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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 


PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


THE 


ADVANCED 


MACHINIST. 


THE 


ADVANCED 
MACHINIST 


PRACTICAL  AND  EDUCATIONAL 
TREATISE,  WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS 


WILLIAM  ROGERS 


THEO.  AUDEL.&  COMPANY 

63  FIFTH  AVENUE      NEW  YORK  CITY.  / 


COPYRIGHTED,  1902,  1903, 

BY 
THEO.  AUDEL  &  Co.,  NEW  YORK. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


The  difference  between  an  engineer  and 
a  machinist  is  one  of  degree  only — hence  a 
book  written  for  the  benefit  of  engineers  is 
of  service  to  machinists ;  and,  again,  a  book 
devoted  to  the  interests  of  machinists  is  of 
the  utmost  value  to  engineers. 

Why?  Because  the  machinery  which 
the  engineer  operates  is  made  in  the  shop. 


GENERAL  CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTORY 1-18 

SUMMARY  OF  ARITHMETIC 19-56 

USEFUL  MEASUREMENTS 57-81 

PARTS  OF  A  CIRCLE 82-83 

MEASURING  MACHINES 84-100 

SCREW  CUTTING  IN  THE  LATHE 101-137 

BORING  MACHINES  AND  OPERATIONS 138-150 

PLANING  MACHINES  AND  OPERATIONS.  . .  151-174 

MILLING  MACHINES  AND  OPERATIONS....  175-198 

DRILLING  MACHINES  AND  OPERATIONS..  199-212 

GRINDING  OPERATIONS 213-226 

PUNCHING     AND     SHEARING     MACHINES 

AND   OPERATIONS 227-233 

BOLT  CUTTING  MACHINE  AND  OPERATION  234-242 

AUXILIARY  MACHINES 243-262 

UTILITIES  AND  ACCESSORIES 263-274 

SHOP  MANAGEMENT 275-286 

USEFUL  WORKSHOP  RECIPES 287-296 

AID  TO  THE  INJURED  IN  ACCIDENTS 297-316 

TABLES  AND  INDEX. ,  ?  317-334 


For  special  index,  alphabetically  arranged,  see  page  325. 

xi 


zii 


PREFACE. 


In  a  certain  high-class  journal  of  a  recent  date,  devoted 
to  the  interests  of  the  class  for  whom  this  book  of  instruc- 
tion is  designed,  there  appeared  under  the  heading  "  Help 
Wanted,"  thirty-two  paid  advertisements  in  a  single  issue. 

Not  a  single  one  of  these  called  for  any  except  those 
possessing  qualifications  expressed  as  follows : 

"Sober,"  "first-class,"  "good,"  "competent,"  "accurate/' 
"experienced,"  "undoubted  ability,"  "ambitious,"  " able  to  handle 
men,"  "  skilled,"  "with  shop  experience,"  "executive  ability,"  "all- 
around,"  "able  to  design,"  "  able  to  supervise  construction,"  "satis- 
factory men." 

The  closest  scrutiny  fails  to  discover  a  wish  for  the 
opposite  of  those  thus  described,  nor  in  the  eleven  paid 
advertisements  under  the  heading  of  "  Situations  Wanted," 
in  the  same  paper,  does  there  appear  even  one  saying  "  I 
am  a  second-class  man — hire  me,"  as  that  would  be  money 
thrown  away.  Hence,  the  only  call  is  for  the  kind  of  men 
classified  as  in  the  foregoing  quoted  words. 

xiii 


xiv  Preface. 

Now,  examining  the  list  again,  we  find  what  these  men 
are  specially  desired  to  perform — the  range  of  service 
needed  is  wide,  but  interesting  enough  to  study.  All  are 
described  under  the  letters  "  Help  Wanted  ": 

"  A.  good  die-maker  on  round  work." — "Accurate  machinist  for 
marine-engine  work." — *'  Draftsman  experienced  on  steam  pumps." — 
"  First-class  designer  on  cotton  machinery." — "First  class  machinists 
for  heavy  floor  and  machine  work." — "First-class  toolmakers,  experi- 
enced on  jigs,  punch  and  die  work." — "Experienced  mechanical  drafts- 
man for  detail  work  on  engines." — "Four  first  class  machinists,  those 

familiar  with   oil-well  tool   work." "  A  machine-tool  inspector,  of 

undoubted  ability." — "Mechanical  draftsman  having  experience  on 
large  vertical  Corliss-engine  work." — "  A  large  Chicago  factory  desires 
to  employ  a  man  experienced  at  fixing  differential  piece-work  rates." 
— "A  number  of  mechanical  draftsmen  on  iron-and-steel-work  machin- 
ery."— "Mechanic  wanted,  one  accustomed  to  rolling  mill  work." — 
"Foreman  to  take  charge  of  machine  shop  employing  about  fifteen 
men." — "We  invite  application  from  patternmakers,  molders  and 
machinists." — "  Wanted,  superintendent  for  small  shop  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y." — "  Man  experienced  in  light  machinery,  able  to  design,  draft 
and  supervise  construction  of  special  tools,  jigs,  etc.,  with  shop  experi- 
ence, executive  ability  and  some  knowledge  of  cost  and  piece  work 
accounts." — "A  New  York  factory  contemplating  additions  to  their 
drafting  force  desires  applications  from  experienced  draftsmen  and 
tracers  for  electrical  switchboard  and  instrument  work." — "A  thor- 
oughly competent  mechanical  engineer,  to  take  charge  of  drafting- 
room  of  a  concern  manufacturing  a  full  line  of  mining  machinery, 
except  steam  engines  and  boilers." — "  Foreman  for  a  brass  department 
containing  50  hands,  in  a  lar^e  electrical  factory  ;  must  be  familiar  with 
parts  of  electrical  apparatus  and  with  modern  methods  of  production, 
and  know  the  entire  details  of  the  workings  of  such  a  department." — 
"  Three  first-class  floor  men,  as  gang  foremen,  to  take  charge  of  machine 
shop  operating  several  hundred  men.  Steady  employment  for  compe- 
tent men." 

Men  possessing  the  qualifications  described  above  may 
well  be  classed  as  "advanced"  machinists,  designers, 
draughtsmen  and  engineers ;  it  is  the  glory  of  the  age  that 
there  are  many  such  to  be  found ;  these  descriptions  are 


Preface.  xv 

quoted  to  plainly  tell  what  kind  of  talent  is  desired,  and— 

This  is  the  call  for  men  in  but  a  single  issue  of  one 
periodical ;  there  are  many  other  journals  containing 
similar  "  wants  ";  again,  scores  of  mighty  war  ships  are 
"lying  in  port"  because  competent  machinists  and  engi- 
neers cannot  be  found  to  man  them  ;  and,  still  again,  every 
great  engine  and  every  intricate  machine  makes  place  for  a 
good  man  to  operate  it ;  in  fact,  the  openings  for  clever, 
ingenious,  trusty  men,  are  world-wide. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  demand  is  for  men  pos- 
sessing certain  qualities  most  difficult  to  define  and  hard 
indeed  to  acquire ;  there  must,  perforce,  be  second-class 
men,  to  fill  the  ranks,  for  all  cannot  be  "  Captains  of  Indus- 
try ";  but  this  book  is  not  for  them,  unless  it  be  to  inspire 
thought  and  ambition  to  do  better. 

