc for coffee.

When prepared on a hir^re scale, the roots itre partially dried
find 8t)ld lo the niunutiiclurers of the article, who wii>h ihcni, cut tlieiu
in pieces, kiln-Jry them, nnd grind ihein between tluLed rulJers into a
powder.

" The powder has a striking rcseniblunce to dark ground coffoe, and
a strong ndour of liquorice. It hn.s been exten^ively ii9C«l in Prussin,
Brunswick, and other pnrt* of Gerinany, for sevenil years; but as it
wants the essential oil, nnd the rich arouiatie tltivour of ctifloti, tt Has
little in conminn wiih the latter, except it£ ouluur, und bus nulhiug
to reeuuiniend it exL-cpt its cheapness."

Notwiih»>tnndin^r ihiit ehicory *' bus nothinj; to recommend it except
\ix cheapness," iind th.il it \» us.ed exclusively (o aduUerulc coffee, it
bos uf late yonr.f been raised in prcai quantity in tliis country, in the
counties ol' Surrey, Bedford, and York, owing to the very iuipro[>er
enciuiragcmcnt given by Government.

Lar>[e crops of chicory are grown in Yorkshire, in the neighbour-
hood, h is stated, of pronerty behinging to a lute Chancellor of the
Exchequer ; and it was tni^ circuniKtunce wliich led lo the assertion
that he was bini»elf an extensive grower of the plant.

Thii statement has, however, been diatinetly contradicted by the
Chancellor in (juestiim, wln>, in luuking knuwn llie denial, refrained
from any allusion t4i the circiunstancc which explains the origin of the
Tepf»rt, We are not surprised thtit the cbarae slionld have Wen made,
fur it is only natural^ when an individual pertinaciously follows a
course opjMJsed to reason and correct principles, that an endeavour
should be made to uccounl for conduct so lingular, and that it should
be tniugined that souie strung per-»nnul interest existed, whereby the
coufse of pruiecding wlupteil might be explained.

Foreign chicory is considered to be preatly superior to that of
£nuli»h growth, and is consctpichtly much dcurer.

The root h taken up just before the nlunt blossoms, and, when
roasted, Urd is added in the pio[tortion ot 2 Ibe. uf lurd to 1 cwt. of
the kiln-dried root. A^'hen gitiuud and exposed to the air, chicory
absorbs water readily, and becomes umist and clammy.

Analytvt of Chicory.
Ohi(!ury root has been subjected tu examination and analysis, by the
auttiur, and by Dr. Letheby ut the author's rei^uesit, iu three condi-
tions, luunelv: —

" lat. Iu 1(8 recent, or rsw state.

K a

13B

CHICORY, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

"2nfl. In the kiln-dried condition.

" Hrd. In the roasted and powdered form, afl itis used for the adul-
teration of coffee.

"Tbe raw root furnislies a milky juice, wlucli owes its opaeity to
the presence of an inert vegetable Bubrftunce nuuied liiuliiie. The
juice in very bitter, antl, wlieu filti^red and !ieate«i, it shows, by its
turbidity, that il contnin^i a small ipinntity of albumen.

•* When macerated in cold water, it yields about 13 per cent, of solid
matter or extractive, which Jtivcs to the solution n very hitter taste;
nlcohnl also extracts this bitter conBtituent, and on cvnporation it
funiitthes n gummy product, which is very similur in tta properties
to the bitter material of the dsitnlelion root. Acetate of lead pro-
duces a copious precipitate in Lhe liquid from the deposition of (j^uiit,
vegetable acid, and colouring matter, liy means of Felifniij's test, it
was found tliut the raw root contained 1*1 per cent of grape sugar or
glucose.

" The kiln-dried root possesses all the characters of the preceding:,
but in a higher do^n^i?, for water extracts about 50 j>er cent of solitl
uiaLtcr; and the solution furnished to Fchlings test as much as 10*5
per cent, of sugar.

"Neither of tbesie specimens exhibited the least trace of stnrclii
but bv boiling in water, filterinp, and raoling, they yielded a Hraall
quantity of a while powder, wliiuh liad all the ehuraeter:* of Inuline.

"The absence of starch in tlic state in which the root is onlinarily
used is also cnnclusively ?hown by luenns of the microscope ; and
we find that the tissue contains abundance orcellnlo»e, which, by the
action of strong sulphuric aeld, gives a product that renders iodine
blue.

**Tlie roasted chicory rout yields from 45 to 65 jwr cent, of soluble
extractive. Its solution in water is aciil, and it dot^s not possess the
pecufiiir bitter taste of the raw root ; but the taste of the li(|uid is more
like that i)f burnt sugar. The cop|)er test shows the presence of from
10 to 13 (>er cent, of sujjar.

"The followintr analyses represent the per-ccnt«ge composition of
the root in itit different conditions : —

Hygroscopic moisture

Gummy matter (like pcctine) •

Glucose, or grnpe sugar

Bitter extractive

Fatly matter

Cellulose, inuline, and woody matter

Ash -

m Knot.

K)ln.dried

77-0

]5'0

7-5

208

10-5

li)-3

0-6

1-9

29-5

0-8

100 0

100-0

CHICOBY, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.
" The composition of the roasted root was ns fullows : —

133

Hvproscopic moisture

Gummy matter

Glucose - - -

Mutter like burnt sugar

Falty matter

lin^wn or burnt woody matter -

Ash -

lit S|>rclfnea. 2iiil S|N-cimeD.

14-5

12-8

9-3

14-9

12 2

10-4

291

24-4

2-2

28-4

28-5

4-3

6-8

1000

100-0

" The a»h of these had the following composition : — .

Chloride of pDtiL<!f>ium
Sulphnte of (Mtosh
Phosphate of pnliuh

Pitto of mu^ncdia

Ditto of Jiiiio
Cnrbonate of lime
Atuiiiina and oxide of iron
Sand -

\%t Sprdmm.

2nd Specimen

0 22

0-43

097

0 98

1-41

1-37

0-30

0^53

040

0-81

010

0-26

OiM)

0-20

0-70

2-20

430

6*80

Raw.

H'Mtact

23-76

n 9fl

30-49

15-96

35-23

17-»8

320(i

9-86

ktessrs. Grahnm, Stenhouse, &nd Campbell * found in four samples of
chicory, the following per-centugea of grope sugur : —

Foreign chicory - - -
Guernsey chicory -

Knglish chii'ory - - -

Yorkahire chicory - - -

ITie quantities of sugar in manfjold-wurzel, carroM, turnips, parsnips,
beet and dandelion roots wcrt.* found to be nearly as •;reat as in
chicory, and hence the sugar present in it does not affbitl a means
by which it may be distinguished from other sweet roots when mixed
with cofTee.

Tbc following repre6ent« the per-cenlsffe composition of the ash of
four samples uf chicory, according to Messrs. Graham an<I Sten*
house: —

CKvmlcd Hrport on the mode

of dotvctinf V«gc««bl« SubcUocM mlMd with CoAc,
K 3

'184

CHICORY, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS

ttartm

Exit 1Kb-

roTMcn.

nnerM>7.

FotMh

33-48

?4-W

»-56

MDT

Sndn

H-I'i

|.V|0

SH4

8-«l

Uip«

9W*

5-00

fiSI

>fiirnMla ...

5 27

7 -Si

5-41

a-M

SfMt)ulu«IJf fir Iron

3 -HI

5-SS

a-ftv

Sul|ihunc Aclil

I0-J9

loss

S-S8

601

<_'hl«rlitr> ...

4ftl

4tM

sss

4-.Sfi

Carltoolc^iM

17H

a-HH

a^p

S-)»

Vhotphurtcadd

tOG«

11^7

T«

6-B^

Sitli-a

3H1

'ifii

IVJS

10-fi3

S«nd

•J '38

M-CH

33-10

W-19

lOO-M

»fl<M

it»-6e

VMM

MeMn. Grnhftm nnd Stcnhouse found the stltca uid sand insoluble
in ncids to ha, in four sninples of roasteil cliicory, us follows, — 10*69,
13*l3t 30'7I, find SUiHa per cent, of the nsh ; the quantities of this
Hilira f^oluhh; in iitknl! wa.^, in tlie s.itnc Hiiniplcs, 808, 0'3'2, 20*19,
and 2;rlO purr.?. Much of tlu3 pdica was doubtlefs derivtfd from the
sand »iid dirt iirllicrinj; to ihe iniperfiMlly cleansed roots.

The chief eoiwiiluents ofroiisteii chicory ure the gum, plucose, nnd
cnmmel. The quantltjr of nitrogen in chicory is not one-half Omt of
coflee.

Bv nn exnminnlton of the fiirepninc antilyscs it will be seen thntthe
roni does not cnntiiin nnythiii^j whieh can pof^^ibly he rej^nrded na a
Hubttitute for cofTee. It will be sdso m;inife<)t that in tho nrocosa of
ronatinjr. the bitter prinoij)lo of ilic reeent root is partly ues(i*oyed,
iind thut by the lorrefrtclton of the snccharinc and othLT constituents
li nunntity of caramel is producetl, whieh has nn virtue beyond tinit
of burnt supar. The large (['lantity of oil fouml is dlmhtle^s derived
from the Inni n*ed in rousting the root ; nearly •'i per cent, of fat has
Wen obtained (Voni some sani])les of torrefietl chicory. The quantity
of oil nnturnllr presiTt in the root is exceedinjrly sninll. It is like-
wise evident thiit the kiln-dried root hns under^rone fermentiition,
whereby the amount of sugar hiis become greatly inereoscd.

Stmeture of Chkttry Hoot,

In the raw chicory root four parts or itinietnrcs mfty be dietin-
fruishcd with facility : cells, dotte<l vessel^ vessels of the latex, and
woody fibre.

When the ndulterntinjf grinder or merchant, in the secresy of his
own wiirehouse, lirst reduced cincory root, pnriinip?, corn, bpuns, &c^
to chiirrod nml nearly impulpable powders, the idea probably never
entered hi-* mind that enou;;h of the diHttnctive structural charat'ters
of each of these tiubsttances still remained undcstroyed, to enable
the man of science to dr:ig to light his guilty deeds, and to detect

CHICORY, AND ITS ADULTERATIONR.

1.15

their presence in every parcel of adulterated cofiee sent out from
his premises.

In the roasted and cbarreil chicorj root the same structures may be
detected as arc di^tinguisbablc in the raw or unroasted root.

The ohief part of the root h made up of Jittle utricles or ceils.
These are jrenernlly of a rounded form, but Bornelimes they are
narrow and elongateil. The former o<rcur where the pressure is
least and the root soft ; the Utter in the neighbourhood of the
vessels.

?■,

Fngmtnl oflUAKnn Cmk-dkt H<>ot. ulun from • Mmpk of wluUcratcd eoflH.
khuwIiiK the celU <if wbteli li U |irliiiH|ia)ljr ctui^li utcil. Urmwti «lili Uic CmmcrA

The dotted txMch are particularly abundant in the central and
harder pnrM of the root, which they traverse in bundles: they are
cylindrical unbranched tuh(:.% tnpcrinor to a point hL either extremity,
and elegantly marked on the nurfare with short libres, describing an
interrupted spiral course. Fi^. 3-1.

In studying the structure of chicory root, wc have clearly ma'ic out
the origin of ibo dotted ve^seIp in narcow elunj^ated cells, ta|ierin;( to
a nhorii point at either end, at tintt smooth, but subsei^uently exhibiting
faint oblirpic markings.

The vessels of the latex, va*a lacticcnttay are preifent in most plants,

K 4

136

CHICORV, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

bnTing a milky juice or sap; they form branclicfl and frequently
anttMtoinosing tubes, of smaller diameter than the dotted vessels, and
witii smooth membranous panetes.

Fig, M.

Tnignmi of RoASTBDCiiirovr RimT. Uhto from • iunple of tdoltrnitcd cvtht,
thowlTic the tlotudor liil«rni|>t«il iplrftl vcmcU, whicli |>bm In bundle* thmufli
thr Ctfutral imiXm of (h« rouU Dtk«u wllh the Cuncrft Ijucidk, uul mMgnitid
11(1 dlameteri.

These vessels afford a useful means hy which chicory may be distin
guished from most other roots employed in the adulteration of coflee.

The tofyody fibre of chicory root does not present any markings or
other peculinrities of structure of a distinctive character.

Properlien of Chicory.

Recent chicory root is possessed nf active medicinal properties in con
sequence of irhii'h it has Inngbeen included in th(»"Mftlenvi Modica.**

Those properties resemble closely those of the allied pl.inf, the dan-
delion, in reference to which we find, in the work of Dr. Pereira, the
following observations : —

" Its obvious effects are those of a atnmnchic and tnnic. In large
doses it acts as a mild aperient. Its diiirctie operation h less obvious
and constant. In various chronic diseases, its coti tinned use is
Attended with alterative and resolvent effects; but where the digestive

CHlCORTj AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

JS7

orcansi are weak, an<l remlily disonlrrefl, Iftrnxacum 19 very apt to oc-
cuion dyspepaiu. tlalulency, pain, aiid diarrhcea.**

Ftg.Vt.

Thi« ffiwTBvlng itpnmabt Um narrow tnA brftnclii«<l v«Meli t Veto Taetiefntiai, w
•tNindui In i'mcoRT R<k>t, «hkh conTcr Uie milkv iaicc of tb«t plant, aitd
alao tlioir llidr rvlaliuii to the onUnarjr uUriclca or nlla, of wtilch Ume lutNtauca
of tht itKrt i* principally inad« up.

These remarks of course apply to the recent root. Proressor JMlin-
Bton, whose views appear to us more favoumble than the facts warninf.
tbu« exprofses himtioif in regard to roasted chicory : * —

'* It posscsites in no degree the pleasant aruina which recommends
the genuine roasted coffee.

" The active ingredients in roasted chicory are, first, the empyrcu-
matic volatile AW : thitf is pro<luced during the roastinf? : and though
not to frogranU this oil probably cxcreiiiea upon the system some of
tbe gently exciting, nerve soothing, and hunger staying inlluence of

• Loe-dl^p. Stft, >16,andS17.

138

CHICORT, AND ITS AD0LTERATIONS

tbc similar injrredients contained in tea and coffee;. and, second, the
hitter principle. When ttikcii unmixed, this substinoe is lo uian}',
wbik' ihey are unaccnstnnied to it, nor only disajn'eeivWev but nawpeous
in a high deiircc. It may, hoivifver, like many other hitter principles,
possesm. as 1 have saiil, a tonic or strengthening; prnperty. Taken in
niodernte quantities these ingreilients of" cJncnry Bre pnibably not in-
jnrinus to healthy hut by prohmfred and frequent use they produce
lieaithurn, rranip in the stomach, ]nF3 oC appelite, acidity in the
moulh, eonstlpsiticm with intemiittcnt diarrbcea, weakness of the
limbs, tremblings, eleepleasness, a drunken cloudiness of the sense?,
&c. &c. At the best, therefore, chicory is a substitute for coflee
to which only those to whom the price is an object ought to have re-
course."

Thi;* opinion of Professor Johnston ngrees, therefore, nearly with that
of M*Culloch, already quoted, to the effect that chicory "has nothing
to recommend it except its cheapness."

For ourselves, we would remark that while chicory is substituted to
an cnormoufl'extent for coffee, it yel possesses none of the characteristics
of a true substitute. We believe that the nunntity of "empyreunmtic
essential nil " present is inntutesimal, and tliat tlie *' bitter principle"
consirits chietly of burnt sujiar.

Although we are nut ilispotted to attach, therefore, much weight to
t?iese sO'calledactipt in^r<fietih in roasted chicory, it is yet certain that
it does contain constituents possessing! active and mctlicinal properties
not of a desirable character ni an article of fiKnl.

Thus, it is very certain that the infusion of roasted chicory is
aperient.

In proof of this we will cite the resulta of some observations of
our own.

Three persona partook of chicory at breakfasts The infusion was
dark-coloured, thick, destitute of the nprecable and refreshing aronm
so characteristic of coffee, and wa.** of a bitter taste.

Each individual experienced, for some time after drinking the infu-
sion, a sensation of heaviness, a feeling of weight at the stumach, nnil
frreat indisposition to exertion ; in two, headache set in ; und in tlie
third, the bowels were rclnxcd.

In second and third trials of the chicory, the same feelings, weight at
the stomach, and want of energy, were exjwrieneed, but no headache
or diarrhoea.

Several other trials were subsequently made, with nearly similar
results.

But chicory, it will be said, la seldom taken alone in this country,
and when mixed with coflee these effects are not proi.hiued.

Two persons partook, for a considerable period, twice a day, of an
article denominated coffee, costing one shilling aiul sixpence a pound,
and largely adulterated with chicory : during nearly the whole of this
time they both sufiered more or less from diarrhcca.

CHICORT, AND ITS ADrLTER-XTIONR.

139

From the result of these trials, therefore, we are warranted m con-
cluding that nt least some doubt is attached to the assertion of the
** whoicsnme" properties of chicory root a* an artirlo of diet.

So well are niothem in France and fiermiiny luqiiiuntod with the
aperient pro|)ertie« of chicory, that they freijueiuly give iiifaTita and
young children n strong infunion of the roAKted root as an aperient,
preferring it to ordinary medicine on account of lU less disagreeable
tlftvour.

Again, it is the opinion of an eminent ociillfit in Vienna, Professor
Beer, that, the onntinual uNe of chicory seriously affects the nervous
system, and gives rise to blindnes** from amaurosis.

The:*u are seriniis effects of the use of chicory, and should make
those in autliority hesitate before they foster the use of this article
by pivin;; to ita sale an undue and unfair preference. *

The greater pHrt of the chicory used is grown in this country, and
does nut pay nny duty ; and vet it is allowed to be mixed with coffee
to *ny extent, an article bearing a very hit:h duty.

Of the "nutritive" propcriie.s of chicory, of which Sir Charles
Wood entertained so liijrii mi opiiiirtu, we need say but little, feeling
Hamred that the reader will scarcely be disposed to question the accu-
racy of the assertion, that a nioulliful of good wheuten bread contains
more nourishment than u oup of iniusion of chicory.

Chicory and cofTee, then, mny be lliiis contrttsled.

They diOer from ench oilier in llieir bnlanicnl nature, in chemical
Coinp«>sition, ami in phy>iological iictinn ivnd pru[Krrties.

Cuffce is the fruit nr seed uf a treu, while chicory is the succulent
ro4tt of a herbaceous plant. Now it is a well-tiscertained fact, that of
all parts of vegetables, tlie fruit imd see^ls usually possess the nuist
active properties : this is no doubt due to the circumstonce of their
being Ireely exposed to the induence of liiiht and air — agencies
which promote chemical changes in tlie plant, and so cflVet the
elaboration of those complex organic substances on which the activity
of vegetables depends. On the other hand, it must be manifest, that,
as the roots ore removed from the intluencc of these powerful agencies,
they CAonnt be so richly endowed with active properties ; ami, mdeed,
there are but few roots, which contain either alkaloids or vnlaiile oils
— tbe two classes of cAusiituenis which give to colFec im peculiar
▼irtnes. The distinction, therefore, between the properties of tne seeds
and niots of plants is very important, and it is especially so in the case
before m».

The iiifiisiou of the one is heavy, mawkish, and nearly destitute
of aroma; that of the other is light, fragnuit, and refreshing.

Coffee contains at least three active jirinciples, or constituents, viz.,
t]ie volatile oil. the tannin, and the alkaloid caffeine ; in chicory there
arc no analognus constituents.

Coffee exerts nn the system mnrkcil and hiahly important physio-
logical eflccla, of u beneficial character. There is no proof that chicory

140

CHICORT, AKD ITS ADCLTKRATIONS.

exerU any one of these effects, while it is very questionable whether
the properties which it really docs possess are not really hurtful.

Adulteka TICKS OP Cbicokt.

What ! chicory aduli^rateil ? A substance used to adulterate
another article, itself adulterated ? Imposi^hle! Improbable as the
thinf; appears, it is nevertheless true.

When it is remembere*! that all the vegetable substance* employed
in the adulteration of coffee re^^uire to be charred or roasted, and
that to effect this a suitable apparatus U require*!, such as but few
retail grocers possess, it at once becomes at lea^t {M*obable that these
suhstances are prepared for them by other parties.

This impression acquires increased force when it becomes known
that the majority of grocers bay their chicory, not in nibs, but in
ptncder^ and that this is supplied to them by certain wholesale
ckieorr houses which charge for it, in general, a less price than for
the niba, or angrouiid root itself^ or than genuine chicory powder can
be fairly sold at.

'Vhe subsUmces which are either subetitut^ for chicory, or mixed
with it, are very numerous ; «everal of these we have ourselves
detected^ while otben have lieen discovered from time to time by
different parties. They tnciutU all Most employe<i in the tuiulferation
of coffee; indeetl the jjreator number of substances met with in
aitulterated coffee are introduced into it through the chicory with
which it is mixed.

This conclusion is deduced not only from the examination of a con-
siderable numb^ of sanplcs of powilered chicory, but Irom evidence
derived from other sources.

Dr. Pereink in 184J, published in the ** Pharmaceutical Journal**
two very useful articles on the aiiultfration of coffee and chicory :
from the first of these — that oo coffee — we extract the following
remarks: —

**But while tke groocn^ on the one hand. eheM their coftomers
bv ailulteniting tauflce with cbioorr, the ohicorr dealer? in turn
CMit the gn->cerv }yr adnlteratinp chicory;** aud be then goes on to
dMtribe cvrtaiu aduUeratiiuu of chMX>rv, thoie with Btxmhrv poM:der

Another circumslaMe wludi pfoves not only tibat chicory is
Adtthanbad, hnx ako tkat iha leUctw oi ehleoty puwtlet arc in some
OMM partieB to the aduUeratioiv » that the nowder is tooietames
said ttiuer t^ market tvrico at which getiuicte chicory can be procured.

The MibstaiKV* with whtcfa diioory has bean mi,^ laiiH^l to be
aduUermlcU, are all thi«e article* which har* be«« •wnHvmled under
Co4ire; nameiy, dlfferrat kinds of roasted cora, aa wlnrt, and rye^
oeormtt CBrroft, mm^wU'tmntt^ Anf rooi; swrifcrf; haktd Uters,

CHICOUr, AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS.

hurnt sugar or biack J6ck^ Venetian red^ atid other analogous red
earths.

Wiih regard to the use ofeanots and parsnips, Mr. Guy, in evidence
before the Parlianieiitary Coinniiltfe, makes the fblltiwiiig statement : —

" I renjeinber, one year when ehitiory was worth *il/. per ton, manu-
facturing 700 tons of carrots into chicory. Tliey were grown by one
gentleman in Surrey, and supplied U> the house where X was, and 350
ions of parsnips."

Besides the above named articles, *' coffee jUghU ** and " Hambro*
powtter" hiive been used, as also, it has been alleged, exhaiuted tajt^
Icnown as crqoU, and oahhark poinler.

The following engraving:* exhibit the microscopical characters of
chicory adulterated with wheat Hour, also with a substance resem-
bling ground acorn, of oak-bark Ian powder, and of exhausted ton or
croata,

Ar.ao.

leOTT.

a a ar« the rfll* ■ud wimI* of fkintrf root, vhllp ilxMf mirkr^l ^ U art lt>a
nwvti eorputclH of tuAttU. No bo<U«a Us IM leul tCMiobUosUictc occu> in
gmulD* clucary powder.

Acmrding tn Dr. Pereira, "Ifitmbro* powder consists of roasted and

ground peas, &c^ coloured with Venetian red. The term cnffrejiights
IS applied tn the thin membranous ront (endocarp) which separates
from the coffee seed in the act of roasting.

149

CHICOKT, AND ITS ADULTEKATIONS.

Tn Dr. PereiruH arlk'le on Chicory wc meet with ihc following re-
miipka in reference to Venetian red : —

"In a previrus number we explained tbe nature of Venetian rt<l.

n a, nib of cAtery; 6 ft. fngmcnU containing ngmeronf lUreh (kv|iuw1m. rc-
tcmbllng Ibowc of fKXim ; c r, wiMuatc iikruli itraouk* : (f il. |K>fti<L>ii« i>r » brown
tnrmbrwM, irilbuut Kmtunit urgituiMlluu, vvrjr cumin liiiIj^ ubaemd, uid Jv
rini, frutn the lutaof ue teed.

iron, nbtaiueU by enlcininn
Tlie "iilTcrcnt colours oi' the

It is essentially the aevquioxide of
couunon coppciaa (nulpliale ul' irun).
product dupeiiil on tlic tcmjfcralure to which the 8*.'S(|uioxid.» is sub-
jected. When it lias l^een exposed tn nn intense while !ie*L, its
colour deepens, and it is llioii termed tiurple-bruKti. The lighter tint
of Veucliun red is produced by auullerution. Our infornmnt (a
maiiulueturer) \oU\ us that Vem.'tiaii red wan * adulleraled to suit the
various priced of the umrket.* \Vc did not think it vxpi'dient to prv
into the iiaturu of the adulleratin;; injji-edient, but u iViyiid suggests
that it is reddle, the subatimce used for nmikin}; sheep.

*' Vcnetiuii red h, we believe, the princi[ial sutwUince at present used
for colourinu' rliifory : (H.ciisionally oiher agcntiJ have been employed.
A deolcr tclU us tb:it he once bought a quaiiiity of chicory which cou-
tiiined^O per cent, of lo^wouti and mahogany dust

CHICOBT, AND ITS ADULTERATIOKS.

Rb»UI.T9 or TUB EXAMINATIOH OF SaUTLES.

The results of the Microscopical examination of T^iViV-ybitr samples
of cUcorj powder, iiiadti some tiuie back, some of which were put-

Fii.i».

TtiMjtnwton ixhlUU t)M> stnielnm
liUdiuut-lcn.

In OAK-Bin mwm,—ihM raMntf
M. l>rkwii wlUi Um CAiMn I.ncida.

cliaseil of diffcreot grocers and others obtained fVom manufacturers,
were, —

l»l. That Fourteen sumpleti were adulterated.

*2rid. TImt in yiite the adulteration consisted of roasted Cora.

3r<l. That »rorchc<t Benns were present in Four of the samples.

4th. That in One case ground Acont was »letected.

The resulu of the examination of Twenty-three other samples made
at a Bubeetjuent pi'riud were, —

Ist. "I'hnl. Elecen or one-half nf the samples were adulterated.

•Jnd. Thql FotP" of the chicory potcderi were adulterated with
rxtasted W'hetti-

3rd. Thiit^Tinuw/ Acorns were preMent in an equal mtmher ofca$es.

4ih. Thst Two of the samples contained Sawdust^ and one Mahogany
Saiifdnnt.

U4 CHICORY, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

5th. Tlml Mangold- wurzel waji detected in One of the chicories^
6tb. That i« One instance roauted Carrot was present.

Thli dmrloff exliiblta the ■Iruelum ■Irlovt'd in th* Tak known 1» KorTolk hjr tht
BOHM of " Croat;" uid tueU for fuel, fee

Lastly, the results nf the cxAmination of Thirty-eight additional
samples of chicory, hntli ns pnrrhQ!«pfl from shops nnd as pronirod from
inanufactiirprs, nnd whirh cx;iniinntion was in^titutod inninly for the
purnoBo of (Iptcrniinin;! whi-ther Vonctmn red or other analogous fer-
rugmous earth wil-* i'niplr»veil to colour ehicory, wlto, —

1st. That out of the t^i'^htnen saiuples of chicory procured froia
manufacturers, Five were adnlttfrutfd with roasted wheai farina,

2nd. That ffCP^n/Zof the samples yiehled a coloured ash,

3rd. That out of the Sixteen samples of chicory purchased at the
establishmPTits of different grocers in the metropolis, One was odul-
temteil yi\t\\ rtmxted fari^ui.

4th. That xhaaxhes of several of the samples were highly coinured,
indicating the presence of some rtd ferruginotts earthy as reddle or
Venetian red. In two samples the incorporation was so imperfect
that we were enabled to separate large particles of the Venetian red
from the chicory powder.

CHICORT, AND ITS ADrLTERATIONS.

145

We have now shown,

Tliat L'hieory, ftn urucle used to mlulterntc another article, is itself
largely adulterated.

Ttiat the dcal*:rs in or man u fact urera of chicory ore in many cases
tbeparties wbo practiiie this adulteriition.

We are sorry, however, to declur*.%tliaL in those instances in which the
retail grocers do not themselves adulterate the chicory they vend, we
are iinshle in AC(|uit them of pnilty knowledge of nnd participation in
the fraud : this knowledpe is displayed in the tact that the fraudulent
•rrocer frequently purchmacs chicorv in powder, at a price at which it
IS not possible to pro'iurc genuine chicory.

The prices demiuidcd for tht; several sumplog nnalysod varied from
5d. to U, per lb. ; the ordinary charjie bein;; 8rf. The price of chicory
in powder to the trade ranges in general from 20*. to 32*. per cwt. ;
thus the profit of the retail grocer on the sale of chicory powder is
fleldom under cent, per cent, and often much above it.

On the Detection of the Adulterations of Chicory.

The Chancellor of rbe Kxchequer, in May (1850), stated to the House
of Comninns, that " having desired tlie iioanl uf Inland Kevenue to
Btnte wheiht-r there was iiny ready and avjtiliible proof of the mixture
of chicory with coffee, he had received a reply In the etfect, that four
experienced persons having been employed in mnking experiments, the
re!*ult of the incjuiry wns, that neilher by chpmical tests, nor in any
other way, cnidd they aswrlain, wiih any degree of certainly, whether
the mixture eontiiincd chicory or not." •

Notwithstanding thid fornml and apparently outhoritntivefitatomcnt^
the fact is that few tilings are easier uf deteetiuii than the presence
of chicory in coffee bv meiins of the niiciroscope : the detection of
the adulterations of enicory itself are for the most ptu't not more
difficult.

The identification of chieorr with certainty, either in the pure
state, or when mixed with other articles, by other means than the
microsco|>e, is by no means easy, if it be not impossible, in the present
Btate of science.

It has been repeatedly stated thnt coffee and chiiMiry maybe distin-
guished by the manner in which they comport themselves when
placed on the surface of water; the ciiicory powdur, it is said, soon
(finks, while coffee floats. In the case of the majority of samples of
chicory examined this test completely failed, as the powder did not

* On tMrinjt rrnnindfrl of thU Rf*pnr| hy Mr. Srhnli-RpM. Mr. QcnrftP PlillMpi makMlhU
(lAtablerciilir : — " Yri. that !• » fnr back u IHICi. Tho i^et U, ths aubject b«d not then
been atuiiira lu rrjpirrl* ihf uliilieriTlr^ii orrnffr-*" an'l chrory "

Au that until rpt'fotl*, nn thnwIinloUin thii« publirl)' ji*nv'r<t br Ihf^ rlilef ■rifntlflr ant ho*
t\Xy coon^rlvd with th» kxtUp, lh« mKcr*. f^t noythliiit Oh* Kxriic rotild do, ml|tht nilul*
tttwtr their coffee and cblcorjr a> much ki Ihrj ]ile«>rd ! Prrlt/ prutcctlun <ii the rrrmu*
inilf 1

14«

CHICORT, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

sink, but rested on the surface for a cnnsidcrable time, nnd ronlinned
perfectly dry, — a result po-sihly attributuble to the presence of the
lard iisL'd in tbe roustinjj; of the niba.

Another way nrcommended lo detect an admixture of chicory
with cniTee, is to add t^nwe. of the flusppclc-d powder to cold water.
If chicory be prefccnf, the writer will rjuickiy become coloured, and
by the depth nt" the cohnir the proportion of chicory may be f;ucA]icd
nt. This melliod is» however, utterly fallncious since the colour
may arise from the presence of burnt sufrnr, so commonly used, or of
roii8te<l wheat, wirrot* and olhcx- siniiliir subatunces.

The Hdultenitifin with chicory has been attemfited to bo established
by haviitin re^jard t*» tbe relative specific gravities of inl'usinn^ uiaile
from ei)iml qunntilies of coffee and chicory. It hns been found tbrtt
the infusion of coffee is of much lighter spccifio gravity than one
of chicory, the difference in fact bcin{^ about 1 to 3 ; but ainte
other sweet roots, as well as maizo, rye, &c., yield infusions equally
heavy with that of chicory, this test is useless as a means of de-
termminfj the fact of I he adultcrnlinn of cnfi'ee with cliicory. The
colour of the infuston and its specific gravity, doubtless ftff"»ird rough
and general indications as to wliether any paiticular samples i>f coflee
are genuine or not, but it is imposfiible by thesii characters to pro-
nounce an opinion ns to the nature of the afUiltcrntion practised.

Tijo difficult V of dettN*iiTi|^ chicory by cbcinicid moans arises fi*om
the absence of any peculiar and distinctive principles in the roasted
root. Various attempts have been made witli the view to discover
some characteristic reactions and peculiarities of composition ; Messrs.
Graham, SteTdiouse» and Campbell especially have directed their at-
tention to this subjurt.

These chemists have, amonpst other points, endeavoured lomake use
of the colour and specific gravity of the diflerent infusIauK U!'e<l as a
means of detecting the adulicrations of coffee with chicory and other
roots ; but these data are not capable of affording any precise or re-
liable conclusion.

They have also endeavoured to avail themselves of the presence of
glucose or grape sitgttr in chicory ns a means of di^criminaijun ; thus,
while the siipar in roasted citflee rarely exceeds I {wr cent., and is
usually only half this quantity, in roiytcd chici»ry it has been found
to range from \\'i)fi lo 9H6 per cent.; but Mince other sweet roots,
as beet root, mangold-wurzel, turnips, dandelion, carrots, and parsnips,
coniain on the avera*;c as much sugar as chicory, thi» mean^
utterly fails as a test for chicory. The utmost that can ju^^tly be in-
ferred from the presence of a considerable nnioonl of suj^ar in (jround
coffee is, that it is adulterated, and prohiiUy with one or other of the
roots above-named. Further, the prefcetjce of sujjrar in small quantity
affords no proof of the genuineness of coifee, since some of tlie
cereals and other substances employed to adidterutecoiree are equally
deficienlwitb it in saccharine matter. Lastly, sugar isoften purposely

CHICOBT, AND ITS ADULTEBATIOJJ8.

»dde(3 to cofTee, aomelimps durinni the roafttlngf and subsc^^nentlj In
the form of burnt sufjar or black jack.

Again, they hnve nvailcd theiiiK'Ivcs of the (iimntity of *i/»crt present
in toe aahcit of coflVc and other TO<:ctnb!;e udultiiruntu as another
inemJtfl of discrimination. The silica ofroaslerl coHue averupes Ufunllj
about n quarter and rarely Hppruuijhes one halt" |>er cent.; while,
as hxs been already »hown, the sand and silica, iuMilublu in !U-ids» of
four samples of rnA:«tcd chicory aninimted to as much as I0'6H,
IS'lUf lU) 71, and 35*85 |)er cent, of the ash : but in roasted dandelion
root the proportion of silica is as great as in chicory, jri eat part of the
i^ilicA in both I'tiscs being derived from the dirt Kiill adhering to the im-
j>erfectly cleansed nwts. The same la the case with the rooisoCcurrotd
and parsnips pre]>ared ill tlie same rough way for use as chicory roof,
The presence, iherelore, of a larj;e excoKs of ailica does not prove the
fad of adulteratinn with chicory ; indeed, it can scarcely be said to uf-
fonl decisive proof of adidtcration of any kind, hince any excess of silJca
mijcLt be due simply to the fact of a little snnti becnmtng Hccident^iUy
mixed up with the cotfee. In the cereals a^tiin, with the exception of
maize, the at-h of which coniaiu*! about 2 per cent., the silica is high,
OS >hown by the researches of Messrs. Opslon nnil Way. wlio stale that
Id wheat the ?iliea varies from 20*5 to 5-4'6 per cent. ; in barley from
23 6 to 70*77; in onis from 3848 to 5003 ; while in rye it is about 922.

Lastly, Messrs. Graham and Stcnhouse have examined the f/«A uf
cotTee and chicory, and certain other adulterants, with a view to dis-
cover distinctive characters. The principal dtlferences inthecomposi*
tion of the ash are shown by the figures givrn below : —

Silica and sand -
Carbonic acid
Sc^uioxide of iron
Chlorine

In Coffee Ahh.

0-44 to 0*98
0 26 to I'll

In ('hlcorj Aih.
\0i\9 to 35-85
1-78 to 319
3 13 to 5 32
3-28 to 4 1*3

Extending tlie comparison further, however, we find in a variety
of other vegetable substances, even of those uned in the adulteration
of chicory and coffee, an excess over the rpmnlitics usually contained
ID cofice of nil the cons^tituents referred to above. Some of the sub-
stances in which excess of silica occurs, have already been mentioned.
Carbonic acid occurs in nearly the same pro^jortion m acorns, j>ar!inip,
beet root, carrot, and turnip, as in coflee ; the quantity of ubioriue
approximates to chicory in aconis, ]>&r»nip, carrot, turnip, ond dan-
delion roots; lastly, the ir\tn h excessive in dundelitm and beet
root, and would be so no doubt in carrot and parsnip roots impor-
fe*:lly rleansed and freed from dirt. Bcaides, all c(mclu«ioiis base<l ujwn
an excess of iron, except tlie general one that adulteration with »uuie
substance containing an excepts of that metal ha.i been practised, are
precluded by tlie fart that cliicory and other roots employed to tophif-
ticate coflVw are themselves often adulterated with red ferruginous

L 2

CHICORY, AND ITS ADULTKnATIONS,

eartlis, as Venelinn reil and rwUlIe, contafning, frequentl/, exoena of
carlmnio aciil, limi*. iron, ami pilicn.

The ash of €f>frc'e adultcrnteij with ony of the cerenls, and also lo a
leas ex(cnt wlih lupins, peas, and bean;", is^ ot'courife, distinguished by
the Urge amount (»f phosphnrir noid present. In coffee the phosphoric
acid may be set dftwii ut about 10 percent.; in chicory it varies
from 6"85 lo 11*27; in lupins it is usually about 25 per cent^ uiid in
maize 44 per rent.

^^'^ith regard to the nttroj^en of roH'ee and chicory, the autfinrs of
the lEeport under eim>ideration remark ; — "Tiie pro|>ortion of nilro-
cen ill oofTpp i}«, Ihurf ftire, greater thiin in chicory ; but the difference
is not BudiiiiDiitlv murketl to distiiifruish the two substances rendily
from each other. The conclusion may, however, be drawn that le,^s than
2 percent, of nitrotren in coffee is a stronj; presumption of adidlfratiun.'*

It is obviously best, therefore, not to waste time in the prosecution
of chemionl ineihoHs of research leading to no certain results but at
once to have recourse to the microscopti ; by this instrument ali the
adulterations of coffee and chicory with vetrclable substances are dis-
coverable with ease and certainty. In the case of chicory, it is only
neceaiary to ascertain by it whether those structures characteristic of
its root (see _figit. 3U» 34, an<l 35.) are present or not, to observe well
the site n\' the cells, whether thev contain starch or nor, the size and
character of the vessels, und espectaUy whetlier tJasa iacticentia are
present

For this purpose, a grain or so of the powder should be placed on
a slip of plass, a drop or two <if water ndded, and the larger par-
ticlc«, which swifll up iiiid become more visible tfiiiii when in the dry
ptnte, torn into pieces by means of needles. A Utile ol" t!ie powder
should then be plflceJ on a clean slide, covert'd with a piece af thin
glass, aud subjected to examination with the J-or |-inch object-
glasses.

The adulterations of cliicory beinij for the most part the Sflme as
those of cofiee, similur means must- be !ij»1 rocuurse to for their detec-
tion: when these consist of ve(;otable Bub^^ances of any kind* the
microscope will be found *o supply the only ready and certain means
of detection ; wlieii vf chemical substances, as burnt su^ar or Vene-
tian I'ed, chemical methods of research must be resorted to. For a
detailed descriplinn of the characters of the variuua substan<'cs used
in the adulteration of coffee and chicory, and of the means for their
discovery, the reader is referred lo the jireccdin^ ariiirle on Coffee.

The act<?ctton of substances containing Rtarch by ehemicai meana is
attended with even jrreater dilficultles than in the case of coffee, the
blue colour deveiuped on the uililition of iodine being obscured by the
deep brown colour of the infusion of chicory.

It may be thus effected, however : iodine may be ftp[died to a
small (piantity of the article placed under the microscope, but in
order to determine the Quantity present we must proceed as follows:
— A carefully propareti infusion of the article ie lo be made : this is

CHICOUr, AXD ITS ADULTERATIONS, 149

to be divided into two parU : in one the sugar is to be determined
by Fehliii^'s sitlution, or by converting it into ulcuhol ; ilie ruber is to
bu boiled with tlilute 6ulpliuric acid until nil tlie starcli i^ elmn;;ed
intu gmjic >ugar, tVoni llie ninotiiil vt' which prtisent (ileduciLn^, of
course, tlie glucose not tU'rived from the conversion of the starch) the
»tAreh itself limy Ito ralcutat«d.

The evidence of Uie use of Reddle and Venetian red is principally
derived fntin the incineration of u certain ijuaiuity of tbe suspected
chicory pnwder, and by unulysis of the ush. All vegetable sub-
pianccri, wliether coloured or not, yield, un incineration, a greyish-
white ash. 'I'he ash of coloured earthy substances, on the contrary,
after being burned in a crucibh', remains mure nr less coloured.

As, however, chicory >» the root of a plant, and as the eai-ihy matter
is but tteldom entirely removed from it by wnshing, the ayh of even
jrenuine chicorv noi unfrequenlly exhibit.^ on this account, a slight
decree of colnuratiun, being occajtionaily brownish, or of light-fawn
colour. It is only, therefore* when the ash is decidedly coloured^ and
espeeiAlly when nf a red or rusty-red colour, ihat the presence of
Venetian I'ed, reddle, or suuie other analogous substajice, la reuUered.
certain.

In these facts, therefore, we have a retidy nietins of determining
whether a sample of chicory, or any other Vfgetable powder, contains
an vlwixture of any mineral colouring matter o<intaiiiing iron, a con-
clusion which may be further couBrmed by chemical analysis.

Oh the Quuntitaiive Estimation of Setquitmde of Iron in Chicory.

Aitiiough the presence of iron is sufficiently indieatetl bv the colour
of the aali of chicory, and most (»ther vegetable substances, yet iu some
caM** it bec*omes necessary to deteriuiuc its amount.

For this purpose, the ai>h (say of .'300 grains of chicory) should be
boiled with dilute hydrochloric acid until all the iron has become
dissnlved, the acid evaporated nearly to dryness, about an oum'c of
distilled water added, the Milulion filtered, nnd the iron precipitated as
se8<{ui<ixide by meamiof f»olntion of ommoniu, the precipitate collected^
wa>hed with hot water, ignitcJ, «nil weighcil.

Thin proce.vt is npplicjible otdy, however, in the absence of earthy
phosphates t>r uluminu, a» these are atw precipitated by aiumouia.

The alkaline carth» may !«,• diesolvcd out of tiie atumoiiia precipi-
tate by means of an exceedingly dilute solution of hyilrocldoric acid.
This will not ufTect luateriully either the iron or the alumina. By ft
Bolution of nitric acid, I part to 30 or 40 of water, the iron aUo, if in
small ipiantity, may be separated from the alumina.

Hy the fbllowiog process the scsquioxidc of iron may be separated
from the alkaline earths, alumina, lime, and magnesia : —

The ignited and weighed residue is to bo diMoIvL'd bv digestion with
conuentrated hydrochloric acid, or by fusion with bisulpbate of jKitassa.

L 3

CHICORT, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

ISO

Boil the solution first with «nme sulpliatc of snda, and tlien with soKi-
tii^iL of ttoilii. witic'b will luko up the iilumiiiii. Wftsli the reMitluo
thorough] V, (1is<«ilve it in hyilroithloric aciil, precipitate tbesesquioxide
of iron, obaerviiii; the iiefessnr^r profJiutians, with sueciuate of am-
ininiiii.

Or the iron may be prtcipiiated by sulphide r>f ammonium.

Mix with the ac"i solution ammonia, until a precipitate just be^ns
to form, ilien with siilpliide of anim<iaiiini ; si^[i.irate the precipitate
which rontains iron» also iiiunf;anpse, shoiilJ that nict;il be present, by
filtrntion ; dissolve it in hyilrotrhloric acid, and separate the iron from
the manganese, if any* by siiciMnale of ammonia. If there is no reaaim
to suspect the pro^t^nce of nminL'nneK* the precipitation with succinate
of ammonia may bi^ miiitled. I'he aluminu Hiid the earthy phosphates
are in the HItnite ; hut if too much ammonia is added, they too would
in part he thrown dfiwn.

The succinate of ammonia is nscd in the following manner: — A very
dilute liolurion of anunortia is addi-tl ilrop by dri>p ti> the sohitiun con-
taining the iron, until a small portion of the mL^tal precipitates in lh«
furmof hydnitedsesfjiiioxicle : a jrentle heat istliennpniicd to aseertain
whether the nrecipitiile will re<il?5iilve or nnt ; if it u>ies so, nmream-
nioiiiu iH added, until the application of heat fails to dissolve the
precipitule farmed. If, on the cnrilrnry, it r«rouJns undissolved, and
the fluid continu*'s to br nf a brownish-red colour, all the conilitions
requisite are Inllillyd. Itut shnuhl the fiuid be c^>I^lU^le^s, tno much
amnnmia Iuh liecn nddml, tn whteh ease a small qunntlrv of hydro-
chloric acid must be adde-rl, and then, a;^ain, nioni ainnionio, until
the point desired is obtained. A perfectly neutral rinUition ofsuci-inate
of ammonia is now to bp iiddc<l so Ion;; as any preeipitate falU ; a
gentle heat is then applied, the fluid Is afterwanU allowed to cool, and
when rnld it, \n filtered, the pi-eeipitute washed on a filter, first with
cold water, aiit) nt'i.^rwjirds wiili hot solutiuu of aiuuuHiia; it Js then
dried and ignitvil thoruu<;hly until it is all converted into sesquioxlde.

The eases, then, nf coflec and chicory afford striktn;; illustrations of
what can be ejected in the discovery of adulteration by means of the
micriiH'Ope.

Tlie article nn Chicory may be concluded by a review of reasons
tirj^ed both for and a^;iinst the admixture of chicory with coflfee
taken from the author's bi>ok entitled "Food and its Adulterations."
Some of the remarks contained in this review, requin* to be moililioil
to eome extent in eonsequence of the alteration wliit'h has taken place
in the law since the review was drawn up, by which it is required
that chicory should not be sold mixed with cofiw, excei>t the fart of
such mixture is specified by a tube). Thi» law in, however, con?tantly
evaded: the mixture is sometimes stild without the label; in other
cases it is palmed off where coffee only in nsked for ; aotl lastiVf in aoiue
icslances the so-called mixture consists almost entirely of chicory

CHICORY, AND ITS APULTEHATIONS.

Review of Jteasons urged both For and Against the Admixture of
Chicory with Cofft^r.

Various reasons have been urged hoth in favour of and a^inst the
"ndulteralion," nr, as the Cbuncellor more gently phraaea it, the
" mixing " of chicory with coffee* : these we will next proceed to con-
sidtfr.

Jfi favour of the adulteration it i» a[lc;;pd, —

First, that the admixture of chicory with coffee improves coffee^ and
thftt such addition in approved by the public.

In order to nscertjiin whether ihe mldition of chicorjr to coffee be
really an iinprovt'nicnt, wc prepared three infusions, one of coffee,
another of chicory, and rhc third of botli these mixed in the propor-
tion of three-fourths coffee and nne-fcmrlh chieory.

The infvsion of ciffee wns perfectly trnnsparent, and of a dark and
rich brown colour; it emilted an od^mr in m high degree penetrating
and refreshing, \\iv\ to the ta«te it w:ia agreeable, and rather bitter.

Having been taken for a few minuter, it produced a feeling of ge-
neral wnriiuh, and a state of bodily and mental activity and invigora-
tion.

The infusion of chicory was opaque, staining the sides of the vessel
containing it; it |KWse*tfed a nenvy, thoutih ncrhiips some persons
might be of opinion not a disagreeable smell, wholly unlike, ho^vever,
the vohtllle and diffusive odour of ci»ffee; in taste it was more bitter
than the coQee infusion, wiih a certain degree of sweetness.

Having been swallowed for a few minuies, it occasioned a feeling of
weight itt the »tomach, and a general heaviness and iudispositiou to
botlily and mental exertion.

The combined infusion of chicory and coffee partook, to some ex-
tent, of the characters f^^ the infusion of genuine coffee, as might be
snticipatfd from the coffee \i cont&ined.

Altogether, we were unable to bring ourselves to believe that the
addition of chicory to cofffe in the projwrtion of twenty. five percent.
of the lonner was any improvement ; on the contrary, we were satistietl
that the quality of the brverage was greatly imjiairt'd by the addition.

I'ersons who are foolish enoujih to regard a slight sensation of
wei;;hl and fulness in tlio region of the stomach —symptoms really of
incipient indigestion — as evidences of the beverage being iMissessed of
incieAsed " strength" and " b()dy," and whose nasul organs are insen-
sible to the delightful aronia of coffee, wight |Kissibly be brought to
consider the atlditton an improvement.

In contrasting the pn»pertie« of chicory and coffee, we woubl
once more observe it must not bo forgotten thut the former article
it* wholly destitute of that i>eculiar priticlpk' '" caffeine ^'' Xi\>ox\ which
the virtues of coffee in part uepend. and that iherelbre for every ounce

i. 4

isa

CHICORT, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS,

of chicory in a pound of coffee there is so niucb ihc less of thut atima-
tutin^ and invigorating iiitrogenised product.

AlLiiwing, however, fur th« sake of arij[UTnent, that the admixture of
chicory in moderate propoi-tions is in the ojjini^jji of poirit; pergon!* an
improvementf it is very cortain that by others it i^ n»t coii*iciered to
be sa; ftiid auch, tliercfore, ought surely to be nUintJrd o choice, and
not be compelled, as they frequently are, to drink chicory ftllhough
they dislike it.

But the udinixture of chicory with coift'c in the proportion of
twenty-five per cent., tbu ulrnnsft that cnn be uMowed by any person
to eoiiiftitut^ an improvLnueot, doea ni>t in general tsatisfy tlie desire
for profit on ilie ptuL of the grocer ; he use?*, in most cases, a very
much larger pri>porti(in of chicory thiin thi.*, and the shilling coffee,
**the p*ior mnn*s beverage" contains onc-hulf or tliree-finirlh* chicory,
and in some inatances consi^tts entirely of it. Now no truthful JM-Tson
will OBsert thut chicory in thc6e, the more common projiortions, is aa
iniprovement to coffee.

Second, that th^ »wtf nf chicory increaxex (he consumption of coffee.

This stateinenL, ultliou^h recently put fortli by no leas an authority
than A late ChflnL-ellor of the Exrhe*iuer, is ju.*! the very reverse of the
truth* which is, that tlie use of chiciry diminishes tiie consumption of
coffee. This we have already clearly j)rnved, and it is not necessary
that we discuss tliis {xnnt again. It \it settled.

Third, that the poor uian, bif the empioj/ment of chicory, hat an arHcle
placed within his reach which othtrrwue he could not obtain.

This argument, although f!f>eciDu«f i.s utterly fallacious.

Cienuine coffee, ground, or in the berry, may now be obtained at
numerous reop'-uiableeAtablishmenis, at \s. 'Id, and I». -ki. per [Mumd,
this article costing the grucer more than tUree-founhs of the sum he
deinamli for it.

The mixture of chicory is never sold under I*, per lb., and the cost
of chicory lo tlie grocer very frequently does not exceed '<id. a pound,

Which of these two articles, therefore, we ask, is the beiU poor
mans bargain f

Shilling coffee, u vended at the present, is vile and often deleterious
rubbish, and we recommend the poor man never lo purchase it.

W« say, therefore, so far from the pnor man being beneliteil by
the use of chicory, that out of every shilling he spends in what is
ral.«ely denominated coffee, he is frequently robbed oI'Dr/.

We can well understand how the [xtor man or the pnor man's wife,
having, on a Sftturrtay night, only u few shillings to spend, and
desiring to make thpse go a* far as jKwsiMe, is judui-ed to purchase ihe
chea|)cst articles he or she can procure, overlooking the fact, that,
uUhough jjrofessedly the cheapest, they are often in reality the dearest
in the end.

We wish the poor man, therefore, clearly to understand, that
chicory is not to be compared to coffee in any respect, and we would

CHICOKT, AND ITS ADDLTERATIONS.

153

have him nvoid t}ie "r-lienp and rutting shnpn/* distinrruiithed hy large
placards and huge piles or damaged goods, nnd buy his cntVee at some
Louse of known and acknowledgt'd reputation and recpectability.

Apprehensive tliiit Gdvernmeiit will he forced to take notice of the
BCandaloits practiced now »o rifu in ihe article coffee^ ibe ailiilterating
grofers have already begun to raise ihe cry of " dear coffet?," and they
tell u«, that if the admixture of chicory with cofice be piohibited, the
price of the latter article will be 2t. the pnumi.

The answer to this statement is, that exi-ellent genuine cnfffe may
now be obuiined, at ODtabli.Hbnients which do not tifie chiL-ory in their
business at all, at prices varying from 1/r. 'Id to Iji. tif/. per pound.

Fuurtli, that the iaw sanc^ionn tftf aiiuUcration of coffee with f/riVory,
and therefore that the grocer, in mixing these articles, is guilty of no
fraud.

As the law at present stands^ it must be conceded, we are sorry to
«y, thiit in mixing diicory with c<iflee the grocer does not violate the
law, but only does that which the executive and its cinicers, to ihcir
shame be it ^aid, not nhme i<nnction, but arltinlly reL-ommeiid.

We hdld, however, that in vending nn article as cortc*^ which is not
coffee, the grocer is guilty of a moral fraud, and tlmt which iH morally
wrong no act of parliament aud no ministers cnn make niornlly right.

Firlk, and tnstly, it is alleged that i here is no necetisity for legishiiive
ioterlereuce, since, bt/ buyiug the affee berrie* iu the whole atatey the
pubUii can protect Uxelf,

Thofte who use this argument cannot but be aware how inefficient,
prai'ticidly, is the protection here referred tit.

The poor man has not the money wherewith to purchase a mill;
and if he ha<I, working early nnd late, riiting at six In the morning, and
going to bed late at uight, what time ur spirit has he to attend to such
niatcerfl ?

Again : others not so poor, and who are in a position to moke the
necessary purchase, arc perhaps equally engagetl, or ignorant of the
extent to which they are cheated.

Even of (hose who have both money and leisure we nffirm that not
one in twenty avaiU himself of the protection whitli the purchiiseof
the whole berry uflurdit ; nor, since he pays a fair price for an article
which be specifics, ought be to be called uprm to adopt measures of
extraordinary precaution against fraud.

We are not dis]>osed, however, to underrate the value of this means
of prolectiun, and we have pleasure in stating tliat elUcieut coffee
mills muy be prucureil at a trilling cost.

We put it to coffee merchants and respectable dealers whether it be
not advisable tliut they should themselves take some steps to supply
the public with cheap and effective coffee mills.

Wc have now to consider the chief arguments wliich have becaor
may be advanced against the adulteruliou uf coffee with chicuiy.

154

CHfCORT, AND ITS ADULTERATIOX8.

As*iingt this pmetiee we allege,

Firat : thnt surh adulteration nece»sitate» the commiimon of a moral
/rami, anil further, that it is irequentl^ made the cloak for pccaDiarj
i'ratid and extoruon.

WJit'ii lipurcliaser enters a shop, asks for an article, pays thepriee
demanded jor it, he hiis a ri^ht tu expect, tliab he Miall ubtain that for
■wlucli lie a^k*, and not u mixture of twu (iifVeront tliinjis, one of which
111* probably ptisittvcly object-s lo, and the rclatire proporfions of
which iini ri'ijidrtttd bv the will ami conscience of l)ie vendor. The
grocer who, undfr such i irrtimjita.m'es, plrtcci in the liiinrln of rbe pur-
chaser an adulrcratcd conimodiiVi commit£ a moral, and freijucntly a
pecuniarv frnud.

We will suppose the fuUowinjr onse of poisoning, not an improbable or
unfretjucMit onj : — An infunt has been given an overdose ol Godfrey*!
corilial ; the proj>er reniefly i.** n ^Iroiiff infusion of cofiee — liie cof"
already in iLe house, inismucb as h is the most ipiii-kly obtained, is
used; it confti-ta prini'i[)(»llv or perhaps entirety of chicory. TTte
chiid dies. Who is the party morally responsible in this cose ?

Second : that it is unjust to the grower K\i cc\?^iiit.

The jrrower of coffee has at least a right to demand, in consideration
of llje heavy tax which he pays for the privilege of bein^ permitted to
iaiix>rt his eoflee into ETt^Uiiid for diHpuf^u], that the sale ot the article,
and its estimation with the jnddic^ be not injured by the practice of
adulteration, carried on midur the sanction, and with the connivance,
of the legislature, and even uoiler the very name of coffee.

The payers of duty on other excisable articles are prtttected against
adtdteratioji by Inw^ and the coflee ^^rowcr has a full right to demand,
incotninon honesty, the some umotint of protection.

Third : that the revenue is injured.

Whatever lesi^ens ibe consumption of on excisable orticle, of cnume
iDJureti the revenue. It has been proved that the uiixlnn; of chicory
with cotTee lessens the consuin|itioii of coffee, and therefore, by so
much is the revenue diminishetl and injured.

If the Iffiw in revenue were so much gain to the public, there would
be less reason to complain, but this is not the case ; the advantage
is pocketed by unprincipled pn)rers.

Ffitirth : thai the public is defrauded.

That the public, and especially that lar^ section of it, the poor, U
exteni»ively defrauded by liie atlulteration of coffee with chicory, to
»ay nothin*;; of roasted curn, beans, dog biscuits, &c., has already been
cleorlv proved. Let those who entertain any doubts upon the subject
con-tnit the Table of Analyses which we gave in (>ur Keport i>n CotTee.

We have now clearly shown thai the disa<lvttnlages and evils re-
sulting from the mixture of chicory with coifee, in the manner and to
the extent now practised, arc preal nnd manifold, and ttat Ihey de-
mand the application of a suitable remedy.

The remedy which we propose is simple} moderate, and just : it isp

COCOA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS, 155

that the "Ti-ewury minute," aiutlinrisiDr; the mixture of chicory with
coffee, be resciudyiJ. The effect oi' tlus would be, to place colTee upon
the same fuotin*; with hU other excisuble articles, as tea, pepper, &c.,
and that penulties would attach to its adultenition.

Chicory would of ciHirse still be snhJ ; but in place of belnpr so olan-
deatinelv. It would be vended op<'nly, and under ha pnijKT name, and
ai its fair value.

Public morality, the interests of the revenue, of the grower, the
convuincr of cuOee, and of the honest tradesman alike require the
adoptiun of the remedy here puinteil out.

'ibe law, as we arc all awitre, nanctiuna the adulteration of cnffce
with chicory, to the injury of the levenue, and the loss of the
public in health and pocket. Thi^i f,tkm*^. Uw, however, does not
]M*nnit the adulteration of coffee with at^orchcd wheat, beans, carrots,
&c., but subjects parties practising these deceptions to prosecution,
And, in caae of convictiim, heavy penalties. Sueli. at feast, is the
law, but under the present government it U uselcsji law, itince,
itutwitbHtanding the prevalence of these adulterations, it is rarely
enforced.

lint, singular to say, the law, while it provides in word against
certain of the adulterations to wUicli cuffee is liable, is silent with
respect to the adulteration of cliicory ; so rliat that which is an
offence in the case of colfec, is not illegal in that, uf chicurvt with
which the manufacturers may mix corn, beunt<, carrocs, mangold-
wurzel, moliogany sawdust, &c. : tbis, lo say the least, is grossly incou-
listenL

Raw or kiln-dried chicory it free of duty. Roasted or ground Sd.
per pound at present, but from 5tli April 18.57. 4f/. per pound.

The quantities imported can only be learned by an application to
the Board of Trade.

COCOA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Catoa is prepared from the seeds of Theobrtnna Cuceio, so named by
Linnieus from the Greek word ^/di*, God, and iiftutfiay food, signifying
that cocoa was a food fit for the gods.

It ia a small but handsome tree, indigenous to the West Indies and
Central America. *' It grows spontaneously in Mexico and on the
coast of Ciiracois, and forms whole forests in Demarara. It is culti-
vated also in the Mauritius and in the French island of Boiu-bon." —

The seeds or beans are enclosed in a pod or fruit somewhat
like that of a cucumber, being usually about five inchea longi and

COCOA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

three And a hull* in ilianieter. Each fruit contains in penornl from
twenljf to tliii'ty beans, tUsposeJ in five rows, which are diviik'tl
frotii cneh olhor bv partili'ins. Occupying ihe ilivisiiiim <tt* ihe Iruil
um\ surroumliii;; ihc ^i^cdi is a roitv-culoureil spon^'y substuiicv* re-
temhling thiu of WHter-inulons.

The above description applies to fruits of nvenige sizy : snuietimea
llie fruits are so Urge, esput^iallj' thost' grown in Central America,
ih:tt they contain us many as from forty to firtr aeetln ; while
others, an those urown in the Wect Indian Island:*, Berhiee, and De-
merara, are mm-h smaller, ami i-nclo^ only from »ix to fifteen seeds.

During ninturafiou ilie fniiLs chau;fe from <;reen to dark yellow;
they are then phu-kcil, u[>i':iied, (lie seeds cleared of the spuitgy
eubstHuce, and spread out lu dry in the air.

Ill tlie West Indies, imniedialely that they tire dried, the beans
»*& packed uj» and arc ready f*»r the market; but in the Caraeeas
they ure subjected to slight fermentation : fur this ptirp»i»e they
ore either put into cheMs nr tub:!, whieh are covered over with
Iward^, the beamt beinp; turned over evt^ry morning to C(]ua1isc the
fornientution, ur else tiiey are put into pita or tienL-hcs duj; in the
earth. Lajitly, they are exported to the sun and dried.

Uurinji the pnn-CM the beans emit a good deal of lUoiaturCf lose
weight, as well Hi part of tlieir bitterness and acrimony.

The seeds whiih hiive ninlerjrone the process of fermentation are
considered the besti they are larjrer, of u darker brown coluur, and
after roasting, throw olT their husksi readily, and «plib easily into
several pieeeii or lobes. They have an agreeable ntildiy bitter tast«,
without acrimony.

The beans of Guiana iind West India cocoa, while ihey are
smaller, llatter, smootlier, And of a lif^hter colour, are also more ^harp
and bitter to the (aste. " They answer best for the extraction of the
butter of cacao, but utfurd a lesa aromatic and agreeable chocolate.'*
— f/re.

Johnston slates (hat the bitterness and acrimony of (Astc **■ is greater
in the heum) of ilit.* niHinUnd than in thuAe of the American Islanfls.
The cocoa of Central America is however of superior tpiality, or at
least if* more generally enteenied in the Ktiropejui markela than that
which is grown in the West Indies. It still reijuns a (;realer dej»rce
of biiicrness, and this may be one reason for the prel'erence given
to il.

" 'Tlie cocoa of Trinidad is the variety chiefly consumed in this
country. The i|ualitv of the mainland cocoas which come to the
Knglisii market trum liahia and Guayaquil, fur example, has hitherto
been always interior."

The reason of this is, that until recently the duly on foreign cocoa
was greater than that on colonial cocoa^ beinji^ in the one case 2d.
per pound, and in the other \iL and 5 per cent. This had the effect
of excluding all the foreign cucoas of better quality and liigher

COCOA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 157

Frice, which found their way to Morocco, Francis Spain, and
tnly. Now thnt the duty is equalised, it may be expccljed that the
finer kinds of foreign cocoa will find their way into the Knglish
market.

Previoiia to being useil, the beans nre masted in an apparatus
similar to thnt of a eoHce roaster. When tlic urnma is well (iiJvelo|K'd
the roasting is known to be finished. The heims are turned uut,
cuoled, and freed by faiininff ami siflint; from tlicir liiisks.

Ox-on has been in use in Mexico from time imirifmorinl. It wjw
introduced into Europe by the Spaniards in lo'iO, and by them it was
long kept a secret from Uie re»t uf the world.

Composition af Coam.

The followinft is the cmnpusition, flcconling tn Lanipodin?, of iOO
parts of the seed.i of West Indian cocoa deprived of husk : —

Fatty mntter ----- 5310
Albuminous brown matter, containing the aroma
of I lie bean . - - - -

Starch .....

Gum -.-.--
Lignine . . • • -

Ited pigment - . . - -

Water ---.--
Loss ..--.-

100-00 parts.

This annlysis entirely nreilooks some of the more important con-
Btituents of' cocoa, as the volatile aromatic oiV, tJte theohromttw nnalogous
to the theine of tea, and the hitter aw! astringent principle. The pro-
poriion of starch appears also to be somewhat unueTraied.

Tlie average cumpibiLion of the entire buaii when deprived of its
husk, is, according to Johnston, nearly as follows : —

Water - - - - 5

Starcli, gum, &c. • - - 22

Gluten, &c. - - - - 20

Oil (ci)coa butler) - - - 51

'I*hcubromiue - - - 2

100*

Cocoa, then, rontjilns s great variety of important nutritive prin-
ciples; OS, in addition to the vohitile oil, the iheobromiiie, snu the
bitter principle, gum, starch, much fut and gluten : like milk, it con-

• Otiirr analjriM of cucoa «re (Iven by M. VA)tn In till iii>ik entltl«d " Uei SubMancM
Allfiiirnlairei."

tss

COCOA, AND ITS ADnLTERATIONS.

tains ever^ ingredient necessary to tbe growth snd sustenance of toe
bodf.

I'he volatile oil is developed during the process of ronstmf; t it is to
it that the aroma is due, and whioli is so powerful, when the coc-oa U
first ro.i'tteil. Its action on the system is probably simitar lo the cor-
respondio'T otI^ of tea titid crpffet', uUUough less considerable, since the
quantity of this nil in eneoa is but small.

l^h^obromiite, like theineit \s a while crjstallisable faibstancCf but
diil-.TS from it in ronlainin^ a much larpcr proportion of nitro^ren.
The pro|inrtion of this siihstnnce is usually about the sjinic n^ in tea,
nftnieiy 2 per cent. It exists also In smnller quantity in th« busk of
the bean.

The hitter aiul astringent priaciplex are probably distinct : the
hitttTne>» is j^realer than that of coffee, but the astrtngtincy less than
in f'ither tea or coflee.

The concrete fat or oil is the predominant in^erlient in cocoa,
forminj; over one half the weight. In its presence ooetm differs re-
niurkidily from tea jm«l coffee,

Tliis fntty oil, H;rmetl butter of cocoa, ta of the consi«t«nc« of
tftlluw, molting only at ]'i*2^ Fahr. It is white, of a mild and agreeable
flflviiur, anil is nnt apt to turn rancid. It is soluble in boiling
a1oolu>l, from which it is nrecipilnted as the spirit bectmics enlil. To
obtain it in quantity, the beana, ofter havln*; l>ccn steamed ami sonkeil
in boilinjr water for some time, ure stibjected lo strong pressure in
canras bags. The proportion of butter procured by this method is
fVom five (o hjx ounces to a pnund nfeiH'oa, some of the oil remain-
ing bebitid in the beans. It posse^He^i u re^hlisih tinge when &r>t
expresBC*!, bul it bei.'omcd while by b4itUngwiih water.

Ci>coa likewi}(e differ:* remarknblv frtirti tea and cocoa in contaimns!
a considerable amount of jr/»rcA, an im]>ortnnt constitui-nt in nearly alt
the more vulunbli* vegetable articles of food.

Ln-'tly, it cotitains a very large atimunt of gluten^ uBually about !20
cent.

The ifheU4 or AiuAjr, which form about 12 per cent, of the weight of
le seeds, contain a little theobromine, a very small quantity of fat,
some mucilage, no starch, and much vegetable tiitsue or lignine.

Structure of the Cocoa Seed,

It is of very great im|>orlance that the minute structure of all TCge*
table snbstAnces em^iloyed in food and medicine should be ihorougtily
understood; lor without such knnwledgi' it is quite imimMible to
detect the adulterations to which the majority of them are liable.

The structure of the seed, or bcnn. o^t it U someliniei* called, of ibe
cocoa, is very chnracteristic, although son:ewhat coniplic :'cd : in it»
as in other seeds two parts require to be distinguished the shell or
husk, and the seed proper.

COCOA, AND ITS ADLLTLRATIONP.

Th€ firtt structure mitiVH on the surface of the husk, consists of a
considerable number of tubular Jibres uf large size, and containing gra-

Fig. M.

FhU iWgWTlM fVfmicaU the liAmlar jttrva tMuallj oinprvcil In RTtKier or \tm
•UHiktn oa UM MrthM of lh« Cooua biiu. Tho flbrw ut miguifltcl 100 dl»<

matter nnd minute corpuscles ; tliey are more ^bundtint on

•eeds llian others; they do not ap[M-ar to form part of the

bul belong ralber to the 8eed-veb«el, and they are probably

ived fWiro the spongy substance which surrounds the Reeds : iJie

for the mo«t purt run parallel to each other in the courae of the

lour axUt of the seed.

Toe kiuk uiay be separated Into three or four distinct tunics or
iiHmbnacB.

Thm Jir$t or outer membrane connists of elongated cells, adapted to
«ac& Wnsr, Mxl dispcised in a single layer, with their long diilnieters
pUcMl tnnaveraely t4} the axit4 of the t-ued.

The Merond tuiue is confititutcd of liu'ge ongulnr cclk, suprrimposed
ifl •CTtnl clbflely connected layers; towwds the centre ot the mem-

<1M

COCOA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS,

brane funned by them the coUs increase greatly in size, their
parietes become thin auU diuphunouB, and their cavities filled with a

«ir.4U

Thit fnffnvinf rrpfWWnU lh« nro tmter tmitacif Hf hitatmf tka aMtfq^OocoA,
ftiiMrtir iriit At mfcwonrf oarf mttc*laot-l>farin(i cfttu. a, outer iiittnkriM4 k,
tBule t c nncltic* eelU- Thu flgun. &• wdl u Itic tUm following, «n

mucilaginous substance, which, in the bean soaked in water for some
hours, IS seen to be considerable in quantity.

These two meinbriines, together with the enlarged cells, are de-
lineate«l in jSfi:. 41.

As the cell* forming the seoond membrane approach the surface
of the seed, they lose their mucilaginous chai'acter, become smaller,
and return to their original size.

If now the surface of an entire seed enclosed in its tuetubrone be

COCOA, AND ITS ADULTERATION;*.

Ull

exnniine'l, several raised lines or fibres will be observed, commencing
Bt th« end of tbe seed attached to tbe seed-vessel, ppreading them*

rig. <%.

In tfelj Scnra Uw c*^, wott^f^nt, ^nd vlrof remttt, u« dcllnrtUd, which eoo
•tlUita tl*« 4(«|) portion at tlw mcwu) mtrobrftue.

k1 res out over its surfuce, nnd temiinatinw at the distal extreniTF^
of tbe seed: these fibres ar« coiiif)o«t»il of spiral veswU, which lie
imbeddod in fibres of woody tissue and the cells above de^^cptbud.

The Jiecond membrane forms the chief substance and thickne.is of
the husk.

The third membrane, thin and delicate, consists of anpulnr cells of
small size, the cavities of which contain mitnito plobuk's of fa! : in
removing the outer tunics this membrane somclinie* comt»s oway
in part with them, but in penernl the greater portion adheres to the
Burfjire of the seed. This meml>rane covers not only the outer
gurfftee of the lobes of the seed, but also dips down between them,
and furnishes each of the opposite sides with a covenn;» ; it is most
evident, however, on tbe external surfuce. It is probable, notwith-
ttanding it may be exhibited as a separate tunic, that it is, strictly

168

COCOA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Hpeaking, not ta be repardcd as a distinct structure, but timt it rcaWy
belongs to the seed, since on removing it colls belonging to the

iRtlili cnfnTbif Ihe icrfr*! ilraetarH kbore DsUeM an delloMtcd. 9,tkir4
t»m^ : ti, rvuntM rrflx, iletlveil from the wcood nwiribnine. I«lii|| upon Ui«
frunh metnbnini. «tMl dlnalcd M the lUici of Junetlor of ihe Iom tr. futrth iw
Jttrcitf tmetnl/rrtrnt ; tl d, tkmo'tttd buditt : e c, nivndfd ntawi-4 nf rrv**aUiiil fatly
"•<»"<'' .' //i fTfitah tjfvmryariw.

substance of tbe seed frequently come away with it; thp colourless
cells constituting it being evidently praiJuully trnnsformeil into
the coloured ones of the aee<i itself. To earh HPcd-luUe, tliepefore,
according t4i tho above description, ihere is a dislitict membrane.

Situated in the interspaces of the lobes is a fourth structure, at-
taebed externally to the second membrane, the t-ells tbruiinf; which
pass down upnn it for a ^hort dii^Unce; ahhough clear ami trans-
parent, it f.^hibits a fibrous tttruclurc, and on its surface a ctmsi-
derable number of jimall cry&taU are always to be seeji, us well as
many elongated bodies, rounded at either exti*cmtty, and divided

COCOA, AMD ITS ADULTEHATIOXS.

163

into several compnrtincnts or cells, and which <Io not appear to be
atiaclied to the luenibrane on which the/ lie. Frum ibcir curious

TU« flffUK PCpreMnu thtfvJU which fonn the kernel nfiha wed. In .1, the eelU
KDil cunUlurU tUrvh u>rputcli:i an itiK<ulSnl 12311 lUmnictcra i whI in /t, SIJO dlft-

appearnncc, and the abpencc of connexion with any of the other
atrucl tires of the cocoa seed, the nbeer^-er is led to jnwpect that
they arc extraneous and probably fungoid growths. We have de-
tected them in every sample of cocoa seed aubmiltcd to exauuna-
tion. Sce^. 43.

Wc have now completed the description of the several structures
which enter into the composition of the husk of cocoa.

The Jtff«v/, deprived of Its hut^k^ is seen to be composed of several
lobeSf an»nilar in form, nnd irregular in size and shape ; undci prea-
gune, these readily separalc troni enoh othur, arul the seed breaks up
into pieces, which are known as •* nibs."

The lobes are constituted of innumerable minute cells, of a rounded
form, the cavities of which are filled with starch corpuscles and fatty
matter.

On the Burfiice of the seed these cells are rendered anjcular by cuni-
prcsision, and are usually of a deep-red colour : the lint, however,
varies greatly ; they are frequently, in parts, spotted with purple, and
even deep blue.

u 2

164

Each
rountled
bilum.

COCOA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

cell contains man^ itarch corpuscles, biiiaII in size, of ft
form, and which olten pre&ent an obacure, rudJatc^ or stelktc

Fig. M.

RtpraMnta the atnicttim met with fa) • PMnpIc of oRirrtini TvnmiAD Cocoa. It
vlU bt nollcC4l thtt lA^- (a#iM-a farmdmo tic Atuft of toeoa art tittmt, wkI th«t
UiM^nf Ihf arvd ll«rir*mnuvh Ivokm iqi, nanj or tliscvlli bclnf ni|>lurr<I, an
M hi prrtnll trif VMAM oflhr fUrckMrfOHdllwllI fkl,poliilJ or itntv^nari'^ ht
th« ni«nufinturf of choroUlr. a cfieDi of (be kcrn«l of eon« i ft f\, menil-rmn*
on aurfK* of lohM ; r c, tiwuM of onbrjo i d rf, &«■ muMa of alanJi [ c r, loowt

Placed at one OJitremity of the ftced Is the embryo ; this consists of
cellular tlMue, the cells or meshes of which encluse numerous starch
grsntiles and spheruleji of oil.

Now, in the more carefully prepared chocolates, the whole of the
structures represented in Jign. 40, 41, and 42. are absent, and those
delineated \nfig. 43., and especially Jig. 44., only are met with : in
some cases the embryo even ia removed ; but this, since it forms so
inconsiderable a part of the entire seed, and contains, moreover,
starch and f»t, appears to be almost an over-refinement.

Oti the Prnperties of Cocoa.
Cocoa may be considered under two beads ; as ref^ards its action
on the nervous and vascidar systems, and as a direct nutritive.

COCOA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

165

The physiological actions of the aromatic oil of cocoa and of the
ibwhrumine urc probably similar to those of ibe corresponding con-
BiiCuents of tea and coflee.

Exhiblw tlM Wrtfm piMMil In ■ Mmplerrf hmx/m/'m-sIm/ Flakkd Cocoa, which
aMullr aniaiulDM«arfaadAiufc. an. lubalw fllim tm mufmet ■ b &, ttamd
nMmbraiu of hoik t c «*, iptrftl »i iirit < J it, etUt irf krrn») i t, mrmbrftnc cwst-
hm lob** I /. llMiN of tmSrjro i f a, tret mamet uf iUrch gnoulet t i^ K Iomc
•tartli oorpiuclcs.

The special actions of the Tolatilc oila of tea and cocoa have not
ret been scientiflcally invesligntcd ; those only of the oil of coffee have
hitherto been made the subject of experiment ; but from anatofEj
tiiere l» good reason for supnoBin;; that all these oiU, which so cloBely
resemble each other in their ptiy^ical i)rop<?rties, agree also in all
es»ential particulars in their physiological actions.

The Tolatile oil of coffee taken in tiiodcrate <iuflntitie8, as already
stated, produces a gentle excitement of the nervous and vascular
system:^, dispels hunger, retards the wa«ite of the tissues to an equal
extent with caffeine, and hence allays hunger.

The caffeine of coffee and of tea retirds greatly the wa.ste of the
tissues, and hence is indirectly nutritious. This Is shown by the
diminution of the quantity of urea, phosphoric oeid, and salt in the
urine.

As a nutritive cocoa stands very much higher than either coffee or

M 3

166

COCOA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

tea, in consequence of the large quantities of fat, starch, and glut«n
■ coiitainetl in it.

it is true that tea contains a lar^r proportion of gluten than
cocoa, viz. 35 per cent., a« Lonipared wuh 20 per cent.; but most
of this <zluten, owins t») the ni:inuer in wliiub lh« infusion Is prepared
and drnnkf remains in the leaves, and the l>enclil of it is of course lost
to the system. Again, tea does not contain butter or any considerable
amount of starch. In the cose of cocoa, an emulition of the seed is
made, and in this way all the active and nutritious constituents of the
article are consumed. Owing to the large quantity of fatty matter
present, cocoa is apt to disagree with some delicate Etoraacha.

On THE AdCLTEBATIOV OF CoCOA.

The roasted beans or seeds of eocoo, when ground and reduced
to paste constitute ilnke or rock cocoa, which consists, when it is ge-
nuine^ of tuHhiit^ hut cocoa.

Other names under which cocoa is sold in this country are granu-
lated, soluble, dietetiu, honiofopatbic &c.

Now there is nothing in these names to indicate that the articles in
question arc anything more than varieties of cwoa, or to Rhow, what
18 too frequently the cA.<ie, that they are compounds of sugar, starch,
cocoa, and oftentimes other substances.

The practice of calling these mixed articles cocoA is manifestly as
improjKir and deceptive as it is to call Me cowpowtd of coffee and
chicory^ Patent Compressed Coffee, Finest OM Turkey Collee, &,c.

An article should be sold for what it really is, and under its own
name; if it be right to sell these mixtures at all they should be sold
as the law now compeU chicory and coiTee t^) be sold, and should be
labelled as mixturps. Further, ihe prtiportions of the several ingre-
dients entering into the composltiun of the mixed article bhould be
staled on the wrappers.

The French and other continental manufacturers of cocoa adopt a
more str:»ighlfonvitrd and proper course : they never eiiil their com-
pound and manufactured articles roci)a, but ehoeolate ; tlius they
even denominate the cakes which they prepare, and which contain
nothing but cm-oa, chocolate — "chneolnt sjins sucre/' allhnugh, with
strict propriety, they might in tliis case have used the word cocoa.

The cocoa, then, of the English makers in general ia not cocoa at
all, but chocolate; whenever, therefore, the word cocoa, an adjective
of indefinite signification being pre6xed, is employed to designate an
article which is not pure or genuiue cocoa, Otat articie ottght to Ite con-
sidered us adulterated.

The works of Aecum, Brande, Uyv., juid Pereira contain but little
information respecting the adulteration of cocoa; the only English
writers who have treated of it at all fully being Mitchell and Nor-
mandy.

COCOA, AKD ITS ADULTERATIONS.

167

The 6rst of these authors, Mitchell, bos the following observations
on the subiect : —

** ChcMjolule is aduHeratod with flour, potato starch, and su^ar, to-
other with uocoa-iiut oil, lanl, or even tallow. Even the su-cuUed
finest chocolate i:? made up with cUiified mutton suet and common
sup[ar, to;;ether with ordinary cocoa.

"If in breaking chocolate it is gravelly, — if it melt in the mouth
wilhonl leaving a cool, refreshing taste, — if it, on ihe U'Iditioii of hoi
water, becomes thick and pusty, — and, lasily, if it. form a gelalinoui)
maw on cooling, it is aduileruted with siurcb and sueh-like sub-
stances.

^^ Where earthy and other solid substances are deposited from
chocolate mixed with water, cither the beans have not been well
cleansed, inferior sugar has been employed, or mineral substances
have been added to it^ either for the purpose of colouring or of in-
creasing its weight.

" Moreover, when chocolate has a kind of cliet^y tuste, animal fat
has been added ; and when very raiwid, either vegetuhle oil, or even
the seeds themselves, have been employed in the sopliiaticalioii,

"The mineral substances euiployt'd in the muking u|i of chocolate
KK some of tliu ochres, both red and yellow, to^^etlier with minium
(red leoil), vermilion, sulpliaic of time, chalk, &e. Chocolate so uiluU
t«rali'd, more especially with the preparations of leail, are highly in-
jurious; it is, however, only the Ulterior chocolates that ore thus
ndulterated."

Knnn the work of N3rmandy we extract the following remarks : —

"Unllirlunulely, however, many of the prepiimtions of the cocoa-nut
sold under the names of chwolate, of cocou flakes ami of chocolate
]Kiwder, consist of a most rlisgusting mixture of bud or musty cocoa*
nuts, with their itliells, coarse itugarot'the very lowest ipiality, ground
with potato fltarch, old t-ea-hiz^ciiits, course branny llour, animal fat
(gcncjaliy tallow, or even greaves). I have known cocoa powder
made of potato starch, moistened with a deco<!tion of cot>oa-niit
ifaells, und sweetened with treacle; chocolate made of the same ma-
teiiak, with the additions of tallow and of ochre. 1 liave aUo met
with chocolate in whicb brick-dust or red ochre had been introduced
to the extent of twelve per cent. ; another sample contained twenty-
two per cent, of peroxide of inm, tJie rest being starch, cocoa-nuts
with their shells and Uillow. Messrs. Jules Garnier nTid Uarel assert
ihat einnahar and red lead have bct-n found in certain !i;imples of
rhfK'olate, and that serious acciilents had been caused bv that dia)>o-
lical Oflullerarion. Genuine chocolate is of a dark brown colour;
that which has been adulterated is generally redder, th')ugh this
brighter hue ii sometimes given to excellent chocolate, especially in
Spain, by means of a little annato. This aildition is unobjectionable,
provided the annato is pure, which, however, is not alwavs the case."

In defence of the practice of selling sugar, flour, and cocoa under

U 4

COCUAy AND ITS ADULTERATI0K8.

llie name of cocon, it is alleged that these articles are more atslnhU and
more digettlilln ibun cocua is alone lu reference to these stutemeuls
tbefolluwing; considerations prust^nt themselves.

Whun a cup of cocoa is luaile by puurinif hot water uprm It, the
sugar 4>f course dissolves, as when ^w^nr is added to tea or coffee : it
certainly has no etTect whatever in makin;^ the cocoa raore soluble or
more digestible ; and llie consumer at all cvtints mi^ht be left to add
lor htni^lf as he does tn his (en or collce. The Htarch or farina usu-
ally added to cocoa, wbcn boiling water is poured upon it, forms a
paste or jelly, mure or less thick. This serves lo entangle the particles
of cocoa oil, and to prevent part of the oil from aijceiiding tu the
surface, and collecting there in droplets. In a cup of cocoa, therefore,
for an etpial quantity of coroji, there is just n«4 much oil ns though no
starch was present, nlthough^ it is true, imrt of (he oil la concealed from
view. We do not, therefon*, perceive hi what way the Ktarcb renders
cocoa more dieestible. l!)f coursi- the more sugar and siarch added
to the cocoa, tbe less cocoa there is in the mixture and the le:)s nil ;
but nearly the saine end would be obtained by uslui; less of genuine
cocoa. Moreover, alarch in the proportion of about 12 per cent- is
one of the natural coustituents of the uouoa bean.

But it may be {rriinteii, men>ly for the sake of argument, that the
starch (the suj^ar h ultoL^ether out of the question) is really an im-
provement : it ran <iidy be so in certain proportions ; yet when we
come lo analyse diSurent preparuiiona of cocoa, we find that the pro-
portions of starch vary from 5 to 50 per cent., with the sugar from 80
to 90 per cent. Of course such Urge atlditions oa tliesc cannot possibly
constitute iiiiprovenientM, nor do they ; in fact, souieuf thefte mixtures
Lave scarcely the flavour or evet» the smell of eocoa.

That these large additions of starch nnd sugar are not improvements,
any body may satisfy himself by c<mlrasling the smell and taste of a
cup of cucoa made from genuine tlake or rock cocoOf and one mode
from the ordinary mixed article.

Neverthilcss, we do not go the length of stating (bat such mixtures
ought not to be permitteil ; but we ate of Dpinit>n that they ought to
be sold OS mixtures, and the proportiuns of the ingredients stated on
the wrapper.

Nearly every kind of Bour and starch, especially such as ore inex-
pensive, is added to cocoa. In the cheaper descriptions of cocoa
whrut floHTy ftotaio gUireh^ nnd gago meal are chiefly used, as well as
mixtures of tiiem in different proportions ; one dealer ;;ivii)g the pre-
ference to one kind of starch or ini.\turc, another to another kind. In
some of the more expensive eocoaa Eatt Indian arrowroot and Toua let
Mois, or mixtures of these with the chcn])er aiarehes, are cmploved.

The quality of the sugar used varies from white lump to tlie in-
ferior descriptions of brown and Ireacly sugnr.

Now the excessive reduction of cocoa by means of sugar and starch
sometimes reuders the employment of animal fat necessary to give it

COCOA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 169

a rusher oJiarAxrter ; verv oommonly thi.i re^luctinn also fnrtber ne-
ceasitAteA the use of coloured or ferruginous earths^ m Venetian red^
na^er, and boie Armenian,

Mr. George rhrllipf io evidence before the Parliamentary Com-
mittet; on Adulttinitiou, states: **lu one case, where 1 succeeded in
ycelting the proportions, from a manufacturer, of wtiat he (.'nlleil his
beat soluble cocoa, there were, in bis own Eancuagc, coioa forty-
two, lump forty-tw<j, white and red fifty-two, TUc cocoa represents
the nut, the lump the su^inr, and the. white is starch ; the red, oxide
of iron to colour it. The per-centnge of cocoa in that sample would
be 30 per cent., and that was stated by the manufacturer to be bis
bett vMMblf cocoa." If that waa bis bt»t cocoa, what, we wonder, was
the comftositiou of bis worst ?

It should be known that Venetian red and other lerru»inous eartba
are sometimes contaminated with anenic,

liesuUn of the Examintdion of Samplrg,

We will now state the retulfn derived from the examination^ chemical
Oiui microMCopicJily of a large number of sampler of cocoa of diflerent
kinds pur^ha^d from dealers resident in the metropolis.

The results of the examination of fiiiy-four samples of rarious kinds
were, —

Uliat eight samples were genuine^ these being flake and rock cocoas ;
that is, they contained no sugar or starch, but consisted entirely of
cocoa.

That wgar was present in forty-three samples, the amount forming
from 5 to »s much as, in some cases, 50 per cent, uf the article.

That atarch was detected in forty-six of the so-cidled uocoas, the
amount likewise varying from 5 to 50 per cent.

To such an extent did some of the samples consist of sugar and
■larch, that they contained only sufficient cocoa to impart some degree
of flavoui- tu tlie articles.

Lasitvt that out uf sixty*eight samples of cocoa and chocolate, the
•ahe5 of which were submitted to exauiinatiou, thirty-nine contained
coloured earthy substances, as reddle^ Venetian red, itmher^ &c.

When it is remembered that the relative prices of wheat flour,
potato starch, and sagfi meal, also of sugar, esii^cially brown sugar,
Dear so small a prnjMjrtiun to that of cocoa itaelli tt will be reailily un*
derntood how greul is the inducement to 3ub.stitute these articles ior
cocoa ; and it will, we are sure, be apparent that it is not out uf simple
regard to our digestive organs that they are added to cocoa iji such
IftTfie (quantities.

ilie extent to which the adidleration of cocoa is carried may be to
lome extent judged of by the fact that the price at which ^onie of the
inferior cocoa mixtures are sold is much less than that at which
genuine cocoa can be purchased.

ktli^v..

...-»? I ■• *: — »;

COCOA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

CHOCOLATE, AXD ITS ADULTERATIONS.

i:i

Unlike cocoOf chocolate is, as is well known, a man u foot u ret) article ;
the French particularly excel in its prr-jioralion, imiJtLng a variety of
combinations of c/>coa wilh ullier subsluiice.*!.

The more commoD additions are, liowcver, sugar, and vnrioiiH kin<ls
and mixtures of starch ; in the bolter descriptions of cUucoIutc, Ma-
ranta arrowroot is employed.

For imparting flavuvir and scent, vanilla and cinnamon are cUteAy
used.

Occasionnlly a medictnal chocolate » prepared with salep, a fucuta
obtained from the bulliuus root of an orrlus. In some cases, also.
chocolate i:^ made the voliirle for the administration ni" viirious re-
metlicft, the taste of which is to a great extent concealed by the cho-
colate.

Of twelve samples of chocolate examined,

One contained 13 parts of sugar and 25 partes of starch iv Lhu 100
parts; the starch consisted of a mixture of L:ipiu<;u starch, Muruiita
arrriwroot, Indian corn flour, and sago uifal.

The Jtecmtd^ of 3^ partd sugar and 30 parts wheat Hour to the 100
parts.

The third, of 13 parts sugar and 10 portj sago to the 100 portii.

The fourth «<amplc, being obtained Irom the same maker, had the
same comiHuiitioii as the first.

'Fhejifih containc'il 15 per cent, of a mixture of wheot flotir and
potato frtarch, hut no i^ugar.

The sixth contained 14 per cent, of sugar and IG itrpotiifn Hour.

Tlie Jii*rtf«/A consisted of 14 per cent, of sago mcul, with a lililc sugar,
the remaimler being cocoa.

The ftghth con!*isted of a mixture of eocoa and Mugnr made into a
paste with water, the cocoa forming itbout 56 i>er cent, of the article,
or little more than one half

The composition of the ninths tenOi, and eleventh samples was nearly
the same.

The twrlfth sample consisted of a mixture of sugar, potato flour,
aogo meal, water, and c<tc(»a. The sugar and water formed 42 parts of
the article, the flour at least 10 part.** ; the cocoa thus formed less than
half the article.

Besides the above ingredicmtA, several of the chocolates contained
coloured /err nginuiu earths. Generally the proportion of starch was
much less rhun in some of the cocoas examined.

Chocolate being a compound article, no valid objection can be
urged against tlie jircsence of su^ur and starch- The fwints to Imj
cun^idered arc, the price of the article, and the proporlious and quality
of the ingreilients of which it is composed ^ the addition of the red
earths of course cannot be justiljcd.

171

COCOA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS

On the Detection of the AduUeratiom of Cocoa,

The articles emploved in the adulteration oF cocoa, and v»ith the
meund for the detection of which it is net-es'Hry that we should be
acquainted, are ihe following : — 8ugar^ various ftifurt and xUvehes^ husk
of Cftcoa^ chicory root^ fatty jnaUer^ and coloured ferragiuous fiorths.

On the Detection of Sitgar. — The prescuoe of sujrar in cocoa
may be readily detected by the taste. To deiernuno the quantity,
the following simple but efficient proceeding may be adopted: —
Dissolve a weighed quantity of co<>oa coDtaiiiin;; sugar in cold wat^n*,
Blter^ dry the residue lirat with blotting paper nnd then on the water-
bath, weigh ; the loss will inJicKte very nearly the amount of sugar
with which the sample of cocoa operati^d upmn wns admixed.

To show to what extent this melhoil may be rt^lied upon, wc may
mention that we dissolveil one ounce of a mixture in equal proportions
of cocoa and PUgar in cold water, and afterwards dried the residue ;
the weight of thiy was only twenty-eight grains sliort of the four
drachms. Or the aqueoua solution may be eva[K>ruted and the residue
dried.

The method of determining the sugar by conversion into aloohol
or carbonic acid la not well applicable to tlte cocoa mixture, because of
the atarch present. The sugar is cane sugar, and it i^ necesaary that
this should be converted into grape sugar by the action of dilute
sulphuric ai:id in order to render it readily fermentable; but thia
acid also converts the starch present into fin<|!nr.

On the Detection of Starch. — In most cases it is sufficient to de-
termine the kind of starch employed, and to lonii uu afiproxiinate
opinion aa to the quantity present : the only certain method by which
a knowledge of the kind of starch cmp1oyc<l can be obtained h by means
of the microscope. In some cases, however, it may be necesr^ary to
ascertain with tolerable accuracy the quantity of starch present.

The starches emplAvcd in the adulteration of cocoa are the follow-
ing : wheat flour^ potato flour, Indian corn, SHgo meal, tapioca, East
India, Maranta. and Tous les MoU arrowroots. Now utl ih.ti»e starches
possess distinctive characters by which they may be readily distin-
guished from each other by the aid of the microscope.

Cocoa itself contains about 11 per cent, of starch in the form of
minute starch granules, entirely dtuerent in size and shaj>e from those
of coL-oa: besides, these granules usually are not free, but ure for ihe
most port embedded in the relli of the cocoa or else in its butter.

Now although cocoa contains i>o nmch starch, the only means
recommended fur the discovery of the a^luUeration of cocoa with
starch, was by iodine, which of course gives, if properly employed,
indications of the presence of fecula in every case ; and not a word
was even hinted rcsjjecting the employment of the only means by
which the different starches used could be identified, — namely, the
microscope.

COCOA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

173

The characters of wheat flour wlU be minulel/ deiicnbe*! under tbc
bead of Flour ; but ihey huve aireadj been brieilj nolicid and reprc-

Ff$. 47.

•nAJTB, i)Ans.fc Co'* Pmuot Soira^ C^dooa.
fin a, fltorefa eorpDRlM, etUi, udtplnlTtMtltof oocm i Aftb, franulMarpoHafe

fiumr,

aetited when describing the adulteration!) of chicory and coffee. See
fig. 30. p. I'i7.

The ehartu'ters of fH*tato flrinr will be described under ihe bead of
Arrowrotit, It may he siated now that they are of larjje size, ovate
form, distinctly ringed, and with a fiinall but very disliiicl hilum at
the smaller extremity of each granule. They are well represented in
A- ■•7.

The charoctem of tago meal will also be given under the head of
Arrowroot. ITie pranulcf, nlihouj;h smallpr than those of potato, ore yet
of conirideruble sire: but they are particularly and easily drMin^ished
by being truncate at one extremity, as represented in^j^. 48.

In Jig, 49. tlie starch granules of both potato flour and aago meal
ore figured : it will be seen that the dinerencea ore very consider-
ible and obvious.

174

COCOA, AND ITS ADULTEBATTONS.

The starch {^nniilcs of Indian com nrc of about the size of those
wheat Hour ; but thti greater number of ihem are polygcuiul, and hence
they exhibit a more or less angular outline. See article Flour.

^^4^48.

fV'HiTI'l Pt-M UONaorATMlC COCOA.

a • «f lUieli fraaulH, oelk uid frkginvnu of eooM t b b ft, gruttiM of moQ

Thp characters of the starch granules of Afnronta or West Indian,
Curcuma or Ka9t Indian, Tapioca or ManiboL arnfwro(»t. and of Tool
lea Muiis will likewise be found fully detailed in the article Arrowroot.

The |rranules of Kajtt Itulian arroirroot are very Hut ; the Jlrw
upon ibem describe segments ur |>ortiuDS of rings only ; aud the ecntral
cavity 15 not visible.

The starch granules of Wfst Ittdian arrotcrooi are of nearly libe
same sixc at* those of sago starch. They differ, hnwever^ in not bein^
niuUer-^haped, and in the slit hilum which runs transversely acruM
the granule.

Those of Tapittca arrowroot are, like the starch granulci of ngOi
m oiler-shaped, but they are several times smaller.

COCOA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Lmtlj, tlie ftorcb granules of Totu U* Mois differ from iiU tlji; others
lA being vcrjf much larger ; iLev arc flut, wiiii strongly marked slriw,

/l^. 4».

Jrtcribe segments of circles only^ and tbey present a snuill but

l-niark«ni central hiluro.

Ib orUcr to determine npprnxi mutely tlic tpiantity of starch present

in any oooon, firobably one uf the ^^implest methods is the tnllowing: —

sugar, if prrient, having been removeil by means of cold water,

cocoa ij to be boiled thoniughly, the 'tiTOCtion ^tniined throu<:b

mit«r>[i niirl tli.» fat remiived when cnld : ihc n^sidui' whit'l) sub-

t; I liquid cnnflist<i chiefly nf .it^rrh^ the aniniitit of

I, iMcd either by measurement in gradnaied tubes,

ii moy be dried and weighed.

tbc latter ease it is noeessary 1o ascertain by previous experiment

boiled and dried starch of eaeh dilferent flour or arrowroot

ida to certain aumunts uf the raw flour or starcb.

idM of the ({uantity of starch present nmy be formed from

tht COMbtCDcy of the decocliuQ when cold. If the amouut of starch

176

COCOA, AND ITS ADULTEUATIONS.

is rery considerable^ — 40 or 50 percent., — the liquid will be thick ftnd
jelly-likti.

■

T«ri.nt BBirrHKRv' HoitrsorATnio CocOa.

a CI a, KTuiDla ittd cell* of ooeo* i ^A ft, gimnutei of Oanna ttcrek or Urat lea Mob;
r Ci (tmnuk» of Impiutm ManJL

Tn makin;; observMions on the comparfttive density of cold decoc-
lions of c(»oo.i oontninin^ «]ilTi.Tmt [»t!r-rcntn^eH of stiircli, we noticed
that after a tim<* the stan-h rensei] tn W unifaniil? diffufted throughout
the flui(I» nml that it, tks well as the heavier pnrticlGs of cocoa, subsided,
leaving a supernatant ittrntum of dear li<piid; this stratum vnrying in
thicrknt'ss acuordinfr to the quantity ff »tan.'h prv-sent, and being most
shallow where ihere woa uioat feculu, and deepettt where this was
least

It then occurred to us that in the fact of the subsidence of the
starch we haH a mean!* of d^^lennininj; approximately the per-centage
of that substance present in any sample of cocoa.

We aocorilingly filled five tubular glnflse*, each seven inohc.^ and A
half in height, tliree-fourlh« of an inch in diameter, and holding
twelve drachmi; of water, with five different cold decoctions of cocoa,
containing, renpectively. JO, 40, 30, 20, and 10 per cent, each of
ntarch : in the first, the thicknes* of the clear stratum was one inch ;
in the second, one inch and a half; in the third, two inches; in the

COCOA, AXD ITS ADDLTERATIOyS. 17:

iiburth« two incbes and a half; md in the fiAb, three inches. It is to
be understood, howeTer* that these measttrements are approzimately

Ar-^L

^9q

Dcm'i Onrtui riAiMTLTtunD Cnocounu
9 • It, itenk pmuto uxl cell* at euen% t hh i, grwtalM of foii^wn

JfonwiAa armimwt,' <f, ImUnn cm-k nwHiI,- « r, iivfAftt tfordl

ccr,
//, CVrcmiM

correct onlj, and that to obtain'porfectly nccarato results it is nocessarv
tbat the experiments should be carefully repented. The proportion of
the ingredienta forming ench decoction was 220 grains by weight of
the mixture of coeoa and |K>tato 11i>ur, to eiybt ounces of water, the
boiling being continued for five mitiutes in each cose.

Or the amount of starch present may be determined chemically. The
sugar, should any be present, having been removed, and also the
fat, either by expression or by the action of ether, the cocoa is to
be dried and weighed, then treated— once or twice, as may be neces-
sary— with a weak solution of potash, which will dissolve out the
starch: the residue consists chieflv of w(K>dy fibre ond cellular
tissue ; this is to be dried and weiglied, and the difierence between
the first and second weights represents the amount of starch pre-
sent. Another way is to boil the cocoa niter the remorul of the
sugar and fat, and to precipitate the starch from the decoction by

COCOA, AND ITS AnULTERATIONS.

nicuDs of iodide nf potiuisiutn ; the blue iodide of stfirch is formed,
from wUicb tbc starch mny be calculated. According to Brande
iodide of starch has no certain compoMtion ; but by ibe analysis of
Lorsaipne it appears that Jt contains 41*79 paris of iodine and 58*21
of starch ; or, according to Rerzeliua, two aturas of iodine with one of
Btarch.

Graham gives the following process for obtaioing iodide of startb
in a state of purity : —

" A firm jelly is prepared by boiling potato starch with water, and
after cooling, a ijuanllly of hydrochloric iictil is added, sufficient lo
occasion th*; solution to become liquid, when assisted by a sliffht
elevation of temperature. The solution is then fdtered, and a solu-
tion of iodine in jilcohol is niixpd with it. no long lu the Utter pro-
duces a blue precipitate ; care hoinf^ laki-n not to add too nitichof tlie
noluiuiti of iodine, ns tbc alcohol of tbut solution will then precipitate
uncombined starch." *

But the most accurate method is, nfter the removal of the sugar, to
convert the starch into grape sugar, aTxl to calculate the amount
cither by Fehling'a test or from the alcohol or carlxmic acid formed.

Tidce 200 grains of the cocoa mixture ; boil with about ten time*
the quantity of water; add nithcr more lliari two dmchme of dilute
sulphuric acid (1 to 5), and Jtpply hcnt nntil tbc lluid Ix-comcs thin: boil
the fluid for 6 or 10 hours in a tlask with a narrow neck. pUcetl on the
sand-bath, replacing from lime to time the evaporated water; or beat
the fluid fn>m twenty-four to thirty-aix hours in a water-bath. When
the conversion is com]ilett% which in ordinary cases may be ascer-
tained by litK-ture at iodine, Uilute the fluid with water, and det«r>
mine the quantity of sii<!ar present either by Fehling's test or, what is
better, by converting it into alcohol and carbonic acid. Calculate the
stignr from cither of these, and flic srarch again from this. The com-
position and method of using Fchling's test Is given elsewhere; 100
parts of graj* sugar correspond to 90 parts of starch. The method
of converting grape etiizar into alcohol is described under the artidt
Coifec, p. 123., and the fermentation test under Tobacco.

On the Dvtectum uf Foreign Futttj Mutter. — Animal oils and faU, U
lard, tallow, and suet, on expiosure to the air for a tiuie, dtiteciflllv ins
warm place, liecome rancid and disagreeable to the taste, while the
butter of cocoa under the same circumstances remains |>er(ciMly >i*e«t

For the detection of these adulterations, therefore, the cocoa or cb<>-
rolate should be scraped line and spread out in a thin layer on a plate*
so that the air may have free access to it. In a few days the fonfiip
fatty matters will have Irecoiuc rancid, when they may bo detected by
the taste and smell, esj>einally when warmed.

Another way is the /bllowing, given bv Dr. Normandy: —
The presence oi animal fats^ or of oiU, may also be rcoogniMd by

• Elcravnli of Chemistry. p.74t

COCOA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

179

lifyin? m portion of the chocolat* as follows : — Hasp about 2000
ift of tnc cli«>colate untlcr oxaminatlnii, and boil them with water
vome caustic putiit<h. When tlie fut \n sanoriilii^d, dilute \\ni mass
with a suflicienC quantity of water, ami filter ttiree or four tiiurs. The
milky IJItrate^ which is^ io fact, a solution of soQp, should now be
rapenaturaU>d with nitric acid ; this will <teparate thetht^ which will
imit on the liquor after cooling. It may then he collccled on a fitter;
and on rubhin^ a small portion of it between the fingers the odour
will generally indicate its origin ; but more cfl'et'tunlly still by heating
it in a ftanW capeule. Pure butter of coeoa has no riduur. Or the
chocolate may be exhauEted by sulphuric ether, ami by evaporating
^Hl^ tbe fat will be left behind, and may then be identified, as just

^^F The pre^nce of foreign fatty matter may sometimes be determined

^Bby noticing the form, Aize, and con-(i»teney of the droplets of fut or oil

^^wKich collect on the surface of a decoction of cocoa after it has

heconecold. If the«e droplob* be firm, shot-like, undglubular, except

I on the upper surface, which is f>lightly flattened, and very siiufdl} rarely

J OUetding the twelftii of an inch in diameter, (hen (here ia no doubt

' bot tltat the globules in question cun^ist of the lat or butter of cocoa.

If, however, on tlic other hand, the globules be large, flat, or disc-

!n.i. exceed the size nameil consideraldy, attaining, M>me of them, lo

oirth of an inch, and even more in diiuneter, then animnl iat nr oil

' «bly present, a conclusion whtcli may be still further confirmed

•ing tne fat, keeping it f'>r a time, and observing whether it be-

rincid or not The suspected cocoa should t>e cooled in an

■ exposed freely to the air, antl not in a covered one, for

( case the ilruplels of oil of even pure uocuawill fjeq^uently

(MHWfet* ia Urge and flattened dies.*

Oh the Detection uf the Afinerai Suh*tttnces uud.

Of the tnineral -lubstances employed in the adulteration of cocoa,
•Dme are used for the sake of their weight ; of these the chief arc
■■lAinMifi of lime or chalk, and tuipkale of lime or piaster of Paria,
MpteiaO/ the former.

Olber Aibatances nre employed for the colour they impart, and
t]M>e are fi^juently had recourse to; the principal are red iron
wrtfaii M r«d ochrr, Vmrtian red, and umber.

Ftn the detection of these mineral substances fiOO grains of the
eocoa sbould be incinerated, and the a.-«h weighed and analysed.

Soine idea of the nature of the mineriil substunces mixed with the
DOOM Way be formed by dissolving a portion of it in boiling water, and
ohwiiilig closely the charnctcr of the nrecinitnte. In this way the
of ferrugioous earth may sometimes be readily discovered.

tnfoniMlloo m*j ofton b« obUliM^ by urcrtatninf the tnrltinf pnint. whicti ll
i«CMMol Ut* Imtlar of cocoa, an4 the Uti tnn|tlor«l for lu «dutu<iiUluii.
K 3

COCOA, AKD 1X8 ADULTEKATIONS

For the detection af carbonate of limf and ndphaie of lime we miut
proceed oa (lestTibed under the houd ofTt'Of at p. 101.

The uh of ^Tonuino cocua is pule erey : if any of (be red iron earths
be present it will be more or le?s coloured with the red oxide ^ iron ;
and ID order to determine the (|uiiiitiiy of this oxide, the prtxress de-
scribed in ibe artielest ou Tea and Chicory, at pp. 103. and 14^, must he
followed.

Rtd Ochre consists of oxide of iron with silica, and sometimes alu-
mino, clay, or even cliolk ; whik* y'en^tum ml, when genuine, consists
nf the sesquioxide of iron, and is obtained by calcining coppers or sul-
phate of iron. It is, however, often adulterated, espt^ially with chalk.

It should be known that the colour of the ash obtained by the in-
cineration of (trepurations of cocoii, adulturatcd with red ochre, is
subject to ctmsiderable vuriution, dependent on the manner in which
the incineration has been cundiictrd, nhelher in an open or covere<l
crucible, and according to the degree fo wliich theush has been heated
and the length of time it haa been •subjected to the process. Thu!> the
ash of cocoa so adulterated may be umde to assume dilfercnt colours^
Tanrjng from dark brown, light brown, fawn, yellow, ferruginous
yellow, up to rust-red, according to the method of incineration.

In sonic of the samples in which clay and plaster of Parix have been
ileteuted, these itub^itunces were not u»ed for the sake of adding bulk
or weight to the cocoa, the quantity present being too muhU ; but
they no doubt entered into the composition of the earthy colouring
matters employed.

Alumina, if (jresent, may be estimated from the soda or potash
solution used to separate the nluiiiiua from the iron in the manner
directed fur the determination of alum in bread.

Duty \d. per lb.

Cocoa and chiK-olate paste Id, j>er lb.

Husks and sV'lls "Is- per cwt.

Lb-.

4,563,782.

4.471,561

2,336,625

Home consumption 1654

„ 1855

l^iae months of 1856

The same nine months of 1855

- A great diminutioo.
3,482,370. lbs.

The following nuestion, addressed to Mr. George Thillips, with the
reply thereto, will show how admirably the llevenne is protected by
the Excise agninst loss from the ailulleration of cocoa.
Mr. Kinunird. "HftTu ynu examined any cocoas f"
Replt/. " Though that is under um, wc have not imich to do with
k ;** and then follows a statement of the inahilily of the Excise to
detect Venetian red, or any other feiTUiiinous earth, nJlhough this is
one of the comuioaest uf the uduhcraUoiis to which cocoa is liable.

' ^w ««

5%.

SUGARj AND 1T8 ADULTERATIONS.

181

SUGAR, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS

Two kinds ofgu^ar have been purticularly distinn'uishcd by chemists:
naaieljf cane, and grnpc sugar or glucose. 1'he fir»i is obtained frum
tlie sugar coiie, the beet rout, tlie maple tree, and M»ine ctberpUats;
while toe second is contained in greitter or less q^uantities in most
fruits, and parlicularly in grapes, figs, and honey.

The chief part of the cane sugar of co:innerc« is obtained from the
sugar cane, SaeckarTim offiviaanwL, of which there are several wcU
marked varieties.

" Thou*;h almost unknown to the Greeks and Honmns, and now cuN
tivated nio*t. exten^ividv in America, it is a native of the Old World,
It was faniili.ir in ihv hast in must remote times, and apjiears to have
been cultivated in China and the Suutb Sen IsUnds long before the
period of authentic history. Through Sicily and Spain it reached
the Canary It>lan4ls ; thence was tranApbmtcd to St. Dotniniro by
the Spaniards in IJJO; aitd from this inland it has gradually spread
civcr tliL' West Indies, and the tropical regions of the American con-
tioent." — JohmtoH.

The sugar cane is one of the tribe of Grasses: it usually reaches a
height of about 12 feet; it rarely ripens its seeds, and is tbercfure pro-
pagated from slips, which are planted in rows.

In bome tropical regions the sugnr cane (or rather its juice) forms
an important and nutritious article of fond. The ripe stalk of the
plaitt IS chewed and suckcil, after being made so(\. by boring it ; and
enormous quantities are consumed in this way. '* Large eliiploads,**
states Johnston, ^ of raw sugar cane arc daily brought lu the markets of
Manilla and Uio Janeiro ; and it iii plentiful in the market of New
Orle&ns. In the Sandwich and many other islands uf the Pacific every
child luis a piece of sugar cane in its mouth ; while, in our own sugar
colonies, the negroes become fat in crop time on the abundant juice
of the ripening cane."

The nutritive properties of the raw juice of the sugar cane depend
upon the circumstance that it contains, besides sugnr, a considerable
propwtion of gluten.

The following is the process followed for the manufacture of
su^nr : —

^he canes are cut down by means nf large knives; the leaves and
tops (u*u choppe*! olfaiid left in the field ; tlie caues are carried to the
null, where tiiey are crushed between heavy rollers which squeeze
out the juice.

The juice is conveyed into large coj>per vessels, and is clarified
chiefly t»y the addition of lime : the lime neutrali»*8 any free acids
which may have formed, and al^ carries down with it the gluten. The
jtuoe ia next boiled down, and is transferred to wooden vessels to

M 3

SUGAR, AND ITS ADl'LTERATIONS.

crvstalUso. Finnlly, it is put info casks having ceruin perforationB.
to allow of the escape of the treacle or molassea-

Composition of the Sugar Cant.

The following are »ome of tbe chief analyses of the sugar cano
whioh have hitherto been made : —

Sufar - . . - .

Cehultwe

Mudl-itcnou*. rv'tlnoQi. fAUy, }
and albumtiioiu mulierK J

Wattr

Frcib lucar ewe - - -

nif-j.

r«nfM.

Jk^*I.la.

I7A

n-4

71-0

731

Tmhlit Owe. RiU-n C«».

14-uM) ,ia-aE«

8-867 »-U71
»-4I5 (mj

o^vi o-aco
76\«0 7C7a»

iCtt-DOO IQU-OOO

IIN-U

lOOV

The su^nr cnne, especially the violet variety, is eoated wilt a
peculiar kind of wax, tenncd cerasine, nr su^ar cane wax.

The following are the more important analyseit of cune juice : —

Sagar

Various orfutc mittere

SalU -

Water -

1B-7S4

0140

aa-Mo

)i»«oa

Fallr*.

SO DO

■on

■017
Tft^O

100-OtiO

Jf^vwt-

2Mvm

r8mall
f quant) Ilf4.

7B3S2&

99-««4S

HIS
■CiU

lOO-OOO

It appears, therefore, from the above analyses, that cane sugar con-
tains from 18 to 20 per cent, of saccharine luattcr; yet, owinp' to
various eircunKHtunces, not more than 6 per cent., acconllng to John-
ston, iff usually ^otit to market in the .statu of crystiittised sugar.

The quiiriLity of »ii>;iir present in cuiie juice may be estimated ap-
proximately by taking the spcHGc gruvity ofthe juice. Prreira st.itcs
that it rnnj;es ironi ICKJT to I'lOti, ami Mr. Fownes found it to vary
from I 070 to I'OOO.

According to Fownes the juice has the following composition: — Caue
Kugar, u nutttldti amount iA' grnpe sugar w ^lucose^ gwn ur tUxtritie,
phospfutUs nf lime mul mttfruejuay some othfr mil of the Mime ffoxet,
ndphate» ami ehlurifhs^ potnxhiimX sodtt ; and hinlly, a peculiar azntised
trujffw forming an insoluble compound witli lime, not cori^niluhle by
heat or at'i<U, and readily putreBuble. < If <Nnliiiary rfgetahh a//*w-
men there iire but indiatiiiot truces, and of tii.TCiiw? or Irgumnif none.

The brown sti^ar of commerce has the lollowing composition

SUQAB, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

163

Although eonsisiin;; chiefly of cane or crystnlltsable sugar, it yet con-
tflina A good deul ol' glucosf, and is coniaTiiiniitetil hy various organic
and mineral subsunucji. Acconling to Avciiuin its tninenil oonstitU'
eats uxe siticm pliatpliatc and subpliusphatc of lime, carbonate of
lime, luIpUatc of putosh, chloride of potasiiiuni, and the acelntes of
potssli and lime.

Owiiij^ to tbe»e impurities it reddens litmus, and is not completelj
dissolved hy alcohol; its solution furniidkes precipitates with diacetate
of lead, acetic acid, and rau.«ilic nnuuDnia, and it ia frequently
darkened by the addition uf scsquicblnride of iron. By keepin<; it be-
comes weak, that is less sweet, soft, clammy, and gummy, — changes
ascribed to the action of the lime.

Ordinary brown sugar, prepared from juiec wliich has not been
subjected to filtration, contmns almo^tt invariably a great many
fragments of the tis&ue uf the sugar cane, sporules of a fungus, and
■niniiilcul»? to be described hereafter.

From white or refined sugar the above organic impurities ore
absent.

The crystals of sugar are double oblique prisms. Fig. 52. p. 184.

The foUowinf; are the pr»)pcrtie6 of cane siij:ar ; —

It ia the sweetest of all thu sugars; when pure it is white and
odourless; it is soluble in reclitied spirit, but not in etber; its watery
solution, aided by heat, decomposes the metallic salts of copper, mer-
cury, gold, anrl silver ; its wntcrv solution with yeast undergoes the
vinous fermentation ; sugar protnoles the s<ilubility of lime in water,
and it f(»rnis both a soluble and an insoluble compound with oxide of
lead. Lump or relinetl sugar '\s permanent in tliu air, and phospho-
rescent in the dark and when struck or rubbed.

In the preparation of barley sugar, aciduiated drops, &c., the c<mfec-
tioners usually add a small (juuutity of ereiun of tartar to the melted
sugar, in order to deslrtiy the tendency to crystallisatiuu.

Crystallised ungiir melts at 35G' P., and at a higher temmrature it
begins to give off water, and li> suffer decompoitition ; ami if the heat
is still more increased it loses its swectoe^a and becomes bitter, when
It is called burnt sugar or carameL

Although mola.sses and treacle are usually described as the same,
it yet appears that they are realty distinct, if nut in their general
composition, at ail event* in origin. They both consiift of glucose,
cane sugar, gum, glulei>, extractive, vjtrious salt*, and water.

MolttxAeit (Xinnisrs of the ilrainings Irom raw or Muscovado sugar.
West India molasses is sometinirs imported <br refining, it furnishes
brown or bastard sugar and trc*acle.

Treacle is the syrup which drains from refined sugar. It has gene-
rally a sp. gr. ol 1*4. Puyen I'egai-ds it as a saturated solution of
crystnllisable xugar, of which it contains from 40 to 50 per cent.

Cane sugar is distinguished from grape sugar by it£ crystaUisabiUty,

5( A

184

SUGAR, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

iu greater swetitness nnd sulubilily, in b«Ing reduced to charcoal by
sulphuric acid ; but beiug uiicbangcd when treated with caustic ptHusb,

CiTitoli vf Cajib SroAt- 100 dbunsten.

and by the greater difficulty with which it reduces the blue bydratod
oxide of copper to the dtate of the orange sulKtxide.

iVnotber character by which a solutiun of cane »ugar is distinguished
from that of grape siignr, is tlie properly which it possesses of right'
handed circular polarisation. /

On the Structure of the Sugar Cane.
On the Pretence a/ Fragment* of Svgar Cane in Sugar — The juiw

LANE Uu»"mi. ouuuu^^ ou.iuv

;>1TY

SUGAR, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

185

of the cane is cxprosaed by mc^juis of powerful machlnorjt and during
i\w operation iununierabli! fragment'* of the cunc itaclf, uituiy of them
of extruinc iixinuteiiess, become; dt.*tai;boil, uiid puns ititu the juice. Ai
this in its nianulaclure Iiitu sugar does nut undergo in j^eneral any
process of filtration, ftod as but few of the franruQcnts drain away with
the treacle, the greater part of them are retained in the stigar, in all
iinfiltered .sampler of wliich they may be readily detected in great
ubundunce by means of the microscofic.

Fur the more ready and certain identification of these frao;-
ments, it !s necessary to give a sburt outline of the structure of tLe
sugar cane itself.

The su^ar cune belongs to the class of Endogen>, and consists of
nearly cybiidrical rods or stems, which are divided into joints at irre-
gular distances of some three or four inches, and its structure is mode
up of cellular tissue, woody fibre, vessels, and epidermis.

The parenehymoy or ccUular tissue^ lorms lue most considerable
portion of the sujior cane, and it h constituted of ai^grcgations of
infinite numbers of utricles or cells, in the cavities of which the Juice
is encb-sed.

These cells ore usually rather longer than broad, and in the central
ports of the baiuboD they are several times larger than in its outer and
border part; the membranes of which the walls of the celts are
forme^l, are all finely dolled or punctated, a character by which the
cells of the sugar cane may be clearly distinguished from most other
vegetable cells. Fig. 53.

The vootiy fhre traverses the cane in a longitudinal direction in
distinct bundles, which give tu transverse sections a dotted appear-
ance. Each buntlle is constituted of a number of greatly elongated
cells, and sometimes encloties vessels ; these are altfo usually more or
lejM dottOii, like the ordinary cells of the p.'irenchymo, of which, indeed,
l\\ejf are merely niwlificatioits. F\g. fi3.

The ttMtU follow the same disposition as the woody fibre, in tlie
centre of each bundle of which one or more is generally included.
These vends arc of two kinds : the one is the interrupted spiral or
dotted vessel, and the other the simple or coiitinuoui* spiral vessel.
The dolled vessels ore sometimes cylindrical, but frequently |}<>]ygoiial,
from tlie oomprenion exerted upon thera by the woody fibre, by which
they are immediately 8urroun<led, and the markings of the cells form-
ing which tliey tre<juently exhibit on their surfaces : the ^f>iral vessels
are fiiund chielly in the outer and harder part of the stem ; they
ore formed of a single thread, remarkable fur its thickness and strength.

The epidermu nr cuticlf is known by the elongated, crenate colls, of
which it is com]Hised, and the presenc*e of stomala. At the distal ex-
tremity of each internode of the cane, the ordinary epidermic cells
ore replaced or overlaid by a layer of cells, having totally different
characters; they ore usually little longer than broadi more or less

18B

SUGAR, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS

rounded or oval iu shape, with tl»eir edjjes markeil with short iJTid w*MI-
d«fined lines, disposed in a radiate manner : these cells rei>eiuble sotue-

F/g. M.

A fTHftaenlof SiroAft CA)rt,ukcii fVom neor tlic centrt of the ■1cm, ihowiiit tht
liwt «nd rhBTscirt nf Uip relti of whlrli lh« tNmiich<rn>a it tunned, w tr«|| ■■, on
the left,* tiirtlle of voodjr fibre. Urmwti with IM Camera J.ucldk. uid mag-
uUnl ino dlMUMten.

what the celU found in the stones nf fruit, and tlicjr form hy their
union a zone round the cane, polished, bard, and of about the third of
an inch in depth. Ft^. 55,

Fruginents of su^ar cane are present in jrreat (juautity in Musco-
vado sugar, in the sugars of the slio])s in general, and in ** bastards/*
a prdduct of the manufacture nf hnif sugar.

They are not coninined in lonfuupar, crushed lump, supar caudy,
nor in ocrtuin of the Knst Indian su^iara : in the prup:iriUioii of nil
these augars the cane jiiioe underffopa a process of filtration which
effectually removes utl solid and bulky impurities.

The presence of these fragments, in many cases, serves todistin;piish
satisfactorily cane sugar frotn cither beet, maple, or pmpG i^ugar, n
discrimination which otherwise it would be extremely difficult to
effect.

By the same meanis ali»o, cane siitrar may be detected when mixed
with beet, a practice which, we believe, i^i not uncotiimnn in France.

The saccharine juice of the beetroot is filtered, and therefore frag-

SUGAR, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

187

mentti of thnt plsint ore not present in tbe sujrar nuide from it, cis tbey
would doubtless tw, were this means of purilkution tiuC nduptcd.

Fig.b*.

FrumaiU of t1i«SroAH Civr. rxhlbtUns theatnietura of lh« tvokindaof TtM«la
•mchcnur loU> lu ctin.(KHitlao, u well u the eclU of vbleti the vootly llbrt
lloanvlltBtvd. n, /'■<'(»' i^Mrfrinlinldrdia vnod/Qbrt); &. c«lli of winvV./'''*^''
e, ^p^rof rcMti. D»«n vlUi Ute LuMfK Luct^«,aiul mtgtuJUd 3Ui illiuncun.

The presence of sugar cane in sugar increases the bulk and weight
of the article, Ie^sen9 its sweetness, tend thus deteriorates both its
(j^ualitj and value.

Physiological Action and Prvp^rtiet of Cane Sugar.

Sugar contributes to the formation of fat an<i lactic acid ; it supplies
material for tiie niaiiitenimce of reispinttion ; and by its oxidation it
furnishes heat to the syat^^m. Sugar and especially treacle have an
operient tentlency.

In lS-^3 the home consumption of raw sugar amounted to 818 mil-
lions of lbs Thiaiseijual to '28 lbs. of sugar Ibr each person resident in
Great Britain ; but »iiice the avL^nt^e consumption of Ireland is not
more tlian one third llint of England, the consumption per head iti tbu
latter country must be considerably over 28 lbs.

188

SUGAR, AXD ITS ADULTERATIONS.

On THB Adclteratioms or Cake Sogab.

Various adulterations have been stated to he pr&cUsed on sugar; M
with potato augar, starchy fptm or dextrine^ finely powdered marhUj
chalk or whitings sandy hone-dust^ and common suU.

Fig. M.

'"iS^ -'u _

A portion of the EriDViuiib or ttw Cxvm, ahovlng Ttii nro Ktfrm or osLLi of
which ft ■• eumiHMed — vii,. Iborc of which lli« (tvotrU nirfUK of Ui« euie ii
Ibrmvd. «n<l tJioM of which tti* |H>li>lml «onc drwiibril (ii Ilia teat i« chiefly
eoMtltutwl. Drftwa vlUi Uic Ca^ncr* LudiU, kuJ m«<ol&etl Sua di*inct«n.

Sugar bein^ soluble id water, it is obvious that were it to be
adulterated with any insoluble substances, the discovery of such
adulterations would be very enfty and certain, for the i>nly thin^
necessary would be to dissolve a portion of the sugar aud to examine
the precipitates which Hubaidcd.

We have examined over 100 samples <>f8ugur, and the only insoluble
substance, excluding ucfidenlal imnurities, whiuh we have met with»
has been starch, which wiis present m smnii (quantities in four samples-
There is, therefore, but little ibundation for the tales we hear alwut
the presence of sand in sugar.

Formerly, however, when sugar was much ilearer than nt present,
it used to be extensively adulterated with an inferior dc^'riptian uf

SUGAR, AND 1T8 AtiULTERATIOKS.

109

!tu^ar made, from potato stnrch by the action upon it of dilute buI-
phuric acid. Uut this adulteration ]ia.i, wc holieve, ceased.

** A few years ago," writes Dr. Peroira, " I ins|>ectcd on extensive
manufactory of sugar from potato starch at Stratford, in Kssex : the
sugar obtainetl waa sold for the adulteration of brown euj^ar, and the
mola-'ses produced was consuuied in an oxalic acid manufactory." *

There isapractice, termed the "Mixing" or ** liandling " of sugar,
which, although not an adulteration, u\i\y here be describetl. It consists
in mixing tni^ether, in various nroportions, 8ugar of different qualities
and prices, — as moist sugars with dry ones, very brown sugars with
those of light colour,— the resulting article presenting a tolerable ap-
pearance to the eye, but being rarely what it professes to be — real
Jamaica or Demerara su^ar.

In reference to this subject some remarks from Ibe work of Dr.
ScolTem on the manufacture of sugar may be qui»te*I.

•* If the West Indian sugar-growers were to be furnished at onoe
with a never failing means of producing a large-grained, and there-
fore an easily cured, sugar, to the exclusion of all uther sort-t, their
produce would have to encounter a diflicuUy which the consumer
would learecly imagine. Such large-grained sugars ore very un-
faToui*able to the perpetration of certain mysterious o|)erutions of
legerdemainf, which gnK'ere understanil too well. They will not
mix. A (imall- grained sugar may readily be ineor^ioruted with
glucose, with pieces or bastards, and other less innocent bwlies, with-
out such incorporation being discoverable to the eye. A large-
grained sugar, on the other hand, is a most refractory material for
tbcfc little manipulations ; its crystals, no matter how mingled with
contaminating agentjt, never ceaiiing to manifest their native bril-
liancy, luid thus proclaiming the trnud. It is most easy, then, to
understand why the grocer, as a rule, does nut encourage these large-
grained sugars. He cannot ' hantUe * them, and therefore brands them
witli a fault. He says th^y are deficient in aaccharine matter — that
they will not sweeten. True it is, that comparatively small portions
of these large-grained sugars ore sold, and cold at high prices,
but merely as fancy articles, on the proceeds of which the grocer nets
too little to make their sale an object of primary solicitude.

** Such is the source of one prejudice again&t dry and large-grained
sugars — a prejudiue originating amongst the grocer:*. There is also
another, which originates amongst refiners, who are adverse to the
general cousuntptton of the^e beautiful colonial sugara, for the very
ubrioaa reason that the consumption of their own staple is thereby
le»6Ded;*

* Ur. SUtrmtm Cnhilt. ** t* tlHrfl murh poUto lusir fnjule ? "— ** A jrear nr two Mffo, wtim
«rer» illft-unl poinlfw*, titefe nerc toni mwlc in k wr**!! al vne ciubliiliment 1
The dl»rii>i' 111 tho pDCalooa did not touch Ihr tXAnh. "—Lftkeby m F.Tldnicc
Commlltrc on Atlulimiloa.
f T«nn«d bf grucer>, " himatfng."

»0

BUOAB, AND ITS ADCLTEBATXONS.

Now nearly all the brown sugars of commerce, altbougb Tiot often
athdieratedy arc ^et in a very iinj^rc sLate. Thus many ot them con-
tain a good deal of treacle and glucose i and all, Jragments of sugar
cane^ spomles of ajMngwt, and aI«o large numbers of an insect termed
an acanix.

The presence of these vftricus and damaging impurities is thus
explained.

The presence of the frojrmenla.of cane is accounted for by the
cane juice not having been liltL'red, of tlm fungus and of the inRei.'ts
by the fermentation of ilie sugur, and the presence of nitrogenous
matter. In sugars which have been filtered none of these impurities
are met with.

Tlie Sugar Mite. — The sugar mite or Acams iacehari is in size so
considerable, that it h plainly visible to ihe unniiled sight. When
present in sugar, it may always be detected bv the following pro-
ceeding : — Two or three drachms or teaapounfuls of yugar should be
dissolved in a large wine-glas^ of tepid water, and the solution al-
lowed to remain at rest for an hour or so ; at the end of that time the
animalcules will be found, somt^ on the surface of tliR Liquid, some
adhering to thti aides of the gla*s, and others at the bottom, ruixed up
with llie copious and dark sudirnpnt, formed of fni^numLs of cane,
woody fibre, grit, dirt, and standi granules, wliii'h UKually subsides on
the solution of even a small quantity of sugar in water.

We will now proceed to give a de^c^ptiun of the acarus in (question,

Fig.bG.

0*« •ni TOnmi of Utt Acampa •AcxntAii. or ttigar iwm-i. I>nwti vlUi tbe Oknwn
LucMa. uiil BiftcnlBcd SUA dUtncun.

and observe, in the first place, that the whole of its development may
be clearly traced out in almost every sample of brown sugar.

SUGAR, AND 1T8 ADULTERATIONS.

191

The Acarfu sacchari is first visible as q rounded bodv, or eprp; ; this
gruduidly cnl&rgfs and becomes elongated iiud c)Uudrica2 until it is

A 9cojlr Ijiyxrr or medium ilw, nprcMittJRf tU RtUtudt uiil «p|>tftranai wb*»
sltre, and M ««n cnwllnc ita a frm;aic&l of CMne, Vtmwa with the Caiaef*
L,sclda, uid mignifird titti dlun<rtVT«.

about twice as Inn;; oa broad; af^er u tiinCi from i]\Q nules, and one
extremity of this ovum, tlic legs and proboscis begin to protrude.
These stages of the development of the ncarus are ejihibitcd ia,fig. 50.

The oetrufl thus far formed, goes on inerensini; in size until it
attains lu full growth, when it is visible to the naked eye as a mere
speck.

In its perfect state, its structure is as follows : — The bo«ly is oral, or
rither somewhat ovule, being broader behind thun before; from its pos-
terior part, four long and slIlV bristles proeee<l, two togutht-r on each
side; and some eight or ten smaller ones are arranged nearly at e'|ual
distances around the circumference of the iKxly ; from tin anterior
part a proboscis of complex organisation proccedia, and from itti
inferior suri'ace eight legs, jointed and fumi-thed with spines or haira

iOS

SUGAR, AND ITfi ADnLTERATIOKB.

at eaph articulation; the spine which issues from the lost joint but
one of each leg is very long, and extends much beyond the termiiia-

Ftg. M.

lopmcnt, and M It frtHjiunitj kpiw^n when iU«d. Ilrawti wltli itM CsfoAim
LodJft, and macniftrd IP") iliamtUrf.

tion of the leg itself; lastly, each leg is armed at ita extremity with a
formidable hook.

Manr of the above particulara are faithfully exhibited in the
eneTavingiL

In most samples of sugar the iicari may be seen of all sizes, that is,
in all the stages of their growth and in every condition ; some alive,
others dead ; some enttrCf and others broken into fragments ; bodies
bere, legs there.

SUGAR, AN'D ITS ADt'LTlCRATIOKS.

193

We hnve said that the sugar mite is very commonly present in ibe
less imi'tt su^um — wc mijihi have asserted that ft is tUnioiit eonsLaiitly
»), the »(tateiiient being bn»ed ujton the exauiiDHlion of nut less than
one hundred diflc*rciit samplt^s of sugar.

A» II rule the number ofacari present in any Fam])le of suprar may
be taken as a fair indication of the purity of that sugar; the purer
the sugar, the freer it will be from the 9u;j;ar mit«.

Grocer/ Itch. — It is well known thut grocers are subject to an
aAcctiun of tbe skin, denontinatcd *' grocers' itcV' of which one of
the sTmntonis is extreme irritation and itchmg.

To this disease all {:rnK:ers are not equiilly Uiible, but those more
particularly who are en^^aged in the ** handling " of the sugars, as the
warehousemen.

Now the Acarus xacchori actually bt*lnnj»« to the same genus as the
^rarw* jrcr/AiVi, or itcli-insert^ tluin whinb, however, it is larger, and
possessed of an organisation still jnorc formidable.

It thus beeomes extremely probable that tbe disease in (]uesti<m
does really arise from tbe sugar acarus — a point, however, which
notbin<; short of microscopic observatiun can satisfactorily determine.

On SporuleM of Futi^i in Sugar. — Innumerable sporules of fungi
are very generally to l>e observed in the less pure kinds of sugar;
they i>ct-ur, indeed, most abundantly in those sugars which favour the
development of the Acari.

Thev are best seen by dissolving a small quantity of any brown
sugar ID water, and looking fur tbem in tbe sediment which «ub:tides,
and which, to a greftC extent, is constituted of the sporutes in ques-
tion.

These s[K>ruIes are exceedingly minute bodies;, usually of an oval
form, and either fluaiing uinirly in the sugar solution, or else adhering
together, and thus (brminj: little beaded threads. Under favourable
circumstances the s[M)ruies become developed into perfect plants or
fungi.

Another impurity very frequently met with in lump sugar, consists
nf mittuie amvdust-iike fragutcntiy nnl only of deal, but also of other
woods; tbcy ffflen occur in great abumUncu, and of their presence it
is not easy to give a satisfactory expUnatinn. Possibly they are
ilerived from the board on which tlie loaf sugar is broken into
lumps.

Out of M pent y 'two sampIeM oT brown ntgar^ as procured at diflerent
shopa, subjected toexamination,yr^m/?iii/«<»/'«Ufl'ar C4iHe were present
in ail but one. These were usually so arauU that they were visible
only by the aid of the microscope.

SponUet and JUamentt of fw*gug were present in nearly all the
stigars.

The acari were present in sixty-nine of the sample**, an<! in
many in very conniderable quantities.

Grape SMgar was detected in all the sugars.

fffiOARy AND ITS ADULTEKATIOKS.

turn- pr lliv Mignrfl roiitnined proportions of darch so consit
t4t Iktnil tti ilit> inftTencc that thejr were adulterated.

s-.^^O

v.-.^^VS

■f iht Vbnoi'i nmiiil In bmwn Mnr. I>raWTi with
ftwl niviralflcd w dluncUn.

Cunerm LaddA,

Klt'vcn iilIiiT «aiii})l('H of lirown au^nr, as imported from tlie East
iitxl \V»'"t Inilii'ji, fiir!il»ln*4i neurly simiUr rcsuhs. Two only could
Itit ii'ffiii'tliMl iiK piir(< uiu) (it t'lir liiiiunn cnii-tumptionf — a white, large-
^lftllM<ll C'utruitu ttii^iir, n'Mt'tiihli.i<^' cniNliL'^l lump ; and a pale slraw-
I'liliHirtMl, lar^o-^niliKMt, hiijlilv rrvKltillini' 8ii;;ttr fruin Cussipore.
Itoth llii<»o vii^iira hud im *}nuUi hi<i-ii iuaxIv fruju jtiicu purified hj fil-
tratlon.

Tho rosulla of Iho examination »i Jiftetn tampleg of lump tvgar
wi»r«», ■ —

1'hit in none of the Rugara wcro A*agmcrita of cane present.

'j'lut It) ihrvo uf Ui» MugarR only were tracca of gnpe sugar to be

That in no east' wcro acart observed.

That in none uf th« sugars wvrv Bporules and threads of Aingi
vinible.

It hhji nuw Ih'cii dliown thiit the inajoiity o{ brown sugars, al-
though not udultoiattnl, are yet, as imporiod into this country and as
vended to the public, in an exceedingly impure condition.

SUGAR, AKD ITS ADULTEKATIOKS. 195

Those impurities prevail to such on extent, and are of such a
nature, — consisting of live unimalculse or ocari, sporules of fungus.

I vt maady flhn of tfae Fia. ahcnrinc iU itruelura. Dmwn with Uif
CuHcm LndiU, «ik1 mafalflra 9Xi dluaelcnk

(jrit, woody fibre, &c., — that we feel compelled, bowcver rcluctantljr,
to come to the conclusion, that the bnywn nugars of commerce are^
in fiertfrrat^ in a ttate unJU/or ftumatt coimttttplion.

We stronglj urge the sugar refiner to prepire cheap fomu of puri-
fied sugar, in powder, analogous to crushed lump; such sugars, we are
informed, sre extensively cmploye<l in Scotland, and we doubt not
but that tbejr would meet with a Urge and ready sale in tbis country.

On the Detection of the Adidterationa of Sugar,

tTbe adulteral ions which either are or have been practised upon
sugar are tbote with ttarcb and starch sugar.
Otber articles aIU*g\M) to have been used for its adulteration
o a

196

SUGAR, AND ITS ADCLTERATIOXS.

lire cjum nr rlextrinc, chalk or wliiling, pypsum, sand, bnne dust,
and i-ommnn sidt. Tln*?e siibstanccf, e^tcept ihe piim and salt, are all
iiiHoluble in water: tur lljL'tr supanillDn nm\ idenLifictition nothing
more in y**nera! wuuld bt? necessary than to dis!«(ilve a portioii of the
sugar, liy allow the precipitate to subside, and to examine it with the
eye, and occnsinnally by chftnical reagents.

If the precipitate he earthy, and h\ on ndilinfza little nitrate of silver
to a portion of it^ it turns yeltow^ it eoninists in all probability of hone
dust orphospliate of lime : if. on the addition of «n ai-id, it effervesce,
iC then cimsists of curbonatc of lime, or chalk : should cfirbonic acid
not be eToJlve<i, we mny then test for gypauni : if the preci[iitAte is
coinpoM^l nf sanil, it may at nnre be idciititied by the eye alone.

For the estimation of the ahnve siibstnni-e^ ipiantitativelv, — rarely
required, howrror, — awt-ighed portion of the juijrnr shoultl bi* dissolved,
ami the proeipiute, after being dried» shimld it^jelf be weii:lu'd. IJut
as in a solution of Augur part ufthe Ituie iii held di»Rolved, in this casc
it is better to estiuiate the iiuantity of ihiit present from the ash ;
thia is effeuted by the proeeys deseribt.'d under tlie beat! of Tea.

Stilt, when present, which it rurely is, must likewist.' be estimated
from the a^h : a solution of tbix in distilled wuter diu:«L be made, and
the chloride of silver — precipitated by solution of nitrate of silver —
formed nnist be collected, dried, and weiched, and the chlorine con-
tained in this calculated; thia again must be esiimated for cldoride of
sodium.

If the EUgar is adulterated y^Uh gwn we must proceed as follows:
the 8ur;nrniu8t be dissolved out by means uf reclined spirit; the gum
will be Ufl behind.

Farinaceoajt mtbitancen may be thus detecte*! : — The sugar must be
dissolved, the precipitate examined with the microscnpe, and (he
characters of theitnrrh cnrfiuMrles noticed. I^oiled starch is scarcely
likely to be em|iloyed; but if so, a precipitate wmilil still oi-pur in a
solution of suj^ar: in this the remains of the stnrch coqmscles would
stilt be visible, and with iodine it would luni blue. For the <|uanli-
tative estimation of sLarefa or farinaceous substunce^ the precipitates
must be dried and wei;.'hed.

Dextrine, a subntance internie<liatc in its character between gum
and starch, is detected by t^'Sting a solution of the su^'ar when cold
with iodine, which gives* a purplish colour, and abo by the characters of
the remnants of starch corpuscles still visible.

Lastly, we have to consider the n)cans by which the adulteration
of cane with starch sugar may be discovered.

Starch sugar is one fonu of grape sugar; and since, as we have
shown, grape sugar is piesent fiom natural causes, in greater or lees
amount, in all the brown !iu^ars nf enmmerce, it is evident the analysis
necessary to enable the chemist to state whether a sugar is adullentted
vtth Btareh sugar or not must be a quantitative one, and that he is
only justified in concluding that a sugar is adulterated with that <<ub-

6UGAB, ANP ITS AT>ULTEnAT10N8.

197

Btnnce wlten the nro[>orlion discovered forms a considerable per-centage
of the whole artK-]e,

The teaU ortiinurily employed for the detection of grape sugar are
Trummer'sorthe copper test, anil the potash orMoore's test. A solution
of grape sugar to which a solution of causiir potash has been added in
excess, when boiled becomes of a deep rich brown colour.

Troaimer*8 te^t consists of sulphate of copi>er and liquor pota^sv.
When ttiesti are added in certain proportions to a doluiion <ii' pmpe
sugar, and hent is a[>plied, the red suUixide of copper is thrown down.

Several nibilificationB of thU test have been suggested ; the most im-
portant of thcrn U that which is called Febliug'a te^t.

There are two method:* by which the quantily of grape Bugur is
determined.

By one method the quantity is eslimnted from the nnmnnt of a 80-
lutiuo of deliniie strength required to precipitate all the sugar, a
certain measure of the solution corrcspondiu;; to one grain of su^^ar.

By the other metho<l, the sugar i» calculated from the suboxide
precipitated, the solution being added in excesa

'Xlie copper test is usei) qu»tit;itivcly in the following manner :
— A drop or twi> of a soluliou of sulphuiL* orcnp[M.'r is ad<led to the
solution of sugar, then solution uf caustic potash in excess, and the
mixture boiled, heat being applied to Ihe up[>er part of the mixture
in the test tube.

Fehltng's test litmor is prepared as follows : —

Dissolve 69 giams of pure crystallised sulphate of copper in 27(»
grains of distilled water ; to this add '276 grains of a saturated solution
ol" tartrate of pcitAjih, then add 80 grains of hydrnte of soda, previously
dissolved in one ounce of distilled water ; shake all well together,
■nd iutnxluce the liquor into a vessel capable uf holding 2000 grains,
graduated into 1000 equal parts, and nil up with df.<4tilk'd water.
Kvery 200 grain.H, or 100 parts, of ibis lest liquor are sulUcient to
decompo.4e one grain of glucwe. It is best to add excess uf the
solution, and to weigh the red suboxide thrown down.

in this cose, the solution of sugar to which excess of the test
solution has been added, sliould be gently heated on a sand-bath, till
the suboxide has subsided ; this should be collected by decantation,
washed with boiling water, dried and weighed, and the sugar deiluced
from it. One hundred parts of anhydrous grape sugar corresponds
to 198*2, or, according to Neubauer, *J01 62 of suboxide of copper.

In employing the test quanltLaltvel^, the sojkiion muni be added
tittle by little, until no further precipitute of sunq^^e occurs.

The solution should be kept in a dark place; ami if it has been
made for any time bufure usin^ it, it should be boiled with water in
the proportion of one part of the solution to four of water. If this
operation cau^iea the separation of even the snuillcst quauUty of sub-
oxide, the solution is unGt for use.

o 3

198

HONEY, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS,

The sDgar solution should be ver^r dilute, and not couiain more
than one ptr cent, oi'siiifar.

It mu9t be rememb4>rcd lliat the DeparatGd suboxide of copper will
grudually diMoIve in ibe supernatant liquor as soon as tbis becomes
cold, as oxide, into wliicb it Is converted by the oxypen of the at-
mosjihero, ami henoe tlie necessity of washing the preci|>itftte by de-
cuntfttion in bujljug water.

In this nrtiele, as in tea and coffee, the war not onlyarrcsted the fall
of the duty, but occasioned a retrogressive move. The scale of duly
on ail sucRr alike is now : —

TflIMh«rAt>ril.
lUT.

TUI 5ili uT Aprfl.

ThmiAn.

Candjr, Brown or Whit*

£ 1. 4.

J. d.

X. d.

rcHaod, or uiy «<iua1

In quality ihcn-to ■

I 0 y

16 e

13 4

Whitr cU>ed at muaI. but

nM eq-il rtrflned -
VpIIow MtufOTadu -

17 6

H 7

11 M

IS 0

19 9

10 s

BrowQ ,. - -

13 'J

11 B

9 e

M«1m*m ....

ft A

4 «

3 d

Connumption ofaU Sort* in 18/S4,
Unrefined - - . - 8,100,423 cwts.

Refined . - - - 304,128 „

Molasses - - - . 929,811 „

In 1855.

Unrefined
Refined

Mulas^ea

7,306,029
:288.751
921.574

Nine ManUu of 1«56.

Unrefined - - . - 5.463,488 ,.

Refined - - - - 215,918 „

Moliisses - - . - 684,638 „

Being all lower than the same months of 1855, owing to higher
price and hf^ht^r duty.
A

HONEY, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

lIoNET consists of the saccharine exudation from the nectaries
flowers collected by the bees, and modified and elaborated bv them

HONET, AND ITS ADtLTERATIOXS.

199

in the crop or honey bflc, which is an expansion of the (ESOphaj»us,
and from which it la dist'tiargeii on their return to the hivc^ and de-
posited in the various cells of the comb.

It consists oferape sugar, manna^ ^f** mucilage^ extractive, a little
wox, pollen^ acid, and odariferoua substances.

lloucy usually consists of two parts, one lluid, the other solid and
crystalline. By pressure in a linen bag, these niny be sepnrated from
each other, a clear syrupy substance passing through the linen, and
the white solid su^ar remainine behind.

" Both the solid and liquid sugars hare the same general pro-
perties. Tbey are hi)th equally sweet, both have the saun; chemical
composition, and both begin to ferment when water and a little yeast
are added to Ihem," — Johnston.

In old honey the proportion of solid sugar is the greatest.

"The solid su;jar of honey is probably identical witli the sugar of
the grape; the liquid sugar differs from the solid, chiefly in refusing
to crystallise, and in contuininnr an admixture of colouring and odori-
ferous substances, prtxluced by the flowers from which the bee has
extracted it." — Johnston.

The honey which flows spontaneously out of the comb on the ap-
plication of a gentle heat, consists entirely of the fluid portion, and ia
called virgin honey, while ordinary lioney is pri^u-ured both by pres-
sure and beat. The first honey collected by bees is also soiuetinies
called virgin honey.

To the various fnreitiin substances containedin it, including especially
pollen, the different colours, flavours, and o4lours possessed by the
noney of different countries and diairicts are owing, and the possession
uf which, in some euse$, causes it to bo so highly prized. *^ Hence the
eslimation in which the honey of Mount i<lH, in Crete, bos been
alwnys held. Hence also the perfume of Narbonne honey, of the
honey of Chamouny, and of our own high moorland honey, when the
heather is in the bloom. Sometimes the.se foreign substance!* possess
narcotic or other dangen>u.i qualitieH, as tn the case with the Trebizond
honey, which causes headache, vomiting, and even a kind of intoxi-
cation, in those who eat it. Thid quality is derived from the flowers
of a species of rbododentlron, Azalea poiuica^ from winch the honey is
partly extracted. It wa« probably thio kind of honvy wbiub poisoned
the soldiers of Xenophon, us described by him in the Retreat of the
Ten Thousand." — Johnston.

The solid part of honey, examined under the microscope, is seen to
consist of myriails uf regularly formed crystals ; these crystals are for
the most part exceedingly thin and transparent, very brittle, so that
many of them are broken and imperfect; but when entire they con-
sist of Kix.-sided prisms. They ap|>ear to be identical in form with
those of cane BU^'ar,_;%»'. 52. p. IH4.

Intermingled with the crystals, may also be seen pollen granules of
different forms, sizes, and -ftructure ; these are in such perfect con-

O A

200

HONEY, AM) ITS ADULTERATIONS.

dition, that in miiny cii5e9 xhey mar be referred to the plants from
which the honey bus been procured. This 'a a very intcrc^iing and

i^fii.

CrTftAUof lIo](«r, InlcnvlanlvithUit pr\l\at (naolwrnf the flower* fti>ni«bl«li
Itic Hwurjr wu gftUwmL MAgnlflsd Xll tUmmctcrv.

kutiful fftct in relation to honev Tliebces, in coHccting the li»af^
from the flowers, carry away with them also some of the {>oU>'ii ">
those ilowers ; now this pollen consists of complex utricles oi cvtt*-
difieriug in Hize, shape, and orgnnis:ttion in diOereiil orders of plinis
and iu different plants, so tlint the ob»erver aci^uuinled %kitb th':
characters of the pullon of flowering planu, will be enabled in m'Q.i
C4ue9 to determine wbeth* r any Dartiinlar honey subinitled to bn
examination wa« collected from flowers of foreii:n or native gnwlb.
whether from those of the field, the garden, the hcathi or the luountais-

HONKT, AND ITS ADULTEUAT10X8.

aoi

It has occurred lo ilie author, to ranke nnoilier highir interonting
observatiuii in connwtioii witli, honoy, showiiiy, iii a very sirikinj;

tthomjt by thipt*f«nMef nqntnof
inutnle* of the /mnt mtui of AeuM : a, M^pullcn gnnultB of fern t K^,
tw*lh i r. e. •lltw of hmuc ctunyMlu flowvr. Th« oUwr gnnuki prmtol
W« bftvi DM i(lt«Ua«d.

manner, tlie amazing industry maniAistcd by beta in llie collection of
honey. In examining the bloMonis of our native heaths, some two
or three years since, wc were surprise*! to oboerve that there was
ftcarcely one thai had arrived at muturity that did not exhibit, usu-
ally on the upper surface of the coroUa,' one or more djirk opots,
occasioned by |>erf<)mlioiu. The conjecture at once occurred to us,
thftt these perforations were made by the bees in their seorcb for

HONEY, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS,

honey, and in order to racilitace its abstraction from the tubular-
sha[M;<Ul(3wep8. It was not lung bufnre the cnrrectneaa of lii is con-
jecture was ast-ortaiued. TIte bees, on ali<;htiii;; on the flowers,
almost constantly inserted their prnboscea either through one of the
apertures already ninde^ or tliey jiieroed a fresh one. Now of the
Lountless myriads of blossoms in some miles of hfttth, there waa
scarcely one mature one observed by us, which bod not been perfo-
rated.

A very good way ofobtnining thu pullc^n of honey for microscopical
examination, in to di^j&ulve a tenspounl'ul or t^o of the honey in water
contained in n conical glasjs and to examine u little of the sediment
which subsides in the course of a few minutes, and which in some
honeys is very considfrable. The water causes the forms of the gra-
nules to change in some cases, and hence a better plan is to view the
pollen as containeil in ihe fluid part of the honey. .

Jn thu "'Annals of Natural History " will be found an article by the
author, illustrated by a large numbiT of figures, on the rtnictureof the
pollen granule ; this w-dl bi; fuun<l of some assistance to thost.* who raaj
desire to identify the jjoUcn faund in honey. Another useful plan
of proceeding is to collect and exnmtiiie the huney of tho (lowers from
which the bees are siipjiosed lu hHve coUeoteil tho honey, and to
search in this for the corresj>onding pollen granuloa.

Tbk Adultkxatiox.*( or Honey.

The more usual adulterations of honey are wilh various forms of
starchy as those of the patulo and wheaty and with $inrch and cane
ntigars.

Other adnlterations mentioned by Mitchell and Normandy are
chalk, plaster of Fans, ami pipe clay.

The starch is not only added for the sake of weight and bulk, but
to improve the colour of very dark honey, and to correct a sharp and
acidulous taste which old honey is apt to acquire.

On the Detection tifthe Adtilieratioiu of Honey.

Of the adulteratiotis prnriised upon honey, some ore very easy of
detection, and others ditlicult, if not impossible.

The general method of pnicei-'din;: in the examination of honey,
with a view ^odie^^ovL'^ whether it is a-iluUtTiited or not, is as follows: —

A little of the honey is to be examined under the microscope, when,
if it contain unboiled starch, (he gi-anules will be visible, and may
be identified by the characters which they present. If none are to be
seen, a sumll (juanlity of tincture of iodine is to be added, which will
show whether starch is present or nnt in any lorm.

The starch, as well as any insoluble and inorganic material which
may be present, may also be discovered by dissolving a portion of the

HONEY, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

The ailullerations of booey, the discovery of whicU U more difficult,
nre tliciae with cuiie and ^n^pe sugar.

Cane sugar becomes charred on the addition of sulphuilc acid, and
it is stutod that gmpe suj^ar does not ; this dititiiietion^ however,
does uot apjdy to honey, for it becomes charred equally with cane
su^ar.

There are, however, three ways in which the presence of omc m^r
in hmioy may be determined, two of them beiii^ supplied by the
Diiorox'opt:. The first ja by the size and e-peciallv by the thickness of
the crystals of sugar ; their shajH; is essentially the same as those of
honey. The rrywtuls of cane sugar, as fcmnd in honey, ditFer from those
of that substance In beinp much larj^er, thicker, and in their less
regular shapes ; the angles being acted upoo by the fluid part of the
honey, and in part melted down.

The second is, Biipposiug brown sugar to have been used, by the
presence of the sugar acari, di^eeniible either on the surface of a
solution of honey in water, or in the residue deposited from it.

The third method is chemical. Grape is sepuraicd from tlic cane
sugar by means of Febling's solution; the sngnr which remains is of
course cane sugar: it may l)e procured in a state of purirvj hy means
of alcohol, from the residue left on cvaiioration. This method must
be resorted to in those cases in which the cane su;i:ar has been added
in the state of syrup, and when in consequence iUt crystals are thus
destroyed.

There are some other methods of discrimination : one of these la by
the aid of the optical saccharnmeicr of A!. Biot.

Another is the process of M. Pcli^ot. This consists in a saturation
with sulphuric acid after the combinalitm of sugar in the cold with
lime, and which is repeated after the boiling of another portion of the
same liquid. The diOerence between the quantities of acid neitessary
to saturuiioii before and after boiling indicates the prOfHirtions of glu-
cose.

A very simple prncess indicated hy M. Paven in his work entitled
"Des Substances Alimentaires.'^andemplnyed in most sugar refineries
in France, " consists in washing the rough or moist sugar with alcohol
at 85°, lightly aiidutateil with five liundredths of acetic acid, and sa-
turated with sugar-candy. The liquid dissolves the sugar of starch
and the unerystidiisable sugar, white it dues not attack the crystals of
cane or beet sugar."

The adulteration of honey which, so fpr as we are aware, it ia
scarcely possible in many cases to detect, is that by aiarch angar^ since
this possesses the same chemical properties as the sugar of honey.
Afl glucose is usually made hy biviling with sulphuric acid, and as
the excess of this is soraeiimea neutrnlirtfd with chalk, the presence
of considerable quantities of sulphate of time affords strong evidence
of adulteration with sugar of starch.

MILK, AND ITS ADULTKRATIONg.

305

milk; and its adulterations.

If the testimonj of ordinary observers, and even of mnnj scientific
writers, is to be ureJited, there are few aitii-ltis offooil more liable to'
atlullerfttion, and tliis uf the grosysest UesiL'riptimi, ihuninilk; but before
proceeding to refer to the adulleratioos of milk, it nill be {«ro|>er to
tre.il of its L*onipu*ition.

From Oie fuct tliai persons may be entirely sustaJiieil u|>on a
diet of milk for nn intb'tinile period, it may be noiiclijttetl that that
fluid mudt rontaiti all llie element:^ net'essary for the grovvih and sus-
tenance of the human body, a view the correcluoss of u hioh is fully
eitablisbcd by cheiuicul reciearcli.

Composition of Milk.

Milk consists of tcaUr holding in solulion caaein or cheese^ sugar of
milk, various salts^ iind in susneitsion, /ut/y matter^ in I be form of
mvrinds of semi-opaque globules, to whiih tbo colour and opacity of
milk is due.

Skim-milk, burter-railk, cream, butter, cur*ls and-whey, croam-
cbecsc. and ordinary cheese, are more modi(icatiiin;a of milk', differing
only from each other either in the abstraction of one or more of its
constituents or else in the variation <»f their proportions.

Skim-milk. — The first of tbeee (skitu-milk) diflenj from ordinary
milk in containing a less nuniUiTy of fatly uiatter, a [>orlion of this
having been removed with the cream ; it still, however, contains
nearly all the cheese, the su-jjiir of milk, Sf>me butter, and tlie salts of
mitk ; it is therefore scarcely Icfs nniniious than new mJIk, hut, in
consequence of the diminished umount of fatty matter, is less adapted
tn the development of fat, and tn the maintenance of respiration and
tbe temperature of the bo'ly. In some cnses where fatty nmtter is
found tu disagree, and where, in conserjiR'ncc, milk in its' usiiul state
cannot be taken without iiicunvenicnce, »kiiu-milk m^y be substituted
with a'lvantarre.

Butter' milk. — Bntter-milk approaches skim-milk in its composition,
but contains a still smaller quiintity of fat; as an article of diet for
poor persons, it has the recommendation uf cheapness.

Potatoefi and buitcr-milk, as is well known, taken together, form a
TCry eontiderable portinn of the diet of the peasantry of Irebind : the
butter-milk constitute* an essential part of such a diet, it s'lpplyinjr
the nitrogenised matter necessary for the growth of t!ie body, and of
which tbe potatoes themselves are comparatively deficient.

Cream. — In contradistinction to these, cream consir*ls almost en-
tirely of the fat, with a ver^ small quantity of the 8u<far, casein, and
the otlier const itucnts of milk.

SD6

MILE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Butter. — Butter tiiflcrs little from cream, but is more completely
separated frotri ilie cbecse, sugar, and ssUla ; and tlic inajorily but
not all the fat globutcs, in place of being free aud distinct, have run
together, so ns to form a aemi-soltd substance.

Curds-and- Whfy. — Cunig-nnd-whey are made up of all the
elements of milk, but the form in which they exist is altered; the
cheese is thrown down by rennet, or by the addition of an acid, da
acetic aciil, and, in its descent, carries with it the rrreater part of the
butter, the two together forming the curd; while the whey, or serum,
consists entirely of water, the sujjar, and the salts.

Cream-Cheese. — Cream-cheese consists of the moist curd (that is,
of the cheese and butter), the greater part of the serum or whey
being remov(?<l by slight pre^ure.

Ordinary Cheese. — Ordinary t-'bcesc conlnins little, or much batter,
according as it is made from sKim or from whole milk : the casein is
precipitated by rennet in the usual manner, and aubjccle!! to great
]iressure in mould». Annatttnii frequently Added to heighten its colour,
and the cheese is kept untd it becomes more or Ies!» ripe.

The relative proportions of the different constituents of cow's milk,
especially the fatty matter^ are subject to very great variation : the
age of the cow, tne time after culving, fomi, temperature, weather,
and the time and frequency of milking, ull occasion considerable
differences.

The constituents of cow's milk in the normal state, according to
il\f. O. Ilonrie and Chevalier, are as follows: —

Casein ... 4*48

Butter - - • 313

Sugar of milk - - 4*77

Salts, various - - 0^

Water - - - «7-02

1 0000

The following U the mean of ten analyses of pure milk by Professor
Poggiale • ; —

Water ... 862*8

Butter - - - 43-8

Sugar of milk - - 62*7

Casein ... 38*0

SalU- ... 2*7

10000

Ihe casein of milk is an albuminous sub^itancc, distinguished from
ordinorv albumen by not coagulating when healed, by its congulation
by acetic acid, and aUo by the products of its spontaneous decompo*

• Cbrmlcal Gwttte

MILK, AND ITS ADULTEKATIONS.

S07

it!t!on. The tutuh

form wilh itiDSolnblt

ds, as do ftlso

conipoin
various luetullic sails as ttulpbute of copper, luxl bichloride of mercury.

The butter c.onf,Ut£ of a. solid and liquid iats^ in combination with
glycerine. Theumportinnnf thiiiconslitueiaorniilk la very viirtable.

Ungar of miik IS a crystallisuble sugar ; it is much less susceptible
of fermentation than prupe or cane sugar ; it is very slijjbtly Bolubfe in
alcohol, und is less soluble in water than cane sugar; it ja also les«
aweet. Like grape sugar, it throws down the oxide of copper when
its solution in botled with sulphate of copper and liquor pntnssie.
By the action of nitric aeid, it yields, 1ik»> pum^ saccholautic or
macic acid, so thul it is intermediate in its properties between hugar
and guBi. This of all the constituents of milk is the least Uuble to
vary in quantity.

Lactic aciil is probably rather a product of the decomposition, than
a normal cnmitituent of milk.

Salt*. — Of these some are soluble in alcohol us the lactates of pot-
ash,— the principal lactute, — of »(Mia, ammnnin, lime, and ma^esia;
oCbcn are soluble in water, but not in alcohol, an sulphate ol potaah,
and the phosphates of i>otnsb and soda ; lastly, ihe phosphates of lime,
iron, ana magnesia are iiuoluble in water.

For all proeticul purp<^es, in order to ascerCam wltether a milk is
genuine* and ofgoml cpmlity, it ia sufficu-nt to take the specific gravity
of the milk by thti hydrometer or galnctometer, und to estimate the
quantity of cream by the lactometer. Should we desire to institute a
quantitative analysis of its chief constilucuts we may then adupL tlie
procesa described by Hutdlen.*

The Butter. — 'Vila wei«:hed qaantity of milk is mixed with one-
sixth of ita weight of common unburnt gypsum, previously reduced to
» very fine powder. The whole is then evaporated to dryness, with
frequent stirring, at the heat of boiling water; n brittle ina&s is ob-
tained, which is reduced to u fine powder. By digesting ibis powder
in ether, the whole of the butter ia dissolved out, and, alter evapuration
of the ether, may l)e obtainetl in a pure state, and weighed ; or the
powder iLielf, after being treated with ether, may be dried and
weighed ; the butter in then e»tiniated by the loss.

The Sttgar. — Afierthe removal of the butter, weak alcoholis poured
upon the (towder, and digested with it. This takes up the sugar with
a little saline matter, soluble in alcohol. By evajwruting this solution,
and weighing the dry residue, the quantity of sugoris dL-ttruiined ; or,
as licfore, the powder itself may be dried and weighed, and (lie ftugar
estimated by tlie loss. If we wish to estimate the simiill quantity of
inorganic saline matter which has been taken up along with the sugar,
it may be done by burning the latter in the air, and weighing the re-
aid uc.f

* Afm*icn ilcr CtiPinl« uiid I'harmarle. p, 363., eopl«tl lo " Mitchpll't TrraUie," p. 7*-
t M P*l"0 Mp^raiet cane frum iDlIk augar iij iHMni of ordliurir bruuljr ; tlie itroc««l
will be found Tull; docrtbed at p. lOU. o( th« woik quoted •! p. 9M.

308

MILK, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Saline Mutter — A scc^HifJ weighed portion of milk i** now carefully
evapnrAtC'l to dryness, and tipiiin weighed. The loss slutws the quiin-
tity of walLT. 'i'lie dried milk is then burneiliii the nir. Tht» weight
of the iiioombuatible &&\v indicates the propnrtton of inorgnnic fvaline
inatler contained in ihc milk.

The Casein. — The weight of the butter, supnr. suline matter, and
the water, Lteinn tbui< known, and added togetlicr, the deficiency shows
the weight of the ca«ein.

Other iiiL'thorls may be pursued.

Thus the cflsein and bnlter may be precipitated by aretic acid,
the precipitate colIecLeJ and dried, the water l>einjr got rid of by nieans
of bibuluus paper and afterwards hy ovtt|K»ration in a water-bath ;
it 19 then weij;hed; the ftit is dissolved out by ether; the etherial
solution is next evaporated in a \vei^hed cu{>sule with a gentle heat ; the
wei;:ht nf the reHdual fut \* then determined by the increased weight
of lh«? ciLpsule. J'he diflerence between the weight of the dried curd
and thi.' butter ^ives the oiiionnt of casein.

Th<* qiiiintity of snfjiir may he estimiited from the whey by the
followin:; process of Professor Po^rgiale ; —

" TIjc test li(/uor isprcpflred by aildin^ to a solution of sulphate of
copper^ bilurtrate of poiash, nnd dissolving ihc precipitnte which is
formed in caustic p<)tash. The Plrettpih of the alkaline solutiim i«
then determined with «rreatcare, from the ([uantity of su;;ar employeil
to decolourisf a known volume of the liquid. It is inipnrlotil. to
observe that milk sugar, and not cane sugur^ must be enipbtyed in
rhifi operation. I mude several experiments, in order to avoid the
determination of the strength of \\w solution of hinoxide of copper,
which is decidctlly the longest nncl nio^t ilelicnte experiment, llie
following proportions eoohUiiitly furnished a liquid, twenty cubic
ijetitimetres of which correspuiid to 0 20Q, or two deci;;ramme8, of
whey : —

Gnmmr*.

Crystalliecd sulphate of copper - - - 10

Crystallined biiartrate of potash - - - 10 .

Caustic [K>tash ----- 30

Distilled wiiter - . - - . 200

I
I

The filtered liquid is perfectly clear, and of an intense blue colour,
Prettaratum of the Wftet/. — •*To determine tfie amount ofsugar-of-
milk. It is indispensable to separate the fatty matter and theciuein by
coagulation. This is easily effected bv pbicins fifty or «ixl.y grammes
of the milk in a small flask, adding to it a few dro[bs af acetic arid, a»d
then raising the temperature to between 104^ and 12^*. A traos-
pnrent li(iuid is obtained on filtration. According to my experiments^
1000 gniMiines of milk yield 023 grammes of whey, which gives for
1000 grammes of whey about fifty-seven grammes of sugar.

Examination of (he Whetf. — " Twenty cubic centimetres of the test

MILK, AND ITS AntXTERATIONS.

209

liquor are introduced bj means of a pipette into a small flask, which
should be preferred to a porcelain capsule, as it allows of the liquid
being seen from top to bottom, and of observing with thi» irreatest
east! the moment the decolouri^ation li complete. The liquid is then
boiled. On the other hand a burette, each divijiion of wlueli ia equal
to n fifth of a cubic centimetre, is 611ed with the whey and poured
drop by drop into the liquid, agitating the latter contintjailr, and
heating it after each ufhlitiun of whey. This is continued until the
blue tint has entirely diftapiieareiK At first, a yellow precipitate of
hydraleil protoxide of copper is formed, which, however, soon turns
red, and sinks to the bottom of the flask. When the operation is
terminated, the quantity of whev employed is read off the burette, and
the weight of sugar eoutaiiied in 1000 grammes of whey determined
by the rule of thrt-e." — Pvggiaie.

•*Milk sugar reduces a niucU simalter proportion of oxide of copper
than grapo sugar; for whilst 1 gramme* of the latter decomposes
6*926 of sulpbat« of copper. 1 part of milk supor reduces, according
to Neubanerj 4*331, according to Mathaim 4*168, parts of oxide of
copper. " — FreimuuM.

A vcrr close approximation to the quantity of sugar present in
milk, mar be obtamed by simply evBoorating the whey t(t dryness,
weighing; tlie residue, and deducting toe weight of the ash left in its
inciueration.

Specific Gravity of Milk.

As (he composition of milk variea, so of course does its specific
gravity.

Genuine cow's milk has an averaRC s[>ecific gravity of about 1030;
it seldom exceeds 1031, but is frequently several degrees l"Wcr. The
great variatirm In the specific pravily of milk is occa:*ione<l by corre-
sponding vnrijtiions in the quantity of butter or cream prcnent ; the
butter of milk being so much lighter than water, the greater the pro-
portion of butter, the lighler of course is the milk.

That this is really so, is sliown by the following table.

^_ Tam^a hhowing thb Vauiatio?! m tub SpFCiric Geatitt or
^^fe GaNriNR Mit.K, and tub Relation of this to the Pbr-Cbkt-

^^^^^ aoBS or Cbbam.

^^^^H MiltL

^^^^^^^^ spec <>rar.

^^^H 4 - 1008 -

^^^^m 6 - - 1030 -

'* Pmcnlui rMwmrrMixU that th^ wh^ h« flMirMi vlth ■ llttk wfalte of t*g| aitil Bllrrrd,
ati4 tb« lltnie ilkluud «Uh atiie titno lU toiuinc of w*ter.

»!•«;. GriT.

Cream.

—

2°

_„

10-27 -

1026 -

— -

MILK, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS

Milk.

Skim.

spec Grav.

Spec Gr»*.

Cr*un.

10-27 -

- 1030 -

- 9

1026 -

- 1028 .

- 13

1029 .

- 1030 .

- 8

1030 .

- 1031 -

- 7

1024 -

- 1028 .

- 10

1027 -

- loai -

- 10

1023 -

- 1030 -

- 25

1024 -

- 1031 -

• 32

1023 -

- 1029 -

- 10

The above table includes fmmplefi of both euorning and afternoon
millers as well oa some of ihc tir;jt and liist milk obuined at the same
miUcing ; the/ are not, therefore, to be tukeo as average tainplcs of
milk.

From an examinatioD of the table, it nppoars that a milk ma/ be of
high specific gravity^ aud yet yield but Hule cream (nee I); or it
may be of low specific gravity, and yet afford a very larye quantity
of cream (see 4): al^^s that the removal of the cn^am increases the
density of the milk (sklm-miLk) several de^j^rccs. It will he observed
that not one of the samples in the table shows a low spmfic gravity
with deficiency of ercam. We have never met with a naiuriu milk
of thi.s kind, and believe it to be of very rare occurrence.

The specific gravity of the scntm of milk is due mainly to the iufpo"
contained in it; and o^ this coD!«tituent is the least variublct so is its
vpecific gravity the least subject to variation, — a circumstance of cod*
aiderable importance, as will be shown presently.

TaBUE 8UOWIMO TDB DENSfTT OF SeBI'M, AND ITS ReLATIOR TO

TUB Specific Gravitt of Milk.

Cowt.

Milk.

SlwUk OmiltT-

Cows.

MWk.
SpMMc OnvUy*

Bp«Sku?;«io.

]rw9

10»

i«n

losr

lOM

icna

ION

1077

loas)

iim

wrm

luai

1077

losa

ton

laio

1027

tosa

tOSB

J008

lO-ift

toil

losa

101 !l

10S7

LOSS

1017

I(W6

10^

1078

1017

1030

low

IflST

lOTi

I«H

I0»

low

loir

1027

lO'JT

1030

lOM

I0Y6

1 077

L>^

lOM

1(«7

loas

inao

1077

in-^

IfiiT

1074

I07S

J 010

low

lOK

1(KH>

1077

Ifi76

1071

KlVI

\0W

love

1078

itm

low

10S«

1077

]0»

lt«7

IMC

1076

irri4

iwr

1030

1076

1034

lOM

ion

MILK, AND ITS ADULTERATIOXS.

The above table includes manj samples of milk of an exceptional
charActer.

It will be observed, that white the speei6c gravity of the milk
extends over a wide ran^ie, vorvinf^ from 10()H to IU3I, ibut of the
serum, on the contrary, is dubjeot only to a flight variation, the limits
being front 102S to 1025.

AVe huvo here, then, a fixed datunit from vrhich to determine, with
precision, the adulteration of milk with water, a point of the greatest
UDportonce.

The specific gravity of «A/m-mi7A, althouf^h not so 6xedasthutof
the »erum, i» yet much more so than that ot whole milk : itD average
weight U estimated by Fereira at 1034 8.

Variations in Composition of Afilk.

It has been stared that the compositinn of milk is subject to very
great vuriatiou accurding to several nioilifyinj; cirrumsinnoes ; the
chief of (lie^e are, tbu age of the cutv, its condiliun, the time and fre-
quency of milking, iht! nature of the fuod, hnusin;; of tbu cows, and
temperature. — We shall bestow a few remarks on each of tliMecmijes
of vHriatiun.

Injiuenee of Age on Milk, — With respect to ai^e, a younjr cow with
her first calf gives less milk than with hur second, third, or Jburth calf,
she being eonsidereil to be in her best condition, tn most coses, when
from four to seven years old.

The period during which cows give milk affcr cnlving is usually five
or BIX months, but very frequently the time i-* much prulongcil beyond
this ; we have been intbnned of an instaufi; nf a cow continuing to
give milk for three years and a holf alter calvin".

tnjiutnce nf Condition im Milk. — The first milk yielded by the cow
aflcr calving is yellow, thick, und stringy : it is called colofitrnm, and
by milkmen nnU oibeni, " beostings/' This state <>1' the milk Usts
from abuut three weeks to a month, but i» very bad for ilie first ten
ilays, during whji'b tuue the luilk is ni>t fit for use. From the end uf
the first to the tt^ruiiuiitiun of the third ur fourth munllt, the milk
is in its best conditiun.

The cow carries her cnlf for forty weeks, or ten lunar months: it
is the common practice to milk the cow regularly for the first seven,
eight, or nine months of this period, a practice which, at first sight,
appears to be highly objection able, but whicii is really not su much
so as might be supposed; und it is rendered absolutely necet>t«ary by
the fact that cows could not otherwise be profitably kept; ncver-
theiesft, it is very important that the milking should not be continued
too long, for tne sake of the cow, the calf, and the milk itself: in
general it should cease at the end of the seventh month ; niuny cow-
keepers, however, continue to milk up to a very short period of
calving.