A  few  quotations  may  be  helpful,  indicating  the  path 
of  advancement : 

"  Just  do  a  thing  and  don't  talk  about  it.  This  is  the  great  secret 
in  all  enterprises." — "  Modest  confidence  in  his  own  abilities  is  one  of 
the  most  pleasing  traits  a  man  can  possess,  and  it  is  often  his  best 
business  capital.  I  know  many  a  young  man  with  the  right  kind  of 
stuff  in  him,  who  has  watched  the  operations  of  other  people  and  has 
said,  'I  can  do  it  if  they  can?  Then,  with  all  the  judgment  he  pos- 
sessed, he  made  the  effort  successfully." — "It  is  easy  to  do  what  one 
is  absolute  master  of.  Indeed,  this  absolute  mastery  commands  the 
fighting-deck  of  any  trade,  profession  or  labor,  and  to  be  best  in  any- 
thing honorable  is  to  be  secure  of  continual  success." — "  The  man  who 
undertakes  to  learn  his  business  from  books  will  never  make  a  practical 
mechanic,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  mechanic  who  refuses  to  read 
whatever  he  finds  of  interest  on  the  subject  can  hardly  expect  to  be 
successful." — "  There  are  two  ways  of  doing  work.  One  may  go  about 


xvi  Preface. 

it  with  a  clouded  brow,  a  lagging  step,  and  a  general  expression  of  dis- 
gust and  weariness  ;  or  it  is  possible  to  be  alert,  energetic,  bright  of 
countenance  and  elastic  of  step,  as  if  the  labor  were  really  enjoyable. 
The  work  is  done  in  either  case,  of  course,  but  there  is  something  in 
the  latter  manner  that  inspires  confidence  in  the  worker  and  assures 
him  of  a  reward  that  would  not  crown  his  efforts  were  they  put  forth 
in  the  other  way." — "  The  best  rule  for  success  in  life  that  I  have  ever 
found  is  to  do  a  little  more  than  is  expected  of  you.  Whatever  your 
position  in  life  may  be,  whether  in  an  office,  store,  or  workshop,  do  a 
little  more  than  is  expected  of  you,  and  you  will  never  be  overlooked, 
be  the  establishment  large  or  small." — "  The  word  '  tact '  is  equivalent 
to  the  word  *  touch  ' ;  tact  is  that  nice  perception  which  comprehends 
everything  of  the  order,  formation,  location  and  disposition  of  aught 
which  bears  upon  the  successful  issue  of  the  enterprise  at  issue.  The 
man  of  tact  who  has  that  presence  of  mind  which  can  bring  him  on 
the  instant  all  he  knows,  is  worth  for  action  a  dozen  men  who  know  as 
much,  but  can  only  bring  it  to  light  slowly." — "  The  young  fellow  who 
will  distance  his  competitors  is  he  who  masters  his  business ;  who  pre- 
serves his  integrity,  who  lives  cleanly  and  purely,  who  never  gets  into 
debt,  who  gains  friends  by  deserving  them,  and  puts  his  money  into 
the  savings  bank.  There  are  some  roads  to  fortune  that  look  shorter 
than  this  old  dusty  highway.  But  the  staunch  men  of  the  community, 
the  men  who  achieve  something  really  worth  having,  good  fortune, 
good  name  and  a  serene  old  age,  all  go  this  road." — "  Our  present  gen- 
eration of  coming  men,  youths  of  from  fifteen  to  eighteen,  can  have 
not  the  least  ground  for  fearing  the  temper  and  promise  of  the  times 
into  which  their  lives  are  going.  Never  before  in  the  world's  history 
has  there  been  such  a  call  from  the  near  future  to  a  rising  army  of 
eager  workers.  Science  has  probed  the  secrets  of  things,  and  the  prac- 
tical application  of  knowledge  to  all  the  lines  of  labor  has  lifted  even 
menial  services  to  a  place  of  dignity,  provided  always  that  the  operator 
is  master  of  what  he  takes  into  hand." 

In  short,  the  preparation  and  issue  of  this  work  is 
aimed  to  point  the  way  of  advancement  to  those  who  must 
become  fitted  to  assume  the  obligations,  as  well  as  to 
receive  the  rewards  of  those  who,  in  the  order  of  things, 
must  give  place  to  the  coming-man. 


Preface.  xvii 

But !  this  is  not  all— 

The  trade  of  the  machinist  is  peculiar  in  that  it  is  a 
preparation  for  so  many  positions  outside  of  it.  It  takes 
a  man  of  good  natural  ability  and  of  considerable  educa- 
tion— not  always  from  books — to  make  a  first-class  machin- 
ist, and  more  of  the  same  to  make  a  competent  foreman 
or  a  superintendent ;  so  that  when  he  is  well  qualified  for 
these  positions  he  is  also  well  prepared  for  so  many  other 
openings  with  which  the  machine  shop  apparently  has 
little  to  do  ;  and  many  of  these  keep  calling  him,  and 
many  respond  to  the  call,  hence  in  consequence  it  is  said 
that  skill  is  dying  out,  that  skilled  workers  are  becoming 
scarce,  that  soon,  as  things  are  going,  we  will  be  left  behind, 
in  the  world's  markets,  by  the  lack  of  both  competent 
operatives  and  of  the  higher  skill  and  reliability  that  are  to 
exercise  supervision  and  direction. 

It  is  with  a  full  knowledge  of  this  fact,  that  in  "  The 
Plan  of  the  Work"  some  subject  matter  has  been  intro- 
duced which  the  author  is  confident  will  be  of  the  utmost 
value  in  the  shop  and  afterwards  as  well,  when  the  student 
"  makes  a  change  ;  "  for  in  the  fluctuation  of  business  there 
come  times  when  everybody  is  busy  and  then  times  that 
are  slack  and  not  so  booming,  when  foremen  and  superin- 
tendents have  that  toughest  of  all  jobs,  the  telling  of  good 
men  that  there  is  nothing  for  them  to  do;  this  being  inci- 
dent, also,  to  the  kind  of  country  we  live  in. 

There  is  a  bit  of  a  necessary  warning,  too,  in  a  little 
fable  the  author  has  seen,  from  ^Esops  Fables  (Revised) — 

"  A  man  had  a  Glass  in  which  he  looked  at  himself 
every  day.  And  he  did  not  perceive  that  he  grew  older. 
But  at  length  he  perceived  that  the  Glass  had  grown  old. 


xviii  Preface. 

So  he  threw  it  away  and  got  another  that  was  new.  Then 
he  saw  that  he  had  grown  old  with  his  Glass." 

Every  man  looks  in  a  glass  at  times  and  afterwards 
does  some  rather  serious  thinking ;  it  is  to  aid  the  friendly 
reader  and  student  in  such  moments  to  right  thoughts  that 
some  things,  too,  have  been  put  in  the  book  in  odd  spaces, 
with  the  hope  that  the  good  will  with  which  it  has  been 
done  will  not  be  taken  amiss. 

The  path  of  advancement,  how  uncertain  is  it  and  at 
times  so  difficult  to  discern  amid  the  shadows.  The  mere 
mention  of  this  allows  the  quotation  of  a  wise  leader  of 
men,  that  may  well  be  the  author's  closing  words  for  the 
volume. 

"  Look  up  and  press  forward  and  the  way  will  become 
clear  step  by  step,  day  by  day ;  the  space  between  is  the 
way  thither.*' 


SUMMARY  OF  ARITHMETIC. 


The  following  abridgment  of  several  of  the  rules  of 
arithmetic,  often  referred  to  in  elementary  books  on 
mechanical  science,  are  here  inserted  for  the  convenience 
of  reference.  These  rules  and  examples  are  given  merely 
to  refresh  the  memory,  it  being  taken  for  granted  that  the 
reader  has  already  acquainted  himself  with  the  principles 
of  common  arithmetic.  They  will,  however,  be  found  serv- 
iceable, both  as  a  convenience  of  reference  and  to  give  some 
insight  to  the  subjects  on  which  they  treat. 

Arithmetic  is  the  science  of  numbers,  and  numbers 
treat  of  magnitude  or  quantity.  Whatever  is  capable  of 
increase  or  diminution  is  a  magnitude  or  quantity. 

The  processes  of  arithmetic  are  merely  expedients  for 
making  easier  the  discovery  of  results  which  every  man  of 
ordinary  ingenuity  would  find  a  means  for  discovering  him- 
self. Roger  Bacon  lived  eight  centuries  ago  ;  in  the  great  roll 
of  modern  scientists,  his  name  stands  first ;  these  are  his 


NOTE. — Calculation  is  the  art,  practice  or  manner  of  computing 
by  numbers :  the  use  of  numbers  by  addition,  subtraction,  multiplica- 
tion or  division,  for  the  purpose  of  arriving  at  a  certain  result. 

Upon  this  art— of  calculation — rest  not  only  the  mechanical  arts, 
but  the  whole  structure  of  modern  civilization.  Consider  the  solar 
system,  a  time-piece,  a  well-equipped  modern  factory — the  characteris- 
tic of  each  is  its  ' '  calculability. "  Everything  comes  at  last  to  correct 
figuring  for  assured  success. 

19 


2O  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

SUMMARY  OF  ARITHMETIC. 

words:  "  For  he  who  knows  not  mathematics  cannot  know 
any  other  sciences ;  and,  what  is  more,  he  cannot  discover 
his  own  ignorance  or  find  its  proper  remedies." 

In  every  branch  of  science,  our  knowledge  increases  as 
the  power  of  measurement  becomes  improved ;  it  is  very 
generally  true  that  the  one  ignorant  of  useful  numbers  is 
the  one  who  serves,  while  the  leader  in  all  departments  is 
the  one  who  calculates. 

A  glossary  is  a  collection  of  words  not  in  general  use, 
especially  of  an  art  or  science  ;  the  ordinary  use  of  a  glos- 
sary is  to  explain  in  some  detail  many  of  the  more  difficult 
words  used  in  the  text,  hence  the  following — 


SYMBOLS,  ABBREVIATIONS  AND 
DEFINITIONS. 


«=  Equal  to.     The  sign  of  equality;  as  100  cts.  =  $1, 
signifies  that  one  hundred  cents  are  equal  to  one  dollar. 

—  Minus  or  Less.     The  sign  of  subtraction  ;  as  8 —  2 
—^  6 ;  that  is,  8  less  2,  is  equal  to  6. 

-{-Plus  or  More.     The  sign  of  addition  ;  as  6 -f  8  =  14 ; 
that  is,  6  added  to  8  is  equal  to  14. 

X  Multiplied  by.     The  sign  of  multiplication ;  as  7  X  7 
—  49 ;  that  is,  7  multiplied  by  7  is  equal  to  49. 

-f-  Divided by.     The  sign  of  division;  as  16-7- 4 -=4; 
that  is,  1 6  divided  by  4  is  equal  to  4. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  2 1 

SYMBOLS,  ABBREVIATIONS  AND  DEFINITIONS. 

.*.  Signifies  then  or  therefore. 
V  Since  or  because. 

d2  =  diameter  squared,  or  is  a  number  multiplied  by 
itself,  thus  2X2  =  4. 

d3  =  diameter  cubed,  or  is  a  number  multiplied  by 
itself  twice,  thus  2X2X2=8. 

d4  =  diameter  to  the  fourth  power,  or  is  a  number 
multiplied  by  itself  thrice,  thus  2X2X2X2  =  16. 

A  single  accent  (')  signifies  feet ;  a  double  accent  (") 
inches  ;  thus  3'  6"  =-  3  feet  6  inches. 

Dia.  =  diameter.     °  Degrees. 

Revs,  per  min.  =  revolutions  per  minute. 

Lbs.  per  sq.  in.  =-  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Brackets  (  )  or  [  ]  are  employed  to  denote  that  several 
numbers  are  to  be  taken  collectively.  Thus  4  (a  -f-  b)  sig- 
nifies that  the  number  represented  by  a  -|-b  is  to  be  mul- 
tiplied by  4 ;  again  (a  +  b)  X  (c  —  d)  denotes  that  the 
number  represented  by  a+b  is  to  be  multiplied  by  the 
number  which  is  the  result  of  subtracting  d  from  c. 

The  Greek  Letter  n  denotes  the  ratio  of  the  circum- 
ference of  a  circle  to  its  diameter.  In  the  English  alphabet, 
this  letter  stands  in  place  of  /,  and  is  called  pi;  it  is  very 
frequently  met  with  in  mechanical  literature. 

The  Decimal  Point. — In  both  France  and  Germany, 
one-fourth  (%)  reduced  to  a  decimal  is  always  written  as 
0,25  ;  in  England  it  is  written  0-25,  and  in  the  United 
States  in  this  way,  0.25. 


22  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

SYMBOLS,  ABBREVIATIONS  AND  DEFINITIONS. 

A  formula  is  an  arithmetical  rule  in  which  all  words 
are  omitted,  all  the  quantities  represented  by  letters  and 
figures,  and  all  the  operations  indicated  by  signs,  and  by 
the  position  of  the  different  characters ;  the  word  "formula" 
is  another  name  for  "  form." 

The  following  10  formulas  include  the  elementary 
operations  of  arithmetic  and  follow  from  the  succeeding 
illustrations. 

1.  The  Sum  —  all  the  parts  added. 

2.  The  Difference  =  the  Minuend  —  the  Subtrahend. 

3.  The  Minuend  =  the  Subtrahend  -f  the  Difference. 

4.  The  Subtrahend '=  the  Minuend — tlte  Difference. 

5.  The  Product=  the  Multiplicand  X  the  Multiplier. 

6.  The  Multiplicand^-  the  Product  -*-  the  Multiplier. 

7.  The  Multiplier  =the  Product  -f-  the  Multiplicand. 

8.  The  Quotient  =  the  Dividend  -~  the  Divisor. 
g.  The  Dividend =the  Quotient  X  the  Divisor. 

IO.     The  Divisor  =  the  Dividend  -r-  the  Quotient. 

A  number  is  exactly  divisible  by — 2,  when  the  number 
ends  in  an  even  number  or  in  o ;  j,  when  the  sum  of  the 
digits  is  exactly  divisible  by  3  ;  /,  when  the  number  formed 
by  the  last  two  digits  is  exactly  divisible  by  4 ;  5,  when 
the  number  ends  in  5  or  o. 

Ratio  is  the  relation  of  one  number  to  another,  as 
obtained  by  dividing  one  by  the  other ;  hence,  ratio  means 
the  same  as  the  word  quotient. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  23 

SYMBOLS,  ABBREVIATIONS  AND  DEFINITIONS. 

Log.  This  is  the  abbreviation  of  the  term  logarithm  ; 
these  are  auxiliary  numbers,  by  means  of  which  the  simple 
operations  of  addition  and  subtraction  may  be  substituted 
for  the  more  cumbrous  operations  of  multiplication  and 
division,  and  easy  cases  of  multiplication  and  division  for 
involution  and  evolution. 

The  use  of  logarithms  reduces  multiplication  to  addi- 
tion, division  to  subtraction ;  raising  powers  or  extracting 
roots  to  multiplication  and  division,  respectively. 

Logarithms  of  numbers  are  arranged  in  tables,  running 
to  four  and  six  figures,  beginning  with  one  and  going  to  so 
high  as  to  fill  entire  books  with  the  columns. 

Algebra  is  that  science  which  deals  with  formulas  ;  it 
is  a  mathematical  science  which  teaches  the  art  of  making 
calculations  by  letters  and  signs  instead  of  figures.  The 
name  comes  from  two  Arabic  words,  al gabron,  reduction 
of  parts  to  a  whole.  The  letters  and  signs  are  called  Sym- 
bols. Quantities  in  Algebra  are  expressed  by  letters,  or  by 
a  combination  of  letters  and  figures;  as  a,  b,  c,  2x,  3^,  5^r, 
etc.  The  first  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  used  to  express 
known  quantities ;  the  last  letters,  those  which  are  unknown. 

The  operations  to  be  performed  are  expressed  by  the 
same  signs  as  in  Arithmetic ;  thus  +  means  Addition,  — 
expresses  Subtraction,  and  X  stands  for  Multiplication. 


NOTE. — A  machinist  has  little  or  no  use  for  algebra  in  his  every- 
day work  ;  but  if  he  wants  to  find  out  more  about  the  how  and  why  of 
things  and  study  into  general  principles,  it  is  the  most  important  sub- 
ject that  he  can  take  up,  next  to  arithmetic  and  mechanical  drawing. 


24  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

SYMBOLS,  ABBREVIATIONS  AND  DEFINITIONS. 

A  NUMBER  is  a  unit  or  collection  of  units;  as  two, 
five,  six  feet,  etc. 

An  INTEGER  is  a  number  that  represents  whole  things. 

An  ABSTRACT  NUMBER  is  one  which  does  not  refer 
to  any  particular  object. 

A  CONCRETE  NUMBER  is  a  number  used  to  designate 
objects  or  quantities. 

An  ODD  NUMBER  is  a  number  which  cannot  be 
divided  by  two. 

An  EVEN  NUMBER  can  be  exactly  divided  by  two. 

FACTORS  of  a  number  are  those  numbers  which,  when 
multiplied  together,  make  that  number. 

A  PRIME  NUMBER  is  a  number  exactly  divisible  by  one. 

A  COMPOSITE  NUMBER  is  a  number  which  can  be 
divided  by  other  integers  besides  itself  and  one. 

An  EXACT  DIVISOR  of  a  number  is  a  whole  number 
that  will  divide  that  number  without  a  remainder. 