»l»

MILK, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Another very objectionable pracllc* is to permit the cow ngtm to
becoiTii' in fiilC within two or three months after hnvlnji riilvt'H ; the
object Iff ihiing so Is lo derive aa nmrh profit as pracliciibh' from the
aniinul, without rrgnrU to tlie ulfeet un iLs eon»tiriili<]n« tht; qufiUtv of
the niilk, or the growth of the ciilf. It is impHssibU to i-Kiioeive that
a citw enii cujitiimd to vieM lur^e qiXEHitihufi of j^^hjiI milk dnilv* anil
Aflbril. lit the «aine tJino, siilFicieiit iiouri»huiuut ibr carrying ou eflcc-
lively the prouess of pestulion.

Jnjiui'iice ft/ FiKi*/ on Milk. — The naturjil food of the cow is evi-
denllv that derived from piislurcs, viz. grass, the milk oVjtained from
c<kW3 fed upnii thia being of excellent 4iuiilily and sutticientlj rich fur
all pur[to:tL-}i.

The next most natural food is dried grass or hay, which is given
larjiely to cows in winter, the milk being nearly the Bume in qualit/
as from grass.

Beet root and carrntts, being very nutritioui*, are also usually jjiven
to cowB in the wint<-T f imc with advantage. With regard to the eflVet
of beet root nixl carrois on iiiilk, we obtain the fnll(iwin£r informNlion
by MM. O Henrie and Chevalier, as repopiftl in Mr. MitoheU's trua-
tisc Oh the " Falsification of Kootl," p. 74.

The constituents of cow*3 milk in tho normaJ state, according to
MM. O. Uenrie and Chevalier, are as follow : —

Casein (cheesy matter) - - -

Butter - . - - .

Sufjar of milk - - - - -

Salt*, various - - - - -

Waltr -.---*

When the cow» arc fed on beet:
Casein - - -

Butter

Sujjar of milk -

Salts - - .

Water -

When on carrots : —

Cnsctn •
Butter -
Sugar of milk -
ShIis -
Water -

IIILK, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS

3 in

' It will be observed that, nocording to the ulMive taUU'S. the efleot
of fuodlng cowfl on farrote is to occasion a oli^ht iliininutinn in the
aninuni ol'ousciii amd butCor, but an inereuBe in tlie quiinttt^ of 8u<;ur,
while feeding them on beet root reduces stUI more the quantity of
cogi-iii and buiter, but very largely increaBes the supar* — effects which,
troui the richness of carrot and bt;el in sugar, might have been antj-
ciputed.

As is well known, a very considerable number of the cows which
supply Lotidoii with milk, are kept in variouit conBned and unhealtliy
places in the nic trnpolis ; sut'h cows nre MihJoni turned out to {jrass ;
the system of feeding ndmited being altogetliLT aptificia! and unnatural,
brewers' groins arid disliilers' wash foniiijig tlic cliii-f part of their f<>i>d ;
these stiiKulate the aniumls unnatundl)', and under the ^timldus large
<|uantitiuet uf ndlk of inferior quality are accreted, the cow quickly
becoming worn uut and discused rii conse([ueuce.

In relereiiee to the eiTects of grains uu cows, Mr. Ilartey luake^ the
following remarks: —

" Brewera and distillers* grains, and disfilters' wajth, make the
cattle grain-sick, as it is termed, and prove injurious to the Jtlomach
of the animal. It has been a.tcciiained that, if cows arc fed upon
these grains, Sic, their cunslitulions hcL-ome quickly destroyed."*

MM. Bous!<ingauk and Lebcl, from ex^Hiriuients made, have arrived
at the ciiTicIusion that the kind id' food has nut a great inlluenee cither
u|)on the amount i>r composition uf mtik, provided tiumitities con-
taining equal pru[>ortions td' nutritious niatti-r be givCTi.

htflnence of Ternperaiure on Milk. — In hot countries and dry
seasons the quantity of milk yieldeil is said io be let«a, but the
quality is richer; it is also jttated tliat eotd favnurs the produc-
tioN of sugar and cheese, whiUt hot weather augm«.'ntd ihu aii^outituf
butter.

It would be extremely desirable to a.«certAin precisely the extent to
which the quality of milk its influenecil by weather.

Influence of the Time aiui Frequency of Milhiuf^. — Willi re^iard to
the quality of milk as affected by thi> time and fi*equency of milking,
morning milk is said to be better than that obtained in The afterniMm ;
and the milk of cows when milked but once a day, is richer than
eiihtT. It is the common belief tliut the XaaI portion of the milk
obtained at any milking is richtT thiui the fust; we have titken pains
to aM:ertain wht.*ther there is any loundation for such an opinion, and
find it to be really the cvlah to a remarkable extent, as will appear
from the foUuwin^ table.

• HarlfUa Dalrjr Sjr(te?n, pp, 73. «tid 74.

r 3

MILK, AND ITS ADULTEEATI0N8.

Table krowing the DiFrBEBncE m thr Qdautt of thb Fia&T

AND Last >fiiK obtainbd at eacu Mujuxo. [

\st Milk.
Afternoon.

Milk . Ca^m

Spec. Gnir. '^'*"*

Cowi»

1
2

6
7
8

1027
1026
1027
1029

loao

1030
1029
1031

2nd Milk.

1033 .
1023

1025 -

1024 ■
1024

1022 ■

1020 •

1030 ■

6Ii

Trom nn <?x«mmfttion of these tables it Bppears

that the

milks are nf mueli luwcr specific pravity than the first ; ami hence, h*d
the sptTilic-grftvity ti'«t alune been mie^l un, they would have b<m
pnjnoufK'etl tn be iiiferiur in riuhneiis to the first; u eoitctuuon the
reverse of thiit ivhirh is correct. 'J'lius, while the ereiiin of the whole
eight samples of the first milks nmounteil to 61 1 jjer-eentaies^ that of
the last Kmniinted to 1-^H ; thut if, they eontaine*! mnre than double
the qnantitjf of cream. This fart is imt without practical ini|>nrtancc

It is a common practice for invalids and others to prtK*ure their
glius of milk ilireet from the cow ; wc thus perceive that in this way
they seldom obtain tlie proper proportion of butter, a circumstance
which ntny be uf advnntii^e in <!ome canes, and of divadvanto^ in
others. In London it is now eoinmoit fur cows to be driven t1irou{|ii
the streeta, and to be milked in the presence of the purchnser*:
although in this way the buyer succeeds in procuring it gentiinOi
he tWs not alwHvs obtain the best milk.

The great ddTfrenee in the amount of cream contained in tlie first
and last milk taken from the cow nt one niilkinfr, ap|»ears to be silii-
faotorily explained un the supposition tbac the fatty matter of (te

MILK, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

215

nillc obejs the same laws of graTity in the udd<er of the cow that it
docfl when Kt aside in an open vessel.

The following tables ehow the varietiea in the specific Jfravity of
tndkf and the per-centages of cream in uiQriiing and af\ernoon milk.

Table suowtsig Tns Spbcific Geivitt or Pcbe Milk, akd the
Pbb-Cbktagbs op Cbeam.

Momutg Milk,

Milk.

Spec. CifflT

tr-

Cream.

Card.

1030

■ 6*

63gr8

1031

•

- 7

69 „

1028

• H

66 „

1030

. 9

80 „

1031

- 10

78 „

1028

- n

75 „

10A0

- 12

as „

1023

- 5

81 „

1029

- 7

61 „

1028

- 9

63 „

Average nearly 1029 Total - 77|
Average about 7J.

Total - 693

Afternoon

Afiik

SSu.

Mtlk.
SfMT. Gra«

Crum.

1 •

1028

2 -

1027

3 -

1027

1(»2H

1028

6 -

1027

LondoiL

•7 .

1028

•8 -

102(j

•

•9 -

102G

•10 -

102G

•

Card.

prs.

t»

»i

»»

i»

t»

Average about 1027 Total - 96^
Averof^e more than %\.

Total - 810

The Richmond cows from which the first six morning and afternoon
milks were obtained, were ft'd portly on grass and partly on graiOK

r 4

«I6

MILK, AKD ITS ADULTERATIONS.

It is deftiruble that the foUowiug particulAra relating to each
should be made knuwD ; —

C»«i.

Muiibir«rc«l««.

Dttm^lmtC»tr.

Vi^*tmV*mn.

Hywm

AvmIu

Uqium

7 month*

T ..

' H

ft •

10 ..

« n

IS *.

3 „

1 H

■ ^

* n

19 M

•7

fi t*

to week*

10 ..

•8

10 ^

■9

3 meatlu

w »

•W

U week*

The flamplcA were taken from the milk'piill containing the whole of
the milk obtained iWiiu each cow, uml whilst, »tiU wurm.

From the jirocfdinjr tiibles, it appears —

1st, Thiit tbe apeeijic gravity of penuiiio milk, in its ordinarjr condi*
tiort, vurieB between 1031 and 10:26; ond thni. the average specific
graviiy id* the inominj! milk is about 10*^9, and the aftenioon 1027.

2nd. Tb&t the amount of cream ranges IVom 4^° to '12?^ the average
beintiUi^

3rd. That the quantity of curd varies from 55 to 98, the average
beinc 75. {

liic above are the results in the case of sampler of mHk of ordinary
quidity; but exceptional cases sometiuioa occur, in whiih tlit* i!i)Ocific
gravity is less, a.^ also the quanlily of cream, curd, butter^ and clieejiC.

On the HoHsiug of Cows, — In a very useful litlle pamphlet* pub-
lished some time since by Mr. H. Ku;:^. surgeon, on Londcm Milk*,
we meet with many particubirs relating to the iuipru[n?r mmie pursued
in feeding; and houain;; cows kept in viu-iousi parts of the [Metropolis.

"Anyplace, any hovelt" writes Mr. Rngg, "cow-keepers seem tu
coniftder, will do for a ct>w, — narrow bines, confine<l enrnors, &c., —
and yet tliev wonder how it is that they Io?e ?o nmiiy from disease.
Can any nne with a prain *>f common sense at all wonder that cows
should i»c uflilrted with di?eaae when tht.'y ore huddled together in a
space that doc^ nnt allow tliem sufficiunt bronlhin^'-room, with lUeir
heads placed close un tu the wall, and without a tiuflteient current of
air or ventilation ? The carbonic ucid expired fnini their lun^rs jj^,
before it can rise, the greater |>art inhaleil yj:aiii, unmixed with a suf-
ficiency of pure nir^ so necessary for the oxidation of the blood, and
Consequent vitality of the body.

" The air of (be cow-houfes ia not alone vitiated by the exhalations
from the lungs of the cows, but from the iniproijer drainage of their
sheds, and from the collections of all kinds of oSal and filth and vege-
table substances in a sute of decompoi^iuon, together with pigs run-
ning about the place, or euclosed in one corner of the shed.**

• OtweTTiltooi on London MUk, wcoad cdiUoa. \$. lUilej And Mooa, RcfCJU ScrMt.

MILK, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

217

Other ob»ervalions on the same subject will be found reconioil m
the Harleian Dairy STStem, p. 14. ; Aitou*8 Dairy Husbandry, ji. 70. ,

Fig. St.
QouD Uijjc

'^^^'/f

•^o^'qqo

,o«o'

9 o^^abJ*' •°.^'^p «*<^§^

Thto kikd lk« fire MUivIdc flfUM* v* all dr»wa la • M«I« of ktwut 980 tlU*

mtiVTv.

•nd in a Pamphlet on the Sanitary Conditiou of tlie Pariah of St.
James^a, Westminster, by the Hon. F. Hyng.

The necessity fur an ubundanre of pure air is shown by the follow-
ing calcuUtion : — Dr. Thomson* stAtes that one cow, consumin(;6 Iba.
of carbon in its daily food, for respiratory purposes, would re'juird
9^6j cubic feet of atmospheric air.

On the Characteristics of Good MiVL

Good milk is a white homo;;eneou<4 fluid, of sweet and bland taste,
not bec'uninj^ viscid on the addition of ammonia. It slioidd have
a specific f^avity of about 1030. and should yield about 9J per-
ceotAges, by the lactometer, of cream.

• EtjMrlakntal BOTMrcbflu 00 tlie FooUor Anlin4lsp. lU.

MILK, AND ITS ADULTEUATION&

^m The specific gravity o( genuine whole milk is liable to vary, ordi-

^H norily, however, within toe Unuts uf 1026 and 1031 ; that of the

^^^^^ta . Poor Uiuc

scrum from 1025 to 1028 ; the cream is likewise subject to verj gresi
Tariation.

Examined with the mL(*ro<(rope, it is found to contain niTriadf of
beautifully formed globules of faity matter of various size, and reflect-
in" the hghr. strongly, und whicb glubulea are entirely and readily
soluble in cuu:?uc |H)Uuih ; in fact, gi>od milk under the microtoopt
presents the appearance exhibited in_y^. 64.

If the milk exhibit any want of complete homogeneous ness or ■
of imjKTfoL-t liquidity ; if It be viscid, or become bo on the additioa
of ammonia ; if, examine<l willi the mirr<isco(>e, blood, or pus, nr colo-
strum cr^rpusi^lea are present^ the inilk h not healthy milk of good
f|uaUty ; la-<tly, if the fat globules ore comijarativcly few, and of saaB
litze, the milk is pitor.

Cream con^i^its almost entirely uf these fat globules, some of whidi
are ufieu met with of very considerable size.

The curd of milk, ns already explained, is com|)09ed of both de
cheese and the fat globules. Its appearance under the microscOfie if

MlljKf AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

219

reprcAentei) in ^. 67.; the cuein or cheeM is distinguishccl by iu
granular texture.

F'g.eti.

-rifcrc

The first milk yielded by the cow after calving^ called colostrura, U
ctuiracte rifted, aa before noticed, by the presence of numerous cor-
puMles of large size and {rranular ap|>caranoc. Cow's milk
vtftte orcoIo«trum is represented in^. 68.

the

On the Apparatus employed to determine the Purity and Quality of

Milk.

Independent of a quanlitative chemical analvsISf the purity nnd
4)ualitv of milk are oflon judircd of by ita specific jfravity aiid the
quantity of fjiuy matter or ercam whirli [lie milk furnishes.

The itperijic gravity or weipht of milk may be determined by means
of the ordinary Fpeeific-gravity bottle ; it is more frequently aseertnined
by meain of the common hydrometer, or by the galactometer, of which
several varieties hare been devised.

The best of the palartnmetcrs is the instrument invented by M.
Dinocourt*, named the Centenmtd GalacUtmeter,

* Con»lrucc*tir d'inttniiDentt 4c pbjulque, et de rhrmle ea r«fT0,9. Qual St Mlcbel fc
Tu\t.

•u

MILK, AND ITS ADULTEttATIoNS,

** The centesimal galactometer is represented ^J^- 70. ; it U cum<
poded —

'* 1st. Of a stem A, a, enclosing scales.

Ftg.er.

CcmD or Miui

"2nd. Of n cyliu'Ier S, servin}{ to float it.

" 3r<l. And of n bulb V, i-barfjed witli t>hnt^ serving as a ballast, so
that the inslrunient flaals upri;;ht in the milk. Of these ihrefl parts,
it is only necessary to wfU imdi-rftt-ind ono, tbnt wbiih i-nrlows the
scales An; ilie scale A^ in prtrt coiotired t/etlatr, servea to wt'iijh the
milk with its tTeam ; Ihe first depree on the ti^p of the scale 10 marked
50, The following exicnd from 50 to 100 and over.* Each deprce
starting from 100 in mounting up to 50 represents 11 hundredth
of pure milk: the de;n"ee» foruied by a line »re eipial, us 50, 52,
54. &o. ; the deyrrccs formed by a dnt are nnetpial decrees, as 81^ 83,
85, &c. To coniprchciul well the raluv of (he tie^rofR ol' this seale, it
is sufficient to irive art example : — Sup|in>.sin;r tlien that the galacto-
met«r is sunk to the 85th di^gree, thai will indirnte 85-Iiundredlhs of
pure milk, nnd eonscnpiently that I5-hundredths of water hud been
added to this milk ; the galaetomeier is stopped at 60 degrees, there

* 11 will be tfOB ihAt llii* iciile hfik tiren cut do«n to h«lf Ui griwlMfttton, M\i ItiM it«
0 cnrreiponda to dUillled vater ; we bA«« auprrMir^ IIk> Brat M) degrpM, which wouid
have lengthened the itcro of (be tnitrutncnt, and have rendrred it more fragile without aor
uttlttT-

MILX, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

fi2X

will be 4<^hundredlb5 of water, or four-tenths of water addeil. We
•ee firom this that in adtlin<r tu the number uf hundredths indi-

cated by the inslrament a complement ary number to form one hun-
dred, this complementary number will give in liundreiUli;) the tjuan*
tilt of water added tn the milk under trint. If wo wiy.h to nvoid
rn^knntng by hundreiltbs. one may count only by tenth!) ; wc have
only to notire thut the first tenth is whit^', ihnt the jiecoiid \a
rohturetl yellow, the third is whib.', the fiturili yellow, nnd that the
fifth is alsn white. Thia alternatinn of white and yellow pivea a
very evident deoiarcation between each tcntli ; towurds thu middle
uf each tenth we have placed the figures 1, *^, ^, 4, 5j to indicate ibeir
order.

" The space comprised between 100 to 120 is also coloured yellow ;
this cnmprehcnd-i the different densities of pure milk — that is t4i say,
without the extraction of cri.*ain, as well as without the addition of
water: we have prolonged the ecole from 120 tu 136, so that it may
aerve in all eases.

^ The scale a, in part coloured blue, is tlestiiicd to weigh iikini-milk ;
it ie> like the firsts divided into 100 decrees or hundredths, of which tbe
firtt 50 have been cut off as useless ; each degree commencing from

2S2

MILK, AND ITS ADULTEHATIONS.

100 to 50, and mounting upwards represents a buodredth of pure
etkiinnieil milk ; con»(;r|uentlir'^ Oie ninnuer of estimating the quantity
of wut<*r a^liled tx» »kiiti-rinlk ia uh^otutL'l}' (be* ^laine an for pure milk
with its cream; the oxamjiles ^ivcn for cstimatiiifr the value of pure
milk are applicable to skiin-oiilk. Wc muy e'[ually con6ne ourselves
to estiiuating ibe value hy tenths ; these tenths, tiltemutely coloured
blue un(i wliito, are suiHcictilly distinct not (u bu cunfouinleil.

"These two scales give toe vflUie of milk only in hundredths;
nevertheless, it will always be easy to compare these ilegrees with the
(ienaity or sptcijic gravUtf o/ milk ; we imiltTj^land hy the word denxity
the sijecifii' weight of any llfiuid, water lieing lakt-n as a thousand, a
litre of diHtilk'tl water weighing 1000 grammes or one kilogramme, at
the temperature of 4° of tlie centigrade therjnometer.

" If now we wiish to know the density t>f the milk under trial, we
call to mind thut 50 degreew of the scale A of the gidactometer cor-
re!4poiids exactly with 1014 degrees of the densimeter of M. CoUar-
deau't and that each tenth of the scale of the giilartometer is equal
to three degrees of the densimeter; oonsetjitenlly, three-tenths and a
tliinl are equal to a degree of this densimeter : thus, 1014 corres[>ODd
to 50, 1017 eoiTcspond to 60, lOiO correspond to 70. &c."

It will be perceived that this inHtrument t^ eneentially a densimeter
or measurer of specific gravity ; and since the apecillc gravity of milk
\i subject to great variation from naturul and other caut^es, ihe galuc-
toineter is of course, to a great extent, liubk' to the same fallacies as
the densimeter or hydrometer, although both are capable of oiTurdlDg
useftil indicalions.

Pure milk not deprived of its cream has a less specific density than
skim-milk caiise<l by the lightness of the cream. If the cream he
either in part or wholly removed tVom milk, the rci^idual milk will
weigh heavier than that which icuntuins iti^ nuinial |)ropurtion ot'cream.
Skiui-U)ilk> therefore-, tried by the guIactouR'ter sciife, for pure milk
only, would give a hijiher specific gravity than ordinjirily belongs to
pure milk, aud hence the error might be committed of yuppusing
It to be pure, an error whicli can only be correcteil by means of the
lactometer^ by estimating with it the pi»r-centiige of creom; should
this i>er-centage fall short of that which is proper to jiure milk, the
B&m[>le of milk is one the value uf which should he determined by the
scale for pure skim-milk.

Again, if to such skiin-niilk we add a certain pcr-centage of water,
we restore to it its proper speciHc gravity, and therefore this milk
would show, with ihu centesimal galactometer, the density proper to
pure milk, and hence ibis fraud would ei<<;u]>e detection. In order
tomeetcasesof tbt3 kind, which arc of frequent occurrence — namely,
the complete or partial removal of the cream, it is recommended, and
indeed necessary, to employ the lactometer, and ascertain by it
whether the sanqile under examination contains the proper propor-

■ « 16 centif nde.

■

MII^K, AUTD ITS ADULTERATIONS.

21%

crewn or not ; indeed it is scarcely posiible in any case
(0 come to certain or safe conclusions without cmplojing the lacto-

Tut CurruiMAL Q»i.tvTouwna
(0» a r^rfwfrf trait. )

r- lOO- :3

*^Hliio P

MILKj AND ITS ADCLTKRATI058.

Where the gperific prflvily of a milk is very light, wid thin not prft-
iluced by a large excess of crcain, it is due tn the ndmixtiire of water,
the qunntity of vrhioh may be defermined with con*;ideriibIe necuracy
by thw cuiiminn hydromemr, but still more uccurately by the centesimal
g>diictoiut;ter.

The rea»on for hnving two ticales, one for pure and the other for
«kim-niilk, it will be perceived, is on account of the very different
densifies possessed by eiich.

The great advantage of ihe centenimal galnctometer consi9t.<i in its
centesimal graduation, whereby caleulation is so mui-h facilitntod, and
in the wide range of degrees which itaflords; thus while in the hydro-
meter the range of degrees from pure milk to milk adulterated with
fifiv per rent, of wat*?r is only fnmi lOlG"" to 1031^ that in the oen-
teaimul golnotometvr is from 50° to 100"; by which arrangement far
greater accuracy in estimating the density of mtlk is obtained ; thus,
three degrees and one-third nf the galncrometer, aj we have seen,
Corres|wuid with one d^jee of the densimeter.

It is proper, in using ihp- ordinary hytlrnmeter, where the extremes
of temperature are great, as in wintuT and summer, to take the spe-
cific gravity of milk, and to nsnkf alh^wnncc for ihe difTcrcnce which
temperalure occasions ; this prc*'aulwn bein^' necessary with the
hydrometer, it is very much more »o with the centesimal galocto-
meier, in which, from the delicacy of the grnduaticm, n conipiirutively
slight alteration of temperature occasions a difference of several de-
grees.

When it is desired to make use of the scale for skim-milk, one
portion of the skim-milk is tn he set aside for from twelve to twenty-
lour hours in a laolomeicr; another in a pan for the same length of
time : the pcr-rentage of cream to he noted in the lactometer, and the
density of the uiilk in the pan, after being skinmied, tiiken in the
ordinary nmnner with the centesimal galactometer, corrections being
made lur the tt^mperature.

The pamphlet of M. Dinocourt is accompanied with coloured
tables of forrections, in which idlowuoce Is made for temperature, —
that IS, the apparent degrees are reduced to real, — the degrees
of the hydromeUT or densimeter corresponding with those of the cen-
lesimul galuclonu'ter are shown side by side.

Considered altogether, the ceniesimal galactometerof M. Dinocourt
U capable of affording, especially when used in connection with
the lactometer, very useful and accurate indications : murh more
60 than the ordinarv hydrometer, the use of which, in taking the
specific gravity o( milk, ought entirely to jiupemede it.

Ila construction will be comprehended from Af. 70.

Of all the constituents of milk the sugar is the leaat subject to
variation, and as the <leiKsily of the senim of milk is principally due
to the 'rjeeific gravity of course is aUo but little liable to

alter fttemeut is founded u{>oo the results of numerous

MILK, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

observationn. It therefore long; since occurretl to 115, tbat the utilitr
of the galactometer might be greatly enh.inccMl by the iKlditiim of a
centeHimat .scale for tlie serum of milk. The mlvanta^o of ihU Hcnle
wnuld Ik* ibat — starting from a fixe<! iminr^ the normal specific gravity
of the serum — it wouI»l ehow, with very great nicety, the extent
of the more usual adulteratiuu uf milk, imiiielvf that with water; lor
in pn»portion u» water is added, fto does the weijrht of the wrrum
diminish, and this in such a marked manner that thequantiiyuf water
added may readily be deteruiined in per-centayes. NumerouK ohser-
vatktns ore first required, in order to fix accurately the normal
fi[>ecifie gravity of the serum of the milk of tl»e cow.

MfthiHl of (ktermuiing the Cream. — The amount ofcream is deter-
mined by means of an instrument invented by the late Sir Joseph
Banks, termed a lactometer, lliis consists of a tube, u<«ually eleven
inches long and half an inch in diameter; ten inches of this arc gra-
duated in tenths of an.inch — that ia, in hundredtlis of the wbole.
The tube is filleil with milk, and set H.>»idc for twelve hourn; the cream
a.scends to the surface, and \Xa amount is determined by the thickness
of the Btrutum formed, and tvhi<:h it) ascertained by noting the number
of dej^CA or tenths through which it extends.

Some lactometers resemble test tubes in slmpe, and, like them, are
supported in racks ; they arc usually graduated only in the upper two
inches; uthers are provided with fei't, and are frraduated throughout
their whole lcn<itb. As the quantity uf cream not unfrequently exceeds
twenty and has even been known to reach eighty per cent,, the tubes
should in alt cases be graduated for nearly tbeir whole length.

The construction of the laitoincter 19 shown in the accompanying
wolxiciit, representing a rack, hulding four of these instruments.

Cream forms more quii-kly in warm than cold we.ithur; and in
making comparative observations on a number of samples, it is prnpur
that each should be set aside in lactometers, at the same time and for
the some period.

The thickness of the stratum of cream formed on genuine milk ift,
like the specific gmvily, subject to considerable variation ; in two
extreme coses we nave met with, one of the samples showed but two
degrees ofcream, and the other eif^hty. According to Dr. Norniaiidy,
the tiiickne«s of the stratum of cream on pure milk is generally from
8 to 8| per-centages : M. Dinocourt finds the por-centages t^» range
between 9 and 14^ while, according to our observations, the average
does not exceed Q\.

It must be remembered that London milk, as delivered to houses,
consists iu general of tlie milk of different cows mixed together;
and therefore, iu order to determine what ouuht to be the depth of
cream fonned on po 'd milk, we should take the average amount ob-
tained from such ntixe<l milks.

We have said that the quantity of cream varies much in different
aamplea of genuine milk ; and not only is this the case, but it should

320

MILK, AND ITS ADULTEBATION8.

also be known that the amonnt of cream yielded by any sanip!e of
mitk is no certain criterion by which to judge of its quality, as

ng. 71.

Lactoiutis axd Staxd.
(On a Fvrfnmf Male.)

The dolleil tlur* ln>1imt« Ibc p«f-«-nlRr> •

iplH of tnilk tium

Rome niitlca are rich in cream and deficient in casein and sugar, and
vicf vertn.

It in Mated that the addition of a small quantity of warm water to
milk increases the lunount of cream ; the belief in the afcurocy of this*
fUUcmcnt is general, and it U commonly acted upon by milkmen ;
nevertheless, the assertion is entirely erroneous — the addition of
water to milk il*)es nut increiLse the quantity of cream ; it merely
fneilitatea and haiilens, in u nin^t remarkable manner, ita formation
iind lepiirution, ait i» shown by what follows : —

MILK, AKU ITS ADUtTERATIONS.

327

Six lactometers were 6Ueil, one with pure milk, the reinAimler with
tlie same milk ililuteii reKpectivuly witli ten, twviitVi thirty^ furty, and
fitly per-centa;;e9 o!' water.

Twt'ntv ininutca after the additiun of the water, the laetometer
ahowc'lf in the milk rontnining fifty per cent, of water, six degrfes of
crL'am ; in that with forty jier cent., five dejrrees ; with thirty per
cent., four degrees ; with twenty per cent., three degrees ; with ten
per cent., one degree; and in the pure milk, lialf a ilegree only.

At the end of forty ntinutvs, the cre:ua stuud thus* six and a half
dejjreca on llie milk containing fifty [ler L-ent. of water; aix Ou that
with forty per cvnt. ; ti*e ami a half on that with thirty per (.'ciit. ;
five on that with twenty per cent, ; four and a half on that with ten
|>cr cent.; and four on the pure milk.

At the end of twelve liour^s the milk with fifty per cent, of wal«r
showed five degrees of cream ; that with forty per cent., five dejrrces
and three quarlert»; that with thirty percent., six and a half de-
preea ; that with twenty \^t cent., seven degrees ami a ([uarter ; that
with ten |}er cent., eight degrees ; and the pure milk, nuie dep;ree8
of cream.

It thus appears, that the addition of a large r|uimtity of water to
milk occasions an almost immmliate lonnation of cream, but doeA not
augment the amount; of this fact, in iK>mc ca:M.% it would lie an itd-
vantrtge to dairymen to avail themselves. The adilitton of water tn
milk of ronrsc lesfiens ila epecific gravity, and 80 fneilitate« the
ascension of the creaiu.

Tite Lm'totu'iijtc. — S«me years since an instrument termed a hirto-
scofie wa> invented by M. iJunne, of I'aris, for determining^ the rich-
ne^5 of milk, by estimating lUe quantity ot butter contained in it.

We have procured one of these instrumt;nt9, aeeompnuied with a
deseriptiun, and directions for its application ; frum these we extract
the rohowing observations: —

" Milk owt's its white dense colour to the gluhulcs of fatty matter
or buucr which it contnins; the moie numerous these gtubulcd the
more opa>|ue is the milk, and the more, at the same time, is it rich
in the fitiy ])nit or in cream, the mure or less opacity bein^' in re-
lation with iLh princiiKd ipjality — its richness in cream; the measure
of this opacity is capable of ^ivin^ then, indirectly, the measure of the
riclnie»<i of the Huiil. am) ut indicating Its value.

"Hut the degree of opacity nf milk eannot be appreciated upon a
mosA of the fiuid ; it is not possible to mea.sure it but in very thin
lavLTS, and it is this which is done with our hietcHcope. ThI* instru-
ment is constrnetcd in such a way that the milk may be examined
in it in layers of every thieknes-*, t'nnn the thinnest, through which all
objects may be disttngulsheil, up to that which ulh>ws of nothing to
be |K*reeived; it give:* at onre tli** riehnvsii of milk in indiculing the
degree of opacity to which the prupiirtion of cream stands in relation.

Q 2

2S8

MILK, AKB ITS ADULTERATIONS.

** The instrument coosiats of a kind of eTe-fdaas, composed of two
tubes sliding one within the other, furnished with two parallel glasses,
which approach each other up to contact, and separate more or leas

Ftg.Ti.
Turn LACTOtcon.

the one from the other at will by means of a very fine screw ; a little
funnel destined to receive the milk is placed at the upper part ; on

MILK, ASD ITS ADLLTEHATION8

the nppositc ftide i^i fixe<) a )miuUc, wbk-h nerves to hnltl the inslru-
ment. i'he tuht* wbicU screws witliiii the oiher forms the anteriur
or ocular part, tliat to whiuli the eye la applied; it h murked with
divisions to the number oi'20, and figures which indioiile the richuess
of the uiilk.

** A few drops of the milk to be examined are poured Into the
fiinneL It is nuces^ary to ttdie the sample of milk fruu the mass of
the milk, and not the suiface of the lii|uid only, where the layer of
cream eoUectji; if then the milk has been at redt for some time, it
must he H^riLated a little in order to mix all the parts.

'* The lunnel being full, the mmlar tube U turned from right to left
until the liquid has peneirutcd betwtfc-u the plates of glo^, and col-
lected at the bottom; the OL'ular lube in then turned in the contrary
direction, from left to right, and one lookii thruugh it until the tlame
of a taj>er or candle can be distingui.'<hed. At this point stop and ira-

f>ress a slight rotatory movement, until, by a lillli: manipulation, the
ight id lost to view, without going beyond the moment when it is ex-
tinguished, so to speak, and ceases to be perceived ; that is the jmint,
dcanitely, where it is ncce.-'siiry to stop; it is only then required to
read the figure of the division to which the uitow corresponds; that
vre supfKisc will be 25. The annexed table i^howa to what degree of
richness, or to what proportion of cream, tlic figure corresponds.

"The li^ht ought to be placed at about a metre (at least three feet)
from the observer; a greater distance will not impair the aeeurocy of
the operation, but it is not the same if one looks from too near.

"One may a-wure himiielt of the accuracy of the instrument by
adding a very sniidl quimtity of water, or even gruel, to the milk.
Twenty (legrees of wnter are sufHeient to change the transparency of
the litpiid; thus milk marking 2a, will mark 28 or 30 on mixing with
It a little water.

^At tbc moment when the milk b introduced between the two
plates of glass, it commonly h»ppeu6 that bubbles of air are enclosed
w the layer of litjuid ; it is necessary to drive them out, ami this is
easily done by imprefxiiig certain muvenients on the milk, by sepa-
lating more or less the eye-pitce so lu* to cause the twopluteu of glass
to withdraw and approach eaih other alternately. When the trial is
tenniniitod, the eye-piece is to be removed so as to clean the instru-
ment perfectly, and t^t wijw the glasses; the gUsfCS ought always to
be very briglii, and ime otight to avoid, during the observation, to
tarnish with the breuth the glass of the eye-piece."

Table indicating the Riehneat of different Kindt of Milk after
the Degree whtch they ahow on the Lactuscope.

Milk of cow, giving about 5 per cent, of cream, shows 40 to 35 on the
JacCoscope.

Q 3

aso

MILK, AND ITS ADULT£BATION8.

Ditto ilitto, onlinary, ^ving frnm 5 to 10 per cent, ditto, shows 3<3 to

no on iivi lac'loscDpe.
TJillo (liito, KiiiliL-ienil)' rich, giving from 10 to ]<5 jter cent, ditto, shows

*iO to 25 on the lacloacope.
Dit(n (lino, very rich, giving from 15 to 20 per cent. dJtto, shows 25

to 20 on the lactoscoiH'.
Ditto ditto, excessiveijf rich (lost extraction), shows 20 to 15 on tbe

lacluscope.
Ditto ditto, very weak (first extraction), shows 150 to S on the Ucto-

scope.
Milk of the common nss, of good quality, shows from 50 to 80 on the

lactosciipe.
Ditto, very weak, shows from 150 to 20 or 4 on the lactoscope.
Milk of goat, rich, shows 10 to 15 on the lactosonpe. .
Milk of woman, rich and suhAtantiid, ^nhows 20 to 25 on the lacto-
scope.
Ditto, medium, »hnws 30 to 35 on the Inctosrope.
Ditto, weak, i«hows 40 to 45 on the lactoscope.

It must Im; rcuienibcrcd tliat the lactoscope has regard only to one
elemt^nt of mdk, and does not e^limutu the amount of sugar or chrese.
M. J^onne entertains the greatest cunhdcnce in the indications which
it affiintB.

The (.•on^friiction of the instnmiont, and mode of empluyment, will
he more riearly understood fn^mi an exan^inutiou ot" the woodcut on
the preceding page.

Si>mc pcrsnns form their judgment nf the qtiality of milk simply by
its density, regarding all Homplcs which do not indicate a certain spe-
cific gravity t>f inferior ({ualitv. ^V'c have already seen that this
method is very fallacious and tliat by it some milks, rich in uream,
wouhl be pronounced of inferii)r iiuulky, in con&e<juence of tlieir low
density; while othi.'rs defioent in that cfnstitoeiit, would be declared
of superior quality, on accnunt of iht-ir high density.

OtherB rely U[ion the indk'utions afforded by the Ificlomoter, which
also hiift its fallacies, hut whicli are not so great when the instrument is
used with the necei^sary precautions, as those relating lo the S|»ecific
pravily of milk. I^ike the lactoscope of M. Donne, the lactometer
una regard to only one component uf milk — namely, the fatty
matter.

'JTie following facts wdl show how fallacious is the lactometer in some
cases. We have met with several dimples of genuine milk, which
gave only three or four per-cent.ige»n( creiini, but which yut |K>Sjtesse<l
a specific gravity of 1H30; judged by thf lacfnnietcr test alone, stich
milks would Im* pronounced by all lo be vcrv jMxir, and by some even to
be adulterated. \ow ihis conclusion would lie to a very great extent
erroneous; for such milks, although certainly deficicni in butter, have
the full proportii>n of the remaining constituents — namely, the che»'se,
and the sugar. Again, we constantly meet with smnpluti of uitlk

MILK. AND ITS ADULTEUATIONS,

231

l^viiBBHVi^ ^^ morR pcr-C(^ntA^ ofcrcflin, and which nftvcrthc*-
Ims, at lAl^wn by the spcrifio gravity of the Rcrum, arc unquefitionubly
wlolteratetl with large qiianliti(!i> ot'wutcr.

The observer who relied upon the indications of the lactometer
would huve ro'^urdeii nucb samples as uf average ((uality. The
ini|uirer, therelbr*.*, shixttd not rely solely upon the bpeeitie gravity or
lactometer te^ts, but in all cii.-«e9 employ both, the one acting as a cor-
rective of the fiilhicies of the other.

For nil practi<:iil pur])ose<i, the above methods of examination are
sulficienl. Should it be cli-mred to institute a very careful analysis, we
may then adopt the processes deecribed by iiaidlen already given.

On the ADULTEaATioNs or Milk.

The most prevalent and important adulteration of mllic iis that with
water: now some few persons who have not reflected closely upon the
matter, may be di.<4pt»(CMl to make li«;ht of the adulteration of milk with
water, and to speak in raiher facptious terms of the cow with the iron
tail ; but it ia surely no light matter to rob an im])ortant article of daily
consumptioni like milk, of a large portioo of its nutritious consti-
tuents.

Kut the adulteration with water is not the only adulteration to which
milk is liable ; the large addition of water frequently made to it, so
altera iU appearance as to cause it to as.iumu the »ikv-blue colour so
familiar to us in our yehtHtlboy days, and so reduces its flavour, that
it l>ecoines neceiii«ary to liuve re*'ourao to other adult<>rating ingre-
dients, namely, (renclfs to sweeten it ; luth^ to brini; out tin* flavour ;
snd anno/to, about which wc shall have much to say hereafter, to
colour it.

Further, t^e^e is no question but that chulh, cerebral nuitter, and /itarch
have been and are ocoasionnlly, thou;:h rarely, uuiployed in the adul-
teration of milk, althougli it has not happened to ourifelves to meet
with these substances in milk.

•Starch and cerebral mattr-r have been met with at different times by
more than one observer. I*rofesfM»r Qin-'ck^tt has tn his possession
some drawin^rs made Irom sampler of adulterated milk, showing the
prcftence ol' both slarch and cerebral matter.

With regard to the use of chalk, a manufacturer of preserved milk
recently informed us tliat it sometimes happened to him to find car*
bonale of lime or chalk at the bottom of the eva[»<»ratin<j didhes or pans
on the evaporation of large quanlilieif of London milk.

There is ul»o good reason for believing that tttrnwric as well as
annatto arc »imii*tiines used to culour milk and cream ; also gum
tragaetath to thicken cream, ami aafla to prevent its becoming
sour.*

* Mr. Gsf fttalM th«l niUk U aDniftliRPB Ailullrratotl wUlt dcroctloD of builvil vliile
carrotk.

Q -4

fidi

MILK, AKD ITS ADULTERATI0N8.

Further, it has beon stateil that frunif dextrine, and emulsion of
hemp sved have hean atiipUtyed ; the u&e vf the iiittcr urtiule is but little
probable.

A practice frequently rt»sorted to, nlib<tu|;h it is not an adulteration,
fthould here l>e inenttoneii ; n piirt ctr even the entire nf the creiun ia
removed, (tn<3 th(* skimmod milk, mixed with Bome fresh milk, subse-
quently Bold a^ whole milk.

An inj;enioue writer, who-tc name wg dn not at the present ainment
remember, bos cunsidere*! the ^ubjeet <*t' ihe supply of London with
milk stutisueully. and Ik- Iiuk arrivfd at the euncdurtton tbiit the number
of cows 8Up|ilyiny Loiidnn is iH<t more than Hulhcient to provide euch
person with about a luhlespoonfiil ptir day. It' this !*tii1trnient is cor-
rect, some iilen niiiy be formed of the extent to which wnter is made
to do duty for mtlk.

7*he rcMidti of the examination of Twcaty-atx samples of Landrm milk
were,—

Thnt Txcelee tcere genuiMy but of thcae two showed a deficiency of

cream.

That Fourteen were tuivUeraterl, the adnllemtion cnnsistin;! princi-
pally in the addition of water, the per-centagea of which ranged from
10 to .'SO per cent, or one-half water.

The specific gravities of the rnilh varied from 1030 to lOlo, of the
serum frnm lOiiS to lOlU^ the cream i'rom 29 to 2 per-centi^es, the
avernge being nearly lo jh-r-centages.

On the Detection of ihe Adtdteratiuna of Milk.

The articles employed in the oduhcrfltion nf milk, the metb
for the discovery of which wc buve now to describe, are water, su^far
including treacle, suit, annatto, turmeric, gum tra^acauth, stavcht oere*
brul matter, and chalk.

Certain :dle<;ed adulieraijijnH of milk, either not likely to be praC'
ti8e<l, or but niruly ri-sorted lo, it is not necessary to notice.

There arc two geiienil incthmis by which the fact ot the adulteration
of milk may be determined ; the one ludiret-t, a^ by aqnantitative ana-
lysis of the ndlk for its more inquirtant oonstiliientfl, ami by the de-
fieiency of one or more of which the cxistenee of adulteration may be
inferred ; the other direct, as by iletuctiim, either throu<!h chemistry or
tlie microecopc, of tlie adulterating'; Niihstunce ur substances.

In some cases these two liiethmLt may be combined.

The methods by which the norm^il constituents of milk may be de-
termined quantitatively have idre-idy bt'cn described.

On the Detection of IVater. — Milk bein;; much heavier than water,
«rhen that liquid is added to it the sfKcific gravity of the mixed

UlhK, AND 1T8 ADULTEKATION8.

9S8

article is \e»i tLnn that, of f^ennine milk, ami the diminution, within
certain limii.s \a proportioiiuic lo the ({unniitv of water adde^l. In
fh'* knowlciipe of these fnctH, we are fu^ni^he<l with aniethrxl whereby
the iKluUoration of luilk with water tiioy be determined fjuanli-
Ulivt'Iy.

This may he done by tnkini; the specific gravity of either the en-
tire milk, of skimmed milk, or, still letter, of the serum.

Aeeordiu** to M. Lasnuigne, pure milk at S0° F. —

I According? to our own experiments, the following are the ordinary

I «peol6c gravities of milk adulterated with various proportions of

I water ; —

Has a specific gravity of •

Wirh 25 piirts of wuter
Will) 33 pftrU of water

Water per Cent.

Water uone
Al>out \5 parta -
About 20
About 35
About 45

1021
1020

Sp. Gr. or Milk.
1030
1026
10-23
1018
1015

But since the spi?ci6c; gravity oi' even genuine milk is subject to
wide runjieti, in certain exceptional cases, owing to the variable rpinn-
tities of fatty matter present, it is in all cases better to take the
specific gravity of either skim-milk or the serum.

The fpeclfic gravity <A' nktm-miik with various proportions of water,
as deduced from the centeaimal galactometerf u as followtc —

Wu*r.

SUm.Ullk.

8p.

Gr.

of Sktm-MUk

Nfme

100

10 paHs

l»0

20 -

30 -

40 -

•

50 -

It)

Results still more accurate may be obtaincfl by taking the q>ccific
grnvily of the serum of milk, since this is subject to much less voria-
tion than either the whole or skini-uiilk. The casein ami butter ure
easily rumowd by the atlditiun of a few drops of acetic acid, a tpiuntity
indeed so ».ma]I iis m^rtrcely lo aflect the gravily of the serum.

The following table exhibits the results of various a<lUttions of water
to the scrum: —

234

MILK, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Water.

Pure

10 parts

ffO

5«rum.
39
S5

22
20
17

In taking the specific gmvity of the serunt, niid in determining h*oni
lliis wh^ftlier watiT hus been uddeil or not, llie only fullacy to which
the observer is* sulyect is lliKl by tlie atlilition of ^iccbarmt* inntler,
wliich wnult] cause the serum to weiyli heavier.

Jiiit in the cose of whtile milk there are other sourcca of falUcj to
whicti reference to some extent has already been made, and against
which it is neccssury to gimrd.

Thus u milk mny possess the proper spocific gravity, and yet be_ de-
ficient of erenm, whieh mny have hin-n ubslnicted ; ajinin, it may be
several de;*rces lij;hler than orUiuury, and yet may be perfectly
genuine, this arising from tlie presetice uf itn unusual quantity of
fatty matter.

In order to guard against these falbicies^ therefore, it is always ne-
cessary not only to tAKe tlie weight of the milk, but also to measure
the r|uaiitity of cream, wineli should not be lew than 8 per-ecnlagos.

The instrumenlfl by which tlui weit;ht of uiilk is taken and the cream
measureil have alreftdv been described.

One method by whit h the quantity of water may in genorfll be in-
directly estimated is^ by determining quantitatively the amount of
flugiir present.

On the Detection of Stiffar. — The sugar Uf^ed is usually brown sugar
or treacle : the presence of these mny in cenenil be determined as
follows : — The casein anfl butter are to be precipitated by means
of acetic acid, and the sei*um cvuj>oratcd, a very getitle heat only
being useit, and the colour of the residue particularly noticed ; if it
is darker than ordlniiry, the presence ttf sugar may be suspected. The
resi<lne may then i>e di.*solved in distilled water, :i little yeast added,
and the solution exftosed for some hours at a temperature of between
70° and SO'* F. If fermentation ensues '* it is a sure sign of the presence
of sugar, for milk sugar cannot fenncnt, at least in so short a lime,
and the fermentation is never britk. Hut the smallest itmportion
oC su|!ar, either grape or cane 8u;;ar, very speedily gives ru'-e to a
tumultuous fermentation." — Nonmmhj. The carbonic acid nmy be
coneole<l, and the sugar calculated either from it or from the alcohol
formed.

If eanc sugar, or decoction of carrots which contains it, hos been
added, jyerhaps the best method of proeoeding is the following : remove
the supar of milk by means ttfKehlings solution, and nflerwardBdetcr-
luine whetlier cane sugar is present by the fermentation test.

MILK, AND ITS ABULTEBATIOXS.

935

On thfi Detection of Starch. — For (he clctection of stari:]i in milk
and creuiii> the microscope furnishes the readiest and most certain
lueunii. A little of the milk, spread out in a very thin Blrutum, should
be examined under the micro5copet the exuuiinution bein^ iiided
by the use of tincture of iodine. For the quuntitfttive determination
of the starch, vhicb will not often be rct|uirL'd, we uxixy proceed oa
follows : the curd is to lie separated by nie»ii8 of ftcettc acid, col-
lected on u filter, dried, and Ireutcd with ellier ; this will remove the
fftt, and the starch and casein only will reniuln. Lastly, tlie casein
may be removed by means of a weak solution of potash. A more
accurate plan 19 to convert the starch into prii|>e sugar, and to uul-
culate its amount from this. l*be sugar of milk nnif«t Brst be re-
moved from the evaporated milk by digestion with alcuho], and the
processes followed for the conversion of starch into sugiu', and the
dctcrininfilion t.f its amount, described in the artiule Sugar.

On the Detection nf Gum Antbic and <V«m Trof^acanth. — Thegenjra
of milk is to be evaporated, and the residue boiled and digested with

cohol, which wdl tiikc up ihc su^ar and leave the gunu Or
slcohol may be poure<I into the whey, the pum will be precipitated,
and, when drie<i, may be identified by its appearance.

ior the detection of gum tra;j:acanth we are recommended Ut boll
the milk, and leave it at rest for some hours, when n }>elatinoustranslucid
dt^poitit will be formeil, which, being wa»bcd with a small quantity
of water and tested by a few drops of solution of iodiui*. proiluces a
blue colour because gum tnigacjinth contains starch. The starch h
plentiful nnd is in the form of starch cor{macles; these arc rather
timall. but vary much in .size ; many are irregular, some arc rounded,
others are s<jniewhat polygonal, while a few are muller-sbaped : in the
more perfei't gniins 11 rounded hilum is Uistinctly visible.

On the JJrteclion of Cerebral Alaiter. — 'I'he jircsence of cerebral
matter in milk may be determined with certainly by means of the
micn»s<*opc, p<irtion9 of the nt-rvc tubules being readily discovered
with that instrument. jL«i shown in the engraving. Pif^. 7ii.

On the Detection of Chalk. — If llie milk be diluted with water and
set asi<le for some hours, part of the chalk, if present, will have sub-
aided as a precipitate, when it may be sufficiently ideutifici by its
rtppeurance and its effervescence with aiids. Or a imrtion of the milk
mav be evaporateil to dryness, tlie residue incinerated, and (he chalk
esiimjtted from it in the manner pointed out in the article on Tea.

On the Dftectian of Suit —This must be det6rmine<l from the ash by
the process descrilied under Annatto. The saline tnste of the ash
will show the presence of salt if that substance bus been employed.

On the Detection of Annatto. — The presence of aunatto is rendered
probable when the milk evjiporaiwi di)wn to a small quantity present*
n reddish or orange-rod colour ; if this colour is materially altered on
the addition of an acid and an alkali to the milk, being rendered pur-
plish by the one and of a brighter red by the other, its presence is

236

MILK, AND ITS ADULTEUATI0N8.

certain. Lastly^ by means of slcohol, the colouring matter may be
dis;iolved out ol* thu Aoft re^tiihiu ofeYnpariiteil milk, and the effects of
tbe reaj^enU muntioued tried upon the ulcoholic extract.

rtg 73.
Uiui ADOLTS«Aisp.wmi Sflnr'g BRiiiti.

'^o^^:

^.' oC?.

* •

^oJ-O'

;»^45^~^.8

Oh the Detection of Tttrmeric. — If turmeric has been used in aulv
stance to colour milk, it would be possible tu dt:tect in some cases the
tunneric celU. H(»wever, it is best in nil cnses to proceed hy the
method indirnled for the discovery of anruiito. The chief difTerenoc
is that the lunncrie is rendered deep brown by alkalies.

li is of eoiirsc rorely, if ever, necessary to examine milk for more
than two or three iif the articles above cimnienttcd. In general it if
sufljcient to determine whether water, the ordinary adulteraliun uf
milk, has been added or not.

The fullowin;; Atalistit-s regardin;; the quantity of milk consumed
are by Mr. Itraithwaite Poole. The consiimpli(m in the United
Kingdom, excluding chee^', butter, &c., is taken at almut 1 150 millioa
quarts annually.

*^ Mr. Poole assumes that an average milk cow yields 7 quarts of
milk as a daily average^ and that the retail price is 3</. per (juort ;
and from these data a result is arrived ut, that the whole supply

FLOUU AND BREAD, WITH THEIR ADDLTERATIONS, 237

re<|uirGff 4^0,000 m'llcb c<iw!i, and l]iat xhn retuil value auiounti to the
prtMligious Slim of 14,000,000/. per annum.

"But limitin^r the inquiry to London^ the itainc aiitlinrity AftAumea
thftt.the rarefuUy rearetl c«w8 ihat Turnidh luiwt of ilie miiiply t*i>r the
metropT)]!!! yield 9 (quarts yter daily aver&j^e ; thiit the riuinbfr lima
employed is 24,000 ; that tbo qunntitr of milk consuuK'd Id about
IHQ iiiillioii cjuurtH annually, and that the conaumcra puy not leas than
1,600,000/. for il."

The following detnilK rcspectinjr the cost of milk, and it* conveyance
tit Lniidnn, are nlso on tht* authority of Mr. Poole.

" The railway conipanii'8 iisu»llv charge at the rale of three farlhinga
per galloiK for carriage, if the dii^tnnce Iw within fttrty rniles, and h/.
if for u lnnj;cr distance; relurniaif the empty can3 free of charjte.
Nowr this milk is suld bv the farmers to lar;rc dealefit at from 5fl,
to yd. per j;mIUhi ; the dealers sell it to retailers at from 7ti. to 9d,
per gallon; wliiU- the retailers sell it Uj the housekeepers of the
metropolis at from 3d. to 4i/. per quart. Nor is this all; the neat
milk at say Sd. per *«allon, beeomes too often milk and water at 4d.
per quart. Con^iderin^ that crtam commands a price of from 2*. to
3*. jM-r quart in London, milk certainly cannot brinj; in less than 5rf.
to 6f/. |M>r quart to the relHiler.H. U is estimated that in \H5A the
quantity of milk brought by railway to London ronsiderubly exceeded
.3,tKH>,000 quarts, of which by for the largest proportion travelled on
the Eastern Counties Kailway."— Z)c/d(r« Food of London,

FLOUR AND TIKEAD, WITH THEIR
ADULTKBATIONS.

Tna word Bread, adopted a.« the heading of this article, is employed in
a generic sense, and is intended to include the several varieties of
brcod prepare*! from the flours of the seeds of tlie diiferent grasses
employetl for bread making.

As bread is made from flour of various kinds, it is necessary to
take into consideration^ in the first place, some particulars in relation
to the several kinds of llonr, a.<4 their chemicai con)[>niiition, mioro-
scopical structure, and their properties and differences.

White there are important dii^linctions to be noticed between each
of (he Hours employed in the manufacture of bre^d, there are also
certiiin [Mtints of re^emVdance.

Thus every flour used in the preparation of bread consists of mVrv-
^enised and hon-nitrogenUed elements or constituents : the former are
vegetable ^"irfn, aihumen, cwufinc, Ikc^ which have been named after

338

FLOUR AND BKEAD,

Ih6 mrresponding prot<?ino compounds extitting in animal substances :
llie liuier are aUtrchy dexirine (\t gum, und siigar — proUuuU more par-
liculiirly of the vegetable kingdom.

The chief flours ar<f those of wheat, barley, rjre, oat, Indian com,
and rice.

>VuKAT Floub.

TlR»re are Beveral distinct species of wheat ; that which is chiefljr
cultivated in this country is the Tritic.um vnlgare ; of (his there are
(wo vurietiefl — T. trstivttm^ or Riiinmcr whent ; nnii 2', hyftennmi^ or
winter whe»t : the former is sown in the spring, and the latter in the
nutumn. Of these viirieliefi, again, there are several miKliftcations,
into the deseriptioii of which it in, however, not necessary to enter on
ihe present oeeusion.

\VheiLt seedit i»r grains, ns brouglit tn the market, and as supplied
to tlie miller, are deprived of their /w/^ff, or huuks.

The ninnlwr of piut.i into which ground wheat is separated, ;uid the
amount of each vit;lded by piven qnuntitiefl, viii y according to the cha-
racters of the wlieiit, uihI the prucesses udupted by different millers.

In wht-ats whii-h are liunl, (he inti'guuient<i se]mrate with difticulty,
and therefore (he llour pnidmeii from these usually contttins a
greater proportitm of udlnTcnt hran than ih) those ttourn procured
from wheats which are soft, and whiuh part with their epidermic
coverings more reinlily.

According to Mr. lUrd, a miller of Darlfurd^ in KenU the follow-
ing are the proiliicts, wiili the ipiaiitities ubiaincJ, of one nuarter, or
eight bushels of ground wheal : —

/t^.

" Produce of One Quarter aj irAcd/, it^ighin.

Flour - -

Uisruit, or fine middlings

Tnfi|iings, or specks - - . - -

Ik>t pollard, Turkey piiUurd, or Iwcnty-ijenny
Fine pulhird - - - - .

Bran and coarse pollard - - - -

Loss sm>tu!tiL'd by evu|HiratJon, and waste in grinding,
dressing, &c. - - • - ■

303 llu.

10 „

8 »

15 „

18 ..
60

29^

504 lbs."

Aa it is frequently a matter of much im|K>rfance to determine the

conipa"«ifi<m nt smnples of wheat flour, wc will now describe the
various steps by whirh the analysis umy be clfi'i'ti'd.

A wei;'hed f|uiiniity of flour is to be made into a paste, and well
knendetl, either on a Meve or in a piece t>f mut^lin, water beinf; poured
over it until it ceases to acquire h utrlky colour ; the water carries
away the starch, and dissolves nut the nlbuiueii, sugar, gum, and
suits, while the mase left ou the filter consists of *^ crude gluten."

WITH THEIE ADCLTEHATIONS.

239

This crttde gluten is iteelf, however, coniiMiunded of no less than
four (.lislinct sub.tUinceit — via., gluten, vcgetHble fibrine, a very small
quantity of oiucine or cueitie, aud oil, in the following proportions : —

Gluten

Vcjfetable Bbrino
Mucine (casvine ?)
Oil -
Starch (accidental) -

Crude gluten -

20
72

37
- ft small quantity.

997

Gluten. — This substance is obtaine<l by boilinf( crude ||;luten in
alcohol, which extracts tht; glutei), ciiseine or mucine, and the uil.
The casetne is deposited on cooling, nwd, after separation, the resitlual
liquid is evaporated unlit an adhet^ive mass is obtained, from which
the nil is extracted by ether, and gluten atone remains.

Vegetable Jubriue. — This is insoluble in alcohol, and forms the
chief part of the crude gluten ; it U left nearly in a pure slate iifieT
the action of that reagent. It (uuch resembles in its composition
muscular fibre.

For the other cone^tiluents of wheaten 0our we must search in the
water, whtcti has jiossc'd tlir(iu;:h the sieve.

SUtrch. — The stureh, after remaining suspended for a time in the
water, sul>sid**«, forming a precipitate; this may ha readily obtained,
and. after drving, its amount determined by weighing.

Vegetable Albumen. — This substance is procured by boiling the
water, whereby the albumen is coagulated, and lorms shreds or
Hakes, which ri»e to the surface, where they coltecl ns a pellicle.

CwKitie. — After (he separation of tlie oibuinen, a little ucetic acid
is to be added, which throws down tiie cnseine. 'i'he mucine (nr
caseineV) present in crude gluten is soluble in alcohol, from which,
on cooling, it is thrown down in the form of while Hocculi.

Oil. — The gn»»ter part of the oil in present in the tmter part of the
grain, frfim which it follows that the hran contains a larger profHirlion
of oil lliiin the central part of the gmin. It Is best obluined by
digesting whole nr bruised wheal in ciher. AVhen wheat paste is
wtt&hed in water, part of the oi! passes away with it, and part remains
in the crude gluten.

SHt^ar, — The sugar present in wheaten flour is of the kind denomi-
nated glvcone : its lunount is deterndned by evaporating the water to
dimness, and dissolving the sugar out of the residue by means of
alcohol, which being in its turn evaporateil, the sugar is deposited
in a granuhir or semi-crystallised atule, and may be collected and
weighed.

Qvm. — The remaining pnrUof the residue of the evaporated water
conststa of gum <>r dextrine, iusuluble in olcuhol ; this also &huuld be
dried and weij^hed.

FLOUR AND BREAD,

Wa/*r. — The quantitj nf wat«r present in wheat, on an averafte,

viiriea from fifteen to seventeen per cent., ami is j^retiler in new than
in ulil whcat^ nnd it is this circuuidtaiiue which luokcs the former of
lest value tlian the latter.

Mineral awl Saline Comtittienfg. — The more important of these are
silieute of puUish, and the iilkaline and earthy pli()8|ibati», which are
present in considerable nmouiit For ordiiinrv purposes it is n<«t ne-
cessary to niiike 90 precise an analysis as tliat iiidicjated «bove ; it will
be sufficient to fliieertain the ainoiint of crude gluten present in a given
quantity of flour.

To determine the nufintity of this gluten, n little instrument has
been invL-nled by Mr. liuland, termed tin *' aUurometer**

Of tliitt instrument the foUowitig dewjripliun is given by Mr. Mit-
chell : •—

** it consists nf a hollow copper cylinder, about aix inches long^, and
from three-quarters of an inch to an incli in diameter. It han two
principal piirta ; the one, abmit two inches hut;;;, \s ch»5ed at one end,
ibrminji a kiml of cu[» capable of containin;^ about 210 grains of
fresh gluten; it screws into the remainder of the cylinder. The
cylinder boing charged with gluten, is heated to iibout 4'JO'^ in an oil-
bath. Thu i^iuten by this treatment swulls, and accoriling to ita rise
in the tuLie (which may be measured by a trr^i^lunted slem) si> is ltd
quality. Gtnid fliMtrs furni:$h u gluten winch augments to lour or
five limes its uriginal bulk ; but bud tl<>oi> give a gluten whioU
does not swell, becomes vi<(cous and nearly tliiid, adhering tu the siiles
of the tube, and giving off occasionully a disagreeable oilour, whilst
that of gnofl llf>ur merely suggests the smell of hot bread."

The procecdiii:; ad'»pled bv the corn-chandler luid the baker for
the dcteniiiniaion of the quality of whealcn llour is still more simple.

A small quiintity (a few grains is sulBcient) is nnide into a paste
with water, and its quality Jmlged of by the tenacity of the dough, the
length to which it may be drawn into a thread, or the extent towhieh
it may be spread out into a thin sheet.

The following analyses by Dumas show the composition of 100 parts
of wheat Hour: —

Wheat Flour.

Odcsna Flour

Odexid FUtur

(Kl

inty).

(Soft).

Water -

- 10-00

Wafer -

- 1-2-00

Water - - 10-00

Gluten -

- 1096

Gluten

- I4 5j

Gluten - 12-00

Starch -

- 71-49

SUrvh -

. 5G-50

Starch - - 6200

Sugar •

- 4 72

Sugar -

- 8-48

Sugar - - 7*30

Dextriue

. 3^2

Dextrine

- 4-90

Dextrine - 5*8!

Bran -

- 2 MO

Bran - - 1-29

100 49

087a

98*46

* TrMti«e on the Faltlflcailon of Xood, p. 4a

WITH THBIlt ADULTEIIATIONR.

S41

Whear<*n flour conlaina a j^eat? r nmnunt of prntoine or nitrnj*enise<]
i'4impoun<Ifl • — that ia, of blmid and desh making principles — than anj
Other description of furinjL

Other aiiolyecs of wheat and tbe rest of the cereal grains will be
found at p. 227.

Structure of the Grain of Wheat.

ScTcral structures enter into thu formation of tbe seed or grain of
wheat, as well as that of tlic oilier cvreals.

First, the seed is Murrounded by moiiibraoc:), called the testa ; second,
the surface of the set-d nrojKr is formed of untiuhir cells, filled with
glutinous and oily matter in a jrrunular state ; while the sut)stancc of the
seed is made up of cells filled with starrh corpuscles. Now each of the
parts enumerate*! difler, ff>r the most pariT in the different cereal grains.

The testa, is in part hut not entirely removed in the' process of
grinding and dressing the flour, and the same is the case with the cells
forming tbe surface of the grain.

The following is tbe exact structure of the grain of wheat: —

The testa, covering the immediate surface of the H<*edf consists of
three layers of cells, two of which arc disposed longitudinally to the
axis of the seeds, and, other transversely. The longitudinnl cells are
large, and the margins distinctly beiidcn), especially the outer layer ;
tbe transverse cells are also beaded, but to a leas extent.

The cells forming the surface of the seeds are large and angular ;
(hose of its substance are still larger, and each encloses a cont^iderable
number of starch corpuscles, which are smaller near the outer parts of
the grain than towards tbe centre. These several layers of cells
mar be described as three distinct membranes.

The structure of the testa and of the substance of the seed are
exhibited in the engravings. Figs. 74. and 7t>.

Viewed with an object-glass magnifying 420 diameters linear,
wheat starch is observed to consist of definite srains or particles;
many of tiicse are very email, others ore of considerable dimensions,
while there are but few of intermediate sizes : the siiiall grains are
chiefly round, rarely oval, or muUur-Nb.iped, and for the most port
proviiied with a central spot or hilum : the larger granules form
rounded or flattened discs, with thin edges. Neither btluni nor con-
centric rings are in general perceptible on the larger discs, although
in some few a central tubercle may be seen as well as indistinct
annuli. Occasionally some of the larger granules are more or less
twisted or turned up at tbe edges, and when seen sideways, present
the appearance of a longitudinal furrow, which has been erroneously
describeil as a bilum : this appearance is, however, deceptive; it is
really occasioned by the partial folding or curling of the groin on
itself, whereby a central depression is produc^'d, the corpuscle at tlie
*urae time beinf; viewed obliquely. We have fre<|uently seen grains
whit'h when stationary presented a round and disc-like appearance,
but which, in rolling over and presenting the edges to view, eidbibited

TVOVR AND BBEAD,

Fie T*

TMtatDdfDlvUDWOrml of n'HKAT. TVuMrrrar and Mflinif NWOMtal
oalw ■MMbrtiN 1 ( 4. middle i r r-, lancr ncmbruw or turftM oC Um mi< fnVV
U«CBl6*dS00i

WITH THEIR ADU1.TEEA.TIONS.

lon^tuflinal furrow described, an obacrvation which clearly proves
Its nature. A few grannies attain a very considerable size; these

Fig. 75,

Thli ncnvini nprftmU t}i« Kruoture kh<I ftppe*r«nen of tte aUreli ffranolM of

rtUiUisCi

Wok \t PloI'k. k* m\mt lli* cluvwMvra of Um atUwUmr,
LacitU, ftDd nupilfltd 430 dlaoHtsn.

Ur>i

are less regularly circular, and being much flattened, reflect but little
shailow : nomt^times their edged are taintly marked with rudiutin;;
lines. Examineil with the ptilari?)cope they exhibit a wetl uuirked
cnws. Many of the above describtnl pflrtioulur*, m also the charuiitcrs
of the cellulose, are well exhibited mjig. 75,

Babi.et Floub.

There are several distinct species of barley ; that, however, which is
conunonty cultivated in this country is the Hf/rdetan distichon, or two-
eared barley.

As n»et with in commerce the seeds or grains ore usually cni*lo5ed
in the mxW or hii^ks ; denuded of these they form ** Scntch or pnt
barley^ when rounded they constitute ** prarl barley** and this again
raduced to powder is called ^^ patent barley."

The analyE<ts of barley flour mu:st be conducted very much in the
mauDer as that of wheat flour.
u 2

TLOCE AND

Chemical Compontion*

The proporlian of nzotiscd compounds in bnrlfv is loss llinn in
wheat flour; it is defirient pjirticulurty in trude gluten, so that
barlej paste maj be nearly all wiislied uwuy in water.

Tan* »oil ■QffkM ot •evd of Bahlit. Mafnl(l«d yxidlutit<«n.

The milky fluid obtained by waahtng bfirley paste, flepnsit*, as well
a« ihe stATcb, a proteine matter supposed to be iiuoiuble caserne : if this

WITH THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

be (ligtisted with a solution of ammonia it is dissolvet], but is Again
thrown down on the addition uf acetic avid ; the liquid which haa

vine mirweiiU thv Btrnetun inil ehBr««ft«ra ot DAat.rT STAUcm. to-
Itli t>i« cfllfUmr. Unwa with U» I'uiMrv I.*>ctila. uid tntgnUt^ IM

lejvwTled the slareli and insoluble oasuiiic still holds in solution a
small ijuantitv uruibuineii and some soluble caseine.

Hurley fltnir i» less nutritive than wheal flour ; it* stoi'ch corpuscles
are less soluble, and iherefbre resiitt more tlte action of the gastric
juice ; the huak "is slightly acrid," and it is somewhat laxative.

Structure of the Grain of Barley.

The testa of the jrruin of barley differs considerably from that of
wheat. It consists usually of four layers of cells: tb«,'y are smaller
than those of wheat; the lonn^itudinul cells, of which tnere are three
layers, are not beadei!, but Uiofte forniini; the outer layer have their
margins slightly waved ; those of the inner layers and of the trons-
verfe celln not Iw-'inj: even wave<l.

The cells of the surface of the jrrain are not nearly so large as those
of wheat, am) they form tbree hiyent. In place of one »» in wheat.
Those of ita Hubstnnce also differ from the c(irre«ponilin^ cells of
wheat, being more dclicace, and presenting, when emptied of starch, a
fibrous appearance.

246

FLOUR AND BREAD,

The 9tarcL grnnules of bnrley resemble verj closely in form and
structure those of wheat, so that th** description ulrenriy giv(;n ftpplia
to some extent to the starch of harley.

Barley starch consists of smiill and large grains, with but few of
intermcdifttc size: the former, It w to bo particularly obserred^ are
three or four times smaller than the eorrespoiulinj; grains of whrtt
starch ; and of the larger grains many are distinctly rineed, while «
much greater proportion of tlieni presents the Inngitudinal furrow,
the nature of which has already been described. Those characters are
sufficieiiily well marked to allow of the diacriuiination by the micro*
scnpist of wheat and barley flour or starch. Examined with ibe
polariscope, they exhibit a cross not nearly so strongly marked ai in
rye.

Considerable difference is observed between wheat and barlet
flour in the net ion upon them of boding wat^^rand some other reageol*;
thuiv after prnlonge*J boiling, in the case of barley flour, a substan«
remains unili^sirilvcil, wliir/li has been denominated '* /wn/pmr," whcret*
wheat Hour Ireated in the same manner is nearly all dissolved.

Bv the above characters, particularly by the minuteness of the
smail grains, nnd by the structure of the testa, barley starch or neil
may be readily and satisfactorily discriminttCed when mixed with wbext
flour.

Rtk Flour,

The grass from which rye is obtained is the Secale eereaU,

The seeds or grains rc^eniible thu^'e of wheat, but are smaller.

The analysis of rye flour must be conducted much in the sao*
manner as that of wheat and barley flimr.

Rye flour is rather less ri-5U in nitrogenised products than wbes*
flour, but it contains more sugar \ it-s |>iLsle, when repeatedly wasM
in water, brenks up, and becomes di]fiise<l thn>ughout thu liquid, '^
bran only being left behind ; the milky liquid, after having deposittfl
the starch, and after the separarimi of llie albumen, is to l»e ev*pc^
rated, when the rt«4iilue will consist of sugar, oil, nnd the so-calW
** soluble gluleit," which may be dissolved out by means of alcohol

live flour is said to be somewhat laxative.

The roasted grains are imt unfrequently employed in the ailBl'
tcration of coflee.

Structure of the Grain of Bye.

The testa of rye approaches somewhat closely in structarc to ^
of wheat, as is evident on nn examination of the subjoined cngravlaf.
There are, however, certain diflcrences: thus, the cells of the 6i*
and second coiits are smaller and much more delicately beaded; those
of the third coat are also smaller and of a somewhat diflerent funn.

WITH THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

The starch granules of rye flour bear a general resemblance in
and sixe to those of wheat : there arc these remarkable and satia-

e47

•ftMtoAfRn. Vrrllcal «nd tr«n«nrw ▼)««• za n. onUn Aft, middle
Mul ' r. Inoer c<wti. Mafolllcd 30O dlAOicten.

diflercnccs. liowcYer — viz., that the leswr p'ains arc decidedly
■nailer than the correspondlntr grains of wheat, and that many of the
lar^r pranule* of rye stareh are furnished with a throe or four-rayed
bilum. Kxniuiiie<l with the poluriscope they exhibit a very strongly
Marked croas. Fig$. 78. and 79.

Oat Flour.

TTmm* are aereral distinct species of oats; that, however, which is
cktpflv ruliivated in this country in Acena aatica.

Tbe oat frrmins or seeds are usually enclosed in their husks ; when
deprived of these iher f<*rni what are known as **groaii" and these
conaiitut« ** £mbdeH groats,'"
M 4

FLOUR AND BRKAD,

Oat flour or mcil does not form a dough or paste like wheat flour ;
notwithstundLng which, however, it contains a large amount of niirv-

Pig. 79.

Tlili tnmvlnc mirHenb the ilnioture Anil cltnrM'len of th« >Urch ffruialw of
Rrc TlOVIu Drawn wilb the Cunera Lucid*, and taacuified 490 1

h mill
dUoMt

genised matter ; this oxittts principrtlly in the fnmi of "arfwin," a sub-
stance annlo^^ous to soluble Citseinc, and obtained in the some manner,
by the ndditinn of acetic acid.

" Outmeal,'* PiTeirn remarks, " is an impiirtsnt and valuable article
of food. With tlie exception of maize or Indian corn it is richer in
oily or fiitty mutter thiiii any other of tlie t:ultivated cereal grains;
and it* proportion of protein conipniinds exeeeJs that of the 6nest
English wheatoii flour; so tliat biitli with respect to it« hent snd fat
making, and its flesh and blood making principles, it holds a high rank.**

Structure of the Grain of the Oat.

The membranex covering the grain of oat, contrasted with those of
the other cereals, present several peculiArities.

The loiiffiiudiMat c&ih fonning the outer nuiid>ranc are disposed in
two layers ; they are large and well defined, the walU being rather thin

WITH THEIR ADULTEnATfONS. 1«

andftlightly waved: from tlie up}>€r and outer wall of some of the edit
springs u tjinglu long and pointed huir, the points being turned toward*

r*«la •rOit. a a. outer i 1> 1>, miiUli t bdiI e c, JniMr lunla. UMtitA«d 900 dlft-
Btttcn.

tbe summit of the grain ; these hairs arise from the colls over the
:irhole surface of the p'uin, but they become more numerous Inwards
ib« tpex, where they furm a beard or tufr, as in wheat.

The iranjteerae cells, which may be described as forming the second
iuveatin^ nienibnuie, are Uiapofied in a sin-zle layer ; their walls are les8
accurately defmud, and they are not very much longer than brood.

The celij forming the burfuce of the seed itself, and which may be
described as the third cnvering of the grain, also cunsivt of a single
layer, and they arc smaller than the corresponding cells nf wheat.

The starch granules of the oat present well-marked strurtural cha-
racteristics. They are smaller iu size than ibosc of wheat, vnryiog
liut little io dimcusions, arc polygonal in 6gure, without either visible

FLOUR AND BBEAD,

concentric rings or hili, but with central depressions and thickened
edges. The great peculiarity of oat starch, however, is, that many of

Thl» vntravtng rrprHcnt* the rtnirtur* and charscten nf ih« fUreti gorpanlM of
Oat I'uxTi. mm m\*u or the rfilniloaf. Drawn with tlu* Cmm^rm ImcH^ and au^-
nlflcd VAt dlunetcn.

the grains cohere together, forming bodies of a rounded or ova! fipire.
and presenting; a reticulated surface, indi{.'3tivc of their compound
structure. These bodies escape readily from the cellnlose, and, when
oat flour is tliffiised through w:ilcr, mnv frequently be seen floating
about freely in the liquid. A second peculiarity is, that unlike the other
cereal starches, the grains of oat starch, when viewed with polarised
light, do not oxhibit the usual crojweji. The above particiitarrt are
well exhibited in the accompanving engraving. The walls of the cells
of the eedulosc arc very delicate, and appear, when the cells ore
emptied of the starch, like threads, as represented in the enjrrnving.

A figure of oat starch is given in the new edition of Pereira*8
** M-iteria Medicu." In thi:« the lar;rer grains are made fully ei|nid in
size to those of wheat starch ; whereas they are rcfllly several limes
smaller, as represented in our engraving. This error has probably

WITH THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

251

arisen from the artist having mjstnken the cnrnpound bodio9 in ques-
tion for sinrric granules. The same error pervades some of the mea-
surementfi given.

Indians Cobx Fi^ui.
Zea Mat/x, or Indian corn, h raet with in the state of flour, in the
»hopfl, unrfer tlie name of " Polenta ; " it cutefs into the dietAry of
manjr of our public institutions and charities.

Pig. at.

^^m The nniount nf nzntised cnnstituenta ta less In maize than wheat ; it
contftinft, however, a larger qusntitjr of oil, which accounts for its fat-
tening propertiefl.

In those unuocufttotned to its u^c, maize is considered to excite and
to keep up a tendency to diarrhwa.

Structure of the Grain, of Indian Com.

The testa of the grain of Indian corn U made up of two rocmbranes ;
the outer of these consists of some seven or eight layers of cells, all

HtlitDfraTint KprMcnti the atnictnr* uid ch«rirt«Ti nf tb« itirrl) ifninnlvi of
IifipikjrrDRN Flocr. Incluillit^ the <xlM<»*. Dnvo with ihe Cudub Liuids,

WITH TEEIR ADULTERATIONS.

153

Tlie iittter membrRne forma iHr surface nf iho «eed

pro|>ci

and

ronstnts of a single Inycr of veWa resembling tliof^e of the other
cereals.

The eellt of the cellulose are very nn^lar like those of rice, but
they difl^r tn beiiip snUdividieil hy niimerous septa forming a cellii-
liited network or blusleinu, ouch !«i)at:e iucltXHing a separule jtiirt-U cur-
puttelc.

The starch cnrpuftcles of Indian corn hear oonBiderable resemhlnnce
to thnae of the nat ; like them, they are somewhat polyp:onnl in oulline,
and preaenT. wfll-nmrked centml depresjiions^ as well us ocoiisionally a
divided and radinte hilum ; they <iiif«r, however, in their nnivh Inrger
Bize, in not lorminp comptiund bodi<'s, anrl in preseniiiij; under the
pfiariseope weJl-deiined cniuses. Tlie eentnd depression appears to
be a character in common between nearly all tlit; starcli ;n"ttnules of
the cereal grasses. This depression, combined with the disc-like
form of the grains, crivea (hem a general resemUhmce to tliu blood
discs of the mummaliii. In tliose Insuiiices in wliicb the grains, as in
wheat and barley, are curved upon themselvea, the depresuon exists
of course only on one aide of the disc.

Rice Fi/xih.

^^^ The seetls of rice, Oriza iatipa^ contain a much less proportion of
^^vsiitro^enised compounds than the other cereal grains, and parricularly
^^Pirheat — viz., about 7 per cent. : the (|uantity o( fatty matter is also
'^ less.

The substance obtaiued from rice, termed gluten, is prectpttable by
j acetic ucid, and "has a creamy consistence, an agreeable smell, and a

I bland taate ."

Much difference of opinion has prevailed in reference to the value

of rice an an article of diet, ^ome persona pladn^ it very high. Anu-

lysis, however, clearlv proves lliiit it is the least nutritious of the

(rereal grasseiji: it usually contains 7 or 8 per cent, of gluten, and wheat

l^^i flour rarely less than I'i per cent.

^^k Tliis difierence of opinion liait probably arisen from iho fact, that
^^K'tice is seldom eaten by itself, but is partaken of usually with milk,
^^Bbutler, or sugar, ttic nutritiou!< properties of which substances have
^^T^een attributed to the rice itself.

Structure of the Grain of Rice.

The stmcture of the husk of rice is by no means easy to determine ;
it is best examined aiVer it has been immersed in glycerine for some
time.

The outer surface of the seeil Is thrown up into ridges, these being
arranged both trausversely and longitudinally, and describing between

FLOUR AKD BREAD,

concentric rings Bre rendered more oonepicuous. To these variations
in the condition of the granules of wheat flour a fifth might bare been

F'K ^

a. «twh granDln of mw wheat flnnr ; b. ditto nfihe mir« tialni, wttli tnnlriure
M In biud I r, d*T/ hJiHi ; il, OotltJ, MM In ptiddlns. M«^illlca lOO JUuctcrt.

added represeiitinR the characters of the starch in PriiiKh gum or
firxtritte: in this the praniiles are destroyed to a great extent, but
here and there granules and portions of granules may be discovered,
often exhibiting the concentric rings and sufficient to serve for its
identification, and to determine whether the gum was made from wheat
or potato flour.

WITH TnGIR ADULTERATIONS.

157

It is by means of British pim that the liatts of postipe labels are
r<^mlered adhesive, as may l)e shown readily by siibiniltinji ai^uial] por-
tion scraped from the Inbel to examination with the microscnpc.

Composition of the chief Cereal Orainn.

Tlie followinii table, drawn UJ^ by M. Payen*, shows the proportions
of the proximate principles contained in tlie chief cereal grains : —

Silica. FhM.

IWI Pattt.

HUrck.

Wutmm aad

ram

CvHuUm.

MtluM-
Kainof

PdtMbMMi

■^

-JL

«odB.

WlM«t, lurd, or VfitnneU

M19

WT4

S-Al

•if Arrtc*

(HW

IS-iM)

7 00

a'l

nr TuanrcMi

dffni.hArtT, of )

Brir. Fmnct j

63 30

SOW

TV*

S-60

r«&

6H&<)

1 6 3ft

7*0

a-40

s«

WhtCetuieile

75»>

n-«i

B-Oft

I»7

3-0

J-I2

Fy».

W«S

Ulft

l*i

J- 15

4in

•JM

Barfer

13-06

l-a

K7S

<15

Sin

OiU . * -

nas

El 1.1

ft-ftn

7'tJ$

Mall*

OTM

I a- VI

8->«

{ A90

I'JS

RJc*

M»-1B

7(tt

1 '■»

l^*

The following analyses are by Professor Johnston : —

Mnmtntmr.

Bnii<#Ka||lUi
Wh«i7

8cvi«h Ort«wl. '"^jU^ *■

Wai»r

F« -

Starch, Ac -

IS
«3

14
18
6
61

a
06

100

Tt has be«n recently aseertained, by careful and repeated analyses,
that the bran of wheat, as well as of most of the other cereals, contains
A larger proportion of gluten than the rest of the grain, and conse-
fjiiently is more nuuiiious. It Is of importance that this fact should be
^'eneraily known, as the knowledge of a may serve in some degree to
correct the preference given to very white bread, and the notion that
whiteness aud quality go ttigether. The very reverse of this is often
the case.

Professor Johnston gives the following as the reltitive proportion*
of gluten in the whole grain, bran, and flour of the same sample of
wheat : —

• Pr£vU de Clieinl* [ndiutrtcllc. p.a&4- Paris, IStt.

S58

FLOtTR AND BREAD,

Per Oat
12
14 to 18
10

Gluten of Wheat.

Whole grain -
Whole bran
Fine flour

By sifting nut the hnitu therufure, wt> render the meal much less
nutritLous; this will be mure appareul when we stale that the bran
rarely lorms less than one-fourta, and ia often conslderitblj- more, of
the wbolt; weight of the ^rain.

The following; xa a more detailed analysis of the composition of
wheat bran by Miller : —

Composition of JVheat Bran.

Starch - - - - 52-O

Gluten - - - - 14-9

Sugar - - - - I'O

Fat - - - - 3-(>

Woody fibre - - - 97

Salu - - - - 50

Water - • - - 13 8

mTo

It baa beenreoently slated that the bran of wheat, in addition to the
large per-centage of gluten, lilcewiae contains a peeuliar feruieut, which
possesses the propertpr of rendering the tlour or bread with which it
IS mixed more digciitible.

It should be known also that the small or tail corn which is usually
separated from the other corn, and u»ed by the farmer himself^ is
richer in gluten than the large-sized grain.

The next table represents the mean l;ompo^iti(>n of the ash of the
chief cereal grains. It ia tslcen from Pereira's "Materia Aledica,** and
is drawn up from the cuteutitted means contained in Johnston's ** Lec-
tures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology," 2nd eil. 1847.

Whm.

«*ai:'*

OaM.

a>«.

■csr

lltea.

Poiuh ...

Soda

sars

9-OS

13 64*
H 141

«.,|

II-fiTJ

sria

lio«

LllM ...

SSI

ret

1-44

l-B

Mafne*Jft ...

la-a

7«

I0-S9

Ifisa

n-m

Oiidi! of Iron

•«7

l'4fl

0-4Q

1-36

O-M

0*45

Pho«phonc w^ .

4B-SI

S8-06

4S-S4

49*5

44 -ST

*>**(

Sulphuric AChl .

0*10

lft-4S

o-ss

2-77

Chiortn* ■

<HK

frW

Did

0-97

Sillu

117

S7IQ

S-fiT

1 44

i-K

AlMBOna -
Pw-cenUge of uh

0>S1

—

»tc

9STJ

98'7e

ioi*ai

99 70
■boot 1-5

9VM

about 3-0

SfW

i-is

S-42S

1-00

WITH THEIR ADtJLTEEATIONS.

259

Messrs. Oj;^**^'! *n<l Way give the following as the pcr-ccntagea of
silicM h\ the ash of the onlinary cereal grains : '^"05 to 5*46 silioi fur
wheat ; fruin 236 to TO"?? lor barley ; from 3S'48 to JOCKI ibr outs ;
and 9*22 for rye.

As w« may doractimes require to determine the phosphoric acid
present in the different corns, vrc Bpi)end certain processes.

Dissolve the ash in ns small a quantity of nitric acid ns possible; add
acetate of lead in slight excess ; wash the precipitate, which cnnsifets of
phoBphute and bu^ic nitrate of lead ; dry^ >gi)>LCt tun\ weigh — the
residue is phosphate of leatl, plus oxide of le&d; dissolve with heat
in moderately dilute nitric acid, determine the oxide of lead as
sulphate, calculate from this the oxide of lead, and deduct the
result from the weight of the first residue; the difference gives the
quantity of phosphoric acid.

If we desire to ascertain separately the amounts of alkaline and
earthy phosphates, we proceed us follows : — The alkaline phoi^phates
are dissolved out of the ash with water, and the phosphoric acid then
precipitated by acetate of lead. The insoluble portion of the ash h
treated with hydrochloric acid, and the analysis proceeded with as
before.

Another method ; —

Mix the acid solution containing the phosphoric acid witli an excess
of solution of sesquichloride of iron of known strength ; atld, if neces-
sary, sufficient alkali to neutralise the greater portion of the free acid ;
mix with acetate of soda in excess, and boil. If the quantity of oolu*
tion nf sesKjuichlorideofiron adde<lwas sutUcient, the precipitate must
be brownish-red. The precipitate couAists of basic phos[diate and
basic ocetAte of seequioxide of iron, and contains the whule of the
phosphoric aciil and of the scsquioxide of iron. Filter off boiling,
wash with boiling water, dry carefully and ignite in a plat>num cru-
cible with access of air; moisten the residue, after its ignition, with
stron? nitric acid; evaporate this at a gentle beat, and ignite a<!ain.
Should this operation have increased the weight, which is not the case
usually. It must be repeated until the weight remains cuust-ant.
Deduct from the weight of the residue that of the sesquioxi'de of iron
contained in the solution added; the difference is the phosphoric acid.

ON THE DISEASES OF THE CEKEAL GRASSES.

Il not unfrequently happens that flour is greatly deteriorated, and
in some instances rendered even positively in)uriou<i, through the
attacks of various vegetable and animal productions. As flours thus
diseased are sometimes referred to us under the impression that they

■ 3

FLOUR AND BREAD,

nre aUuIteraled, it becomes necessary tbat we should be possesseil af
some informalion re8)>ectin<; the diseaaea of the (.ereal priisses.

Tbe principal dist.'a5es arising from the attacks of fungi are Ergot,
Smut or Dust, Brand, Rust, and Mildew.

Eboot.

( Oidium arbortifaeieru.')

Ergot IS particularly prone to attack rye ; It does not confine its
raTUiies to iDnt one grass, but has been observed to attack a variety
of species ; and anionjrst the rest, the ears of wheat.

The cngraTing on the next page represents a section of ergolisetJ
rye.

In Jlour contaminated with ergot the etruotured above delineateil
occur of course in a niucli hrokeii and dJvideil state.

Numerous and well utteslud instanct-^s are on reeord of danf^crous
and even fatal ell'ects resulting iroin the consumption of bread con-
tAiniog ergot.

On BCNT, SmI'T BoLt^, OR PEPPSS BbAND.

{Uredo Caries^ Dec. ; Uredo ftrtklut Bauer.)

This fung:u9 has httJierto been met with only in the grains of wheat ;
it is easily recc^i»cd by its dis^U3tin<! ftmell. The sjKires or spnrongia,
analogous to seed vessels, arc large and reticulated, as represented in
the figure. Some duubt exists whether this fungus is deleterious or
not ; by many it is considered to be so. Flour containing it ia fre-
quently used for gingerbread. Fig, 88.

On SMt?Ti OR DCBT Braki).

(Uredo Segehim.)

This fungus is corapdratively rare in wheat, but very common in
barley and oats ; rye uocs not appear to be subject to it. It has not
the disagreeable smell of the preceding species, and the spores are
wreral times smaller. Fig. 89.

On Host, RBn-RAG, Rbd-robi^, Hbd-gum.
{Uredu ruhigo and Uredo linearis.)

These so-called species are but young st-ates of Puccinia Orttminir,
They form yellow, brown, oval sjwts or blotches upon the stem, leaf,
and cba6r; the sporules of which tbe blotihes consist are intermediate
in size between those of Vrfdo aineg and U. Segetttm ; they are at first
round, afterwards oval, and attached by a pellucid, short, and alcnder

WITH THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

£61

Btalk to the surface on which they are developed, but after a time

tbtijr bucuiuti free.

Fig.n.

TW« »Mr»*1n« rvptcicnU • trftn<vcrM KClion of EiGOT or Rt». a. Termir»l

eoloutvd thrrvl* which ranitltuie lUe block nr purple portton uf the gnla. c.
Thcecllk. vllh ihs canUin»d •i>heroUM orciil, wMch torm the txtilyor colourlM*
pAft of ihcfrBtn, ■tutftilflail iV* <liun«tcf«. tt, f, /. rettrcntit mlnuu ponlon of
tht wmt •tfuetanw, man hisUjr macnUkd— rii., «7U dlusiUn.

Tlie enjrravin^ (^- 90.) represents some wheat fiour lurgely
infested with Puccinia Granunis in the state foruierlv calle<l Urtda
fiibigo. The^sample, which WIS offered for sale, wo* brought to Dr.
Muspralt, by whom it waa forwarded to the author.

On Mildew.

(Puccinia Gramiuis.)

The ripe sporei of this fungus are dark-brown club-shaped bodies,

a 3

S62 FLOUR AND BREAD,

havin*^ the broader end divided into two compartments filled with
sporules. " I have observed this fungus wiih the rust luiigi in a way

F,g. Ml.

Ttiti ai|[rtr!nf rrpfcjcnla the Btiorea of t'liKlio r**iKv. msfnlfled 49n dlwtnettTlL
t^BViof mul* from • prcfxirklton bcloDsfni to tb* Ute Dr. Ttnin.

that strengthens my opinion that they are identical.** — /Vf>/eMor
Jienxlow-

In the enfrravinu' Jif^. 91. this fungus is represented in all tlie stages
and conditions of its growth.

Penicilium glaucum^ Fermentiim cirvisiit^ ^'C,

When broad baa been kept for a few duyii. and has become stale,
certain specii^ of fun»i arc apt to become developed ii^ it. One of
these is the well known Penicilium glaucum which forms the green
mould of cliecse and other decaying organic substances : it is descril>eil
and 6gured in a memoir by the author contained in the thirty-sixth
volume of the " Medico-Cliirurgical Tranpacliono."

A second species is Ffrmenfum cirvhia, or the yeast fungus, alst*
descnbed and figured in the memoir above alluded \o. Its develop-
ment in bread goes in part to show that the vitality of the yeast is not
altogether destroyed by the baking of the bread.

WITH THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

263

A tliiril fungus found in stale brea*l Is very rUflVrent from either of
tbe others ; it is represented in Uie engraving fig. 92. It is of a bright

/>f.».

UiaviBg iiiwlc from ■pttpMntiua MoncUis tvDr. 8vA)'oe.

yellow colour, and it ofWn, from its abundance, causes the bread to
Msuffle in patches tbe same colour.

The Bearded or PotAonmu Darnel.

Tbe poisonous grass, Loiium temuientum or darnel^ is by no means
of uncommon octTurrencc, and numerous arcidentF have from time to
time occurred, in consequence of its becoming mixed either with the
flour of wheat, or snme other cereal farina.
The cflcfls of darnel on m»n are thus describetl by Pereira: —
"The ill effecta of the seeds of bearded darnel on mnn were known
to the ancient (Ireoks and Uoinans. llie symntonis which they pro-
duce are twofold : those indicating: ffa-itro-intestinnl irritation. — such as
vomitin;? and colic ; and those whi<^h arise from disorder of the cerebro-
spinal system, — such as headache, giddiness, languor, ringing in the

fi64

FT.OUB AND BREAD,

ear*, confuMon of atglit, diluted pupil, delirium, beftvincss, somnolency,
treuibling, convulsion?, and paralysis. The^e seeds lUcrefore appear

r^.sa

WbuT FloPR loftttc4 Vtth t*ttecimia Orantink, In AH Mrlj •!««« of dtrtlopiDCliL
4SI> diametui.

lo be acro-nftrcotic poisons. Accordinjj to Seeger, one of the inr>st
certain signs of poisoninnj hy ihcm ia trembling of the whole body.
Both Hur<;hartl iinil Srhnher (qnnled by Wibiiier) mention death a,s
having resulted from their use. In Conlicr's cases their ill effects
were directly ascl'^tttine^l by experiments made upon himself; but
in most olher cases ihey were the result of otx-idental iwiwrniug. In
general they have arisen fn>in the iiitfrmixture of bearded darnel
secHs with nthi^r cereal grains. lu a prison at Cologne, sixty persons
siiflTered from the use of a bread mesi, containing it drachm and a half
of lolium temulentum in six ounCL'4 of meal."

As the chemical l«ls for dame] when mixed with flour are not
very satisfactory or decisive, we have submitted the seeds to micros-
copical examination, and find them to be so dilfurcnt from those of
wheat or rye, tlnit when iidmixed with the:»e in the btate of flour
they may be readily iletected.

The itarch corpuscles rcKmble very closely thos« of rice in form, —

WITH THEIB ADLLTEEATI0N8,

366

tbat is, thcT arc polygonal, — but thoy arc much smaller, (ind, like
those uf the oat, they are Ireqiientlj uuitetl into compound graiiu

Ffr. "I

<5:^

Ik in

Mvullfld JOO iliMnct«r». From ■pcettnini kladljr ftarnUbad bjr the
n«r. Prof. Utulov.

of Ttriotis sizes, the larger grains consisting of some fiftjr or sixty starch
corpus tes.

The fitructure of the testa is very different from th&t of either rio«,
the oit, or indeed any of the other rereul p'oins : it \6 formed of three
ooati or mfmbranes; the cells of the oitter coat form but a single
layer, and, contrary to the arrangement which exists in the out, their
long axes are disposed trannvervely, in which rf9i>ect they resemble
rice : the fibres of the huak of rice and the cells of the testn of loliuni
ore, however, very distinct in other respects. In the former the cells
are long and narrow, forming fllires, while in the latter they arc but
between two and three times as loni; and brood.

The cells uf the second coat, which are ranged in two layers, (ullow

366

FLOUR AND BREAD,

A vertical tSisposiuont — an arrangement which w contrary to Uiat vbk'U
obtains in ail the other cereal graius with tlte exception of rice.

FvmfftiB, nounonlj foond In «tab Bi««4.

Tbe cells of the third coat form but a single layer, and resemble
those of the other grains described.

We have now to consider the dineasw of corn produced not by the
invasion of parasitic fungi, but animal pruduetiuns.

On Ear Cockle, FuKrLKs, ob Peppebcobn.

{Vibfw Tritiei.)

grains afTi-cted turn preen at firsts and ultimately black; tliey
le roundeil, re»cinb1ing a small peppercnm ; the busks are
spread out and the awns twisted, l>y which means the infected ears
are rea<lily observablf amim^st the standing corn. The blighted
grains are filled wirh a moist cotton-like substance and contain no
flour. This suK^tanceis compn^erl of myriads of eel-shaped Qninmlcules,
Tvbieb, as soon as moistened with water, exhibit the most active move-
ments. A most extraordinary circumjitance connected with these
animalcules is, that they may be so perfectly ilried that on the slightest
touch they breiik up into po»fder, and yet, wbtn moistened, they will
revive and become as active as at first. This operation may even

WITH THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

repeated several timefl boibre the vitality of the animalcules is finally
destrojed.

"StriKturr of tittfralnor L»i ii'M riMri.iicnm.ar Ainw/. Bhnwinc trumrM klid
Tortir*) •MlloM of IMU, mifnlflcd 9uD dlUDrten ; kIk ibe cturftrten of U>e
vtarch «ir]naelai. nufiiUcd MO dUmsten.

On the Wheat Mlixse.

{Ctcidom^a Tritici,}

This is a two* wingvd fly, which miiy be seen in myriads in (he early
(lart of June, in the evenings froiu seven t*» nine oVlfK'k, llying about
the wheat for the purpose of depositing its e^gs within the blossomf :
the egfrs become hatched into yellow maggotJi or caterpillurs, and by
these the miscliief is occasioned; they cause the non-devclnpment of
tfaeorarVi bo that the grain never advances bevond its condition al the
time the tlower first expands. AU the grains in an ear are not usually

IfiS

FLOUR AND BREAD,

affecTed, but only grntn« here and tliere. A 6gure of the flj and its ca-
terpillar will be found in the " Tranftaciiona of the Linna*an Society."

Fig. 9*.

Vtuatnm ViamtniiKn Tunrt, aiAciillIctl lOO HIvnetvt*. Drmvioc BiAde from
prtpftrftUoo btloogiDit lo the lau Dr. fcreln-

AcABus Famitija

This mite is never present in flour unless this has become damaged.
It dilTere considerably in Etructuri* fn)m the sugar mite. Fig. 9^.

Another species of acarus^ met with oo one occasion in wheat flour,
is exhibited in the engraviDf;,yt^. 96.

ON THE MANUFACTUHE OF BREAD.

Two kinds of bread are manufactured — the one is made with
yeast, ferment, or leaven, and i» henee called leavened ; the other is
prepared without leaven, and itt deiiomlimted unleavened ; the 0|>eni-
tion of the substances used in the niunufucture of this description of
bread, are, to a certain extent, analoguus to that of yeast

WITH THEIR ADtJLTEEATIONS.

26?

Lbavehed oh Febuentbd Bkkad.
Leavened bread should consist only of flour, jeast, ftnd water, with
Fig. aa.

Acuuun TABtnMt or iwol witt, frotn th« onm to th« mMnn >l«t«, from vA^l^fhmr.
a a, ova ; kh, ftmn(/ ; e, mmk , d, /rmaia. MsguiScd 7i lUunclrra.

a little salt ; suc|i is the composition of genuine home'tnade bread, the
flavour of which is so agreeable, and so very dillerent from that of
urdinary bakers' bread.

Jn the preijaration of the bread of the shops, 6our of inferior
quality tft frequently ufled, and this is mixed up wtlh large quantities
of salt, potatoes, toinetifnes rice, and other flours, and atuin ; these
sabstaoces impart to it a taste very distinct from thnt of home-iiiade
bread, and occasion much of the diflerenoc observed between that
descriptioa of bread and ordinary bakers* bread.

YeoMt, m- the Yeatt Plant,

The substance knovn as yeast is in reality a plant, belonging to the
tribe of Ftwfn ; it con^ista of a multitude of minute oval or circular
bodies or sporules, endowed, under certain favourable circumstances,
with extraordinary powers of jyrowth and muUiptieation.

Three kinds of yeast are employed iu the raanulacture of bread —

S70 FLOUB AXD BBEAD,

y'lz.^ brewers* yeast, German yeast, and patent reui. Soaaeblklfi
use one, and some another, but the greater number make ue «

AciMTB ham Vlenr. Drtvn vUh thtCuncn Luddm, mad mtmMtAfKlltr

patent yeasty on account of its cheapness. The fungua is of tbt ^
species in each.

lirtveri Kea*/. — This, as is well known, is of a lijihl bnnrfl *
fawn colour, and of a frothy consistence ; when recent, it is ia***
slant movement, and bubbles of gas escape from it.

Examined with the microscope, it is seen to constst of innumen^
minute bodies, termed sporules, of variable siie, some circular. »*
others oval, and all intermingled with very many globules of ctf%0^
acid gas. These sporules multiply rapidly when the jen( ii lA **
active coiiditiun.

pwiM nvnwnu *■ Tu Yiakt Ftni•lc^ " In the Ant itMt «r iti develop*
, ar thftt of •mrulea. Ai icocrsllr nwt with, and u utej In liw ferntcnlm-

Ai fcocrsll/ nwt with, and u u*ej:
if WMd, yiMt wMMliU of ui linm#nMnuinbtrof lumUit ■porulMliiUrmLs**!
" ' I cf c*rbanl« acid. Orkini vith tb« Cunera Lucid*, and mftfiillUd

I for breml making. Porter yeast is objected to by bakers,

in distiUeriea. Small beer yeast is said to be weak, but

LB efiects, and ia sometimed used in niokiog rolk." — Pi'

YtaM. — This, wbich is sometimes called ^^ dried yeast"
•porulcs onlj, with but little adliur(*nt moisture, and no
nu a pute-Uke substanre, and iKobtaiiKMl from a fermented
Itratioii. It u imported into thh couiury prtncip^dlj' from
\n hempen baga, each holding half & buii(ln>dweiyhL. When
uka, it ifl apt to burst them, in conee^^uence of the carbonic
ime» evolved.

iere that this yeast is perfectly wholesome, and that no
exist* for the reports, recently set on foot, as to its po<-
irious properties or qualities ot nny kind.
't€U<- — This is prepared trom an Infusion of malt and bops.

S7J

FLOUR AND BBEADj

It is a thin watery lii^uid, containing innumerable sponiloa of the
yeast plant in auapension. The hops are added to prevent the liquid
from bectiiiiiii^ raplilly sour.

Tlii^ mt((le uf prupurEtion uf patt?iit yeast is considerably varied by
different bnkers. Many add a portion uf brewers' or German yeast to
an infuiiion contaiuiii^ either flimr or mult, with potatoes. These sub-
stances supply the food or nourishment upon which the yeast cellu
groWf and multiply with niiioh rapidity, as well as the material for
conversion into carbonic a<:id. Yeast cells, in the course of u few
days, make their appearance in a simple intrusion of malt, and occa-
sionally even of Hour.

Patent yeast, befnre being mixed wilh the flour, ts sometiuiea
allowed to drain through a copper bii»in or sieve perforated with nu-
merous liolcfl ; by this means the chief part of the mnshed potati»
cuifrloyed in the prenaration of the yeast is separated.

DiMcoeery of the DepelopmerU of the Yeast PlaiU^—Tew productions
have created more interest or excited j^eater discussion than yeast;
its nature and the mode of its operation have been made subjects of
keen iiKjuirv and dispute.

These pomts are now, however, to a very great extent, set at rest ;
it« fungoid character is geniTulIy admitted, and its modna operandi m
panitieation ii^ well underittood.

In one particular, howevert th(» history nf the yea«t plant waa, until
very recently, iiicomidute ; this related lo its development.

Slost observcrB admit that the ycusl fungus os met with in the
different forms of yeiist in use, is in an imperfect state of ilevelopnient,
and frequent attempts — the most notable being those ofTurpin — have
been made to discover the perfect plant or fundus. All their efforts,
however, up to a recent period, faileil, Afore ibrtunate than our pre-
decessor*, we have succeeded in tracfn^i the yeast plant throu;[;h nil
the stages of its o^wth to its perfect state, that of a fun;;u8 with dis-
tinct aerial fructirtcation. For a full account of the development and
structure of the yeast fun^s, the reader is referred to " F«>od and its
Adulterations," p. 152. ; and to a jiaper by the author, in the thirty*
sixth volume of the " Medico-Chtrur^'ical Transactions," p. 26.

Modtu Operandi of YeatL

The presence of veast in a substance containing sugar or starch
which is convertible nito sugar, nnd nitrogeniscd matter, induces cer-
tain chemical changes, comprehended under the termvinouaor alcoholic
fermentation.

These channfes in the makin;; of bread consist in the conversion
of the sugar of the flour into alcohol and carbonic acid ga.i ; the latter, in
its efforts to escape from the dtmsh with which it is mixed, distends iti
forming vesicular spaces in its interior, and so causing it to become
porous and light. The alcohol entirely escapes from the loaf.

A minute portion of the rtarch is converted, by tlie agency of the

WITH THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

2:3

ve»st, ift(o SHf^ar, which, in its turn, is chnnged into alcohol and car-
bonic acid. \f we exiimine attentively with the microscope tlie starch
corpuscles rnnfnined in ferniciitc<l and bnked breiul, we observe that
they are still entire, olthoujjh iiitcred wimcwhat in fi>rin. •

J)uring the bilking^ part of the starch is undoubtedly convcrtctl into
gnm.

Soim» physininns are of opinion that the presence of yefl*t imparts
iiijiiiiouif prnpertict to leavened brea<l. This jKHiit is one of gryat
prncti(;al importance ; but bo far as wv are awnre, no complete or con-
clusive obs*.'rvationR have yel bec'n miide on the subject.

It 1ms been computed thni. the annual loss of alcohol in bread
making amounts to about *100,(X>0 r^tilUm^, which, at 1 9jr. i>er galluOf
would amount to 285,000/. Tiie etfori? hirberto maflein large bakeriea
to «ave the alcohol hnve failed : 20,000^ were spent in the fruitleu
endeavour to collect and condense the alcoliul in thu militarj bakery
at Chelsea.

Unleavened or Ui^ermented Bread.

Tlierc are two kinds of unfermontH bread : In the one, substances
are used in imitation of yeasty from which a gas. Always the carbonic,
i» disenjiajied, distending the dough, and rendering it vesicular and
light ; in the other, flour, water, with perhaps the addition of salt,
only are employed.

The substances used in the preparation of the first description of
unfermcnted brcnd nre sesquicarbonate of ammonia, carbonntc of
soda and hydrochloric acid, or carbonate of soda and taiiaric acid.

or these, by far the be^t is carlK>nate of amuumia : this is a
volatile salt, and ItA great advantnge is, thiit it is entirely or ttlmost
entirely dissipated by tlie heat employed in the preparation of the
bread; and thud the necessary eflcct is produced without much possi-
bility of injurious results ensuing.

In the employment of carbonate of soda and hydrochloric or mu-
riuUc acid, the case is, however, different ; here we have the formation
of chloride of sodium, or uomuhon salt^ with disengagement of carbonic
acid.

Tn those instances where a mi.xturc of carbonate of soiln and tartaric
acid are used, a tartrate of soda is formed, also with liberation of car-
bonic acid.

The preparations known as Bakings E(^g> and Cvstard pfttrders arc
combinations of carbonate of soila and tartaric acid, mixed with
wheat flour, or other kinds nf starch, and the egg powders are often
cffloured with either turmeric or chruntaie nf lead.

It is extremely doubtful how far these prepuratlons mar be used
with safety to the public health ; for our own part^ we see much le«8
objection to the employment^ in the generality of caitea, of a substance

274

TLOUR AND BREAt>,

like yeiistt which contniTis trat Utile saline matter, and the vitiHiy ol
which is for the ino-^l ]ttu'l liestroyed by the heat of the oven, ibwi i»
the use (if acids mid nlkidles, of ligf; and baking powdci-s.

A sample of " Borwidc's Baking Powder " examined bj u» wefeumi
compose) 1 of an acid nnd an alkali — tartaric acid, ftnd either car-
bonate of pritnsh or sixla, together with ground rice, a fltnall quantity
of wbt*at lloiir, ami perhaps a little 8u?ar. According to a plan
coiiunonly employed fiome time »inee^ the liberation of the cai^
bonic acid garf was effected by mcan^ of hydrochloric acid added l*»
the dough cOntaiiiiug the alkali : in this esse a ctilon'de of fodium
or oominon eali was formed instead of tarlrmte of so<la or fnla^ a*
in the present iustaiice. Now it should be remen»bered that b»-
drocblorio acid is frequently contaminated to a fierious extent with
arxenic. The action of tliis nnil other nnalogoxis powders in lightening
or leavening bread, like (hat of yeast, is dependent, as already re-
niarke^l, upcm the slow extrication of carbonic nciJ gas, which, becoming
dttru5e<l throughout the tlough» forms the little cavities noticeable in
white bread, and wfaiuh render it porous and spongy. In the ewe of
baking jHuvder contaiiiing tartaric aciil, as soon as the flour (hruuj|l>'
out M^hich the powder bus been diffused is mnistenvil with wattr,
the tartaric acid unites with the soda or pot^h. forming a tmrtrtl^
vt' one or other of those ba#es, either of which salts posseascs diiiretif
and aperient properties. It is on this account that bread made wii
these powders, while it may prove of service in some caaes af djspepik
in others is calculated to do harm.

The water we drink is lurgely impregnated with a lioit of saline i>-
ftredient-s; the bread we eat is uiturated with alum and ^ stuff; "sdJ
It behoves n» to be careful how we add to the large amount of laliar
matter daily ingested.

That these observations are not misplaced or over-strained ••"
appear from the following publiBJied receipt* for the prcparatioa ol
iinfcrnientetl bread ; —

To make White or Flour Bread.

Klour dressed or household
Bicarbonate of soda, iu powder

Hydrochloric (muriatic) acid -
Water . _ - .

3 lb. avoirdupdiM-

9 drachms. Apothcc*r»

weijiht.
11 J fluid drachini.
about 22 Ouid ounces.

Observe the larpe quantity of soda and acid rerom mended to •
employed in the manul'acture of a 3lb. loaf; and remember that it i>
no easy matter either to blend etjually the ingredients, or exactly"

add thero iii neutralising proportions.

WITH THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

275

Pereira pa\'c the f"»I'Iowinp- receipt for the manufucture of
unlcnueDted bre^j ; tlie pro|Hirtion8 of soda, und acid in this urennich
lesa: —

Receipt far Vi\fcrmented Bread.

Flour - - - - lib.

Bauirbonnte of soda - - 40 griiins.

\ u i>iut.

C'oM watpr
Muriutic acid

50 drojM.

L unl«]

^K lesa:-

^^^^^^K Beeeiptfor an Egg or Bahiug Powder.

^^^^^^ Carbonate of soda - - 56 lbs.

\ Tartaric acid - - 28 lbs.

Potato 6our - - - 1 cwt.

Turmeric powder - - - J lb.

It will be observed that rht^ quantity of tartaric acid in this receipt
is much too small to neulralj>c tlic soda. It is better ndupted for
puddin»^ thtin bread.

The siicoiid description of un fermented bread is heavy and compact,
and ift met with chiefly in the furm of biscuits.

On ths Adultebations or Floitr and Bbf.ai>.

AdulterutioH of Fljur. — Tbii adulterations practised upon bread, are
often effected through the mediuto of the Fi oca iVom which it is made:
it will therefore be proper, before prrneedin^ to descrilw the atlultera-
lions of bread, to notice thnse in whiuh flour is subjected.

The substuoces employed in the adulteration of fiouff include many
of those which have been met with in bread itself.

One adulteration of Hour is with bean meui. It is a common practice
for milters to add bcRU mcul to flour ; and it is said that this uddition
is not made so much for the sake of profit, ns to render certain de-
scriptions of flour more tenacious when made into dough, bean meal
efl'ecting this object, in consequence of the large quantity of nitrogenou«
matter which it contains. In the case of genuine wheat flour of good
quality, no such addition is required ; when the flour is damaged^ beans
are used in considerable quantities.

Another addition sometimes made is rictJUfW. Tlie purpose served
by the addition of this article, unless it be exclusively fur the sake of
adulteration, is not apparent, since it does not cause bread to bind
better. It causes it incleed to hold more water, and possibly has some
effect in whiteninir it.

Again, in some cuses. barley, rye, Indian com^ and potato (lours haye
been added to wheat flour. '

T %

rLOtJB AND BREADy

tJrt pridence of Mr. Emersion, the roAna^TPr of "The

«Wf Mill" *t Lec<lsi, 5« given bffore the Purliamenunr

f^ F"*' ^^^j^^^jj^jj^ wheat flour is l'iv(juently adullerared wilh

Ifc per *^"'' ^^ Iffirtey fivvr^ wbicli is not much more

of wheat flour.

■*L~"^^-erT curious evi'icnce, in regard ici ilie inlulu-niliitn of

*'^*]I^ IpvVii liefore the Committee bv Mr. Putt" Brown, a

', .■)ir5'»tdiHli"2^T=»"'' whnso husint-ss lleschieflj in London.

M\t^ with wheat in some districts to cheapen the price.

.., vlieat is mixed witli barley to improve the quality,

j4 jfrtfthnrnptonshirtt. The [)nt)r people connider bailey

gdnn tvheflt flour. I do not know tuut that is the case;

of the pi»int, but it is the uuiversaj opinion of the [loor

wrr'

•.f^ five the above qualities to my flour, I add one part
^g^ lo iixty parlJ o!" wheat meal ; never more tlian one in

improre the appcftrancc of flour, but not the quality,
,. ta tv clieapen it."
^^oUt mayor of Cnrk, furnished ihe Committee wilh

eridenrc in regard tu the u^e nf Dari : —

iTan Egvpiian grain culled Uari, that was importftl in

quanl'l**-** at one time into Cork ; that to a moral eertinnty

^ purpose of mixing with wheaten Hour : they were able to

f)r d ft t«n, while the other waa bringing nearly three limes

Mnntities of damaged wheat flour an> nlfto annually sold :

^^^lly more adulterated than any other flour» in a variety

-^ ^ render it saleable; aa by admixture with other flours,

^ and carbonate of soda. The object of the admixtures

and aoda is to lmr<len the parliully de(om|>oi)ed gluten, and to
1^ acidity refulting from ilecoMipf»niiinii.

fub»tance frequently addeil to Hour, is alum. This is done

__ the flc'ur, find to cttu*e the bn-ad made from it to appear

This addition, like the nuyority (tf the other ailulterations of

is practised by millers. It is only a few weeks since, that a

residing at Bronisgrove whs fined lor adulterating his flour with

this iiiilltT ha*i no less than 600 lbs. of that suuswmce on his

at the lime of the discover)-.

J^ fulwlance called mtneral white^ which is a hydrated sulphate of
^Hg^ H occaaionally added to flour. Several millers have within Ihe
^ittm months been convicted for putting this subst^mce into flour.
£^ of these cases occurred near Heaton Korris.

0g0viction9 have also recently taken place for using silicate of
^j^pMU, otlier names for which are China chty and Cortttah clay.

X variety of other substances, it has been alleged, have been and
gg^ used ior the adulteration of Hour ; and it is most prubable that

WITH TnF.IR ADULTERATIONS.

277

the mnjority of them have been tha» einplnyed, although we are not
ourselves acriuainted with any recent cuseH of iheir detection in
tlour. To »oine of theae Btibstances we shall shortly refer when no-
ticin'; the iirlulteratinns of bread.

On the AdnUerations of Cones Fhur.

There is an article in common and dfiity use by bakers, denomi-
natcd " Cones*' or '* Cones Flow** With the exi&tetice of this ar-
ticle until rccenlly we were unacquainted, nor is reference once made
to it by any of the many witnesses — millers, bakers, ficc. — in the evi-
dence given before the Purliouientary (Jommittee. Our auentiun
becnme directed to it in consequence of the Jollowing ciroumsrunce. i

Dr. Piiley, of Peterborough, brought the uuthur u sain[de *j»f Hour
for examination, seized on suxpieion, nnd whJi'h Jie ntftled ihe baker
cjlled "Cone;* Flntir." On .jjibjecling this to m)cro»co|jii:ul examination,
it was found timt it rnnsistod entirely of rice flour.

Thiii induced him to make furlher inituirie:^ : he soon learned that
genuine Cont'S flour oonsisld of the Hour of a jiartiuular apccies uf
wheat called Heret,

Further, thui it wva employed by bakcrfi to dust the dough, as well as
the boartlti ujxm which thi» w made uiLti loaves, the object nt' its use
beinjr to prevent the dough either adhering to the boards, or the loaves
to earh other, in tfic course ol bakin;*;.

Having learned thu:^ mucli, the author procured from bokers nume-
rous samples of Cnne.^ uml subjected them to exuminutiun ; the results
arc exhibited in the onnexeil list. The names of the parlies of
whom they were obtained are not given, becnuse many of tliem were
pnH.-uretl indirectly, and in aouic ca»ea through the instrumentality of
frieuds Cones (lour ljt.'iitg an article which cannot be purchased by
the public in the uidjnory way.

Rcsulu of the Microscopical E&funinatton of Twenty-two samples of
Cones flour, procured chlelly in the meiropoti» in the autumn uf

U/ SampU.
AdullenUed, Contains I^ye and Hice tlours.

2ud Sample.

Not Cones Jlour at all. Consists entirely of Rice flour.

Srfi Sam/tie,
AduUerateH. Contains Rice flour.

4/A Snmple.
AihUteraUd, Contains Rice tlour.

T a

'97B

fttfi SampU.
Atiulterated. Consists in great part of Rice flour.

6M Sample.
Genuine.

7th Santple.
Adulterated, Consists almost cntiroly office Qour.

8/A Sample,
Adulterated, Curnposed alrnvsl entirely of Rice flour.

9th Sample.
Adulterated. Consisting chiefly of Rice and Bean nnnrs^

TO/A Sample.
Adulterated, Conlaius iimcb Rice 6our.^

Wth Sample.
Not Cones at all. Consists of Rice^ Indian Com^ and Bean flours.

Wh Sample.
Adulienited. Consists in ^eat part of Bean and Rice flours.

13/A Sample,
Adulterated. Contiuns mucli Rice flour.

\Atk Sample.
Adulterated. Contains Barley flimr iind alum.

\fith Sample.
Genuine.

16M Sample.
Adulterated. Admixed witti both Barley and Riee flours.

17M Sample.
Adulterated. Consisting in gi-eat part of Rice flour.

\Sth Sample.
Genuine.

Wth Sample.
Genuine,

20th Sample.
Genuine.

21 Mt Sample.

Not Conea at all. Consisting entirely of Rice and Indian Corn
flours.

WITH THEIR ADULTERATIONS,

•^7!»

'22nd SttmpU.

\duUerated. Consisting chieHjr of Riee^ with some Indian Com flour,
and much Suit.

It flppcATK, therefore, that Conesfltmr u rartty to he obtained genuine^
• htd is tuhject to an enormous attumnt of aduUeration, this usually
consiittinff in the adilition of very lar^e <|iiJii)tilit^s of riVe, rye, harley^
heajij nnu Tndmn com flours, and sometimes of sali and aittm. Further,
lltat come of the Mt[D|des do mtt cotdain a particle of tcheat Jfitur^ of
which nloitu Lhev nhouM ootij^ist.

The olijeot of these additions is obviously to cheapen the article;
and that this purpose is effected sometimes to tlie extent of nearly
one hiilf might be readily proTcd by (pioting the several market
prices of the diflercnt varieties of gram ubove referred to.

Thnt this is really so may be shown in another war : m-'vcrnl quali-
ties of Cones flour are sold, the beat being nearly twice the price
of the worst, and the adultcmtion being usually in proportion to tfae
price.

Two (]ucstions now present themselves for consideration in connec-
tion with Conrs flour : the first is, whether any real necessity exists for
the U!se of even genuine, much less Qdiilterntetl Cones flour ; and the
second is, whether this flour, e^peciully when Ddutterated, as it usually
is, is ever opplied to any other purpose than that avowed.

Tlie first question is almost suflicicntiy answered by the fact
that some do not use Cones flour at all, and yet do not experience
iiity great diflieulty in the manutaeture of the breud ; there is there-
fore •iimmI reiu^ou for believing that price bn^* very miieh to do with the
general em|ih>yiuent of Cones flour, even in those cases in which it is
really used lo prevent the adhesion of the loaves.

With regard" to the setonH rpiestion, there enn be no doubt but that
Cones flour is frequently employed in the adulteration of bread : this
is shown in some eases by ihe character of certain of the adulterations
lo which it is subject, n.itnely those by admixture with beun flour,
alutn, and salt; now bean flour in actually of a more glutinous and
adhering nature than pure wheat flour of good i|uiility itself, and
therefore its pre*ence tends to un6l it for the very purpose for
which it is alleged that it is designed.

But wiine bjikera have even acknowledged to the employment of
Cones fliiur for purpoae.t of adulteration, for which, from Us composi-
tion, especially when odultomtcd, as it au cuustantlj is, it is so well
suited.

Suppoi^ing, however, the Cones flour to be employed for dusting the
dou^h, ami that this is a legitimate use, still thife docs not justify 'tis
adulteration.

In the article Cones flour prepared by miller^ bakem, then, ore
furnished with a material avowedly wheat flour, but which, consisting of

T 4

FLOUK AND BREAD,

mixtures of difiorent and cheaper Atmrs, is in every wtky nuilcd fur
tbe adulteruiion of brend ; und that it is cuteusively used for thi»

JtlmltrrQiM Cosu WutVBt eniwIftiM efa mixtiff* AT w*r«r, rtoa, aad hian tomn.
Uh^&A tU dlMEMMn.

purpose cannot be douhteil. Tbe svBtcm adopted by millers, of
supplying under the name of Cones tlourand as wheat flour, compounds
adapted for iidulteration, is surely very cunnini:ly (ievised. 'ITie
public know iiothiii<; of thi^ article, the musler bakers themselves are
Ignorant of its u.^uct eouipuMtloii ; while the journeyman, in most
cases, when he ndii«, bv bin niask-r^s directions, a bushel nf Cones to a
sack of flour, lut» im ideu that he is adidtenuing the bread.

Tbe cose of Cones Hour affurds another example of what the rni-
croicope is capable of efTccting in connection with the subject of

WITH THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

SSI

ftdutterjition. Had it nut been for that instrument it would have
been utteily impu$siblc to have ascertained by scientific means the
comp)»itinn of the het(>rof*cnuou!i mixture cdleil Ciines flour.

Tlie adniirabK> engravinjf yf^. i»8. exhibits the characlera presented
by a sample of so-caIle(l Conn tlour, toniposi'd of wheat, rice,
aud beui flours. U is difficult to deienniiic which i^ iho most ex-
cellent, (he drawing of Mr. Tufien Weet or the engraving of Mr.
Hart.

On the Adulteraiiaus of Brtad.

Well then, flour containing any of the nrtiiles already menlioned,
the Bksad made from it must of course do m likcwit»e; but other and
further adulterations of bre») nre practiced by bakers.

It is notorious that the great majority n^ bukers add either alum
to their bread or a mixture of alum and suit known in the trade by
the terms "hartlp" and *Stuff;" and thus in many c;)8t'8 the ilour re-
<*eiTeA two additions of alum, the hnker being often unaware that he
haft been already antiripatcd by the miller.

It is also notorious that hnfcers frequently add a proportion of
potat/M's to bread. These, when masheil, are mixk*d with the yeast,
which is said to feed upon the potatoes, and lor which purpose only
it is fllleped the potatoes are usetl, and not for aduliv-ralioii. AA'hen
the quantity of [mfutoes employed is but small, this may be mi ,* but
there is no doubt thul poLatoest are sionetiuiei* abided in considerable
quantities to bread, especially when they nre eheop.

Tlic injury to the properties of the bread by its ndulterution with
the Hours and vegetable substanoes rvferrei] to, especiully rice and |>o<
tatoes, is very jrreut, as can be rea<iily proveil.

Wheaten flour owes its superiority over nearly all other kinds of
flour to the lar^fe amount of gluten which it eoniaing, and which is the
constituent that gives value to it and upon which its nutritious pro-
perties depend : this amounts in unlinary flour to not leas lltnn I'i per
cent. Now rice and potHtt>e9, Imth so rommnidy added to bread,
contain not more than 7 per cent, of that ftubntance, — that is, thry are
but little more than half ns nutritious as jjoful wheut ilnur, — nnd i*on-
sequenlly any brcail to which thtse articles are added is robbed of
much of its nnuri.shmenl.

But the evil doet^ not end here ; the riee and some other substances
swell up, and absorb, when made into bread, a much hirger quantity
of water than wheat flour, and thus the quality of the bread as a life-
sustaining food is still further reduced.

The use of nhm in bread — nnd it is almost always used by bslcers
— w parlinttaritf itijuru>MA. It is true it causes the bread to be whiter
than it wouhl be oiherwI.«ic, indeed whiter than it was ever intended
to be by Nature; but it imparls to brt»ad several other properties:
thus it hardens the nutritious constituent of the bread, the gluten,
and 90 (on the authority of that great chemist Liebig) renders the

ssa

FLOUR AND BREAD,

bread more indigestible; it enables the baker to adulterate his bread
with greater quantities of rice and pntutnes than lie coulil otiierwitte
emploj ; undf lu^^tly. by the use of aium he U able to puss ofTan in-
ferior, and even a damitged flour, for one of superior quality- Is it
then worth while, or nither is it not very foolish, thus to injure the
projjurties nf the brend by using til urn for the mere Fake of obtaining
an iiiHJuturallr white loafV

The piiblit^ then, in judging of the quality of bread by its colour,' —
by its whiteness, — uomniit^ a rau*t serious mistake : there la little or no
connection between colour and quality: in f:ict, very generally, the
whitest breads arc the most adulterated. The public, therefore! should
lose no lime in correcting itt judgment on thi^ (loint.

Affftin, the mistaken taste of the public lor very white bread —
whiJli. be it known, cannot be obtained even from the finest and be&t
flour except by the use of Atom or some oUier subat&nce similar
io its operation — tends to the serious injury of the bread in another
way.

The outer part of the grains of wheat has been proved by analysis
to be much richer in nuurishing principles, in gluten and tn oily
matter ejijicciiilly, than ihe central and im>re flitury pHrts of the grain.
Now, in prepanngj the finur descriptions of flour, the utmost painfl
are t^ken lo peparute ihta highly nutritious exterior p<irtion , of the
grain, and thus, although the flnur so obtnineil is very fine and white, —
very suitable for mukln<; a white luaf, (hat fallacirms test of quality, —
it is yet not nearly ^o nutrtiUms as whole uieul lluur, or mvvii the less
finely dressed qualities o\' wheat ftour. The cunsumer, now better
instructed, is in a posilion to judjio of how much be sacrifices for the
mere s«ke of mi arbitrary and falluciifUit stjui'ianl tA' quality, namely
whiteness. The dsfltrence in nounshiuf; properties between whole
meal fU»ur and very finely dressed fluur amounts iu umny cases to fuUj
one third.

Further, alum is very apt to disorder tike stomach, and to ocoHUon
acidity and dyspepsia.

The manner in which it does bo has not been clearly ascertuned.
The p^iwerful clfects of nUiui iis an astrin<;ent, when administered ai &,
medicine, are well known; but it is considereil by Mr. Lewis Thompioa
that, when added to Itnur nr brend, it btiomcfl (leconqn^sed by the
gluten, a bi.sniphate of potash bein^ funned. Whether this view is cor*
rect or not^ is queiilionable, and it is entirely opposed to the opioioui
and statements of Licbig.

Mr. Lewis, in his evidence before the Parliamentary Committee,
does not advance a single /^nfr}/" in support uf btM viewH.

Liebig considers that part of the beneficial :iction of wheat flour on
the system in due to the M>luble plio.t^phates which it contains in stieh
larjre quantities, and he HtAlcti thut when ulum is added tn bread these
are dcconqiosed, the phuMphoric oc.id of the jihofphntes uniting with
the alumina of the alum, and that thus an insoluble phosphate of al-

WITH TUEIR ADULTEnATIONS.

iiminn ifi formed, and the beneficial action of the phosphates conse-
quently h'Kt to the system.

So siitisflod is Liebig that this U the case, that for some vcaM pa.Ht he
has recommended the emph>ym(.'nt of Hmal) qtiantitien of Iimo water
for the purpose of whitening bread made frommitstv or daninged flour;
and it was stuted at the re<rent mectlnff of the Bntiitli Assticiation at
Glasgow, that lime water is now used by manv Scotch bukers.

The followin<r is Liebi^j's own statement of htii views: —

"Many salts render the gluten again insoluble, apparently by form-
ing with it A chemical combinution.

" The bakers of Helpiiim diwovered, about twenty years ago, how to
bake from damaged flour— by adding sulphate of copper (a poison) to
the dough — a bread in appearance and external properiiis as fine as
from the be^t wheat flour. This mode of improving its physical pro-
perties of course deteriorates its chemical [>ro|)ertic3. Alum has the
same effect as sulphate ofcopiwr: when added to the dough it renders
the hrend very lijtht, ela<ttic. firm, ami dry ; and the London bakers
in consequence of the demand fi>r white bread, such as the English
and Amcrirnn flour, usually so ;jnf>d. yields, appear to hnve been com-
|>clted lo add ainm to nil flour in the bnkin;;. 1 saw in an alum
manufactory in Scotland, little mounds nf finely ground alutn, which
was destined for the use of the London bnkcrs.

" Sinct* phosphoric acid forms with nlumina a compound hardly de-
composable by alkalies or acids this may perhaps explain the indiges-
tibility of the London bakers* brea<), which strikes all foreiifners. A.
smidl quantity of lime water added to the musly or dnmA<;ed llour, has
the Hame fffect as the idum or sulphate of copper, without being fol-
lowed by the same disadvantaire*.* — Lftten on Chemistry.

SupfHrsin*; (or a moment Mr. ThompM(»n's views 1u be correct, it has
still to b€ proved iJiat bisulphute of potash consiitules a wholesome in-
gredient in bread. Mr. Thompson states of it himself, in the evidence
referred to, that "it is a siniridurly sour thing ; " if so, it is surely the
occasion of much of the acidity resulting Irom tlie use of bread to
which slum liiis l>een added.

Enouf^h has now been adduce*] to show that, whether the views
allude<l t^i are corrert or not. it is n very dangerous thing to tamper
with artirlns of daily food and of large consumption, like flour and
breud, by tlic addition of chemical substances of anjr kind.

It is curious to notice the arguments to which the defenders of
adulteration are driven in order to finil excuses for certain practiues.
We were recently much astonished at one of iheiic arguments.

A learned chemical professor, at the Ule uie*-.ting of the British
AssfH-itiiion in (rlasfiow, defended the use of alum in bread on (he
following ground : —

lie fltiitcil that Thames water was so alkaline it turned the flomr
yelltiWy and hence the use of an acid became necessary.

Ilorae-made bread is certainly not so white oa bakers' bread, the

2S4

FLOUU AMD BREAD,

ilifFerence being explained hv the absenne uf ibe alum; but it if cer-
tiiinlv nut the uwsn that Thames water has the remarkable eQ'ect of
turning tbc Hour jellnw.

Bdt the real and actual facts, aji re<rards Thames water and Ht
effet'te on the colour nf the bread, are these : —

The alkalinity of Thnroes water is so triHing that it is scarcely per-
ceptible in liie motiit delicate test piiper : atrain, during the fermeiitalinn
nf the bread a large quuntity of ncid is generated, infinitely more
Ihan would be sufficient to neutralise the alleged alicalinity of i'hamea
uattrr, and t<* counteract any tendency which it is said to puuess to
turn flour yellow.

Aguin, contrast the professor's argvmeni with the practice recom-
mentlfd by Barun Liebi*;. The one says Thames water is 90 alkaline
it (iirn*i Hour yellow, and the other advises the use of an alkali to
whiten it.

But wc will suppose that the pn>fessor's views are not altogether
destitute of fnandation, yet they wouhl constitute but a jKwr rewson
for the emplnyment nf alum. That substance is used in bread-making
nearly all over ihe United Kinplom, and yet the nw of J'hume* water
is confined to the Mcimpolis and its vicinity. We repent, then, it is
curious to notice the chunicler of the arguments which sfmielinies
even scienlilic men will condesceml to use in defence of adulteration.
Another argument by which the use of alum !a defended, is thai the
quantity employcfl is but small : uiK>n this point the following evidence
xnav be adduced : — 1

llie author of the celebrated treatise " Death in the Pot " writos:— «'
"The smallest quantity of alum which can be employed with efTecl to
produce a white, light, and [Kmms bread fwm an inferior kind of flour,
1 have my own baker'it nuliinritv to stnte, is from three tu four ounces
uf alum to a sack of flour weigliing 240 lbs."

Dr. Markham gives H ounces of alum as the quantity used to a sack
of flour.

From inquiries which we have made amongst bakers, we find that
the quantity of uluni usutdly cmployeil U half a [Kiuiid 10 the sack of
Hour weighing 240 Ibs^ ami rhat the qunntity used varies according to
the age and <:iinditiaii uf tlie flour : thus new tlour requirfs mufh more
alum than old; indeed, :t white bread may be made from old flour
without any addition of ulmn, while as much as three qniirt^'rs of
a pound may be adilcd to the naok of very new fl^mr. New flour \a
that wbii:h come!) into use about November and Dfri-mbor; hence the
bread made in these months usually conuina a large pntportion of alum.
Old flour is that used in the two or tlirec summer months preceding
the hnrveflt.

Four ounces gives about 30 grains of alum to every 4 lbs. nf flour,
eight <mn-.-e8 GO grains, and twelve ounces 90 grains. Mr. Mitchell,
the author of a treatise on the " Fulsificaiion oi FoimI," states, that he
detected in ten 4 pouud loaves of bread, 819.^ grains of alum.

•WITH THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

8SS

Withr(?9pect to con<1ition, a flour which is iron k — that if, wliichdoes
nut bind rt'adily in fonsi-'«iuence of a deficiency itf gluten — reijuires a
.vu-cb larger proporlion ol' uliini, un<l in this cuoe from thrvc- quarters to
■% pouml of thut halt miiy be added.

Suit Uah n)Uoh t)ie same ellcct as nlum ; that ia^ if makes the bread
wliite and 6rin, und Ucnctf it issonii-tinies ust^il in exreu, to suppK the
pluci\ to sonic extent, of nlum. The ftvcrngc qmnlity ut'sult Htlded
Lv bilkers tu braid whcrrin alum iit used is not about hixty oiincfs to
the "240 lbs.; but the iimoutit vnries with the iige ol'the Hour.

The use of hIuiii in bread is ]>robibited by luvr, under cortnin
pecunijiry pL-nidtie.*; this law is, however, rarely ent'nrued. We giilher,
riowever, troui llie existence uf Much :l law, tliat the legitihilureconi«ideni
the U)ie of altiui in breud to he objeetionable.

The use of another mineral aul>:ttance. cnrbonnto of mapieslii, bus
even been spe<:ially reciimmeiided by Mr. C. Davy, on the ground
thutitimpioves the cidour of new and interior flour, and increases the
yield, — neither of whieh result^ uofar ati the public is eoncerned, are
in the leaat de^iirablc. The increased yield dimply 8i>rnitiei) m/^re icater.
The ijuaniity of nu^neaiu required varies fruni 20 to 40 grains lu a
pound of flour.

\\\i have already referred, to some extent, to the advUertUioH of
breiui u^ith tvater. Bread naturally contains a large quantity of water,
esttmnted at 66 parts in every 160 of bread — 16 of these only being
naturui to the Ihiur, but it is frequently made Ut contain p'euter
amounts: one principal means by which this is eflected, is by the
addition of rice or rice tlour to bread ; this, swelling u|>, absorbs
much more water than wheat Hour. PutattH.'S useil in any quan-
tity, probably have, to some extent, the same efl'eet. In the inlr<»-
duelion of nee, then, into bread, there is a double evil: first., n sub-
stance is put into tlie brt^ad, which does not f>ofl»eftS nearly so niuch
nourishntenL us wheat Hour; and si'cond, by its means n hir^erqtmntity
of another substance is absorWd by llie hread. and whii-li really baa
no nourishing propt^rtics wbalever. While wheat llonr seldom con-
tains less, and often much more, Uian 13 per cent, ot gluten, rice has
only about 7 per cent, of that nutritiaua substance, and potalues are
equally deficient in gluten.

Another way to increase the quantity of water in bread, is, af\er
having incorporateil aa much water in the douxh as possible, ti» put it
in A hot oven : this causes the crust to form speeuily, and thua the
escape of the water is prevented.

Lastly, the same object ta in a measure attained by throwing sacks
over the loaves when removed from the oven : this prevent:^ the dis-
sipation of some of the water, which is apt to pass ufl* 6o quickly from
tiie bested loaves.

Several other articles, in addition to those enumerated, are stated to
be employed in the adulteration of bread, and theie is no doubt but
that they have been thus employed, such as bone athes^ bone duity white

S8a

TLOUR AND BREAD,

chtfy the carlmnates n/ siida and magnesiny chalk or earhonate oflim^-, and
planter t\f Ptiria^ gypsiiin, or sulphate of lune,

La:!^tl}-, sulphate of cupper has b<i*>n UReiJ» |)riuei]iftlly in rielgiiimt for
the same purpu^tis lu alum, viz. to whiten Hour, and Lo c:^u.<te bread to
hold more water.

The retnltg of the examination of numerout samples of fiavr and
bread for alum, tttny wiv be stated.

Oi' twenty-eight samples of bread tested for alum, that substance
was i'ounrl in every one nfthe samples.

Some time subsequently, a second series of samples of bread, tweutv-
five in nnnihrr, were nlso tested for alum, uiid tlii.i salt was found in
tlie whole of the samples.

Three of ihe bakers whose bread wngexarauicd, and found to rontaiit
alum, declared that iliey ditl nut uild ihiiL MibsluiR-e ru their biead;
and they plueed in our handii i-anipleii urcbe* llour of which the breads
were matie, wlmn the alum was fouBd in the fhnir^.

From this it may be inferred that tlie alum had been introduced into
the flours by the millers. This discovery led to the examination of
other flours, in aevend of which alum was ulso derecUMl.

In the course of our inve^li;?ations rGspectin;; the mhilteration of
bread, we did not fail to puy some attention to the subject of wre/g-Ai, a
subject second in iniporiunee only to that of the adulteration of bread.
We procured a number of luaves of bread from ilitferent bakers, ns
delivered to houses, und weitched them. The results were, that tliirty-
one and a half loaves, obtained from thirteen ditfereiit bilkers, were
deficient eighty-six ounces. Scarcely a single loaf reached its proper
weight.

In onler to cheek dishonesty in the weij^lit of bread, the following
simple plan is in operation in KdinbuTirb, and it is described by the
gentlenuut who sug^resled it as hitviii^ worked exceedingly well.

It is made imperative on the bilker to st.imp the wi*i;;ht upon all the
loaves he ttells. 'i'lie ])ruvision to this efiect is contained in the Foliee
Act of Edinburgh.

Some idea ot the extent to which Hour is adulterated, and the
feelintj which exists in the. mind of the people in rcganl to it, may ba
gathered from the fatit ihut extensive IVoplu's Kloiir Mills, sup-
ported mainly by the working classes, have been established in a f^^ik^
nianv of our lar^c manufacturing towns, as, amongst others, Leed4|
Hull, Harntiley, Bradford, Thirsk, liristol, Keighley, Ualiikx, Koch-
dale, &c.

On the Detectiun of the Adulterations of Flour avd Bread.

The various substances and articles era)>loyed in the adulteration of
flour and bread, may be classified into the urf^auic und ivorgunic : under
the 6r»t head are included bean, rice, rye, burley, and Indian ccMm
tlours, potato Hour, and potatoes; under the second, alum, plaster

WITH THEIR ADDLTEKATIONS,

1«7

of Parid or sulphate of lime, gypsum, terra alba or mineral wliite,
silicalti of Riiigiteftiu, whttu day, carbmmtca of limCi mognvsia, and •iuila,
bone ashea or phosphate of liine, bune (liut.

On the lieiffliun a/ the Organic Adtdierations of Flovr and Bread.

The only meanii by which the adulterations of dour nml brt^ad with
the different kinds ol' 6our enumerated can be discovered, is by the mi-
croscope.

The discovery is very nmcU more easily eflectcd in tlour than in
bread, because the lieat to wLicb breaii in subjecled in bakinj^ alters
somewhut tlie orii>iuul Ibrm of the starch granules, and so renders
their ideniilicutioii less easy.

The chaructery of the stai'chei of the sovernl flours used in the udut-
teratiuD of flour and bread have already been described, with the ex-
ception of potato starch und bean tiuur.

Beat Flocb. Mas&IRcd 4W dluncien-

Jftfttr and starch are distinguished from the other flours used
atlalleratiim of wheat flour and bread by the oval or renil'orm
of the fjrunules, the elongated and divided chanicter of the
^hitum. and the thickness of the walls of the celU enclosing the starch
corpuscles. Fig. 99.

lape

FLOUR AND BREAD,

A description and fi^re representing the characters of poUlo flour
will be round under the article Arrowroot.

Fig, 100.

WilCAT Fl^ra, ftdtiltenMd wtUi Bean Jltmr. Mufnlflcd (SO dIUMten.

The tululterntion of wheat flunr with barley flour is one by no means
Wtty of diw-overy wlien we cnnHiie our observaiions entirely to the
form nf the rtlnrcli corpuscles of the two kinds of grain, the difler-
encfs in the churnctera of the starch not l>eing very consideruble. The
corpuscles of barley .itarch are smaller than those of wheiiT, ami this
is nenrly the only tangible ditrerenee. However, the di5crimtnation
may be effected in a very satiafuclory manner, by mcanii of tlie por-
tions of husk present in the flour. The structural peculiarities of
the testa and ot the cells forming the surface of the <;rain of wheat and
barlev, have already been pointed out, and to the description of these
reference may now be made.

In the exuminaiion of bread, in consequence of the alteration ex-
perieiiccil in ihc form of the starch cnrpiisclos by the heut of the
oven in baking, it is in some cases espcciaUy necessary to loi»k carefully
to the structure of the portions of husk met with, and of which 6gWTS
«nd descriptions have already been given.

Now. although nothing is more common than the use of mashed
potatoes in bread, yet, so far at our experience goes, it ia by uo means

WITH THEIK ADULTERATIONS.

!69

etsv to iletect their prejicn(*e in brend. To what circumsUnces this is
owing wti are nut quiie sure : the lunsLed pulatoes are not nauoll/

1%. 101,

added direct to the flnur, but thvy itre gencmlly incorporated witU
the yeuAt, which is allowed (n remain in contact with tliem few some
hours, this being said to fetrd an«l grow u\wn the potatoes. It is po8-
dible that in thin way the miijdriiy of the cells of the potato lK.*coine
broken down ami no longer recognisable. In u few canes, however, we
have succeeded in detecting jmtato in bread by means of the luicro-
ncope.

The HcluUerntioo of flour with Durra, is also discoverable by zneaiiB
of the microscope.

On tke StntctHre of ** Durra,^ HoUum Durra saiipiu, Forshiil ; Sorghum

pulgare.

The testa of the grain or seed may be described as consisting of
three membranes.

The outer is composed of three or four layers of thicJc-waHe<l ccll»,
rather small, about three tin>cs longer than broad, and having the
mtirgina finely beaded, somewhat as in capsicum.

tto

Tk midlife cot q
Ml filed wxtk hmU

FUHTB A3n> BK£AI>,
•f WTcnl bfcnof

wuk tkni va^^

inuat /iMr. KlDltintcd with /mUiib i>r»j«rM-. UkpiUad 00 AaMcftf*.

Th« lAirr/ tmiic resembles thul of most of the otiier seeds of the
j^amtnuin, and conviau of a single lajer of angular gluten? cells, but
which are unuBUulIy Hmall.

The substance of the »eed resembles rcry closely that of Indian
com, difleriug chiutly in the larger size and greater angularity of the
fltan^ corjtiuwlea, as well aa the stellate clioracter of the bilum. See
Jg. 104.

The last or;ranic adulteration, the method for the discovery of which
we have to describe, is thai with hone dujtt. Bone dust coosista nf
the dost or llour of bones ; now bunes iio:»se«5 a well-defined structure
wiiich it* Ui some extent trnceuble in the Hour: again. l)one Hour
cnnsitiis in Ittr^c part of ptio^tpbate of lime ; thi^, on the application
of nitrute of silver, turns yellow. If, then, on examining any sample
of flour with the microscope, we discover minute bony particles, or
if, on adding a i^mall quantity of a solution of nitrate of silver to
the flour, while under the microscope, particles of a deep and rich
(redden yellow appear, it is certain that the flour is aduliersted with
bone dust. The <piantity uf bone dust used must be colcalalcd from

WITH THEJK ADULTERATIONS.

SOI

the qtuntity of pbospbnte of Um« conUined in the uh of n given
quintitv of the flour.

^.101.

Pflkof Brtml, ultiltcntted with potirht. MmgnltM 191 ill«meler«

The method for determining the presence and quantity of phosphate
of lime, ifl as follows * —

The ash, af[er being weighed, is to be treated with water: this
will dis-solri' uut the soluble salts : next with hot acetic ucid whicb will
take up thf i>hoapbat« of lime. The phosphoric acid and the \im>i are
then to be »eparutely precipitated, the one by means of acetaie of lend,
and the other by oxalate of ammonia; the precipitates must be col-
lected, weij»hed, and i-alcuUted for pltosphate of lime.

In most cases it will be sufficient, after the removal of the soluble
phosphiitvs from the ash by means of water, to precipitate the phos-
phoric ttL'iU only, and to calculate this for phosphute ol' lime. (See
p. 25».)

On the DetecHan of the Inorganic Atiuiterotiofii of Flour and Bread.
On the Petection of Excess of Water in Bread. — There are two
methods by which the presence of water in exce^s may be determined,

c 2

FLOCR AND HREADy

one direct, the other indirecl ; thiis if we discoTer the presence
rice ill bread, we »*oortnin indirectly the fact of the existence of a

Fig. 104.

A. loAtTCfw arrtlnn of (eitm. «5Wi. o, mitfr i t, nik1dl«i r. Irncr co«L n.lfnifl-
tadlnUaeeilun of t^u, «3iN). n, oulettfr, miailloj r, Inner lunlc. c.*liw,M«fr-
ffhtnff <if Mtd, thowlnK >tt>c larrc kn^ular c«lla filled with rittrch, of wbl«h It !•
onfiiiMNvl- )■, 'SuVi, ■'•rt* »' mr|r c«IU, thowlng th« pwudo-cvll •tradun. In
wlileh the riuxh cvtvuM-ic« »rv Ki>ui>l«lr lodsetl. x i, *Xii, >tueti l>om tMl4
Htd ftom tubatftocc of grain.

surpliiF of wnt«r: in the direct metbod. a weighed portico of ihe
bread is evaporated in a water-bnth, until it ceases to lose weight ;

WITH THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

2'J3

the lofls gives the quantity of water, wbieb, in ordinary cases, ftmounts
to 66 piU'ts in -150 pnrts of lircad.

The procehscs for the detection of ekalh or carboimte of iimr, et/p-
tuiti or sulphate of limf^ and HiUmie of magnenut or siHiptUme^ Tiiivc
filreaily been described ; that for the Crst-naiiu'd substance wUl be
Jbuni] ut jiage 101., tUul for ilie ^ecuhtl tti jiitge 90^ and that Tor the
third ut |>ai<Te 101.

We iiave then uitU to consider the iiiet1iud» by which nilnerul white,
white elny, earburiiite of nm^iiesia, caiboiiate nt' !»odu, alum or sulphHte
of potaith and aluniinu, and sulphate of copper, may be detected and
edlimated.

Oh the Dttci'tion of ^finerul White or Terra AUm^ &c. — Mineral
while is a hydrated sulphate nt' lime ; the process, therefore, for its de-
tection is the same as for sulphate of lime.

On the Detection of China or Coruiih Clay^ — The procew) for the
discrimination of theseearths, the composition of ^^hich is nearly iden-
tical, ami whirh consist essentiHlly nf silicate of alumina, resolvt^s ilwlf
into an anatyais for silica iind iduminn, the processes fur the detection
of which havL> alremlv been dctaiU'd ; thnt fur alum is given at p. *1'^A.
As the tluur in which it oci'urn may contain alum, the »u1phurio acid
must be ttetcrmined, and a cnrrespondinif amount of nlutnina tlcductcd.

Oh the Detectiaii of Carbonate of Magnetia, —The next salt em-
ployed to adulterate Hour, the process for the detection of which hod
to be de:«cribed, is carbonate of wiignesta. For the discovery of iu
presence, we may proceed as folluws : — In ord^r l)i ascertain whether
It or any other carbonate is present, a liitle hydrochlorii: acid iihould
be atldod to a small ipiantity of tlie Ijread or llour spread nut on a
slip of j^lass, and while it is under observation with an inch object
glus. If ever so alight an efTerve^.-ence appears, some carbonate is
surely present, it may be of lime or ma};neAia. The processes for deter*
mining tlie presence of lime, and estiiuittinz its amount, have ali'eady
been de»cribed ; that for ma^iieiiia is us follows : —

The ash is to be treated with a little dilute hydrochloric acid, water
mlded, and the solution filtered. Ammonia und oxalic acid or oxaliite
of animnnia are now added, till no furlht^r precipitate takes place ;
this prccipitntcs any linio which may be presi-nl ; the Iif]uitl is again
61lered and treated with chloride of ammonium, and ummonia added
in plight exc4.'R<s. Should a precipitate form on the addition of ammonia,
tnnre chloride of ammonium must be adiled, until the precipitate is
redisstdved ; lastly, phodphate of smla in excels is added, tJie mix-
ture stirred with a glass rod, and allowed to stand at rest for some
hours.

The maj,'nesia is precipitated in the form of phosphate of magnesia,
the precipitate is collected upon a filter; when lue tluid has drained o(T',
it ij) to be treated repeatedly with a mixture of water and anmtonia,
in the proportitm of four-fihhs of the former to one of a solution of
the latter. This operatiuo is rejieated until the lluid passing thru>jj];U

c 3

FLOTR AND BREAD —ADULTERATIONS.

Ok* 4Nvr vcmm to lenve a residue when evaporated nn i platinum

'So prwipitattf iv- now drie'l, transferred to a plalinum cru-

•■- w fxjwisyd (or some lime to a gentle heat, whicb is ofter-

iA*A5vtl to intense redness : lastly, the prt'Cipittie is wei^lietj,

!*to*!, for carbonate of ma^esin^ br two sum^. Hy llie first

' I. ^ I ihiily of magnesia in the pyrophosphate is asccrtiiinett, and by

i » I • ud this magnesia is converted into the carbonate of that base.

I ' ' I •>r»ui9, an<l bulky character of the ash of any flour con-

teio -lii, \s itself sutficient to excite suspicion of the presence

v/ l'i'« •'•K.^iatK'i'.

l^it< u\'\t 5ttU employed in the adulteration of ilour and bread,
ikv |a\kHMd tor the detection of whicb it is necessary to describe, ia

Ot M/- Di^teetion of Alum. — This salt consists of a sulphate of

itid i>otn.sh. In general, in analysinM; flnur or bread for this

• >', i( IS not necessiiry to do more than estftimtc qunnlitatively

itiv iilMMiiuH; it is salL'^r, however, when we desire to exclude every

|*<«*Mihiliiv of a ntistidce, to esiinmte the i^ulphuric iit'i<l as wull.

l1io Ibllowing is one uf the best processes which can Ije adopted ; —

tncinciatu 1000 ^rrg. nf the Hour or bread; boil in n Husk with
i drtichiiu of nitric acid, 4 of hydrochloric ncid, and 4 of wnter ; eva-
M>vate l«> drynes*. When cold adtl one ounce t»f distilled wat*T. and
U'tl for a few minutes; while boiling dilute with one ounce lifj.
(k'lAuiv. nnd bdil again for it few ininuti'S ; then litter, nearly neutralise
wiih hydi'iH'hloriu acid, and jirt'cinilute with ammonia.

The itrccipilated alumina sliould be washed, dried, i^inled in a pla-
liuMiu di»h, weighed, and cnleulated for alum.

Thy purity of the reiigeniM employed in this amdvsis should be pre-
%inu»lv a«eertnined,es]iecially that ofthe siilutitm ol ptitiish; indeed, it is
taf'e*t to prepare these oneself: the nitric nnd the hydrochloric otid may
bo oblaiiicMl pure by simple diMtillntlnn ; and pure (totush, from whirb
iht' votulitm can afterwards be made, may be procured by the action
ofNtcohol. Mistakes have fretjuenily occurred in consequence ff a
nvgloct of these precaution*!. When the potiL^h eonuiins a minute
ipiantity only of alumina, this may be deiiucted from the general
rvsult.

It iboidd be reinembere*! that salt sometimes oonUins minute
ipiatitiiies of alumiiui, as well as, it is alleged, certain descriptions of
wheat.

The quantities of alumina in two saraplfs of salt analysed, amounted
in the one sample to 005, ami in the other to 0 06 per cent.; we muft
therefore not infer the presence of alum in bre;id, when ([uantiiies of
alumina are diwovered as stiiall ns iIiohc just referred to.

Some rhemists have described the ruUuwinj; method for the detection
of alum : —

Soak the flour or bread in water, filter the solution and treat
with ■nimonia, the precipitate which ensues is desc.ribed as olu-

BUTTER, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

29ri

minn. Thi^ proce^^s is utterlv falladous, as n precipitAte alnii)'s
occurfl under such circumstances, even in the absence ot* alum, the
pret'ijMtnte in frcneral conifittting of nitrogenous matter ami vartby
phosphates. We refer (o this proi-esa in unler thiit it may be avoidcJ.

Oh tht Detection of Suiphatenf Copper — For the iletecrinn of copper
in brcail, the processes described under the hwid of Picklea may be
followed.

Ferrooyanuret of potasi^ium is a rcrv delicate test for copper in
bread : if the bread be moistened with a solution of th&t salt, it will
assume a pink tin;;e^ more or less deep accordiii;: to the quantity
present. It is titated that the preaeni.'c ol <me part of cop[»er in 9(>00
of breiu] may Iw discovered in ihis way. Fur the discovery of copper
in the ash, 3000 or 4000 grains of the bread should be incinerated.

Duty on all flour and meal i^d. per owt.

Entered for Home CoHsvmptiott.

IKM.

ISW*

Whmtf m»l

Barlrf tnral .....
Oatinnl .....
tiff inral .....
Pe% mrkt - - . . .
BCU IBM! .....

tndtui corn meal - - •
Buck whrat meU - - - -

ToUl of mr«l -

Grand Total of Cum and Klour In lu equU
»«lm! of Grain - - - .

Cwt».

1, tin, 101

758
9*7

IfiS
19.1M
S,ft74

3.r3i,7l7
5;iil

3.73!*. 107

1,940,3 rg

a.ttl.MMt

7.*iMlblo

D.lSlJU

ti.Suin

BUTTER, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Fbom Bread we pass on to. Butter ond its .\dnlteralion».

Am the method nf mnking butter may not be known to many of the
readers of this report, we will proceed, before entering upon the con-
sideration of ita adulterations, ingiveavcry brief outline of the manner
in which butter it; usually prepared.

u 4

S9«

ttUTTER, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS;

Butter is made for the most part froni cream ; the cream iscollecteil
from time to time, and pluced in u covered jar, until suflicient has been
obtained, when, having become sour by keeping, it is submitted to ihe
process of churning.

Butter is aUn prepared in f^mall r^uantities from sweet cream, and
this kind is esteemed a frr^iit delicncv. Very excellent butter ia like-
wise £iuiuotimo9 mnde from full or entire nulk ; the disadvanti^cs of
thia method ore, the large quantity (>f fluid to be acted on bjr the
i'hurn, whitrh remlers it neceesnrv Llmt steam or aonie other powerful
meclianicul means should be bad recourse to, and the length of time
which elapse* btforc the butter forms.

As soon as the butter has formctl, it is removed from the churn, and
well witched in water, it being kneuded nt the same time until as much
a3pos:iihlfi ol' the ndliereiit and incorporated whey is removed; this* i:*
known by the water ccasinf; In become tiirbid and milky. If intended
for sfllt butter, the salt Bhouh) be adtled as soon as possible after
cburninj; and washing, as, lefi for any len^rlh oi lime, the butter is apt
Iff btoouie mm^id, Ureal attention should bti piud to the quality <*t'
the salt used ; ihe best descriptions are rock salt, and that prepared
from salt springs. Sea salt, generally, '\* not so piHitJ, on account nf
the presence orsulphaie of magne«<iiL, width renders it ."onn^whut bitter,
as well as of cidoride of calcium, which lias a strong allinity for water,
even altrartlng it from the' atmosphere

It would be out of place in this report to enter into the practical
minutiK of biittcr-muking, such as the ternpifriiture at whirh the cream
or milk should be cliurned^ the best kiniK of churn, the methods of
churning, &c., nil points of the greatest importance.

According to Chevreul and Messrs. Bronu'Tsand Heintz, butter con-
tains margaric, butymleic, butyric, cupronit.% capryHc, andcapric acids,
together with glycerine. The ntar;:arine or ui;irgurate of gtyoerine of
butter U ootid tit Common temperatures ; but. the combinations of its
other fatty acids wiih glyeerinc, constituting bulyroleiue, butyrinc,
capronine, capryline, and caprinine, are tlitid.

According to IJromeTs, 100 parts of butter rontarn about 08 purls
of murgariiie, and flO of butyroleirif ; the remainder consists of the
glycerine compounds of the other acids.

The oily or buttery part exists in milk in the form of innumerable
very distinct globules, of varlou* Hizen. The efl'ect. produced by
churning is lo break down the greater nuud)er of these globules, which
then run together, and thus fonn butter. The operation of ihe churn
'm tlierefore chiefly, if not entirely, mecfianical.

Examined with the micruvcope, butler is Heen to contain a great
number uf milk globules, but liMle altered iu ibrio and Hixe ; unlike
lurd, no crystals of stearinc are perceptible.

Keferring to works treating on Fnc^.l, we do not meet with any facta
relating to tbe adulteration of butter.

BllTTEn, AND ITS ADLLTERATION8.

S9:

OV THK Al>UI'TBBAT10NS OF BuTTEB.

One of the most frequent practices had recoorsc to in the cnse of
butter, is to ineorpoiaie wilh it large qutintitiea of irafcr; ihe incor-
poration 19 effecle<l in the fnllowing loamier: the butter is brouglit to
the melting' point, water un^l mU lire then stirred to until the mixture
becomes eolti.

In reftfrence t<t the adulteration of butt«r with water and salt, Pro-
feniior Calvert, in his evidence before the Parliamentary Comnurtee on
Adutieraiion, maile lliese remarks: — ** The quuntity of water and salt
that 5>ucb an article as butter ought to contain is '2\ per cent, of salt,
»mJ 10 per cent, of water. In the butter supplied to these unions the
quantity of salt varied from 2 uptu 14 jwr cent., and the water from
10 Ut 15 per cent."

Another adulteration to which butter is occasionally subject,
especially the inferior k-nd known as Botih, consists in the ad«lition of
jfttrcA, usujdly pofuto Ji<mr. This adulteration is practised only at
particular times, ami is dependent upon the wholesnU- price of butter.

Ai;ain, butter has been known to bo aduUernti.Ml sometimes with
curds. This adullenition is i)articularly mentioned by Sir John
Gotnlon, mayor of Cork, in his evidence before the Parliamentary
Committee above referre^l to.

Lit&tlvt animal /aOt are occasionally, though not frequently employed,
U the fat of vettl^ and iard; these adulterations, again, are only resorted
to when butter is very dear and lard the reverse.

HenlU of the Examination of SainpUa,

The examination of Forty-vight difl'ercnt samples of butter, both

salt and fresh, furnished the lullowing results: —

That all the »qU Imltert examined contained variable and usually
very I«r};e quanliiics of uxtter^ the amount ranging, with one ex-
ception, from 8'48 to 2kG0.

That the /rtfjih bxtUerx likewise rontatned variable uid of\en con-
sid(M*able quantities of uvj/^r, but in mitst cases very murb less than
in the suit butters, the quantiri^-s rari^inj; from 418 to 15'43.

That the quantity of salt contained in the salt imitern varie«I from
1*53 to 8 '24, shoffinj^ thai no fixed rule is acted upon in sailing
butter.

That in \S\e fresh buffers the salt variefl from 0-30 to 2*91.

That the per*centages of niilter contained in the samples ranged
from H772 to 9G'93 ; that is, some at l\w samphit contained 20, 30,
And in one case even nearly 35 per cent, of water and salt.

Now the presence of water in butter, in excess and when purposely
introduce<l. a-'«<«ure<lly con^ttitutes an adullenition as much as does the
addition of starch or animal fats.

To many of the samples of salt butter examined, a quantity of salt

BUTTER, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

civor nnd iibove the amount necessary to insure the preservation of lie
Imtti'i' Imil no tluubt beun purposulv added to increase the weight and
bulk; in tliol, fur llie unki? dI' udulUration.

It it iMiually t'eitiiiii ilmt mucb of the water met with in many of
iKi' KuiiipU'ii hud beon added for the same purpose. The ijunntiiy of
witti'i- [iri'nt'iit in dome* inferior dcwriptioiis of butter, as especially Bosh
iind ilir wi>r«t kitidN of" Hiillmids/' is really surprising, amounting in
«(inii' ciiMH to mnn.' tliun a liiinl of ilie article.

Oil tbi' pulilit^utinn of our UeiKirt (^^ii tliu Adulteration of Htitter in
"Tlii« l.iuii;t'l," Mr. Ktibert Miller, a butter factor of Wellington
ChaMibLTS, London Uridge, wrote to that journal to tbe following
efl'uct ; —

" To tht Editor o/Th« Lamcbt.

" Sim. — H«*in^iiti rooted lothe article in your publication of June4ih
on thu ' Ar)iiUi!rticinn of Butter,* by the conspicuous mention of my
nunio, I tihko the liberty of Mtiitin}; that, although I believe in the
fidi'lity of your uniily^tea^ there are two things you are wrong in.
Finr. ibo auionuL of aduliorution in the worst sample is staled to be
twenty-nix j»cr cent, i Recount for this thus: The adulterating
proceNfl in (u bring lUe butler to the melting point, then to stir it in
wntcr und null until t,iie mixture h cold, rjrty per cent, of water
may Im> iiHorponited with butter in this way; but when you make
your |imcbHse, »ay half n pounrl, u considcnible pnrt of ihc water of
BdullcriUinii will cf<caj>Ct and it you put it iti paper considerably more
will be toal. 'Hit* next wiiy ynii iiii^ht be deci-'ived is, if you ask for
KepufkH (Irish) ur Ulack Jat ks, or liosb (Holland), the shopkeeper
may nuupcrt your sdenlific object, an<l give you better butter mstead ;
but if tlic public adopt your suggestion of meltiug butter in a eleiir
brittle, llii-y will prove what 1 have almve said, that twenty-six per
cent of mbilleralion in thcMC l>utters is understating tbe amount.

" In llie natiH' nf the trmJe, I may timnk you for your article •, becauite
a nLi;;liljnunng shop selling * cbeu|) butter' i-ompels other shops to do
so aUo ; but the traile arc now nwiire of tln^ inirpiitous article, and
are borrilied by being thus compel lt>il to cheat their poor cuatomers
with * cheap butter^ while tbcy are also porft'trtly aware of the great
losa of weight to themselves by culling up ibis watery butter in small
f|uanlitieii. The triidf wnubl all be ghid to gue uj) the sale of adul-
leratetl butter if u puWlc movemuiu were made, so as to compel all
the •ihopkeepcrs to do so ut the same time.

" I am, Sir, yours trulv.

" Robt. Miller,
" VrtlllnrtoD ChatntHirt. L«nclon Brldce, June. ISU.

" N.B.— 40,000 to 50,000 casks of adultornted butter are annually
sold in London, and the trjdc knows it as welt as they know a bud
shilling;*

BUTTER, AND ITS ADDLTERATIOXS.

S9»

There is a praolicc ratlipr extensively adopted of making! a <a-called
fre?b tVoin suit butter; altbuu;:b this is not un iidullerutiun, it is jet
n deee|>ii(ju, nut] as tlie process by wbieh ihe transCoruistion la eflected
i.4 rather ingenious and itomewbat amusing, the reader iimy bti interested
by a description of it.

**Epping Butter,

» To the Editor o/Thb Lahcbt.

*' SiH, — Having taken apnrtniCQt£ In tbe house of a huttcrman, I was
suddenly awoke at three o'clock one morning with a noi^e in the lower
pnrt of the house, and alarmt'd on perceiving a lif;ht beluw the door of
my liedruum ; conceiving tbe house Ut be on tire, I hurried down stairs.
I found tbe family busily occupied ; and on my expressing alarm at
the house beinff on fire, they jocosely inruruied me, they were merely
making Eppi.>n rvttrr !

*' They unhesitatingly informed me of the whole process. For this
parpose ibeymade usetrf Irisli s.tUcd butter of ii very inferior quality.
XTiia was repeatedly wa-hed wiih water, in order to free rt from die
»alt. This bein;j aecoiuplihlKMl, ibe next process was to wjudi it fre-
rjuenlly with milk, and iIk* niunufdcturij wiiseouipleted by 1 lit.* addition
of a small 4uantity uf itugar.

'*Tbe auiBteurri of fresh ' Kpping butter* were supjplicd wiih tliis
dainty, which yielded my ingenious lnndlnrd a protit at least one
hundred per oent., besiiles eBlablishiag his shop as being supplied with
Kpping butler from one of the firat-ratc dairies.

** I am, Sir, your obedient servant,

"AStvdait.

** York Road, tombelh, Juoe. I6A3."

Perceiving, then, to what an extent Halt butler is Jidulterated^ with
both water and excess of salt, we vury mucb ihmbt whether any
saving is cfleclod by the use of ibis description of butter; aiihough
Dominally cheaper, it '\a questionable whether it be not really dearer
in tbe end.

Oh the Defection of the Adulteratioiis o/Btttter.

The chief adulterations of butter are with water, starch, excess of
ftalt, and animal futs.

On the Detection of Water. — After being churned, butter is kneaded
in water in order to get rid of the whey wtlh which it is incorponited ;
the adoption of this prwe^s would iicci>uut fur the presence ot 'j small
quantity of water in butter.

There are two methods by which the quantity of water in butter
may be determined ; diiu i>tmple and popular, the other more scientific
and exact.

Fir^t Method. — Tbe butter is to b« melted, and a bottle filled with

aoo

BUTTER, AND 1T3 AI>LLTKBATIOK9

it. Tht« is to be placed, for half an hour or so, near the fire ; the water
and »u)i will becunit* tjeparated IVoui tbe butter, nrid sink un account
of lluMr j^reatcr weight or speciBc jjTuviLy. Owiii;j to ilie water being
mixml with A little whey, it usually presents a while and uiilky uppear-
ance, vi-ry distinct from that (if the Imrit^r ilst'lf, whicli fludTs upon it,
and whit;h is more 'or lesit yclKiw ; the quantity itf wutiT i*i tlioii
roughly estimated hv noticing' the hci);Ut it reaches up the botile. In
many eu^e^ it will \}i' found that the water constitutea a fourth and
even a tliird of Che artK-ie,

Setond MelljO'l. — One hundred gniins of the butter, which must
not hiive been previously fxposfd to ilie air, or part of the water will
already have* become dissipated and lost^ niuatbe evaporated inaauiall
glass or iKircelain dish or capsule^ over a water-bath, until it ceases
to lose weifjlit; the butter and the eapt^ulc nmsr then be weighed, and
the wri}»IiL of the capsule deducted ; the dclieiency on the original 100
{grains represents The per-cent^ige of water i.-uiitained in the butter.

It is possible^ that in some cases the question mij|;ht arise, as to
whelher the Huid separated im nieltin*; butter^ consisled of wnter or
whey, or of both mixed ; this point may be det<^rmined by estimating
the amount of rtuvand'milk present in the I'upiid, This is effected by
the procejts described in the article Milk. One thousand grains of whey
usually eonl;iin about sixty grains of sugar of milk.

On the Detertimi of Starch. — Slarrli in btitti>r uiay he readily
detected and its iimount estinmted. For its detection, nothing more
is necessary than 1o exumine u minule portion of the buuer 6pread
out in the ihinnesl |>o?Kible layer, and covered with a plate of thin
chiss, with a half or ipiarter-inch ohjecC filass, tincture of iodine being
in sntnii ea-*e)t emjiloyed at the same time. Tlie ^tnrch will be recog-
nised by the (unti )tf the granules and the action of iodine.

To estimate ilj* fjuantitv, tho folKiwing proceeding may be adopted:
— The butter may be melted, when the >tnreh will separate with the
water; the jirecipitate may be collected on a filter, dried, and weigheil;
or the fat may be reinoveil by means of ether, when the residue will
conxiiit chieHy of the sturch.

On the Detection of Lard, — We are not acquainted with any very
direct method by which the preseni'e of 1 -rd in butter may be dis-
covered. So far as we have observed, one of the bewt tests is furnished
by the microscope: lard t-onsiabK, in the solid ntate, in great part of
vryst^als of murgaric and stearic acid?, while in butter no such Ibrnm-
tions are met wiih» but only nuraerouf milk globules. When, there-
fore, crystals similar to those represented in^i^. } 05. occur, there is
gooil reason to Busjiect the admixture of lard.

Agiiiii, the melting (Kunts of lard and butter somewhat differ.

Oh the Deteftion of Salt. — A weigheil portion of the butter must be
incinerated, and the salt determined from (be a^h. In general the
whole of the a»h of salt butter may be counted as salt.

Duty, 5». per cwt. ; *2s. 6//. from llritish [wsscssiona.

LARD, AND ITS ADCLTERATIOX8.

301

Tmports taken for home consumption : 185-4, 478,811 cwts. ; 1855,
448|268 cwts. ; nine monlfas uf 18.56. 363,877 cwts.

LARD, AND. ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Lavo is the oilv portion of the fat of die pig. Tbe prucess by wliit h
ihin is Kpiirated from the vesiciiliir, fibroug. and vascular tissut's in
which it is eitht-r enclosed, or by which it ia surroumied, is Icnuetl
litrd reudiTtg.

The piecx-s of fiit to be convcrtcfl into lard arc ^onictiincs saltcii a

litlle, tbelH-'ltcr to ensure thiir prescrvniion, and are stiiretl in barrel*.

'Jlii! fjt wUiili ienniediutcly surrounds tbe kidneys yields the be:(t and

purest Iiinl ; this is owing to its being In a freer state, that \iy it is

few hiylily organised. The procesM is ;i» follows ; — The pieces of fat

are scored or sliced into leaser portions of an inch or so in di.imeter ;

they are place<l, either with or without the addition of a litile water,

in cauMroHfi, which are usually of iron. The mode of applying heat

M rhe tlure varie?) in ditferent ciise-i. When lord is made on a small

scale the flame is often applied dirtcdy to the containing vessel ;

sometimes tlie tlare if* meliod in u wnier-batb, but ut^uully the hentin^

medium is steam, which is contained in the interval between the

inner and outer ve«»el ()r pan ; occasionally a jet of steam is thrown

directly uptm the Hare contained in the copper. The soluble part of

the tat melis out and floats on the surface, the nniiiiiil nuitter and

tiif-tue!) each forming' a s<-uui, which \» skimmed frotii time tu time, or

finkin;; us a deposit. As the *iil has no affinity fnr cither water or

*alt, it docs not Like up any of the water which may be present with

it in the copptT, whiU* the suit used lo prcticrve the tat ialls as a se-

tlimcnl. The oil whilst sllU warm and llnid is turned out of the

copper through a Ijp, mul is rei'eive<l eiihifr into bladders or c^isks

t«;rmed kegs, and benre the division ot lard into blatider lard mul keg

Inrti. ll i.s u-Hually the best description of liini mily which i.i siored

in bladders, keg lard bcinp lor tbe most part of inferior qiiulitv.

Good and pure lard should be entirely frt^e from either taste or smell ;

it ebould be firm n[;d wbile. and whtn meltrd be Liliuo<<t as clear and

transparent as water; ^ubjected lo a Ccmperutuie of about 212° Ffthr^

it should lic|uefv without ebuliiliou, thus e^howin^ the absence of

water, nml should not. throw down a jmrtick' of iK-posit. Inferiiu* or

adnlterated lanis p<>»>e3s characters and properiies aliuotft the reverse

of these. The mfltin;; |>oint of lard varies frnni 785° to 87'^*'' Fuhr.

According to Hraconntft its composition is as follows ; —

aos

LARD, AND ITS ADLLTERATI0N8

Proximate Analysis of fresh Lard.
Steorine 1

Margarine j ' " '

Elaine - • • * 6*2

Our supplies of lard arc derived prim'ip«lly from Ireland, part nUo
couics frnm America utkI llambiir;<;l)f wliile Loiulon and our cbief
proTinctal cities posseus lard manufactories.

The ADULTERATTONa or Lard.

We liave long beerii aware that lardL, like nearly every other ortiile
of consumption, is linlile to adulteration; indeed, the fact tliut it w
so is veijr (ji^JiiTidly known to dealers as aUo the nature of the prin-
cipal adullorulions practised.

The chief adulterations of lard resemhle those of butter, and ctm-
sisit in tlie mcorpi>r:ition with it of water and starch. Sometimes
the ivaler only or iho starch only is had recourse to; in others buth
these adulterations are pnicti^ed on tUi.' same hird.

We have ourselves met with many fanipUsof lanl adulterated with
potato tlour; but one of the earliest to draw tilteTiti<iii to ihe subject
was Mr. George Whipple in a c»iiiinunicution which he hroupht before
the I'harrnsceutical Society, and which was noticed in iu Jciirnul for
January I8d3; in this he t^tates ibat he had detected large q^uantities
of some farinaceous Ruhstance in hird.

"This adultertiLion," writes Mr. Whipple, " was discovered in the
ditTeront varieties of lard — from the finest blailder to the common
firkin hird. Tn nn examination of the CTtntenta of two firkins, weighing
105^ lbs., a quantity of furinaeeouii substance, amountin*; t!i 2'2| Ibs^
WM separated. The content*? of anoiher firkin^ weighing 43J Iha.,
yielde<i 12| lbs. of n similar sulMtance."

In the next number of the same journal, Mr. Calvert, of Mnn-
Chester, publisht.'d numc further observations on t)ie adulteraiion of
"American larii." Ho writes — "During the nnmernus analyses li
inndc some three years since, of various nrtieles of food employed in '
public estflbtishments, I analysed several samples of American lard,
and therefore may add to the fact already mentioned by Mr. Georcc
Whipple in your last nundwr, that 1 found them to contain, in addi-
tion to starch, from ten to twelve per cent, of water, and from two to
three per cent, of alum, and about one per cent, of quicklime.