The  GREATEST  COMMON  DIVISOR  of  two  or  more 
numbers  is  the  greatest  number  that  will  divide  each  of 
them  exactly. 

A  MULTIPLE  of  a  number  is  any  number  exactly  divis- 
ible by  that  number. 

The  LEAST  COMMON  MULTIPLE  of  two  or  more  num- 
bers is  the  least  number  that  is  exactly  divisible  by  each  of 
them. 

A  PRIME  FACTOR  is  any  prime  number  used  as  a  factor. 

NOTE.— Quantity  is  the  amount  of  anything  considered,  or  of  any 
commodity  bought,  or  sold.  Price  is  the  value  in  money  of  one,  or  of 
a  given  unit  of  any  commodity.  Cost  is  the  value  in  money  of  the 
entire  quantity  bought,  or  sold. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  25 


NOTATION  AND  NUMERATION. 


NOTATION  is  a  system  of  representing  numbers  by 
symbols.  There  are  two  methods  of  notation  in  use,  the 
Roman  and  the  Arabic.  NUMERATION  is  a  system  of  nam- 
ing or  reading  numbers. 

THE  ARABIC  METHOD  OF  NOTATION  employs  ten 
characters  or  figures,  viz  : 

</&<?£<s6yff0 

One,        Two,      Three,     four.       Five,       Six,      Seven,    Eight,      Nine,     Zero. 

The  nine  figures  are  called  digits  or  significant  figures. 
The  character  o  has  no  value  when  standing  alone. 

The  nine  digits  have  each  a  simple  and  a  local  value. 
The  simple  value  of  a  figure  is  the  one  expressed  by  it 
when  standing  alone  or  in  the  units  place.  The  local  value 
of  a  figure  is  that  which  depends  upon  the  place  which  the 
figure  occupies  in  a  number. 

There  must  be  three  figures  in  every  period,  except 
the  one  at  the  left,  which  may  have  one,  two  or  three. 
Every  order  of  a  number  not  occupied  by  a  significant 
figure  must  be  filled  with  a  cipher,  or  o. 

NOTE.— By  means  of  these  ten  figures  or  characters  we  can  repre- 
sent any  number.  When  one  of  the  figures  stands  by  itself,  it  is  called 
a  unit ;  but  if  two  of  them  stand  together,  the  right-hand  figure  is  still 
called  a  unit,  but  the  left-hand  figure  is  called  tens ;  thus,  79  is  a  col- 
lection of  9  units  and  7  sets  of  ten  units  each,  or  of  9  units  and  70 
units,  or  of  79  units,  and  is  read  as  seventy-nine.  If  three  of  them 
stand  together,  then  the  left-hand  figure  is  called  hundreds  ;  thus,  279 
is  read  two  hundred  and  seventy -nine. 


26  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

NOTATION  AND  NUMERATION. 

RULE  FOR  NOTATION. — Beginning  at  the  left,  write 
the  hundreds,  tens  and  units  of  each  successive  period  in  their 
proper  order,  filling  all  vacant  orders  and  periods  with 

ciphers. 

NUMERATION  TABLE. 

Names  of  _  Billions.     Millions.     Thousands.     Units. 


I       I       L 

§§      i!      |1.  I     5 1 

Order  of  Units :  2  S  S.&  •.   3  -g         «a  »         a  -o 


c  a  a       111       1I§       1  1    J  i  I 

rtf    ,0      3  »9     8    .8  "0     +?      §  "^      CO     ,2         -S         £    ^      3 

W  £  «      W  H  §      WHH      WHP    Q    H  W  H 

876,        543,       201,        282      .       489 

The  number  in  the  table  is  read  "  eight  hundred  and 
seventy-six  billion,  five  hundred  and  forty-three  million, 
two  hundred  and  one  thousand,  two  hundred  and  eighty- 
two,  decimal  point,  four,  eight,  nine." 

In  the  table  given,  it  will  be  observed  that  the  long 
row  of  figures  is  divided  into  groups  of  three  figures, 
called  periods.  This  is  to  aid  in  their  ready  reading.  The 
first  set  is  called  units,  the  second  thousands,  the  third 
millions,  etc. 

Beginning  at  units  place,  the  orders  on  the  right  of  the 
decimal  point  express  tenths,  hundredths,  thousandths,  etc. 

THE  READING  OF  DECIMALS. — In  reading  decimals, 
it  is  well  to  omit,  even  in  thought,  the  idea  of  a  denomi- 
nator, and  to  say,  thus — example,  .25  ;  to  read,  say  "point, 
2,  5";  in  reading  .48437,  say  "  point,  4,  8,  4,  3,  7." 

EXAMPLE. — Write  sixty-four  thousandths  in  decimals. 

Since  there  are  only  two  figures  in  the  numerator  64, 
and  the  right-hand  figure  of  the  decimal  must  occupy  the 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


27 


NOTATION  AND   NUMERATION. 

third  decimal  place  to  express  thousandths,  it  is  necessary 
to  prefix  a  cipher  to  bring  the  right-hand  figure  into  its 
proper  place.  Therefore  write  point,  oh,  six,  four  (.064), 
in  the  order  named. 

It  is  well  also  to  say  "  oh  "  (this  is  the  letter  O). 

THE  ROMAN  NOTATION  is  the  method  of  notation 
by  letters,  and  is  illustrated  as  follows : 

I,  V,          X,          L,          C,          D,          M, 

i,  5,         10,         50        100,       500,      1,000. 

Repeating   a  letter   repeats   its  value;     rhus:    1=1, 

11  =  2. 

Placing  a  letter  of  less  value  before  one  of  greater 
value  diminishes  the  value  of  the  greater  by  the  less;  thus, 
IV  =  4,  IX  =  9,  XL=40. 

Placing  the  less  after  the  greater  increases  the  value  of 
the  greater  by  that  of  the  less;  thus,  VI  =  6,  XI=u, 
LX  =  6o. 

Placing  a  horizontal  line  over  a  letter  increases  its 
value  a  thousand  times;  thus,  IV  =  4,ooo  M=  1,000,000. 


ROMAN  TABLE. 


I  denotes  One. 


II 

Two. 

III 

Three. 

IV 

1         Four. 

V 

Five. 

VI 

Six. 

VII 

'        Seven. 

VIII 
IX 

'        Eight. 
Nine. 

X 

'        Ten. 

XI 

Eleven. 

XII 

'        Twelve. 

XIII 

Thirteen. 

XIV 

"        Fourteen. 

XV 


Fifteen. 


XVI       "        Sixteen. 


XVII  denotes  Seventeen. 

XVIII  "  Eighteen. 

XIX  "  Nineteen. 

XX  "  Twenty. 

XXX  "  Thirty. 

XL  "  Forty. 

L  "  Fifty. 

LX  "  Sixty. 

LXX  "  Seventy. 

LXXX  "  Eighty. 

XC  "  Ninety. 

C  "  One  hundred. 

D  ' '  Five  hundred. 

M  "  One  thousand. 

X  "  Ten  thousand. 

M  "  One  million. 


28  The  Advanced  Machinist, 


ADDITION. 


Addition  is  uniting  two  or  more  numbers  into  one. 
The  result  of  the  addition  is  called  the  Sum  or  Amount. 
In  addition,  the  only  thing  to  be  careful  about  except  the 
correct  doing  of  the  sum,  is  to  place  the  unit  figures 
under  the  unit  figure  above  it,  the  tens  under  the  tens,  etc. 

RULE. 

After  writing  the  figures  down  so  that  units  are  under 
units,  tens  under  tens,  etc.: 

1.  Begin  at  the  right  hand,  up  and  down  row,  add  the 
column  and  write  the  sum  underneath  if  less  than  ten. 

2.  If,  however,  the  sum  is  ten  or  more,  write  the  right- 
hand  figure  underneath,  and  add  the  number  expressed  by 
the  other  figure  or  figures  with  the  numbers  of  the  next 
column. 

3.  Write  the  whole  of  the  last  column. 

EXAMPLES  FOR  PRACTICE. 
7,060  248,124  13,579,802 

9,420  4,321  83 

i,743  889,876  478,652 

4,004  457,902  87,547,289 


22,227  Ans. 

Use  care  in  placing  the  numbers  in  vertical  lines;  irreg- 
ularity in  writing  them  down  is  the  cause  of  mistakes. 