"A few months ago I was able to asceriain that the operation is
conducted in the following manner : —

LARD, AKD ITS ADULTERATIONS.

303

** The futty matters, such att they arrive from Amerifn, are m<?lte<l
wilb a little water in ra!se-l>*)ttoined copper pans, llirnufjii wluL-h cir-
culates H current of ntffam. The <lirt and olber heterogeneous matters
fall to the bottum of the pan?, and the clear grease is uliowed to run
into a wooden vessel, when it is stirred in cnnfaot with roM water; it
19 then put under revolving wheels with a thick paste made of jjotato
starch, mixed with a little jxitHsh ftlum and iiuieklime, which appears
to farilitate the taking up of the water and starch by tli<^ fully matter.

*'The cause of the American lurd appearinjf so white Ih, no dnubt,
the division of the fatty matttT through the interpositiou of the starrh,
water, ami alumina.

" The cpiantity of alum should he such that a small excess should
remain U> prevent the starch from becoming mildewed; and I believe
ihiit the nmnufiietnrer al«o add:* it for tlie purpose of cornumnicating
to the liird the property of taciliuting the raising and increasing the
irhiteness nf the confectioners' pnstc, in whicli it is largely employed."

It should be understood, thiit Americnn lard, ns brought to this
country, is not In general adulterated. The aduUeratiun usually
takes place subsequent to its arrival, and is the wurk of some of our
own manufacturers. The rrason "tvhy Amerit^an lard is so frefjuently
selected for adulteration is, (hat it is of inlurlor <jtiidity and value*
and so soft as to he almost fluid, pome prouess of consolidation being
indispensable before it can be em]>]oyed as lard.

From information received fnmi a respectable lard render, it ap-
pears tiiat the addition of a small tjuantity of muttnn xiut to lard is
very common. It is used more particularly in wtirm weather, and
with sort lanlfl, especially American lard, which diflers from ordinary
lard, in that it consists of the entire fat of the pig melted down, and
rot, as is the esse with the best English lard, o( the fat only which
surroundi the kidneys. Mutton suet, being a hard and firm fat, im-
parts to 5ot\ lards, even when added in very small quantities, the
connistence and solidity requisite.

It appears, therefore, that water, starch, glum, and caustic lime
hove all bii*n asi.ertaim'd Ui be empIoye<l in the adulteration of lard.
To these substances we may add the folUtwing : — rnrlH)nate of sotla,
curbcmatc of potash, and salt The whole of the alwve adulterations
may be readily discovered.

Possibly in acme cues other atumal fnts are used, as that of veal.

JiemUs of the Examination of Samples.

The re«iulls of the examination of upwards of 100 samples of lard

were as follows : —

lAt. That lani i« not unfrequently ejtiiusiceh/ atliilt&rafffi^ the ingre-
dients employed being water and f}o(afo flonr^ as well iis certain
saline subBtances, oa fo^, potash alum, carloHotet i>/ potash and of

IMKP, AND 1T8 ADULTERATIONS,

goda, and eatutic iim^t lbe«« botnf( intended either to

lurd to Imid water, or to improve \u eniiki»t«nre uid ooUwr.
'2nd. Tlmt the deftcription of fard nioit liubU' to lululteraiioo a

larfL nnd of lhi«, pttrticiUurly tl\ut which w inanuiMctured hi ~

Irifb kuj^ lard bviii^ but rurely n'liilli'rntnl.
5rd. 'L'hnt of upwants of our htimlrfti smuplfH of Innl »ui

examination, nnd pmcurcMt chirtly tVom reluil dfulero,

found to be aduhfi-Hk'tl wttli pi>fato starch,

T\w tuhtherAt'um f\f\m'i\ [Mevails ni)t only in certain localities Iwt al«o
chieft/ nt certain timrs — that »s wlienevur * sufficient suppW of inferior
liirJ, Auitahlf for mixin);^ can hi* prr>curc(] ; for it ii said not to auvcr
to mlulterat'? u lard nf ^ootl qiiidity. which commands a high prioe^ and
which if A|)oilod hv l>cin;r tampered with.

It will be rcadifv itcrecived thai the (|ualities of a lard tbas aduUe-
rated nin»t In* dcriiiiixly irnpjiirvd f<ir altnoH every purpose for which
it is emphivcil : thiw, of roiirf*c, it would not be nearly so econnmical
for cuhnniy purpows. In tiic presence of large (pinntititrs of jtutaXv
tlour the co*»k will find h !»iim»'ient explanation of the extraordi-
niiry tenacity with which fi^^h Hometimtfi adheres to the frying pan.
yVgain, the use of Huch IflriJ in machinery mij^ht, in R«>mc case*.
produce serious eonsetpiencos by imiHHiinj; its action. r..astly, tli*
Activity of aH the ointments of the Pharmacoptcia, mwle with
:juch n Inni, would be much injured, especially the simple ami com-
|H>nnil iodine ointments, which, if starch were present, would, to the
a^tl•nif4hment of the dispenser, turn blue, or almost black, in tlie art
of incorporation.

On the Detection of the AHuUeratiom of Lard.

The first thing to be done in order to ascertain wUellier a lard be
ffenuine or adulterated, is Ui nu-lt it at about a tempentture of 212**
Fulir. If it dissolve without ebullilioii or without the Occurrence of
M dtfmsit, wc may »afely conclude that the 8am])le is genuine; but if
ebuUitiun take place, or a t^diment is thrown down, the lard is un-
questionably odulterdted.

Detertion of Water, — The adulteration with water, and the c^uantity
present, may be thus determined : — A known weight of lard is to Ire
exix>sed to heat until bubbles of vapour cease to eicape; the loot
indicates the per*ccnu*;e of water.

Defection of Siarch. — The presence of starch may be discovered
by thoroughly incorporating a solution of iodine with a few grains of
the lard, placed upon a slip of glass; the laril will change colour, and
become deep blue, or almost black. If now a little of this be vieweil
under the microscope, the starch corpuscles will themselves be oeen
coloured by the iodme.

To determine the kind of starch conlatneil in any sample, we must
use the microscope. A minute piece of the lard should be placed on

LARD, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

805

slide, previuu»<1y tlioroufihly warmerl ; the moment the Unl is
Red it must be viewed by the object glass, when the utarch cor-
puscles will be distinguished standing out m clearly as though they
were in water.

Another way in which thp Blarcb corpuRcles may be well seen by
the microscope, is to spread out by gentle pressure, between two
pieces of glass* a very thin stratum of the lard.

%Jf^^

Laid, idultf ntcd vilh Pvtato Hareh. Ifsfnlfleil M> dUmcUn.

Although it is ea5y enough to detect starch in lard, It is by no
meins so to estimate the amouiit present.

Ether does not readily dissolve lard, particularly in cold weather,
so that by this reagent it is very dinicuU lo separate uU the lard from
the other ingredients with which it may be admixed. If, however,
ether be used for the purpose, the lard should be melted, and, while
still warm, the etber should be ponred upon it ; we may then
kVeigb, when properly drie^l, eitht-r tne nil ohrainod, or the sediment
;ft* Still, with every precaution, this method of sepnrnlion is very
troublesome, and often fails.

Another method h as follows : — Put one hundred grains of the
.Ikrd in a test tube ; apply a gentle heat until all escape of vapour

306

OATMEAL, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

ceases. Fill nearly up with water ; heat as before ; allow the wlwkich
has rison to the tsurfuee (o become cold ; collect ; beat ognin witb »
little more water, wlieii a second portion of oil will be ublained; »M
the twfj portions together, dry, nnd weigh.

Although this method is simple, it is very troublesome, »nd giro
only approximate results, since it is almost impossible to sepunle iB
the oil by heat alone.

The separation of the oil is said lo be readily elTected by meau ^
essence of lurpentine.*

DeUrmimition of Saline Matters. — For the determination ofU*
saline uiatttird present, it is in must cases sullicicnt to niuU ibc UnL
collect the precipitates, free them from oil with ether, weigh, »*l
aflerwards taste them. Salt^alum, and lime may all be distiii;;ui^bc!<l.
provided Quantities uf lard suOiciently large be operated u^ma, \>)
the ta.ite alone.

The processes for the detection and estimation of alum are giTeii
at p. 294., of salt under Annatto, and of lime at p. 101.

It is not often that more thun one or two of these salts occur txfgd^
in the t^ame lard : supposing them, however, to do so, we may procenl
rrenerally as follows: — Incinerate '2000 c^ns of the lard, diuolreott
the salt with distilled water, precipitate the chlorine by meant of niinU
of silver, and eatimftte the sotia from this; boil the insoluble portloorf
the ash with dilute hydrochloric acid, divide into two portions, preci'
pitate the Hme from the one by means of oxalate of ammonia, and tK«
alumina from the other with strong ammonia, according to the prooe*
given under the head of Hread.

Lard h free uf duty ; consequently we can give no account of qtuw-
(itiea taken tor home consumption: but the imports were iu iWi
274,^92 cwU., in 1855, 118,109 cwts.; in nine months of l&5ti. 116.1^
cwts.

OATMEAL. AND ITS ADin.TERATIONS.

Oatmeal, aA its name implies, consista of the furina or meal nf r^r*^*
The compoMtion, slnicLure, and properties of tliia lereal -

be found described to «ome extent, and figured, at pp. 24;i. i-v. ^

which the reader is referred.
Amongst the best analyses which have yet been made of the <nl tf*

those by Messrs. Norton and Fromberg.

rifrn. " Dei SuImUdcm AIUn«nUlra." p. HA. Troiiitoic MlOW

OATMEAL, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

307

Sureh

Gutt
Oil -

Protaine compound! : —
Avvnln • - -
Albiim^ti

i;im«n -
RpldimoU
Alkftlloe ull* ttud iMfc

Uii^mmtOma.

PtoUMOktt.

NifiUimiDtolHiA.

Ajnl^tn.

Ajnhitt.

M«tfawn(mUq«.

S&M

«il

1-tO
ft- 14

IVTfi
0 16
S-47

-i-M

64-M
SM

5 41
6«JT

ICM
l.W
1 4S
S39
l»4

8479

s-ii

fr4l

17 71

1-76

■ u-M

7 38

»17
i 4A
»•!»
176

100 00 N.

ICOWF.

100 t»F.

lOODOV.

The compcMiticm of (he husk of the oat, ai^iording to Professor
Norton, is as follows ; —

O.I -

Sng-r wd jum

OiuUi) atid co««uUtcd ftlbu-l

OlhiloM

)Udop matter uid uh

llmprtm.

rtaUM Oh.

I'M)
047

I'M
647

07ft

«4«

IVO'OO

IDOiW

The an:ilyfe!i of M. Payen will be found at p. 257.

It appears from these analjses that oainicikl itt a highlr nutritive
anic^lf of diet, richer than even wheat flour in oily and nitrogenous
matters.

There are peveral varieties or quuliiies of oatmeal : one of these is
Kubinson's Patent Groats ; this coii«ii!is uf the Biiest parts of the tloui'
of the oat, all liuak and the outer and harder partii of the grain being
removed: another variety is called "round oatmeal;" it consists of
the oats depriveil of husk and (ground Inuj a very coarse powder.
This description varies a {jood deal, the outer surface of the oats in-
tended fur the better sorts being rubbed oS' by attrition between
aumes.

In the preparation of fine uatnieal there is a f!ood deal of refuse
matter, auiounliu;^ generally to aUmt one fourth or fifth of the
i'litire bulk of the oats: this is unu]po^e'l of a portion of hu«k, which
contains much silex, and the outer part of tht; grain conUiining a
little starch and much oil and nitrogenous matter ; this is usually

X 2

306

OATMEAL, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

uiixed up with the commoner descriptions of oatmeal^ especially Ibat
supplic'l to workhouses.

Liisily, ihe (]ua!ity of oatmeal depends very greatlj upon the quality
of the oal from which the meal is prepared.

On tbk ADULTEXATione or Oatmeal.

It coald hardly be supposed that sufGoient inducement exists for
the eopliifiticntion of un article like uatmeul ; it ni)pear8, however, that
this 9uppf>!*ili(in is not correct.

Of thirty siamples of oatn)eal submitted to examination, sixteen^ or
rather more ihun one hidf, were Ji/uutl to be aduUeraied with large
quantities of Ba&let Meal. But oatmeal frequently sufTers dofrri-
orutiuu in other ways besides by admixture with barley tluur. One
nf these couf^ist^ in lidding tu it the investing niembrniit's, r^r /iiuA, of
the oai^ harhy, and uheaty technically termed " rubble " and *' sharps,"
and which are rejected in the prepariUion of the purer sorts of oat-
meal, jrrits and proats, Scotch ami pi'arl barley.

On referring some time since to the market prices of oat and barley
meals, we found thtU white the first wa.<! I6it. per cwt., the latter was
only 8«. per cwt., that !»» just one half. We thus perceive that the
indut;emcnt to adulterate (»atmeal is very great,— greater, indeed, it
appcarfi^ than many cornchnnillerB can resist.

The lonowin>: inforiuallon, furnished us by a correspondent, whose
niune, for obvious rca^ion^, we withhold, shows that this article u eub-
ject to systematic adultcraiion. lie writes : —

" Since your able analyses have taken pinre, it has struc-jE me that
I may be able to give you a little informntion as to an artit-le of (otni
which is adulterated to a most awful extent, — viz. oatmeuL \ will
first mention oatmeal as sent hUo icorfthotuea^ pri,^ona^ and charitable
institutions^ which are generally taken at contract jirices. I enclose

one for the parish of (or 1848, where I find the oatmeal wus taken

at 14«. i>er cwt. by ; and by reftfreine to my stock-book, I find

the market price was 17 s. Gd. per cwt. ; thus the oatmenl was reduced
3<. Gd., and then left an excellent protlt. Well, ot that time I was
trying for all the contract* in London, and could not succeed, my
price* being generally about 4*. dearer thiin any onc*8 else : this was
a mystery to me. By accident I found out oatmeal was adulterated
with barley flour which is bought at about 7s. per cwt. ; this being
mixeil with tlie oatmeal, of course reduce<l the price. I then, being
us wise as my competitors, tried, and have served the above work-
house since.

" Now, the fault lies here. If the workhouses were to take the
contracts at a per-centnge on market value^ then thev would get^i><W
oatmeal ; but they always nd down the price, ami thus get an adulte-
rated article.

"You will Bee the prices are 14*., 15*. 6</., 16*.. and 17*. ; tlius if n
man wants to be honest with them, they will not let him. 1 have again

OATMEAL, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS,

309

ami a;;ain wished to supply nt a per-ceiu«j?e on market value ; the
answer 1 get is, ' WcU^ we are eery weU mtUjied^ ami have uo com-
piaints.^ "

We kuve ourselves been at some painti to verify the stAtemenls
iiUMle above, and for that purpose have proeure«l samples of oatmeiU
ftfl supplietl lo some of our unions and cnaritable institution!! ; these,
witlioul excepiion, we have found on examination to be largely adul-
terated with biirletf vieui, as deiioribed.

Other adulterations of oatmeal are» according lo ProfcMor Calveit,
with rice nnd maize, Ue states, in his evidence, already referred tu
in the nrtirle liutter : — '* I have fountl uatmeuJ, ceneruUy speaking,
in fact alwnys, mixetl witti rice nnd maize. The effect is this, it makes
less porridjfe ; in other wurds, it is a direct Inw lo the ratepayers, be-
cause the cook in the workhouM mnai uHe a larger proportion of this
adultorateil onrmeal to make a certain i^uantity uf porridge, than if it is
pure outmcal "

Tlie followine evidence was furnished to the Committee on Adulter-
ation, by Mr. Mackenrie, id" Glaagow, the editor of '* The Reformer's
Gazetto-," in regard to the adulteration uf oatmeal : —

" S"me few years a;ji), when great destitution prevoiltid in the West
of Scotland, espeeially in the Higblamls, a large »iira of money,
ftmountinj{ lo 50,000/. or 60.000/., w»s devoted to furnishing provisions,
including oatmeid, to the Highlanders. At that period information
was given nic that u very lar^e ({uantity of that oatmeul was adul-
terated in the grossest manner : u letter w&$ :«ent to me^ which I thought
it niy iluty to publish, and ibe contractor who furnii^hed the meal re-
ferred to in tliut letter, thrcati'uetl me with tin action of damages.
The ciiju was tried, and the nmtJ'actor found jjuilty, and adjudged tu
imprisonment for three inonth;i, and to pay a tine of 300/. The oat-
meal was mixed with britn iin\J thirds, the common lood lor horses;"
tliirds being the refuse and shell (if the wheat.

"To my amazement," eontinuc* Mr. Mackenzie, "the accused
brought forward some of the principal millers in Glasgow, to swear
that it was quite a common practice in the trade ■"

The adulteration of oamieal is not merely ini|>ortant in a pecuniary,
but is of some conse<{uence in a sanitary ]>oint of view.

The properties of oatmeai are thus described in Pereira's " Muteriii
]V(eflica :** — *' Oatmeal is an im|K)rtant and valuable article ol food.
With the exception of maixe or Indian com, it is richer in oily ur fatty
matter than any of the other cultivated cereal grains, and its propor-
tion of protein compounds exceeds that of the nnesc English wheAteii
flour. So that both with respect to its heat and fat making, and its
Uesh and bl(K>d making principles, it holds a high rank."

In the same work we meet with the following account of barley
meitl as an article of diet: — "Barley is a valuable nutritive. Con-
sidered in relation to wheat, it oAlts several pecuttaritic«i. In the first
place it contains much less protein matter: in other words, less of the

X 3

ASB ITS ADtTLTERATIONS.

-ixvU

principle; though Count Rumford conrfcUred
tlrt« or four times as nutritious as wbvat flour.

if lilii iffnrr n'sistanne tn ihc action of the gastric

>{U4»op of* irs more difiicult Bolubility in water. Tbinlly,

i, and therefore this should be remoyed from

:i<:al purpoies, as in Scotch and [warl barley.

><h meal ii more laxative* than wheat meoL"

iW twts It appears that oatmeal possesses considerable

'tjtifw over barlev meal.

i:t ihf recollection of some of our readers^ that at (he
,i KAi ity Mr. Wiiklcy on the boilies of Home of the poor chil-
^tw Wl viotims in the pest-house at Tooling, the fact trans*
Um4 kib» uatuieal which formed tvn considerable a part of their
WM MlftkaiTvl^r adulterated with barley meal.

Om Hf DHedion of the Aduiteraiimu of Oatmeal,

ft v'l ':d adulterations of oatmeal, us already uoticed, are

i f^i^ vvfune matter of oats, barley, and even wheat, termed

**tut'We ' and "sharps," and with barley meal: these adultemtions

IMV ^ detiH'lod withimt, in most eases, anv oonsideruble difficulty.

^1^^ lUtn'tum of^*RubbU" — An admixture nf Rubble may be

impHHd when llie sample presents a branny ap|>earancc In conse*

«f V^iKV vf the presence ot" numeroiiri pjirtietes of husk or bran, as well

M wJ l^ii* outer yellow portion of the ]t;rain. In order, however, lo

VMiurv w^rtamty, it is necessary to resort to ehemislry and the micro-

wvfHK A portion of the article may be analysed quantitatively for

uiil: the ash of almut 500 grains must be boiled with dilute

I'lirarid; this will dissolve all but thesilica, which must be

« oiuM. Ignited, and weighed.

Aivortliiig to Messrs. Ogston and Way, the ash of oat cnntains
fKuii »N 4H to 50-03 per cent, of silica, barley from •23*1) to 70'77, rye
aUnit J» 'Ji, and wheal 'iO 5 to 54*6 per cent.

Vbii uieth'id of procoedinjr is rather adapted for the detection of
iy« and wheat rubble than that of barley. Of course the per-centage
\tl sdicn in rubble is very much bisher than it is for thi? whule grain.

In thi>>e eases in which the nibble of bttrley meal \isun bt^eu u^eil, the
■Urch granules of that cereal may be readily d»*lected by means of the
iaicrosGofw* as also portions of the investing membranes, the structures
of which, #n different from those of oat, are described and figured at
pp, «4, 245.

In like manner, the microscope furniithes the means of discovering
tbv presence of whettt rvhhle or »harp» in oatmeal. The starch gra-
uulet of wheat and barley !io nearly resemble each other, that when
mucd togeiher, it is not easy to diatin::ut»h the one from the other:
the investing membranes of the grain of wlient, d(*scribed and figured
Ml pp.241 — 243., are, however, so diiferent from thoiC of barley, that
ibcy afford a certain means of discrimination.

I
I

OATMEAL, AND ITS ADDLTERAT10N9.

»II

On the Detection of Barley Meal. — The microscnpe affords the onlr
means by which this adulteration can be discovered. The starcb

Plig.106,

OathraL adalunlcd with horUif <

UAfsMM ttSilUawten.

granules of oat and barley have already been described and figures
of them given ; the differences are so great, that a momentary ^nncc
with the microscope is all that is necessarv to enable the o!»s*;rver to
dUtinKuifh genuine oatmeal from that adulterated with barley meal.
The staroh grranules of the oat are small, anpular, and frequently
aj^gregateil into compound bodies nf a rounded form, while ttiose of
barley are much larger, rounti, and flat.

On the Detection of Hice ami Maize. — These adullerations may be
promptly discovered by means of the microscope, See^j^. 83. p. 233.,
and^. 82. p. 231.

It is very possible^ however, to mistake the starch granules of
wheat for thone of barley ; but wheat tlour is rarely used in the adul-
teration of oatmeal : this error may be avoided by a curelul examina-
tion of the portions of test* met with, the structure of which in wheat,
barley and oat is so very different, as will appear from nn examination
of the descriptions and figures given under the article Bread.

Customs duty on importation, 4^r/ per cwt. The quantities imported

\ 4

3tS

ARKOWROOT, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS,

and taken for home consumption, were as follow : — 1654, 4^6 cwts. ;
l%55j 752 cwu. 1 niue mouluB of IdJQ, 5,321 cwtH.

ARROWROOT, AND ITS ADULTER ATIONa

Thb term *' arrowroot " was origiDally ap[>lied to ihc rhizome or root
of Maranta arvndhiacea^ in coivsi-qupnce of its suppotied efficacy in
counteracting the eiTects of wounds inflicted by poisoned urniws.

Of Ute years, the signitication of the term has been much extended,
and it is now employed tu designate olnu»»t every fcculu which bears
any resemblaitce to true or Marantu arrowroot, no matter bow dis-
similar the plants may be from which it is obtainefl.

Attending this enlarged use of the w«»rd arrowroot are certain di*-
adrfintagcs. Many persons consider ihut all arrowroots constitute
one and the same article, varying ottly in quality, and according to
the place from which they ore procured ; while but few persons are
aware that there are several distinct kinds of arrowi-oot, the produce
of distinct plants, great uncertainty and confusion being thus created.

To increase this confusion, tlie word "genuine" is often prefixed to
the term " arrowroot," and a^ there are several kinds of arrowroot,
must there be several genuine arrowroots : these vary in value from s
few pence to two or three shillings the pound — from, in fact^ ilic
value of genuine Maranta arrowroot to that of genuine potato arrow-
root. With these paruculars the puUic at large is but ill acquainted.

The difficulty and confui«ion is still further enhanced by applying
to the arrowroot, as is generally done, the name of the place Irom
which it is obtained: thus we have genuine West Indian, Jamaica,
Deroerara, Bermuda, St. Vincent, East Indian, Brazilian, African,
Guinea. Sierra Leone, Portland, British, and a variety of other
arrowroots. Some pci-soni suppose that each of these names repre-
aents a dificrent kind of arrowroot ; others imagine that they all in-
dicate one and the same production ; while the fact is, that in some
cases, as in that of East India ani>wroot, one name mny be indiscri-
minately applied to two distinct kinds of arrowroot, and in others, six
or ei^ht names all signify but a single kind or species, as is the CI
with West India arrowroot. This great variety of names is objection-
able, not merely becauiW it temls to confuse the public, bntl>ecause it
oflTers to the fraudulent great facilities for adullorauon and imposition,
of which, us wc shall sec hereafter, they have not failed to avail them-
velres.

The remedy for this state of things is t»imple : each reHlly distinct
arrowroot, that is, every arrowroot which is the product of a distinct

LANE LIQPw;;";/. ST/L;FOaD LiiiVERSlTY

ARROWROOT, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

313

plant, sbould be designated by the oaine of the species from which it
IS derived, as Maruitu, Curcumii, Tocca, Muuibot, Anim, Potato
Arrtiwrool, &c.

The empLo.vni<?nt of these terms should not be optional, but com*
puUirry^ for the better protection of the public pf^ninst fraurl in this
article of fcxxl. The propriety of tbia suggestion will become still
more evident as we proceed.

We shall now describe each kind of arrowroot separately, observine
of them all, that when pure they are non-nilrogenised subttLances, and
therefore adapted to the forioation of the fat uf the body, and to the
maintenance of respiration and temperature.

BIakanta Abkowboot.

Maranta arrowroot is obtained front the rhizomes of Maraida arun-
dinaeett, one of the family of the Murantacea.

A rhizome is an underground jointed alcm placed horizontally in
the earth, giving otf from its upper surfacCf branches, and from the
lower, roots; the starch or fecula is contained in the joints of the
rhizome, being deposited iu innumerable minute cells.

The following account of its prenarntion is given by Dr. Pereira in
the new and greatly improved edition ol' his " Mnleria Medica :" —

** The starch, or fccula, is extratted from (he rcnits (t«l»ers), whon
these arc about ten or twelve months old. The process is entirely a
mechanical one, and is performed vither by hand or by miichinc.

"In Jamaica it is procured as follows; — The tubers are dug up,
well wa^Jied in water, and tlien beaten iu large, deep, wooden morturs
to A pulp. Tliis is thrown into a Inrge tub of clean water. The
whole is then well stirred, and thu librous riart wrung out by the
hands and thrown away. The milky liijuor being pa<ued through a
hair Bieve, or coarse cloth, is suftered to settle, and the clear water is
drained off. At the bottom of the vessel is a white mas>s which is
again mixed with clean water, and drained ; lastly, the mass is dried
on sheets in the sun, and is pure »tarch.

" In Itermuda, the roots are first deprived of ibeir paper-like scale*,
and then rusped liy a kind of wheel rusp, and the fecula well washed
through sieves nnd carefully dried.

"Upon the Hopewell estate in the island St. Vincent, the CArefutly
skinnetl tubers are washed, then ground in a mill, and the jtulp
washed iu tinned copper cylindricuf washing machines. The fecula
is Hubsetfuently dried m drying houses. In order to obtain thu feuuU
free from impurity, pure water must be use<l, and great care anil at-
tention paid in every step of the process. The skimming or peeling
of the tubers must be performed with great nicety, as the cuticle coii-
> tains a resinous matter, which impartscolourand a disagreeable flavour
to the starch. German silver palettes arc used fur skimming 4he
deposited fecula, and shovels of the Mme metal for packing the dried

ARROWROOT, AND ITS ADCLTERATIOSS,

fccuU. The drying ia efTected in pans corered by white gauxe U) ex-
clude du£t und insecUt.'*

Pure fttid unadulterated Maranta arrowroot should be of a dall nA
opati^ue white colour, crepitating or crackling; when presaed b«tw«ct
the hngcrs, and treated with about twice its weight of conceatnttti
hydroirhloric ackl it should yield iin opaqne paste.

The above characters and ft[ip*»Rran(vs may all, however, be $mawA
by curtain of the other arniwroob* ; the mioroiitcope, therefore, afonii
the only read^ and certain means of distinpuishin*!; this arrowroot fron
all other epecies, and these again from each other.

Ki-auiined with thai inslruuient the jirranules or paitidci «f
Maranta arrowroot are found tu be usually inorv or less oblong and

Fiit, vat.

aurch tnuiDktaf MaB4*ta •frovnM>t.c«ll«4eofniDonlf Wc«t Indlk tmwMl-
Drawn with Lh« Cuners Luddft. ttad tiiaOlA*^ 94U Oittmcim.

ovate, but aometimcs they are mussel-shaped or even almoM W»*
angular: they vary considerably in sixc, but each of the Ur^
granules is marked by a number of delicate concentric lines; si »*
broad or lai^e extremity of each a distinct sjwt is visible, orJin«r*'T
coiiaidered to be a cavity, and denominated the " bilum ; " tlii* spot »
someiimes circular, but most frequently it is seen M s ^ort, ifasrT

AHHOWROOT, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

315

line, running transversely across the granule ; it fumisheit a most dis-
tinctive ff-'aiure by which Maranta arrowroot may be at all times very
readily iiJeiitified.

When bojhng water is added to Maranta or any other arrowroot^
irs physical condition undergoes a great and surpri^inf; alteration, the
nature of which may be clearly traced by means of the niicru&uope. A
t4ible^iioonl'ul of arrowroot, on wliit-h a pint of boiling water is poured,
inmieuiately lo^es its whiteness and opacity, becomes transparent, and
the entire of the water is as it were converted into a thick and jelly«
like substance. If a little of this be diffused through cold water, and
examined with the microscope, it will be seen that tae starch granules
are altered amozinjrly : they have increased to twenty or thirty
times their original volume ; they are more or less rounded ; the con-
centric lines and the liJlum are obliterated; the membrane of each
gnuiule is ruptured, and a granular matter has escaped from its
interior.

The appellations which have been bestowed upon Maranta arrow-
root ore very numerous; their use ought t^) be wholly discontinued,
for the reasons already assigned : thus it is sometimes called West
India arrowroot, Janiaicn, Demcrarn, Bermudii, Bcrbice, St. Vincent
arrowroot, &c. 1'he impropriety of denominating it West India
arrfiwriKit if bhown by the circumstance, tliat the Maranta plant is cul-
tivated in the East aa well as in the West Indies.

Cavva, or Tous 1X8 Mois Akboweout.

Camia «da/u, the plant from the tubers of which the starch known
M I'^tuUt Mois is obtained, belongs to the natural order Murantacete^
which includes Morauta arunditmcea^ or West India airowroot.

The starch is obtained much in the same manner ns that of the other
arrowroor^ ; that U, the tubers are msped, and the fecula separated
from the pulp by washing, straining, decantation of the supernatant
li<luor, and desiccation of the deposited Btarch. It i.<i imported from
St. Kilts.

The jelly yielded by it is said to be more tenacious, but leas clear
and translucent, than that of otlier arrowroots.

Owing to their large ttize the stircb granules exhibi: a glistening or
satiny appearance; they differ from other dietetic starches not only
in their much greater dimensions, but in certain other particulars.

The granules or corpuscles are nearly all very large, flat, broad,
but ovate; sometimes, like those of East India arrowroot, pointed
at tbe narrow end. The hiium is situated in the narrow extremity of
the granule, and the rings are exceeilinj;ly Cue, regular, and crowded.

The only starch with which they are at all likely to be c«infoundcd
is that of the potato ; tbe granules are, however, larger, of a different
shape, being flat, and the striv are much more regular and numerous.

ADCXTEKATIOgm

CvscuMA Akiowboot-

UTOwroot U obtained frum tie tubers of Curatma
MM of the fumily of the Zimgtberaceit.

luojtf "f it« preparation does not differ nmterially from tbat
MfcritrJ i" nlitainin^ the fecMila from the tubers of JJaranta antti-

^m^*^ Kml which hits nlrcaily been described.

>• ' iiualitie:) of Curcuma urrowrtKit are imported into tbis

^ irtmi tlte £asI Indies, principally from Calcutta, a white and

.11 vtiriely.

tvhitti 19 the best; the powder, when pressed between the

i4^<.'i*, feots \v3s tirm, and dcies not crepitate to the same extent

M Marnnta arrowrottt ; the two species can, hovrcver, be distinguished

mom ^-Hi'h oihcr only with ceriainty by means of the microacope.

K\.4ituiuil with that instrument, the granules appear elongated,

».. 1 .1. iiiv|j:iilnrly ovate; being tlat, iboy present but iittlt* lateral

; the linoH which mark the surface are tolerably disiinet, but

^ i>.'»orib« segmeutA of circles ouly, and the bilum, which 10

ARROWROOT, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

317

nsuallv very indistinct ami sometimes invisible, is placed at the
nuTow extreuiitj of uacb granule. In size the panicles var^ codb1«

Fig. K

Crunu UTOWTOOl. eommonlj- ilenomlnmtod TmA lodU ArrovrooL Dnvn with
the CuticfK Loddi^UMl irufiiifi«tl 1'40 diunvUn.

derably. but many uf tfaem much exceed the loj^est cootained in
MftraiMa arruwroot.

Curcuma arrowroot, therefore, is distinguished from Maranta
arrnwrooi bv the Mze and form of the granules, the position of the
hrtum. find the inromplete ringfi seen nn the surfatvs of the granules.
Curcuma arrowroot is cnmmnnlv called Knst India arrowroot, the
same name being sometimes aiiphed to Maranta arrowroot cultivated
in the East, and sent to this country; we have thus two dininct
species of arrowroot, of difierent cjualilies and value, confounded to-
gether under one name.

Tacca Arrowhoot.

T&cca nrrowrool is obtained from the tubers of Tacca oceanica^ a
native of the South Sea Islands, afYer the chief of which, Tahiti or
OtufaeitCf it is usually deugnatcd.

518

ARROWHOOT, AXD ITS ADULTERATIONS,

According to Ellis*, it grows on the high sftndjr biuilu near the
9e«. or on ttie sides of the lower mountains.

In Foreira'* " Elements of Materia Medica" the followinif account
U given of the preparation of the fecula : — "At Tahiti tbw la pro-
cure<l hj washing the tubers, scrapin;; off their outer skin, and then
rtnlueing ifaem to a pulp by friction on a kind uf rasp, uiikde by
windins conrue twine (formed of the eoec^a nut fibre) regularly round
aboanl.f The pulp \» washed with sea water ibrongb a sieve, made of
the tibrous web which protects the young finndofthe cocoa nut palm.
T^e ctrained li<pior is reueiveil in a woo<1en trough, in which the
fvoUU is deposited; and the supernatant Itfjuor being pour»:d off,
Iho «cilintent is formed into bulls, which are dried in the sun fur
Iwelve or twenty-four hours, then broken and reduced bo powder,
which is spread out In the sun to dry."

Fig. no

TaCO* ATTOVrDOl, cftlM ammlljr TklilU nr ou).«lte ttiruwrocA- Drawn with Um
CuncTft Lui:idit, bikI tn«(nl£cU '£lo Uianivtcra.

Tln^A arrowroot is u while, stHrcU-Iiku powder, having a alijchtlr
luUaiy odour. The granules resemble souiewhat those of sago meal,

• 'i KMearchM.

. iiixt Lilt! tlud of the raol li Kraped o^T by « cowry tbell, and Ihe root tfara
• . I. i.r of coral.

ARROWROOT, AST) JTS ADULTERATIONS.

319

but are Tery much sinKlIer ; when viewed sideira^ii, tlicy are muller-
sh«p«il, with truncate or dihednil baws, and when seen endways ihey
appear circular, and occa.«>iijnaUy angular or polyhedrnl. The rings
are fev and indistinct, and the hilum circular, someliuicB tiasured m
a stellatt* manner.

TaccA arrowroot has been sold in London for some years, in pack-
ages, an "arrowroot prepared by the native converts of ihe missionary
etations in the South Sea lafands. ' It is sometimes spoken of* as
"WiUiams's arrowroot," after the rnissionarr of that name.

The sliglitly musty odour whtcli it usually posseases shows that it
is not in general prepared wirh quite the same amount of care as
is bestowed on Maranta arrowroot.

Mamihot Abbowroot.

The flotir or farina of Manihot tUiiiasima, the plant which yields
'* tapiocii," is sometimes imported into this country, under the name
of "Brazilian arrowroot."

To the application of the word arrowroot to the fecuU of this plant
there exists no objection, since it resembles closely the other arrow
roots in its propertiea.

The description of Manihot utilutnima^ the Cassava or tapioca pinnt,
andof the manner in which the fecula is first obtained, and subscquentHy
converted into the substance called tapioca, we shall reserve until
we come to treat, in a distinct report, upon " Tapioca and xis Adul-
terations."

Manihot arrowroot, like the other kinds already described, may be
distinguished by the size, fonn, and other characters of its constituent
granules, which resemhle somewhat closely those of Tncoa arrowroot,
Dut are considerably smaller, with a larger proportion of granules,
which exhibit a circular outline, us seen in the field of the microscope :
the hilum is usually fissured.

The price of tapioca to the public varies from 6(/. to lOrf. the
pound ; now, as greater time and labour are expeudetl iu the manu-
facture of this substance than is required for the preparation of the
arrowroot, the price of the latter ought to be still less than this.

Potato Asbowboot.

PotAto flour, or arrowroot, soiuetimcs called Brititk or EngU»h
arrowroot, is prepared by ra.Hping and grinding the well deiinsed
tubers of Solanum titherovtun into a pulp. This is repeatedly wahhed,
and the water strained through a sieve, which contains the cellular
tissue, and allows the starch to pass through. After a time the starch
is deposited at the bottom of the vessel, is again well washe<l. and
finally dried.

Potato starch forms a white and somewhot gliateniiig powder.

»20

ARROWROOT, AND JT8 ADULTERATIOK8.

which cncklefl like genuine Maruita BTrowroot when pressed between
the fingers.

The gr&nulea v&rj greatly in size and ahape : some are very naall
and circular, oihers large* ovate, or oyster shaped. The larger granules

Fig. Ill

PoTAtv SirewTOOt, comisooly ttUtd Dritiih urowrooL I>rmwD witb Utt I

exhibit numerous very distinct concentric rings, and the hilum,
whicb is small, but well defined, is situaled in the narrow extremity
(tf Oiich granule : not unfreouently graniiles may be observed of an
oval form, divided by a fine line into two portions or 8cj>mentfi, each
nf which is provided with a hilum. We have noticed the same com-
pound granule in some of the other arrowroots, particularly the Tacca
bpecies.

The granulw of potato arrowroot difler from tliose of the previously
described starches, in their larger size, in iheir form, and in the
number and distinctness of the concentric rings which each granule
presents to view.

No means e:tist by which potato arrowroot may he diaiingulshed
so satisfactorily as by the microscope ; yet it is proper to state, it has
been observe*! that this itubstance is acted upon by certain reagents
in a manner different from Marania arrowroot : Mixed with twice its

ARKOWBOOT, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

331

Mght of concentrflted hvdpochlarJc aci(l» Maruita arrowroot yields
an opaque paste ; whereas that formed witb yiotato arrowroot is trana-
parent and jelly-like. When boiled v'nh water and Bulphurie acid
the Utter evolves a peculiar and somewhat disagreeable odour, which
i« ont the case with the former, when treated tn the «aine manner.
Tjostlvi alcohol extract±> from potato flour an acrid oil, not contained
in the fecula of Maranta plant.

Potiiro arrowroot is the cheapest of all the ttarclies regarded aa
arrowroots, the retail priee varying fVom 4ti. to 6d. per pound. AI-
fhough a cheap and useful article of diet, it is of course inferior to
Maranta arrowroot.

Akdm AmmowRooT.
Arum arrowroot u procured from the tubers of Antm manil/jhtm^
the common "cuckoo pint/' "wake robing*" and *Mords and ladies:"

X
^

'■'' %#^^^^

O^o

it is prepared chiefly in Portland island ; hence it is generally called
'* Portland arrowroot."

The mode of its preparation is rerj similar to that adopted with

3SS

ARROWROOT, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS

the other arrowroots; the tubers are pounded in a mortar, the pulp
{»eflte«lly washed, and the water snbsequenlJy strained. As f he tubers
are very aer'ul, great oare w required in the wasliinw and straining of
this arrowroDt, so that the acridilj may be coniplelclj' rt*niovcd.

The starch granules of Arum arrowrcwt arc very small, and, except
in sire, ihey resemble very closely those ot'Tacca arrowroot; but this
difference is sutlicieiilly coti?t(ani and considerable to ensure the ready
identiBcation of the two kiDd.^.

Strictly speaking, the word arrowroot may be applied to every
pureslari'h, that is, every article consifitin;; onlynf stan-h the proiluce
of one plant. Now pure starch may be obtained from nejirly any
p^rain or plants containing starch in considerable amount, aa from
wheats rye, pwise^ rice^ &c.; hence we may have arrowroot procuretl
from each of the grains named as well as a variety of others.

A very excellent arrowroot has recently been made fnmi Indian corn^
and ia sold under the name of *'■ Oswego Prepared Cam"

On the AouLTBBATioiKS or Abeowroot,
A3 arrowroot is used in making pudding*t, cakciv 8nc» its adulter-
ations may be considered with those of other articles of the dinner
table.

The adulterations to which arrowrijot is subject consist, first, in the
mixing together of arrowroots of different kinds and of different
commercial value; and, second, in the admixture with genuine atrow-
rool of other starches not usually recnjjnised as arrowroot, and of
low price : occasionally starches not arrowroots are substiiuied lor
arrowroot.

The adulterations of arro^vrnot arc usually practised at home. From
evidence kindly furnished inc by Mr. Day, of Old Cavendish Street,
it appears, however, that nut unfrenuently it is mixed with inferior
starches, as those of potato and sago, in the West Indies.

Results of the Exawituttion of Samples.

Of Fifty samples of arrowroot subjected to microscopical exami-
nation, no less than twenty-two were adulterated.

In suteen samples the adulteration ctmsisted in the addition of a
single article, wueh cheaper in price, and very inferinr in quality, to
genuine nrrowroot, this, in t^n instances, being potato Jtour; in five,
sago meal; and in one case tapioca starch.

In five samples it consisted in the employment of two different
articles, potato flour and sago meat.

In two instances three different star<;he5 were employed in the adul-
teration — viz., itotato fioar, mco meal^ and t/ipioca xtarch or fectda.

Ten of the arrowroota contained acarcelif a ftftrtitle of genuine A/ii-
ranta or West [tulian arrowroot^ for which lliey were sold. Osecun-
sisted almost entirely of stigo meal; two of potato flow und sogo metd;

SAGO, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

323

hto of jtotato Jimtr^ wgo meal^ anil tapioca ntarch ; one of tapioca starch ;
Mttd /uMT weru cumpofteU uniirely of potato armwroot or starcb. ^

On the Detection of the Adulterations of Arrottroot.

Tbe luIulteracionB practiced u[H>n arruwroot are all of tbcm readilj
discoverable by meanii of the microscope.

The structure and characters of potato starch hare already been
described and figured at p. S'20. ; those of sa^o are so at p, 325^
and of tapiocu at p. 320. Tbe grauules of sago starch are of
considerable size, either ovate or more usually somewhat inutler-
fihupi'd, rounded at one oxtrLunity, the other being truncated or etse
teruiiiiatiiiK in a diheilrul suiuuiit ; the hilum is placed in the larger
and rounded [lart of the uraniile, is usually surrounded by a distinct
rinji. and is oirculiir^ cracking freqiienlly in jl radiate niauner.

The strong inditL-einent which exists to substitute j>otatn starch and
sago meal for the hi'tier descriptions of arrowroot -will bii evident
when it is known that these starchi's may be purchased wholesale at
eoDiething like '2d. per lb., while as much as 'is. 6</. and even St. 6it,
is chiirged fur the articles so often falsely denominated West India
arrowroot.

It ihuH appears that, In ihe useful article arrowroot, the public is
extensively uefniudcd of its mnney, and the revenue of its income.

The duty on arrowroot has been recently replaced ; it is now only
4hd. per cwt., whether from a fori^iirn or British fMssession, being the
same duty its is paid on all kinds of liour and meal.

The quantity of this article imported was, in 1854, 14,905 cwts.; in
1(^5, 12.442 cwts. Uetaiued for home consumption in 1854, 16,334
cwts.; and in 1855, 13,0B» cwts.

SAGO, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

The farinaceous substance sago is obtnineil from the sterna of
several palms: that which reaches this countrv is mostly derirtsd
from species belonging to the genera Sagus and Saf^verwt.

Of the genus Sagus there are two species, S. Itrvit and S. pemina.

Sago Isvis inhabits tbe islands of the Indian Arcliipel3;;o, Sumatra,
and Uorneo, growing spontaneously in low, swampy lands.

Udxbureh ("Flora indica'*) stales that from the pith of this tree
•'the granulated sago we meet with in Kurope U niede."

** A large quantity of granular sago is proparcd from this species,
in Sumatra espceifllfy, the peninsula of MuJueca, and in Horneo. It
is chieJly cxportc«l to Kurope, Bengal, and China. The iarina whieh
is brougDt from Link on the norihern coast of Sumafers, although in-

T 2

334

SAGO, AND ITS ADULTERATIUN9.

ferior in whiteness to that of Borneo, is mucb sought af^er on bccovbI
^of its bein*; less friable. It commonly fetches twice the price of tb<
latter."— Perfrra.

It df>"*s nnt appear from Pcreira whether any of the sago obuined
from S. gfmina reaches this country. "This, the Malar sago naliB>
ifl the tree, the pitli of which is the staff of life to the iDbibituu
of the Moluccas." — Roxburgh.

Sago of pood quality is also obtained from Sagverus stuchanftf.
an inhabitant of the same localities as the uC her palms ^l(;nllOt)^l■
Whether it is ever imported into this country we know nut.

The sago of commerce is brought to England from Singapore in
bft^.

It exists in the forms of raw Mgo meal, sa^o floor, and granuUleJ

BSffO.

Raw Mogo meal is procured in the Moluccas as follows:— Wb«
sufficiently mature the tree ia cut down near the root, divided into
pieces six or seven feet long, each of which is split down the midiDe:
tiie pith is then extracted, and, with an instrument of baml>oo orhirf
wood, is reduced to powder like sawdust; it is mixed with water, >m
the mixture strained throu;rh a sieve which retains the o-llaltf
tissue of tlie pith. The straini'd liquor contains the farinn, whicb, aft*
beinff deposited, is washed tmue or twice, and is then fit for uw*.

Ornnulated nago is prepared by mixinj; the meal with water, lad
so converting It into a paste, which is then granulated unualli ^
passins it through a sieve. In most cases the granules as tbejrw
from Uie sieve are received into a shallow heated iron Tesael, sotbsi
(bey are partially baked.

Soffo Jitmr is prepared from sago meal by repeated siAing lad
washing ; it is also usually bleached hy means bv chloride of lime-

The farina or starch ofsftflrn, examined with iLe micrttscnpe, i»ie»
to consist of cranules of considerable size and clongateil form, ben;
usually rounderl at one end which is the larger, and, owing to tk
mutual pressure of the particles, truncate at the other exireniij-
Sometimes the fucette is single, when the granules are niorcurlrW
muUer-shaped ; in others there is double fucette : the hilum, whenpflf"
feet, is uin^ular; but it is often cracked, when it appears ae a slit, ftfl*.
or star. Surroun<ling the bilum, a few indistinct rings may ofuttf
be perceived in some nf the granules. Examined with the |wJtf^
•cope, the particles usually exhibit a black cross, tk« hilnm bcutf tk
centre.

Granulated sago is met with in two statea, comiDon or hro9%. •*'
pearl; and nf each of these kinds there ore several kinds, di{r*nngialk(
size and colour of the grains. In all, the starch granule^ differ mack
from those of raw sago ; they are much larger and lew reffular, rf^
due to the heat employed in the preparation of granulat«cai^

8AOO» AKD ITS ADULTERATIONS.

■■CdUM SB 4lani«t«n.

withpoTAto Starch. Uaaolly a factitious sago prepared froin potato sUrcb
Id substituted for true sa^a

Pereira boa the following remarks in relation to factitious sago : —
" This is prei»ared in both Germany and in France, at Gentilly
near Paris, with potato starch. It occurs both white and colnured.

" I have two kinds of white factitious s*^n, one small jsrained, the
grainH of which are scarcely so larfee as white mustard scods; the
other Iurf!o f^rainod, the (STflina of which arc intcrniediarc in sisc be-
tween white mustard seeds and coriander seeds. The first I met with in
English commerce; fortbeotherl am indebted to Professor Guibourt.

" 1 have aliin two kind}< of coloured factitious sa^o, both larye
grained; one re<l *« *he other brownish f, and sumewhat resembling
browniith pearl sago."

Pereira also states that he received from Prof. Guibourt sample**

* *' TVila I* prrhapi tbc kind mvfitiuonl by rUmliv, aj being UlilAed lagu colourmi with
coehln'>al."

t " lliU li pt^xpfl ib« brow* •ort of Gorman aAgo ntwl« from potato •urcll, ind Mid br
DIarlMcli to b* colourail «ljb Uant Hiiar."

'-— — T 3

896

SAOOj AND ITS ADULTERATIOXS.

of " Sagou lies Maldives de PUnche donn*' jinr \n\" and "Sagou de
la Nouvelle Guinee dtiime par lui," and tbut he found ihem to Iw

Fif. 111.

Jlon* gmmuUM of Baoo, tltcr*J br h«mt. m In mtking {miii«bir«cf ngo. Mt^niflcd
:c2fl diuneun.

factitious sagos prepared from potato starch. The prains of the New
Guinea sago were bright red on one side and whitish on the oihcr.

Of thirtt/ eaniplos of pranulaied sago giibmiitcd to examination^
five were found to he factitioWt and to consist o^ potato flour.

Oh the Detection of the Adtd/firationjt of Sago.

The microscope cun alonp detect the adulrcratinns of sago flour and
^anulatt'd sajro, and especially distinguish factitious from genuine
Mgo. The charucTcrs of siigo starch have already been described and
figured, as also have ihose of potato at p. 320. ; in ^anidated
sago, whether true or fiifse, the granules are of course much altered;
those of potato are (>woneii, irregular in shape, sometinies ruptured,
and the striae effaced, &c.

Import duty, 4^*/. per cwt. Quantities imported: 1854, 128,789
rwts.'; 1S55, 92,800 cwts. Home consumption : 1854, 121,046 cwts.;
18.'5rj. 108,499 cwts.

TAPIOCA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

327

#W*Mm0 «at*i eonipB«tJ of ^tPlaf ojImt. MagnMcd 2S5 dl«inttfr*>

TAPIOCA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

TuR article!! known u Ctiss&TA meal and bread, Caaaavft, Tapioca or
BriLzilun arrowroot and Tapiocn, are obtained from difTorcnt species of
the penui Manihot^ one of tne Euphorhiacca, One of tbese is -V. aft'-
lisjtima^ the bitter Cassava, a nHtivc of the Brazils, where, us well as in
other ports of South America, it U cultivated.

The starch is associated in the large tuberous root with a poisonous
milky juice containing: hjdrocjanic acid and a bitter acrid principle.

Another species is Maniftnt Aipi^ or aweet Cassava, the juice of the
root of which is not poisonous.

A third species is M. Janipka^ the root of which ti also devoid of
poisonous properties.

Cassava meal is prepared as well from the bitter or poisonous species
as the sweet and innocuous: the root is grated, and the pulpy mass sub-

T 4

TAPIOCA, AND ITS ADULTERATION 9.

jected to pressure to get rid of the juice : the residue; dried and
pounded, constitutes Casasva meal, and of ihis the bread is made.

The expressed juice dcpoeiis after a time the farina or starch, froa
which tapioca is prepared.

This furina, washed and dried, constitutes ^lanihot or Brazilian
arrowroot.

Exsmiiied under the microscope, the granules are seen to be of
small size, for the most part single, but sumetitnes and in the plant
itself alwiys united inio compound grains, each compotied of cw<^
three, or luur granules. Hence, tike tfaoiK* of sago, tbej are usuallf
muller-sUnpetl, althuugh when seen endways the/ appear circular ; the
bilum is distinct. No differences have been obsenrea in the character^
ufthe starch of bitter and sweet Cassava.

Fig. I1&

\
6

6^ e^

SUKta ffftitulM of MAfnuoT DTtuiMMA, Of Tttpltca. MicmlStS ttl dtuneUfm.

Manihot arrowroot is usually importefl into ibis country from Rio
Janeiro.

In the manufacture of tapioca, the meul while moist is heated, and
then dried on hot plates: this treatment of course cauies the starcib
granules to swoll, and many of them (u burst ; they at the same time
adhere together io small irrc";ular masses.

TAPIOCA AXD ITS ADULTERATIONS.

329

Oir THE AoULTERATlOnS OF TaPIOCA.

Manihot arrowroot or starcb is occasionally adulterated by admix-
ture with other st&rcbes, as those of »ogo aad potato.

Fig. 117.

Stanh itmBalw of T^pfacot altcrvd by the h»t vmpliiyed fn lu prep«r«Uim. ti%m'
MllidXXS OtuiHCen.

Of TtteniU'three samples of tapioca examined, two were ascertained
to conat:!ft oiAogo^ and one of potato starch,

Manihnc stiin-h is more frequently used as an adulterant, especially
of Marantu urrowroot, than i» ilaelf adulLvrated.

On the Detection of the AduUeraiiom of Tapioca.

The only means of detecting the adulterations of Manihot arrow-
moL, and of tapioi'a, is furniBhed by the microscope : with thnt instru-
ment their detection is rendered easy and certain. The characters of
»af;o ntarch are described and figured at p. 325., and those of potato
Mtarch at p. 320.

Import duty, sume as Su^o, Arrowroot, and Flour, i^d, per cwt.

Quantities imported; IH54, 3,501 cwts. ; 1855, 4,473 cwu. Home
consumpliun: 1854, 4,444 cwts.; 1855, 4,305 cwta.

330 PROPRIETARY ALIMEN'TAUY PREPARATIONS.

PROPRIETARY ALIMENTARY PREPARATIONS.

TiiK ftrtjples rofL-rred to under the above head being proprietary,
and there: being no recDjtfiiiseti receipts or formularies for their com-
poaitiun, they *io not pr*jperly ijouxe under the be«l of nrticles of
cnnicuinpliuii liable to adulteraMon. Neverllielesa, the public will doubt-
less be glad to be made acquainted with the composition of the cbJef
of the^e articles, especially tbose which are described as being possessed
of almost miroculou!! powers of curing disease, and wbi<'h are sold
under certain hi;!h sounding name<t, und at exorbitant prices. I<nttl
the microscope was applied by ourselves to the discrimination of dif-
ferent vej:claljle subst^uices, it wa« not possible to have determined, by
any known nieuii8, the euuiposiuun of many of tbe preparations about
to b« noticed.

The principal of these preparations are the following :—

Wharton $ Ertalenta. Sold at 2*. 9d. per lb.

A anmple of this article, examined, conHisted of a mixture of Uie
French or German ieniilt with a substance resembling nuzti«, or Imlian
com mfai.

It has been stated thai the farina of a grass eal led " T)ari," " Durra,**
&c,, has been discovered in either Enralenta or Kcvnlenta.

We have succeeded in procuring a sample of this article, and find
it to resemble very closely maize in struelure.

"Oari" is occasionally imported into \hh country, and sold at about
twenty-four shillings per quarter, that is, at the rate of rather moi*e
than one halfpenny per p<mnd.

We received from Ur. Pereira some time previous to his deceftMi
the following infurmation respecting ** Durra."

** i>ari, 1 suspect means Dnrra^ also sjiell Doura^ Dorn, &c. It is
a corn used by the Arabs, and is cultivated in the south of Europe. It
is the llolcua durra xativtu of Forskiil, the Surghum vulgare of some
oilier writers,

** Its meal is said to resemble that of Indian corn. Now it deserves
notice, that a German microscopist recently stiite<i that he found the
meal of Indian coi-n in ervalmtOy or revaienta, I forget which. Did be
mistake it for the Sorghum ? '"

For description and figure of Durra, see pp. 289 — 292.

Du Barry M RevaierUa. Sold at the same rate as the Ervalenta.

Three »uniples of this article were examiiieil : one consisted of a mix*
ture of tbe r^rf or Arabian \enu\ ami barley Jiour ; the i^econd, of the
same ingredients mixed with tvgnr; and tbe third sample consiBt«d of
the Arabian Imtil and barley flour, with the addition of .saline matter,
chiefly taii; it also possessed a peculiar taste, as though flavoured with
ceUryteed,

PROPKIETART ALIMENTAEY PREPARATIONS.

.i:u

Butler 8c M'CuUoch't Prtoared Lentil Powder^ \s. Gd. per lb., was
found to coiiBist entirely of tn« French or German lentil.

Edtcardg lirothers Arabian Hepaienta, In. per Ih., was ascertained
to consist of lentil fioicder, probably of the yellow and retl lentil mixed.

NevUfti Patent Flour of LetUilti^ 1*. |H»r lb.

Two samples of tliis article were examined : one comtsted of the
red lentil and wheal Jlour^ and the other uf tbe same species of lentil
and hurley Jionr,

Lentils belong to the natural family of plants, Leguminoxa^ which
includes the several kinds of beans ami peas ; they resembU*, to a very
great extent, in colour^ structure, taste, and properties, iho coTnmon
pea; so great, indeed, is the aiuiitarity in organisation, that it is diffi-
cult to discriminate between them, even by the aid qf the niicri)5CO|)e.

Lentils, peas, beans, &c.t oil contain a considerable umuuni of nitro-
genised matter, iu tbe form ^t Legutnine ; when taken as an article of
tiiet* they are found by most (o be sometvfaat dilficult of digestion, to
occasion distension and Batulency, and to be slightly aperient. These
properties and effects are so similar in the ca.<<e of each, tliat it is almost
impossible to draw any decided line of demarcation between them.

" Purified leniils *' are prepared under a patent, by Mr. Nevill, who
formerly supplied Du Barry and Co. with the article, at 10/. per ton ;
that is, Rt about one penny and a fraction per pound.

Tbe admixture of barley and other iluurs with lentil powder is
not to be reganled in the light of nn adulteration, since the cost of
barley flour exceeds that of tbe lentil, being about 13/. per ton.

The object of this mixture is chiefly to diminish the strong flavour
of the lentils, and which is so disagreeable to many. Messrs. Du
Barry and Co. still more ciTcctually accomplished this object, in some
cases, by the addition of f^ugar.

Kxtreines meet : lentils, being somewhat cheaper than peas, are
supplied to many of our workhouses, to be used in the preparation of
soup, &c. Thus they are not only consumed by puupers, but by the
T\vh^ tiie chief difference being, that the latter fretjuenlly pay 'I*. 9c/.
per pound for them.

As the cost of most of the prepared lentil powders, sold as Erva-
lenta, Revulenla, &c. — viz., 2«. 9f/ per pound — forms a very serious
ofast»cle to iheir use, suppotiing that in any renpcct it is desirable that
they should be more generally consumed, we have framed the two fol-
lowing receipts, whereby a considerable saving of expense ma/ be
effected : —

\U Receipt*

Ked or Arabian lentil flour - - -2 lbs.

Barley flour - • - - - I lb.

Salt - - - - • • 3 ox.

Mix Into a uniform powder.

PROPRIETARY ALIMENTARY PREPARATIONS.

The red lentit may be obtained of almost every corn chandler, at
al)out -UI. per quart ; the cost of u pound of our Ervolenta would be
about *2d. per pound ; and it is perfectly clear, from the analyses
which we have given above, that whatever may be the advantani
posseaseil by the rauch-vaunted Ervalentaa, Revalentas, &c^ inat
our article must contain them all.

Pea flour
Indian com flour

Salt -

2nd Receipt.

Blix u before.

Slbfl.
lib.

3 02.

T*hc characters of lentil flour, and the composition of Ervalenta,
Kcralenta, and of Lcatb's Alitneutury Farina are exhibited in tku
following cngravingfl.

A!i. Hi.

ftamplt Bf WRAxrair'* E>ru.Rjrr\. u It •ppc«n under th« mlcnwMpt.
, MBrch corpUM-Iri at thf Fhrhi ii l Bntii. : /■ /i, fntfrnK*'* (*^ lt»t 'hnsk i r r.
MMcb grutuJm ftnil mmmtt of tbt cwImIuioc nvembUnit Inoiax uuhji asAL.

PROPRIETARY ALIMENTARY PREPARATIONS.

333

Being 5atis6(;(l that lentils and |»oas do not diSer in flieir pro-
perties to any great extent, we hure devised the ubove receipt to

Pit. 119.

Sample of Do IUit7'* Rvt(LI5T1 AaABicA.

It a.ftwdb (rvnoW flf the AxAAuy i.C-<<Ttu •omc loow. ottwn lylnf lothc oelliaf

tfi* ctUulow 4 t h mtmnb franaUt of BAIUJtT rt-OOB.

meet those coneii in which any difficulty may be met with in pro-
curing the red lentil, which however is now very commonly kept by
I'orn cbandlera.

From the several preparations of lentil flour noticed, we will pass
tJ) describe certain other

Farinacboub Foods.

Gardiner g Alimentary Preparation consisted of Tery finely ground
rice,

LeaiKa Alimetdary Farinn, or Homceopalhie Faririaceons Foody con-
Histed principally of \cheut /four, glip:htly btdced. sweetened with
^vgar^ together with potato ntarcK Indian com meal^ and tnpiiKa.

Semnliva consists in some cases of the gluten of wheat mixed with
a proportion of wheat flour; in others, of certain descriptions of
wheat flour only, rich in gluten.

Fmd ra

CBtuvlj of hidttd

Prmea Arlkm^i Pa

The Phmce of WUe^t Food was cmin>o>cd entirety of point<>
Jfoatr.

UnrtU Porimtcetma Flmr, of trMeatJIotter, kmkid.

Mn*timan$ \mtritiauM Parma oockftMed entirelj of foialo /low
arti6ciallj ooloored of* pink or rosj tint, the colooriikg matter being
pr«>T»»Wr ro»e puJL

Bntm*t Pftrinaeeoms Pood oaoaitHed oC vheat JUmr, baked^

Badert Sttnjie wi« conposed of irAeo/ Jiuttr, sweetened witIi

Hiut^» f'itmpuHiuUd Farina poMCMed a timUar composition,
Jonfi% PaU-rU Flttur, coniist«d of vheai Jia^w^ tartaric acid, and
carUnuite of toda.

ANCHOVIES, TIlEin SUBSTITUTIONS, ETC. 335

Plumhe'4 Improved Farinaceous Food wns composed of tetitt ctr pett
Jionr^ with u little Tatxa arrourroot^ some potato jUftfr^ and a very Iilllo
Maranta arrowroot.

Lastly, Palmer's X'itarobt)ra»t cnnsistcd of a mixture, sweetened
with sugnr. of the red or Arabian Until and wheat fiour.

The |>ubtic is now in a position to jud^u of the degree of relation
whicli exiiitA between tlie hi^U-Koundin;; titles bestowed on many of
the preparations noticed in this Report, their actual conipositiun, and
the properties, so loudly vuuuted, alleged to be j»os*ess.e<l bv tliem ;
it will also be ablu to Ju<l^e somewhat of the extent tu which tlie
po(k^i i>j made to ftuffer ihrou<rh these health restoring, life pro;
longing, easily digestible arlidea and compounds.

On THE Detection or the CouposiTioif of Propbietart

AUMKKTABT PmKPARATIONB.

In the majority of cajea the only means by which the enrnposilirm
of these articles is lo be determined is afforded by the microscope.
Br tliis instrument the starches of the Aeveral llourn and arrowroots
of which they are i'()iii|>osed can all be idtMitificd. The characters of
nearly all these have already been described and figured.

ANCHOVIES, THEIR SUBSTITUTIONS AND
ADULTKKATIONS.

The next articles of the Breakfast Table to the adulterations of
which we deaire to direct attention are Anchovies, and Potted Meats
and Fish.

We fin<l but little, in works on the adulteration of food, in reference
to the substitution of inferior kinda of fish for this much esteemed
variety ; although, if common report is to be creditetl, but few articles
of consumption are more subject to substitution and adulteration than
the anchovy, whether in the entire state or in the forms of paate and
sauce.

On the present occasion we have to treat of the entire fish only.

Before proceeding to give the re6ulu» of the examination and
analyses of various snniples of anchovies, as vended in the melropolis,
we insert an original 6gure, as also a scieniido description, of the fish,
taken from Tarrell's excellent work on the British Fitih^s,

" Generic Characters^ — Distin^uiMhe^l from tlie herring in havinir
the heud pointed: the upper juw tlie longest; the mouth deeply

divided ; tbc opening

ing bAckwards befaizul the
of the eyes; the gspe
chial ttpeituree wm
the Tenrral fine in ad
of the line of the con
went of the dor&&l ; t_
smooth ; branchiost^oiu
twelve.

" I have follovvd «

Henung, in preserviocloty

anchovy the old uim h

which It waa foriDeriT katmi

It waq cnlle.1 l^jfcoitamk

^ from the fom» of tt^ Dyafts

J and £nfrraulijt mcmtialm

I pecAuse, from it.s bittenta^

5 It was supposed to carrr tt

i gall in irs bead. For'tU

I reaaoDf the bead, aa weO tf

{ ibe entrnila, are

[ when the fish is pid

■ " Theiinchovy is a

I fish in the MediterraneaB;
, from Greece to Gibrahir,
i and was well known to tk
Orpfksfind Komam,bYwfci«
theli,,uor prepared fTom il.
called ffarum, was in gnA
estimation. Itseaetern rmw*
H extended into the BUek
Sea,

"The fishing fop them n
carried on during the nigkl.
and lighta are iwed wicii tk
neta.

" The flnebovy is cotUBOl
on the coasts of PortngJ.
Spam, and France ; it oixvn,
I have no doubt, at the Ckn-
nel Islands, ajid h^ bed
taken on the Hampihire
coas t, and in theBrW
^^^!!SF} J.° t^e AppetMti
to Willuehby'8 wort, it a
mentioned as havini; b<«a
taken on the const. ofM^alw;
Pennant obtained it nearbii
own residence, at DowniM
in Flintshire; and Mr. Bidh
eno ha* very recenUy obtaiocd
several on the coa,t of GU-

ANCHOVIES, AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 337

morganshire. It is 8niJ to be «oIil fre<|iicntly in Liveri>o()l market, (ind
is reporti'il lo be nt this iini« nii iiibiibitant of the piece of water below
blacKWAll, called UngenhiLll Reach.

" ll8 range to the north is extenwye, as it is occasionally taken in
the Bultit^, iind on the coast of Norway; but ie not included by
Linnieus in his Faums Sutt^ica.

"The nnrhovy appears toattain a much larger size than has usually
been nec-onleil to il : fri)m ftmr to five inches in length is the more or-
dinary size ; but Mr. Couch says, * 1 hitvt; seen it in the Oornifrh seoa
of the length of seven incites and n half; and I have met with speci-
mens from autumn, through tlie winler, to the middle of Maruh. It
is therefore probable tl»at a fishery nti^ht be established with good
prospect of sucft'ss, for though the nets cmployeil fur other fish can
take but few uf them, the numbers found in the stomaclis of the
whiting?, and other ravenous fisbcis show that they arc iu considerable
abundance.

"The anchovy is immediately reeogniscd amnn^ the species of the
family to which it belongs by its sh»rp*|iointed hi-ad, with llie upper
jaw coniiidLrably the lonsest. The length of the head, compared with
the lenuih of the body alone, is as one to three ; the depth of the body
but two thirds of the length of the head, and compared lo the leh;:th
of the whole liiih, is as one to seven ; the firstt ray of the dorsal 6n
arises half way between the poitilof the nose and the end of the tleshy
portion of the tail ; the third ray of the dorsal fiu, which is the Ion<;est,
IS of the same lenjith as the ba^ne of the fin ; the [tectornl fin aniall ;
the ventral fins arise in a vertical line in advance of the commencement
of the dorsnl fin, which is over the space between the veutrul and
anal fins; the base of the anal fin is as lonp^ as the distttnce from its
commencement to the origin of the ventral fins ; the rays short ; the
tail deeply forked. The fin rays in number are —

D, 14; P, 13; V, 7 ; A, 18; a 19.

The breadth of the eye is one fifth of the length of the whole head;
the peculiLirity In the comparative length of the jaws hns hecn pre-
viously noticed ; the pill covers are elongated ; the scales of the body
lar^ and deciduous ; tbe colrmr of the top of the hend and back bluci
wiui a tinge of green; irides, gill covers, sides, ottd belly, sdvery
white; the fins delicate in structure, nnd greenish white; the mem-
branes connecting the rays almost transparent.

** In a wrieii of notes on the occurrence of rare fish at Yarmouth
and its vicinity, with which I have been favoured by Dawson Turner,
Ewyy there is mention of a specimen of the anchovy, taken on the beach,
which measured six inches and a half in length ; an additional proof
of the large size acquired by this fish on our shores.'*

To the above we would add a description of the condition of the
true anchovy when bottled.

The head and intestines are removed ; the scales and fins, with the

ANCHOVIES, THEIR SUBSTITUTIONS

exception of iKo peotornlfi, am flilowetl to remain ; the fish is of small
■izt', iilvvry, ami raihor Ikt, thii line t»f the back slightly cupveil, and
the rtesh is usuiilly of a pink or t^ahinin colour, the depth viirying con-
siderably in (liflereiit siitnples auui^rJing to a;Te : if an anchovy be
three months old, it will be pule ; if »ix months, rather pink; and if
twelve months, a beautiful deep piiik colour.

The number of the dn-rays, whioh may be eounted in the fish in its
preserved state, is greater than thiit ;.'iven in the description we have
quoted; thus, when complete, the dorsal fin is composed i»f sixteen
rays, the anul fin of nineieen, and the cumki of twenty-six rays.

Anchovies are iraportcd in barrels, and are preserved in brine made
with rock gait ; the buttling \a performed in this country, chiefly by
wholesale pickle and Ii^th-suuce makers.

O5 TUB AdUI-TEBATIONS OF AwCHOVlES.

Several kinds of fish are either substituted for, or mixed with, the
genuine Gorgona anchovy.

The chief of these are T>utchy French, and Sicilian Fish, and occasi-
onally S'srflinei and Spratii,

In niMition, the brine in which the first arc preserved is almost in-
variably hi;rhly coloured with large quantities of bole Amtenian and
Feuetinn red.

Bole Armenian is a red ferruginous earth, often prepared artificially
bj mixing together Veiieti:tn red and chutk. The reason of its being
added tci nnuhovies, it is allcgod, la to improve the ajjpearanee of the
fish ; but the real reason U to conceal the dirt contained in the brine
whu-b (luiTounda the fi.sh.

In entin^if anchovies some persona first wash the fish, bv which
means they no doubt get rid of iiiiich ctf the red earth and dirt j but
others eat the fish just as it comes uut of the brine.

From an examination of fwettt^'viffki snuipWa of anchovies, mostly
in bottles, it appears,

That seven of the samples consisted entirely of Dutch fish.

Tlint two consisted of u mixture of Dirrca risn and Anchovies.

That the brine in hvatiythre*" of the samples was charped with
either bole Armenian ot Vtuvtian retl^ the <pmntity vary in;; consider-
ably in amount; but in most c:isi*s the brine was saturnted with
these eiirthy p*>w«lers to such an extent flnit they might be obtained
and collected from the bottom of the bottles nlmost by teaspoonfuls.

It is not to be inferre<l that those samples iu which no Dutch fish
were detected, consisted of the true anchovy, since we hare ascertained
that two other kinds of fisli betides the Dulch are conimonlv iin-

-ted and sold as *' true anchovies," and " real Gorgonas," — namely,
ch and Sicilian fish.

AND ADULTERATIONS.

339

Now, we liave no iloaht but Umt the majority of the aliovc samples
consisted entirely of one or ollitT of these fiali; wehesitale, however, to
pronounce a poaiiive opinion in carh case. Although it is not dilli-
ualt to distini^uish Freneh and Sicilian fish from the Gor^ona an-
chovy, when firHt taken froru the barrels in which they are imported,
yet when contained in bottles, the discrimination is often a matter of
considerable dilGeulty^ and in many cases is even scarcely possible.
This arises from the siiueczing and mutilation of the fish in (he pro-
cess of boitlinpf. aa well us from the altered appearance due to the
red earthy nuvtters with which they are c<imraonly corered. AVhether
chose enga^C'l in the trade ore acquainted with any practical charac-
ters by which the discrimination of the fish, even wqcq thus altered,
may be eflecled, we know not.

We have» however, much reason to think that Sicilian and French
fish, notwiLhalanding their resemblance to the true anchovy, may be
distinguished, by experienced peraons, even when bottled. Witli a
view to dett^rmine this point we forwarded to a person engaged in the
anchovy trade, twelve of the samples referred to, each being labelled
with a dialinct number ; the following U bis Keport : —

1. Gorgona.

2. French fish.

3. Ditto.

4. Gorgona, not fine.

5. Sicilian Fish.

6. Gorgona.

7. Dutch, inferior.

8. Sicilian, good quality.

9. Gorgona.

10. Dutch Fish.

11. Sicilian.

V2. Sicilian, beat quality.

If this list be correct, then not ohb thibi> or thk twkkty-jucut

SAMPLES KXAMINKD CONSISTED OP GOBOONA AnCHOVI£S.

The practice of imparting an unTiaturally ret! colour to the fish and
brine, by means of Venetian red and ImjIc Armenian, is in the highest
degree reprehensible. To saturate an article of food with lor^^e quan-
tities of earthy colouring matter, is objectionable on the score of
cleanliness ; it is equally so as regards health, for this earth contains
a large quantity of iron, ^ow, this medicine la not suited to all cases,
and it may even, in some instances, be prwlueiive of mischief; at all
events, when it is desirable to titke iron, we should prefer that it be
prescribed under the advice of a physician, and not adiiuni-ftered in
an article of food by our grocer, fishmonger, or Italian warehouse-
man.

Again, it occasionally happens that Venetian red contains red lead ;
and although, in the analy^es we have made, we are happy to stato
that we have not detected that j>oiiimioua metallic oxide in a lingle
tampUt there is no question but that red lead is occasionally to be
found in bottled anchovies.

Anchovies, even when thus coarsely reddened, and put up in gloss

X 2

S40

ANCHOVIES, THEIR SUBSTITUTIONS, ETC.

botlleflf are not particularly sightly objecta. Both for convenience

and appeariinee, it wouM be much better thai they nLouU be enclosed
in open-niouthetl earthen jars, which might be mft4le of different
patterns, and tia ornumcntal oa de:»ired; bv this meADB the ne<:e«sii7
for colouring would be done away with, and there would be no occa-
sion to use wax and resin, themselves fre^piently coloured with red
lead, to coat the corks, and Rime of which tiubstances, on the bottle:}
being opened, usually And their way into the contents. Now that glass 19
80 cheap, if bottles continue to be used, they should, at all events, be
furnished with gloss stoppers in place of corfca.

On thf Dfiteetirm of the Adulteratioks 0/ Awhomfs.

The DiUck fish may be distingiusbed from the true anehovy, by
its being invariably aeprived of its scales, by its large sixc, while
flesh, general coarseness and by the very evident scale-marks which
extend over the whole surface. The fins have the same dispositiun as
the true anchovy, and the »amc number of rays ; and it is posjiible that
this 6sh may be one of the genus Etigraulu^ of which there ore three
or even more species.

The French, and especially the Dutch, fish are mt only of much
less value, but also greatly inferior as articles of diet t«» the true
anchovy. The difference in iheir c«st may be e8timate<l by the fact,
that dealers find it worth their while to mix them in dl^ercnt pro-
portions in even the some bottle. There i^ no difficulty in distin-
guishing the Dutch Ssh by the characters pointed out ubuve ; but
it would be very difficult to discriminate butween (he linger sum-
pies of the French anchovies, when denuded of their scales, ond
that which in this article is denominated Dutch Jixh^ and hence we
infer that the two may |H>ssibly l>e separate states and conditions of
one and the same species.

The French Fish is caught off the coiuts of Nantz and Nice, and is
imported into this country in barrels packed in brine made with rock

Mlt.

It closely resembles in its characters the true anchovy, and
18 probably of the same genus. Like the anchovy, it is depnyed of
its head ond intestines, but the scales, and not unfrequenlly the
brachijd rays and pectoral fins, are entire. Moreover, the tilth is usu-
ally somewhat larger, thicker across the back, tapers more towards the
tail, and the flesh is much whiter than the Gorgona anchovy. These
ditferences, however, are not sufficiently marked in general, to allow
of this tish. when bf^tled, being sutisfoctorilv distinguished from the
true anchovy by an ordinary observer. Its commercial value is
about one half that of ilie Gorgona anchovy.

The tSieiliari Fixh resembles the Gorgona anchovy very closely,
rhich, by some, it is considered to be the young, it being smaller.
*ier it be a state of that species, or of the same genus, we are

POTTED MEATS AND FISH.

341

not able to determine with certainty ; its value i> at least one third
less than ihul of the Gorgona anchory.

In none of the samples have we met with either tpraU or tardinety
althoui^h there is nn dimht (hat both Oiese 6flh have been, and arc
still occaaioiiiilly. sohl a£ real Gorgona anchovies. The sprat may be
readily dislinguishefl from the nnchovv. by the dorsal fin which con-
sists of seventeen rays, but more particularly by the position of tJie
ventral fin, which is placed in a vertical line directly under the first
dorsal iin-roy.

The vardine is a short4>r and thicker fish than the anchovy ; it hu
white flesh, and the relative position of the ventral and dorsal fins is
different.

On the Detection of Vetietinn BctI awl little A rmenian. — The presence
of these earths is sufficiently indicated by the red colour of the brine,
and by the colour snd earthy character of ttte precipitate. In order
to oblflin ihem in a separate state, the fish should be repeatedly
washed, the washings and the brine evaporated, tJie residue treated
with water to dissolve out the salt, and then incinerated and weighed :
finally the ash must be tested for iron and chalk according to the
processes already given ; that for iron at p. 102., and that lor chalk
at p. 101.

Anchovies and all fish are free of duty on importation, and no re-
turns are taken.

POTTED MEATS AND FISH, AND THEIR
ADULTERATIONS.

PoTTBD meats and fish are adulterated, first, by admixture with sub-
stances added for the sake of bulk, weight, and eheapncss; and second,
with others designed to heighten their colour.

Thus they arc sometimes adulterat4:d with large quantities of
flour^ und in other cases, it is allied, with even ckaik and placer of
Paris.

Again, gpmtM and other cheap fish are often bruised up, and, after
being sea.«iiDed, are sold either in the separate or mixed state fur rcul
Gorgona paste.

Lastly, the majority of these pastes are very commonly coloured
with large (juanlilies of Venettan red and bole ArmeuuiH,

z 3

84S

POTTED JfEATS AND FISH,

BB8ui;r8 07 thk £xAMTKATio:f or Samples.

Twenty-eight ftaoiplea of polled meats and fish were examined, and
with the following results : —

Ut. That ihe samples of Potted Tongw and Ham were entirely free

from aduUeralion.
2nd. Thai four out, of the five samples of Potted Beef were artifidally

coloured by menus of the red ejtrth> hole Armenian,
3nl. That the whole of the samples of Potted Bloaters examined were

highly L'oloureil with the before-named eariliy substance.
4tb, That one nf the sonipLvs of Blnater Paste was adulterated in

addition with a large proportion of starch or Jtour^ probably wheat

llotir boiled.
5th. That the entire of the samples of Anchontf Paste analysed were

still more highly, and even \*ividly, eoloured with very lar^e quan-
tities of bole Armeman.
6th. That two uf the Anchovy Pastes were In addition adulterated

with /fowr; one with a lurL'e per-cciitiige of wheat Jtoitr.
7th. That of the twenty-eijiht wintpK's of Potted Meats and FUk

subjected to analysis, no less than twenty-three were more or lesa

impref^nated with the red earthy material, bole Armenian.

Tins picture of the ndnUeration of potted meats and fish is surely
bad and disgmceful enough.

The difTerence in the appearflnce presented by the uncoloured
samples, contrasted with those in which the bole Armenian had been
added, wiia most striking, and usually suflifient to enaM*.' the observer
to distinguish by the eye ulon^* the c«Hmples to whirh this scandalous
addition had been made. While iii the one caf*e the paste was of a
pale pink, and perfectly natural hue, in the other the colour was such
aa the flesh, when pnnnde^l, of no fish or animnl ever presents, it being
of a deep, earthy, and brick red.

In a pr-evloui Report we showed th.it one of the principal reasons
why artificial eolourin" matters are employed in the ciise of Iwttlcd
anchovies, iii to conceal the dirt contained in the brtno in which the
fish is im[)orted. In the present instance there is not even this poor
excuse; the only purpose f*erveil by the emjjloyraent of the bo!e Ar-
menian being to cause the potted articles to present n striking ap-
pearance, but one whicl) at the same time is, in our opinion, most un*
naturat, and but liltte inviting.

In ihQ case too of jtntted meats and fish, the ordonring injrredienls
cannot, as in anchovies, in a measure be got rid of by washing; for
since they ore incorjjorated with the paste^ they must be entirely
consnini*d with the meat or fish.

' practice uf adding large quantities of coloured earthy sub-
licles of diet is dirty, injurious to health, and, in some^

AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

34.1

€Tcn rlanprerous to life, cannot be doubled. The cliief medicinal
{nfp*edfenL in bule Armeninn l» oxide of iron ; this, aIthou<rh not dan-
f^erous. might in some Infiianet^s be prodiicllvc of prejudiciul ed'ects;
but it sotnetimea happens that other red earth«i arc used, nnd these as
well as uiso occasionally, although rarely, bole Armenian ilself, are
contaminated with red lead. For (hif poijfonowt ntbstance each of the
alfone twenty'eight samplea hare been xfpiiratfly aiuitlyseti^ withuut how-
ever^ we are happy to stcUe^ a particle of it being ducovered in a fingle
inxtance.

So long, then, 09 manufacturers continue to mix red earths with
their {M>ttcd meats and fish, — these delicacies of the table, as ihcy arc
commonly considered, f^o often had recourse to by the gourmand and
the invalid to rou.«e a flu^'gijig appetite, — so long we recommend the
public to refrain from purchasing them.

The preparation nf potted meats and fish is so simple, that every
housekevper wav, with a pestle and mortar and proper seasoning,
make them herself without ditHculty.

Mr. Kii^hardson, officer of the Local Board of Health of Newton
Heath, near Manchester, gave the following* evidence, before the
Coniiuitlee on Aduhcraiion, in regard to the addition of horseflesh to
potted meata, sausages, &e. : —

" We have in Newton five knackers* yards, and there iti otdy one
in Manchester. The reason ip, that they have so mucb toleration in
Newton; and it has been a source of great profit to thorn, because
they have the means of selling the best portions of the horseflesh to
mix with the potted meats.

^' I can say for a fact^ that the tongues of horses particularly, and
the best portions such as the hind quarters, of horses, are generally
sold to mix with collured brawn, or pics' heads as they are called
with us, and for sausages and pohmiea. I understand, aUo, frum those
who have been in the habit of niakio'; them, tbut hurRellesh muterialljr
assists the making of sausages; it is a hard fibrme, nnd it mixes
better and keeps thtm hard, and they last linger in the shop-window
before they are sold, because? cithtTwisj' the sausages run to water and
become sofl and pulpy. 1 believe horstlifsh oJao materially assists
German saussges ; it keepH them bnrd."

To the above account we may add that German sausages and po-
lonies are very generally coloured with large quantities of Veuetian
red or reddle.

Havinc: now gone over the chief articles usetl at the Breahfaut Tahle,
we shall m the next place proceed tu describe the adulterations of
I those coimumed more particularly, tbough uot exclusively, at the

I Dinner Table.

^^- Potted and all otlier meats arc free of duty.

z 4

UUSTARD, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

MUSTARD, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

The plants from which musfard is obtained orCf Sinitpis nigrft, or
Mack, and Si/tapis alba, or while inu&t4ird ; xhej belong to the natural
fuukily Cruci/erie.

The black mustard plant is distinguished by its seod vessels, which
are smoatli, nnd the culour of the seeds tliemselves, which are reddish,
or blackish brown.

In tlie white nmstnrd nfant the seed Teasels or pods are clothed
with hiLirs, which render tliciu rough, uiid the seeds arc yclluw.

The two fpocies of musturd ilitTer in properties as well os in
botanical characters.

The seeds of S. nigra are more pungent than those of S. olba^ but
there are other differences.

The young or seed leaves of white niuiftard are usetl for salad.

Both speeies are indijjenouSf and may roniinonly be seen in flower,
in the month of «Iuiic, in wiiste phire^ jind fields. In the brick lields
in the neiahbimrhoinl of Nottin" Hill, iliey f;row in great quantities.

The stibjoineil particulars, in reference to the nmnufucture of
mustard, as fumisbcd by a iiianufuoturcr, are g^iven by Pereira : —

" The secila of both bhick ami white mustard are first crushed
between rollers, and then pounded in luorturs. The poundetl seeds
are then sifted. The residue in the >ieve is culled drexgingn^ or
si/iittgs ; whiit passes through i.s impure Jiuur of nxustanl. The latter,
by a second .tilting, yieUls purejftmr af miubird, and a second quantity
of dresainjfs. By pressure ilie drL'{i<<in;zs yield a fixed oil, w hick la
used for mixing with rape and other oils."

CompoiitioH of Mustard,

Analysis lias detected in black mmtard seed several distinct chemi-
cal couipuimds — Myronic acidy M^rucyne^ a volatile oily and a fixed
oil of mnttard.

Myronic uctd is nn inoiloru.i, naii-viilatile, bitter, and non-orystal-
lisable substance, coiitiilnWig nitro^uo And suljihur, und forminu; tuOt«
with bases. The charm-teristic prufierty of this substance is, that it
yields, with myroi-yne, the volntile nil of inustanl.

Mi/rocytie^ the emiUnin of black niustnnlf yields, as already noticed,
with invronic acid, ihc volatile oil of mustard. " It has considenible
resemblance to vegetable albumen and viimbin, but a» it ciinnot be
replaced by either of these substunccs in the development of the vola-
tile oil, it uiu»t be rejjarded as a substance sm generis. It is soluble
in water ; but is coagulated by heat, alcohol, and acidc, nnd in this
state it IcMCs the power of acting on the myronates, and of yielding
the volatile oil." — Pereira.

MUSTARD, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS,

345

Tbe volatile oil of mtutard does not pre-exist m black mustArd
flee<U, bul is foruicd, us alreaily observed, by iha mutual action of
myronic acid and rnyrouyne in uold ur warm water; it is this oil which
gives to mustard its penctrnting odour, sharp burning; liistt*, and iis
acrid, rubefacient, and vuMicani properties : it contains nitrogtin and
sulphur in its composition.

The above detaiU are of practical interest and importance, for
since heat coa<;ulatcs niyrocyne, and this substance is necessary to
the formation of the vohitile oil upon which llie greater part of the
active properties ofmustanii depends, it is clear that water either cold
or warm only, shntdd be employed in the mixin;; of mustard.

The Jixed oil of muxtrmt is usually procured from tlie siftings or
dressing of mustard, which consist mainly of husk : it is stal^ to
constitute about twenty-eight per cent, of ihc seeds.

Of the composition nf wfiitr mustard teed wc find the following ac-
count in Pereira's "Materia Mcdica:"—

*' Kobiquet and Boiitmn {Jonrn. de Pharm.^ xvii. p. 279.)' however,
have proved, that white umsturd cdiUains neither volatile oil, nor any
fluhfitunce capable td' producing it, but owes its activity to a nott'Colatile
acrid gulf xtaHvi\ which does not pre-exist in the seeds, but is readily
Ibrmed in them under certain conditions. Another chemical peculi-
arity of white mustard is, that it contains sulpho-sinapisin. (Henry
and Garrot, ^(/UTH. de C'him. J/w/., i. 441.) Hence, while st'si|uichlo-
ride of iron strikes a deep red colour in an infusion of white mustard,
it merely communicates an onuin^e tint to the infusion of black mus-
tard. Moreover, the thick mucdaginous liquor obtained by digesting
tbe seeds of white muista.rd in cold water is peculiar to them. (Cadet,
Journ. de Phunn,y xiii. 191.) Simon {Journ. de Pharm.^ xxv. 370.)
baa announced the existence of a new principle, which he calls entcin^'

Slntelure of Mustard Seed,

Kvcry entire seed cousi.it8 of two parts, the husk and the seed
proper.

The husk of white muttard»eed is constituted of three distinct mem-
branes.

The outer membrane ia transparent, and mucilagiooiui ; it coDsista
of a layer forme<l apparently of two difTercut kinds of cells of large
uxe and very pet:uUar structure; those of the first kindareofanhexa-

fonal fij^ure, and united by their edges so as to form a distinct mem-
rane, tlie (%n(re of each cell being perforated; tbe ci^lls of the secoud
kind occupy the apertures whith exist in tbe previously described
cells, and they are themselves traversed by a somewhat funnel-shaped
tul>e, which appears to terminate on the surface of the seed: immersed
in water, these cells swell up to several limes their original volume,
occasion the rupture of the hexagonal cells, and become themselves

MS 1CU9TARD, AXD ITS ADULTESATIOXS.

modi wrioUcd or eormgBted, ihe extremitj of tke tabo in i
CMCi beizig nca protooitiiig from the proxmute tenaixuuoo oC tbs

rrwmtDt of Um ()«/«r tnrmlifBM irf Hit iMd of WWTB Mcbtasd.

Mkffnlfleil i3u dlunettn.

celU. It is pn»oibln, however, that what are here (U'<tcnbGi1 as two
different kinds of cells rt'iilly furm distinct parte of the same <m.'1Is.

It hft-s been notieed thjit wiieii white mu&tnrd seeds are digened in
water, a thiek niucilagimms lijjuid is obtained: the source of the mu-
cilage docn not appear to hnve been puinlL-d out ; it is certainly, how-
ever, derived from the cells forming the tissue above described.

The middle tunic consists of a sinple layer of very minute cells, of
an ttnjrular form; it is in the cavities of these that the chief part of the
colouring matter posaesfled by the huak is seated.

The inner memonuie also consista of a single layer of angular cells,

MUSTARD, AND ITS ADDLTERATlONflL

347

which, however, are several time<i lurgcr than thnse constituting the
middle tunic.

Pig. in.

Fntfimnli of the miABw ud mmtr taola of loUto oitMriArd «cd, the forater conHos

■nil lying upon a part (tf llic latter. >l*f nlSrd W) <l}Bin«lm.
^ . Parnon trf the mvUlie lnule. if. A fnfnicDt of tb< inmr tutiic, fli<nriti( tbt

■Irvedm of that cwmbruie.

The «rtd itself is of a bright yellow colour, and of a soft, waxy con-
sistence, depending upon the qiianlity of oil it contains; it consists
of innumerahle very minute i-elis, in the cavities of which the oil and
other active principles arc contained. Fig. 124.

Notvrithstnnding the terms " Hour** and " farina " of mustard com-
monly employed, v\\>c mustard seed does not contain a sinfflc starCh
granule, as may be ascertained by means of iodine and tne micro-
scope.

In black mtistard^ the outer membrane of the seed consists only of
the larjfe hexasonnl transparent cells disposed in two or three layers,
and not perfnrateJ in the centre like those of white mustard; tho
other structures resemble those of white mustard. Fig* 125.

348

MUSTARD, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

On the Adclterations of Mustard.

The ordinary aduUerntioiia of mustard are with wheat fliyur
turmeric^ the uMi|iIojiiieiii uf th« fir.et named urtitie neceasitating the

Fig. tu.

Buuri* of fvmJM gnmiul vktte mumant. Dnvn with tha Cimtn L«eldft, mnA
owcuUied CM (llunctair*.

use of the other to restore or bring up the colour to the original
standard.

Results of the Examination of SampleM.

No !eS9 thnn Forty-two sampler of mustard purchased in the metro-
polis were subjected to examination : the whole of ilieiu were found to
consist of mixtures, in vuriuus pruiHirtions, of wheat flou-r^ turmeric^
and mmtard.

Other adulterations sometimes practised are thos*i with Cajfenne
pepper^ Sinupi* AvensiM, or cHariork, clay, planter of Paris, and cAn*-
mate of lead. The pepper in used to iniprtrt piinpency to it when it
has been otherwise adulterated; olay^ for bulk and weijiht; and the
cbromaCe of lead, to restore the colour when reduced bj other adul-
terations.

MUSTARD, AND ITS ADCLTERATrONS.

349

Mr. Wnrington states, in In> evMeiice before the Parliftmentarr
CuuunitUe on Adulioration, llmt »otne of the samples of mustard

Fig. 185.

[

nuit or Black VvBtA%ttHr4. WmgnlMianMuntttn,

which be examined containe<l from 20 to 30 per cent, of inorganic
matter, chiellv sulphate of lime; ihe gemiini: mustard when burned
yielding from 4^ to 6J per cent, of retiidue.

Mr. Gay, tbrmorly a mustard ornl (;bicorj manufacturer, and now
Superintendent of the Mustard Depnrtmcnt in ht'r Majesty's Vic-
tualling Yard nt Deplford, furiiifbed the Couimitt«e uiove named
with, amongst ntber infurmation, the fullowing respecting the udultern-
tion of uiUKlurd. He state?, —

" I Iwlievu vcrv f«w scruple tit use wheaten llour, turmeric, and
Cayenne pepper. The adulterants I used were tlour, turmeric, Cayenne
j^epper, and ginger.

" But farina is also used, and potato starch is used to a very great
extent ; and now, I am oorry to say, whut ono of the witnecws called

330

MUSTARD, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

tern «Iba, or plaster of Pari*. I hxvt had some samples in my office in
the tnusUrU Ueparimeat since I bare b«en in my prL-sent situation,
from which I bare extracted 5 oumia of ^rpaum in the pyuud ; from

Mr.Ufi.

Tkh MifnvlBf repKaenb the wtkJw iklieHJ bi ft Minpte at ** tkmUt iMitrjfcii
McRAKft," mariifd wltk lh* nunci of Mimti. i. ft J. Co1i»«b t a a, ■nwMN
Jhm-: i h, Btlli at Ummane lumJtr : c. pwrtlaa of Atn* tJlhitA wm>w7,- < ■■lb
of ««ter tBDlo of wAAe wMttarvf Marf; « c, ftvfmuils of Ui« mk/ lualf.

another stunptu I got 5 ounces of rice and wbeaten Hour. I have seen
more than 50 per cent, of gypsum in mustard."

With re^fird (o the adulteration of mustard with charlock, Mr. Gut
remftrka, " When raustanl seed is worth 20a. per bushel, and charlock
about 6i. or Sx. a bushel, it is worth buyini;.**

It is also alleged thnt pea Jiour^ radish and rape seed, linseed mcalj
and yellow ochre have been emplnyed in ibe adulteration of mustard.

No less than four diffiTent nuulities of mustard are supplied by the
mustard manufacturer, under the name of "Seconds,'' "Fine," "Super*
fine/' and " Double Superfine;" the chief <lifference between these
articles i!^ that the lower the quality tlic larger the proportion of wheat
Hour and tiirmoric which they contain.

These sercral mmlities may be purchased at about the following
rates: seconds, 5a. ; fine, 8c/. ; superfine, lit/.; and double superfine,
at U. ^d. per lb.

The practice of making so many diQ*erent qualities of mustard Ja

HU&TABD, AKD ITS ADULTERATIOXS.

351

open to much objection, aince tt gives the wnacrupiiloua donlcr the
greatest scope I'ur impu-iitiun. The {loor tuun hnys his mustard by the
ouncCf and lor this bv usuully piiys it/., receiving in return seconds,
fine, or superfine uiu^tunl, according tu the cutiscienee of the vendor.

it L'un now \>Q underi^tood huw it bapjieiis ihut some of the inixturea
which we buy for inust;u'd scarcely pi>.ss>esa the Uavuur of that article,
and how, when used for poukice^, they ])roduce little or no effect, a
matter uttenlinit:!! of vitul coniciiuenct:.

Dtmbtiejiis wc !ibu.U be told by the mustard manufacturer, that
genuine mustard u a very uopaI;itabIe thing, that it itt bitter to the

taste, and not plcwant to lofjk at; bnt the answer to this is, that the
article um.stard is not ulwsys mode according to one receipt, and that
there exiitt, even in England, u few manufacturers who make and sell
only genuine mustard.

Oh the Detectinii nf the AdnJte rations of Aftutard.
The deteclion of the nrdinnry ndultcralions of mustard is effected
▼cry readily by mean* of the microscope. The chura^-tcra of wheat
fiour are described and figured at p. 243., and of turmeric under the
ncad of that article.

)

ITmiAtda^la^ mad,.

rapf are •ometimc* cfflplored in the adulterftiMti d mvtard,
Mr ftpjKiul 6|prei aod ducnpiioiu uf the busks of tboM acedii

MUSTARD, AND ITS ADULTEUATIONS.

85)

StntclHre nf Sirwpis arpertsvt, Qr Charloch. — The husk of thu seed
reseoiblefi, in colour, very firwely bliwk mustard, from which, how-
ever, on 11 careful exnaiinatinn, it may be dwcriminated by meant
itf the tniorcMCope, notwithstanding the 5(ateraent of Mr. Gay, mad«
bcfon; the Parliamentary Comnutiee, ** that no annlytical chemist
could detect charlock seed mixed with muntard, even with the micro-
acope."

Fit- l»-

A\ hile it agrees in colour with the husk of black mustard, it ap-
:bc8 ID straeture nearer that of white mustard, from which, how-

»»«

MD6TA&i>, A9D ITS ADULTERATIOXS.

•vflTt it may be dbtuykbed in the

ckief difcvnee m ia ne cell* of tbc oater or

■rcHaaBwidnoredriicate than tboMof ibe iMMkoTvyie

tbej are perTurated like tbem, bowever, bat in addition tber cadi teeB
to be mikde up of numerous angular verr delicate and mtntUeceU*;
tbcae are rexj rfaaracteristii; of the seeds of Oarlock. Fi^. 128.

tStntctare of Rape SectL — The membranes forming the bask of rape
«eed are m distinct that no dlffiouliy need be eipeneneed m distio-
guishing thii teed froin those of anjr of the mustards. It is f^mtpttamA

M Rut iMltui Hmc. hat vhkk

tptOtt Iff

of two membranes, tbc outer resembling somewhat the second mem-
brane of the busk of the mustards, but tbe cells ore much larger, and
in consequimeu their cavities du nut appear black in p^rneral, but nior«
or lem lisbt, the walls of tbe cells being thick and well defined ; near
tbe unibdicua of tbe seed the cells usually are disposed in a linear

MUSTAUD, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

355

manner. 'I'he innerraost niembranc does not prcacnl any peculi-
arity.

In a sample of rape cake forwarcied to us for examinatir.n, and sus-
pected to Ir* ndulleriiteil with mustarU, we met with what ap|)eared
lo be the husk of a species of mustard. It U represented in^'. 131,

Pit. IXI .

Trttttntr** %aA Vtrtimi SerltoM* nf htitk of • ipcrli* nf htr^TABD 8liii> met wllk
In ■ uMiiilc xrKtalunLlMl nrcftiMl fiooitbi coiwiuninlon vf «bich loawaiitlt
u% niA K> twve ilted. SAi diuDcler*.

Jt approaches in structure mo9t nearly to the hn.sk of blark mustard,
hut the cells of the first coat are pcrforaled, and those of bnth the
6rst and scrnnd coiit^ arc oinch 1:ir<:cr : in the large riizc of the celts
uf the second coat it comes sunienhut near to tlic liusk of rape seed :
but then in this we have never nut with any outer toat of large
colourless celK llie hu^k in question, therefore, belongs most pro-
bably t<»8ome foreign }<pecies of uiu»lnrd

Uadi>h 5C0<I, on account of its price, is scnrcely likely to be employed
in the uduHeralion of mustard ; it is not necessary, therefore, to give
A ilfsrrijilion oi' its flrm-ture.

Fiir the ilijicovery of the inorgmiic aduiierationg of mufltard, rei'ourse
must be had to chemistry.

The proceM for the detection of alumina nr clay is gi\ en at page 1 80.,
i/tgypiutn ur tulphair vf lime at p. 09., of j/cHuw ochre in the article od

A A S

85«

PEPPEK, AM) ITS ADL'LTERATIONS.

Turmeric, and of chrome yellow or ehromate of lead in that on Coloured

Sujiar Coiififctionei y.

Mii.ourd flour, duty Ijr. Gd. percwt. Ditto, mixed or maiiufscti
(except lloiir), 5*. por cwt.

Imports of i]vur in 1»54 Hml 1855. 3 and 2 cwls. re^peotireh
Mixed ur munui'uctureil, niher limit ilour, in 185-1, 97 cvrt<*.. and
1855, lOQ cwts. Kt'lained for home coDSuutption, 95 and 78 cirti.
each of tlie years specified.

PEPPER, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

The nnliiral fiimily Pipfracea im'UidL's four plonls of g^re^it utility
iiiunkiiid; two of those, Piper ni^mm^ nr bhick pf[tper, mid Piper Ioh-
guMy nwtre n^cenlly nnincd Cfiacica ftnxtiurghiiy or long ]>»?pr>t'r, nre'l
rhielly omployud for dioleiic and ruliimry purposes; whilst the nlhers,
Piper Cubehuy nnw Cubcbfi o^civalix, utui Arifmthe eloiigaUt^ or the
niatic'o plant, are piiiK'ipidly employed in tnedieine.

The plant which yields Cayenne, Capsicum anunnm, often improperly
termed Cayetuie pei>per. dtn^s nut belong to the family of Piperacete at
all, but to that ni' Soitintfcete.

The pepper of cnninicrce is furnished by Piper nigrum, and it ii to
this specie:*, therefore, that on the present occasion we shall have to
direct atlpntion.

The black pepper plant tjrows both in the East and West Indies, in
Sumatra^ JavEU and ntber irUiiidB; it is u shrubby, climbinj; ptanKf^H
which attains th*^' hir-i^lil uf iVoui uiphl to twelve ftn:U Tbe burrie?, or^|
peppercorn*, grow on ternnnuL flinverstalks or iipadices : tliuy are at ^^
first green, but i'hiin3:e subsequently to red unil then to bliK-k. When
any of tbe berries on a spadix have begun to turn red, the whole are

§atherc<l, dried in tbe sun, and the utalks separated by the hand. la
ryinp, ilie succulent part of cnL-h berry beenmcj* contracted nnd
wrinkled, forming; a hjir<U'ned wrinkled cortex ; the enrrugations being
niucli raisied, and deseribiug n kind ofelcvoted network.

The follfHrinj* more tietniled particulars conoerninp tbe growth of
the pepper ptunt and tlif j.^iitltering of the berries ure extrauted from
M^CuHoeh's *"■ Dictionary of Commerce" ; —

" It climbs to the height of twenty feet, but is said to bear best
when restraineil to tbe Tieirrht of twelve feet. It begins to proiluce at
about the third year, and in in perfection at tbe seventh : continues in
this state for three or four vears, and tleclines for about as manv more,
until it ceases to be worth keepint^. The fruit grows abundantly from
all its branches, lu long, small clusters of from twenty to fifty grains j
when ripe it is of a bright red colour. After being gathereil, it is

PEPPER, AM) ITS ADILTKRATIONS. 357

on num.'* in llie sun, when it Io^o.h its red cnlour, find becomes
tJiil (^lirivfllod as wo »ov it. Tho {;pain.^ nrc fleimrateil ("roni the,
Btulk? by lianri-rijl'bin;,'. Thai whicli has been jriitheroil ut the proper
pi'pjod pliiivela the leiwt; but if plucki<!tl inn soon, il will bc<:o]iic broken
iitu! dusty in it^ removal from place to place. The vine prutiuees
two erojHt in the }ear, but ibe seasons are subject to ^reut irregu-
lurittGii."

Those berricit nre the beat which are not too amoll nor too much
Ci'rrujjaleil; which are heavy, itnd sink remlUv in wnt*'r.

The two varietie« of pej)pfr known as " blnik '* ami '* wlitte" pepper
Are both nbtuined from the snine jilnnl. : bliick ground pe|.p|ier is the
entire berry rL>duce<l to powder, wliile ibe wfiite eonsifits oi'the same
berry decorticated or deprivud n! its (»uu*r and black husk or covering.

We learn fnun Pereira thut throe kinds of biack pepper are distin-
guished by wholesale dealers. These are : —

'''' Mtihihnr tiepper. — This is the itiosl viitiiuble; il is hrotruUh'bhick^
free from sialks, and nearly free from dust."

^^Peitanfr papptr. — This is broufniithhliek, larpar, smoother, free
from stalks, out very dusty. It is sometimes used in England to mS'
nufactnre white pepi»er."

"'■ Sumntra pepper. — This is the clieapeiit iort; It is black, mixed
with slnlks^ and contains nuich dust. Unrler the name uf Sumatra
pep|*r, w»iin; ilealerc include the Peiiang or brownish-black sort, and
tbp black Sumatra sort."

Three kinds or varieties of Khiie pejtptr have also been distin-
guished.

** TeUtrherrp pepftfr^ whi<:h is of two kinds : large or fineTellicherry
pepper is lamer and whiter than any other descripticun of white
pepper, and fetches a higher price; ninall or coriander-like pejtjter is
shrivelled."

" C\immnn white pepper comes fnim Penanj; by Slngjtpire ; it ia
round, and not shrivelled ; iL<( vulue depends <in its size uiul whitL*ness."

** English blrttrhfU, or white pepper. — When the two preceding
sorts are scarce, brnwii iVMUinj; pep|tep is bleuchi'd, The yellowest
and largest grains ure t tnriteo lor this purpose, for neither an expen-
sive nor duiail sort would pay.**

On the Composition of Pepper,

The active properties of pepper dejwnd upon the presence nf nn
arrid resiUy a volaHle oil, and a crystallisabte substance called A-
I perine.

The follfjwin:: ia the romposition at hltxck'tkiiA white pepper, accord-
ing til Pelletier * and Lueii t : ~

I • Auit. de Cttlio. et dt Phyi. xr. 941. t S:liw«rti«. rhArm. TabellA

I A A 3

S5d

PEPPER, AND ITS ADULTERATTOXS.

BUck I'epper

[PcllcUvrX

WliltePii>per(Luc&).

Acrid .«oft resin.

Acrid re«in - - -

16-60

Volatile oil.

Volatile oil -

1-61

PifiieriDe.

Exiractive, gum, and salts

12-50

Extractive.

Starch ...

18-dO

Guin.

Albumen - . -

2-50

Baaaorin.

VVooily fibre

2900

Starch.

Waler and loss

19-29

Malic acid.
Tartaric acid.

100 00

Polasli, calcareous,

and mairnesU.

SnlU.

WrM.dy fibre.

In Lucii's annl^'sis the pipt^riuc is pruTiably Jucluded in the resin.

The Tftin in very acrid, bolubk ui alc^'bol and etbt;r, but not in
Tolatilo nib

The volatile ail has the odour and taste of pepper. Its specifio
gravity )5 0-9932.

Piptrine \^ a crystallisable substance ; the crystals being rhombic
prisms with inoUnt^d bnses: it fuses at 212° F., is inst'lubtc in cold
water, and only slightly so in bailing* vrattir; it disitolvcs in ulcuhol.
from which piperine is throtrn down wbon water it abided ; vlber and
acetic nrid uUn dl!*>olve it, but llie first h not so gooil h »i>lvont as
alcohol. It is ta«<telc9S and inodiirous : with slrun<! sulpliurle acid it
forms A blixMl-rcd li<piid ; nitric and bydrnchloric acids turn it 6rst
greeni&h-yelbiw, then orange-, and jiftcrwards rctl.

Stritciure of Pfppcr.

Structtirf of the Berrij. — 'i'he berry of the black jjcpper plant pos-
sesses a Rtrui'ture of oonsideraWe cnmplieiiti»n, and of much intercut;
and sinec wilhuut an accurate knowledge of it^ minute or^ranisalion
we cannot hope to be in a positicm In detect the numerous adultera-
tions to which tlii? nrticle is subject, it becomes necessary to de»cril>e
somcwhiC minutfly tlic tissues which enter into its fiinnation.

In a section of the berry, two parts arc to be diailnpuishcfl — an
outer nud an inner: the f)r.«t is blac-lc, or reddiMh-bluck ; and the
second more or less white, hard, and briiilcf except in the centre of
the seed, where it is frequently soft and pulverulent.

AV'hen a thin vertical sectirm of tlie outer or cortical part of the
berry is exauiiiied, by means of the micn«C"pe, it is seen tn be com-
posed of sever.il distinct pnrts, each of which is constituted of one ur
more layers of cells. Such a section is reprwenled \\\Ji^. 132.

TTio external part n\' the berry, marked a in the fiillowin<» figure, is
constituted of cells of im elonjjutcd fonii, yilaced verli*-jilly. These
cells are provi<led with a central cavity from whirJi lines, probably
minute canals or channels, radiate tuwnrds the circumference ; when

PEPPER, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

359

viewed sideways, tliey opp«ar rather more than twice u long lu broad;
and when seen endwayf, they appear luuslly oval in sba[)ef and but
litlle iun;ier than hroutl. Cells of a somewhat similar character are
dcscril>cd in the Rci>ori on Sugar, us entering into the formation of
tlie epidermis of the sugar cane.

SmUoo of ft PtrrcR Bikiiv, (hQwInn tho KWnil l»jen of c«llt of wlikh ih* i-ohumI
pnrt u ninalUutnl. ■ml tlic juttctlon of ttiii mt / «tth thr (Vnlrttl iKittinn. g.
Orsvn with the C«m«r« LucMa, ltd nii(nl(l«<1 M> dlameten-

Thc eells next in order» and upon which the previously described
cells rcstf are small, angular, and dark coloure<l ; tbey, fts well as the
radiat<' cells, are shown h\^g. 133.

The smull ancrulnr cells, just noticed, do not appear t4i separate
readily from the cells whifh occur immediately beneath lliem, and of
which they are probably mere mollifications; strictly sjwaking, there-
fore, they ou«;ht to be considered as I'uraiing part of the layer next to
be described, and we have spoken of them separately only for con-
Tenience of reference and description.

A A 4

S60

PEPPKU, AND ITS ADULTliUAflOya.

Tlie cellfl now to be dcscnbed aru tvfo or three timea larger than
tiiQse previously noticed, aud verj numerous, lurming about half lb»

ntlM.

.^^S^'

A portUm of tht oerMx of the Pirrnitt Bkhbt. vkwed on (h« larfu*. tKowiug Ihf
kIU which farm tto flnl «ad aeooail lajcn. DnvB »iUl Uu Cmcrft LocUk,
•nd mMpilflctt ISudiametcm.

thickness of the cortex ; they are all more or less ooloured, and the
colour deepens aa the cells ap]in>iioh the next laver. The position ot'
this second layer is pointed out tit h^Jlg. 132. The thirii layer is very
thin, and Is coniijoscd of woody fihre, bundles of spiral vwsseU of sniafl
size, and formed of single threads, ;?^'. 132. c.

The Junction of the »ec<ind with the third luyer la pointed out by a
dark line ailufited about the middle of tike cortex ; see Jig. 13*i. c

The fourth luyer ta composed of iniinerous large cells, itnd it con*
Btitutes the grenter part of the remaining half of the eorlex {Jig. \^%d).
As the celU approach the central part of thp berry, they bt'couie much
modified, two or thrt^p lim.'s sniuller, and of a ileep red colour ( Af-
132. e) ; these cells might be deseribed as forming a fifth and distinct
layer.

The numerous cells which fttrm the fourth layer contain a very
great abundtinee of oil ^lr>buk's, and it is in it that the Cd&ential oil of
the pepper berry is chiefly located.

Tne cells which form the fifth and la^t tissue which enters into the
composttion of the cortex of the pepper berry are divisible into two
or three layers, the outer are coloured, and the inner invariably
colourless; the colourless cells present a reticulated appearance, form-

PKrPER, AND ITS AUCLTERATIOX?.

361

in;; .1 triin5pArent lamina which (retiuentW si^parattfs, as a distinct tissue.
h'ig, 132./

Fig- IM.

A pvrtlon oftht/oHrM tnmina of tlie cortrv of Piirnim Himir. •howin^ the nil
eoaUfiud ia UiieflaTiiln uf the cclLf. Ihairn with the Cunc» I.ucija, uid
tiMC«lS»d Itm di»in«Un.

The enUrnlpare of the berry or ae«d ia constitutetl nf cells of large
sixe and angiiliir shape; they are about twice as lonu aa briiad« and
dispotwd Id a radiate manner; in the outer part of the seed tbey nre
■dlierent, hnrd, and slonelike, while in the curitru they are readily
«epanil>]e, and often (urm a powder rt^senibling tluur. Fig. 132. {.% and
Fig. 135.

When the pepper berry is macerated in viiter for some hours, th«
oorticAl part apparently separates without iliHicuItv from the «?ed
proper; il', however^ we exiiniine the surface nflliia iTosely, wcobwrve
tbatitisofare<ldi:4h colour, and it becomes evident thai a portion of the
cortex 18 still adherent. thi» consisting of part of the foiu*th layer, con*
tainin^ much uf the oil, und the fifth layur.

It now becumes tipimretit that the terms in ooranion use, ** white
pepper," und '*decorlu*aled popper," are not altogether correct, fur
the berry i« not entirely denuded of the cortex, nor is its powder
white, for if a little of it b« ditfused through water on a slip of glas-V red-
dish particles immediately become visible : these are fruj;ment<« uf that
portion of the cortex which remains firmly adherent to the seed itself.

When sections of the inner part of the pepper berry are immersed

3«2

PEPPER, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

in water for a short time, tlie^ assume a jrellowish or canary tint, and
when exaioined with the microscope, the colour is seen to be confined

FOe i».

^r^^'tl

I mi

'^ '*iT?l«^

ttttitmtit the cmfro/ forttomnl Iht Pkitrr BnxT. ihowlng the two klmltof
rrjlt nf wliteh tt I* compcMcd, th« colourleM And ciolouml cclU. umI «!•» lu
Jtinrtion with Ibo cortex- Dravn w\th the t'Btncni Luddft, and tnajpilScd ISO
(li«metcn-

to cerlnin of the cL'Ua only, of wliith the wcti'ms arc composed; theae
cells are rather lurj;er than tlie uniinary ucIIb; thej «rv place*! at
tolerably regular distancea from each other, and thoy refloat a deep
yellow colour. In recent sections which have not be^^n immersed in
water, thf celln, which afierwnnls het^ome yt-'ll'<w, may be di^^iinguished
by a darker shadinv. and Rometiinea bv a fnint tint of rtdoiir. The
deepening of colour is dctcnnined by tiie action of the mUs contained
in water on the contents of these colhs which differ cheinically from
those of the ordinary cells.

It is probfitly in these coloured cells that the pipcrine ia located*
Alcohnl and nitric acid deepen the tint very gretiily, and on the appli-
cation of concentrated siilphurir ncid to dry scctidns nf tlie pepper
berry, they become of a reildi^ih hue, (he chanjjc of colour boing
limited, in the first instance, to the i)cculinr cells in question. These
results of the use of 9ul[ihunc ncid are such as ensue with piperine
iUclf.

PEPPER, AND ITS ADULTERATION'S.

SfiS

The structure nf llie centrnl part of the pepper berrj, antl the po-
sition and character of the Cflnuret! cells, ari; shown mjig. 1.15.

Now, in ^(lund hluck pepper, all the stnielurcs which wo huvc de-
scribcti may be Lracecl oui in a broken and frugmentury condition^
but in white pepper certain of these tissuefl only exist — viz., a part
of the fourth layer of cells, which eontuins the uil, and the fifth cellu-
Ur lamina.

Before the observer is in a position to detect the adulterations of
pepper^ it is necessary that he should well understand the appearances
RnuLh bluck nnd white.

When black pcp|>er h diffused thrnu^li wiiler, little pnrticles of
three different kinds, intermixed with a tine powdery substance, are
Tisible ; i^oriie of these nre black, others reddish, and the last while;
the black are frag:inents of the outer, and the red those of the inner
cortex, while the white are the pulverised seed itself. The white pow-
der i» formed of (he cells of the seed, some united in two;* and threes,
but the majority either sepHrated and entire, or broken into pieces;

XSn m .iDCXXXftATlOAS.

%km tituy iltoHiia %«l Em hlMofad wtdi
«nii fifaMi «ataiBiBe«i <riiii thm
nhiUf p^>p«r nu block tn^aoito ought feD be

praaai. lUttftUv
portof tbe berry.
ftiMK ndh ocbsr, wheiber entiiv

k» ptftieks flf SM< fcr wticb
by penins tfwf mted with

'QIW <MMlM» (»r tb«w 4«llii arw tiUMi vitb •taneksnnolea of exccvd-
1^ i^^iHami^ «Mi w ift gruiuui pupper, but of the oelU are

.liut tNwv ii^ 2vtiiiriiit)r a m Bttte of ■mfcciilar moveaieiit,
>t' uil nthar this starafc leraaote*. Ko
- H«*rrT bveidn dkow j«C deMribcd.

• b outained in ibe seed or central

-11 tuuh;btr«) widia •olutioB or iodine

( cuila Umi{{ tflected in tbe

tbn^ vuttiU bv v<r,v «(»« to bo AM
(bi» tfctoi'MirKiiw MmtfUiro of tbo

U«t HM .VifuiiTUk&mHn or Pkptbi.

Mftl^l <-*> ^Hir* ff**^ ■A'^ tcoDdaliJUS ailultenxion^ and
I UU uMM ul' ikil tint artioftw pUcetl uoder tbe superrisioa

IfeMAb^ll*

ff/Samftiea.

Miny>^ uf block Mui white pepper exunined a

UnMtd mtal, mmUard husk, wkt^

u»l ^N/rpar^iu/. To this list niusi

i. nfvvwtlv oitft with bjr tbe Excise iu Mtn|Jc9

* tritber of the sweeping's of

Ic u^i in imitation of ground

■ ml ion of thut article.

\'< the following evidence, be-

(4wiMUtWK iM .VauUviut. iliig ihe odutteniiMi of

i 111 iit-xilv twelve j-etfswu lll^
ultorttK-il. "We Mre found ricv.

PEPPER, AXD ITS ADULTERATIONS.

965

poUto 9tarph, linseed m«a1, Chitia, busks of rat^ ami white
roustarilt Mfbeat, brun aiui tlour, and jrround pypjum or cry»tallijitfd
sulphate of titiK'. Tlio stock nmterinl lor ndiiherating ncppi-r i.i tlie
husks of ivd aDil white inuatard seeds und linaeei) meat, wuntied up
with C\i\\h '*

Of 100 lbs. of an article seized in ISG'l at Clielmsford as pepper,
2lb». onljr cimsinted uf pepper, the re»t beiiijr init^ks of nuiRltird,
Cbitifl, and rice. liape ieednaM also been found in pepper. Mr. (.inr,
from whose evidence we have before rjuoted, states that whiri; pepper
i^ sometime? adulterated with boue fbt»ty commonly cath'il irory dn*t.
He also pave the foUowinjj receipt for P.D : — " It la mnniifm-lured
from rape or linseed cake, niu^tanl husks, and Cayenne pepper."

Some years since it was not uncommon to meet witli etrtijirioi pepfter-
instnncett of their oecurrence are tnentioiied in Tiionison's
•*Annal* of Clientistr)"," and also by Aeeuui, in the seeund edition of
his celebrated work — " Death in the Pot."

Accnui wrilcs: "I have examinetl Urge packages of both black
and white pepper by order of the Exeise, and have foiimi iheiii to
contain about l^ per cent of this artificial compound. Thi.H .spurioua
pepi»er is made of oil eafce, the residue of ihe linseed fntui wliieb the
oil has been pressed, common clay, and a ])oriion uf Cayenne prpper,
formetl into a mass, and granulated by being first pressed through a
sieve, and then rolled in a cu!<k."

The <"use of [K'pjier affords a liimentable instance of the inelHciency
of the Kxcii*e in checking adulteration.

On the Detection of the Adulterations of Pepper,

The whole of the adulterations of pepper mentioned, except that
with the husk of |>epp«rf are only lobe detected in a certain and satis*
faclnry manner by means of the microscope.

The characters of the starch granules of wheat, rice, and potato,
have already been described ; tho-i? of wheat at p. 243., those of rice
at n. !2.55., of j>otalo flour at p. 320., and of sapo at p. 325.

The structure of mvstord and rnpe seed^ and of Cayenne^ will be
found described and figured under the heads of Mustard and Cayenne ;
the meihod of delecting; sulphate of Hme is given at p. 99.

It then only remnins for us to describe the structure and appear-
ances ot limeed meal and o( pea Jlottr.

^H Structure of Linseed Meal,

Linseed possesses ii very lieautiful structure; four coals or tunica

I enter into the comiwsition of the covering of the »ee<l, and require
description.
'I he outer coat gives the polish to the seed, and is composed of a

FEPFEB, AND ITS ADL'LTEEATIONS.

It is in the cells which rnrtn litis ttinic thsl tb« macilt^ wbiclr
linseed yields so abandantlj, on infuiitm, is contAUied.

Fig. 117.

The BCi'oiul cO:tL coiisists of u siitf^le layer of ec'll*> enclosing granular
matt<^r ; Iboy atu ot'a rounded loriii, rjkI h'.WK tbick wiUls.
e tktrtl

Tlie

mcmbroDe is composed of niirruw elungatcMl cells, or

PEPPER, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

367

rftther 6bres, some hcin« Inn^^itutlinal arid others trnnsvcrse; lliese
give it a KtriiUed and very charncteriMic appearance; being tirm and
htronji, it fonns the praiecling tunic of the seed.

The fourth meinbninu is made up of angular cel]»» many of which
are inure or less tK^uure, enc^lusii)"^ ma»se8 of colouring; mutter, pro-
bably of u rcsiniius character, and which readily full out of the cell^, an
represented in the fij;irrc.

The xubstiinctf of the seed coniiista of cells, in the cavitfes or meshes
formed by wlitch the oil and starch ^runulen iire enclosed.

The oil is coniuinod principally in ihe outer or lanTC superficiuf
cells, in the fonn of linlluint and peurl-like irttnute dri^pu or s^pliurulei*.

Tlie sUifch granules are must abundant in tiie interior of the ^rain;
they are an<:ular, mtuute, and two ur llirue times larger than ihoie of
the |>epj)ereorn.

The whole of the structures above described may be snlisfuctorily
"detected, by a little piitlent investigalion, in the linseed redui-ed to
powder or nteal. The p^rls, however, most frequently and clearlv
ftcen, are iragmcnts of the fibrous ooat, uihI liltle niujsses of the seed,
fVom the ed'xes of which, portions of the eeilulo^e I'urmiug the trans-
parent cells project, in a radiate und very cliarncteristic nmntier.

Sf7vrtnre of Pea Fluur. — I'ea flour resembles very clostly bean flour
already described and figured under the article Bread, ihu chief diflfe-
rence consists in the size of the starch corpuscles, which are much
smaller in pea than in heiin flour.

On the Detection nf Pepjter Huak*. — The presence of an undue
quantity of pep|M>r husk in black pepper may be ituspeeted by the
■ppeiimnce of the urtiele, il^ dark colour, and the ijuunlity of husk
visible to the naked eye ; the only way, however, in which this admix-
ture is to be determined with certainty, is by a quuntilative chemical
analysis of ihc «iiniple.

It is not ofinn that such an nnnlysis ia necessary.

On the DrtectioH if Factitioni Pepper Berries. — The suspected
pepper >houId be soaked for some lime in water, when, should it con-
tain artificial peppercorns, these will become disinlo-gruled and fall to
pieces. Their conifK>sition is to be aacurlained partly by chemical
analysis and partly by mieroscopionl examination.

The processes for the detection of xulphate of iime and bone f/iu/have
already been described elsewhere.

Duty on pepper, of all aurtJi. is 6rf. per lb., and 5 per cent, thereon.
There were entered for home consunipiron in 1854, 3,720,534 lbs.;
lS6ii, 3.647,803 lbs. ; nine months of iSfS, 2.G46,910 lbs. It is evi-
dent therefore that the loss to the revenue arising out of the udultc-
ration of this single article moat be very great.

968 CAYENNE, AND ITS ADCLTEEATIOKS.

CAYENNE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Cayenne Pepper con5i?«ts of the pofla or seed TeneU, ground sol rr-
diiced to powder, of (lifll'r*.'nt species of Cupsiatm^ but p ri n cijw !I» "*
C annuum^ and C frutettcens ; the Inlter BjHTcip?, heinsf strtmfw ifri
better flavaupcd, yields the best demrripiion orC'iiyonne pop^wr

The [lenus cap$ieuni hehinfrs to t)i« SoUtnacta: or nightsha'Jf fanU'r.
which nliHi iiu-ludes ihe potato phtnc.

Capsicum tinnNum h & mittve of America, but is cullivti«d in tk
Wc9t and KttSt Indies And to Bomo citent, m grucnhotues, in En;*
land and other Eiirop<'an countries.

It 18 nn Qnniial. herbaceous plnnt, Rud, acoordinv to M
**one oi* llie hardiest aiul most productive pUnts found i ■
climntes, f^rowtng luxiiriantlv in almost nil drr tt^ils, howevvr imiifif
rent.'* In this country it Bowers in July, and ripens it* pr*^ in
Oftdber ; when immature, the berries are preen, and only ^(taallf
beoome re<l as thev prow ripe; they ore used Imrh in the greirti aaJ
red states, and in the undried and dried conditions: in rbe rmni
state they are emj)l()yed for pickling : when dried they are uw! ta
medicine : and, reduced to ponder, they constitute Car<niiie pef^-

The dried berries ordinarily sold as ckiUien are of this spfvia: in
this condition they are more or less shrivelled, oblon«, broad it l^
di.-ttal extremity, the calyx and stalk bein|g[ usually ndbertmt tolk#
broad end. They vary very much in size and form ; the larjrrtisn
two or three inches long, and at the base Are An im h or more widf;
they are distinguifthcd, according to their siec and shape, intoltff
podded, short-pmlded, und hcart'-ihapcd.

Tlie pods of this capsicum are hot and pungvnt, but ikey hartv
aroma.

The pods of Capaicnm fnitetcetu constitute what is known atjf'—
or bird pepprr, and when proiind they furnish the best descripu**'
Cayenne p*?pper. They are small, scarcely an inch in length, sTm
or two broad, and of a deep oran^-red colour. Koch bernr saciVB
usually about a dozen Battened, rcniform seeds.

The pfxU are hotter and more fiery than tliose of C anmmm; Aff
are likewise to some extent aromatic.

Two other species of Capsicum have been deDominatod, trcn ^
form of the fruit. Cherry chtUy or Chei^y P^PP^ — Cap$iff%m etM^
/ortne, and Sell pepper or Captieum grvswm*

Composition of Cayenne.

The composition of capsicum berries is shown m the foUonlf
analyses made in the years 1816 and 1817: —

CAVENNE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

:i69

Bucholx'4

Anal tf wis.*

(18160

Acrul sofl resin (capsicin)

- 40

Wax . -

- 7-6

Bitter aromatic extractive

- 8-6

Extraetite with some gum

- 21-0

Gum - - -

- 9-2

- 3-2

Woody fibre -
Water -

- 28-0

- 120

Loss

6-4

Fruit of Cajmcum annuum, witbout seeds - 1000

BraeonmCs Analym.^

(1817.)

Acrjil oil - - - -

• 1-9

Wax with red colouring matter

- 0-9

Brownish starchy matter

- 90

Peculiar gura - - - -

- 6-0

Aiiimalised matter - - -

- 50

Wootly fibre ... -

. 67-8

SalU: citrate of potash 6*0

Phosphat c of potash, and

- S-4

Chloride of potassium 3-4

Fruit of Capxicum aiutniim

- 1000

Of ft//i»iW«, the active principle of Cayenne, Pereira gires the
following account: —

"Obtained by digesting the alcoliolic cxtrad in Pther, and evapo-
rating the ethereal solution. It is a thick liquid, of a yeltnuri.4h-rcd
or reudiah-brown colour, which becomes very lluid when hcatt-d, and
at a higher temperQitirc is dissipated in fumes. Half a grain of it
volatilised in a large room causes all who inspire the air of the room
to cough and snee/.e. By exposure to tiir and light it solidities ; it is
decolorised by chlorine ; it is slightly soluble in wnter and in vinegar^
but very much so in nlcohol, ether, oil of turpentine, and the caustic
alkalies; with baryta it forms a solid acrid combination."

Structure of the Capnicmn Berry or Fruit.
Each capsicum berry is made up of three parts — an outer skin or
epidermis, parenchyma, and seeds.

•GaellD, HaDdb.d.Chnc. U. 1310.

t Aqti. de Chlm. Fhyi. wU in.

S70

CAYENNE, AND ITS ADCLTE BAT IONS.

The epidermu contirtM of flnttoncd cells, tortuoiu and Rncoltf
in form. Viewed on the outrr or upper surface, the bonier? m ike
cells are been m be well defined ; they are often four-rided ; lb* »»fl»
are ikick, beaded here oiid tbere, the beading of one cell eorrr^p^^-
ine to tbat of the conli^funus cells ; lastly, the lines of juucrkm oltitt
cells are sometimes foiinlly indicated.

Vicwecl on the inner surface the cella appear less aiijrutar, but m"*
tortuous, the walls broader, and much more beaded, ^i^. U8.

When frnffmcuts of tbc epidermis arc seen inimcr»od in »»l«.
numerous oilglaliides of a det^p and beautiful oninj'i.'-red colour ir»
visible; some of these are imbedded in the cavities of thecclKt*'
the majority doat fieely in ibc surrounding wuter.

These scverid Btructurul particulars are well sliown in the follo*^
engraving.

Fie. ia«.

UriDEUlM af CANimii, DUlt-r ■nit Innrr nirfhm. Hafniawt

In the ne.xt two figure.* the general nppi'iirnnce prcscn:
epidermis on a more superficial uxnmimaion is exhibttrd, t
details being oiuittod.

The /mrrtifAym«, which unites the 80cd« with each other, i»4i^

whole with the epidermis and peduneJe, U likewise comfmaod ofe^}
ihe^ are of a rounded or oval form, the porietcs arc thin, swl l**J
cavities usually contain a very lar^^e quantity of oil, in th» ■

CAYENNE, AND IT9 ADULTERATIONS.

371

lonumcrable droplets, maiiT of uonsiderable size, and which impnrt to
this objecr, viewed under the. mIcrt>scope, a rerv beuutiful nppeurunce.
Fig.\4l.

Ftg. m.

Aft«<n)mt«tf Ui« vMoKWof UwcmpriBwm bwry, Tliwid on Hi •otn nxtkm.

Fi^. 142. represents a seelion of the cortical portion of the poil.

In the ieed^ two parts — ih« covering of the seed and the seed itself
— require to be dcscribciK

Th«-* coverinj? of the *eod possesses a very peculiar structure, which
it is difficult fully to undcMtAiid. and th(.*reforc not ea-ty to dejirribc
accurately. It is of a bright-yellow colour, and of CI>n^ide^able thick-
new. Viewed under the mirrownpe, its outer gurfuoc presisnts a cel-
lular texture, the marpins of whiit appear to be ihe €!ell'i bi'inj^ thick
and tortuouSf and the cavities dark an<t deiiressed, as though tliey were
rather apertures than the hollow interiors nf the cells.

Vertical nectioni^ of lhi« covering pn»sent a very ninfridiir appear-
ance. In this view it appears as thoujfh cumpoited t>f a number uf tooth-
like processes, having a suraewhat nirliute di^ipOAiiion, with intervals
between each prtx-e.^, the pointa or summits of the teeth ending in
very minute huok-Uke hpines, the points of these beinj; lost in
a inin membrane A^rming the external covering of the seed. It
ap[>ears that these tuuth-likc processes really cutuist of the thiokeaed

B B 2

873 CAYENNE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

walls of contifruous cells (seej^. 143.); that fliis is reallyso w
from an examination of the upper of the two sketches on tbc Mini
the section of the vccU ; thcjr arc best developed at the exlrcjuuy cf
the seed.

Fig. 140.

The seed proper conBiBts of minute lingular cells, having thidl'^
colourless parieteii ; their cavities arc 51 led with moleculei and^
bules of oil of a yellowisbor reddisb-j^elluw colour, but donotcM^
starch.

On tub Adultekations or Caybnitk.

Cayenne is subjected to ercn mcyre extensive adalteratiMi tM
ordinary pepper.

Rendu of the £jamination of SampUt.

Of Twenty-eight Bamplea of Cayenne submitted to mJuimyrf
and chemical examination, no lesa than ticenty-four were ddbfiti^
And Jour only were genvine.

2\if€7Uy-ttco contained mineral colotring matter$.

In thirtten cases this con^i^red of r^ Uad^ whidi waa pnMitt
tome of the aauples in very considerable quantities, whtl« iatWi^

CAYEKKE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

373

maining seven samples it was some red ferrugmouA earth, Venetian
red or red ochre,

Vermilion^ or stUphuret of mercury^ was present in one of the
Civennes.

Six of the Cavennes consisted of a mixture ntf^ound rice, turmeriCy
and Cayenne^ coloured with either red leatl, VeneUan red^ or ochre.

ftc- 1«.

e'^

*. I

(I. nanwAirniQ of oiMleara bnrj dtuiteil fmmedlktclr b«fl»«th the cptdarmU t
IM Mil* [q thi* tttuatiim m of « nwrc rouriOcd form. Mid «r« IrKtvrKd by
•pinl twhU Asd vuodjr flbn. 6, the faFcacAjnm tnrruaadlug tli« wadft.

A'ie of the Cajcnnes contained larpc quantities of talt^ sometimes
alone, but mi>stljr c<tmbinetl with rice nnd the red earth* or red Uad.

One of the samph'fl wa<i adulterated with a large quantity o( the
husk of white muMttird Meed.

Lastly, tivo were adulterated with Wee, and were coloured in addi-
tion, the one with red lead^ and the other with a red fermgiHOMs
earth.

The object of the use of reil lead and other red culourini; matters
is twofold ; 6r8l, to conceal other adulterations, and, second, to pre-

B b3

374

CAYKNNE, AND ITS ADrLTERATIOX9.

serve the colour of the Cayenno, as when exposed to the light (or »ni
time, it usually loses part ol' the bright-r€<i colour which it «t irf.

Fig, us.

poneMW, an<1 therefore it bec(<ni(*fl <let«riorate«] in fhe evo *f ^
purchaser. The red lead, &e., adiled docs not, i^f ctmtte^ pni^9
the colour of the CaTfUiie, but simply supplies the place ofthAt akii*
it loses in consequence of exposure.

Salt is employed fur the some purpose. This substance hi* i B^
markable effect in brinninji: out the colour of the Cayeaar. U '^
howerer, also used to increase its wei'ihu

The adulteration of Ciiyeniiu with such subslnncea u red ladtfA
mercury U, dDubtlps.s highly prejudicial to hcnlcb : it bai bttaMlii
that colic and parHlypis have bolh been produced by the uae of Cif*
enne containinj^ red lead.

The salt* of lead and mercury are character'sed by the citfl**
■tance that they are apt to accumulate in the systi^m, ami finalrli
produce symptoms of a very serious nature. Thus, no matter »••

CAYENNE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

375

amAll the imantity of mercury or lead introduce*! eocli day, the system
is suro in tlie end, lilthougU it be slowly and insidiouily, lo be brought

Fu.m.

^■i^

rwMeal.<Mio»or(lu5MrforCArBtnrM. Macnllvd 100 dlamclen.

under the influence of these poisons, and to become seriously affected.
The quantity of red lead iiirroduced into the system in adulterated
Cayenne is however, hy no mrutu inconsidcrahie.

A case uf lead poisontn<j arising from the consumption of Cayenne
adulterated with red lead is referred to in the evidence of Mr. Post-
gale before the Parliamentary Committee on Adulteration; the case
WU8 received into tlniveraity Ctillecc Hospital. The man was in the
habit of consuming large ciuantities of Cayenne^ which, un being
U»ted, was found to contain lead.

The article known u£ soluble Cayenne was stated by Mr. Scanlan,
before the Purlianientnry Committee, to have the following compo-
sition : — '*It contains both copper and vermilion ; the copper is acci-
dentally introduced into it from the mo4le of prcpnmtion — it h token
from a copper still. They muke u sort of tincture of the Cayenne
pepper; and they filter and pour it upon a quantity of salt in a copper

B B 4

c&TX7n» jLBn> m ai>cxixratiox&

^IW .:i/&aA^ra«KNU o^ Coffnme.

by ■>■■ if tbe nicraacope : the strueture of
'•«■ ihw I iN li and Ueir microMopical

f^.lM.

<7^i^^

T--

CAYENNE, AND ITS ADLLTERATION8.

377

must be had to cheraistry. TIic fact of the presence of red earths
may indeed be aaccrlaincd by meuns of the microscope, by viewing
under that instrument n [>ortion of the Cayenne:, when the red earthy
purticlen may be plainly discerned. To determine their eumpuattlon,
however, chemistry mu<4t be uppealeil to.

The method for detecting the presence of red earlbs, and for their
(lu^ntitative delermination, will be found deembiHl at pp. 103. and
149., and that for salt under tlie head of annatto. We iiave, then,
now to dcecribc? more particularly the proceases Co be followed for the
detection of lead and mercury.

On the Detection of I.,ead. — The presence of lead in Cayenne may
bv determined by simply shaking up half a drachm or so of the Cay-
enne in water, and adding a fewjdrops of hydrosulpburet of ammonium ;
if lead bf prewnt the liquid will become more or lew dark or black,
according to the quuntltv of leud present.

But it .thonld be remembiired that irun gives a g^reenish-black pre-
cipitate with the above-named reagent; and therefore it is not
Quite safe to trust in all cusea to the appearance presented un the ad-
aition of solution of hydrosutphuret of auimouiuiu U> water contain-
ing Cayenne.

It is be^tt^ therefore, in all casea to proceed as follows : — Incinerate
loo grains «f Cayenne previously dried on a water bath; treat the
a^h with alMtut half a drachm of stron;; nitric acid ; heat nearly to dry-
ncMf so that part of the acid may become di^aipaled ; dilute with din-
tilled water, nltcT, and test for lead cither by means of sulphuivtted
hydrogen, hydrosulphnret of ammonium, or cUe iodide of potatitfium.
When the quantity of lead present has to be determined, the«e re-
agents must be added until no mure precipitate falU down; the pre-
cipitates must be collected, dried, weiglied, and the red lead calcu-
lated.

On the Detection of Bixulpkuret of Mercury. — As merenry sublimes
at a red heat, we cannot proceed in the analysis by incineration ; the
solvent must be added to the Cayenne direct; and this advent must
consist of aqua re^ia, which ia a mixture of niiric and hyilrociiloric
acids, in the proporlionti of one part of the former to two of the latter
acid.

About a scruple of aqua regia should be udded to half a drachm of
Cayenne, and after an h(mr or two a small quantity of distilled water;
the mixture must next be filtered, and the excess of acid got rid of
by evaporation, which must be conducted nearly, but not quite, to
dryneas ; a little water must then again bo added, and the aolution
tested.

The t€«ts employed are liquor potae^tu and iodide of [mtus^ium.
The former gives a yellow precipitate, and the latter either a yellow
or more commimly a beautiful ncarlet-coloured precipitate of biniodide
of mercury. The colour produced on the addition of iodide of potaa-
sium would always be bright scarlet, were it not tliat the presence of

378 CVRRY POWDER, AND ITS ADULTEUATIONS.

orf^nic mutter Id the solution modifies the ftction of the test. The
sofutinn of todiile of potassium should be adiled in very minute quan-
tity, us the iodide or biniodide is readily nnd (dinost instantly dissolved
in an cxceas of, this rongeut; and it should be knoivn ihat verr
often, when the cnlour of the precipitate is rather yellow ilian redf
after 8t4uidin;jr un hour or two it will frequently change to the cha-
racteristic scarlet hue.

Cayenne pepper, grount! Chili, and cftp)>i<:urn pods, are charged
alike by the Custtuns — the pepjMir duty of 6rf. per lb. itnd 5 per cent,
thereon .

We have not been able to procure returns of the quantities im-
ported. It IS evident tliut the loss to the revenue in the adultera-
tion of this nrtiete must be very preat. We have never heard of unj
proceedings instituted by thu Excise for the adulteration of Cayenne.

CURRY POWDER, AND ITS ADUl.TERATIONS.

Severai, ingredients enter into the composition of curry powder.
The Jirticles of which genuine i!urry powder of oood quidity ordinarily^
cousidts arc turmeric, black pepper, coriander seeds, Cayenne, fenu-
greek, earduinoniH, cumin, ning^r, allspice, and cloves. Of these, tur-
meric forms the larj^est proportion; next to this in amount are co-
riander seeds mid black pi'pper ; Cayenne, cardamoms, cumin, and
fenugreek, form but a aiuali portion of the article; whUe the ginger,
clove«, and albpice arc in many cases omitted.

The proiHTtics nnd slrueturc of several of the above in<n*e<lients
have been already fully described and illlustruted ; as turmeric, black
pepper, Caycuiic, giUf;er, cluves, and allspice ; it thus oidy remains to
give a description of the other ingredients which enter into the com-
position of curry -powder — namely, coriander seeds, cardamoms, fenu-
greek, and cumin seeds.

Coriander Seeds.

Coriander {Coriandriau soticurn) belongs to the natural family Um-
belliferie ; it is an annual plant of a foot or a f(H)t nnd a hulf in height ;
it is cultivate<l in Ksaes, and, although nut rcully indigenous, is fre-
quently met with growing wild jn the neighbourhood of Ipswich
and some parts of Ls5ejc.

Tlie fruit or seed vessels are globular, about twice the sixe of white
mustard seeds, and of a light-brown colour. Kuch i'ruit consistfl of
hemispherical portions termed thericarps^ each of which is a seed ;

CURRY POWDER, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 379

each mericarp exhibits un Us outer surface five primary ridges, vrbich
are depresse*! anil wavy, aini four secondary ridgvs, whirli are more
prominent and straigbt. Tbc channels are without receplflcie« for the
essential oil, or, as they are Itfiliiii^^ally termed, vittee; but near the
commiMures in each merii'nrp then* i:< a sinuU vittii, so that each fruit
18 providi'tl with four of these receptacles.

The epldermia or husk is thick and brittle; when examined with the
inicro:;C»pe^ it is observed to consist of narrow fibres, which cross each
other, and »re ditjpo^ed in a waved manner, ll is united to the seed
by tueiuis of luoite cellular (issue, the cavities <}f the cells l>eing empty.
Od the removal of the husk, these cells are turn thruugh, ^OIlle re-
maining; attacheil to it, and the rest U) the surfncc of the seed. After
the scnaration nf the hu^sk, the seed is still of a brown colour. Beneath
the colts above described succeeds a delicate fibrous membrane ; and

Fig. M».
Ta4SiTKiu> flicnov or UKaiCAar or CokJAViuut.

• d, flbres fitrmbic ttM ttuak. ft, Um Ioom wlb which aoHa the bluk to (Im Ncd.
r, lite \*ytT tif (Iraplr-oolunrMl mlU, In caatMit with the wKtA. •' 4 ctlU com-

next to this is a Inyer of deeply -coloured cells, which merpe into x\w
cells which form tlie subatance of the seed ; these are anguhur, with

880 CUBUY POWDER, AND ITS ADULTERAT10K8.

well-dtifinerl puietes, their cftrities enclosing oil in a molecular con-
ditinn. TUe inuture «eed does not contain starch. Fig. 14J.

The peculiar structure of the busk of coriander seeds afTordit a
means by wbicb Iheir presence in curry powder n)ay be readUy de-
termined.

Cardamom Seedg, or Orains of PaTodtM,

The seed vessels or pods of cardamom are of a triangular form,
and consiitt of three valves, tapering at either extremity to a blunt
THiiiit : the inenibrane forming them is thick, tough, and fibrous, and
IS made m\\ ofcellular li»uue and bundles nf woody fibre, whieh spread
out from ihc tlowor-stHlk, and arc viiiible on the surface lo the nakeil
eye, impnningthe striated appeai'ancc characteristic of the seed vessel
of cardamom.

From its interior, the seed vessel sends oST three prolontrations or
septa, which divide it into as many compartments; each of these con-
tains several hard seeds of n reddish brown colour uud exhibiting
upon the surface peculiar markings. The seeds ore united tojjether by
a gelatjnous parenchymatous suhstimce, which, under the microscope,
is seen to consist of numerous delicate tubules, tilled with granular
and oily matter.

The covering of the seed, examined with the microscope, and
viewed on itd outer surface, is observed to consist of a single layer of
coloured cells-, much elongated, nnd of uniform diameter, termiuating
in rounded extremities, the cells bi.Mng accurately adapted to each
other. BoTiealh these are other cells, which bear a general resem-
blance in fi»rm tu those previoualv described, but differ in beinj; more
irregular, much more delicate, and iu the ubsencc of colour: tbcj arc
di!>po:>cd in an opposite direction to tfaoftc of the outer layer. Fi^.

Ill transverse sections, the elongated coloureil cells appear as small
canals, of a rounded form.

Lying beneath the coating, and forming part of the seed, is a single
row of hirge cells, resembling receptacles. Next in order from without
inward.s is a layer of small cells, deeply colnured. Next to these suc-
ceed the cells which constitute the principal part of the seed: these
for the most part resemble closely the cells of pepper, being very an-
gular, but they differ tn their more dtdicute and transparent appear-
ance, and in being minutely dotted. Fig, W^.B.

Dr. I'ereira, in his '' Mntena Medica," ipiutes the statement made
bv Schleiden, that he has discovered in the colls of cardamom " amor-
phous, paste-like starch." We find the cells to be completely filled
with minute, distinctly-formed starch granules, resembling closely those
of rice. Probably the Blatcment of M. Schleiden oroee from his
having employed but a feeble luagnifying power in the cximination of
the seeds.

The presence of cardamom seeda tn cuiTy powder is most readily

OtmBT POWDER, AND ITS ADtJI.TEHATIONS. 381

iletermincd hj means of tbe dotted and Angular cells wbioh fonn the
fiabstAncc of the sceda.

Cumin Seeds,

The cumin plant {Cuminvm Cyminvm) belnnpR, like coriander, to
the natural ordur Unibt'IIifene , in a native of Upper EgYpt» but is c.\-
tensivelj cultivated in Sicily and Malta.

Fig un,

Ocm KsifBiun Avx> Tra.vsvsub Siortov or a CAKOiiiox 8brd.
iNicnUM no AlaiMim.)

^.PorUoBof oMttlMnbKos, fxhlblllnc the iloofated erllforwhieli U !■<

pCMcd. B, TnUWyWM »tctiuli ul «nl. mi, p^'llm furitlinf ODtu mtnlH

h h, rverpUcle-Uli* cvD* f. la^rr Mf r<jK>uii<l c«lli. litt, tr«iup«rut and
■nlB'iUlyiluttvd flilli. or vhkb Uu: autuluio] ul Uic aetil lUclf 1* Riftilc up, and
which ftfc &Um1 wlifa gtveh ouipuacU*.

Cumin seeds resemble somewhat caraway seeds, but they are

CURBT POVDER, JLKD ITS ja>CLTEKAT1<»&

Urger^ ■Cnugfater, mud o£ a Ugbler ealov. The hwt » JwMe, like
that oToonuider aod all other ombelliferam plaaAi, eaaMtimt oTtwo
each mqicarp hi ftre /ii— j li^ii^whidi are

or merwarps
filifiira. lad fonrfwiJiry ridga^ which ««
/iiiBJAul wiih Tcrr foe hnn or pricUea,
ri4i[c if a reeeptade or vitta.
Tranamae aw<ion> of a cumin seed ezhihit

b«t hothare

■eoondary

the faBmaiag stmc-

Tbe hairt or prickle* are compoaed of ecik, the loMr dtaaelers of
wiuch are arranged in the long axes of the hain. The hs^ or eorcr-
ing of the teed ii made up of namcroiis rounded or aapdar cdU, in
the audcC of which the lar^e and tnaimlar iritt» are citsated ; and
between the htuk and seed itaeli; then b naaallj a small spaee, which
is formed by the contraction of the seed after it hss arrired at ma-
lority. The surface of the seed n of a pale-bnmn cokmr, and its in-
terior whitish and transparent. The exterior portion of the seed is
ron»titiited of elongated and flattened ceUsof a brownish colnnr, while
the interinr and chief subetanoe of the seed itaelf is compoaed of nu-
merous distinct angular cdh, the valU of whM^ are thick and perfectly
transparent; their oonienu conii&t priocipallj of oiL The seeds dio
not contain starch. .F^. 147.

Cumin seeds pomeas a rerr peculiar, medicinal twte and amdl ;
and it is to these that curry powder owei the greater part of its charac-
teristic flavoar and odour.

fenugreek Seedt,

The structure of Fenugreek seeds u very characteristic. The fau»k
of tlw seed connsts of three membranes ; the outer it furrocd of a single
layer of cellft, which bearn remarkalde resemblance in ^lape to a short-
necked bottle ; the lonj! diameter of lbe»e celU is ili^posetl TonicAlly.
the narrow, neck-like part being most external, and forming the other
surface *tf tlie membrane. The second membrane consists of a single
layer of cells, two or three tiroes larger than the former, very luuch
flattened, and having their margin* repilarly and beautifully crenate.
The third and innermost membrane is made up of sereral layers of
large tramparent cA\i filled with mucilage; these cells expand greatly
when immersed in water. Fi^. 148.

The »ee<) itself consi*ilfi of two lobea, which are made tip of numerous
minute cellfl ; tho9e in the outer part of each lobe are nf a roundeil or
angular form, while those situated near the innermost part become
much elongated, the long axe* of ilie coll* being placed transverse!?
in each lobe. Tlie entity seed u covered by a single layer of siuoll
angular cells. Fig. 149.

384

RRT POTVDEB, AXD ITS ADULTERATIOXS.

ResuiU of the Eiamination of Samples.
Twenty/fix samples of this article were eubjecied to »o«l;m; "^
tbesc nearly four-Jifths tvet-e adulterated.

F$g. 148.

OOTXB COAT 0« Tl«TA or * r««coi
(Mi«nifl«d !Bl> diAmetcrt.)

J . Partltm of th« outer «ivc1 te^cmd nwmliraM MrtpfWd off i ■ ■. I

like «1U 1 h f>. crruBlr.) rrlU >if woofid m*wib#«i»e. B. Tt»«»- - .

oolMired otllJ mFninf htia.//, the Iwft olb wbMl ftna Ik* T
bnuia, tiled with muelace.

CtmET POWDER, AKI> ITS AD ULTK RATIONS. S86

lit appeared

"lat seven only verepmuine,
TliBt nineteen were aauUerated.
I'lut grtniwi riccy usually iu very large quantities, was preeeDt in

nme sainples.

Pig. 110.

Tbavsvmu Sicnoy or Lou or FurtiouuiK Bass.

(.llMnifiMl £» dlKinclwiL)

in. tivvrof miKll tnirulu- evil* on the nirfaef. I. ranotlcit or anfolar ealla.
r. Tna ••me nllt gntluallr bKomlnc more «lotic*lrd u tbej kpproarh ttM
(after p&rt of lube <!, ilaglt row uf celli ft>rtnlng Uw laoennoat nurgln of lobe

ia( jiottito farina wns delecte'l in oae sample.
Tbat ttalt was present in right o\' the snnipli'S.
That llie highly poisonous iiiotallic oxide, bbd lbad, was detected in

no 1c99 tliun eight of the sample!).
That in teven of the samples, ihendulteration consisted of ground rice

only.
I'liat in one sample, the adulteration eoiiaistcd of ground rice and «o//.
That in on£ !<aiiiple. the adulteration consisted o( ground rice and kkd

That til three samples, the admixture consisted ofWf only,

c c

3:36

CCKKT POWDER, AND ITS ATJULTERATIONP,

Thnt in three samples, the sdulteration consisted of salt and bbd

That in three samples, ttie adulteration consisted of red leap only.
Thiit in a»e suuifilo, the adulltiracions con::'ijttid of bci> lead, potato
fariuQ and salt.

The above results do not pve the whole of tbc adulterations to
which the t^iiiiiples uf *.'urry powiler had been subjected, since tliey do
not include tiie ferruginous earths ^nhich were shown, in our article on
Cayenne, to be so frequently employed to impart colour to that sul>-
stanee.

We hflvfl thus shown that rnrry powder is mlnlteratert nearly to
the same cxleiil, iind with ingrciliiihts etjtially p4'rnii,-ioua as C'nyenne,
Since the quimiity of curry powderenien nt ii nieid is so considerable,
US aduUeralion with red lead is even more prejudiciul and dangerous
thou in the ca»e of Cayenne. Not lonj: since we receiveil a jiarccl of
curry powder from a surj^eon, iiceniii[uinteil by the stHlement that
the person who hflii partaken of it haiJ been made very ill by it. We
found it, on analysis, to contain a larpe quantity of lead.

The lead in curry powder hy nn ilimbt^ jtenemlly introduced
throuji;h the adulterated Cayenne eniplnvcd in lis nuinul'uctnre. It 19
possible, however, that chromate of lead may here, as in some oiher
cases, be used to intensify and render more permanent the colour of
the powder.

The whole of Ihe injp*edients re<juired for making; curry [towder
may be obiauied id' most seedsmen, and may be readily prucure«l of
Mr. 13 u tier, ofCovenl Giirden Market.

With tt conimon pestle anfl niorlar the feeds may be reduced to
powder, and thus thf housekeeper may herself prepare jrenuitie eurry
powder, of the best rjuidity, nt a L-nst of about "id. per oumH! Since
currv jiowder is retailed at (u/., 8J., and even \n. an ounce, it evi-
dently bears an enormous proBt. Whnt. then, muftt be tbc ^ain upon
the sale of un article which r» made up [irineipjdly o( turmeric powder,
salt, ground rice, und inferior capsicmn berries? nml of such a mix-
ture many of the curry powders purchased ul the shops almost cutirely
consist.

On the Detection of the Ad\dterattoms of Curnj Poicder.

The adulterations of curry powder, with the exception of potato
farina or starch, met with in one sample, being the same as those of
Cayenne, the met hmls for their discovery iire idso the same; the reader
is therefore referred to the previous ariirle an Cayenne.

The presence of |>otato starch is detected by means "f the micro-
scope ; the characters of its granulea are describes! under the bead of
Arrowroot.

Curry powder is charged by the Customs, ns a manufactured oi'ticle
onenumerated, at 10 per cent, ad vaiorem,

TDBMERICj AND ITS ADCLT£RATIONS.

387

TURMERIC, AND ITS ADUT.TERATIONS.

TuHMGRic powder consists of the ground tubers of a plant bdanging
to tlie same genus aa ginger, viz., Curcuma longa, and which Is exten-
sively cultivated iu India aud China.

Composition of Turmeric.
The composition of turmeric is shown in the following analysis : —

Johrt^

Analt/tis.

Yellow Tolatile oil -

Ctfrcumin -

- 10 to 11

Yellow extractive -

- 11 to 12

Gum

M'oofly fibre

Water and loes

7 to 5

100

Vogel and Pelhtiert AnalysiM,

Acrid volatile oil.

Curatmin.

Brown colouring matter.

Gum (a little).

Starch.
Woody fibre.
Cbluride of calcium.
Turmeric.

The word cvrcutnin is applied to the resinous colouring matter of
turmeric, which is soluble only in ether.

Stmcture of Turmeric,

llie structure of the tuber of turmeric is well exhibited in the an-
nexeil fijiures.

TuriiR'rie powder consists of largp cells; some of these are loosely
imbedded in a rclioular ti.fsut% but othr-rft^ and these the mnjnrity, arc
quite fr^e; ihcy may be re<:ogni^c<l with fa<'ility, under the micro-
scope, by their size and bright yellow colour.

when crushed^ eatrh cell is found to contain colouring matter, as
well as a number of starch grunulev, resembling ctovely those of Cur*
cuma arruwnvot, already de^rit>e<l and figured.

On the Hpplication of iodine the cells become of A deep blue, and
with potash, of a reddish colour.

cc 2

MS TUBMERIC, AND ITS ADULTEBATIOKS.

Ok the Adulterations or Tdabuuc.
or Fourteen san^plfs of turmeric powder subjected to Mtminatka,
two were adulterutod with yellow ochre, to the ex tec I of neirljSO

Fig. 160.
BBonov or Tvub or TvnMMmc

a a, Cpldmnli i ft l>, trknvpannt f«1U i cr. 7«11ow mnmn t Hd, M gJnhiUir '-
rt*lnoiu muars i /, dotltd (tact t fi, •lo«iftt*d otlU of woody flbi*. IJtat M ^t
■iilc o( the duct.

per cent., while nearly nil the other apeciracns contAioed conndinAB
quantttiei) of alkali, ciirbonate of soda and potash, added no dulM'
heighten the colour of the powder.

Inasmuch as turnierio enters so Urgelj into the cooipiisttioa o/***?
powder, mustard, ami some other condimentd, it lH*cauie u«ci^>?
to ascertain whether ii was liable or not to sophist) cation.

On the Detection of the AduUcration$ of Turtnerie.
Tdioio ochre con&ists of oxide of iron ddutcd wi th chalk ; thf n^ ^

TURMERIC, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

389

turmeric powder roust therefore be tested in tlic manner already
directed for the detectiun of those two subatancea. The presence of

Fig. l»l.

Till* nifniTliis KprMmU the aiipfaranee aad chuttclenof awmHHt grvimd
TwuLMic Dnvn with Uw Cimcrm LudiU, ud nu^lted SSI> iUunel«r».

the ochre is in general sufficiently indicated by the colour and weight
of the a!«h.

Should the tub, SAT of 100 ^ain«of the turmeric^ contain alkali, as
carbonate of »oda or potash, we must proceed as follows : the alkali
mu9t be dissolved out uf the aab by means of distilled water, the
solution evaporated down to a small bulk, and htMited with excess
of dilute hydrochloric acid; the solution inu«^t now be diluted, and
the chlorine precipitated by means of nitrate of silver ; the precipitate
colle«'ted, dried, weighod, tbe chlorine estimated and culculatcd into
carbonic acid, and this again Into either carbonate of soda or potash,
according lo whichever is present, and which may be ascertained by
means of the blowpipe ; this gives with soda a rich yellow, and with
potash a violet Uanie.

If the potash be mixed with even one-twentieth part of soda, the
flame will be yellow in place of violet. In this cose it will be neces-
sary to proceed as follows : the hydrochloric acid solution is to be

cc 5

m ISSCMmm; Mi m ItSS,

YINEGAB, AM) ITS ADULTERATIOS&

mad m tke TobtBc prhiciple, to the |jn*tm< of vUdk diluted
wHli rwiiMe proportions oC vatrr, Ttae^ar ove» iu aroHA Mid pva-

TUi idd csiila, Kadr fonned, m nouble n—niij in certain plaBl%
m Snmhmma miger or Uaek dder^ Pkmmis tkwetjU/em or i>Mr frw, aitd
XTAuj UfphtroMM.

It Buij be readily generated by the f«niientatioB of TarMms Teget**
ble and aniuul itiUtaoeca, c^KciaUj the former.

Fur cfiiDm<m:i*l purpnaes it it nude from certain vegetable and
«|Mnlaou» iiif itinnii, a« ihnae of the grape, malt, and the sugar eane ;
but MS\y ir<^euble infu^on capable of jieldina alcohol will also, when
cxpoMd 10 the neccMarj condition^ fnmiflh vin^ar. In most

VIXEGAB, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

39 1

ftad bldead whenever vinegar ia roanufuctur&d on a lnr<re scale, the
vinoilt or ricoholit: fermentation precedes the uc*etoiw, HDii the vinegar
ie forniert entirely m the e]t|)ense of the ulcohol.

Jim tbt.- euiLVersiuii of iilcohol into aeelio aoiil, it is saidf ought not
to be re^iiriicil us essfiitiiil lo acetifieution, since »onie vegetable and
aniitial infusions become sour, from the formation of acetic ncid, with-
out any previous generation of Hlcc»hol.

Acetic aciil may be formed directly from the vapour of crude
alcohol or spirits of wine in comnmuhiculion with the atmosphere,
through cither an ignited pliuintun wire, or h\ moans of the black
powder obtained by bfHlin;r prato-elkloride of platinum and potash
with alcoliol. In Gerujunv, where the price of aleulxd is very low,
vinejjar baa been manufacCured on a larye scale ou tbis jirinciple.
The pri^>cess will be found de5cnb«d at page 3(i8. of ** Food and ita
Adulterations."

Certain ronditinna are eitlier es^entiid to acetifieation, or else pro-
mote preatly the rapiddy of the process; thus the presence of atmo-
tpherie air or ortfgen li one of the conditions indi^peie^able to tbe
change, the rvaifou of wliich is made apparent by thu itubjmueU for-
mulie: —

One atom of alcohol consists of

C, H,0-fHO;
One atom of anhydrous acetic acid of
C, H O,.
Now, one atom of alcohol nWorbs four atoms of oxypen from the
air, to form one atom of anlivdnnis flccfic acid, and three atoms of
wat«r — a chan;!e which is thus ex|ilHiiici] bv chcmicul livndmls.
C^ U, O, and 4 O = C^ U, O', and 3 II O;
or C^ U, O + ll O ami 4 0= 11 O, C^ H^ O, + 2 H O.

Thus, wheu alcohol i» converted into acetic acid, two of the atoms of
the oxygen are directly absorbed to form lite acid, and the remainin$(
two atoms convert two atoms of the bydropen of the alcohol into
water ; the at^im of water of the alcohol and the tw(» fresh atoms of
water pro-luced arc nil retained, and form a terbydrate of acetic acid.

Such arc ihe chan<rest, by atom, of alcohol into aeelic acid.

It is therefore evident that much of tbc success of any process
adopt4Hl for thti manufacture of vinegar will depend upon tbe manner
in which the motber liquor is exposed to the atmosphere — that is,
U|>ou the constant renewal of the air, and the extent of hurface ex-
posed to its action, the conversiim of alcohol into acetic acid takinf^
place only im the surfiure of thi; liquid.

The kiiowledu;e of the fact that atnioHpberic air wns indi>t[tensable to
Rcetific'ati<mled to the adoption in this country and in Germany of what
has been termed "Me t^Hick vinecnr process" by wliicb the linnid to
be cOUTerted into vinegar ia kept vonstautly ia motion in a uirided

cc 4

In tke ssBafiMtoTf of cW firm thmve — impiI tfe prams n
4ael«d m bm vbu, CBpaUe at each boidiiii; Iron CJOOO to |Q<
faDoMaf wm£: cadi rat k batflilM vieh the UqatA la be iiidifceJ,
•Mi the npprr half whk bondlet of bin b, sarh as are in ««iierml ase
frr bffwiOM or beaooM. Tbe pacnp in the centre eteraies tbe iMfaor,
tad. Iff If M otiu rvttlive motiim, dbpersea it m a flhawcr over ibe
auifate of tkm hml of birth. an<i in ileaoendin;; throus^ the same it is
aket by a ani«Il A^^r-j^niiinsr current of atmospheric air. which, cttforn};
in rontaet with tl»e omltiplied tiirface* of the tiquor tricklin;! thmujih
the twi;rm, ftpeeflilv oriilifies it ; the whole hein^ kept np to the proper
llMC by a atc>ain p«rir of pnre iJn pnasinz through the Tat. The scidi-
lleation is jpenemlfv rtini|>I(?ro<l in twtrntT Harft, but varies in inrfirae
r4l»o li) the fTprfHtftion of l)ireh to ib^ won to tie »ci(lt6e<t ; xih) tbe
whole operarion, intM!h«ii>'*iil and rhemical, bein^ perfonniil by Memm,
no manMAl lat>our of any kiml \n p'^^uired, Ktre the occa«i<mal inspec-
tion I'f tiie manager to ascertain when the proceit is finished.

TINEGAR, AND ITS ADTTLTERATrONS.

n93

Tliis apparatus is ortpalilo nf acriJifvin;; any fenwjiited lirjunr what-
ever, ami even distilled spirit, wilU a cotuplu'tc control over any
waste.

The process will be more clearly comprcliended by an examination
of the accompanying enprravin;;, which was iniidc from a model pre-
pared by Messrs. IlUl, Evans, and Co., and shown at the Great
Exhibition.

The upper circidar opening in the aide of the vat is for the admis-
«on of attnospheric air, the lower is the termination of the steam pipe.
It should be incntlnnetl that the principle of the process was dis-
covered rpiite iiulcjwndently, and about the same time, in Germ:iny
nnU in this country.

A second necessary condition is the presence of a substance capable
of excitinj,' iVTineutation — that i.s a/erment.

In vegetable infusioni, as tluwe ol* the prune and malt, the nitro-
penised principles onntaine<l in them, ohielly jiluten, act as thefcriniMit.
Viiit'jjar itself, vinegar yeast, lees, beer yeast, leavened breiid, and
many other similar matters, all of which contain pluten, are capable of
excitinp fermentation, and so promoting the generation of acetic acid.
KxpL'rience has shown that the beat fermfini for indm-injj the trans-
formation of aloohol into acetic acid is a portion of rendy*uiatle vinegar
itself.

A third condition, which, tbnu^h nnl^ like the former, essential, vet
prcHtly hastens the conversion, is an increased teniperature, vnrvmp
con^id'e^ably in ditTerent cast's, but sometimes reaching as high as
100° Fahr. ^ •

When any spirituous licjuor is exposed under the conditions re-
qtiisite for acetification, the following phenomena are observed to occur
in Piiccession.

However clear the liqaid may have been at first, it anickly becomes
turbid, currents or movements are soon visible in it ; it is said, in
common language, to be "on the work." Slimy partidea collect on
tlie surface^ gradually forming a scum, and which, aHcr a time, falls
as a seilinient to the bottom. The Germans call this scum *^ vinfirar
mother," since it is capable of exciting acetification in fre^h portions
cif liquid. During the process the temperature of the licpihl n-^es, and
the peculiar aroma of vinegar Iteeome^ diffused in the surnmnding
air; as B4K>n as all the alcohol has beconte converted into acetic
acid, the temperature falls to tliat of the atmos])here: the motion
cease*, the liquid becomes clear and bright, and its cunveraiou into
vinegar is complete.

Tnis DirrBVETT Kinds op Visbqas ajid their MA^trrAcnmB.

The four principal kinds of vinegar met with in commerce are —
wirui eihtgiir^ nuiU vinegar^ swgar vinegar, and wood vinegar, Th«

394 yiNEGARi AND IT8 ADULTERATIONS.

first three of these depend upon fermentation, and result from tl*
chnnjie of alcohol into aoetic acid: while wood vinc^r Ja oiiUiwJ
witlumt the intervention of fornicntatiun, by the destructive dtfUlU*
lion of w<hkI-

Not unfre<itiently more than one subatance it combined in iW
manufucluri: uf vinegar; thus, ntixiures of nialt, com, and f nnr or
treacle are ac«asion:ilIy employed ; in wliich ease the resulting tiDc^
\g of cour-^e a eombination of two or more kinds of vinejrar.

In some parts of Kofrland vinejjjir is made from either wAtdt
perry; these kinds are dlstinjruisHed by the prescnre of nialie »4*itl

DifttiUed mnegar may be obtained by the distillation of iLn>
\inegar ; what i^ eominonly sold however as this, is generall ■
more than diluted acetic acid, and in tome cases even pyroh^' u<
Kcid.

Wine Vinegar^ when pxire and of pond ntialilTi is tbe bwt descn^
tion of vinegar; it is liablevhowever, tti adultenttinn with pyrolig^wwl
aciil. It is sometimes flavoured by the addition of wine, »nd •
di.'^tinijfuJslir'd fnmi all uCher vinegars by the presence of hitartrafte^
pr>ta«b, c.dlfd usually tartar nr wine-stone The prescutce rf iW
uleohol inereaues its aroma and punt*enoy.

Owing to the seareilr iind high price ofFreneh wine vincjTir. it W.ni
three times as dear in France as fnrroerly, and it« cons-
to mlulteration, Messrs. W. and S. Kent and Sons, iriipitr'
white wine vine^jar, Imve ln-eo indufLni to prepare a vinegar
as nearly as pnssible the lluvuur and properties ofFreneh win>
We have examincil some ^|ieoitiiens of thi^ article, and firi«i
carefully mnniiFuctured, perfectly genuine, and of strength qu..
to that of wine viiu-par.

Mall Vinff^nr. — 'Ihechief part of the vinegar made in thiaoooBtiyii
prepared from malt, or from mall and com, with or witltout t\xpr.

Sugar Vinegar. — An exeelleiil vinejrnr may be made fr«m »uj»af ;ti«
process is ilescribed lU page 371. of "Food :tnd its Adultcmtions.*

A very pure antl wbule^unc vineyar may also be preporrd Ir^l
solution ofsu^fur or treacle, fermented by the agency of a fungal tAvrf
" thf. vinegar plant."''

\Vc were favoured some time bark by Rtr Fletcher, furjwa «
Bromsgrovc, with the following particulars in rcTureaee to the tinejtf
plant : —

"A few weeks agn 1 had a young vtnegHr plant •enl m?, wttiiti*
following direclions: — 'Tut the phmt in an earthen jar, addtoiJ
half a |>ouiid of the coni-sest moist sugar, und half a pound of tw^»
with five pints «>f milk-wnrm water ; cover it iighily o%er, •out*
keep out the diii*t, but not the air, and then put it in a ntcMlerAf^r «^
place ; there let it remain seven weeks, not disturbing it more Clua »■•
can help. Ai I lie end of that time pnur nlT what i^ now tbe on'
vinegar, and keep it in well-eorked buttles for use. Again uMla^
plant the same quonliiy of water, sugar, and treacle, u before ^

VINEGAR, AND 1T8 ADULTERATIONS.

395

the end of the sroond aovcn wcckji, me plan
two thick pancokes, und thcv may be caaiiy dividei], care being uken
ntit tu tear (he old or new plant. If the plant U ex|X)sed 1o the coM,
or kept too lon<^ out of the lirjuid, it will herume bUtk and die.*

"1 liurcwith iiend you/' eontinues Mr. Fleleher, "a sample of
vine;iiir thus roanurautuved. ShouUl the snnijile be worthy of your
attention, I will send ytni a hirper <_jiiAHiity of vinejj:iir, a young plant,
and a sample of pickle.s nmde with tliin kinil of vine;i:Ar."

In a second loiter, Mr. Kltiteher writes : "Thi': plant I have, was
given me early in the wimtr, and it n(H only has suppliid mo with
sereral young plunts fur friends, but vinegar citougb to hut me for
yearn."

We have been given lo understand that vinegar plantu are sold In
large numbers by the chemists in Alnncltester mid the sniTOunding
towns, and that vinegar is made in onnsideniMc tpjantities by means of
thcM! fungi. We also know that sinee the publioiitiou of tiie fact
that vinegar may be thus prepared, many persons have been led
to try it, and for the most part with very Katinfactory resulta.

Nearly all vinegar-makera supply at least four different strengths or
qualities of vinegar, named re!)|H'c(ively Nos. 24, 22, 18, and 16, the
brst being the strongest* and llie laat the weakest.

Nil. 34, or Standard vinegar, as it was called at the time when the
Excise levied a duty on this article, is now seldom made; but when
a very strong vinegar is required, the strength of the ordinary kind is
raisotl by the direct adilition of aeetie or even pyroligneous ncid.

No. 22 is in most cases the strongest vinegar really manufactured ;
the other and weaker kinds are noU however, prepared from this by
the addition of certain quantities of water, but fnrtu separate wort^
as it would not pay to make a weak vinegar by the dilution of a strong
one.

Further, these numbers do not indicate ahxolnte^ but merely reiativB
strengtlis, so that the vinegars ul' diHerent makers having the »ame
number vary considerably in the amount of acetic acid contained in
them.

It is thus evident that, according to this system, much inducement
for sophistication on the part of retail dealers is removed, who, if tliejr
wish to be supulied with a |»oor und cheap vinegar, have only to order
■ cmIc of the Nos. 18 or 16 vinegars of any of the makers.

It is geiienUiy slated that good vinegars, such as all Nus. 24 ought
to he, Bhuuld contain 5 per cent, of anhydrous or pure acetic acid.

The goodness of a vinegar is indicated lo some extent by its sjK-cific
gravitv. No. 24 vinegar ul good (lUiilily tnhould huvo a specific gravity
of nol'less than 1022. No. 22 of 1020, No. 20 of lOiy, No. 18of 1017,
and No. 16 of 101 J.

▼mOAB, AXD ITS ADCLTEEAT10X8.

Osi TOB AsCLTYftATtlMn Of YtMWikM..

Tbe ynaoftl adakbeniiooa of rioe^ar sre wiUi aoter, nJphvric
mdd ■Dd (vraf Ji^por. aad khbcuiims with kcrid iiiilwifiiiiiw, as chtlltes
utdgraimg vf fvm£ae^ mad •bo witb wii wi^gawwi or vetHe adds.

Tbe water m added to increase iu mUc, ealplittrk acid and acrid
vobaUDcct to make it p«uig«irt; and bomt fi^ar to lestuic the colour
leal bj dilution.

Sone of the Tinegan 9old at snail hocksceiV shop^ and at o^ter
atalb, coanat of litlle eUe than diluted <ul|ihuric acid and water
coloured with burnt supu". ,

Now, tbe law allows tbe additioa of one part of sulphuric acid to
1000 of Tuae^aTt and it » oolj when tbe quantity excee«L that amount
that it can be conaidered at aa ailulteratioa ; and tbia it verj fre*
quentl^ doe*.

Tbe uae of this quantttr of sulphuric acid wat permitted on Hit
plea, urged hj the manafacturer, that it was necesjtary in order
make the vinegar keep. That it is not requiaite to the preservation
of well-made rin^^r, is shown hj the dreumstanee that several
manufacturers, especially those who make use of the quick vinegar
prooesM, do not tiaesul|4itirio acid at all ; and yet the vinegar made by
them keeps perfectly well.

Aa baa already been iioliced. the same practice prevails in tbe
article vinegar as in mu«tard ; no le» than four, and even five qaalitiea
ftf vine*rar are made, differing only in stren^h ; the consequence of
this system ia, that if you buy vinegar at several different shops, it
will be found that some of tnc vinejrars will contain two or three
taneB less acetic acid, tbe aciive Ingredient of the vinegar, than others,
•Uhoitgh the same price is paid for them all. This sysiem, therefore,
sffbrda flfreat boilities for irap»itiun.