RULE  FOR  PROVING  THE  CORRECTNESS  OF  THE 
SUMS. — Add  the  columns  from  the  top  downward,  and  if 
the  sum  is  the  same  as  when  added  up,  the  answer  is  right. 

Add  and  prove  the  following  numbers: 

684     32     257     20.     Ans.  993. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  29 


SUBTRACTION. 


Subtraction  is  taking  a  lesser  sum  from  a  greater  one. 

As  in  addition,  care  must  be  used  in  placing  the  units 
under  the  units,  the  tens  under  the  tens,  etc. 

The  answer  is  called  the  remainder  or  the  difference. 

The  sign  of  subtraction  is  ( — )  Example :  98 — 22=76. 

Subtraction  is  the  opposite  of  addition:  one  "takes 
from,"  while  the  other  "adds  to." 

RULE. 

1.  Write  down  the  greater  number  first,  and  then  under 
it  the  lesser  number,  so  that  the  units  stand  under  the  units, 
the  tens  under  the  tens,  etc.,  etc. 

2.  Begin  with  the  units,  and  take  the  under  from  the 
upper  figure,  and  put  the  remainder  beneath  the  line. 

3.  But  if  the  lower  figure  is  the  larger ;  add  ten  to  the 
upper  figure,   and  then   subtract  and  put   the   remainder 
down:   this  borrowed  ten  must  be  deducted  from  the  next 
column  of  figures  where  it  is  represented  by  I. 

EXAMPLES  FOR  PRACTICE. 

892  89,672  89,642,706 

46  46,379  48,765,421 


846  remainder. 


NOTE. — In  the  first  example,  892 — 46,  the  6  is  larger  than  2  ; 
borrow  10,  which  makes  it  12,  and  then  deduct  the  6  ;  the  answer  is  6. 
The  borrowed  10  reduces  the  9  to  8,  so  the  next  deduction  is  4  from 
8=4  is  the  answer. 


30  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

SUBTRACTION. 

RULE  FOR   PROVING  THE   CORRECTNESS  OF  SUB- 
TRACTION.— Add  the  remainder,  or  difference,  to  the  smaller 
amount  of  the  two  sums,  and  if  the  two  are  equal  to  the 
larger,  then  the  subtraction  has  been  correctly  done. 
EXAMPLE.         898  246 

246  Now  then,         652 

652  898  Ans. 


MULTIPLICATION. 


MULTIPLICATION  is  finding  the  amount  of  one  number 
increased  as  many  times  as  there  are  units  in  another. 

The  number  to  be  multiplied  or  increased  is  called  the 
MULTIPLICAND. 

The  MULTIPLIER  is  the  number  by  which  we  multiply. 
It  shows  how  many  times  the  multiplicand  is  to  be 
increased. 

The  answer  is  called  the  PRODUCT. 

The  multiplier  and  multiplicand  which  produce  the 
product  are  called  its  FACTORS.  This  is  a  word  frequently 
used  in  mathematical  works,  and  its  meaning  should  be 
remembered. 

The  sign  of  multiplication  is  X  and  is  read  "  times," 
or  multiplied  by;  thus,  6x8  is  read,  6  times  8  is  48,  or,  6 
multiplied  by  8  is  48. 

The  principle  of  multiplication  is  the  same  as  addition  ; 
thus,  3X8=24  is  the  same  as  8+8+8=24. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  31 

MULTIPLICATION. 

RULE  FOR  MUTIPLYING. 

I.  Place  the  unit  figure  of  the  multiplier  under  the  unit 

figure  of  the  multiplicand,  and  proceed  as  in  the  following  : 

EXAMPLES.     Multiply  846  by  8,  and  487,692  by  143. 

Arrange  them  thus : 

487,692 

143 
846 

8  1463076 

1950768 

6,768  487692 


2.  But  if  the  multiplier  has  ciphers  at  its  end,  then 
place  it  as  in  the  following : 

Multiply  83,567  by  50,  and  898  by  2,800. 

898 
83567       .  2800 

718400 

I796 


2,514,400 

The  product  and  the  multiplicand  must  be  in  like 
numbers.  Thus,  10  times  8  gallons  of  oil  must  be  80  gal- 
lons of  oil\  4  times  5  dollars  must  be  20  dollar s\  hence, 
the  multiplier  must  be  the  number  and  not  the  thing  to  be 
multiplied. 

In  finding  the  cost  of  6  tons  of  coal  at  7  dollars  per 
ton,  the  7  dollars  are  taken  6  times,  and  not  multiplied  by 
6  tons. 


32  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

MULTIPLICATION. 

When  the  multiplier  is  10,  100,  1000,  etc.,  the  product 
may  be  obtained  at  once  by  annexing  to  the  multiplicand 
as  many  ciphers  as  there  are  in  the  multiplier. 

EXAMPLE. 

1.  Multiply  486  by  100.       Now  486  with  oo  added 
—  48,600. 

2.  6,842  X  10,000  =  how  many  ?    Ans.  68,420,000. 
To  PROVE  THE  RESULT  IN  MULTIPLICATION. 
RULE. — Multiply  the  multiplier  by  the  multiplicand, 

and  if  the  product  is  the  same  in  both  cases,  then  the  answer 
is  right. 

DIVISION. 


Division  is  a  word  derived  from  the  Latin,  divido 
meaning  to  separate  into  parts.  In  arithmetic,  it  may  be 
defined  as  the  dividing  of  a  number  or  quantity  into  any 
number  of  parts  assigned. 

When  one  number  has  to  be  divided  by  another  num- 
ber, the  first  one  is  called  the  DIVIDEND,  and  the  second 
one  the  DIVISOR,  and  the  result  is  the  QUOTIENT. 

i.  To  DIVIDE  BY  ANY  NUMBER  UP  TO  12. 

RULE. — Put  the  dividend  doivn  with  the  divisor  to  the 
left  of  it%  with  a  small  curved  line  separating  it,  as  in  the 
following 

EXAMPLE.— Divide  7,865,432  by -6. 
6)7,865,432 


The  'Advanced  Machinist.  33 

DIVISION. 

Here  at  the  last  we  have  to  say,  "6  into  32  goes  5 
times  and  2  over  " ;  always  place  the  number  that  is  over 
as  above,  separated  from  the  quotient  by  a  small  line,  or 
else  put  it  as  a  fraction,  thus,  f ,  the  top  figure  being  the 
remainder,  and  the  bottom  figure  the  divisor,  when  it 
should  be  put  close  to  the  quotient ;  thus,  1,310,905!. 

2.  To  DIVIDE  BY  ANY  NUMBER  UP  TO  12,  WITH  A 

CIPHER  OR  CIPHERS  AFTER  IT,  as  2O,  /O,  90,  5OO,  7,OOO,  etc. 

RULE. — Place  the  sum  down  as  in  the  last  example, 
then  mark  off  from  the  right  of  the  dividend  as  many  fig- 
ures as  there  are  ciphers  in  the  divisor;  also  mark  off  the 
ciphers  in  the  divisor;  then  divide  the  remaining  figures  by 
the  number  remaining  in  the  divisor;  thus: — 

EXAMPLE.— Divide  9,876,804  by  40. 
40)9,876,804 

246,920—4. 

The  4  cut  off  from  the  dividend  is  put  down  as  a 
remainder,  or  it  might  have  been  put  down  as  -fa  or  -fa. 

3.  To  DIVIDE  BY  ANY  NUMBER  NOT  INCLUDED  IN 

THE   LAST  TWO   CASES. 

RULE.—  Write  the  divisor  at  the  left  of  the  dividend 
and  proceed  as  in  the  following 

EXAMPLE. 
Divide  726,981  by  7,645. 

7,645)726981(95 
68805 

38931 
38225 

706 


34  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

DIVISION. 
EXAMPLES  FOR  PRACTICE. 

I.— Divide  76,298,764,833  by  9. 

2.—      "     120,047,629,817   "    20. 

3.—      "         9,876,548,210  "   48. 

4.—      "         3,247,617,219   "   63. 

Multiplying  the  dividend,  or  dividing  the  divisor  by  any 
number ',  multiplies  the  quotient  by  the  same  number. 

Dividing  the  dividend,  or  multiplying  the  divisor  by 
any  number,  divides  the  quotient  by  the  same  number. 

Dividing  or  multiplying  both  the  dividend  and  divisor 
by  the  same  number  does  not  change  the  quotient. 