Other adulterations described in books, tfae msjority nf which
are probably of unfrequcnt occurrence, consist in the addition of
nf/rir, hydrochloric^ and tartaric acids^ ainm^ tail, spurge jiaXy muHard^
petiitory, and inng pepper.

Vinegar is not untreiiiiently contaminated with arsenic, this beii
introduced through the Aulphunc acid iisctl in its adulteration.

** Tou get ar«cnic," states Mr. Scanlan in his evidence before the
Parliamentary Committee, "in oil of vitriol to a sreat extent. This
arises from the omploynicnt of pyrites instead of sulphur. Oil <:»f
vitriol is made in large ijuaniittes by alkali makers, and when the
price of sulphur is high they use pyrites instead; and pyrites almost
invariably contains arsenic. Irish pyrites contains a cood deal ; but
I have under^ttiKxl that the Cornish pyrites contains still more. Some
few years aco I found an enormous quantity of siilpburic acid here in
London. U finds its way into muriatic acid utude fi-om that sulphuric
acid, or in tfae manufacture of which that sulphuric acid is employed,

VINEGAR, AKD ITS ADULTERATIONS,

397

and hence it mnj be rery miachicToiu. A mixture of muriatic acid
anil »mlu hiu been used in hrend, and I bavo seen muriatic acid eun-
taining a very fearful quantity of arsenic."

The follonrm^ evidence in regard to (he me of rtrrronire sublimate
was given by Mr. Gay, before the Parliamentary Committee : —

"Corrosive sublimate has been used tor years and years in some
houses, and not a cask bos gtinc out without a certain proportion of
corrosivL' sublimate."

Vhuirnum, " Do yf»i believe that corrosive sublimate was mixed
with tlie vinegar in injurious proportions?

" I du ; it wus done to f-ivc strength to the vinegar. When the D.
W. and O. V. liave been nseJ, the eorroslve sublimate is put in to
give it n tartness nguin in the mouth."

Chairman. "Are theae technit-ul expressions in the trade — O. V.
for nil of vitriol, and D. \V. for distilled water? "

"Just 80. Corrosive sublitmiLe is oalled * (he Doctor.' "

M'liitc or di^tiIled vinegar, as it is called, is usually marie with
water and acetic acid, what is sold as sueU being rarely distilled at all.

Resglts or AxAiTSBS or Samtlbs.

The chemical annlysis of Thirft/'lfiree sninples of vinegar purehased
of various tradesmen resident in I^ondon, furnished the following
results: —

IsL That the amount of acetic acid, the most imi>ortflnl constituent
of vini'gar, varies ^p-eittly in tllRerent samples, the highest per-
centage being 5'10, and the lowest 2**29, or less than half the first
amount.

2nd. Tbiit, nncc the standard No. 24 vinegars, submitted to analysis,
range for the most pari eonsiderably over four \*vt cent., vinegar
to be deemed good otigbl to contain certainly wt teat than (uur
per Cfnt, of real acid.

3rd. Judged by this standard, out of twenty-three samples of vinegar
purchased of dealers in I..imdon. seven reached this strength, and
contained from four jwr cent, upwards of acetic acid ; the per-
centage of seven of the vinegars ranged between three and lour
while in the remaining nine the amount of acid varied from two
to three per cent., it t>einu in two instances — 9«mplea 17. and 19.,
the weakest (A' the whole — as li»w as 'I'40 and 2*29.

4th. That twelve samples out of the thirty-three analyfcd con»
tained no free sulphuric acid — a fact affording convincing proof
that the use of this aciil, so objectionable in many re.<t|>ects, is not
necewtry for the preservation of well-made vinegar.

dth. That in eight sainples the quantity of sulphuric acid present
did not exceed the amount formerly permitted to be added.

998 VIKEGAR, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

6th. That in the remaining; caws the arooiint exceiMied thU, and in
some instances wiis three or four times a$ great.

The results of the analyitis of a sfcond sfrieg of samples. Twenty'
eight in number, of the vinegar of some of the principal vinegar aianu-
faccurers, were as follows :—

lit. That seven of the samples were entirely &ee from sulphuric
actiK or oil of vitriol.

2nd. That eighteen were atTulteratcd with that powerful and corro-
sive minerul arid, the amount of which wafi variable, and often
Tcry consldcrnble; from *6;J, the lowest., to G'02, the highest quan-
tity in 1000 prains.

3ril. That two of the samples contained it in very small quantity only.

4lh. Th:ii in three samples it wa.«> present in considerable amount.

flth. Thiit six contained it in very considerable amount.

tiili. That in seven samples it was present in immense quantity.

7th- TiiJit the acetic acid alsu varied very considerably in amount
in dillerent samples, the highest proportion Winp, in 1000 );raiita
by measure, 56 66 grains, or 5*60 per cent., and the lowest, 27'63,
or only 2 76 per cent.

8th. Thnt in eight sumjdes the acetic acid was present in amoont
over fire per cent., which h above the standard strength.

9th. That in tweha saniplcii the (quantity exceeded yi/ur per cent.

10th. That in setrn it wjis over thrre per cent.

11 fh. That in one the qumitity nfatetic acid present waa so exceed -
ingly sniid) as tn he tttffier three per cent., — that is, but little
more than half (he ppi»|»er stren^^th.

Tiie sulphuric arid indicated in the analvsps. is what is termed
monobydrated sulphuric acid, which is in f;encral very much stronger
than the commercial acid : every part of the fonner, therefore, corre-
sponds to a much larper quantity of the latter.

Again, it shnuhl be imrticuhirlv reruembered that the acidifying
power of the iiiiiieral sul|ihurto aiid is very much greater than that
of the vegetable acetic acid : one part of sulplturic acid acidifies a
much Urgt^r quantity of a fluid thnn the sanm amount of acetic acid,
an that tiie tiu'pliuric acid present in vinegar does not simply take the
place of a similar rpmntity of acetic at'iil, but reprcsenia several times
the amount of that acid.

As in tlie preparation of acetic aciil, and distilled vinegar, copf»er
■till:*, leiul, 7.inc, or tin pipes arc Homctinies, thiujgh by no meana
conimfihty used, ^iiu'gar is occasionally found (o be contaminated to m
dangerous extent with those metuls. As vinegar is capable of acltng
Tcry energetically, in the course of a few minutes, on most metals,
their nse in its manufacture ought to be strictly prohibited: nmiT
fatrd accidents have resulted iVom the impregnation of vinegar with
metallic poisons. The metal which is, however, most frequently found
m vincsar is iron.

VINEGAR, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

399

On the Detection, of the Aiiuiteratioru of Viwgnr,

The rc««1ieat means wliieh ran be adopted orwcertaining titc qunlity
of a vinejj.ir is by d<'(*?rniininfr its specific jjravitv; this may )h* dnne
either by iiu'rini* nf ihc (irdlnnry hydrometer, or efse by an instnimont
constrm.'tod on ibe same principles hs the irftlaetometer of M. Dinocourt
alreatlv described. The oniinarv gravities of vinewars of the several
qualities are suted at p. 395. It will frequently be iViund that the
vinegars »»h\ at the shops wuigh several dejirees less than even No. 16.
vinegar, which is the p(M)rcst made, and the specific gravity of which
is usually 1015. When the gravity is below tbis, the vinegar ia un-
queyttfMiaUly adulterated with water.

On the Detenitinntion of the Acetic Acid in Vinegnr. — The fjuality of
a vinegar, and whether it is adulterated or not, can oAcn be ascertained
by determining the amount of acetic acid present in any sample ; the
determinaliun is ejected by saturaliim with knoM^n tiunnLities of an
alkali.

The acid may be first separated from the other constituent*, im-
purities, or aduitcrution^ nf the vinegnr, by distillalion ; bi'ing volatile,
It passes off on the iip[iU<:atinn of heat, anil ir thus procured iini only
sepamti^ly, but aUo in a inure Loncentrated lorm. Thi* ijuantity
of vine;.'ar tube emph'vcd is 10 fninccs, which should be distilled
almost to dryness, the acid tditaincd being then neutralised with alkali,
■ad its amount thus determined,

The process of distillation, however, is tedious, and does not admit
of easv application, except in the labirratnry of the chemist. The
aome end cnn be attained by a different method : thus the alkali may
be added diretrtly to the vinegar. The alkali usually employed is
mmIa; it may be used either in the form of the pure crr>tals of the
carbonate, the recently ignite<t carbonate, which is preferable, or a
solution of caustic 9o<la. The drie<l carlMtnate is prepared by igniting
the carbonate in a crucible. The whole *>f the water of crysialHsa-
tion should be driven off, and the white powder left heated to redm^ss.

Weighc<l quantities of the soda ahouht be dtasolved in known bulks
of distillcii water. In this way the re-ngcnt may be applied in even
decimal portions of a grain.

Further, it is not only necessary to prepare such a dilution, but
also to have the means nl emptoyins; it in definite minute ipjantities,
— an object which is effected by an instrument tt-rmcd an alkalinieie-.

An alkaliineter is an elongated and gniduuted ]ilu»s tube, terminate
ing above in two a|)ertures, the one large, by which the instrument ii
repleniifhed, and the other small, an*! drawn out into a ]K>int to regu-
late the escape of the fluid in drnpn. The instrument which we em-
ploy is one of GrifBn's septimul allcalimeters ; the scale is marked into
ten principal divisions, wbicli arc again subdivided into ten les^^er de-
grees or spaces, each uf which is denominatcfl a '^septem," from its
being made to coatiun seven grains of distilled water. The entire

VINEGAR, AJTO ITS ADULTEBATIONS.

measure, therefore, h<ild9, aa will be perceived, seven hundred grains
of ilisulled water. *

Jn many dieinical works wc are ilirccted to mix a few drops of;
•Irmi^ solution of liLttiu!) with (lie vinei^iLrf previous to ii»ii)g the soda
BoiuLion, and tu add thin until the oulour of the rcldened litmus is
restored. These ilircctioiis are erroneous, and lend to serious miscal-
culations; for the liimiis does not agnin becmne blue until the salumt-
in£ point has been Inng paaseil, and the li<{uid hafy Acquired a dccide<l
alitnlinc reaction ; we thertfore recommend the a|>crutor not to rely
upon the indication:) nfl'orded by solution of litmus.

Again, we are ttdd to continue nddin;; ihi^ »o*\-a solution until th(»
litmus piiper iiniueisecl in the vinejjur feusesi to turn red. Tliere is
here a source id'frror equally ureat as in the former ca^e; for the lit-
mun j)ii|>LT will 1m* reddened lim;; after the acetic acid has been neutral-
wed, iliiiian.sin;; frcim the discnfriiged carbonic ftcid of the itoda, ab-
sorhed and retained by the lluitl.

Tliis liilhicy is punrded against by repeatedly drying, in the ccinrse
of the prucesfi. the litmus pjipcr hefore the lire or the fl.ime of a
candle, when, if ihe redness be due to carbonic acid, it will vanish on
the applicHUim i>f the hunt; but if to acetic acid, it will be jwr-
umneiit. Another means of ;j;uarding against fallacy nrising out of
the tiresencc of free carbonic aeiil is to heat the vinegar, and so
expel the acid, or to set it aside for a few liours and tbu:( aU(»w of its
escape. The saturation ts coinplete, when the Uimu.t pajK'r neither
retains the xli^htext »hude of re<lne»s, nor hiks iis hlue tint in the
Icoet degree heightened, this latter indiralin;;, of eour»e, alkalinity.
By the use, however, of the solution of cau.stic ftodo, the source of
fallacy arising out of the disengagement of earbonie aciil is avoided.
The (freat objection to the caustic solution is, thai it very quickly
absorbs carbonic acid, and therefore will not kee[> for any length of
time.

Mr. Mitchell, in his treatise on "The Valsifitations of Food," Btat«s
"that if B drop or two of pure vinegar be placed ujwn blue btmua
paper, the latter will be reddened ; but when driwl before a lire, the
red colour disappears, and the original blue aijain presents itself."

Althouph, from tlie volatile character of acetic ncid, it might be
inferred that thia statement was correct, we have yet found that the
redtiesM produced by this acid is not dissipated by the <legree of heat
which is employed to dry the litmus paper, but on the contrary r«*
mains fast.

The strength of the solution should be determined by atom : one
atom, or 1*03 of the recent ly-ignitc<l carbonate of Rodn corresponds to,
and will saturate one atom of, aidiydrotis acetic acid.

The soda should be added to' the water in tlie proportion of six

* Ao hD)irovcd «)kall(niHi>f or Mnhr li now madr hr Mr. Rriinn, by atuitf ofwhldi Ml-
dKb fuuiuUM of tbt Mlution aiay be added wlUi trcster accurscy.

TINEOABy AND 1TB ADULTERATIONS.

•iOI

equiTolcnts to one hundred groina of diistUIet) water. If a pound of
tLe solution be prepared, the siuiie wei<:ht of water should be poured
into ii white ijluss bottlv, the lew] of the li'juid in the vessel being
exactly ascertained and luarked i the bottle should then be emptied,
the suda disiiolved in a portion of the water, end returned iiitn the
bottle, the remaining wAter being added up to the mark previuusly
oiiule^ and any woler tbul may be over being rejected.

An ammonia solution is free from theobjuetionB attached to the so-
lution of carbonate of soda, when the precaution pointed out with
respect to ihe use of the liimus paper is not strictly observed.

It is extremely dilHcult, however, to obtain a definite solution of
ammoniii. and when procured, to maintain it of unifurm strength.
Mr. GriiHn, of Finsbury Square, |)erceiviug the advantages of the
aramoniu dolution, proposes to prepiu*e it in such a manner as entirely
to obviate these objections. An ingenious plan has betn devised for
noting loss of scrcngili in a solution of ammonia. Two nicely-balanced
beads are immersed in it : the one. so long os the solution ia of the

firoper strength, remains nt the botlom, but griidually ascends as the
itjtiid Ijccouies heavier; the other lies just uniler the surface of the
lluid, and of course emerges from it, and makes its &{>pearance above,
under the ^ame circumstAnces.

Some experimenters determine the amount of acetic ac3«l by weigh-
ing the quantity of carbonic acid evolved. This method requires a
speeiul apfjaratus ; and it is questionable whether, unless ver^ care-
fully employed, it gives such accurate results ns the soda solution.

A note must of course be kept of the quantity uf soda sulutJou used
to neutralise the vinegar: from this the so<la must be calculated, and
from this a^^ain the acetic acid estimated : —

On the DetemanaHon of Sulphuric Acid in Vinegar. — Sulphuric
acid, as we have said, is very commi»nly sdded to the malt and other
vinegars made in this country, istensilily for the purpose of making it
keep better, but also untpietitionably to augment its strength.

We have already expressed doubts us to whether this addition is at
all oeceftsary to well-manufactured vinegar, since some makers dis-
pense with it altogether; as, however, the law has allowed of the addi-
tion of a certain amount of sulphuric iind. the presence of this can
hardly be treated as an adulteration, although sirirtly it really is bo.
By it the acidity of the vinejjar is not only increased, but the cost of
the article much reduced, and in place of a volatile and arumatic acid,
such ns is natural Co the gastric juice, we are miide tu consume a hursh
mineral acid, having none of these properties, and in no way concerned
in digestion.

Several 8lat«n>ents are pontaine<l in books which treat of adultera-
tions, respecting the detection of sulphuric acid in vinegar. Thus, it
IS said : —

First. If a pen be charged with vinegar containing sulphuric nci<],
■nd words wntten with it, when dried before the tire, they turn black.

» D

Aa At

whaA mjrwt, ve ifcfwadovs, it !iecma<a. ■Binwir^ ta
qomtit^ of Hil^anc acid m Uie sUte «f coubtBfttio« pmeat m g*-
■oxae viaefsr. WHb tku view ve kftve uttlvmd JUfawit nmple*, of
1000 eratBa ead^ of psre vinegar, and obtained the feUovinc — looate
of HUpfaate of Imtju : — from KeM*a Bordean, 61 bon&edtka of
mfnin; K«ia*fl Ko. 17^ £7 huadiedtW; aad from GHbert't piirHMg
■itgM, 46 hmKirvdUM ; (be first eon«apoiidio|: witli 25, tbe kcodS
intb 34, and tlie third vrifa 19 faundrvtUbf of nilpbaric acid. In all
calcttUtiona, tberefore, tbe arer^e quantitT of combtoed fttlpburic
acid tboold be dedneted from tbe loul amooDt of that aeid

VINEGAR, AND ITS AI>CLTEBATI0N3.

403

In Romc inittanceii, where very biird well watent are used in making the
vinegar, it will be necessary to t«si separately for the combined and
iree sulphuric add. Indeed, it is safest to do this whenever rigid
accuracy is required.

The combined sulphates present in vinegars are derived partly from
the grain and partly from the water enip!oye<l. Whether the acid be
free or combined may he ascertained in the following manner, if the
liquid remains acid after the removal of the acetic acid by distillation,
the acidity is most probably due to free sulpliunc acid, the amount of
which must be ascertained thus : —

A given quantity of the vincprar is first precipitated with chloride
of barium, in order to ^et the total quantity of sulphuric acid present.

A similar quantity is evnnorated to drynefts, Inrinenitcd, and the
white ish, after treatment with a few drops of nitric acid, tested for
sulphuric ftcid. If the acid is in the eninbiiicd state, there will be no
dilference in the proportions obtained in the two coses.

Further, the (piJintity of acid containeil in the vinegar before ind
after distillation may be determined ; and if the results agree, we ob-
tain additional evidence of the absence of free sulnhuric arid.

Another way is to evaporate the vinegar to tue consistence of a
syrup, and to separate the free sulphuric acid by means of alcoholi
and then to proceed to iletermine its amount in ihe usuid way.

On the Detection itfChiUiea and other Acrid Subxtancea in Viuegar. —
The ppesence of ucrid substances in viiie|jiir may be readily detected.
A portion of the viiie^iar should be evaporated nearly to dryness, and
the extract tasted, when the presence of any pungent substance will
be plainly reveoletl to the taste.

Oh the Detection of Burnt Sugar. — Two or three hundred grains
of the vinegar are to be evaporated on a water bath to dryness, the
extract boiled with alcohol, the alcoholic solution evaporated^ and tlie
residue tasted; if it be of a very dark colour, and of a bitter taste,
burnt sugar is no doubt present.

On ihe Detection of Acetic aud Pyroligneo^u Acidg. — It is scarcely
possible to detect ihe presence of ncelic aciit, since this acid is the
chief constituent of all genuine rinejrar ; but nyroligneous acid may be
discovered. PyroH^eous aci<l, as its name implies, is formed by the
destructive distillation of w<hm1 ; and it usually ]>0!ises3e.t a smell and
taste indicative of its origin and dependent upon the presence of
certain tDipuritiea, as creoMte, &c. For the detection of this acid,
nothing more is necessary than to distil tJie acid from a portion of the
viiie;;ar, to concentrate this by redistillation, and (iiially to judge of
It by the taste and odour.

Of certain alleged adulterations of vinegar, as those with nitric,
hydrochloric, and tarLiric acids, it is iinnecesoary to treol, since we ore
unacquainted with anv instance of the use of those aeid.i in the adul-
teration of vinegar, although it is quite po^diblc that they have bceu
and may still be used in rare instances.

D D 3

404

TINEOAB, AND ITS ADCLTERATIOX8.

Ou the DtttcHon o/Bitartrate of Potash in Vimogar, — Bitartrste of
potash u a constituent ot' wine vinegar, and u we are often called
npon to vive our opinion as to whether certaio Tinegars are wine or
malt Tine^ar^, it a acre wary that we Ahoitld be acquainted with the
method of detectinff that salt. For instructions the reader is referred
to the article on \Vtoe.

It should be known that the presence of bitartrate of potash in
Tineffar a0brds no certain proof of its being genuine, sinc« this salt
iMLj oe purposely oiMed. In this case, we must jud^ bj the specific
gravity and the anima of the vine<;iLr, especiallj when heated, as well
aa by the character and compnsiiion of the extract.

Oh the Dttectioii of Metaliie ImpuhiieM in Vinegar. — Ten ooncea
of vinefnu* should be evaporated to dryness in a porcelain capsule, and
the reftidue re<iuced to a white ash ; if the asii be brown or nut-
ooloured, in place of white, it contains iron. The a&b should be
treated with a few drops of pure nitric acid, distilled water being
added af^er the lapse of a few hours; the solution should be filtered,
and a portion of it te^tted with sulphuretted hydrogen. If it turn
black, the vinegar most probably is contaminated with lead; if dark
brown, with copper ; and if yellow, with tin. If there be no change
of colour, it may be concluded that no metallic substance is present.
It is proper, however, not to rely for the determination of the metal
|Hvsent upon the colour of the liquid, but to test for that, the pre-
sence of which is suspected, by the ap(iropriate reagents.

The foHowine evidence before the Committee on Adulteration by
Mr. George Phillips, will show bow the Excise protected tlie revenue
from loss resulting from the adultenlion of this article at the time a
duty was levied upon it : —

Mr. MoffaU. *' When there was a duty on vinegar, was it mucb
adulterated ? " — " The taw allowed a small per-centage of sulphuric
acid. I am not aware that it was adulterated beyond tliat/*

Again, by a return of the articles examined for the Inst twelve
yoirs, it appears that the Excise, with its 70 chemists and 4000 in-
•|>ectors, exaroined only one sample of vin^ur during that long
period.

Now Tine^r, again, is an arlide which is constantiv aflulterated
in a Taricty of ways. So much for the ciBciency of the kxcise.

The duty on foreign vinegar, which waa AktL per gallon during the
war, is now au:aiii, by the Act of 19 5c 20 Victoria, cap. 75., 5</. per
gallon (-i9thJulv, 1856).

Imports, in 1854, 46,560 galls. ; in 1855, 24,105 galls. Home con-
fumptioD, in 1854, 39,564 galls. ; in 1855, 18,983 galli.

40S

PICKLES, AND TIIEIK ADULTERATIONS,

To persons unacquainted with the subject^ the title of tbi« report
^Pickles and their Adnltorations," mar appear somewhat tiingular;
Btid tbcy may be disposed to aak — Are not the ghirkins, cflbb&^ea,
beans, &c., which wc sec in the bottles, what they appear to lie ? And
are other ve^'t^tables than those cotnuionly known to us mixed with
the ordinary kinds ? To these questions we thus reply : — " Ghirkins,"
on close exaiuination, olleu turn out to be but shrivelled or sliced
cucumbers; the *' voung tender beans" to be old and tough; the
"cauliflowers'* to Imve run to »ec<l ; and the ** rcil caboage" to be
nothing more than white cabbajre turned into red by colouring mat-
ter, as a dyer would elmngc the colour of a dress ; further, that
amongst the vejietablcs not un frequently employed for the purijoete of
ptckie-raaking are some whirh do not enter into the caluulaliun of the
epicure* u vegetable marrowr', — which, when cut into i)ieccts form a
very respectable iniitution uf cucumbers, — and sliced turnips, the
identification of which would be apt to puzzle even a botanist as well
as certainly all those who are uninitiated in the secrets of a pickle-
manufactory.

But the adulterations to which we more cspeciallr allude, and to
the consideration of which our attention will be particularly directed
in the following remarks, are those which refer to the (juatity and
composition of the vinegar used for pickling, as well as to the means
employed for preserving and heightening the colour of green pickles.

In Accnni's culebrateii work, " Death in the Pi)!," under tnc head
PoisoMOtis PiCKU'.A, we obtain tlie following information in rela-
tion to the " greening " of pitkles : —

** Vegetable substances preserved in the state called pickles by
means of the antiseptic power of vinegar, whose sale frequently de-
j>euds greatly u]Km a tine, lively green colour, and the consuuiptiou
of which, by seafariug people in particular, is proiligious, are some-
time.t intentionally coloured by means of copper. Ghirkins, French
beans, samphires, the green potls of capsicum, and manv other pickled
vegetable substances, oftcner than is perhap:* ex|>ccLed, are met with
impregnated with this metal. Numerous futal consequences are
known to have ensued from ttic use of these stimulunis to the palate,
to which the fresh and pleasing hue has been imparted according tu
the deatlly formula laid down in some modern cookery books; such
as boiling the pickle with halfpence, or sull'eriug them to stand fur a
considerable period in brazen vessels.**

Dr. Percival ("Metlical Transactions,** vol. iv. p. 80.) has given an
account of " a young lady who amused herself while her hiur wai

0 p 3

I acuuuui

PICKLES, ASD THEIft ▲DCXTEXAnOSS.

iaftw

4V COakCi^ MOkS BSTC

ifc ■ «• fa* hoped tfcM tfacT via
flf Ae wfa fr«ai vlacfa ihtj arc ex-

ia ft bcO-oMtal cr vopptr

'-T0 Pidie Ghir^mB.—BoSL tfae
pflt s pew li nniBwg hot om vcnv csc

~r<» flMfe grprftiiR— Tftfce ft %ift of vcrdwrv ^e b«nc« oT
iHMcl-nt. fody povOmd. hftir ft piiit of dMM raegv. «d ft bit
■kn powder. wi4 ft Ettle fao^ ndc Pot aB a a bottle, aboke ii« md
lot k ftand lin ckar. Fm a ■aaU ii ■■pfiniifal iMo niiBiBfeii, or wfaau
efw yo« wiifa to greea.*

lir.£.Ratfclddincu: 'Torendo- piekla gtaeoi. bad tkcm vilb
halfjpeace. or aUoo tbea to stand idr twearffcar boon io copper or

*Todetecctbepr«MBeeafeopper,it ■ oa^ii umif tomicctbc

pieUca, aad to pour Bqaid awamiw. ifilated viik ao equal htJk mt
waiar,ovtrtbeA IB a flopped Tial: if tbe pacUeioaBtaiatbeBiBaiaM
i|Haari>^ of copper, tbe aauMmia aiawiiwii a blae coloar.'*

Tbe aborc renuHu and qaotalioaa eoorcy a soaewbat fearfal pip-
tore c»r tbe coKjaring of picklea. It will be cmr object to
bov far the statexnenU made apply to tbeir preaent oooditMO.

Renlts of Amalytct of Samplet.

Twenty-Aree samples of pickt«* of difiT^rent dcacriptioai, indui^ng
mixed pickles, India pickltrs frbirkios, beans, Chilics, &c^ were sub-
jected to a rigorous cbemical exammataooi witb the foUowing re-
•olu: —

1st. That the Tioegar used for pic^in^ is of a verjf iceak deseri^
etm, the per-oentage of acetic acid rmn^ng between )*48 and
3'dl. It will be remembered, that in our I&?t Ke(>ort we stated
that vinegar of good qmdUjf <Mgkt to contain from four tofite per
etmt. of fmrc acetic acid.
2nd. That nineteen out of twentr of the vinegart submitted to
analraU, poor as tbej were, yet owed a portion of their aeidi^ fl»
nUphurie acid, tbe amount of which runed in tbe diflcrenl sam-
ples from *38 to 2'5'2 in the 1000 grains ; the largett ^uamtitg tf
Ihit add being detected in the vinegar* in trhich the red euNkigm
were pickUtl,
Srd. That in the whole of the sixteen different pickle* aaalj/Med for

PICKLES, AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

407

copper^ THAT rouoKous mbtal wqm discovered in varioui amoimtt :
two of the samples contained a small quantity ; eighty rather much;
oney a conaiderahle quiiiuitif ; three, a very coiuiderable qwinttty ; in
one, copper was jiresciU i« highly deleterioxu amowU ; and in two^ in
poisonous nmoHfits.
4tu. Thut the pickles which contained the largest guatUity of copper^
were those which consisted entirely of green vegetableSf as ghtrkius
and beans.

Nutwithjtanding the atatoments ma(ie id books^ some of which we
have noticeil at the commencement of this Itcpurt, when we entered
ujKjn these inquiries, we felt convinced thalso poisonrmsM. metal as cop*
per was now rarely, if ever, employed for tht' mere purpose of lieii;hten-
irig and nrescrving the colour of green pickl&i; we are therefore both
6ur]irisc<l and grieved ai ilie really fearl'ul character of the reaulcs to
which Dur invealigiitions liave conducied us. We trust, however^ now
that conclusive evidence of this tfcantlalous practice has been adduced,
and that the public are put up on their guard, a remedy will be found
for thitt great evil.

Pickles, (loubtlcsa, when properly preparc<l, are not very difrej^tible ;
but wc now sec that much of ihe ill L'tTcctd so generally attributed to
their use, must result Irom their impregnation with so potsonoua a con-
tarainatiun a;} copper.

In siome ca«es the copper^ usually ihe svfphale, commonly known as
blue stone, is added direct to the vmegar in which the pickles are pre-
served ; more frequently, however, no direct addition of copper is
made, but a sutBcient ijuantity of that motui, in the form uf an
acetate, is obtained by the repealled boiling of the viiie^'iu' in copper
veuels, but since vin<^^ is so commonly uJultemied with sulphurio
a<ud, a sulphate of copper U generally formed as well. Thu» it amounts
to precisely the same thine; whether the copper ia added direct to the
pickles, or whether it is taLen from ofl' the copper utemila employed^
by the action of the acids of the vinegar.

One ot the worst features of this abominiible practice is, that the
employment of copper is wholly unnecessary, aa tlie colour of green
vegetables may be very well preserved by other means, as by the uBe
of pure vinegar, and the ud<ltti(m of a jiroper quantity of salt.

Since then, oa we have now proveil, pickles are so constantly
contaminated, and even rendered poisonous, by cupper, the only
safety for the public is, that all housekeepers should U\ke the mutter
into their own hands, and become themselves the makers of their
pickles.

It is in the vtm-gar employe^:! for picklc-m&kinc; especially that we
should expect to find acetic and pyroligncous acids; the bitter acid
is usually detectable by the slight odour of creosote, fn)m which it it
almost impossible to free it. It is of importance that the efl'ect of the
actiou of Uie sulphuric acid contained in many of the pickling vinegars

D D 4

'409 PICKLES, AND THEIR ADULTERATIOXS.

OD the colour of llie pickles sbould be determined. Our owa ioipre»-
•ion is, thnt it would be found to be injurious.

A visit to a Urge pickle wirehouse, such as thnt of Mesan. Oo»e
and Kluckwell, duriof; the seosoo of pickle and preserve making, is
not without interest. The vast piles of vcsetabLes and fruit readjr to
ba iort«d, cut, boiled, &c., is really astonianin^.

U B|ipeflr»f hmrever, that pickle- making u, to i great ezteitti
independent of the seasons, and (hat most of the different kinds oiT
pickles may he made at any period of the year. This the makers are
Miabted to do by keeping a large stock of the various sorts of vege-
tablet Immersed in orine and packed in barrels. In some of oar
largett cstahliahmonts many htindreil harreU thus fiUe^l may be seen.
We are informed that the "rcaicr part of these vegetables come firom
abroad : it is alli.'ged tliat thvy are kept in brine for the sake of eco-
nomy, and that they would keep for belter in vinegar.

On the Detection of the AdutteroHota of PichUt.

Pit-kling vinegar is of course liable to the same adulterations u
other vinegar. The processes emplnyed for the detection of all the
more usual adullcraiions of vincgnr have alrea<ly been described, and
it is not necessary lo repeat thum in this place ; we have then merely
to point out the mt*thudti by which the presence of copper in pickles
jg to be determioed.

The presence of copper in pickles, bottled fruits and vegetable*,
ud preserve?, is nAen unmistakably indicated by their cohmr.

When the housekeeper preserves these nrticlcs, tlioy arc ufiually of
s yellow colour rather than green, hut as exhibiti'd in shop windows,
or purchased of manufucturcrs of lhe«; articles, they ordinarily
present a vivid blui^h-grcen colour, more intense than that of the
fresh vegetables or fruit. Whenever these articles are of u decided
green, tney will almost always be found to cutitaiu copj>er; but when
they arc yellowish <ir brownish-green, copper is never present.

The copper is found usunlly both in the pickles and in the vinegar;
and for its detection the following proces-^cs may be adopted : —

For its detection in pickling vmegar, an ounce or so of the vinegar
should be poured into a teat gliis^, and in this a piece of thick iron
wire, having n smooth and polishe<l surface, should be immersed for a
few hours. If copper be present it will become deposited upon the
wire, forming a coating more or less complete and thick, according lo
the quantity of copper present-
Thin test may lie so readily applied that we recommend the public
to make use of it, and so ascertain fijr themselves whether the pickles
they are using contain the poison or not If only n very amidl tpian-
tity of copper be present it will be quickly deposited on the surface
of the iron.

POISONOD8 BOTTLED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES. 400

We have ourselves tried this simple proceeding, first wilh bftlf an
ouucti of two vinegars in which the pickles were eontaiiietJ, in which
much copper was present ; in each ca^e, afier the lupse of lliree or
four hours, a welUiuarketl coating of copper h:ul furineti upiii tbe iron
ro<i. We next tried it with two vinegars previously asceiiained to
contain the sniallest quantity of copper; in these cases also, after
the hipse of a few hours, an incrustation of cojiper was formed.

Another very simptc and eilicient method is the following : —

Put three or four drops of the auspeiited vinej,'rtr on the blade of a
knife; add one drop of sulphuric acid, and heat the under surface of
the knitie over (he llame of a candle ; the vine;;ar, in evaporating, will
deiKisit the copper upon the iron, if anv be present.

r'or the detection of copper in the pickles themselves, the annexed
process may be adopted.

About 1000 grs. of the green vegetables of each of the pickles, after
having been sliced wilh a ffluss knife, are to be incinerate<l, care being
taken to avoid every source of contamination : the ash, having Ijeun
pulverised, is to be treate*! witli t20 tlrops of pure nitric acid ; I 02. of
distilled water, after the lapse of a short time, udded, the solution
filtered, and treated with excess of ammonia. If copper is present, the
solution becomes more or less blue, according to the amount of the
metal present.

For the qumdUative esfimaiioH qf copper in pickles, we rauat proceed
as follows : —

3000 or 4000 grs. of the pickles, inuluding a fair proportion of the
vinegar, must be evaporated tu drym^H, then incinerated; the ash
treated with about two drachms of nitric acid diluted with an ecpial

Quantity of water; the whole boiled (or a few minutes, evaporateti to
ryness, the residue diluted with one ounce more water, boiled ngitin
for a time, the solution filtered, and the copper precipitated by
means of sulphuret of ummunium ; the sij|[)hureL of copper must be
collected, dried, wei^'hed, and the co])per determined.

Imjiort duty, preserved in vinegar. Id. [wr gidlon; preserved in
salt, irce.

Imports, preserved in vinegar, in I8.';4, 5328 galls.; in 1855, 3998
galls. Home consumption, in 1854, 4904 galls ; in 18^5, 3278 galls.

ON POISONOUS BOTTLED FRUITS AND
VKGKTAliUiS.

Am attentive examination, wilh the eye alone, orvanons samples of
bottled Iruits and vegetables, served to raise suspicion, and to produce

410 POISONOUS BOTTLKD FRUITS AND VEGETABLES.

the impression that the method of preservation adopted hy modem
prciiervcrft of these ariiclea wae not (juite so barmlcsa as that unginallj
proposed by Mr. Saddiiigton. We lelt, indet:d, a strong conviction
thut t]ie siiine means of* coloration waji re»orte<l to in the case of
bottled fruits and ve^eiubh'ji as ve bad already ascertained to be
employed with pickles. In order to determine whether this convic-
tion w:is well founded or not, we resolved to institute a scries of
rigornus analyses, the results of which we arc now about to mike
known.

The extraordinarjr effect of copi>er, in heightening and rendering
permanent the grevn colour of fruits and vegetables, has already been
remarked U{>on in the reptfrt iin Pickles. This action is exerted
upon the green contents of the cells, the chlorophylle, and hetiee it is
the coloured portions of Tcgetahtcs and fniilSt as those invested by
the epidermis, which are most ufTcctcd by this substance. The copper
used aocumulat^M in this membrane as a salt — as an acetate, a citrate,
ur a nialate uf copper.

The presence ot copper^ however, in fruits and vegetables is not
confined to the coloured portions; it penetrates lhrout;h the whide
lja.Hue; and a considt^rable part of the metal used even remains diffused
throughout the lluid in which the vegetable substance is contained:
hence it is desirable to aniilyso for coitper not only the preserved
article itself, but also the tluid in which it is immersed.

Hendit of AnalyMts of SampUt,

Thirty'four samjilest of different kinds of bottled fruita nnd vegeta-
bles were therefore subjected to chemical analysis. From this analysis
the following eonclueiona were deduced : —

1st. That of the thirty-three samples of preserved fruits and vege-
tables term were free frum curUamtnation tcith copper.

2nd. That (weniyseven samples were more or leu impregnaied with
thai metal.

Slrd. That tracet of copper were discovered in three of the samples.

4th. That in seven of the samples copper uftu present in small
amount otJy.

5th. Tliat eight samples cx>ntained it in coitsiderable amount.

6th. That in six samples the metal was present in very cotisiderabUs
armjiuiL

7th. That /bur of the samples contained this poisonous impreguaUon
in very large qitautities.

Hth. That the snni[tles of limes contained copper^ the one in smeU
ainouni only, the other in amount more considerable.

i)ih. 'VUsX gooseberries^ as commonly preserved, contain a cotuider'
able amount of copper^ and some samples even a very large
quantity.

lOih. That rhubarb usuaUj contains an amount of cof^r mort

I
I

POISONOUS BOTTLED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES, 411

cofiMiderabffft same sampieM being conhiminated with it to a nery
large extent.
Ilth. That greengages in g^nerHj contain a sttlJ greater rjumUity of
cupper, the metal being frequently present in highly dangerout
amoimts,
12th. That in olives this poisonous impregnation is in the largest
amount^ although its clTucL in heightening the colour of the fruit
is less marked than in the other coses.
I3ih. That the preserved red fruits, tts currants, raspberries, and

cherries, are nut tts a rule conUtmmated with copper.
The absence of copper in n^l fruits, and the variation of the quan-
tity of that metttl in green fruits according to the requirements in
each cose, afford clear evidence that this dangerous impregnation iloes
not arise from the mere use of cnpperutensils, but thai it is purposely
introdiiCtid, the quantity being systeinutically adjusted in dilterent
proportion^ determined by the kind ol" fruit pi^eserved.

That this conclusion is correct is cnnduiiively shown lu another
way. According to the method of preparatioti ui^ually pursued, the
fruit or vegetable is not supposed to comu in contact with copper.

The fruit or vegetable is taken dirL'ctly from the baskets or sieves
in which it is received from the country, and carefully packed in
bottles; these are next tilled up with a liquid, consistmg of water
holding a small quantity of alum in solucion ; they are then loosely
corked, an<l submitted for a certain time to the heat of a watcr-bocb,
so 08 to ensure the coagulation of the vegetable albumen ; they are
afterwards more tightly corked, tied over with string or wire, and
further secured with resin and bladder, or with a metallic capsule.

The presence of copper, ihen, in bottled fruits and vegetables can
only be explained on the supposition that it is purposely introduced;
and this is really the case.

As in the cuse of lK>ttled fruits and vegetables there is no vinegar
to act upon the copper of the vessels, the copper, usually the sulphate
or blue t^tt/ne^ in in all cases added direct to these articles. We have
the authority of a manufacturer for stating that the quantity of this
powerful and almost poi»>nou!!' substance used is often fully as much
an sixty grains to one gross of bottJeif of the fruit ; this gives not far
short of half a grain per bottle, which is a full medicinal dose.

In some cases, where the quantity of cupper is coDsiderable, the
metal becomes deposited on any metallic surface it may happen to
come in contact with, in the course of a few minutes. In proof of
this we will quute a pnrngraph front a letter written by Mr. Bcrnuvs,
a chemist resident in Derby, addressed to the ^ The Lancet." lie
writes, —

'' I had bought a bottle of preserved gooseberries from one of the
most respectable grocers in this town, and had had its contents trans-
ferred into a pie. It struck uie thm the gooseberries looked fearfully
green when cooked ; and on eating one with a steel fork, its inteose

41S POrSONOUS BOTTLED FIiriTS AXD VEGETABLES.

bittorncs89 sent mc in search of the sugar. Afler having sweetened
and luiuhed the gooaeberrics with the same steel fork, I was about
to convey some to my mouthy when I observe*! the prongs to be com-
pletely coiiteiJ with a thiti film of bright metallic copjier. My testi-
mony can be borne out by the evidence of three others, two of whom
dined at my table."

In the preservation of red fruits, no copper is used ; but here, again,
we are inibrtneil, thut red colouring mutter, as decoction of loi^wood,
or iul'usioi) of beet root, is not uiifrequently employed, especially
where the fruit is daranged or of inferior (juidity.

The coh>iir of green fruits and veiretahlefl w sometimes apparently
heightened by a stHiond devlre ; the bottles in which they are enclosed
are made of a highly coloured glass ; those in which French olivea are
preserved ore of so intense a green as to impart to Che fruit as seen
through the bottles a deep-green colour.

As a rule, the uniount of copper ordinarily present in many kinds
of bottled fruits and vegeliibles is greater lor even equal quantities
than in pickles, which, as we have nhown, aUo frcjuently contain
that metiil in tiirge and almost pnismiou^ ipantity. Add to this the
fact that while pickles are used in ^inan rjiijintily only, a whole bottle
of preserved fntit is consumed by two or three persons at one time ;
hence we perceive how much more dangerous is the emplu/ment of
copper in the cose of fruits than in that of pickL>s.

Ihc present adds another iiistaiiee to the many which have already
been adduced, in which uianufucturers, in order to heighten the
colour of articles, and as they conceive, often very erroneously, (o
improve their appearance, have sacrificed their flavour and quality,
ami have rL^ked health, and even safety.

On the Detection of the Advlterationa of Bottled Fruits aitd Vegetables,

The chief adulterations of these articles arc those with taltt o/coppeff
added for the purpose of heightening their colour. In many cases
the intense green or bluish-grey colour, greatly increased when the
fruit or vegetable U cooked, is sutficieut to betray the preseuce of
copfwr, e^iiwcially to an accustomed eye.

For the detection of copper by chemical means we must have re-
course to the processes des^-ribed under the liead of Pickles.

Tlie copper is found, as in the case of picklod, in the preserving
fluid ns well as in the fruit or vegetable itself.

If we desire to test the liquid, we proceed ns follows : —

About threeounces of the juice or fluid in which the fruit orvi^etable
is preserved are to be measured out, uufl placed in a test (ilass ; the
acidity is to be slightly increased by the uddition of alK>ut three drop«
of strong nitric acid, and a polishetl rod of iron placed in the fluid,
and allowed to remain f(»r al>out Iwcnty-four hours. If copper ia
preaent in considerable amount, the surface of the rod, from top to

POISONOtJS BOTTLED FEUITS AND VEGETABLES, 413

bottom, become* covered wilh a continuous and brifiht coating of that
niL'tal. If the amount of copper is less consi^lerablf, the upper half
or «o only of iho roil receives the coating. If the quantity is very
small indeed, no perceptible <Ieposit of copper will take plncc.

Hence we perceive that the iron rod alTords n simple nnil most con-
clusive te-Jt for t:<)])|>er in I'ruita and regetables, when present in
anything like considerable umuunt, and that it even fierves to indicate,
to a certain extuat, the tjuuniity uf cupper with which the juice of
different samples is impregnnled, as »hown by the rapidity with which
thed(.'poflit occurs, by the thickness of t)ie coating, and by the extent
of surface covered by it.

If we desire to analyse the fruit or vegetable, we must proceed u
follows ; — Three ounces of each of the fruits and vegetables are to
be weighed out, placed in crucibles, and incinerated until nearly the
w^hoie uf the Cijrbon is dissipated, the colour of the ash being care-
fully nnted. In those cases in whiih the fruit or vegetable is not con-
taminnteil with t-oppcr, the re-tidual ash is observed to be either
white or greyish-white, while in thitse instances in which copper is
present it U conFiaiitly of a pink colour; the depth varies uniformly
wilh ihe amount of eoppur prest-nt.

We have already advened to the pink colour of the ash of vegetable
Bubatiuices containing copper, as affonling nn excellent test nf the
presence of tLat nietii). in the cose of bottled l'ruit« and vegetables
this is a peculiarly delicate test.

When fruits or vegotubte substances are carefully incinerated with-
out being in ajiy way tlisturbed, the genernl forin of the fruit, &c., is in
most cases tolerably well preserved ; and it is then itercLivetl thai the
pink colour is conlincd principally to the surikce of the substance
incinerated.

In those cases in which the amount of copper is but Tcry Finf.IJ, the
pink will be seen on the Mirfnce, only here and there, und will be of a
pale tint. Where the quantity is lurger, although still but small, the
colour will be more genera! nnd more decided. Where it is abundant,
the whole surface of the a.ih will be of a brighr and beautiful roay-
pink hue. Lastly, when the (juantity of cop[KT present is very con-
fideruble, the residual ai^h will be of a deep pink colour.

Olives, when incinerated, do not leave a clean white ash, so that
although the colour way be very well detected in iheni, it is not of so
bright a pink as in other fruit ; and the colour is not confined, as in
most other ca^s, to the surface of the fruit, but extends through its
whole Kub-'lance.

When a portion of the juice is incinerated alon^ with the fruit, u
IS usually the cose, the crucibles, if cnpf>er is nrcsenl, become
tinted with the same nisy-pink colour obser^-ed on tne surface of the
fruit or vegetable incinerated. In some cases where the amount of
copper is considerable, the bottoms of the crucible* become deeply
and beautifully stained of a bright and iridescent pink.

ADITLTERATIONS OF PRESERVES AND JELLIES.

TIiG jilnk colour nf the ash U thus explained. In the course of
incinertitinn the acid with which the copper was combined is de-
stroyed, the bijzhly characteristic pink oxide alone remaining in the
fruit, and ita presence bcinp revealed by its peculiar colour.

We have, ihen, in ibc colour of the ash a certain and beautiful lest
of the presence of copper, even in the ninst minule quantitieR. and
likewise for the determinalioTi of its amount to ii certain extent, not
not only in bottled fruttit, but in moat vegetable substances, and espe*
citilly in pickles.

The tint nf the aah havin« been noted, it may next be treated in
the Kanie manner as the nsh of pickles.

When copper is present, the colour of the acidulnted solution of the
ash, when anmmnia is added, varies preally, from a ])ale and scarcely
perceptible bluish liue to a rich and deep azure, according to the
quantity of the metal present.

As a further tost, the metal may be separated from the ammoniaral
solution in the follnwinf; manner: —

Acidiilat^r the solution, and immerse in it a piece of polished iron
wire, when the oojijwr will become deposited up<m it. A coating of
copptT may often be obtained from the acidulated 8o]uli<m of thti ash
in cBffce where no deposit of mt'tal tukes pliu-e on iumiersion of the
iron in the juice in which the fruit ur vegetable was preserved.

ON THE CONTAMINATIONS AND ADULTERA-
TIONS OF PRESERVES AND JELLIES.

We have repeatedly shown that the adulterators of our food do not
Bcrujily to employ, when it suits iheir purjHise, the most deadly sub-
stances, undeterred by the serious eonsetjuences whii-h but too fre-
quently result from their use. Thus, it has been shown lliat it is no
uncommon thinf; fur them to make use of viirious pn-paralions of
iron, lead, copper, arsenic-, mercury, &c. It is not a little remarkable^
that the nmjority of the substance^} arc had recourse to, not on account
of bulk nr weight, but for the mere sake of colours, which, thus pro-
cured, are frequcully in & high dey^reu ylarin^ and unnatural, these
colours being obtained^ too, at the expense of quality and flavour.

Amonpst the artirtcs which have already been treated of, and in
which foreign colouring ingredients have been detected, are tea,
chicory, cocoa, Cayenne, mustnril, pickles, bottled fruits and vegetables,
potted meats and fish. The list is, however, far from complete aa yet ;
oud on the present occasion we have to add to it other arlicles.

A1>C1.TERAT10>*S OF PRESERVES AND JELLIES. 415

fed jelliea prepva) in copper vessels are alvrn)'s cnn-
ft» ft greftler or leu extent witti copper.

Bat imiWcweof green preserves, as in those of picklo.s bortlod
irmtm aad v«sclafalei« copper is tued intvnliuually fur Lbc iiuqntFtu uf
the colour.

la tone cases the preserves and jellies are actually mluU
Icralcd.

Yc^etakle jellies consist of the tliick anri transparent part of ilie
ftA only, tae husks and seeds hcinfr removed. Now, these really
■ 01 >y I SI portMUS of the fruit nre rarely, if ever, tlirown awny Hy the
^„Mm,w^tmmt»mmwm of pTeTerves ; but, mixL'd with a little fretih fruit, tficy
VCDMBed offasgtxMl jams. IiiLliia practice huu!<ekeepersure furnii>hed
via ft fflroo^ reason for prepnring their own presurvo.t, iin<l til.«ii \\\i\\
■B explaMUion of the f^encral ^lupt^riurity of Imhil* nimk' jtreserves.

A i^Hlar use is said to bo foinetlmeA niiide nf the refuse partA of
frwtft and in the manufacture of hoine-inaile wiiie^u

OrvM Marmalade^ which when genuine^ conisipts only of the bitter
or ServBe orange, is frequently Hdulterated with sweet ornnpes, with
•pples aad turnips. We btivc been infornied ihul a uiwcies of swede
of a yetto«ir colour is much used in the oflulteration of orange amr-
maJade.

Lftstlj, we have good authority for staling that partly- decayed
OTftDges, and even suckcil oranges, are used in the ndultoratioii of this
ftronrite preserve; these statements rest upon the authority of an
eye witness.

RtiMpbernf jeUy is usually nothing more than currant jelly, to which
tlie flavour of the raspberry \x\\a beuu cuuuuunicated by means «t'i>rris
root.

The ratpbeny Jiaroun ft f^ for sugar confectionary is mode entirely of
currant jelly and orris root.

Lastly, the jellies in botilea and those sold by confectioners, as
isinglass and calf's foot jelly, consist principally o{ gelatine variously
coitmred.

RetulU of Analyses of SampUs,

Thirty-Jive samples of preserves and jellies of various kinds were
subjeeteil to microscopical and chemical examination and with the ful-
lowmg results : —

Isl. That the A^JTj^erryyom analysed contained a very considerable
quantity ot copper.

2n(l. That the four samples of Gootvberry Jam examined alt con-
tained copper.

3rd. That copper, sometimes in large amount, was detected in
twelve of the fourteen samples of Orange Marmaiade analysed.

4th. That three of the Marmalitdes were adulterated with large
quantities of a tegetahU mhsiance^ most probably either turnip or

41S ADULTERATIONS OF PRESERVES AND JKLLIES.

apple. There is a kirn! of t urnip, the seeds of which are frequently
atlvertiited in the ** Ganlener's Chronicle" for siiIp, of a velloir
cohfur. und wliit-h i«» callrtl the oninge turnip. We kuu\r not
t(» what iiBc tbii can be put unless in the ndukcratiun of orange
uiorinalade.
5th. That the nine vamplei! of Greengage Jam were all inr)reor 1e59
impregnated with capper^ It being present lu considerable amount
in five of the samples.
6th. Thtit the Gretngage* contained in three different boxes of
Crystaiiued Fruits all owed their deep-^een colour to the pre-
tence uf COppfT.
7th. That the Limes and Greengitgea present in a little plass jar of
iVuit preserved in jelly also owed their brilliant colour to a salt
of ct}pper,
8lh. That copper was present in the three samples of Candied

Citnm Peel subjected to onalysis.
9th. That capper was detected in no leas than thirbfthree of the
thiriy'Jice samples of diffV-renl preserves analysed: three eon-
tQine<i traceti only; in eleven the metal waa present in tniatl
t/tuintitff : and in nineteen either in considerable or even very
large anttmnt.
Knowing well the powerful action of vegetable juiees, and olso of_
sunar^ U[tnn copper, we have l^r^^ entertained the bt^lief that thai'
nietul would be very frequentlv tletected, on analysis, in preserres,'
janis^ and jellies, as ordinarily prepared: we must acknowledge, how-
ever, that (he result of at'tuat investigation has far excelled our,
expectations, since it h»sproveil that preserves made in enpper vessel
not only almost invartuhiy contain copper, but that the metal isoftel
present in very consiilernble quanlilies, sufficient to tint the n»h of a1
deep pink, and to cause the solution of the a.*h when treated with^
ammonia to become of a decided and aomctiines even of a deep blue
colnur.

But the still larger quantities ^f copper detected In certain of the
samples of ^reenpjiy;c jam seem to show lliat, as waa a8certaine<l to he
the case with bottled fruits aiul vupetablfs, some greeninj; salt of
copper, the sulphatt* or acetate, is really iutentionally introduced for
tlie puriHwe of creating an artificial viridity.

It will be perceived, also, that three of the aiunpli»9 of orancc mar-
malade examintd were adulterated with largcfjuantiiie« of a vegel«ble
Bubstuncc. resembling in it^ microscopic slructure either himip or
apple. These ^amplc^ were all inirchased in the beginning of Decem-
ber. Many other samples purcLiiiaed in the fmnimer, and also several
procured within the last few days, were all entirely free from any such
ad'uixture. This appears to prove that this adulteration is practised
chiefly at a certain period of the year, when oranges become scarcei
and in order to keep up the stoik of marmalade, so called. The de-
teotion of thli adulteration in three samples, two of them obtained at

ADULTERATIONS OF rUESERVES AND JELLIES. 417

the cstaMiabmenU of different makers, appears also to sboir that the
A<luIterfltioD is a very general one.

The discIoittircA now mude affird contincinp proof how fmproper
and even dan^en)U8 it is to moke preserves, as is rominonly done even
by onlinary bousekeenors, in copper saucepans. The vessiils em]iloyed
for this pnrpnt^e should consist of earthenware, or, if metallic, should
be lined with enamel.

Although we may fairly expect to find copper in any preserved
vegetable substance prepared in the ordinary manner, yet we acarcelj

4tS ADULTERATIONS OF PBESER'V'ES AND JELLIES.

expected to meet with that poison in those tAstcful and sparkling
little hnxes of bonbons which at Christmas time are sproail out in
ahop windows so attractivoly ; noithor did wc expei-t to fiiitl it mukiog
its way* tliruugb th« citruu-pecl used, into uur very Cbribtmas pluia-
pudding.

FigiU.

The evils and dangers arising out of the all-prevalent and very
scandalous ^»roctice of adulteration, nothing but the firong arm of the
law can snlliciently check ; and the force of this, ere long-, no doubt,
will be felt. Kevorthclcss we are happy to tind that great and im-

SAUCES, AXD THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

419

tiiedijite jjootl very frequently rpsiilu from the exposures wliieli from
time to time we are c<)Tn{ieUe<l to make; this is very eviilent in the
ease oi' pickles, and prejiervfU tVuits nml ve(;otahI«-s. AUIiou|:li we
still see in shop windows liundreOft of Imttles nf these urtioto'* ex|K>9e<J,
Itighly rharpe'i with copper, yet it must V>e allowed that a very in^^al
impn»veincnt has ttiken place in this reflpect since the period of our
lipsr. report on Pickles. We have reasitn to believe that one ven*
lar;:c mnnufacturing Brm, whieh supplies some hundredii of retail
estuUJphineutiS both in town and cuuntry* baa to a very great extent,
if not entirely, ahtvndpned the u»e of eupper, and copper utensils in
the fircening of their pickles and preserves. Such an example cannot
but have an excellent effc'ct on other manufacturers and prepurera of
similar arlicles.

On the Detection of the AHuIteratimts of Preserves and Jellies.

The adulteration of one kind of preserve by the addition of nnoiher
ebea|K'r kind, can in most cases be discovered by means of the inicn>-
Bcope. The structure of the strawberry, raspberry, and currant,
especially of their !«eedft, is very diflerent. By means of llie same in-
striiuient, vegetable jellies may sometimes be distinfjuiithod one from
the otlter, by the remains of the dilTcrent ti*suea disroverable in them.

The adulleralitm of oranj;c marmalude with apple or turnip is like-
wise readily discoverable by the aid of the microscope. Fig. 153.

Lastly, the presence of orris root in any jelly, as well as in snutf.
may be detected by the same means, as will at once be perceived on
an examination of the annexed figure. Pi^. 154.

The methods employed for the determination of the presence of
copfjer in preserves and jellies are the same as in the case of pickles
sad bottled fruiU, to the articlea on which the reader is referred.

SAUCES. AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

A oBBAT variety ofsub^tancas chiefly Te?oiabte, enter inio the mm-
position of the varioas uuces in use. The following Is an rnnmcra-
tion of the chief of these: — Tomato, pnrlic, fhallot, sorrel, nui'^hrooni
and walnut catsup, i^isina, tamarinds, the secdf) of fenui*reek and
rumin, fhc leaves of a Tariely of herlis, as laragon, chervil, mint,
thyme, marjoram, Ac, the see<ls of an Indian plant called Dnhchoa
titja or aoyri, of which soy is made ; a variety of spices andcnitditiif^nts,
oa pepper, Cayenne, mustard, mace, cloves, ginger, and nciirly all the

e E 2

430 8AUCE9, AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

other Bpioes; salt, treac-Ie^ and burnt sugar u colouring agents, nn<
flour as a lliickenin;; ing^redient. t)ut oCtbeub'tve articles, Tariously
combined, and in ilitfereiit propnrtioiis, nearly ull tbe sauces m use are
compounded. Into the cuuipoHitinn of yome few, however, aninitd
jiubstjinces enter, as tbe utu»cultir fibre of sbrimjw, lobster, and an-
chovy.

The following are the chief results deducible from a consideration
of the analyses of Thirty-thrfc s&inples of snuc-o of different kind^: —

1st. That treacle and much talt formed the baaifi of the five samples

of InuiA Sot examined, if they did not even entirely eonsists of

these two ingreclieut'i.
2nd. That of the seven sumples of Tomato Sacck aitalysed, bix

were nrtlBtialty coloured, one probably with c&cAiMro^ and the

rest by the mJ-lition of considerable quantities of the ferruginous

pigment hnte Amtfuian.
Hrd. That the saniplt*s of Kasenck of TjonsTRRs examined were

almost saturated with very large quantities of bole Artneman.
4th. That the samples of Kssknck or Shsimpb were aatunued to

an fqiiiil extent with bole Armenian.
5th. That the whole of the pamplet* of Essence or AKCiioriRS

analvK'd were adulteratetl with immense quantities uf the feiTu-

ginouH oxide bole Armenian.
Ctb. That three of the samples of £<feHcv o/j4ricAory contained but

a ftmall quantity of muscular ^bre,
7th. That two of the samples contained a portion ofyfow — one

being a sample of essence of shrimps, and the other of essence of

lobster.
8tb. That out of the eighteen red sauces submitted to examination,

no less than sixteen ciuituined hole Armenian, and this u^uuUy in

immense quantities, far exceeding whut was detected in any of

the |K>itcd meals and fish.
9lb. That lead, for which separate anolysefl were made in each case,

was not detected in a single inxlancf.
10th That tracet only o/covvt.vl jcere discovered in $ome three or

four sampler.

The above results, tlien, regarded as a whole, although bad enough,
are yet not so bad or serious as the account given by Accum and vnne
other writera, of the adulteration of anchovy paste, &c , would leail us
to infer, since lead was not detected in a single instance. There is
no doubt, however, but that lead does soii^eiiuicA occur. Mitchell
states, "several samples which we have examined of this Bnh sauce,
* [H>iso»ous anchovy sauce * have been found contaminated with lead.**

Further, it is more than protiable that the muscular 6bres in
several nf the samples of anchovy, lobster, and shrimp sauces, con-
sisted either entirely or in port of the fibres of other inferior and
cheaper fish.

8ACCES» AXD TUEIB ADULTERATI0K8. 421

The on]y effeclual rnmedv against ccrtun of tlie adulternriona of
the ^aucesi especially ibe tie\x sauces, ix)iiflists in their prepiirHtiun at
lioine. Receipts for severtil of tlie sauces are siren at page 51*2. of
the utuhoKs work, "Food anil its Adulterations."

It appears, then, that the reil sauce!*, as those of shrimp, hibsler,
aiiehovYt and tomato, are almnAt invuriatilj hi>rhlv otiUnin-d with hole
Arnienmn. TfaiB, as has alroudy been pointed out, is a ntiturul eurtU,
containing a lurpe ((uantitv of the red oxide of iron; but frequeTrlly
an article is made in imitation uf it, enitm^linjr of a ntixluie lU* Vt^-
netian red and elmlk. Of ihie red earth or dirt us much um from ]0
to 15 lbs. are added to 100 ^alls. of aiichnry sauce.

Cooka frequently eolour the ^aucea prepitred by them for the table
with carmine; this when •genuine, i^ a vegetable colour, but it is
frequently adulterated with vermilion.

Perceiving clearly the evils connected with the employment of
artiticial colouring matters, jSIessrs. Crosse and Blackwell liuve, to a
very great extent, abandoned their use, and they now prepare an-
chovy sauce free from colouriujj matter. The difference between
the ordinary coloured and the uncoloured »aures is very striking:
the tirst is usually intensely red — us re<l, in fuct, us a briekhut, this
redness arisini; entirely frum the introduction of the bole Armenian,
— while the other is usually of a pinki»h'fawn colour.

The variouj* colouring matters to which reference hos already been
H> frequently made, are used not merely for the Huke of increaBiMg the
colour of articles, and thus, as it is very often erroneously con.sidered,
improving their appearance, but likewise for other puriwses, esjteci-
ally to conceal other udulterftttons ; thus when very larjje quantities
of wheat Hour are added to mustard, or Hour and suj^ar to cocoa, the
natural colour of those articles becomes ^o reduced that tlie addition
of some foreign colcunng matter is rendered necessary.

Not unfretiuently the use of these colouring inaiters tnvnlvca con-
sideritions ot cleanliness; this is so in the case of nnchory sauce.
The quantity of refuse matters and dirt contained in the fish from
whicli this is prepared is often very trreut ; and it is tl»e presence of
these more than anything else which cruises the sauce to present a
somewhat unsifhily ap|H*aTance Iwforc the red u:irth is adiled. It is
this eircumstande which has chiefly le*l to the use of the l>ole Arme-
nian ; the maker*, in place of carefully reimiving the refuse and dirt,
grinils it all up with the fish, trusting to the tiule Armenian tocunceul
the impurities, tliereby savin;; hiniticlf much trouble and M>me
UiSd. \Ve are in^irnied by Messrs. Criisi^ie and Hlnckwell, thai the im-
purities which they ore obliged to remove in ilte prejmratioii of the
uncoloured anchovy sauce arc almost incrvdible, but that the extra
trouble and loss are fully compensated by the greatly iuqiroved
quality and tiavuur of the article.

Nutwitbstanding this improvement tn quality, so strong do Messrs.

K B 3

in SPICES, AND THEIB ADULTERATIOXS.

Crosse and BInokwell find (he prejaiJice in fuvonr of tbe red sauce,
thiir many purtiei) absolulclv refuse to take the tincoloured sauoe —
preftrring lUe inllTior article simplj bceausc of its redness.

SPICES, AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

W£ now come lo tlic consider atioa of ibe important subject of Spices
und their AduJienitions.

Tlie spices, ot" the adiilteration of whicli we are about to treat, are
Ginger, Cinnamon, Cussia, Nutmegs, Alace, Cloves, Allspice or
Pimento.

^Vbcn it 18 remembered tbitt ranny spices are sold in the stale of
powder, iind mosl ftf (hi.'in bt-ur u hijj:K price* and that they are nearly
idl sul'jecl ru a duty, wlilcb iti souiy uascK is considerable, it might be
suppiaud lliiit they would be peculiarly subjecl to adultenitiun.

rfotwitbsluuiliii;,' tlieite fUets little or no uttentinn bus hitbortubecn
bestowed ujwn tliis stubjeut by writers on the ^ophittCicutiun of food,
nr even by the Exci'o uulhoritios, whose cluiy ii ^htmUl l»e lo protect
the revenue frimi all fraudii rc-sulling friMu the nduUeratlon of duly-
{)aying arlicles.

GINGER. AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

The ginnjer plant, Zinziber officinale, belongs to the \^ry tiseAj.
natural order, Zinzibfracea, from which turmeric, East India arrow-
ru(Jt, and some other productions, are obmined.

Ginger grows and is cultivnted in the tropical regions of A^ifl,
America, and :^ierra Lef>ne.

The stem reucbeK gener;dly ibree or four feet in height, and is re-
newed yearly ; while the root, which is the part known as ginger,
biilHnically termed a rhizumrj is biennial.

Tlie HKits, or rhizonH'.s are dug up when about n year old ; in
JnmaicA this occurs in Jnnunry nr February, and nftcr the stems are
withered. They are well wo.'thed, freed from dirt, and in some eases,
especially with the bethr kinds, the epldennis or outer coat i« stripped
otf; and hence the division of ginger into white (serajied or uncoated),
uiid iul't black (unscraped or coaled).

in efrlinmtiiig tbe quality of ginger, n variety of particulars have
to be taken into conMderution — us whether the rhizomes are coated
or uncoated, their form, colour, and cuni^istence.

SPICES, AND THEIK ADrLTERATlONS.

423

The rfaizomoa of ginger ai good quality have no epidermis, lire plump,
of ft whitish or taint f^traw^culour. soft oud mealy in texturi?, with a
>hort fracturef exhibiting n reddish, resinous zone round the circum*
Terence ; the tute should tie hot, biting, but aromatic.

The rhizomes of ginger of inferior qnalHy are frequently coated
with tIjL* epidermis, are less full and plump, offeri conlrarle*! and
shrivelle*!; of darker colour^ beinp of a hnmniah-yellow ; of harder
texture, termed y7i>t/y ; and more fibrous ^ while the taste is inferior,
and less aromatic.

Composition of Ginger.

Ginger was analysed by Bucholz* in 1817, and by Morinf in
1823.

Blcuolz'b AfiALVaii.

Pale yellow volAtilc oil - - t 56

Afomatic, acritl, soft reiin - 3'IjO

Extrjirlivv Aotubh' In alcohol - O'Cd
Acidulous and acrid extractive

inAuluble in alruhul • • 10*50

fium 12-05

Starch, analogous to bascorin - 19*7$
Apotbeme, extracted by potash

(ulmin?) .... 36-00

Bassorin .... g-SO

Woodv ftbre .... 8-00

Wotcr .... 11-90

102-31

MouM'a AKJtLTsia.

Tolltilc oil.

Acrid doft tfsin,

Rcsiii insoluble in ether and otL

Gum.

Starch.

Woody fibre.

Vegeto-aniinal matter.

Osmaxoma.

Acetic acid, acetate of potash, sulphur.

'J1ic anbcs contained carbonate and
fiul|diat« of |>ota«h, chloride of po-
tastdtun, pbo8[ibace of Hnie, alumina,
silver, and oxidea of iron and man-
ganeae.

The volaHU oil is pole yellow, very fluid, lighter than water ;
o<lour resembling that of gmgcr, taste at first mud, afterwurda hoc
and acrid.

Soft rexin, obtained by digeitting the alcoholic extract of ginger,
first in water, then in ether; it p(»ses3ud un aromatic odour, and a
burning aromatic taste. It is readily soluble in alcohol, ether, and
turpentine.

Structure of Ginger,

Examined with the microacope, the rhizome of ginger is found to
present a wtfll-markcd and ciiaracteristic structure.

llie outer coat ur epidermis consists of several layers of large,
ai^ilar, transparent cells of a brownish colour, adhering firmly
together, forming a distinct membrane, and when macerated in water,
becoming !<oft and somewhat gelatinous.

• Bnuidi'i Diet. ofMiCerU Madlca.

E c 4

t Omvllu'a lUudU 4. Ctttn.

4t4

SPICES, AND THEIH ADULTEKATION8.

hying upon the under surface of this nienibrane, and scAttered
irrejiularly over it, are penorally to IwdL'tecied oil globules of various
sizes, and of a dei'p yellow colour, ha well as a few cells, identical in
Btructure and tint with those of tunnerle.

In the substance of the rhizome itself several structures have to be
described.

Fig. 155.

A portlan aT the tpiilrrmit of th* riUaomc of OlxoBK. vhovlng the cbIU of whtrh It
U compowd, M w«II ■• Uui oil glottale*. « (t; «1m> tb« lunnerio-llka M)U,iA;
■04 c r, crxftftlt very commoalj uuUoeid lo gnat uuinbcn l>liig bencKlh tbt
efidennb.

It consists principally nf cells bavin>; delicate transparent walls
minutely punctated^ and adhering tojretber so ntf to fnnii a connected
tissue. Tliese cell* contain in llieir cavities starch eorpuaclet, which
are very abundant, and tnan^ of which, as the cell walls are easily
broken, are seen in niopt s<-H*lion8 to have become effused.

Lyinjr here ami ihere in the midst of the ahovc-describe<i cells are
other colls of nearly similar bize and form, but of a bright yellOw
colour ; these are in do respect distinguishable from the coloured
cells of lunneric.

Itistotlie presence of these cells that ^-iiifier owes its colour, which
varies with the number of such celU contained in it.

LftNE UBRAivi. ^^t^.uo

uU UNIVERSITY

SPICES, AND THEIR ADULT£.RATI0^8.

425

Traversing the rhizome in a longiludinul direction nre bundles of
wooiiy fibre, soinetinie!) inclusing, iwuuUjr one, but ucvasiunolly two or
even more dotted ducts or vessels.

The starch corpuscles resemble in some respects thoae of East India
niTOwroot, Curctana angHMfifoiia^ but are yet characterised bj several
Uisiiuci ruuturcfl.

«f llM tOigrr rMaoMt, dtfMivvd of lt» tpidermk : m u, cvlla poaiftfulBs Ibt •Ufclt
corpiM»M -. * i. ttMnit pmuvlct > c c, tunB«rie-Uk« c«lU i d d. voeoj tbn i c.

Although, like tooee of C. angv»tifolia^ thej are u^untly elongdtc<I
and tiuttened, they yet differ from the stiirch granules of that pUnt in
being somewhat smuller. less elongated, and in the greater obacurity
of the bilum and cuivcfl lamella*.

The fltructurcfl above described are shown in the preceding
drawing.

In ground ginger the above structures are separated from their

Gtmutmt prcNmrf t/uvfr •' fl a. oclli which eonUln the «l«reh eaniuvlct i 6 b, looM
•Ur\'h (TRttulc* I r r, turnwrie-Uke oelb i </ tJ, wtKNly Abr*.

O.N TUB Ai>t;LTEBATI01fS OF GlKGBB.

In order to improve the colour of gincer, and, Hccordinj? to some, to
protect it from the attacks of ia:*ects, it is i'renuenfly rubbed over with
lime ; in other ca.'ies it ia washed in cbalk and waler, when it is caUe<l
tthiie-wwihed ginger; lastly, tbo fiurftice of ginger is occasionally
bleached by tneiuis of a solution of chloride of bme, and soraetimea
even by exposing it to the futoca of burning sulphur, nnd is thus made
ro present a white ami floury iippeaiatice. iJyJtbese procesaes ■□
interior einper is often maile ro assume the AppeK-anee of the better
(lesoxtpuons.

But gin<,'er is fretiuenlly HduUerated. Out of Twefit^-one samples of
i:inf;er subnutied to e:£aniin»tioiu no less than /?/][«/*, being more than
two thirds ol' tlie wliole, were fuund lo be uiluUeraied,

The substances detected were various in character, including »agn
tiuaiy tapioca^ potato flour ^ wheat flour, ground ricefCat^cMne pepper, mwc

SPICES, AND TH£1R ADULTERATIONS.

427

f^ hiuks^ and turmeric poictier^ — these occuirinjf in various quan-
li*N but ID lUe inajurity of ciues cunslituting iliepnucipul purtuflhe
rtiele.
The Cayenne pepper and mustard hasks are no doubt added, with

Ffg. I5S.

Gtson ■diilknited with taiy) §>ou<tter.

» m, cell* of (iuer i 6 k, ttMich irsnulM vT Klnf nr i r <-, Urao jrtUov
kBitofdiw lA UMMof tsnsctk , </ it, (ra^ineiit of xmmIjt obn i c e,ilueh oor*

rlew orconccaliiig the other adulteratiuus, and of giving apparent
igtil to the giiigirr.

Ccnj

On the Detection of the AtUUierutions of Ginger.

iTbewboIc of the substances cmplnved in tlio a'lultenitiQn of ginger
ky \k dftccted with eu»e and ctTtamly by iiic'iiits of ihe micruscope.
hr niicrtuM-upifal cburacter^ of inOHt ul'the uiticles useil liavc already
ten desj'ribed : as wheat lluur, at p. 243. ; ^mumi rice, at p. ^-Od. ;
tyrnne, at p. 37B. ; — those of the rL*iiiaining articles, sagn, at p. 326. ;
MB floor, at p. :t*iO. ; turmeric, at p. 3H9. ; and mustard husk, at

SSettructural peculiarities of Cayenne and mustard husk are so well
Irked, that no dillii-ulty whutevcr is experienced in ideniifying them
ken once seen under the microscope; but ia those cases iu which

4S8

SPICKS, AND THEIK ADULTKRATIOXS.

the quaniilies present are but sni&ll they arc apt to be overlonk(*ti.
It i» l)dvi^3lJte tu wash away i^ome of the filareii rrom ttic jturtion of
powder about ,to be placed under ihe tuicroscuije ; by ibia uieaus tbe
larger [wirtidea are brought more clearly into view.

fif. iw.

• ■, atttl af fln|R I b A, ffUrdi frmnnlc* of vinfvr ; r, larfv fcllov ecll, antJofOM
ta Ihtpc »( turtntrk i tt, woodV Rbra i e c, «Uroh ftmuulM «I fvUiki: //, tUitk
iMriMiai:ln »f »agu, ftllciwl bj tttaX.

The ailulteratlon with wheat flour is one which might readily escape
detoctiiin. The observer is therefore cau(iont->J hufure |irocecding to
the exuinination of |)«wdered j;inper lo compare carefMily the struc-
tural peculiarities of the starch granules of ginger and wheat llour :
the diflerences, altliough not at first striking, an; reully cnnsidurable.

Since ginger contains yellow cells very closely resembling those of
turmeric, wl> can only cuncliide that turmeric has b^-en added when
the number of such cells is much greater than in genuine powdered
ginger.

The adulterations of ginger with sago and potato are exhibited in
the two preceding ongravings.

The following engraving represents the adulteration of powdered
ginger with tnpioca and Cayenne.

SPICES, AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

429

Ftg. loo.

Pemlcred Onronido.' •'tullereiMl wlih '

Hftffniflcd y)o dlameim.

The duty was 5*. per cwt. British, an<l 10«. foreij^n po.^tcssinns ;
it is now 5it. of whatever orifiin. Imports in 185-1, 24»8o;J cwt5. ; in
18^5, 16f503 cwts. Hume cunsuaiption in 1854, 16,637 owts. ; in 1855,
21.413 cw(«.

The duty in 1851 aroounte<l to 7,362?. 0*. 9^/ It Oierefiire foIlowB
that on this small article the revenue sufTerii n loss through its adul-
teration of some thousands of pounds yearly.

CINNAMON, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Cinnamon is the bark of the Ciannmomum Zfylamcumy one of tiie
Lauracee, or Laurel family, to which als^» l>elon<* CiLs.iia and dmiphnr,
an well as some other plaut« poasessiu*; medicinal properties, especially
Clove bark.

Cinnamon is cultivated principally in Ceylon.

" The cinnamon bark of Ceylon is obtained by tlie culfclvatioo of the

SPICES, A2ffD THEIS ADULTERATIONS.

plant. The principal cinnamon garden* lie in the neighbourhood of
Culumho. The bark peelers or choiiafis, having selected a tree of ihe
best quality. li»p ofi* such branches as are three rears nM, and which
Hpuear pmuer for the purpose. Shoots or branches inui'h \t.'*» than
hair an iiieti, or inure than two or three inches iu liiameler, ure not
peeled. The peeling is effected by aiaking two nppusitefor, when the
branch is thick> three or four) lonjzitudinal incisions, and then elevat-
ing the bark by introducing the neoling knife between Jl. When the
bark adheres firmly, the f^cporation is promoted by friction with the
handle of the knife. In twenty-four hours the epidermis and greenish
pulpy mutter (rete muco.sum) are carefully w?raped oiT. In a few
hours the smaller quiU» are introduced into the lar;;er ones;, and in
this way a congeries of quills formed, ollen mea»uring forty inches
long. The bark is then (fried in the sun, and afterwartls made into
bundles with pieces of bamboo twigs.

•'Cinnamon is imported in bales, boxes, and chesU, principally from
Ceylon, but in part also from Madras, TcUichen-y, and rarely from
Java and other places.

** In order tn preserve and improve the quality of the bark, black
pepper is sprinkleil amongst the bales of cinnatnoii in stowing them at
Ceylon. (Peicival.) Mr. Bennet ^tate8 tliat ships are snmeilmes de-
tained for several weeks, through tlie want of pepper to fill the inter-
stices between the bales and the holds.

" When cinnamon arrives in London, it is unpacked and examined ;
all the mouldy and broken pieces are removed from it. It is then re-
made into bales. These arc cylindrical, three feet six inches long, but
of variable diameter, perhaps sixteen inches on the average. These
bales arc enveloped by a coarse cloth called frutiuy. The ciimawon in
boxes and chests is usually the small, inferior, atid mouldy pieces.**

Composition of Cinnamon.

The constituents of ciimamon are volntih oil-, tannin^ mucilage,
Coiouring mattrr^ partly soluble in water and alcohol, but not in eiheTf
r^Jthi, an ariW, gtarrh, and li^in,

A decoction of cinnamon does not become blue on the addition
of iodine ; ihi.-* is portly owing to the small quantity of starch pre-
sent, and partly, it is supposed, to the presence of some principle
(tannic acid?) which destroys the blue colour of the iodide of
starch.

The cinnamon oil of commerce consists of two or more bodies. By
exposure to the air, the oil absorbs oxjgen; and cynnamic acid, two
resins, and water arc formed. With nitric acid it forms .i white crys-
talline nitrate and a red oil, and with ammonia a solid crystallinu
amide is formed.

SPICES, AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

431

Sirvciure qf Cinnamon,
Cinnamon, under the microscope, presents a complicaled and very

Fig. I8i.

LoBtfiludiiikl fMtlaa of Ci jrvAMo* carried LruMrWMljr Uinmch the terk , R»c&Ub4

14i> diAmeltra.
a H. •l«II»iD r«ll> : h h, woody ilbrv : « r. stkreh c«lb t d </, ctarefa gniinUi i « c,

(MU)il4r cUiftuaoa-coloiucil c«U« M bodla*.

distinct organisation, which is bcJit seen in longitudinal sections, car-
ried through the thickness of the bark.

Ou ihe outer or external eurfiice of the section are observed nu-
merous stellate cells, separable readily from each other, and siniilar to
those which we have so otten bi;fore described as occurring in other
vegetablu structures. These cells lie one upon the other in several
luvers, and form a considerable part of the thicknei^s of the bark.
They arc situated in the intcTTals between the woody fibres ; tbey are

43t

SPICES, AND THEIA ADULTERATION'S.

of a qundrnngnlnr or oval form, having the long axes placed usually
transversfly to the baric, iheir breailtb beinrg preiittrr tban their depUi.
In whatever position iliey are viewe^U both the central cavities and
the rays which proccotl from them are visible. Occasinnally, though
not uBunlly, a few stanh granules inay be seen in the raivitics of these
cells. Proreediri^ from without inwards, these cells are succeeded by
others, whieh are diatinjriiished fmm the first by the absence of raya,
by the thinness of their whIIh, and by the firmness with which they

fig- 1G&

-Lc

.*v1

•:-«»

Ommim Cuutakov pmnhr, «nRfB)B*4 t9n dtimctert. o a, itolUle eelli t ft &i
woody tW« 1 e t, rtanta gr*uul«i.

adhere to each other ; they (renernlly contain a few jitarch corpuscli
These cells, which form several series, complete the thickness of tlie^
bark.

Interspersed between both the first and second kinds of cells are
numerous woody fibrep, which are rather short, pointed at either ex-
tremity, and fumi&hed with a central ennid. It U these which impart
the fibrous character to cinnamon, particularly obserTublc in fractures
of the bark.

The »tarch corpuscles of cinnamon are small, more or less globular*
•mi funiiflbed with a very distinct hilum, which has the appearance of

8PIC£3» AKD THEIB ADULTERATIONS. 433

a central depression. They TuaaUy occur singly, but sometimes
united in twos or fours.

The quantity of starch in cinnamon is*o small, that the decoction
of the bark does not become blue on the addition of iodine.

Lastly, lying in the cavities of the most external of the second
order uf colls, are frequently to be observed deep cinnamon-coloured
masses of granular texture.

The above structural particulars are all shown in^. 161.

In ^ound cinnamon the several structTircs are disunited and
broken. Tlie stellate cells occur stnglr, or in grou|>s of two, three, or
nion.'; the wnody fibre is disengaged, and is scattered fibaut, resem-
bling somewhat^ in form and appearance, the hairs wtucb occur on
many plants ; the starch corpuscles are set free from their cells ; and,
lastly, the cinnamondlke masses maybe seen in the field of the mtcro-
Hcope, dispersed here and there. Pig^. 162.

COMPOSITION AKD structure OF CASSIA.

Cnrnposilinn of Cassia. — Since cassia is so frequently substituted
for oinnaiiiiM), it becomes necessary that we should acquaint ourselves
with its composition and structure.

If tincture af iodine is added to a decoction of cassia, it turns blue,
owing tn the larger proportion i>f filJirch contained in it.

Oil of cassia y>o9SCHse3 nearly the same properties as oil of cinnamon ;
it is said to be a thicker nnd heavier oil than that of cinnamon ; and
its oilour and flavour are inferior.

StmctMre of Cwuia, — CasMa — Cinnamomum Caiuia — belongs to
the same genus of pUnts as the true cinnamon, it is therefore not sur-
prising thiit they should resemble each other 90 closely as they do.
Notwithstanding their striking resemblances, there are characters,
however, by which they may be discriminated.

The bark of cinnamon is scarcely thicker than drawing-paper, and
breaks with an uneven and fibrous margin; while each slick consists
of eighty ten, or more pieces or quUls of bark inserted one within the
other.

Cassia bark is much stouter, being oflen as thick as a shilling : it
breaks short, and without splintering. Ry these characters alone it
is easr to distinguish cinnamon from ca<4sia when in (he whole state,
as shown by the accompanving drawing.

But these barks differ afso in colour and t.istc. Cinnamon is paler
and browner than cassia, which is usually redder and brighter. The
taste of one is sweet, mild, nnd aromatic, leaving no unpleasant im-
pression on Uie t^mgne, white that of the other is leas sweet, stronger,
and b followed by a bitterness.

r r

These characters, however, vary In different samplea, »o that it is
iinpossibte by these meam alone to distinguUh cinnonion from cassia

A, Stick orCivirAHOir ortha oitoml •(«• tad sppearMiDe, ibowtntf th* tblsnea
at tbc iMrlt. mnd the muincr la whkh tbe Uytn art cncloacxl ine wItliiQ Um
olhrr I (1. rriM »rrtiiin iif aamc, eahilillliif more cucnplcUlj the number of Ih*
Iktcn, atiil lltrir dit[KMtUoii.

S, elk\. uf Camia ftf tlx i)*tiir*] >iu uid apprar»Dce. •tiowliig Um thicknMi uf
thi b&rk, and t)i« ni«BU«r in aliicli tli« Ur«ra an vtK!l<H»<l orlthlttauhoUur |
i, eroM McUon of Mitu, cxhibltiag tha dUpoaltluu of llic laTcr*.

when in powder, and we are not aware thut any oertaiD menns have
beca pointed out ibr cffecling tbe di!k.Tiiuiiiation, especialijr when the

SPICES, AND THEIR ADULTEUATJ0N8.

435

tvro are mixed in dltTerent proportions ; but here again, u in »o many
olher cases, the microscope ailbnis us tnvaluable assiittaacc.

Sections of caMia bark, viewed under the luicroecope, bear a close
general resemblance to thoae of cinnamoUf but dilTer m their greater

Loiiflltadliul MettM of Casua, evrtwl tnnmrKir through tlui berk, mafnlffeil

iwdiunelwn.
o a, mIU or«pld«rail> t b *. •telUlc mH* i ti d, lUrch mIIi j « <, flUntfa gtannks i

f/, frwittUr, ctuuunoB-a»lwur«<l mu>mt.

width and the relative proportions of the several structures, particu-
larly in the Hize and iiumbcr of the starch (^Y>rpusrlcs.

We observe on the outer surface, as in cinnamon, the peculiar
stellate cells, the cavities of which, hnwcver, much more commonly
thun those of ciuiiamon, are lUled with well-develo{)ed etorch cor-
puscles.

Lying next to Uiese, we notice what may he termed the proper
starch cells, usually crammed quite full of starch corpuscles, which,

r r 3

436

SPICES, AND THEIK ADULTERATIONS.

while tbey have tbe same general form as those of cinnamon, are yet
two or tliree times larger, as well aa many limea more numerous.

The woudy fibre occurs, &i in cinnamon, inlersncrded between both
descriptions of cells, and it does not appear to ditter appreciably from
that of clanamon.

Fig. IC&

Oamti»t CtiUTt pDmln-, rnKprrlftcd 790 dUrMten i n «t. rtelUle wDi : AK.Tnedj'
Sbrc t c c, aurch celli i <i <t, rkicn grtnulc* ; e t, gruialu mmw.

Of the entire thickness of the bark, about one-fourth is formed by
tbe stellate celts, the remaining thrce*f'ourttiB being made up of the
Btnrch-bearinjj evils.

In powdered cassia, therefore, as contrasted with powdered cinns'-
mon, the stellate cells and wcvody fibre are miiL-h less abundant, while
the starch granules arc at the same time much larger, and tar more
numerous.

SPICES, AND THEIR ABULTERATIOKS. 437

Oh ms Adulteeations or Civramov ahd Camxa.

From an examination of tl»e analyses of Thirty-lwo samples of
cinnamon, it appeiired that of the twelve whole ciiiniunons, jfMn
were^pnuiw, ami \\\aX five consisteti of notliing hut cassia.

That the essetdial oil \s »ometin)C!< abstruoled. ami the bark, after
bcinf? reduced, soM cither whole or in the ground suae.

Tliut of the nineieen sampled of ^roumicinuamonf three consisted en-
tirely of cauia.

That ten of the samples^ or more than one half, were adulterated^
the artiflex most frequently employed bein/; cither baked wheat Jiour
or Ktgo meal, &epanitely or in cnnthiiiatinn, hut Ktist huita arrowroot
and potato Jiutir were likewise dt*tecti*d each in one inetance.

That of the above adulterated sniiifites three Konaisied of cassia
ailulteratedf and seven o^ cinnamon adulterated.

That six only of the nineteen suiuplea were ^'tfBH/atf.

In the prices chiirged for the sample9 of einnainon examined,
whether whole or in powder, ^'nuiiie or adulturated, no eon»tiint
di0erence waa tu be observed, and cun»equently the public AufTers
great loss by the substitution of caisiii, which is so tiiueh eheu[>er, for
einnamon, and a still jfretiter loss by the other sophistications.

The wheat flour and sa^o detected was generally baked, to make it
resemble more nearly ground cinoamun or cassia, and thus the better
escape detection.

On the Detection of the AduUereUions of Citauwum and Cassia.

The detection of the various adulterations of cinnamon and cassia
is, in nearly all ciises, easv enough by means of the uiieroscope ; a\\ that
is reqtiisite is tltat tlie ohserver should be acquainted with the struc-
ture and characters of genuine caA.«ia and cinnamon, as well as of the
articles em;:loyed toadult(>rat4> thcni.

The mixture of cassia with cinnamon of course constitutes an adul-
teration,but very frcouently eaasiu is suhstiinted for cinnamon. The
mixture and substitution arc both di»i.'Overable with the microscope by
the difference in the size of the starch granules, but the substitution
may be detected in other ways.

Thus when slick cassia is substituted for cinnamon, the substitution
is known bv the areafer thickness of cassia bark.

Again, iLe decoction of cassia hark turns blue on the addition of
iodine, when one of cinnamon similarly treated does not become blue.

It ia stated thut the oil is i^ometinics removed from cinnamon bark,
this being subsequently ground to powder and mixed with genuine
ciimunion.

This fraud may be discovered in two ways : the suspccletl ciruiamon
may be boile*! in distilled water for a time and the oil distilbnl off; the
diatillate mual next be evapomted to get rid of the water which

488

SPICES, AND IHEIB ADULTERATIONS

passfd over with the oil; lastly, the oil must be weighed, and the
quantitj oMalnt'tJ compared with thnt furnthhed by pcnuine cinnamon.

A more i'xpi-4itit>u5 process is to examine the cinnftiiion with the
microscope ; if thts lias been acted ujwm by U/ilinj; water, the starch
pranulcs will he foun<l to have lost tlipir projKT fnrni, to have become
distort^-d and irregiilnr, while many of tliein are larger than natural.
It* the einiianion has been subjected to the prohmged action of the
water, the granules will hare become so broken up and dissolved that
they can no longer be detected.

The import customs duty is, on cinnamon, 2d. per lb. The quan-
tity entered for home consumption (which forms but a fraction, about
1-I3tb, of the quantity imported) was in IHUli^ 57,fi94 lbs.; in 1854,
54,056 lbs.; in 1855, 42,943 lbs. ; in nine months of 1856, 22,771 lbs.

On cassia (Itgnca or bark), Id. per lb.; cassia buds and fistula, frco.
"Were entered fnr home coii!<uniption (again but a fraction, about l-6ih
fo l-7th, ot'qunnlitv impnrled) in 185^ 136,363 lbs.; iu 1854, 124,303
lbs. ; in 1855, 110,219 Ihs.; ia nine muntlis of 185G, 90,197 Iba.

NTTTMEGS, AND THKIU ABULTEHATIONS-

Tlierc are three species of Alyrixtivu., whlt-h furnish nutmegs. That
which yields the best deacription, Myristica /rtifrran:!^ forms a tree
from twenty to twenty-6ve feet high, somewhat similar in appearance
to a pear tree.

The fniit is smooth externally, pear-shaped, and about the size of
an ordinary pcaoh. It consists, firi^t. of au outer lleshy covering,
called the pericarps which when uniture separafes into nearly enual
longitudinal parts, or valves ; secondly, of the an/, or mace^ which,
when recent, is of a bright scarlet colour; and thirdly, of the seed
proper, or nutmeg. This is enrlosed in u sht-U, which is made up of
two coats ; the outer is hnrd and smooth ; the inner, thin, closely
invests ihe seed, sending off prolongations, which enter the substiinee
of the seed, and which, being cohinred, impart the marbleil or mottled
appearance chupacU'ristic ofnutmejj.

There are two krnd^ of nutmegs met with in commerce. The first,
calletl the trve^ rouiuU rnltivated, or female nutmeg, is the product of
Jlfi/ristica fragrtmti.

The seconii kind of nutmeg ia called i\iQ false, long, wild^ or vude
nutmeg, and is the produce chiefly ot Mgrintica fatiiti ; but a kind of
nutmeg which is also called wild, is obtained from Myrittica Mala-
bariitt.

In the Banda Islands, three crops or harvests of nutmegs are ob*
tained in the year ; the principal gathering h in July or August; the
secuiid in November ; and the third in March or April.

BPICES, AKD THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

4.19

The fruit is (fathered by means of a. barb iittachc<3 to n long stick ;
the mace ia separntcfl from the nut, anfl sepurnt*'!/ cured.

On aecouDt of their liability la the attacks of an insect known as
tbe nutmeg insecU conHdcrftblecare is required indryinir them. They
shnuM be dried in their shells* as ihey.ire then secure frnm the insect.
They arc ])laced on hurdles and sinoke-dried over a slow wood fire
for about two months^ In the BMnda Islands, they are first dried in
the Bun for n few days. When the ojwrotion of drying i< compIetQi
the nut-s rattle in their shells ; these are cracked with mallets, and the
dama;;ed, shrirelled, or wnrni-caten nuts removed.

"To prevent the attjuka of the insect, the nuts arc frequently
limed. For the English market, however, the brown or unlimed
nutmeg are preferred. The Dukh lime them by dipping them into
a thick mixture of lime and water ; but this proeefla is considered to
injure their flavour. Others lime (hem by rubbing ihem with
recently*prepared, well<sifted lime. This process is soiuelimes pmc-
tiscd in London."

Composition of Kutmegs,

Nntmegs contain bnth a fixed an<l a volatile oil. Th^ Jix&l oil is
prepftred by beating the nutmegs to a paste; this is subjected, en-
closed in a boi;, to the vapour of water, iinil llie oil afterwards ex-
f pressed by meaas of heated pluteii. It is Imported in cakes whicb
lave somewhat the size and form of common bricks, and are covered
with leaves. The 6xe<J oil procured in this manner contains a por-
tion of the volatile irilf from which its colour and fragrant odour are
derived.

The volatile oil, on the presence of which the flavour and aroma of
nutmegs principally depend, is procured bv distillation in water ; the
produce thus obtained at Apothecnries* IIhII. London, is usually 4'5
per cent. Now, nutmess are frequently deprive<l of a portion of their
essential oil by distillation, and ai'ter being well limed, are again sent
into the market io this comparatively valueless state.

Bonastre*s AmtljfnM*

Volatile oil
Liquid fat
Solid fat *
Acid
Starch
Gum

Ligneons fibre
Loss

«0
7-6

24-0
08
24
1-2

540
40

10(K)

• JMira.de Phmv. IMS. I. ii.p.
r r 4

sii.

4« anCBBf ASP THEIK ADCLTKKA

Ulfce»clk» of vatcr
iW^VBMity of oil ■■tilled
«aRl^ 01 the

IMrh.MmBi^ Stt MI7. 4E.

Jt of m rnunded shape ; bot occasion&Uj k few of ihc granules
itar; »m] all have wvll-marketl central depreanon*.
«be oelU forming the coloured, vein-like portion of ib« nut, diL-
from ibe other cell)) in colour and in b*:*in^ des>tiltttc of Starch, ctm<
f %;r>:n<r ftpfiflrvutljr onljr a Bmall quaniilj of oil. _

-c

SPICES, AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

On TUB ADULTSaATIORS or NUTMBGI.

Since nulmega tre never solil in the powdered state, they are not
lialilo (u itdulteration hv udmixtut-e witb foteijpi in^L'diL*nUf like
SL'vorul of the apices wLicb liiivti! been already iiotim-d, aa ginger,
ctnimitintu and vii»i*'m ; nevurtht.*less, ihey are subjected to a proi-'esa
which impuird their value and quuliiy us uiuch as thau^L they hod
been actually odulterateii in ibe same niaiiner.

The wild nutmeg obtained froni the Mijrutica Maiahariea has
scarcely any flavour or odour, and nccortlinf]! to Kheede, is of the size
and H^ure of a date. "The Turkish and Jewish merchantV' writes
Kheede, "mix these nutmegs with the true long ones, and the mace
with good mace, selling them together. They also extract from these
inferior articloa an oiX with which they adulterate that of a more
genuine (juality."

The w(irk of M. Chevallier, entitled " Dictionnaire des Alterations
efc Falsifications des Sub>l»nces Alimentairc.% MedicarnenteuKa, et
Commtfrcialea," in treating of nutmegs, cimtains the following ubser*
vations, uuder the head of** Falsifications :'* —

"Nutmegs are sometimes mixed with riddled nuts, eaten by insects,
and bccume brittle; the small upertures are then closed with a kind
of cement, formed of flour, nil, and the powder of nutmegs. This
paste bos even ser^-ed to fabricate false nutmegs, inodorous and in-
sipid. The workmen of Mar^^eilles have even made thein of bran,
cuiy, ami the refuse of nutmegs: these nutmegs, placed in contact
with water, soften down in that liquid.

'* The worm-eaten nuts are et]ually insipid, and almost inodorous;
sometintes they have u mouldy odour.'*

Eighteen snmples of nutmegs were subjected to examination, the
result being thai in no case had the esstntial oil been abitractrd.

On the Detection of the Adulteridiona of Nutmegs.

The only adulteration, excepting that by admixture with wild nut-
megs, to which itappearij that nutmegs arc liable — and this d(.uht)ess
is of rare occurrence — is by means of the artificial or factitious nul-
megs mentioned by M. Chevallier.

'i'l)et« may be readily discovered by soaking them in water, when, of
course, tliey would reatlily break down.

The diflerenccs between the cultivated and wild nutmegs have
alrea<ly been describe*!.

The iiurmegs from which the oil bns been abstracted muy Iw re*
cognised by the presence of punctures on the surface, and by their
much greater li;.'htness.

It is singulai- that the starch granules of nutmeg are but little
aflected by boiling; so liiatthis means of discrimination, bO satisfac-

44S

SPICES, AND THEIR AP0LTEKATIOH8.

torj in the case of cinnamon, rassta, and some other spices, U of little
or no valiiff in the present instance.

Of this rcnmrkable circumstance it is not easj to aSurd aa«x[^ui*>
tion; it probably diipunds U[>on the dilliculty with which the boi&if
watur muKOJ» its way into thti substance of the nut, in confet^ttCMem
its httrd texture unci the largo ijuaiitity o( fixed oil contained ia iL

The iliOerentiul duties on wilil and cultivate*! nutmegs oScT I
premium for the substttutinn of the inferior for the Miperior iitidt

Import duty on nutinogH^ Ix. per lb.; wild, so called, in dwUla
per lb. ; wild, not in Rhell, 5iL per lb.

Tnkon for home con-iuinption in 1854, "206,049 lbs.; la )i^y
i8£>,5l>6 lbs.; in nine months of 1866, 15-i,3ttO lbs.

MACE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

As there are two kinds of nutmeg, so are there two kindi ofmaA
the produce of the same plants; thus, there is true* or cultinErl
mace, and fuUc, or wild mace.

Wild or false mace is of a dark-red colour, aad deficient in tfwt
and aroma.

Compogiiwm,

The composition of mace is exhibited in tbo following antlnis hf
N. E. Henry :—
Volatile oil.

Red fut oil, soluble in alcohol.
Yellow fat oil, in^'oluble in alcohol.
Alcoholic extractive.
Amidtiu.
Ligneous tibre with lime.

Structure of Maee,

Viewed under the microscope, maco presents a atructnre Tef7 iof
tinct from that of the nuimeg itnelf.

Covering the surface of the blades is a delicate membrane eono^'
ing of A single layer nf cells; they are tubular, mnch elcm!*aied, tspff
at either end to a point, And resemble in size and form, altboo^ >*
in delii'acjr of texture, ordinary wooily fibre. The long diamclinfl'
the cells arc disposed vertically on the surface of the inncc.

But the chief Hub«tance is made up of other cells differing ta ■*
and form from those already noticed ; these contain fixed oil, and M^
starch.

Imbedded in the midst of these cells are larger eelU« anuaa cct*

8fICE9, AXD THEIR ADULTERATIONS,

443

ceptaclet^ which, in thin sections, whether made crosswise or length-
wine, Appear as apertun^s. Tbcite oontnin the essential oil of mace.

Scattorc'l here and there may be «ecn, both in transverse and longi-
tudinal Elections, small bundles of woody fibre, of a brownish colour,
enclosin;; one or two small spiral vessels. In transverse sections, the
ordinary starch cells arc perceivecl to be arranged round the bundles
hi II radiate manner.

The Ftructure of mace is exhibited in the annexed wood-cut.

TKAJrarciuK Srcnojr or Macs.

. a, rtccpUclu tut the CMeolUI oil i minj at then anpemr in tlw mrtlnn u

the «MW«r«BO* of cloaMt cctl*. fn>m the drrumrtancc of their not being cut into

til* coumrififf im"'

Iwf* ftlr-bUDNM UMMlIf ntMcmd in >Kti>tn« immerfvd tn wkUr. rf<l, cclla

nMllrri^mae* !• ItKatnl citlpftr in thew relU or renptaelM.

flilM with flATch curpUMie*. r. Ihc itvch cirpuarlea Ioom. mifnlflcd 430
dluiwtcn. / tha oeU* fonalnf tba delletu eoAt or eutkia InvMlag mftM.

On THB Adultkbations or Macs.

Like the nutmeg, mace may be deprived, by distiUation, of its
esitenlial oil.

The only ailultcration of mace known to be practised is that by
admixture with wild mace ; this is disiin^iished by its dark-red
colour and by its deficiency in flavour and artana.

444 8PICE8, ANT) THEIR ADULTERATIONS,

Of Twelve samples of mace subjected lo examinatioa the whole were
genuine.

Import duty* 1^. per lb.

UoiuG consumption, in 18^4, 2J5,584 Iba. ; In 1855, 28,562 Iba.; in
nine montliff of 1856, 15,267 lbs.

CLOVES. AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

Clovei are the uncxpantled flower-budu of Vuryophylltu arotnaticutt
a tree from fifteen to tiiirty feet in hei^jlit, one of the Myrtaoeto or
myrtle tribe. The wonl t-^i^re \a deriveil from chtt — Fri'nch for nail,
from a faiicied resemblance to a nail in ihe form of the elore.

The flower-buds are arranjiLMl on termineLt ib>wt'r-fttiiJk« ; they aro
either ^'athere<l by hand tir obtained by beatinj^ with bumlles of reeds,
in whJL-h ctute eioihti are itpread Ueneuth the treea tu ealeh ttit-m ; ibey
are afterwards dried either by the fire, or, what is belter, in the sun ;
they are imported in casks or bags.

Composition of the Clove.

Cloves contain, according; to the analysis of Trommsrlorf, tolaiilf
oil, 18; altnoHt ttmttrless reMtiiy G \ tannin, 13; diJicvUly-tolublf. cTtraC'
tive icith tutiian^ 4 ; gum, 13 ; woody fibre, 28 ; and water, 18.

The volatile oil is obtained from cloves by rcfteated diittillation.
The yield on an average is said lo be from seventeen to twenty-two
per cent.

It has been aaicertainetl that the oil which was formerly reyarde*!
as a simple oil, is reallv c:i>!nj)ri4i,*i.l of two vohitile oili», possessiojj dif-
ferent i|ualitie9, one of which is lighter, and the other heavier than
water.

The characters and composition of these oils are thus ^ven in
Pereira's "Materia Medicu.'* ed. 1. part ti. p. 1093. : —

•'a. Light Oil of Cloven (Clftve-Ifytiro-Carbfm).—Co]o\ir\ess sp. gr.
0'918. incapable of cumbiuing with bae<eii, but absorbing hydrochloric
acid ifas without yielding a crystalline compound. It consists of
C,(, n, ; hence it is isomeric with uil of turpentine.

**/3. Hearry Oil of Clocen (Clove Acid; Engenic Acid). — It is
colourless when receittly prepari'd, but beccmen coloureil by age. Its
specific gravity, according lo Bonastre, is 107'^. It combines with
alkalies lo fonn crystalline salts (alkaline evgennte*^ clove-oil alhalieg).
If a »alt of iron be added to one of these, it yields a blue, violet, or
reddiflh compound {a f err uginottif eugenate), varying somewhat acconl-
ing to the nature of the ferriiginou!> salt uined ; thutt the protusulphate
uf iron yields a lilac, the persulphate a red, which becomes vtotei and

SPICES, AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

445

af\erwnnls blue ; while Uie sesquichloride gires a vinous, which turns
U) red (Ifcjnasire). Nitric acid reddens cldve acid."

The iinex|)anded flower-buds are not the only parts of the tree
which are aromatic, oa the (ootdtulks and fruit or seed vestieU are
likewise so to some extent.

The peduncleR. or /itotstalMs, according to Guibourt, are aometimea
substituted for cloves by distillers of the oil.

The frulti mother-^ves oa tliey have been colled, are occasiouaUy

Ftf. 16(4.
PtTAL or OLDri'BCik
(Uifnllkd 00 dlwBiton).

A, trkii««»nw Motion of Ui«
otptactca In vhirh tlte tmvn
necjMarka fur Um otl In ihU vlrw are iiHltittnct.

mUI of flnver-lnul of rinre. •hovtnf the r^
Ikl ull \» itinUlneU. B, tnrfKOt of pcUt | tb«

met with in commerce; they have the shape of the olive, but arc

CHuUer, and poasesa the odour and taste of the clove in a mild degree.
■ Strwcture of the Chve.

The minute alructure of cloves i» extremely characteristic. The
rounded head or Imd cooauta of the unexpanded petals ; if a transverae

8PICES, AND THEIB ADULTEBATI0N8.

section of one of these be made, it will be seen to be composed of
cellular tissue, in tbe luitlst of whicb are muueruus receptacles for the
essential oil ^ tbese extend tbruugh the whole thickness of the leaf,
being Usually three or four deep.

TMXMtnnt 8ccTio> or FLOiraB<iTA.LK or nu Cum.
i U»r>fSed M dluneUn. )

A rwtplMlw lot tho CHRitial oU I Ihe PMtlon belnf i, ihtn one, they P««f"*
tH«appcsrmnoeorft|irnum,lii onufeqiiwio* oftwhut or*rwl Into. ^^ orlluiy
tiM«« lummnillnK llw wiwjy ftbee. c r, h<in.)lr- .if w^tmIt fibre- »• "»
tuboIuilnwturtftndtnUTVlNUM.atf which trwlnicrTi»i p.rtl»m »ti\tt •****}•
fonaad. r. the criilre nfthe aUlk i II Mi|M!*n d*rk uuilu U)« mJcriMOOpo, tb*
MrvBtttR b«to| oUcuf*. //, dmplvU of oU.

When the jwtal Is viewed on the surface, the receptacles are aeea

8FICB5, AND THEIR ADULTEBATION'S.

•147

but indistinctly, being otwcured by the cellular tiaauc of which the
surlace of the petal is formed. Fig. 170.

Fig, 170.

LosoaomaAi. Iicnax or Flovib Ralk «r TVK Cum*

{Hi«DlftMl 60 diwMWr*.)

a a, itotptMlM fbv 1h« mhhUsI oil. ftrpnnng u apertam from b»Tlag bMo

out Into In maklBf Uw Metlun. ft. crltulxr ilt«ur. r, «i>od]r fibre, d, Un
tabalu atniBtDr* sAd tstcnpteci «litcb forin the Ititeruftl portioo of Uwi
«, Um dark ontnl port of Um flpwu*«ulk. //, d^ojiku uf till.

In a trflDsirerse teclioa of the Jlower'utalk, viewed with an object-
glius of one-inch focuJ> the following ajipearances present tb<

lem-

selvefl : —

In the oerut third of the section* numerous large holes are ob-
served; these arc the divided rccepLocled ; next to these, passing
inwirds, are bundles of woody fibre, forming u narrow circle in die

SPICES, AND TaEIB ADULTERATION'S.

interior or the stalk; extending from these to near the centre of the

Btalk is ft tissue formed of ntnnernus tubular cells, with Urge fpnoes
between them. The recophioles, as well as the tubuUr cells luid
intppspaces, cntuain easi^nliiil oil, visible in sectionii immersed in water,
in the form of Innumerable droplets. Fig. 169.

Longitudinnl eeccions exhibit a nearlj similar structural smmge-
ment. Fig, 170,

Cloves contflin scftrcely any starch.

The clove-stalks present a structure somewhat similar to thnt of
cloves tliemselvcs ; that is, thev consist nf cellular tissue, hollowed
out here ami there into receptncle« for ihti ese'cntial nil; but, in
adilitinn, the dtnlks are provided with an epiderinis, or coatinjr nf the
stellate cells, which areol'auch freijuonl ot!Currcnce in diflcreut kinds
of bark.

On the Adulter at io?fs or Ci^vbs.

Cloves ire hut seldom sold in powder, and hence the liability to
nduheriitiori is f^reutljr lessened ; ihejr are, however, oceasionoll/ met
with ill (hut stale.

Clove-stjilks, ttUhough very inferior, contain some of the active
properliej* inf cloves^ and, as already noticed, are occasionally used by
dimllers for procuring the essential oil of cloves. We have reaAon
to helii-ve rhai in some rases the stalks are ground np, and mixed
with thf pnwder of genuine cloves.

The (piidity and value of chivea are not unfreijuentl^ impaired, like
Bome other «nicej!. by the abstraction of the essential oil.

This frauu used to be exteustvidy pnictiMeil in llalliind, the drawn
cloves, fur more effectual uoriceulTuonl, being mixed wilh olheni of
good rpi.ilily; and even, in snme instnnres^ the trouble beint; taken to
restore as nearly an possible to the cximnsted cloves thtir original
appearHMce, by rubbing thcrn ovlt with aome common oil.

Twenhj-Jlrc samples of lIovcs, wbnU' and in powder, were snb-
jcctcil to cxaminaliim, the results were tliut one imly of the powdered
cloves contuinud a propniiitm id* ch)ve-stulks, while from none of the
whole cUives hud the esseolistl oil been abstmelcd.

Tbe volatile oil itselli as imported iiilu this country from India, httS
been found to be adulterated.

Mr. M'CulIoeh. on the :iulhority eif MtlbuTn, states that the oil im-
ported from India contains nearly half its woiglit of an insipid ex-
pressed oiK which is dis^^overed by dropping a little into spirits of
wine, and on shaking it the genuine oil mixes with the spirit, and, the
insipid separating, the fraud is detected.

Cloves readily imbibe moi!*ture, whereby their weight becomes
greatly increased, a fact of which dishonest dealers have not failed to
HV»il themselves.

8PICES, AST) THEIR ADULTERATIOKS.

449

On the Detection of the AthdUratione of Cloves,

The adulteration of powdered cloves with clove-sfalks is readily
detecUMi by means nf llie micruscope, which will revcul the presence
of the aiellattt ccUa nt'tlie stalk. If the essential oil bti» W*en removed,
the cluvca will be dry und biltor, no ail appearin^^ ou the surface when
the cluves are pressed with llie naiJ.

The quantity nf essential oil may be estimated by distillation;
genuine cloves y\A\\ iVmn 17 to 22 per cent, ol'oil.

Adulterations with foreign rcgetuble substaiicea are all discoTered
by the microscope.

DuCVf Id, per lb. Home confmmption in 1854, 179,407 Iba. ; in
1823, 220,649 lbs. ; in nine montba of 1856, 151,254 Iba.

PIMKNTO OR ALLSPICE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Pimento, Jnuiatta Pepper, or Allspice, is the berry or fruit of
the Eugenia Pimento^ one of the Myriucete. It |in>w» in tljo Weflt
Indies, and principally in Jamaica, especiiilly on the hills on tlie north
side of tiiat island, tt forms a beautiful tree, which attaiiui some
thirty feet in height, and is planted in regular walks, which are named
Pimento walks.

The fruit is gathered after it bus attained its full size, but while
still green ; it is usually sun-dried, but sometimes kiln-drieil on
sheets : in «lrying, the colour of the fruits i.'lmnge from greeu to reddish*
brown , wben ripe, the berry becomes black or dark -purple in colour,
and ifi glutinous, and consequently in that state unfit for preserva-
tion.

Composition o/AUspice,

As in the case of cloves, the essential oil of pimento is a mixture
of two oils — a light and a heavy oil. The pro)>erties of these are
thus described in Pereirn's " I^fritorin Medica :*—

** By diiitillntinn with water, allspice, like cloves, yiehls two volatile
oils — the one lighter, the other heavier than water. The oil of
pimento of the shop«3 is a mixture of these ; except in odour, io pro-
perties are almost identical with those of oil of cloves. By distillation
with caustic potash, tlie Hfiht oU x* separated; the residue mixed with
sulphuric acid, and submitted to distillation, gives out the heavy oil.

" a. Light Oil of Pimento (Pimetilo- fIt/firO'Carbon) has not, to my
knowledge, been previously examined. ' Its properties appear to be
similar to those of the lir^ht oil <tf (.loves. It floatt on water and on
liquor potasne, and is slighty reddened by nitric acid. Potassium sinks
in, ftud IB icaroely, ifst allt acted on by it.

o a

45(K

SPICES, ASD TBEIR ADULTERATIONS.

•'i3. Heavy Oil of Pimento {Pimentie Acid). — Very similar to dovc-
ucid. It forms with the alkalies crrstiUIiiie coinpoiiiids {alkaline pimeu-
tatea)^ which bucoDio blue or yrtuniiih on tlie addition of the tincture
of thii chloride of iron (owing lo the formation oV a/errvgimnu pimcn-
tate). Nitric ucid acta violuuLly on and reddens iu'

Boijostre*, in 1825^ published the following auulyais of the composi-
tion of pimento berries : —

VoUtile oU

GrpRti ciU _ . -

SoUd TmI oil

AMtritiKenc (extract

Gumin? BMrirt .

(Tnlounng matter -

Untnout matter -

ITiirrytta^Uxiblp iiigar

Milirur (lalltc acid

Lifn>^n ...

Saliiieatbei

Water

Lu«» . . -

KhI mallrr ln»oluble lu water

PelllciiUr ivktduc •

Drown aoocuU

I(h0
f(-4
0-9

114
3-0
4*0
I'S
3-0
06

ftfrO
S-B
3!i
I C

7-1

fro

1 G

l-g
30

18
98
16*0
31

Toul

1000

lOO-O

Coiuplicated and complete as the above analysis would unpenr to
be, it yet does not embrace the etarch whieh is contained in tlio seeds
in larj^c quantity. Braconnel, however, detected the presence of
starch, and estimates it as forniin*; nine per cent, of tlie seeds, f

Mr. Whipple estimates the yield of pimento oil to be about 4"37 per
cent of the weight of the seed.

Structure o/Allspict.

As in the case of other seeds, the pimento berry is divisible into
husk and seed, or seeds proper.

The busk is thick, and, when dried, aaft and brittle ; it sends off*
from it!) inner surface a proton<^ation which forms a septum, &nil
divides the interior into two parts or cells.

Vertical sections of the AusA, viewed under the microscope, present
the following structures.

On the outer part of the section are seen several large cells op «-
ceptaclet for the essential oil, sometimes two or three deep; more
internally, numerous stellate l:clls, attached to and imbedded in eel-
lubir tissue, occur; next to these are bundles of woody fibre, and

• Juurn. dc ChhD. M^d. L 1(0.

t Duncto, Edlnb. Diipou.

SPICES, AND THEIB ADULTERATIOKS.

451

delicate spiral vessels ; while the tieepeat or innermost part of the
section cou^ijiti) ufceltulur Uiisue oiilv.

Fig. ITI.

VvrUoU Bectlon of tluilc of FUntnlo BtrTf.

(MMnJfl«d SSO dJkiMten.)

. a

I or iMiftHlii ftr I

t. OtUalw MMa lOnaiat the btacrmnt i»wt of tbe MCtiao

Ml. ft. UMlUlc Milt. r. Ctllnlu tbmt
d. Btindle* of woody flbn uid tplnl na«J«>

Occupying each of the celli formed by the husk, is a small tlattisb
need of a dark brown or chocolate colour. After ma<>eration, two
membranes may be separated, iillhou^fh wiili sonic diniculiy, from the
surfiice of the seed. The most cxlL'mal of these is tliin and delicate,
and consists of a single layer of elongated and an^lor cells. The
intenial tunic is composed of several layers of laree corrupted and
coloured cells; it is to these that the dark colour orUic surlaoe of the

0 0 2

453

BPICES, AXD THEIB ADULTERATIONS.

seed is dae ; when viewed under the microscope, they exhibit a ch«-
racteristic port wine tint.

F^. ITt.
rortloB of tiu Ibinbrajm on Snrfhce of the Soed Proper.
(Ufl<alflfd 3O0 diuMUn.)

,T>

a. Ext«nul mrmbruie. eonfUtlng ot s alngle \*ytT at cloDgslMl uaA iBcaltr
ocUi. b. lnUruAl incmbnDt, m«l« up Of MVVf»l Itjtn of lifgo porl wfmm
ookiund eell*.

The Structure of the teed proper, qs dlaplaycd in vertical sections,
is aa follows: —

Kuniiing round the outer part of the section is a single layer of Urjje
receptaclea, the rHUiuininj; thifknesfl being nmtle uu of angular and
trnnsparent cellit, tlie cavities of which ore dlled witn numerous well-
defined sUrch praiiuli's.

When pimento berrit-s fire reHuPod to powder, the whole of the
foregoing slmctupt's become disunited, broken up, and variously in-
termixea. The port wine coloiircd cells nre particularly conspicuous,
and aiTord a chnrBCtcr by which the nature of the powder may be at
once determined.

l*he several structures above mentioned, as they appear in genuine

SPICES, AND THEIE ADULTERATIONS.

453

ground pimento powder or allspice, are repreiented in Jig. 174. on the
next page.

Fig- 173-

▼flftfal BaeUiM of Um Read Fropcr, ofFlincstoBcrrr*

(UvKlitdSMdlUHtan.) .

^^pQ&^

b Um «9pcr put sT Iht Mnti. two of Ike rvn-pfnrJa for ItM oil M txhtlilted i
U)(l In ihc luwsr part, a a, the eclU eualalnliitf ihe amMll rouiulcd tlarch OM-
pinclea i fr, looM •Urch eorpiMck*. mignillnl W diun«Un.

Ov THs Adultebationb or Allspice.

Of Twenltf-ont 5arople9 of ground allspice subjected to cxaminatton
one only wus adulterated with mnsUird hwth^ a reiiult probably mainly
attributable to the great cbeapnesii of tbiu spice.

On the DfteetioH of the AHuUeraHont of Allspice.

The adulteration with mustard busk is one which is very readily
discoverable by meant) of the niicroscope, the structural peculiarities
of which will be I'uund described under the article Mustard.

G o 3

SPICES, ATTD THEIR ADUT-TEHATIOXS-

The duty on pimenlo ia Sx. per cwt. "Wholwale price about 6//.
per pouml. Entered for home coiuumptlon in 1854, 3,632 cwts. ; in
1852, 3,535 cvts. ; in nine months of 1856, 2,781 cwts.

Fit. 17*'
QnovrD PittBTfo, OK Aujcnc

(MiCBlftwt »> dlAiMUn.)

n. TnfmaatM nThmlc. h. Stfllate e«l1«. r. Exttrml M«t or rMtntnne of and
pfOMr. d. Port wln» roluurC'l cwlU, vMctt foan th« mbmhI membfVM of
■M. «. C«U< of ihf) M««l. which ooDlftlD tfaa lUl^ (r«B«lM. /.
■Urdi oorpiuelei.

MIXED SPICE. AND ITS ADUT^TEnATIONS.

Mixed Spice, as the name implies, \s a tnixture in difTerent propor-
tions of ievernl spices ; those of which it is usualtj composed are
f^und ginger, pimento or alUpice, with cassia or cinnamon, and
sometimes a small quantity of powdered cloves. Such are the tisual
in^^rcdienta which enter into its composition. In some rare cnses^
however, it may contain other spices, as niaco or nutmeg ; but vhal-
flver the constituents, and in whatcTor projxirtions they are employed*

SPICES, AND THEIR ADCLTEnATlONS.

455

mixed spice, wh(!n genuine, ahniilil confti.tt entirely of a combination
of apicca, and should not contain a particln of farinaceoua matter other
than that proper to the ariicles composing it. Thus it should never
contain wheat Jftntr^ jwtato furiwit or sago meal^ and whenever any of
these are present, the article is to be conaittered and treated as adul-
terated.

Fig. 1-5.
OixDiiTii UiXKj> iricm.
OUffnlBvd 197 diwnelan.)

a. Wrtorly llbr* of fflnj»r. o*. Crili wT w^f" whlfli conUIn thf Hirrh.
ri*. Sfarcti (Tmnalri ■>* t}*fmw. t. OineT lltKit iif plfiirnlo nr fclUpIr^. V- Su-l-
UU f*\\* nf ••me. V. Hutk of the •rrd ppiptr nt illllo. ft"'. Vorl wIm co-
loured f*llt of lUlta. ♦"■". fitairh r»\l» \ and f/**, •Un>h gnuiulM of Mne.
e. ttuvh graniilc* Kod frafnMiiu ofpowdcrtd danimun.

The above cnjrraving repre«ent« the structure of the several
ingredients of which genuine mixeil vptce is usually formed.

O G 4

4se

ISIMGLA8S, AKD IT8 ADULT EBATIOXS.

Os THS Az>ct.TiaATiosfl or Mixed Sncs.

Of tbe Twetttytix samples of mixed spke subjectetl to microscopic
exAtnination, no leas than t^jtetnj or coruiderablv more tb«n one hmli^
were mdulterate^l; anil hence it is seen that, of all the spices, mixed
«pice ifl tbe most liable to adalteraiion.

Tbe substances employed were wheat Jfovr in five CMBes, grottrnd rice
in two, »ago in four, potato fitmr in oue, and vegftabU tuhtbMmces tm-
determinet] in tbrw uftbe samples.

On the Detection of the AduUeraiion* of Mixed Spice.

Tbe whole of the idulteratjons of mixed spice are ilismverable by
means of ibe microscope : the charactcn of wheal Hour are described
and Blared at p. 243. ; of rice, at p. 265. ; of sago, at pp. 3:24 — 5. ;
and of potato tlourat p. 320.

Fullt^r details refpectiii*; the adullei^tion of bpiccs will be ibund in
the author's work entitled "Fo-td and it« Adulterations.'*

The prenent alTords an additional instuuce of what we have so
frequently before observed — nauiely, ihat the higher the price of snj
article, the more it heivnnes subject U> adulteration.

It thus again appears thni tbe public und rbc revenue are exten-
Bively defrauded torough tbe adulteration of the majority of the apices
told.

Duty on ground spice unenumerated, U, per lb.

ISINGLASS. AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

IsiMGLAfts is the air bag, or swimming bladder, wimetimea called the
sound, of various tish, chieHy of the sturgeon tribe, and belonging to
tbegeDas Aeipenser,

xVM bag is a membrane filled with air, situated near the spine,
above the centre uf gruvily. In most tisb it coiiinmnicates with the
{Esophagus, or sloniocb, by a duct, which is known as the ductuM
pneitmaiiau ; in others, the duct is impcrlorate ; occasionally there are
twoaaca,one anterior to the other,and communicating by a idiort tube.

Tbe air bag is made up of an external or peritoneal covering : a
middle, fibrous, and in some cases muficulur coat; and an internal,
highly vascular membrane.

Tbe following are the principal species of fish from which Russian
isinglass is derived : — Aciptnaer Uuto or tbe Brlnt^a, A. Gouldetutadtii
or the Oateter^A. Ruthenus or the J^terlett A. SteliatiuoT the Sevrmga,
Siluna Giants, and Siprinus Carpio.

I8INGLA«S, AND IT8 ADULTERATIONS.

457

Tn atlditioif to the sbove, isinglass is obtained in differpnt parts of
the woriti iVom seTural other kinds of fish. In Nt'W York, from the
Labnu Squeteagtu^ of Mitchell. In New En^'land it U procured from
the intefitines of Morrkua vulgaris^ or the common cod, this limn
being denoininuted ribbon iinuglaAs. In the BniziU, it is nbt^iineil
from u lar<;e fisb, probably a species of Hilumji; urid in Iceland, from
the Cod and Lot4i Moloa or Littg.

For iin fti'count of the fisheries and the mode of prepflralion or
drying of tlie swimmin<r blad<ler, the reader in referred to tlie Author's
work •' Food and its Adulterutions."

Tbti principal kind« uf iuinglass arc leaf, short stapl^^ long staple^ and
hook itiinglatfd.

S»tn(ivejr ifhort staple and book isioglaMef are usuallj of inferior
quality.

162,000 lbs. of ifliDglaM arc, on the average^ shipped every season
from ]<u!=sia.

In urldition to the tsin^Iasa imported from Kussia, a vast quantity
is muKiully received from the Brazils, and the East and West Indies.
It is Imwever, greatly inferior to the description!) we hare noiice^l.
Indeed, Bniziiian uinf;lius is oidy fit for finin;; purposes, an<l for such
it is tiljiiost wholly bou;»ht up by tli« pronrielors of large brewing
establishments, who couaume ncaily the entire (juaniity im|>ortfid.

Manufoi^tttre of Isingltua.

On the arrival of the isinglass into this country, the best kinds are
submitted to a course of preparation before they are ready for con-
flumptioo.

The Beluga leaf is closely examined, and all discoloured parts cut
away; the cuttings, and other pieces not deemed good enough for tbe
best^ ore placwl aside as aecondM or thinU, Tbese. in some ciues are
u»ed for fining the better descripttoti uf ales, but more generally for
winetf, liqueurs, &c. It is also rolled and cut into shreds for domestic
purp<ises, where colour is not an immediate object.

Purse isinglass Is mostly sohl to the brewers, who consume a rojit
quantity in the fining of their .several beveroj^es.

Long and short staple isinglass is extensively demanded by cider
makers, confectioners, and others, to wboui it i^ sold in tbe same state
as inijHtrted into thi* country.

Leaf i»inglass taken Irom the Beluga, after having been picked
from idt impure or discoloured piecr-s, constitutes the very best article,
either for dieteticul use, or for the hijrher cliL-w of clarifying purp(»8es.
This descripttiin of ipingiass tins to undergo a process of mnnufuctiire
before it is ready for use. What are (crtned perfect specimen braves
are nearly round, llie bladder huvin;; been opened lonj;itudinally,
about two feet in (ureumference, and weijfh froui ei;;ht tt> sixteen
ounces, according to the thickness of the sound. It is not uncom-

4fi6 ISINGLASS, AND ITS ADULTERATIOX8.

mon, however, to meet with heavier sAmplcn, some having bo^n Irnown
lo rencli four pnumls.

A Htuain unginu of some eight or ten horse power is ^nerftllj used
uniler ihe present method (pfjirepnrinii iMitglass, the nrMunct micJii-
nery consUtm}; of a series v( iKiwerfiil roller*, arrnngwl in pairs in %
manner resembling I hose iisetl for expre8sin<j the juice fnim Uw
sugar cane. The rnller>) when in motion are fed with leaf isinghus w
fast as possible, which, in pasfiin]; between the two rollers, bocoves
amalpaiutited and spread out, and a expelled fn)m the opposit« side
of the rollers in one continuous sheet. The iainglnss thus rolled is
called *' ribbon," but it is not yet ready for the process of cnttins.

The sheet or " ribbon" rs probably ft sixth, eighth, or tenth part of
an inch in thickness, and as it is necessary to reduce it until it is as
tliin as writinj; nnper, tt is passed through rollers more clcwelj set,
until, iH i)ie ibiricnes.^ diminishes, the desired result is obtained; the
width of the "ribbnn," of eourao, increasing.

It is Uf be reniArkeil, that in rolling, the ribbon, bein^ cnn6ned to
the iivi<,llli of tlie ryllwrs, ^fenerully nUiiut two feet, increases only
lengthways, andt when conipleled^ can be fulded or rolled up in lh€
same manner ns n length ol cammon Unen.

Afier a brief delay, for the purpose of dryinjr. the next and la«t
process of cutting \a efiecitiMi. liy the introduction of mwJern niachi-
nery, this pnrt nf the prcparntion of isinghiss is performed with wir-
prising celerity, and the material is cut into very fine shre<ls.

The cutting machine is a cylinder with some 6ve or six keen-
edged blfwles fixed in a tangential direction to the cylinder. The
same engine which scrveHi (o r^U out the isinglass, as already described*
sulHopS to turn this little miicUine at the rate of some 800 or 1000 re-
volution* per minute ; tiikintj a low estimate, we will suppose it turns
8tX^ tiniCFt. On I'xitniining the r\)indiT we find five or six blades set
in it, and as each of these kniveti severs a shred from the width of
the "ribbon/* while the cutting proccM is going on, it follows that
four or five ihousimd shreds are t'lit in the short ^pace of one Diinu

Such U the plain and simple method of [ireparing cut isingl

There are, however, many consumers who still prefer the o
fashioned st^te of hand-cut isingla^^. In thiii cose, the thin leaf
pulled to pieces with the fingers or divided into strips with Kissora,
work moatlv j>crfonned by women.

The shreds of isinglasa softened in cold water and cxnmine<l in the
microscope, arc seen to pos'was a fibrous structure, a few vessels, gra-
nular cells, and nuclei being scattered here and there: it is, in fact
an organised substance. Fig. 176.

0.1 TBB AdCLTSBATIONB Or IstNGLABB.

The principal adulteration of isinglass is with gelatine, an url
every respect much ioferior to isinglass.

tiat ,

I8TNOLA88, AKD ITS ADTILTERATIONS.

4&9

Usually shreds of gelatine are mi.xetl with those of tsinglasff. Occa-
sionally the gelatine is incorporatetl with the iftinglaiis while it is in
sheets.

Most fre<|uently, however, gehtine is substituted for isinpliiss. The
best isinglass, of course, is Russian; this is often ileteriorated by atl-
mixture with a very inferior article termed Brazilian isingluMs; in
other cases, this is substituted for the better and more valuable
description of isinglass.

Resulta of the Examination of Sample*.

Of Twenty'eight isau\y\iis of isinglass subjected lo examination, ten,
or more than one third, of tl>« samples consisted entirely of oelatime.

On the Detection of the Adulterations of Isinglass.

Between isinglass and gelatine several welt marked distinctions
exist; some of iheso are sufficiently simj>le to enable the ordinary ob-
server himself to distinguish the one orticle from the nlber-

AU (hut is necessary to effect the discrimination i^ to spread a few
of the Btaments out on a slip of gloss, to moisten them with water,
and after the lapse of a few minutes to note well the apjiearances pre-
sentoil by them.

Isinglass and gelatine (lifTer, especially in the following characters: —

The shreds of isinglass^ when immersed in c«)ld wateif become white,
opaque, soft, and swollen.

The swelling is equal in nil directions, so that, when vieweil with n
low power of the mieroscope, the shreds appear mure or le«5 quadran-
gular.

In boiling water, they dissolve nearly without residue.

The smeU of the dissolved isinglass, when hot, is somewhat fishy,
but not unpleasant.

The moistened .•hreds or the solution, exhilnt to test paper a neutral,
or faintly alkaline, and rarely a slightly acid reaction.

Under the microscope, the tilamcnte exhibit a well marked fibrous
structure.

In acetic aeid they swell up, and become soft and jelly-like, the
greater part of the structure being lost.

Lastly, "'ITie ash which results from the incineration of good
Ruuian i.singUss is of a deep red colour : it contains but a small por-
tion of carbonate of lime, and never amounts to more than nine per
cent, of the isinglass used." •

The Bhre<Is of gelatine, on the contrary, when placed in coM water,
swell up. acquire increased transparency, and become translucent and
glass-like.

* PbirmioQuiicftl Jounul. vet x. p. Ifi.

I ef riueda of Orlatiitb ui4 1mwulj>«». TTppar Ann, i
tHm^on. MagBUMTSdUBtMm.

The <lry shrefison the uncut surfaces frequently
shining liutre, not unliku thut of tinsel.

In boiling water, they do not entirely dissolve, but

Alt. *.. .U. L

r -mV . -I..

I8IN0I.A88, AND ITfl ADULTERATIONS.

461

Lastly^ the ash is difTorent from that of isinglass in nmount, colour,
and composition. " 100 jrruiriH of {joUtine give from 2*3 to 2'6 gmins
of oAu vrhich is whit^y contains much carbunute of UmOj vr'ith some
chlori*ies and snlphntet" —Letfiebv.

It is thtTcfore very easy to distinguish bptween iBing^lnfts and gela-
tine, even when the ahredd of the tvru articles are mixed together in
the same parwL

The discrimination is, however, much more difficult when they are
both incorporated in ihe same shreds or strips; nevertheless, by means
of the niicroaoope, tliis adulteration, Brst described by Mr. Redwood,
may frequently be discoveretl.

If, on examination with that instrument, the shredit, after immersion
in cold water for a few minutes, exhibit a thick U>rder of a eleur and
structureleM substance, there is no doubt but that the shreds ore
coated with gelatine-
Some of the better kinds of Rmzilinn isin^rloss are manufactured in
the some way as Russian, and sold at a cbi^aper rule. No doubt, in
some instances, this is mixed with, or sold as the bci^t, and it hn^ been
ascertained that acids und other cheuiicuU hare been ii>(L'd to improve
its colour; but the test of gfKKl isin-jlaas is in the jelly iniide thi'refrum.
The jelly mode from Russian isiiifilass dissolves rewiily, furnishes
scarcely any sedimeut, and ia remarkably firm, pure, and translu-
cent.

On the other hand, Brazilian islnjrlass makes a far inferior jelly,
with these renuirkable dilTerences : that whihit Kusainn isinglass is firm,
and free from deposit, Brazilian isin<:lass leaves a deposit of insoluble
matter amounting to twenty or thirty per cent., is less readily dis-
solved, und the jelly is opalescent, and milky.

Oo muktrig hiaitc-matige with the purest Russian isinglass, milk is
needed to impart the snow-white colour of that jelly ; but in the case
of Brazilian isinglass, hot water alone will render it nearly of that
colour. It is almost needless to add thai the blunC'timnge is nmnb in-
ferior in quality, und the large percentage of insoluble matter renders
the jelly proportionately weak.

The quality of any isinglosa may easily be tested by dissolving a
small portion in a glass vessel, with about a tablespoonful of boiling
water. The best Russian isinglass will instantly dissolve, and scarcely
a particle of sediment remain ; the soluble matter in this article
being, according to the best authorities, ninety-eight grains in every
hundred.

The same test appbeil to Bnizilian isinglass will extract the gelatine,
but the shreds, from their Bbrous character, do not entirely dissolve ;
they turn white and retain their form, unless disturbe<t, in which coaii
they break up, and form a deposit at the bottom of the vessel.

If Russian isinglass be adulterated with Brazilian, the admixture
may easily be detected by the insoluble shreds, or white deposit, which
is lore to Appetr in proportion to the amount of Brasiiian isioglasa

462

GELATINE, AND ITS ADULTERATlONft.

that inaf be introduced. Tbe smell of the Utter iUo it iMi^iir
from pleasant, »nd forms a great coDtrost witb tbe faints ioglMtt^
seuwced-likc odour of Russian isinglau.
Dutj frve. Impurttttion in 1854, 1,881 cwU.; m 18^5, l^cvti.

GELATlNt; AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

As we are not acquainted with any trustworthy or practiAl

of the method of preparini; geluttne, we have been at »ome pais to

prucure the CoUowing information respecting it£ manufacture.

Ordinary gelatines ore niiide I'niin tliose pieces of skins w\vA ffi
cut off by the tanner ta unlit for makin*;; leather, in ouoKi^iicnoe U
thiekiicisa. The beet description is ])repart:d from tbe akin* of calva*
bcadii ; lliosv arc separated fn>m the wbulu t>kins ftAer they km
passed tliiough tbe proccM of liming:;, to remove the bair from thtm~

The skins ure next well w^hed, to get rid of tbe lime, and all ifae
piecc-i of flesh itnd fat are cnrefulty cut out; some manufacturniMik
thcut fur a short time in a dilute solution of muriatic aoidt Ui r^wn
any remaining portion uf lime; but tbispmelice is both injarkMsa^
unprofitable. The acid furmj with the lime chloride of cstdm
which, if it is nut carefully removed by washinj;, ia boiled cpwhAAi
akiiis, and, beinj; boluhle, remains in the gelatine; a pirtionaflW
hkins is aUo dissolved by the acid, and i» thrown nwsy in tlif wsui
employed in washing; them, which thus ocmsions a loaa in wcs^i.

In some coses the skins are boiled whole, in othera they are tewihM
small piL'ce»^ or even reduced to a pulp by a machine eapeciaDj Mf
Btructed for the purjHise.

If the skins ure cut into fine nieces, instead of b.ins put lotodH
boiler whtite, the t^elAiine will be better ; that is, it will he of a lifkM
uolour; and the process is mure economical, as one bolf tbe timvsl
be saved in the boillu^r, and much less heat and fuel required. A<
the j>elatine is darkened by ])rolouged boiling, the nsductioo *4 ii>
skins to a nulp \s a point of very fiKAi importance in tb« maaiftr
lure of pclatine — ao much so, thai Mr. Swinburne baa obtiMlt
patent for this method of prt^puration.

The skins are boiled with water, in the proportion of aboit •■
gallon of water to seven ]>oundii of skin ; a small quantity of ooWS
Bait u added to preserve the gelatine. Alter it has boiled fur abort
twelve hour:^ it is strained and cltirified with white of eggs, aaJ tti*
run upon ghiss plates ; as -oon uh it is solid, it is mt into a5eci tM
laid upon nets to dry, in u room heated to a temperature of about 1^-
If the room is not heated, the surface of tbe gclatioe becoma

GELATINi:, AND ITS ADULT EKATXOM. 4m

with iniall air-bubbles ; wbeo the gelsline b dry, it i» cut \ij % mm/'
cbini: 111 the same manner as isinglass.

The size of tbe filau plutca varies ncrording to tb« faocv uf Um
manufacturer. Tbe urdiuary size is 6ft«en br eighteen inckea ; but %u
Bome cases thev arc three feel fujuare ; tbe plati» or filicei uf gelatuc
are f^nerally aoout fifteen inches ti>ii^ bv tbree wide.

Thou;:h tbe skin of the bead uf tbe calf only is lucd for making jec^
latine, the whole of the skins l>oib uf the calf and ox are perfut^y
adapted for the purpose, but ore not used, as tbejr are much mare
valuable for conversion into leather.

In snme eotics, cspeeiullr in warm wenther, the skins ustn] are some-
what itecom|K>9ed, but this is not ^enurallv the case. This eundition,
although reuioved to suuie extent by repeated washings, cannot be
entirely remedicil; heiiee gelatine ntude fnmi such damaged skins will
always retain a smell and taste more or leiis disatfreeuble.

French geluiine is usuully much whiter thiiti £ii;£lish ; this iii owio^
principally tu the calves being killed in Frunce nuieh yuungLM* than in
lhi« country.

Gelatine is likewise prepared from the bones of the ox and the
sheep. Ic is obtained by imilin^ bones in water under pcesiturv. It
]s more readily procureil by employing bones which have Iweii pre-
vious] v dig:estud 10 hydrochloric acid to extract th« phoHphiUe nCIiine.
**ln this way a nutntious soui» is prepared in P.ins Cur the hoH[ilr.j|]«
and other pauper hatitalions. Gelatine has been extractt'ii fr^Mii ante-
diluvian bontrs. A stmp was prepared from I'te bones of the jrivat
luaslodon by a prefet oCone of the depurtmenlr. of Fniiic-*." — Peretra.

In the *' London Jnurmd of Arts and Seient^es," a publit'utioii which
contains the specification of new patenn.'d iuvenliotips wu find the
fullowin;; description of a patent granted to George i'hilbrick Swin-
burne, of I'itulico : —

*'Tbe patentee commences his speciOriition bv Ktiitinfj; that Iiereto-
fore, in manufacturing gelatine, it has been UHuat (with one exception)
to act on large pieiea of hides or skins, anil lo emph>y lu-ids and
alkalies, together with mechanical and other proL'esscii, which occupy
considerabre time, and are likewise costly ; and in tlie excepted cose
above referred to, it has been tbe practice to reduce the pieces of hide
iitto the state of pulp in a pa[>er machine, and theu to employ blood to
purifv the product obtained.

*^ This invention consists in the following more simple mode of ma-
nufacturing gelatine. Tlie patentee takes hides or skin^, or parts
thereof, as fresh and sweet as possible, find free from hair, and he
reduces the whole into shavings ur thin slices or films, by any suitable
instrument ; he soaks the shavings or films i'or about five or six hours
incohl water, and then changes the same; he repeats such chanpng
of the wiiter two or three times each day, until no smell or tai^te is to
be detei:teil, either in the water or in the sliavingH, and then he remorea
the shavings from the water. If this product ia intended Ibr soup, it

464 GELATINE, AND ITS ADDLT£RATIOy&

\a dried on nets, and is then rendjr for use. If geUtine it to be

tractedj the shaving*, nfter the above ftooking, are put intoaavtiMe
vessel, witK a quantit}- of water, suflicient tn cover tbeni whrn )*i'<mi)
down, ami they are subjected to a heat not exceeciin^ >-■'"■
When disMilvt'ti, ihc gelatine is to be strained throujrh l
fabric, subjected to slight prewure with the hands or oUterwi>i', "t ihc
Buluiiun may be [>ermiite(l to run ull' from thf vessel without «trvn-
iiig, hy which means niiieh of the •^elacine will bts separattrd from tbt
fibrou!i matters. The prorluct nf^clutine thus obtained t» run in tlun
films on to a smooth surface of slate, or other suitable materinl ' •-•
it is then renioveil on to net* to dry, and when dry it is cut
an Isin^Iaf^s cutter or other suitable nppiiratua. The rcnidnr, .
not, may l)e usei] fiir thickening anup. and other culinary ; iw ,>

"Another tnanufacliire of geUiinoti9 substance* b priMtu >:-\ Lt •^^-'
follnwing prt>ces.s frtim cod s^iundit, or other liahy matters acpa^hk d
yielding fXelatine : — The^e matters nre reduced to •havings or ttia
films, snaked in water, nubjected to the action uf heat^ and the jirrUiiae
strained or run off" as above dcscribtnl. The patentee nbtaini a fint,
second, and third pnHhtct nf nelatine, which he fi>rni5 into sheetv ad
when ilry vuts U|t the same with an isinylasa culler. This maxmftt'
ture of jk'elatme will be found highly uaeful ad a cheap snbacitute te
isinglass for cfarifying liquids."

Itd'erior j:ettitiite is u^e1l in lai^e quantities by |inpcr makers ^tnv-
hnt and tUk niaimfaelurer!! ; but these parties generally putrljAae U»
skins, and prepare the gelatine themselves.

Unlike i-iin;»lass, the shreds of gelatine, aa alreatiy noticed, eia*
niiiu>d with the nticroseope, are f>een to be romposetl of a tran^iaiMt
and j»crfectlv bninojreikous substance. Scf* Jig. 176.

Glue is fiuire a dis^tinct mantifacturc from gelatine, and is
carried uu by ibe ^ame |)tu*tie8. It is made from boneiii
of skins, and hoot's.

On Tit£ Adultbbatiohs or GfiianiiE.

The addition of a small nuantity of salt, with the view or.,
the preservatiim of the gelatine, is, of course, allowable ; btti
freiiuetitly added in lar<!e quantities: it then causes tht fivUnv
to absorb moisture from the atmo^phe^c, whereby its weight it m^
increitsed.

In some cases, gelatine is adulterated with nii^ar, estber Ifiwa
or white, not to any considerable extent, except with some <*f *^
inferior qualities, such as are so largely used by the xuanuiarturcn ^
uuli^tor Mieats.

The iellies in bottles, and those sold by confectioners aa mnfim
and calves' feet jelly, consist principally of gelatine variou^r fc^
vourcd. Jellies made from calves' feet are much less firm, am ir
solve quicker than those auide from geUtine, if kept in a wun m*

AXNATTO, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

465

Oa the Detection of the Adulterations of Gelatine.

The niJiiUcrarion nf frelaliiie with Bnlt maybe thus detortp*] : — 200
irraift* »*" the polatine mu«l be inoiiioruie'i and tlu» nsh ta-*!!-'! for salt ;
the quantity of which preseni nmy be determined, if necessary, by
the pn>cw8 given under Anna(U>.

For the iiet**olion of the sugar the following prore«8 may be fol-
Idwed : — Dissolve the f^elatine in water ; precipitate with tannic acid ;
filter, and evaporate the sohuitm to <lryness, when the sugar will be
found in the residue.

A better method is the followinp : — Soften the gelatine by macera-
tion in a little water, boil in alcohol; this will take up the sugar and
leave the gciatinc.

GeUtinc is fre« of duty on importation, and is largely manufactured
in this country.

AXNATTO, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

TiiE next article which fall* under our consideration is annatto ; this,
though not employed as fond, is yet a<lded to several articles of con-
sumption, and it therefore becomes of interest to ascertain whether it
is Hubject lo Adulteration or nut.

Annatto is the colouring mutter oUlnined from the seeds of n plunt
named Btxa orelUma^ L., and which forms the lype of the 8imuI1 natu-
ral or<ler Bixinea. It is a native of South America, the West and
East Indies ; but the article annatto is chictly prepared in Druzil and
Cayenne.

The tree is an evergreen, and the aeeils are enclosed in poils, the
colouring matter being sitntited on the outside of the seeds.

It appears that two diflereiit pr'»ce5ses are pursueil in order to
separate the colouring matter. According to the ordinary process
the seeds, afler being reuioved I'roni the poils, are brut«ed, lran»ferre«l
to a vat, when they are mixed with as much water as covers tliem.
Here they are lelt for several wpcks or months. "The substance
thus obtaine*!,*' Dr. Ure states, * is now <uiueezed through sieves,
placcii above the stcef>er, that the water containing the colouring
matter in suspension may return into the vat.

" The residuum is preserved under the leaves of the Annana (pine-
apple tree) till it becomes hot by fermentation, ll is then again eub-

B H

4«e ANNATTO, AND ITS ADULTERATIOKS,

jecteU to the satne operation, and this treatment b continued lutui co
more colour remains.

" The Hubstance thus extracted U passed through aieres, in oriler Ui
senarute t)te remainder of the seeds; and the colour is iillovt^ to
auDside. The precipitate i^ boiled in coppers untd it is rrttutviu
a consistent piutc. Ic la llicn suHered lo cool, and is dried in tbe
ahiiflc."

The second process i:tthat recommended by Leblond. TleTinpnn
simpl}^ to waith the seeds until tliey are entirely deprived otcolov,
to precipitate the coluuring matter by mean» of vinegar »r \aat*
juice, and to boil it up in the ordinary manner, or to drain it in hi^
as is practised wiili indi::o The annutto prepared in this war 0
said to be four tiitned as valuable as that made according 10 tiic fint-
described process.

It does not appear from either of these descriptions tltat aarlbisf
is added to the annutto except water. Thia is important with relertaee
to its adulteration.

Before proceeding to enter upon the question of the ailu'i
any article, the first «tep necessary is to mnlce onesell :
with its properties and (.hararteri^tics ; and if the sub»taiiCL- i-^ v.-
tabte, il is requisite that we shoiilii deternunif its structure b* m'-^w
of the miiTOscope. We thus obtain certain fixed data or sitwU'^
of comparison from which lo starL

Structure of tfm Stred of AMnaUo.

SubjtH'lin;; the sced<4 of annatto to examination with the miuigiuy
we tind that their outer or red portion does not exhibit any ver^ir
finite struciure. that the surface of the «eed proper tvinsisiAoTDtm^
or elongated cells or fibres, vertically disposed ; while the iniKr«iik
pirlinn cmsists of cells filled with numerous starch conMudot*^
delini^d, i.it' medium size, and resembling in form and m tht ^1^
gatc<l and stellate hilum the starch granules of the pea tad bc»>
Fife- 111-

In ^^^nwinr mnnufuctured annatto but little structure !» m«iirit&>
portions of the outer cells are however seen, as well a*, in tho« ipa»
mens which in the course of their prejmnition have not bcesia^
JGCted, as they usually are, to the action uf boiling water, a few td it
starch corpuscles.

Annutto is used by dyers, painters, soap makers, and to coluut wA
butter, and cheese.

By dyers and soap makers it is frequently pnrohasc«l ftw ta» i*
the state in which it is imported, these parties adding the alkalis*
solvent a^ tbev u^ 11; in these cases it docti not pass throng 1^
hands of the hn<;lish so-eallctl manufacturers at all. In olW W
the manufacturers re-prepure it in the several forms of ruU, e^
orange, black, and lluid annattoj.

ANNATTO, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

467

Compoiition of Annatto.

The pulp surrounding the unfermented fresh seeds was found by
Dr. John to consist of 28 paru of colouring rcMuous mutter, 26 5 of
vegetable gluten, 20 of ligneous fibre, 20 uf culuurJug, ejttractive

Fig. in.

W: &'^ » « V 2>

-^^■

nUi tltnftlcd bciw-M-n iba bMk sad

tf, cell* uf MMi proper eoB"

matter 4, formed of matters unnlnTous to rentable gluten and ex-
tractire, and a trace of spicy and acid maCten>.
The colouring matter is soluble in water, but more so in alcohol
u B 2

4R8

ANXATTO, AND ITS ADILTERATIONS,

and alkalies. The latter change its colour somewhat from red to
uraiige. When annntto is use<l ft5 a dye, it i» cut in pieces and boiled
in a copfier with cruele pearl ashcfi.

On subjoftiiiff the soeelt^ nfannatto to examination, we obtained an
nsh whiu'li weighed 4'60 f^rains per f:ent.. and which was nearly whitr,
with here and there >b faint tinge indicatin;; the presence of a iiit?re
trace of iron : it yieMeil *20 of a giain per cent, of aluniina, tinged onljr
Tery slightly with iron.

The red or outer part of the seeds yielded on examination nearly
similar restdt<4.

These riNulta may, therefore, as we shall see more fuUj hereafter,
be tAken as representing to some extent the proper weight of the ash
of genuine annatto, and of the iron and alumina which it usuallv
contains.

On the Apultkbations or Amtatto.

There is scarcely an article witli which we are acquainted sub*
jeotfld to BO large an aiuuunt uf adulteration, and this ot' the grossest
possible description, as annatto.

The Niibstances employed are various, acme of them boing organic
and aihera inorganic.

The itrpanic adulterntions which we ourselves have detected, are
tbo.«e with tnrmeriCy rye, harle^j^ anrl wheat llours.

The innrgame mlulterations observed by us are as follow ; with
tiulphitte of limc^ ctirhfmaie of lime ^ sult^alkali^ an oily suhatance^ pro-
bably soop, r^*d ferruginous earths, mostly Vetutian red, red Uad^
and copper.

The employment of large quantities of fluur and of lime so reduces
the colour of the annatto that it becomes necessary to have recourse
to salt, alkalies, and the red earths, to restore it to something ap-
proaching its natural standard.

The efteut ol' salt in heightening the intensity of vcgetAble reds is
well known, and hence its use.

The lead detected WiLs probably introduced into the annatto
through the Wnetiiin red used.

At fii-st we were disputed to regard the copper in annatto as an
acciilentiil impurity : there is good reason for believing that it is pur-
posely addc'l to prevent the annatto from l)ccomin!r attacked with
fungi, and to which it is so prone, in c»n5eijuence csperially nf it*
admixture with such large quantities of flour and salt. The saJt by
attracting moisture, hastens tho ilccom[:tositioa of the flour.

UeituUt of the Examination of Samples.

The following results were obtained from tlie examination of Thirty'
fnir samples of annatto of all kinds fljr imported^ as obtained from
English manufacturers^ an'l as purchased from dealers; —

ANNATTO, AND ITS ADULTEBATIONS.

469

1st, That of the thirty-four aamples of annatto of all kinds ex-
ftiiiined, two only were genuiue^ ftud wero entirely free from adulteru-
tion ; these being two red CAke ammttos a« imf>orted.

2iid, Thai the whole \ji the reiniininjj Kauipleti consisted oi' mtxhtre$
i« varitmx propttrlums of one or more substances^ these amoniifiu}; in
vtany Cfites to one-'hal/y and in some ttutanet to even two'thirds of the
entire specimens.

3nl. ThtLt of the two samples of Black Annatto, obtained from
manufaoturorSf one furnished a hij^lily ferruginous ash^ which was
very alkalint.', which amounted to 32'50 per cent., and which con-
siiited of un alkali^ some chalky and a red ferruginous earth; wliile the
second yielded un ash that wei;:hed 35-'^6 (wr cenL, which was still
more ferr(if:inous, and which consisted ni alkali and some rtd earth.

4th. That of tlic four samples of Orange Cake Annatto. obtained
from manufai-tnrers. one ftimistieil an cuA whioh amounted to titf'OO
per cent., and which consisted chii^ily of rhalk^ wlib a trace of lead:
the ash of the t^oond sample weighed o7'7*i grains per cent., and oUo
consisted principally of ehath ; the third sample contained a large
quantity of turmeric and a little wheat flour ; the ash uuHjiiuled to •144
per cent., and coitsisted of vhuth and bojne red earth,- whilcr the u*/i of
the fourth sample weighed 63*00 |jer cent., and was composed chieMy
of chalk,

5ih. That of the two samples of Red Cake Annatto, procured from
niiutufacturers, one contained a very lar^e ouantity u{ wheat flour, and
yieUled 17'll2 per cent, of ash^ which consisteil of salt an<i liome red
earth ; the other nUo contained a very large quantity of wheat /hur^
and furnished 14 ;2() percent, of ash, consisting chietly of salt and aome
ferivginnxis earthy colanring matter.

tith. Tliat of iht five sompleit of Orange Cake Aniuittos, purchased of
different retail dealer*, one yielded 57"HO per cent. lA' u^A, which con-
flisiL'd principally of rAaU ; a second cnntauied a very lur^je quantity of
tunnertc^ and gtive an luA which weighed 3f)'uf> per cent., and which
was com}io«ed of ehaUl and a red ferruginous earth ; the third contained
the starch of tago^ the oeh weighing 58*46 per cent., which was coui-
)KJsed chiefly of chalk ; the fourth c<mtaineu a very large quantity of
turmericy and yielded 40*30 per cent, of ojA, cumposetl of chalk, fervM-
giaous earth, and a little salt ; while the ftllh gave 0U't2 j»er iieni. of
ash, which congiftted principally of chalk with traces of lead.

7th. That the »anq>les of Hed Roll Aniuitio nearly all containetl large
quantities of either wheat, bnrUy, or rye Jioxir — u^^ually the latter, to
the extent of 30 and even over 40 per cent. ; much saU and some retl
femtginouM earth, as Venetian red, red ochre, or reddle.

lieviewing then the results of the miL'n)scopical and chemical exami-
nation of the thirty-four samples of annatto, it apfwars that large
quantities of turmeric were present in three Siini])Ie^, wheat or barley
fiuur in fnur, and rye fiitur in nine; the majority ot these snuiplescun-
taining full forty per cent, of Hour ; that chalk was present in a great

■ a 3

470

AJiJiATTO, AND ITS ADULTEKATIOXS.

nwoj 7Sie«« Ireqaentlj to the extent of fiAy and ctcb orer sixty per

cent^ nipha/e ofUmt in at least five cases, a rrd ferrvgimom* earth in
a great manr, s.n alkali in iereral, tali in manj, Uad in fire ca»e«, and
c^>pP^ in &^ least fuor aamptes.

The iro* and alumina amnanted in some cases to near tbree and eren
over fire per cent. Had all the samples been examined qaalitaUvelj
for iron, it is probable that stfll larger amoanss wnuM bave been met
with, as the wont casei were not specially selected fur examination.

\a two of the 6vt! fomples in wbich Uad was det^^^d. the quiintity
was not weighed^ and 19 described as /races onlv, while in tbe utfaer
three ssmplen rhe nnantitiea amounted 10*30, '50, and to 1 "20 per cent.

M7 friend, Mr. Hogfr^the sutborof the ^Treatise on the Microscope,"
himself procured fome samples of anoatl«\ and found them to be
adulterated with rye and barleg flours, turmenc, wJt, red mrik, and
carbonaU of lime.

Lsstlr, the following analyses by Dr. Benwys embody the results
of the chemical examination of the ashes of bve samples of annatto
furnished him bj the author.

No. 1

Ash of 100 grains, wei»bed 62*40, wbich was compofed of —

Carbonate of lime

- 37-88

Sulphate of lime

- »*82

Alkaline sulphates

- 4*34

Chloride of sodium

. 6'42

Iron and alumina

- •214

Lead, traces, sand, &c.

. 2-80

62-40

Xo. 2.

No. 4.

Ash of 100 groins, weighed

Arth of 100 grtins,

weighed

1970: —

13-&5: —

Chloride nf sodium - 687

Chloride of sodium

- 431

Sulphate of lime - 412

Sulphate of time

- 5-92

J ron and alumina - 1*40

Iron and alumina

- 1 32

Sand,&c. - - 1-31

Sand, &c.

. 2 40

13-70

No. 5.

ISdS

No. 3.

Ash of 100 grains,

weighed

Ash of 100 crains, weiirhed

62 26 : -

17*20:-

Carbonate of lime

- 42 00

Cbloride of »o<Hum - 9*30

Stilphnte of lime

- 884

Sulphate «f lime - 4*00

Chloride of sodium

• 6 56

Iron and alumina - *90

Iron and alumina

- 3*20

Sand, fiic, - - 300

Sand, &c. .

- 166

17"20

62'26

AXNAXrO, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

471

The presence of Irar! in annatto haa lieen detcctod, not only by
ourselves, but by Accuin, MitclK'lI, Bernny.-*, trnd Noroiandy.

Accum, at nape 270. of his "Treatise," has written to ibis eflect :
— "Several in»tanee« have come under my knnwledjje in which
Gloucester cheeae hiu been contaminated with red lead, ami has pro-
duced serious consetjiienccs nn beinf; taken into the stontnch. In one
poisonous finniple which it foil to my lot to examine, the evil had
Dcpn caused by the sophiitlicution of the annatto employed for colour-
int; chccfte. This substuncc was found to contain a portion of red
lead." Accum then Roes on to nuote the particulars of a case re-
conled by a Mr. Wrijrht, of Canibritijre : — A gentleman, after par-
taking of some tonated cheepe at an inn t>n two difltrent occasions,
was both times made ill by ir. The matter was referreil to the
manufacturer of the cheese, who, on inquiry, ascertaiiii-d rliat the
annatto which had been used to colour (he cheese was itself coloured
or adulterated with Itoth vcrniilinn arxl red lotd.

Mr. Mitchell, in his "Treatise on the Falsification of Foml," published
of 1848» states paj?e 231: — "I have frcipicntly examined s|>ecimens
in annatto which hare been contuminatud with red lead, or u mixture
of red lead or (K'hre.**

Liistly, Dr. Normandy, in his "Commercial Handbook of Chemical
Anftly.«i»," wriles, "Untnrtumitely as it, annatto, is very ohen atlul-
terateil with red Icail, or with i>o|h reil ledtl ami rtchre, the u?e of
such annatto is very injurious, and serious accidents have been caused
thereby."

Two of the autliors quoted, viz., Accum and Mitchell, testify i«i the
fact of the presence of lead in annatto and cheese of their (twn know-
ledge- It is not oleiir whether Dr. Normandy dttea go or not, or
whether he merely re|>eats ihe statements of others on the subject.
Now there i;* no cvaditiir the evidence of the first two witne?'5es.

We would further obfcrvi^, tliat in some of the samples examined the
ingredients were so badlv mixed, that in some instances we picked out
specks or masses of the substances added, us of the different kinds of
ilour used, turmeric, chidk. and red earth.

Now the muntifai.'^lurers of unnutto will doiihtUiss try to [H.'rsuo'ie
us, and [wrhaps others who are not manufacturers will do so us well,
that some of the substances which we have mentioned are introduced
to improve the article, to render it more soluble, and to make it keep
iMUter. We are ready to .admit that the use of alkali is pertectly
justifiable to render it more soluble, but beycmd this we do not ;!o;
and allowyy; this plea of improvement to have all the wei^^ht that con
possibly belong to it, enougn will still remain to show that annatto is
subject to a lur^e amonntof ailulterntion, for it is impossible to jut>tiiy
the use of turmeric, of Venetian red, or reddle, of 40 or 50 |t€r cent.
of whvut, birley, or rye flour, and of 50 and over 60 per cent, uf
chalk and sulphate of lime.

With respect to the plea, which may possibly be nrged, that some
II II 4

AVSATiO^ jUTD m ADCI-TZAXTIOSS.

wiD kae* ■gfecdty
m4 iLtftfe 1

t«Mi tfci7 attnctad

ncnM IB mIi wtonb wt^p^ta 13 per eent^

irML jUocWr iiMili. oM of tkn« leac by Ur. Bma,

wkk Mtiag hf^g, mJ jtA this uwiImwiI ■ bfee^HMAito^

fgJar, ■■fffh, aik, aatf s ral «aitli— ii« •£ mmmmm^ im S«

ccM^ mmI j^cUiag 170 per ccM. «r fen aad tAmmt, m jtA m

8oae of tW Maple* exMuned «d
CM. of ttHMllox aiirf ocmU it he thomn tlwl tke re4actio« Wi
(O 1^ cnvnDCMM cx(«at warn jtrifahir — vUdk hovevcr, it
ic wif — Ui«n it cannot be denied it i* bigh dme tbat tbe
uiBftlio ibAoU be abaBdoned, and tbat sooe Bnaeor
•dopCed vbicb voohl ezpreu the arcual cnapoMciaa of ibe i

•erre to indicale tbe fact that tb« article tbai redneed

oni/. flDd Tfau oAca tbe ■■■Hwf pvt, of tbat whicb it priiftir ii lo be
— viz^ Sfinaito.

Mr. W)ikl«r, wbo gare tome bixhlr intereBting and importaat t»*
formalirm. in rtruonl (o adulteration, before tbe PaiiiaiiMntarT Co«»-
iui(ler,CJ>fiiiiiunk->ti:r<l the fullowin^ evidence re^-recttnjr tbe annattoicnt
i*ut by % hiiu*K to whii-b he wa» attaclie<l in earlr life: — ** It coorirted
of ffa^ anitatli) half a pound, powdereil tiirnirric thre« oanoes, pov*
dercii liiue three nunce«, and sol't soap ten ounces. But freqaenlljr,
when there wad no Ba;; annatto to be ho*!, on additional (|tt&olitj of
turmeric woa put in, witli some re«] colour wbieh I do not now recol-
lect; but often it wil< wnt out without a |»artiele of unnatto. Xbe
powder fur inouldint; the annatto coutifted of eight ounces of wbuiaj^
and two iMine'.'s of Uutcb pink."

We have unir ailvant*ed enough to prore that annatto ia extenaivel/
and icoridulouflly adullerutetl.

At the meeting of tbe Plmrmieeutical Society, to which the author's
paper on the adulteration of annatto was communicated, ^Ir. Tbeo-
phdus Ri'dwiHi'l, whose views in regard tu euiiventional udu Iterations
^C^ have exeiteil nn much iinrpni!»c, uuilertiKik the Quixotic task of
priivinir thnt the varioti« tubstaiices fuund in ailullerated unnatto were
ull abided V^ iniprnre tiie article, Mr. Retlwood not even obje<:ting to
the Bulphfite nf copper found.

Ainonpft the evidence pven before the Parliamentary Committee
in defence oi' udulteriitiou^ excc|iting only that of I^Ir. Kedwoud,

ANNATTO, AND ITS ADC'LTKUATIONS,

4X3

none was xnorc remfirkable for extraordinary aA^ortion limn thnt
of Mr. Drew, of the firm of Drew, lleywanl. iiiiil Barron, wbolcsule
drii;;f;ists. The few followirij^ particulars will serve to show tlie cbu-
ruftur of Mr. Drew's evideriue : —

llu denied that anniitto was adulterated, on the ^ound thnt it was
f>by!)icully iii)(>oistble to uijx tuniieric with aniutto, the fact being
thuE, nothing id more earty.

In nice manner he denied that cinnninon wo^ udultorated, nnd nllcged
that cossiu was as dear as cinnamon ; also that arrowroot was m>t adul-
terated, bidco sti^ an<l iK>taif) powders were worth as mnrh ; and
Jnstlvt he llitlly denied that nptces were adulteraicd in any degree,
these asiiertions being iin<iupporttiU by a particle of proof.

We now come to uiuke a few remurks on theeiuplnynient of annatto
in ilie colouring of njiik, butler, but prinripally cheese. We would
first state that we do not apprehend thai dmijter, we will not say ever,
is olien likely to I1^i^e iVoiu tlie m:casionnt presence of lead in an-
nntto. seeing that the quantity u>ed to colour cheese U but small.

The practice of colouring cheese with annatto entails, however,
*inie cx[>ense and trouble, while it serves no really useful purfMMe,
and nn these g^rounds it is to bt* condemned ; but on this point we will
cite the opinions of two well-known autboriliea on diiiry fanning;.

In ibe ^'kural Cyclopaedia," part i. p. 1*27. we find, nmimgst other
renmrks relating to annatto, the following: — "Another variety of
annatto iliat is commonly employed in Knglish dairies, is munufac-
tui'L'd in Brazil into small lolLs t;aeU tiro or three ounces in weight,
hart], dry* and compact; brownish without, and red within, liul its
grand interest to the farmer consists in its very extensive use as a
colouring matter for butter, and especially cheese. The clieese
mukLTs of Gloucestershire give uno ounce of unnulto to one hundred-
weight of cheese, and tlKue nf Chesfhiro eight dwls. to sixty pounds.
But as thetw nuanlities are far too small to medicate the checjc, or
even to oA'cct its Havour, the only advantage to be derived from the
annatto is mere colour, and surely the appearance of Stilton or Dunh>p
chet'>e uwm the table is to the full uji agreeable lis (hat of Gloucester*
shire or Cheshire cheese, 'llic use of annatto, therefore, is sheerly
vrhimsical, imposing perfectly U9elc3*s trouble on the manufacturer,
and some small ridiculous expense U|'>on the purchaser. The mo<le
of using it is to diasolve it in the hot milk immediately before
churning."

Mr. Stephens, io hi» **Book of the Farm," part iii. p. 288., makes
some observatiims on the use of anaalto to colour cheese, nearly lo
the same cfTecl. He says : — "I have not recommended the use of
annotto, or arnotto, for dyeing cheese, because I think by it the chfe-ine
fnrniers imposo u(w>n thrniMflvcs a very useless iiiece of trnuble.
All the quantity enifiloyed i;* said to impart nn mn^uliur flavour to the
chi-ese ; which being ucknowledu'cd, of whiit utility is it ? As for im-
proving the appearance of obeese, I suppose it will uut be denied that

474

ANNATTO, AND ITS ADULTEItATIOSA.

Stilton ani) Dunlop cheese look as well upon the fable u Glouefftrr
uud Cheshire cheese.**

On the Detection of the Atlvlterationit of AmidUo.

Annntto in the manufactured stale pre5enlinp w few ervimK*
of structure, it is a very easv matter indeed, hj means nf thf ralm'-
scope, U) (letet-tthe prci<encein it of most foreign vegelAble sul»taBn^
n? turmeric potcder, and the starch of wheats rye, hoHty^ ini ff
flowi.

Tlie tuniieric, owiuu; to the action of the ?ult and alkali u^
sent witli it in the annatto, is generally much chanee'I ; ni
colouring mnttor of thf >"ell:i) is discliargwi, so tbat~ i\\-- ■ in 'i
pnscles fonfaincii williin them become visible ; loose st^p h •. : i t
turmeric mav also he frpijuenlly seen presentinjr their usual ii- a:! ■
except that they nre much increasea in size in eonscf^ucnt..
action of the alkali upon tlieni. Fig. 178.

The L*hiu*acters of turMitric powder will be found Ue9onbe, 2-W. and rf
snjjn star<-li at p. 1124.

Tlic presence «>f most of the inorganic adulterotioi^t is in many cwm
sufficiently manifest by the appeiinnoe, woijilit, and taste of tJM^idL
Thu*i the weight of the ash pencrally »*'rves to show the prv*?tn*«f
sulphrite find cjirhoniite of lime; the colour, the pcesono** <if thr ii4
earths ; and the taste, the salt and alkali : the pro!>encv of salt can iodeol
generally be ascertoinc'd by the tafieof thennnatto luelf. SountJMHb
however, a cpiantitativc cxtiniination is reiiuired.

The inorganic substances for which annatto has to l>« tested dKB^
callv are sulphate and carbitnate of lime ^ carbonate ofpobuA, eUondf^
tttdium, red ferrugino^us earths^ Uad^ and copper.

As several of the^te substances sometimes occur in the aatoe tailitafc
we;Hh:ill not deju*ribe the prnce»ses for the detection of eAcb a^
substances met with separately, but in the form of s coralNrf
analysis.

Incinerate 100 grains of the annatto. \reighthcash,puIrerMr;lt«t
with about half an ounce of distilled water : thi$ will separattti*
chloride of sodium and the curbonnte ofso^la or potash, «}i>*ul<l eiikf
of these be present; and the quantities of which maj be nlimaM ^
follows : —

Divide the solution Into two parts : precipitate from rmclhetWaflM
of the salt by means nf nitrate of silver^ and calculate tJie eU«if^
of silver fortiiod into cltloride of sodium. Evaporate ilie olbcrpori*
of the solution nearly to dryness, treat with a little hydnocWonc ari^
dilute with a small quantity of water, and proceed in the wiiiiaM*
nf the carbonate of soda or |)otaah in the manner indicated in tfe ^^
cle on Turmeric,

Boil the portion of the ash insoluble in water in a« amaU a qatfi?

AXXATTO, AND ITS ADCLTEnATIONS.

^7B

na possible of pure but dilute nitro-hydrochloric acul : dilute with
wutor, filter ; weigh ihi; resiilu),* insoluble in the ucid-i^ and deduct it

r/g. in.

lift, ■Ur«li i)rkiitili-t ; c r, Mill u( ittmieHc t >i i^ t*** lUticli fruiolw af

from the gron weight of the uh : it will consist of silica, sand, and
some unburned eurbon.

Divide the solution into two parts from one ; throw down the sul-
phuric icid, if present, bv meni^s of nitrate of bnryta ; collect, wash,
i^nitf, und weigh : from the otiier precipitnte the lime with oxalate
of ammonia: culeulate the sulphurit* ucid into sulphate of lime : if
there in any exceu of lime, ctdculale it into carbonate of lime.

We have now only to estimHte the alumina and iron, Uad^ and

For the determination of these it U he«t to oftcralc upon anothnr
portion of ash : diMolve with heat in diitit& nitric acid, evapornle nearly
to drynew, dilute with water, and divide the solution into two
portions.

Katiinate the iron and alumina in one portion, wparating them from
the phosphates iu the manner directed under the article Chicory at
p. U9.

476

ANXATTO, AKD ITS ADULTEUATIOXS.

In tlm other, estimate the copper mnd lead qtuiiiiubnlj m
follows: —

Si:j>iir;iti.' the lead from the copper b)" menus of pure dilute «u){iiartf
anid, adiii^d in tiliglit excess : tlic preei|Utnto inu»t be washed fint tn^
water acidulated with laulphuric acid, and finnlly with spiritAorvtM;
dr^', ignite, and weigh.

Akkatto •duluntad villi rj/tJhiM: H^nlftcd as dUmettn

Precipitnte the copper hy means of xtilphurotted hjdroj^
dry, wer^^li. and calculate into the sulphate.

Or t\w following process may bo adopted for the Bcparation rf tU
lead: — Mix the concentrated nitric acid solution with h\ '■
in excem ; odd u larpe quantity of absolute alcohol m
ether ; let the precipitate su)>eide, lilter the fluid otT^ w
tate with alcohol and ether, dry it, and expose it to a -

»j>-

The folli»winjE process for detectinjr and e5timatin<: tiUMUi^.-
tities of oxide nt'cojipiT, in hy Mr. Warinjxton : —

*'Thi8 operation depend:* uiMin the solubility of the fermcyiBiib 1^
copper in an excess of a solution of ammonia, and lu deposiDM «ilk
its well-marked characteristic appearances as the amiaonia cnfiirilv

CHEFSE, AXD ITS ADULTERATIONS.

477

Thus, siippoiiin^ n frequently occurring: case, where the oxiilc nf
coppLT* in vavy small fjuiinlity, is in soliitinn with oxide of ircm, nnd
tlmt tbi'sc mijtali^ have ^iwn brought to thfir hir«h^*8t stiile uf uxidutioii ;
ammoiii:i is next ailJeil in excess, and then a («« "Irnpt nf n solution
of the feiToeynnitle of potassium, and the wliolt? thrown u|ion a filter.
As the iimmoniii escapes from the filtrate bv standinir, and free ex-
posure to the air, the red ferrocyanide of c<»ppor will he deposited,
and if the oxperiraent be made in a shallow white poroeliun dish, the
result will be very dlstinet and characteristic, and on earci'uHy de-
canting the fluid, will be fount! on th-jwhite fiirface. In many cases,
the process of filtration may be dispensed with nltojjelher, us the sus-
pended peroxide of iron dne« not in the lea.^t intt?rfifre wirh the de-
pnsition of the ferr'icvniiide of copper from the solution. I have found
this test ^ire «nerrin«( iiidirations incases where no trare of blue
colour could be dwtin;zulsbed in the amraoniacal solution, and where
no precipitation could t>c procured by hydrosulphurie acid gaa or the
action of a voltaic circuit.

" When organic colouring matter is present, this form of lest is also
very useful, as in vinegars, &c.*'

Aunutto iit free of dutr on importation. Quantities imported in
1854, 4,371 cwts.. value 2\4\hL; in IH55, '2.9CC cwts., value 14,765/.

Further parliculurs in regard to (he adulteration of unnHftowill be
found in the author's pAi>er published in the "PhnrnmccuticalJourDal **
for January, 185^.

CHEESE, AXD ITS ADULTERATIONS.

CuBESH consists of the curd of milk, freed from whey to a certain
extent, and ripened by keeping.

The curd is usually precipitated from milk by means of a srlution
of rennet, which in prepared from the dried stomach of the calf and
sometimes the pig.

It may be precipitated by means of acids, but tbeae are rarely if
ever employed in this country in the mnking of cheese ; n!s*i by
several other substances, as pure cunl, old chefse, the nutiiral fluids of
tlie stomach, the first extract of malt and sour leaven. Professor Jnhn-
atun particularly recommends trials to be mnde of the pure prepared
curd :— •* If," he remarks, " we are able to rescue the umnutncture of
rennet out of the my«terio«s nnd empirical handi^of the skilled dniry-
niiiid, and by the us« of a simple, abundant, eonily prepared, and pure

479

CHEESE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

rennetf can command at once a ready conflation of ih^ milk^ and a
curd naturally Bwcett or of a flavour which wo had foreseen untl com-
mended, we slioultl have made a considerable step towardii the pcr-
fuftion (»f the art of cheese making.'**

Curd forreiiJiet may be prepared in the fuUowing manner : — " Heat
a ijuanlity of milk which has stood for five or six hours, let it coul«
nnd separate the cream cuinpli^tely. Add now to the milk a little
vinegar, and heat it pentlv. The whole will coagulate, and the curd
will separate. Pour off tlie whey, and wa^sh the curd well by knead-
ing it with repealed portions of water. When pressed and dried,
thitt win be casoin sufficiently pure for ordinary ptirposes. It may be
made still more pure by dissolving it in a weak solution of carbonate
of soda^ ullowinir the solution to stand for twelve hours in a shallow
voself fcparuting any cream that may rise to the mrfuce, again
throwing down the nird by vinegar, washing it frequently, and occa-
sioniilly boiling It with pure water. By repeating the process three
or four tiinL's it may be ubtuin^jd almost entirely I'rec from the fattv
antl salittc tuatter? of the milk." f

The following is the modus ofwratidi of rennet : it promotes tbe
convi>i*!>ion of the sngnr of milk iintn luetic acid, which, acting Uke
other ucids, occasions the precipitation of the curd.

It has been objected to rennet that by it a readily fermentable
and decomposable substance i.s introduced into the cheese, frequently
causing it to pa<i8 into a state of dccomtHisition.

It has been also objected to rennet that tiic stomachs from which it
U prepared arc often in a dirty aud more or less decayed condition,
and that the strength of the rennet made is very uncertain.

In order to obviate these latter ubjcctiotti^ the preparation of a solu-
tion of rennet, of btandard and ascertained strength, has been sug-
gested; s-.ilt-, saltpetre, and such other additions being made to it as
would ensure its preservation. Such a solution would appear to pos-
sess several advantages.

The profjoriions of caseinc and butter tn cheese vary with the kind
of milk from which the cheese is made ; thus »kim milk cheese is much
poorer in butter than other cheeses made from vhole milA.

Cheshire cheese is of course miide from whole niilk ; Stilton from
cream ; while cream cheese consists of the fresh cuni uf whole milk.

The salting of cheese may be effected in sevend ways ; the salt
may be added direct to the fro.ih curd, and this is the metlioil usually
practised in Scotland ; or the newly made cheese may be intmerse<l in
a solution of brine; or the surface may be rubbed with dry salt —
theae ntelhods are practised in Cheshire ; or, lastly, the salt may l>e
-Nlded to the milk previous to the precipitation of the curd. Br this

ethod the curd 1:1 very equally salted, but the quantity of salt

* jAhnitoii'i LfCturn mi Airrleiilturil Clirmiilry. Xnd edit. p. MV.

t Triuuictuiai of tbe HighUDil AsrictillufAl Sucidjr. Jiil|r, IM7, pi SB,

CHEESE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

required is very largCf the greater part of it being retained in the
whey.

On the ADULTBRilTIOllS OF ClIEESB.

We referred In the preceding article to the practice of colouring
cheese withiinmi//o, — a practice which we have shown lo be useless, to
entail seme unnecessary expense, und, in consequence of tlic a<iullera-
tion of annatin with injurious substances, to be Httonded in some cases
with rink to health.

Oilier colouring matters are, however, sometimes employed for the
same purpose as annatto; n^mvh% maji^oiU Jiitwers^ ifij/ry«, and the
juice of red tarroU ; but most of the puler coloured and all the high
cotoured chevses derive the whole of tlieir colour from anuatto. Std-
ton and Cheddar cheest? arc never coloured in any way.

It may l>e objected to the wlinle of theae substances that their em-
plnyment serves no useful purpo.se.

Various articles are likewise added to cheese to flavour it, and to
impitrt u preen or divemifie*! coUnir,

•*ln some dairie5, the leaves of sage, parsley, and other Iierbs, are
infutted intn eheesie to pive it a green colour. In other datrie:* part of
the curd, when ready lor the prei*8, is expfH'cd in a sieve to the air, in
onler that it miiy l>ecome oxyjjenateil, and may render the cheese,
into which it is mixed with newly preparefl cunl, of a diversiBed
c«)lour, ari<i of a disposition lo run speedily into putridity. In a few
dairie:i rapid putridity is induced by iin intermixture of beaten pota-
toes. In Koss-shire, cheeses are for teveral days buried within sea-
mark, in order that they may aoouire a blue colour and a peculiar
itisie; ttod in France, a considerauitt quantity of cheese receives an
olFensivc smell, resembling that of a pigatye, from the intermixture
of fenugreek."*

Cheese ia made from pntatoi^s in Thurin^ia and Saxony, in this
manner: — "After having colletTted a quantity of potatne.H of good
quality, giving ihc preference to a large white kind, they are boiled in
a cauldron, and after becoming cool, tney are peeled and reduced to
a pulp, either by means of a graler or mortar. To five pounds of this
pulp, which onght to be as cijual as pcisttible, ia adJed one [>ound of sour
milk, and the necessary quantity of salt. The whole m kneaded
together, and the mixture covered up and allowed to lie for three or
four days according to the season. At the end nf this tone it is
kneaded anew, and the cheeses are plared in little baskets, when
the superfluous moisture escapes. They are then allowed to
dry in tlie sbarle, and placed in layers in larpe vessels, where they
must renniln fur fifteen days. The oliier these cheeses are, the more
their quality improves. Three kinds of them are made. The first,
which is the most commoni is made according to the proportions just

• Rural Cyelopadla, pwt tr. p. TTA. art. ChflcH.

«0 CHEESE, AND ITS ADULTERATIOX6.

•riven ; the second, with four parts of potntocs jui<l iwo pvU^T ar-j
dle<l milk ; tlie fKinl, with two part* or potatoos nml four pulitfi:
or ewe milk. Thesu cheeses hnve this a(lvanta<:e nrrr olber Uaii^J
that they do not engender worms, and keep fresh for a nvoAtft
years, proviiled ihey are placed in a dry situation and in
vessels." •

Results of the Examination of Samples,

Tu-enhj samplejt of cheese were subjcotod to analysts with ibe W'
lowin*: n'sulls ; '—

All were artiJicittVif coloured^ in most coses with anwiUo.

Ih none was lead present.

Secernl were coloured, on the outride with Veuetitut rtd oc rtd£t
pround u]) into a paste \r\t\i grease.

In none of the clieeses tras any guhsiauce^ either organic or watfd
prt'setit^ iidded for the purpose of increasing the buuc and wei-bt fl/
I he cheese.

lliei'e results arc so far satisfactory, especially as respfKrU lead.

It must not be concluded, hovrerer, from the results of iheic twetfv
examinatiouN that lead derived from the adulterated annaitornpbfM
to colour the chi>e£e is never present If it occur only in one hi^
out of u hundred, much mischief would result in some caaes.

That it does sometimes occur in both annatto and chcc9« b (rmvA
by the evidence of Acrnm and Mitchell.

Accum, at pa;r« 27fi^ of hia " Treatise," afhrms (hat ieTioI !»■
stances had come under Itis knowlt^Ijie in which dhHu-eJier <i«a»
had been contaminated with red lead, and had proiluced M-riovx^^
sequences on being taken into the stonuich. In some of xhtxaa^
it w.is uscertained tl^if the annatto which hiMl been u^ed tu <(3JMr
the cheese was il»etf culoured or adulterated with both Tcriai&oni*'
red lend. See p. 471.

Mitchell wriLeSf " I have only met with cheese that contaJneJ
on one occasion, although it may be com|»arnlively coninton."

The praciii'e of coating cheese with Venetian re>l and rwHIf »•
niore objortionable thitn the use of adulterated unnattc^ sine
this contain lead in any cnsc, and fiince some |x;mons arr ibif
enough to eat the rind, the t]uaulity of that metal comtuiaol «puU'
more considerable.

AIlluiu;rh cheese escapes for the most part the bands of ihr
lenitor. it rlm's n<>t escape the attacks of fungi, animilculrs
inseotJi; to Uk-sc it is particularly prone, id consequenve oTtti lKni|<
very rich in nitrogen.

Th" prten colour of mouldy cheese is dnc to the dcvclopmcBt a , the common Penicilium gtantum*

« Quitrtrr^ Journal of Airlculiorr toL Ix. p. SIO. i Book of tbe Fwa, |art & f^ '

CHEESE, AND ITS ADrLTERATIONS.

4at

motiMiness may be produced in coraparutirely nev cheese bjr
(ion.

is sometimes eflet^ted by inserting inW (be new cbei-se rolls of
tlieese, extracted by the scm^p, inlo holes jireviou>ly made by
le scniip.

ituiil that liir*re pin« are often thruHt into checso.*, and al-
to rt'inain in tiiem for u comtidernble lime in onler to pro-
lie miiuldinesis. This is ii verv objeetionnble proteedin^', as in
the colour h due |»artlr to the formation of a 9iilt of copper,
'^nrtly in •umie cases lo the development of the Ciin^ufj. which
place in consequence of llic ndiniasiun of uir into the interior fif
fie eheesi".

At a still further period of deeay chrew is attacked by the well
Icnown ch«'(»»e mile oracarufi, Acarta sin* nf Linnseu?, iind which is »o
minll ihnt it is scarcely perceptible without the aid (if ihe niicro^ope;
thf dry tiuil funetierj/ parts of cheege ronsint almont entirply of ihexe
ftcuri and their oca in different tttufjes of ^owth. Fig. 1 ^0.

'* We nftni wonder how the ehee»tt uilte \t at hand to attack a
ohee*e wherever depnsitetl ; hut «hen we Icarn frnni I,oc'wenhoe'c that
one livotl eleven week? giinuiifd im ils biwk lo tin' fmint of a needle
irithoui fooil, our wondtT i" dlniini.«heil." remark Klil»y :ind Spence.
Botli tiiese chi-ene ni:i^<;nl!* :ihd miti'fl, when nimn-'roii«, deslrnv cheese
rapidly, by crumbtini; it into ftniult pIcv'S und by emitting a liquid
suh.srunt-o. which cTiuses the decayed parts to sprcu-i speedily. They
may ewily be killed, however, by ex[K)-ure to dtroog bent, or by
plungin;; the cheese in 'ouie litpiiil, huch a* whii'key, cuprihle of
de^ftroving the hirrae without communicating any disagreeable fla-
vour.*

He.iide3 the casualties from fennentntinn, chroe. when yet qtiile
fretih, i» Kubjevt to the attack of the chceseily {Pwphila coAri). 'Ilic
fly is reailr to deposit its r^i'9 in the dt-epest cr^ck it ctin tiiid. by
ni<*ans vt' un cxleiisile ubdominal tube. The f^pecilic distinguishing
chiirot-ters of this insect, as dniwn up l>y Mr. Duncan, are a;! fnlhiw :
— "About tw{» lines in Icng^lh, the whole body nt' a "reenitih-blai'k
cohiur, smooth and fhininz; front itf the head reddi.-«h<ycllow, niiler
yellow on the untler side. Thij»lis oihre-yeUow at the base and n]*x ;
tibia dei-p ochre, the (irt^i and la.«t pair black at ihe i)[>ex : anterior
tar!!t bla'^k, the others ocbrey. with the two Ia>it joints and the clawa
black; wings clear and iri'lescent, t^bghlly tinged with rust c<»lour nl
the b:i5e, halteres (n'hrcy."t

The cheese raacgots produced frnm this fly ore nt larpe as the flv,
and roihtuonly railed jiirw/vr*. "When this mapaot prcpures to Icaji,
it fir-'t erects itself on its anus, and then bemling tt.'<t:lf into a circle,

• Book of n»» TmrTa, pun M. p. »«

t Klrb} anit fit«»f^** lotroduct|<tt> to Bntomglufjr, vot. II. p. Hi,
1 1

CHEESE, AND ITS ADULTERATIOXSU

frivrn ; the rarond, with four parts of potatoes and two pmrU af «r-
illwl milk : the tliinl, with two pnrla nrpoialoes and four parts of cov
or I'wo milk. Thc!>o clieeses Imvo thin iidvmnta^e over ocker
llmi thi'v iirt mn onj^umior worms nml koep frosh for a m
vctirs pn>viilcd thuv are placed in a drj situation and in w<

R^Mnlfi of the Kxaminaiion nf Sampler*

Tn-fnty utrnplfn of cbeuse were subjtiottid to anaj^'sis with the
Kmins rt'Hiill* : —

AU were artificiaUy calaunHi, in most cases with annatio.

/■ iHiii* WM i0tid |»r«sent

Sevtmt tfVM eiAmrtd^ on the outside with TViiWiau red or rW^
Itrtuind up initt a |>ii«tc with greane.

in utme ot thr rhcoHcs ifviii any fmbKtanee^ either orvanic or miW^.
prttrnt, iidiUnl for ibo purpose of increasing the bulk and weight oi
(h*» rht'o»o.

'riK'Bi' ti'sults Bto so far enlisfactonr, especially as respects leatt

li ntit^it ititt lio cttnt-liidiM], however, from the results of these lw?ntt
i>xiuiMii»liitnA, that loud derived from ihe ndulteraletl annacto t^inplorril
toooloiir thn rlnvsii is never present. If it occur only in one sample
out of 11 IninilriMl, mueh misfhief would rcpiilt in some cases.

Thnt it <lm»s .<omi*timeK occur in botli nnnatto and checfie is prored
by lb>* eviilcnei^ of A<M-um and Mitt-liel].

At'i'um, Ht piij;u 27r>. ("f bis " Treatise/* affirms tliat several I'n-
Klrtni'OH bml oomu iiiuler bis know]L'i|>;e in which Gloucester cheo<
buit been cuhliiminnlcil witli rcil Icml, ami hail pro»luce<l sprious coo-
•ftpiohci'ii im Ik'IU^ l«kon irili* ibc «ii»i[iiirb. In ^ume of iliesc esse*
It wii!« rt(»ccrt»incil lli/ir the nnuiUto ivliicb luul been uned u> colour
tlio cbocni" w»a itsi'lf coloured or uduUeruted with both vcrmUwa »""
I'ihI liMtl. Sec p. 471. . I

Mitchell writeis " I buve only met with cheese that contained r«u
on one otvimion, itllbouffh it may be cmjiaratively connnon- _

Tb<! pnu'ti.^o of coulinp cbecse with Venetian red ond rod<Ile is t si^
uioiv olyectioniiblc tluui the use of adulterated imntilln, m
thinonntain lend in any cft»e. and since some P*^''""* ,*f^* ,
enouith lo oat the rind, the quantity of that wet'
U(oro eoiiKitleralile.

Althmiuli cbccdf escapes for the most part uif-
tiM'nlor. il 'locii nut escape llie attacks of
ihSLHiti; It* these it is puriioularly prone, in oOl
vorv rich in nitrogen-

'thi* «i'»ou eobmc of montdy cheese is dij
swrII piodueiion or funpus, the common P0^

• (^ULrtsrli JowrnsI of Afrlculmw. toI. ix. p. 3io. j

414 COLOUBED SL'GAR CONFECTIONEBT.

che«.*9e is coatetl with Yenctiim red, this ahould be aeparulelj examini
tvr Ictttl.

The general method of prooec»din(i ia as I'nllows: — About 500 grains
nf the cheese aboiiM be inrinoraleci, and the uah tested for lead and
iron as directed under the head of Annatio, &c.

Iiiipuri duty, t2jf. ad. per owl. ^ fVoui Briii&h possessions* It. 6</. per
cwt.

[niporU taken fur home coiisiirniJtion in 1«54, 390,220 cwl». ; in
\H55, 38t,'2tf>J cwts. ; in nine months of UoG, 275,014 cwt«.

COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTIONERY.

The aJulteration of ai'ticlcB of sugar eonfcetionery is a Bubject of (he
ver^ greiittist importaneu in a tiaiiitar^r point of view : that it must be
»o IB evident when we i.'uii:iiJt;i' the potsoiiotis cliaractvr of tuanr of
the liubsianccs used, and also the hir-^e eousuiupCion of the»« articles
especially by cliildrcn and youn^ persons.

That thfsc nrtioles are subject to vros.-t ami injurintis ailidlorutioa
haa long been knonn, and tlie siibjret in purtieulurly referri'il tii even by
Aceum and other early writers on udultenitions. Dr. 0'Shau<*:hno»sy,
in the preface to n pa(>er on cuhiured sugar confectionery, published
in the '• Lancet/' in 1»3.*), mukea tlie»e remarks : —

*' In tbe lollowing observuiions it is my principal aim to lay before
the public and the medical profession a culm, d)t>pa5Monatc statement
of the existence of various poisons (ifatnboge, lead, copper, niert-ury,
and chrouiuti' of leaii) in :*everal articles of confectionery, tbe prepH*
ration of which, from their pf'culinr attractions to the younger
branches of the community, has grown into a sepurate and niosi ex-
tensive branch of manufacture. I am fully aware of the ha2urdous
task that individual undertakes who veutures in this countiy lo sig-
naliso such abuses."

U» TU£ Al>Ul.TEBAT10N6 OF SuGAK CoKFfiCTlOKKBT.

Of all the chief varieties of articles of sugar confectioner/, wo
subjected no less than 101 samples to both microscopical and chemical
examination.

From an examination of this extensive series of analyses of co-
loured sugar confectionery, it ap|>ears —

COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTIONERY. 465

That the principftl colours employe*! are yellows, reds, including
pink and scarlet, browna, purples, blues, and grceiu.

Of ihe yellows —
That Seven were coloured with lemom chrome, or the pale variety

of CHROMATE OV LEAD.

Thrtl I'^ire wi-rc enloupwl with oRAHGit ciiROMR, or the deep variety

of CHROMATH OF LEAD.

That Forty-teven were coloured with the bright or canary -coloured
variety of chhomatr or lkad.

Thil Eleven of the «:uiiple*( were t-olntimd with nAMnoOK.

While the colour of the tiiajority of the above samples wus confined
to the surface, in many eases it was diffused equally throughout the
whole maaa of the sugar used.

Ofthereda—

That Sitty'one were coloured with organic pink colouring matters,

c(iusiittin>r ill most, cuses of Coccus C'ttcti, or cochineal.
That in Ticelce of the samples thu colouring matter was red lead,

BED OXWh ur LKAD, Or MIMUM.

That in Six cases the c(4ouring ingredient consisted of vermilion,
cimharar or nisULPiiCRcr or mf.rcury.

Of the browns —

Thfli Eight were coloured with brown fermginoxut earths^ either
Vandyke brown^ Vmber^ or Sienna.

or the purples —

That two samples were coloured with a mixture of Antwerp bluet
which cnnsisis principally of Prtissiaii blue, and an organic red
pigment, most probably cochineal.

Of the blues —

Thut One was cf>Iouret| with indigo.

That Eteoen were coloured with PruMtian hlue^ or ferrocyaiude of

iron.
That Eterrn were coloured with Antwerp blue, which is a modi6ca-

tinn of Pnutsian blue
Thftt in Fifteen ^uiiples the colouring matter consisted of Grrvan

oa ARTIFICIAL ULTRAMARINE, which is a doublc silicaie of alu-
^ mina uid soda with aulphuret of sodium.

r of the gret^ns —

a Thtit Five Mmpie4 were coloure*! with the pale variety of Brdsis'

^^L WICK ORaix.

^^B Thar Four were cotoiire<l with middle BacrnswicK orrrh.

^^B That One was coloured with the deep variety of Bruxswick grebii.

^^1 1 1

■ : J

48ft COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTlONEBr.

These greens consist nf a n)ixturt\ in diflferent proportions, of the
OUOMATSS or LEAD and Prmuan hlue.

That one sample wu coloured with vbrditrr or CjLBbohatb or

COPPKl.

That Nine were coloured with Schbelb's gbebn, bmbbald gbbbk,

or ABSEMTE OF COri'KB.

That in Fuur of the samples, the oulourfl used were painted on with
MujTK i^Ai> or cABBOMAT£ OP LKAU. Tliis WAS thc CBse In all
tlie cake oruaments.

It further appears from the above analyiieb —

Tbat Thirteen nf the samples were ailulterated with hydrtUed svl-

phtite of timet ^be (piantity varying from +"3 to 43 66 per cont.
That TwetUtf-one of the samples weru adulterated with did'erent

kinds of Fimir^ in quantities varytnfr from I'G6 to2o^6 per cent.

In .Seventeen samples the farina ronsisted of wheat Jlour ; in Three,

of potato Jhiur, and in One, of Eajit India arrowroot.

The above colours were variously combined in liitlerenl cases; aa
many as three, four, five, six, und even seven eohmrs, occurring in Uie
Mme parcel of confectionery, including three and even four poisons.

The following specimens are of this kind : —

SHgar Seedg.

The colours of one sample of sugar seeds were crimson^ pitle pinJt^
iif^ht blue^ dull greenish-blue^ ^g^tt groM-preen, orttnge-t/ellow^ and
UmoH-yell*tw^ intermixed with while globules. The colouring ingre-
dients employed were : for the crimson and pink, the usual fu)n-metaUic
red : for the blue, Antwerp blue ; for tlie dull ;;reeuish-bhie, vRRuiTk-R,
containing lead; for the grnss-grcen, vw.v. Hki'nswiok ckkcx; and
for the orange and bright yellows, the Dninge and yullow curouatks
OP LRAD, in large ijunniity. A.th^ light reddish-brown, rO€ percent.;
matter insoluble in wnter, chiefly wheat Jiour^ 9"00 per wnt.

Thus no le>s than three active poisons conluining leai> and coPFEft
vere presrut in this r^ample in considerable amount.

T)og ami Hare.

The nr>!<e and ears of the dog, and the tongue of the hnre, are co-
loured bright red with vkrmiuon. The body of the dcg is spittted
with large patches of gambook and burnt nmber^ ns also was the figure
of the hare whifh lay at its feet; while the green pigmetU on the base, of
which there wa* a very large f|uantlly. contained chbomatb or LBAO,
and consisted of the pale variety of Bbukswicr OBBETf. Aah^ dBrk
reddish-brown, 2*0 per cent.

COLOLflED SUGAR CONFECTtONEBr.

487

Mixed Sugar OmamenlM.
The confectionery in tliid parcel i« made up ioto a variety of formr*
and devices as hatii, ju;;fs ba.-«kt'U, and dishes of fruit and vegetable:!.
One of the hat5 is colourLMl vellnw vriih chromatb or lead, and htut
a green hatlmnd around it coloured with arsbnite or copper; a
second hiit is white, with a blue hathaml. the pigment being Prussian
line. The baskets are colouri;d yellow with chromate of lead; into
the colouring oftiie |iears and peaches tlie usual mm-meiaUic red pig'
ment, chbomaxe of keao, and miiidlb Hku.nswick. grbe:*, enter
largely; while the carrots represented in a iliah are coloured through-
out with KEU OXIDE or LBAD, and the tops with the same green. This
ia one of the worst of all the samples of coloureii 8u;2ftr ronfeotiom-ry
:4ubiuitlcd to analysis, as it contains no less than /tjur tUadly fMigoru.

Twelfth Cake OmamenU.

7^e ornaments in this parcel consist of u sliip in full sail, a duck, a
fox, and a bunch of flowers, the principal colnurs beiti^ green, yellow,
red. and brown ; the chief pigutents employed iirc ciibomate or lead,

RED OXIDE or LEAD Or BED LEAD, VBBMILION, ll>nru2, Aud ABSENITE OP

COPPER : these being present in poisonous quantity.

It will be observed that the list of colouring matters above enume-
rated includes some substances of an injurioiLH character, and many
which are amongst the uitrnt virulent uud deadly of the uiineml |>oi-
sons. Of those which may l>e considered w* more or less in jurioui,
are Ftrrocyanide of iron or Prussian blufy Aidwerp bltte^ QkHWiGK,
and Oermau or artijicial ultramarine, Araong»t those which are
deadly and poi:«onoufl, are — the thr^c ciinoMB teli^ws or ciiROMATfta
or lead; bei> lead or red oxids or lead; wuirs lead or caB'
BORATE or lead; vebmiuoh or disdlphubet or mbbcdbt; the
three Brunswick gbkbks; vebditeb or cardonate or loppke;

and EMERALD GREKN, ScIIKKLb's UREE?(, ur ARSEMITE OP COPPER.

Other articles whicb have l>een stilted to l>e ucM^l in the colouring
of su;rar confectionery, and most of which we have ourselves detected,
are ciai/y rhdk^ Naples ycUow ftr gulphuret of artewcuyH^ massicot or
oxide of Itatl^ aeetaie and oxichiarifle of copper.

It may be alleged by S4)me that these siilmtances are employed in
quantities ttio inconsiderable to prove injurious ; but this is certainly
not so, fur the quantity u&ed, as is uiiiply iiidicuteil in many easex by
the eye alone, is often very lurge, and aulficieiit, un is proved by num-
berless roeordei] and eontinuulty occurring instances, to ocL*a9iuu
disi^aMe, and even <leath. It should be remembered, too, th«t th« pre-
parations of lead, nierciirv, copf^H-r, and arsenic, are what are termed
cumulative — that is, th*>y are liiible to accumulate in the system little
by little, until at length the full cHVcts of the poisons beoouie inani*

1 1 ■<

«86

COLOURED SUCAR CONFFXTIONKHT,

f'ested. Injurious consequences liave been known to result fVora
merely rooisteniny; wafers with the toii'jue; now the inprecJtent* us^t]
Ibrvfuouring theao include rnnny that are eniploved in sngiir confec-
tionery ; hiiw iiiurh more iiijiiriouB then must the eonsumption of
BUjrar thus paintnd |»ro%-e, wben these pigmeiita are actually rcceirnl
into the stomach!

That deadly priiiiHtns, like tlte above, fiboiild be daily u«c(] for the
mere sake of imparting colour (n articles of such ^nernl cnn^uoiptimi
as ai^ar conl'eftionery — articles consumcil chielly by chiMrrn, whn
from their delicnte or'.Mnisntiori are much more 5ascc]»riMe than
adults — is l>«)th surpnyin;; and lumentablti. It is »ur|irUinj;, on the
one hand, thiif the iiianufmtururs of thi'se artick'S shoiihl be so reck-
less as to ein[>loy IIilmij ; and, on tlie other, that tbe uuthoritiea sbould
tolerate their u^e.

Dr. ThonisfMi furnished the Pnrlianicntflrv ComtnUlee on Adul-
teration with the following particulars regarding; the udnlieratjou of
BU^'ar confectinnery with (trrrn allnt L\r sulphate of lime: —

**I procure)] Iromair^^ut munuCactory of those cuhstane^a specimeiM
at 'UffLTcut prices. There were ulxmt Ion different huniple^. uf which
I litivt: li)C delailii here; I wdl Bri^t speak of what are culled niint^s at
Id. a p<niiid ; they contained 3*0.'J |K;r cent, of a Ruh»tanre which i«
sold under the name of terra allin. This terra allia 1 fnond lo be
piaster of Paris. The ettM-nnd sample, nt H45. per cwt., oonliiiucd iO-M
per eenf. of terra alba. The third was carroways, at .V/. a pf>iind, imd
contained 27*8"2 of terra alha. The fourth, another p[K»einien of car-
roways, at ftrf. a pound, containetl 19'2*2 per cent, of terra alba. The
dixth, almonds at lOr/. a pound, contained "90 per cent, id' tt-rrn a.tba.
The seventh, another siimple, :it ftrf. a poutrd, containetl 7"02 jier rent,
of terra alba. The eighth sample, at Hd-, coiitiiitifd 'i'2 76 of terra
allm. U:i»pt»errieA, at \)d. a pound, contuined 7'76 of terra alba. Straw-
berries, ai \kl. a jKkund, contained 8*:*8 per cent, of lerru alba.

Mr. Guy states, in the course of his evidence before the Committee
on Adulteration: —

" I believe many articles of confectionery are adulterated ; 1 thmk
carraway comfits are very extensively aduiteratett, and aUo many nf
the peppt^rniint lozengus. I believe the ha-iis of both (hi'se and cori-
ander and almond nnntits are flour ; after the seeils are put into the
pan, a tittle syrup is thrown over them, ami that is dusted over with
eitlier (lour or whiting, or plaster of Paris ; a pretty stron« coat is put
.upon them in this way^ and then tliey are linished with a stronger and
belter syrup."

White lend used in sugar cake ornaments is itself often estenstrely
adidtcratcd with sulphate of barytes.

Further, immy articles of suirnr confectionery are flavoured with
•* essences," which are often of iin injurious and even dangerous cha-
rauter^ souieof theiu containing prussic acid and fusil oil.

COLOUIIED SUGAR CONFECTIONERY,

4S9

In reference (o the use of these csftenci*!*, much information will be
fniind in the evidence given before ibc Parliamentary Cominiltee on
Ailulterution.

Amongst the essences ustKl lo flnvour sweet confectionery, are some
prepi»rc»i from oil of grain or fusil oil. Pineapple drupB are said to
otre tbeir llavuur to an essence prepared front that deleterious
substance.

Other cnrnpouniln prepared from fusil oil are made to iniitate the
flavour of Jiirgnnelle pears and ribatone pippins. " I have heard,"
states Professor Taylor, " that some oF the Jar^ionelle pear drops and
ibe ribstonc pippin drops have produced drowsiness and stupor in
ehddrQii. It is iin inipn->ition on the public to sell in this vray a ehe-
luicutly tlavourod sub>tance under another name."

A very fragrant fruity espenee may be proiUiced from rotten cheese,
by treatment with ;>ulphuric acid and bichromate nf potash.

Another essence extensively used for flavo;iring sweetiiKMits and
confectionery is rntifia, essential oil of alinnndt<, or essence of pench
kernels. It is obtnined by distilHtig bitter almond cuke with water,
nud it contains from six to twelve per cent, of prussic acid, but is
most variable in its strength. As small a quantity as twenty drops
lias l>een known to oecHsicm death.

There is another compound of prus^io acid, called " almond llavour :''
it coDtJiins about one drachm of the essential oil lo seven drachm^ of
apiril, but itd strength varies very much. Many fatal vases have re-
eulted from the use ot' this flavouring suVjstance.

The prussic acid in ihpjw preparations is not essential to their
flavour, iind might with a little care be readily separated, zo that, as
Pi'ofessor Taylor remarks in hts evidence before the Parliamentary
Committee on Adulieriuion, "there is no excuse for selling pruasic
aciti in the*e compounds but Uuincss and ignorance."

Lastly, the paprrs in which the ornaments are wrapped are usually
Colour(*il with vurioMx [»iM!tonou9 pigmenti, — a practice which ought to
be fi>rbidden, since chlhlrcn are very apt to put these papers in their
m jutlii ^i\*\ .inck them.

In some other eounirie?, us France, Belgium, and Switzerland, ma-
nufacturers of sugar confectionery have hmg l>cen furhiildcn to use
injurious colouring ingredients under severe penalties. Sellers of the^e
articles in Paris arc also obliged to put their nanie^ on every parcel of
confectionery they sidl; they are held responsible for all aceiilents
which may arise tVom their consumption, and they are even forbidden
to wrap the articles in coloured paper:}.

Following the example of the Council of Health of Paris, we now
furnish two lists, one of colours the use of which may be permitted,
ami the other, of those ctdours the employment of which should be
strictly pruhibitefl, on the ground that they are all more or les:f dan-
gerous to the public health, and mo*tt of them absolutely poisonous : —

490

COLOURED SnOAB OOMrEOTXOlTBAT.

Lift (/ CoU>ur$, Ou Use o/wki^
mag bepermitUd,

Ybillows.

HafTron.

Turmoric.

French berries.

Lake of ditto, or yellov lake.

Persian berries.

Lake of ditto.

Quercitron bark.

Lake of ditto,

Fiutic wood.

Lake of ditto.

Rbds.

Cochineal.
Lakes of ditto,
Carmine and
Brazil wood.
Lakes of ditto.
Fink madder luke.

Purples.
Madder purple.
Logwood and indigo.
An^ of the lakc^ with indigo or
litmus.

Txixovt.
Gamboge.
The t£ree dntme ydUnrt, or

chzomatee of lead.
Maaatoot, or protoxide of lend,
Tellow orfHmeat, or ■alplmret of

araenicum.
King's yellow, or avlpliiiret of

arsemoaoa, with lioM ud sol-

phur.
Iodide of lead.
Sulphuret of aatimoKj, or Keptoa

yellow.
Yellow ochre.

Rbds.

Red lead, minium, or red oxide
of lead.

Vermilion, or bisulphuret of mer-
cury.

Red orpiment, realgar, or biaol-
phuret of arsenic.

Iodide of mercury.

Ked ferruginous earths, as Vene-
tian red, &c.

Browhs.

Vandyke brown.
Umber.

All

PUBPLBS.

purples resulting from the

mi X ture of any of the prohibited
reds or blues.

Blubs.
Prussian blue, or ferrocyanide of

iron.

Iniligo.

Antwerp blue, a
Prussian blue.
Cobalt.

preparation of

COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTIONERY.

491

tut of Coiimr», the Uaf. ofychick ' LUt of OUmtrs, the Vie ofwhtch
may bt permitted. thould he prohibited.

bi.UK&

Indigo.
Litmus

Gbksxs.

Sip green (juice of Rhumnus ca-

tbnrticuft).
Yellow Iakt.% or French berriea

and indigo.
Any of the vegetfthle jellows, or

lakes, with indigo, including

Fenian berries and indigo.

Ob§. — Of the above colours
oaai Map ^tvcn, i» certAinly Ijiibli:
to injurious adultoratioo. mid it iit
•tated tbut Idmus is so likewise.

Blvcs — continued.

Sinutt, u ^liuu of cobnit.

Blue verditer, or scMiuicarbonate
of copper.

Uliraumrine, o double silicate of
aiuminn and soda, with aulphu-
|-«1 of sodium.

German or artificial ultramarine,
which resembles in its compo-
sition natural ultramarine-

Gbeehs.
The three false Brunswick greens,

being mixtures of the chro-

luatea of lead and indigo.
Mineral green, gi-een verditer, or

subcarbonatc of topper.
Verdigris, or diftcclate of copper.
Kmcrald green, or arseuite of

copper.
The true Brunswick greens, or

oxychloitdtis of cornier.
FaUe ver'litcr, or subsulpliate of

copper and chalk.

TuK VARioos Broncb Fowdees.

Gold, silver, and cooper bronzes ;
these consist of allovs, in differ-
ent proportions, of cupfier and
sine.

White leadf or carbonate of lead.

Bt an examinutitm of these lists, it will be perceived that nearly
all the substanre.i now L'lnploycd by rliu manuftctnrers of coloured
su^ar ciinloctinnery belong to the second or prohibited list. Kvcn the
first list conLains the narn>M of two or three colours, the use of which
is not wh(»lly free fnjoi objection, — av indijjo, liimus, and i^ap green ;
the two hitter in ctMise^juence *y^ their Itubilily to adulteration.
Genuine litmus, being a vegetable ciduur, is of uouise harmless ; but
ila use i<4 rendered ubjcetioimbtu from its being frequently adulter-
ated, according to M. Andral, with common arsenic and peroxide of
mercury.

From ultranuirine, in contact with an acid, sulphuretted hydrogea

49S

COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTIONERY.

is freely liberntcd ; anrl this liberation no doubt takes pUre r

in tlie atoinach wln-n any (.onfootionery colouretl hj ihis piguiciit it

partaken ol"; lient:e tin? use of this pigment is objectionable.

For oursL'ives, we alto;»etlier objut-t to the pi-actice of colourin;
tu'ticles of consumption of all kma» and descriptions: while it uivrel
fl^ratities the scn*e of sight, it serves to conceul other ailulrerations,
anil is attended in a variety of vriiya with the gro»t«t danger t
health. The danger arises, not merely from the wilful eiupluymon
of subsUnceH of Known hurtfulimss, but also from their use ihruu
ignuriiiiee uml accident. The excuse uf ignuriinee may tell suiu'^wha
in favour of ii)iiiiiiruciurfr.>t, wliu in aome caj>es may not be aware u
the deadly naltiru of the arUclea which they daily use, knowing them
only by their eominon or popular names.

Serious as the result* recorded in these analyses really are, we have
reason to believe timt, wjme years since, thin;;s were even warse, unci
that nothing was more common than to meet with articles of sugar
confectionery coloureit with verdigris or acetato of co[>per, with the
venliters or eurbonute^ of copper, and with mineral green or unenite
of copper, all of which :irc virulent poisons.

A few of the cases of poisoning resulting from the use nf coloured
sugar confectionery, will be found recorded in ^^ Food and its Adal
terations."

Ox THR DbTCCTION OP THE Anri^TERATIONS OP SlTOAm
CoxrKCTIOMEBT.

We will now proifeed to give some brief directions, which may
proi'e of assistance to others who may desire 10 analyse for themselves
•ny suspected samples ol coloured ccmfectionery. We sliall, however,
confine our directions chiefly to the detection of those substance*
which we htive ourselves discovered in the different samples subject
to exuniinatioii. From the liirge number of analyses which we bar
mwle, and the results of which we have already niailc known, Ih
pigments detected will embrace certainly iill the most important
those which are onllnarily employed in tlio cnlonriition of confec
lion cry.

Of the colours used, some arc stdiible in water, and others in-
soluble ; the former include nearly all the vegetable colours, and t
latter most of the mineral colour;!. In this piirticulur. therefore, the
U a brond distinction l>etween vegetable and mineral colouring m»
ters, which wilt be found very useful in guiding us in our snbscque
Operations.

In the miijority of cases there is but one eolonrin;/ mailer preseni
•nd this is u.-^uitUy confined to the surface of tlie various articles e
confectionery, while in other cases ditferent colours are ustil in the
same article. When the colour is confined to the surface, it ifl readilr
remoi'ed by washing in distilled water, from which, if mineral
aoluble, it will usually be precipitated after standing for some

I
I

COLQURED SUGAR CONFECTIOXERY,

405

And it may thenbcobtnincil in an almost unmrxed stale, and weighed.
When liie colour is Uiflusi'd throughout the whole nf the nrtiile, tiie
game cud can be accomplished by di»9olv)ug it in water; the supur
will be removed br the water, and (he eolouring roatler will subside.
But should the articlR contain f^tarch, or any other insoluble substance,
il, of course, goes down with the colouring mutter. When diirerent
colours occur in the same article, they must each be cut out wilh u
knife, and separately washed and teste*!.

In many cawa a shorter method of proceedinj; than the above may
be adopted. The confectionery, when it i» supposed to be coloured
with a Bxed metallic »alt, may be incinerated in a capsule, and the &a\i
tested.

Nearly all the pijfments used may be referred to one or other of
the Ibllowin;; colours', red, yeUou\ hhte^ ^«««i fcroim, and purple;
other tints occur, which are formed by various combinaiioos of the
primary cotours.

Vegetable and Animal Redt.

If the red or pink colourinn; matter be of ii vegftnhle nature, nr in-
deed if it consist of a solution of Ooecuji cacti tir corhiMfil, this may be
MCertained by simply immer^in;* Hmiill portions of the coloured comfit
or lozcn^'C, tbe one in a solution of cuui^tic potash, and the other in
acetic acid ; if it be a ve;»ctable colour, or the nnimid colouring matter
cochineal, it will become purijhsh in the alkaline, and brilliant red in
the acid solution. Ifihe coluur be not thus ntfected, then (here is
reamm to supp'vse thai it is a mineral colounnf^ matter, mot^t probably
either red lead or vermilion. Ina.tmuch as many red and pink
comtit-s &C., are coloured with non-metallic colouring matter, it is as
well to try them all in this way in the fir^st inntancc, and so save our-
selves the trouble of analysint; each for nieiallic pigments.

Mineral Heds. — The lead ofthf redaxide may be obtained either by
WAJihinrr or by incinerating the cuuifiid.

If we desire simply to ascertain whether tbe red pigment consist of
lead or not-, we have only to treat it with a drop or no of nitric acid,
and to add subsef]uently a little dilution of ^ulphuret of ammonium ;
these reugoiits may often be applied to tho pi;^minL upon the article
of su^ar confccCionery, bv which nioaii.'> we are enabled to ascer-
tain in n minute or so wliethcr the colouring matter consist of or
contain lead or not. We nuiy proceed in the same way to detect the
lead in umssicot, in the chromat^'S of lend, either pure or when
mixed with l*rus5ian blue,- as in the <)ilTerenl BruntiwicK greens, only
that in the raw of the ehromates und Bnmswick greens It U best to
use hydrochloric acid as a solvent for the lead.

We have stated that most of the mineral pij^ments may be procured
in a separate state by washing out the sugar. Having in this cose, bv
a preliminary trial aiicertained that the pigment we have to deal

COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTIOXERT.

with ronsuU of re<l lead, we have nolfaing more to <lo than to dry
And Wfigh it in order to determine tlie qunntitj present.

But in some cases, owins to ibu u«e ot sttirch, chilk, or other atlul-
terntiiio; ingredient, it will not be poaalble to nhtnln the firep>raiiun
of lead or other pigiiicitt in a soparule state. We inuiit then proeeetj
as rolh)ivs, to determine the amount ol* lead present : —

The levl must be precipimted from the solution of the ash, either
Qs a sulphuret or an ii>did'j of lead : this must be collected, dried,
weiched, and the lend calculated from it.

There is one source of fallacy which must be guarded aj;ainsU
If the 9ti&ar be adulterated with sulphate of time, tiie lead mar
escape deit^ction proceedtn;; in tU'\s manner, in caiise<pif ni.*e of tta beiog
converted into a sulpliulc, In this e:i!te the soluble {>i>rtion of the u*n
having been removed, the remainder should be fused with a mixture
of nitre und hisulphate of potat^h ; the residue^ after having l>eeii well
washed with water, i» lo be treated with a solution of ainmoniat^l tar-
trate ofammoniti, by whicli meuits the Kulpbate of lead i^ tuken up,
and muv be precipitAtctl by means of sulphuretted hydrogen.

The bisiilphuret of mrratry or fwrntiimn, after being ob(ain<Nl in as
pure a jitnte art poa.nible by wa.<thin^, must be di.ssolvt^it in a4]ua r«^ia,
nitro-hydrocldoric acid, and inuHt Im* tested for in the m.anner described
at p. 377. It h no unrommon thing to meet with, in the SAnie red
pijl^cnt, both load and mercury, vermilion being very subject to
adulteration with red lead.

Detection of the Yellow Cohurn.

The yeUotcs^ like the reds, may be either ve^etahU or mineral; but
contrary to what was found to be the Cft><»e with the rc<l8, the yellow
cf>lourin;r matters employed are for the most part mineral, consisting
otUfRon or orange chromes^ both these being chromalen o/ Uad, mnd
sometimes of either Naples yellow or masticot.

Mineral Yellows. — All the yellows ^hould therefore bo tested for
leui in the fir?t inaUince. For this purpose the surface of the
comfit bhouM be tnuche<l with hydroobloric acid, which u'iually de-
stroys the colour at once if it be a salt of lead, especially a chromate;
afterwai-dft a drop of a solution of sulphuret of ammonium should he
applied to the same 9p>tt as the acid, when, if lend tje present, it will
become more or lc*s black Recording to the quantity. If the pigment
contain lend, in all probability it is one of ilie chromntes, and if not
one of these, wnnxicot, which consists of the protoxide of lead. The
colour of Nu/tieM uellow is altnoat sufficient to distinguuh it from
the chrouiates of lead.

The chromic acid of the chromate of lead is to be delected by the
process given in the orticle on Snuff. The chromates of lead mar
also be discriminated from massicot in must cases simply by their
colour.

COLOURED SUGAR CONFECTIDNERT.

NnpU* yeUow or sttlphuret of autimont/^ mar be tlins iilenlified : —
Di<t!iulve tne pi riK^nt in hjtlroclilnric luriti, mlc) t-Jirlnnc nt-id diluted
with wuter, treat with sulphuretted hv'lro^n, when, if iintiiiiOTiv i^ pre-
ftont, an ornnpe-red preeipilnte will suluide verv ditrercnt frnrn lliiit of
sulphurei of arsenic. Anfithur way is to sublime the uncimony in a
teer tube, and to exumiiie (be in(.-tuilic crust with ihe niicrof^cope.

Vegetable YeUowa. — Those urticles which are not found to contain
lead (ihould he subseipientty teflte<l for gamboge^ which is the next
pigment most commonly employed; and if it do not prove to be this,
then a jKirtinn of ihe conint should be immersetl in a Rolutjon of
caustic fkoio-sh, when, if it become deoiiledly browncil, the C"I«iupinff
matter will be vegetable, ami moat likely turmeric^ mffron, or yeliine
lake^ which is usually formed from the colouring mutter of l-rcnch
berries thrown down by uluniinu or lime, but it niuy be made from
any vegetable yellow ; these vegetable yellows are not \eTy fretjuetitiy
employed, probably on account of their liability to alter and fade on
exposure to the atr and bght, — an objection which also ujtplieK,
tlioui;h in a less degree, to pamhofre.

If the pigment hot gamboge^ it will form, with distilled water, a veU
lowish opaque emulsion^ which will not let fall any dcpoiiit This
<*mulsion should be evaporated to dryness, and alcohol added to the
residaum; the alcohol will take up the gamboge, and when water is
added to the solution, the gambo;£e will be precipitated. If to the
yellow precipitate a drop or two of strong ammonia be now added, it
js rediesolved, producing a blooil-red solution, from which it is pre-
cipitated pale yellow by nitric acid. Turmeric gives nearly the same
reactions, anil therefore much care is requisite to discriminate between
the two. Turmeric docs not form so decided on emulsion with water
as gamboge.

On the Detection of the Blue Colours,

The liluei may be also either vegetable or mineral: the former
include litmM and indigo ; and the laiter, FniMsian Mue, Antwerp blue^
the two rerrtiterM^ which consist of carbonate of copper^ the only
dilVerence between them being, thai the paler vcnliter is diluted with
lime; aifmlt; «mri/^wliich is o bIoss of cobalt [rowdered ; antl nrtijicial
ultramnrtnCt wliicti is made in imitutirm of true ultramarine nr lazuliie.

Vegetable Bluet, — The vegetable blue, litmus^ is sufficiently dis-
tingui<*hed by it« becoming red on the addition of weak acid^. This
pigment is manufactured from several species of a lirhen {Jittrrlln)^
und, when genuine, ii innocuous. In a Kcport of M. Andml, ad-
dressed some years since Ui the Prefect of Police, it is stateil that 8ttme
manufacturem mix common arsenic and peroxide of mercuiy with
litmus, and M. Andrul therefore considers that its use in the colouring
of sweet confectionery should be prohibileil.

Indigo is sufficiently distinguished by its subliming in dense violet

4»6

COLOURED 9UGAR COXFECTIONEKV,

vapours when heattfil, by forniin^ a bliio solntinn with concent
sulphuric ai-it), ami bv ius reiiminin;; uiii-hiin^vil In alkalies.

Mineral Bines. — The colour nf ffrnKymtide of irott^ or Prustii
blue, is immediately (Ii!«cli!ir»ed on the miililioii nf the caustic alkalii
the iron being throivn (Kiwn in the •'tato ot'iit-roxiilo, when, if ne<:eji*»i
the iron may he collecteti iinf iron (tnly being left, which i»«y
weiybwd nnd calciiUtcd into Pru-isiun blue.

Auiwtrp bltie is Pruasian btuc, I he enloiir of which ie rencloi
liuhter rimI brighter in uDn-c.'fpienfe nC its ditulittn with some colour-
less niiitenal, uFinilly ch:dk. The tests for Aiitwer|i blue are there-
fore the same iw for Pru9!*iaii blue, thtwe forcarbnnnte of/iW t/r trfutl
being Kuperadded. Thir( and (he preceding prjfnient is in penerl
suRieiently distinsui.'thed by adding a drop nr so t>f nolution of am*
innnia or potash direct to them upon tlic t^ngar, these rengents atom
dorttroying the blue colour.

The Veriiiterx are curlnmates of copper; tlicy lire dislingtiiphed froi
otlier BidU of copper by the ewiupe of carlwnie acid on the adilitiao nf
any mineral acid: when lKnle<l for a long time, or heated eiirefiiUv,
the carbonic acid escajie*. und the pigment becomes brown. J-httH
re.its for copper, find the niL>thod by which ic may Ije detenuine^H
qtiantilatively, will be found described under the head of Pickies andt^
Pr*' serves.

The remaininjT blue pigments, cohalt^ umiilt, and ultramnrine^ are^
distinguishe<l by 1 heir culitur being fixed in rlie fire^ so that the aii]
of sugar articles coloured with any of these subptanoes is of a brigl
blue, the tint varying accor<ling to thtf blue used, as well as aJso il
consequence of admi.\tuic with uncoloured substances, smrh as chsU
hulplmte of lime, or pipe clay. These colours are somewbot expensivi
especially the true ultram»rin»\ b'lt they are of such intensity that
little goes a great way ; there is, however, a cheap kind of ultrama-
rine, sold in the shops as German or French uUrnmariTtf^ the pri<
being about sixpence per ounce, and it is this blue pigment whici
is chiefly employed in the colouring of su^ar confectionery. Il con-
sists of a double silicate of alumina and soda with sulphurot of iwdiumi
and it may be distingui-^heil, when free fmui admixture with other
substances, bv adding; to it a little hydrochloric acid, and observing
the chIoup of sulphuretted hydrogen evolved. This mctluMl of di
crimination is, in thr case of coloured augur confectionery, for the ini
part inapplicaljle, since sulphuretted hydn»jrcn is iklutost invnriahlj
thrown off whenever hydrochloric acid is added f) the ash left on ihi
iitcineration of most articles of sugar confectionery. The pitrmonl
ought therefore to be pro».-iired in a separate stale, by washing, «n(
the acid applietl to it when dry.

COLOURED SUGAR OONFECTIONEKY.

497

On the Detection of the Green Colours.

Vegetable Greens. — Of Uie greetut^ there is but one vegetable green
used — nanicly, jriJ/> ^Tirrn. Thi« U pre|»ai"ed from the jj;reen btirrk'a
of tbe bufkfhoni, iVutmnux calharticus ; but its use is to be objected
to on accijuiit of its frtHjuent ii<luUcrntinn with greon iiietaltio pig-
nicnl^ contnimn<^ either copper or oTdCnic, in order to biM<;;hten its
colour itnd rentier it more permanent. It is bleached by chlorine and
acid ft.

Metallic Greens. — Of the metnllie (rrents, eome arc simple colours,
while (ithcrs are compt>5ed of a blue und a yellow mixeil. The simple
greenit are acetnta of copper or vertiigrig, und argettite of copper,
etnerai/l green or Scheele^g green.

Acetate of copper is dlstm^ished from other jjreen salts of copper
by the action of sulphuric acid ; the acetic acid is liberated, and may
be detected bv it3 wlour.

Antenite of copper is best recognised by means of the arsenic, of
which it \a in part composed : a portion of the colouring matter Hepa-
rated from the sugar by washing, when perfectly dry is placed in a
(est tube open at both ends, the bent of a spirit lamp being applied
outride tht; tul>e ; tbts will cause the arsenic to sublime, and. condensing
on the coid $id« of the tube, it tbmw a bright meiallie oru»t, which,
examined with a Inw power of the microscope, is axccrtuined In consist
of minute ociohednil crysuls. This lejtt i* perfectly conclusive.

The compound greens ordinarily used arc those eommoidy sold as
Bnauwitk greens; ihey are the colours usually employed in (uaking
green paint, and are of three dltTcreut tinta. known as pale, middle, and
deep Hrunswick. They consitit of a mixture, in various prnporlions,
of usu:dlv Antwerp fc/uf, but sometimes ultramarine^ und chr ornate of
Iswi. When obtiiincd in any nuunlity iVom the confectionery, and
difiuseil through water in a HJnitJuw- di^h, the twit colours easily
serrate, iin<l may be distinguished by the eye alone.

They may usually be rccognitfcil without the trouble of procuring
them in a separnte state by washing, by adding r^ageiite direct to these
pigments as they cover the sugar ornament. If ammonia or jtotash
18 added, the green colour disappears, and is replaced by h yellow ;
that of the Prussian blue being destroyed by the alkali, the chromate of
lead comes into view again; if the pigment is touched with hydro-
chloric acid it bei'oraes blue, thiit arising fnim the solution of the
chromate of lead by the acid. These are ready and very HAtisfactory
lestA. Other comftound greens are occattiunally made by mixing a
TcUuw pigment, usually yw^ cArome, with one or other of the verditcrs.
Vhe true Brunttwick greens ore oxichlorides of copper, but these,
being very expensive, are seldom employed.

The oxichJwides of copper may be thus distinguished from the other
green salts of copper. Dissolve the pigment in a httie pureaad dilute

K K

C0mL.B8A>

wJ^mrri

vUca UKSWS dovB

Mspletcd tbe dcacnpoon of ihe wetbods hj which the

pignesti emplorcd to eolottr sugar coofectioaery mar b«

il MOV reoMiat oolj to indictte tW priw.*!*wj b^ which' the

wtinfff^, DOC pigaMsli, either aaeertftined to be used hy

or othen in the adaltermtioa of tugir oootfectiooerr. ouj be

TW principal of these rabetaaccs are Tanoot kinds of <torc4, rJkaO,
Mai» <;/' '»>«. kydratgd tmlpkate of Hme, aituter of Paris or gjptwm,
i wUr potttr* ejoy, pi/w oloy, or CoraitA day.

On Mr DtUtHom of Chalk, PUuier ofPorU^ and Clay.

Ordinary planter of Paris^ aIthoa;:h stated to be emplojed in Uie
^avttfiiK'ture of confectionorr iniended to be eaten^ can M^rcelv ever
^sOkSim'e when this is rn'oistened with water it quicklr become
ajt* —-•"■'"-• •'- wild slate after incineration; on the other hand,
hy^nle^l sulphate of lime does not remain solid, and when expi»ed
toart^l h^ai, it is still a pow«ler. The process for the qualitative
1^ i^uantitAtive delenninntinn of this salt is described at p. 99.

1*WM i* snfficientlv identified bv its appearance, br its effer^esrin^
^ the addition of an acid, and hy the lime which l^ thrown down from
j^folution by oxalate ofomraonia. See p. 101. Alumina is detected
^ iht process indicated at p. 1 80.

PORTEH, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

499

On the Detection of the Different Kinds of Starch.

Ttie kind of starch einplovf^d a detected by means of the microscope
A minute portion of the sugar should be plAceii upim a slip of glass
and 11 dntp of water nddt'd, if the sujiar dis^ioWc without any iippcar-
nnce ot resiilup, ibi.' ><ululitui beln^ ijuite iransparciit, (he pinbulHltty
i» that no starfh is present, but if there be any residue, this nhould be
placed under the mieroscojie, when ibi* starch, if presi'nt. will usually
DC reco;2ni8ed by ihe funu of the i^runiileH, but abuuld the starch be
in an aiiuirphous state in con8e(|uentie of ilif having been boiliid, then
A litlte itMliiie should be added to the residue, which will at once
reveal its presence. The quantity ntay be estimated in either of tlie
fullowiue wnya : — When flturch only is mixed witli the sugar the latter
mav be di&aolved out, and the precipitated starefa dried and weif^hed ;
but when any other insoluble substance U present the precipitate left
fitter the removal of the sugar mny be burned, and the loi^s of weight
will pive very nearly the quantity of starch ; or the precipitate may
bt^ boiled in water; the st4irch will be taken up, and the insoluble
matter will subsiile ; the supernatant liquid can then be decanted frum
the depo>iiL, and the starch ohtaincil on uvajwration or by precipita-
tion in the fonii of no iodide, by iiieand of a solution of iodide of
pttlnsiiium.

Until the 5th of April, 1857, the duty on sugar confectionery will
be 2^^. per lb. ; till the 5th of April, l'85», 2d. per lb. ; thenccafter,
Urf.perlb.

Suecadet and all fruits and vegetables preaerred in sugar are
charged the same duty, such as citron peel, &C.

Gross amount of duty received upon Confectionery in the year
1854,535/.; 1K55, 45*29/.

luiiKirts in 1»54, 73,347 lbs.; in 1855, 69,559 lbs. Retained for
home consumption iu the first year, 64.708 lbs. ; in the second,
62,368 lbs.

PORTER, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

PoBTRR and stout should be brewed of malt and hops only, tnd the
colour, as well as tlavour, should be due to these alone.

The colour of all mnlt litjuors is df pendent upon the degree of beat
to which the malt has been sul^ected in the kiln, and upon the amount
of ripeness ihe boos have attained before being stripped from the
poles. Thus, for tne pale bitter ales Ihe greatest care is necessary to
jirevent the husk of the malt from charring in the least, and to main-
Inin the original straw colour of the barley ; and in the selection of
the hops, that they should be picked as soon as sufficiently ripe to

500

PORTER, AND ITS ADULTERATI0X8.

keep, and that no single brown or withered leaf should be suffered to
remRin. The reverse of tilt ihiit is the ease with the malt and bops
required for porter. The malt should be brijtklj dried, until th«
flower of the ^Tuin is of a ligflit brown clour, and cnisbeswitb a crisp
friability hetwi;en the teeth; the hopjt^ aJuo, shouhl have buns; in the
autumn ?un till they have attained a rich ^Idea hue, and the seeds
are |terfcctly <lcvelt>ped. With all attention to these refjutrementSi
huwever, the beer brewed would still be far from the neeesaarjr colour
and Havgur, und to attain these the maltster U compelled to prepare
nmlt in a peculiar manner. IL must be remembered, nevertheless,
that the strcnffth of the porter is due almost entirely to the |>ale malt,
as the other kinds liave their Mccharine properties so altered by
roasting as to render them nearly useless, except for colotir and
flavour, as before mentioned.

In addition to tho^e distinctive properties of porter and stout, there
is one ntlier of Mill greater importjtnee — the peculiarity of the fer-
mentation. Up to the couimenveraenl of this Iu»t sta|ce of the process
of brewing, the manufacture of ]>ortcr is conducted in exactly the
mime manner as tbat of ale, wilb tlie addition of the dilferent flavouring
malts before mentioned ; hut during the fern^cntation the great dif-
ference is effected, as nil ihe Bu^ar is converted into spirit, excepting
only such fKirtion as is required to preserve the beer from the acetous
fiTiiieDtatlnn, which is less than In ale, by reaAon of the larmier amount
of hops upwl in proportion tn the strength of the wort. The differ-
ence will be best appreciated by the annexed figures. <ioi»d porter
should weijih about twentv-two jiounds specific gravity »lH>ve water
p4T barrel of thirty-six {laltons before thif fermentation, and t>in(;le X
ale ulxnit the same; but after femiiiiitfttion, the porter will be found
to rctnin only fire pounds weijiht j»er han-el, while the ale has seTen.
Thus, ordinary ale is more liablo todfrantft* the sinmoch, by reason of
its jtreater swectnesit, while |X}rter i6 more beady in proportion to itd
strength, and soporific in its tendency, from the strong infusion of
boot lo its composition.

It may be interesting to make a few remarks, succinct as possible,
npon the prepiirntion i>f ninlt and hops before they come mlo the
brewers' handii ; and upon iainglusSj the only substance which should
be used for tinini; beer. It mny be well to observe, before doing this,
that suffar is permitted by law to Jie H«ed for brewing, and bus been
and will be consumeil extensively whenever malt rises to a siiflicienrl/
hi};h price to render it profitable: nevertheless, it is advisedlr the
do<{nia that ** porter and stout (and indecil all malt liquors) should be
brewed of ntalt and hops only," as wn»enunciateil in the cummence-
vent of this article ; for beer brewed from sugar has greater tendency
so tbe acetous fermentation than mnll liquor, so that, setting aside the
undoubted superiority of flavour in the latter, tbe risk, buih peenniary
aviotherwiflCt attending the use of sugar, is too great to tempt the
yiAcnt man of busioess.

FORTBB, AKD ITS ADULTERATIONS.

501

Jlfuft.

Mftlt u barley in wliteh germination has becu carried on to a cert4iin
extent, and then suddenly out oH' by the application of heat : the
process is conducted as follows: — M'lur stoeninj^ the barley in a
cisteni of water till well pwoIiIl'ii, it is thrown in layurs on the slate
floors of the lonj; luiiU-lioufc, buiUlinjfs well known; it then ^'crmi-
natea nui<?kly; it Is not, huwcver, allowed tu rest, but is tunied over
rrom time to time, until every griiin has been iiUke ex[>o5eil tu the
nir, nml to such light ds is permitted to enleff which u not great, oa
the growth would otberwise be Ibrced too speedily, the object to be
attained being the conversion of the f^tnrch into sugar, which i^ known
to be coukplete when what is called llie acruspire has reached three
iiarta of the way up the grain, particularly observable by a thicken-
ing in the back of the *:ruinB of barley. L)urin"r litis sta;;e the inidt
emits a aniell resembling that of cucumber. When the grain has
arrived at this condition, it is thrown into the kiln in a layer of from

Barlrr.

M«It.

three to five inches in thickness^ nccording to circumstances, and
while there it is turned over once or twice in about twentr-fbur
hours. The kiln has a wire-gauze bottom, tbrou;:b which the heated
air from a fiirnnee of Welsh cnal ascends. The briskness of the
rire and the time of drying depend u[>on the colour require*! in the
mall. The process it* then complete, with the exception of screening
away the " mult dust,"— the dried roots of the embryo plant, a very
nutritious food for catile, and which also does duty sometimes for
ground coffee, Scotch nnuff, and other arlicles.

In the choice of malt, the brewer is guided by the growth of tlie
acr(»spire, as^ if it be not sulficiently developoil, there is less saccha-
rine matter in tiie grain than is requisite, »nd more gluten ; and, if
overgrown, the saccharine matter is absorbed by the progress of the
germination.

Malt contains, besides saccharine mtttter, a substance called dynstase,
which, in the mash tun, by the action of hot water, and agitation by
machinery, converta the greater |Hjrtion of the starch into sugar.

The paie malt thus manufictured is the base and strength of alt
malt liquors. It now remains to notice the other malts used for the
[turpose of fliivouring and colouring stout and porter.

Amiter tnaU^ used in the proportion to pnie malt of one eighth part,
differs merely in being dried at la.'^t faster than the ordinary kiml, and
by a hotter fire. The delicacy oi' the tlavour of stout is much de-
f>endent upou this uuUt.

K a 3

AOS

PORTBB, AND ITS ADCXTE RATIONS.

SrowH or hloxen malt is of a (larker colour extcmallj, but inlei^
nally it is of a deep brown colour. It is manufactured by b«?i ^
placed in the kiln in a luyer of only one inch in thicknei^s, and nried by
a fierce fire oi wood in a very stiort space of time. Ttiis inalt, used
in the proportion of one lialf of the pule m:ilt, ia the source of the rich
erapyreiimiiiie flavour of siout and purter, (imi dues much towards its
colour ; but this is finally eficcted by what is culled patent mnlt^ which
19 of a very ilark brown colour. This innlt is pale nmlt, perfected in
the kiln in tlie orditmrv way, Hml then ri>us(ed in a eiiniilar manner to
collee, utily (tn an itittniti'ly lar-jr-r scale. The colour of porter, as
before mentioned, is prinnjinlly ilne to this mall ; but it is so power*
iul an agent, that no nridrc th:m one liflicth part of it is used in pro-
portion to the other mnlts.

It is aluted in most chemical works that the su;;ar of malt it? furmed
at the expense nf the starch. If this were so, the starch corpusclea of
the barU'y nu^ht to exhibit, when examined with the uucniscope,
some evidcnou nf this convei-ston in an alteratiun of form or substance.
Under the highest powers of thiit instrument^ however, no diiferenc*
in form or oiuline in the gninules of iinmalte<l and malted barley is
perceptible, llie granules i.f mulr, simply showinj; a greater t^-ndency
to cohere in niiisso^. The results of microscopical ol)ser\ation do not
appear, limrefore, tooonlirai the piatouicnt tlnit the sugar of malt is
derived from the starch, but they point to another constituent of the
Eirain of barley as that whicli reiiUy furnislie* the sugar, namely the
cdiuloae. This in uiaU is abnit-tt entirely destroyed. Now cellulose
has nearly the same chemical composition as starch, and its transfor-
malinn ilnnblless furnishes much of the f*ugar of nmlt. The presence
of the celluhise in the raw (p^in, lujd its abtence in malt, may be readily
shown by tearing; into pieces, with needles, sections of the ^ains and
washing awuy the stiireh.

The fact ut' the disapjwarance of the cellub«e is not only interesting
in a seieutilic point of view, but is uls(» of practical iiupurtauce, sinc*e
it supplies a rea<ly means by whii-h barley may be distinguished from
malt, even when the two are n^ixed together^ the dJiscriaiination for
certain Flxcise purposes Iveing often of nun li consequence.

The above oK-i^rvations were mudi' jninclpaily uiion samples of
barley un<l malt kindly furui^hed the author by Mr. Wren, of Hunt-
ingford ; to wbo^iL' long ex|K'rienee in, and great knowledge of ui&ltiug,
he is indebted for many practical reiiiurkb and Bujjgcstiuns.

Hops,

Hops will next demand our attention ; but to consider the kinds
and cultivation of these fally would occupy more space than can bfe
aHTorded.

Hops are a very delicate and precarious crop, alFceted greatly by
the weather, and ibey aUo full a prey to various kinds ut blight, of

PORTEB, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

503

which the most dcTaittating nre the y7y, and mould or rust. The
former jh the well-known green insect und bluck Hy, tlint attack tb«
rose plnnt8 ; ami its ravages are ho j^reat, tbut three i'cmrtbs ul' the
years crojM ure itometiijies BacriBceri. The latter is a fungus which,
attacks the hup itselt", and not only prevents its proper dL-Vflopment,
and thiiB destroys its preservtitive properties, hut also coinmunieatea
an ijnpk'a?<ant Huvour to the beer.

Like the vino, the hop loves tlie sun, and can scarcely have too
muAx oCit; it oUo resembles that plant in the soils and situations it
ujotjii prefers — the sunny sides ut'&lnpin;^; bills, and the well-L'UJtivated
suil ^if Kent, resting on tlie Kentish ra;r or iroiisttioe. The uiOst
choice ho[fS are ^rown in East Kent, and Che next in esliinatioit, in
mid-Kent, In ordinary seasons, the hups grown in Kent neurly
suffice for all the nmlt liquors brewed in Kn";iriiul \ but in seiLsuns of
scarcity foreign hops are nmcb used, liitlicnoi the bops ^rown in
Belgium have been considered tlie best, and, in appeurance, there ia
no doubt they are bO« as the Be]<jian growers have Uikt>n great pains
to imitate our mode uf prepanilion and packing; but the huvarion
hops are really much liner in f^uubty and llavoiu-, and the aruma is
more perfectly preserved by their method of preparatiooi which dill'ers
from ours.

Some few hops are imporl«l from America, but thnurrh very
powerful, they are so nink and peeutiar in Havour, thui, without
great improvement in cultivation, they are never likel/ to be exten-
sively adopted.

The preparation of hops is a very simple process, and may be
related in but few words. The poles, with the bop plums Hiill litiiig*
ing on them, are pulled from the ground, vrheii tbe bops ure picked,
by women and children prmcipally, to a great number of whom it
atTords a tem)>orary employment ; they are then dried on a kiln, some-
what resembling the mall Vdn, but the heat is much less« and tl^e door
of the kiln is made of liair ototh. A small portion of sulphur is
burned on the kiln tire, for the purpose, in the fir.-it place, of preserv-
ing the hops — at least this is the plea, and there may be some truth
in it, as the sulphur may ilestroy any insect or fungus remaining iu
the hops, but the grtrul reason tur the use of sulphur ifi its bleu^liing
property, whiih renders Uie hops more sightly to the eye. Alter they
have been thus dried and bleac-hed they are puckfMl, by presses,
ti":htly into the bags, or pockets us tbey are called, to excbuie the air.
Tliey are packed so tightly bv the hytlraulic press that they become
lulTifieully solid to be cut in blocks with a knife.

All Knglifth hups are prepared in this manner, and the Belgians,
finding that (he ble:icliing and packing have a great elTuct upon the
eyt% have followed uur example ; but the Biivoriun growers still
adhere to the custom of their ance^itors, and it is to be hoped they
will continue to do so, with increased attention to oultivutiua and

K K 4

B04

rORTEB, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

packing, which will render their hops equal to the best English

produce.

The mode in use in BaToria is as follows : — When the hops are rip©
the plant \» cut ofT vUtse to the ground, antl the hops arc left on the
jKiles to dry in the sun. This metho«i preserves the aroma entirely,
und all the ef^entiiil nil ; the connetjuence is, that although they
ure pnokeil ](>o^(»ly in halt^s and look like withered leavr-s, they have
moro strength nml flavour in proportion t*) their qu&lity thiin Uie
Englifih hops. It is somewhat pru'inuture Ut spenk of this methcMi as
reKBnls the preservation of the hops compared with that followed in
Kn^ilaiidj us the Biivariun hups nre a recent importation ; in our
variable climate the process by which they are dried would be un-

ftg. MiL

PORTEB, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

505

brown and musty by keeping : in such a condition ih(.*y are whully
unsaleable ; but ofUu so ^eut is the dctuaiid for Imps that thu must

m. lu.

JbedottUtr, A. rufanf, ihuwlnc lh« fflurm«taor«hleh U htevHl.dMiMOiid.
markad fr, (King Uie in«M ctuncterlalf. R I'^rtiail ttOlim nf Mtd.»xhM^
Ibj U>« (Viw >Maibcmaca, uwl Um mUUa«» of Um Mnl, a. llifW«i Ml <U»-
mcterii.

worthleas description of foreign hr>ps are purchawd, and subjected to
fumigation — by which means th(>ir colour is reaiorcd, and tlieir pro-
perty of checking fermentarioi) rcvive<i. To cffct't this, as uiucli a»
10 Ib6. of sulphur are employcfl in some eases for erery hundred wui^liC
ol'hops. As lurpe a quantity as 10 per cent, of free nulphnric acid
b:i9 been met with in aauiples of blenched hups; lhi» acid is formed
by the oxidation of the nutphuroua auid generated durin;^ the bleat^h-
in«^ process.

Having touched, though imperfectly and cursorily, upon malt and

JKM

PORTER, AND ITS ADULTKRATIONS,

hops, a few words upon isinglass will complete the account nf the
materials used in tlie brewing of porter. For many of tite preceding
details, iii rejiiird lo liops cspocifllly, we are indubteii to ^Ir. Tbocnaf
Druce, of the IIiius Town Urewery, CbeUea.

Finings,

The best isinglua comes from Kuasia, but a very large supply from
the Unizils ; thai used by hrewprs is the carlilagi; of the sturgeon and
other fii^h. Tbu brewer buys it as iniporteil, in rough piec^'A, fts al^i
the iirt'ssin^s and pickings rejected in tiie preparation of tlie finer oorta
of iainglusa ibr the eonfectioner, &«. The *' finings" for porter are thus
prepared: — Tbt* isinglass is put into t>ume sour beer to dts^nlve, tech-
nic-ully to cut, which takes place in diHerent limes, accortiiug to the
kind of iiiinglass maiie u^e of.

On TtiK Adultrrationb or Fortes.

™«^^

^Xc have nnw to flesifribc the state in which the national bevei
nacRt more piirtirubirly poritr ami *AtK/, rciiches the oonHUUier. Lik<
the other urticles which have engaged our attention, it is of course ^_
adulterated. ^M

The receipt or formula accunlin^ to wbieb the majority of articlev^l
of consumption are adluliteniteJ, is an exceedingly simple one.

First there is sonielhiiiir a<lded to augment the weiglit and bulk of the
article; Uieii somethiiii^ tu restore the j^fst colour; and lastly, Houietbing
to give to tbe adullciruted attd weakened couifMiund, us far us possihJe,
the taste and quulitie.*^ pij»sff«*ied by the genuine commodity.

It is ai^eitrdiii;^ to this formula ibat porior and stout arc odultersted;
first water h added to increiise the bulk, and then treacle^ ns^or, uid
*a//, to restore the colour and llavuur.

The ditutinn of the beer makes it less intoxicating, and henc« the
occasionid use of a variety of the other articles intended to impart lo
it the semblance of strength.

JtexultM of the Examinntion of SampUn,

The results nf the chemical examination ol Fifty^two samples of
gtont and porter, there being ihirty-iwo of the former and twenty
the bitter, proeoreil both fnmi brewers ami publicans were: —

That thesiiiiiiilesof STOirr either ol>tained from aginL-t, or purchi
at the taps of several ni' the priiicipu] Lnndnn porter brewers, wi
con^iderubly stronger than those prt>cured frtun publicans; tbe ulcoUc
of specific gravity 'TOtJ, temperature 60"^ Fahr,^ eontainol in the former
samples ranged from 7 12 per cent, the highest, to 4*6.0 the luwesc
whereas that ul' tbe stouts procured from publicans varied, with
exception, from 4'87 per cent, to 3*25 per cent. _

That the same diti'erence of strength aUo characterised the various
bomplcs of i*oKT£B procured from the two didercnt sources ; the

of
ty^

ohoI^H
"uicr

mil* 1

PORTER, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS- 307

amount of alcohul in the porters obtained from the tfljw varying; from
4 51 por rent. In 2*4*2 per cent. ; whereiis thosti purchased of publicans
ran^rvd from 3 ^7 per cent, to ISl per cent.

That in nearly ull the stouta and purterii tall was preaent, often in
considerable amount.

That in some of the saniplea ctaie sugar and treaeU were likewise pre-
sent.

<irc&t aa was the variation in the streni^th of the different samples,
arising mainly from diluflon with ivater^ there m no doubt but that if
the porter and stout hail been procured ilircct Irnm ihc brewers, in
plucc of from the public bouses known at> brewers' tapfi, the di^erence
would have been Ibuiid to be dill (jroater.

Such is the simplest tnrm whirli the adulteration of these heveragca
UBUmes; not unfrcrpiontly it takes a more complicated and serious
form.

In some cases sulphate of iron is Ofldedt especially to stout; it is said
to^ive the beer a head : it of c(mrse nmkes it more tonic and streugih-
eoin^, but sulphate of iron is & tonic whiuli di>e8 not suit all persons;
nnd if it is desirHble that we should tiike it at hII, since it U a medicine,
it is mo-it pro|ier that it shook! be administered in suitable cases hy
the phy.-iician, and not by the publican or brewer.

Other substances sometimes used in the adulteration of beer are
bittern^ and earmiuaticet of variouit kinds, as geutian^ qnwiiia, camomiU^
ginger^ coriander and caraway seeds, capsicum and grains of paradise,
aa well as liquorice^ alum^ and suiphun'c acid, satis of tartar, carbonate
ofiofiii, ctKCttiusiwiicits^tknti tobacco; it is even alleged tliut optum taid
ttrvchhi/te have also lieen employed fur the same purpo^ie.

Mr. PliillipA furnished the Committee with the lullowing informa-
tion in regard to the adulteration of beer : —

'* It is chiefly common wdt and sulphate of Iron that are used for
adulterating beer, and alwi quassia.**

Mr. KdwMi \Vickham*8 cviilenoe was to this effect :^

"From niy exjwrience in brewing I believe that ihejrreat adulteni-
liim of beer takes plai'e in the cellars of the |)ublicans and not in the
breworie-, ohhoui^b I know it is done by some brewers.**

Mr. Sehote^eL " Do you believe that The a^lulteration of beer is a
common thin^?" — "Very common, so much so that the exception is
nut to adulterate; and I believe th<>t«e exceptions are very few.'*

Mr, Mickham gives the t^)l)nwin^ us the receipt in frequent use
anionifst publicans for the ailulicration of porter: —

** lo one barrel of porter eij/hti^Qlluns ot water, six pounds of sujrnr,
one pound of gelatine (nr patent size will do), a handful of cutumun
salt, extract of gentian or quassia to restore to it the original bitter
flavour, sulphate of ommonia to brin(£ it back to ils colour, liulf an
ounce of sulphate of iruni and if require*] to taste uldiftlv an ounce of
roche ulum.**

Again .Mr. Wtokham slates, " I have known single instances of
tobacco being used in b^r.'*

[ tobacc

506 PORTER, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Mr. P. L. Simmonds, in evidence before the Parliamentary Coi

niittee.fttfttcfi, lliut ** at least 250 tons of eoccvlut indicHS are annually
iiiiported, chiefly, I ^UJl^K>8t?, for th«? use of bruwers."

He further states^ " that frfim 200 to 300 tons o! tlie hot acrid seeda of
cardunioms, or graiiHof paradise, are nUonniuifilly imported, and chietly
used to give an artiHuitil strength to bot-T and spirit*." Also that
"ccvcculiiH iiidianti ts couimoidv inlrodMrud into beer for the purpOM
of giving n false strength to it. In one case which came under mj
knowlt'dgc the piiblicun wii:^ found, using it fur the purpose of adulte-
rating liia beur to be sold the nest day.'*

Mr. Gay, in ihe evidence before (pioted from more than once, gave
the following infurmution in regard to c(»C(:ulus iudicus: —

Ue states, "I have ground many owts. of coeculus indieus."

Mr. Miiffatt. "What is it used for?"— "I suspect logo into the
poor man's drink."

"For whom did you grind cocculus indieus?** — **For wholesale
druggist*."

]Slr. tiodgers alleges in bis evidence that " cocculus indious can be
obtained from the hrewers* druggists under the name ofiiiuZ/um.**

Mr. Simmunds also makes this tuniark in his evidence, ** In l
suburbs of I^undoii, I may mcntinn that it \% a common practice with
llie puhliaui.'i to adttltenue beer on Saturday nights much more than
on othop ni^hlit."

He likewise deduces the inference that beer is extensively adulte-
rated, from ihe following siatislicaJ particulars: —

** There is dtie matter.' he observes, "which (»ccurs to me as being ex-
ceedingly singular, which i^, that the cimHumptinn of mult and hops con-
tinues) stfitiuuury, though the cun^umplinti of beer, wilh the iiicreastog
{Kipulntion, must havu incrua*eil very largely. In the last fifteen
years there has been scarcely any varia.ti*m in tlie amount of ho|)s con-
sumed, and M>me substances inu)*t therefore bo used very extensively
to miiku up the diflerence. The extent of land under eultivntinn for
hops ill the last three years has averaged 50,000 at^res, Iwing only
7,000 acres beyond the culture of 30 years ago. The h'^me produc-
tion tn the lust 10 years had scarcely increased at uU, and yet the
shipments of beer and ale have mure than trebled in value, and tbv
home consumption must neeessarily have increased also."

Another fact, proving the extensive practice of adulteration in beer,
is related by Mr. Wickham, in reply to a (jue>*tioii by Mr. Swift: —

" Is it not customary for publicans to sell the beer at the price
which they pay to the brewei-s, so that this adulteration forms their
actual profit?" — "Yes, many publicans do so."

It appears, from the analyses, that salt is almost constantly prcsen
in porter. This a<Mittim we know is unide in the first instance by the
brewers themselves ; but theie is also no doubt that a furlher qunniiiy
of it is fre«{uentlv u»ed by the publican to iisslst in bringing up the davuur
of beer which has been rciluocd in strength by the addition of water.

ith ^^

^ PORTER, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

509

The quantity of salt cantiiiii^il in porter is often sufficiently larjjc to
commuiiiuite n perceptiblv sulirie mate t<> the mouth. The suit is used
by the brewers in the fulhjwhij: manner: — It is first mixed up in a
tub with some kind «i' flour — usually wheut tiuur — antl the uiijituro
i» cnst hy h.indfiilsover ihe surface of the wort in the cooling vat. U
IS «aid to assist in the preserviiikm nnd finin;j of the wort, and it it
ollef^Hl thitt these are toe only purixwes for which it in employed by
the brewer.

>rr. Morris, who wrote u book entitled '* Brewing Malt Liquors"
some years since, describes and reciMiimends a variety uf articles to be
employed in the brewing of beer and porter, as colouring, coceuliis
indirus, swi^>t Hag hk)!, qims^ia, coriander seeils, cnpsiruni, earuway
seeds, grains of paradise, ginger, beans, oyster shells, and alum. "The
colouring," Mr. Morris reuiark«, "giv&s a gooil face to the beer, an*l
enables you to gratify the sight of vour diflferent customers." And
again, " Beans tend to mellow malt liquor, and from their properties
add much to its inebriating qualities ; but they must not oe used in
too large a quantity. Oyster shells are very good to recover sour
beer."

" Alum is geuerally put into the vat, as it givea the beer t smack of
«ge.'*

"Cocculus indicus is uf>e<1 as a substitute for malt and hops, and is
a grcfit prescr^'alive of mnit liijimr. It prevcnis second iVrmentation
in bottled t}eer, and consequeiitlT ilie bursting of the bottles in warm
climates. Its effects are of tin iuebriiiting nature.'^

Another writer, Mr. Child *, aUo the author of a work on brewing
porter which went Lbruugh eleven editiom^ gives the Ibllowing receipt
for porter : —

1 quarter of malt.

8 lbs. of hups.

9 lbs. of treacle.

8 lbs. of liquorice rooL

8 lbs of essentia bina.

B lbs. of colour.

Capsicum, half an ounce.

Spanish liquorice, two ounces.

Cocculus indicns, n quarter of an ounce.

Salt of tartar, two drachma.

Heading.

Ginger, three ounces.

Lime, four ounces.

Linseed, one ounce.

Cinnamon, two drachms.

Th«

MMDtia bina, be itatet, ** is compounded of 8 lbs, of moist

* ChUilon Brawlni Porter.

ftU»

PORTER, AND ITB ADULTERATIONS.

nrC

qr*.

Ibft.

CWl.

qrt.

nw.

FUpar, bniled in an iron vMsel, for no copper one could withstand the
hcul sufBcieutly, till it c^imejt to a tbick, syrupjr consistence, perfectl/
black and extremely bitter."

Colour *^ is composed of 8 lbs. of moist sa^r, boiled until tt obtains
a middle state between bitter and sweet, niid which gives to porter
that mild, mellow colour usually sn much admired."

The beadint! "is a mixture ofhiilf alum nnd half citppenu, jrround
to a fine powder ; and is so called from ;;iviii;; to |»orler the beautiful
head of frolh, whicli constitutes one of its peculiar properties, and
wliich landlords are so anxious to raise to gralify their customers."

Other receipts by Mr. Morris arc as follow : —

Mall, 25 quartert.

Hops - - - .

Cocciilua indicus berry
Lejiliorn juice
Porter extract

MaU^ 20 quarters.

Hops - - - -

Cocculus indlcus berry
Sujsnr - - -

Pabia amara (nux vomica)
And also the following directions : —

T^i make up a Vat of IfiO Barrels.

" Use half a barrel of colnuring, a qunrtcr of a hundredweight of
cream n^ lartiir, a quarter (»f a liunrlreilwei^bt of ground alum, one
pound of sail of steel, and two barrclfi of strong finin;j;s. Mix these
well lo}!Ctlier, nud put them in a vat, rousin;; it thorouphly at ibe
same time. Lut the vat rumuin open three days, then close it and
sand it over.

" It) u fortnight it will be fit for use — your own good len&e will in-
form you bow to employ it to advanlnRe/*

The extensive employment of viirinus driips for porter brewing led
to the esubliflhmfnt, ut almut the fieriod of the late French war, of a
class of men Icrined "brewers' dru^jjists." These persons issued rejru-
liir price currenis. and they made it their business to send travellers
all over the country with limits and samples exhibiting the price and
fjuidity of the articles manufiK-lured by tlicm.

Mr. At'cum • states that ''their trndc spread fjtr and wide, but it was
amoiig*it the country brewers cUii'tly that ihey found the most custo-
mers, and it is amongst them, up to the prcfient day, as I am assured
by some of tliese operators, on whose veracity I can rely, that the
greatest quintitica of unlawful ingredients are soIiL"

• A TnmtlH on the Adulieritlon orFood, p. \H

PORTER, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

** It was at the same time, also," writes Accum, ** tliat a Sir.
Jai-kson, of notj^rious memory, fell upon the idea of brewing beer
from various drug* without any malt nml hops. This chemist lYul
not turn brewer liimself, hut he utruck out the more profitable trade
of tcachitii; hia mystery to the brewers for a hnndsomc fee. From
that lime forwards, written directions and receij)t-books for using the
cbemicid prepnrati^ina to be subalituled inr malt mid hops were
re-«]K'i:tiveIy s'obi ■ and many adepts soon afterwurds afipeared every-
where III iiistruet breweni In the nefarioujt practice first pointed uuC
by Mr. Jm^kson.'*

The folhjwiiii: remark, contained in Dr. Normandy's work, entitled
*' Coranierciul JIandbook of Cheniieal Anidyais," would lead us to
infer that the fraternity of brewers* druggists is not even yet ex-
tinct i —

*' It is & publit^ly known fact, that carts may be Bcen bearing the

inscription, in staring paint, of 'C , brewers' drugpist.' Sueh a

cart I have myself seen a few days ago standinjr, in the broad light of
midday, before a publican's shop nr ^in palace."

Some idea of the extent to whieh porter is adulterated may also be
formed from the two following cfreumstiinees : —

Thus it has been fhown before the Parliamcntarv Committee
on Public Houses, on the clearest evideuee, that it is quite impossible
fur a publican to realise any profit by the sale of beer without having
rt'course 1o adulteration.

Again. Mr. M'C'uIloch, a witness before the same Committee, not
only deposed to the fact of tiie extensive adulteration of beer by
puliliciins, but he alno cjttiniafed the loss to the Atate ari^in^ out of
that adulteration at 100,000/., in consequence of the diminished con-
Bumptiun of malt.

Not only is beer itaclf adulterated, but frequently the very mate-
rials, out of which it i» niade, are also adulterated, as tbe hops and
malt.

On the AtbtlteratioH of Hops.

Tn regard to the adulteration of hops, Rfr. Geortre Phillipn gave
the following information before the Conimtltee on Adulti>ration : —
" Mr>8l of the 40 samples of bops I liave spoken of contained prnins of
paradise ; lu oue instance we had c<mjl'uIus indicua, but only in one
instJince.**

These 40 samples of hops were examined by the Exci^ in twelve
years, und out of them 35 were found to be adulterated, the substances
met with being cooeulus indicus, gruin^ of paradise, quassia, chiretta,
gentian, camomile llowera, coriander seed:), and, in one instance, ex*
bausicd tobacco.

On the Adulteration of Mali.
Barley is sometimes substituted, to the great loM of rerenue, for

512 PORTER, AND ITS ADXTLTERATIONS.

malt. For further information in regard to this flubstitidiii At

rtiadcr is referred to pp. 50*2. and 5\4,

The rcmetiy by which the adulteration of malt liqaors maf bctafl
apptiarH to us to 1>^ hl-Iviu- und simple, and it is one to vhicn «r r?-
cc'iilly Ljid the i ])portii(iity of directintr the attention of tb? l^***
niittee of the Ilnuae uf Cnnimons on Public Houses; it ia, fio' m
wait iif/uors should he pf^rinitteii to be sold by iiny pHltUcan madtr etr'
tfiin Jiitd or standard ntreiigths, the t«Mj) of strcnj^ beifi^ wt tW
itpccilic ifrnvH^ of the beers, hut principatlj the amount nr perceaL
ago of alcohol eontainod in them.

Such a regiilalMm, hropL-rly enforced, would ofTectuallY p«t %\
to the ailuhcrutiint til ninlt li<[u<irs by the nd«li(ion of waur*
salt, and most of the other oubittances mentioned in tJti«
report ; imd it need not in nny way interfere with the differeitfl
cognised strcn<;ths and qualities tif mall liquors now in ujc, at tffit
and double stouts, ales, and porters.

On the Detectiom of the Adulteralioju of Pcrier ohI ^mL

The specijic gravity nf the beer phould be ascertained^ and then itMP*
/i(7^,by means of a solution of ttni-d carbonate of soda of known itna^
The porter should next 1>c ftiihmilio-d to diKtiltation, ustni^ abmrt^lMV
grains. It is necessary that the ticetic acid of tiie porter abii^ ht
neutinlincd previous to distillation, otherwise it will pman owr «fA
tb(j alcohol^ and so affect the quantity and speciSe gravity of ik&r*
tilled liquid. It is also advisable that fully two thirds of tin I«7v4
be distilled uff, otherwise some of the spirit will remain behind. 11 (*
easy to convince oneself that this is really the eain;, eiiUer by ilislflSaf
three separate pints of the sume porter, taking off different qaaalilai^
or by removin<rthe product of thi* distilhition of tbe siune mmfk tt
three ditTeriMit periods, when spirit will, in most rosea, be fmuuBW
present in the lost us well aa in tbe first portion of liquid which eamm
over, although of course in greatly diminbhed amount.

Another meuiiuriMl portion of the porter, say 3^00 p^ni. fthoaU
next l>e tiiken, and the gam and sugar in this determined in iWfi^
lowing manner : —

The gurn^ together with other matter, «hou1d b<! fn-ecipitatrd fcf
aubacetate of lead ; the migar reinainii in solution. The fluid ptfS
is to be separated from the solid: this is best etTected by decaaiibift
and the addition to the prccipitst** of small quantttiM of dadU
water. Af\er separation, the lead in each is to be g^t rid of by oflMi
of sulphuretted liydn>};en, care being taken to use a water laCtl^
or some of the iron of the sulphate of iron uaed for obtAJnia( A^
sas will pass into the solution. We have now obtained two tit0
liquids, the one holding chiefly gum in solution, and the (HbcruflK.

Tliese are next carefully evaporateil — the sugar over a water Wik
until it ceases to lose weight — the gum until it becomes oenrly tJUk

PORTER, AKV ITS ADULTERATIONS.

513

when it should be treated with a liltt« alcohol, dried and wcijrhcd.
Ftnailj, both the sugar and the gum should be incinerated, aud the
ash deducted.

Another portion of the porter, equal to the above, should be eva-
porated to drrncflB, and the weight of the extract detennined; thiH
should BfYcrwards be burnt, the a:»h weighed, and, ifneccssarr, tested
ibr Bait and iron.

The several resuUs thus obtjttned are all lobe calculated to the
imperial gallon of 70,000 ^ruins.

The taste of the ush ia usually sufBeicnt to betray the presence
of 50//, and *itii colour that of iron. From experiments made, we
have a.scerlained that when suljtliate of iron U present in porter, in
as small n iptantity aa two grains to tho nine gallons, the well burned
ash of the extract will be found to be more or less coloured with
the red oxide of iron. This i» n very delicnte means of derei mining
the presence of iron in piirter; and if iron in the above small cjuan-
tity be found in it, tliere will he every reason for susfiecling that
sulphate of iron has been itdded to the beer; for the ash of jienuine
pnrter extract is never in the 8li;ihte8t degree cnluured, but is alwaySi
when well freed from carbonaceous matter, either white or greytsh
white.

On the Deiectiam of Bitiers, Carminatit>e$^ S^c^
The detection of many organic substances sometimes employed in the
adulteriuion of porter and beer is, in most caaes, a matter of extreme
dilficuUy, and in others it is altogether im[>ossibIe in the present Btat«
of Rcience.

The following is the general methoil of proceeding for the dipcovery
of the hittern^ carmiuaiivtM^ and acrid suhHtaueei employed : —

The extract of about 3000 gmina of the porter or beer ia to be
treatc<l with boiling alcohol, the alcoholic decoctitm is tu l>e evapo-
rated, and the extract tnsted ; the presence of many of the articles
used will be sufficiently apparent by the tnste. This is especially the
case with the hot, pungent, and acrid substances used, as well as most
of the bitters.

On the Dittction of Cocctilus Indttu*.

One of the mn^t injurious of the sab»tance9 ndded to beer is the
extract prepared from the seeds or berries of coccuIh.% ituiinu. Its
detection in beer, and especially in [>orter, is all ended with very great
difCcuUv ; imd in inuny caseft, when employed in small quantities, it
cannot be discovered by any known means. Dr. llcrapath has re-
cently published the results uf some experiments, instituted with the
view of detcrmiiving the presence in beer of picrotoxiity the active and
poisonous principle of cocculus indicus. lie directs that the beer
or porter should be first treated with excess of acetate of lead, so

PORTER, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

fts to throw down all gum und colouring; matter. The dear liq-

u then to be Beparato<l by filtratiun, and the excess of laad prosipi*
tated by sulpburetlt^d li^drn^'t;!!. AfUT standing Tor sonic time, or
boiling 90 aM to get rid nt' uncuoibined sulphuretted brdrtigcn, it it ti*
be liltenid again. Tho Hqutir, thus obtained, is to W te^^ionttd
at a mo<leratc temperature until it becomes rulher thirk, aad iWn
trente<l with a little pure animal charL*oat. After sUinding for me
time, thn charcoal is oollectci on a filter^ waahed with Tcry link
water, and dilL-^d at a steam beat. The charcoal contains the pier^
toxin, which may be separated by boiIin;cr with a litlle purt tJicobd,
filteriu};, und evaporating to dryness on slips of ;;ld»^. It
niaed by its forming plumose tutU of acioular crystala, or ebt
shaped forms.

M. Laaaaignc has statcl that picric add is sometimes aacd to i
a bitter taste to bc^r and porter, and that it may be thus
He finds that this aubsltuice is not precipitated by siibacetate of In^
whicti throws down most of the other colouring maiters of beer, tt
welt as the bitter principle of liops and also thnt it 19 not absorMlf
common bone cliareoal thoroughly puri5ed by uciJs. By uilimm Of
one or other nf thcM substances, he succeeds in obtaining; a lAltfiUr
pure snluLion of picric acid. M. Lassaigne states that while purvbicr
IS alinoHt entirely decolourised by either subocetate of lewd or piin6e4
bone chnronnl, beer adalternted with the one twclve-tbousjindtiicr rrfl
tho one eighteen -thou.'*anikh purt of picric acid, remains of a ydls*
citron colour. Supposing the beer to contain a still more maatK
quiintity of picric iicid, it must, subsequent to the use uf imeor
of the above substances, bo evaporated until the yeUow citron
is produced. It is possible that by the above method picrw wi
might be detected in poor &nd prtle beers, but we very much AaH
whether it would be successful in the case of London stout and porter,
ivhieh lire not entirely decolourised by cither subacetate of leadsrf*"
rifipd charcoal.

The presence of cocculus indicus may sometimea be d«t«rafa«lfcr
the cfTecta, produced upon animals, binis, and fishes, of tbe afcohav
extract of toe beer containing thai narcotic.

The process for the detection of itrychuine in beer will be htA
describe<l under the head of Ale, and that fur opiufn in oivaiitc Btf-
turea under that of Cijzars.

On the Detection of the Adutieration* of Hop*. — The ttreral tit.
stances elsewhere enumerated as having been discnrerecl in hopa,|
all he resdily discerned frequently by the eye alone, and in»
by the microscope. The structure of Nirdamom snd^ or grwitt
paradise, which is the article most frequonlly employed, will oc Al
described and figured under the head of Curry Vowder.

On the Drtecttnn of the Adidierationt of Matt. — 'JTie admatazf ^
unnialted with malted barley may be discovered on a can*ful pmssL
n« well OS microscopical, examination of the grains} thcgruniofask

rORTEH, AND ITS ADrLTEKATIONS.

arc white, more friable, and sweeter than those of raw barley, and the
celtulose is Ascertained hy means of the mtoroseo^ic to have beeomc
desitroyed. See p. 30i.

It huTtng b(*en proved thnt beer is enormously aduUernted, let us
now intjuiru how far the £xcise protects the revenue in the cuAe of
this articU'.

As btu been shown, malt and Aon«, the ingredients used m brewing
bepr» are both adulterated, as is oh-o the beer itself.

It appears from the evidence of Mr. PliitlipH, already quoted, that
the Excise, with its 70 chemists au<l -1000 inspectors, in the course of
twelve years, have exAmiDed only 40 samples of Ao/v, of which 35
were adulterated.

With regard to wia//, the Excise is in a state of happy ignorance, as
Bpp*j?ars from tlio followin" remiirks of Mr. Fbillips : —

Mr.Villwrs. " What information can you (live us respecting maUP**
— "The fact is, we have been in 5<mie tlifficulty about that, and I be-
lieve we have arrived at a mcuna hy whieti we ciin detect any mtxiure.
It is po:iaible wc may have been defmuilcd nf malt duty by the mix-
ture of grain; some traders assert we have largely, but I rannoi say
of my own knowledge."

"What would be the nature of the mixture ?*' — " Chiefly barley, I
suppose."

The Excise is but little better informed respecting beer. Of 1 139
samples examined by the Kxcise iu twelve years, taken, when about
Ui be ex]M>rtcd, from vessels for the purpose of ascertaining their
prnvity so that the drawback might be allowed, that scientific body
succeeded in discovering adultcrution in only twelve tiamples.

Such is a summary of all that tbc.soienlific department of the
Excise has been able to effect in discovering adulterations in bops,
malt, and beer.

The Excise duty on malt since tbe 5th of July, 18^16, is 3«. 8</^ and
6 per cenU thereon per bushel. During the war, from May, 1954, to
6u\ July, 18vi6, it was 4*. per busheh

Since tlie l4llx of August, 1855, malt made under certain regula-
tion boa been free of duty for distillation* which will account for the
falling off in quantity in Scotland and Ireland particularly.

The quantities of nuM retained for home consumpUon were, in —

Itu.

iw.

ItfiA.

Nlam ManilK ^
1«M.

SocitUnil ...
Ircltnd . - -

Uolted KtD|dom .

4,ica,wi

l,6W,fJ76

Bmbtb.

>,4ll,!i||
l,SS7.«77

BiuImU.

BiHlMta.

ai.oi*.a!»

B61.IB3

4i,in,m

l«,8ll,TI7

»,«7»Jil

njMjaii

L L 3

516

ALE, AND ITS ADULTEUATIONS.

The Excise duty on home groitm hops^ imposed at different ^

and levied an the old and new duty, is toj^ether 2if. per lb., and 6 per'
cent, iliereon.

Fnreis^ hops pay a Customa' tluly of 45*. per cwt.

Foreign hops imported in 1«54, 119,040 cwts. ; in 1855, 24,662
cwts. LntBred for liumt; consjuniptioii in 16^4, 102,100 cwts.; 18«
30,020 cwta.

The (|uiintiiies of home grown hops that pnid Excise duty, am
were retained for linmi* coiisiiinplinn, were (vtTy varying acconlin*
to the orupii) : — Kn^rUnd. in 1 So.S. aO,954,.'j'02 lb«. ; in 1 aS-^
9.293,992 Iks, ; in 1855, 82,368,30*> lbs.; in 9 numtlis of 1856. not
known, the duty bcin^' nil charged in the lost 3 months of the year.
Seotland and Irt^lund, none.

Duty nti awcubts imlicH^, 5$. per cwt. ; extract of ditto, 20 per cent.
advuhrem. Importedin 1854, 1,309 cwts. ; in I855,430i:wU. Ketaiaed
fur home consuinptinn in the Brst of these years, 161 cwts. ; and in the
iteeond, 44 cwts.

Duty on grtiiKx ofparadue^ ISa. per cwt. ; extract of ditto, 20 per
cent, ad valorem. Imports in 1654, 249 cwt9. ; in 1855,299 cwts.
Home consumption in the corresponding years, 300 cwts. and 245 uwts.

Duty on mu vomica^ *2s. per cwt. ; extract of ditto, 20 per cent ad
valorem. Imports in 1854, 370 cwts. ; in 18d6,2l8J cwts. Honoe con-
sumption, GO and 31 cwLs. Kxlract of nitx vomica imported and re-
tutned for consumption in 18'?4, 4 cwts.; and in 1855, 5 cwts.

Botfr and ale of all sortsi, mum, spruce, pay duty on importation of
I/, per barrel.

ALE. AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

>n oi ■

Thb adulterations of ale are for tlie most part the same as those of
porter audbet-r; that is, their strengih a often roduce<l by water f
and the majnrity of substances enumerated under the head of porter,
aa bitters^ carminatwes, sulphate of iron, &c„ are used to rectorc u^
parenlly the redxiced strenwih aii<l ilavour of the ale.

The alleged adulteration of ale with which rtur attention has been
more jiarticulnrly oocupk'd, is that by nirychnine. The following arc
the circumstunces which indnccil the Ekiiior of "The Lancet, Mr.
Wakleyt to undertakes through the author, a very extensive and ri-
goroui* inquiry into the subject.

In the year' 1850. a lieport cume before the public, in which it was
asserted that the deailly poison, stryihiiine, is comoionly employed by
brifwers in the manufacture of" bitter beer" or "pale ale.**

The following was the origin and foundation of this Iteport i

In the course of a leclure delivered at the " Conaervatou^ des Arte

ALE» AKD 1T3 ABLXTS RATIONS.

«ir

et llotiers," AI. Pu>'cn is assorted to Iiuve stat«;d that strychnine was
prepared in liLrf*e qu.inlities iti Fari«, uml tbut the French nudiorilit^
hud asccrtiiined that it was destined for Knj^Iand, it bein;» cMtpff^cd
in tbc manufACturc of the ciflcbraled bitter beer uf that country.

This stAti-ment, after havin;,* appeaivd in tiome of iho French papers,
and iimoiin:«t others in tlie " ConMitutionnel," flitractcd iheiittention of
Bunie Kngtish juurnnli.^t^, who c(rninicnted at >>ome lengtli tiputi it, in*
cauti»U9ly treating the atssertiun an thuugh its truth had been fully
lucertained. At length the injuiiouB Btutementniade its way into tite
columns of ** The Times " newspaper, and thus became universally dJa*
seminated.

It was impoasihlc for the brewers of bitter beer, the prcparntion of
whicli is confined to a small number of jtersnna, to pass by withuut
notice so grave a charge, and one so immediately affecting their
interests. Accordin;rly the two cbief llrnis, those of Messrs. AlUopp
and Sons, and Messrs. Bass and C«., U>st no time in publicly tlenying,
in tlie most unef[uiTocal terms, tliRt strychnine, or airy other dele-
terious aubstonce, was ever employed by Cbeia in the manufacture of
their beer.

These celebrated brewers suggested that their bitter beer should be
subjected to a searching cheniind and niieroscopicul examinulion, and
expressed their winin;£ness lo place the inquiry in the hands of " Tha
Anidyiical tiuniiary Committsion." They olFerud to throw o|»eii
their breweries, stores, &c., in llie must eoioplete and unreserved
ninnner, and afford every facility fur the lulletiit investigation.

Feeling that the subject was one of great importance ; that it in-
volved the public health to a great <Jogrce, ami also llie pecuniary
interests of a trade, which, from it^ magnltmle, had almost assumed a
national cbarat-ter ; that it also affected the judgment of the medical
profession by whom the bitter beers had been so strongly recom-
mended— Mr. Wrtkley ultimately agreed to undertake the inquiiy
ujMiii the distinctly-declared condition lliat the results of the inves-
tij^atioii and analyses, whether favoumble or un!avour;ib!e to the t^-
putiition and t|uulily uf the beer, should hv unreservedly and faith-
fully communicated to the public.

The importance uf the subject will be duly appreciated when it is
recollected that strychnia is the active principle of mac vcmicUt that
it is remarkable for its intense bitterucss and highly poisonous nature;
one sixth of a grain having been known to prove fatal.

In order to put the statement to the test, 40 samples of bitter beer
Were subjected to analysis , twenty of the ale of Mengrt. Jiaaif and Co-,
and the like number of samples of the ale uf Men»r». AlUopp and Sons.

They were all found to consist of the products of malt und hoju, and
the constituents of /jurff s;p-i]i^ UKi/er; no other ingredient of any kind
being discovered, cither organic or inorganic.

These sampb-s were procured under circumstances which preclude
(he poasibUily of error, lalkcyt or of preparation for the selection.

L L 3

SIS

ALE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

IVTuny of the samples were tiikcn from tlic stores of Messn. AUvf^
ami ^ons, and of Messrs. Bass and Co., at Blacltwall and tntb«aff,
whilti otliera were procured from the principtil ngerits and KHiIertin
the iiietro|>olis. In all cases, the utmost fuoilitj fur inT»tig«liixi*>
aflorded.

Some of the ales were destined for exportation, otiiera for ll»e io««
trade; whilst the dates at which they were brewed ext«ndMi ant i
period of ni>arlr two yaxTA. Not nny sample of beer analvicd m
brewed after the promulgation of the itatemeot concenung IheMi*
ployment of strychnia.

Tlie stores ut BliiokwiiU belonjrinj; to Messrs. Bass nnd Gou ««l
Messrs. Allsiipji and Sont*. each comprise inaitj tbouaand butta, boft-
heiidtt, and barrels of bilter Ijecr, wliich, arranged in lierp. -■ ; ' '
one above the other, extend over a upace of several acres, i
of these stores were thrown open to us, and liberty given to t
ever cask we lUose to select In the case nf the agerits :ii
the same liberty of choice was pennttted, and in this manner lu.. -■••
butt was opt-ncd and snmpleii taken.

It i^hould be observed that the rodks are all brandeil with iheasott
of the brewers, and that in miKit discs a re<;i!iter is kept, nntoalj u
the breweries and stores, but also at the agents' and l>otllr?»*. of tU
diites u,t which the (illT<jrent h>t.H were brewed, all di&nce of raislakra
the select ioo of the samples being thus obviated bj relereoorlo (he
marks and rejiistries.

Under the above circurostnnces, and after the most scrutiniflaf *>'
aminalion, mlcnxwopical, chemical, and physiido^ical, we bavf uiU
to detect llie smallest atum of strychnia, or, indeeil, <if any nthfr t&ipr*
ditiits than the products uf molt aud hops, and ibc ouuatiianBt'
pure sprin;; water.

Unknown to, and wholly independent of ounelvea. Mettn, Gnki*
and llunimin, at the retpii-'St of Messrs. Allsopp and Sons, aotjiHftJ
several samples of their bitter beer to nnalytiis. In their poMiM
report, it is stated that they failed to discover tlio tligblMl lna<I
strvchniu.

Those pentleinf-n likewise plact^d tliom^elve* in cnmmuuicatifla *itt
AI. Tayen, with whom the report was stated to have origiuialB
order to a.tcertain from himself the exact nature of the aMtealit
advanced by him.

It appears that the charge made by M. Payen waa foainlcd oa •*
fonuulion uhtuined by M. Ftdletier, the celebrated fireparer of i|Va*
ami other alkaloids, in France, who at one time receivett ao ttnirrfif
a lar|;c tpiantity of strychnia, the destination of which wa« at 6rst ■*■
known to him, but whicii he afterwards found waa ex|M>rlod to Titf*
land, and used, so he informed M. Paycu, to eonplete the biuffav*
of certain kinds of beer.

^' We have reason to know," write Meanv. Grakam and UftfioA
^ although it ia not stated by M. Fayea, that theae remarks of ^

ALE. AND ITS ADULT EB ATI ON 8»

519

leh'er refer to a periofl of ten or Iwelve years past ; and farther,
althimrrh not informed of the amcHint of the order, we have goo<i au-
thority trt state that fifty or a Kuntlrcd ounces would have been consi-
dered a lai jre order for fltrychnU at tlmt time. The ealculation already
eivert shows how utterly insipnificant such a supply of stryebnia would
be for its inmgined application in the pale ulu breweries. It is like*
wise known that the nianufucture uf atrychnia baa not been on Uia
inoreaw' In France of late years."

Kinally, M. Payen exprejiseil his regret that, he had ever said the
fraud appeared tit have beim practised; althf)iij*li, at llie time, he ac-
companied this obserraliifn with the further remark tliat Ike falsijica'
tion had no doubt ceased.

M. Payen excused the statement made by him, on thv (ground thai
be did not orif^inate it, and that the ehur;;e had been made public in
til e year 18jO, in a French work treating of tlie Adulterations and
FalKifiuations of Food. We have procured the publication in ques-
tion, and find that it refers to the matter rather as a va^rue and un-
certain report, than as a <ii^iiiict alle^tion of the use of strychnia by
Kn^liyh brcwera; the author tioneltiding hia remarks on tlie subject
in the following; words : — " AVe hasten to say that this sophistication,
liko the preceding, i.^ far from being ba5e<l upon ascertained facts." •

Tlie fftllowing iire the condudin;; paragraphs of the Kejxjrt of the
Analvticjtl Siinitiiry Cnminission of** The I-ancet" on tJie subject : —

"From the pure and wholesome nature of the ingredients employed,
the modvmte proportion of alcohol present, and the very consid (Table
quantity of aromatic anodyne bitter, denved from hops, cnnluliied in
tliese beers, they tend to preserve the tone and vigour of the stomach,
and conduce to the re^loratioti of the health of that organ when in a
llate of weakness or debility.

" These bitter beers differ from alt other preparations of malt in
contaiiiinff a smaller amount of extractive matter, thus being less
viscid and saccharine, and Gon»c(]ucntly more easy of direction : they
resemble, indeed, from their lightness, a wine of imiU rather than an
ordinary fermentctl infuMion; and it is very satij*f«ctc»ry to find tliat
ft l>cverage of such general consumption is entirely free from every
kind nf impurity.

"The admirer?', tliercfore, of the bitter beer, manufactured by the
celebrateil brewers wc have meniioniMl, may enjoy with advantage
this, their favourite beverage. TLe report so commonly circulated,
that it conlaiiieil a deadly {H>i>on, wns u severe reHeetion oti the saga-
city and judgment of (he members of the me<iical pn>fe»si<'n, becausP
it is perfectly well known that *bitter beer or pale ale* first acquired
and afterwards maintainetl its general celebrity in consequence of the
universal recommendation of our proCesi^iim — a recommendation
which is now found to have had the best possible foundation.**

« DicUonMlrc An AltfrAlioDi cA FsblficaUoai del Subttucca AJImeotiilrei. *c.. p- 1 !••
h V 4

«20

ALE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

It may be well, before proceeding: to deacribe the ti-stji, lo «in-
sider how far the stnteuient made, that strychuia is eniploTcd in the
preparation of bitter bf-er, is consistent with probability. In onlCT
in form an opinion on ihls point, it is necessary to nbtain dear idee*
of the qtmniity of this sulistance necessary to impart bift4*rne«f to a
given bulk nt' fluid, to detorniiiie the eheniic&l condition in which it
exists in beer, and to asccrtnin the amount of strychnin which may b*
introduced into the syst^^m, witli safety to health and liie. With re-
spect to its bitterness, we find that one grain only of strjchnia imparta
a d*!i*ided and |<ersislent biLitTiiess to ut least 40,000 gruins of water,
or upwurds of liulf u Ki^llon ; but the taste of the »nmii t|UHnlity uf.
strychnia is perceptible when diluted with 420,000 gnuiis, or wn
gallons of water.

Hut it must be rcnienibercd that most beers contain frei; acetic aci^
in variable nnioiint, and thnt, therefore, strychnin added to be«r
usmally becomes converted into acetate of strychnia. Now this sail,
Hltbou<!h very bitter, is les^ 90 than i>trychiiia itself; con»etjuonLly, a
larmier amount of tUtf combined ulkahiid i^ neccitsary toiui|>urt thesaxne
de;r'ee of bitterness.

We have ascertained that not less than three jfrains of ncc'Uite of
strvchnfii ure needed to give a persistent and suitable bitterness to
half a ;;iitlan nf walfr; it is therefore evident that not less than one
^ain and a h»l^{>^^t^v(dlnia in combination with acetic acid would b«
required to impart siieh a dtyree of bitterness to the same quantity of
beer as 10 render lis use in the preparation of bittiT beer a matt^^r of
any muinenl. Now a r^uaotity of strychnia so considerable aa thiii
couid not be taken in beer consis^ii'iitly with safety, or even without
danger to lif*;. Were the quantity present in beer much below this,
its use woidd still be iittenduil with the greatest danger, since tlicre is
much reiison to believe that this poison, like digit-tdis, colehicuni, and
certain otln-r active vegetable prtKhKits, is liable to be retaineil in tha
aystein^ nnd let accumulate in it to such an extent, as at leng^th to give
i*ise U) the tetanic spasms oud other Consequences symptomatic of
poisonin;r by strychnia.

From all these considerations, tlierefore, we conclude that the state-
ment made concerning llieuse of strychnia in bter, under any circum-
stances, is {scarcely consistent with probability.

On the Detection of Strychniiu. '

We now come to treat of the means by which the presence of
strycltniu in beer may be determined.

Wlitle chemical science, in its present condition, fails to detect
many comp4>unds derived from the organic kingdom^ it is fortunate
that this is iifit the ca!»e with the majority of the more deadly vege-
table substances, as pruseic acid, morphia, nicotino, brucia, aod also
strychnia.

ALE, AND ITS ADULTERATIOXS,

S2I

Tests for Strychnine. — Strjchnitiff, or strjcbnifl, is met with in two
sliites — the oni; iiiipurCt the otlier pure.

In ils impure condition, it is in *:oiubi nation with ontilher vepetahle
principle, tt'rnied brticia, an J for which thore exisla a wry characterislic
chemicii) test.

Citmmercial ittrychnia is verj commonljr impure, being admixed
with a g^reater or less amount of brucin ; min'h, however, ot" the
Btrycbnia nfianufDctured contains very little of this principle, ond is
even frequently entirely destitute of it, »i»lhat no relinnre, for the
detection of strycliiua, can lie placed ujwjii (his conianiinaliuiii, since
it J8 not constant. The principal lest for brucia, and indirectly for
strychnia, when the two occur logctherj is nitric acid, with which re-
agent a blonil-reij cohmr is developed.

Tor ih<* alkaloid in it.-^ pure stale there arc likewise appropriate and
most salisfaetory tests.

The first, antl chief uf these woa proposed in 1843 by JIarchand*,
wIk) showed that if a fimall quantity <il strychnia berubl»ed with a few
drops of concentrated ^idphurie acid, or oil of vitriol, c<'n!ainin;j a
Teryintnute proportion of nitric autd, no ehon^jeof cnlour would ensue ;
but that rm ihe addition of a small cjiiantity of the puce-coloured
oxide of lead, or even of litharge, a beautiful viuk-t colour is iwime-
diutoly developed, which quickly changes, first to a red, and then loan
oran;;e tint,

A modification of this te*«t was Bub9e(]uently proposed by Mackfi
who suggested the substitution of peroxide of mangnnese for the oxide
of lead. In this case precisely ihe same chanj^es take place, and the
Slime development and play of colours i^ prurluced.

Again, Ottot has suggested a further modification and improvement
of the test by the employ ment of chromnle of [H>ta5h.

Lastly, Mr. Thomp!<on recommended, in 1 849, the use of bichromate
of potash §

One or two drops of stronjr sulphuric acid arc to be allowed to fall
on a minute quantity of strychnia, and in thl^ a small frag^uient of
bichromate of puto&h should be pluccd> around which a beautiful
violet colour will be rapidly and continuoui-ly formed, so long as any
of the strychnia or bichromate of (Hit as li rcuiaiiis undissolved and un-
acted upon.

The whole of these tests are exceedingly delicate and satisfactory —
the last one particularly so; and by it so minute a quantity as (he one
thousandth of a grain of pure strychnia mav be detctrted. Tlie cohturs
developed are the same whichever reagent bo employed, but the linta
are sccd to the ffreaiest advantage wbeu the chmniate or bichromat«
of potash is used, oo account of the solubility of these saltfl.

• Jnurnftl ir Ptmrtnarlo et do Chlrolr, Senc Striri. torn. If. p. 300., 18*3.
t Rucliitrr'a Itcivitortuui. Mcond Mrl#t. «oL xlllL
t PhKrtDiuptiiUrl)P« C*fntr«l-BUtt, !>«:. 30. IS46.
\ Phanascrultr^ Jotirtia), %*A Is. p. 31.

rf^MJ I II. rf<
dc fd^l^vic acid ■ rafsivd ■ flvivtofctrid

dfcg: A»waate«ytheiiiiifcBM i^hci^Egfcttr
iW etkotttl Bolatiaa it to be i iiyMMiJ, mA tW

tliiifi •fctinwit, m well kwwa ; and of tUs propcft; ■■<■— li^t amv
ke tikcn in tke ptCMSt iMtaMe.
Froa two lo tiiree ovmoa mf maamtl ^araoal are to be
tknm^ half a ^loo of beer,
■^lattMi fnMn ci^ttotwtivekMiriL He bMT ■ to b* fibcred, vWb
it win be obwrred that h baa leal Hacb of iti colaHr md a pvtaott af
tti brt«crnc» : tbe cbarono], tbe wboleof wbieb ikoold be ooBrcted oa
tbc fitter, u tben to be btiiled with tcaouneeiaf spirH of vine; tad
c«tb«r of tbe pUiM denribed mbore maj be adopted for obtunni^ tbe
strychnia in a flate of purity.
A* tbe proRCM of erapnratinn U one of c<msiderable time and troable,
anc
I

and as it i« difficalt lo obtain & perfectly colourless rcstdoe in tbtswaj,
tbe last methotl proposed for isolating tbe strvriinia will be fiauad tbe
~^i«( convmietit, ai well m expetliMona.

ALE, AND ITS ADULTERATIOX8.

£33

The two methods of purification may even be coniUncil, anil tlic
piitash and ether may be added to the iii]uenus residue after the eui-
|tluynieiit of the sulutiun of lead and sulphuric acid, and in this way
a very pure elhereal solution may be obtained. l)f tbetwo ])lan!it the
nccesoary precautions bein» observed, the (iv*t is perhaps* the best.

AMiichever proceeding for the extraction and jiurification of the
strychnia be followed, several precaiitiiin.4 are retiuired.

if charcoal be employed for the extraction of the strychnia. It la not
simply sutticient to add the charcoal to ihe beer, but both before and
during filtration the beer must bo well shuken yeveral liines.

Jf (he metlifMi of puriHcation by means uf ether and [>ota«h be
adopted, the spirit of ihe spirits of wine u.«ed to cep;imte the strychnia
from ibtf charcoal should be entirely distilled or eraporateil off, which
may be known to be the case when the va[K>iir evolved ceai^s ti»
smell spirituous, and to be pungent. If this precautiun be not ob-
served, the ether, in place of floating, will combme wiih the water and
spirit.

The erher employed should Ih? stronj* sulphuric ether, nnil itahuuld
not only be well shaken, with the oi|ueous residue, more than once,
but should be allowed to remain in contact with it fur about ludf an
hour, no that it may have time to di&tolve out the strvctiuia.

In uddiii<; the potash cure must be token lest too little or too much
be employed ; if too little be used, some of the organic matter will
remain in suspension i and if too much the aqueous solution will
1>eciinie darkened.

If the plan of purification with acetate of lead and sulphuric acid
be practised, the h-ad must bo added until it fjct-asions no furihir pre-
cipitate, and (he sulphuric acid also, until the intioluble sulphate uf
lead ceases to fall.

When it is remembered that concentrated sulfihuric acid darkena,
and even chars nr;ranic substances of all kimli^, the necessity for a
Complete separation fif the organic impurities will bci.'oine apparent.

A (rreen colour in the course of a minute or twn :dnu>st constantly
forma around tlie Iragments of bichromat*: of p4ita.ih, even when
strychnia is not present, and this takes place very quickly indeed if
any ether, sugar, or or^jnnic matter remains on the elasa. It is pos-
sible that this colour, formed by the ;;reen oxide of chromium which
becomes liberated, mi«;ht be erroneously regarded as mu evidence of
the presence of strychnia.

We refer to all these particulars because unless pointed out ihey
arc calculated to leail,us thev have more than once done withoui**elve4,
to enibarraasment and disappointment.

Before procecilinif to analyj*e the samples, preliminary experimcnta
may be made with beer to whicli has been purposely uddc<l from half
a ^ain to n fn^in of strychnia to a ^nllon of beer; we found that
we could invariably succeed in detecting, by the methods indicaied,
ibe preseooe of the poison id these minute quantities.

524 GIN, AXD ITS ABDLTERATIOX8.

We Ihuii perceive how conclusive are the tests employed fcr t\t

detection nf strychnia.

The following process hy Mr. Rotlgers for the detection ol ftrrtiwi
in the iuiiiiidl iis«u(?s was ptiblinhod somi! months bnck in 'T^ffniaa.*
It is equally applk-oible for ihe discovery of that alkaloid in beer:—

" Tbt» tissues of the IxKly arc riibbi-d witli distilled water id ■ DKHir
to a pulp, and then (iigcst*Ml aiYcr the addilirin of a little hydrocU'iric
acid in an evaporating basin, then strainefl and evapur..* ! • ' 't-"»
over a water bath ; digest the resiilue in spirit, tilt»5r. j' lw

rate to dryness ; treat with distilled water acidulated v>ui, - i<^- -jojji
of hydrocliloric acid, and fdter ; udd excess of ninmcots, anilipisif
over a tube with chbvrciiforin : the strychnine in nn impure coeditioBii
enrirely sonarntiMl ^i-ith the ehlorofomi. ThiJi chlornfonn aolfltkiil ■
to be carefuHy sepamtcd by a pipette, and poured into n gnall <ttL
and wiped to dryness; the residue is moistened withconc«iiiral«d mj-
jihurie nciil, and heated over a water bnth fur half an hour; vitT »
thL*n added and excess of ammonia, again agitated with i*hlonii««,
mid the strychnine will he a^ain sepHrated by the rhlorof«m ww
in a state of sutBrieiit purity fur testing, which chu be do«e ito
cvaporulin;; a few drop* on a piece of white porcelain."

Hut wc need not confine ourselves to chemistry in onler to ohw
evidence ot the presence of strychnia in organic HuifU, a* l^ywIV
will disclose the fjict almost equally well.

One gallon of beer, to whiirh a gruin of strychnia hail hirca puh
]fusiily added, was evaporated to an extract ; this wa* boiled hrteK^J
an hour in a mixture of ether and alcohol; the solution, aAcrfiltn|i*t
was uvaporated, and the residue, of a H>ft consislenc**, was SftatM*
terod as a pill to a small rabbit. In tht counie of two minulM ^
nninial iK'CJune aflvoted with convuUive twitching*; the»c weresli"*^
immediately «uccee<led by a paroxysm of convuUiwis in wlue^ '
Animal threw hinmelf on his side, the head and neek Winf tkn'*
back, the hind and fore legs extended and drawn luurkwank TW
first panixysm was rapidly followed by others and in leas diss ^
minules after the administration of the pill the rabbit was il««iil
having exhibited the peculiar symptomn which characterise pov««<M
by strychnia.

GIN, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

GiM w:'.g made orijrinally in Holland, in the distilleries of SchW"-
and hence that which is brought to this country U tenncd Helu'
Gin. At one lime, when the dutj wa« low, it used to be Urgt^J '^
ported, but owing to the high rate of duty levied upcm it fir i*"

GIN, AND 1T8 ADULTEKAT10N8. AM

past, which was, until I846» U. Is. lOr/. per imperial jrollnn, and
that period lias remained at 15#., — but little now roacht's this
mntry.

In Hollnnd it is made solely from unmalted rjG and hurley malt,
rcnifiLMl with juiimcr bcrrio.-*. In Britnin. ^\n is ibr tlie must part
ulitaitii;d fruin ii tiiixiure of nmit mid barlev, molasses 3n<l I'orn Iwing
somctitnes employed, particularly when there is a ncan-ity »t' griim,
and it is usually flavoured not only with junii*or ln-rrie*, hut with
certain other substance?!, oiost of which are urouiattcs, untl stnonfrst
which are the following : cnriundfr, cnrdainom, nnd carawnT 9€e*ls,
STiiins of paradisCf antrelica root, cahimua root, eru.-'bed alninnd cake,
Uquiiricc powder, and orange peol. These ingredients, viiriounly com-
bini'd. Conn what rire known in the trade as "(»in-flavoLirin;i."

Pure ;iin should <-un6i3t, us iloes liulhiuds, soluty uf rectiSed com
spirit iliivuured with junijwr berries.

0« THE AsCLTEBATIonS OF GlW.

Gin is commonly diluted or adulterated with large quantities of
water.

But since the addition of water to ^in renders the mixture whitish
and turbid, by uecasionin^ the preciprtutiun of tlie oily nnd resinous
matteni of the juniper ami other i^ubslances caniloyed to Huvour iho
gin previously held in snlntinn by the spirit, it becomes necessiuy to
have recourse lo certain suhjitancea tit ** fine** the pn, aa it is tenned,
that is, to restore the transparency of (be spirituous mixture.

The i^ubstances more cotnmoiily emploved fur this purpose are
alum^ mltcarbonaie of potash^ and oeeasionatly acetate of lead. Alum
dissolved in water is first added tu the weakened spirit, and then
% solution of subcarbonste of {tota^h. The whole is stirretl tui*elher,
and left st rest for twenty-four hours. The alumina of (be alum,
precipifoted by the subinrboimle of ])otaj^b, acts "as :» strainer upon
the milky liquor, and rnrriefl down with it the finely divided oily
mailer, which produces the blue eohnir of the diliiteil litjtmr." — -
Accutn,

Roche alum is tfoinelimcs used fur clarifying spirituous liquors
without any other addition.

"Another metlnMJ eorisists in adding; firHt a solution of siibaceUte
of lead, and then a solulion of alum. This practice is biifhly dujigerous
beenuse part of the sulphate of lead produced remains disMilved in
the tinuor, which it thus renders pui.foniiu5. L<nforlumi(eiy this
method of clarifying spirituous liquor:^, I have good reason lu believe,
is more frequently practised than the preceding method, because its
action is more rapid, and it imparts to the liquor a fine cotnnit^xion^ or
great refractive i>ower; hence some vestiges of lead may often be de-
tected in mall spirit." — ^cci*m.

Another substance added to gin is stUpharic acid, Mr. Mitdiell

gtatci! llinl n mixture compnficd of olnm, oarbonnte of polash,
oil, sutplmric ncid, and 9])irii:> of iv'ine, is frenuently Added to ^o.
**This<.'oin|»oiin(l/' he remurks, "nnt only fines ilie gin, but cnmrauni-
c&testo it tlie property of *beading,' or lianginjr in pearly drops or head<
on the sidca ul' the glasn cunlaiiiing it. When gin does thi!^ ii u
pt?nerally supposed to be atronp in proportion a& it bends, and the
iibove mixttjre communicates to weiik gin that properly, eo that it
will be evident gin con be considerably dilittcfl with warer, and yet,
hy ihe addition of the above, appear of it8 proper stren^tb."

But npnciiy is not the only evil produced by the addition of water
lo gin ; the strength and flavour of the ^in are so reduced that it be-
i-oiiiea necessary lo add other substances lo restore the qualitira lust
by dilution : these being su^ar to sweeten it, and cayenne^ in the form
oi' tinrture of vopticunL, or grains of paradite^ to give it pungency and
a|>|>arent slrungth.

The flavour ntid properiies of gin are further modiGed by the uae
of compminds known &n ** gtn /la Pourings .*'

'i'her^e fire L-oniposcd of various cordial and amroatic aubstant
each difitilk'f usually giving the preference to a formula of liia own.

In Dr. MuHpratt's '* Chemistry"* will be found several receipts 1
gin flavourings, copie<l from the note book ot on extensive spi
rectitier. Two of tliese are as follows : —

Plain or London Gin is mode as follows: —

700 cations of the second rectification.
70 lbs. German juniper berries.
70 lbs. coriander seeds.

34 Iha. almond cuke.

]( lbs. angelica root.

6 ll>s. liquorice powder.

For the munufnclure of Wesi Country Gin, known also as Plymontl
gin, the Annexed is the process given in Dr. Musprait's work : — In-
troduce into the still 700 gallons of the secona rectification, and^
flavour with —

14 lbs, German juniper berries.
1^ lbs. catfinius root, cut ; and
8 Ihs. sulphuric ncid.

This gin is much used in Ccmiwal!, and pnrticulnrly in the western
counties of Englnnd ; it in al^o u^cd in nmkitig liriti^n Hollands, and
in that case is mixed with about five percent, of fine gin, reduced
to twenty-two nndcr-proof with liquor.

Amtmpst the ingredients enumerated in the other receiptee and not
contained in those above given, are orange peel* calamus rootf caaata
buds, orris root^ cardamoms, and grains of paradise.

In Shannon's work, '* Ou Brewing ana Distilling," we meet with

Chraibirr, Tliaorftlcal. Practical, and Atul7tlcal.

GIN, AND ITS AULXTKBATIO^CS.

537

tbe (uUowing instructions for reducing unswcotcncd gin, and for prfr-
p:inng luid sweetening Uriluh gin : —

" To Beducc Unsweetened Oin,

** A tun of fine gin
Water

252 gallons.
36 „

Which, added together, make - - 288
The Doctor u now put on, and it is

further reduced with wiUer - - 19

Which gives

307 guUona of gin.*

** This done, let one pound of ulum be just covered with wnter, and
dissolved by bfiiiing ; rummage the whole well together, and pour in
the alum, and the whole will be fine in a few hours.

" To Prepare and Siveeten Britith Gin,

" Get from your distiller an empty puncheon or cask, which will con-
tain about 133 gitllotis. Then tjilce a cask of clear rwtified spirits —
r20git]luns — ol the usual strength at which rectifiers seLt (hcirgoo<ls;
put the I'iO gallons of spirits into jour empty cask.

"Then take a quarter of an ounce of oil of vitriol, half an ounce of
oil of almonds, a quarter of an ounce of oil of turpentine, one ounce
of oil of juui[)er berries, half a pint of spirit of wine, and half a pound
of lump sugar. Ueal or rub tfie above in a mortar. When well
rubbed together, have ready prepared half a gallon of lime water, one
gallon of rose water: mix the whole in either a pail ur cask, with a
slick, till every particle shall be diwtolved; then add tn the foregoing
twenty-6vc pounds of sugar di«>olved in about nine gallons of ruin or
Thames water, or water that has been boiled: mix the whole well
together, and stir them carefully with a stick in the i:)3 gallon cask.

** To force down the same, lake and boil eight ounces of alum in
three quarts of water for three quarters of an hour; take it from the
fire, and dissolve by degrees six or seven ounces of salt of tartar.
When the same is milk warm, pour it into your gin, and stir it well
together as before, fur five minutes, the same ns you would a butt of
beer newly 6ned. Let your cask stand as you mean to draw it. At
every time yuu propose to sweeten again, that cask must he well
washed out, and take great care never to shake your cai^k while it is
drawing,"

But it appears there are other little practices, bcitides those con-
nected with adulteration, which itre sometimes had recour-^j to by
retailers of spirits. Mr. Shannon, from whose work *' On Brewing
and Distilling" we have just quoted, gives the following advice and

528 GIN, AND ITS ADULTEEATIOSS.

recnmrncixlcitions o.^ to ocrr&in mnnipulatinns and parliculm vfcicii
i>houlil be observed in retfiilinjr !*pinU oyer the counter.

'* When jou arc to draw a sample of goods to «>bow a penoa tW
hnR judgment in the proof, do not draw jour goods into aphiilubt
Ta^ti'd, or ir uke experiment of the strenjzth thereof that waj, hcniiai
the prfHtf will not hold except (be pooth be exceetJincljf fOtm^: tan
draw the pattern nf gootls either into the glus fmm Oie cock, to nn
very 9Ui;di, or rather draw off a soitdl qu&ntilj into a ViVdt |«v1er
pot, and pour it intn your ^lass^extendinjf tour ptti ss higtitbo*cd(
<;Iits9 as you can without wa^tinf; it, which midces the ^xAicUTjk
l)ctter head abundantly, than if the same goods were lo be pgi ai
tried in a phial.

'^ You must be sn prudent as lo make a distinction of the pflvai
you have In ileal with ; what goods you sell to gentlemen for tkcxr
iiwn use who require a great deal of attendance, and us much farUM
uf payment, you must take a considerably greater prioetban of odvn;
whut go(Mlfl you Bcil to perAonn where you believe there is a n^'^tfK
or lit lea.^t «ime, hazard of your money, you may safely adl tar mm
than common profit ; what goods vou sell to the poor, efpedaDf
medicinally, 0^ many of your goods are sanative.) be ai
flionate as the casea require.**

HesuUs of the Awdt/na of SampUa,

The following are the results of the analysis of Thirty'eigkt tmfta
of gin: —

That the strength of the various samples ranged from \Sfi4SglL
to 34,160 grs. per imperial gallon ; the |)er-centagi*9 ranging £■
2*2 35 to 48-80 per cent.

It thus appears, that some of the spirits contained only half if waA
iilfohol as wad present in sv>me of the other samples, and tbfrdbn
that their ccnnmercial value was redut^ to the enormous cxteai "f
more than one half; thus, supposing sample 2. to be worth IfeMt
gallon, sample 3.5. would be worth less than 6s. per galloa. lai
variation in the strength of the spirits is doubtless princapttlly attnba-
table to dilution with water.

That the quantity <jf su^'or ranged from 3 oz. 4 dr. 33 gr. to 18 oil
4 dr. 13 gr. per gallon.

TliAi two of the samples contained oi7 ofeinnamoH, or mare prob^
of ctuxin.

That Jir^t^m of the samples contained Catehiib pxrrsi, mmmo/iIm
in very large (tuantily, so that the syrupy extract Xeit on etapowtfaa
possessed a burning and fiery taste.

That in no cai^e vratfree wtUphuric acid detected: it« abMnotbikl
sutliciently shown, by alt the samples bein;; neutral to tett (MLper.

That mott of the samples containe<l combined sulpbatea, cfaidlvdi^
rived from the water and alum used in the adultemtioa aod danAfl^
tion of the gins.

GIN, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

539

In aiMition to the abore adulterntionft, we have the authority of a
[in (liAtilltrr fur slutiiii; tliat the practice of adUiiif^ Eulphate <■■/ zinc^
as it is conimouly called, tchtte tUHol or white copperun^ to gin
very commnn. Uero nguin^ then, we have obtained evidence of
■•the adulteration of gin in a manner calculated to prove ii^jurious
lito health.

It 15 impossible to conceive of more Kandalous adulterations of
gin or other spirits than thnse by Cayenne pepper or grainx of para-
dixe^ I'nr ihej are almost equally hut and puiij;;ent. The introduction
i]ili> the iiloriiach of raw spirits is sutficienlly destructive to health of
itsflf, but the uditition of such powerful and acrid substances as
Ciivcnne ^nd j^rnins of paradise to spirit, forms a conipound which no
human 5(omuch or nystoiiif however «tron;;, can long wiihstnnd,

Allliou^ih sulphuric acid was not present in any of the s:imple8 of
Lomlon ^in which we examined, it is yet, no doubts sometimes cm*
ployed, and this in lur^e quantity. Dr. Muspratt statt^ that it is so in
AVest Couutry gin. if any sample of gin exhibit an acid reaction,
the presence of sulphuric acid may be suspected, and it may be dis-
covered limply by the evaporation at a gentle heat of a little of the
gin, placed on the hob of a fireplace. As soon as all the spirit and
water have been driven off, tlio sulphuric acid will act on the sugar,
and quickly reduce it to n black carbonaceous mass.

llie adulteration of gin with Cayenne pepper is mostly effected by
means of tincture of capsicum, and it is practised in the majority of
cases by the publicans tberoselves. We are acquainted at the pre-
sent time with the name of a publican whom we have ascertained to
muke periodical purchases of tincture of capsicum. We know the
cht'uiist of whom he purchases it, and we have detected it in more
than one sample of tht.* ^in sold by him to his customers at the bar.

We have often in the course of this work commented on what we
conceived to be the remissness of the Excise autboriiies. Here is a
gro«>9 adulteration of gin, commonly practised, and detectable in a
ready and simple munner, by which the revenue is defrauded, and
which is seriously detrimental to health ; and yet we do not remember
to have ever heard that the Excise has to put a stop to so iniquitous an adullerotion.

The differful kinds of spirit* are obtained in a comparatively crude
stale from the grain by the distiller. Thi'y are afterward;* submitted
to ptirification by the rectifier, as well as procured of a higher strength.
The impurity of raw spirits arises priucipdly Ifom the presence of a
peculiar volatile oil, termed /mil oil^ and possessing very deleterious
properties. Of this oil, and of the method uf freeing spirits from it,
we meet with the folhtwing account in Vre's Dictionary* : — "Some-
times, after moist autumns, when damaged grain abounds, the alcoltol
distilled froiu it^ fermented wash containa a peculiar volatile body«

• 4ihR41llon. rot l.p M
M H

CIS, A3n» IT» ADCXT£K.%r[0>a.

fat

If ■»!>»■■ J frcasj. It »
tai rhtmtm-iH bf JbdC » I
of tke gi««l

At tlw end cCa feir Mom^ it
ia Ae ifiititi, and Icsna tfceaa is a tern
)e. B7 Iwgdy diliitiiig tka ifitsitt wiili wai<rr, 3
at a ■uJeratc l<i|mi|an, Ike ^nasv put oT tku oil
Put of h eone* vw^ «lib tke
with tbe latter nwain^ whkfc are caOed hf tW datiDen
^and weak fisiiiti. Hie iaSenalediBte portioa m porer cptrit. ICIk

ahrajt laore or Icm opaleaecat; or becoie 90 on dilution «tt
-vatcr, and then tlvow ap an 6Ay pellicle anen ibetr mrfikce. TW
;aliareoab of ligtit wood, woA as pme or wAlow, well calcixied, tad
in MiAeieat quancitjr whk tlia apirila prior to rectificatioB, wfll
re then of the gieatcr part of ilait oQ/ eootaaniBaltoa. Anuml
lal, well calcined, has at^o been found nselttl ; but it most be
ited fur Sfjme time with ibe enipTreamatic spiritabefire
Another znetbod of feeparating that ofiensrre oil ia to
Aa iBpwe flpirits with a qmuniitj of £at oil. rach as olire oO, or o3
of alaKtods, to decant off the o3, and re-distil the ^irits with « littk
wat^T.

"Diorcrtion «nd agitation with calcined magnesia for annc taam
fnllowfHl hj filtration and distillation, are sliogooil mcuis ftir im|wx>T*
ing the flarour of alcohol. The taste nf the oil of grains is best
irco<wniaed by agitation with water, whercbr, on standing, the Ha^ff>ti
-fpint throws up a film of oil visible br redacted light. If the spirit
he mixci with a few drops of nitnitc of silver, and exposed for
time to sunshine, the oil will react upon the oxide of silver, and
a brown tinj^e ; but if there be no oil present, the spirits will rei
limpid. If one part of hyrlrate of potash, dissolved in a littJc w
hi* uiixcd with 150 parts of spirits, and if the mixture be well sbuki
tlien slowly evaporated down to 16 parts, and mixed with 15 ports
dilute sulphuric acid in a phial, to be then corktHl, there will
exhale from the mixture a peculiar offensive odour charBctoriacie of
the quulity and origin of the impure spirit, whether obUiine<l from rai
grain, from mull, from polntot:^ ryp, arntck, rum, brindy, &c. Tl;
ex(!cIlout proresi* niav oc uwid hJao for te^iinjf «rine«- Lime
nllcdlifl alway* injure the flavour ofurtlent npirrts of all kinds."

Dr. Taylor remarks of fusil oil, "thul. in small uuanlitiejt it produ
in toxica l.i(m. I have ex[>erient:ed the effects of the vapour, and
lliem to be giddiness, accompanied with a feeling of suffocation and
•cn«c of foiling. Headache followed which last^ for half an hour.**

cause I
nnaif^H

rat«^H
ak(^H
ru <^H

GIN, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

531

" Two (Iranhms of the oil kUIecl n rabbit in two hours, three drachms
Id an tiouff half an ounce iu n ijunrter of an hour, and onu ounce
in four minutca."

Much of the unwholcsomcncsa of spirit ixDperfectl> rectified otlms
i^om its contamination with fusil oil

Ou the Detection of the Adulteraiitnu of Gin.

Adulteration with Water. — The adulteration of gin with water may
b« determined in two wuya, the one indirt^ct and the other ilirert-

The indirect method is by estimating the quantity of alcuhul con-
tained in it. This is dTected by the processes deauribed below.

Method of Ettimatitig the Qtimitity of Alcohoi present in any

Spirituous Lifjuid.

Saecharometers^ SfC. — There are several methods by which tlie
amount of alcohol cuutained in any spirituous liquid may be deter-
mined with greater or less accuracy. One of the readiest of these
meatu is to ascertain the specific gravity of the spirit by a specific
frravity instrument for liquids. Of these instruments, muiiy diflereut
kinds have been invented, witJi scales adapted to the range of the
liquids for the deteimtnatiim vf the deo^ity of which they huve been
coristructed : thus wo have saccharometerg^ hydrometers^ aUoholometerSt
specific gravity UottleSy &c. ; but the principle on which these instru-
mental are constructed is alike in all cases. By the saecharomrter the
amount of extractive matter in beer or other alcoholic liquid is ascer-
tained.

St/kca* Hydrometer, — The instrument in general use for determining
Ihespecificgravily of spirituous liauidsin thin country is what is known
as Hykes' Hydrometer. It diifcnj, towever, from the ordinary hydro-
meter in ilie division of its scale, and also in the use of weights. The
hydnmiett^r i.n-jilculated to show the strength in spirit either above or
below a certain fixed standard, denominated *^ proof ."** The stem of
the instrument is graduated and subdivided, so as to meet tlie ex-
trcines of variation in the strtiigth of the liquors examined by it.

Sykes' hydrometer is the inBtrument mostly used by the Kxcise, by
brewers, distillers, and pubbcaiis.

Since the siHJcific gravity of a spirituous liquid is subject to great
variations ul differenl temperatures it is necessary that the tem{>«ra-
ture uf the spirit jit the time of taking Un weight should be noted, and
corrections made !or this by means ol certain tables which have been
constructed for the purpose. The standard temperature at which the
ttpccific gravity of the spirit is usually token is 60° Fahrenheit.

* " Thli liquor po( beltif atttril •wrmconl, nr bif log any IngrMlnnt dliinlTiKl tn It to
dirfml lh»- iirirngth thrrntf. of ttiv lamp, of &l^ Ffthr,. «(>1gb* cxartlf f J f>«rtj o( an equal
tiMHUurv urdlttUled waur."

M M 3

S5%

OIN, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS,

The specific gravity test for detcrmiuiog the amo<int of aIcaM
present in liquids is applicable only wheti tbey ore Iree rrvm aziT 5oIid
sub.stancc, ns cxlrnctive, sugar, &c , the presence of which, by aifectinf
tlie weight, of course influences the s|vecific gravity. When, thmt-
fore, any liquid contains faccharino or other solid matter, it «
requipilc that the spirit tihouM he sepanited by ili^tillution, and iitaS
the Ppecifie gravity of the alcolKil thus obtained should be take**
AVhere strict accuracy is require*!, it will be ucceewurv to have ir-
cnurse to di^itilliition in almost all cases, since there are hut few nurils
which do not contain more or less solid matter.

Centesimal Alcoholometer. — A considerable improremerit on Svkfs*
hydrometer is the instrument, invented by M. iiny Lus»ac luanv years
since, colled the centenunal alcoholometer. This instrument, wtieciii
mersed in any spirituous liq^uid at the temperiiture of 15* centii
equal to £9° Vahr., at unce mdicules the qunntity of alcohol
sure present. As its name intplies, the stem is divided into a

Earts or 'h'grees, and i» so contrived (hat each degree rcpredi
uudiedlh part of anhydrcius or pure alcohol ; thus the [x^nt at

it floats, when immersed in any spirit at a certain lenijieruture, n

cates exaclty the per-centagc of absolute alcohol contained in that
spirit. The great Yutue of this instrument is, that it jihowa at onct
the per-('enUi;:e of alcohol, all subsequent calculations, with
loss of time involved, utid the possibility of inaccuracies, being th<
avoided.

Ebullioscope. — Another instrument, constructed on a totally dil
ent principle to the ordinary densimeters, is the ehuHxoscope or eh
tion nkohalnmcfer. This instrument is based upon tJie tncl that
boilio^r puint of spirituous liquids varies accordntg to the amounCI
alcohol foiK.iined in them (a discovery made by the Ablto Bn
Vida.1, of Toulon), without its bein^ essentially modified, like
other instruments, b^- the presence and nature of any solid ingredit
which may be contamcd in them.

There are several forms of this instrument; there is the ori^i
one of M. Brossard-Vidal, and ihc Diodilicutions by M. Conaty^
MM. Lerebnurs and Secretan, and by Dr. Ure.

The nieniiriid thermometer used in the modification of the instru-
ment by MM. Lercbours and Secretan is graduated centesimaljy
degrees, which correspond to those of the centesimal alcoholuuieter
M. Gay Lussac, and its bulb is plunged in the liquid to be provi
The liquid is carefully heated by means of a spirit lamp, the flni
of which should not be strong, lest it occasion the too rapiil ebulliti
of the spirit. Before using the instrument, it is nceessury to dcU
mine the boiling point of pure water, and the barometrical pressi
of the atmospht-re on the day on which the experiments .ire made.

In Dr. Ure's modification of the instrument, the scale is adapted
that of Sykea' hydrometer.

Jt would be of the greatest possible advantage — would save ii

GIN, AKD ITS ADULTERATIONS.

533

mense time aad trouble — if densimeters of nil kind.-* were reviscdf
and were reduced to une uniform centesimal sculCf aa is done, iu fact^
in m&ny of the inslruoieiits in use on the ConUueiit.

TUe ebulliuscope is probably sufficieiiUy accurate in tlie results
-which it furuubcs to atifurd consideruble service lo the disliUcr, the
rectifior, the wine maker, and the brewer; but is certainly not so
where strict analyiti:* is required.

Dr. Ure's nio-iiticution ot the ebullioscopo, together with a full
descTiptinn of ittt priiiciples und application, may be obtained of Air.
Joseph Yourg, Litile Tower Street.

Aicithtfiometric DUntometer. — Another instrument which has beon
invented fwr the determination of the proportion of alcohol in tpiritu-
oiiH lii|uids is the alcokulomctrtc dilatumeter of M. Silbermnnn. By
\\i\s instrument, the antoiiitt of spirit is determined by the uilistion of
the spiritunuB liquid at various lenupcratures.

Siteci/ic Gravity Botltc. — A 8till more accurate method of deter-
mining (he quantity of alcohol contained in spirituous li<mids from
their specific gravity, is by meuiis of the nveajic gravity hottlt. In
using this, the sumc precautions with reganf to temperature und the
presence of any solid substance in tlie spirit must be ob>erved.

For (»rdiimry pur|K»<es, in the hands (.»f niunufaclurcrs and dealers^
of all the initttunients for determining; the strength of spirituous
li<[uoi-s. the centesimal aleuholorncter nf INI. Gay LuAtac is the sufcst
and best, nnd, next to that, Syktes* hydrometer. But the chemist,
when any solid matter is contained in the liquid to be examined,
should, in all east^.i, separate the alcohol by distillation, and determine
its amount from the diaiJllcd liquid, and this is the method by which
we have proceeded in the deterniinution of the alcohol contained in
the samples of gin tlie results of the analyses of which we have made
known. The exact steps to be adopted are aa follows : —

The temperature of the several spirits is to be reduced in all caaes,
by meana of u solution of ice and salt, to one uniform degree — viz,,
(jO*' Fahr., and ita snecifn; p-avity at that temperature determined by
means of the specific gravity bottle; 1500 grains by measure are
next distilled, and the distillation carried nearly to dryness ; the di:!-
lillcd lir|uor \i brougfit to G0° Falir,, weighed, and it^ specific
giavity ugaiu taken. These particulars being determined, the i>er-
ci'ntnge of ulcoliol is ascertained by the ilcobolo metrical table of
Tndles. (Se«j p. 536.)

The third coliiinn of this table exhibits the difTerencea of the
' specific gravities which give ihfi denominator of the fractiun for such
d<*nsitics as are not found sutRcicutly near in the table, and the dif-
fcHMice of their numerators is the next greatest in the density found
in the table; for example, if the specific gravity of the li(]uor found
for «0** Fahr. = y 605 (the per-cenloge will he between :W and 34),
the difference from 9609 (which is the next great'.'st number in the
table) = 4, and the fraction is i*i, theretbre the true per-ceutage is

11 )i 3

■

^H S34 GIN% AND ITS ADULTE RAT IONS. ^^V

^^B 33-i*s, or, (Iccimttlly, thus, 33'31. In order to ascertain the amount, H

^^H hy volume, of alcohol in tlie gin or other Hpirit iiiulcr examination, B

ALCOHOLOMETRrCAL TABLE OF TRALLES.

|OOM*«Mtm

W Fkhr-

OUItevMvar

AlMholln
lOOMMXim

00° f «br.

PlffMMMor

t^Hfint,

Qi-*H3.

•r»ririi.

Undo-

&MI

9-S16

y-'j76

J A

ftl

9195

•i

i»^>;i

l.>

9^5

y-ii47

9*1M

9-933

9-S14

y-?i9

9*218

QI'OB

9 19'i

3«*3

9 170

M-BSI

9148

Q-DCV

9116

9W7

9-lM

y-Ms

VMS

9-&H

9000

9S'i3

til

9*0U

y Nil

Its

9-OIS

9-802

8D8g

.34

9rA

«7

SMI

97HI

8-04 1

^^^B

9*771

8-017

^^^H

9-761

Sttn

9-7(il

8-M7

9J<I

8-A41

9-711

a-siT

y7w

8-7VI

y7io

7»

S-TfiS

S«

y-iifl

8738

O-fixy

8-711

9fu9

S'flSS

yf-;8

8-SU

9ft57

»*a3i

9C4r.

8-601

9f^l

I'i

8'fi7ft

Q-firi

tl3

S'S47

9ft>9

S-ftIS

y-.-M

8-4*S

9-aH;i

84S4

9-57n

8-488

9-SiS

8-8W

9-jni:

»9

s-aos

!*-52ti

«Q

S'SSl

9-510

8-»»

9-491

B-MS

UiPi

S-SM

9-«I

8-194

9-4't4

arm

9-4,.'r

8-iia

9-4'«

8-077

9'30l

8-U34

411

9 37 J

7-9M

9 3M

100

7-939

9as5

^^H

t is necessary to proceed as follows : — In order to find the ner-ccnt-

^^P age of absolute alcohol of 7*939 specific gravity in a sample of apirit, H

^^^■^^ * AnhyOroui Alcohol of ipccl6c ffravUr 7'9t&. ^M

GIN, AND ITS ADULTERATIOSS.

i.15

divide the number of grains ilistilled over by tlie specific gravily of
ihe di»liUet1 spirit. Multiply this quotient by the per-centa;;e ac-
cording to TruUcSf and divide this sura by the bulk of the orijjinal
eanipto taken; the quotient is the per-centaje. This per-centniie
muUiplied by 700 ;;ivea the number of grainri uf absolute alcohol by
volume in the gallon. The above comprise nil the calculations
necessary for arriving at ibis result. The following U a staleoient uf
the several sums : —

1600 gr. by volume yield 1334*6 gr. by weight; «p. gr. -9484;

per-centa;je, 4I'6'2

« The bulk oftue dL4tilled spirit is obtained by

As -9484 • 1- :: I334-i'. : A

The volume of absolute alcohol obtained by

As 100- : A :: 41*67 : B
The per-ccntagc by volumes in the sample by

As 1500 : B :: 100- : C = syoy

To find the quantity of absolute alcohol in a gallon.

As 100- C : 700 D
the quantity required.

From the construction ofTralles* table, the per-centoge of alcohol
by wcipht may also be found — for instance, multiply the number re-
prpsentinji the volumes of alcohol given in the table for any deter-
minate specific gravity of the mixture by the specific gravity of the
pure alcohol — that is, by 7*039, and the product is the number of
pounds of alcohol in so many pounds, as the specific grnvily multi-
plied by 100 gives. Thus, in the mixture, 9510 specific gravity,
there are 40 mciisurcs of ulcihol ; hence there are also in 95*100 lbs.
nf this spirit 7 939+40 = 31*7.56 lbs. of alcohol; and in 100 tbs. of
the snirit of 0*9510 specific gravity 33 39 lbs. of alcohol are con-
tainea.

On the Presence of Sulphates in Gin.

The direct method of determining whether gin has been adulterated
with wat»r is by ascertaining whetlier the gin contains sulphates or
noC

The addition uf acid nitrate of baryta to gin which has not been
ailulterated with water, should not occiision any precipilatiou uf sul-
phates, Itecause the water contained in the spirit is all ilistilled.
When, therefore, on the addition of tlie above rt'ajient, a precipitiite
is thrown down, this is due either to the presence of free or combined
sulphuric acid; if the latter, and there be no sulphate nf Kinc
present, the sulphates arc derived cither from the water useil lor the
dilution of the spirit, or from the alum employed for clarifying and
beading it, so thai, alumina being absent, the iiresence of sulphates
atlortls in all cases a certun indication of the adulteration of gin with
wnter.

Out of Ten samples of gin to whicb the barjla test was added, four
u M 4

336

GIK, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

turned slighlly opalescent, but scarcely any depoMtion of sulphftt
occurred ; wbile in six of the samples there was a decided, and in three
u consMerable, precipitation. These gins were likcwittc evaporated.
the residues dissdlveil in a little distilled water, and the solution di-
videil into two [larts; to one the acid nitrate of baryta wm added
na 1>cforc, when Milphnto of baryta was thrown down in every cace*
nnd in most in great abundance. Throu^'h the other half of thti »>Iu-
tiun sulphuretted hydrogen was passed ; in nut one intttniice was anr
white precipitate observed, from which tlie absence of zinc is to be
inferred. These observations are iniporUuit, because tbey afn>rd U5
the iDcanM of judj^ina of the adulteration of gin by the addition
wjiter. Heretofore ihe presence of water h:is been inferred rath*
than proved, trom the deficiency of olcuhul iu the spirit suppo««d
cnntam the water.

There h one only source of fallacy with which it » nere«3«ry ll
wo should be acquainted. Supposing sulphuric acid to have U
added to the gin, a prucipitutiun would equally occur, although
water had been adiled, on the addition nf nitrate of barytii. Thia faM
lucy rriay be guarded a^minst by ascertaining in the first place wh<;th4
the gin exhibits an acid reaction or not to test paper, and if it
we must, then proceed as dirc^itcd in the article on Vinegar, lor
determination of free and combined sulphonc acid. ~

Method of determining the Amount of Sugar in Gin*

This is readiJy determined in either of the two following ways:
The syrupy liquid contained in the retort after distillation should
removed and evaporated wii.h a gentle heat, until the water has beei
driven off, and the sugar crvstalli»ed. Or a fresh weighed portion a_
tfie gin may be evaporated tn the snmo manner, and the weight of tb^
sugar furnished by it ascertained. The latter is the more accurate
method, l>eeause tlie heat employed in distilling off the spirit unt un*
frequently modifies the sugar considerably, su that in all cases it n-ill
nut crystallise properly.

Method of detecting the Pretence nf Capsicum^ Qraint of Paradi*^^.
other fixed Acrid Substances in Oiu.

Tho presence of these may usually be ascertained by simply taal
a portion of the syrupy extract left ufter distillation. The acrid prm*
ciple of oa[>jicum is a fixed one, and no part of it passes over during
distillation. Of the two acrid principles contained in grains of para-
disc, one is volatile, and the other fixed. The taste of the fixed prin-
ciple very closely resembles that of Cayenne pepper, but muy be
usually distinguished with a little care. The plant which furnishes
Malaguetta |>epper, or graioi of paradise, is the Amomum Graaa
ParadiMi.

GIN, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

537

On the Detection of Cinnamon or Cassia in Qin.

As the flavour of these flepen<l8 upon the presence of essential oils,
they, of coui'se, readily puss olT durin;* distiUutiuiif and the extract,
therefore, does not usually furnish any evidence characteristic of iheir
presence. For the purpose of detecting tbe?c oils, tiie spirit sbuuld
be gently evaporated, and at such a temperature us does nut occasion
the vnlatiIii*a*ion of the oiln, and their pre*ence judged of by the
smell and taste of the extract.

Oil the Detection of Cherry Laurel Water or Spirit of Almond Coke.

Distil the spirit nearly to dryness, add to the distilled liiptid a little
caustic potash* evaporate down to a smnll bulk ; mhl a few drops of a
sol itiun obtained by dissolving protosulphfitc fjf iron in water, and ex-

IKisin^ iLe M>-madc solution to the action of air for ten or twelve
lours; a few drops of a solution of pota.sh and a tittle liydrochloric
ncid must be now added, and if the liquid aciiuires a blue tinge, the
spirit under examination has been Uuvuured with cherry laurel water
or itpirit of almond cake.

The reactions are as follow ; — The bydroc_vat»ic or prus^ic acid
of the laurel water and almond cake, when tlie spirit is distilled,
passes over, and on the nddition of the potash i:^ cunverted into cvanide
uf potassium ; the addition of the salt of iron and hydrochloric acid
occasions the formation of pruasian blue, which ia a furrocyuaide of
iron.

A more delicate metliml is the following, Cnt described by Liebig :—
The licfuid must be distilled as before, notasb S'lded, the bulk of the
spirit reduced by evaporntion ; hydrochloric acid must next be added
in slight excels, and then a drop of sulphide of ammonium, and the
whole treated until colourless. A little i»erchloride of iron must now
be adiie'l, when, if prussic acid be present, llie liquid will become of a
blond re<l colour.

The reactions are as follow : — The aulphocyanlde of ammonium is
formed by the reaction of Bulphide of ammonium und hydrocyanic
acid, and this, like other soluble tiulpUocyunided, strikes a blood^red
colour with a persall uf iron.

On the Presence of Lead in Gin.

As we have seen, H is commonlv statefl that acetate of lead Is em-
ployed in the clarification of adulterated gin; in order, therefore, to
a/tcertain whether the metallic baw of this »alt is to be found in gin,
eight ounces of Ten diffrrent sampU.t were evaporated, the resiiiuea
dissolved in a little distilled water, and sulphuretted hydrogen pur^sed
through them : in one case a decided brownish discolouration ensued;
in some of the others, slighter discolourations were observed ; but in
none of the gius was lead discovered in the ashes treated with nitric

S38

GIX, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

acid and water, nnd tested with io<1i<le of potaj^siiim. If lead tv
therefore, present in nny oftlie samples, St was so only in traces.

The absence of lead mav bo expluined in some cases eren wbcrv •*.
has really been used. The lead of the aeetate would combine wiili
the aulphtitcs of the wuter, and the insoluble ^ulpbnte of leaii wmjU
be preeipituted ; it i.s therefore, only when the quantity of lead added
15 in cxcejt!< of the ioilphates, that it would be fuund in gin, and when
sul^ihute^ are present in gin wc may safely conclude that it does i»ot
coutain lead.

On the Detection ofSnlph/tle of Zinc in Otn,

The sugar, havin^j been dried, and its wtight determined, b to b«
rc-dissolved in distilled water. Half of the solution is to be tected
with acid nitrate of baryta for sulphuric acid, and the other half
treated with «ulphuretted hydrogen, by whi(!h means ihc zlno will t<^|
thrown down as a white hydrated sulnhuret, from which, if suiScient^l
of the si)iril be used, (he nietnl itself may be separated. We ^vr
lhe.He directions for the detection of tins salt, because it is rerj
probabli; that it is somelitiies used to clarify adulterated gin.

Gin, ns alpciidy stiilcd, is mnde hv rectifyin;; corn spirit, with
addition of davouring materials. The Kxcise dury is paid on
corn spirit, now Hs. jier gallon, hydrometer proof. The duty i^
Scutliind is now the same as that in Kogland, and in Irelami *"
tjs. *2d, per gallon.

The quantities of spirits manufactured in the United Kit
charged with duly, were —

la ISM.

In 1«&^

EiiKUiid aliiiifr ....
Scotland „ - - - -
Ireland „ - . - .

Tetffll .

o*n..

8,440,734

tMU.
I0.M4.IM
A341.3I9

(Mta.

a.nT,i»o

M.MS,m

11.997,174

x^jntjm

This return merely shows %chere the duty was paid^ not w1»ere the

tfpirit^ were actunlly consumed.

The return for 1655 is six davs short of the year. This is the
through all the returns, as the faiiancial year is altered.

The above quantiticB ore exclusive of exportation^ which bos
cently been very large.

RUM, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

539

RUM, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Rum U the spirit obtuineii by the fL'nnuntatioii and distillation of the
refuse juice of the suj;ar cane, chielly mulaases.

It owes its distinctive smell and taste to a peculiar volatile oil.

It diflers from other spirits in tto tendency to cause perspiration ; fur
thin reoAon it is often used by those sufTering from colds and coughs.

The adnlterationa of rum very nearly resemble those of gin, and
they consist chiefly in the addition of ira/er, whereby its strength ia
reduce*]; of Cayenne or cocadux indicus^ to give the adulterated article
ajipurcnt strength ; and, lastly, of unburnt and burnt attgar, to restore
toe sweetness and colour lost in conse<{uence of dUution.

Restdia of the Examination of Samples,

Of Twenty samples of rum eubjected toanalTsU, the alcohol ranged
from 47 perceut. the highest, to 27 per cent, the lowest, while Cayenne
was detected in six of the samples; that is, some of the spirits did
not contain half as much aJcobol as uthers. and consequently were not
of half the value. The same, it will be remembereJ, was found to be
the case with the gins examined ; some of them contained only half
the quantity of spirit that others did, and this although the price
paid for them was nearly the sfimc in all cases.

An instance leading to fatal results of the adulteration of rum with
coccfdu* indicu4 occurred some time since at Liverpool. It is recorded
in Dr. Tiiylor's book on *' Toxicology."

Severitl sailors drank a glass each of the sophisticated spirit; one
died the same evening, but the others, although made seriously ill,
ultimately recovered.

Lewi has been discovered in rum in some cases ; this is generally tn
be r^arded as an accidental impregnation, the lead being derived
from the worm of the still. It is m new rum that lead is chieily
found. Dr. Traill found that the spirit received into a tumbler us it
came from the still always coutuine<i lead, but that it diaappeare<l from
the same spirit afker having been kept iu an oukcu ciisk for some time.
The explanation of this curious fact i.s that the spirit extracts tunnin
from the cask, and the lead uuitiug with this forms an insoluble com-
pound and becomes precipitated.

There is a kind of rum termed " Pineapple Rum," This flavour
of pineapple Is communicated to the spirit by steening in it slices of
the pine. Recently chemists have found out uetuods of imitating
very exactly the flavour of the pine, and hence this artificially prepared
tlavouring is often bad recourse to in this country to convert not only
ordinary rum, but even ordiwirj spirit into ** Tincapple Rum.**

540

BRANDT, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

This fluvouring may be prepared by distUlinj; batter with sulphan'c
ncid and iilcofaulf or bv combinini; umylic or potato ether wiih butTric
uciti, nnd then dissolving il in alcohol. ThU flavouring is uiucb used
in sweetmeats.

On the Detection of the AduUendions of Rwtu

The methods to be employed for the detection of usder^ *^oi^%
Cayenne., or grains of paradixe and /rwrf, nre the ^amc as thuFu given
for the discovery of the correspontling ailullenitionH of gin. 'ITie
process for the detooiiitn of eoccultu inaicuM is destTibod at p. 513 ;
11 ia more easy to discover the presence of thia putM)n in runi than in
beer, owing lo Uie smaller qiiantily uf extractive mailer contuineil in
that spirit. A very eKcutltint method of determining the presence of
cocctiius indicus is to evaporute about half a pint of rum to drjrnesi,
to dissolve tlie extract in about ten ounces or so of water, and to
place in it a small Live G^h. If the spirit contain picrotoxin ibe fi^
will soon exhibit the usual symptoms of poisoning by that deadir
Bubsirtnce.

The Customs' duty on rum is» in Enghuul and Scotland, 8*. 2dl
per gall., Iiydrumeter pnHjf ; in Ireland, Gs. Ad. per gallon.

The quantities taken for borne consumption in the United Kingvloai
i\-ere, in 1854, 3,227,J'J-2 gullti. ; in 18. j, 3/224/292 galls. ; in nine
months of 1 856, 2,36 1 ,753 golU.

BRANDY. AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Brandt is rhe spirit obtained by the distillation of wine. When first
distilled it is quite colourless, but, after having been kept for s-ame
time in an oaken cask, it becomes of a pnle amber tint, the cfdour bein^;
derived from the w<K>d of the cask. The \Qry dark brandiea owe
their higli colour, whereby tbeir flavour is much injured, to tfunti
rtugur. The characteristic taste and aroma of brandy is due lo the
presence of a volatile oil obtained from the grape.

The best brandies are those of France ; they are hut slightly rec^
tifi(.'d,and therefore are not strtmg, cnntaining usually nearly half tb<
weight of water. The rensun of tliisls. thut the rc-^listillation of _
Kplrit injures the volatile oil, upon which the excellence of the br&nd/
depends.

One of the most frequent ftdaltcrations of brandy is witli water.

BHANDY, AND ITS ADULTEUATI0K8*

541

Another aduherfttion is with tpirit obtamed irom corrit ngar
■mola»$es^ beet ruoi-, or potatoet.

In some cases one or other of these different spirits oxe substituted
lor genuine hrandr» the flnvour of brandy beint; comnuinicAte<l to
thcui by artiHcial flavouringn, nnd the requisite coluur bc'ing obtained
hy racfins of burnt supiir.

Mui'h of even the French brandy imported into Lhia country con-
sists either in part or wholly of corn, and more frequently of beet
root spirit.

Strange to relate, a very larjfc quantity of corn spirit has of lato
been imported into France, to be used in the adulteraiion of French
brandy. Part of this corn tpirit is returned to us in the fltrm of
brnndy, this adulterated brnndy on its arrival in this country under-
f^oing in many in^tunoes further adulteration by the addition of more
corn spirit, and thus it becomes doubly adulterated.

The artirlL' known as ** JJrrfwA irwnJy " consitts for the most part
of corn Ppirit lluvonred. The favouring is accomplished sometimes
by the adiJilion of a little {genuine brandy, but more frequently by
distillation m\' the muric, the name given to the refuse nkins and pips nf
the grupe left after the distillation of the wine. " The llrittsh brandy
nioke^ Imys up this murk, and imports it into this t'ounlry, paying
upon it the same duty ns upon wine. By distilling Uritiiih molasses
over these lees the manufacturer ohtainti, to some extent, the pecu-
liar Havour which characterises French brandy." *

Dr. Normandy, in reply to a mieslion by Mr. Scholefidd, makes
these remarks in regard lo the llavouring of brandy by means of
artificially prepared essences: — "brandy is extensively prepared in
this country, cs|«cial)y since the discoveries of modern chemistry of
producing essential oils nriificially, — oils which hare the (Sdourof that
particular ether to which brandv owes its llavour."

When molasses spirit is employed it is necessary it should be pre-
viously rectified by ditttiliution over freshly burnt charcoal and (puck-
lime. Indeed it is essential that all ?ptrit5, especially corn spirit,
emploved in the adulteration of brandy should undergo carelul rec-
tification, in order to free them from the jHiculiar tastes and (Hlours
which might but too plainly reveal the nature and origin of the spirit.

Receipts are of course not wanting for the manufacture uf spurious
French brandy. Dr. Ure gives the following formula, as one which
is employed for converting corn spirit into imitation brandy. Pure
alcohol is to be diluted to the proof strength, to every hundred weight
of the spirit, half a pound of argol, wine stone, or cream of tiirtar pre-
viously dissolved in water, is added, as well as a little acetic ether,
some French wine vinecar, bruised French plums, and (lower stufi
from Cognac (murk). The spirit is then to be distilled tiff, with a
gentle fire, in an alembic furni5hed with an agitator. The spirit
which comet over is coloured with burnt sugar to the tint required,

• TriUivf I'rftde.f- 110.

BUANDT, AND ITS ADULTEUATIONS.

nnd rou^liencd to the taste with a few drops of the Uacturt of
eaiouhu or kino.

Oak sawdust and tincture of grape stones, prepared pur|i(«rlT fram
the murk, are used to impart to uew brandy the taste of an old tfit't
which bss become ripened in an oaken cask.

'i'lie author of a work on " Alalted and Uaoialted Com, coonedai
with Hrowing and Di&tilling" gives the following receipt formakiffp
an adulterated brandy, suitahlu for retail purpoites : —

To 10 puncheons of brandy
Add Qavouring raisin spirit
Tincture of j^raios of paradise
Cherry laurel water -
Spirit of almond cake -

1081 gmU<
118 „

2 ^

1207 galloni.
Add alpo 10 handfuls of oak sawdust, and give it complexwD viik
burnt su^ar.

The cuse of brandy aflurds, (hen, an apt illustration of the pbefcrf
refinement to which the art of adultcratiou haa reached in tbcKd^a

liesuUa of the Examination of SampUs.

Ot Eighteen samples of brandy subjected to examination'^

The alcohol ranguJ from 30 to 50 per cent.

The majority of tiie j*amplca ctmsisicd of so-called Brituk

Nonrly all the brandies were coloured with burnt rugar.

Lastly, in none of the sdraplcs was Cayt^une present. ThSg is
ticularly w<irt1iy of note, because some of the brandies were prae
at houses at which bulb tbc gin and the rum were found to w aifait-
tcTiited with that substance. This at lea^t tbows that ao'id sab-
Stances are not so frequently cmplored in the aiiulierntion vtfhntA^
as of other spirituous liquors. This result la, thereiure, ii ma*
decree stitisfartory.

Brnmly nnd rum are seizabic if sold by or found tn the pnoraMa
of the dealer uiilcfs it possesses a cerluin strength, 17 f>cr cent. (ida«
proof, by S}kcs' liydrometer. The following arc the words Mf tli
Act, 30th Geo. 111.: —

"No distiller, rectiGer, compounder, or dealer shall acrre
out any foreign spirits of a lower streu^th than that of oi
under hjdromoter proof, nor have in his |M>S5ession uny for*i|
mixed together except shrub, cherry or raspberry briuuly, rfj
stren;;tli than as aforesaid, upon puin of such spirita being fhHI
and such spirits, with the casks and vessels contiiining tlicnnie,Si^
he seized by any officer of Excise."

It will be perceived that many of the brandies examined br ■
were sold in violation of the act above quoted, and, u usaal, wf *
let or hindrance by the Excite.

BBANDYy AKD ITS ADULTEUATI0N8.

54S

On the Detection of the Adulterations of Brandy.

The metlioijp nlrendy pointed out umlor the lieadK of Gin and Hum,
are equally apjilicnhle to the discoYory of the udultprations of Lrnndy ;
the Blrun;;lh ciC the brandy mui-t be ascertained, ihc kind of spirit it'
possible, tbti amount and nature of the cxiractivCj and the sulphates
present mu&\ likewise be determined.

\Vc will now inquire as to the capabilities of the Excise to detect
ndulleratiuns iu spirits ; and firnt the render may be reminded that
udulterutiou huM been found to be rife in gin, rum, and brandv. Aa
III »o many other cjwes, we need only refer to the evidence of iMr.tieorge
Pliitlip!} to be made acquainted with ibe state of the case as respects
the Excise.

Air. ViUierx. "We have had evidence here to theeffect that a mix-
ture or adulteration is invariable in all public house*;: what is the
course adopted with a view to delecting those practices ?"— "The fact
is, we have abandoned what is termed stock taking of the retailers.
The trade is thrown open, and they are left to do pretty much as they
like. At the present moment, so far as 8(04 k taking is concerned, we
have power to take their stock if we think proper ; the goods are sent
in with ft permit, and the trailer enters tliem in a book, and when the
ofBoer goes he tjdtcs up this document representinjf the receipt of a
certain syiirif, and if we think proj>er wc can take the stock."

" Is not the revenue defrauded in ibis way f *' — " I think not. If the
public wished to drink gin at 50 per cent, under proof, the retailer
eould have it sent to him. The law prohibits him from putting anjjthing
to it himself. He it not allowed to add sugar or water to hit giu ; U it
(tn net of componnditig which vre do not recognige."

*'Theduty is not paid on gin and water?" — ''No; it is paid on the
tipirit. Suppose, for instance, the publican buys his gin at 17 under
proof. That may be too stron<; for ordinary tasie, and therefore the
publican, when begets it in at that stren«rlri, reduces it probably. /
caHHot my that he doeit to from actual hnotvledge^ but we moy suppose
that he doea."

It is notorious that the publican almost constantly reduces his gin
with water, adds sugar, and often Cayenne and other injiredients. As
has been stated by Mr. Phillips, the law prohibits this net of com-
|muiuling, an<l has charged the Excise with the duty of ascertaining
whether the prohibition is observed or not ; but the kxcise leaves the
publicans "to dojprelty much as they like,'* and consequently they
lire unable in speak m facts in regard to the adtdteration of gin which
nre notorious to the public ill targe. But let us ubsen'e what further
information Mr. Phillips oflbrds the Committee respecting the adulter-
ation of spirits.

Chairman. " Have you beard of Cayenne pepper being mixed with
ginf" — "I have /iwira so ; it coaM be delected, of course.*"

Afr. Vdtirrs. "Have yon never had any experience of the adulters-

544

WINK, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

/db

tion of spirits during tbe twelve years you have spoken of P **•
not recollect a ctue.**
" la bramly ever adulterated ?" — " If you view colouring matter m

adulteration it is always adulterated." ,

*' Do you know if it is ever reduced with water and then madcl
stronger by the introduction of oilier ingreflicnta ? " — *' I cannot speak]
to the use of other ingredients. I have no knowledge of what a par-'
tit-'ulur trader may do."

"Tlieevidence wbirh hiisbeen given before the Committee, therdb
has not reached ibe Excise yel ? ' — "I have not seen it."

These replica ccrfuinly evince an amount of ignorance of the
adulteration whtili iictnally occurs in the articles enumerated, which,
considering^ the jio.sition auddutit^s of tlic. Kxiise, is really nstoundin".

Customs' duty on bnuuly, IS.t. iier pall., hydrometer proof.

Taken Tnr IionK* consumption in 1854, 1,863,622 gaits. ; i
l,.Vi6,2-21 yiiUs.; in nine iiionlhs of 185G. 1,109,497 galls.

The quantity in 1853 was 2^78,961 galls. The diminution is owing
to the cost, ex-duty, having been more than doubled.

in 1SS5.