RULE  FOR  PROVING  DIVISION. 

Division  may  be  proved  by  multiplying  the  quotient  by 
the  integral  part  of  the  Divisor,  and  adding  to  the  product 
the  remainder,  if  there  is  any.     The  result  will  be  equal  to 
the  dividend  if  the  work  is  correct. 
EXAMPLE.    12)48679 

4056—7 

12 

48679  Proof. 

QUOTATION. — "  As  long  ago  as  the  days  of  ancient  Greece,  Aristotle 
said  :  '  I  find  the  young  men  who  study  mathematics  quick  and  intel- 
ligent at  other  studies.'  But,  apart  from  the  value  of  mathematical 
stud  es  as  a  mental  training,  the  modern  engineer,  whatever  branch  of 
the  science  he  may  pursue,  will  find  mathematics  one  of  the  necessary 
tools  of  his  profession." 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  35 


REDUCTION. 


A  DENOMINATE  NUMBER  is  a  number  applied  to  an 
object ;  thus,  40  inches  and  3  feet  5  inches  are  denominate 
numbers ;  the  first  is  a  simple  and  the  latter  a  compound 
denominate  number. 

REDUCTION  is  changing  these  numbers  from  one 
denomination  to  another  without  altering  their  values.  It 
is  of  two  kinds,  DESCENDING  and  ASCENDING. 

Reduction  Descending  is  changing  higher  denomina- 
tions to  lower,  as  tons  to  pounds.  Reduction  Ascending  is 
changing  lower  to  higher  denominations,  as  cents  to  dollars. 

Reduction  of  Denominate  Numbers  is  the  process  of 
changing  the  denomination  of  a  number  without  changing 
the  value.  Thus,  3  yards  may  be  expressed  as  9  feet,  or 
108  inches. 

TO  CHANGE  DENOMINATE  NUMBERS  TO  LOWER 
DENOMINATIONS  is  done  by  multiplication  and  by  the 
following 

Ru  LE. — I .  Multiply  the  number  of  the  h  ighest  denomina- 
tion given  by  the  number  of  units  of  the  next  lower  denomina- 
tion required  to  make  one  of  that  higher,  and  to  the  product 
add  the  given  number  of  the  lower  denomination,  if  any. 

2.  Proceed  in  like  manner  with  this  result  and  each 
successive  denomination  obtained,  until  the  given  number  is 
reduced  to  units  of  the  required  denomination. 

NOTE. — A  simple  number  is  one  which  expresses  one  or  more 
units  of  the  same  denomination.  A  compound  number  expresses  units 
of  two  or  more  denominations  of  the  same  kind,  as  5  yards,  i  foot,  4 
inches— or  example,  page  36,  6  T.,  8  cwt,  3  qrs. — these  are  compound 
numbers  j  but  ten  oxen,  Qifive  dollars,  are  simple  numbers, 


36  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

REDUCTION. 

EXAMPLE. 

Reduce  six  tons,  eight  hundred  weight,  three  quarters, 
to  Ibs. 

6    T.  8  cwt.  3  qrs. 
20 

1 20 
8  add  above. 

128 
4 

512 

3  add  above. 

515  qrs. 

25 

2575 
1030 

12875  Ibs.     Answer. 

TO  REDUCE  LOWER  DEMOMINATIONS  TO  HIGHER  IS 
DONE  BY  DIVISION. 

RULE. — i.  Divide  the  given  number  by  the  number  of 
units  of  the  given  denomination  required  to  make  a  unit  of 
the  next  higher  denomination. 

2.  In  the  same  manner,  divide  this  and  each  successive 
quotient  until  the  required  denomination  is  reached.  The 
last  quotient,  with  the  remainders  annexed,  will  be  the 
required  result. 

Ex. — Bring  98,704,623  Ibs.  to  tons  and  Ibs. 
2000)98704623 

49352  Tons,  623  Ibs. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  37 

REDUCTION. 

EX.— 76,245  gills  to  gallons,  etc. 
4)76245 

2)19061  —  1  gill 
4)9530—1  pint. 

2382 — 2  quarts. 
Ans.,  2382  gallons,  2  quarts,  I  pint  and  I  gill. 

PROOF. — Reduction  Ascending  and  Descending  prove 
each  other ;  for  one  is  the  reverse  of  the  other. 


FRACTIONS. 


A  fraction  means  a  part  of  anything.  A  vulgar  frac- 
tion is  always  represented  by  two  numbers  (at  least),  one 
over  the  other  and  separated  by  a  small  horizontal  line. 
The  one  above  the  line  is  always  called  the  NUMERATOR, 
and  the  one  below  the  line  the  DENOMINATOR. 

The  denominator  tells  us  how  many  parts  the  whole 
thing  has  been  divided  into,  and  the  numerator  tells  us 
how  many  of  those  parts  we  have.  Thus,  in  the  fraction  f 
the  eight  is  the  denominator,  and  shows  that  the  object 
has  been  divided  into  eight  equal  parts ;  and  three  is  the 
numerator,  and  shows  that  we  have  three  of  those  pieces 
or  parts  of  the  object. 

A  PROPER  FRACTION  is  one  whose  numerator  is  less 
than  the  denominator,  as  f  or  f. 

AN  IMPROPER  FRACTION  is  one  whose  numerator  is 
more  than  its  denominator,  f  or  f. 

NOTE. — f  means  more  than  a  whole  one,  because  f  must  be  a  whole 
one.  Thus  f  will  be  three- thirds-f-  three-thirds-j-two-thirds,  or  2|,  and 
this  form  of  fraction  is  called  a  mixed  number* 


38  The  Advanced  Machinist. 


REDUCTION  OF  FRACTIONS. 


To  REDUCE  AN  IMPROPER  FRACTION  TO  A  MIXED 
NUMBER. 

RULE. — Divide  the  numerator  by  the  denominator  ;  the 
quotient  is  the  whole  number  part,  and  the  remainder  is  the 
numerator  of  the  fractional  part. 

EXAMPLES:  ^-=2f-  V^S-  V^Sf- 

TO  REDUCE  A  MIXED  NUMBER  TO  AN  IMPROPER 
FRACTION. 

RULE. — Multiply  the  whole  number  part  by  the  denomi- 
nator, and  add  on  the  numerator;  the  result  is  the  nume- 
rator of  tJie  improper  fraction. 

EXAMPLES:  2-f— V-  5i=V-  3t~V- 

TO  REDUCE   A   FRACTION   TO   ITS   LOWEST   TERMS. 

RULE. — Divide  both  numerator  and  denominator  by 
the  same  number ;  if  by  so  doing  there  is  no  remainder. 

EXAMPLE. — Reduce  T83.  Here  4  will  divide  both  top 
and  bottom  without  a  remainder.  Divide  by  4. 

4)A-t- 

The  meaning  of  this  is,  that  if  you  divide  a  thing  into 
T2  equal  parts,  and  take  8  of  them,  you  will  have  the  same 
as  if  the  thing  had  been  divided  into  3  equal  parts  and  you 
had  two  of  them. 

TO  REVERSE  THE  LAST  RULE  ;  TO  BRING  A  FRACTION 
OF  ANY  DENOMINATOR  TO  A  FRACTION  HAVING  A  GREATER 
DENOMINATOR. 

RULE. — See  Jww  often  the  less  will  go  into  the  greater 
denominator  and  multiply  both  numerator  and  denominator 
by  it.  The  result  is  the  required  fraction. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  39 

REDUCTION  OF  FRACTIONS. 

EXAMPLES. 

Bring  \  to  a  fraction  whose  denominator  is  8. 

Here  2  goes  in  8  four  times  ;  then  multiply  the  nume- 
rator and  denominator  of  ^  by  4=-J,  which  is  the  required 
fraction. 

Bring  f  to  a  fraction  whose  denominator  is  15. 

Here  3  goes  into  15  five  times  ;  then  f  becomes  -J-g-. 

In  case  of  a  fraction  of  a  fraction,  as  ^  of  J-,  it  is  called. 
a  compound  fraction,  and  should  always  be  reduced  to  a 
simple  fraction  by  multiplying  all  the  numerators  together 
for  a  ne^v  numerator,  and  all  the  denominators  together  for 
a  new  denominator  ;  then,  if  necessary,  reduce  this  fraction 
to  its  lowest  terms. 