WINE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

IK is the furmented Juieeof the gr.ipe ; it is distinguished from other
fermented nnd dcoholie liijuid^ by conLaiiting bitartrate of potash,
or cream of tartar, commonly called wineatone, a coostitueut of the

The numerous varieties of wine are occasioned by ditTcrcncea of
soil, climnic, season, nnd by the kind, quiility, and condition of the
grape as to ripeness, the mode of fernientaiion, the manner and tem-
perature at which thu wine is preserved, and by its age.

All wines pofscss a characteristic taste and aroma or bottquelf as
it is termed. These varieties depend upon dilTerencea in the voliitile
nnd aromatic principles, mostly of an oily nature, generated during
fermenlatinu and di^itillation. Contrary tn what nii^hl hare been an-
ticipated, the wines of warm countries po:^scss but little bon({uet ; {hose
of the "central departments of France have it in a marked degree,
whilst the wines of the still more northerly situated Germany have
the most intense perfume. The grapes which are gathered before
the}* are completely rif>e have the strongest bouquet." •

The tirious odour of wine is produced by tbe presence of a volatile
substance, which has received the name of anattthic ether ; it poa-

• Trkki of Trad?, p. IM.

WIKE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

545

a sharp, disagreeable taste, bat the odour of wine in iia most
powerful degree i it is proJuct;d during fermt^nlation, and seeniB to
increase in quantity in wine bv keeplitg, oa the odour of uM is stronger
titan thttt nf new wines.

The different wines may be classified under one or other of the fol-
lowing heads: — Stropg and lights sweet and dry^ tparkling and still,
vhite and reii.

The strong wines, such as sherry, port, Madeira, &Cm are made
^m thnroughlr ripened grapes, grown in southern countries, and
which, from containing more (lugar, yield, when fermented, a greater
amount of alcohol, the ingredient which gives to wine its strength.

The amount of ab»oiuic alcohol usuuUj present in wines coiuuionlj
xn use, is as follows : —

7ti 100 Metuuret.

Johnston,

Port

- 21 to 23

Sherry

- IS to 25

Idudeira •

- 18 to 22

Marsala -

- 14 to 21

Claret -

- 9 to 15

Burgundy

- 7 to 13

Rheuish -

- 8 to 13

Moselle - .

- 8 to 9

Malmsey

Tokay -

Charapsgne

- 6 to 15

Brande,
Marsala -
Fort

Madeira -
Cwpe
Sherry
Montollado
Constantia

Malaaa . . .
Buceltas

liermitage (White) -
(Red) -
Claret -
Malmsey
Santeme
Burgundy
Tent
Hock

Champagne
Viu de Grave -
Cote Rdlie
Tokay -

- 35

- 23

- 22

- 20

- 19

- 12
- 18 to 20

- 18

- 18
■ 17

12
15
16
15

- 14
13
12
12
13
12
10

From Liebig*t Letters. Arranged according to Price.

Steinberger,

Mareobrunncr,

Hattenhcimer,

Steinberyer,

Rudesheimcr,

Mareobrunncr,

Geisenbrunner,

1846

1822

Alcottol per Ccot. He»l<ltw.

1017
1114
10-71
1087
]2'61
1160
12-60

K If

10-56 "I

5-18 {-Freaeninfl.
4-21 J
994

5-39
510
306

WINE, AND ITS ADCLTEUATIONS.

The per-centage8 of alcohol in the wines
Dr. Jones found lo be as follow : —

in u&c in this country

Alcohol br Mfwure.
Port- - - from 20-7 to 23-2 per cent
Sherry - - 15'4 to 247 „

Madeira - - 1&-0 to 197 „

MarsaU - - 19*9 to 211 »

Claret - - 91 to 11-1

Burgundv - - 1 01 to 13*2 „

Rhine Wine - 9 6 tu 130 „

. Moselle . - 87 to 9*4 „

Chanipngnn - 141 to 14*8 „

These results, which are rather high, were obtained by means
I he alcoholometer of M. Geisler.

Some idea of thii relative strength of wine may be formed when
is mentioned thai (^ood brandy ami rum usually contain Ironi 4S to
per ctmt. of absnlute alcohol, poor beer about 2 percent.* porter rati
over 3, and stout about 5 or 6 per cenL We thus perceive that M
Sftlfi, port, and Madeira contain about half as much olc-ohul as brandy^

The amount of alcohol in wines is maleriolly affected by their
it beiji|* iu most wines ruduced in ouantity by keeping;, part of ic
being toi't by the evaporation which takes place even in lightly
corkcil bottles, and part by the oxidation uf the alcohol, and it£ con-
version into acetic acid.

To this rule, however, Madeira and sherry form exceptions, since
these rather increase In strength for the first five or six years, owing
to the conversion of the sugar which they contain into alcohol.

In connection with the strength of wine iVsaciiiity maybe consider
since in some, though not in all casus, the acidity in part is dependen
upon the strength. While the acidity of beer is occasioned mainl
by acetic acid, and that of cider by lactic acid, that of wine is produ
by tartaric acid, In the last two liquors, hftwever, acetic acid also
present in greater or less proportion ; it is always fomie<l at
expense of the alcohol when the fermentation proceeds too far.

Wines made from unripe griipes HoiuL'times contain citric acid; as
the truit ripens, this acid is replaced by the tartaric.

Tartaric acid exists in the juice of the grape and in wine in co
bination with iiotash, forming what is called bitartrate of potash
cream of tiirtar, the sour taste of which i» well known. When win
is left at rest this salt is in part precipitated, and the wine become*
much Ihe less acid. This is one of the good effects of ngc upon win

The following is the order o( acidity of some of the chief wine« c
flumed in this country

Sherry is the leant ofirf.
Fort comes neat.
Champagne.
CUrcL

Madeira.

Burgundy.

Rhine Wines.

Moselle is the most tfcitf^

WINE, AND ITS ADULTKUATION8.

547

The principal sweet vines are Toka^, tent, Frontignac, and
%!a)mscy ; they are made from p-apes so ripe that tbey are almost
shrivellod up to raisins, and wbion therefore contain much aug:ir, the
fermentation also being arrested before all the suj;ar is converted
into alcohol.

The onler of sweetness of ctTtnin winei^ or the amount of sugar
present, was ascertaineil by Dr- Bence Jones to be as follows : —

Claret^ tiur<;und_T, Rhine, and Moselle wine?, including hock, con-
tun no sensible quantity uf sugar.

Sherry contains

- 4 to 18

grains

sugar in the ounce

Madeira -

- 6 to 20

n vt

Champagne

- 6 to 28

Vt )*

Port

* 16 to 34

*t *i

Malmsey*

- 56 to 66

*> »

Tokay- -

n tf

SAmos •

„

n ti

PascareUe

n H

The siifrar was estimated by the saocharometer of M. Solcil.

In the</ry wines, as in some kinds of sherry, esperiallv Amontillado,
the fermentation is prolonged until nearly all the sugar has diaap-
pearcii.

In effereexcing or sparkling wines the wine is put into casks or bot-
tles while the fermentation is still progressing : the consequence of this
is that much carbonic acid accumidotes in the wine, cuusmg it to efler-
Tesce when unourked.

Both U-'hUt and red winea may be made from the coloured or red
grape. The colouring mutter is situated in the husk. The white
wines are prepared from the juice of the grape only, while for the red
wines the whole grape ia used.

On thb Adultebatioks or Wisb.

The wines, of the adulterntinn of which we propose to treat, arc
port, tlierry, Madeira, Champagne, claret, hock, and Moeelle.

There are no manufactured articles Hubject to greater adulteration
thun wines, and this on account of the high price they bear, the extent
tu which they are consumed, and the ease with which many of the)n
may be imitated, and this in a variety of ways which altogether ImOle
the cflorts of science to detect.

Although many adulterations arc practised upon wine which cannot
be and never arc discovcrcil, yet mui-h evidence has been obtained
of the general prevalence of ndulterai ion in wine, and science has
also supplied means for the detection of many of the Buphislications
practised.

V B 2

548 WINE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

PORT, ANT) ITS ADUT^TERATIONS.

Of all wines none u Bubject to more adulteration thnn port wine.

The first adulturntion o(ten pi-actised upon it consists in m '
hrmuiy, sornetiuies to the extent of twelre gallons to Uie pipe, em
while leriuen ration is goin^ an. This practice is aaid to be luost in-
jurious to the flavour of the wine.

Another practice \& to increase the colour of the wine hy aPti-
6cia! meiins : this is umiolly efTecteil hy tlder berry coltmring,, more
brandy beinfj added with the colouring. So common is thia prmctKC,
that e!der berrj treea are grown in many of the vioeyarda, while
other prnprit'tors, it is asserted, have been known to pajr as much tf
400^ per annum for the tflder berries used by them.

Before thr wine in 5hip[>t'd more brandy is adde<), and aI«o aome-
Imies a mixture denominated Jerupiga, This is a compound expnadv
prepared for the adulteration of port wine ; it consists of /A^ jmict^
elder berries^ brown tugar^ un/ermented grape Juice, and brtxnd^.

Further, this article is extensively imjwrted into this country for
the adulierntion of port wine. By a return recently made to tlie
HoUMe of Commons on the motion of Mr. Oliveira. Al. P,, it appear*
that jerupiga was iniported and used by some of the first bouaee ea-
^aged in the wine trade in this country.

Another substance used to colour port wine, both in Portugal mm!
at home, is logwood; large quantities of this dye are, it ia stac^Ml, im
jwrted into Uf*orto.

Lastly, jrnrt wines are adulterated at Oporto by the additiim of iit
fenor winea, imported for the purpose. It is by this means that the
supply of port wine is maintained at a trjlerably uniform average^ do
matter what may have been the vintage.

It U therefore evident that port wine is subject to a large amount
of adulteration, even before it reaches this country; after ita arriTal
here it is frequetitly Buiyected to further adulteration.

Sometimes it is dilute4l, braiidied, and then coloured by the idlx-
ture termed jerupiga, or by means of lo^ood. The briJIiancT o
its colour is sometimes incrert'ied by means of alum^ and if turbid,
it is cleared by gypmm^ while incrcHsed asCringency is somt^times
imparted by meauti of oak satrdusi. Not unfrequentty pei-uliar Am
voura or bouquets ore artificially communicated to port wine : the
principal substances used for this purpose ore extract of sweet briar,
i/rrU root-, cherry laurel xvater^ &c.

In other cases the true fhivour and taste are given to foctitioua port
by means of a tincture made from the *ee<is of the grape.

The resemblance to port is further increased hy tuidinj^ salt of tnrtar
to the winr.', which, it will be remembere<l, is one of the natural con-
stituents of the grape. This salt after a time becomes in part de-
posited in a crystalline state from genuine port wine, either on the

WINE, AND ITS ADDLTERATIONB.

S49

Hides of the cask, or even in the bottle in which it is kept, it oaiTTuig
down with it some of the colouring matter of the wine. The fabri-
cators of spurious port have not forgotten to imitate this criterion of
a ffooil wine.

For this purpose a hot saturated solution ofcrenmof tartar, coloured
red with a docoftion of Brazil wood, i* placed in tlie cask nnd rolled
about in it until the aides become covered with the crjstdlised sub-
ttance, after which the imitation wine is poured in. Bottles even
are treated in the same manner, and the very corks are also dyed.
The crust of port wine is nn indication of its age, and not only is this
produced in tlie manner just pointed out, but likewise in other ways ;
one of these is to put new jK>rt into warm water, the temperature of
this is raised to the boiling tH>int, alter which the wine ia put back
into the cellar, when it boon aoposita a crust which might pass for the
growth of years.

But wine not unfrequently cimtains iead : in some cases this ia an
accidental impurity or impregnation, but more frequently it is to be
reffarded oj &n adulteration.

When lead is accidentally present it is derived from the ^ot used in
cleaning the bottles.

When added intentionally to wine^ it is so for the purpose of pre«
Tcniinff ii from tuniing sour.

Dt, Watson * states that the practice of adding lead to wine was at
one time uommon in Paris.

Dr. Warren t relates an instance in which thirty-two persons were
made Kriou!<lv ill by drinking wine a<lulterated with lead; one of
them died, and another became paralytic.

In Dr. UroV ** Dictionary,"! we find these remarks In relation to the
use of lead in France : — " This distemper (excessive acidity) formerly
gave rise to the very dangerous practice uf adding litharge as a
sweetener, whereby a quantity of acetate or sugar of lead was formed
in the liquor, productive of the most deleterious consetiuences to those
who drank of it. In France the rcguUtions of the police and the cn-
lighfi^ncd ((urveillance of the Council of Salubrity huve completely put
down (his gross abuse."

Lastly, Graham in his ^' Treatise nn Wine Making," published
nany years since, under the article "Secrets," belonging to the mys-
teries of vintners, recommends lead to l>e used fnr sevend purposes.
The following receipts are copied from that mischievous work : —

" To hinder Wine from turning.

" Put a pound of lead melted in water into your caik pretty waim,
and stop it close."

• Chrmtral BMaji. vol. vlIL p. 3fjO.
t MedlcaJ Tnna. wL II. p. Ml

t Vol. H. ^ 11

N It 3

S50 WINE, AND ITS ADULTEKATIONS

" To soften Grey Witu.

" Fut ID a liltle vinet^ar wbtireln litharge bas b««n well ste«peJ,
and bull some hontty to draw out the wax. Strain it through a cloth,
and put u quart of it into a tierce (42 gallons) of wine, and iAU wiU
mend t/."

To cure Wine of iU MuddinesM.

A lump of sugar of lead of the size of' a walnut and a tablespoon-
ful of sol enixuui arc directed tu be added to a tierce of wine.

Accum has the following rcmarkB in rcferencv to the lue of lead tn
wine: —

'* Tbti most dangerous adulteration of wine is br aome prepAratkntf
of lead that possess the property of aropping the progress of acei-
cence in wine, and also of rendering white wines, when muddy, trana-
parent. I have good reason to sute that lead is certainly employed
for this purpose.'

*' Lead, in whatever state it is taken into the stomach, occasions ter-
rible d■^ea»l'v, and wine adulterated with the minutest quantity ofU
becomes a slow poison. The merchant or dealer who jiractises tiiia
dangerous sophidticntion adds the crime of murder to that of fraud,
and deliberately scatters the Deeds of disease and death amongst those
consumers who ctmtributeto bis emolument. If to deface the current
coin of tbc realm be denounced as a capital ofience, what punishment
should be awarde<l against a practice which converts into ptiison a
li<(uor u»e<l for sacred purposes ! " These remarks h;ivc a wider applica*
tion than to the subject of the ndultcration of wine with leul.

It must be remembered that lead may be present in other wine* as
well as in port.

It appears that no real necessity ever exists for having recourse to
lead to remedy the more usual defects of wine.

It may here be stated that the muddiness, and especially the ropi-
ness and vii^cidity of wine is due to the pre»ience of an aaotiMd
matter precipitable by means of tnnnin. It iif in white wines deficient
in tannm that this malady chiefly «KXurs. M. Francois recommends
for its cure the use of the bruised berries ol" the mountain ash in a
somewhat unripe state, and of which one [K)UDd well stirred in is suffi-
cient for a barrel.

But we have not yet exhausted the list of adulterations practised
upon that much abused wine, port.

Accuni state-s ''uinny thouE<and pipes of spoiled cider are annually
broiiiiht hither from the country for the purpose of being conrcrtea
into factitious port wine."

The business of imitating wines is in many continental towns a
distinct and ucknowlcdgctl occupation. 'Hie author of the * Tricks orf
Trade " has the following remarks on this .*ubject : —

"At Cette, in France, those following this trade do not hesitate to

WINE, AND ITS ADULTEKATIONS.

551

fasten boards with * Wines matmfiiclured here' over their doors. Lorpe
shipments of spurious port iirrive from this town, most of which <lo not
contain one drop of the real wine."

Another method prnctisod of adulterating port wine is to mix
together h variety of cheap red wines, adding a little genuine port.
This STstem is expused in a work enlitied "Wine aud Spirit Adultera-
tions Unmasked." The author states that large vats are kept bj the
manufacturer in which diOerent inferior wines are mixed to'^ether in
iinitalioit of [wrl. These are fur the most part Beni Carlos, Figura*,
and KedCapc. Heni Carlos may he purchased, duly included, at 38/.
fjcr pipe, Fipuras at 45/., and Rud Cape at 32/. One or mure of these
are mixed together, a proportion of common norl added, and a small
quantity of mountuin, to imparl a suftness and give a rich appearance.
salt of tartar will ensure a quick and firm crust, and gum dragon
ffive a fulness of davour. a consistency of body, und auood fuce. Berry
dye, a colouring matter imnorteil from Germany for tue express pur-
pose of ailuheration, will increase the deep piirpl-* tint, while with
washings of brandy cjuks the whole compoimd is mode perfect.
Wine thus ntode up would cost only about 16«. 9d, per dozen, every
expense included.

Various receinta have been published for the manufacture of
spurioui port The follnwing are from the '* Publican's Guide:" — "The
cask is to be well sulphured, and then twelve gallons of strong port,
three cf^Uuns of Coy:Tiac brandy, six of prt>of spirits of wine, and forty-
two ofgood rough cider, making in all a compound iit llie rate of 18«.
|>er dozen." A second re<:eipt is as follows: — "Take forty-five
gallons of cider, six of brandy, two of a decoction of sloes, and eight
of port wine. To increase the colour, tincture of red sandors woofi
or cudl»car mu^t be added. The wine is to be bottled in a few da^s,
and a teas[HJonfuI uf powdered catechu aildetl to each buttle to give
a rough and astringent flavour and to ensure a fine crust ; lastly, in
order to give an appearance of age, the ends of the corks are to be
stainei! by soaking ihcm in a strong decoction of Brazil wood con-
taining a little alum.**

Dr. Recce's " Gazette of Health** contains the foUowingreccipt : —
** Take of British grape wine or cider four gallons, of the juice of red
beet two quarts, of brandy two quarts, of logwood four ounces, or
rhalany root bruised half a pouu<l. First infuse tbe logwood and
rhatany mot in brandy and a gallon of grape v;ine or cider for a
week. Then strain the liquor, nnd mix it well with the ingredients ;
keen it in a cask for a mimtb, when it will he fit to botf^lo.

Ihc fuUowing receipt for the mftiiufiu-ture nf '* Soidhtunptan Port^*
is from the some work: — **Takc cider thirty-six gallons, elder wine
eleven gallons, brandy 6ve gallons, danuun wine eleven gallons,
and mix.**

It thus appears thut great and scandalous tricks are played with
the English geiitleuiairs favourite ader-dinuer beverage.

M M 4

5^2

WINE, AND ITS ADULTERATlOKS.

The consamptton of nort wine bos recently much (loclmed,4Mb(lflA
in consequence of the knowledge of its adulteration \mt\i voan ex-
tensively dilTused. Tt is to be hoiwd that this result will le*lto»
reaction, and teaeh the adulleraton* that Uiey are perilling the «»•
sumption of this wiue in this the great port wine drioking oonatr;.

SHERRY, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS

Thefrrapes from which this wine b made are white; thejr trcgi*^
in the province of Andalusia near Cadiz, in Spain: Uio*ewUnfiB^
nish the better qualities of wine are cultivated in the rineranliM*
roundinn; the t^wn of Xeres de la Fmnt<'>raf and b«^ee the vine ii
called the wine of Xerea. The vineyanlj from which the BnftA
market i^ supplied extend over 80,000 acres of land : the^ Aoafc
ncLirly half u million pipes ot wine, of which the greater qaaattl^li
the vnlue of 4^0,000^.. is exi>ort«d abroad.

The ^reiitest care and labour are bestowed upon the colurttialf
the vinea from the fruit of which sherry is made.

The nrrapes are not leathered until they are very ripe» and na
somewhat ttbrirelled with the heat of the sun; sometimea the friB
after beinj; plucked is exposed to the sun for a day or two, and forlkl
very best wine the finest grapes only are used.

The fcrmciitution iii continued until ue&ily all the sugar hM
converted, and the wine is often not drawn oS* for four ur five
after the commencement of feriaentation. It is at fir«t of a pale
colour, but darkens with age. Sitmelimea, however, a j>eculiar
inj,' liquid, termed "arrope," is added. This is prepared by hoiXtt^
sherry down to a syrup. It is by the addition of this substance ihst
the diirk sherries are prepared.

Tiic sherry termed Amontilladu^ and which at the praseal tifltb
so much in tiivour with us, iy a very dry wine. A singular Ue^ ^fA
rcfrard to this wine is, that its peculiarities are not due xa any anh
tained causes capable of imitation, but are entirely aL>ci(ieiitsl so far
as the manufacture is concerned. In atleinptin^ tu prcporv it ^
fruit is plucked at a murh earlier period, and tnxlden duwn b« thi
peasania; but of a hundred butts of wine made fiom the
and by the same process, some only will be Amoikfcilhido
onlinary sherry.

Sherry bears too hi^rh a price and is too extenflvdy tauaaatA %
escape the bunds of adulteratorb. it is never adulterated bf ^
growtjrs, but either by the importer or by the merchant at b«nK-

IVeviuus Xa% its exportu(i<m, a proportion uf brmidf
ahviivs adiled to cherry. This is a very unneceisary mod
practice, ainoe it cannot fail to injure the delicacy otf tht flsvsars'

WXNB, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS

ortivEaSHY

561:

the wine, and to retmrd those natural chnriges in it consequent upon
keepiniit and which are »o improving to its quality.

'Ilie chief adulterations of itherry coniiist either in mixing with
ffenuine sherry of the first quatity inferior sherriea, in adding to
Baerry other wine* of inferior quality not sherry at all, or sotnetimet
factitious compouxdi^ not contoiniog any grape juicer arc substituted
for sherry.

Low iHTtced sherries are imported from Spain at about 18/. per
butt, expressly fur adulteration. On their arrival they are mixed
with cape and cheap brandy, and the mixture is flavoured in imitation
of gfKxl sherry, the colour being: either increased or diminished accoxd-
inff aa brown or pale sherry is required.

llie author of the "Tricks of Trade'* states that at Ceite, in
France, ^rreat quanlitiea of sherries are made up and shipped for tba
En^ilish market^ the composition of which la nothing more than a
cheap white irnur, strengthened with brandy^ coloured with treacle^
and tlnvoured with almontU.

Lastly, the same writer srates, a kind of sherry is manufactureil in
thiti country, the ba-sis of which is pale mtiU unci trtigar candy, a small
ouanrity of French bramly and inferior wine being added lo flavour
toe mixture.

The practice of restoring muddy or ropy wines by means of lead
is also resorted to in the cattc of sherry and most of the otlicr wines

Genuine sherry is a very wholesome wine, in consequence of its
freedom from acidity, augar, and other extractive matters.

MADEIRA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

The different qualities of Madeira arc distinguished as south
north wines, according to the side of the island on which the trees
were gjown frora which the wine is made, the former being three
time^ more valuable than the latter.

In the manufacture of the better qualities of Ma<lc-irn, the juice is
expressed by Irnmnling on the grapes; this is drawn off, and a further
(|uuntit^ of juice obtained by the aclion of the press on the murk, and
Iroin this an inferior quality of wine h prepared. The fcrmenuiion
is usually continued for about six weeka, the juice being conatantlj^
agitated. |

For the ripening or mellowing of the wine, beat and motion are had
recourse to.

One plan is to keep the wines in stores lieoted to about SO*" F.

Another is to place the bottles, well corked, in heaps of fermenting
mtinurc.

Lastly, in some cas«a Hadeirm is sent mie or more voyages to the

554

WINE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Kant Indic.% the heat of the climate and the constant agitAtiaoin vbirb
tlio wine iH kept very greatly improving its qiiulities.

TIte adulterations tti which Mitdeirn is subject are in ike nuin
similar to those of Bbcrry and other white wuies. Maiieirt of inliiv

Jiiiulitj is mixed with and passed ofl* for the bcft, and viaiB vt
abricaled in tmitatiun ot Madeira, but really not oontaiiiinf adrof ^
thut wine in them. A spurious Madeira ia aometimes made li<ciia i
Canary wJne called VedtmiOj which somewhat reacmbles Aladeira, aai
like it, U improved by heat and agitation. Thin ia mixed wilhafluU
qiinntity of mountatn part and cape^ '* sweetened with nvor aflMJft
flavoured with biu^r aJnt/tndji^" and then subjected to a boC nkr
proceaa to give it mellowness and aj?e.

Of course, a higher price is ithar^cd for Madeira which hai bcM
to the East Indies. Much tliat is sold ns baring underpow tk
vfiyiiffc ha# never been to the East at all. It is stated that, in arte
to nid thiti deccptioii, casks arc branded and fjalse bills of Cr«ijbt<i-
hibitc<L

M.iny ima^ne that wines pTircha.4cd at the docks mtut bf pat:
there is gooil rejiaon for believing that thiit is not always so. On iftii
Rubjetit, we find in the ** Tricks of Trade," the article in whicfa wrk
on wine ia full of interesting information, the following renurks:—
*'The crafty importer, in general, orders his ships, un their wyrtD
En<;lnnd, to touch at Guernsey or Jersey, when the required adobe-
radons arc praottscil."

Some idea of the extent to wliich Madeira is adulterated ms; hf
formed, when it is known that not more than '25,000 pipes araaiibi
of these not more than .'),000 belong to the &rit growth, of wkicki
about one half reaches this country.

CLARET. AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

St. Estiphe, St. Julicn, Pouillac, and La Rose are all light, <
able, mid aromatic winc5, exhilarating gently, without amr difia
aion.

The celebrated Cbnleau Margaux is a fine wine, haTin^ Uie perftpBi
of the violet., and a rich ruby colour.

Haiit Itrun h valued for its peculiar flavour and ils yowtsfd
boiitjuet, which resembles a mixture of violets and rasplierries^

The much esteemed wines, Latour and Lafitte, the foraer hit$
the stronger wine, possess a fine violet perfume and taste, tbair «altf
alio being dark violet.

The greater part of the claret sold in this country coosiaU of uuiWtf
>re than the cheap red wines of France used by the pT""*" *'

soi'l ut most of the ordinary wine shops.

" Occasionally a cheap common French wine is miaed with

WIXE, AKD ITS ADULTERATIONS.

555

eider, and coloured to the appcnrance of claret with eachitiealt logwood,
aiid other in«turial»." *

Burfptudy may be classed amongst the clnret wines : it is f>erhaps
the finest of all the red wines; it is stronger than ordinary Harets, the
8tren<;th being sometimes increaaed by the addition of" brandy. It pos-
leiues a powerful aroma, and a delicious and lasting flavour ; it is
slightly astringent, and hence 8ometim>'B occasions headache and in-
digestion. It must t>e rememlwred, however, that as it arrives in this
country it is usually brandied, and this may iu some instances account
for the eflectt produced.

The addition af brandt/ to Burgtindy is most injurious to Its flavour
and smell. So delic-tiU^ is this wine thnt it is eaid thut if two Biir-
gun<ties of superior qualitieij are mixed tugetlicrf the bouquet and taste
are entirely changed.

CHAMPAGNE. AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

The grape from wliich Charapaj^ne is made is black. The process ol
uiiuiufucture is mnut carefully conducted. The grapes are first ex-
uuiine<l, every bruised or unripe grape being removed. For the cxey
or white Champagne, the grapes arc trodden for a quarter of an hour
before being pressed. For the pink wine, the treading is prolonged
until the juice becomes tinged with the colouring matter of the husks.
For infLTit>r Chainpugne, the colour is sometimes artificiidly produced
by means of a little red wine^ or even by the juice of elder berrUti.

The white Champagnes are therefore in general to be regarded as
purer than the pink varieties.

Chamjiagnes are not only classified according to their colours, but
al.to into still and upurkling. The best of the still wines is Sillery, a
dry Ciiumpiigue, of an amber colour, rich body, and powerful bmu|uet.

Of the Champagne sold in England a very large proportion is
spurious.

Sometimes it is fabricated from cheap white French wine, tuguTf
and colouring matter being added.

At others it consists in port, or even wholly, of wine made from the
goftitetieny.

Not uufre(]uently it is manufactured aAer the followins, or some
similar reeeii>t : — ''Take of white sugar eight pounds, the whitest
brown sugar seven pounds, crystalline lemon acid or tartaric acid a
quarter of on ounce, pure water eight gallons, while grape wine two
quarts, or perry four tiuarts, of French l)ran<iy three pints. Boil the
sugar in the wnicr, skimming it occasionally, for two hours; then
pour it into a tub, and dissolve in it the acid before it is cold. A<ld
yeast, and ferment. Fut it into a eleun cuifk, und add the other iu-
grcdienlM. The cask is to be well bunged, and kept in a cool place

• TMcki of TradcL

WIXE, AND TTB ADTTLTERATIOKS.

for two or three months ; then bottle, &nd keep i( cool for • month
lonj^cr, vhen it will be fit for use. By adding one pound of iresfa or
prc'scrred strawberriea, and two ounoca of powdered cocUineol, the
ptiik Cbampogne may be mode.'*

The Champagne sold at races, fairs, and tea gardeni b rarelj erer
genuine.

GERMAN WINES. AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS.

The vine ccncrally cultivated on the banks of the Rbixur, and its tri-
buraric» the Alooelle nnd ibe Mayne, is called the Resslin;;r, The grapes
wbicb it beara are small and po98eR8 a hartih taele, but the wines
mufl** from ibera are rt'iuorkabtu for ibeir aroma and pleasant flavour.

Tbe chief German wines are JnhnHmHherg&r^ Steinberger^ Hmdt^
keimer a red wine, Horkheimtr or Hock, and Mttselle.

.Johannisberp:er is grown in tlie <*ourtyard of the castle of .Tuhan-
nisbere, on the batiks of the Rhine, and (he quantity of thU wine
made is so smiiU chut it is for tbc most part disposed of prirateljr, ukd
can rarely be obtained for cither love or money. Wine may be por-
cba^^t-'d in Uennany freely enough, but nt n high price, under the name
of Jobnnnidberger, but this in rarely if ever what it ii represented.

Steinberger is said idmnst To rivid Jobannisberger. The Tioeyard
from tbe grapes of wbirb tWis wine is nindc contains only 108 aurea,
BO that tbe supply of this wine is alwj ejctremely limited.

The vines from which Hockheimer or Hock is produced grow round
tlic town of llockbeim, near to Mayence and Frankfort, on the bvika
of tbe Mayne.

Rudtshtimer is another much trstcemed wine, a small qunntity (^it
only \i*i\n*i made, and wUiuli \» soon ull bought up t>n the S|>ot.

The most celebrated Mvselle wines are those named Scharsherger
and Orunhauxer, also culled the "Nectar of the Moselle."

Not very umcb in known respecting tlie adulteration of the G«rmiui
wines; they ure ]>robubly confined principally to hock and Moselle.

"Cheap light French wines ore perfumed with essences, ]Jaccd in
bottles ot tbe colour and shape peculiar to the Rhenish wines, and
often passed off at enormous prices us the choicest specimens of the
GcrniuD vincyiirds. In England tbe demand for them is small, »o
that as yet it has not been worthy tbe attention of the trade to 8L<iul-
terate largely ; lor as the consumers are few and far between, and these
sopbistit;»tion» spoil with keeping, tbe loss would be larger than the
profits gained by the deceit." •

On ike Detection of the AduUeraiioju of Wine.
It is unforiunato that many of the adulterations practised upon
wine do nut, in ibe present state of organic cliemlstry, admit oi being
discovered. This remark appbes especially to thoi^e adulterations

» Trkki of Trade.

WINE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

557

which coDflist in the mixture of different kintls of wine, and to the
various vegi'tablt* subatancea eniplo}-ed. Neverthtiless many of the
atlalteratiuus of wine, including »ocae of those which are iiiiurious
to health, do admit of detection, and we shall now describe the
methods by which these may be discovered.

The strength o/witif depends upon the amount of alcohol contained
in it ; this may be in exccs:) from the wine contuining brandy^ or it may
be deficient from its dilution with water. It is therefore frequctitly
necessary to ascertain the quantity of alcohol present, llie melhu<ls
by which tliifl determination is efl'ected in the case of wine, are nearly
the aame as in spirits and other alcoholic liquids. They will be found
described in the article on Gin,

When the wine contains little or no extractive matter, ita weijtht
may he taken at once with the specifii: gravity bottle, and the alcohol
calculated direct from it. When, however, much sugar or other ex-
tractive is present, then the spirit must be separated by distillaliun,
or the following more ready method may be adopted : —

To eiglit partH by measure of tie wiue, odd one part of a concen-
trated solution of subacetate of lead; a precipitate will ensue coiuistiiig
of the extractive matters, the gum, C4ilimring, Albuminuusi, and acid
matters of the wine in combination with pan of the lead ; sepanite
the precipitate by filtration, add to the filtered liquid, in small qiiun-
titicfl at a time, nure and recently ignited subcorbonatc of potash
until the last portion added ceasca tu be dissolved. The potash ab-
atracta the water from the spirit, which floats on the lurfuee, forming
a distinct stratum. If the liquid, previous lo the addition of the
potash, be poured into a glass lube graduated in per-cenlages, and the
potash be subsequently added, the quantity or per-centage of spirit
may be ascertained by mere inspection of the scale.

If the spirit be sepflrBte<l by dii^tillation, the smell of the distillate,
especially when worm, will fretjuently betray the presence of volatile
suustancea — as cherry laurel watrr^ and in some caees com spirit.
Tbe characteristic odour of this snirit is brought out especially by
rubbing some of the strong spirit briskly between the puluis of the
hands;, and then smelling it.

On the Determituition of ike Ertractive. — For tliii purpose a
measured quantity of wine should be evaporated on a water both,
until it ccoMA lo lose weight. The presence of a variety of foreign
substances moy frequently be detectetj in tliia extractive by the amell
and taaie, especially the snicU emitted by the wine while hot, and ua
the evaporation draws to a close. In this manner, the odour ol elder
hirries^ of cider^ gaosefKrries^ and other fra^ant and aromatic sub-
atancea may frerpicntty l>e detected ; and by the tuj^te the presence of
catechu and Cauenne determined. Tbe taste of the apnle or pear
becomes, oceoraing to Normandy, more evident after the removal
of the bitortrutc of potash.

Om the Determituition of the Su^ar. — The amount of sugar present
in wine may be ascertained in either of the fuUuwing ways : — The

55a WINE, AND ITS ADULTF.KATIONS.

extractive is to be thrown down hy means of subaoetate of lead, tbe
wine filtered, the excess of load removed by rulphiirHted hydro-
gen passefl into it through water, as in a Wootfo'a appiLratas, tbe wine
afcain filtered, and then evi^rated to dryness. The residue cooaiaCs
of nearly pure suffar. Or we may employ the copper test, as described
under the head of Sugar.*

On the Determination of the Acidity. — ^Tbe process is detailed under
the head of ISet^r.

On ike Determination of the Bitartrate of Potaah. — This salt is also
cAlle<l cream of tartar and wine stone. 5000 grains b^ measure of
the wine arc to be evn]>orated to dryness, and the residue limited ;
by the igtiition the acid bitartratc is converted into the alkaline car-
bonate, the umount of alkali is then determined by means of % M^vtioa
of ascerlainefl i»trength of dilute sulphuric acid. If an alkali^ aa tbt
curbonnles of soda, potash, or lime, baa been Added for the purpose oi
correcting the undue aridity of the wine, this method is fallacious ;
and we must then crystallise the tartrate of potash from a conceotratcd
watery solution.

The solution may be thus prepannl : — The wine is to be evapo-
rated to a syrupy consistence, and allowed to cool without stirring: for
twenty-four hours ; at the end of thnt time the clear litjuid sdiould be
decanted from any crystals of cream of tartar which may have formed ;
the decanted liquid is to be diluted with distilled water, and evapo-
rated as before. The crystals, if any have fonued, are agtun separated
by decantation, and the operation rc|>cated until no more crystals are
formed.

Another way is to calculate the bitartrate from the quandtv of
chloride of potassium obtained, ond if carbooatQ of soda also has been
added, to estimate this from the chloride of sodium found. Tbe pro-
cesses for tbe quantitative detennination of the chlorides of potassium
and sotlium are given under the heads of Turmeric and Annatto.

On the Detennination of ike Presence of Foreign Coiouring Matters.—^
Some of these, especially tbe colouring matter of tlie elder herry^ may
oflen be detcrmineil, as already noticed, by the odour nf the warm or
hot extract of the wine. Certain chemical methods have, however,
been described for effecting the discrimination in question.

Method of M. Vot/ei, — This chemist has recomuiendvd acetate of
lead for the detection o( extruiieous colouring matters in red wine.
With this reagent he statev that genuine red wine gives a pvenbh
grey precipitate, but that in the case of wine coloured with the juice
of bilberries, elder herricA, or Campvachy trood^ tbe jirecipilate is deep
blue, while with Bnizil wood^ red Jktndera^ and beet, it is red. Wine
coloureil by beet root is also rendered colourless by lime water, bnt
the weakest acid brings buck the colour.

Mitchell states that tbe precipitate with acetate of lead from an in-

• Wln«lwin| aomeCinia .iilullpratcNl trUb eamt near. It \t occaiiottallr neccturr la
dlicHrotauUe tietweeo f M|w And c«ii« (ugan . tliv tovtbiMt »l)l bf louod ilvMrlbtd
ibe onlcto ZToMy.

WINE, AND ITS ADULTEBATION8.

559

Auion of logwood is purple red, and that if the colounnjr mnttcr be
very much diluted it nas a leaden or bluish hue. With the juice i)f
beet the colour is puce ; when diluted with water the tint becomes a
paje galmuii red.

According to Berzelius the colouring matters of reel wine giTC
difierent coloured precipitates with diiicelute of lead, according to the
•gc of the wine, and thnt in new red wine the precipitat** is generally
blue. If this is correct, the value of the teat of M. Voyei i« of couriw
much diminished.

This statement seems opposed, however, to the following experi-
ment of M. Voyel. It has already been stated that the colour of the
red wines is derived from the colouring matter located in the skin of
the grupe». In order further to assure himself, he prepared a quan-
tity of grape skins, reduced ihcm to powder, and treated thoiu with
alcohol. Ihis took up part of the colouring matter, and when acetate
of leail was added, the same greyish pr^'en precipitate was obtained.
Lastly, ic should be stated that the wines principally cxf>crimentcd
upon by M. Voyel were new wines, and were made by himself from
black grapes for the purpose of his experiments.

Method of Al. Cheptniier. — Solution of caustic potash, ailded to
genuine red wine in such quantity as (o neutralise all the acid, causea
the colour to chunge from red to bottle green, and after some time to
brownish green, but no precipitate is formed. The colours produced
when tbreign colouring matters have been employed ore dinerent, u
shown in the following table:— -

Wine coloured with —
Elderlwrries -
Logwood
Red mulberries
Brazil wood
Beet root juice
Litmus -

Colour produced by potash —
rurple.

Keddish purple.
Purplish.
Ued.
Red.
Light violet

Method of M. Jacob. — The colouring matters experimented upon
were those of the petals of the poppy, of logwood, and of Brazil wood.
Tlie reagents which he employed were sulphate of alumina and car-
bonate of ammonuL

Normal wine furnished a slightly coloured grej/uh precipitate. The
Sime wines, with Brazil wood^ give a carmine red precipitate which
Tsried in intensity with lite quantity of colouring mutter added; with
logwood the precipitate was of a fine deep violet colour, and with red
poppy of a nliUt'grey colour.

The reagents were thus employed : — A solution of sulphate of alu-
mina was made, containing 10 parts of the salt to 100 of water; about
half a drachm of this solution was added to an equal quantity of wine,
and then a few drone of a solution — usually about 12 or 15, H parts
to 100 of water— of carbonate of ammonia were poured in. A prer.ipi-
tate of alumina is^ Immediately producetl, variously coloured, accord-

560

WINE, AMJ ITS ADULTEBATIONS.

in^ to the nature of tbe colourint; nutter employed. An excess of the

precipitant must not be added, fur in that case the ttnta produced ar«
Dot sufficientiv marked to allow of ihe discrimination of the aubaCjutoe
employed. 'Ihe action is most marked ailer tbe lapse of seven or
ejgut minutes.

Mfihod of Nets Van Esenb^ck. — Tbe process of Nees Van Eaeobeck
is but a modification of the preceding method, that chemut using
alum and carbonate of potash.

Tbe.se reagents, with normal in'nr, giTC a dullish ^rey preopttate
having a more or less decided red tinj^. An excess of alkali redi*>
solves part of the preci pittite, tbe remainder being ash gre/. Il'
wine be new, tbe residuary precijjttjice iK>Mie8a«s a gre«nish tin^.

Wine coloured with the culouriiig matter of the petals ofredpop^
gives a brownish grejr precipitate which becomes Dlack bj excess
alkali.

Coloured with privet berriet^ it zives a brownish violet preclpit&te.

Coloured b_v elder berries, a violet precipitate; by Brazil wood, a
greyish violet; and by logvfood, a rose coloured precipitate.

It thLTeforH follows, from the experiments of Nees Van Esenbcck,
that all those wines, which cive with the rea:ients above named bluish
violet or rose coloured precipitates, are artificially coloured or adults
rated with foreign colouring matters.

The reagents must be employed by meant} of solutions of defiuiUs
strength — namely, one part of alum to eleven of water, snd fur the
other solution nnc part of carbonate of {xitash to eight parts of water ;
the wine and the alum solutions are to be mixed together in equal
proportion?, and the solution of potash gradually poured in, until the
whole of the alumina is precipitated.

On the Detection of Lead in Wine. — If the wine be of light colour, a
portion of it, about ten ounces, may be evaporated down to one ounce,
and this may be divided into two parts, one being tested with sul-
phuretted hydrogen, which will ;;ive a black precipitate if lead is pre-
sent, and the other with a solution of iodide of potassium, which will
give rise to tbe formation of a yellow iodide or lead. Or the saino
quantity of wine, either re^i or white, may be evaporated to drynesst
luid the residue incinerated : the destruction of the carbon and th«
oxidation oi' the metnl U rendered more complete by ignition of tbe
residue with about twice its weicht of nitre. After fusion, the residuum
must be digested with a little dilute nitric acid, the solution evaporated
nearly to dryness^ the residue treated with distilled water, and tbe
solution filtered and tested with tbe reagents above named. For
fuller particulars refer to the articles on Annatto, Sugar ConfcctioQery,
and Snuff.

On the Detection of Copper in Wine. — Copper is sometimes preaent
in wine from natural causes, being in such cases derived from tbe
grapes from which the wine is made; sometimes it is purpoicly intro-
duced. M. Perctte undertook some very interesting inTestigaticms*

WISE, AKl> ITS ADULTERATIONS.

661

which will be found rcponied in the wnrk " On the FuUitlcntinn of
Aliini.Mitiir)' Suba!tttK*es'* bv MM. fJtimier luiil Harel« in <ir(ler to
tltilerniine wbuUier vvnw iiiuthiKl ini^lit nut b.' iJuvisutl by whicli the
cases (if ihc* prcscncv of ibo iiicial fr«»iu mitural cause!) uiight Iw dis-
crimiiiateil iVimi thofte in which it had been purposely introiluofd intn
the wire ; and in attaining this end M. Ferette appears to have been
Mit'i-e^sful.

M. IVrt'tCe took 10 Ihs. of perfectly pure red wine ; this lie divided
into twri parts, one was de(-olourie**d by sninial cliarcoal, c'va[>o-
raletl to oite Hftli, treated ajriiin with chArcoal, and rendere<l still more
mu(X*ntr:ited by eva|xiniriun. To a little of ihu liquid poured into a
te»it tube, a few drop« of ii K^dutiou of ferrocrantde ofpotasitium were
n<ld»l, brit no change of colour ensued, neither did anv precipitate
take plact*. In another |M>rti(m of the decolourised liiiuid a plnte of
p()li(iheil iron woa plunged for some time, but no dfposUion nf copper
occurred.

The other 5 lbs. of wine were evaporated to dryness, the residue
incinerated, treuteil wiih nitric aoidt and after eTa[H>ration to drynus:s
the re*>iduu WHS dissoU'ed in water :n plate of irrtii plunixed into a
portion nf the solution became rapidly coated with copper, and the
«(dutlnn of ferrocyanide of poUsnium, added to another [Mirtinn of the
solution, (;nve an immediate iron red colimnirion, which after a time
became violet, denoting ihc presence ot iron.

M. I'erctie next added one (nain of oxide of copper to another 3
lbs. of wine, and treated it by decolourisation and cvajKiratiun, mid
then tested it witli one drop of utolution of fen*ocyanide of potafi»ium
when the wliole assumed h ru!>e red tint, and after a lime a preuiptiate
of the same rolour farmed without any indication of the presence uf
iron, as shown by t)ie formation of a portion of prussian blue.

The iron nalundly present in the wine, M. Perotte subdetpicntly
prove«1, had been removed by the ehareoul with the colouring matter.

M. lVrett^3 further a-^certJiiited that if the residue obtained by the
evaporation of wiue be carbonised, and the carlK>naoeous mutter tieated
with wuter conlainiD;* a little uuinioni:!, the liquid will remuin eoliuir-
Icfs in the case of normal wine, hur will he(*4>me btne if oxide of
cooper has been added to the wine in the pro[kortion of one grain to
5 lbs. of wine.

Liebig ha« the following remarks in regard to the value of wine: —
•* As a restorative or means of refroshtnent, where the jKiwerji of
life arc exhiiu^Ud; of giving animation and cner<;y, where man has
tn struggle with duys of sorrow ; as n mean* of correction ami com-
pensation where misproiK»rtiun exists in nutriiinn, and the or;runi^ni
IS deranged in jls o{ieration; and as a means of protociion u;::iii>st tran-
sient organic disturbances, wine if- surpa.'ised by no product of nature
or of art.

" The nobler wines of the Rhine, and many of those of Bordeaux,

0 o

563

WINE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

are distinguished above nil others by producing a minimum of
jurioua ftfter-cflecl. Tlie quantity of wine coniiumed oii the Uhine by
persons of all ages, without perceptible injury to their raenuU and
bodily healtli, is hurdly credible. Gout mid calculous diseases are
nowhere more rare iLitn in the district of the Rhinegau so hijEhly
favoured by nature. Iti no purt of Gennsny do the Bpotheearies*
estahlishmenCs bring so low a price ns in the rich cities on the Khin«;
for there wine is toe univei>al medicine for the hedlihy as well as the
sick; it is considered as millk for the ngcd.'*

We gather, from the evidence before the Commitfee on Adulter-
ation, the following particulars in r^ard to the proceedings of the
Excise as to wine : —

Mr. VillierM. ** How does foreign wine conic within your province
to examine ?" — '^1 cannot tell ; we have huii two samples, uue in the
year 1820, and one in 18S2."

*' Are there any tjisiers appointed for the wine brought into this
country ?" — " We have none."

Mr. Miiffutt. "The wine is under the Customs, is it not?" —
*' Yes, and the denlora have to pay a licence to us."

Mr, Villiert. "Arc British wines much ailultcratcd?*' — ** British
wines arc made up in a variety of ways ; we do noc interfere with them
much."

So much for the efficiency of the Excise in r<^nrd to wine It ap-
pears ifaut two samples were examined in twelve years.

The Customs' duty on wine from lii-iti!>h cnloiiie:!>, certified to be
the production of those colonies, is 2j. 9ii. per gull., with 2 pt^r cent,
thereon ; all i>ther wines 5«. 6</. |)er gall,, ntiJ 5 \iet cent, tbercoo.

The quantiti«a entered for home consumption were *—

lBlS94.

blHS^

t>WtwM«a.

•riBsa.

BritlthColonlM: red ...
FotrtftTi: t«d - - - -
Britlih Colunif 1 : white .
Fordini : do. - - -
Vvfotu Qilxed In bond .red -
wblu .

Total -

o«n..

1MI.-.79
S,n9«i,(lM

175.739
3,511, i 13

ITT.IUS
7«.4Mi

<!•■■.

l»-i.ll«9

».7Mi7W

111,1 IS

Vn.iBft

tSMilA

KiTi.fln

111847

rj4»«ii

f,S70,SU

6,4»0,644

PART ir.

DRUGS, AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS,

Tub vubject of the adulteration of drugs has tlrend/ boen briefly
toucheii upon in tlie introduction to the wurk ; the aj-Mtetn uf drug
grindinfc, and the efTecls of odulturarion in tiii)>airii)|{ tbe unurts of the
|ihvstcian to cure difieoflc wtTi* e-^pc* iaJly alluded tu.

The prevalence of adukt-rution nmy be proved in several ways.

Kirstf by the actual amdvi^is of vurinus drugs: (he refiulls of gome
hundreds uf such analyses vrc flhuU ahortly prucotid to record.

Second, by the testimony uf conipotcnt witnesses.

Third, by the system of druj! ^'rinding.

Fourtii, by the existence of what are knovn as compound powders.

Fifth, by the prices at which various drug^ are M>ld.

Referring to the evidence given Urforu the Parliamentary Com-
niittee appoinletl to inquire int4) Lite aul>ji-ct of adulteration, we meet
with much vuluable testimony in regard to tbe fdaificatiun of drugs,
and »ontc of which we shall now quote.

Some idea of the extent to which adulteration prevails may be
formed from the evidence elicited froiu l>r. E. D. Thomfion by Mr.
Villicm.

** All tlie drugs are submitted to some examination, ore they, al St.
l*boiiias's Hospital ?" — *' Every one."

** Have you often rejected dru^ P" — " Very frequently indeed. I
may say that one third of the substances I h;ivc examined I have re-
jected, either from impurity or adultenition.*'

Mr. Herring, a wboleside chemist and dru^igist, of the highest cha-
racter, engaged in the drug trade fur forty years, thus dejjoces to the
prevalence of adulteration in drugs.

Mr. SchoUfieid. ** Wdl you favour the Committee with your view
as to the existence of adulterntion In the article of drugs !*'* — **It
exists to % very great extent-"

Referring to Mr. Redwood's denials of adulteration before the Com-
mittee, Mr. Viiliers asked Mr. Herring the following Question: —

564 EVIDENCE BEFORE PARLIAMENTARY COUCITTKE

" It iit the opinion of a };eiit1eimin connected with that Scxuety* tb«t
there i» very htile impuritj In drugs and what there 10 U not at all
injurious?" — ** I ciinnot ay:rec with that."

" Have you any experieure of the sttpply of drugs to Pf»or Law
Bonnli* ?*' — " \Vc never di<i it, but I have 9ecn a great deal of it ; aod
there the powdered ortirle will be 100 per cenl. cbenper thtui the
Btajiiti article." fl

Mr. Scaiilan, a chemist of repute, enp^aged for many yenrs in tiie V
manufacture of drug's und chcfuieaU, gave the folluwtng evidence as
U> the peneial ndnlieralion of drufjs : —

Afr. SchnirJirUt " The general <?tTei't of your evidence is that there
18 a considiTjlile nniount of adullcr^ticin in di uga ?" — •' In lirugi and
oheuiicab u&ed in medicine"

"And therefore considerable riak exists that the prescriptions of
phvsicians will not have their intended effect upon ilieir patients?" —
"There is no doubt of it. I heard Mr. Uedwf»»d"j evidence, and I
do not think he admitted adulterations to the extent to which theT
really exist."

It appears from the foHowinj; remark of Dr. Thomson m&de to the
Committee on Adulteration that any {Ktwder, no m.itter what it^ real
value and original cost, might tit one time have been Imught for 36r.
per cwt; this single fact of itself proving tlie exten«ve practice of
adutlerution.

Mr. ViUiers. *'l BUppnse there ie !«»me diflerenoe of price between
the lM.'st dru<;;s und those which are inferior and adulterated, is there
not?" — ** I have boen tulJ ihul there are drugirisls, at least one dmg-
gist, who woiilii fltll any powtler von pleajted at 36*. the cwl."

The following infoi'nmtian was cHcitetl by Mr. Villiers from Mr,
Wnringlon in reijard to a-iulteraiion on the part of drujr g-rinders : —

" Vuu say you generally jrrind your own drui!!*. From inqttirief
which you have nuide in the trade i<t it your opinion that a jrreftt
deal of adulteration takcB phiee on the part of the grinders ?" —
"We were forced t'> grind our drugs by the fact of the adultera-
tion. Kven wht-n the SmTJi'ty of Apolhi-carii-s ?»ent a man to the dru^y
mill to RUfH'rinlend the grinding of Uieir own dru<;.H, he wa5 taken
down to dinner or (o luni'b, or to ftomethingof the kind, and all kinds
of tricks were played with their drugs.**

Mr. Brtstick, whose mnunmenta in pharmaceutjeal chemistry arc
unequalled by any other chemist in iXxM country, furnished the Coin-
raittee with the ibllowing evidence in regard to the adulteration of the
articles known as ctuHptynml jumnUrs : —

" There is a cUss of bodies 1 aiiould wish particularly Ut draw the
attention of the Comotittee to, which is a senei> of powders vended by
wholesale druggists, which they are pleased to term compound pnw>
dera. Those powders, if they were proi>crly deaignated, would be called

* The Fhwiftccutlul Soci«lf .

ON THE ADULTERATION OF DRUGS.

565

tduitei'ated powders. They are obliged to use a term in contradis-
tinction to that of coin|x)un(l powders, and ibey employ the word
*■ venuj If, tor exuinpli^ you wished tu order genuine aniseed powder,
you would n!>k fur puhit anisi vent* : but if you wanted t lie adulteruled
powder you would uj*k t'oT puicu anUi compositug. The most frequent
in^tnncea of these lululterated pnwd»frs are aniseed, carraway seeds,
fentigreek .<ieedfi, litpiorice, gentian, lurnieric, and starejiocrc. The
recipe which I propose to read to the Committee fur coinpoundin;? one
of these powders is onW a tyiK: of many others. It is in a bonk which
I have in my hand, wtiich belonged to a person who used to mnnufac-
ture these p»twders who is now dead, and therefVtre I feel no delicacy
in reading it. The following are the nmtermls for making compound
(tention powder; true gentian, 1 ll>., linscetl, 5 lt>s., flour, 2 lh*t., cape
aloe^, to ^ive the bitteme^is, a sulficient quantity ; that is the recipe
employed to make f:entian powder Mtnpnsitua."

Chairman. " If I undereitand rightly, there are Tibs, or 8 Ihs. of
niatt'ritil, having only I lb. of the genuine article in itl*"^" Yes."

Mr. SheridaH, "\VIjo are rhe parlies who apply f<)r pidvis compo-
attu*?" — " Tlie retail dru^igi^t ; it is a convenliuniil term between the
retail and tlie whole^<kle dru^igisl, invented to avoid the disngreeuble-
nc5S of talking iibotit .adulterated articles."

**Any medical man u<iing gcntittn made upacconlingto that receipt,
would find his expectations totally fail ?" — ** Entirely."

Mr. Sheridan, " The wholesale druggist compounds the powder?*'—
*^ In most cases it is done by bioDi or by the drug grinder on hi«
behalf."

Chairman, "U'hat would be the relative telling price ofllie true
genliiiri and the compotitut f " — " A wholesale dnigffist would speak to
that better than I c^n ; of course there is a considerable rednclion.
I will mention one oiher instance of the composition of a c(mi[>oand
powder, that is turmeric : common ochre, 1 lb., true turmeric, 1 lb.,
flour, 2 lbs."

'* That is in the ppop<trlion of one to four ? " — ** Yes."

"Yuu ullude<l just now to the use which has been made of the term
'conventional adulterution ;* * do you consider the prnctiee you have
ftuw nrlerred to a!> conventiomd between the drugL'ist and the drug
grinder, or between the wholesule druggist and ihe retailer?" —
*' Yes, bctwet.*n llie wholesale druggist ami tlie retailer ; certainty not
as regards the public."

*' The drug grinder and (he retailer understand each other, and
therefore it may be siiid to be a conventional urrungement Ijetwcen
thvni ; but do tlie public, when they purchase these pi)wders, under,
stand thai there is this udinixiure in the one case ot four tn one of
furiMgn materiul, and in the other of seven to one of foreign m^
terial ? "— " CerlAinly not"

* Thii renurliablc nxprmiloD wu ArM uDfilo)*! by Mr. Redwood ia dsfaooi of idul-
tOTMkm.

o o 3

ftft6 EVIDENCE BEFOKE PARLIAMENTART COMMITTEE

** Does a mcdioAl man who prescribes those powders expect to W

those proportions?" — " Certninlv not."

"Then, aliliMU^'Ii this may bea i-onvention&l mntter between » l**"
tion of the Irmle, tiie public'is lilemlly defrau'le*!?"— " UiMJoobtodljl
nor do I believe lliat the public in tiny tnatance are ft partT to 1*5
adullcrnlinn, or willln^^ly purcliasean article which is adultcnitc^'

Now these compound powders form part of the stAek of eetrlT lU
wholcMilc druggists, inchirlinfr even many of the most re»frrUblt
Wo have now in our p<»&<ession suniples of all thesv ptwUffi •ap-
plied to U8 by one of the first houses in the drug trade. Not»it^
8taiidin>; this notorious fact, that tlii^y are tlius coniuiuidy kfpt nA
sold, Mr. James fiaiss, after fencing a r>ow\ de^d nith the Coanittec*
gave ihe iinnexed reply to a question by Mr. MnfTitt : —

^* You are not aware of that orllele (compound gentian pa«4ir)
beinjr ont* of tlie current articles in the drug trade.** — "ll n^
only be in very rare inslanees."

We ttflirm thiit there is i*curuely another wholesale c!iCB0st a4
dru;;«:iHt in the kingdom who would have ventured upon a lim^
statement.

It is ur^ed in defence of the manufacture of these prtwdcrs, tkal
they are exclusively used as cattle medicines. Tbis fftatrntvnS t> ■«*
incorrect, in proof of which we need only rel'er to the wrticlee oaTafr
mcric and Litpiorice powders. Besides, why should adtdti'ratsd Mr*
ders containini larpe quantities (»f starch, jeUow ochre, &c-, lie Uval
down the throats of cattle any more than of human beings ^

Mr. Guy, a witness before the Parliamentary Oimutlttif, bVB
whose eviflonce we have before had occasion to tiuoie, gave the U-
lowins answers to questitins by the Committee, Laving nelocaeili
a'lulteraiion bv drug grinders; —

" I wAA etnploveil a long time in what is cftlled a grist miU, aadac
split upon tht* average sumetlung like 60 or 70 ijUHrters of bMM I
day. Egyptian beans contain a great deal of dirt ; if a cmn ataim
100 stone of Egyptian beans, when we w^ished the diil out, th« w«aM
be reduced 5 intone, leaving 9J. We asked the persoo w^ ttt/t
them, * How much do yim expect to be relumed out of th» \^
stone?' — *' If he said he wanted 1 10, there being 5 f!'- r- < -• — ■*-♦
there must be 15 stone more sent to him than he actn
mill, thiiiinh it is not injurious to health, because it Is 1^ «.;.-.^ --.,—
of water."

*' You added ihe weight by soaking the beans in water?** — "Tbc
we were compelled to do it; he sent so many hundrcdweiglit to I*
split, and told us he wunted so many hundredweii;Lt Imi^ ; iW ■
done by what Is called in tlie trade ' washing/ with a virw to viA
the dirt nm."

^fr. Sfierinan. " IlaTe you had drugs also to grind to Ut* «K
way ?"— » Yes."

ON THE ADULTEHATION OF DRUGS.

567

my nl:

How lonp

as burnt iiown."

Uint?"— " I think it is nbont three years since

y nhice was burnt iiown."

" TiVlittt kind of proportion did the peraon who sent the dni^ to you
to be ground require back?" — "It nepemled upon {hn pnrlies. Take
the cmse of rhubarb; whatever may be said about Kn^il^h rhubarb
bein^ sold to the public m KnjiHsh rhubarb, it i-i mostly ^-ohl under
the iiutne of Turkey rhubarb, ijier^ Is no question about that ; I have
had 5 cwt. of rhubarb sent lo be pround, pcrhapi 2 cwt. would be
Turkey, and 3 cwt. English rhubarb."

Chmmian, "In the ground stule?" — " Yes."

Mr. Sheridan, ** Su[»posin^ a hundredwei;»hl of Turkev rhubarb
wore Rent to be ground, would a hundrwlweight be returned?" —
»' No."

"Who ffuflered tlic loaaP** — "The proprietor; perhaps he would
make it up with inffrior rhubarb.*'

Chairman. ** There was no uttcmpt to supply the waste by any
other material ?*' — " Yvf ; I have seen th:it done bv satinwood saw-
dust. I have in my mind mease In which two hundredweiKhl of
sarinnrood sawijut«t wert.' ground up with rhubarb, packed in flint l?ot-
tles^ an<l sent abroad "

Mr. ShrritLm. " Do you nieon to say that that, is the custom of
the trade?" — "I do not say that it ia tlie custom of the trade. I have
ground but few thin;:!* genuine, as for as my experienrc has ^onc.'*

Mr. KtttNaird. ~ ** Wtixv long were you in businessP" — "I WM
thiriy years a inuniard, chicory, drufj, and «pice prinder."

" Durini; that time v*>u very seldom sent fortli a pure article?" —
» No."

" Can you say whether ndulleralion has been rather on the increase
during the last few years yuu were in business?*' — **I am sureilhaa;
new t)un;:i< huve been found out, which years ago we knew nothing of,
to aHuiteraie with."

Mr. SfieHftan. "Had you any book?" — "I had a book till my
place was burnt down, which j;avc the detail of every transaction
from the time I went into buninesK, [ made no i^cruple to sli'>w il. I
huve done us much in the «ray uf ailulteralinn as any man in the trade,
and I lutve done more than almost any other mtin to cxfiose it. I
have done it in defiance of my employers, with a view to orxish it ; and
I have felt exceedingly jrlud to nave an opportunity of pivin^ it a
severe blow. I believe many honest men will thank any one who
will putnn end to it.**

"i)nyou mean lo say that it was a general instruction you had
from ihoiK' hou>e* to mix other ingre<lient» with the drugs?"— " 1 cannot
say thiit 1 hod one i;ust<imer on my books but what has been com-
pvlleit to mix more or ie.'S."

"Still your experience as a druy; grinder leaila you to say that it
is the prevalent practice with the wholesale druggists to send two

o o 4

568

EVIDENCE OW AOtJI-TERATION OF DBUGS.

BubstAnccs to be mixod together, to be sold m one trticle?" — ^T

haT« lljuml it so."

Mr. Mnjfiitt. " A» a drug prinder were \r>u ever called upon t«
introrlucf any otiier subtitanco into x drtitr before you sent it borne ^**

— "Yes; sfunelimen the adulterate has been sent to me to n»ix, awl
sninetiines they have sent to me tu suy, * Put in so-anil-so, juid charffv
lor it'"

** Were those instructions applicable to a great varietj of dra«a ?"

— "To rhubfirb, jalap, and cocculus mdiuus; I hare grounj manjr
cwts. of coceuius "in lie us."

"And you Imve worked for a preat number of respectable whAle-
sale druygists?" — " I have worked for a pTvat niuuber of respectable
whoIfSuK; drupgists in thy romitry, wliere iiiv mills were."

" Where were yfiur mills y" — " Nenr Leeds."

"Have you had iiny experience with re"«rd to drug grinJing ia
London?" — "1 have ground a good bit in London."

"DotB your evidence apply also tn the London dnigjriaw?'"—
"Yes; thut ca»e of the rhubarb being mixed with Mtinwood mw-
du«t ntx*urre<i in Loiidnn."

Theevidenceof Mr. Bell, given beforf'thePurliamcntnry Commiltee^
in regard to the practice of druf; grinders 13 ]tarli('nlnrly^ valuable, as
coming from one whiL, like his friend Mr. Redwood, hoi on more than
one occasion sought eilhcr to deny the cxislcnce o(y or to palliate and
excuite ailulteraiimi : —

^ Are you of opinion that n ^eat deal of adulteration takes place
among drug grinilers?" — "I think Roine adulteration dot», but not
nearly so much as wa« the ease some years ago; it was fonurrlv the
cuitfom t(i send fourteen pounds of a iirng to be gmund and receive a
quarter of a hundredweight, and gomelinies Imlf a huiiilrednrclgiit
bat^k ; but that custom, I believe^ is oniir**1y di»M>niinuiHl.

*Vr. WUe, — " Have you not heard, and is it not a frcqui*nt ftcrur-
rence, that persons are sent in charge of drugri which are t<» be pround,
fO as to wutoh that no adulteration takcti place?" — "1 have not
hear<l of (hat as a frecjuunt occurrence. I sbould be very surry to
employ a person to grind drugs who required looking alter in that
way ; it may have been done. Till very recctitlif, it wa-^ always t)ie
rase that persons expected to receive fAtfyw// quantity back in powder,
without any allowance for loss in grinding.*'

A few other facts may now be cited in further proof, if any were
needed, of the extensive prevalence, till within a recent period, of
adulteration in drugs.

The Am(?rican8 found that the drugs iniported into (he Union fVom
this country were so infamously adulterated, that io self-defence iliev
were driven to appoint inspector;) and examinei*s in some of the placca
of Import. Still later, tlit? Spaniards disf^ovore*! that they were snb-
jected 10 the siime inqntsition, and were compelled to adopt nieamre*
of precaution of a like character.

TOBACCO, AND ITS ADULTKKATION'S.

569

The qunntitie* nf damagetl and fldulteniUHl dnigi rojectod by the
Americuim is rcnily nmrvellnuo, an will be wen by reffrence to thv
eTiilcnce given by Mr. Jiicub Beli before the i'arliamLMitiiry Com-
mittee.

We will now ntntc nt length the results derived from tlw microsco-
pical exaiiiinstion and chemical anaWsis of aooie of ibe principal
drug!, under which head we include lobaccu.

TOBACCO. AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Tobacco <<on»t»ts of the dried leaves of several different species and
varielii'S **t plnnt^ belonginfr to the gt-nus Aicotiavtt, of the fanidy
.Vrr/uftnrmr, which inrludet^amon;*:*! other tnediciiiu} [)laht.shyo>cyanius,
bellailunna, and stramonium.

The tobiicco plant, ueconHng to Humboldt*, has been cultivated
fnnn time immemoriul by the natives nf Uronokn, hut it« intn>diictic}n
into Kuriipe apiK>iirs to huvc taken place subrte«|Uvnt to the discovery'
of America, allfiou':h there 'a ruasun for believing that it was known
to the jV^ialios Iniig bt^fore that tJuic.

The cTisiom of fluinking cigars was beheld by Columbus and his
followers for the first lime on their arrival at Cuba in WO'i.f The
plant was introduced into Spain and Portugsl bv Hcmandoz dc
Toledo, and Joan Nicot about 1559-60 sent the seeds from the latter
place to France.} On the return of Sir Frani'is Dnike with the
colonists fn>m Virginia in 1586. the practice of mioking wa^ introduced
into England, and stkui l»ecame general, bir Walter Haleigh being ime
of the fii«C to adopt it.^

Subsequent to it.t introduction into Euro[)e, various nttempts were
made to prohibit the lonoking and use of t(»l»iici*o; bur all tlie writings,
pains, and penalties proved incirt*ctual, and tlie practice went <m ex-
tending, until. IIS al present, it has become almost universal. One nf
the most celebrated of the t real i»e4 written ai'uinst tobacco was the
**Couit(erblaSte to Tobacco,"! by Kitig Jjiim.'s the First.

In Great Ijritain the eultivjiiion dl inbacro is still restricted on
account uf iho revenue, nut more than half a |>ole (two yunls and
threc-qunrtcrs) l>eing iillowed ** in a physic or university gardeti, or
in any private gnrden for phytic or chirurgcry."

The generic nppetlatiun of Nicotiatia Is evidenlly derived frotu
Nicot, the name of the imlividual by whom ihc plant was first sent lo

* Pertona) NaftjiiU*, tnl. « p. tf*.

t lluliin nf Itie Lib- aimI Vnyafr-v ut Ci^lutnbua. W*ih>a(lon trvlnff, vol. I. p. %?.

t B«uUlu'« Viutx. i Ulosrsph. Brit. vol. t. ^ 3471 || Work*, p. Sli. f. |«l«.

S70

TOBACCO, AND ITS ADULTEHATIOKS,

France, while it is probable lh»t the specific word tefranm pn% to
one ot" the principal specie*, ia derived from tnbac, the haiMofUte
insfrument useii by the niitives of America for snioking tnhamo.
Some, howi'VtT, {Utivc tlie word from Tobago, others from Tobuoov
a town in Now Spain.

The print-ipal Hp<>cies of tobacco, and alfio that emplored in nrii*
cine, is Nicodnnu Tabacum, or Virgittian tof>ac€0 ; it i» a berbtceflB*
plant, reaching from three to six feel in height, with a viici'J, S'Jn^T
luiee; the leaves are aes^ile, large, pale green when fn-sL
lanceolate, acuminate, and clutliet) with fhott frlandulur h^
extensively cultivated nearly all over the world, but chiefly lu ll<;
United States of America^ Virginia being tbe most celcbnted ftaia
growth.

Of tliis species several varieties are cultivated ; Virginian. Kentucky,
Maryland, and Columbian tobacco, are all obtained from it.

The leaves of A', latistima (Milter), jV. murrophylla (SprciiltJX
yield the large-haved ur Oronoho tobttrco. Tliia i» prubahly nrrof •
variety of the preceding !>peeies; it likewise presents rertaia mom*
cations or varieties di-pendent upon the size ainl form '•*
also upon whether they are sesnile, or fiirni;«heil with h
cordinj; to l)on the lar^c Havannah cigars are prub;i:
the leaves of this species.

The leaves of the N. rusiica^ common green toharr.
tobacco of Salonieu cir Thessalonica; also the Turkish '■
on the coasts of the Mediterranean, so hi*:hlv valued •
probahly alito the celebrated Lutakio. The leaves of this »{
peliolati', ovate, and quite entire. It ri|ien5 curlier, aad is monthsrl?
than A'. Tfihacum. It is frequently cultivated in gur<leuf in En<;is»l
and \!i U!4ed by gardeners (o destroy insects. It is indigvaooi is
America, and grows wild in Kuropc, Asia, and AfricA-

N, Fersica (Lindl.) yields the celebrated Shiruzor Persian tohaoiL
Of the leases of jV. repawla (Willd.), a native of Cuba, ne^at Haranml^
the sinnll Hiivannah nr Queen'ts cigars are said to be mode.

N. fftiaclriculeii (Fiirsh.) grows spontaneously, and is also obId*
vated on the banks of the Missouri by the Indians. 'I*he tob«M>
prepared from it is described as cjccellent; the most dcUcaie if ms^
irom the dried flowers.

A. nana (Lindl.) grows in the Rocky Mountains; tlie Indians srt
said to prepare the finest of their tobacco from tbe leaves of tkii
species.

The last species whitdi need be noticeil is N. multit*alrUy cultitslri
by the Indians who inhatiit the banks of the Culuuibta; the calti*
which is very foetid, being preferred to any other port.

The t4tbacco plant is prupagateil in Virginia and Maryland fftB
Be.^^ These are first snwn in turds : as soini the young plants tia>«
five or six leaves, exclusive of the seminul leavuM, ihi^y ore transplaatsd.
during the Diontb of May, into fiddSf the seedlings bein^ placed ivs

1...

I...^ u

J'.^

rumi>ii tk

KHja «^

TOBACCO, ATTD ITS ADDLTERATION8.

571

or three feet«spart, in rows. When nenrlj fuU-frrown, ihc tops are
pinched off, to prevent the fnrniation of flowor* and seetls, and to pro-
mote the devf'lopmcnt uf leaves. The harvest takes ptnce in August;
the mature pliints are cut off above the roots, liried under cover, and
■tripped o{ their leaves, which ore tied in bundles and packed in bogs-
bead*, &c
T<il>acco is met with in two states ■» the " Raw ** or " Unmanupac-

TURRU," and the ** MAKirrACTtlKHD."

Tobacco in the raw state consists merely of the dried leaves ; these,
as imfKirted, are soinetiines separnte. and pUced one upon the other,
as in Turkey tobaceo ; at others they are striin;; oit 8trin<|;s, as in
German tubucco ; but usually tbvy are iinportcd in " heads" or
"hands,** es they are termed; the different varieties of American
tobacco come over in this state.

There are various kinds of ilricil leaf, or unmaniifiictiirccl tobacco,
distinguished by the name of the country in which it is grown, as well
as by differences of colour and quaiiiy, arising chiefly from soil rihI
climate.

U.MiTKD Stats* Tobacco. — The principal supplies of lobncco to
this country are derive^! from the lJnit^»d States of America, the
several kimls beinjt name<l after the states in which they are prown —
as Vir^iniaTi^ Kfutuchyy Maryltind^ Misitottri, Ohio^ and other descrip-
tions all cultivated in, atul iin[)orted from, the United Srates.

Virginian Tobaeco h the stron^fcst kind of tobacco, and is not, there-
fore, well suited for cigars ; it is best adapted for smoking in pi|)es and
for .snuff. The colour of the leaves is deup brown, and they present a
mullted appearance; Ihev ^eel unctuou% and are so tough that they
may be bent d<iuble wiihimt breakina, when not over-dried. Sim;e
this tobacco will retain more moisture than almost any other kind,
and since iu strength is much greater, it is extensively use<l by
tobacco manufacturers.

Maryland Tobacco is paler in colour and weaker than the former;
the '*/Ki/e CinmrmoH" is dm best, the '*AVni6*" the commone»L

Kentnckg Tohocvu itf deH-rilK'd ax bein^e intermediate in strcQigth be-
Iwei-n these; it is paler than the Mrcinia.

Carolina Tobacco is less frec|uent]y met with, and is of inferior
quality.

Ctfiumbian Tobacco in much esteemed for cigars, for which it is more
used than any other kind. The leaves are markeil with light yellow
spot^ Oiher varieties of Oilumbiun tnb.t<-co are, Varitias^ brought
over in rolU and )ieajh<, a very mild tobacco, and Cumana,

Oko!(oko Tobacco comes over in separate leave«; it is of a yellow
colour, and is very miM aitd delicate.

CunA Tobacco iit also a mild loharco, and the most esteemed for
cigars; tliat grown neur ihe town of Hacaunfih U the' finest ; the leave*
of lliis are yelhiwiah brown, with a mutiky or spicy odour. The ordi-
nary tobacco grown on the ialand is darker iban the Havannub. lioth

67S

TOBACCO, AND ITS ADULTEHATIOX8.

kin<l9 arc imported in heotls, and are remarkable for the *]ij;1it yeiloi
spots oil tlie leaves.

St. Domingo Tobacco come« over in separate Icavea, and is of In-
ferior quality.

fiB\ziLiAii Tobacco. — A very small quantity only of this tobacco
is iuiportetl Ironi the Brazils.

Dutch or AMEBsrooRT Tobacco is very milj, and deficient in
flavour ; tlie darlcL-r kirnl is the strongest, and id mutU used for snufiT;
while the milde»l is employeil fur the c'onnmnne<{t cigars.

Levant Tobacco includes Turkey^ Laiakia (a Hvrian roharco),
and Suhnica tobacco; thc^e are nil the produee of Nieotiana nutiea;
they are mild, but valuible tobaccos. Turkejf tobacco comes orer in
broud and fifparate leaves, of a bright yellotv colour.

Persian or Shiraz Tobacco is al»o a Levant tobacco; it is tlelicftte
and fnijrrant, and is the proiluce of Nicotiana Persica.

Another description is Kast India Tobacco, of whicb a small
quantity only \a imported ; it is not mueh estoenied.

Mfwi/lii 'Johfifco, grown near the town of Manilla, :n Lucon, one of
the Philippine Islaiid.s is u dark-coluured tobaecOf and ia extensively
use<l in the manufacture of cheroot*.

In the hiinds of the nianutiioturer the leaf is converted into momt-
Jachired tobacco in the following manner : —

The leaves ore unfolded and " strip[>tid" — that is, the mid-rihs or
stalks are removed ; this is done by a sudden jerk of the stalk by the
hand, holdimr by the leaf. They are then sprinkled with "saace"
or *• liquor;'* thi*, properly, should conMst of water onlv, bnl in
some rases it eontuins salt, and is coloured with treacle or fiquorice;
but these additions are adulteruliont. After the sprinkling;, by
which Um leaves imhibe a ^ood deal of the liquor, and therefore
become iuereaseil in weight, Ihey are put into Urye, Hat, Mjuare, iron
boxes, and pressed into a solid cake; durtnj; the pressure, if too
nmch " liquor" has been used for the sprinkliiiir of the Kavea, some
escft|>es, deeply coloured with extractive derived from the tobacco
leaf. This mixed with the washings of the cloths Uiiod in pressing,
is gold as ''lol'aceo water," and is used as a sbeett-wash, and also by
cordeners to destroy worms anrl other venuin. The cake is then eut
into shrecls witli kuife-ed^ed ch<»pping-stumps, the shreds varying in
diameter of from sixteen to one hundred to the inch. IjOstJy, the
tobacco in this state is li>:htly dried or " stoved" in a flat copper or
iron tniy, Iteated by sand, and freiiuently by steam.

The above pnxrcss of course applies only to cut or suao ronacco :
in the manufaeturo of "boll tobacco" a lolully diiferenl method is
followed ; —

The leavBs, or rather the half-leaves, ore arranged end to end in a
line down a long table; thii* is mostly dune by women or boys. One
of the leaves, having first been twisted into a kind of thin rofie, is
attached to an iron hook, which is made to rcvolre rapidly, by

TOBACCO, AXD ITS ADULTKRATION8.

979

of a wheel, in a borizonltti position on a level wiili the surface of The
tftble. The "' spinner" thi'n, wiili u <tinull tHKinl Hxcd to thi* palm of
the hand, while tlie rope \s tiirniojr, Mttat^ht^i^ leaf at'Cer leaf, itiUing
und hiinietiiii^v it with the board as tho length proceeds. When Biifli-
cienl i-^ mauufootured, the rope b coiled up ^n ns tu form u burrel-
sbaped pile nr mas?, ench layer Iwing well oiled with » hruyh. In pr«f-
venl the uuilu from udbering to each other. Tlic coiU beiiijj tJrmI/
I»*«jied togelhtr with wooden nailc^ the whole pile is then steeiK*<l in
" Tiquor,** and Grmly prestied, oilc), ftnd polished with a bruiih. It is
estimated that this kind of tobucco increaaes in weight in the inanu-
faciure from fifteen to twenty-five |>er cent.

All miiiiofactured tobaccos may be referred to one or other of the
four fnllnwing f(^^m^ or kinds : —

In the Britl kind tlie leaver are cut into shredx ; to this all the dif-
ferent varieties of cut toitacco belong.

In the second, tlip leavi»s are twisted or (tpun into a kind of rope ;
thi:3 includes the dilTrrenl kinds of roU^ spun, or twist tithacco.

In the third, the stripped leaves are folded one over the other, so as
to form C'ffttrt and cheriMti.

In the iburth foruu the leaves are reduced tu powder, constituting
snuff'.

We need only describe at present the different varieties of cut and
roll IfibiiciMi ; —

The chief kinds of cut tobacco are Sha^, Heturus^ and Bird't-eye;
other less common kinds ore Maryland^ K^NtuUr^ Orottoko^ Turkey^
Persian^ and Variitaa,
Shag is prepored chiefly from Virginia and KenlucJty tobacco.
Returns is a ligfat-colourcil, mild tobacco. The true derivation of
its name is said to be, that formerly the tobacco known lus '■ shfrt cut'*
was with luucii labour rublwd through a wii-e sieve ; the finer j>or-
lions and du»t, lechnic:dly called "smalU,** pii^^ed t)irou};h, jiiid wirre
j4U]ip<jsed to be much the 5tronji;e9t ; when no mure would ^o thmuj^'h,
that which wos left upon ihe sieve was rtn'koned tu be uiilder, and
■ •f superior quality, and called in the traile " Returns." Acoord>
ins to I'ereira its name ** derivetl from it* Ivinp formerly pn'piircd
br ri'turninj; shiiu fi»r re-cutting. In the KefM>rt on the Tobacco
'1 rade, bv the Select Comtnittee of the House of Commouft, ntidu in
Au*;ust 1844, it is described ns "made up of the :«mii11 pieces uf
broken leaves, and the dust and sifiings ])ntduced in the various pro-
cesses nf maniifrtcture."

Sirrf«-rytf differs from the other Tarteties in containing the mid-
ribs of the leaves, ihe imnsverse slices of which have been I'ancirully

compared to the eyes of birds.
Tlie principal kinds of roll I

tobacco are Pigtail^ liogie^ AUoa^ Negro-
ketid^ an<l Cacertduh.

The first three are used entirely for chewing, nnd are distinguished

CavenfltMh U mftde in smsll eqtiare flat cakes, about an inch and a
balf wiile by five inches l(»iig.

Structure of Tobacco,
Th« k'Hves of tobnofo present Bcvernl well marked pecnliortHf o/
'*, by wbicb ibej may be readily diatinguisbed, eren in their

TOBACCO, AND ITS ADCLTERATIOKB,

573

manufacfured state, from tboiie of most other plants, llicsc pecu-
liarities can only be sutisfuctorilr detertnincii by means of the micro-
scupe, and it is very imporlant that they should be clearly undcr^jtood,
fftr without a knowledge of them it is often impftssiblt* to discriminate
between f^cuuinc and adulterated tubacco — a ptiint of the greatest
consequence, since no less than about four millions and a hulf (joundfl
sterling are derived annually from the duty on tobaceo, and since it is
known that the revenue is defruuded to a large extent with uom-
parative im^junity by the adulteration uf tobacco. MobI leaves may
be divided mto two parts, the bruad eA[>anded part or lamina, and
the mid'Tib or stalk and veins, as they are cuUe<i, which traverse this,
impart in<; t(» it strength and solidity in the same way as do the bones of
an animal.

I'he Ituiiina is composed chiefly of cellular tissue, and the veins of
woody fibre and vessels.

A minute fragment of tobacco leaf, viewed on its upper surface with

Fig. IS».

l^aOKR SCKTACK OT IjUV OF To*«O0Q.

Ikhcolled 820 dluncUn.)

a half or quarter-inch object glass, is seen to consist of a num1>er of
cells, joined together, and having smooth and waved borders, with

576

TOBACCO, AND ITS ADULTEIljlTIOira.

here and tbere stom&U and numerouB hn'tn, Hk^c liwnvrfivni
liar; itiey iire of the kind icnned pUndular — tfam is, tL^
in u roumlish swelUD" or enUr^'oinent, very clearlj seen
dried IcMif; I'urtbtir, llu' ha'm vurv greatly in &izc^ and
ihev are divided or compound, /i^. 184.

l*he under yurfoee nf the li'af presenu a nearly similar
but the itloiuata are much more numerou*, and tbe hair* ftinr.
Fig. 185.

The veins and mid-ribs, viewed in transrcrst* sections^ ttt 4 1
rresrentic nr horseshoe form. It hat been cf>n?id»rred bv«»BwtUl
the stulka of toVfarco may always be djstinjrulhh^-d fnMii ti»i»f i>( C*^
pliiiits hy tbid ehnroeter. It a|ipear<s however, that «M-t:oni ri iW
fttnlka of stramonium and byoxcviitinis present a nearlr MiitiUr ««!•
line ; but these plunta are Rtrarcely likely to bv use«l, uuiler ui< rir*
cunmtances, by tlte luanufactiirer, for tbe adulteration of luljoirr^

Transverse sections of tbe suioller veins under an iucb ot>irct-£rU.i
present the appearances shown in ibe following 6«pire.

F(f, IBfi.
TBAXirnsi SffCTios or Mii»-iiii or LB4r urn TueuW*

On the outside, runninif all round the section, jfy. Ifttf,if« Uy^^
the cellular tisstie of which the laiuinaof tbe leaf U iueif luihil^av

TOBACCO, AND ITS ADDLTEBATI0N8.

fir:

poted, bearing: on iu outer surface the gandular bairs ; in the centre

of the section, the cut extremiiies of the elongated cells, woody fibre,
and dotted ducts of which the stalks arc chieflr made up, are seen,
having a somewhat radiated disposition. These structures are more
clearfj? shown mfg. 187.

Fie- 187.

Fosnov or TtAVfriBsi fiicnos at Mio-kik or \^xt o» Tobaooo.

(IfafnUcJ WtUuDftan.)

Fig. 188. represents a lonjijltudinal section of one of the emnlW
mid-ribs, in which the cells, tibrcs, and vessels are still more clearly
■huwu.

p p

578 TOBACCO, AND ITS ADULTERATION8-

In longitudinal sections viewed with the qnarter-inek objc
a few smnll but well-formed starch coi'piuclea majr somtftameal
Ijing in the cells situated just outride the central part of tbeaM

Fig. IM.

LoirarrvsiifAi. Bwrtioir or Mjd-ui or ljt*» ot TovACVObl

(MAff&Ua to dluMUi*. )

In the leaf of tobacco re*iiiced to powder all the
tures may be rca<illv detected, — of course much broken op.-
haire, cells of the UmintL, stomutn, elnn<;ute<l cells wood; fifan.
portions and fmgnienl.i of the spiral ducts. Fig. ]h9.

The quantity of woodjr fibre present in the central part of the i

TOBACCO, AKD ITS ADULTEBATXOKS.

579

rib is \>y no means very cunsiilerable, it being made up to a pent ex-
tent of the spiral duct3 ; tbe tibrcs, in general, uro more like elongated
cells tbun ordinary woodr fibres; nevertlieless, bundles of undoubted
woody fibre do occur. Tbe fibres are short, the borders slristcd, and
the extremities truncate.

GuKViwM Cvt TntACCO

Composition of Tuhncco.

We bare now to constdcr the composition and propirties of tobacco.
Tbe principal analyses of tobavcu which have hitherto Leeo made
are the following : —

P P 2

TOBACCO, AND ITS ADULTER ATIOHS.

VtPiqueliua AualpHM*

An acrid volatile principle (nicotina).

Albumen.

ltd) matter soluble in alcohol and water.

Acetic acid.

Supemialnte of lime.

Oiloropliylle.

Nitrate of potash and chloride of potusium.

S)(l ammoniac.

Water.

Ejrpressed Juice of Ltcvta.

The /«ire# contained, In addition lo llie above, woody fibrf,
and phospliiite of lime, oxide of iron, and siliea. The two Uu<f1
stancen were obtained from the ai^hes. ManvfaeturtH tthoeeo MK
tained the same principles, and in addition cArl>i>n;ite of anmumistti
ehloride of calcium, perhaps prcMJuoed bjr the reaction of nal
and lime, which are added tn tobacco to give it pungency.

Potxelt und I^etHmantu* AnalffMJf

Nicotina . - - . .

Concrete volatile oil -

Bitter extractive - - - ■

Gum wiih malatc of Ume ...

Chlorophylle - - - - .

Albumen and gluten - - - .

iVItiHc acid - - - - .

Liunin and a trace of starch - - .

Salts (sulphate, nitrate, and malate of potash,

chloride of potassium, phosphate and malate of

lime, and malute of ammonia)
Silica ------

Water . . . - „

Q7SI
IHIU

Freeh leaves of tobacco -

CtfnwtlCa Anafytix.^
Gum.
Mucilage soluble in both water and alcoboL

Tannin.
Gallic acid.
Chiorophjrlle.

• Ann. df Ctilm., vnt l»l. p. iXt.

■i (imf-Un'a Itanilb. dv Ctirm. vol, H. f^ IJ

I Sllllmairi JuiudjU. voL xril p. SOS.

100

TOBACCO, AND ITS ADTJLTEEATIONB.

581

Green pulverulent maltcr. soluble in boiling water.

Yellow oil having llie odour, taste, and poisonous properties of

tobacco.
Pale yellow resin (large quantity).
XicutinH.

A substance analogous to morphia.
An oranu^e red colouring mutter.
jNicolionui.

or the several constituents^ tlie presence of which has been revealed
by chemical analysis, the most important are nicotina or nicntine, and
nicnriiinin, as ujjon these the octive properties of tobacco mainly depend.

NiroTiNA exists not only in the leaveSf both fresh and fermented,
but in the roots, seeds, and even the smoke of tobacco. It is obtained
by digesting an aiiucnns extrucl of the leaves in rectified spirit ; this
tukvs up the nicotina in combination with acids; the tincture is then
to be concentrated, and mixetl with solution of [KitJish ; this nets free
the nicolina, whiob is again token up on agittttinn with ether.

The aUcjdoid ui;iy be purified thus: — Oxalic acid is to be added to
the ctherlal solution; oxalate of nicotina fulls to the bottom of the
vessel : this precipitate is to be repeatedly aliAken up with ether, the
nicotina beinir sepnruted as before by |MtJLsh and ether. With a
view to its still more complete purification the etherial sniuiiun is to
be disliltcd in a saU*water bath, trunsfcirtMl tu a retort through which
u current of dry hydrogen gas is ma<lti to circulate, ex|iosed in an oil-
bath to a temperature of 284° Falir., to get completely rid of the
water, ether, and ammonia ; lastly, the temperature is to be raised to
n^G'^ Fahr., at which the nicotina distil? over drop by drop. It is
stated that from twenty-eight pfninds of Virginia tobacco at least four
per cent, of the alkaloid can be obtained by this process.

Nicotina is a colourless lit^uid alkaloid, with an offensive odour, and
an acrid burning taste. It boils and undergoes deeonipo.sition at 4h2°;
it becomes brown by exposure to the air, and is readily combustible
with the aid uf a wiek. It Is soluble in water, ether, alcohol, and the
oils both fixed and volatile; with the acids it forms salts, which are
fnr the utost part (Tystallisable. A solution of nicxitina with one of
bichloride of mercury gives a white, floceulf nt precipitate, a duuble
chloride of nicotine and mercury, and a yellow granular precipitate
with chloride of platinum.

Scbloesing* bos given the following process for estimating the
amount of nicotina in dried tobacco. Two drachms of tobacco are to
be exhausted by ammuniacul ether in a continuous diMilUtory appa-
ratus, the ammoniaad gas is to be expelled from (he nicotina solution
by boiling, and after the evaporation of the ether, the amnunt of nico-
tina is to be estimated by the quantity of diluted sulphuric acid, of
known strength, retjuired to neutralise it.

* CboBlul Cuutir, vuL v. p, 41.
P P 3

SS2

TOBACCO, AKD ITS ADULTERATIONS.

NiraUiu.

6-87
6-09
229
2-00.
7-

7S4
6-59
629
4fU
321
2-04
bvdrocTtni

The follijwin? fire the amounts of nicotina eatimatod bj liua

ces9 found In (litTtireiit kinds of tobacco.

100 PtrtaofTubacco dried at Sl'iO.

Virgina - - . .

Kentucky - - - .

Alary laml - - - _

Havannah (Cigarcs primera) less than

Lot

Lot-et-O&ronne ...

Nord - -

Ile-et-Vilaine . - -

Fas de Calais ...

Alsace . - - .

Tobacco in powder - - -

Pure nicotina is an energetic poimn almost as active
acid. It WM employnd by Count BiX'arine for the luunler o( bit
brotlicr-in-Iaw ; and bis trial at Mons a few years since created a
great sensation in the public mind.

NicoTiANi:*, the concrete colatile oil of tobacco,' tobacco errmphtr,
is obtained by distilliition. Six pouruls of leaves yif Id only abAut
eleven jfrains of the oil ; it has the odnur of tobucco, and a bitwr
taste; it excites in the tongue itiid tliroiif a sensatiun simdoriothit
caused by tabsicco smoke; applied to the nose it causes «ne«£iii£.
Ilermbstadt swallowed a grain of it, which produced nausea^ cidduiak
and inclination to vnmit.

Since it is chielly from Tobacco smokk that we must draw ov
conclusions as to the effevt of tobacco smoking on the syst^rn* a knov-
ledge of its L>ompo^ilion U of great importance* It has beeo analrM^
by several different expmuiunlers*.

The constituents of ToImcco ^tmoke, according to Raab*, are

Carbonate of ammonia.
Acetate of amuionia.
Nicotian in.
Empyreuuiatic oil.
Carbonaceous matter.
Moisture, and several gases.

Unverdorben -[ obtainc<l, by the dry distillation of tobaccoi the
lowing products : —

A vol utile oil.
An oleat^tnous acid.
An empyreumatic acid.
Resin.
Traces of a powder insoluble in potash and acida.

• Zenlt^r And Seh»nk. Valurff^cfh. d. TortUx. Huulelwl. Bd. H V vs
t Paantlorirt Aiiualrn, till. 899. ■ * *•-

TOBACCO, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

SS3

OHorin, a small quanitj.

A ha^i! ftulutle in water (Nicotin P).

FiiAcin.

Kcd nk:ittcr <ioliil>lo in acids.

Two oxtratftivo matters, one forming a soluble
the other iin insotublt: coiiipoun<l witb lime.
More recently Zaiw* bus niii<tea i-artjlul anulj'stti uf lubacco emoke,
id gives the foUuwing as iu cunstilueiila : —

A pvculiiir urn pareunia tic oil.

Butyric aciil.

Carlionio ucid.

Ammonia.

ParufBne.

Emp^Teumutic resin.

Water.

Acetic acid, probably.

Carbonic oxide.

Cnrburettetl hydrogen.
Lastly, MeUt^nst lia» HetecK'd nicntina in tobacco smoke. The
empyrcumatiL- oil of loharoo is uhdiNtiiifpiifthable from that of fox-
gloTc. It is evident, therefore^ that tobucco smoke contains the more
active constiiucnls of t»>bncco, and that it con»c<picnlly possesses to
sotno extent the properties of the leaf. We shall herearter enter upon
the cjuejilioQ of the eSects upon the system of the* liabit of timoking
ti'biicco, but we now confine our reraitrks to the physiuh^'ical action
and elTects of tobucco when administered.

The foUowing Tables were drawn up at the aulbor*s reauest by
Dr. Lcthcby from samplt-s of unmanufactured tobacco^ furnisucd him
for the purpose, and were published in the "Lancet" for 1853 : —

Table A.

Skatvittg the general Composition of Six Sampies of Leaf Tobacco^
QM imported.

KxtTJU-lire tulubl^ In eold
wjilrr - . - .

EntracUve Mlubl« In Iwlllnit
water ....

Ligneout natter «nd inxilu.
bitHlu - * - -

.u— ^

v^^^

ManXmA. KnoKk;. Ttakm,.

(kntMB.

IS-0

<at
<••

•0-8

I1'4

t-6

45-1

11-4

484

1*4
MG
10
770

10«
49-0
1-0

lOOi)

iiXN» loa^o

1000 , 100-0 1 100^

• AoMl d. ClinDl* a. Phwni., vnl. sWII. p «|«., IH4I.
t Ann. Am Ctiim. it de Pti/tJq., Sme ««r. i. ix. j^ 483.

r r 4

5S4

CO, AND ITS ADITLTESATIONS?.

Tablh B.

Showv*g the general Cotn^iosfti&n of tltn Mxiractit*e tnkeri vp bjf

Amjitoniaail Ether,

HCWHAt).

Vlq^dift. IfiqtBBd,

K«liiek7.

r»TWy.

1(K1

HI
l«-4

CbNir«i>hjleUidr«t .

Nlcotiao - - - -

la*
I ft

T
1

1^1

1^<
1-9

TqM tpef oait,]ioJLibl«Hil
ethur J

iP-a

IT-Q

1B-G

Shoteing the Oompositiffti of

Hot AqneatiA ExtPoctiM.

iugir - - - - -
Gum . , - , ,

Addin chlflllir niBUtr^ wltli

Iktie folnUTln^c InAttrtr
StVEb - - - - -
ColDurini OMtter, &c, -

i>«d.

Ew«t^.

r^.

7-6

4-4

4-0
ihl

0-4
lOrl

11*9

3-0
44»

ntmf
Vi

*T'i

43'JI>

«-4 1 W-a

U-D

Tablk D.
Showing the Composition of the Ash in 100 Parts.

Carbonate of potash -

Hinnnah.

Vibrate.

Htfjlsnd.

Kntoekj.

T«Uf.

0-5

a-0

4-9

4-3S

S-0

4-1

Chloride of potuslum, and a

little *oda . . .

3-0

0-6

0-4

0-M

0-1

Ore

Sulphate or potash

2-7

a-0

l-fiO

1-3

Carbonate of lime

7-4

5-8

4-40

Carbonate of niHimefia

a«

1-60

i-o

8-3

Pboiphate ofUme

1-6

1-9

340

1-8

i-9

Pboapbateof Iron and alumina

traces

truces

traces

traeei

traces

Silica, chiefly tand
Per cent, amount of aib

0»

7-4

0-W)

3*4

I8«

31 -6

19-2

t5D0

10-6

3a-«

TOBACCO, AND ITS APULTERATIONS.

585

Taulb E.
Showiuf^ the Compotiiion of ike Tobacco Stalk in 100 Partt.

CarbotiRCii of potuh •
rhlnrtdvor polaiklum ■

Sulphtito or pouih

Alltn'iiM i>li4>kphiUea -
£«'thy ditto I
Iron uid Klumiiia
HitlCA . . -

Per cent, ofuti -

lUlMBftk.

fruBiid*.

ft-2

<•»

C-&

I'fr

0-6

O-l

7il

N-4

a-6

9-3

1-4

meet

tracM

o-»

0-4

ti*«

197

It is evident, from the preceding ftnidjses, that the eomptwition of
tobacco is subject to vory great TuriaLioiiM ; reviewinjj these anulyseB,
ve find the Tafiutiuns to extend — fir<4t to all organic product!^ and
compounds, ua the gum, sugar, starch, chlorophyle, fat, the orgunio
acids nicotine, and colouring mailer; and secondly, to all the imir-
ganlc eubstanccif and BallA. including u variety nt' soluble oiid InBiduble
carbonate!*, sulphates, chlorides, and phosphaies.

It will be observed that the ash tu^ni^lled bj the tobacco leaf is
Tery great, amounting fretjuently to conttiilerably over twenty per
cent. This character has letl to the suppo:iition thitt it is possible to
detect the adulteration of tobacco with leuves other than those of the
t4>baceo plant, by rae&As of the riuantity of nsh furnished on iuciiicra-
tiou. It in obvious, however, that no certain reliance can be placed
upon this test, since the tobacco a^h itself varies very greatly in
weight, as is shown even by the preceding analyses, in which there is a
variation of from lOOG to 22 6 per cent. (See table on next page.)

We are now in a position to form some idea of the extreme diiH-
culty in deterniinino:, in many casc6, the question of the adulteration
of Ipbacoo. It is also now evident that it is qnite possible to adnltc-
rate tobacco to a large extent in n particular manner, and with certain
vnbstancea, without the possibility of detection by any means ut pre-
sent known to science.

Mr. George Phillips has so far analysiKl tobacco as to ascertain the
relative proftortions of extractive and wtuidy fibre obtaintible from dif-
ferent vuiit^ttes (if tobacco. In tliese expermient-s the extractive was
procured in tlie following manner: —

One hundred grains of t4ilHieco, previously dried, were placed in
two pints and a half of distilled water; the temperature of this was
raised tn 176" Kahr^and maintJiined at that heat for fif>y minutes; at
the end of that time the infusion was •tmined, ami thn insoluble p<»r-

D,rctaiuedby the strainer or filtering pupcr^ re-dried until it ceased

5%B

TOBACCO, AND ITS ADULTERATlOKft.

Table Jthnwin^ the Per-ceniage of MMHttre^ Extract, Sahd^ ftpfaHf
and Total Axh^ and Glucose^ in Eight Samples of U»
Tobacco,

riMtric

Eunwt-

•XiT-l)

VirirlTiIa tear - -

la-M

MKt

«iU

tJlIC

IG-W

Dittn Icaf-iUlk .

.G-6IJ

asift

«-lft

!>H0

U-'Aft

tTMH

KrntiicJtf ItMf

JV70

57M

4-^

13 W

ivia

!»■■ ,

Dittu Inr-tulk -

MJi

»■«

fl-00

IS-M

33 »R

•*tdmUM^ '

Mluouri ■••ar -

11- M,

It 44

9-«0

Itrns

IN-M

MB ' ,

Ditto le>if.>talk -

i*-i<;

Xfao

11-44

lA'M

»»4

Ml 1 ■

CnUimlifa leaf .

14-M

«7*fi4

7 Ifi

lfr«4

fMM 14

DlUi» lc«r.«»lll -

l5*m

ar»

»6(>

14 40

VVt

iraM r

1176

n->^

S94

10 V.

I»fi0

l(t-l^

«I*CM

lOM

»tn

tr«»» 1 ,|

Havaniifth leaf -

'4-:io

aom

4-ns

irto

*I'T«

**• 1

Ditto IcHr-iUlk -

11-fiO

SAM

9-t«

1»M

irn«

I* 1 •

GflfRiAn Lear -

1 1*3 i

)£«O0

4 16

17-W

«-M

MM ' J

Diiii Irar^iwlk •

If>l6

s3-n

J-M

I4«

rrm

Tu-k^r iMr - -

n-96

44M

l-no

10 7S

i>7«

><« 1 «

Ditto le«r-lUlk -

16-74

94-BO

11*08

ie«

n-»

4» iP

to Inse weight ; it was then weig:bed. The Iims sustained iliDveJ ift*
qiianiitv ot' soliiMu matUtror extraclive. The resulta obtMBfd ly
Mr. FblUips were as follow : —

Per-eentage of Extractive and Lisnteou* Matter in differtwi Kiadt ^

Tobacco.

nrglnlj^ Hand

SMraettv^

MP-—

M-

«»

StrlppeJ

Si-

4»-

SeaVuckj, fland - - -

ns-

«»-

, • ■ a

441

»«

Stripp«sl ...

4^«

»r«

> > -

4fi-7

«M

MaryUnd. Lear

* • •

4S1

»r?

Ponolliro ....

Columbian ....

n»

,• ....

»S

»^

VIrKlala. SUlki

K1-4

•»»

KrnliKkj. ^ . . -

r-s

«41

DM - - .

»«

.»«

Mr. Phillips ftiitefl, thnt he has ox peri men ted wirh bctwoca Bit tfJ
six Ininrded Hfimples of tohiiceo, fjid that he never found anir to ftn
A liiglifr Amount nf fxtrnotive ihnn ftfty-fivi* per iw*nt. : ftUotbifb
fnuml it made no difference whether be cxperimcnfcd with the )x^9
with tbo out and nuuiufitotarod tobacco.

TOBACCO, AXD ITS ADULTEBATI0N8.

587

The onlj other MnAlviies of tobacco which have been made, and
whicli are at all iiiluutulL'd to b« of stTvioe in iluluTinininj; the (jiiestion
of ihe adulltimtioo of tobacco, are lite following, by Mes&rs. tirnnde
and Cooper, made in 1845,*

iktalMtlV.

t. Llfhl Mluourl,

IfAf ami tUlk
% UrIiI Mluourl,

loaf ontf
t. Dark Mliaourt.

Icmt An* tUIll
4. Dxrk MUiouri.

Ii**!* onik
ft. I.litht VlrfrlnlK,

Ir^if «nd italk
6. Light Virirlnia,

li^rtl unly
T. D»tk Vintlnla,

Ir-Mf Hnri rtMlk
a. Dark Vltglula,

leaf onlf

50-

so-
ul-

M-

tt-a

Pa r«m.< FtrCmi.
./ W.-I7 af All)
F< brr. aftrr trvailnp
air., til. «.Ui <'«r-
■ iliiblr tn Imnit* at

Wairr. ! AmmratM.

477
At

Al
46
&l«

49-9

1 vhito

fl If 7

4 I white

* I while

•fi J W*

•I fl "**

f grrco-i

[
I

PnCmt. PaCvnI. '
PfvCnil. if M«ita!t tiTlD.

t<f ^lM(«T K'^tibklM' Mdubto
•n'lililr In ffjtlnt- Mai<«T,»

uT-tlcolMri

] 217

] 1*77

I 4-1

] 117

Si)

hllei

2-M

ll-Tl
IS-U
IC-U

fCM

OM
B-40

S-9

Si
i-u

9«

ft-U
Sll
IS
1-7

Q-7a

0-U

1-M5

]-4C

Maimt
htini ih«

o-ji

391

1. The samples were dried, and the extract and woody fibre were ulao
dritrd ut t^ltS'^. Tlii:> watery infu^iutis of all contained ammoniacal
sattt. The flidlfl fntiii the o^h, which were soluble in wuler, COD-
flidted of .Hijl|ihiite!t, ejirbonate&, [>lio:<phatcft, and chlnritle<i, the bases
beinj; |)otJi!tAa und lime. The aoliiiion by hydrochhiric acid con-
taiiieil lime, aluminn, phoBphute of lime, and oxide of iron.

3. Contained oxide of manganese in small rjnantity. Sulphates in
watery (mlutiun of a^h abundant. liydrochlono solution contained
an abundunce of lime.

4. A trace of manganese ; a trace only of phosphoric acid in watery
solution.

6. Container! abundance of oxide nf manganese.

6. AbiiniUncc nf oxide of manganese.

7. A mere trace of oxide of maogancsc, and a trace of oxide of iron {
only a trace of alumina.

8. A irace of oxiile of manganese; quantity of oxide of iron very
great ; only a trace of alumina.

Propertie9 of Tobacco,
III smaii do*e» tobflwo prodnces a wnsation of heat in the throat,
•nd sometimes a fevlinir of wnrmlh in ihe Rtomnch ; it also frcr)uently
excites nausea, and a peculiar sL'nsation of giddiness, mure allied to

• flvaodt'i MniuU of CtWBUtry, p. 1033., Ii4a.

TOmM€COt A3n> m ADirLTKKATtOlSraL

I Bmt tfce

^^■£««e cwea. there

^^^Bpcfi; Ik ossraMnc
Mid oftmmar wiM—ii

Tfce ipffif linn of inhMW l»
pnctioe. A cbk faai beea

^ p«raljai wd a

vUcfc prvfedfttel in three
ami a kaU^ IB wkic^ iWcxDiwed ran had iMca appGed Ibr the
i^adhiUcMt

j^anoitffi.

«f nagwwM lo uie feeaa m a oMd of^t jtan of af«^

ToMooo haa aim inatteaa^f P*?**^ ^^"^ "^ *^ f<»m of m
Dr. Coplaad mv half a onchB m infiiwen ptme lataL

The operation of tobacM R«ea»blca ■am ahii that of L^fcefia
iniUta, both bong anodyiie asd iiifiwiaMiinitif.. In it» mf chfin^
action on the heart it agrees whh dijestat]i» but k k not e<)aal tft As-
glore in this reipecc. In ia power of canwag rdaxatiaa of the
Biucalar tTftem h greatly snrpaaee* digiufit^ From hrlliiViwna
itramonium, and hjoacyamm. it is diatingnaihcd hj caumn^ cootiae-
tioa of ibe pupil, bcHh when applied to the eye, and when taken
intemalljr in poisoiunu dosn, and also bj the a^^ence of ddirism
and of any affertJon of the thruat. From ftconite it is distnifiiahed
by not prawwing the power of paraly^iag the sentient nerrea.

Ov TBB Al»tTI>TSBATI03V8 Or ToBACCO.

We have enumerateiS the different species frum which the
rarietief of tobacco are obt^ned, described the cultivition of th«
bacco plant in Virfcinia, gi^en the minute structure of the lenre«, th«irj
rhemicat composition and properties, the procetttrs br wlitcli raw or]
unmanufactured is convened inio nunufactured tobacco, &0fl, lastiy^]
we have described the diflferent varietied of cut and roll inliaix-o ;
these particulars were necessury in order that ihe subj(>ct of the adnU
leralion of tobacc<f might be the more easily and fully comprt bended.

The following are the prineiiial sub-lances which have cither been
discovered, or have been fttaivu on g«tod autliority lo have !»««n em-
ployed, in the adulteration of tobacco, principally in the fiu-m of cut
or roll tobacco. They may l>e diviileil —

Virst, into regetable giibAtaReuM not titbacco^ as the leaves of the dock,
rhubarb, coltsfoot, cabbage, potato, chicory, endive, dm and ouk, &!"..;
moll cummingtt — that is, the roota of germinaung mall ; peat, which

TOBACCO, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

589

oon»utfl chiefly of decayed moss; seaweedt roasted chicory root, wheat,
oatmeal, bran, cftteirhu or terra jnponica, oakum, and lo^o^ood (]ye.

Scrnndly, into tacrfiarine subitancex^ as cune sugar, treacle, honey,
liquorice, beet rodt drops.

Thirdir, into nalia nnd wrthi^ as oUre, common saU>, sal ammoniac,
or h^'dnH'litorate of ammonia, nitrate of ammonia, carbonate of am-
monia, ihu alknliea, nn pntiisfa, »odu, and lime ; tiutphate of mngnesin,
sulpliiite of soda or glaubcr »dts, yellow ochre, umber, fuUer^s earth,
Yenctiim red, sanit, tiiilphnte of iron.

The following has bcfn the experience of the Cxcise in regard to
the adulleratioit of tubucco ua titaled in the evidence of Mr. George
Phillips, given before the (^ommitlee on Adulteration: —

*'With regard to lobacro, we have found in cut tobacco, snf^ar,
liauorice, gum catechu, Bait, 8alt|ietre, and various nitratea ; yellow
ocnre, Epsom salta. glauber saltn, green copperas, red sandstone,
wheat, oatmeal, malt combings, chicory, and the following leayea:
coltsfoot, rhubarb, chicory, endive, oak, elm, and in fancy tobacco I
once found lavender and a worl called niii<;iTort. It U a fragrant
herb, suggestive rallier of the nuliJie». In roll tobacco we hare
found rhubarb Inavfta, endive and liocK leaves, sugar, Hquorice, and
a dve maile of Ingwootl ;ind fulphalc of inm."

l*he adulterationH of tobacoo most fmjuently practised are with
waiert sacchurine matter^ as trrade and mcar^ and aoUji of Turious kinds.

Since tobacco cont.iina all these substunoes, and since their umounc
is subject to considerable Turialion, it is only when they are present
in considerable excess that we are enabled to stale that they con-
stitute adulleratiunft, unless indeed the original leaf tobacco can be
procured to serve as a slaridard of compariaon.

Ileaultg of the ExaminaHon of Ftfltf-nix SampUt of Unmanufactured
and Manufactured Tobacco.

From the examination ot£ight samples of unmaRufacturfd tobacco
it api>eareil that —

The bvjrrometric moisture varied from 11*25 to 22'96 per cent.

The extract, from 2a'20 to 51-20.

The »iolub!e ash. from a-00 to 11*44.

The insoluble ash, from i> 60 to 17 80.

The total ash, trom 13-60 to 27-90.

The sugar, from Iracea to A'iiX.

From that of Forly-eight samples of manufactured tobaccos it appeared
that —

The hygrometric moisture varied from 9'80 to 6^*76.

The extract, from 29 32 to 62 20.

The soluble ash, from 3'24 to 7-60.

The insoluble ash, from 9*20 to 16*J4.

The tolul a»h. from U'OS to 20*B0.

The sugar, from traces lo 3*82.

•

590

TOBACCO, AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS.

That in the BirtTs^Eye Tohnccon the noluble ash wu renr ^jb. ia
conseijuence of the large qusntitj of mid-ribs which theie

con tain.

That the extwct from the Htf^roheadM and TiciUa was in

unusiittlly high, n.i was also the quuntiry <if ^Iiic<»»e ; flieae Uifc et-
tractii were probHbly, in part, due to ibcoil einplojred in the mtn-
fiiciurc of these kinde of tohacai* but princijudly to the um of noe
saccharine solution.

That in»t one of the Forty SampU* nf munufauturvd mt tobaccp »»
adultvntted with any Inreign leaf, or with nny in^tlubte or nrpAic
extraneous substance of any deNcrtption other than with ^ngv or
some other snocharine matter, which was present in sever*) iusanoei.
The more common aduUemtions of tobaci?o connist in the adtiitjoa
of water, su^'ur, nnd salts. The prejenoe of these, in uxoonni luS-
cient lu constitute adulteratimi, ran only be < leclnreit with cm«mlt,
however, wht;n they are in ooii^iiicrable exreaa, <.>r by a oompariwa
of the unmanufacture<) and uianufuetured leaf.

These results are very diiVerent from tho«c which might han ben
anticipated, taking into considenitiim the notions which prevail ,^nc-
rally aniongBt the public with re4p«-ct to the adulteration of totncca
and also the high duty to which this article is •ubj«<*t. The «Wnc«
of the grosser aiiulteralions is to be expluinefl, we apprcturnil, by
the coriKinnt i>upervisiim exercised over the manufacture of tubwc«
on the pnrt of ihe Excise.

Although, tiiking a limited number of samples of tobaroo. wt ib
not find iidullenition to he by any meatis so common as wc antieipiMt
yet we must nut cotieluile from (his th^t t"bui-c«> is never adoltexsiej
with foreign leaves and other solid and insoluble substances TV
Kx<.'ise returns show (hat it uccasionully is so, (he ortjvi^v of Cicii*
making from time to :inie, in the wttiehouses, Stc^ of tobacco muM*
faciurers. seizures of iloek, rhubarb, col tMixjl, and other leaTW^atni
as a variety of other vegetable and mineral substances.

On the Dttection of the AihJtrratiotu of T^fhotm.

Ttie examination of a sample of tobacco, with a vinw lo dHTOAr
whctluT it is genuine or tiJuUerated, is of two kinds — thcoM mttn
seopiatlt the other chemical.

tAw\\ sample must be examined with the microscope in orJer U
ascertain whether any f'>rei:;n vegetiible suhstaiicv is pr-'*--!)! 1' i*
( ontnin any of those enumerateil on the preceding pi
fine a stsle of |*ow([er, and evt-n in the timnllest quam
be deteoied with tht* grentcst c*Ttain(y with the aid of \
since they all present [>eculiarities of structure by %\.
be readily distinguished.

Structure of ^ruven of Dttck. — Thus the structure of the loiTwrf
he couimuD dock is vtry characteristic; it is as follows:— The orib

TOBACCO, AMD 1X8 ADULTERATIONS.

591

the Inniina dn not tliffcr mntcriallr in size or shape from those of
tubai'co le»f, nt'ithtT do ihc ptomiila pTescnl uny ^rcut jjccu-
rty ; like thoM.* of tobarco, ihey ocour on bulh Mirfaues nf ihc leases,
course are most numerftus on iUa uhdcr siirfnce; unlike to-
huwcver, the celluliir part of the kmina is wholly deatitute of
Fig. 190.

Fig. 190.
Ttibnoii or UmvUm BumrAca or m lkav or tbs Dock.

thte«Il««B4«4offl>U.MBlK>lK«Junetion of thcMllulu ptrt of (lie Ittf
vlUt OH of tbc ••TfttUr r«liu. MA^fniScd 23) dJunrUr*.

Tbe alructure of the mid rib and veins is very diflbrent from that

" Cob«eT(> ; they differ in ^hllpe, in the form and nature of the »pine«

bAirt^ nhiih arise from tlieui, and in the arranj,remt>nt of the ve^^sels

ro«M]y fibre. Transverse Becti(ms of the mid-rib are of a «ome-

rltat trtan^ulur forui, the bii»e of the triangle bein^ smaller than the

lido; one of these, viewed with uu inch object glasa, presents mx

voBAOOo. jun> rrs adci^tkbai

in thoec offlfnull and niLHlium Mm there ore usuallj six oret»ht ftwd*
euli. fw- HH.

The cclU forming the riilgei are rery characVeristic, bcinj; onaD

TOBACCO, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

593

Wm\ lingular; those coinpOMiif; ibc intemal part of the mid-riU, ami
'hicli nre truvcraed by llie vascular and woody tissue, are Inrger and
"tniirf reticular.

'I'he above structural neiruliarities are clearly shown in jfipi. 192,

Ftg. iw.

PoKtiov or TiuvftTiux Skctiok or Nficwnn or 1.ur or Votx.
(MasnlAnl Wi iliHDClvt.)

=-.«»«

Struftttre of Ltof of Rhubarb.

The structure of the d*tck leaf being m> very distinct, we will now
nhow that the organiaation of the rbubftrb leaf is equally charac-
teristic.

In the Dtrtmata, and in the form and size of the cells of tiie rhubarb
leaf, slight differences only are observable; but the walls of the celU
nre finely striated, a* shown in the wood-engraving; nnd thi^ is a
rharuoter by which rhtibarb leaf may bo at once known from tobacco.
Other diffcrenres arc founil in ihe characters of the short spines or
hriirs which chttbc the leaf, in the form of the tnid-rib and veins, and

•4 u

394

TOBACCOj AND ITS ADULTKRATIOXS.

in the presence of gland-like bodies scattered tbroughimt tk faoin
le

of the leaf.

LoaarrrmaAL Smnm* or Mip*u> or Lcat ov Doc*.
(M^nUad H dlumton-l

The bairfl or spines are sbnrt, Oiick, hollow, stnato^l, and
in obtuse, rounded extremities. They rusi'Dilile closclv in fona di
of ihe dock, but diflbr in being several Times larger; io thecbnMI
and fineness of the striw with which the/ sre taaric«d» and b^ ifti

T0BA.CCOnfNI^

»ULTKRATION8.

dislributiitn ; for while in !be tltK*k the spines spring only from the
mid rib und vuiiw, ill thu rhuburh k'lit' thuj nrisc from ull parts uf
tliL* leal^ I be lauiiua as well as the mid-rib and veioa.

Fig. IM.
FuBTiajr 09 Vitimm ficsrACB or RnukAJU I.tjir,

.Jk

f<7^^

tmoviuii

luDiJ'JlLr UpI

'hiKt (rliir* or hftln, »Bd lUe OM of

The mid-rib and vein<4, iifl in dock, consist on the outaidv of imall,
fni^ulur rell?, pucuccili^d by larj;©, reticular cells, whirh are traver»e<l
by bundle* of wimmIv fibre luid spiral vesstrls ; ibe differenci's bctwe<.'n
the mid ribt of tlie leaves of the two plants being in form, nnd in th«
nbwnce of distinct ridges on the mid-rib of ilie rlmbnrb leaf.
Fig. 194.

Strtieture of the Lenf of Cttlttfwti.
We now proceed to duK*ribe ihe minutu organisation of ihv Colts-

596

TOBACCO, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

foot or Tusstlnge leaf, which hu b««n stalvtl to hn\e
empltived in tlie adulteration of tobacco.

Fig, 19\

TBA.TflTXtM 6SCTID5 or MiD-Bi« or lllir»4t> t^At.

(MiffnlBcd 40 itlUMKis.)

The i'plls wbieh form the upper surfuce of the leaf of eoteAii I

of Miinll Pize. nrpular, and ttiintiv striRfeO : there are bot a ^» ^
inutHf ami no buir.s except on tlit^ mid-rib? and principal tvid*- i
196.

Tlie structure of the under surfnce of the leaf differs (-niin^T fr
that of the upper. The cells are also nf smnll size, but theimnrf
are waved, ond the wtilN are not striated ; the stomata are f!Stm
injjly numeroiiR. and the whole of thi* surfnr.'c is clnihed with d*tin
filamentous hairs, which impart the downv character to the hi
intemiixed with these nre other hairs of much latyer siiOk and "h*
beinfT jointed^ bear some r«temblance to tho«e of tobarcOf but ll
want the distinct glandular terminations. J^tf^. 197-

TransTer»e aectiona of the Ieaf-!>(a1k present tlu- , fOti

turc ; — Externally, there i* a w«'II-defintfd border ci j»|J

cells ; Irom the outcide of these spring the two kinds ut U*u# dcfCW
above. The central portion of toe section is made up of looff ttM

TOBACCO, AND ITS ADLLTEKATIONS.

S97

liMue siiniliir to that of the tni'Uribs of inaii^ other leaves, aiid it u
traversed bjr from about »& to etj^Lt bundles of wood/ and vucuUr

Fig. 196.

Foitiujf or UrrcR SuxrACN or Lsav or CotXirooj.

(UagaUM 290 dlAimlcn.)

iUmi?, Ibe number usually vnrying with the niie. The large ^m/-
xitiikx of the *■ll[r^^l)ot woitUi hardly, however, be used in any case (or
the ttdulterAfion nf cut tnbnccn.

S*rction8 of tlie vein* prKsunt a nearly 8unil.ir conformfltion; the
principal difference is in the numlfcr i>l' tlic bundles which traverse
iheui, there bein^ almof^t invariably but three such bundle?. Hy thift
obaructer the veins of the leaf of eoUsfuot are at once di.^tinguished
from those of the otlier leaves we have deaeribeil. J^if^, 19iJ,

Differenec* eiiually marked ehiirjctorise the other ve-^eUble sub-
ctaiuieji which have been actunlly detected en»ennji into the iiiulterA-
lion of titbacco. Descriptions tind rc|>rt'))ontatioiis of ihe uiajurily of
these will 1)e j^ivcn at some future periiMl.

We will now proceed to describe the pr<H?cs5efl to be pursued in
the chemical examination or analysis of tobacco.

The pariieulnrs to be ascertained ore the jwr centa^e of water, of
extractive, of sugar, of ash, together with, to some extent, it§ com-
position.

4Q3

698

TOBACCO, AND ITS ADVLTERATIONS.

One buntlre45 grains of each of the tobaccos are to be tmtcd u
follows: — They are to be dried lor twenty-tour hours in a walcr-

Pi£. 197.
FoRTiu.t or U.<KM StiiwACi or Iaxw op COLTtrvOTa

SbowiDf Ihc numerotu ttMnnlft. u slm Ibe two kindi arhkin vlUi vUch Ihi*
•urfuieof tiM kkf UlnveitMl.

bath, and then re*wei(fhcd ; the loss shows the amount of A^,^ome/n>
moutture which the samples contiiiiicd.

They arc then to be iniicerared fur twenty-four houpa in cold, dis-
tilled water, by which means the extractive is obtained. They ar«
next boiled fur an hour. The rcaiiliie is lifiiientm vuttier^ yielding
from three to ten f>er cent, of ttsh, rompnse*! chiefly nf silica, wiln
earthy earhnnales nnd phnsphntes. 7'lie table mnrked A, p. 585., re-
preseiiti) the results obtained from the genuine tobacco leaf by the
above prreesses.

One hundred grains nf each tobacco are next to be stibmilte<1 (ac»
cording to the process of M. Scliloesiiip;) to tlic action of ummoniaietl
ether; the eiher distilled olT, and the residue neutralised with di]uc*s
sulphuric acid of known saturating power; by this means the propor-
lions of nicotine^ chloropkyhy and ftU arc delermine<l. I'he table

TOBACCO, AXD ITS ADULTKRATIONS.

599

taiarked B, p. 386.. represents the results obuincd by this process. In
ordinarj ca»es this [Mkit u( the analysis may be omiiied.

T«iMTt«« 8w.Tio.t or ojri or tb» Vmm or t.t*r or CoLrwoor*

(MAgfillM W dUtDCien.)

The extractive oblnined by the first operation is lo be treated as
foltom : —

It is lo be ilissoK'Cfl in illstilled water, and ihe nnbitinn treated
with hftsic nretattf of lead and fiUorcd. The filt<?rcd liquid and the
pret'ipirale dcHHtmposed by sulphureitod hrilro^jen, and evajwraled
to drynosH, one is treated with a mo'iificati'in of Trommer's nr the
cnppt>r lest f)r!in^iir« and the nther with <lilute alcolirt] for malir nod
nnd ;;uin. 'lliu Utble inark^^d C. represents the results oblnined by
the above process.

if it bo suKpected that cane ragar is present-, instead of adnntin^
Fehlin^*!< process wo mn.it employ the fL-rinentation test, and estimate
eiiher the quantity of carbonic acid srna evolved, or the amount of
nlcnhol penrrafcd ; indeed it saves time to cmp'oy the fermentatiou
test in nearly all rase* for the deterrninntion nf the presence of sac-
(•h;irine matter, whether in the fumi of glucose or cane-Hiignr

The fertnentalinn te!»t la used in the fffllowing manner: — lOOOj^ini
of tobacco are to Iw placed in a vessel, and a pint or so of water, at a
temperature of about 100° Fahr., poured ufwm it : the infusion is then
to be strained, and *250 ^oins of dried yeast added ; the mixture is
next lo be set aside for forty-eight hours to fermenl, at a temperature

gQ4

600

TOBACCO, AND ITS ADULTEKATIOXSu

of nboiit 60° ; lastlvi the liquor must be introHucei] into
nU'ijljiil iJt!<tilled ovtfr, aiul lU amount efttimiUed^ or the (*arlM>ntc
taay hii cuIluL'ted, tuul the ainouia of siigur calculated tiiererniitu

The inathoi] of cftleulatinig the ttu^ar frniii the amount of carhnnic
aci'1 formed (iurin<r f'f-*riii«'iitntion, will hefouud detuilcii ut some length
in Bowiiiian's " ML-dicul Cliemistry," p. 93.

For (Lo detoriTiiiKitixn of ibo salts contained in tobacco one ortvo
hundred grains slioulil Im incinerated, and the ash te«te<l for the rh\*i
lu'ids lind bases — the sutpfauric acid, chlorine, lime, soda. It is well ^•
disjiolve nut the soluble from the insoluble portion of the msh,aQd
test these separately.

Hydroohlornle of nmmonia and the nitrates must be aoupht far

cold tnfuKian nf tobacco, iiit the fir^t is t*ntire]y dissipated on iuclnei
tion oftlie ash, and the latter are dccompfised

The presence nf tin ummuniflcal salt is suQicicntly indieati^i on tl
addition of u little caustic putash to the tolutiun, th« amjuouia beii
evolved.

The following process may be pursued for the detection of
nitrates.

One of the best methods of detecting the presence of nitrates is
a<ld to a concentnttcd infusion of the at^tietms extract a fcir drops
sulphurii! acid, and then n crystal of sulphate of protoxide of iron: ft"!
dark brown discoloration immediatclv occurs around the cryuaU if

any nitrate be preaoni. This generally disap|>earB ufwn simple agiu-

tion of the tluiu, and invariably upon tho application of heaU ^M

For the quantitiitive eslinmtion of nitric acid consult Freseiiiui^H
" Quantiutivti Analvsis," p. 274.

The proce3<(e4 for tlie detection of iron, silica, or san<l, and chrontite
of lead hiive already licen de:*<-nbcil; that for the latter substance
under [he hc^mi of Coloured Sujfur Confectionery.

The amount of ex'racC obtained from any tobacco vtiries somcwbi
even in dilK'ient portions of the same leaf treated in prei'isely tl
e^iue manner, buL when difierent methods of cjctractiou aix' fidlowt
the results ilitKr stilt more considerably ; the ipiantity of diatillct
water use<l, the temperature to which it is raised, and the length
time diirin;; which tlie infusion is kefii hot and niacerntion allowed u
continue, will iiHcct the results; when therefore wc arc deiiirous ol
oblniriing comparative results, the same method of extraction should
in all cases be carefully pursued.

With regard to the method of proceedinjr for the detection of grape
sugar or glucose in tolutirco, we would remark that we tiud it neces*
t»ary to add a conaideriiblc excess of Fehling'tt test liquor, in order t(
precipitate all the su<.'Hr, and hence the tpiuntily of glucose present
tannot be accurately determuicd by the amount of t<.*st Hquur used.^
One of the best modes of proceeding for the quantitative deterniiua*
tion of glucose is as follows : —

Take u solution of the extract of 100 grains of tobacco and strain it

CIGARS ANU 3IIKIU ADULTBRATI0N6.

601

through miittlin ; precipitate with a slight excesx nf basic ncvtale of
leatl, anil tilt«r ; pass Dulphuretli'd bvdrofivn tlinmyU iIil* tilteicil
liquid re-fiUer, and evaporate neariy to d^ynL'^s ; di^s^lve the residue
in about one ounco of liquor potniMie, dilute with one ounce of di:ii-
tilled water, and filter aj>ain to remove the salts of lime; then add
half an ouneu of Kehlin{;'s jolucion ; put the mixtnre into a lar^e test
tube or Hatik, boil for a few minutes, ami observe wlit^ther any yellow
streaks of reduced oxide of copper make llieir iippt-aranoe. i>K'"dd
that be the euse, set the boluliou aside at ^e^t for two bour«, nnd col-
lect the precipitate i wei^fa and calculate the quantity of ^tuco^e to
which ii IS eiiuivtdent. One grain of the reil oxide of copper is nearly
equal to half a grain of jyrape eujfur or glucose.

The following is a more simple method, tind in the case of tobacco
affirds regulta which pre for the most part sufficiently arcurate. Take
1000 grains a of solution of tobacco, containing two grains ul' the dried
extract Ut tme ounce of water; adil fuur drachms of lii|Uor ]kiU8s» ;
boil, fdter, nnd then add about 400 grain»of Fehlin;!'!< teifl! liquid, and
best to boiling ; if any gluc<»se be prt- «ciit, the red oxide of copper
will be thrown down ; collect and ihomu^hly wa.di the precipitate In
onler to iTee it from an^ albumen that may l>e present; weigh and
calculate aa belbre.

CIGAR8. AND THEIR ADCLTERATIOK&

The second form in which manufacturcil tobacco is consumed is that
in which the leavoa are rolled up into eigart< and cheroots. The use of
tobacco in this fonn has bet^n nipidly advancing within the lu5t few
yeartf, the cheaper penny cigars taking ihe place, to a gre»t extent,
of cut tobacco, although the consumption of both^ from the growing
ta»tc of the ])ublie for tubacco-suiuking, hu» beun fur itome tiuie, and
still is, on the increase.

The process employed for making cigars and cheroots in EnglantI
is precisely the same as that adopted in other countries. It in m
follows : —

The leaves are first slightly moistened with water; they are then
"stripped,*' that is, the mid-ribe are rcmoveil in the same manner
aa described in the description of the ro^iufacture of Cut Tohacco,
by which means ench leaf is separated int^i two parts ; the hnlf-leaves
are next smoothed out by the hand, and put under a slight nrea-
sure, to remove any creases which may havi? occurred in the parking.
This firat process is generally the work of n woman or Ixiy, who,
frcateil near the eigar-imiker, hands up the half-leaves as fast as they
are reipiired.

The "cigar-maker" is seated in ftvmt of a stout wcodcn bench,
mode somewhat like a butler's tray, it being furnished with raised

604

CIGAnS, AND THEIR ADULTERATIOK8.

edges on three of its niilefl, but open on that next tlie wnrknun.
lakvs nne of the hftlf-lcttves, and by means of a very K>i.irp knife
it intft ihe rnrm of a seolion of the riiul nf an orange ; upon
sufficient qimniity of frainnents anil cuttiiig5 of leaf are pli
the *^ maker*' proceeds to roll them up, and fashion them into I
known furni of u ci^iir or cheroot; over this, ug-ain, n lonj*
(trip of tobuccu leaf, nf rather a better quality and app«
tunned the ** wrapper,*' U spirally rolled; this is twisted at ihie andsl
end into a kind of knot, to prevent iU becoming loosened. The v^
ia next pliici'd asainitt a ;;nuge made of iron, and cut from its tfai^
end to the required length. Or(*nt dexterity is requisite in iW
mnking of ci^'am, and tlie work prui^eecU with the titnjost rapiiliti.fc
few sucouda only bfinjr employed in the nianufaeturo of each. Afta
the eij»ar8 are rein«ve<i from thy maker:*' hands, they are (da£cd -•
open tray 8 in u rooiu urtificially healed, in order to thortm;*bly dry
thorn : they are then wei;:hed, antl packed iu boxes of varioiti fii0
for sale.

rii;arA nnd cheroots are known in the trade by a variety of differeal '
nntncfi, taken either from the name of the country from wbence thet
are imported, or the kinds of leaf from which tlicy are niadt-, whil^ ia
iiihcr eiises the name of the maker or the rnprice of the inanufiuclurer
determines the name. Thus we have Ilavannah, St. Lueia, CuIh,
and Dneh Clears, and Chinsurn and Manilla Cheroots ; Columbia aiu!
Amenjf*M»rt Cijrun*; Cabana, Silva, and Lo[>ez Ci^^ars, and the innu-
merable fancifid names that have at raiiouri times been ^vcn themi
as I'rineipef, Fraguncia;', Panetcllas Kings, Quoimis, Imperials, and a]
host of other name», the only distinirui.ihing rharacters bein*; tbi
(^ize, colour, make, and form. The above names all relate to furcij
cigars and cherootJi.

British ciirars and cheroot? are most frequently made in imitatic^l^
of the most lanious and saleable varieties of the above, and take thcil
names from them. It should be mentioned, however^ that neurW
thecif^ars i^ild as Cuban are of British manufacture. Vast number
aUo of cheroots peculiar to the Kn;:lish markets are tnanufaetm
here; one sort ii termed " Bengal,*' and are sold usually at l^c/.
2d, ; the uther, " Pickwicks,** the price of which is Id. each.

On THE AnWl.TBBATION» or CiG&BS.

Although it is commtudy Iwlieved and stated that cigars are vi
penerally adulterated, and that they often cmisist of anything rather
ihua tobacco, we do no' find any precise observations recorded re-
tj>ecling the adulterations alleged to be practised.

HesulU of the Examhfotum of Sampiet.

Oni of Fifti/ -eight samples of cipars and cheroots
amination, three onhj were found to he uduUerated..

■ J

subjected ttfl^H

J19

C1GAR9, AND THEIR AtlDLTEHATlONS.

603

One of thtstt wm piirchflfie<1 of a hawker in AVhiteolinpel Koa*l ;

le cheroots were made up of twisU'd wmppera or Invera of ibin

a/>fr, tiiin.'d of k bislre oolour, while the interior consij-ted entirely

'A//J7. not a pwticle of tobacco entering into their coinpodilioii.

AnothtT was procureil at a review in Hvdc Turk; the cigars ron-
lisled externully of tohneco lertf, but interniilly they were made of hiiy.

The third sample cone^istteil ot* penny cigar**, and contained inter-

lly apt>tf paringt and other rubbish.

It ap(M»nr8 thiir about the neijfhboiirhorHl of VVhilechnpel, the sn!e
»f spurious cberfmttt const!tut4-(t a regular bnsim*i»s. Men dressed as
liloni Aod appearing as thou;!h they had junt returned from n lon^
anoonstantty ua the Innk our lor youii;; ^entlentun who are
supposed (o have a liitle inuuvy in iheir jiockcts, :uid lo be suuicwhiit
inexperieuetf'l ; to suuli thene leHows addrojis the in<iulry in a myste-
rious mnnner, ns though thev fvnred beiiiji overheard by the polic-e —
"Do you wont to buy a box of real Manillas? I hnve pot a ffw
boxes 'on ihr crotn;* just crjme with me down this pa^$a;;e, and I
will show you them ami lot you (iisic ihoin," at the i-aiivc time blinding
out a fremiine Mnnilla cheroot, as if taken frnui the box. for the
young f(entlcmnn to try. who, bein;; sntiplied with the ^u.ility and
flavour, close* the b»r<j:iin, mid walks nff home with a hvx of bmwn
paper and hay undt*r his urni, con^atulatinghim&clfon bif puichn*e,
and unticipating tlie pleasure in store fur him from smokinj; his ac-
cpiisition !

Twelve sampler of Manilla cheroots were te8te<l for OptrM, but that
narrotic was not detected in a single instance.

7'Ae atlulferation of ciffara tnaiil frtquenlly practined is to alcrp the
leamt in txirious saccharine and taUne infnsioiu whereby their weight it
j^rrtUltf iiiereaxefl.

It ihus appears that cigars and cfaeroota arc subject to but little
adulteration ; the cheap fienny ones even consisting, in the majority of
cases, entirely of tobacco, though there is no doubt but iliat it i-4
tobacco of very inferior quality. This is again quite contrary to what
might have been anticipated from the general belief entertained ; and
it li no doubt due muiniy to the great difiicultT of 6nding, or using,
any article that couid be substituted for the tobacco Kaf,

In t-onsequunce of the high duty of 9ji. (yd. per pound, cigars, like
tobacco, are often smugfjled into this country, as is shown by the
evidence of several witnf»s«^s who were examined before the Select
Commttteeof the House of Commons on the Tobacco Trade, in August,
1844.

Another very common practice is to sell Britisb'madc cignrs and
cheroots as foreign one? ; this deception is carri'.'d into ciTect by
makings brandinjr, and labelling boxes in exart imitation of tfae difTe-
rent foreign boxes in which cigars are imjMirted. This pracllce pre-
vaiU extensively with English-made liavannah cigars and Mauilla

f1tJ4

CI6AR8, AND THEIR ADULTERATlOXi.

rheroots; altfaou|fh in tlie case or MjniilU cbernou the (r«oduci«lr
ilotecteil, since it is scarcely jioiisible to imitate tbeK chewto •«•
closely as not to allow of tbe Jiscrimination between the Briliifc tui
furei;.ni-tniMl(t article. So gen^rallr ia thi» fu-artised, that tirotaU?
uot cue third of the ci^arft sold in boxes arc what tbej pruwtfWlit
— iiauielr, forei<;n-iuade cigura.

There is n kind of cheroot called Chingurah ; (bis w*» canncal;
sold in ih« shops for some years, alihousb it was known that Uittw
or thrt'e eimes had Wun entered at the Custom llou»e^ nod paUdait,
diinn^ (he whole tlnie. In one year alone, twenty thouwinU jiott»k
wci;»ht of tht'se olieroois found their way into tlie ntarkct, in aiMilMi
to JVoiu ei^'hteen thousand to twenty thuusuud pounds of Maailii
cheroots, witboiil havin<; paid duty.

The iiheroutM known as Brugal, notwithstanding their Eaal ImbB)
name, are till British-made, havinjr originally been prepared in noiU'
tion of Chtnsuruh eheroi»ts. Thus we see, what with smu^linf tad

the passing off inferior Knglish-inadp eigare as foreign. ^ ■ ■'■ :!»•

tion of the fonn, manufuclure, branding, and lal»ellii>;; •■ ^^''-

tfaere still remains a wide sco[ie for fraud and adult', i^^ 'M

articles of ci-'ars and clieroots.

Oh the Detections of ike Adult^rahotu of Cigan,

The cigars and cherootA are to be examined in tbe fuUov^a;
manner: — Very thin trnnaverse vectiont are to be made frow J'-
ferent parts of the whole cigar, so ae to include all its contrati.
tfaei^e are to he aRerwanis examined under the micn*<«.'i»|>v with an c^'
ject-glfltfs of one inch focus, and the second eye-piree ; ea*.-h rijftr a
then unrolled carefully, and every leaf or fragment of lejif Mlsosubjeclvd
to micrr)M'Opic examination. In this way but little difficulty b »•
perieneed in determining whether tbe ciiiar eon^ists of tobaca* "
not, the structure of the leaf, and especially of tbe giaoduiar )ua%
being 80 peculiar as to allow of ready identitication.

In addition to microscopic examination, tbe cigars ^brndd be o*
amiiied chemically for »ugar, and the ash fur extruneiitu aaltoe sal**
stance ; while Manilla cheroots, which are commnnly rvpnrted ^
contain opium, are to be su1ijecle<l to analysis with ft Tiew Ifttir
discovery of the presence of that dnijp.

The pmces? to be adopted for the dcleolion of opium is as follows •

Four cheroots from each sample are to be cut up and infawd i^
twelve hours in about ten ounces of cold water, slightly adififia^
by the addition of a few ilrops of acetic acid. The tii^uid is iWs
filtered off, and partially pro.'ipitated with basic acetate of IrtA
by which means i* considerable proportion of c^diturioc mailtf a
thrown down. The solution is next refilterfd, treatc<l with tbw
drachma of animal charcoal, and allowed to digest for tweidy-M?
bourS} frequcDlly ftgitating it; bj this meani

oigesi i«r iweitiy-ww-
it beoOMM /tmbcr i^

BNUFF, AXD ITS ADULTERATIONS. 606

ilorisci], and Jnsesit-" hitter taste. The charcoal is then collected on
^a filter, and boiled with two portions oC rectified 8[nnt« each ot* about
the fame bulk as (he b't)uid originally employed. The spirit, which
ho* Required a slight (rreenish-Tellow tint, is submitted to distillntlon,
no that it should not be wnsled^ and it lenven bt-hiiul nn (extract i>f a
ycUowi§h colour, havin;; a hitler tiist*'; this i-t purified by wiuibiii^ nii
a filter with weak liiiunr uminnniie, then with ether, and IfiMtly, with
rectified spirit ; ihis is now evaporat<Ml, nml the residue trcottd on a
white porcehiin plate, with a little peroxide of manganese, and a drop
of concentrated sulphuric acid ; und ifmoi-phia ia present, even in only
very itmall c|utiiit)ty, the residue will assume :i rich violet tint, ."luiilur
to that which occurs with ^Irychnin when treated in a similur way.

It floes not appear, after a most careful analysis of numerous
samples nccitrdingr to the process aUive given, and notwithsianding
the genendly recfived opinion, that Manilla chcrooU usually contain
opium. The diffieuliiea attending nn organic analysU of hm kind
are very great, but the results ohtaineil appear to be of a chiiracier
to be rched upon, since, by the process above given, bo little as one
nuarter of a grain of crude opium may be piiliMuctorily detected in a
single cheroot to which that drug has been purposely added.

SKUFF, AND ITS ADULTEnATIONS.

Tlie thinl and last f">rm in which the tobacco leaf is employed is tn
the slate of a more or less finely-reduced powder, constituting sniifl*.

SnuflT i<t made principully from the stalks or " jifri/*/>iii^*" of the
leaf which arc rejected in the processes of manufacturing cut tobacco
and cigars ; some snu^ however, coniaiu a proportion of leaf as well
OS stalk.

Snutfis met with in cnninierce in two slates — namely, the dry and
the moist. Of each of these there are several varieties, the charac-
ters which distingui.ih them depending, in most case*, upon difTerences
in the pr<»ee*se9 of roannfaoture, in the relative pro|K)rtton of the
stalk and leaf, in the <legree of moisture, in the flavour or pungency,
and in the scenting.

The dry snuflfs are in general much more finely ground than the
moist : the different kinds of Scotch, Irish, and Welsh are comprised
under this head.

The moist suufTt, of which there ar« a great many varieties, are
known in the trade under the following names: — Bruwn and Black
Rapjiee, John Bull, Hardham's, 37, Princerji, French and Dutch Car*
rottee, Masulapatam, Prince's Mixture, Granil Cairn, and a great
many others, which derive their nojnes either from the fancy of th«
maker or the fashion of the day.

606

8NUFF, AND ITS ADULTEKATIOX8,

Manufactitre of Snvff.

In the manuracturc of the difr<}rent varieties of snufT, the proces.^
adopted <if'pcu*l» u|>on the kind rt.'(iutred to be made. Scotch snuiT.
wbiidi is i^a'id to be the purettt of i\\\^ \6 miule almost entirely from the
btiilks of tobiicro; und tbii> bfiii^ ti dry snuU', hs little moisture as
{K^ssible is added —merely puffieient to prevent the finer purticlefi
i'mm escaping and being l(«t in the act of [xiwdermg or grinding,
vhieb would utberwiiie ocimr. The stolkn, cut up into snudi piecei*,
are inlrodueed into a kind of iron mortar or ^'mull^ as it. is tenneil.
This is furnished with a pestle, heavily weighted, the handle of whieti
is connected wltli n set of joint<;d arms or levers, so adjusted as to
pve it a jHfculiar njtary and grinding motion, this being the best
ealculat^nl lo effuct the reduction of the stalks to powd«T. A K'Hes
of twenty or thirty, or more, of these mortars or " uuilU" are arrange*!
anil fixed on a strong oak table, with similar niuchinery attaehetl to
the pestles of each, and alt of which arc capable of huing worked at
the same time by meatu 'tf a steam engine and noitnectin^' shafts and
wheels. Aficr the snuff hud been reduced to the requisite degree of
fineness, it is removed from ihe " mullC and dried imd tlavouted
according to n procesEi peculiar to the different manufacturers.

Irish and Welsh snulfj are also dry snuffs ; but before the stalks
are reduced to [njwder, they are subjected to a roaslinj; process in
ch>sed cvlindcrs, whicb assists in imparting the peculiar smelt hy
which these snofls are characterised. Tlu-se two varieties of dry
snuff are grnund in ntilU of a similar descriplinn lo thotie employed
in the jxiwdcring of Scotch snuff: linte wnter, and even powdererl
linie, frefjucntly cuter into the comp<>silifiu both of Welsh and Irish
snuff. Indeed the uddllion uf the formi'r rs idhiwcd by the Excise
laws. The mont. celebrated of tht? Irish snuffs is lliat manufactured
by the firm of Lundy Foot and Co., of Dublin, and from which it
takes its name.

On account of the high duly, over 6*. per pound, to which foreign
manufactured snuff is subject, but a very small quantity i.s ever im«
ported and passed through the Custom House, as it c:m be made in
Kiigland quite equal in ([uiiliiy to the foreign, and for less than half
the duty ch^ir^ed upuu the latter. Indeed, preference is in general
given to K^g]i^h-mAde snuffs.

The different varieties of the rappees or moist snuffs are likewise
made chiefly from stalks, but a small proportion <d* the leaf is aUn in-
troduced, lis well as the finer parts and sittings of cut tobacco called.
"«mff//j|," which are Ux\ fine lo be ctmveniently smoked in a pip**-

The pnicess followed in the manufacture of ntoist snullii diff«.T«
somewhat from that just described. The stalks cut into fragments,
pieces of leaf, and smalls, are well molstvned, and ground in a mill of
the following construction : — A pair of very heavy cylindrical stones
(in form like the common grindstone), six or eight feet in diameter.

8XCFF, AND ITS ADULTEKATIONS.

607

nml a foot or eighteen inches ihielc, are set up on edge, parallel to
each nth(*r, ami a few indite uparl, oil a wooden slab or hi'd Nlinhtly
bollowed otil. ThL'se stones have a twofold motion piven to thetn —
a miary one on ilieir nwn horizontal axis, and a traversing roiary
inntiDn round the surface of the bed, similar to the two wheels of u
carriage ^oiiig round in a Mnull circle ; this motiwn it communicated
to thtrm by means of an upright shal^ driven by macliinery. The in-
gredients for !he anurt' are placed upon the bed, and the broad edge
of the niiissive stnnefl pnnsing reiM-atedly over tlicin, combined with
their nUary, grrnrlinj niotinnf smm reducfs them tit powiler. 'I'lie
con4truL>tinn nnd workin;; of this kind of siiuirmill is thi* ttante an that
used in malsing gunpowder, or for cni^hln;; the apples in the munu-
fiicture of ci<ler. After the snuff has been reduced to the re(|uired
de;^ix*e of fi^ene^s, it is bca[H*d up in a trough, and again mui^tened
thorou;.'hly. or "sauced," as it is termed* and allowed to remain ii cuu-
sidurable lime, by which means a cert^un degree of fermeiituLion i^
induced ; it is turned with a sliovel from time to time, und le-liijuored
a? the moisture evapiimlcs. The flavour of the snnfl' ilepencU much
upon the extent lo which the fermentation is aWnwcd lo proceed ; ihia
ferment ive process also adds greatly to its depth of colour. At>er the
snufTis thus far manufacturetl. the salts, or alkaline saUs, allowed by
the Excise regulation;', are added. The salt is faid to be chiefly em-
ployed to enaure the preservation of the snuff from niotiidiness, and
to cause it to retain its moisture; while the alkaline salts are ueed to
increase its pungency; at the same time they ad<I considerably lo the
weight nf the snuff.

In the scenting of smiff^, the perfumes used — either the efisential
oil of lK»rgauu)t, or otto of roses, and in some cases powdered orris
riKit — arc addcil after the snuffs are munutacturcd. The priK'ess
adopted is as follows ; — The snuff is sprea«t out upon lorge skins or
sheets of pandiutent, and the <iils sprinkled over it from a bottle with
slits cut in the ci)rk ; the snuff is frequently turned over ; and laatly
it is rubbed with the hand through a wire ^leve. The only snuffs
that are ever scented are brown and block rappee. Grand Cairo, and
prince's mixture, amongst the moist snuffs, and Scotch amongst the
dry snuffs.

The greater port of the snuff consuincil in London is ground in
VDuff millA, eituate<l near Mitcham. in Surrey, in conscipience of the
facility affonied for working the mills by means of the river W'andle,
which runs through the town. There are several of these otublish-
ments lo which the London mannfuf turers send their snutf after hav-
ing undergone a certain stage of preparation. Beyond the prepara-
tory ilryiiig and grinding, il is snid that nothing further is done to the
snuff in the snuff mills; the proprietor imt only prepares it before
sending it tu the mill, but in most c[i:^'s passi'.s it through some finish-
ing openttiun:^ after it is brought from the mill. Many of the London
manufacturers have, however, Muall mills in their own establishments

COS

SXrFF, AXD ITS ADDLTEHAT10X5.

for grinding sin»ll qunntities of •tuuff, or for pa$»injj; the raritius kmilfl
of fancy siiutTK ikrou^li any parllculor process ; but there are very few
esliibliahmcitti in Loniion where thu m&in bulk of the anutT u ground.

On the Advlteiations or Sncrr.

Fortif'lhree Sfiniplea of snuflT woro nubjerJcd to microscopical anrl
rhemical exaniinntitin and fiiuilyi^is 'trid imni ihefii? it appeared that
snutVis subjeol lo n very lnr;re iiniount of udultLTution.

The priiicipiil rfsiilts nrrived at were —

Th;it comnum suU is u(ld'.d iii large i}uiintities to all descriptions of
snuff.

That oxide of iron, derired from diflerent deitmptions of coloured
femijrinous earths, a-* r*d ochre, yelhjw orhre^ iind gnme of the brown
eartli4, as umber, was present in iipwunls of two thirds of the

!>Ulllple9.

That chromate of le<uK a verv poisonous substnncc, was detected in
nine 'd'the .samples, nmountiiitr iii one instance tonearly eighl percent.

That nxUle of tf^ii/y an ef|unlly poisonous substance, probably in the
form of red lead^ was disoovenrd in three cases.

That bichromate of potash^ a still more poisonous substance, iraj
jtresent in three cisi's.

That niiiny of the samples conTaine<l pojedered tilktt^ prt»bably
potrdered glass.

These as well as some other less important results, stated more in
dctnd, were —

Tliat chloride of siMtinm, or salt, is ndded in Inrjre and very variable
qtinntilii'S to all descriptionfj of snntT, the proporti<in9 riinjjing from
1-0 to as uiuch as VIS per rent. Where the amount of ehloride is lew
than I'O per cent., it is probable that it i* derived from the tobacco
itself, as well Ji.-t the water used to mni.sten it.

That the alkalinr and earthy carbniintes, chiefly the earhonale* of
poUtsh ofid limey :irc likewiFe udded to BimlT. sometimes In considerabfe
ijnantity, but ui«tially to a le^R extent than chloride of sodium. One of
the srtmple8yiehled3'9 per cent, of carbonate of pntnah, andanotherno
less than 10*8 per ceiil. of carbuimte of lime. On lookin*; over tJie
liible of annUses, it will be sofn that the amount of earthy carbonate*
varies considerably in the diflerent. sample^ as was the case with the
rhloride of sodium, the lime being present in somewhdt larger propor-
tion in the dry sniiffk, as the Scotch, Irish, and WeK-«h — to these
snuffs the law allows the addition of lirac water. When at the same
time carbonate i>f potash is adiled^ decomposition takes plu<?e, jmrt of
the carbonic acid of the carl>onate of potash unites with the lime,
and so forms carbonate of lime. This renders it diflicult to state
exactly the rehiiive proportions of lime and potash employed.

It would appear id.-io that in some cn^es the alkaline and earthy
phosphates are in excess in Snutf, ss much as 7 per cent, of ihe
former having been detected in one of the itmplea, and 4*8 per cent.

SNUFF, AND IT9 ADULTERATIONS,

609

of ibe liittcr in nnoiher. The stalks of tobacco cnntnin a very large
■n iilioephates,
and it is pruUable thai they are rery rarely added to anuff tor the
piirpo!tc ol adultfnuiiin.

That the nlkulitie guiphaifa are likewiao slightly in excess, amounting
in one nainple to 5*4 per cent. ; in tlus case the addition nmy Lave been
inieticionul.

That ozitie of iron deriTed from diSbrent descriptions of coloored
ferru^riiious uarlh, as re</ ochre, yeilour vchre., and home of the brown
earlhSf as umber, was present in upwurdDuf two thirOitof the sumplets
amountin;; in one case to nolens thun five per cent. It is especially to
beob^frveil, that while all the Scotch anuns coutnitied iron, the oxide
of that metal was not present in any one of the samptes of Wel.sh and
Irish 8nu0s submitted to analysis. The presence of fcrrujiintma
earths, aa well as of some other colouring [natters, i& freniienlly indi-
cated by the colour of the ash. Genuine tubueco invuriably yielJs an
ash which is more or less (;reyt whilu the ashes of snullii coutaininj^
iron, lead, and some other mineral colouring matters, are alwtiys to a
P'eater or less extent coloured : when deeiiledly n\ wc may safely de*
dare that some aubatance liaa been employed to colour the snuff. In
unadulterated tobacco, the iron present amounts only to traces ;
nearly all therefore of the different kinds of snufl' examined, except-
ing the Welsh and Irish, were adulteraleil with coloured ferruginous
cartlifi, especially the Scotch rujipees, and scented nippees, in one of
which the inm and aliitiiina amounted to five piT cent. The prttenct
of ctUuttred ferruginiiUM earths in sHuJf i$ uti nduUerution.

That chronuite of Uad was detected in mue of the samples, amount-
ing in one instance to 4G per cent. It <>ccnrred in five out of the
nine fuimple±t of Scotth snuirexamine<l, in one of the four samples of
Welsh, and in one of the tiiree samples uf Iri:>li snuff submilted to
analvriis. The preneHcn of this meltUHc comjHfund in tuuff' cotutitutea an
aduUf rattan.

Thut oxide of lead, probably in the form of red Uod, was discovered
in three cases, as mueh lut three per tent, bein^ lound in one of the
samples of ItjLnJham's 37- 7^he prrseuce of thus metaUic oxide is also
an uduliendion and an infraction of the Tubacctt Act.

That bichromate of potash wiis present in three of the samples ; in
two of the cases it was found in the Scotch snufK amounting' In one
sample to 6*2 per cent* The presence of thij mU Ukewi9e coHstitutet an
adtdieration,

'i'hat many of the samples contained considerable quantities nf
siiiea, nmounting in one instance to no leas tbnn b'-l per cent. Jn
some of the samples the atidttion uvm uuqttrstionably intcvtiomd. Genuine
tobacco rarely contains more than 3'4 per eeiit, and usuully much
lens. In niobt of the fitliceous re.iidue3 of the allies shming jHirticles
were observed, which unuer llie niiun>ccope presented ull the »p|>ear-
ance of powdered glass; but since earth contains similar ]»riicfe8 in

A it

610

8NUFP, AND 1X8 ADULTERATIONS.

large quantities we are not nble to state whether in any case pow*lered
pinss had \i^en uiMet^l ; to tho miij()rity of tlie samples, however, it was
manif'cjtt from the vrtijiht anil apiMJuranei! of the resi(lue<i that no such
addition had boon made. Theosiios of the rappees all furnliib a nili-
ccou? residue, wludi, after the ai'tioD of the aeids, in its gelatinous
character renemhles the fiilicft di-rived from such a silicate a.i glass.

That powdered orri-i root was detected in two of the eample^. The
presence of this in xuujf is likewise an adtdivrtition.

That the total wtt^ht of ash furnished by tlic incineration of the
preater number of the shufl*s examined^ altboufjth many of them were
very moist, much exceeded that of peiiuine tobacco after being
dried. While the a>hes of snm)>le5 of the loiter have been fuuitd to
vary in weif^ht from lO'H to TJ.'6, those of the snuffk which were not
drie<l, and many of which contiun^d very large per-centagea of water,
were in no ett.*e under I8;26 per cent., while in one instance it
Amounted to S5'54 per cent. Ilad the snufls been dried before
analyniftf as was the lob.-icco, the ditference in the weight of the ashes
would liave been much more evident. The average proportion of
water in ihu moist snutfa is about *25 per cent.

Cephalic Snuff,

Tliis snufn on examination, was found to consist almost entirely of
tobacco stalks ground to a very fine powder, and disgui5cd by being
flavoured or scenled with some essential oil or oils, most probably
that of lavender. 100 ;^ains furnished 21*6 grains of ash, o( a dirty
brown colour, which was composed of chloride of itodiam, 2*0; alha'
Hue carbonateB^ 3*9 ; eurthy corhonnte$^ 4*0 ; alkoliiie phoMphate*, 5-^2 ;
earthtf phoftphate*^ 21; alkaline sulphateM^ 09; oxide of iron and
alumifuL, TO; and 5i7ica, 1*6 grains.

Orimjttone*9 Eye Snuff.

A prolonged examinotion of this article by the microscope si
that It is made up of several distinct vegetable substances. Amoi
these, afler considerable trouble, we have succeeded in identifying tEe
following : powdered orrix root^ savory^ rosemary^ and lavender. There
are probably one cir two other vegetable substances, the names of
which we have not as yet ascertained ; but it does not contain any
hellebore, assarabacca, nor tobacco. 100 grains, on being incinerated,
afforded 30 grains of ash. of a light reddish-brown colour, composed
of chloride of sodinm, 12*8; alkaline carbonates, 3'8 : alhdine phetS'
phateM^ 4 6 ; earthy phoxphates^ 2 8 ; alkaline sulphates^ 08 ; and BiUca^
6 '2 grains.

Mr. Phillips furnished the Committee on Adulteration with the
following information in regnrd to the adulteration of snuff: —

** We have found, in different samples, conmion peat, such as you
:et from the bogs of Ireland ; starch, ground wood o{ various kind*,

SNUFF, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

611

fustic being most predntninant ; extract of logwood, chromftte of lead,
bicliTxtniate of potash, and various oclirefius earthft.

"We !i«ve also had satnpleA of Rpurimis snutT made up, aiul
Ta^iou^Iy scented, to represent Scotch, Wel.^Ii, ond Irisli snuff, and
which )ia.i been composed of ihe following substunces: — sumach,
uml>er, which is a thirk earth, Spanish brown, und common salt. In
another ca-e we found peat, unibur, ami common salt. In imoibcr,
ground coal, jwat, and extract of lojrwood. in another, pruund peat,
yellow tchre, lime, and itand, ihc whole of tbvm bein;; more or less
scouted. I have no di^ubt they were made fur the purpose of being
mixe<l with other snnflV

Hesides the articles above enumerated the Excise have met with
eeriain other ^ubstance^.

From an Excise retuni of the seizures made during the two years
1851 ami 1652, it up^^ears that fourteen prosecutions wt-re innlitutcd
against [wrsons residing in various pnrtfi of the United kinjj;doiii, for
ndiilteraiin;; snuff with vepetnble and earthy matters, or for Imving
the miiteriids for adulteration in their posi^e-tsion. On an examination of
this return, it ap]>ears that the foHowinj: subslatices were cither de-
tected or seized by the Excise authorities in the cases itbovt* referred
to: — Powdered CoUnubo root, yellow ochre, qua.'-Ria« red ochre, and
gentian rout, in one ease ; f>eat moss and earthy matter, in two caches ;
earthy matt*T and ground rhubarb leaves, in onesiimple; t2'l 1 [Hircenl.
of oxide of iron and (land, in onecuse ; iSO percent, of vegetable matter
not tobacco, and powtlere*! leaves of tree* each in one caite ; ^ound
fuHtic W004I, in two coHe.^ one cnntaininp; *I5 |ier cent., the other 15
)>er cent.; in one sample wood anil earthy matter was tbund, and in
two other cases the materiob u^cd in the adulteration were not
stated.

But it is not only with udutteration that the revenue has to con-
tend, but alfo with nHUgf^fing,

It is particiilarljr woriliy of note ihot mention is not made in the
return above reterreil to of the owmrrence of red lead, chromate of
lead, or btchrtimate. It would appear that the Exci.-^e only became
acquaintt^l wiih the fart of the use of those poisonous substances sub-
senuent to the nulhor'a report on suulF.

Looking, then, at the whtde of the results contained in this report,
we would say that /Ac nrtiele tnujf u tubject to a rerif large amttuiit of
adniferutmn,uttil that of a fiit,fi which is not oiUy detrimental to the reoenue^
but excteihngly tvjunotu tt} hralth.

Such striking and even startling results were hardly to have been an-
ticipated; for when we cotisider the enormous revenue derived from
tobnccG, as well as the co^-^tly machinery employed to suppress ndul*
teration, especially in ihin., and al»o in otfier exciseable articles, it
might have oeen expected that the results would have been very dif*
ierent.

a B 2

61S

SNUPF, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

The Exciiw autliorities are numerous and powerfiil ; lliey poMCsa a
staff i>l'iinHlys!s, ami tliey Imve the liberty of entering upon any pre-
iuise:«, and of seizing all nuapeetcd gmnU. It is clear, therefore, from
the results contained in this refMtrt, as \TeU as those of several previous
oncts that these autliorities, includiiifj the analysis employed by lliem,
unt by no means up in ihcir work. We say it witlmnt- boiistinu, but
certainly with sonic du^jree of satisfaction, that, aided only by science,
and 8Up|»<irted by a firm resolution, we have done more to discover
and che<'k adullcmtion than the whole body of Excise autlioritii^s the
maintenance of which costs the country some hundreds nf thnusnmU of
pounds annuallv. In those rases in which the Excise officers have
proeecutcd parties for the adulteration of snuff", rhey have rarely done
soon purely scientific jironnd*, i'rtnn i be results (»f cheinica! and micro-
scopical examination ; but their proceerlin^rs uf uoUy have been based
upon the scixure of the artictefl employed for adulteration on the pre-
mises of the manufacturer.

That forpj^ leaves or itlher vegetable Biil>slancc3 should not have
been found in tlic samples of anulT examined, exccpiin*; powdered
orris root for scenting, is not surprisinir, when wc con:*uler the latitude
which the law itself affords for adulteration with sul*stances not vege-
table, the Tobacco Act pcnnitlinL', without limitation as to quantity,
the addition nf water, still, and alkaline ealU, and in the caae of Insk
and Wcl(*h snuffs, lime water.

The diwlosiircs made in this rejwrt clearly sliow that this Act
should be extensively altered ; that some limit should be xssigned lo
the use of the suttstjinces just named, niid that the prohibition should
be extended to many articles not specially referred lo in the Acu

It appears, then* us one jn'eat result of our examination of »nuir,
thai tht) uiajoi-ity of the samples are adulterated, and ihis iu such a
manner as is in direct viohitiou of the Excise laws, the parties being
liable lo very heavy pemdties and imprisonment. Of thy injurioiia
chanu-ter of some of the adulterations d«'l«:t«'d, not a doubt can t»e
entertained. Chromate of lead, red Icnil, and bichromate uf potash,
arc all highly poisonous, anil when applied to soh mucotis surfacex,
such OS thoae of the nose, they ore readily absorbed into the sja-
tern.

Since Government allows of the admixture of water, salt, alkaline
salts, and lime water, without any Hiiiit as to the amount, it Is ex-
tremely difficult in many cases to draw the line, and to aay where
adulteratiun with theso substances begins.

On the DtUctiou <^ihe AduUerationx of Snuff.

The method to be adopted in the examination of ihc different kinds

of snuffs is aj foUows: — A portion of each is to be spread out Ufkon

aslip of glass and thoroughly weiteil with water; all the luriicr iiar-

tides picked out with a needle-point and removed to another slip ;

SNUFF, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

6t3

tliese carefully pnllcd to pieces nml scrutinised with the microscope,
the iiuHt or fioer portion being tiiso ihorou^jhly cxiimined under this
iiistruuiLMit ; Mul this process is to be repcntetl two or three times
wirli 4;uch siiuipli*.

PtHit^ woody Jihre including yujr/ie, as well %& foreign leatet^ are all
dirtcovemble by meAiiA cifehc mieroscojHj.

100 gruiris of each of the snutT^ ure to be incinerfttod, the Treirrht of
the iisb flBcerininctl, and then analysed quantiiatively for chloride of
sodium or salt, for idkiiline and eurtby carbonates, sulnhiitcs, and
iiitrutes, for iron and uluniins, chrumate of lead, oxide of lead, bichro*
mnte of potash, and for sdica.

F(»r the detection of /^a^y, the snutf, afix?r being moistened with a
solution of cnrbunate of soda, is ii> be incinerated, the ash drcni'hed
with a little water, and the residue treated with a few drop:* of nitric
acid, an<l tested with the uttnal reug>fntH. The qunniity may be de*
terniined from the bulphurct or sulphate of leiul formcii.

The following is a good method i»f proeeediiig, and by it wc ascer*
tain whether the nietui i>i in the state uf cArvfrni/eor oxxide : —

The soluble portion of the ash having been reuiove<l, the reinainder
shiiuM be fused with a mixture uf nitre and bi<iulphHte of potash, the
residue well washed with water, the solulion filtered, eva|>orated,
treateil with hyilrocMoric acid, and, while at a boiling heat, with
alcohol. If no green colour be prtxluceil, the absence of chromic
acid may be inferred; if the colour df>es ap|>eur, the oxide uf chro-
mium must be precipitated bv ainntonia.

The residue left after the hn^t wo-^hing is to be treated with a solu-
tion ijf amuiuniuool tartrate of aninionta, by which means the sulphate
of lead is talcen up. This is precipitated with sulphuretted hydrogen,
collected, drie<l, and weighed.

On treating the sulphuret of lead with nitric acid, and evaporating
to dryness, an insoluble sulphate of lead \& again obtained, and, on fusing
this with carlwnate tii soda, and treating the insoluble residue with
acetic acid, aectatti of \ew\ is formed, the solution of which gives a
yellow precipitate with imlide of |H)t3SEiium, yellow with bichromate
of potush, and whiti: with dilute sulphuric ucid.

If, on following the above melhiililion of alcohol, but no lead found, then we
may infer that chromate or bichromate of patash bus Iteen employed.

We will now inquire whether the Kxci»e bos succeeded in protecting
the revenue from loss, in the aduiicralion of tobacco, which pays so
heavy a duty to the state. As has already been shown, cut and roll <p-
6aci»i8suhjecl to ctmsiderable adulteration, while «nv^ is so to uii euur-
muus extent. Uf forty-three samples subjectetl to examiualion, nearly
the whole were ailulteraled, and in n very scandalous manner, with
stibttnnces injurious to health. So much f«ir the et^iuicncy of the
Excise in preventing the adulteration \i\' tobacco and snull'.

B a 3

»U TOBACCO, AND ITS ADULTE RATIONS.

It is questiuiinhle whether the Kxcise really possesses the rcquUite
knowkMl^e to detuct lunuy oi'the adulterations of tobacco. Some lime
oinee it ctfriainly did not.

We learn fium the Report by the Select Committee of the HoiiftC of
Commons un the lobjicco tmdf, that so convinced were the ninnufuc*
lurera of London of the inHl)ilily of the Excise officers to deteet ndul-
terutionfl in tobacco, that they *■■ proposed to the secretary lo the Kx-
ci»« iJoitrd to uend specimen!* of pure antl of adulterated tobacco, that
the Excise officers mipht convince the manufacturers of the power they
had of detecting Hdulterntions.

Under the authority of that Committee twelve ump1e« of tobacco
were prepared, und ftiibmiited to the Exrifie to be oxamiticd by them
and reported upon ; t}ke exaniiiicn> bein^ ilr. Uiehftrd riiUijts, Pro-
fessor Graham, and Mr. George Phillips.

The suWtaucc!) and artich-s introduced into these samples were as
follows: — rhubarb leave*, fuxjzlove leaves, brown paper, syrup of
>U|2ar, saltpetre, alum, cliicnry root, IriHh moss, carbonate of jmt&sti,
sulphate of potash, carbonate of magnesia and carbonate of lime, terra
japunicu, refined sugar, conmion salt, nitrate of ammonia, chloride of
puiudfiium, and sugar of milk.

isoyr the only subst^mces detected out of the above llht by ibe
ex^nnners vfem ihij rhubarb leaven^ iTie brown pnpcr^ und *vgar; all
the others remained undiscovered. Even of the articles actually detectetl
the proportions <>iven wt^re in alt cases very wide indeed of the mark;
thus the 16 per rent, of rhubarb leaves iiitroduce<l, were set clown at
3*3 per cent., and the same error was committed in regard to the
amount of sugar present.

In some cases tlie samples were allejzcd to be adulterated with sand,
sugar, and crumb of bread, when either these substances were not
present at ull, or the samples were perfectly genuine.

Never, in fact, in the whole history t>f science, was a more hunentftble
exhibition of incoiiifietenee. 'i'heie i» not one of the vegetable sub-
stances or clK-niii-al er)mpouiids above enumerated, which migbt
not have been readily discovered und identilied.

PROPEBTIES AKD EfrECTS OF ToBACCO.

We will in the next place con^iiler the eO'ects of the use of tobacco
upon the human frame, whether smoked, chewed, or employed iu tiie
form of snulT.

Tobacco owes its chief properties to the presence of two active
principles, ternie<l nicvfiiut and mcotiamn. The first of these, nicutitux,
IS thus chflriu-teriseil : it is liipiid and vt>latile, devoid of colour, wttli
an acrid, burning taste, and p{>:t&esses the slrntkg odour of tobacco; to
test-jtafier it shows an alkaline reaction: water, ether, alcohol, and
the uila dissolve it. It combines with various organic and inorganic

TOBACCO, AXD ITS ADULTERATIONS.

615

■ridii to form salts. 1000 grains of tobacco yield, neconling to the
kind u^ctt, Irotii 3'Bti tu 11*28 grains of nicotinu. The action of nico-
tinii on the human frume is tbut of lui acrid, uurcolic iHiison^ causing
giildincB.s aud voniiling, and in du^es of a few grains, ileath.

The properties of the hitter, nicutiamn^ are as fallow: — It is &
toucrete oily substance, hiivin^ the smell of tobacio, and a bitter
tAStc. It i& volutilo; the dilute at-.itls and water do not di^Milve it,
but it is Boluble in liquor pottiji.sa> and ether. In swallowing nico-
tioiiin, tint same sensation is produced on the tontfue and fauces as by
tobaouo. A grain udniinittlered internally, quiokly cau>^ed i^iddinesa,
nausea, and retching. It also produces sneezing when applied to the
nose* Six pounds of tobacco leaves furni&U uhout eh'ven gruiuK of
nicotianin. It is also known as " Concrete Oil of Tobaccoj* and
'* 7ht/acco Camphor."*

Both these at;tive principles and constituents have been shown by
chemical analysis to b^* pre-icnl in thff $make of tol)ucco ; they are
therefore undoubtedly not destroyed by the combustion of the to-
bacco, whether used in the form of cut tobacco or cigars, but in the
act of smoking ihi-y are inhaled aud thus drawn into tlie mouth,
fiiuces, luugs, and even the stoma' h, especially when the saliva, im-
pregnated with the tobacco smoke, is swallowed. Further, that ihesu
active constituents ure actually aLsurbed, and makii their way into
the system, in provi'il, from the sickneis, giddinw;!, ami death-like
liitntncM experienced by those who are unaccusUHiU'd to smoking;
ihnt th'^y are absorbed lo some degree, if not to the same extent,
in the case onmhiiual smokers of tobacco is unquestionable, the dif-
fercnce in the cflecU cxpericnceil being due to the circumstance of
the tiyt^teni becoming more inured tu its use, and therefore leas
susceptible of its influence.

In the case of confirmed smokers, the eS*ect of tobacco smoke is
that of a narcifde After a very shnpt and almost inappreciubie
I>eriod of excitement, the eflei-t begins, and its tranqnillising intluence
IS experienced, pervading the whole system ; the fre<|uency and force
of the puUe are diminislicd, as well as the tonicity of the muscles,
p'lrticulurly of the involuntary muscles, as is shown by the readiness
with which the bowels act in most caites after sinotcing tobaec*o. The
U'.lion of the skin is also often iucrease<l. but there is nu evidence to
show whether it exerla any sensdde elfeut over other secretions, us
tlio<i« of the liver and kidneys. Hearing in mind the nature of the
(>rdinai-y anil more usual symptoms above rei'erred to, produced by
the smoking of tohaci-o, we are in a position lo apiirei'riate the t-flects
of the continued use of lobatco in this form upon the human system,
in persons whose circulation is brisk, and who huvc an abundance
of re*l blood — in other words, in the ^aug^rne and the plelburic — in
whom the functions of digestion and assimiljtion are active, w^ should
say that this habit would be calculated to bo productive of beneficial

B A4

616

TOBACCO, AlfD ITS ADULTERATIONS*

rather than injurious consequences, hy lowerinji Bomewliat the tonenl
the ciTculaiion, and hy proiaotin^ the »e(.*rflioii ot* the sadivary gtantU
and uf the skin ; nlso, (Krhap.s by moderating the aetivity ofdigcsiion.

In [H-'Pfinns of weak circulation and digestion^ in many of wbouj the
hubit uTtubucco Fni^kin;; is At1i>ntled with };reat expectoration, there
is no (juestion bul thut the indulgence in this practice is in n high de-
gree prejudiciiil (** healih, for it Imvers stdl more the force of the
cirnilatiiin And ihe powers of iliue.>ition ; while the great ex[>ei-toration
of saliva, a fluid which fxiniainii a lar}ze portion of animal matter, Acts
as an exhausting drain upon the system.

There is another class of persons on whom the practice of tobacco-
smokinj; may possibly exert a beneficial effect — nunielvi tliose of
nervous and irritable temperament — espet'iaily those who arc 00
from tbe over-c.xcitemenl of business, rather than from disease: tbiit
would apply to a considerable number of residents in targe towns ai\d
cities.

In those oases in which smoking ia attendtnl with great expectora-
tion, it is probable that tbe constitutional eifecis of the tobocco are
experienced in a far less degree, since very much of tbe nicotin and
nicuiianin is ejected with the saliva.

In countries where tohai'co ig vrown, w in America, the peruiuioui
efiifcts of extreme ii)dul;;eiiee in smoking are i'uHv known and rp-
cognised. In America it is no uncommon circumstance to bear of
coroners* inifuests on the bodies of smokers, especially youths, tbe
ordinary verdict l)eing, "Died from excessive tobacco smoking."

jiul a very large |)roporlii>n of tobacco smokers belong to none of
the three classes of persons above referred m, being neither pielhniic,
dyspeptic, nor nervous and irritable^ but arc in ihc enjoyment of a
goutl and sound slate of health: lo such pers<ms we would ?ay chat
the habit of tobacco smoking is useless and exjiensive, and aiaipl^
panders to that spirit of self-indulgence which leads many to gratilj
the senses in a variety of ways.

The habit of smoking is often injurious in an indirect manner, by
its acting as an inducement to drinking, and thus becoming the
source of intem^H^rance and its attentlant evils. Indeed, too fre-

3uently these practices go together. " Smoking induces driiiking,
rinking jaundice, and jiiundiue di'ttth."
Muny of the above remarks apply with greater force to tbe practica
of tobacci) chewing; in this case, no doubt, a larger quantity of ilia
active principles of the tobiu'co make their way into the system ; and
this amount woidd be very much greater were it not for ihc fact thaW
all chcwers of tobacco ex]>ectoratc largely and often injure themselTefj
thereby.

The constitutional effects resulting from the use of tfibacco in th^i
form of snuff, when this is genuine, are certainly niuth less than inl
the case either of smoking or chewing tobacco ; indeed, tbe eflVcts nrft|
in most cases chiefly local. The nerves of the Schneiderian muiubrj

TOBACCO, AND ITS A T>U ITERATIONS.

617

lire over stimiilatcfJ ; l)ier<» is tleterminatlon of blooJ to the pnrt, nnd
tliu inerul>rane becomes titifkent^il and in^nsible ; at ilie snme time
the brnin is rouitcd to increased action. When any of the snuff tnkcn
make« iu way int4> the faures, as it very often does, it produces a cit-
tHin amount of constitutional derangement, and often pives rise to
dyspepsia. On first UHfifininp to talce sniin, .tieknessaitd fuintness iire
induced in llie same way a$ from tobacco •miokiug.

The chief torul t-flWt.-t-t of the long-continued use of onuff are, impair-
ment of the 8cn5e of smell, and lo a Ims fxlent of that ofta-itf ; the
voice also becMinieH much altered. 'Diose effects are not he attributed
entirely to tiie tobacco contained in the gniiff, but arc aUo due to the
irritatinn action nf the alkalies and sails which enter into the coiii|K)-
sttion of all suuff, as well u» to the red anil yellow ochre, red lead,
chromate of lead, bichromate of potoiih, uml many other iiijurioiissub*
stflhcpi with which snuff in etdoureil. The poisonous nature of the
chromtitcs of polnah. e*peciiilly the biihicmate, had lonjj l>een his-
pcclcd frt»ni the diittre!>sin;^ sympfoms produi ed in workmen en^jagcd
in many of the operations of dyeing, 'ihi.* led MonR. Duchatel, of
Paris, to institute ex|>eriments wirh the view to inve»ti(!ate and de*
termine the effects which ihiR salt exerts on the animal economy, ami
the dopes in which it ]irove8 injurious or poisonous. He found that,
even in the small doses of from one twenty-fifth of a frrain to one five-
hundredth of a grain, it destroyed the livt^s nf uninials (do^) on
which he experimented, cau»in<; sickness, vomiting, and severe gas-
tritis; ftnd po<>t*nior(cm examination showe^l the mucous memhrnne
of the 9tumach and prima via to be much inflame<l and completely
softened.

Chromate of lead and red lend, although not poisonous to the same
extent, are yet of a very deleterious nature, even m exceedingly minute
doecs. The metallic salt^ are constantly employeil to give colour to a
variety of articles, e?]»ecinlly sugar confectionery ; and many instances
have been recorded of the fatal consetpiences to children who have
partiiken of sweets in which these dangerous substances had been
ut*etl.

I'he quantity of chromate of lead and red lend contained in snuff
as shown by the annlyttes is ofiim very c<insiilcr«ble^ nearly 5 per cent,
being sometimes found in it ; ^ufficieIlt — a.*( ap[>ears from the follow-
ing very intcre^itin!! and highly im|Kirtant ciiJie, tor the particulars of
which we are indebted to Professor Kriih'wn — to give rise to the dif-
ferent symptoms and effects of |K>isoniiig by lead, as colic, paralysis, &c.

Cfi»€ of Slow Puisoniwg b%j Snuff corjaimng Lead^ by Mr. Erichten,

"Whilst on a profcprional visit In tlic country Inpt March, I wasrc-
questetl to s«e a gentleman who had been invited d«>wn to a fnend*s
country scat in the hope that change ot scene and uir would jnlluence
favourably an attack uf pBraly&ii<, which was said to be of a rheumatic

018

TOBACCO, AND IT8 ADULTERATIONS.

cliaracter; b^ which be had been dlsahted from work for many montlrt
post, and of which he despaired of reouveriiig, having reliiu|uUhed all
treaHnent.

'* I found the patient in bed, and somewhat exhausted by thejnnrnej
down — a distAJicc of nearly n hundxed nillea from his usual rcaideiice.
He was peculiarly sallow^ the enniplexion having' almost on icteric
tinge ; but the couiileiiunec was lively aud exjirettsive, and the intellect
as bri;;hl ns usual.

" Ah'. A. B. could stand mul, if support^^d, could walk, though feebly
and with mudi diUiculty. lie coui[ilu)iitfd uiucb of paina about the
shoulilen* luid the He-hy \vdrUi of the thtglu and legs, and espociidly of
buriiin*; sensaiinn^ iii the sulea of his feet. The at lirulation!! all ap-
])earcd healthy^ no swelling or looseneia was perceptible about any of
them.

** I wa.% however, particularly struck with the appearance of the
hands and arms, which were lying powerlesti on the coverlid of the Itcd.
There was marked "wrist-drop" of both arms, the hun'ls hanjfing
Baccid and at right angles with the forearms, without the patient
being able to extend or raise tlitm in the sli^jlitei't dejpve. There
was, however, sonie iilight p*iwcr of extension left in the fingers, ejpe-
cialiy in tho^e of the left hand. Thou};h unable to extetul the
fingers, raise the hand, and Bcurcely having power to elevut« the
arm, Mr. A. B. couhl Jlex the fingers pretty firmlv so as to j^ivc %
tolerably go<Hl gratp to wJiiiUiVer was put into hi<t hand. The index
finger of tliu riglil hand seemed to be the moat alfeeted, and was per-
manently flexed.

•* There was a very marked degree of wastineof the whole nias»of the
extensor muscles of the forearm, so that a longitiidimd htdlow- corre-
epomlihg to the inloros:>vous ajjuee was perui-ptihlt' ilnwn the whole
length of the forfHrui, and a very tleep and mnrkL*d depression in the
interspace between the first atid second metacarpal boues. The hands
were (juite powerlesbi, and the patient was unable to render himself ibts
Blightest assistance.

**'J'he ton{£ue was pale and flabby ; and on examining the gums I
found a de^p blue- black or leaden-coloured line around the teetli,
more marked about the mnhirs.

"Digestion was much impaired. Appetite capricious, with much
fiatulcnce and oceasiunul attacks of constipution with colickv paioit.

"•' On inquiring Into the history of the ca^e, I learnt that Mr. A« B^
who is much devoted to literary pursuits and habitually led a seden-
tary life, had for *unie years previously suffered Irom puins of a
rheumatic or gouty character; that in Alay, 1853, he had beon at-
tacked liv constipation and colic whilst lodging for a short tiuiu in a
Jiewly painted house. In Aujiust of the s»ine year he ha<l first bogus
to lose power in extending lils arms, finding a difliculty in ruining
them to put on his coat ; and from (his time the purulylic s^'mntoiu*
gradually increased until they hud assumed the degree iu which X
ibund them, when he hud become reduced to a bUie of complete

TOBACCO, AND IT3 ADULTERATIONS,

619

]ihysIco1 1ic1plos5tK*ss, tl)oii<;li, as I have already obser%'ed, his puwcr-
t'ul und clcur iiiteltecl vtha an perfect na ever.

** On tfxuiuiiiinj^ Mr. A. U., I wa.4 at once struck by the very marked
*wrUt-dru])/ inuru coiiijilete than I hitd ever seen before; the limi-
tfltioM oC the [mralysis to the extensors^ which were preiitly wasted;
the existence of u blue line around the teeth ; and the occurrence ol'
occasional attacks of cunntipation and colic, together with Hying pains
in llie fle:diy ports of the binly, with absence of all articular infljim-
nnition. Ihese syniplouis led mc to the conclusion that. Air. A. B.
wua suffering from saturnine paralysis, uud that tiu had been slowly
puiMmed by lead.

"The ditHculty wan, however, to ascertain how poisoning by load
could have been elFected. With th» view 1 nmde diligent inquiry
into the putient*s habiu, the water he ilrank, the utensils he used, &c.,
but could not detect any st>urce to xvhioh the presence of the mineral
in the system could be traced, except that the first attack of colic and
constipation had occurred whilst temfK)rarily Iod;;ing in a house
which smelt of fresh piint ; but >i» he mmmi left this 1 ihouj^ht it very
insullicient to explain his continued and inci easing sullerin};!;. In the
course of my inquiries> however, 1 found that he look suutf in consi-
derable quantities. I &ccordin;.dy emptied his box of its contents, and
tfMtk (hem up to town with me with the view to further examinalitm.
The snuiT was unalvBcd by i'rofe^sor Williamson, who imnieiiinlcly
detc<:ted in it a considerable ipi.iniiiy of letMl; and another supply
having been procured from the shop at which Mr. A. B. wa« in the
liabit of purchasing it, whs subjected to analysis by Dr. Garrod. who
readily detected large i^uu(ititiv:t of the metal in it.

"Mr. A. h. was n«tw put under treatment for saturnine pamlysis.
The sniilVw:u left olV; the bowels were kept o|>en with the acidulated
••niphate of ma^ncMa ; iodide nf pulas-sium was tVeely ^iven in con-
junction with &trychuiii« which wo-t uiiplied topically to blistered sur-
f.ices as well as a*lministered by the hands; und galvanism was assi-
duously employed. Under thjs plitn of tieatmunt he •rraduully im-
proved in all respects; the colicky syuiploms rupidly disappeared, the
niuscuhir pains subsideil, und the purulytic condition of the extensors
was gruduidly removetl, until at the end of Julv iie was able to resume
and to discharge public duties of u very onerous character with his
n>ual ability and energy."

Witli the above sketch, wc rcwivcd frtjm Mr. Ericbsen a sample of
the snutf which was the occiisi<Mi of al] the mischief. On analysis it
was fnund to contain 1'2 per cent, of red oxide of lead; that is very
much less than some of the other samples, the analyses of which have
already been j^^iven.

But the case reported by Mr. Knchsen is by no means a solitary
one ; we have already been mf'ormed of others.

One of these casf-s was that of Mr. Fostiroko, surpcoii, of Bidford,
Alecster. The particulars, as kimlly furnished by Mr. Fusbrokc hiui-
selil «re as follow ; —

(80

TOBACCO, A5D tTS ADULTER ATT0K8.

" In the latter pnrt of the year 1852. I suflercd from an attack of
what was at ilie limo rojranleil as simple coiistiptttinn of the Ixiwelo,
but attended by eoiisiderablc pain, efpecinUy about the umbilicu*, of
u iwititiiig chnraeter. A luetliuul friciul who visiteil me nrdered a
dose of morphia, followed bj an active aperient, which relieved all the
symptoms. In the course of a short lime my jzenorHl health bepan to
fail ; I eonatanlly experieneed a wdsation of sioklii"^ about the t'pijjns-
trium ; the t>owels became irritable, and I invurmhlv pa£So<l ii<iuid
motions. After spemlin:; a short time from home iti ^lay, 18^4, 1 was
suddenly attacked by similar svinpionis I hud before suflenMi tVoiu,
but of a more severe character. The puin was most excruciating,
the bowels more obstinnte, au*l were niuny diiys before they were
relieved, upiio which all the »yn»pt»>m!i jiubiiidud. I now noticed sonic
trembling of the hands, which, however, aoon pn??ed oH"; but fr*>in
this time every thin); 1 did wju by an effort most painful. The appe-
tite Jailed, I became much thinner, had palpitations of the heort, con-
stant jmins in the lower extremitie«i, and was little relreshed liy sletfp.
MatteiTi continued in this state until October 15ih, when, being en-
gaged in writing late lit the oi^ht, I vrm suddenly (in a moment, in
fact) surprised to find that I liad no command over the ring finger of
the right hand, tliat it dragged on the [>aper; and in a lew days the
other tingers, as well of those of the left hand, became similarly
affected. The extensors of the thnnibs and wrists cacapetl. 1 wna
then fully impressed with the iilca that it niuat arise from lend, and I
consulteil Or, Thomson, of Strattbrd-on-Avon, who haa paid much
attention to the subject of lead poisoruug. He at once toUl me tiiere
could be no doubt on the subject; the blue line whs well marked on
the edges of the gums. In the cour.«e of the same week I had a third
attack, much more severe than either of the preceding ones ; the in-
tensity of the pain was indescribable, and 1 was only conipanitivelj
easy when in a bath of almost boiling w^tor. The bowel?, as bef<
did not act, and renuired varioufl aperients tor forty-eight hours be
Bny effect was j)roducod. Ciuitor oil with laudanum, in large doseSi
and the use of irtjeclions of turpentine, at last gave relief to them. T
WHS then for some time tormented by a fixed pain in the small of the
back, and extending to the lower extremilics, caused {K)s9ibly by the
action of the turpentine on the kidneys. Dr. T. saw me at this time,
when parulysia uf the upper extremities hail gone on so far th«t I
was unable to turn in bed. He most kindly interested hini»eLf in
my ease, and ini>tiluted a most minute iiitpiiry as to what 1 took
ditfercnt from my family, and at once fixed «»n the article of ttnutf
as the probable source trom which the M'stem had been inipre<;TioltNl.
Subse(juent investigation fully cunfirnied his view. My health is now
perfectly restored, nothing remaining but a Irltiing weakness of lb(
ext'^iisurs of the lingers.

*• Tlte treatment, in the fir?t instance, was iiuliihuric acid and alks-
linc aulfiJiates. Iodide of potassium produced uo very murkud b«ur6(

TOBACCO, AND ITS ADDLTERATIOI^S.

6SI

unlil gulviinisin wa§ cnnjo'intly tried with it^ under which plan X wns
in n few months I'liUv restored to hfulth."

In the ItittLT vrhicli aocoiopitniod ihc sketch of the cascabnve given^
Mr. F<tebr'»ke remarks: —

" Perhaps il may bo intcrestinj; in some degree, in iidilirion In whnt
I stated rfspeclinjj niy»eir, if 1 inform you lliiit my father, who is now
between 70 mtd HO veurs of a'je, took the !<nme snufT, und linx l>een in*
rurnbly piinilvsed for many ycira past. No opinion was given by any
tnedical man he consulted u.« to its origin. He Imd ilisK'ontinued the use
ol'snutV for several yearn previous to my case occurrini;, and hiis now
miii-h better heallh.wiihcxtreotion of the pow(>rh^s condition of the nruLS."
in a sei^nul communieaiKmf Mr. Fosbroke furni&hes the tollowing
further information : " I t'orgtft to say, respectinj; my fatlier's cjwe,
thiit ub'tul four years u<:o he sulfervd most lireuilfully from seiutiea,
whieh eonfined hiui lo bed lor ^everid ninnthi, und that Dr. Thomson
then visited him, nnd pointed out thiit lead baij occasioned »ll the
mischief, but that from its insidious introtliiction intn the svstein from
whatever Aource, and tlitt lon^tlt of tiino that hail elapsed, littU- rould
be done beyond relievin;: his present suiTerings, wliieh fortunately was
ctl'ected by sulphuric ucid. r nun distiiste lie gave up snuQ-taking,
and has hud no return of a similar attack.

*' A j^enilemnn in this neijxhb(»urho*xl took the same snuflf (Itolon-
piro, from 'iVhiy's, L<>n<lon), an<l com)>lnine<l of inability to raise the
leO arm for some time previous to his death."

A sfiniple of the snulf taken by Mr. Ko.-»broke yie1de<l on nnalysic
disLinet rvidenees of the presence of lead, but not in amount nearly
so great as the previous and many other of the snuffs exnmined.

Another ease was refeired, about a year since, \o Dr. Letheby ; it
was that of a ;^enllemau who presented all the symptoms of luad-
p4>isoning. An aiiulvMs of the snull', brown rappee, which he took,
led lo the (tiscuvery of the source of !h« poison.

At the la>t meetin<; of the British Asvoclution, it was stated, in a
discussion on jMti-tonin^ by snutT, that mnny persons hud been injured
by the leati reueiveil iiilo the sy.^tem through the «nutr taken. We
have thus, in the catte of sniitT. another striking example of injury to
the pubtiu health arising out of (he praiuiec of njlulteraiitni

Itut the practices of snioknigr »nd chewing tobacco, and of smufT-
taking, are objeclitmable on other grounds than Ukmc relating to
henilii. Tlio dwelling and clothes of the smoker arc impregnated
with the heavy nauseating iHloiir of the tobacco, particular! v oHen-
aive to thotie who have a niL-e sense of smell. nnj*:ctionfl
to smoking are of the strongest kind.

In the ease of the chewing of tob:icco the practice U rendered dis-
gusting by the ilark, unn.iturul, and disli-iuriag ataiu which an indul-
gence in this liabit im|):irts to the UsKUi^ and by the character of
the liquid which is con>tai)l]y ejeclud.

89d

TOBACCO, AND ITS ADTTLTERATIONS,

SniiiT-tnkinrr m an ennntly dirty habit ; for not only are the nosUiU
constantly filled with tlic brown nnd earthy-liwkinp powOer, but the
Ittucea at weH as Ihe atomnch come in lor their >hQre nC it ; Uic fiice
19 often !inieari'<l with it, tlii' niiilii filled witb it, aud the sliirt and
clothes nUo sluined and dirtied br >ti* tue.

Other views, which may l>e taken of these practioea, are the ex])«t)0«
and Inss of time which they involve. With record to the expense and
loss of time sacrifired in sniifl-takingf the fullowing curious ealifuate
has been idikIu by Lord 8tunhr>pe : —

"Every professed, inveterate, :md incurable snuff-liiker, at a mode-
rate coiiipututionf taktit one j>iiicii in ten niinuteit. Kvery pinch, with
the Egreeiihle cereinuiiy of blowing and wiping the nose, und either
inci(lent:d circuiuHtiinees, con.sunie^ a minute and a half. One ttitnute
and a half out of every ten, nllowinjf sixteen hnurs to a pnuff-takin);
day, imtituntit to two himrs and twenty-four minuter out of every na-
tunil day, or one day out of every ten. One day oui of every ten
amounts to thirty-six days and a half in a year. Hence, if we sup-
pose the practice to be persisted in for forty years, two entire years of
the snun-tstker's lil'e will be dedicate*! (o Tickling his nuxe, and two
more to Mowing it." The ex|>enfie of snuff, snufT-boxcs, and hand-
kerchiefs is also nlliided to, and it Ih calculated " that by n proper titf
nlicntion of the lime nnd mom-y thus !o?t to the public, a fund uiigtit
be constituted f<»r the diH'harg^e of the nntionnl debt."

It should also be remembered tlmt such unclean and diitgusting
practices, although thev may lose much (tf their itd*ensiveness, from
reiH'tition, to the parties who ihcuiselies practi^e them, yet in mo«i
cases they are most disagreeable to ibo^e who do nut pjirttcipate la
tlH>in, and who are forced lolw s(jeclatnr» of them.

For much interestinj: and curious detail relating t*> Ti>baicn, the
render is referred lo " A I)issertation on the Use and Abuse nf To-
bacco," by Adum Clarke. These remarks occur near its t^mehision : —
"To those who are not vet incor)>ornted with the fashionable com-
pany of tobacco consumers I would say, Never enter. To thooe who
are entered 1 wouhl gav, I)i.>si9t. Firpt, for the sake of your health,
which must be muterially injured, if not destmyed by it. Secon-lly.
for the sake of your property, which, if you are a pcior man, must bi;
considerably impaired by it. But, supposing you can afi'iird thi«i>xtr«
eipcnse, consider how acceptable the pence (to go no f.irther) whirh
you spend in this idle and unnecessary employment would be to manjr
who arc often destitute nf bread, and to whom one pcnnv would same*
times be a? an anpel of God. Thirdly, for the sake ot your time, a
larjre portion of which is irreparably lost, parlicuUrly in smoking.
Have you any time to dispose of — u* murder? Is there no need *if
pruyer, readini;. study ? fourthly, lor the sake of your friends, who
cannot fail to be pained in your company for tlie reasons befure
aS9i|;ned. Fifthly, for the «ake of your voice, which a continuance in
snutr-lakinr will infalliljly ruin, as the nasal possaj^ are almost
cutirely obliterated by ii> Sixthly, for the sake of your memory, th^c

TOBACCO, AND ITS ADULTERATIONB-

639

it may he vi)?nrou» nnd retentive ; and for tlie sake of ynur judgment,
thut it nwiy be cluar and rett'iiiive to tliti end. La^tl^, for tlie sake of
ynur soul. Do you not think that God will visit you for your loss of
liiuu, waste of money, and needless 9ulfinilul;»cnce? llave you not
■een thut the use of tubacco leatis to drunkenness? Do you not know-
that hiibitual smokers have the drinkin<; vessel often at hand, and
fretjuenlly npply to it ? Nor is it any wonder ; for the ifrent uuiuitily
of necehsary moisture which is drawn ojffrom the inouth» &c. oy these
means must be 9up|)lie<l some other way. You tremble at the thought :
well you may, for you are in great danjjer. May G»hI look upon you,
and f>ave you before it is toi> late! It was this view of the subjeet
which led Mr. Sylvester to imagine that the plant derive<I its uame
from Bacchus, the heathen i;od uf the drimkards.

" • WtiJch cif ihflr WMpnnii litith thif ronqunl sot.
(l«rr thiMr wlit ; the plp«, or rlif^ tlie |iot ?
For r*rn thr (Irrlrnlton n' Ihf ruiiu'
SwTTif lo ailiirii' tn. ari'l tiitluilr ihr lamc i
Totuu-(*(i, A» Tm Bui>_« OQO would lay ;
To i-iip-gu<t Burtrhiu^cillcatctl ay,'

** It is with pnin of heart that I am oblippd to say. thnt I have known
«evernl who, tlirouph their imni'Mk-rnte atlarhnicnt to the pipe, hove
become vile sots. ^I'here arc olhrrs who are walking unconcernedly
in the snroc dangerous road. I tremble for them. Shnuld this foU
into their hands, may they receive it as a warning from God ! "

Thu Kovnl author, King James, concludes his celebrated "Counter-
blaste to Tobacco "' in these words : —

" Have you not reason, then, tn be ashamed and to forbear this filthy
novelty, so basely groundwl, so f4>olis))ly r**eeiv<?d, and so grossly mis-
taken in th(.' rij^ht use thi^reof *' A custom, loathsonie to the eye,
hateful to the nojte, harmful to the brain, dangerous to the lungs, nnrl
in the black stinkini; fume thereof, nearest resembling the horrible
Stygian t<moke of the pit that is botUimless ! * "

Customs* duties art: —

Unmanufactured, stemmed or stripped, 35. per lb.

„ unstemnicd - 3x. „

Afanufacturcd, or Cigars - • 9f. „
Snuff ----- 6<, „

And 5 per cent, on all.
Stalks and flour of tobacco prohibited.

ThcTC were entered for home consumption —

!■ IIS4.

rsiuA.

In Hliw VMite

■rflKM.

Sinnrnfil ....
Unab'mmMl ....
Manantrtured «tul «nuff

lT.030.fiST

»,anrs40S

3I9.&U

ii.ri4.7n

m.flis

624 OPIUM, AND ITS ADCLTERATIOXS.

OPIUM, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

We liave in the present article to tietai! the results of an extminitiJi
of numermis samples of opium, one of the most iin|ior1ant anidc!
contained in the whole materia iiietlica.

The substiince known ua opium 'i$ the milky juice of the lawuU •»
seed vessel ofjHtpuner sontnifernm, evn|>ornt«l and in«pi<t^t<^ hTti*
posure to the nctioit of li*:hl iind ulr, during which it acquires it* tloi
t'oloitr Hnd piimmy consiatenc^e.

The opium poppy ia iin annual herbaceous plants atlAlolBg AbB|tt
iisuully from fuur to six feet; there iiro two well-inai-ke«i \Bh«t«t «f
it, und wliich by nonie botauiMs arc even oonAicliTeil to be divUDCl
speeies — namely, tin: bfuck and ihe white. By i'&r the larptftproiv-
tion of the opium of commerce is obtaine<l Irxtiii the Inttcr »r vmtt
variety.

'Jh« lilnck varit'ty, ptipiwer nomtti/trum niffrumj derives its aaoK
(rnm llie colour nf it,s see<ls, whii-h are hhu'k.

Tho linhiiat of the opium poppy is Asia and E'^rpt, but it ii «ci»
aionnlly fimnd growing wild in some parts of Kngland, haviasivth
bably escaped from gardens in which it ie l'rei|ut.'ntly growm nt^
sake of its tlnwurst. It i*> cultt\-ated for the piirpofses of coanwrot ia
Uiudaytan, Persia, Asia Minor, including Turkey, and in lif^lp^

AeconUiig to Dr. Uoyle, the bljck variety i» cuUiTatwl io 4«
IliiualAVii*!. In Kuropi*, the opium poppy is likewise ir^wo lo as
cxtL-ni, but for different purj>o9c-4 — nnmely, for the aakc of tbcoi^
sulcs or poppy-beads, and its i^eeds, which yield a sweet
oil, much employed in pniniin>! and wntch-DiakiDf?, m
ilti being legs liable than other oiU to oxidise or to become
Lundnri market is chietly supplied with poppjr heacU friHn ihc noigb
biiurhood of Mitchum in Surrey.

Puppy beads or cflp5ulc5 are ordered in the I^mdon and DuUb
Phannacnpa'iaa to be ;:alhcred when quite rip*', while the Edi
Collejre directs tliera to be collected whiUt &tilt ininrnturv, 2a
state lliey are murh mt»re active. A dL-cociion of iS.- drit^l
capsule is rendered brown on the addition of sesijuii ! n«.

owing to the formatinu of a meironate of iron : while » . aiai

8 slightly orange tinge is developed, indicativa of tbe pravEBM iC
mor{mia.

Structure of ihe Poppy Cuptule,

Since tbe poppy capsule is employed somewhat fxtcnsirelyv
wilt np(}ear hereancr, in the adulteration of opium, it wiU be "^
to dcscribti its minute organisation or intimate ■traoliir^ ••

raacid.

OrtUM, AND ITS ADULTEUAT10N8,

«2S

by the microscope; uo that the ohserrer, in subjecting ony
Munple of opium to a niiernscffpic exsniiimtion, mny be uble rendily
to identtfr tlioae tiMues frequently contained in it wliich are referubic
to the poppy cnpaule.

The poppy capsule U of a ninrc or less plobone or ovntc i^lohove
form, it varies in size from a hen's egg to an orange, »nd is of a
light, spfingy, end papypiicetius texture. It is one-celh'd. conMir^ting
fif numcrniis earpeU endofted in a membranous prciiueticin of the tha-
lamus, uud furnisIiL'd with pliiirentte, wiii<-h form di^sepime^t5 in the
interior uf the ciip<<ulc* tlte number ami ]>osiiion of which correspond
with the eavpels. Thin sections of the ^xtvrnal lurface cf tbo
cftp*tulL', examine*! tmder the nuLTnsrope, are »een to hn composed
of small, an;»ular cells, hnvin^f exceedltijjly well-marked, broud walls
or parictes, wirh here and there a few rounded stomnta. It U ncce!<-
gary that the microscopic examiner shuuUl lie tlioroujihly acquuiiiCiKl
with this structuref ^iitce it is chielly the cxtemnl portiun of the

Fig, I».

rattloa •# Um €rUr»nl miHmw. 'f*^^'!*^ "f *^ Porn CArvrLc. Dnwa wlUi Um

capsule which enters into the adulteration of opium. The resem-
Uaikce uf this membrane to the celh) of the membrane forming the

8 8

OPITM, AND TT8 ADULTERATIONS.

surface of the jfrain of wln-at is vt*rj ;:real, «o that a person migbt
ensiW inistiike tlie one lor the ntlier. fig. 191*.

The slructure of llie niembrnne which lines the interior of the cap-
sule, and which is s*itunt*'(l hctivei?n the dissepittienls, is very •iifTerent:
it conBists of very lar^c cells, of an eloripiteil and irri.*2ular fonn, but
mostly becominjr narrow towni*ds either extremiiy ; their pariere^ xrt
very thick, anil beoled ; this iiicmbrnnc is iiUo furnished vrith a few
»nguUr sluuiata. Fig. 200.

Fit aw.

VortiuN of uMn-MulMCof Ibc rorrr CAP*uui.nMfiKai3n. MasBUhMinr) diun^i^f^

Tn loncitiidiiinl sections, pnfisin^ throiii:h the entire thickness oftlM
capsule, weohtnin a side view of the cells 'n'hich form the outer And
inner portions of the cupsulc, the space between the two being oom-
poM**] of a hiose and open cellular ti.<ijue, whiuh iinpaitH the sponn*
ncsii to the capsule^ anU wliich i$ traversed here and there with
bumllea of dotted ductn, spiral vesHub, and woody fibre.

The Htriiclure of the diBt^jumcnt? or pluceutje, aj;uiii, differs ent4relf
from thiit of the internal wnll of the ciipsule. The surface of each
disaepiuieul ou both »idcs presents nuuicroiis dark points or ^peck*:

OPIUM, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. e«7

these consist of short, ruJscd projoctions, sperinopliores, each of which
originiUjr guvs vup(>urt to a distinct AUtui, whiuh iix the ripe cap-
Fur. 901.

Fortloa of mrfK* of otM of th« placaMr at dit^fpim^wiM at 0\*i Turn CArntftM.
•howtogobt of th« apmno^lMnM. M«cnU)c<l flit and>W«Uunc(cn.

9ule is found to be usiinlly detached. Those portions of the Kurfaoc
of the dissepiment, lying between the spermnphorea, aro made up of
celU. whii'h, thouj^h riiher hirgc, arc aiurh smaller than those form'
ine the internal surface of the cjip»ule; thev are somewhat elongated,
Iteing usually nurrow at each end; their margms or parietes are
doited, and there are no btomata ; the s|)eruiophorcs or projectioiu
supporting the secd» are composed of simibr cells. Fif;. 201.

In transverM! section*i of the diwcpiment viewed with a two-inch
object glniM, the projections or sperniophores aru well (teen, as also the
manner in which the iiceds are supported and dititributed. J''ig. 20*2.

In sections uf the !<ame, viewed with a hull-inch objeet glaas, the
intimate structure of the dissepiments may be fullKwed out. The
central or 9pt>ngy piu-t, which swells greatly when inimeniL>d in water,
con^ints of tubular cells running in uU dir<.*ctions, so airuuged as to
leave considerable interstices or areolie between them, together with

§ a '2

«Jt OPIUM, AND ITS APULTERATIOKg.

bundles of woody fibre and vessels, one of which bundles passes up
through the centre of each spcrmophore. Fig. 200,

Fig. K7.

IVaww'ai'M mMoo throqeh thu (NkktiTM of & dt<*ephn«at of Pt^rrr C«r<tt-t.r,
•bowlnf ihr t{«nnnplinrei with the •vwl atUeihcd. Mx^nlflnl in diunctcr*.

The Structures which enter into the composition of the popper wc\i
are shown in^^jr. 303. and 304.

Colifction of Opium.

The process by which opium is obtained from the poppv capsole is
»irailar in principle in all countries although subject to various mcxti-
fi cations ; it consists in making incisions inlo ibe hnlf-ripe capsulei^
and in collecting the juice afler it has becitmc hardened and darkened
an colour by exposure to air and light, Mons. C. II. Texi«T • thu«
* Jhih, de Phjum., tnU IK.

OPIUM, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

est

describes the proccHs <if obtaining opium followed in Asia Minor : —
*' A few iiaj'8 aftur tla* iWwer biu tuLIuu, laeu aiid women repair Cu the

•MtiAO of diNt^lmciU 0/ Pom' CMfVPlMt •tiowinf twouf Uu tiKUiiM-

fieldii, and cut the head of the ponpv hnrizontnUy, takinfr rare that the
incisions do not penetrate the internal cuvit^ of the ^heJl. A whiti*
Hiib(>tance inimediutolv floivs i>ut, iiml c«iltt^rt» in teurs on the edges of
the cuts. In ihtBaiulu the iield i^ left fur twenty-lour hours, and on
the following du}* the opiuui is collecteil bv 'urge blunt kiiivc». Each
head furni&ht,** upium unee only, and that to the extent of ti few
finiinti. Thus collorted, opium hiiA the I'onn of a nlutinoufl and grn-
nuhir jelly. It ia defio.-titfd in sntull curthcn vessels, und beaten up
with saliva. When oijkcd why water woa not employed in place of

a ft 3

630

OPIUM, AND ITS ADUKTETtATIONS.

sulivttt the answer was that water caused it to spoil. It ic aftcrwai
enveloped in dry leavot^ and in this state it is sold. The see<l

Fur. 3M

Frmfmcat of Forrr Rrxn. ahnwlng pnrtloiu of thr itirtw m^mbrkDM which eonpoM
tbfi bojk af arrtl, ■■ wett u the cell* eontalninf Lh« vU lii gliibulw, which &rtn
Uw nibitanee of ttut •ccd iUelf. HflCniCeil IM) dlKrucUn.

ihoae poppies which have yielded opium arc equally good for sowing
the fidlowmg year."

In Persia, according: to Ktempfer, the incisions are m»de crosawiae
hy fk tiiie*ed}:ed knife; while Kerr slates that in tht* ftrovince a(
Bc'hur ** two longitudinal double incisions are made iipnn eacli haU-
ripe capsule, postiin^ from beh>w upwards," rare being taken that tht
internal cavily of the capsule be not penetrated.

A Tery interesting and impurtant account of Uic cultivation mod

OPIUM, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

6Sl

mnnufacture of In<linn o])imn has been published hy Dr. Eotw*?!!, mid
friMu which we much regret that our vpace (iues not ptniiil us to
qiKitt? ]ari,'el)-. A Ion-' abstract of the cnnmiitniration refcrre*! to
will bi* Ibund in the author's Ueport un Opium puhlnbed in "The
Lancet."

Anuly$u of Opium.

Thf iinite<l Ubours of varidu.t eliemUtii have shown timt opium in
line of the ni(>?t complex of vegetable 7ubstuueea with which we are at
prewDt aequuinteil. To give anything like u cumplute aeeouiit of the
luiulysis of opiufUf andof ihe labours which huve bi^en bestowed upon
it, would itself occupy a volume; we must therefore cuntent uuraelvea
with ?>iich a description of the eoni|>t>9ition of ihal drug as iia necessary
to enable the inquirer to ascertain tor hhiisetf its strength iind ])urity.

Cbeniisis have succeeded in detecting in, itiid isolating Ironi, gum
opium the following active principles and conflittucnts : — morphia^
uarcotina, cndeia^ rtarceta, mvconinc, thehia or paramorpbin^ psewiff
mtfrphia ? mecomc aciti^ brnint acitl rj^tractive^ Jtuiphunc aclil^ reshi^
fat, oil, gummjf uuitter, caoutchmic^ iilhumen^ (ttiorom priticijtie, (volatile
oii ?) and li^iuu ; to thcae uiav be added another suhsLtnce not in-
cluded, so lar as we ore aware, in any of the anulvftes of opium
yet given^ alihough it is fre4[uunlly couta'ineil in it in large amount;
we refer to glucune or grape sugar.

Of the more aclive principlL'ft of opium the most important belong
to tho class of alkaloidft, as morphia and lu/reohua, and furm buses;
while others readily unite with oxygen, and play ihc port of acid^,
soDicuf which enter into conibinuliuu with the allialoiil». 'Vha muiit
complete analyses of opium which have as jret beeu published ure
those by Mulder, Sebiudler, and tiilu.

1. Morphia

2. NdrriHiDJi
a. CwUli

A. NarcHne

5. M«c(intiM

6. MccoDic •ckl •

7. K«

A. ra'-uU-houe -

V. Kvtiii •
ni. Giimrn* r&lradve
II. Cuni -
IlL M'Kua -
13. Witter •

T«tal

teftM0|4«.

10^1

A-m

o-Ma

1-M3

S-MO

6tMI

SIM)

0-360

7/t»

(>*M6

0-OTS

(IM4

0-MB

0-8SS*

0-cso

fi«n

TVif.

7-6ai

9 903

ia"j40

Oi«M

OM6

0-31 1

|>-M0

0-WM

ftlM

!■»«

7 6W

Tiht

6-f»l

IIW

13X1

l-fllfi

4-«M

i-Mm

6fll7

5 (r>.

3 671

a7S4

3106

a>w2

XIW

Ml*

M-O"

I'lHH

iB-tOO

JUTfl

SI -Ml

»c«

23-740

l-Ml

3A96

IrlJM

I'J'.ih

0-890

I9V«

17 VJ**

ai-w»«

IviliS

is-osa

»N«fl

HlV.

II 471

I1IM4

14 on

100«00

a-4»6

(COM

9-sn

OO-tRiS

lOODon

10(KOOO

« Phiira. C«ntnil-BUU fOf tUT, t. 674.

B 9 4

H^^^^^H

^m 6S9 OPIUM, AND ITS ADULTEUATTOXS. ^^H

^m SchindlerM Anaiy§t4* ^^^^|

-«ji

Morphia - . . . .

uSST*^

sssr

10 M

450

T-OB

NuTutlna .....

1*30

a-47

Itt

Codttta .....

(1-35

oaa

NiTcdne . - - . .

0-71

(I-4V

Hccoiiine .....
M«contc acid ....

<-70

010

4-3A

Itriln .....

lOM

• 10

Ila.fortn. r«Dvtchow, ru, Uid Kfnln .

aeas

17 lA

S»IU ami volatile oil -

z-m

»-f«

V n-a

Lime and miiKiir«iii - . • .

047

t4»

Alumiua. cxi.eof Iron, silica, and phoiphale of
hmw . - . . .

(^S<

0-M

Bro»n acM, solublr In attnliti) ami wairr

1 IH

0-4O

Urowu acid, toluble id waicr, gum, and low

49 la

66 «»

Toul - - . -

100*00 1 loo-uo

BiUz*s AnahjKt.^ ■

iMlilt-MtM Ctptum.

Orivnial

OlMMk

frtmt

rroM

Morptita . . • ■ -
>*arcoUna ....

*KWniin

f* **>^^

rao

aooo

■

Mrronio tuciA (Impure)

1*7.1

\tift(l

i^H

Bltt«r fUtraciWp . - - -

3»-(iU

A-50

*^H

Drpoiit .....

T-7S

4-75

f^^H

Albumrti .....

10-f*

irM

(f^H

Bali^inlc matter ....

7-eN

^^^1

CAuutitiai-r ....

10 Ml

J^H

Cum, «lih hioe - . - .

lis

^^H

<■

Siilphnl" of pniash . ...

■i-'fi

9-aa

'^^H

I.iini'. Iron, aliimioA, and phosphoric acid
\V<KMl)i libra ....

3-7IS

D-80

Animtiiiia, (otallteuil, aitd loaa

Total - * . ..

3H)0

I-IO

f^l

10000

imao

l«Mi

Of the numerous constituents of opium it is only nece^ary. fq^l

purpo-ie we liuve in view» — nuuitly, iLt- Uftee-lion of »iciullernti».ii,^r^

we ^lioultl be ncquaiiiied with ihe pri^j

crtics of, uiitl methods of i^

luining, uinrphia, nurLoiina, and mcciui

^l acid. ^H

Morphia exi»t& in o]>iuni, eliiell)* in c-tuubinution with mcconl^H

• PUam). rriittal-Bljitt flir \^M, t. 7IM. ^H

t I'horm. Leou^UBUtl liif ll»31. ». 7V7. ^^^H

OPItm, AND ITS ADCLTERATIONS.

631

fulphuric acids. Vure morpliia presents iUilC in the form of tmna-
parenr, right rhnmbic, priMiiatic crystals. It has an alkaline rowtion^
OS shiiwn by tnrm<-ric nnd reddenvd litmus papers; it is nearly in-
boliibte in cold water, to wliiib it imparts a degree of bittenicari;
boiling water di^isolves n little more tbun one-hundredth part of niur-
pbitu It in soluble in forty parts of c«<td absolute alcohn). and thirty
parts nf builin<; ak-ohtjl, but ic is insotublef or nearly so, in etiier. It
lA soluble in [heoiU(n.\ud and volatile), in solutions of s<Kla and
jKitasb, and ulso, but in uiueh smaller cniantity, in solution of am-
nuiiua i lustly, it readily dissolves in sulphuric, hydrochloric^ and
acetic arids.

Tiio Dublin College now ailmits morphia annmcst its pharmaccuticai
preparations. It directs the morphia to be preuipituced by the addi-
tion of ohlnride of ealeium to a concentrated aqueoui infusion of
opium ; the precipitate is dl.^^olved in boilin;; water, and a slight
exce!>.« of solution of ammonia added ; the preeipit4ite which is now
thnmn down is to be collected and washed with distilled water, and
finally dnei).

'I'lto followin<r, perbapSf is on« of the liest methods of obtaining
moriihia in a state of purity; it is a nit^dificntion of the proci'ss re-
cininiK'nded by Thiboutnary. To the watery extract of opium solu-
tion of nmmonia is ti» be added, care being taken that it is not in
excess; the precipitate thus thrown d<iwn, after being washed with
water nnd proof Fjurit, is to be builed with animal oharcotil nnd
rectified spirit; the «olulioo is to be 61tertMl and evaporated, by which
means mui phia in crystals is procured. The mor|>lua obtained by ihu
above prtness is n<it alisolntcly pure, but contains nanotina, which
nmy be thus got rid of: — AlYcr the pretMpitate on the filter has Ijeen
wa.>^hcd with water, dried, and mixed with proof sntrit, nceiie acid is
to be added tlrop by drop until the solution slightly reddeivs liimus;
the morphia will be taken up, but not the nareutina ; the former ts tu
be n^ain precipitated by ammnniu.

Mnrphiuand itssnltsarercildencdby nitric acid, with which they form
an orunge-red solution ; this is darkened by adding excess nf amntonia,
but becomes yellow aft^r a time. Neutral sesquichloriile of iron

rnured on morphia retidors it blue, as also its salts if concentrated.
f un excess of water, or acids or alkalies, be adtled to this blue com-
pound, the c<»lour becomes destroyed. The most delicate lc»t for the
pieitence of morphia or iu salts is chh>ride of gold, the ndtlilioii of a
lew drops of which to the solution, thrown dnwn a yellow precipitate,
which i« re<lisftolvc<l on shaking. If & little litjuur pHassie Ik; nnw
ad'led, it be<'omes tirst greenish, then blui*h violet, and lastly, purple.
Narnttiau. — The greater port of nureotina i« suid toexi^t in opium
in a free »tute, aa it la removable by ether without the aid of either
acids or alkalies. The properties of nnrcoilna do not appear to be us
yet fully and aalisfacmnty determined; but there is reason to believe
that in tt« pure btate it is pcnsesscd uf but little activity. Dr. Hoots

OPIUM. AND ITS ADULTKKATIONS.

adtninint^red it in dofcn, gradtiAlly iiicreued to ascnijJe, without aay

ill constMjueiictfs ensuing;.

Narcotin.i i» di»«tntved by nitrio acid, with wlitch tt foruts an oranjE^
cciluured solution, an<i U turned vellow by sulphuric acid. Vege-
lablc' colfiura are not affiHted by it. by which il is easily dislin-
guishtnl from morpiiia. It does not di&.-<ulvc in cold water, but \i
fohiblc in 400 parts of boilincr wutLT ; cold ulcobul takes it up apar-
iig'/i but it dissiilvcs in tWL'nty-futir parts of boiling aluuhol ; it b
Itke^ri^e sululih; in ctlier iitid rbe vnbitile oils.

Mccojiic Avid. — Til is h usually j)repitrfd by heriling meconat« of
lime in hot wntcr wlih lijdrnLhlorie arid, wltirh, on rnnlinjr, de[io9it5
erystuls of meiMmiL' atid. When pure, it occurs in while, trunspareiil
miwit't'oits scales, wliich are Knluble in (nwr times their weijfht of bt«l-
ing water, but at this tcnipcrulurt^ water deci)nip"scs it. ilolii wotef
disholve.-* u Hmidlcr qiianlity of inccunic acid, but it is entirely soluble
in alcohol.

Mfconic aoid reddt-ns the neutral {ie5(]uisalt^ of iron, furminff me-
oonnte of sesquioxirlu uf iron; but tit i-* red colour is destrovetl ly
alkalies, prot<"eliiorido of tin, and nitric acid aided by beat. An»-
munio-sulphate of copper throwH down a ^reen precipitate (mcomuu
of copper), and it furniithcft white iirecipitaios, which are soluble is
nitric acid, with m-etate of h>ad, nitrate of silver, and chloride tt
barium. Mci-miirui id i»not rcddeni'd by chloride of gold. It $hoa)*l
be remembered ihaC ihe acetatof, siilphnrynnides, and ^ome otbtrrtuI>-
Btanees eijuully with meeonic uciil pa^JieKS theptjwerof coDiniunicatilg
a red colour lo the ^e>'qiiii'tiUi4 oi'iiun.

^'(ir a. furthtT nceouiit of ihe ehnrncters ami propertied of the f»-
inaintng constituentfl of opium, the remler ia rffcrrcd to the cn»*
eluding part of llie third edition of Pereira's '*ElemenU of >iAt«i«
Medica."

Varietie* of Opium,

Several varieties of opium arc imported into this country, and art
met with in commerce. Of these, the foliowinp; arc ihc principal:—

Smyrna, 'I'itrket, or Lkvamt OnuM. — Thin occurs in irrvguUr,
rounded, or tt.itteneil nuiflseH of various sizes, hut rarelv excee<lin<{ tve
pounds in weijiht, enveloped in leaves, and with runiex carK*<ules ad-
Iierinj» to the surface; some of the (lat cakes are not furnished with
capsuleft, mill in ihia state somewhat reiienibk' ConntantinopW opiun.
Wneii lirst imported, the masses nre sol't, und of a i'e(ldisli*browii
colour, hut by keeping they become hard »nd blackioh ; il breaks witk
a waxy lustre; its o< lour is strong;, it^ tiute bitter, acrid, tinuaeoui.
and fHfrsist£nt. M. Guilmurt considers the masses to bu made up crf^
af!>:lutinutcd ^anules or tears, and he rei/aid? this cliaraetcr as n left
of purity. It viebis more viorphia und mfconic acid tbtin either Con*
stantinople or ^gvpii^n opium; the average quunlity of morphta ob-

OPIUM, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

035

tainable in from it is about eight per cent. The narcotine muv l>e
estiinatc'il at soiiiewbere about four per eenL Murck * oxaniine<l five
kindii nf Smyrna opium ; from the worst he obtained three to four per
cent. r)f morpliia ; from th« bejit Kl to 13*5 pr.r cent.

CoNSTANTMopLfc OpiuH. — Of tbia Icioil of optum Professor Guibourt
»lvi?s the following description: — "There are two sorts of it — one
III very large irrej^Inr enkcit, whirh are flattened like the Smyrna
opium ; ihii* is of wry ^"od (pndily. The oilier Ja in small, flattened,
ri'iliilar cakes, «f a lenlicular funn, front two lo two inches and a half
in diameter, and covered with the poppy leaf, the median mrves of
which divitle the disk into two parts. It has nn rulnur Himiliir to the
precedinjf kind, but more (eeble; it blackens and dries In the air. It
18 more muciln<!innus than Smyrna opium.** The cakes arc never
covered with rumcx capsules. Constantinople opium i» inferior to the
Smyrna kind, but superior to the Kgypllnn opium. Guibourt states
that it yields only hulf the morpliia procurable from Smyrna opium,
but it furnishes more morphia than the Kgyptiau opium. This state-
ment does not agree, however, with the experience of Mr. Duncim,
of Edinburgli, Dr. Cbrislison and Merck, all of whom obtained very
large quantities of hydrochlurate of niorfihia from it ; these ddfcrences
probably depend upon the uneniial <|uality of the opium produced in
various portions of the TurkUh emjiire, an<l which, being exported
from thence, bears the name of ConstanUnopIe opium.

KoynrMTf Oi'iuM. — It occurs in round dnLteneil cakes, of about
three inciies diiimeler, covered externully with the vestiges of some
leaf; it is ustually very dry ; it is diKlin^uished from the two preceding
varieties by its reddish colour. unah>x»us U* that ol' Socotrine nr he-
patic ahtes. Some very inferior qualities nre sometimes offered for
sale, and which np]>ear to the sight and touch to he larjjely adulterated.
It does not bhickcn by keeping, and iis odour is less stronr; ; by ex-
posure to the air it usually becomes sotl. £<;vptian opium is for the
most part inferior to either Smyrna or Constjmtinojtle Dpium, but its
strentrih and quality are not uniform. Guibourt states that it yields
only five sevenths of the morphia procurable from Smyrna opium;
tlie murphlu obtained ie purified with ^eiit ditficulty. The watery
infusion ot'this opium possc>ses a distinct othmr of atetic. acid.

TftEBizoNO OK Pkrsian Opiiim. — Somc years sinc^- a quantity of
this opium was imiMtrieil into this (K)uniry from Trebizond. It was
in the form of sticks renilered somewhat angular by pressure, about
■ix inches long, and half an inch in diameter, enveloped in suuHith,
shiny puper, und tied with cotton. Its colour is similar to that of
Socotrine aloes ; its odour i< stronger than that of the Egyptian kind,
but less than Smyrna opium ; it ii very inferior.

InoiiN Opium. — There are three varieties of this kind of opium
met with in commerce, under the names of Maiwti, BenarcM, and PaiJUt

* Fharm. Ccolral-BUtl. 36.

636

OT'JUM, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

opium ; the \f\nt two ate not to be distinnuiahed from each other, ami
mar bo iiirluiiiMl under the nno heud of Bena;:il opium.

Rengal Opium is brought into this oountpy in bolls, each of
lliivc and a halt' pounds in weigin ; ami which nre packed in chest
v&cli htiliJin<; nbout forty bnll^. They are hard, glubular, and aboutj
OS lur;!e as u chilli's head. TUe^v iire conted externully with the |>euU
of the puppy, fusteited together by uieuns of a paste calle<l IriniM;
this covering, tliough disposed in layers, is 6rm, and wei;>b8 about
fourteen nunres. On removing this, the opium iu finnnl to be of tin
cotisistence of a soft, bomor^cneous extract of a blackiuh brown ciiluur:
its odour and taste ure stron;^, and it rapidly huconics inoubW on e&-
f>ostire to air. Benares and Patna opiums are exportcil fi'oni Cideutta;
the former h mn«t esteemed by the Chinese. Dr. Suiytttin * procured
(•Illy '^ft or 3 )K'r cent, of moi'phiu, from Uen^al opium; but it W
Vjeen e^liiuniled l>v Mr. ^Inrsoii that. Uunares opiuDi contHiita ratluff
more ihan hjilf the cpianlity of niorphia nmtaincfl in gotxl Xurke*
ifpium; wliili', from a table jiiven in Dr. KarwfU'a work on Opium, il,
apnejirs that the averaRe quantity of ninrpbia yielded by BeniMi'
opiiiin iu the seur^n 1845—46 was 2*48 per ceni., and of nareotina,'
5*26 per eent. : in 1846 — 47, morphia, 2 38; nurcutina, 452 i>er ctou:
in 1847 — 48, nKir]>hia, 2'20; nureutina, 5 68 per cent.: und jo ikj
season of 1848 — 49, the average per cent, was 3'21 morphine,
406 uarcutine. The»e reitultj^ show tliat Benares opium is soiuewltfj
deficient in morphia but rich in niLrcotinu.

Garden Patna Opium. — This kind of opium is Jmporte*! in »(ittart'
cake.s of about tlirec indies in diameter each way ami one iiwi
thick, and wrapped in thin plates of mica. Profe>sor Guibuurt de-
scribes it as " Imvina: the ap]>enram'e of a well-prepureii, ehinv, drf.
pbarmaeeutieal extract; its colour ib blackish brown, and itaodkiiirj
uoL so strun<; as that of Smyrna opium."

Mtiliea Opium. — There uru two varieties of ALdwa opium. Il
was formerly considered lo be of inferior quality, but it is ut the VK'
gent time much esteemed. One variety consists of round flaUeMi
cakes of ubnut ten ounces in weight, and irt jiacked in coarsvtv-po**
dcred {>nppy petaU. It is of nioilcrately firm consinienee, and ofi
homogeneoiiji texture: itji colour is dark brown, and the smell reseo'
blei* somewhat that of Smyrna opium. The other variety i« met will'
in flattened cakes without any uutuide coatin;;; exterindlv it is o(ij
dull, opatpiK, hl.ii'kish brown coKmr, but the interior is soft and iImP*
in colour ; its odour i« »nmewhut similar to, though nut so p<kwerrii
as Sinynia opium. It yields only one tViinl the quantity of morfikal
tiirni!«ht>t| by Smyrna opium. Dr. Smytten obtanied nikly from Jttj
5 per ci'Ul. of murphio, but from liner sunqtics as much fls 7} to H ya\
cent.

Cuieh Opium, — This occurs in small cakes, rather more thanOtfl

• I'nuu. of th« Med. and Phy*. Soc. of Calcutta, vL

OPIUM, AND ITS ADL ITERATIONS.

6.17

inch in diameter, and app<»ara to be enclosed in fragments of leaves ;
its cwlonr ij4 not fo strtdir: a? that of Smyrna opium.

Knnfirixh f)pi«m is imported in round flatit-ned rakes fthnut half a
pound weight enrh. It is bard^ brittle, nearly hlnok. and breiiks with
a grritly or prniiular frneture. Accordinj! to Mr. S'lUy, 100 grains
funiipht'd 7*2 «;rain5 of soluble matter, and alxmt 7 sraitis of nior]iliiM.

Kngmsii Opivm. — This opium is met wiili in flat cakes or batls^
covered wiili leaves. In appearance it yiore resembles the best
Egyptian opium than any other kind ; it< colour is like that of hepatic
aliK's, and it pfvssesses the peculiar smell of opium niodi-ratfly stronjr,
I'roni one sample of Enplnh opinm. Mr. Ilennoll* nbtainod as much
fts 707 percent, of morphitit while from 'J'uikey opium he only pro-
cured 70 per cent. Mr. Morson f obtained 4 4 per cent, of morphia
and 2'fi3 of narcotina from another sample. Mr. Young % stales that
Hnjilish (tpium is stronger than ordinary commercial opium, six ounees
of the former being equal to eight of the latter.

Krb^cu OrirM. — This kind of opium is described by M. Pellelier §
as being of h deep retbiiih brown colour, and brittle when dry. Its
taste wua somewhat ditferent U* that of Smyrna opium ; it left a less
insoluble residuum than Kastern opium, antl he procurmi more mor-
phia from it than from Smyrna opium. In an experiment on abtmt
two ounces of each, he obtained about 10 38 per cent from the former,
and only 7"08 per cent, from the latter. It contained no norcotina.
The disappearance of one principle (narcotina).and the augmentation
of nnolher (morphia), caused bv climate, are interesting ami im]>or-
lunt facts. Petit II gut from IG to 18 percent of morphia; and
Cavcnton obtained fmm 2*2 to 28 per cent, from French opium ; but
in the Utter ease the morphia was probably very impure.

Gkhhan Oritm. — This opium, when obtained inmi the PapaTer
somniferum (a) nigrum, furnishefl under the analysis of Blitx, of
Krfurt, from 16^ to 20 p-r cent, nf muq)hia, and troin G| to 94 of
narcotina; while from that pro<Iuce(l by the P. somnilerum (b)
album, and on which he proturetl ccmversely 6 8 per cent, of morphia,
and Hii per cent, of norcotina.

On the AotjLTKRATioss or Opium.

Opium, like most other articles of a costly character, is sobjectiid to
oonaiderablc and varied adulteration, as proved by the ronrurrent
testimony of nearly all writers on this important drug, and us well by
the results of the analyses nf numerous samples.

"The first sophistication," sayt Dr. Perciri, "which opium receives,

• Trsm. Soc. ArU, ilUI. H.

i Duncan, StiM.tntliffKd.Dlip. p. fli.

I Joum. dr I'hATtn., %\l. nO.

t IbM. 1. 3&.
I IbM. alU. I

89S

OPIUM, AND 1X8 ADULTERATIONS.

M that prnctispd by the peasants who rollert it, nnrl who ligbOrK?^
the epidrrmis from the shells or c:i]Kule.« to augxneiit the'weiitt
This openition aiMs abnut one-twelfth of forei;jn matters.'* In fqrtiw
proof uf tht: practice uf this adulteration, we hiive likewiye ibv >»•
tbority of Mr, Ini|Mjy, who states : " U is during the operatinn ofKn^
in^ ihut the tir»t »ophtnifntion oc<;urs, the sH:raper being cantrl
hemvily over the capsule^ takln;^ with it a couE^iderabie part of thehcsrt
or pubeseent'e." ,

AeturdlnfT to Dr. Eiilwell, whose Report on Indian opium «
have ulrondy referred to, "the grosser iinpuritii?* usimllv mlxti
with the Uruj;, to incrciiae its weight, tire mud^ nand^ pou^derrd okir
ccio/, soof^ cntc-dung^ pnuiuit'd futppy p^luU^ und ik>iiu»]c<I trtd* o(
various (icscriptinns. All uf these substances are rcnililv iliscnvermMf
in breakin^r up the drug in eold water, reioovini^ U/c ttuJiibte and
lijjiiter portions of the diffused mass by decantation, ami 4'arefullT
exHiiiining ihe sedlinem. Hy tliis means, impurities of the obow
nature usually bet^mne physically apparent. Fl-nr \» a verr fiiviianir
article of ndulleraLioii, but is readily detecte<). Opium so ndiiltenitcd
speedily becomes Eour ; it breaks with a peculiar frhnrt, rtigu:eil fr»c-
ture, the t<harp ed^t^s of which ure dull, and not pink ond tnin&luccDl
tut ihfy shouid be ; and, on squeezing; a mass of the ilrujr af)cr imnj^r-
sion in water, the starch iiiiiy be seen oozing from ila surface. Tht
application of the iodine lesT, however, furnishes conclusive evtd*fnf«
of its ])re>enoe, or at least of that of some aniyUceoua coomound. The
farina of the boiled potato is not uDfrei|uentlv made use nf; ghee atxl
pftor (an impure treacle) are also ocrasiomdly useil, as beinff artiela
at the couiinnndof most of the cultivators. Their prcAci^cc is reveded
by ilie peculiar odour and coni^istence which ihey impart to (he dnic-
][i addilifin 1o the above, a vaiiety of vegetable juiceti^ rxtmcU, puip^
anil coloitrivg matter* are occasionally fraudulently mixed wirli the
opium, such as the inspissated juice of the common prickly juvr
{CactHK dilrnu)^ the v-xiTocis prepared from the /I'/wcca /jM»*f (_ViM-
tiana fabftcum)^ the Dahtra stramoinum and the Indian hemp (^Ctat'
h/jhiA itidica)^ &c. The gummy exudations from various jdunts are
frequently used ; and of j)ulps, ibe mo?t irc«juen(ly employed are
those of the /wmariW, and of the Bad frvit {JEgU tnnrmrUts). To
impart colour lo the drug, various substancet: ore entploTed, u
catechu^ turtnerte, the powdered flowers of the motcka tree {BataM
lati/ufia), &c."

" From one sample of Smyrna opium," irrites Dr. Pereira, **weiffh-
ing ten ounces, I obtained frn drachms of stones and praveL"
Speaking of Ei»yptinri u[iiuni, Dr. iVreira writes: — *' Some very in-
ferior f|un!iiies are sometimes offered for sale, whirh apftear to the
sight and touch to be largely adulleruted." And further on, the
same author goes on to state: — *'Opium is brought into the markpt of
unefpial degrees uf purity, inconsequence of itg having been f^ubjei'ted
to adulteration, and partly perhaps from the empluymtmt of diifureol

OPIUM, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

631

leUioils of preparation. Furthennor*?. opium from whirli the
morpliiii li!M been uxtmcted \ui» bcon tVauilulently inlrocliict:!(l intn
Coiumt^rcti."*

LanikTL'rf has dc!scribeii an ndulturation of a smnple of npiuni ob-
taine'l lUrect from Sniyrnii. whicih ht: (liMjovcred in liie pn-puraiioii of
a tincture. Ah*;r wvltiiI liours' digetsiion, the tincture a^.sunlcrl a
slimy or iiiucihi^innus cunclition, nnd in the course ol* a tew days*
became so •/cljiliniform, tlml it could not be i>oured out from the glitiji;
by a ciireful examtnntion, gtiltp jMitder in large pi-oportion \ta*t dis-
cuv*;rod in the opium; nntl Landerer w.os afterwards informe<i lh«t
this is a very common iidulterniion, prst-ti.sed in order to make the
opium lijinlLT, and to hawien the pioeess of drying;. Dr. Pereira also
9peuk(t of ail opium whi'.'h contained n gelallnirorni substance^; and
Mr. Murson has met with an opium, in which an appnrt^ntly aimiiftr
RubifLinee wiis prt»ent. § Lunderer abo states, that the extract
olitaiiH-d liy boiling the poppy planta is commonly added to Smyrna
opium. II

In lh\ Normandy*8 work ("Commercial Tlnndtionk of Chemical
Aiudysis") we nice! with the fuUowinjj siatcmet>ls reluiin^ to the iidul-
Icrati'tn ol' ihif* dru^ : "Opium is often met wiih in urHnmcrce fn»m
which the luorphine hw been exlrnctcd ; on tlie other hand, tliis
V)duu)ile drwjr is *>l'ten found adulterated with sttirvh^ initer^ Spaniah
liqiwrice, lactnairiuni^ extract ofjhippi/ learei^ of ^iauv.inm luttrum, and
other rti^ctahle extracf.% mucilage of ^um trm^ncmdh^ or nthrr gam/i,
ciat/^ stintly gravel ;^ often the opium ia mixed in A*ia ami Kgypt., when
frehh iiutl soft, with finely-brmsed grapes from which the fltomrs have
boen removed ; scmieiimes, als<>, a mixture, fabricated liy bruisinj; the
exterior skins <tt the eapsuiea and stdks of the poppy, to^ethi^r with
the white of eg;.'s, in a stone mortar, is a-l-led in certain prop'irtions
tu the npium, In fact, ihiii most valuable dru};, certainly cue uf the
most important and most frequently UM*d in tuedicine, is also one of
the ntiMt r-xlcnsivcly adulterated."

Ilia abundantly Aliown by the fore^joinir quotations and extracUi,
that ^um opium la very exti-n.sively adulterated; it doefl not uppoar,
however, tuat any obMirvations have yet been made rcKoectin); the
adultL'ration o( pourdered nptum ; whether, for ingtance, like so many
other vefcelable iKiwders, it U ^ubjectcd to sophiMiculion in the pro-
cess of jirinding.

The niajnrity of observations found in works treating: of adulteration
are nearly all uf a general character, and fail to show the condition as

* Jotirit. df rtiHrrn., sil*. 33-^. 44Q. ; x.x>. Id7- ; a^Ki Jaurii- J* Ctilni. Mi'U. I*., liitle
8ftr.. |>ii. 3}V iVt.

t BMC>Mi<r'* K<*»*rtnrli|m.b(J. ♦!., h»ft S., p. 349.

I Kirnirnii nf M«)orU MmUr4. ?mI. tL. p. )7«1 S«coail KdttlOU:

)Kh>rim. Juiirn.. fOl tv. p. An?.
Archlv. d«r Tdann.. .Scftemttrr. ISM, p. SM-

(140

OPIUM, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

to pnrit; nf the articles ns they actually reach the oonvqacr; tim
j;rt?at object of tbe»e inquiries ia to supply thia cbipf d«f«t n »xt
tixi-tting intormalion, ii work, in many cases, of e\Ci>:iiii* Ubiiar vhI
difficulty, but it is upon this feature that the value aiul intoRAor
theM* articles mainly depend. Wc thusoArertntn what are th«amacn
and prevailiii;; nduU^iratinriR. what the more unmmmon and rmrt. Mil
lastly, we are enabled to reject a whole ht»8t itf iiul>:4lancc4 ukI out^•
rials from the list of alleged sophistications.

"We will now prnceeil to <;ive the resultft of the analysb of Tan^
three aampfes of the prinetpul kinds of Qum Opium in tlw lUlta
which it is imported into this country, Tiie-te were —

Tbflt out of the Tteent^'three samples of gum opium analfsed,

were atliilterated, and four only genuine, many of thc«<-. a* A"'*
by the micToscopc, being Adulterated to n large extent ; thr 5»r>«i3
ing nduUerations being with pofpt capsblh and wncat ri^>i»

That the amount of alkai^ids varied from 2"7 to 14-0 per (vuunr
in the proportion of nearly one to five ; that is, some of th** Mmple*
were five times as strong as others. This variation otfrtraifda
partly due, no doubt, Ut the adulteration to which lo naof rflW
Mmples were subjected, but partly also to the rarring aoiiTtlTvf
the opium, determined by natural causes, such a« diflvmKacfM^
climate, and mode of preparation.

The above analyses, therefore, inrontestahly prore that npiam, nlW
state in which it is imported into this country, ta Tery extenaritly*!
commnnly ndulternted.

Looking Ht the results of the chemical analyses of the opium «ffC-
ceive thut the different samples vury in the nio»t reittsrkable uoatt
in their composition. To such an extent is this the c«m tktf flM
would, in several in^tiinees, be led to >iu«pi>ct the fjct of adullwrfw
front ihe chemical anulyites nlone, wiiliuut, however, beiiuf ahlc !■>*
lively To affirm its existence, in conMequence of the dcf^ivc la vwk
in extreme cases, the composition of gum oiuum of undoubted o^an
is itself found to vary. Making all due allowance for aucb var»liMi
however, we are still enabled to indicate, in addition to lliowt alNMh
enumemled ns being adulterated with {Hippy capsule and «b«asfl(Nr.
»9 undoubtedly itiluUcrnled, two sampler of Suivrna opium, aailtviKif
Kgvptiun opium, which were adulteratetl with mtntt,^ 'Wor. andf^*

(^'om the analyses instituted of Porty tfrmptes of vju^ijd ipa*
it npfK^arod : —
That Thirty-one of the samples were adulterated, and m/ tisif

genuine; the principal adulterations, as in tlie previous ease, beaf

with porrr capsuxje and wukat rtovm.
That /our uf the vamplefi were further adulterated br the wUbas

of POWDERED WOOD, intToduced no doubt in the pracva of M^

OPIUM, AND ITS Al>ULTEBATION8. Ml

That (he nmount nf aOudouit varied from 23 up to 13*2 per vent., or
in the pniportion ofotiarlv one to %\x — that i.i, the iitniplefi difTcred
in slren^lii in thnt rnlio. fbe lowest sniounte ufalkulnids lumitihed

► bv the p«twdered opiums wijre 2*!$ and 3 2 per eent.; tliefe wt-re, in
all prohabilitv. exiiuiisted Dpiiiniii, which \vm\ heen previounly em*
plojred ill the preparation of lincture.

We helieve thut it id not an unfre<)nent practice with dniffptsia to
employ tiic insoluble residue, whec dried «nd pulverised, left from
the pri-panitioQ of the tincture nf opium, in the adullerntion of pow-
dered iipium. We have ulno knuwn it to bv ui^^ed for making the
titi;.'iientiim ;:allGe cora[icH«iluin.

" I have known." 9tatc9 Dr. Tliom»on, in hii evidenr-e before
the Parliumentarj Commitlre, '^extrjiet nf tipiiim mixed with extract
of senna, and froto 30 to 60 per cejit. of water."

From all thi», then»it fdllowu, partly in oonsequoneo of adulteration,
thut LTude opium varies to a great extent in strength and activity,
BO much »o ihat m» certain reliauce can be placed on the efleoU pro-
<]uced hy this remedy, administere^l according to any fixed or uni-
form scrtle of doses.

It further follows that all those preparations made from opium, or
into ihe eompositiun of whirh opium enters, are of equally uncertain
6lren<rtli nnd power — as tinctmu opH^ tinct. Cfimphonr compoMtta, vi-
wMwi /i/ifi, pntptx crefft comp. mm opio. puh. ipecaruanho' comp,y pule,
kino emup., piMtt saponix romp.y runfeciin o/n'i, ertntctnm ouii„ enema
opii^ liiiimeiitwn opti^ and tmftiwttrum oph\ of the Loiiiluii i'hiirmaco-
|K£iii; tinctiirti opti amtntmiuUi^ ufttum opit, piluto! opii, pd, eutomelanos
ei opit^ pd. plumbi npiata, eUrtuarium opii, and trochiMci opii^ of the
Kditibur<;h and Dublin PhamiacopcetH!i.

The fact that even ;ce«Mi»« f;um opinm is possessed of very diffe-
rent dcgreea of itrcngib, has been clearly shown by various analysts
and ex[>erimentali«iU: —

Cbevallier found in six samples of choice Smjma opjum the fol-
lowing proportions of water — viz., 33 5, 35*0, 40*5, 42-32, 525, and
53*0 per cent.

(TShaughneur found from 25 to 21 per rent, of water in Indian
opium (Bfehar ageney), and 13 percent, in Patna njiium. Dr. Eat*
well, the opium examiner in the Benares diitriet, findt thnt the pro-
[>nrtion of water varies from 30 to 24*5 \kt cent, in tlic opium of that
diitriel.

With respect to the propttrtion of mor[>hia, Cbevallier states that
Smyrnu opium contains from A*6 to 6 4 pir cent of that alkaloid ;
Constiintinoplc opium, from 2'8 to 3'2 ; and Egyptian opium, from
2*0 to 2"4 per cent.

The subject of the strength of opium wns dincusBed nt the Pharma-
ceutical Suiriety of Paris on tbe2na of April, 1850. Miuihe stated that
the proportion of morphia in coonDercial opium varied from I to 10 per

T T

642

OPIUM, AND ITS ADL'LTERATION&

MurphU.

NaroMiM.

248 -

• A-26

2-38 -

' 4-58

2-20 -

- 6M

3 21 -

- 408

cent., ami this trail confirmed by Snubeiran. Giiiboiirt 9a\<\ h^tihlaintd
frnm 15 to 17 i>«r cen:. from Sin^rrita opium. b» uIoo diil MM. CanatOB
and Aulier^er. Dublaiic affirmed that it cuniMin« at m<>«t MptfoeML.
butAomeiiines it isevona.* low as 1,2, or 3 percent. Guiileiurtteranur
obtained more thim 14, while good spocimcns rieldvfl from }OMt$
per cent. Do Vry analrscd 21 ttamides nf coniinrn.*M] t-;
found the {iro])orlion6 of niurpliia to vary from mere trwc? :
cf-nt. (but his pr(>ce59 was not a good one). Keii'h gvt from Ifiu
1*2 per cent.; utid O'Shuujfhnffsy ubtniuetl from tlie o|nun] aftk
Behttf agency frfini 175 (o 3-5 |»cr rent, of morphi.i, -• -■

of narcoiinn; in that tn>m Hnzflrecb:iti^h, 4'5 of timrp
cent, ofnarcotina ; and in Paina garden opium he e^:;
»^ent. of morpliiii, and 6 0 pep cent, of narootina. l>r.
in the onium of ihe Beuiires dislriet the following prb|K.4 ...^.... v. ....
phia and narcotina, in the ycara 1&45 lo 1848 : —

I84o
1846

1817
1848

Thc^ fucts f>hiivr that, even if wc could succeed in obtjiinin<:f a ifl
ca^es, gum opium of undoubted purity, yet we couhi not rvU u{b«
iti prt>ducin<r uniform efferts. 'ilm consideriiiitm shnwi liiRtUn
the neceraity of employing in medicine prcpurntioiis maile frm tU
drug, of us^ertuiiiud strength ; these, to some extent, we pomven '» <W
salts of morphiu ; and no doubt it is far better to prescribe ihflff, ii
the majority of ra.-ses, in preference to crude opium.

But it 15 prubtibli* that u piepanition miglit be obtained foriBadif
more than one oonslituent ol'iij>iuni, and wbieh would. Uier«A>f«,Bff*
neiirly rcsumble the complex and original drug. One mfthttj hj
whicl) an iip[iroxim;ition Id uniformitv of stren;:th could be aliti»a«d
in the lin<:turo ot o[>iuni, h by a previous analvsis of the sruin 'hmu'W
from which it is tn be prepared, and a rcgulatMtn of tU*- <.
to the fllrer.jTth of ihtit opium ; or the alkidoicU utighi '
ihcy were ileficient, so ua to ensure as near art approach tu uitiuiriui:*
a? proetienble.

It nhould be c»bservcd that, of the samples of powdered ofink
the results of the examination of which have ju«t bfron £ircfi« tk**
whiuh were found to contain the lari^v&t {•er-e<^ntr(«:e9 f»f watrr kal
been kept in a (in Cii^e, and thus the moii^turc prctcnted f rao 0^
faping; while mo^tt nf ttie samples which cimluincd the sKutler K^
<?entagea of water, had t»een exposed tu the atmospbeie, and 90 w
lost part of their water.

In reference to the varying quantity of raoi*^ture cont«ift*d •>
opium, we find thj following ruutarlu by Mr. C V. Uogner, of I^J**
delphia : • —

* riuripacfUliOBi Juarnsl. 9«|** )• IMI, toI. la. f. lU-

OPJUM, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

64S

"We sometimes receive Tegetnble Bubslances, roots, bnrks, (Znmd,
hc.f tJirect from llie hultl of a ship, or from tluiiip Cfllim; at other
times we receive the same ifliclcs from the j;arrvt. of a store, where
tbej way have been fur a jear or more. It is ridiculous to expect
the same loss in both caw^. Most of the articles we jwwiler contain
more nr Il'»h wiiti-r, which we an; obli;'e«l to ilry out, ami if we did not
dry them artifieiully when we rcducx*J them to ». ch minute ptirticlea
as cnnBiiiuie n tine powder, the water wouhi in a {;reut uieiuure
escape by evofwralion. '1 his cuniitilutes the hms in nowrJering drugs,
at leaitt the greiit amount of it. Some time btick, I received u lurce
lot of barberry tmrk fnmi a bouse iti this city, who hud lH>u^bt it
without Hutlicient ex:iuiiniitioti, for it hud been completely saturated
with water, purjKjsely, I suppose, by ootne * financier* to increase the
weijjhr. When I opened it, and saw the condition it wns in, I rulled
the tittcntion of the owner to it, but he had unfortunately already
paid for it. 1 dried it, and it loet over thirty-tive per cent, in the
drying alone. Now what a position 1 would have bcfn in, had I been
refltricrted to a loss of two or three pi^r cent. It would have taken
a considerable fiuantity of what Mr. Uedwood fncelinusly calU
' veritable powder of post' (sawdust) to have made this matter
fctraiffhi.

" Twenty years bark, I attempted to unite to my other operniiomt
th&t of cliipping »n<l drying dye-woods, and ground in all from fifti'ca
to twenty lens fur diflerenl parties ; and although the woo<l appeared
to be dry, it lost over two hundred pounds un each (on, caused by
evaporation on lietn^ cut into line chip» across the grain of the wood.
Of eoursc I nrceiv«:d ihc usual amount of 'rowinu up' fur making
such losses ; si> ninch so that I became heartily t<tck ol' the buitness,
and ftold at half the cost, the app»iatu» I hud erected.

" It is customnry to remedy this dillieuhy, not with * powder of
post,' but * uouajunt." Under tne pretence that it improves the quality,
water is fieefy u^ed, not unly to n<ake jjood ihu hists, bnt a little further,
and the consumer is inudu to pay a pretty hi^h price for water. I
hnve seen bai rcla "f chipped wood that have luid si>me time in n store,
fall short from fifteen to twenty poumls on the mnrkft w«ij»ht. I
think it is a fraudulent and nsfle^s custom. If the nrtlclc is really
improved by the operuiion (which I very much doubt), there i* plenty
of water in every ilye-houw ; let the coi»sunier water it as much a^i he
chooses — let Ihe dealer sell him wood, not water, and chiirj^e occord-
'mgly, and let the chipper be a ' hewer of wood ;' but have 9'Mne com-
passi'm on him, and do not also make him a * drawer of water/

" The imporliuit article of opium cimies to iis in very different rnn-
dittons. I U-lievL- it is the (iciieral custom of the dru;;gitits to keep
this article in their cellars lo prevent it.H <lryin^ iiml losiiiir ifeigbt ;
»omc, however, do not, particularly when it is inicnde<l to be pf>w-
dered ; of course the Umb in the former must necessarily be greater

T T a

644

OPIUM, AND ITS ADULTEHAT10X8.

tban in the Utter inBUnce, tnd it would be perfectlj nvr»i^<^ .,
under such circum5tanc«8, to bind the powdercr to a regH* P«* 1|

F(g.m,

Sunplt of OriCM kduUcrsUd «1U) i^vvir cnpfwtM^ M«CBt9td lOD

centuge of loss in powtloring opium. I have Imjcii inftmisdi
believe correctljrt that thure uxistA^ in -lome other places aeon
rule of six per cent, in powdcrinj; npiiim ; so far a* I reaembs, I
rarely, if ever, powdered it at a less toss tbnn ciiiht |t«r ceni^aki
Bomctimes OS greitt as twenty per cent. I have exHrniiiMJ my bwto
in refereni.'e to the Inst twelve lots of opium powdered, and And thij
amount to 165 lbs. 12 oz. received, ftnd U!21bft. 2 oz. rviuraeil; iW
least loss ei^hl per cent., and ihe greatest near twenty pcf oeaL, t&a
average being 14 lbs. 5 ox. per cent. Mr. Kcdwoixl jnTca ihm mm*
ug;e lo5.i in powdering this article in London at 14 lh«. I4 oc. «■ dkl
1 12 lbs., the greatest ei<;hieen, and the leiist six per cisfit.

" It would be a very easy matter for any <1 rtia iW

loss in dryinf> any particular lot of oiiiuni, i tjoa lali

very small pieces, and drving it sulliciently u> mu*.' a nm^ m*4w.
Yet, notwiihyUinding this simple methiHl of ascertainin}! tW tet,I
have met with instances (not many, to be sure, and none lalclv) when
persons have sent their opium elsewhere to be powdered. Cor noxAti

OPIUM, AND ITS ADULTEUATIOXS.

645

rewon than that of the loss being less thnn I made. Porhnps t might
bave satisfied lliem had I made use of the *|M)wder of post,' or some-

Maftilftvd !!S0 dUmclCf*.

thinj;eUe, whti-h i ft, and must be done by every one who powders
orditmrj opium al a lo«s of only six per cent. This, however, I never
have dutie. and never will do. I do nut profess more hnriei^t}' than my
neighhours ; but if 1 had no scruples on the subject, 1 can iuiu;i;ine a
casti when; I niii:lit make mvrclf uuvnalile to juoiire fu a jmrlicipant
in cau!ting the death of a fellow being, whoue life might be lo»t for the
want of a pmiwr article heing aduiiiiistered. I repeat, if Ihore were
no other motives, I would not, under any cirrum-ttjint'Cft, make myself
liable to nuch a charge. Opium is one of the most importaut of the
dnijFS that pass ibruugh my hands. Kvery physician, dru*;gist, and
apothecary, knows tbt. importance of having it ri^ht, and, t^o far as it
depends on me, it shall be right, be the loss in powdering what
it may.
'* With a conventioual lo«s of six ]>er cent, there can be no uniformity

J T S

646

OPIUM, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

in the article. A powderer receives a lot of opium no dry that it only
loses six per cent, in powdering, lie receives Another lot that Ium*

SorrrtAjr OnvM, >4aIUt«fed wfth turn, iMMtfy jOn. taa m UUlc nAMi^bMr.
HflcnUcrd un diwnctcn.

twenty percent. To bring the lo^s on the latter to the same as the,
former, ne must put in fourteen percent, nf Adulieraiiun, imd Uie«|
you have oik* article fourteen per cent, less in efliciency than the
other. Fruin sijuie cause unknown in me, the ootisuinplitui of pow-
dered opium hfis {;i*eatlv inL-reiised ia the last five jeurs, and soens
to be increasing annually, if 1 may judge from the (juimliiiei I
powder."

8CAMMONY, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 617

On Me Detection of the Adviteraiioju of Opium,

The arlultenitions of gum und powderoil opium with poppi/ cap-
sule (jf^. 205.), wheat Jifntr (J^, HOG.), or other vegetable auhstanceis
may Ijl* ri'iuliFy ilistcovercd by simply exiuninin^ a minute portion of
the opium under the microscope. To estimnte the quantities oi' these
present, a dried nnd we)*'lied amount of the opium must be dissolved
in water, the insoluble residne I>ciny dried Hnd weighed.

Saati or other insofuhle iiutrganic nthsttiuce which may he present
mur he dIiu:overed, and It.t amount t'nleutate<l In the trame mnnner.

'Phc gum mny he calruhited from tlic residue of the tillered watery
extrncl whieh is insoluble in nloohol.

Lastly, it is well in mL>st cn^es to delermino the amount of alkaloidt
present by the procfMcs alrea^Jy described.

Cufltonifl* duty on Opium, \s. per lb. Qunntities retained for home
conitumptinn were, in IN.14, 6J,43*ilhs. ; in 1855} 56,067 lbs. ; in nine
munlhs of 1856, 35,354 ll>s.

SCAMMONY, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

The adulteration* diseovt-rod in drurrd, like those in food, are prac-
tised by three diff-rent el»»se<i of p»*rfiona — the preparers or manu-
facturers, the whoU*t<aIe and the retail dealers. In si'ioe co^es the
adulterations detected are exclut^ively the work of one or other of
these rlasses; in olher?, each does its jmrt in the deterioration and
sophistication. In the course of our invesiij^atiuns we have met with
many examples prnvinj; the truth of l!if above classification, and (he
article scsmmony afiord^ an illu.«tration in iMiint.

Scammony U the ^um resinous exudation obtained by inci!fton<i
into tlie roots of Conroirultu scammonia. The rwits are perennial,
tulictous, tapering, three or four feet long, and ronlarn an acrid,
milky juice, which, dricil, constitutes scammony. It grows iu heilges
and bu^hy places in Greece and the Levant,

Sorimmony was known lo ilie ancient Greeks. Dioscondes thus,
accordinjj to Pi-reirn, dejcfil*** the mode of procuring it : —

**The head beinj^ separated, the root is to he excavuicd in the form
of a dome, or vault, by a knife, po that the juice mnv flow into the
cavity, from whioli it i? to lie token *)ut in i^bells. Others excavate
the earth, and having incised the root, let the juice ruu into the

TT 4

fi48

SCAMMONY, AND 1T8 ADULTEKATION8.

cavitTi which has been nrevtously lined with walnut leAVea. ^V!
the scammiiny ia ilrv it is removed."

In 1 770. the nieihut] of proeurinj? frcunmony ntlopted, nnd whicb «
piubablv ihiit followed in the prescDt day, was, ftccording to Dr. Uu»-
wjl *, nsftillows: —

TUm earth being cleared away from the upper part of the roots, the
peaaanta cut otf the tnm obliquely about two inches below where tlte
«ulkfl arc ^iven otf Under th« nimt dependin;; pnrt of earh inciaioa
a shell, nr ntliGr suitable n^ccpUcli^ 1.1 placed, into whicii tiie juioe
slowly flows. The shell is left for about twelve buurs. when thm
whole of the juice baa exuded. The ci«atiiiiy vieldcMl hy each root
doe« nut exceed a few dnirhmit. The milky juice frmu (lie several
roots is {lilt lo;rethe^, often iiiLo the Iv^ of an uld bout, wb«*re il gra*
dually becouiL's hardened, and forms scummony.

ScHiiinionv ia usually imported from Siiivrnu. OecaBionally it comes
by way of Trieste, and still more i-arfly it is brought from Alexan-
dre! ta, tiie port of, and ro:td to, Alep)>o. It comes over in boxea and
drum9, which arc fre^jucntly lined with Lin.

The ditfi^rcnt kintjit of scammony of etnnraerce are arranged hy Dr.
Perciru under ilirce beads — pure, uduitrratnl, ami /actttiimA,

Tlie purif scaiumoni(;s arc — Vtrgin JScammonj/^ the only pure kind
known in Knglirh commerce ; scammony iu calabaBhes or sbcUv, and
probably Trebizond or Sumos scammony, which diflVrs very much in
appearance from ordinary itcummony. Virgin scaramany occurs usually
in irregular plceei*, covered with a whitisu jjrey powder, wbit'h clTer-
Tcsces on the additiim of a Ktrtmg acid, showing that the pieces hare
been rolled in clialk ; it i& friable, the fmctured eurfacci being reoin-
ouA, ibining, and greeidflh black ; they prt'seiit tmall air cavitic^, and,
examined with a ma<j;nifying glasst, nuineruus ^rey. 9cmi-tMins{»a.n;nl
splinters or fragments are seen; the |ii>wder, viewed with ;i uimrtur-
iiich object gla^, is observed to conni^it ol' numerous anguiur and
resinous frajimenl^ of a ;;reyish brown colour and of variable Hixe
(Jig. 208.); intermixed with ihc^c other fra^menl« Bometimea occur,
which are bliickish or even quite black : these arc best seen when ibe
powered scammony U viewed as an upnqne object. It has been
(iup];e»ted by l>r. Uutael ibat ihiit <lilferenre is the result uf dif-
ferent melhodt of drying, an ejKplanation which is certainly not cor-
rect.

The black pieces in question undoubtedly consist of broken massea
of vegetable liMue, in5Urated witli the resin, »& may be fihowii by the
action of sulphuric ether, which, by diiuolving out the resin, reveala
the tissue. Although even the best scanmtony usually cimtuiua u »ma]|
number of these fru^iuente^ yet we have observed that they are mua(
abundunl in the inferior or adulterated sorts In the residue left,
after the removal of the rettin by sul]iburic ether, cnnsiderable quau*

Mnl. Ob*, lod llH). tol. (. pt 18.

SCAMMONT, AND ITS ADULTERATIOX8.

649

titles of vegciahle tissue, oyllylar tissue, woody 6bre, frajnnents of
spirul vesseb, and stellutu ci'll*. uiuy ri-et|iiuDily be detected by ibe
microscope.

fig- 3M.

Pun or ViMtii SCAMJtoar In powdrr. JtUftiiSM Un dlamcttra.

Character* and CompontioH of Scammvny.

With water, or laliva, scammony yields a milky fluid ; it readily
txkes 6re, nud burns with a Tellowish llume, leavintr a minute |>ortioii
of a!«h niily when incineruled in a crucible — rarely ex(«edinn; three
percent. Its odour h&s been compared to old cbee^te ; ila tn»le is
sli<j!ht Hi first, but atierwanis aorid ; it is not rendered blue by io<line,
nor does it eflervesce witli hydrochloric ttcid. Sulphuric ether ^huuitl
eeparutt^ not less tliun 78 |H.'r cent, of e.\lrnrt, rouMAtin}; priiieipnlly of
revin. Pufx-r. wetted wilh atietlierial or alcoholic solution of seunimuny,
•hould undergo no change of colour when exposed to the orange fumes
of nitriu ai*i<l.

The lollowing are the r^uUs of the analyses of three samples of
scamtuDoy by Dr. ChrisCtson : * —

* DtApcoaaUwy.

Os T/

*^'cfa do not 1 'f?P'«*

a hn,.„.. " /"^"""num. _ '

BCAMMONY, AND ITS ADULTBRATI0N8.

651

'Phnrmaceuticiil Society is a ftpccirnen orMfimmnny which is puppoaed
to be adultcralcd with tri^ai:iuiLh ami some resin.

llc«iitii»iT, Umlf kdaltfnitnl with «riW<ir. and probablr Irutit Bmrert. q «,

hrnkrn (tikifntwiti* uf •rainniiiiiy i h h, •Imrrh >iir|iu«:lr* of vrlMSL | r c, bladl
fra^menu of ctlluUr Umuc. Mafuiflril £!U tliuntUri.

** Indian St^mmony. — From ray frii'iid Dr. Royle I have receiTcd
a snmple of sciiiinKiny met with in fhe Indian baxnnrs. It U lijfht,
porni»«» nf a preetiinh-jfrey rnlimr; pritty nn<1er the t<*eth, a« if con-
tainin;: n i-nnHuKTublu rjuHntily of sunfJ, anil bavinj; a huNamie, oil-
banum-lilce (xlonr.

" FncUtumH Setimmony. — To this dtvieion belongs part of ihe 90*
callt'«i Smyrna $aimmony of coiitinent4il fommerre, as well as Freitch
or Moiftpellier scammony. I have met with three samples of fnctiiious
•cammnny,

" Unrlvr the name Smyrna Mcnmmony, I purchasc<1 of a London
dealer a »nrt of scanimonv in the furnt of L-irciiliir, flat oiikcs, n1>nat
hmtf aninch thick. It is blaikrsh, and hiL% cxternnllv, a Fliittr appear-
ance : it breaks with diffii'iilty; iis fra'.'tiirc itt dull rind bhu'k : int
specific gravity is 1*41*2. Moistened and rubbed, ic evnivea the smell
of guaiacum. Boiled with water, it yields a tarbid liquor (which is

8CAMMONY, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS,

not renderetl blue by iodine), and depoflita a blockish powder: (b«
Utter, boiled with alcohoi, yields a solution, wbich becomes nreenub*
blue on the additiun of nitric acid, showing the presenei; of ^aiacuoi

** It is probably the common Smyrna tcummony (Scmunioniuni Siuti-
nense fnctitiiim) of Griiy^ who directs it to he made with Aleppo
»cainmony, one pound ; exirnct of jalap, five pounds; guaiucum refill,
ten pounds; sugo, ion pounds; and ivory-blafk, four ptiuDdit.

" Under the name of Scamntonium Smynicnse medicinale ocmdt, II.
Batka ha> presented tu the Hmrninceutiual Society a spurious acan-
inouy, said tu be made up of gum, bread, scamoionjr, guaiacwB,
benzoin, wax, sand, and wood.

" French or Monfprliitr ScammoHy (Scainmonium Oallicum »ru yiont-
ptliacum). This .substance is mwle in the snutbt-rn parts of France;
with the expressed juice of Cynnnchum Monspeliacum^ mixed wii^
ditTerent reiiins and other purgative &ub&tjinces. It occurs in aemi-
circulur, blaukish, Imrd, compact cakes, which frequently bave the
amell ut' balnam of Peru."

RetuU$ of the Sxaminatiotu of Samfdet.

The following conclusions were deduced from nn examinfttion ft'
Thirty suuiples of Sc&mmony, as iui[>orted, as vended, and as wU
injiowder.

That out of the thirteen samplefl ol' Resin of Scammouj^ a^ imported,
submitted to examiniition, one only vrii^ gmuine ; it yielding 70*60 per

It. of reitin, the active prim iple.

7hat eleven of the sainjites were more or le«a adtdterat^ i H^

louni of iiilulteriuion varying beiwetn 8 and 75 per ccnl^ and tbe
pHMHirtion of rcain between 13-^0 and 72"00 per cent.

That vne ftaiiiple was entirely factitiuuM^ beiiiii composed of tlie
resins of ^Hoiaaun and jalaps with much woody jSbrt, celiular tismt^
and other insoluble vuttter.

That the adulteratin);; ingredients delected, consisted, for tlie most
port, of carbonate of lime or chalky iind wheaijiuury witli sometiiaea
taiul^ or other enrtJty mbHtance^ gfUfn, and c*onaidcrable quantities of
Kootiy fibre and cellular tisittie.

That of the seventeen *ianiples of Powtiered Scammoyy, purchased of
various chemists and dru;i;:i»t», unaly»ed, oite only wits genuine^ it
alTordiJig 7(!*40 per cent, of resin.

That the whoU of the retnainin<r snmples were adulterated^ frequently
to an enormous extent; the iLdulierating in^^redient-s cnn.Mituting
from 18 to (>5 [ler ccnL ofthc entire arliite, and the it'sin varyiiij* from
27'20 to Go 60 per cent. — that is to any, Kome of tlie ftamples con-
tained little mon^ than one fourth the projier quaniity of hcaininony,
and of court'e were deficient to that extent of the active pruptjrties
which they should pOMiess.

That the adulterating ingredients in these samples consisted pi

8CAUMONT, AND ITS ADCLTEBATIONS.

653

«ipa)Ijr of enommus qunntitie* of wheat Jlovr^ with fre<]UontIy much
chalky and occasionnlly sand or ullicr earthy nubslnnce^.

Mr, Eli^rrin;;, !!<{H.*akin^ of the afluhcTHtion uf scainiuony. sUtes
in his evidenre heCore the Parliiimfntiirv Coinuiitluo, ** We have
9nmc iniporteri wliieh hns contained from 80 to 90 f>er cent, of
clmlk." Mr Herring nUo stnU'ft thut there is ten or Iwcntv times lu
«rreat demand for the spurious and cbeap(.T article fl» fur the other,
riie priee in the market, he observes, is one great erilerion of purity ;
scaiumuny varies from Ha to 40«. per lb., aud opium frou 9«. to 26j.
per ]b.

We have now to ascertain who are the parties that practise th«e
atlulteraiions.

Fmm the fact that the majority of the samples of gam resin of
scamnmny, a5 impurted^ contain chalk, and sometimes wheat (Inur, &c.,
it is evident that these ailultcrutioiia are practised, to some extent,
before the article is brought into the Kn<;Iiflh market. In reference
to this point, we meet with the following information in Pereira's
" Materia Mwliea"; —

" Of thit* entirely pure soammonj, says Dr. RusscI, but very little
is hrou^rht to market^ the frreatcr part (»f what is ti» be uiec with being
adult4>rat4?il, if not by those who gather it, by those wlin buy it of
them nbroiid ; fur the chief part of what is brought hither posses
throu'.'h the hands of a few people, chiefly Jews, who make it their
business to go to the villages of anv nnte near which the scammony is
etilh'CtwJ (as Antioeh, Sho^jre, Elil), Maraash, &c.), and ihere buyin;^
it whrle it is yet soO, they have an opportunity nf mixing wilh it »iich
other things ta suit their purpose best — as wheat Hour, ashes, or fine
sand, all of which he found it niixei) with. But there seem V* he adds,
"some other injn*edient (possibly the expressed Juice), which makes it
so very hard and indissoluble that be was not able to discover it to
his satisfaction.

" I have been informed by a Turkey merchant, who formerly re-
sided at Smyrna, th^it scamniony is brought into Smyrna in the soft
state on cumels. Here it is mixe<l wilh various impurities by persons
(«Tew!i') who are denominated scoiumony maker;!, and who a<iulterate
it, and thereby lower its value to suit the miirket."

It is equally evident, from the analyses given, that scnmmonv under-
goes further adulteration affcr its arrival in this eountrr — ihi.s eou-
sisting principally in the addition to it of targe quantities of wheat
flour.

We may here observe that in some cases it is qiiile possible to
determine whether (he ofldition of the flour has been made "(iiHwquent
to its impnrttition or not by the condition of the starch granules.
When starrh in added to scamnmny abroad, it is mixed with it while
the re»in is sof^ ; the granules thus become embedded in und coated
with the resin in a manner from which no subsequent powdering can
entirely free theiu.

654

8CAMMONY, AKD ITS ADULTEBAT10K3.

On the other bnnd, when the starch baa been added after iki
bns hetMi reduced to powder, the grnnutet and mawei of
retain their usual appcuram-e and chnmcters.

Tht^ Incl.i brnii^ht out in thi:i nrlit le are calculated to give rvt to
some {t<^n<mH i-efl(>rtinns ; tor if )idult4.'nitions exiifL in <<lher ttnfcflnt
arlick's of tlie Miituiia Mcdicfi to anything like the same eiVftL,
iben thire is inlrtiduced into the treatment of di»ea?«9 eniflos na*
ceriaintieft and diH'ereiices through the varying strength and atuoa
of rentedie«.

The jirivper doses of rfmedios are usually determined } •■• •* ■ —■■ 'tii/
repejited und rarcfulJy lOiidiicted experiments with <tr ^ui'

cuH of ascertained purity. Tlieae resulta are re(i>;niiM?d updB

by the p^oft•^9lon at largo ; but whai» in the face of such fncii u ir
referred to in ihls und the preceding article, is ibe pruc-tii'sd lalneitf
such results? for we see (bat the slrengtli of tbe aauic reiucly. trm
adulterutiim only, sometimes varies oa one to four — ttii: i', fonj
grains in some cases will not be stronger than ten of lli' 'as.

No wonder, tlirn, that the phyRician is so often di^-:*!' tb*

effects prnihiceil hy his pret*cripti(tn, and that the patient e*- * j'
aonictiirii>i» Umk with di^triiEtt on his metlical iidviser, who««Ni..i. i.<:.
xnd cxpectitiioDA, with retpect to the action of fats miii.4ici^ s>
fro(iueinly fail to be realised.

Here, loo, we meet with an explanation of the extraordinary doMl
in which certain remedieA are reported to Ite u^ed by different fnoi-
tioners ; some teUint; us that tbey prescribe enoi iiMmt) ilnevs of cahml,
cluterium, opium, sianinmny, &c., und find only tbe ordinary etft«t»;
hence, such phv.oiciunM are feil to conclude (hat tbe reiiivdv ts rwal l»
at'tive 118 described, nverhxikin;; in gciiend llie exi'itcnce 4>l' adulters
lion, and arc even imluoed to entertain serious doubts with ropettt*
the general efficacy of medicine. Under 5ucb circuut5tani1^s it «
useless for the physician to consider carefully the a;!e, streu*:iiu lAJ
condition of his palient ior the purp<)?e of apportioning c-ornsnJ? tk*
doses of the remedies contained in bis prvBcription ; loti otl«B (^
adulterator ^tep!l in and renders all attempt at cnlcuUtiun fiiiilc

Neither with safety can the prescriber venture to net on the pcf-
aumptiun that certain medicines, being ordinarily ndultcralctl. iMiyU
■dtninisiered in more than the lecojjnised do»e> for as it i« ju«tpM>
sible that lie may secure a genuine article, as great an error wotil/ he
cuniniitted, perhap.", by such a proceeding} as by an adhervnof to tibc
UBiiid practice.

The ffiim resin and powder of scnnimony being sn extct\»irrU vfail-
terated, it of course follows that all ibe other articles of ibe Malerii
Medicu, into the compoaiiinn of which scammony entcni, aa cvrnfrtAt^
of ncammotiy^ scammony tcitfi caiomel, and compound aem
powder, are similatly adulterated, their properties and ttrcngtli
thus rendered very uiicertaiiL

SCAMMONY, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS

653

On the Detectitm of the Adulteratum* of Seammony.

The Adulterations most frequL-nilj prnctised, anil the detection nf
which is therefore most iroportaittf are those by chalky sandy »Utrehy
guaiantm, ntitijaLip.

riie chalk may Im; deleft e<! hy the efTerveicence oocoAloned on tire ftd-
ditinn oC jiL'L'ticor hyiJrochloric arid. The di»en;»ageinentof the curbnnic
acid i?* wrll seen in unnute r|iiantitit's of ihe powdeieil scainniony,
wetted with the a«:iil, nnd watched under the niicr(i>i'0[>e wiih mi inch or
half-iiiehohjept j»lasH. The per-cemnge ot'ehulk cnntaincd in any 8«inple
tttny be det-Tiiiinod in severul wiivii. C'hiiik, well incinonted ac a red
heat>eynei;talivin combinution williorpmic mutter, is reduced to caustic
lime. The uvh of well burned s''»ininoiir, adtilteratetl with clialk, must
therefore be bmuyht tuick intocurlKinnteof linieJOOpitrtit of which con-
sist of 56'29 of lime^ Bfui 43 7 1 of carbonic acid. The lime iont«ined in
tlie scjimm*mj, when inriiterated, nuiy be moistened with n drop or two
of n saturated solution of carbtiniite of ammt>iii;i, and a^ain it^nited just
helow rednezis, by wluch meuns the caustic lime is convertcii into cor-
bonaie of lime, the ummoniu bein^ driven off; or, lastly, the ii.irlially
decomposed cnrbonaleof liine, prekioiis to incinerntion, may be con-
verted, by the iidditum of a little dilute sulphuric acid, into ttulphatu
tit lime, whirh is not dicomposetl by heiit, and the carbonnle cidculiited
from it. When Mulfifietff of time is piettenl, this must be di<«MiIved
in a ttmall quantity itf hydr(M*hloric acid, dim) the sulphuric acid precipi-
tated ty means of ch>ndc of barium or nitrate ofbnryla, and the lime
hy oxalate of ammonia, the precipitatca being calculated fur sulphate of
lime.

\[ garni be present, it is in general Ruflicieiitly indicated by its inso-
lultility in tiydrochluric ai-id. Where sulphate of lime, sand, or other
earthy matters, are employed separately, ihe weight of the ash suffi-
ciently inilirntes the per-centage.

The xtnrch is detectefl by the addition of iorline fo the cold decoc-
tion ; but it is only by the micniACojH; that the kind of starch emfihiyed
con be determined. The presence of dcj-trine is rcvcale<l either by
the microscope or by iodine. Gumaaim is discovered by its smell,
when rubbed down, or by a piece of j>;iper niiiislened with the tincture
becoming blue when ex[)iiSL*d lu nitrous hcid rinne'*. Jalap rexin is
iniuilubje in ether and oil of turpentine ; di^'e>te4l in u watch-glass, with
oil t)f vitriol, a crimson cutourcd solution is obtained.

Siammony i:^ tree of duty, as are nl^o all drujr^ unenuroerated. and
among^t titcm those treatetl of in the following articles, namely^ julnp,
ipccacuunha, rhubarb, eolocynth, and squills.

656 JALAP, AND ITS ADULTERATIOX^

JALAP, AND ITS ADULTKHATIONS.

The true julap, Exognnium purga^ belongs to tlie natural order
Conpolruiacetc, nnd is clngL'lv allied, both in its botanical relations and
nropertitfiif to CoHVoloudts scamnutnia, ]t is n climbing plant, with
Drancbcd, annual ctcnis, and tuberous, perennial roots. It );rows in
the woods of Mexico, near Chicanquiuco, at an altitude of nearly
6000 t'eet Hl>ove llie level of the 8*?a.

The part of the plant euiploved in medicine u the tuber. When
recent, the tubers are irre^rularfy ovate- conical, are covered by a thin,
blackidb epidcnniti. numerous rootlets or nulicles si>ringin^ froni their
lower flurluce; while iiilerually tiiey are ileshy, wuite, and obvcureJ/
laniiniited.

The dry tubers rnry in size from a nut to on omnge, the largest oc-
casionally exceedinjr a pound in weight. When entire they are usuaUy
oral, the extreinitifB bein{» more or less pmlonjred or pointed; they
are wrinklci], anil covered by the blarkish-brown epideruiip. The
larger tubers frequently exhibit several incisions, made for the pur-
pose uf fucilitaiing their exsiccatiun. InTernuily, Ihuy present nume-
j*ous concentric rings, arising fmui tli**ir tutiiinaied structure.

Tubers of good quality should be firm, solid, and heavy, and when
broken, of a deep yellowiBh*gi-ey colour, with a somewhat resinous
fracture. When very light they are usually hollow, from defective
trying ; when white and triable, they contain cxcfss of starch, and are
of inferior quality. Sometinies (he tubers are imported in Alices,
which appear to he quarter segments, according to Fereira, of trut^
▼ersfi slices ; this vaiiety is (M'tniiionutly called fpunoua jalap, or. from
its >h ape, ct}cktd-hat Joltip; and like tlie tubers, when while aiid
friable, the slices are niferior. The lubi-rs are very liable to b*» at-
tacked by worms ; as the^c do not touch the restnt it is to be obtaiued
from such tubers in nrprmal quantity.

The only market for j:ilap is iTalapa, a town of Mexico, from which
jalap takes its name, and from whence it is imported by way of Vera
Cruz.

Structure of the Jalap Tuber,

The minute structure of the julap tuber is very characteristic, and
it is ni>(-(>^ary that tlu' ubi^erver should be thoroughly acquainted with
it bi'fort: he will be able to detect the adulleralious to which jalap in
powder is liable.

Tlic e[)idermis dnes not differ materially from the same structure
IS it occurs in many other plants, it consisting of what we are in
Ike habit of denominating stellate cells, of un elongated form. It is

JALAP, AND ITS ABULTERATIOKS.

fl57

but seldom, however, that these cells can be detected in the dried
tuber.

The lamellEB, viewed in transverse sections, are seen to be conipoeed
print'ipiUty of cuiln, witli, along the iU8r;;in!i, occaaionitl buniUus of
dutttid vessels onJ woody fibre. The cella, of which the inber itstilf
is almost entirely composed, are not ail of one kind. First, there are

Tiuwrcnc hmIob of J*LAr Tcitu, iliovlni ike

ftpMumaot utd dtfttlbvtioa of
■ iuAmI M ilUnietcn.

numerous well-defined, dark, and sooiewhiit angular celU lying here
and there in the uiidsi of the other celU. Fig, tiilU.

u V

658

JALAP, AND ITS ADULTEEATIONS-

The«e cells appenr to contnin resin ; but since tbey ore slowly uied
upon by water, so that frnm beiiij; ilark and opaque tliey become cUar
and transparent, it ia evident that tfaey also contain some soluble nt^
stance.

Of the remaining ceUs, many arc apparently empty ; tbne cOMth
lute cliiefly the outer luinellse of the tuber. F"*^, 210.

Lastly, other cell», crowded with ttturcb corpuacleii, occur in gifit
abundance ; the innermost layers of the tuber nre chiefly coukjpoteAii
these cells. Fie. 211.

The resin ceUa are scattered throughout the wh»le of the tab«,

Fig. i\l.

■Tnnwnnt •ecHoo of Jtur Tcbki

crlh.m%t:aiRt4 lOU dUmrttrra

;■. abovlnf the ((on* ndfc. M4 •!» *• "■*
In U.e lo«»f P*rt n# llit Ofun tte te« aH

dlfttiivif n.

occurring indiflercnlly in the raidst of either the tt^pntnUjf^^
ceUfl, or those filled with fitjuxh.

JAJLAP, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Go9

The stu*ch corpuscles are of considerable size, and possesi well-
niArkcd characters. Some are circular, but »oniewhiit rtaftenpd, while
o:]iers are muUer- shaped. Thesp last are occasionally united in tnos^
ihrees, and fours ; whenever mullcr-^bapcd starch corpuscles are met
will] in Hni^ vegetable tissue, it is to be understood that they were all
orijTinQlIy united in this manner, and it is to such union that their
f*irm 18 chiefly due. Thvy are all furnished with a distinct hlluni,
nround wliirh one or two concentric rings may sometimes be seen
(yfj^ji il 1, 21i!.). Many of the corpuscles in every tuber have become
expanded and tuis^hapen from the hjat employed in the process of
drying.

In f^nuine powdered jalap all the structures above described may
be dcteute<i : the stellate ccUs of the epidermis, the resin cells, the
empty cells, those filled with starch, numerous free starch corpuscles,
anti occaaional fragments of dotted vessels and woody fibre. The oc-
currence of single cells completely filled with starch corpuscles is very
characteristic of powdered jalap.

KtiiMta mil Htm ■trantaw moA tUMfto faoad In Oawrms Towvmucp JaLaf. o.
)« WHl mwmn of 0» mm* slMrcd by he*! i /. fracBMB* « dotted dtut

It should be particularly remembered that the tuber of jalap is
a 0 S

JALAP, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

made up almost eatirely otcelltdar tutnte, with but few dotted veneh^
and extremely little woody Jihre^ tbe Bbres being hur^e, coarse^ and
dotted, closdj roscmbling, in fact, except id size, tbe ducts them-
selves.

Conpotition of Jalap.

Tbe jalap tuber owes ibi activity as a purgative principally to
resin whirh it contains.

The following arc some of the principal analyses ofjalap which hai
AS yet been made, that by Gerber being the most complete ;

Oerber's Analyns, •

Hard resin - - - . - 7-g

Soft resin - - . - - 3-2

Slightly acrid extractive • - . 17-9

Gunim^ exiraetive - - - - 1 4*4

Colourinff matter .... s><|

Uncrystalli sable sunr - • - - 1 -9

Gum, with some salts .... 15*6

Bassorin - - - - - - 3*2

Vegetable albumen - • - - 3*9

Start'h ------ 6*0

Water ----- . 4-8

Malic acid, and malatcs of potash and lime - 2*4

Chlorides of calcium and potassium - - 1 *4
Phosphates of mnffnesia axHl Umc - -17

Carbonate (?) of Kme • - - - 3*0

Loss - - - - - - 4-6

Jalap

1 00-0

Henrifi Analyiu. f

Rmln - . . . .
ExtracUve ....
SUrch .....
Woodyfibra ....

LKCM.

SMBd.

— II MM

11
lb
10
M

9-6

I0-4
42-0

14*4

Ift'O
SOI
40-0

100*0

1«M

- —

• Ginelin, lUndb. d. Cbnnir. bd. fi. 1. IM.
t DaU. de Phvm. t. U. ft. 97.

JALAPf AND ITS APULTERATIONS.

661

Ledavoiis Analjftit. *

Resin -

Gummy extract
StJirch
Albumen
Woody fibre -
^Vftter and loss

M&lo Light,
Fukliorm J«Up.

- 8-0

- 25-6

- 3-2

- 2-4

- 56-0

- 28

Julap

100-0

Nee$ D. Esenbeck and Marqnarfs Analyses, f

Rutractlre . . . -
R«in - . _ .
U«Ucr» liuolable In alcohol .

J.top - - .

i^JSl.-.™

■

rate

t7-ao

I«f33
75W

100-000

100-00

KKMtO

Guihourft Analyna,

LlquM ittfar hr alcAhnl

Brawn McchsHiw estrmct obtained bjr wsur

Gam ..•-..

Stanh .....

WMdrMre

Uwi .....

Jalap ....

«^.^

SMtt
10-lt

m-7*
a-f)o

4600
1-81

100 00 1 lOO-OO

From the above mnalyies, some of which are not very complete, it
is evi'lent that the umuunt of rosin fuunil in jfilap is Hubject to con-
•itlerable variation; further analyses of the tuoer, in different states,
are still much needed.

It wilt l>e noticed thut the womly 6bro, in some of the ftnolrseSf is
put down at a very high fiirure. The u^ual practice is to consider all
matters not soluble in ether, wau^r, or alcohol, except starch, as

■ Jouni. dr Cbim. Mrd., t- t. f. MM.
t Fharm. Outr<l-SkU lUr IBM. a.,09A.
U U3

662

JALAP, AND ITS ADUI-TERATIONS.

woolly fibre. This practice is as objectionable as Ute one wc bre
already had occasion to comment on — namely, the use of thcnnl
** traces** to designate all the organic matter eonlaincd in water. la
the present case, the actual quuntity of woody fibre rarely arootabUt
one per cent., tl^e tuber being mainly composed, as alreatty putnttii «at,
of* cellular tiisue.

Jalap resin may be prepared in the following manner : — Tbc rm
together with other extractive, is tlissolvod out by alcohol; to ili
alcoholic solution water is added, which preeiphates the resin; ikiib
washed in warm water, and re-di»8oived in alcohol ; or the alcukfr
solution may be at once decolourised by animal charcoal ; tbr M
methoJ, however* is the best, ns by it all the sugar, &c„ whidi an
be present, as well as nio^t of the colourinj? matter, U got rid of.

Jalap resin is charaeterised by the following propertir* : — It ii
soluble in alcohol; insoluble in water, ether, the 6x<*«l ami voliA
oiU, including oil of turpentine; triturated with milk, it doeanoCim
an emul&ion ; dig&Hed in a watch-jtlass with sulphuric arid, a cnaMi
coloured solution is obtained, this being a very distinctiya t«*t. Fnm
scammcMiy resin, it is distincuiahed by its not forming an OMiUh
with milk, and by its ins<»Lubility in oil of turpentine. It ia aoij labc
sometimes adulterated with guaiucum, which, unlike iah4i rain, il
soluble in ether ; and paper moistened with the alooholic »alalid%
exposed to the fumes of nitrous acid, turns blue.

According to some obserrera, aa Buclmcr, Herber^cr *, and K45*
serf, the so-called jalap re&in is a compound body, and caraila«f
two rcsina, the one soluble in ether, the other insoluble in that H^
atruum. In relation to these, we meet with the following partiodBi
in the third edition of Fereira's " Materia Medica :" —

^"•Jalapin; rhodeoretin (from ^-r'l.if, ruse-red, and onrir^, nma),
C^ H,j O jQ. This resin is insoluble in vther. Kav- ' ,1 it

by boiling purified jalap resin in ether, which took up t ,id

and left thejahipin. According to Huchner and Uerbvn^'vr, u w*
stitutes not quite nine tenths of jalap resin ; it ia a traiMpatatlt
(colourless, odourless, and tasteless resin, very soluble in "
insoluble in water and in uther.

" It does not possess basic pro[)enics, as Buehner and H
suppo^d, but, on the contrary, possesses acid f^roperties, reddens Ik-
niu>, and is soluhle in ammonia and acetic acid. If tbe salt whidi it
forms with oxide of lead be decomposed by sulphuretted bydj qgi
the resin is then found to have combined with the elements of waMT*
and to have l>eccune converted into hydrorhoti^yretan^ C,, U,, 0,,.

^*Jahpic urid^ odorotui nrincipU 0/ Julap (f)^ con»t'tium thirtvOI
per cent, of jalap resin. It is a brown, soft, and frreasy substase^
which reacts as on acid, has the odour of jalap, and an acrid

• Ann. dcr Chen. u. Ph«».. U. ti p. SU !•«.

t Ftium. Criiual.BlAU fUr IfQI, &.S84.

i aod rtMim. Joant. vvL H. f). atk i

JALAP, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

663

By long contact with water it crystallises. It is soluble in ether, in
alcohol, nnil in alkaline sulntioiis, but is insoluble in hydrocblorlo
aciil. It i^ cither a cryat&Ilij^ulilc, «ift. rcsin^ or a fulty aoid."

Parurhodeoretin^ C^^ H»^ 0,ii w obiaiiioii from ine male or fusi-
form jalnp, Ipomaa OrizabemU : it is soluble in both alcohol and ether,
unil, witli Hufphuric acid, exhibits the saiue characteristic reaction as
true jalap resiQ.

On TBI Adultsbatioms or Jalap.

Having now tn^ated of the structure and properties of jalap, wC
in a poaition to enter upon the consideration ol it* adullerationt.

Exogotmtm purffa^ or true jalap, is not the only kind ofialap
which grows in Mexico; there is a second, a spuriotu jalip^ touiid
there, commonly called rtutle jalap, and which is sometimes exported
mixed with the genuine sort. By Uuibourt it has been called light or
/tuiform jtilap ; m English commerce it is sometimes known aa troody
jidap or jalap wood; while in Germany the term jai^ip Mtaiks haa been
lipplied to the upper section of the tuber, embracing the comiuenoft'
ment of the stipeXy or stalk. It is the tuber of fponura Ohzedftwrig,
(Ledanois.) ** As met with in commerce it is in slices or sremeota,
which are raoro tibroua or woody than {genuine jaUp. Tlte cut
surface i^ ofcrn darker from exposure to tlic air, and uneven from
unequal sbrinklnj; in the drying process; internally it ii whitith, du?
odour and taatc being siniilar to, but feebler thnn, true jaJap,'*

Guibourl has deiicribed u./aLie rosC'KCenied jalap, the characteni of
which, according to Pereira, are as follows: — "It is in tubcrclea
which are not so dark-culourcd as the genuine druR Tbi-y are *Uxp\y
furrowed ; the prominent parU of ihe furrows bein;r white from lh«
friction of the pieces against each other; the depressions htAiij^ datk-
coloured. The pieces are but slightly resinous, arc amylaceous and
saccharine, and bare rather an a^eeable swectinh odour, which
Guibourt compares to that of oil of rhodium or of the roee. It |k«-
Besses scarcely any purgative action ; it is probably the kind known iu
the American market as orergroicn jalap."

We have here then important aduU^ralions of the very root ittclC
one of them at all events practised in Mexico by the dealers ; wc shall
presently see whether jalup is not subject to further adulteration^ th«
work of parties nearer home.

RetuUs of the Examiuation of SampltM.
From an exanjination of the analyses of Thirty-three samples of
powdered jalnp. it npfMiared —

That no leas than /'wr/^en irerr adidtrrnted, or nearly "»e half.
That this adulterutinn wits in all the sanij)li.'s of ilic same kind, and
consisted in the addition of large quantities of wood in a minutely
dirided slate.

c D -t

664

JALAP, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

That the wooH emplnyorl in twelve of the samples iras of the sat
kind; in the other two snmplra a ilifTcrcQt duscription was used, m
was evident from the characters of the fibres.

That this adulteration amounted in some of the samples to at least
one third, the properties and strength of the jolap being, of coan6,
impnircd to that extent.

That one of the samples yielded only 6*37 per cent, of extractire;
and there is therefore niuoh reason to believe that the resin hftd been
previously extracted.

Mr. Scanlan gave the following evidence before the Committee on
Adulteration respecting the sophistication uf jalap with giutiactun shav-
ings :—

" I discovcre*!, by accident, an adulteration of powdered jalap to a
great extent. 1 wtnt into a druggitit's warehouse one day in WoWer-
hamptoiu and saw a numl>er ot powders ready folded in 7 lb. or
14 lb. parcels. There was one I did not know; I :isked the wwre-
houseman what that one was. He lold me it was powdered jaJap.
I said it was not ptiwdered julap. He insisted that itwu& I saiil *Ic
IB not the ct)lour <tf jidnp.' I took u comer of the paper and movetl
the po^ider, and I saw thiit tlio muss of pnwder had a dilTerent colour
from the surface, I said to him, 'That is a very curinus thing. It
Ujoks vt!ry like the effect which rays of light prmiuce upon guaiacum.*
The mail bt'^nii to lini;;h, and lold me it was jnliip root and guaiacuoi
shavings, ^ont m equal wt^ights to the mill to be ground and void' oa
jalap powder."

Mr. Villicra put this question to Mr. Herring, in regard to the
adulteration of jalap: —

" Is it true that lalap powder is frei|uenlly adulterated with rasp-
ings of guaiacum ? — " Yes, latterly ; even last week the merchontd
have been imjiorting an article culled jalap tops, which is merely the
cuttiiigsof the tree, not the root, and which has been sold at "Itl, per lb."

We have now t'> inquire who are the parties guilty of adulterating
an imjinrtunt article of the Materia Mu<Iicii in sn seandalouA a manner.
It is evident that the retail chemists and druggists arc not the parties
who practise this adulteration, since the aid of a powerful pulveruinj;
opperatus is required.

From the analyses we have made* it is also evident lliat jalap is not
unfrequently supplied by wholesale chemists and drupgists in the adul-
terated coudition in which it is afterwards retailed ; but we are not,
in the majority of cases, to conclude from this circiimstance that tliejr
arc the partitas who practise the adulteration.

As one of the great results of dur invt'stif^ations, we have ascertained
that a large proportion of the adulterations met with are traceable to
the pn'purers or manufacturers of the ditferent articles of Food and
Medicine.

It hu already been shown that most of the vpices are lorgelj

I
I

6G6

ndnlternted in a variety of tnyn. There is no dotibt that many
of the adtiltorntions delected were perpetrated by a class of persona
known a^i spice GRi7iDER<t Now, m the dru^ trade there exists
a bimilur class, ealled nnuo obikdrbs. It is perfectly evident
that an adulteration of tlie kind pointed out in the case of jalnp can
only be practise*! by such grindera, who alone (>omgm the luacliinery
necessary to carry it into operation, 'llie drug grinders, then, would
appear to be the parlies guilty of the adulteration described in this
report. The wholesale chemists and drufigists, however, must not
be entirely acquitted, for in many cafieft tney arc thenisolve«! cither
druif grinders, or they direct the finders to atld certain adulterants
to the nrtictcs which they send to be ground.

That the drup grinders arc in the habit of practisin;^ many adul-
terations with various nrttcles of the Materia Medica is a matter of
notoriety amongst chemists and druggists, and many members of the
medical profession ; and various are the statements related of the
practices to which they have recourse ; thus, it is said to have been b
common thin*; to send a certain (|imntily of an article to be ground,
with a reiiuest that it should be returned of a weight greatly
excvoding tnat of the article sent.

In the evidence of Dr. K. L). Thomson, given before a Select Com-
mittee of the House of Commons ap[K>inte(l in 1838 to inquire into
the "Administration of Kelief to the Poor," &c., it is stated^ in
answer to a (|ue9tion by Mr. Wakley, " that it is common to send to
the drug grinder eighty-four pounds of julap to bo made into a
hundredweight."

We have, then, clearly established the fact of a scandalous adultera-
lion in another ttnyst important medicine, — an adulteration, moreaver,
to which no reference is made in works on Materia Medica, not even
in the- most complete work un the subject in existence — namely, that
by the late Dr. Pereira.

Whon to this fact we add certain other considerations, we shall
perceive how great must be the variation in the strength and proper-
ties of this remedy as dailr administered in hundreds of cases.

Thus, as will be presently tibown, the genuine jalup tuber itself varies
very greatly in strength, while this again is commonly udulteriited with
the spurious or male jalap, the purgative properties <»f which are much
inferior to those of genuine jalap. The remwiy for this last adultera-
tion is to prohibit its importation.

Ou the Detection of the AdulterationM of Jnlap.

Male jalap, jalap sulks, and rose-acented jalap, differ cnnsiderubly
in their microscopic characters from true jalap, and also from each
other.

In male Jalap the resin is not confined to distinct cells, but occurs
in masses of irregular form aud size, of a bright yellow colour. The

666

JALAP, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

starch granules hare the same form as those of trae jalap, but ore
smaller iint] not so abiiii<lant.

Jah^ Btalka coiisihI ohitlly of very beautiftil dotted ducts of large
size, with dotted woody fibre, mid a small i|uatuity of atarcb of toe
same size and form as thut uf lasiforni julap.

In rosc'Scented jtdup nu distinet resin cells or masnea of resin occur,
but veins or streaks of coloured und jippurently empty cells traverse
the tuber, sections of whiih („-shihit a mottled appearance, owing to
the intermixture of the rnlnured and colourleda celU. Ko starch
corpuscles were found in the single Bample of tbis descriptioa of jaUp
submitted to examination.

The autount of exLrat'live obtained from powdered jalap by diges-
tion in ulct*boi doea not indicate with any certainty tbe extent of the
adulteralion ; since, alUiough tbe adultemted samples of jalap, aA a
rule, furrtish much less extniriive than tbe genuine drug, yet there
aro several exceptions lo ibis: thiijt, in one genuine jalap the extract
amounted Xii*ll-'M\ \>ct cent., and in another to only 19-32 per cenL ;
while in uno adulterated jalup it was xxa low as iJ 37. in another tt
reiM.'lied a» bigli as 2jS-84 per cent., these b<:iup tbe extremes of voria-
liun in tbe quantity of extrict. This difference is due cbietly to itiree
causes : —

First. — The quantity of resin and other matters soluble in alcohol
▼artea very p-catly in different jalap tubers, as is apparent from
following analyses : —

Firtt T\iber.

the I

Char. — Soft, resinous, and dark coloured ; not very heavy, and
slightly worm-eaten. It yielded 32*66 per cent» of aieokoUt
extrocL

Second Tuber.

Char. — Firm, hard, rather whitish, and friable,
per cent, of extraet.

Third Tuber.

Furnished 10-^4

Char. — Taken from the same parcel as the above, the characters
being similar. It yielded 17'80 per cent, of extract.

Fourth Tuber.

Char. — Heavy, very hard, and of a jrreyish colour.
1 1 '08 i>er cent, of extract.

It furnished

The extracts obtained from powdered jalap^ although the restilts
vary considerably, are yet much more uniform than tbuse from the
tuber, for in the cai^e of the powder we obtain the average extractive
of many different tubers.

JALAP, XifT> ITS ADULTERATIONS.

66:

Second. — If llic alcohol emplored contain water, u portion of the
watery extract, includicig even gum, is likewise taken up, and so aflecta
the pcr-centaKes.

Xliird. — The adulterating ingredient used, it«clf yields a portion of
extractive.

Willi tlie viev of determining the kind of wood so extensively
used in the adulteration of powdered jalap, we have compared it,
ainon;;st other woods, with that of liquorice rooty lignum vita or guaia-
cum^ tatin and box wonHn ; and it is probuble that, in thi* majority of
case«» the wttrxl employed is that of lignum vittp, which, being a highly
rt^sinouB wn<id, yields to alcohol a lurge amount of extractive; thi^
wniilil account for the high pcr-oentjigea of extract obtained from
mtiny of the adulterated aamplcA of jiilup.

f.>.2U.

PovrascD Jauf, lufltlr MluUtnUCd wllti woo4. pnbAblr Ihrt of I^wmi

Mto tr gmamctmt. ■ a a. eclli, ala-nth carijiuelM, Ac, ut fftlap i bit, Tnt-
■mto Mid Abna uf the vwd. UafDlStd XPi dUinttvn.

The characters of the fragments and fibres of this wood, and the
api^arance of u sample of jakp thus adultei-atod, are shown iny%-. :iia.

666 IFECACUAKHA, AND ITS ADUI^TERATIONS.

IPECACUANHA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Ipecacuanha^ Cephaelis Ipecanmnhn, is n somewhat shrabbf ploR.
the stems of irhicli rcnch two or throe feet in height, thmvin^M
runners^ and are t'urniehed with leaves, seldom more thtn wax m
six In nuinbt^r, placed near the extremities. The moU wkick as*
stitulc the i|)ecuL:uatdia of commuroe are perennial, four or six iaeba
long, simple, or stirnL'tiinos divided into a few liranclies, and *U pw»
seating the strongly annulated character by which they arr so reuly
recognised and distinj^uished from all other medicinal rooto. u
habitat is Brazil, it Hyeinj; found Iwitwcen 8® and 20° S. Ut> Xlgrovi
in moist, shady situations, as valleys. The following aeeottBt,likci
from Martins of the collection and gathering of tbe roots i>pvna
Pcreira'a " Materia Medica" : —

" The roots are gntheriul at all seasons of tbe jear. tliough laon
freimentty from January to March inclusive ; and as no cane ii tabl
in the ctdtivatinn of the plant, it has become scarce around tb'* pfifr*
cipal towns. 7'Iiofle Hrnzilian funnrrs who reside in th« nvjjhtioiir'
hood of the plant carry on confiiderahle commerce with it Tk
native Indians also are very assiduous in the collection of it. 'Wtm
called by the Fortuffucsc the Corf>ai]os, who live near tbe rirer XmoCi
in tbe province of AKnaes, as well as their neighboum the Pun. v%
the grciilest colUetors of it. They sometimes leave rbeir vilU§« Ut
two months at a time, 6xing their habitations in tbos*; pluxs in viiid)
this plant abounds. Thuy cut the roots from the st«:(us, dry llicrni ic
the nun, and pack them in bundles of various sizes and forms. Ipen*
cuanha is imported into this country from Rio Janeiro is btlci^
barrels, and ba^s."

Three varieties uf ipecacuanha nre described, distin^i^bed by tMr
colour — namely, brown^ red, and g^rry annulated iiiei'airuatiba.
continental writers ipecacuanha is denominated anmuuiied \\
to distinjfuish it from the roots of T'jfycAo^na eirwAica and
jico^a. These ore not known in English commerce.

StructHre of Ipeeaevanka.

The Bubatancc of the root of ipenacuanha is divisible into two
— an outer ct>Wi«x/ portion, and an loner, iibrous. and ir«»»i
botanically termed medititUiitm. These, in the dry rttut, s«pan
easily from each other, and their intimate structure may b«
with facility from transverse sections.

Examined unrler the microBCoi)c, the cortical part u i
sist externally of cells of a deep brown colour, tbe pari«l
are but indistinctly visible, and which form tbe epidenaia r

IPECACUANHA, AND 1X8 ADULTERATIONS.

669

the cortex h matle up of ailonrlesx ceU.s, tlie cavities of which arc Bllcd
with minute but excemliii^ly distinct starch cor|)U»clcs, many of
which are unit^ in twa", threes, and even fours^ and con6e<juentl)r
are ruther luuller-shaped, while thejr ire all furniuhcd with a very
dtstioct bilum. (See j^. 214.)

Fii. 214,
iMCACOjutu Boot.

Trsmrme wclton ot the rcrttx. tna/n)<l*d l!9i dUmrlfn. J . Starch cor-
puKlrs (ir the Mine, PMfntlKl fSO tlUnict«ts, w mlaa eaxttia ueieoiMi
cr/dal* -, rrnetimt (T) oDaubnd in ifaki purtkin orth« root.

In tr&narerae sectioiu, the central part, or mefHtuUium^ appears to
coDuit of a number of tlighllj angular cells, of different size*, having

I of Uw oentral prnti or maiHt^imm, nagnltad fl»
A, iruuvuii MMtok I a, lODittudliiai niiUok.

Hcmbling ctos^y those of the cortex. In lonrritudin&l tectimu «
becoinet evident thai what uppeared in transverse sections to btodk*

IPECACUANnA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

67 1

itre really wood/ fibres which had been cut ncross ; the fibres arc all
strongly dolte<l, and are remarkable for cnnuin'mg in their caviliea
an abundance of Rtarch corpuscles. This is tlie unly instance irhich
has as yet fallen under our obitervation, in which the cuvitiea of uii-
duubted vroinly fibres have contained starch corpuscles. Fig. 215.

In genuine powdered i{>ecacuanha the whole of tlic structures
whieh enter into the foruiution of the cortex and meditulliutn nmy be
detected on c&reful exauiiDation, variously broken and cujuminuted.
Fig, 21G.

OsanvB Qrovitd IrmcACVAtimA.

a tt. rrBffmrnbt ot lb* brow 9%M*rmi» t & A. wUi of tb* eortcs. cDBtalcliif
' itkTch t f c, looM •urth aety imuU ■ uid njiUU t (f <<• VBody flbrw of tlM

The Structure of ipecacuanha root is therefore exceedingly cha-
racteristic.

Composition of Tp^caenanha,

The most complete analyse* of ipecacuanha which have as yet been
made are those of Pelletier and Bucholz.

e72

IPECACUANHA, AND ITS ADCLTERAT10K8.

p£U.ETl£K*t AnALTBia.

Srown Antmlaled Ipecacuanha.

Km«clM ....
(VLirotu bttr nullar .

Gum ....

SUrch ....

LlffnvcHU nctUr

Naa-«mccic exinctlve .

Lou • - . . .

lt>r(W!iwi)>ia

CoRM.

HadltuUlMi.

cmT

16
S
6
10
41
ID
0
4

trAcct

8^
KKMl

S6-IR)
S45
4-BO

u
It

100 00

100

BocHou^'s Ahaltsis.

Emetic extractive (emetina)

Soil resin , . . -

"Wax . - - . -

Gum - - - - -

Slarch . . . -

Woody fibre - - - -

Bitter cAtr&ctive - . -

Sugar - - . -

ExiTHctive, gum, and ttarch, extracted hj

potuh - - - -

Loet - - . . -

Ipecacuanha ...

4*13

2-43

0-7tf

2517

fi-OO

10-80

1012

2-00

34S0
0*80

100 DO

The only constituents of ipecacuanha which require to be partkm-
ItLrly noticed are the odorous fatty mntter and emetina.

'llwj'otty matter w extmctctl from ipecacuanha by ether ; it« odour
is verv strong, and rcsemblea that of the essential oil of horiieTadialt.
Notwithstanding its acrid taste and ]>ungent smell, it does aoi exert
any considerable effect upon the stomach.

Emetina is iucHlort>us ; has a slightly bitter taste ; is fusible at 122"
Fahr. ; very ^liglilly sofuble in com, but more so in hot water ; verr
soluble in alcnhol, but scnrcety so in ether and oils. It forms sddu
with acids, including tannic acid, by which emHiMui is {urecipitated &
its solutions as a tonualc

On TUB Al>ULT£XATION8 OF IpECACCAHHA.

From the examination of Thirty-three samplct of powdered ipees-

cuauha, it appeared —

IPECACUANHA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

673

rlicratetl with a vegetable anbstance

That eighteen were aduiteniied ; or more than one half.

That of these one coutaiuvd a very hirge quantity of tartar emetic.

Two of the 8iunple« were adulterated with Urge quantities of car-
honnte of lime or chalk.

Two were adulterated with wheat flour^ one of these also containing
A proportion of extraneous woody Jitre.

That one of the samples wm adulier
containing much starch.

That iwetre sauiplea were adulterated with mriouB and often con-
siderable proporiiomt of extraneous looody jibre of more thun one
kind.

We have now shown, that powdered ipecacuanha, like the other
dru;js we have re|)orled upon, i« aubjeet to very extensive aduU
tcratinns. The miwt prevalent nduUeration delcct^tl i^ that with ex*
traneouB w(HH)y fibre; it will he remembered that the pr{nci[)id adul-
teration of jalup was of a similar nature. In our report on that dru^
we expressed the conviciiim that since, for the reduetiun of woody
Bubfltonces into powder in uny quantity, a |>uwerful ^rindin;.' ajtparatus
is required, dru^ grinders were the purliL's wh<j practise this mluhera-
liuii. The eorrespimdenee whieh ensued on tlie publicuiiiui of that
report \\^a afforded abundant evidence of the correctnesa of that con-
viction ; tiiL're is no doubt that in the caite of ipecacuanha also the
parties chiefly e<mcorned are drug grinders.

I|h?oaruanha, then, one of the most important medicines in the
whole Materia Meilica, is now proved to be adulterated to nuch an
extent a^ tt> render its cHt'etn w]ien administered must un^ati.sfactory
and unct?rtain. This unceitainly yiay be shown by reference to the
action of two of the sanqjiea nf ipecacuanha anrdysed.

Une sample supplied tn a public hospital, and ailullerated with a verj
1ari;e quantity ot chutk, whs repeate<llr administered in do^c:« two or
thrct' times as large as thuse ordinarily prescribed, without the usual
effects being produced ; in facl the dru^ was almost inert, ami it was
this marked inciHciency of the remedy that led to the detection of the
adnUeration.

Another contained nearly fourteen per cent, of tartar emetic. Now
the t'tfectj* re^ultiiifT from the ailminiiitralinn nf i^fecaeuunha thus
adulterated would be twice as severe and violent as thosie which eiuue
from iri'nuitJie ipccncuaiiha of good quality.

It if* alitu)<4t in vain that pliysiutogisla,patho)o<;ifits, and chemists ore
oonstaittly eoiitribuiinj; to the advancement of the aciene_' of medicine,
since the reetults of their labours nre pruciitiUly defeated and set at
nou^liL by iidulterritionssoscaiMbdousas those revealeU iu these articles
on *^ Dru^fs and their Adnlierations."

The lime must come, and that ere lon(f, when oflfences of this de»
scrap'inti will be viewed in their projrer lij^ht. ami men guiltr of theiu
will tind themselves pinceil where they ought to be — at the feloD*l
bar.

X 3t

674 IPECACUANHA, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

To adulterate medicine* which »re so frequentJ/ the salration fl/l
is not a Bimplc act of liishonestj, but it amounu to a crime of tfaf

CoLocTsra.
fig. 217.

deepest dve,
able.

COLOCYNTn, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

675

Since llie powiler of ipeojicuftnlia is so extcnaivcly Atlullenite<i, it
follows that all ihe other phumiaccuiical prcpiinitiona into the compo-
Htion of which This (1rii}» cnloi*s are niso adultorntcti, as Pulv, Ipecac.
Co. PiL Conii Co., Fil. Ipecac, c. Opio. and PiL Ipecac, c. Scilla.

On the Detection of the AduUeratians of Ipecacuanha.

Tbc oflultcrations of ipecaL-uanba with wheat floury woody flhre^ or
oXhtr vegetable substances^ are tU»c<)V(*rab)<* by invaiis of the micro-
scope; those with chalk uud tartar emetic by cht'iuical methods of re-
search.

Presumptive evidence of the presence of chnllc is obtained, if,
un a4ldii)^ a little acid to the powder viewed under an inch object
,i:1a85, effervescence occurs. In sucb cases a driven quantity of the
powder must be incinerated, and the ash weighed and tested for car-
btmate of lime in the manner already fn-quentty described,

For the discovery of ohe tartar emetic we may pnn.ced tbus ; tlie salt
must be dissolved out of the |>ow(ier with distilled water, and the so-
lution, after being acidulated, tested with sulphuretted hydrogen ;
wluMi, if tartar emetic be present, the yellow sulphurct of antimony
will be formed.

COLOCYNTH, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

*• PowoBREU colocynth frequently contains large quantities of the
seeds of colucynlh, and those ought never to be present ; in the direc-

Fwtloao/Hirfkeaof QoviO. M4AIIM ISUdltnclcn.

X X a

676 COLOCTNTH, J^ND ITS ADULTEBATIOKS.

tions given for prep«in;r powdered colocjnth it is «

thftl the seeds abould be rcmoveil. 1 have mlto met wit£ tribntf jb

Tin. II*.

Sccttun of flKfto of CutorruA. ItafnUUd UO

bolh tn tlic povder and in the extmct ofcnlocynt]! ; ami in ifctfadH
I have detected chnlk, CoIm'Tiitb is one of the most valuable ya%
live mcdii-inca crmt^tined in the Pharniacnpaia. nnil ita adoltcnM
therefore, is a nuttrr nfcondiiienible inip4irt»nre."*
As it 15 impos!<ible to detect the adullcraliona of coloc/otll

* Evideoc* by (be tutlior befor« Ptfllamtour/ ComwHit «

RHDBABB, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

677

a knnwicdjre of the structure of the gourd and seed, we append some
beuutiful and cUoractcrulic iltuslralious.

RHUBARB, AND ITS ADULTERATIONa

" Akothkb (Irijfj which I have found sometimes to bi; adulttTntfid IB
powdered rhubarb. I have met with samples of pt>wdercd rhubarb
adulterated with turmeric \ and there is a sample upon the table which
contains a considerable quantity oC wheat Jluur."*

Another adulteration uf Turkey rhubarb in powder is with Engluh

Fii. S».

rhubarb; the medicinal aotiim and the commercial value i>f which li
9<) much inferior lo that of Anialic rhubarli.

The dotted dueti, cellular tittuet^ starch euMjuucIet, and groupt ijf
rnphides, are all clearly exhibited in the figure.

* £»!<■■» bf Ue Mtbor br(br« pKrlUmt^Urjr Comnlttw oa AduluraUoo.
X X 3

67^ SOUILLS) AND ITS ADULTEE.ITIOXS.

SQUILLS. AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.
" PownsmBD squilU I have found to be udulteratrd witb vlMf

Fovi)crt4 Sqriu.1. ■^■llanltA wMi

The Jarge eelU^ miral vesteit, and groupi vf t^dUAAt
characteristic of the bulb of xjuills, are all delineate*) in Ibc eagnfiiC-

COMPOUND SCAMMONY POWDER, AND ITS

ADULTERATIONS,

"AnoTHRB mnst importunt medicine \% the rmnpoond
pnwdtT. This consist!" of three in^eilients, nAmelv, Mnunoooir,
extract of jnlap, and ginger. Now two nf Uiuk in^re4i«ttta ate

• Evidence hy tlt« authvr bcfurc PvllMtMUrr

LIQUORICE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS. 679

liable to ailuUenition, namely, tlie eoammony &ntl the powdered
ginger; wli'ile the powder of jalap U very rpetpieutly FulisliUiled for
the extract, althcMigb it is not more than about one luurth strensth
of the extrnot. Of /*« sample)* y}( [lowdt-reil scainmony, I fouml chtdk
in trreater or less proportions in ftU, wktut flour in three, and /jourf/cred
_/(i/rfn in four,"*

The ^ubstilutinn of powdered jalap for the hard extract u a most
scandalous odulteratiou.

AROMATIC CONFECTION, AND ITS ADUL-
TERATIONS.

" The last medicinal preparation of which I propo»e to speak i«
aromatic confection, a very valuable renjcdy in tlie tTontiiient of
diarrbtca. This should conifisC of ciniiauioii, cloves, nutmegs, carda*
moms, safTron, prepiired chalk, and «n;rar, and it is conseijuently a
somewhat expensive preparation. I find that the more expenMive in-
p-edtents are frcfjuently omitted, and others sometimes substituted;
as tuntieric in place of the saffron, euenee of cattia for the cinnamon,
and chalk for part of the fiugar.'f

LIQUORICE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

LiquoBlcB is an article lar>;elT eonaume<1, and furnishes an illustra-
tion of a syotem of adulleriiiiun which extends to a variety of other
Uru*;s and pharmaceutical preparations.

Liquorice i< met with under various forms and namea: thus, there
is stick liquorice, the [xtwder, the Phnrmaoopffiial extract, the foreign
extract, pipe liquorice, and Pontefract lozengea.

Stick liquorice consists of the umlerground stem or rhizome of a
plant belonpn^ to the genus GlycyrrhizcL, usually in this country Gly^
cyrrhiza glabra : the powder is tlie r<>ot ground and pulverised, while
the other prepnrationf named ennsist of the extract ; this, in the case
of pipe li<iuorice and Pontefract lozenges, is said to he reBned.

* Rvltlenc« br th« author tMlbre PkrlUmeiiUrjr CofaaUlt«c on AdoltcraUon.
1 IMO.

X X 4

680

LIQCORICC, A^'D IXS ADULT£aATIOX8.

The foreign extract, known as Solazza extract or jiuce, in
the best; aiidiiccoriiingBS it \t prepared in Spain or Icalr, HUoUed
Spanish or I UiUan juico. AVe learn tVora Pereira Uiat the SM&tsk
extract is prepared in Caialuiiia I'rfim Gltfcyrrhisa gtabra^ mhm Uf
Italian extract is obta.int;d, in Calabria^ Irom G.eckinata. Ot'UtcTcm
thf lionoricc plant has been cxlensivclv cultivated in this rountrr taf
iiK'dioiniil \\%i.\ CBjieciitlly nt Miteham, where so many dificreot tisnli
of niedii'inul phmis are j^own.

The constiluenta of the rot^t of Glycyrrhiia glabra, according to tie
analysis of Kobiquft, arc, liquunce iUgar, or t'^" ■"—■'"*'«. jivci,
Qsparagiity reatnmts oil, nlbutiwn^ woodi/Jibre, and ^ dly^ls**

phate and nitrate of lime and m(if^ie»ia. Tlicquantt - .•evrvctii

constituentK are nut given by Uobiijuct, nor duel* he inenuunna'
oxaliite of lime as constituents, altbougb them: abound in the juicrof
the root.

As before entering upon the consideration of the chemical aduJtev
tion of nny article it is necesMiry tliat wc «hoiiM he acquainted «it^ Ik
proportions of tlie principal ingredients of which that articte if M^
]M>sed, we instituted in the first place certain analycea of ihe roue Ik
jtotcdevy and the extract.

The following was the composition of 100 part« of the frtA rMf.'—

The Fresh Root

Glycyrrhizin .... 9^

Gum ..... 25-M

Matter soluble in alcohol, chiefly resin • -7$

Albumen - - - . - -OT

Slarch ..... 22*91

Woody fibre ... - |S-M

Moisture ----- S6*ftl

Ash, 3 07 per cent. 1

Total - ]<MMN>

The analysis of 100 parts nf ihnimffrrri fi'rnfnf jiiiirifiir fiiriiwhni
following rosultd : —

The Powder.

Glycyrrhizin .... 10*40

Gum - - - - - 43-30

Matter soluble in alcuholi chiefly resin - 1*09

Albumen - - - . - r50

Starch - - - - . 24-41

Woody fibre .... l5-i0

Moisture ----- 4*10

Total . 100^)0

The analysis of the decorticated pawdtr fumiahed nearij tiflubr

results: —

LIQCOKICE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.
Thi Dicortieoted Powder.

631

Gljcjrrhiziu
Guni
Re«in

Albumen -
Srurch
Wt.ody fibre
MoiBturc •

130

371
•8

1*80
29-52
16-5«

102

10000

Fire hutiHrcd partsof the fresh root furnished 175 parU of extract;
while the Bomc qiinntity of thopnwder of thedried rot)t pnve 'J75 ports
of extract. Ldstly, 100 parte* of this extract, dried to a temperature of
212° Kahr., yielded 19-3 purU of liquorice sugar, aiid 80'3 purts of
matter iiiwduble iu aicubol, and which consisted ehieUy of gum with a
little albumen.

When pur« and genuine, extract of liquorice U entirely soluble in
water

As will be shortly apparent, the above analyses furnish nomc useful
data, by which the quality of the different kinds of liquorice may bo
judged of.

Structure of Liquorice.

The general structitre of liquorice rout is very distinotive; the ele-
ments uf which it consists are bundles of iruuc^jy ^^r^, re/^n/nr /ujHf,
doUed ducts or oesseli, and starch corpUMcles, Xbc»e elements are thus
arranged. —

In transverse sections of the root, a linear zone is observed,
asoally distant from the circumference about tlie third of the thick-
noM of the nK»t. The piirt of the root irithoui the stone is Ira-
Tersed by bundles of woody 6bre, united togetlicr by cellular tissue;
that within tlie zone is traversed by numerous dotted ducts or vessels
as well as by bundli>it of wiH>dy fibre; while tlie cells of the cellutur
tissue which forniii the basis of the root are tilled with starch cor-
puscles.

These tiarch corpuscles are very charjiclerlstic : they nre ov«I and
small, and in many uf them the central cavity of an ehmgated form is
vi«ble-

Tbe \coodtf fibre does not present anything remarkable in its struc-
ture ; the central cavity is well mirked. In sections of the older roots
medullary mys may be seen. The several structural peculiarities uf
Uq^riee root are ull clearly exhibiteil in the accunijmiiying drawinnrs.

The yellow colouring matter of the rcK>l is situale<l almost entirely
in the bundles of woody fibre, and in the walls of the dotted duels.

LIQtrOBtCB, AKD ITS ADOLTEBATIONS.

Pig. 33Bk

CS3

Xw^ffii^ftMl mcUm or ijQDosiCTi Root. HmiiUM 40 dlanwtcn.
Oh THB AsULTBRATIO^fS or LittUOBirB.

Havin;; thus dcficrlbefl tliv chemical composition and the slruclurc
of lifjuDrlee rotit, the subject of the adulteration uf litiuorice luu^ n«ct
be considered.

On tonsulting the works of differont writers on ftduUeralion, we h»Te
met with the followinj; nbservutions rvlatin;; to liquorice: —

Accum * st&tes that Spanish liquorice ''1:1 frequently nothing else
than ft mixture of the worst kind of ^m arabic, Ciilled Indian or
Btirbaru f^um^ im|wrled chii.'fty |ur the tibe of nmkin^ thoe hlackinj;;.
A solution of the genuine Spanish liquorice juioe is mixed with a su-
lutiuu of Barbary gum; and the mixture, after b«ing inspissated to a

• Tr««UM,p.S48.

]nY>perconsuitencef is ngnin mide up into cylindrical rol^ which, whilst
still moist, are covered with bav leaves, iind repncked in chettts to re-
tiemble in every respect the genuine Spanish liquorice juice imported
from Catalonia.**

Brunde* in his "Dictionary of Materia Me<lica and Pharmacy,**
published in 1936, remarks as f('>1lows: —

*'Thc eliiet'consumpiion ot*)iqmtri<:e is in the preparation of the ex-
tract, which is imported Irum the South o( Kuro[ie under the name of
Spaimb Juice; it is usually burned and utherwibc ciuelc»fily pre-

* Ticalife, p. 362. .

LIQUORICE, AND ITS ADULTEUATIONS.

6S5

pared and itdidtcrAted, and of>en conlftinfl copper, derived from the
jHiiiH in wbi( h the dfcm'lioii of the root is evHpnrMlt.'d."

M. Chevollicr* states, tbnl **liiiuoric«U ofK-n fulsifiod by W/ircA, and
A largo proportion of inert powders, it hua also been falsified hy an
extract which gives it the uwte of hay.

" It coutaiiifl likewise mernllic copper, removcfl raenhftnically from
the pans of that metal in which it i» prepared, liut it docs not con-
tain saltA of copper, a conclusion which results from tuany experi-
ments made by M. Villain."

" Liquorice/' writes Pereiraf* "m met with in commerce, however,
is rarely pure. It contains the soluble principles of (be root with
some copper scraped off tlic iMiiler hy the spatula employed to stir the
extract during its preparation. Fee says thai four ounces of this
extract yield two dmcbuis an<l n half of Dieullic copper ; but there
must be some great uiisiuku in tbi:* statement. If the foreign extract
be dissolved in water, and llie sulution filtered and inspijisated, we
obtain reined fttftmriee. But I am iiifurnieil thiit the tape refined
liqimrke is a very iiduUeraled article. The Pontefract loztnget are
made of refined liquorice, and arc much Gstecmcd."

Jiestdtn ttf the ExamhuUioH of SampUt.

We will now prrtceeil to state the rei>ul(s of our own examinations
ami analyses of litjuurice, premising that, genuine extract o{ liquorice
should di!«»olvti in water without leaving any residue, and tberefiiru
ought not to contain starch ; that it should yiehl from about 90 to
nearlr 100 parts of extractive utatter, according to the state of dry-
ness m which it may happen to be at the time uf anolytfis ; this ex-
tractive matter should lurninh from 7& to 8.S per cent, of matter in-
soluble in aicolml, chiefly gum; and from 10 to \5 per ceuu of sac-
charine matter or liijuoricc sugar.

The aualysvB of Thirttffnur samples of liquorice, including the
different varieties of roll »wi pipe liqtuirice, and Ponte/raci loxenges,
carefullv considered, tiiriii><h ••oine iiu|Kirtant results.

Thus it ap|H!ara thai the ^um of the difftrenl k'uuU of roll liquorice
varied from 65 5 to 335 grainsi |H!r cent ; of the ticcharine wetUrr from
14"9 to 8*9 per cent, p.irl of ihie in some cuscs con&iftiing of vane
sugar; of the extractive from 759 to 47 1 per cenL

Of the pipe/'yuoricr ihat the gum varied Irom 22*7 to 45*9 per cent.;
the sugar from l^H to 1 1 0, the greater part of tliis consisting of cane
jntgar; and the ettractice from 57*1 to 437 per cent.

Of the ronlefrota h^zengeit the gum ranged from 31-5 to 25*7 ; the
tngar^ partly ctine ntgar^ from 18*1 to 13*1 ; and the extractirt from
45*9 to 43-8 per cenu

It further anf>enrs from the analyses that the whole of the rt^l li-
quorice furnisuetl insoluble residues, varying in »m'?unt from 1$'50 to
4200 jwr cent. In twtlct ca«es tJie»e residues cimsisted of boiUd starch,

* DlctlonnRlre dei AU^raltmis M FalalAciiliniM dei SutMlincM Alin«DUlns. p, 304.
t U«lerU Medlca, vol. U. p. 1035, llilnl odltiuo. '^

686

LIQI'ORICE, AND ITS ADULTERATIOKft.

prohalily n>« (the starch present in the difTerent samples of Saksa
und Htirttccu extrnct was alwiivs uf this kind): in etfren anplBlcf
wheat Jfour^ in one o\' pi>(ato ntarcht hiu\ m one of u^heatjbmrnnrm,

Tbiit iUe pipe lUjuoricef likewise rurniehed in^duble residues (orlk
mosi jiart, in siill liu'ger ainounta thnn iW roll liqunrJce; thu* tkn
snaallest re^^idue wei^ihtMl, after being dried on u wuft^r tiRlh, 34^S mA
the l]irt!usl 41*0 ^rA. ptT cent. In five CiiAef ihia cfin^isttMi of lete
Jiuur^ in one of rye flour, and in one of potato^ rice, And arAarf^lan
In tivu viiscn A sniall part of thitt residue coiifiisted of gtJitUuti, dK
pi|)e6 being furni9he<l with a distinct tubeof thm ftubstancc

Lastly, thut the Povt^fraci lozenges funiisbed residues O0DaiM)i|tf
VDheat flour (;tiibject to ihi* uclioD uf beat), wbich varied in ttMMl
from i^(y^ti to 39*0 (irs. per cent.

The ash of the different siimpiesof roll and pipe liquorice and IW
lefnitt U))ten^ea varieii from ^50 t() 16 per cent., and eonsittrd is
severnl cases of fon-ii;n niincnti matter; tl>i;< in one in.^tAnceanioavlfll
to 13 percent, and was composed oi carbonate of lime, or rhalk. TV
ashes of the pipe lir^uorices in two or three cuse^ were ao *!«■(;
coloured iifi (u lead to the suspicion tbat Mime coloured mineral vuWf
Bubstiinee hiul been enipluyed to iitcreu»e Ibuir weiifhl.

It h tim.t evident that the different kinds nf ndl, pipe Itijuorice, tad
PoiiLefraet Kiieenges, are subject to very extensive adidteratitfQT lim
in fiuiiie instance.'' auumnlin^ to nearly one half the article.

Aa a rule, the pipe liiiuorice and Pimtcfruct triKeni;esronlainal
amount nf fureign starchy matter than even the inferior detet

nf roil Itqnnrire. Many of the pipe liquorices are in addition funiii

with a thii'k rnuun^ of |;etanne : this is sometimes of the wont qt^
lity, antl but little bunenur to plue. The best way to exhibit the tabi
of gelatine tinea^ing llie pipes is to place them in coUl water; the fi|Na
will swell up and increase Co two or three times tbeir orijfinAl liff:
when in this state, the gelatine may be easily removed.

The ingredients employed in the adullenilion of the kinib of Uqv^
rice above referred to consist then, of stan-h of various kinds, as wbist,
barley, rye, and rice flours, ;ind potato starch, either separat«-lT cr »
combination; cane sugar, gelatine, and fureign mineral matter, as ar^
bonatc of lime.

Although not immediately connected with the object nf ibia artkk
vfii yet, when en^juged in the analysis of liquorices, thought it dttSrMt
to determine how frequently and to what extent the samplci
contaminated wilh copjter. We deteeted that metal in thirteen
twenrv-one roll liquonces examined in greater or lesser amount;'
quantities in three of the samples were, for the 100 grains, •», "iSj
of u grain. Traces of co|t|ier were found in only one of ilie pipe
ricesii and in none of the Pontefract loxen(;e».

We will now pa^ on to state the results of the cxanunatioo
extract of liquorice of the Fharmocopiria.

Ten xamplex uf extract of liquorice were exvniiiedt Untii

alaifff

I LIQUORICE, AKD ITS ADT:LTERATI0N5.

iliMolvet! nearly wiUiout rp«tHue» and were f^ehuitic: the remalntJer of
the samples dep(»3itc(l inaaltibic residues Ainountin": to 3, 13, 17, 9, 7,
XH'S, uid 33 per ccnU rcapectivcty. In four cases thi^ consisted of
btnletl starchy maiier^ and in one instaucc of 4Uirchy matter aiid
gelnth*e.

The sample containing the gelatine fumisbed only 65.5 per cent.
of extrnct, and tlie insoluble residue amnuntcd to 17 per cent., lbu«
leaving 18 percent, fnr moistiiPe, which liirjje qiinntily the liquorice whs
partly enabled to retain, in consefiuence of its admixture with ftelatine.

It ia evident, from ilio nature and (]iiAntitIcd of the in:»ulub]c
residues that the ndidterated Mimples of cxlracl of licjuorice consisted
ofthe/orei^ extract melted down.

The compilers of ihe FhammeopcEia were doubtloM le<I to prescribe
A form for the preparation of a genuine extract of liquorice by the

Ilcnowledge of the fact of the mlulleration of the foreign extract. We
ibu* perceive to whatnn extent the rcj»ulationsof the Pharmfti'opcritt are
•vadeil in this casf>. In further illiif'tration of the extent to which the
Pharniaco[Kcia in this and doubiless in m»ny other articles ifl disre-
^rded, we may mentttin that we were only able to procure the Pharma-
(•(cpeal extract at about one-third of the chemists shops at which we
inquired for it. In one coac, although we particularly requested to
be furnished with the true extrnct, »<>me of the foreiun extract was
CfHirsely powered while we waited, nnd handed to us as the Article we
innuireU for, and fur which we were mode to pay twice the usual
prux*.

In the next and lost place, we will proceed to state the results of
the cxuminalioii of uumcrou.H <iai»ples of pouniered linutjric^.

Of Ticei\ty' eight numfileii of rKpnirirc in p<nc(/er suojected to exami-
TiHtiftn, eli'vcn icrre aduUcratrd. Of these mir consisted chicily of irheat
flour, another contaiiivd a large quantity of irAw/ Jiifvr^ tivo contained
much (nreiiin tniotfy JiOrr^ two KiUMh/Jihre and tnmieric^ another woody
Jiiire nnd wheat flitttr, </«e was made up chielly of Indian cont, potato
«nd Mgo flovrx^ arid turmertc, another of soffo, ttihnJy Jibre, and much
turmeric, anttther of Kojit Indian arroxtroot and a little turmeric^ and
anitiher consisteil almost entirely of potato Jiour^ a Uitle vhent flour^
and turmeric. Some of the BamplcK likewise coniained cane ruear.

We stated at the commenceroent of this pa[>er we believe*! it
would be found tliat li(piorice ntl'orded an exam])Je of a system of adul-
terMion wliii-h extcnde«l to other and more important articles of the
Mnicria M*^lica. We will now adduce some evidence to show that
this it really the ca«e.

It has bc*-n ascertained that some wholesale dniggtsts prepare, and
they nearly all keep, what are known in the trade as compimntt rwuf-
fierH. One of these is linuovice, the genuine jxtwJcr bein^ dintin-
guishe<l IIS Pulvia Olycyrrliiztt' Verus.

Other comimund powders are those of turmeric, gentiaOi fenugreek,
MttUced, cumin, and elecampane.

6sa

LIQtTORICE, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

Tbrae of tnnnerir, ^nlian, and renugroek are avuiiUy pr«p4i
after the following receipts, or aome modifications of them : —

Turmeric Powdfr.
Ytfllow debre - 1 lb
Turmeric
"Wheat flour

Gentian T^mrdtr,

lib.
2lba

G«ntian - - I lb.

Linsoe*! - - 1 lb.

M'beiil Hour - 2Ibi.J

C&|)e iiliivs > en.'

Feiivgreek Powder.

Fenujjrcek, Ih. \%t.
TuriHeric, 3 xii.
^Vhcat flour, lb. iii.

This custom is defended on the plea that nn deception ia pnutacd
anil that those iwwtlers are sold as comptiuiid arlrclca. TTiu lua^ be
flo as between the wholesale and retail dealers in drugs, hut it a^anredlr
is not the case as between ibe>c parties and the medical profttuoo
and the public : the liqiioiice powdeis, llic extensive and vAtied adul-
teration <»r wiiich we have just dcKTibed, were sold simply a# liquo*
rice, and no acknuwlednnicnt wlmtover was xuaile even tn a •in«Ie
instance of tia'ir cdinpoumi character.

It 15 eviilcnl thtit the nni'-tice of making and selling the»e <'/uii-
pound powders is most nbjectioiinble ; il indicjites 11 luxity <>f priocj*
pie, both nn the part of the wlioleside and retail denier* in druEn, and.*
It is clear that the medical praf!::ssion and the public are hy H seriouslrf
imposed upon.

It 13 aflirined that it is as cattle medicines that these compoumli
are used. Althou;;h this is the case to iconic extent, yet it is vurv cvt'
tain that they are nut thus yxcluaively entpli»yed ; besides, why ahould
these adulterated powders be thrust down the throats of cattle ?

We have now sliDwn that liquorii-i* in all its forms and varictiea ts
subject to an rnorinous amount of iiduheratlonf and that rarious sub*
stunces are employed fur that purpose.

Thus il bus been shown —

That the whole of the fbreif^ extracts or roll liquorioea wer« mdul-
tcmted. yume lotbe extent of neurU ;}0 per cent.

Thnt the whole of the pipe liquorices examined were also atlid*
tenited, same of them not containing one tbinl their weight of li*
quorice.

That the Pontefracl lozengea likewise contained hut little liijuoric^

That of the samples of the extract of Itquurice of the Ptuiriuacopaio/
one half were adulterated ; these for the most pari conaittting of |j
foreign extract melted down.

Lnsily, that a large pro[>ortion of the powdered liquorices exnmiDcdl
were adulterated, muny uf them containin^f only as much liuuoi
us was necessary to impart the Bavi>ur of the geimine powder.

)

UQtfDHIC£, AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.

699

Of the aduUcrBtionH discovered in roll li({^uoricc, some are practised
by tlio fortjigii preparers of the extract, while others are the work of
pnrties nearer homo. It is, we believe, not uncomDion for the foreien
extract to be melted down after its arrivnl in this counlrjr, for tie
purpoiie of fiubjciHin^ it to further adulreration. In some casex the
adulterating ingredients, as flaiir and chalk, arc so clumftily mixed
with the liquorice, that particles nnil masses of these substances mvf
be detected by the naked eye alone, aod may be picked out with a
penknife.

The adulterations of pipe and powdered liquorice described, were
no dnubt effected in this country.

Of the ingredients cmployeil in the adulteration of liquorice, some
ore themselves liable to adulteration. This is the case with the tur-

P/g. aM.

meric used, which we have found to be adulterated to
nearly 20 per cent, with yeltow ochre.

On the Detection of the AdwlteratioriM ofLigmono0»
Since most of the adulterations of liquorice consist m tl

T T

69U

LIQLOniCK, AND ITS ADULTKBAT/OW^

of vegetable Dulintanccd of diflfcrcnt kinds, the mirrnscope sfloff^ Ar
ol lief means udnpted Air their discoverjr*

Tbe cbaractors of irfieut Jlotir^ htrnteric^ and Kowi Indian orroirTwA
have already been deHcribed and 'iijlineated in wcioOcufs; tb« i^
[lenrttnoea pr^ontud hy liijuoricu {Xiwder adulterated with iketnowl
n:irned siibstancrs are also exlnbiud in^^. "225.

Tiio chief t'heinical adultvrntionji practised arc these willi flfv
utid ckaiit^ the procc^ for the det^'ctiun and estimation of the List il'
I»)inted out under the Iicad of tL'a, wblle for the detection of
xiigar in li<jiiorice powder we may proccL'd as follows : —

Add nboui two ounces of cold waier to 200 grains nf the
filter, evaponitc on a water bath at a yentie beat. i( cane i
jircM'nt it wilt cry»tallist) as the evaporation drnws near to an endLtnJ
if now a ViMXm ^iilpliuric ncid be addud, the retiidual inasis will inuac-
diiilelj" hecome clnirrt^l. Sulphuric itcid does not carbonize liquorice
sugar or glycjrrhizin but forms with it a chemical compound or tut-
phiile.

GIvcyrrhizin and cane sugar may be thua separated ftom each
oillur : ndd excels of baaiu acetuto <<f leud to a elrong filtered infusJoQ
of tbe powder, remove the loud lield in sululion by means of sult^u-
retted liydrojien, filter, evaporate un a water bath, and wli^n dry weijji
the residue, which consists ol cane sugur.
Ciislnm:^ duty is on —
Liquorice paste

Of and from British possessions
Litiuorice powder

Of and from l^ritisb possessions
Liquorice root until -Sth April, 1857
Thenceafier - - -

Liquorice juice
Until lB4"2 the oppressive duty of 3/. 15«. per cwt. was levied
ibrt'iun extract of li(]uorice ; ibis was reduced in ibiit year to ]/ 7«.
and in 1653 tu HOs. [>er cwt,, at which it now remains.

20*. i»cr

cwt.

10*. „

20*. „

15*. „

5*. „

free.

20*. ^

Artld«.

Invomri.

lalUL

llll«»^

I^ttortM Ftato

JUIM

Cvu.

4.150

7,»8a

Cw.
2l>S

B<>«»^ Co. u»nw

IB IftH.

■.C4a

«33

C»u.

7,Tn»t

4Q0

Liquorice not onl^ being adulternied as imported, but bein;r sttbj<

to furtlipr adulteniUon ufter its arrival, it is clear that the Revcm
KufTcrs a considerable h>S!i through its sojibistication.*

■ T>ie prlnt-tpAl r^rt nf tItU article WM r««l bj- the author licfvrc The Mt4i<Ml
hamdit* hjia« titmuhi flnct.

LIST OF DKUGS, AND THEIR ADULTERATIONS. 691

Afl want of space prevents us giving r Hoparate article on each drua-^
we hare compiled tlie roUowuig tabic, which exhibita many of tlie
lululterutiuiu to wbith the more important drugs and phanimceutical
preparations are subject : —

LIST OF DRUGS AND TIIEIR ADULTERATIONS.

Aincits.
Cmloael

While prrciplUln
R«d prrclpllatp -
Mercurial uIuUdvdU

Nrnrurr

ImUua .

lnJt>li> nf |Mitu*lain
irhfomate or ]v«d

iJlhiarRr

Su'i'hKle Qf copper
AceUit* at copper

CartKHMttf of l«ad
C«Uraln(>, or carbons;

of llltC

Kltrat^oriltfcr

C«rlM)Ul» of WMlA
Nitrate at potaili
BlUrtraU of poUJi

Tarlarlc ictd
Lemun Juice

AOCLTRBATtoHI.

Chklk. flul|rfiat» of barytM and whtto
Itad I fine pipe clay i white prtx-lplute,
with ■nlptule or Umo

Cbiilk ; corrotlve luWImalv, chalk

Redlrad

OnllnarT day tnlicd •Ith pnuaian blue,
aud o(ner tiibitaucn, blue cla/

I.t«d, tin, blimiiih ■ - . .

Wai^, blarli lead, rnide lalphaUt of
antltnoiijr

Carboiut e of potni h - . .

Sulphate of baritea, cjubonale of lettd,
chalk

Earthy matter - - - -

ttulphate of trim - . . -

Cbilk ; lulpbaie ot copper and acetate of
Ittad mIxM

8ulph.tte or barjtM. tulptiale of lead.rhalk

Sulphate of larj tea, chalk, ocbre, earbo-
TiAte of lead

><liral« *^ potaih ....

Sallcllir. Qiiiiiidtiie and CtDuhoDlor ; (ilDi,
tUnli. clulk, lulphAlcuf Iwrtlei. tten-
rlnr; rhalk : •nlpliatriir^tii(ildltir,ch-tlk,
aulpliAtf o[ lime, killceuut mattrr, car-
bonate n( niagttrtla, lulpbaie ol Itia^f-
neit,i. kiiluhnti* of Mda

Kiilphale or wida, Ulaubrr's lall •

Common mK ....

(^halk, alunt. ttdphale ot potaih -, alun f

nuulpbatr nf tnda ^ alum ...
lArftequaoiitlM lA water ; aiilphiirlc, tar-
taric, and amir arlda
Idmo, chalk, kauda, tulphate of barytct .

AUTQOaiTY.

Normandy, filnglejr,

Waklf^.

Thnnikon, Baitlck.
Hattick.
NellCiin, Pottgaiu-

Kormandf.
Ditto.

Haaiall, Binglar
Normandy.

Ditto.
llAttlrk.

Nurmandf, Wakley.

Normandy.
ThomtoD.

NofinaiMly.

HaaudI, Warlnrtna,

Normandy, Mir J. (>or.

(Ion, Lclbrby, Binglejr.

Nonnandy, Scuilaii.
Normandy.
Kormandy, l'o<(galf,

Cilwrn.
ILulirk, Pattjtate.
Kaaauil, Blufley.

Normandy.

l^lrlti of nitre .

So. ntnmoiil* fori,
'1 r. t^crrl-M'aqul
H«dr»ryank acid
>fi »mini«Qir nra

Mili.r.iirl.- eiher
llN.w-'hloncarld
S-tnr^ld
Alcubid -

Contaminated or adulterated with alcohol,
rhlurtni-, hjdrochlDili; nrid, hydroi'liln-
r>c ettuT, «ih] compoundi of miihyle,
Utidf* Maier aitd liked iutMianc^t

Water ; alcohol . ■ . .

Dhto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Dicio
Ditto

Blyth,

HuulLThonaon. Blt-di,

Buli<k.
BIylh. rhrt I raa.
Dlilu, thttn.
Ditto, Ditio.
Haiuill. Biytk.
Calvert.
Haaiall, Ac
Dttio.
Dllta

Rhubarb -

Squilla .

tfcmia

EnKliili rtmUarb ; wheal douri tormerlc, Warlnvum. Ilaudi,

Douf Thompton.

Wheat flour .... UawalL

(.lAitt (if c-ynatH-hum ... VervUa, Bell, Sic

T r 2

692

CONCLUDING BEUAKKS*

lAnttHtd itiral
SaAVoii -
Aronudc ooaloctlan

Sperm oil
0)lta otl
Castor 4iil
Iha

I VSHOTQI

olb

Burnt tponge
Mtiik -

Cochineal

AMafstM*

Copal

Apt-XTBKATIOM.
Ilr«n, rlav, utwdutt . . _

SttflVflowcr . - - . -

Tiirmerir. catiia, pxrpa* nf rhnlk — the

iDore rKpentlfc iDuriMtcntklifilDg ionic-

tlmei omlltrd
Whitle MDil olbcr otl* . - .

Nut itrul po|>p; oDi . . - .

Croton oil - - - - -

l.lusrt-d oil -

Tur[irnllnr. flx<Ml and TuUUIe oU*
CorbiHili: arid . - • .

Prfpnrnl cbtrconl, rommnn tn\t -
r«ti« bARi filled with dhrH blood ^ Irad,

drlnl blood, inabogAiiy dutt, luid hitin

nf Uli or hitrsc
Siilplitri* of iMrvtM, V«nett«ii talc
Chalk, land, Mtiil cUy . . .

Gum aiiitne, gum dammar, and coinman

r«la
SpemiAcetl . . . -

AtrntoMTT.
Nftrm*nd».
HuMaU
Ditto.

Sininnoii4a^

L>ltfa.

HjumII.

Bnhtirlt.
I>lttu.

WakUy.
Quckrtt, Bwtia.

Normandy.
Ulttv.

BMUek.

Many of the adulterations enumerated in the above list will
found rcL'ordcMl in the evidence recently iiiven before the Parluimes*'
lury Committee on Adulteration. It might liavo been grtatlr tx*
tended, eapccially by n-feroncc to Pcreira's "Materia Medica,** andlhc
" Pharmaceutical Jounial/*

CONCLUDING REMAUKS.

In various parts of this work vre have dwelt, influenced solely b;

public considerations, with some severity upon the shortconiin^» and
incompelence of the Analytical Department of the Excise. The ft
lowing remarks by Mr. Simmonds, extracted from hia evidence b«fa
the Parliamentary Committee on Adulteration, ]>oint out eleulr an
of the chief defects of the Excise * —

" Tlie Excise regulations, as respects articles of much consiimptic
appear to me comparatively obsolete, and fur behind the rer|iiirt'nit:
of the age. There is too much laxity and injustice on tlie part of
;Treasury, which sanctions admixtures and adulterations in a varr

ADULTERATION AND THE REVENITE.

693

of instances, u in tlie cases of chicory and coffee, canaia and cinna-
fuoDf wild and cullivatcd nutmcgii, and other articles, but ia most
virtuously indignant at ndultvruted tea, tobacco, snulT, and other
heavily taxeil articles. The officers of the Customs are, generally
speaking, (extremely ill-infornicd as to the quality and purity of various
articles imparted, such us starches, oils, dru^s &c. I contiider it
would contribute greatly to check adulteration if scientific and tho-
roughly competent examining officers wore appointed ot each of the
principal ports, whose duty it would he to examine and report upon
the quality of all articles introduced, whether for manufactures or
food, but especially the latter, instead of submitting samples, as is too
fre<piently the case at present, to interested parties. In most of the
principal States of Europe there exists a Boaril of Health, or Conseil
de SAlulirit^' (somewhat difTcrently constituted to our Metropolitan
Boaril), composed of eminent phyuiuiouB, chemists, and engineers,
appointed to watch over whatever way affect injuriousty the public
faeatth and comfort.**

A very important bearing of the subject of adulteration is ita rc-
lattoii to the Revenue, This hns already been considered to some extent
iu the Intro<luction to the work. Altlmu^^h no duta exist by which
the exact extent of the loss suflercd by the Revenue through adul*
tcrntion may be estimated, yet it is very certain that this loss
amounts annually to an enormous sum of money ; in fact, to several
mUliona. The accuracy of this statement «ill be rendered very
obTioufl by on examination of the following table : —

■

■^H

■

p^^^^l

^I^HI^^^^^BB

^V 694 CONCLUDING REMARKS.

Rmm.

Konif C«iwunt»-

ttMiUilaU.

Dull,

Rtrten ov.

Aduiu

■. d.

€ •. '■

< •. *■

Tm - . • ai.4M.(ltS lb*.

I 9

S..'i&S.?M 1 9

277.4111 8 <

CoAm •

ti,wnjm ibfc

0 S

448,453 11 9

I79,isa 4 • 1

StigartUDreaaed]

7,WC.0S9 cwU.

la a

SJSM.im 18 9

XM.«Si »ll

ChleocT -

34»llM.

0 ft

T 5 0

a s 1

Cdd« them -

fl.9C7 vwu.

a 0

Ciiroa |Mut« or cboeoUM nM^ i^- \

0 s

Cocoa ...

4.471.501 Ibi.

0 3

lft,r*3l 10 1

»,aift i» 1

Kluur

14M0,-119 cwti.