EXAMPLE.—  |  of  f  of  •£  .  Reduce  to  a  single  fraction  : 
3X2X4=24;  and  4X3X9=108. 

Thus,  T%-  is  the  fraction.     Reduce  this 


TO  REDUCE  TWO  OR  MORE  FRACTIONS  TO  EQUIVA- 
LENT FRACTIONS  HAVING  THEIR  LEAST  COMMON  DENOMI. 
NATOR. 

RULE.  —  Find  the  least  common  multiple  of  the  given 
denominators  for  the  least  common  denominator,  and  reduce 
the  given  fractions  to  this  denominator. 

EXAMPLE. 

Reduce  f  ,  f  ,  £  and  -fa  to  equivalent  fractions  having 
their  least  common,  denominator;  then  f  ==-=£$,  f~it» 

*-££>  A-H- 


40  The  Advanced  Machinist. 


CANCELLATION. 


This  is  a  method  of  shortening  problems  by  rejecting 
equal  factors  from  the  divisor  and  dividend. 

The  sign  of  cancellation  is  an  oblique  mark  drawn 
across  the  face  of  a  figure,  as  X,  #,  #• 

Cancellation  means  to  leave  out  ;  if  there  are  the  same 
numbers  in  the  numerator  and  the  denominator  they  are  to 
be  left  out. 

Ex.  —  J  of  |  of  £.  Here  the  3  in  the  first  numerator 
and  the  3  in  the  second  denominator  are  left  out  ;  also  4  of 
the  first  denominator  and  the  last  numerator,  thus: 


Ex.—  |  of  f  of  f|  of  fVV^by  cancellation  thus: 


3    j* 
2 

j*^0f  00  _        7 

7 

X$    Xfifi     3X2X34 
34 

See  note. 

204 

NOTE. — The  process  is  as  follows  :  The  first  numerator,  2,  will 
go  into  8,  the  denominator  of  the  second  fraction,  4  times  ;  the  denomi- 
nator of  the  third  fraction,  18,  will  go  into  90,  the  numerator  of  the  last 
quantity,  5  times.  The  numerator  of  the  second  fraction,  3,  will  go 
into  the  denominator  of  the  first  fraction  3  times  ;  5  will  go  into  170, 
34  times  ;  2  will  go  into  4  twice,  and  2  into  14,  7  times,  and  as  we  can- 
not find  any  more  figures  that  can  be  divided  without  leaving  a 
remainder,  we  are  at  the  end,  and  the  quantities  left  must  be  collected 
into  one  expression.  On  examination,  we  have  7  left  on  the  top  row  ; 
this  is  put  down  at  the  end  as  the  final  numerator ;  on  the  bottom  we 
have  3,  2  and  34 ;  these  multiplied  together  give  us  204,  which  is  the 
final  denominator. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  41 

USEFUL  DEFINITIONS. 

RULES  FOR  CANCELLING. 

1.  Any  numerator  may  be  divided  into  any  denominator •, 
provided  no  remainder  is  left,  and  vice  versa,  thus: 

$ 

4 

3 

2 

2.  Any  numerator  and  denominator  may   be  divided 
by  the  same  number,  provided  no  remainder  is  left,  and  the 
decreased  value  of  such   numerator    and  denominator   be 
inserted  in  the  place  of  those  cancelled. 

5  Here  8  is  divided  by  4,  and  20  can  also  be 

5  of  —         divided  by  the  same  number  without  leav- 
g  ing  any  remainder.     Answer,  j-J. 

Ex. — 

7 


17      3X2X17      102 


DBFS.  —  A  COMMON  DENOMINATOR  of  two  or  more  fractions  is  a 
denominator  to  which  they  can  all  be  reduced,  and  is  the  common  mul- 
tiple of  their  denominators. 

THE  LEAST  COMMON  DENOMINATOR  of  two  or  more  fractions  is 
the  least  denominator  to  which  they  can  be  reduced,  and  is  the  least 
common  multiple  of  their  denominators. 

A  MULTIPLE  of  a  number  is  a  number  that  is  exactly  divisible  by 
it  ;  or  it  is  any  product  of  which  the  given  number  is  a  factor. 

Thus,  12  is  a  multiple  of  6  ;  15  of  5,  etc. 

A  COMMON  MUI/TIPI,E  of  two  or  more  numbers  is  a  number  that 
is  exactly  divisible  by  each  of  them. 

Thus,  12,  24,  36  and  48  are  multiples  of  4  and  6. 

THE  LEAST  COMMON  MULTIPLE  of  two  or  more  numbers  is  the 
least  number  that  is  exactly  divisible  by  each  of  them. 

Thus,  12  is  the  least  common  multiple  of  4  and  6. 


42  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

ADDITION  OF  FRACTIONS. 


Addition  of  fractions  is  the  process  of  finding  the  sum 
of  two  or  more  fractions.  In  order  that  fractions  may  be 
added,  they  must  have  like  denominators  and  be  parts  of 
like  units. 

RULE. — Bring  all  the  fractions  to  the  same  common 
denominator,  add  their  numerators  together  for  the  neiv 
numerator,  and  reduce  the  resulting  fraciion  to  its  simplest. 

form. 

EXAMPLES. 

What  is  the  sum  of  j-4-J—J+f— f .  Ans. 
What  is  the  sum  of  f-f  £  +  J-|-f=s=jyu=2f.  Ans. 


SUBTRACTION  OF  FRACTIONS. 


Bring  the  fractions  to  others  having  a  common  denomi- 
nator,  as  in  addition,  and  subtract  their  numerators. 

EXAMPLES. 
From  -J  subtract  -£=4=-s-. 

o  o          o          <» 

From  J  take  f     ^=f-f 

7          3 7  —  6 1 

TS"       F        TB         IT- 

What  is  the  difference  between  %  of  f  and  £  of  i£? 

i  of  f-| ;  and  J  of  i  J=J  of  |=f . 
Therefore,  it  is  f — f=o. 


MULTIPLICATION  OF  FRACTIONS. 


First  bring  each  fraction  to  its  simplest  form;  then 
multiply  the  numerators  together  for  the  new  numerate^ 
and  the  denominators  together  for  the  new  denominator. 
Reduce  the  fraction  to  its  simplest  form. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  43 

MULTIPLICATION  OF  FRACTIONS. 

EXAMPLES. 

1.  Multiply  fX  i  A  ;  that  is,  f  X  f  i=T8A= Ji=f>  or  by 
canceling 

1          3 

X  x   21        3 

f     ii      4 

1         4 

The  4  cancels  into  the  16  four  times,  and  the  7  into  the  21 
three  times.     Thus  1X3=3,  and  1X4=4.     Answer  f. 

2.  2^  of  3fX6jof^T. 

3571 

S°<  ?*¥«<&    ; 

2113 
5 

i|  X  I  =  f  =  17J  Answer. 

1 


DIVISION  OF  FRACTIONS. 


Reverse  the  divisor  and  proceed  as  in  multiplication. 
The  object  of  inverting  the  divisor  is  convenience  in 
multiplying. 

After  inverting  the  divisor,  cancel  the  common  factors. 

EXAMPLES. 

f-s-i-J-,  that  is,  f^|,  reverse  the  -§•  and  it  becomes  f ; 
then  the  question  is  t^HH  ^ns- 

4f  of  if-^St  of  3i>  that  is,  -3T°-  of  #+*£-  of  J/-;  cancel- 
ing  reduces  the  dividend  to  f  and  the  divisor  to  *£-  and  we 
have  4-^,  that  is,  f  Xi^rV^i  Ans- 


4.4  7%0  Advanced  Machinist. 

DECIMALS. 

A  decimal  fraction  derives  its  name  from  the  Latin 
decent,  "ten,"  which  denotes  the  nature  of  its  numbers. 
It  has  for  its  denominator  a  UNIT,  or  whole  thing,  as  a 
pound,  a  yard,  etc.,  and  is  supposed  to  be  divided  into  ten 
equal  parts,  called  tenths;  those  tenths  into  ten  equal 
parts,  called  hundredths,  and  so  on. 

The  denominator  of  a  decimal  being  always  known  to 
consist  of  a  unit,  with  as  many  ciphers  annexed  as  the 
numerator  has  places,  is  never  expressed,  being  understood 
to  be  10,  100,  1000,  etc.,  according  as  the  numerator  con- 
sists of  I,  2,  3  or  more  figures.  Thus:  T2^,  -gfa,  J^,  etc., 
the  numerators  only  are  written  with  a  dot  or  comma  be- 
fore them,  thus:  .2,  .24,  .125. 