0 4k

3B,»4 IS «

»,«4 4 4

Buiht . . -

4«(l.W» cwt».

a 0

113,0(17 0 U

A.ma 9 •

Ariowrool

13,(MM cwts

0 a

24a 9 R

M a 1

S«BO - - -

lM.49ftcwti.

0 4i

2.0CM C iri

109 4 «

TapiocA - - -

iJM rwii.

0 4i

su 9 a

4 « 4

Prpppf -

3.C4T.«OH>».

0 G

'9l,l<Jft 1 1

S6,47« 0 f ;

]-oi¥lRn *)»rx«r

94,10A Rail*

0 ^J

4AI t» 4

90 8 11 I

<iinK*r . - -

»,4l3cwU.

a 0

Ji,s^ n r

1,070 la Bi

Cintiaman

42.M3 Ihi.

0 s

157 ir 5

lor y tl

Culia •

110,9191b*.

0 1

4» 5 tJ

01 If •

Nutm*»g»

imjueawM.

1 0

9.194 16 0

M» » T.

M»CH .

mflraib*.

1 0

1,428 2 C

ua • t

ClnTM .

3S0,«4»lbi.

0 s

l,H3H U l<

Pimento-

a,u6cwti.

a 0

»rt3 J5 (1

Mixed .Spica .

1 0

CMiircctioocrr . .1 63,aflaibi,

0 si

629 fl 1

ins 14 1

MaU . - - ;n.879.38l tHJih.

4 0

6,77J.S:fi 4 (

i.«ar769 IT 8

Hop. .

SI.MA.»Mltiii.

0 1

686,402 It *

aos,9aQ n i

Hop*, foreign •

19,030 rwtfl.

» D

K.7W 0 0

i7.h&a a 8

SplrlU - . .

ll.ga7,17ABali».

B 0

«.782.906 0 i

1.1 ^\7« 8 8

Rum -

9.n4,KHIgalU

4 S

i;iifi,«n 9 H

320.148 a l'

)

Br«ndjr . • .

um»i gmlU.

Ift 0

I,l44.<i60 1ft C

ITI.M» t l|

Anoano -

336Gf:«U.

14,703 0 C

7^a 10 •

Wine, roreigii -

6.1803aAgmlto

& 6

t.aw.7ft7 a €

4V4.030 a t

Tobafco -

ao,s7S,oeii ibi.

a D

4,&4t.l50 3 t

9oa.9(io f r

Oitlci. inviufftcturtd.

and »nufl

SlS.USIlM.

: c 0

C6.K74 IS t

la.114 19 T

Ophtm . - •

A6.ofirrbi.

] 0

3.800 7 4

R4I a t

Uqiiorkv iwUlB .

MTVcwtB.

30 0

I.H7!l 0 <

ft6a 14 8

niltojuite -

MMScwu

20 0

8,643 0 C

a^93 u a

Ditto root -

323 C»U

6 0

S,01» 0 0

16 a •<

ToUl - - 7

►078.268 9 4>

ADULTERATION AND THE REVENUE. 695

ll appears, tTicrefore, that the total luss to the rereniie arising oat
of luliiltoration^ ainounbt to tJic unormuus stun of 7,078,268/., on
eshniiit*! which in the main is doubtless currecl, und which is amiily
frufTicient tu detnunstrnte that the subject of adulteraLion is one of hijjh
intirejit to the statesman uml tho tinuiu-ier.

Tbc per-centages given represent very nearly the extent of adul-
teration prevailing in the years 1851, lttJ2, and 18^3; at the present
time, in the case ut' some ol' the articles enumerated, it is less in eonse-
<)ii^nee of the exp(»sure!i and denuneiationsof udukeration made in our
Kepurls published In ** The Lancet/^ and iu the' evidence Iwfore the
rarliameutary Oimuilttee on Adulteration. Ou \\in other, the calcu-
lalinnd are based u|K>n the returns for the year 1H55, the conMunptinn
of mi>st articles in tlwt year being greatly reduced in conset)Uence of
the war. It should also be remembered that (;^eat rcduettuna have
been made of late years in the duties uptm most articles of consum[>-
tion, fo that it may be fairly u»!>umed tbat a few years ago the propor-
tionate \o** to the revenue woti much greater than at present.

Tlie adulteration uf Mali is put down at 30 per cent. ; this is in-
tended to tncluile nut only its direct uilulteration, but mainly to re-
present the diminished consumption of midt arising out of the adul-
teration of mult liipiors, so generally and cxtcuttivcly practised. The
same remark applies to Hops.

llie adulteration of Su^ar is set down at 5 i)ercent. ; this includes
ihe Hugar use<J ^o extensively in the nninufucture of sugar confec-
tionery, aud which, as has been shown, is liable to considerable adul-
teration.

Fur the increased revenue yielded the lost three or four years by
many articles, Government is assuredly indebted to ourselves, to Mr.
Wakley, and the Committee of the llouse of Commons on Adul-
teration.

The calculations of Mr. P. L. Simmonds, given to the Parliamen-
tary Committee on Adulteration, establish the same important fact.
It may be observed, however, of these caleulaliona, that they are
certainly on the aveni^ much too l>w. He made the loss to amount
in the year 18^4 to upwards of three millions.

If the loss of the Kevcnue is so great, what must be that of the
Public ?

We cannot more appropriately conclude this work than in the fol->
lowing words, taken from a very able article on the author's book
entitled "Fvod and its Adulterations," contained in the Quarterly
Keview : —

**We have now shown enough to convince the public that the

grossest fraud reigns throughout the IJritish public commissariat

It remnins to be seen irhetber the Government is able and willing tu
btay this gigantic evil luid national dishonour/^

K T4

INDEX.

xlwrf. or lufar iotvct, ilffcrlptloD
n, Ar«., 190, l'J\. Vj2i MAblpl. or
I, 193; riuliMt, ur int«l lulU, 'JAM,
no I tiro, or cta«eH »<te, t»t. j^i.,

Hilr, luliilmrkc. and
I, 107 ; CAfTclc, In cot
Xtwuic, an<l plioiphoHc. In chlcorr
■Urttfir, |iu()rt>lrtr. liuiyriL-, rji.
riK, ar>d rapric, In buttpr. ',£1*G ;

nhnfpliorlc, in
)ffc«. I Ob; lUl-

OMOUf. and luliihurlc. In rlnegnr,
Ito; m flOO(iMtloD«r)r. «)»; Milphiulc,
UrilQ|lll.B2».
A«r btaiiUft*. 45G.

in <-otru«. 1)7. DfltectloQ

mdpouaA, W,Jtg^ 121).
IOli«HAnUU)o uf. 1. lu prcTalence.
M urf«d tn vxtcnuAlloti uf, 4. Rral
tk« prcTAlcnce of, S. Who are lite
tiltjol? ft. CUa«lflc«lion of adul-

0. Importaticv of ihe i(i)i^*.-ct. IT.
§rj beanun, 17. Il* unttarjr bvAt-

|u moral urarinfca, tl, Rrrnvdlv*
lie{M rrconim»Dd(-.i by ibc Fatlla-
.onitnittee for tt* dtwN>iprv ar>d iu[>>
B. On the mejuu br whirh it may
Ml, U-6S. Apiitlcatlon itf tbe im-
to ttt drtvrthin, 44. A(iptlratluii of

lo the latno |Hirt>u»c. ^^. K«a«enit
In uidor to dlirowr. Kl. ei uq.
ino> o( Tm. IV'<-I(<4; Coffer, lU^^—
orr. 130— |v^: Co<o«, ii\— !•«;
1 — 10%: HuiH-), I'lK.-.i)!; Mtlk,

rioiirdiidUf . l)uU«r,

Lanl, aui—V* —111;

t.aia-3V3; S. . Tapl-

•S9; I' V Frcu

KW^ .141:

ma «it : I uur<l,

t&lM. 4'

1, «!«*_...;, .
fUuri'*, iii.' -

!«»,, 4ji>— 4<.|
k6ft-i:7L CI-...

t|ftr CoorvctluMr^. 4M— 4i«i iW-

tM. 490-516; AI&M&-A34; GiO. &'^4— >40 ;
Kum. Ml— ii2; Braiidy, M'J— i44j Wt»«,
.%44— Affi. Or Daix:a, Kvtdriire brforr Par-
llament*ry Cutnmittee upon, 56}— 5ffi. LUl
of drugt adulterated. 6flB~B93. Sn Drufi.

Al>i:iisn. Tcgctablt, In flour* S39.

ALcuHMLoHKTta, rmtrilnut, Gaf Luinu'fl,
SM. M. (i«ltler'i alcnhuliiia^trr.Mf^.

Alk, bitter or pale, iitti \ .Mctiri. AII(opp'» am]
Bjlt'l. A16. Quunlon or iirycliiiliu> In, AI7.
RxatninaCloa itf «aiDpl«4 bjr tbe AnAlyUcal
Sooltarr CorouilMlou, Ml, SaLisracloiV r»-
•ult* ol the aiia]/>b. h\K r.x<tminatt:>n by
Hr>»rf. Graham and HoffiAMn with •hnitar
TMulu, MN. Origin uf tlit? ai'cututiuii aKaiuaC
thf Ijoadou pair alo breweri, MH, ^19. Impro-
b4bility of vmrloynifnt of itrtchnini; in al«
drmonu rated, MO. D«trrt(itit of itryclinloc.
ALK); itMtt far, by Marcttaud, M«<'k. Uttu. ana
I'linrnptnn, .'Vll ; Mr. Kodavri't pntcru for
it* di-t(srtiou HI the animal tl»iu«*, tlA ; pbf-
*iul')|[ica.l leit for, SH.

ALilKuimtKa, Mr. HnlaDd'i, lor the detrnol-
nallun o( rluivn, MO.

AlIlaLI Iq aruiBltu, -Ifjti.

ALKALiMBTia. Mr. <jilinity SCO.

Aiuru (L See I*Jitirnto.

All M Ui bnsid. Its aClloQ on h«»alth. MS— Kl ;
tnlariJ, 3U3; mpwiteriMTi In ctn, A^fft ; In
pcjrt wine, Ah|4.

AtrMlM* Id oiiDatto, 470.

Amhunu, bydtucblurtiu, nltrat*. and carbo*
uale uf, lu ti>b«cu. ^>iU.

AMUMTiLi4Do. Sft Wtnn. &&*J.

Ami iiu\iha, ItennU' characters uf, acmrdlii|tta
Yarrcll. 336. Drawtac of true Kngr^utU
cncraalcoliii, 336. Uetchpllon of. 3.17- Lar^
apeclmen captur«d near \ armrw_ith.337. \tr-
acripiioi) of thebottl- ' " " i^

TkK 4 1111 Mi ilf. «jlh I > - it-

U.U1 Citt), «Aidine«,.*| 'iij

. »(

«98

IND£X.

•CV} Leblnnd'i. 4r.<:. Stncttire of th« rr«d
466, J^., 4fi7 Itt ifrMt uie in manudirluHiig
trwln, 4(ki. CompM'/iun nr. >lfi7. Adlltua-
TloMi oti orgamic — lurtncrir, rye, bMrlrr,
whrAt, and uijta Hoar*. 4^ i inornanif — »ul-
nhalr add tarbonair tkt hmr, mU, alkalt. km|i,
VftiPllan r»l. red Inut, and copfwr. 46&. Jtc-
«it/<j iif Exam. u( ThlrtT-fuur Munplra, as Im*
porlpU, nj <ibtiim«J from KnjlUh montirM:-
luTrn. a<<tl a» (iiirrhaki^l frnin ilvalrrf, 46k,'
4S3. Ana\yte*, liy Ur. Uernay i, ol Qve lam.

Sle* uf anniiUo a>h, 46^i. Lt'Ml In ann4[lD
rtrct>^ by Accum. MiU-hi^II, Hern*}-^, and
Kormnndr, 47). Iiuutiicr o( Iti iiijurloui
•OHti.471. MaveiiU In annattn, 471. I^irl-
Avncr of Mr. WakTry on Uie adnltentiMA uf
aniintio, t7'J. Kxtmordhuirjr ct tdvnn of Mr.
Jlrdwitnd t ctprcting, 47S t of Mr. Draw. 473-
Ul cini'lormrnt to colour mllli. butler, and
rhecvc. mnarkt upon, 473; Mr. Stt-p|ivii*'i
oplnioD A» to ill lu^lMinnt. 473. Uetcfiivn
t^ tke ndHUemti'tiu of ann>(Uu wilh lurmrHc
{Jfi . 47'^), wlicat lUrih. Tft. bATiey. and
siij^o flotir*, 47-1 i *ii\.h iiilphate 4ml carbnDAU
of limi'. ciirtitjnair (if pi>t«tt>, rhlorlilc tif (o-
dlum.'rcHl WwA. and roppcr. t74— G77. Mr.
Wnrlnfltnu'i^ proci'vt for d«lfctlMg oxide of
coptirr. 47<!. Quantities ai»d ralttn Imjiortrd
inl'^HAifl |K%n,477. Annatto in cheese, 479.

AnrivtHi' lUi K hi riwif<t"l!iiiiery. 4*i.

.ArptK in marmalade, 4l&.^., 417; parings lo
clffarv, 003.

*' Agti* FuNT," fi4a.

ARWRfiUf IluLK in cocoa. 160 i Id MiehofW,
33*4; inpoitrd innittaiid flfh, 341 ; lriuucM,4>0>

■* AmorK." Sfe Wim-. JWMI.

ABaowBntiT, March granuln of Maranta. or
Wc«t Indln,/^., 4S ; <*urrtim;i, or KaiI Iitilia,
M., 40; Pouto, or BrItUh. /if., M; Eait
lit>ila in cocoa. 169. Origin of the naiiM

i ** arrowroot," ;II2. Co^intrtct whrnce ot>-
IAin«d, ni-i. PUiilji vlfMmfi It. :II3. Ma-
aA>TA arrttwrmit, mmU' of tirp|iarAttaii in J«-
makn. Bermuda, and St. Viiirrnt. 313. Clia-
ractciiitk-* and ■tnictiirc of p<irc, j^jf.. SH.
C*HP««,ar l\>t'iiteA M<j|» arrow root, iiructiire
of, 31%.^-, 31li. Ci ici-HA arrowtoul. ttro
^uolilirs Ol, 316. Prcptiralinnof. SIR. SCrur*
tureandcbaradrrtor. Af ,317. Tacca irruV'

^ root, lourrr of, Jl7. IVrvira** account of lu

[' prefiarallon, 3lK. Structure and charactiT*
vt,jig..J,\h,M^j. Mamiiot Arrowroot, called
** iirullUii," tourii*, ctiarai'tei ft, aiid itrirp uf
319 (««- l«plora,8'/7). PofATO. or ■• faritUh ^
arruwruot, iiow prntarrd, 21!). Cturarterf
■ad structure of, ii9. Jig.. 330. Its price,
'S3l. AatM.or " TonUnd. arrowroot, wbrripe
OblaintHl. 3%). Mode of iti prepataTlrm, 3!l1,
tru Charartnri and tlnirtute of, 3X3, Jif.,
3'il, Gt>ncral .-i|ipllcalir>n oftlie term " arrow-
root." 3W "OtwcKo IVrpArct Carn," ladtan
corn arrowroot, .TiV. AmiLi(iM*Tio«t« of. with
arrow roota of inferior i)Tt.illiy. |M:>talo Atujr,
■acamea], mid tapioca itarch, [ri*.'. Hc*viU<xf
Ktttm. ot ViUy aiimiiitt, ytL Drintion of
Mlilltvr.itin(M, 32^1. StroiiK inducrmrtitA to
•du'lcraie. .V.M. Duly, 323. QiuintltiM im-
ntcd .nnil rr(aitird fi»r tic/tnr rcnt»uin|f(lon In
lUi ^nd \*sy, 3'J3. Eau tndlA, Id cinoMDon
powdrr, 4.171 In cuofiivtiauvrT. 4«S j In llqtw-
rtee. «»?.jV*. <■■*». • - -•

«rar.

AirH,331.

AnsKMr *n vlnrjjar. •»
CO- ■ . 3ST.

Al»i.- -Jr rl

boucv 'a>t.iiitr<J irom. \9X.

IluiL KKtrr. pulp Kf. In opwi
BAiDAnyCvM, lufrriuf cttmi

Barlet Fldcb in wh«M

4(M ; In liquorlcw, «t«.
BASiOHth in aramnaor, ft.V).
" Ba»t *»!>». "* Set SuV^r. H
BAf Li^vrv in tra. Tit.
" BlAOl.-xi;." St< Gin, IW,
Bl-tK Flo( ft In coAw, l37.j|f,IVj

**?./««•. *^. 5"*- *^ FW«a
Baim.letrof. ill Ira.J^.. Mi.
Bur, potted. »4f. ^
Btm, lasUace of Iheir «m««li

«rt.
Berr Root in chicory. 1411

cow*, 913; vntplcH*^ lo

bottl*^ red ft-tilta, 411} in

of. tn tOt'KCO. MU.
Bkllu*. Sec UinsLaav 4&T.
BlX« ORltLAKa, ibr aiin«lta
" Black Jack.." caramoi. or

nlujnl tu ml'iiir ctiSr*, 114)

tn TtDC|ar, 99t> i Iti

441.
Black JAru. SfV Ruit«r, B«.
Blavk Lud in tK«. xl. 39.
BLdiiHAUDK. ^r laincLaM, id
BLOATftU. poUei. Ui.
BtnwN Malt. Sirt Porlia*, VV.
BLtra Stook. 5(V Ptrhlwa, 407.
Hoik AIimknian. fl^ AnoflMiB]
B^'LO^CAKo. Sr.' ^mtif,
HoHftnrtT li ■
Bf.fcii. .Srf I

BllTAVItAL t J

BuTAhV, tUilt iiirA Uk-1

Of. N3.

BiAiM* (abrrp's) Id nilfc. ^\,Jig^T
Brak ill oaliocttJ, a«» ^ tal MMrt, I

Bt i*»H\ usnl bf M. Parcm Ia

milk aui
diktlU

Aixltrb^i . H««tr,Mfj

spirit, sugir. [n.>U*M j. iMal w^k
M3 "Brttlth hraiMjy."lw««H
ri<>UJ Krt'iich tir*n*lir, lorw«|^
roct-rc of, MS. »4f. U4ft M
brandr. 541. iTrjMAi n^ Xm^ «

Act rr>ri^

Irtf, !

samp'r
itr>

rat

Ml.

Ill 1,1

llaAeiu«H •
" DaawtRN
" BimiH ><•

BrI'MWICK, «

t\ttn«ry , 4s5.

IlLlR

^-■•■aum tJitfJOVa
Brsndr HI fOTf

INDEX.

6*»

Mte wiw. aaa.

I, At ■■ BUrk J«ck."
Bilk. VOC. M-'thorti nf pr^pftrlnic
Mhllif* of, VOS. i<j6. Cotni^a»itt«i*i
■if 111 ("hnrnil, Brom^i*. And
• Ani'LTBRATtow* or, with w-urr

pnf. CnUrrt'* tividrnrn r»*ri<^ll<i)t,

^>t>io riaur and «nlmiil fata, 277.
Jtrttitj nf Ktnm.vl Yot\\-r\tht

Itiillrr, •gfi' letter from Mr.
luitrratrd, 'ilMi fTiwn "A Stinlcnt"
mpulitan mNniiraL-titrr ol Kpi'trif

iMr. iMfn o( the aduittrfAlkixi* "1
Willi water, twfi nirtliod*. 'JM. MO ;
I, l^rd (fig.iOA.]. NijJ ttlt. -WO.

ImMit*. IK.^4— ImV., 301. Au.
Ui culuur Uiltvr. 473.

I ) l««f nt. In tobacco, 8M.
I In co(fr«, IW.
CoOw. 1(6. Procea* for lU n*

•.

'■roouuk oil. to rofTpA, 107.

UM«tLA uwd to aditllarate t««,7a,

portpr. MT.

14 M. AV.

« In Nailvlra. Kti,

haftr, and Confvctlonerj.) Snnr

Wo* MM MoU •rrovropt. 316, Jig.,

ffOWrooC*

pilas. or t«n|M)w4cr te&. j<f .. ao.

r Ctuititn. M.

Mi la port«r, 007 i In ftn, UG.

•.

reira'i arcount of, 319.

pit iiiir&r, or " Black Jack," iih4

»ffrr. IH.

■0*. Inftulon o1. In porter, 607.
to. ^n-Avid.

lH^fJk: 381 (Mr Cttrry Powder) ;
17* Itoif M, and on cklraet of,
i bokie eottiuwpClon In IMI and

utod, |» ci>lfr«, 117: In cblooTf.
■a food for cawi, Ills. Di«oeU«n
bUr, In milk. Sll, motff Jotcfl cT
IM. «79.
ik. WM.

tafiit-ra pltatt S19 1 rarlotia aperlM
IT l'.itp<nct.

fMuiltiiit am! •tritr(ur<> tit, 4%3L.
»<lh rliinaninn, 433. f ./#. »h««-
Wpntut rhamctprt, Ol, 4XV O^
lapuwdrr.jlff^ 436. lu um na an
Of, and fVvqiamllr •• a lubaituto
Min. and lorthMa tor drircilog,
Viitf, and aUMilHr iniarml lor
Bioptlon Id ISM— INM. f»». (5<v
) Oil fi( cataU In fin. AM). Ea.
. aromail<^ w>nf«ti<>r>, (iTH.
pa AaoMarirrt, 444.
•m, it7 : dM^cUdti 01; lOVi la lo-
in np1«m, fiM.

iDluOird, Ml; In Mpprr. MB.
HoUn. and dHcription oT, SOI.
k of, MM. Durbolt aiid Bracnmvt'i

umlftn,
at.

MB, 309. Capslrin. Perdra'a ae^
369. Struetmrf nt the npalcum

*wT.>^f» . **. 3'o. ^'. ST*. -^Ts. 2?*. arft.

AlH>lTTkATIOl>l» o( Ca^cnnr, 3Ti. Httuilt of
Exam of Twmty>cl^lil aampli'*, 37i : rod
Uad, 371, 373 ; Venwiao red. rH «Khrr. rwr.
tnlllun, or Dltulphur^t of m'*rcun'. Krotind
tier, lurmrnr, utll. and niiiatard hiitk, 37-1.
liUUoci!- of polaniijiiff by rrd Ifad lii fnyrliw,
37fi. E'Mfrcc I'T Mr. Scfirtlaii ncu" *ulitb1f>
Cayran*. .V-b. 37^:. Uetetttvn •>( adujlrralwm*
wllh rice flour, turin«rlr, Mnd tnu*Litid huak,
fig.. 376; uf ri^l kaJ, 377, /Ijf.. 37rt; of tiliul-
pliiirpl of mcrcurr, »77. Diiy un ratciine.
STKt lu rmpld^rn'til In the adiilt^ratlou of
Blnfcr, 496. In gin, hVn Itt mm, Ml.

Cbcioomvia Tkitrki, or wlioat nild|i«, 2<^7.

CKHKtra fur cloalinr the urlla i>f mtcroM-ii|>ra :
Gnadby'c. Qiiekptf'a, Hr<H>kf'«. uid Hctl'i, M.

Ctrtiaaut IfirMf TAKna., f-'S.

Ciaa^lNi, or tuiiar-r<inc wax, IHI.

CniBBAL MATTiia In milk, ',^1.

CflALR ill «uitar. jHM , III hfHirr. V03; In potted
mrati and flah. Ml j In anria'un, *i^ ; in coB-
twt'i l»n<^ r . 4'jN , In Mmniiiiniy, G.i(); In Ipeva-
cuaiiha. Oii i In cuNtcynlh, (>7ti ^ to c-rniKiund
aranimvny iMtwdrr, fl(H : itt aruniatic coufK*
Hon. (7711, In hqtioiicv. tiM.

CuftHraoffB. Sf€ Wln«, AU.

CNkRi'oaL. pxwilervd. h) opium, G3B.

Chauam-k In BMittard. 3I«, Jle.Sfet.

Ciiti«t tn niilk. 'Jt>6 I*ri-cl|inat"Mi aiid pre-
(laration of lh<* ciiril, 4*7, 17** MnUui operamdt
of r«aDM, 47**. ReaAou* iirgrd ammtt it« uk,
474. Profkortlmti of catrin and buti«>r ililTtT In
CiMcae, 47)1. Sailing In Scotland and Cltfthlrr,
47^. AoirLT>ii4Tioivior. wltb Riaflgtlld floMeri.
MffT'in. julcc of ml carrota. tnd aonatto. 4)9 1
«llh Venrtlui rnl and ffrcjue, 4ltO. KUviiitr-
Infi o^ with paral^y, aaa r, and f<niujirr<'k , 4Tt*.
Potato cbeea* la Thuniif1« and SaKony, llio
prociTM nf Riana'aclurr ilricrlbrtl, 479. Rf-
tmH» qf itxtfit. »f Tuvnly aumjiln, ISO. Ac-
cum and MI*clH!ir« reioArka apon iMd in
chraav, 480. Cauac of premi i-nlmir In ninuMjr
cboraa, tM; how produced In n<rw rliraar,
4SI. Aearua ciro, or chrraa mlio. 4*1. j||x..
41)3, 4A1. nnpbtU otx-l. or cb«««o fly. a(-c>M.oe
of, by Mr. Duncan. 4MI. " Jutnp«ri." their
mvtfaad of aprlntcknfc. 4p1, 4A3 DriKtitm ti$
ike a^mitrmtioMi of chrvif. 4K3; wlib Venr*
lUn rt^, 4>M. Import duty ana hooi* «oa-
auniptina Id |bM— ilvSC, 444.

CHlMiarBT, H* appllraiitrti fo the dr(prti>»n ol
ad<|ll«r*t-l"0, M — h'i. Chrinlcal app^raiua
rr4)iilrcd. Sft. Chief prrlimtnury rhrtnlr.al ofw--
ratloni, A7. litiofrnta rnjuirwil for drtivllny
adii Iteration. CI. L'tcful laurka un th« auttjcct
nf chniiiatry, 03.

CflCttav LAHaaL walrr li} gin, UO.

CHiruRY UMTd lo adult^rati! <-ofl^, flg^ 47.
gu#M)oo nf lla adinixturo with cmi'i! ron-
aldrrml. MR. r-riniraa(r<l wllh rttlfcf. Mti.
119. I'll. Hoteiilon of. In coffrv. \%l. Apr,.
134. IV7, I3< romniUtlOfl of Clirnil*la'^upi>
nlrni upoit. 114. M'lluUarh'a iU-*rflpl)iNt of
Uia chicory pUnt *ni iia u»c«, liV), l.l|. L^rgr
cnttiratlan prinripjilr dui? to Govrritmrnl
patrooai^i Ul. Foreign luperlnr to KngUah,
131. Anaifaaa of the root t^ autlmr an J Ur.

rth)

INDEX.

L«thH>y. 131, l», IA3^ by MMtrt. Graham
aotl Co., lU, IM. Strufturr of, 134, /<* , 47.
laft. 136, 137. 141,1 ia. tnpfrtift ol, ftreir*'*
nbipnriiliont iipiMi. I3fi. IS?. Vmfcunr Ji>hn-
stnti'i rctaatka r««pfi:tlnit,^l37, HB. I'liwholr-
tatnrnetiur, u an aritclFoffUpt. intunrvt of,
i:tH. Um of. Aft an anerlLMil In FranCf aDit
GrrnMny, 199. Bltndnou a letiilt of Ut roa-
timied itM*. 139. Amii.'rpR«Tin>t of, 140;
with llambrd' poittlcr, coffee Highu, romsUHl
vlieut ijig., 141], ryi?, tK>Jn>, M-orni.jff. 14?,
cirroti. ^rinipi, maii^oltl u-unrvl, bccl root,
■awctu«i, b^ktMl n«era, HO; with burnt lugar
or hiark ioik, V<-iirii%n rrit. Ami otiier red
eartbt, uak bark Ian i.fii. 143), and rxhaiutnl
tan oxrtiMtiJig, Ul), 141, Mr. Gay'* rv|.
dmce rM|i«ctlnff ihc mrtiiuracturr of carrou
and pnrinip* inmchlcorj'. I4l. IVrvlra't d*-
Kriplioti of llambru' pnwdor and rnfTnf ni|;hta,
141. HiH retnarUon Vtnitytlait r«d, Wi. Re-
ttUlM Iff Eram.of Thiiti->four iMiiploi, 143;
ot Thirty -rlgbt additional tainpicft, 144.
I^rgfe profit* of iht rvtiiilfrji ti)>uii ilie ial« of
tilt* .idultjrtaled article. 14'>. Det^iltou of the
ttiiutUTalion$ of chicary, 14.'^. Ita; tdrntidva-
titiQ dlAcult, f&crfft bj rncani of tlic micru-
•copr. IIA. Wa(rr-t»t for detn-ttny ill i^re-
stmce, M'*!, I4C ; »rn*lfic gravity aod kugar
Cnta. I4fi CompokltlitD of coflW and cbicuff
a»b, 117- QuMUItJiUva Mtlmation of >Mqul-
cikidt! nl iruti lu, 149. IBA. Reaine qf reamtM
urflrd bath for and againtt tbc admixture of
chicory ulth coffee, IM— IA9. Rruoni In
favour : ■uminiod iirprovnnrnt in flavour,
1^1 : nll•r|:*^n increased coDiiiDiptioa aod mure
^Fri»rnt i-xtftiolrin, IVi ; Ifgal (ttnrtlon, and
fi-lf proietrtiHK )>uwit of ihr public, IM: fal-
lacy of aFfiampiiti ibown, I.VJ, |.%3. RcaMina
ag«lntt : niTctBary commlkilitn of moral
fraud — fupp(>»vd lutal effccli reiiiUi[ig (rotn
poiaon owing to tin' »u|>hi»ticat)uH of Ittaiiti-
dutc. ift4 i lniu»tn-e to the coBcp p-owcr, in-
jury to the revrtiuf. p«<uniary fraud upuo ttte
pilbUc : rfioed)' piopoinl, 154, \bh. Frvftrut
and pro«p«ctlirv duty un roasted and ground
chicory, ISA. Chicory kaf in tobacco, SM;
ro-iatcd root in. WJ.

Chilis In p*p|Mrr, 36A ; in vlnvfar, 40S.

ChikaClaV In tea. Kl.f)9.

Chikmr Botanical Powdri, uied to «dalCera(c
ten,/!);. 93.

CMINaLDAIl. chonXPl, 604.

CMLoaA^Tdti* I^coNsnctJV*, ui«d Ifl tbc Keat-
ing ofuu. Ot.Jig.'9.
Chlounk in ath of coffee, 107 ( )n ehleory lab,

1.14.

CHcx'oi.tTi. itk mode nf prrparAtloa, 171. Re^
Kultt tff Kfom. of Twelve •.unpki, 171 ij^. of
adiiltrratPil, 177.

ClIKuHATB or LXAU. fitC LcAi).

Citaoita, Uraan and orange. In oonfectloDBij,

CiMR In port wine, MO : In ctarvt, AM.

ClOAH. Ste Tobacco. QOI .

CurwAMDM. where cullWated and how ot>tjilDed,
4!0. PpTclvari arcifunt of II»p procesi of bark
peelinit, 430. Ci>i*fp^«i7rvfi of, 430. Strucfure
uthark.^g, 431 : nr i>o«der, 433,^. 43V. Sub.
atltiltlon of CMikia for, 433. ComparlMtn of
vAula with cluMHmoii. and jd.'j. li(u«irattne
Ibclr dLTfrcncrt, 434, 43.V /{fmUs i^ A»0f. uf

Tblriy-two •nspica. KT. kz
with cAiala. baked wmmI floor
IndlM arrowroot. Mi4 »Malo ^mt, {
terttoa of, 137, iM. CuMMKa' dH||.
tUT pnierrd fur botao ea
I ■A., 43*,

CiraoN Fin, candled. 4|A

CUBBT. S^ Wll><>. hft4.

Cut in moatard, AM : io

Clovm. d«rlvat»aci of ib« M««« MC
KBthirrtog, 441. Caiy a wWaa aC
thranalytra of Tto«n«Bd<W#«a4 IS
.Stntrtmrf of. 44^. 44t^ *U>^**V
TiaATlOM of. with cUivm mialk^,
and water. ilR. t>.i. ^t^m af (r
ho«D«C<IDftU''

Coal, btoudu

Cobalt In c>

CocccLT-a 1n' f

extrarC of. . 4

home cout< . l|

culm iDdicu* in ■

Coccit OAcn. *< ;

COCHINCAL iu £m*. ■

uuieei, 4101 Ui vu..;..-;^.^—. . .t. . J
wiue, MS.
Cocos r&Alted origin of Ifta bmb^
wrlption of cocoa. lU, tlC VvtiM
and mudca of jpi eporWUcn. U^ W.
fwn of, honrding to
IS7. lu iropnriMi
eoaihtueoiB, lU. IM» T^ifcai rfi
lM.rtC*- l>9. 1^1. IM.Itt. li
prfUrt of. It^. ConiMrlMm ^ ■
coffee atMl (««, 166, tsi. AaCUl
Ifiti. Horalit/ ot i»f «iMona OM
lloneit courts fo)l<t«ir<4 by 0t I
uth«r Coiiti' . MUe%mm»

maiki or ''[ > •»« pi.

UjpOfilUraj . c^iOalAl

IbT. Attt-it:| .>ii iic-iviicv of Ua«M
ttarch And itigar. Its. Adtalninri
with whrai Ouur, rvlala ilMii^
Eaat Iculla arr%<wrt>ol. T^» te
■u(ar, Ifli i with Vntcttaa ral a«tf
olAD. Its. Bvktoopw of Mr. n
109. IM. Re mtia^ JCmoa. afa
iTn. AdulirrotlMi wiih dUnaTfli
cucoa. Dr. Vn «ad Prof. J«ta^
DOHA coocerninff. 170. /)<««—■ a
trrattomM of cocoa, in ; W' t^V <
173; of whaatSottr, MatoSiNar.aM
173; Indian corn, Marsatx cr VC^
CiuTuniA or Emk '
ftrmwrooU. IT4 ; ij

of adulirratnl r>" ,3

CeU for dJli-OTMKIf.- j-r-i- rr.L'.i-.

COCOA by flubkidence, I7f. - by u*e
chnnitirf. 177 , lf>Al,«tn'« pr
Icdton of ror«4Kn r«t4y m^ii
faandr't mrthod, I7«. 17V ( *d

ataace*. I7if. iw. Uwtf. «iid ^

tloo in lH\4 — iK'ft l«a
Con-f ■

CoFKt

W'i ')ik«ry<ue4

nf.y^-. tr. IkactlpCioactftM
berry, lOV L*av«a pci»»ew<
In Suaatra, IQi. <!^<i—iarf i
propertia. 106— 1 1& tteki^
rawandfoaatadcajha.iat. P^oa^

INDEX.

roi

•e. IOC. rer-rtituitei of tujiar in raw
•t«d, 106. ftraban wul atmhuiifrr>'i
loftheaih. 107. Ciillbinc. rAffpone. and
Bid th« moit Impoilant ronititiiei<t« ot
rj, 107. UrMcmal fnptrlift oT the
, acrordltif; lo FervirB anil Johniton,
t'nffiT and tm, ni brrcmuM, com-
IB. I'er-cenLnie of iflulrn In mSrc,
DnmnriiUvc *ni)y»ii u( t^a.U!»r b^

xikI "( coffrc iMfrjr by Psfcit, 111.
•e or cofT'^r H-r<1, 111. Iiat^*..ll3.

Aul'LIt-NATioHit ftf. 113; «llhi.'lilcnn,
■Icki of tr«(le«mrn, Mr. DurVwotth •
IH. Cotfc* motflj (tcftijlin' in h'rjinre
m^ny, ll'S. tiuctiion urailultprxtiiiD
*ory coii«ldrr«l, 110. Onvprntnrnt r»-
I tr»|n-cflii|C ciiffi-r tnual »Mh chhfrv,
ttrv AUfl f hif orjr 1-ontrjutfd. 1 117. Adiil-
wlth rtMutnl RrAtii, r(x>ti, itctini*, i;i<r-
(Un*. tMk-lMiK (an, cxbatiitrd txii or
,iul tMki-d h<>r*i'i' and bulli'Cki' llT«r*,
Ijiritf) imimrUttiifi ol lujiln wrtd*
tgn acomi for purpiMi-i of Mlultera>
r. bifurtiirrt [nnrMl hi ctttRnUt Jig.,
olouHng miillrr* «m[>lnyt-d ; burnt

" UUfk Jock," lis.; WneiUn rvd.
■nUtt cf yftcrot. Fsam. of rhlrijr-rnur

of coffr*. ni), IW. Impri'tcnicm In
trattnr. I VI. Krutttrd orn rxttrnilwly
k kubtlitutc lot cvltev. 1)1. Deiect'un
auUfrati-jm of coflMi, 131, \TL l*tr-

uf (ugar III roa»t«d cutTro and Iti
Dp root* u*ed In It) AJult«iatiim, IJ».
nation of t^f vuitar iti «lult(>ratnl
a. Detccttnn uf chicory In. I :^, Jiga.,
, 138 ; ai'lninn of ('{iminUiion of
■ upon. \iA. I>p(prtlini of tnmn^ld

VH. fit*: ISA. )S6. i l>r carrot and

\ih; ot whvat llour. 139, 136, Jlg^

brnii floitr, IST.^jf •. I'Ji) i i^f r«aited
ind MCOm. 1*iT,/l^ , !'£); of uwdiut.
; of raiamcl. nr tutrnl %i\g'\t, Wi, l'i!i ;

Ian riHl, tao, Homr mnaumptHHi aid
iM— I9.V., i>o. Co(r« rligiiu UMU aa
Btani of cfalciirr, 140, I4i.
I cotfiw, 117. ^ructurM detectMl In,

n, figa. S}b, QG, ADirtTaiATIONI of,
mdB,tf7&i wKti wheat flour and tbaJk,

«. or*-bwu<lRfi,*'lll.

' IB fiorlvr, filO.

r, iMf of. In lobAcco. M8, «M. AT** W,

■,Parlianvnur7Jnn Adiiltrrailnn. Ifit
vmtwn c<imni Ump. 37- E«lilc>pr« be-
(Mt lb« adulteration of drugt, £>€3 —

I ScavMcMv PnKDBa, Its pri>|)«r mn-
I. ft7ll. AntxiKKATioxftof. with chalk,
HIT, and p4»w>lrrrd J^Up. 679.
ira. Srt Kldur. a77.
»*, Afofi»«ln*. cry. Ingrrdlt^ili of
ifinuld conmut, fit'j. AnvLTkRATionn
(urnipflr, cKAiIti, iind chxlk, f!?^*.
iMtav.culouird fuxar, l>r. O'Shaugh-
rrsutrki U|>un, 4d4 AuiLlkKATMina
with Irmon and OMnit<> rhrmnr.
e of lead, nmbocv, cwhlnrAl, rrd
mtUlon, umuCT', liidl(ri. Antwerp and
I blue*, iiltrunartuc, aiMl Bruniwick

flTftn, 411.%; with carltonatr and anrnitf! of
rojiper.aod whirf Ipd, 4i^i ; with inlphat« »f
llm<-, whmt, and pouio aniir>. iu>d K.nt [tulla
arrowroot, 4W*, Rctuits ./ Eiawt, of tanipliii
|iurtliiurd: tugar treiU. Uii|t and Karc, 4"'! *
nilXMt auirar, «nd twrljth rake tiTiMmrnta,
4*(7. Dr. Thmnion'i nldrnce rrffanliiiR th**
rmplnimml of terra alba in. 4KH. Mr. iiny on
tticadultvtnUonofcaniwny comfitaatidpepitrr-
mlni loirniit-a, 4K^. Iiijiirlntti ai.il |H(Uu*tuu»
**M»iicc«*^' uv^ in fl4tourine, 4^!*. Jlirir
iiicprfibibllMt in Francr, Helfcium, Atid Swll-
xrriiind. ^*i. l.i»ti of cului.rv tlir \\tc of
wlihrh may b» [wriiiltKhl, nn-t ibruirof whirb
(tinuld b« prohtMird, 490. i'J). 1'hr Uftvr
wiirmlly emjiloyi-d Uv iii.«nur(irtUTrr». 4dl.
iMrttwM nf ailutteraiiunt, A[<'l. I'rgftiiM^,
mnnnal t anti ttnntTcU tfiU : ci>chinra) and rnl
lvHd,4!#*; vvrinlU.Mi, 494. IV/Zaf (WtJirrf .*
mlnrraJ^ Winon aud ijrainj(i' rhrompa, chnv
inatpuf Irail, Niiplf» yi'ilow, and riA.iJcrtt, 4'H.
AVt. VcKrl-iMi- — turnirrir ulfron, and
f (UDbotE«-. 40S. iiivcColo*ii$: VrB«*talil(t — III-
muB and indlfcn, 4it^. Mineral — l'n)«ilau and
Anlncrp blurs. arliQcial uliramxnnc, cDbalt.
and •malt, 4S6. Grten CvUrurt : \rif<)t4bl« —
■ap grt^u. MptAllir— v*r<ti|[r>* or jiirt.iti' of
coj'P*'. ar»enlit> of ctippcr. eniprald grrrn. and
Kniiiiwlrk. or («m|touiid gru-nt, 4ii7. Brown
Colours: Irou, 4'.it«. t*ttipic Vviumt : Mta.
tun- nl Antwerp blue and ruic pink, thtr Ukr*.
or oirhiiif-al. 4!!'*. Sronxr t'owdrra i Copper
nnd ainr, \^t. Dctrctlon of chalk, pUntrr of
pjirlt, and clnv. 41)8 ; of dtflV*!!-!!! klndt of
itarch, irr*.). Uuty, prrtrot ami iirnk|i*>cii«p,
Importaand quantltirt r«>lainrd fur hoiQccon-
ttlinptioa in )H.t4 and KM. Vy},

ConVOLVVLt* :k-ANMOI«IA,M7.

CorpRa, rarbonatr and irafnltfl nf, in tm, ^7 t lul.
phat« or, In bread. W.; iul(thatK and MCrtatn
of. In picklp4,40ft, ft iri/.; In bcitl*?.! fnilta
and vr9ft»t>lp«. 41ft, ei n-^ ; in pr»-»civf« and
Jrlllra, 41A, 4irii in tnucd. 4W ^ •ulib.Uanf.
in annatto. 46)1 ; carbo.'iAt« nnd arwnit* of, In
confectlnnory. 4fM! ; in wbir, ^G(), Ul.

Copperas tn tobacco, H9.

CoauNDH, 3714, JV., S79; infuilon of, In wrtcr,

Cuao, mastvd, titad aa a lubitllute for coflcCk
HI.

Cnao SrimT In bmnily, Ml.

CiiaaoiivaSriiLiuAT* m vln«gar,397.

CowDl'AC In upluiii, €38.

f'RBAM. Xre Milk.

CaoA-ri. or rxhxusfed Un. In eoArt^, I IT.

" CrrEoo Plirr," 3?l.

CrMi^. -i^l.Jiff., .W*. Xrr Cirry Powder.

Ct'UMiMUH. malt, lit IoImcco. 'Vw.

C'rnci'M*. or E««t Indu «rroN'root, 174. 310,
>li;fr..31T. 4'^ Ser Arrowroot

Ci arvMiM. Sft Tiirnerli. 3«7.

C'can. See Milk, and ClieMi>.

Craa4wi-«, 411.

I'i'HKV PottUHR, niimwrona ln|rTx>dl^nta <>nt»r-
lug lnlo(Jbvc<Knp<)iifi''in nl,3;i3. Cuauaiiia,
•triK-tufpof, STt.jfff , S7t>. t'jiKnAMOM, «(rui--
lurr of. 3AU, Jig , yn , ii. Schli Idrn'i KUtc-
tnoiit rvaprctlKi;. .M). ('liMl.ii. ttructurr of,
341, M;, rfjf., 3-'^ Mint im|tarUnt con-
atthwnl of cnrry powd«T, Mi. haMOoaaKK ,
%lruciUro of, }<<3, A{i., 4H4, 3M. AuuLTtK/ •

703

INDEX.

TlON* orcurrjr powilcr. 3<13. ftfimtti of^jmrn,
uf Twrtitj-alx lamplfi, :t'^, Adulterated
wttli ftroiiitd rii'6, ^xmo farina. Hilt, niid red
IpmI, 3MJ. D«l#cllun of [K»t«I(» aUrrlt, 3bi>.
rnitnmi' diit>- fm curr; imirdnr. 3WE,
CrcihiKit'M iMrtuui, I3U. ^rcUhlcorjr.

Dai'-iL, bcArdH or poUonoiii, Ki.Jig-, V7,

Inltiincei of U* f-iUl cnVrit. VA.
ncn>iMrrni of M. Coliftrd^au, 329
PciTHihi In •tiRtir, IM: ill •c^mtnony, ii-W.
DiL4TUliRTSIl,ucolialomvtrlc. M. SUbermann'i,

DwK I.KAr Ui tnlMurca. M».biQ/ig*.,l>'Jl,fm,

■W, KM.
' I>ocTi>K. Thi.* or corrotirff tutjllmatr, In

vltifK^r. .V47i in via. ft29.
P'lLh iios StiJi, or 4'MrR, 419.
•* |U»»»N"dorri.<<9.
Dni u«. Mltilleriillim of. rvhimM birforc Pirlla-

mvntitrjr C'mniiil(t<N; uimxi, MA—f>€ff. AorLTft-

iiATioNsof rnlMrco.fi£!i— r.iS^ Ojiluin.fiM— THti;

Srimmoiiy, M7— C.V%; in\n\\ ii.yi— 667 j I)*-

ricuBiiha. f)fiH—fi7f> ; Culocjinth, fi76— 677 ;

Ithubub. G77; 8(tiillU,C78 ; Compound Scam*

moiiy fowder. fi-^O; Atnmatic Ci>iifi'ril(m.67!* ;

Liquorice, <>7*J — G*«u. TAbulatnl Liii o( Urug*

and their Adulleratttin^t^OI, r»-i.
■■DraKA** ht wlieat flour, W^,Ji^., 39S. An

Inxredlcot of Whanon'i ErvalritU, S30.
Di'TiH Pma in tpa, «7. 100.
DvKs usimI Tor colouring teat, U.

Pa« CocaLR in wboiit. 'H^.jlg,, 36S,
>:urLLio9corif, or ebullition nicoliilometer. B3-I.
Euiea, Ivaf of, in irHfJIg-, *>8. Hldvi^rry ci>-

hmrinp tri ptjrl mIiif, MH.
Klh, leaf ur. In lea./f-. *9 i In tobacco, fmti.
Enoive, Wtld, 130. {Set Cliioory.) Hnilirp

In tobacco. ASH.
ENoKAi'Llt Bhchabicoluk. the Uw •niUarj,

Kl•l>l^o BCTTEi, Iftivr on maaufactore of fftc-

lillutJt. 'Ml.
Hrvalkkta, WhAftoD't. roTPpoiition or, 390,

fifi-. ZAt. Kecelpit for making. 331, 332.
Ervil, nr baitard Icottl, flour ol. tii opium. GM>,

yv., (>5l.
" KaABttco," liijurioui and polfonoui, Hi<rd In

i1ii*oiiriin( coi«rci:ii(Miorr, A^.
Kksk.hiia Ui>a ill [turtcr, M)D.
KtiCK'tiA ^tM•^TA. 449.
E»ri»B, taefficl«i)cy of, S3— 36. tlluttntlotil oT,

in llir CAsoQf iPa,l(M; cblcory, KStandnofr ;

oiM-oa. 190; p(-pprr, 3AS ; vlnvgar. 4<M; laalt

and hon>. 515 [ gin. .'ai -, brandy, 044— M6;

wiiir. MiS i tobacto, 614.
KxocuNitm ft aoA, or true JaUp. 6%.

Fabi* Ah*ii«. Ste Strychnine.

Favtitiuus Saou, 325; priipcrenmt,S6S ; nut>

inrgt, 441 i port w Inc. V)0 ; tcAmmony. CM). ,
FAKtKACBiHW FOOUM, SSi. CotDpOlltlon Of

l^ardliier** AliiiinntaTy Preparation. JXX;

l^dih'A Allmnttarv Carina, 333, ^f.. 334;

t»miullnn, .13:1 : Eliitl(irk'» SpmoU. ^-M ; Trlnce

Arlbur'» ai<d fnticp uf Wuin'k Ftiud*. 334 ;

llarflt' KarinacruiK Klonr, MAldnmn'* NuTn-
; iliMii FArlna. Brwlrti't Farinacrout Fimh),

Ittuttr'i Soojle and C'^mpoundrd Farlnii. and

JuCMt'k Patent Fluur,334 ; Plurabcft' Improvrd

FarlnMeous FmmI, and PdMTtl

.tS.V Drtrctryn ul tb*ir
FkUPaH In Cfi. 99.
FiaLtiNtUL, >trui-tur« of.

(AriCurrr Ti'viIptJ UwOftDI

47'J. llec<r>pt r»r in«klBx<

pawdnr, &HM.
FcaME'iTtM (KAVIflAI. MX.

Fmiii. wo.)dy. In tu^r.,^., W;
111 kAiicrs, 430- in Anuff. A|3i i

In Jrtlap, r.ti3 ; in kfwcMMttu

quofirf, 6*7.
•* FiNrvo* " ol jMirlpr. VK.

Fiji. rr«|fmrnl of •' ^- '-^brti

Fuoin*. com-c. >i«<J

Ftovt on Oil. >

of OoUTt U*«ll I i

apKicA oC, n¥.
tor of fvouBd

ffliiten. Ttrt*Xt\':
alboinrn, vns- ■
water, and Aal-'
of, by D<inia» I ' > ij,

Md. .Slrnr^nrrot ihe jijriin of <
342,:t43. Starch^mntjlf^oC. it>i
Jif,, 2A6. BlRLIiV, •.■*or..I
tlUtHicai conrpoatttoti ■■'■
than ttbeai, *i4S. A.-
«'»./ir*.. 244. ?4.>. I;
conitltufntt.anU itrurturc 7it^jl^
U«hI aa aq adtilteraiit of ccMbC*
ipnir* of. V4(. Ir* *nlii» a* as dtM
24*1. SlntctUfr>''*- -' -' '^ J

a4'J. 2M. (.V.'i'. «]

HItur-niA And ^: ' .-^l

Com|K>tltiOD of 1! . (f

grain. 2^ fig*-, ^--i ^

opinion ai to Tea Tio»>. . -^

prnpwtin. IWi. M r ■ . X

potitloti or the rhitrf crtt:^ rramA.S
iMtor Jahn*ton'i analt •*>«, Mg, ^
tinn of ihr ■Idlrii nf wh
thr CURIpOtltl'Kl of Whc^t

cnrr**i

jf^lhfcf
for di-icmiliiliifi ihe ph<
in dilTcrcitt corn*. 'lY*.
CuitAL Crauu, UAO. K
Bunt, tmiit ImiIIa. or pvp|>nj
a» tf, l>ii»t brand, 'JMJ.^.. "
rBd-roblii, n*d-|tiini, MSO.
3ff4, tjf>:i. I'ruli-illuni glar
drvUlM, Ac, »?■ Brai
dAHi*'!. :f63.^..-J'r7. FuriKMil
In Atalc bnudj^., 'JW^.
or pcpprrcofn, vS&.ji}.-
S67, AraruA Fariac. '
3GB. U70. MAM;rACTritfry of d's |,|

licnii mrAl, f K-«*, barley, ry*. |r
poUto flottrt. '/7ft: wilh a _^

termed Uaii. ibc RMyor of Cofi

Tabit* rcpTr««ntUiv the ti
thcAti) of^lhv chief cvfr.il gi

]XDKX.

703

f76: Mlih alum, intnrni vhtttr.
C*>ni|«li vltj: 274. Adull^ral>»n*
»r. *m. Jim., tf 0. arnttU ^ Etvm.
n^oMmplctorronn fluur.lT?. STi.
■)■ uf hrrod : wl(li Alum atidtklt.
fftkrrs "barili" ftnd "ituff," and

BTl. ';«l I>OtitlTff «t1ll nrgRllTC

Bg tli«r«rroad, tMt. Wbitrnpia no
br th» |r4*nuliimriift ftf Irrail, VRlt.
|w> oil Ihr u** I't Ilium tti brvail,

Kktymrtit tlrfrnilrd bjr i thrmkol
Lftifp profxtrtlKD III iirillniry
Adullrmlion of. with Witrr. botic
\oa* due, 2^) ; ahlt^ I'lty, CNr*
|Dda«Dd aiajmuU. chiik. gti^oni,
Votcopf^r.VK. Hr*iiUM iif Btam.
Mftit Munplm of brmd. »0. >horI
|T«Ji-Dt tD Londnft, tM ; ru«rd«d
Ibi- EdtiilHirih PoIlc« *«, >f«fi.
1^ /Ar advUtraUonu i>f Bour and
' Organte: bmi eour aiid iiHrrh,
IT, WN : twrlrv Hour. SM : riet.JIg.,
k»9./(r.. »]; '•durra." vet.fyr^
mK. 290. tmorgantr : wu^, v9l :
U* ur Irtra alba. Ctilnaor Comlth

Rboiiatr of nafTDCtU. TH ; alitm.
> f»f copper, Wft. I)«ty on B'trr
Wd qutnllllt^ nttrrcd for bumr
%\n |H%4— ItitM, 19fl.
IT»atl»p, for iiiic({i«ropf« (.bjrrli,
ff«rlr>flon'«, ait4 tioMb;'*. 63.
hlKkclt'i, M.

Iir'*(*t of artlriM of, M.

k^, or Mupaton^, in fa, i7. 101.
I^Arttrte In •■ lloiurbAM Hnrd*"
IplnjtnrnI (if. t«T .

EKTAktU. f' I .1.409.

il. of Thlri\ . <m.

an and iro-i ' i i" ; In

«en|i|ri, aDd ullv.'. 41 ; ; cam-
^•ni'r u(. In curr«itU. rx*pb«rM«^

V, V g,tn. D*^

'•[ brrl rrH>t
1. ..!.. 4I». ZV-

iijili I in |«jiiiiii'ii iiiiU n«l, 41i,
loruh. lU.
[TH ill tobncco, MS.
|ar, 1<U. /^.. IM ; in brrul. /«.,
HflHc.J!/ ,S76

I raw )|»ttlli. Dr. fru'i rpmarkt
^. Tajlur') sUvrtnciit rcaprcUnf

^Croaod, In inuB; CD.

fec«Itc»Ima^ of M, Dlnunjun,
,»11.«— i.-i, ^r-. 2.3.
iM>rf>t-tlt>nrrv, 4M. i'j6.
MiOA, UM'd lu adullrralp Im. OK,
I

^wmtUe of mlcrotcopjc nbjwu.
bail adiillrr-jnl of, and 'tfirn :•• ■
iiirglwt. lyt, P)fr»rMt<r*
itotj tKffii, _/fjr . ICA
war

It* u«p hi
i»oi mT. With
4A». <;rl«Une i

«KhM of

*6.*.

I "m't

lie t%t

cnrnAM in portn. sdij -. powdmd In

fill lUc^pt for makuii
(Miwilrr. Ot^

GiitK til (.'plum, €3$-

Gil, manuEartan* of, tn Htdland am) Briuto,
ftH. AS&. Lift <^f subattiucrs rnlrfili|[ toil
"gin fl4*ourii>i:.'' nn*. At>i ltkration* of,
wiih HXcr, atom, •iitx-»T*wT-i«(r cf fyntaab,
acttau of iMd, md •« 1 ' *n\%

■nipr, OaywuM', and -i>,

&36. Two rwedpift i' . m

fiatourtnf , 4tis. Mr .^ "*

rcdurinf ut»«ertri» ii :<(

and t«c«t*aln|[ Briii < >-

lK>nable adTlov tu << ;
JUwniU of AuaL of I

Sii,&M). &oIpluil" "f
I rair iplriU. Dr. I <
tog, &31, »1 IV. 1
Ita Uupifyhii; rflWt>
i^f tfdtilcrrw/idiu of .

Indirect mtxhod, bi ntunaiwit; {rr'^xn.^m iii
alnluilfUa. litatrumMiU «tn|ilt>)«i] : %ji,0m't
EhXl 'tar t.K>i.tr'( r«nt*ttailA
< «r HiulU-

Ikn a>coliolon'i iitona of.

Ml; SllbamaiM.
rail fpKiSC fr<<IM OCMfIr <-«>

trtealubl«o«Tr«llM.M(k IMrcctapUiDdi t^

■hv

for, 107 •. I«i f
icmlnbif «■<-
«f ca^lrasi, *
fli«4 Krt4 tu)

MMta. M»i or

filci cm«d Air •

duty Ml gin 1 1
land. MO. Q„
In Ihr I'fltfs)
In IBM— 1^^:
•*r,in Ki-*v. 1.1,

CiDKfKK. In :.]: i

and in'>ri. ■ ' i -
drl*rviir.i-iL< I .
ftcMuf. MM. !'■
4SS. JifrMriw'
4M.4V. Aim I

( fin, tha karna tM|

.AM. Uructtoa
"IIm. afid uCh»r

!'•. Kttif'i* (Ifk^llj.llfNi

'. MBMft-

tu.

,iij»7.

Quwots or frai i •««■ IM

tko daNcttM "'
nLtrmi tn lea, 74 .

ffi.iraiit'^a, Ita uaa ts a (•(i.M.(»>(i»ti, M| Ml

liutlrr. 7M.
Clii vK»uit.A GLaaa*. f<71' i itMiitUal »imi

•litiirnli lit. IMK
Uuoftiafcaaiu. Iio^ )««. 4l«j I liMfit(«|liK UlUil

rut '•■!» filfl*-*'*.! fr im -rWi

r....

tin-

OlaiM, I.

r^Baiaa "f
nsavu. Ik
iSaMiaO*'

'■OotWi-

ii iiifti lit lb«
'tiDwti', itiiKlH*'** (lf| II
~. • I HffUmimt *•*•>
< in

f(M

INDEX.

GKiHrronirt Btb Skcpv. Stv SouflT, 610'

GsukTi. 347.

0<-4(4(r(M III tcamcnonjr, 6M; Ln JtUp, 6G4.

Jit.,CSJ.
Gi'M In t««, Cl>: (It tiiitar. IW; tngnuDlh, Is

milk, 331 t RUin In porter, Mtf ; trniRCJuitli In

ti'Mtninoajt 050.
GVMl'M to tea, 81 1 in polled mcAU «n«l flilt,

S4I ; In nutUrd. 34B : lu rrpprr. JH>i ; In

ccafedlonnry, *7i ; lo |H)rt wiiir. 6*tt.

IIax, potted. 343.

Hambrp' Fowuer In rhkorf, 141>

'' VlAnnLiKr«" tuxu. ISS.

" Hanih " Sf* TOIMCCO, Ml.

•■H«m>»," Wl.

H4WTHUBN, lr»f oT, In tea, iVr-) 6S.

Hav In cl)tar». «M.

" llttniMfi " topfirter, MO.

" HsAiw." Set Tobneco. MI.

Hmr. Indian, Julrr <ir,'in o(>iuiii, fiSK.

HoCRUBIMBB. Sfr wine. S-Vi.

•* HoLLAMIM." A*v Butirr, W* ; Gin. AW-

HoNBT. rofiktilutioii i'(, Vi. How pruducfd,
19(1, IW. CimitKUcnIl ju>d prui-^rtifn of, \'M.
PmfHirtlon of Milld -iiiit ll<i<ttd tiijcar in, IMi.
Folaououi lionrjr d*'*'""'* ir.in o.p Duwerk of
tharhododeudron -k iw Cry*

tall of booey with « > n franiifri,

JIgM., WO, 101. \Jii'.- . . 1 himry dli.

ting'tUhnt lij' th<< iMillt n, .ixi. Anisxing iiKt<it<
Crynrttpriiit iticollixtiiiti. tUKtuncr fit, 2fH.Wt.
AMIkxIi M otitalnlDK tl*** fallen for micro-
•oopical jntrpotet, 3tlV. AiirLT&R«Titm« n|,w)th
jwtaio md wtMMt ktiirrlirt, w-tili itarch Mid
caue cugan, rhalk, |iU>lrr of Pam, jind ptnr
rlny. 'JOt. Ih-itftivn qf adttllcritiumt . Wit i
With cjne mitar. »►<,/(».. J"3 j »ilh grape
auftar, :fit4; br the (i'^^'^*'^ "f ^\^' BW>(.
IVllgiut, and Pajrefl, 3M. Hon<-y In lolwcco,

Ilurs. rarr nt^ceuary tn prrpartnt, &00. Gfeat
«-ariall«n tn rrop*, i*ri. LUbtlltj- of, lo In*
Jury fnjfn fli(*«, mf^iiM, «nil rtitt. AiG I*ro>
fvu of pir|<d"itinn Mloiilrd in En)|l>ind
and Brislum, h<iS, In UavariH. &04. Stmt-
turr of Iraf, glaiid*. atid seed, flgt., MH.
MA. Rxi'-nirvi' idull^railun of, Ml. Iff.
tvflion o\, 514. RiclM' duf> on humr (ruwii
ho|-ft, Cn*tf>n<a* du(v on torelitn hu|M, atul
qiiantltm tliat pntrl tjirlM- itutjr and wrrr rr.
tali>i-d for huine coii>unip(l(.>N in IH\^18&&,
&ir>. Sre I'orler.

tfiiaotiiit, yifi.

lIuiiuKi'M Dl:kTKHO>(. t<JL

lIuaiK I'liikfovr. leaf of. \n tra, 91.

i1)iK<trLa-it Mddr<l m |>oit«d mrats, MU^afM,
iH^loiiir*, Ac- Mr. It'cliaidMii)'^ «tldriic« r»-

lliiiMttt* tff c<jW«, Mr. Run'* rvmarha upon,

■iHi.
llYiiuoMiTva. rrMnmnn, 'ill*. Jig.. :tSl) Syh.*-*'*,

lor rttimaltnit nlrahul, &X>.

Im...*. (.,.,% >iv. .•i.vftiiirnManU HrudnrrjI^s..

-«mI 111 4«liilt«Tat« O'lm

I ■•m\,a*K.>, li4|UQnce. GH7.

■■ 1,

iMMtin in (ra, HI. itj. 'JH; laconrKUonrrj-, ^MA.
iMramrtXTion. GeueraJ, 1 — 41. 'iMUnMMi| of

leocr of •diillctatloft. 4. Ol

Uon to Incrraa^ btilk. impfiH

part Itatotir 4 to <')*Mita4

drlecie<! • - "

II. Ll>t

be uarti ' og^ 1^

BtatMl (.. ,-. .wTlori

th<; uA^of whicii t.u poatUm
adduced, lU l.i.t «< arucVni

l)>«-r-Ili|'I>i» IIK :m . t ahw-htal
h'

If,,

A' I I ^141

«ilollrr;i(i(.n, V'J >Ufl||««Ual
Rieritary Cnnimittm lor tei i
preaciofi. aa UaettctracT of
Li*t of (hf! gvfitUvMV
mroury Coii.mlClaa «•
Ontttt'dt nn wlilvli aflk*^f<

r«-'' '■ *- - *-' — 41.

loi
Iri'

fiTii. 1.7." c— -■
Bdi'lioix'* Hr>4>'
Uilr(*.thie« »...
G;s.f.7X Am I . .
t-tlMlk. WlliNit I
n(>rc. (,71 IVu.
drug grtDderm. rr.l /if^.. r»^^,
rt7V
iao^r, •iilpl'iire w^f tn tea. •?

lAtt>> !.•*■

>1 Co A.

J.;
>.

lit .li'

Ibr -

INDEX.

Ivnlort.GbS: r» IdcDC* of Dr.Tl)or»«m rrtpecT-

fi'A hftfch'tm nf aduUnatiofU of Jalap
Kh tnal'- J<iU|>, fi'V** ; with Ji(la[» ((•ilkt and
riiiKl i'llnp, liofi. VarlMliiiH In qiunlli;
nl rc*Ui ii> lUlfrrriit lubrrt, VJfAx Dftettlun of
llfiriiitii >it#, iir piiHUu'um. in \%\i\>. Jif.,f'*tt
1'Mwdi'tt-il i^lap u-iil ,<* :in NtluItt'rAtit of vom-
lioutul i<-»<iimi ny puMilor, tW'J.

iniiv S4MM«i- ttii|i)i>)'nll»fl<lultirrAl«lea,SA.
JkacriCA " H) itort win-. M".
<Ml*M»l«bia'*Kii. $rr W|ur, 5&C.
JrwrBM" in chc«*c. 491.
VKirKR. Jirv C>ili>

iiKOHv, ion.

UiMAUM, the t«A M lUllvd, 9S.

LAi-Tt>ME.TEK. 115,^., MC. Experlnwati with
•In larti mrtrr*. Vt'.

Laci. «:).rr, M. 1>. iinc'i, til. Jig. MS. Tultle
n( riclDit'M nfintlh a> ilumu I15, Vi». 330. It*
itit|ic«lU)n> tiut nt-frttAnlv corrrct, 230,

LAlii>iit liiittrr. W7. MX>. l'ri>cri( of nmnufac-
luriHK \(ktA. 3ti|. BriirtMinrt'* pfOxliDAtennA-
\\%\t 111 irrtli, ;<0i. Fxp»ttiiia rountitp*, ati:/.
Ant i.iF«ATioN«. Mr \Vliip)>l«>'t rmtark* c**n~
rFr< hit, ^H. Mr. talvcrt on Ami'ik^n lArd,
502 I^Tit .tiJulifrjUnl wtlh fatty matters.
■tjirri), jiluin, (jukkllinr. CiUlHiiiBtf^ of notath
unci to<U, puutoflotir (/^x.,.Ki.^|,Rnd Mil, 303.
Rcntltt vj Ktam. uf uii« hunilritl uiDi(jle>,
3(Kt. A'luller*ti'>n nf Unl oaly proBtjililr
«i«ti-r rrruiii r4n-un>»tii)rt-*. J***. Dr/rriMH
»r w «trr am) itAicti. 3''1 ^ dllDcuUf In llir cak>
uf kf'itrh. 3»^. ^tci- Dflf inm^lkun of inltnc
n-ii'trT'< tT< |^irH.3()A. l><-tn'tlun nr iilidii, *Atl,
■> •'. Imporu In IliM — H^iCi, »r«,

I.* .iCCl>. >1>,

Lt . <•!, In tra. 87 ; in mufttmrd.^M;

frO. Ill .i<Mi.( |.., 471 ; In clie««)>, 4W ; rh'omiie
of. In omlertionrry. 4AA , ml aiiij viblto. In
ditto, 4M0i Bcvtal* of. Ill Kill, (V'iA; in ttnn.
Ml ; in i>-rl «>ln<-. MX ; !>• ■tirrry. -lU ; chin.

maif iiihI oMitc <i(, in iiuir uw.

Lli)«Tll.i, vjriiiiH Ktti<ii of, their nxtpnilvt rtn-
plo^initmttn riittnanoui fiKxlt.SSJ) t(tt*i..Jie»,,
TKl 31): b«*ur<]. in K-ainnion>. ^'.Jlg.. ^hl.

]jlk TlA, a'lultfraliMn Hf tr-a niih. I'lul di*rrl|»-
lion of. 77. KnoriDutit liil|[HirUtlua qI. 79. HI,
Aft 7\17.

].HiMiiM Vn«. See Gutiaeam.

LiMK, MTlMinRte nf, in iva. n', 10I-, lulphate nf,
90. t.ini» 111 «»h of rtiffrr, 1tl7 ; in aitt tif rlil-
Cory. IM ; in Lird, 3it3. 3(4i ; xilfhate and L-iir-
b<)iiAt« !•(, In animtH). it 8 ; *ulphat«> of, in con-
ItK^liinrrf, 4»C: In tubacco, SHa ; in vnuff, 611-,
in iCdinmnnv, dWi.

LiMi*. Sre I ruiU. 410. 416.

LiMiniD MKAk tn fftip^r, 3&t. Struclare of Un-
M^ tnoil. ^6*,/^., 3'-f>

Liui^oKiea tn iMjrdr. I('7 : In tobacco. •'■M ; In
DVtun),63U. V4riiMi»d*icrlr'»1o'i»of Ihiu-rk-r,
6Ti». «iinl;»r» <if (Mir liiiDdrrd luarli nf thp
tttiii u.K)t Muil 01 til** iindt-cnrtifAlc^ |«t«(*pr.
tUti; ni ilif itvcofttcatcil powder, 691. Sttitc-
Imre or liaiiorm n>of, f>f(<, >S^i., Ga2. fKI, CM.
ADi'i.iKR«Tii>T<a of, wiih HartHry fum, UH^.
liituitM iif Anal, of Ihtilt-fuur uii>plr« of
Ii4|u»rlrr, iA^. Adult'*rA<i^ wHh canv aiupir
and rirn fluur, CH.1 ; with hnrlry, r}c, md
wheat Bouri. i^iUto Maicli. cluUi, ud c*t»>
tine, 696. HeimilB ttf B*am. o( Ten anptei

of llaunrlcr nlrati, Wk Adult«ru«l with
■larcli)' ii'Aitur UkI ftvUthie. GB7. Rf*vlUi^
S*am. of rurmy-riwlit Miiip'f- of llqnnrlcvJ
putttUr, 6K7. Adiiltrr:itrd with whfat. Iiidiiui
I'om, po'Alu, ami tago llcjuri, wmKlj- filiri?. tur*
mi<rlr, Kut India arrowroot, and ronr »a)tar,
6»l7. C«inpmind iK>wdi'r». rw:<'lpl» U'r ni«li-
iuK. CK)!. /Vf/cfiOM Qf nduilrraiioitt of llquD*
lire, fi>'i ; wHh whmt llour, chalk, arroMr>iot.
lurmitrtc, and cane tfigm. f-'i^i. CuMiMnt*
dtiiy, iMut And |irr»eri(. t>Di>. Qtmntlt-fi im-
poi|r-it and i-nlcred for home coiiiumpUon to
iKMaiid I8S\'KN>.

LliTTflf druifk and thrlr adoltcrMl'ini, Cfil. 093.

LlTVl.*H pArEiu iSre Vinepar. 40(J.> Lilmua hi
cnnlrctktnprv, 49A.

LiVKAs. bilked bor»*^' and bultoiki', UM»d to
Ailiiltrratc cottrv, lit.

iMW^ThU; i-tftcnrc ol, 49IX.

LocwuuDln tva. 10V. Inchtcory, 149 ( In bocilcd
rrtl Iriiiii, 4l3iia|mrt wtnc, 648 ; lo claret,
t^i^ i dvt* in ioii«ec<', SW.

LoLii'M TKMui.Cf>TUM. or dnmrl. 169,/f ., '.'tSi.

hirny fredf tiiported for tbe purpuiv 01 adults
rating coffee. 117-

Uaci. two kind* of. trie and Mtr. 443. Com*
potiiunt at, accordii'K tu Mr. N, E. Henry, 1
44). Stryetwrt of. 441, fia^ AM. Ani'LTtKA-
TtoMS uf, by addiliott ol nitd innrf, 44J- iltm'
ttdis nf E»aMi, ot Twrlte laniiiUift, 441 Im-
port I uly and hoine cuniumptluu la IS&4 —
U'<6. 444.

MAuaikA. Sff Win*. 1^.

MA(inK«t4. carb«nai« of. in tea, 87. 101 ; *lllrata
uf. litlRA, lid. Uag^itrslainaAhofroflrv, lliT; m
chl ory a^h, IM -, *u1phati* of. In lolMccOi dW.

Maowmmt In tiihaiTo, hn'j,

MAH'ti^NT du*t lhchlru?7. 14}.

MAturoi 1m conft-citoiierf. 49S.

UaiXK. .'hv liuluin Com, and Flour ar>d Brend.

Malt, r^ro r«qalrM lit prrpnnriK. and nit^Kle
of prrjMrAlioti, Mil, WH .S»vrr-1 (arirtin of:
p,ilt- tuAlt, anil aiobi-i nult, .M«l : bro*n or
blown mult, and pMtvul mnlt,5>'9. (Jm-itloii
wtirilirr Ibr Mt|inr >•( inult ■■ formrd ai the
expruw of iliv ■tarcb. conilduration uf. by Mr.
Wr*n. ao-i. Ani.iTiia«noni« itf.-Ml. SI2 /)*-
IctiWi of. h\b. hvidrtK-r ol Mr. Phillip* «llh
re(p4*rt to malt, -'•1^ Earlte duty on, j**H jind
preaent, ■M^. Qiutnliti'* rplHlnnl fin home
contuinption III Ibi' V. Kingdom In 11163— IH.%,
Al\ Pai«? malt In ^hnrrr, .V\3,

M^Nuoij) \>riixeLlnri>ffL-c, Ul^JIga., IID,l36i
tn cliicory. 14f*.

Manihot nr Taniora Arrowroot Av Arrow-
rnot, 313, and Tapioca.

Marauta, or nVa India arrnwroDt, 174.^.,
314. StT Arrowroot.

MAVNLa, fvwdrrrd, In lugar. IM.

MAkQAHc Acid Id butter, tX.

MaHHtLADt, <iraiigr.4l6,/^..417.

MawrtrNT. Iiitulpliiitrt of, la Cajrrnrw, 37t1.

Nil Hm»copk, tbc, >u creal um in the detection
of MlulteTHtluii. 4n. et te^.

MitMiB. whcot, S€7.

MiLDsu In wheat. •:f,\,Jigi., S64. 36».

lUiLK. It* gTu«i and vdij Kvucrsl adulteration,
20). Ita importAnce «■ ati arlklr of dirt, ^s.
ComfatitUm ol : fklm-mllk, butlrrmllk, anil
cream, 906; Inilirr, rurd*^od-wbey. iiirtfm-
cfaevK.uid ordinary cbttMe.KK^ ConaUtuiHi

"06

INDEX.

i>rcow'« milk In U» nortn«l it»tc nreonlinp !o
MM. O. Hf'»rkpiin4 ChrMlit-r.Wfi. H*-tm of
trti aiuilrsfi nf piirr milk liy I'ruf. Ptigpidlf.
SUC^ Moilra ot ratlntatlnK the qiiantttT of
tnicitr, iUfiBr or milk, b&Itt, nnd »n);-tr lu |C'<«xl
milk, 007 ^ nr (Kline tiiatttrr and cn^ctn, fiw ;
ol augar In the «hej-, M. I*oK}{ialf't mwhM,
aW.iKW. Sprrllic uravltj of mlK, taWohow-
imiTiiriatiimi*n,«fiil U- rrUtioti to fto|>oftl'.n
of crram, 'iW, 210. Tablf or.ti-nnity nf M-nrm
JincI jti rcliillon to i|K^Qc tcraviir, 310. la-
riJiJiotniw comtKHttkin or in ilk, 31 1. Inflr)pnr«
ol ngf Nitdnf condition on. 211,213. iDlliiitirc
ol food an, 21V. Cnnatiiiirni* of milk wht-n
rnwi fpil on Iw^l, and vhrn on rarrnct, 51?-
VahmltHf condition of Lundun cowi, 913.
Mr. IlMrlvjr'i rcmarka on •roUtnir cons wtlh
hif M-rrs' and dlitUlrra* prftin* and «»a*h, 3f3.
MM. Boutilnvnull and Leb(^i'l >*«]M*rtrnriiu.
SIS. liillurncL* on tnllk, of U''>'(irr.iltJr<>. and
of lime anil frequency oTmt.klnit. 313. T«ble
thnwlnji dillvrence in quality uf Brit and la^t
milk obtoiDcd at each nillkidf, ^14. Table
allowing spM. grav. of pure mnniliiit and aftm*
nitOD mUk, and pcr^cistiinfttn ol rrram. tmm
Hlchmond and London cowi, 21 is. Iteiulti
dnluewd from the tablci. !t1& HouiIhk uf
rowi, Mr. Rujtb'b reroarkt upon, 'iUi. Ctalcu*
latlon t>y l>f. Tlioni*on of iIm? Amount of purt
air ]M'r dtt-m nrceiiary for one ci»w, 717.
Vharatlfriitic* o[ good milk, ^ . J17. tlHi
poor oiilli,/^.,319;crrHm,2t«./l(l{..SI9; cord.
^\^,fig..'ti(\; colfritrmn, 511. iVi, fig., 121.
Av;>arnlu« f-ir drtermlnlnic purity and quality
of milk : >pcrlllc ymyUy bottip and common
hfdromrler. St9. jl^., SSS , M. DbiDCiHirl'a
cen(e«lmal v4liictoinet>>f, de«cr1p(lon of, 31'J—
^Cta^ ftg., vSk-, drn«im«-trr of M. Collardr*n,
Yt%. Mrlhmla of dftcrmining the TBOtn,
*25; the lartoweter, 'n\ flg., 2W. Rxp«>rt.
nientl wilh »lx Inrt'metrr*. 2V7. M. Dmmt'i
t«etOM!ni>e, with dlriH-tiont for Its HpvltcitMon,
M7. fig., »«. TBblp of rirl.n.-** t'LTERftTtnN« of milk «lth water. irrKl*.
ult, aoiiattn, cerobrMi mnut-r, March, tnr-
Bierlc, gum tr<ixacAnth, rarbtiitAtn of tirda, and
KUm, 191 ; with drrocllou uf botlrd wliltr car-
roct, mi, motf. Abairactioa of tlir crmtm,
JXi. Proportion of milk, wcrr it aupfillod
IfDUinr, to f>jich 1ndlridii;il tn London. 232.
lUtulU i^ Eeam. of T»pnly>*li »ainple« of
Ixindon milk, ^i. tlrt^rhnm tf adatttrtUiami
with watiT, hy ip«T praT. t«*»t of mOre milk,
' Imraed milk, and Mrruni. 233. 'Af. TtMc of
drattty of ihi- icrum, :t34. Dcl<^ ion of luf ar.
30I i of cane *U)nr rr dt-CMCtion of carroi*,
04 : of *rarch. jtiim «r.ibfc and gum rran-
cantli, and cerrbml mi»tti-» ipf^.. iafll. rli«lk,
■ait, and annalto, 'IZS ; of tinm'Ttr. %Vi, 8ln-
tlnilcB tif milk, mohidinp cht*f«'', hnlteT, *r.,
ronauned annually in the l^. Kingdom, '<a6.
DdatU of its coal aril cnn\r)'Rm-«* lo lunidon,
'OHm Annalto ijted ti> colour, I7:t.

MotAMEi (»*r .*Huar) ; m brniHljr, M3.

MiMELLL .^1- Wine. Jttfi.

Mould in hopi. K03.

MowiiA flower*, powdered, In opium, 638.

" Mi'LTim," M».

Mtait, Ma,

JdL-tTasD. two apedr* of, Skiapla olln and nfffni.

dilTereacea In, M4. nut.*— nf ka
lure di'irrlbvil. M4. C^m^mamm «l
iDuaLatd tfMKl. Pviwlr^'a rrwaart^
X44 : ol wliltr. S4». Htrm£t»»r 0

Urd •«•
fit' . '■
wtl-

jell..- .■

XMiU i\J

I Mfc figT , M'l. M7

............. ,.^ ^llM^M ^

t:tamt. nr Ki>n*«i«« tcnfli*, IK
^dtiUuralioni with vtilpfMf* «f ••*. |m^,
potato itarcti. and itc«, Mram. WaTwM
and Uay'a gridanga conc**i>*m. »#.M* w

qualities of mnatanl. ** SMqaia," " tm^
" Sii|irrriTir '' nod -'l>ou*<le *>a|i^ftB«.~ ■••
thd' ' --niibtrl Tr W

niai !., Jti. Jh^

tio; . ' -a»or.>l.Bai

with ••)< • »Ni. vOk rwvwal

1^^. A'- -tn ci^ arf

4.V>i Mtth \

3.V;. Duti ATi.l qiiaii|4lM»
tallied for home eaBMMi|iCMa li
^bf^, Mtiatard huaH MiMM«r,
finin, »n ; lu ginger, 49* t •■ p
t|rlre 459.

MtatvTK''*, lhre«t «p*«-|f^ of, 4tM.

Mymocvmi. Hix Aiuslasd.

KkPiia Vklluw In miiriifli— j

Nl<OTl*?ij«. drrlratiDn of llM fwa

NicuTlkNiiw.^H.

NiTBk Id totui«n. Sfl9l.

NtrTWlc«, dr><Ti|>lJOU nf,
true or female, and «Htl ori
nf cropa and mcde «f (Mtb^Wf, aA Cik^
llaUilily tn attack* of uul
Ciim^iti' ity*t nt . fl\c^ cod
nn*tre'< anatyala. tl9. db-«rAvTa(Jk» '
AntTTt RtTi«iv< nf, Mitk wtM fliri lk%
niitrr. '' ierMrta aC, Ml. laMKt

or. *uimiifc»iaiii|| iw^i

ant ii'iTiir moi,

A16,

Oak. 1'-' '■■

Oat I <
Uatm&ai.. it
prnpertlea. arr

roA II.

t:'-Mt^«wMkr<«i,

Fl*Hjr iai4 BirwMi

AtiaJy**** '-■f ITi-'.'*t<
Meaar*. .V 1
of. Wi7.

Anrniit' ■

win
aiiil
Cfv-
mr«l Mi;. .,

tmtiii>n • ■■
arw. Imi .
food. ai^.

Tooting »

lllfl'* Alld ■

rice, and ::-i_:. , _i.. .,~,_Hi -^
QtianlUiM tMaiMripd te i«M— 4»Mk Uft
maal la eottaa. MH
Oena«,r«d.tiic«M*. feVt r^Ov*
aw; fwl. In C«}««»ff*, »r»j
nirttc. VM; III lobacco, US;

■HUff. tiML

lM«t«7 1-rrtA*"^
>•» liaf ^^H

w«wl ■• a*

INDEX.

707

.N« ui«d to ftduU«r«l« tat, GA.

tor. .V>7. 8)>ttrr« •ntl v^ri-tir* of
<-niiiitrk« whrrc e«i)Ur*lnl. 6H.
if tlif p'»i'pf l*40*iiIp, GJ4, Jtg».,

r, ftA. ("ivn. ro/Zr^riiM or t<|.(iirii.

lUiMruliiK ihu uriirtiiri* of IIik
I CMb AmiiLftct uf rt}jliiia : lij-
aiiym*. Oft Iv S4<h>n<ti«-r. '>r
■iUnttnnftU, «nd ffffixun. fiSi ;
r nrlrttttti ftlMl tili1<|K?nou>, 'itV.
T; SmTrnA, Tufk»-f, or Lfftant,
Mitlnopli*. Ksiyp ioa, Trrhtintul,
~ B'*nf ill, n<'Q>r*-4, FAlna. M4I.
eh.ri3<i. KaiKlrtiii.tkir : Kitaiuti.
1 G«ritiiui. diSU Ant-i.rKiiATioM*
Kh |ioppi- c^ikiiIp. mud, lanJ,
I4re«>«l. MKit. rnwilims. lour, |mi*
ctioo. KO'ir, tlt« tnipu»-it«it jtitrttt
y Msr. tub4cco plant. utH IntlUn
Wlim«rlnkl «nd B*'-) (tuU. cm-

niraui')i[ upon tlH< xluUiratinn nf
I. blflrrrnt itrenftht nf grfituUic
iiml hr mriniti Knalyiu, lift. Mi.
» renurk* iipoo i»oi«ltirc In opium,
itiMof" ■Miutront" and "powder
^416. Sitniptr* uf onixtn mIiiU
poprr CApiiil" 411)1 whrAl R"ur,
it S^inptt- »f KtffpltMl <H>tutn

vMh ffutn, woody Abra. utdwhtM
D*ttetim 9f mntiura$imm$, M7>
If. Mid • MiMUlM MCjUiwil for
ipclMi tolBM-ISAe. M7.
4Ltll«. 4l(,J|f,,41T.

ric*. au.

l-i mirvnaUde, 4I>, jtiff., 4|i t

nuir, fvyj.

I Btoil to riiojver MUf be«r, AQO

Obkira. <M

nt of. An* CirtUmiim .
>f. Inl|-<ftry. ami.

;u A^TiHir rhee»«', 4711.

jnl, m c>nfl»<*. 1 3ft ; la chlcorjr, 140,

, Juie* of, Ih e|4u«i, 6M,

I Ma

AtrCDIi. »». 4Wk

>a*lv(t*« of. ttirlr variou* u»v*,
qrkft an tlir croHlh nf
"I \Uf in>-l* rtf rf..ii. f ■.>» II..'

HUrk |>rpptr

Itim? Lln«U nf —

, ■ml I'liitluh }>i
(TjpBpfHT 1.*. A-
d,l'^H. l>M«-ripti' <
inr of tbe b#rn- x^^. JV'* ^U^'-
-lA. Dif.

of ground t^VV^f^Ai-

frr«tic«a obt#rr«bl« la the partlclM of Mack
nnA irhlU. yVI. 3M. ffnai/li 1^ KMam. of
Flirt J- til rw! utnplfa- ar>4. Aut>tilJlATlofi> of
|>vpp«r with lint^ihl xnvaX. muttard hutk,
wlii<*t lltiiir, |>4-4 flottr, ug<). rit'e flour, pt<p|HT
dusc. and wiMMtf Q)iro. 'JfA. EviUrncv of
M«»«r*. Plilillp* 4IhI Cvf upon tha diseoTaif,
in addlltoa lo thff Utt-^uoknt ■iitiktanm, of
potiitn tiarcti, ChtiU, (•ran, ground grpiun*
ra^ mmI, aiiiJ buiii^ tlutl. lti&. ArttAcIal pap.
parcoTDt. c<tir>i>o«ili'>n of, 365. IMecthm ^
orfkattrrffftrm*. wirli the klarrbptofwbm, rlcv,
prtiaio. aiMl I'tc >, with miutjinJ and rap« »Md,
CayvDiifl, and ffjpiiim, Ji'A. Strurtura nf Itn-
k*^ ror«l, 3fi5, ##■. Strf*- Stntdura of pftn
dour. S*!?. Ilftfctioa of pt'yjfMT liu*ka, IaT'
Itlioua pritpt^r Urrri>i, and hone diitt, MT.
Duty, and quaullttr* Miti^rt^ Tor bonto cuu-
•aiDption lit l-i^^-l— IM6. 3ti7.

PiKllMX Dacti LiVBia. ntia

pHoaVMORic Acid to oofTtfcaib. 107j la rblcory
a«b. 134.

Pickup " gr»eD*i»jr " i>f. Accom'* rvmarki

t<. rm\ik Inn to. 4(t5. Kaial r<r«ult of Mlhlg

,.,. I'- - t...r.... ,. ,fy-.1 «ii|, cnpp«r, 4Qfi. ktod^n

>pl<-*, 4'>ri. iitlecliuH nf
. iiij'itiUUlvc »*tiiti«llua of,

4-f.' iJutv, uiip(^>ri<, and hotnv coniumpllon

In IVIlAoil H1\4ti!t.
PiurKi'u. or AlUpIC", growth and prrparalion

of, 4t!). C-Mtpuintam of, acrordlug lo Perolra

449. CbcmlfAj aiiaiiMi uf, liy Buojutrv. fOT.

Xirurtvrrnf, 450. J(/a., 4-'>l. O'J, 4M, 4iW.

ADiTLTrakTloM of. wuti tntiatord lui(k, iSC*.

Dfifciivn ol. 4^. Dolr. wlioiriaJf pric«. sfKl

qo^itUtv enlcrvd fur liuiuo t:oii*uiu)Hltm Ui

ISM_I-V>,4M,
** Pi«K.%rrLK RuH,"54l( how fUvovrad. Mt.
PiocMVLA Ca>u, or chrcaa fl|, acoMtot oT, b/

Mr. lhifican.481,
Pirs Clat In hnwj. 90t.
Pifnursju US.
PmcMiHK, desrrlptton of, A**.
Plavk, Irarof, In tra.yf*.. H7.
pLtkiKR or P(Ki4. AVv Gypcun.

Pm;«, Iraf of. ITi l»>iv 76.y^f.. 74.

Pmlknta, Indian r«>rn flour, 3A|.

Poio^toi a(luli(*r4l>^ wiib hor»rflnh, 343.

Po^rarNArT I.oxaKacs, 179, W a^.

PuriAli, Iraf of. In LtA,^., IM*.

Purrif, Srr Oiouin, I'.'t.

Pl*aT. Srr W tor. '^■•.

Poaiva. 4f>4, Prt'p^rallon of lh« ingratl'eMl
lor brewing, AOO. Spmifti- Knrity of good
■Vio. M4LT. dNrriplton o( ir.4> Kra>n 01 hur-
ley bHorii* aivl afcr iiiiiUtni;, ^'1. Svvftral
TarWilci of initlt : p4la aod amber, UtI ;
krown or blown, nod patvot. Vnl. Stalvmrnt
Ihu tb* augar of malt !■ fuiaiad at ttie «x-
ptow of tho ttarch, cootKlvrcnt, AtTJ- Hum,
•racarhMianMa ni (lir rroti. and lu liability tn
■(ot. mould. i«" ' '•"' 'I* sif,,ji.,L,,. .,„•,(
Ia««urable lo ' %>h

•od Bc'litUfl > llt-

T.irhii mrih "' ; . , i.iji.

'■'1,/fj;a.. .'lOl, .'rtj.V SiilpLui u*ril til rv-
plr coloor wbpomuiljr, wn HMStoa 1
m In |-orlpr, >K. AniLTSKaTiuiia of
(•"rt'.-r, «tlh water. Irtvtclc. tiigar. and aalt.
6or,. HftfH* nf £iamM( Fi<ly>t«ro ■amplra, &06.

Z K S

DiffVtrpnt uppfifli: grariU«i of thotc obulned
fnim Ihf bri-wer* aiKl ihn** fr«tTn lli*> tmb-
lican«,V>C. A<)iilU>r.illon with «iilphKlcorirnn,
bitten, nnd i arraliiativn, tu iti-iitl«n, quaiaU,
camoinilv, icirigtfr, corUml*T and ciif*w4y
■fr^lf. caiJticjni, irrami u[ pimdlftc, llq<iorlcp.
alum, iiilf>liiirlciictd, ialtl oriArUr, carttonate
of kOtIa, cnrciilna Indinii, And tobarcn. %a7.
Erlrlciu-e or Mi-iirt. PhdIltM imd Wkktum
upnii. ft'tl. RffliM! in iitp nmoti^ putilicxni Tur
ndiiltrrating »urt«?r. W'?. Kruicnn* at M<-««r<.
Slnimonrti, Cav. Rotltmn, and \Vn khiim, W"t.
O'liiturnplioii ft( malt and liutu ilatlunary,
tlinugti that of U«i*r lurKHjr Incre^iTHl, ifm,
M<-ttiorl of iiil'liii^ >aU lo pnrEnr. 50^1. Mr.
Worrl*'* lilt or ftit'dtt-ranti, and advice to piil>-
llrnni.Sfrt. Mr.C»ii|>t't leclp** for poriiT.AiiO :
two rM:i|>r« by Mr. Morrla, filO. " Brcw«T»*
drufK^liU/'Accii-n'* (CatemMilconn'minK. MO;
Dr. Norma id)** remark* upon, ft|l. M't'ul*
loch'i cvldmi'Q as tn the rxirnilvr a/ltiltrra-
tli>ii of^mrter. At)(t the conapiiii<Mit enormoui
l0l» tolhe rfyrmif. All. A4titUraJiim o[ hnpi
and mnlt.^ll. J'ropoawl reiri'tlr, ft\1. Df-
tex*ion nf tk< attttUn atnmi of porter and ttaut
witli wotcf, iMKitr. aiiil rum.M'i; wtth bi«<Ti.
(-■arininatliv*. Ac, 513 ; wilh rcicculua iiidU'ut,
Dr H<-nipatli'» tn-thod. ■•la. dl4j M. Kat-
utunc't method, M4. DrtiTtlnn of adul-
teration of hop(,AM . of malt. 31 1. MS. Isn<><
raiice of Ihf Kxcltc wl'h rrffrvnc^ to rra't,
hofn, and bf^r. ihnwn In PTidenre of Mr.
PlilIlipt.MS. EkcU» duty pa<t and prrtrut.
■m trait, and qu>rtitip» r*-tjiii»d for bofoc
roriautriptlon in tb«> V. Kln|[dnni In IViS —
18V>, &1A. An4lriU of porter for Urrchnln*-,
tit.
Potash, chrnnutte of. In t<>a, A7 ; notath In aih
ofcoffi*^, 107: in aBb of chicory, 131 : carb'>fi-it«
of, hi lard.aiB; in turtoprtc. 3HM ; biUrtnLn
of, In vtni-sar, VH ; ttibcurbnnatt* uf, in uln.
fi2S : bitartrdto of. in wino. ^^f( -, In tobacco,
M9 : birhromnle of. in »n>iff. ti(H.
Potato St^vch in cocoa, M'^.jtsi.. MX t'A. 177 ;
In Irmey, ?0J ; (n liutttr. •£>! ; U\ lanl. 3f >3 ;
arrowroM, or Dritlih./^,. 4-. 3lO, /ftf.,3»;
flotir in arrowrrmt.a i; in uitiln''a, 3'<!1*: *tari-li
Id mutta'd, 'M'J; in ]wtTr><'r, Sfih ; in rurry

aiwder, 3»i\3»fi; flour In dinnntion ikO»'<lfr,
7; In mtxrd tnicr. 4.U1; <-hf-f««> in Tbiirlnftia
Mid MaxiKiv. l79 ; flour In cnnfrcrloncry, 41*6 j
leaf III lotuuTo, f<M» } tariiia In opium, (t3^ ;
»t.irrtl in hqitotlri'. r>H.'^.

PonKi> .Meat* ajch Fiiw, Adult«>ni'lon of, with
flour. I'liallL. uUittT uf Pml*, sprnt* >ind other
ch(?ap U»b. v«iii*tliiii rv^ and bolf ArmcnUu.
841 HftulUtif F.tam.tn r«<>niy«cUht ■utn-
>)vs, M.1 I'nnwturnl colnar rommunlcatrd
ijr tlir rpd earihi. 3ia. ETidence of Mr.
KtrlmrdfOD in fi'irard to addllinn of horTRoh
to ptittfHl tnf.1l*, »4i|t->r''«, r>-'loril<>i, AC .^13.

" Pin* nil or Pn^r " (lawdnit} In opium. (>IA,

)'owiiiiR4, CD'rpnnnrt. •(■•'l.

r«tfr*a«-tio!»«i, Pr'^prtctary Alimentary : Wtiar-
toii'» Krvalcnta, romim-lium i»nd arpparnric*
of, JJd. jfi.., 33/. •• liarl" or " durra** oo# of
H* prlitrlpal inttrrHllt-litl XU). I)ii Barry's
RrralrtiU. roni-.duiMili of, ^SO.Jie . 333. Re-
Cplfit* fur makiD^c KrvMlriitat .iiid Ri>«ali''il^'*,
331. U2. t'ompiMllion of Butler and M'Cul-
locti't Pr*p«r«d I^ntli Puwder. Edwards

Brolhen' Arablea 'R(»val<tita. and S*

Patent Flour of Lenlllff. 33). lUltai

tlieir rnnipoiition. 33'>.
PttEvERVU tND JrtUCIi, 414. .^•l«ilt«T'«t>» «'

oranKr-m-inn^Uiln with tMe«-t t^r*ng^t,ft^

aniliiHi'cd«>,IIA,./Iir..4l7 ; nf rh«T»ttrm )HIt»»-

current Jollf :(nd i>rrl» tf- - \-- -

idOiilaitand ('.ilf '• f<H> ,.-

Jt^tuttf 1^ Anal of (nil

]*ri'>i'u<'4> iif c'ippor In )n-|iii-iii kii,j «'•

hvtry lamt Atid oninpie m<irinal*doa. <11;

pmervrd gm-nx^e* and )ti>vncag«

limr». and camll'^l r(tr«"

Hot qf the a<i<*U/T-,%ttim *■

dill'Ti of a f lit'M'cr, of or.

npplo or turnip, anil J-ll)
" Panor." Sif Cm. S33.
Pmi'wuk Blue to tea, 81. S7. 97 ; la

lloner-y, 4M.
Paniair Acio In confectlnDery, 4*9..
in-rctNiA ORAMiMt, or mildew, t« whoabl

jS|<., S&4, ^6S.

QcAMU III fOTter. V17 ; po«d«fc«l, tn
'■ Ql'icx. rineitnr proctn." Jfil.

R«Dl<il Sciitln miiitard, A.V>.

Kin Stau In iniitt^rd. M\ >^., 353, CM. la

p^i'p'T, S'i\

riAi'PEr. .^i- Snuff. COfi.

KA«rtitRBrH, 111 1 jrlly and jam. 417.

Ilin I.KAn in Cayenne. 'S72,.%TA- In mrryi- — ™-

SAA :ii> aiiDiitto, 4fM; In cnnf«ci|iiitM«. AVt^i

snuff, OGtl.
n ifiNBT. i(t« of. Lit prrcipltate tb» rnr4 of cal

477. J/r>tf«M (ifhTafHff '>r. 47». Sty Ckr««r.J
Rkpacks. Sff Butter,
KBTAtEnr*, Dti Burry's, rompcMfClMi of.

Af.. W-
nkvnncK. Table ibowInK tba nioani

lots tiiflVrcd by the. o«rlng to Che

or«dult>'rii[iijo,fi94.
Rbvet, a •pc'.'i''* of whCAt. 777.
RuAMNiis (.'ATKARTit-i's, i/r t>w:bll*orfi. 4tfr<
KHrB»RD, 411 , lr.if of. inrrtb>^-<i, .'Jld. AM^j

aVi, .VKb rowdnreti, adoltrrated w4lft

merle and triiejt Buur.^. <i77.
Riii-»TvrHt«r», WO.
Kirt hLora in whrat flour

31)9; In rnuttatd. 34!) ,

('avrnne, 373 : 111 cnrry \\u _ ,

43f> ; In mlxnl •plci*. 4AC ; tii lt«|tMMUr.4iaf. ,

Hour and Bread,
Bosh Plf»a In fe:*. *^. 10^.
RouNu t>An)li:AL. .■('•- 4 i>iTToml. 9(17.
'' RlUDLa." orUtrlev lit;. Dl iMtmnil,
Ki'iiLsnttMiR. Set \Vi... , '.*.r,.
HiN. mfd'Tlnal pr.ii

iw»%vi, Willi w.ii

liitnil and iiiibi.i

J-lMom* of Tw"*?.!

of Mdiiltorat'nn ■

LendarcidrmlaHt ,

apple Hum." M : mfv mi

fliM uf a^iillrratii'ni, M'J.

for ri>cciiliic inditn*. ^43.

roiB III Kn|[land Add Si-'-f

W2. l^uiirittt'r*Uk<m f.K

the Umie'l Kutfilom id
Hrrt III wheal. /Sn ; in Lu;
Kti Fl^otmln coflBsv, II7

[tltCit'

rwaalMl, In ehkMry.

INDEX.

719

M't; in iinnAttCL'4C»i In Itquoilo*, ON.
Huur ami Urviiif.

Sfit

S*muii'w iimriMkiK, or ftgir rnn^, ISI.

Sfcrmuw 111 fhM-M. 47^ ; in cimti^-tit-Mrrf, 49i.
Sack u»r>l lo iLtvour elisor. 4T1>>
»A<iu Ms*L in coroj, l«. « j,y,, ^i., 174. 17ft ;
In •rru»ro<it, 37i. SonroAf •uy>'. ila «prrlrl.
and hitbllAti, 3',c3, 3itt. MmW tH prururtnit raw
*Agit mml III t)i« MDlitrt-m, 324. Mc-iIumI uf
rri-(»arltt(f itr4tiulitiF«l la^o and •afo rliiiir. 371.
V4(le4ici nC, Hitd dllT'^Teiit.'Ct ill, grMnuli(la>l,
I'M. At»l LTKHATidNX of, with ptrtjito ttarrh,
m. Frx*. lllu*trAllv» of lOfo •tJiri.-h, JI3\
SSA. F«ri)liuuB •■gii, wlUlf uiid clournl,
»ev«T»l f»r-rHrt of, Hrrvira'i rrmarki upon,
33W, 3i»'». RnntU of F.ratm. n( Thirty ■amploft
t>( tagn. Sill. iM.tiiom nf piriain fltnir iD. 3^i.
Diiif.aiid qiiiuitiltrk linportrtt amt rrulnMl for
home cim>uinp<loit In ia'<4iiml IKA'),33ii. Sii|[o
>Urrli ii»m1 loaJuHorAlc Uplnra. 939 ; prpi'^r,
364; Klop«r, 4ilt ; ctnnamoQ |K)iVil«>r, 437 ;
mixed ipicv. I.Vi; dnnolto, 4Uft ; Hour In
|(qtlortc^ &I7.

SAGOKaui. 323: urrharthr, au.

S«ar« LsviM and Omlna, m Importance of
S. fif-tntna, ai fooil, to ihr MaUyi, 3'J4.

9aLKP PuwDii In nfiHiin.ftXi.

Salt In atiKM, IM ; in milk. 331; ID hfail, 3HA ;
In butter, 197.310^ in Iinl,3(j3; Int'iyimnc*,
3T3 : In curry |>owti)T. ^*i\ . In uuc*. 420 ; in
KwUtlnv, 4&I ; to anitatln, VA ; lu port«r, ftU> ;
In lo(i.rco, ft\i9 -. In *niiir, AM.

StLTPfcTRI hi I'lharrtt, 3tfV.

Sambicu* S'iukr, tiUO.

SaHrHiac CtcatKi, putionoui. f^ta] cfliccU of
vailMK. 40f).

Sanu In a«btffctilrnfj, lai: In ■U|[ar, |f A ; In to-
bacco, S1l>; In o|tluia,63b; to ftcaiumauy. RSU.

Sarmku. S0e AnFr»o*let,S3A.

Savcu. 419 Gr««t varictr of >ub*Uocrft Mi'er.
Inc into ihHr eora|to«tuoii, 419. Hrtmiti qf
Anai. of TliiTtj>tliTra •Mtrifl'^ of Inilli* <'if ,
toiit«t*i, ai)(l ih« rs4i iKf* iif (ot»t|i'r«, *lirim|it,

«ntl nn-'iKii k(>- 1?m A iki. t i >I4 i i..<aii uilh

trr.tl 'r- f.tit, C IIJB-

MX L M- "^ r<:L >i)r 11^: uia11< n jUtiid'^iM 1 by
>U-.ir> (. ru<tr> Ant lti.irk«vll, 4.'l. ObttquJty

y. (Ik t'liltli. I •<(•'. 4.-t.4*;i
V *. ..i^iH. ...l.tiit^.n .>l l:<>ri.'lli-.ti (".313.
^\«'r.. .1 1 1 u, i.hii'Tf.- .-..iTf.-, 117, Ma-

i.-i>i 111*. Ill 1 1 i>. I (.' SuK'titu (*' ptfw*U-r i>f

|k>>it " I ii> iipi'irr, »t\\.
Ki 4MII4SY, v3*»T<ff i.f, ij*7 Ant-ii-iit r;r»*li miMfe
ofproeurtns *f . '^■■'' ^l.^i.^fl^^^lfll( .tt AMtx't^nX

ilrtCrli t" ■ . . f 'r , -■:■-- '■ : . .iOi.

mmiy i ,.«-l

^orM/ a-

1., I', 1 . . . o(

'1 tilrly tAJ»(-U'*, Cm^. Mr. Ht'r;:iit;'« dvuldnrn
upon the adulufrNtktni «f Kuitstntonj'. CM.

Dr. Riitwl's Inrormailo'i rrfpMtiiin lu «l>il.
Irralion bpfnn* It rcwtiri ibli countri^, (Ka.
Scriom •IT.ctf likriy to mult frrtni tupliiiil-
cati'Ki of (Iriijft an<l rliomk'aU, (i-M Driee*
luM '^ aitmUrrtUtoiu of •cammnny with chalk,
lanil, ilarch, Kualacuit), Jalkp. tulphAtv ol
limr, aiMl iirKtrln«, &VV.

StAWi-MD lu tobacco. •V«0.

HiiALK t:kiKALI,S4e.

SrMriL*. 334.

SCHOLtllA, 333.

SKMt'U lit m'lk, 'J10.

" stuirs," or «h«ai hutk. In oatmeal, SOt

310.
SmaaT. Sfe Wine. W2.
SuRiMn, ^l»rncf of, 490:
SHcrpa BaAi^« m milk. tH.^V- ^^
Silica, powtlcrrd. In iniiff', MW.
SiNAri* NiuaA iml Alba. Hi; nrirniU, or

rh-«rlork. .Vi3, Jig.. 3.'.1
SLok, or "tld plum. Iraf nf. In t<a.^., H*.
Sm«lt In c»iij'f.-ti-nrTy, 4.'>fi.
" SMAL.L3." klKlDf* or lulMCCO, '>0&
Smut iit whiNii, 'jfift.

^oAl• t!i -"■■ 4'-.'<.

Soi>^ 134 ; riTttuniitr of. In milk,

23i , III tnrnii-ni'. 344 , In porter,

6<>7 . ^ -in tnlMCCo, Vy

9«tk>ii M 1 UHbKUfiiM, 3t'> Srr I'aploca.

Ainu II. 334.

Soor ID opiitm G38.

ftilBGIIVM V|i|.«ARK, 2*(!l.

8i)t;r. in ParU, pirpArod from MOtttUIUTlaq
Iwne*. 4fi3.

•' SoitTiiAwm-Mi Pout," ^Al.

iiPBCivic crnrUy bivllk, .M**,

SriL-ttk. rtiuin<-f.-ttlim of •arlctIM, 4)1. Mtxrd,
4S4i «l(urlurr i>f, Jig. *^\ AM'LT1llt*TioN»
or, wtlh wtimi B-Mir. (trniKi'l ilc-, p<njitn Aovr,
and t'liC'i, |.Vi, RrmHa <>/ KjOtit. i)f T«e<ity.iiK
•ainpir*. 4A& Deiaiiom u(. 436- Duty un,

Si'MATfi. ,S«r Anchov|ea,nL

SgriLl* ••liillrrjlrfl «Uh whrnl Aour.jff., GTS.

Ataim'M lit cxtfcc. Uiilln- IfSi for. I2'>, IJC ; |xi-
Ulii III foi'ua, li(H, *■/ u^. ; lit kuir^r, IM. ly; •
Atid tiarch aus'ir in honry, IIU ; iltrcli Ilk
milk, 23i 1 in tiutt«r. .*Mk»: in l^ril. Hit, Hi
airowroirt, ■iti i in n iK<>, 1i^ ; uitfn aixl pO*
Utoln latitttra, i'i!) : miHtnfrt-lluniTy, 41>'' : In
oplam.CaOi tn •cAmiDuO), iiM>; in IhjiumIc*,

SrtitinaiiOKa Sft Hioe. ^Vl,

Sru»'T. Wr Portrr.

8iatc>l«i»R I'l IHXICT. WT : qu^Uon of. In Ut.

ter air*. Mfi. w»rY<
"Srifp." VHI.
St'CCuKV. 13" JtfV Chl(Tti7.
SiiiT m l-tnf ' '
St'OA* In • ■ Burni, or " Bkrk

Jar«." 11 (, iM rfci"- •* "*

Tw"-' ■• .. _.ji.», — — ^

I >. 1 it- u" -

n^ (. ^- "•

IUl<S l*>i. f«»

ma. AiiAir'
Plyr»f, »•
and cum
Pervira i

. kugar, lt> mineTMl cnnfUliienUuNl JmpurUlM,
lft:i. Cryaulllivd, burnt, or eju-«mt>l, ivioLum
•rk, ami trr.v-fr, IN^. Cr^Blnl* (irr4ur •upAr,
Jii., IBl- Strui-turt! of tlic CAi»e. nnd prMrtiri-
or frasmcnt* ot. in sugnr, IM-lMft. jteji., IM6,
197. IHA. Knr<|iii-tirf Rnd abundanrv m Mtu-
covadn lUKxr ftiiU in " tuturdc," and atMenca
^ront loaf •HR*''. rrmluMl tiiinp. ■iiyarcatidjr,
iind crrtitn K«it India auffsri, l^^S. PkytioiO'
tieal actum and fri-perliei o( rnneiufiar, 197.
LartiT lioinr (-••iioitiiiption in lUtW. 147. Advl-
Ti;aATit><«« of, olth pollen «u|iar. lUrcli, huri
i»r lU-Kirliir, fini-ly (Hiwdernl m:irl>lf. rlulk
or vrludug. Mnd. buneOmt. Aiid cum'iion Mlt.
lao. i>r. Pfffeira'i rL-m-irki. nnd Ur. L.ethv-
by'i evidence nii itic iitnnuCacture of lUgaT
from poutii •UTh. 1H9, "MIkIdi" or
" Handling. ** Ib^ ^uncptt dcwriU^, 111$. Dr.
Sotifftftn un the manuriirture of »u(ar. 19S.
Prrcence of trends, gluccwe, rraKiiHinu oC
kUftar cjutf. t|Kiriilft* of funcut. and Iniaru
lit brown «iifiar expUtned, l!Kl. Acarui *«e-'
rhnri. or *iiir><r nii[^, d<*wri]ittnn o(, IS*) — I9I,
A^., I'JO. 191. I'JV. MrthtKl for Ur(»rtt(iK)U

iir*>-kenc(> In atmar, 190. Nuiiib<?r of thr ai-arl
D iitfiar a trat at Ita (lurity. 1^. Grocer'a
Uch probHhIy cauiMl by augnr Iniecti, it
lM>ii);> itf thi' lainc cpnu* a» lh« aCiiruft acatilri,
or itch [riircc, l*J3. iK'Of ul<-« Of funirl la romtnon
>u|[ar. r.K), yf-% 104 i Vfiody flbre tu luiup
augar. Id.1. y%., lUi. RentlU nf Kram. a(
SrvrnCv-two aairplri tif bronn auftar, ISA,
1!*4; of Flil^en a4ini*li>i of lump. IW. Ad-
vice In luii^r rrfluprt, j'j.l. uetteliim of
otlultrraUemM, Iffj ; vlih aalt, pcum, farlna-
*r«>us »ut»'anrea, Jmlilnv. n-nl ttarcb »u-
Kar, iU7. Tciti lor llip di-let-tton of cr«p«
•ugar : Triimrnvr'a ur th? copper, Moiirr'i or
Ibf potath. and tVhlinic'a tr*t, 197. Mod- of
Vr»iKirlnK FohltnK'a teu liquor, 197. Duty
u.i. VArliiua qiialitint or aiifAr, miiitiFratnl up
In |ii.vi, i*!^ C^tiiflumpiiun of all sorO In
IHM— Ig'tC, lti8. Employm'Dt of boih cans
and [|ra|>«', aa luiiiltiTanlt rtf hon^jr, 'A% 2flS,
'i()-(. Siiftar In milk. Vtr?, •.•i.m ^ m ireUllnn,
^li-i ; in pon^r, tAtd , in rId hSd \ In rum, Ml ;
in brandy. Mi; randy In ativrry, U3( caae
BUjtar In toluitfco, .VKf i tn lUiuirlrv, 6i&. GR7.

SCMMAKY (if Mr Sliiiim>ndt'*r<[rutAtloiianrthe
p'T-WiilMifea of adullPr^lKiti lit Tea. I'cpprr,
Sftiwi, Tobai-cu, Sii'itlti, Wiiip. onu Heer, 0)8.

SrLTiiaTK ol ll>fi<<. Sef T«rra AlUt.

SrLniu-iinAi*aiiK, 34^.

SuLPilua uipd lo rvatorr colour of inuaty bopa,

St'LCHDRii- Ai-in,lnTlnoffar,296; iDportar, A07;

1u|iiii..hJi .^rtfArld.
St^VtCH inaniifT, till.
Stcamoie. k'Mf of. In tna, 91.

Taaar, TalMcuni. VO.

TaccA AiiiowaooT, 317.

T*u-, or niicji, in tra. W,

Tamvbimi, piilpiif. In upliin), ^}». •

T*''MN ill It-a, ■.».

'rariucA or M-inihnt Arrowroot, 17-t \ itarrh in
arrowfool, 331. Caaaara meal, or llraJtllian
arrowfioi, Brrpr^l rarirtluaof, .ia7. M-hI* of
i;rrp;(r Kion. ;ci7, yy"'. Strufimrr and matin,
faciorf: of, Si"), ^arrli granulM of crmlrand
lUanulaciurt'd tafilora,^/*., S'A, 3:^. Adul-

IXI)£X

nimillla aasanqoa, TT, yfi.
\ta{,fifi., 71*. Lie tea. %.

f^r^^

TnannuAf. wltto mco and

3a-i. JUtuitt t4 lumm. ol TvnMT-Cfarati

ulca. 3£(. thuctiim ^ n^m/teTMUgm.

Duty, and quintlti'^i lmr-<rT><! and

for boin« romumii

Tat>l<K.'aatarcli In .
Taitai, aaiia of. ii> .

MR ; emetic in i(Hf.u-i».irin.i, i , j,
Te». )r">*tl» and pr«)>aratlon of, fift. Vi

of, ^^. Ita 6rM iotrodiictlon ii>l-> Fur«fa.

l^oaTM oTtartou* drirrlpCiuna i-t./fg*^

71. 7'i, 73. Si-*>ntlnr of lea *1U) rartnoa

grant Onwrrt, S'*. Anitraia nf tea, Ira i

cal coiiitiiurnta. r.s \T..i.i-,'. ..ii,,i, ^i

Btmriiir^of (•-a I"

mcrHr$ of tra, IVi .

on,ri,72, 73. ( I :

74. AiitiLTEntliii.i* .ii u«

Irtr the Chloral, with forHitn lna«ea.7&, )^

7o. 77: with chioranthxt. in'-,.' yiortnii ^j

i-xirnaive aav ai an adtir vVun^

lon'a rrniArktOfi.TTl. Iinkiri.ui i4j>rrcvgi».

powdor.Xf.. W. Ani6rlKi coloMnt^ft mI

ndiillrfHlion, Rl. CnloiiriMg-

oth«>r itibauncra rmp'oyM, 61.

wHiera on (liv anbji*!:!., rvtrarta fr»a fthi*

work*. HI— H-V. Te4 <l.vr>a, A-V .UmUrr^^-^

prirtttrd in ihU (N><iinr>- : «tih liM»«a if

willdw anrl puplar. ^^».. •*« ; wiih |mv*<i W

plarr nnd ' ak. >|;i. tf7 : with lMar« of ka*-

titorn, alo*", bffwrh, elM<** -■' • -•

InjurliHi* mbiiirinp mat-

Dulcti ptnk, caKrha. cl *

p<itAtb,t(llp)Mli*iir irnu. ^ '

cli&lk or toaptt>inp. PniaaLiti iWuf^

vhromalaa o< Itnic, mannr^la, and

the ar»«]itr of Dippei, a7 Haha

If^vn. Wt analraU of tJ >tiMyt jind Mth«

black tra, by rmnk aud PlillhT**. 9(1. F<

Ira-c*, aycatfi fir*-, bora* ch>^iiut,

96. iLa Vttio Bifno. ^\, yfe, >j%.

batonlrAl powder, .die., 93. Itewwittt

oftampleftai BoM to tbf piibiir. *%4.

maim and Aflaam t^a*. 'ir-

Ch iIah. arrntMl oraiiir- r

HfJthtitfrntiimt.ltSi »tci

with tuhiCaiii'ea uanl Im i.., <iiic

131 ; ft'frocyatiuir of Irnn. nr Pnta

1)7; ttidicu. tunurric.!)!!; bUrk l^'ad.i

or kaolin, talc or mlra. frlapa*-, ai

Umc ifi ; Dutch [tnk, ro-c pink.

wimmJ, |(V1 ; i-^flMniiUF of limp or «

bunatc of mafni^ta, I-'rt*mii . »,..(•. .

or fll'itait! ol maeni-aiii, I"

hauaipti ten li-a»». lul.

bv PbllU|», lOf. />./.

tulphata of Iroit. I

fHiubie and ari>i

lot. Hoinr cun>ii>.

1854— HWf,, HM.
Thha AiJiA In eonfKtlonfry, Dr. ThcaBMn'i

«vli]tfncr roDcerntng, 4I1A.
TaaiA JwroMCA. <S^ (^lerho,
Thka .SiNKima, or lea ptant, SS: Bobai Mid

rtridia, (iV
ThijxI! tnlra 0*.
Thkoiiroma ('ACMt. .ftv Cnroa.
" Tiliniia." irfuac of wlicat, eni|iloy«d la

(«rat« oiiti»«al, HfJ.

ind

Warfa

INDEX.

ToflAOeo iB porirr, MI7. Anllqutly of tt» culM.

valfoa by lUv Ati«tlrm AG9. Cmaade ii|rslnit

lU UM In EnnUnd. M hy mrKltjr, iutfffcciual.

An. Dvrlvatum of the unn* Narcotluia mtwl

T*taeoo, MVJ. i7'). IVlnclpnl Bpertei and «a-

rlMIM KIUini>m«d, 570, •■ Raw " M<l " m«-

nufwtimd." SH I'liifMl StAtM, Virlaut

IllDils f< OronolLo, and Cvtu to(HCCu«, 571 :

St- Domteim. Braiiltan, Uulch, Lfinl, and

Em»t iDrtU. A7a. PruoeMM of minutactuHiis

•• f irt •' iiml •' roll '* b>4Mi«-eo. in, .S73- Ulffrr-

eiit hlml* of, miiiTMratad, ATI, AT4. Strwcturr

ot.JIft.. ^7I, A7fi. It76. Vn. ATS, 379; preu.

lUrlli*^ c)i itrvture, iT4, Va- t'ow^wWrttW

of tubMro. ATTi. VaiMjudkt'i, I*nM«>ll and

Nfflnma/m'i.and CvmmelVt analr«r*, »f)0. tHI.

*l ablr ahuM iri|t (irnpitrtlon ol nicotinn In varU

out ktadt at laliAt-ro, Mt. C<Mi«t)tHrirti of

lobacco fmnkc. a* (•aitraal'd by Haali, Utivfr.

dorben hn . Zcitr.iuid MfilM->i«. Mt. Txblv

abowlng the f>in)crnl crnipoalllon or Six larn-

pl«« or Iraf uibacro u Impnrtprf, W3. Tabfcv

•hnwlnir compoattliKi of vUrat.1l*o lakrn up

bjr elhur, iKal of tli« cold aod hot aauroui ex-

tr^diYc and Uiat o( iba aali. Mi. Tablp

■iwwiojr th* eo«|»otllioo oTlhr tobarm »(Hlk,

M&. Table aliowlug p«r<emUMtP u( ni«<Ut(ir«.

extract, •oltiMe, tnt»lubl«, and taul uK, and

gturoi*, In Riff»t >ainple« of unniaBufarTurvd

inliai-ro. SM'i. Par-rrnlaf» uf #iiractl*e and

hcnrou* maitvr In diSrrent kind*, bjr Mr.

PbiiUpa, MC Mmifi. Co"per and BrMMla*!

analjrMW, AM. /'ropetttr* of tob>uN», MT.

Ita «flhau upon the human Bvf i«ib tn MBkll,

larnirr, and HbMlaicljr brfa (k>M«. W7, Wt,

ratal moMqiMmcM fMnUlaf from ch« an.

plleailoa or tobwco Jatc* tn rlofvom, SM.

AbctntBATiuMa of tntMcco viih l«aT*i

nf dork rhub4rb. rolUfoot. r«bba«», pota-

iwt. rloruf» »,Mll*«, vim. and o*k, wUh

mah riimnilng* and jMirt. IVix ; «jih •««-

wrMt, rn«.i«^ chiociry r*>«>i, whmt. oalincul,

b*«n. r.tlrcliii, iMktim. lofvmd dj-^, rane

•«t«r, lr<^ci«. hitoi-y, llt^unrlrc, tMvt ri< t

dr«fn. Rlira. ult; h>'drr>clorato, iiltr»lf, aixl

cartiniut« of ammonia; potaih, u-m|.i, limr.

•uI|4m|»« of mwgnriu .n'l «Kta, fr»lo»'.iclire.

umb-r. fullfn' r^rth, WnrtUin r»d, laitd,

iMlfih^U- i>f Irtin, •allp'-rrr. eojitxra*, (.iri-n-

dvr, rosf wort, axd *lth «iat«r. M9. UctHit*

qf Ktam. of Flftj-^iU larnpir* a( mxnufac-

lurnl and nnBaniifoctnrvd io4>«cco, nw. B'^.

JUtfttiom (/ tutmitfTMioms wilh dork leaf,

•irunnre. tKJO,jlft.. .191, R»3. ASO, KH t *llh

rhubarli Icjl. ttrunurf, IVBl. Afi. BOA. Mffi i

ttiib rolitfuit l«>4l. ttructure, ^. ^t., MT,

i'<^. >"-<- DoKitptlon of procMao* lor th«

1 ; ftii . ,tl aniily«U of lobwto, IV*/7 — flOI.

r<.\n>. in.miif^irture of. In Kofland, 4e-

•.•riKfl, lioi Vatirijr of namr* Blvrn to,

I. J. AinrLrtMAiio^* ut, Wi. RftUta ttf

Ij.fii lit Fiit>-<l(tl)l •amplvi. nra, MO.

y*\H!r. l)Nj. a|ip(c iwdnx*. flrr.. >n riKar*.

iVJt. Mt-*t-pMiK fti, lit tftcchartiic or aaline w>-

Ittttnna. fyu. >lf»l«-rloua |tf*ntiibu1a(orf lo>

tMrcniiliiB of Wlatrcliaprl. fKU. SiiiU«iell»K

oldft^ri. aitdileeepuoa [xactlard t>y kabvihng

brtiUli aa r<>r«ifn, rU3, 6m. Jirtrrtttm i/

uiiM^/cmfiMl. Ml. fiM. Shvrr. ranrllM of,

and na-itra Blvm to. MH. Nanufactura of

dry (tiuRa — &c<>ECh. Iriih. and WeUh — de>

ftcribvd, CUii t of motti, or rapiwei, with d»-
arrlfriloM of t)i« af*|<*'*><ua for grinding, fKMt,
fUn. Proerai adi<pt«d lor »c«ntln)r. GO*.
AtM'LtK«ATtofh» of, with aatt, ml and rdlow
oclirv, •i.iibcr. rhmmaita of l«ad, rod Irad,
btcfariimai« of pouab arwl powdemi tillca.
&« ] with po«d*f«d Arria mot and «.atfr.
rAPj. ComptHttton of cephalic anuff. and of
Cirimatonff'a ij» tnulT, 6l(t. Kvldroca o' Mr.
I'lilllipa rrapcctlns lhc iwlnttrriitloD* of fouff,
Gio. Gil. N<>CMil<y for ait«rAilnii in the Tn-
tMmt Act f>l4. liHraian fiflkr athttlrratHtnM
of tnnir, 614 ; wtth pfHi. wooclr Ut>re Inrlttd-
ft)g diitic, Ivad, ttiid |K)CH*h, diS. Inatance of
Inrtttclfncj-of the Kxcikt- In reUtton toadiiltrr-
atktliaoftobaccft.lil'l. J^vp^rtirt AiuWri'cfi* of
liHiacru, 1)14. Nk-uiinaaiid niriHiaiiln, itctlvo
trrtniMplea of tobacco, th<:-lr inllii<-iirr iiikmi tli>i
nxman frame, GU, ti|^. Tl«f> iiiit-ttloa uf
IiiIhclti. Kffpct* of toltacru ebewlnfc
and bumIT taking, til^, (>IT. r««<< of aUrw
VOUonmg by anttrr ctxiUlntnit |p4ii,CJ7 — 91!*.
Throa caaM o< pat^ijilt r<-«iilttn(t frcirn i(«
lUC, 630, Oil. Inclranlinra* ncccnltatcd \*f
tka UM of lotMn-n hi aiijr form, titt. Q3'j ;
Adam Ctaiktr'i and L^ird Statihope'a lemaika
apoo, SSI, 631 ; Kinx Jamr* ).*• ricwi ujion
lh« subject, Si3. Vuttomt' dtitica upon ti^
hacco, clgara. and anulT, and qujuituiira «>ii.
tcrcd for home rnniuropttun In IHM — If'iG,
6X1. Tobiirrn Jiitce In optuin. 631.

Tot» LM Sloia In ctxoa. I7&. Jig., 176.

TiuaACAMTt4, icum, lo milk, ^1.

TatacLa m Migar, IW; li> milk. Hi ; hi aaucM,
430; In portar, M6; la ■borry. H3 ; la to*
bacco, Sm.

Taith CM rijlgare, «flttvun, and hjibernuKt,
>p*rie« ol «b>iat, US.

Ti'MMLiuc mteR.ll.1Nli <» milk. 33) ; tn mti*.
tard. 34H ; In Ca»«in» S7J. t'-ifpotitti/H of
uirmTlc, 3*7. iohn. Vojifl, and Pfllrflrr'*
■i>al7M>«. an'. SlrwUtrr of, .V-T. fian., ;j«4,
S»i6, AUfLTiKATia-'** Willi Vi'Uim tHhrc, cor-
hoiialf* of toda Ami pol.iah. i^. tti-ltrtum of,
3Mlf. ltn|>i>rt« of. In <»fil. Hint XSitt. 3tf». I'ur-
mrrlr pnwdi-r In irti)|t*r, 4i7 , In aonato*,
4C6i in cmiTrcttotWTT, WV ; In ofilutn, f;iN;lM
Turkey rliubarb, 67< : in arommlc conft^iUm,
079 ; In Uqiiorlco. <JiN7. Jig.. Mv. necri|« for
nukinii oompouiHl linnet ic puwder, 688.

Tuanir In marmalade, 4in,^., 417.

I I m conf*rttoi»e»y. AM.

.rucilooefy, 4)U; In tfibarao, MO g

1. < ^iii>->,7ao.Jlt^ieii katida^tfOi Mgr-

luoi, VUt.Jtg; f'ik rublRU, IkMHrla, MO,

VtnoMU. &rr Wine. JiM.

Vr-iimAJ* U»Min lfa.»7 ; in icronnd coffee, ||>J j
In rhtC'»rf, 144 ; In tinnm, iU't ; iii atichn«||ia,
aW: iiiptiit>>4lnieatiandlbb,94| Jn raymne,
173: hi aiinaiio, 4lUi la eliaaw. 4j*0 ; in to-
b«cM. !>*9,

VtsM Hinu o»ed In adnlterate tM, 9i,Jlg.. Ol,

Vaauiuaia In cititfvcllonery, 497.

Vta^iLioM in Citjrmne, J7;i; Id iatM«>, 4SI j
111 coofectlooflry, 4*f',

Viaaio 1 iiTici, wt.jfr. SGB.

Vl.<itcAa, exJaieiicu off Ui evftaln platitl, 3^

712

INDEX.

Mftdrt of prrpAration. 3&0. Clmnwi
li arid. ISl. 'Quick
.Acttliirrmo<l'l of Mi*Hft. lllit

hoi Inln

rinmr

1- vanb, nnd Co., j«r.. Wi. " Vint-par ni"iti»T,"'
»iS. Difli^rriit kind* of vino^ar. And tl»«lr
niMixititciure, :itij. DotlllMl, witip, malt, nnd
tilgnr.XM. Thc"riri<>iinr plnnt." liArtlctiUri
)n rKerrncp to. hy Mr. Mt-tflifr. 3W. 3^.
DifTermt itn-iiKltt* or ()iiaUltf> itf, :t^.'» Aot<L>
TkRATloNHBir, with wntrr, suifihtirK- nrid, burnt
■uKiir, irr^lufc or |»ittftii)H<. p>r«)M|nii^ui And
MTfiir Actili. 39'); with iir*fiilc, Mr. .Scan)an*«
c»nl*ncc rMl»ccilnpr. SWi, 3*17 ; wtth corroilrc
Mihiimatr. nr '■ Ttic Doctor,' Mr. f^ray'i ^*1.
dencp concrrninir. 397. JUMuilt </ F.tam. of
I'hlnt'-threr •Atnplrt of ilncfpir piirrhiumi
in l^^ndon, 7D7 ; and or a Mvuml s«>ii<>« of
Twrntv.plsht. ,r«. SulpbuTir. and acf*lc
MCtili In, 394. DrUcliim qfnauiuraitoni, 199 ;
with K>*itc acid, 3W. Mr. Griflin't alkall-
mrter, 3W. Dctcvtinn «r (iiiphurtc- acid lo
Tlnegar. 401 ; Mr. L^'wIk Tliommii'* rrmATk«
upon, Knt ; tvntnX mrthodi of. 40'i. 40S.
])<rtettioil of Cliill» and nihrr arrid Mib-
BUnres, of burnt o'iKAr. and of acvtic and
PJToMrikw.u* arid*, (Ofl : of bhartrnlf of pouih
and mciallic tm|ittritlfv 4''4. Evldi-iirc nf
Mr. I'M nipt on the adulfratloni of vincor.
4IM. DiiiT, import! and liunie contumptloo
tn II^M and IK-Vi, 101
'iTANVDiWtMT, ^aS. '

ViTTJi, oil rccpptNclet. STB.

• Wakx HoBiN,*' 311.

WaTU, in mltk. £11 ; fn bittt»r. IST. 9M; In
Urd. :'(i-l { In rlnrgar, 396 : hi rotter. MG : in
(Hn. ft7S ; hi rum, A4I ; in l>raMd«, MS; in
Inbacco. ftHD ( tn ionfT. fil" ; In oitlunn. CW.

Whrat Klouii. In colTw, \t!t,fig.. Iv?; faHncjr
nfiCMltnt N* A tvvt for. ('i.**. I>.'<i. RoailtK} whfaC
fn clifcorv, \A(\. fin. 141 I flour in cocna. II^M.
Whfflt Mur. Ii tn t.onry.iM; In pticlctl mt>«ti
and llih,:mi in mustard, 348; m pri>|irr.3G4 ;
tn vnnc*-*. A'iO ; lu fcnifrr, 43^^ (biknl), tn
ctiinainon fviwdcr. 437; In mlxml tpicr. 4.V);
In annatto, 4l>'Aa,
ftr-.Wj, In ip-anrnanhn (JT;i ; in rnltwjrntb.
6"6i tn Turkt^ rhubarb./?/;., 67;} lo powdpri^
M)UiH*, Jif.. 674; in rofnnound •camitiimy
pqwdrr, *»;<» ; III liquorire, 6^t.

Wittow. ifnf of. In tta.^.. Kf».

Wise, M4. Cbnnicid conftllupnU and vorlrtW
of, .^44. ClaHification of. H-"*. Anmuni of
nb«oiute alrohol prr-^rat in ordtnar; wtn«>>.
catlniatcs of, bjr John>tnnand Brands, MA;
in Orrm^n winra. hj- I.lr-Iifx, %ift. Ppr-r^nt-
Af e« nf jlcohul In ordinary vtnr*, ncroridlnft
In Dr Ji>nt*«,M^; nint(>rtidlf afr(-ct«>«l by affO
M-V Ord'-r of acidity of litP ch\ri wln*^. he-
llnnlniii with \hr Icait acid, Mfi. Principal
•W»K Nnir*. ordrr nf twrrtiii***. ."^7. Aui'L-
TlliaTiKNi of win«, M9. PuRT. with brandr,
eldorfoerrj: colouring, Jernplga. Kigwood. and

Infrrlor wtn*«, MA; «ttk:
Warren, anil l'r»-'» rr^i
64&; Mr <.r. ..*<

tlw Ua« Mf Ir^' \«

lloilft cu[ic«rr <4i

■poilf^ culrr, v»> ; w itb tli<a|
Vartoui rrcvipla (Vir C|i« m^mk
r»o«» i>ori, Ml; of " AcrmmB)
Dvclinr of tx»>'- ■
*brro trrown.
leriatlc* of, !>:■■■.
tiont of, with )>
rln, and « iii*-

wlillr winr- »J>-\

ct.l. r.. .■ .

Biaoi V

out to ii ■ '

itirr nf, yr^ \ in- (•*■■

chaTni>a|n>«^, MS. ('Abi

Kr»^rh tiln^. «t»(r»r. wnd

and fninptlii f .

f-V.. ltpcvi,.t :

Kudcahr , , ,„„

Cti«a|) I
C«rfiMn

11^

dUCT-J I
Tartoua -

Dciicc>

M- PpreU.* 1

offop|»cr in, '•
«alu? of mint-
thr t^iH.r

on eulor; 1

mt«red ii><
WinkfTTD.tK ,'..
Ti-

tJmm^ 4

«*

97X JV4N#Na (ipc-r«n«f »4 fragi,

pe.llea. V7J. *

Zta Hat*, or ImtUn corn. Ml.

ZiMc- ta conrvcibtfwrr, •
ZiNktuaAcajfe, 43L

LoMPOJi: PriDtwl by Spematruooc and C«^ N««<«lr««( Sf^v«.

§,bbcriiscmcnls,

ELEGANT PERSONAL EEOFISITES.

Under the
The Conrts of Europe,

Patronage of
the Aristocracy.

and the Upper Chsses.

ROWLANDS' MACASSAR OIL,

For tilt (JUOWTH, RESlOUAl (()>, •n.l for IMPROVING

AND BEAUTIFYING THE HUMAN HAIR.

It nrevrnti IUt rr^n fallifiz off or tiiriiirii: (rr«v. ■trmethi'ni^ weak IIAIK, rlransft it trota

?«fiirfin'I lUnilnfT, iin<l nuke* il »K\t' I I KIM.V SOKT, CIMII.V, mul UUWSV.

In th« Growth of the BEARD, %VHI8KGRS, and MUSTAOazOB,

it i» uiifailinic III it« »nmiiiiitive opfrndoii. Kiir iM H.DKKN it I* t'siw-cntly recoiumcDileU,

a«furii)mi{ ihfl^sttof A IIBAU 1 1 hUL ili:M> Of HAIR.

Price 3i. M. ; 7». ; Patiiily lk>ll)r«. rqiia) to (Our imall, I0«. M. ; and double Ibat kite, iU.

HEW LABXL.—I'n prvvml llie subilltution of tipvHotui ImitatUtms for Th« gvioine

■nirk. x><f uiipnnripifHl ahnfikpeprrB, n Nkw Lapkl from rtfel. hy Mntn. Perkiiit, lUcoiu

■nd Co., l« iHiw u«r<l, whtch CAM'iOt lif f\^fsi^i\. It i« rom[^>«ci] of a «ectiuii uf un entrlne-

' tomni rirde, re|iriitr<l our htinttfrJ amt tktrlif timet, ami funti* an oriKinal lac«.work Krounit,
f upon vrliich ii cnx'kvrij. m wln'c Ictu-ra, itir norUt,

( "ROMTLANDB' MACAaSAK OIL,

PORTUfiGttOWTlI, RKsr..|{AlHiV.AM>KOi{ liKAl' I IFVING THE HUMAN HAIR."

Uadfr «li)cb IS the ?<<irtittiirr of Ibr I'mpriftdrs m Knl Ink,—

"A. KOVVLASI) A SUN8."

The nbolr, with Ibc rxrrptiim uf Ihr |<ruA'r uf tier Majciity ttte Qiircti, beinj; covered nilb ■

I lac« work pAlterD, In traiwpareni cok)uil««a ink.

K A LYDOR,

ROWLA N DS'

AN ORXBNTAli BOTANICAL PREPARATION

FOR IMPROVING AND BEAUTIFYING THE COMPLEXION,

Kradiralrs CUI ANKOUd UKKELTS and OlSCOUmAllONS. and render*
THE SKIN SOFT, FAIR, uid BLOOMING.

it otiviatea atl the elTtfcis of triimift- on tbe fikiti. wtietbtir *f ith rtriTt-nct.' to cold and incit*
m«ttcyt or int-nsr volar ht^i, and nfTorda iinnirdiate relief in ca*n n( i>unt)urii, attnta of
lOiet'i*. cr <nri'l6t)Ul IfiflammatiDii. GetitlrTiiPU after thavtoK will ipprcclatc ita aofteninf
albd aioeliorat'iis prcjcerltco. I'rice 4>. 6«l- ami H*. tid. per Irotll*'

'Tlie words. KowLAKDk' KAtvooiir >r« u« the wrapiMrr, and tbelr aifpitare,

CAUtlON.

A. UovLA 91 o & Sena,

in rvdiuk.at foot.

ROWLANDS' ODONTO,

QDBpOttftded ol tb< choiceal and tnuat nvhcn-lM^ Inicredlenia of the ORIENTAL HKRBAl ,

■nd urinc*timab e value in

PREBCRVING AND BGAUTIPYINO THE TEETRf

STRENGTHENING THE GUMS,

And ill rrriderinj;

THE BREATH SWEET AND PURE.

Pricp t%- ad. per box,
CALTTIO^'.— The worda, Kowt\Nii"' OhosTO, Nreoit the label, and A. Rowlaxo IkSoir,
Ml HaltOQ Oardea, engraved on the Gi>vcrtiii>eiit :«tiitnp affiled on earh box.

Bold by A. ROWLAND & SONS, 20, Hatton Garden, London.

AND KY CMMMItTf ^HX> rKHrUM 8 -<«.

Deware of Mpuriooii ImltAUoiiMVW

3 A

PURE AND UNADULTERATED FOOl

"The preparation, denominBtod bjr the MaTTufacturer* "Osvrsoo Pbta
CoKir/ po«5oe0ca both novcltv and raorLt ; I am iUerefore induced to comply
the requMt nf tbo Agentf, Mesars. Kirsg and M^csr, and to eertifj lo tbe]
and exoellenoe of the article.

** It consists almoat trboUy of tlio focuU or staroh of ladiui Corn, ukd it tia»^
fore possesses all the properties, plijiioal, physiological, and dietetic, ofaa JLisvl
riot. It is light. oasOjr digestible, and of dt^licate flaTour."

(Signed).

ARTHUR H. HASSALL, HD,

Author of ** Food and its AdoltOTmti^

B, BcDKtt Street, St. Jain«s%
ISlta July, 18M.

Tbo Importers arc desirous of bringing thu recently introtluc^ Mid vaii^fe
article of diet under more public uotioc, oouvinoed that it baa only to be fcll
to be appreciated and cj^ttiusivcly used. It is prejiared from Jodion Con ff
Maize witbuut fenneutatiou, is perfectly pure luid unadulterated, and

equalled as a recipit*nt of Uavuurs.

It is the roost delioale preparation knovn for Puddings, Custaids,
Creain, filancmangc, kc, and con be used for all tbc purposes for which
is employed] being at tbc same time of a lighter, yet more DutriLioos bat
ei, Kins WiUiam Stroet, Citjr.

May be obtained. aC lOd. per Packet, of—

WORTLBV and HAlfBCRY M, Upper Baker Si

Messrs. FOBTNUM and MASON Piccadilly.

DE CASTRO Piccadilly.

MART 130, Oxford 8l«set.

PHYTUIAS 430, Strand.

COOPER Oanabur^h Street.

FRESUWATER end Co Po«ltrv,

ADVERTISEMENTS.

HARDS'

[ EARINAOEOUS FOOD,

■ rOK INFANTS, ZirVAI.II>S,

AND PERSONS WITH IMPAIRED DIGESTION.

MANTTPAOTURED BT

JAMES HARDS, Dartford,

MILLER TO HER MAJESTY.

COPY of I TESTIMONIAL

orrnr bt thb uti

JONATHAN PEREIRA, M,D., RRS.

A8SIITAKT TUYBICUX TO THl X^VDOZf BOftrlTAL.

** I luTe canfuUj eumtQed, and rapMtedly prvwribed ' DabD6* FABrvAOBOUl
TOOD.* (tee Porora's TreatUe on Food and Diet, pagm 309 and 473, Slg.) which
is prepared from the most nutritious of tho Cereal grains. It combines boUi
nitrogeniscd and non-mtrogenised alimentary principles, and forma a tctj raluablft
Food for Ohildren and Inralids."

"JON"- PERETRA. M.D.. F.E.S.

" AsfilSTUTT PUTfllCIAS TO TOE IfOVDOH HOSFITAU

•*47, FiDsbiu7 Square. July 1, 1843."

Sold at all respecUbla Chemists and Paiont Medioiu Vandors, Tea Dealora
and lUlian Warchousei, in Packets at la. and 2s. each ; also in Tin Cases at 7a. 6d.
for Familiea and Exportation i and as a Canlton against spurious imitations it if
nsoassBij to observe, that each Packet is signed .

"JA3. HABD9."

8 A 2

4DVERTISEUENT8.

CIjc Snibcrsal |1urbfi)or OToiiipaiii

(LIMITED,)

(Established for the Supply of Articles of Domestic CommnptiM tf
Use, free from Adnltemtion and Fraud).

TRUSTEES.
SIR THOMAS TANCRKD. Bart.. TUlin^on. Siwsex.
TUOMAS UAIKES. Esq , 14. Lower Berkcloj Street. Fortnsn 6fW«

BOARD OF DIRECTORS.
STR THOMAS TANCREI>, Burt., CUairmaru
REAR-ADMIRAL DUNTZK, Woolwich,
ALFRED HANSON, Esq., 2U Old Bqusn?, Lincoln's Inn.
ROtlERT RATKES. Kiiq.» Treberfyd, Crickhowcll.

J. L£ CUEVALIER ST. ANDRE.' Esq.. S3, King Wmka StMt,
Charing Cross.

SrCTftary,— Mr. T. E. OURNKV QORB.

TA* Ctmipanjt are ready to appoint tt Itmitrd nmmher nf Agtmi9 X^ '^ M^^
m LcHtiot and tAe Province*. Vmejr^plional r^crtnctt mm I0 rA«r«rt(r. «b
mHpff sKxtriiyt vi/I be regbired, JpjjUcalions tn be made mt tieC^

* 83. Canmof^ Street ITejt, London, E.a

I'ROTECTION AGAINST ADULTEEATIOJi

■

FRAUD.

AIiL FAMILY SUPPLIES, GROCERIES. WINK, SPIRITS, Bl
PROCURED THROUGH A SINGLE HOUSE OF BUSIXJ

LONDON.

THE UNIVEESAL PUEVEEYOR COMPAH

(LIMITED.)

Im wmx. orxnATiOK fbom Ibt Jcri.r, IftOC.

83. CANNON STREET WEST, CITY; 23. KINO WILLIAM SFBEIT
CHARING CROSS.

Where Lists of Prices, and Prospectuses, may be obtaiaed tm

. , application.

AOVBRTrSEMBNTS.

STEVENS'S
DOMESTIC FAMILY BREAD

It maJe from the l>*8t counlrv-drr^sml Floor, llic (iiiMl country-tircwrd Harm, Filtered
Water, iind Talile Salt, nml nitt the xmnlfml atvm of nny nth«r jii|;m!irii( i« ^vrr umtiI. It IB
U|rl)tt )*'■"■!. uttcxcitinKt tii^l'ly iiutnitoua. anil readily (tifrefttcd, and ita awKirrftKBs will
IBCOMMKNP tTSKtr H^ vaM of proof and U*t, B. -TKVHKt invitet a fri«l, and /ivbUcIf
ekaUfnge* ti Chrmient Analvtit p/ the iMUveM tent from kU EgtabluMmfnt, uU Of wliicli are
•tamped with bis natov lu mil.

Address -5, 6, and 7, CAMBRIDGE ROAD,

Kbib the Eastibn CouvTiia Rmlwat.

From ARTHUR H.

TESTIMONIAL

HASSALL, EBq. M.D.
Adulterations."

Aatbor of " Food and tU

Anafyst of the " Ltneet " Sanitarf CommiasMn^ and Jutkor of the Beporis qf tk^i

Commiinou,
" I harr twice sul>ject(d l>ot)i tbr whitt> and brown llrrad maniirartured al yotir eatabliah-
mrnt to riiei»rou& iiiiL-ruftrortIc •! and cliciiiiCNi an>it>biB, and on racti occisinn 1 have ^oimd it
to tie xeniiiitr, cur»i«ti<ii; vniirfly ut wlieut Hotir. yratt, water, and a )itt> aalt. and con le-
quextly nnl cDntniuiiii: a particle of alum or any othi-r admixturr. FitrtSpr, tlie Urrad la
care'udy leaveneil ami inaitufaclureil. in L'(iii«e<iueii< e of wbtcb, a« wril as of the purity of tba
niiterfal* from Hhich it is prepared, it is ItfAt. digeatible. and aweet and pleasant lo Ibd
ta-ste, like Hoitie-Made Uread-

iSimtdi *'AHTIIUR H. HASSALL, M.D."

-Mb. E. i'TiTKKa."

COCOA

Of all artidps of food. Cocoa, from tb« fact of Ks being espcniolly the diet of tli«
Inralirl, ahould be above siupicinn of baring deleU-rioun admixturrs : and jet,
what bare pooplc been drinking of lato vc^rfli under the name of Cocoa ? What is
the fact as rvrvalifd br tba Analytical SHnitar^v Cotnmiaaioiiera in iliirir analvais
of thai article? Whj', that out of the wIidIl- of the pamplee purcha-H-d at the
different dmlcrs in London onl/ four were genuine ; — our» being the be«t ; being
not only gi'iiuine, out freu front hunk nod dust, and prepai*cd with great caro.^
Vide TAf Lancrf, Mnj 31»t. 1831.

Id roosting the nut, Ore is not allowed in imirediitte contact with the ojlinder)
but simply uaed to generate hot air, with nhidi tlie nut is roasted. Thi» ia moftt
important; prerenling the nutfi bfing scorched, which is often the caw in the
ordinary method of roosting, rix. placing tlio cylinder on a coal or roke 6rr, and
thus prcrciiting that rancidity, ao unwholesomL* and diaagrccabio, and >o frequently
met with.

Sold in ]iound. half-pound, and qturter-pound Pocketo, at Is. 2d. per ponnd i
by moii Grocors in the Coontry ; and of tho HonafaclurcrB, at the adoreas below.

HANDFORD and DAVIS, 61, HIGH HOLBOBN.

3 A 3

ADVERTISEMENTS.

TEiS AND COFFEES AT WHOLESALE PRII

TO THK VALUK OF 30*. AND UPWARDS,

Delivered Currmge Free to all Parts of England,

2, BUCKLERSBURY, CHEAPSIDE.

liONDOli.

TniB KUabtishment wAa rommcnceil in the jear 1830. It« BUCCKSSfUl
PROGRESS durir.g 90 years has elevated iU po»tiou to one of the lATgM'
in the Trade.

Our innin object ha« been, and still is, to supply the Public on ^TKAM
TKKiflM, Grcnt and lusiiminft as »uch an undertaking appear* to be, it »
obTtous that to do 6US1NKS.S ON A WHOLKaALE SCAIiB it ia nnnmnto
liave wholemle applbnoea. In conformity willi thew ideoa, our IX>CAUIT
WAS CUOSKN in a byc thoroathfare, ivUerf SPACE and ACCOMMO-
pATION am sufHciont to carry on 1>uil<? to any MtenC, but witbool t^
inerci/en anti /ntormout i'jp''NJ-'^ u)fi"pnra.h\\ utttwtied to retail sliopa in
aituations, whereby an dtravajKant |»roflt in rcndere<1 ncxreasary.
it will be <wn thnt we arc IN A t'OSI'l'lUN lo supply the Public on thp baM^
and nioHt o(M»iioinh'al terniH — in Tact, tu'oupply at Amt taaaAt
by wliLch all liiteriiirillatc profitiii are itaved.

The Bubioinnl List, aa a cuido Iv the Publio generally, wc tliink will b«

useful, and the qualities at the quotatious will give satittfaction (o tho PurrfaaiV.

BLACK TEAS. >■ d.

Commoti Con[;ou • • 3«. 8d. to 3 in
Sonnd ConscoD • • • - 3 0
Good StroQif do 8 4

A Koo«i uMful T«B for ManamkBl and
latft ooamuntn.

Fine do. SB

Fine Sonclionic • - • - S 8

Vtkac na,voor, strDnclr recnmmcnilM. 1

riNfidT PKKDE SUUCHONO ■ • 4 0 !

nUa IW b tn ytrj hlch irputc.
Lapsanc itaacltonip 4a. 3d. to 4 4

JtiWAt Assam Sowcbony - 4 •

TbU Tea (tta« Aiisal Importadl toMBwii
ritnonUiury flavour and nnnitfUi.

GREEN TEAS. •■-

Common Grven • - 2s, lOtLto I

Yonntf Hyson • -3a. 9d.le 1

Ottehaln - . . 9 \

W« reccmmeiKl thts to mix wUfa Uw
a*. «d. black.
Sapfrflne do. - - . . .4

FiiiF do. buld l^af - - . . «

Fior-At 4a. ad. to S

Common Gunpowder - - . . f

Canton klud - 8a. Od. to I 4

FtVlid... «nmtll*ar - - Sa. fkt. w 4 •

t-'inr I'tiirl lipaf do. - - 4«. ad. M ft

TilK fi.NKsrrdo. . -fta. M. 10 I •

PURE AND UNCOLOURED GREEN TEA,
Imported bv o« direct from China, in ii« Dnrv <ittiXf, and perfrrtly free from thai arttfcMf
eolcnrlrs which, after inslyiii hy our most enitii«t>t chcmtita. the irot itttuallv impoftedafr
[irovrd to be CO»rred by the Oinirwr. Theirforr. io addition tn our onJinary lea*, «e W
preparMi to aupfily the Public with teas lu Ihi-ir pure and uucoLourrd state, at :u. 4(1., Sa. ai,
10 fta. Od. per lb<

COFFEES.
s. d.

Ceylon Coffee - . . .
&>0(1 Ce^ Ion f'offee - - -
Plna Jasaaiea (recommended)

Fine Plantation . - - -

flNEST COSTA HICA

t»lroti|tly r«rnrnm«nriedl -
Fine MocliK Cuffee
IHneat Moetia Coffee

Our CfiffM ii Ruattgd by the Patrnt Drtiecnfing Proresi.

a. A
OOPFBB

- I «

- I m

»« respM^fkllr

, HsTtne brieflr altadcd to the nrinripir on wMrh we cotMliirt our husines*,
MlidCiheatient'ionor HOTKL KKEI'KH!^. SCllooL'i.ai.daU I.aKG<-, KVl'AHLlSMMUil^
wlio will derive considerable adTantacrea from the aboTe arrancemmtA.

HORNE, ROBINS «c CO.

2, BUCEJiERSBURY, CHEArSIDE. LONDON,

PURE AROMATISED GOD LIVER OIL

WITH QUININE.

PERFECTLY SWEET AND PALATABLE.
Mannfactured at KEWFOUNDLAND, by Steam at a Low Temperature.

The QrnrnrK bmne ohomit^lly CDmbined, and the Aromatic properties diffused
during the pn>ec«e of MBnaficture— thus prcwrving the »weetneu and purity of
the Oil— while the natural fl«>hy flaronris perfectlj covered, and rendered palatable
•a an agreenble and nntritlous tonic.

Do»e for an adult. — One teafpoonful, gradqallj tncreaaed to a tablespoonfu],
ttirre (imci a day, in a little pnro wnl«r or milk.

Children may take a small teaspoonful, gradually increaaed to a deasert spoonful,
two or three times a day.

DUNCAN nOOARTH & CO., PBorstsTOBfl.

To pKvent impoattion and adu1t«ration th« Cork of ucb Bottle ia aecarftd by
"Patent Metallic Capttile," with Dirptcji;* Uooabtu A Co. stamped tbertMn, with-
Qoi which none it genoine.

Mjhssbs. 1IEAK05 McCCLLOCIT A8QUTKE. Biihopggnte Street, London,

lOEIfTfl TO THS C03f8ltiNEX8.

Sold in Bottles at 2s., 3s. 6d., aud 63. each.

TESTIMONIALS.

iRTHUR HILL HASSALU Eiq.. M.n . F I.S.. Author of " Foori and iti Adulteratki&a,*'

■* Adtilttrmtioiii Drlccteil." (kc. ftc.

" I hiTP antlyird KTcral Mini)t» vf ti^c Pm-p Aroniatis^d Cml Ltver Oil with Qalittoe of
Me**r«. Duncnn Hovftrth *nUCo.. malw tbcOil with wliicflitik nia<te. Thr nainplt^ were w-
lectedby mysptf froiaalmrs^itnck in ffie WMrphauw^of Messrs. Hearon McH'ullorb and Suuirr,
the Bfcnts. I bare fiuntl Ttir (hi iis-^if to be i>«Trprttv crnuii»e aad ot tbefirni iiualitv. bland,
aad etttirety rrc« frotn rancidity, an J the co.i po'ind pi r-|)arittoa to coiiiUt of Oil of th« lanw
quality, holdinir, diuoltrd, TPry ncfirlv I wo era ns Qt Quinine lo itie oiincr, ia «ell ■« ■ unall
>|uintity ot an arittristtc |irinci|ilr. The cufnliinatn n of Cud Lixr-.T Oil and Quinine thii* aroma*
tise«U a'n<l rarerully manurartured fioiu ttie thieal matcrialaj undaubtcdl)' forma ■ valuable
Iberapeutic a^ent.

'■ B. U.Diictt ^Areet, St. Jamea*!, Septemlier lOlb, isM.**

" Medical Collenre. Loodou HoiptUI, The Lahenilory. Get. lOth, I6M.
"To Meaira. Duncan Hofarthand Co.

•MJenllpnien,— I have rarefuliy analysed Che aample of Arofrtaitfted Ccd Liter Oil with
Qtiiitiiir. and I And thai Hie pfoprrlirt oftheUil arp Miinewhxl (leruliar. 11 bat an aromatic
odciir, and it tattn n( cjuk^tne ao'i vuUlUeoll ; and it» reaction with concrntraletl tiilpbnric
ariil I* very ren'aikable. l%r»e jieculiaruie* are Ju* to the ptraenre of qQiiunr and volatile
iiil. both of which are iatttnaiely rotnbmei) with it, for t)ie •atiiiilp of tvriftiital uil duea not
exhibit any «uch reactions. It cootaina very nearly two crams nt quinme in the Aind Duncci
tbil rrfimeaia about two fnina snda half of the thr>iralli9<d tnlphaie. It la my o[»nion
the Oil has lieen caretally |<re| ared, and Ihnt it runiairift Ihtr u>ual cliulnic coni|v<uii>U winch
are preaerit in itood Cod Liver Oil \ and I have no do'ibt, wb^'ti iIhs alkaloid ta mdic-atcd as a
remrdy. thisauitarewUlbefouiidanadranUgeouaiberBpcotLc agent.—! rcmiin.UcatleincD,
voara truly,

•*H. LETHEBY. M.B..
L *• Profeaaor of Cbemiatr« anil Toiiculucy in lite Medical To'lejce of Ibe

L Ixindon tlovpiUl. and Officer o( Health to llie L'lty vf LAmlun.'*

•,• Other TestlraOBlala from eminent sclentitic g^entleinen msy be aeen on a|)pltcation to
tbe Affenta.

BEWARE OF SPURIOUS IMITATIONS.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

CROSSE AND BLACKWELL,

^urlicBors in (OrMnars to ^er 5Slaj«ts,

RssrKrrrirLLY jQvitcatteniiou to tlir followinir niCH SAUCK9 and CONDI SlIBNTS
with llie varioni otb«r delicftciet tb«y tiave for many yeutt enjoyed «o liig-h m ^rvfttrti€» Im,
can be obuincd of most resprrUble Satire Vrndorii and ItaUau WBrphouienirn in the UaiM
Kingtlom, and at the principal Store* tbrou;;hoiit the world.

Royal Table Sauce.

A newSnnrc, of a pecotinrty dtliclnuii ntrd pi'iannt flavoHr. 0r»t introdticM In IA17. Ill
recPlvtHJ uuivcrsal rotuiiicnilatioii from Lht* bcftt jmlgps, Riid i* in v«ry ircn^ral Mar M U*
tablra of the noliility, anil the prinnpal cluba. To thou vrlio prefrr » ricb fiarm «aac». k
may faecoundrnliy recominc-nilfHl at thf be»t evi-rvft produced. S»M in lioUlca,at la.li
ana 3s. fiii. encli ; and iu haiidiOtne Cbina vaM». to bv placed on the tabic, ml Mm. ^cIl

Soho Sauce.

Tbe flatterltiir riTfptian tbii sauce li«a in?t wiili trom the moat diatinruish«d v^ctn*,
wwranta thr propHt-tors in n^i-ommmdinff i1 ai tbr best of ita kind rAtant. It i« cim>|kJMi
of a varirty of iiiirr(-dicnl4, wliicli arr all lothnroucbly ainal)raitiat<^l i*iBt, wbilr iu pt«i^Mn
is extnordiiiary, tm dt>cidt-d flavonr can he said tu predominate. For Aah. (raoie, trmki, tm
made di»he«, tliii ia a tnoit dniriLile uuce.

Essence of Anchovies.

To produce thii trrll-known oiid jiiftlly-rstfTrnf d Haure, C and II. use none Ituf lb* '
ptcke<l Gonr^inu Anrlioviea.or s*hich Ihey ■nniiill) iniport larirc quarititira fur thia 1
purpose, (t is ncceaaary to slate IhU, as thr fact i% noloritiiis llint much of tbe sahCc
anOi<r thiik name ift initdr from Snrdin*^. and an inferior description of Siciliao fUih,
which purchaaers cannot b? too itriclly on tbcir j^uard.

Dinniore*s Essence of Shrimps.

Tbla Sauce is of^eil for tbr

inip purpo'Mi n« til*? Ktisenre of Anclmvie«, l>
irniny. U if preparcil by i.'. aiut U. ut tlipir

rably mililer, I.* preferred **} .

tbe Kea-C'>BLt, and tbe true flavour of tbe »l)niii|i beiiif; retained, tbe .Saucr
ilelicmuB.
It it an eicellcnt reliih with boUcil and fried flab of every deicriptlOD.

Sir Robert Peel's Sauce, for General Pujrposi

Vjirb bottle ia labelled witli m/metimiU of tbe Rlrbt Honourable BaronrtS Ivtter vf

approval.

Strasbourg Potted Meats. J

Thia delirioua prefiaralion fur Burpa'urft every dpapription of Pott'-d Meat yet inVrMne«dC*^
public notice: th^ fluvonr )« full and rirb, at the tianietitne lieinitaoniild and bUr<d, th«t tiM
moat delicate and hstidiooa palate is pleaied. It ii alao very cuy of digestion, and adaiilcA
to weak stomacba.

&DVBATI8RMBWTS;

CroMe and BlacktorWa Sauct» and CondimtmU — contioaeil.

Calves' Feet Jellies.

CoMiittnror Onne-p, Lfmon, Noyiti. Punrli, Maileira. anil V.ttW* Foot. ThFK ire rcrid in
ivemrnt aixp<l boHlpn. aiirl their luf is attvixkd witii a lerot Bnvmir ot truultif and incoD-
ilencc ; iintdf* which, Ihey iuiun-ihc ccrtaiutjr of the Jell) BlMftyi being of uuiform e»cel-
ce sad flavour.

Tbey are now Id ilmost daily coasumptioa in many famUlei, lod are Tcry hiKUyapprorcd.

Pickles of aU Descriptions.

n« luprrioritT of these it too well known and appreciated to need uiy reiaarlt.

Fruits in Bottles.

Preserved |>tirr for Tarta i availiUle when fresh rruiia are not in teaaoo.

Syrups of Various Kinds, for Flavouring Ices.

Or, which, if dUuted with iced or ipnn^ water, produce a cool and rrfreshinf; t>everaj;e.

r.and B. ronnider it imimrtant to state, that the whole of their tnannracture* are prefiared
with thenioct acrupnloui attention to eleanlinna and purity. The utmost precaution ia taken
In every tnatsnce to prevent cuntacl w ith copper, or any other perulctouB metal ; and to en-
•arc thia en<l. tbey have at a ffreat expcmtc fitted their factory at ^o\kO Siiuare with a numbor
of Earthenware Steam-pani, aod in addition liive bad a large Silver pan made, in which (d
Itrepare the moat delicate of their prodoctioua.

M. SOYER'S
SAUCES AND CONDIMENTS.

Tho roUowing maj be had of M. SoTEii's Wholcaab Agents, CROSSE atiil
BLACKWKLL. 2t. Soho Square.

Beyer's Aromatic MustarcL

A moht rxqultite romlmiatton of the rfnuiiie Muatard aeeil with variotia aromatic avW
•tancea : loflnitely auperior to all other preparations of MuKtard.

Soyer's New Sauces.

One of a mild deacription for the ladiea, and aoDtlier of the aame iSavmtr, hat warmfr,
fenlleiDea.

Soyer's Belish.

with reference to thia ?aace, the Otutrvrr remarki:—

" M. Snyer It n culinary aitiit aa profound a« he la vertatilr; nolblnir eomnanii«« to Inn.
No fnrri^ti cwfWn^rr cvfr tirkird ilx- ^aion palal« M) iurrr^atully. lie la a f-' <l

theill-fuirkeil tnuiton rhop«, I'lat loat Napoleon the bitl!e of l-c>l,>«ir, nould ha'.
very llilfcrrni rffrrt tf^\rr had dialml Hit* m up in hti Ma^c Htuve, and reiidfi'
rouxbly light and digeatible by hi« npprtiaing Heliab."

WnoLK8Ai.a Waekuocbs,— 21, SOHO SQIJABE, LONDQ]

AiyVERTlfiBMENTB.

EDINBURGH
ALE.

PALE ALE,

DUBLIN
STOUT.

ROBERT MTI.LEK,

6, CROSS STREET, FINSBURY SQ.UABE,

Agent to Meeen. BASS, RATCLIFF. und OREITON, Bre<rerv. Bortoi;
McMra. ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL, and C/O.. Breirers to Her Majntv. Edb-
burgh , McuRi. A. QUINNESS. SON, and Co., BrevrerH, Dublin.

The Pale AJe, Kdinbur^h AJe, and Stout of the aboTo ilrma, supplied in ooa-
dition for present use, in Casks and Bottles, to all parts of Xx>ndoD and the ncigb-
bourhood free of expense.

Eprry aUemtton fwid to Comntrjf Order*.

A Ui^o fttoek of Ales, Stout, Cyder, Ac., alwajs on hand, adapted for cxpofta*
tion Km all part* of the norlJ.

mETROPOLITAN BREWING COIVIPANY,

'' LIMJTKl)/^

CAPITAL, tM.OOO, IN 10,000 SHAECS OP £fi EACH.
Dtrfttort—JoHM Francih BnNT«MH, Chakl»s Hknuv Edmanp*. Euwaro VavarTTac*

Nkalb, L. W. THtiniciirM, Charlk^ Tknnant Wklu*.

>BaaA«r«— Thk Loni>ok and Coi'nty Bank, Lombard f^trfel. City.

A"o*icJ/or— Cmarlb" Mo95I)P, fo, Moorgate Street, Citr-

0r«Acr— RoHRHT ALi.iur, t, Kuyil Ejtrhxnifp Muil<Unci,CitT.

ttfficiiM—i, Iloynl KxrliatiRf EluililincK, City.

.S7tfr«— IS, Upper WrllinRtoii Slrret, (ovrTit Garden, Vf. C.

Thu Corapatiy, Mlahlitilied to fxlcnd thpaperatimia of the Metropolitan antl Prorincial'
Joint :>tock Urcmery Cowpiny, commenced In 1851, iu order to lopply the public
Genuine Beer.

The practicv of sdulteraiin* Ber bai h»cn H fully exposed In the InniUtare and by
nent scientific prartitionrra. that the public cannot tr iicnorant of Ibe fief, or of its Injg,
efferu upon the central brittb ; andthr inrrrasinr inptiort in thia Company, which ia foi _
eapresily to lupply tbnn with a pare beverage, affords aatikrartory proof that with Increcntf
neana ■ lane and profitable irade may be done.

An im^orttittt nnp feaimrt m tkia Cumfnaif ia an nliawancr to .SkarehaidcTt «/ a tfiac«^tf ^
^i ptr etml. an all their pmreka-ic. TMm t> ill «»/w> iaHy rfnmmeHti it to inrgt e^m^mmtTK
wkc MW/d thus re<fite a coHniderable banut ttpon tkfir iHrMfamf*.

Applicatiutia rnr tlir Ibarra reinaitiitiK to bt> isaunl, may be made to Mr. J. NawLiMo, tkf
Secreiai y, at the Company's i^tom ; or to Ctic broker, at lite Company'n DOtcea. Apptlesau
will lie rriiulml lo pay tlif nuni u( 2a. 60. per Share tm the itbarpa npptml (or. In part pKf*
SMnt of thr firat rail uf lOs. on the tiamtirr of Sbarei allottxrd, the rrmaininic 7a. ft«L bdw
payable one month irom tbedaieoraltotnicnl.

In the event of no allotmeol being made, the deposit will be retonied forthwith wiQMil
dcd action.

'file fbllowini^ are the prices «f the CMnpany's Unadnlterated Alen, Porter, and Stoat. fW
VtuhMlMirrry:- ^'

«. 4. *. 4. «. d, 9, d, §. d.

Sthomo Alss 10 13 14 1 • IB pernn.

Bi-rraa Alks — 0 lO l 0 14 19 —

PoBTha — — — 0 10 10

Stoot — 12 14 1 C II —

TasLR Baaa — — 04 0tt0t.~

In BotClea of the Standard Imperial Meaaure.
Fef doien ;— QaarU, 6a. 6d. ; Piute, 3a. 9d ; Half-plot*, %, 8d.

ADTHRTISBVENTS.

EXETER HALL VAULTS,

STRAND.

BASS AND ALLSOPPS PALE ALES,

AND

GUINNESS' DUBLIN STOUT.

Iv tlie aboTA B«Tcregea. which hare been »o continiuUy recommended, and have
prorrd 90 eminently benc6cial to thoee who suSei* &om weak digeitioo, PurUjf^ of
ecnine, is the great poiiit to insure.

The ANJtTTiCiX SiJfiTABT C011MI8B1031 of " Tbo Likcit" hiB proTided for
the Public a wfeguard in thi« mott iroportjint particular, bmtging to light the
rarioua admixturM in all article* of food and bereragM in common connumption,
and hare denounced all those where adaltcration haa been difloorered, and alio
gJTen publicity- to those home* where a genuine article ia to be procured. We
ihcrefure beg to refer the Public to tlie annexed Bejx>rt, and upou ttpplicalioo,
vQl be gUd to furnish a list of thoae Wine Merchants. Taverns, and Uotels, which
are supplied from the abore Stores in Casks and Bottles.

DAUKES AND RODICK.

BepoTt of the Analytical Sanitary Commission of " The Lancet,**
ISth May, 1854.

"ANALYSIS"
FROM THE STORKS OF

DAUKES AND RODICK,

3, Exeter Street, Strand.

"nie prodaei of Malt and Hops, and the constitoeota of pure spring water
Bot any other kind of ingndients found, either organio or inorganio."

ADVERT 1 8CUENT8.

BASS'S EAST INDIA PALE ALE,
BARCLAY'S PORTER AMD STOUT.

In IH-Galion Ctuki. Bottha, nuIf'hottUn^ and Imperial PuU*.

BERRY, BROTHERS, AND CO^

3, ST. JAMES'S STKEET, LONDON, S. W.

SOCIETY OF ARTS PRIZE ffllCROSCOPES.

R. FIELD & SON

Continue to manufacture their MicroBCopes, uiuTcr«aUjr acknowledged the I
ever mode for the price.

Compoiintl Acliromatir Micro!»copc, with Two Objective* and

Two Eve-pieves, Condenser, Slo., in Muhogau^ Cabinet £3 S 0

Ditto, larger, No. 2 4. 10 0

Ditto, larger, No. 3, with Three ObjectiTM 6 10 O

Ji.B. These instruniunts are Mpedally Adapted for detecting ■iluUnnitifTg,
are recommended b; the Apothettriea* Coaipanj.

113. NXW SritlBT, BlBMIXOUAM.

1. PILlEiSGHER'S ECOKOffllCAL niCROSCOPE.

For which a Prize Mn-dal luas bueii uwnrUetl to him nt the rariaicn £xhibit>9il,
1855, eonsi^ta of a firm Stand, free from TibratioD, having course and Am
Adjustments, an cillfit'nt Stage, with DiaphrDgtn. one and one-quarter iiioh
Object Gla^sen, the formrr Iti^ and the latter 75°, augtdar Aperture, an Kj9
Piece, and a Mahogany Caso. Price £7 7s.

tiABaER HIOHOSCOPES. of most elaborate workmannhip, and evovy modflra

improTcuieot, at equuU}' moderate Prices.

*a* ifiero4copie PreparAiioM m ffteet waritty.

UAVUTkCTUUMR 0»

PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS. AND EVERY OTHER DESCRIPTtOJ

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.

A List of Prices sent free on application to

ABVBRTISKMENTS.

SPECIAL NOTICE -THIRD DIVISION OF PROFITS.

THK unusual succcas which has nttcntled the cautious yet energetic
operation* of this Company Itfts enablod the Director* to odd lievcnionuy
Jionusea to Polieica on tlii' pa rticipn tins' clftS9, areraging nearlj 2 I>^r cent, per
■nnum on tho eum insured, or frum 30 ^^ 100 pci* (^"1-, ou tbo Premiumi
paid.

Part ii-s iniuring with this Compinj do not incar the risk oF Co>piirtnonhip, aa
ta the case in Mntual OffloM.

Est ahlviked nearly a Qnarter of a Cmtury.

AWWCAI. I^'COSIE VPW^ARDS OF £13!H,000.

The Fund* op Property of the Cornpinj as at Slit December, 1855, amounted
^ £566)124 2b. Gd,f invatod in Qorommcnt and otiier approved
Securities.

Itnitctr pingbom i^ifc f^ssuraiuc Compann,

8, Watkbloo Pi^ce, Pill Mali., Londom.

CHARLF^ DOWNES, Esq. Chairman.

HON. FRANCIS SCOTT. MP, Vfpvfy CSmirmMm.

A. n. HASSALL. Ekj. M.D., Physician,

8, Bennt'tt Street, St. James's.

(Bj Order), P. MACINTYRE, Secretary.

CHRVATtTRE of the SPINE. -SPINAL STATS.— Of all the
Supporti yiUWh ihe MnrUanictRn bis contrived, thit 's one of th* mo-*! iniportant. By
tlir linirly uppliration nf Kailrv'm Lioht SrrrtAL
9iiFfonTKN»,iii»iivyonnyperton»hsvolif«i rescuetl
fnnn that wntmt nf ill <uiiiplaintt, Oitisuniplian.

Pktirtttft from tit'* C'^iiDln crtii Up iirrommoilsl«d
St Mr. Itailcy'fi I'nvBi*- K-diiMitlintrnt n^ir lx)n«1on,
wi llmt )if rtmy (N?ru>f>«lly supvrliitetid the sppliri-
lioiiuftltc Inatfuiiirnt.

Bxprrienred Fewtatet in attfUftaHee.

ELASTIC STOCKINGS, KNEP.-CAP9, anb
SOCKS, for Varicose Vrhis; TriiMi>«; Knifmsi or
every ileacription ; Sptintt. lUiley'a lllu-tnt«<l
f'«tal'»guf, containiin « l-Ut of e*ppy clc»rnption of
Siir/iral liitlriitnrnt^ u*r<l liv n Suprf"", iiirluitin;
Miiiwifrry F«irrcp«, I'lHikrt ('aae liiktruwrntt, lt£.,
may be bad free bpun appllcattou.
Befort Treattneot. After Treaimvat.

W. H. BAILEY, 418, Oiford Strwt, near Solio Square, London.

ADVBwrioiESires.

SOVEREIGN LIFE OFFICE,

49, St James's Street, London.
ESTABLISHED 1845.

fruslcii.

B. BOXD CA.BI1ZXX, Kk]. M.P.
Hbnbt POWWAIX, £•<).

The Earl Txlbot.

Sir CXAUDB Scott, Bart.

Tlie lut Bonus added four-fifthA of the Premium p&id to Mine of lh« pufia>
pating Folioie*.

ProTtsion can bv made for tlio payment of a certain lum on attaining mnj fifca
age (aa 50, 66, or 60j, or at death if it occur previously.

By a small annual payment, £100 inajr be aeoured to a child on mttMaiag tfas
age of 14, 18, or 21. H. D. DAVKNPOKT, SetrtUrj.

J. H. SANDWELL,
OPERA ANB RACE GLASS MAEEB,

9, WYNYATT STREET,

GOBWEbL ITREET ROAD, B. C.

PRIVATE WORKMAN.

OPERA AND RACE CLASSES REPAIRED ON THE SHORTtST NOT1CC.
Optitial TuMlntmetita o» RfOMOHiibU Terms.

PLUMBE S GENUINE ARROW ROOT,
Is. 6d. per lb..

Should be used in preference to any other, being considered hy the first &Iv01eal
Men in London the best imported ; their Ti'»timoniob aceompanjr each Packet*
which is signed \. S. Plombe, 3, Alic Place, Great Alie Slivet, Loudon. whvsU
can be obtained Wholesale and Retail.

Sold aim by Skow, Paternoster Row; J. K. Fokd and Soy, l4UiigCoo;
WnxiAMB, Moorgato Street; Mobgajv, Sloeno Street; MsDjta, Camberacfi;
Whittikohav, 39, Piccadilly ; Pavltok, Uackneir ; Elus and Llotd, 72, 5ev-
gate Street ; Udopeb, London Bridge ; Stkoud, Blaokfriars Boad; JirfBisol.
Stoke Newington ; Bkale, Mission HousO) BtomJleld Strvet ; Weathkbxt,
Peckham ; and olber«.

i.v*: MENTAL i!::n.w
. ..;.'o::d rrrosiTX
:.. pa:v:u!? drive

f /vLO ALTO, CAUf,

LANE MEDICAL LIBRARY

STAXFORn TNIVKKSITY

This book should \yc returned on or before
tlie dato la<t stanuicd below.

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Adulterations detected; or, Plain instructions for the discovery of frauds in food and medicine"

See other formats