The  use  of  the  dot  (.)  is  to  separate  the  decimal  from 
the  whole  numbers. 

The  first  figure  on  the  right  of  the  decimal  point  is  in 
the  place  of  tenths,  the  second  in  the  place  of  hundredths, 
the  third  in  the  place  of  thousandths,  etc.,  always  decreas- 
ing from  the  left  towards  the  right  in  a  tenfold  ratio,  as  in 

the  following 

TABLE. 


eS 

| 

*+* 

^ 
§ 

3 

„ 

en 

i 

a 

•s 

I 

1 

a 
.2 

O 

•8 

0 

e 

•s 

1 

rj 

^           0? 

-3 

d   a 

i 

^ 

1 

•8 

1 

a 
1 

Thousai 

S 
1 

nd 

d 

| 

.2 

1 

1 

2 

1 

a 
w 

CO 

1 

o 

fi 

§  s 

HI    H 

sS 

a 

H 

a 
W 

i 

d 

£ 

a 

d 

w 

S 

a 

«5 

CJ 

S 

55555555.5555555 

Ascending.  Descending. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  45 


A  cipher  placed  on  the  left  hand  of  a  decimal  decreases 
its  value  in  a  tenfold  ratio  by  removing  it  farther  from  the 
decimal  point.  But  annexing  a  cipher  to  any  decimal  does 
not  alter  its  value  at  all.  Thus  0.4  is  ten  times  the  value 
of  0.04,  and  a  hundred  times  0.004.  But  0.7=0.  70=0.  700 
=0.7000,  etc.,  as  above  remarked. 

O.2         is  equal  to  two-tenths. 

0.25       "      "       "    twenty-five  hundredths. 

0.1876  "  "  "  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
seventy-six  ten  thousandths,  and 
so  on. 

Mixed  numbers  consist  of  a  whole  number  and  a  deci- 
mal, as  4.25  and  3.875. 

TO  REDUCE  A  FRACTION  TO  A  DECIMAL. 

RULE.  —  Annex  decimal  ciphers  to  the  numerator,  and 
divide  by  the  denominator,  pointing  off  as  many  decimal 
places  in  the  quotient  as  there  are  ciphers  annexed. 

Ex.  —  Reduce  J  to  a  decimal. 

EX.—  4)  3.00 
•75 

TO  REDUCE  A  DECIMAL  TO  A  FRACTION. 

RULES.  —  I,  Omit  the  decimal  point  ;  2,  Supply  the 
proper  denominator  ;  3,  Reduce  the  fraction  to  its  lowest 
terms. 

Ex.  —  Reduce  .075  to  an  equivalent  fraction. 

•Q75--rflhr—  A-  __ 

NOTE.  —  "  It  is  not  merely  the  ability  to  calculate  that  constitutes 
the  utility  of  mathematical  knowledge  to  the  engineer;  it  is  also  the 
increased  capacity  for  understanding  the  natural  phenomena  on  which 
the  engineering  practice  is  based." 


46  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

ADDITION  OF  DECIMALS. 


RULE. — Place  the  quantities  down  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  decimal  point  of  one  line  shall  be  exactly  under  that 
of  every  other  line  ;  then  add  up  as  in  simple  addition. 

EXAMPLE. 

Thus: — Add  together  36.74,  2.98046,  176.4,  31.0071 
and  .08647, 

36.74 

2.98046 
176.4 
31.0071 
.08647 


247.21403 


SUBTRACTION  OF  DECIMALS. 


RULE. — Place  the  lines  with  decimal  point  under  deci- 
mal point,  as  in  addition.  If  one  line  has  more  decimal 
figures  than  another,  put  naughts  under  the  one  that  is 
deficient  till  they  are  equal,  then  subtract  as  in  simple  sub- 
traction. 

EXAMPLES. 

From  146.2004  take  98.9876. 
146.2004 
98.9876 


47.2128  Answer. 
From  4.17  take  1.984625. 

4.170000 
1.984625 


2.185375  Ans. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  47 

MULTIPLICATION  OF  DECIMALS. 


RULE. — Place  the  factors  under  each  other,  and  mul- 
tiply them  together  as  in  whole  numbers ;  then  point  off  as 
many  figures  from  the  right  hand  of  the  product  as  there 
are  decimal  places  in  both  factors,  observing,  if  there  be  not 
enough,  to  annex  as  many  ciphers  to  the  left  hand  of  the 
product  as  will  supply  the  deficiency. 

EXAMPLE. — Multiply  3.625  by  2.75. 

3.625x2.75=9.96875  Ans. 


DIVISION  OF  DECIMALS. 


RULE.  —  Prepare  the  decimal  as  directed  for  multiplica- 
tion ;  divide  as  in  whole  numbers;  cut  off  as  many  figures 
for  decimals  in  the  quotient  as  the  number  of  decimals  in  the 
dividend  exceeds  the  number  in  the  divisor  ;  and  if  the 
places  in  the  quotient  be  not  so  many  as  the  rule  requires, 
supply  the  deficiency  by  annexing  ciphers  to  the  left  hand  of 
the  quotient. 

EXAMPLE.  —  Divide  173.5425  by  3.75. 


1500 


4 8  The  Advanced  Machinist. 


RATIO,  PROPORTION,   RULE   OF  THREE. 


THE  RULE  OF  THREE,  so  called  because  there  are 
always  three  numbers  to  find  a  fourth. 

The  solving  of  this  problem,  i.  e.,  having  three  num. 
bers,  to  find  the  fourth,  is  the  most  important  part  of 
proportion.  On  account  of  its  great  utility  arid  extensive 
application,  it  has  been  called  the  golden  rule. 

RATIO  is  the  relation  of  two  numbers  as  expressed  by 
the  quotient  of  the  first  divided  by  the  second.  Thus, 
the  ratio  of  6  to  3  is  6-^3,  or  2. 

THE  RATIO  BETWEEN  TWO  NUMBERS  is  expressed  by 
placing  a  colon  between  them ;  thus,  the  ratio  of  8  to  4  is 
expressed  8  :  4. 

A  SIMPE  RATIO  IS  A  RATIO  BETWEEN  TWO  NUM- 
BERS, as  4  :  5. 

A  COMPOUND  RATIO  is  a  ratio  formed  by  the  combina- 
tion of  two  or  more  simple  ratios. 

Thus,  ^ ;  5  is  a  compound  ratio,  and  is  equivalent  to 
4X3:5  X  2,  or  12:  10. 

The  numbers  whose  ratio  is  expressed  are  the  terms  of 
the  ratio.  The  two  terms  of  a  ratio  form  a  couplet,  the 
first  of  which  is  the  antecedent  and  the  second  the  conse- 
quent. 

PROPORTION  is  AN  EQUALITY  OF  RATIOS.  The  first 
and  fourth  terms  of  a  proportion  are  called  the  extremes, 
and  the  second  and  third  the  means. 

The  product  of  the  means  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the 
extremes. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  49 

RATIO  AND  PROPORTION. 

A  missing  mean  may  be  found  by  dividing  the  product 
of  the  extremes  by  the  given  mean. 

A  missing  extreme  may  be  found  by  dividing  the  product 
of  the  means  by  the  given  extreme. 

SIMPLE  PROPORTION  is  an  equality  of  two  simple 

ratios,  as, 

9  Ib.  :  1 8  Ib.  :  :  27  cents  :  54  cents. 

Ex. — If  24  wrenches  cost  $27,  what  will  32  wrenches 
cost? 

ANS. — 36  dollars.     See  note. 

RULE. — For  convenience,  take  for  the  third  term  the 
number  that  may  form  a  ratio  with,  or  is  of  the  same 
denomination  as,  the  answer.  If ,  from  the  nature  of  tJu 
example,  the  answer  is  to  be  greater  than  the  third  term, 
make  the  greater  of  the  two  remaining  terms  (which  must 
be  of  the  same  denomination]  the  second  term ;  when  not, 
make  the  smaller  the  second  term.  Then  multiply  the 
means  (the  second  and  third)  together,  and  divide  their 
product  by  the  given  extreme  (the  first  term). 

Exs. — The  missing  term,  x,  in  the  examples  below,  can 
be  found  by  applying  the  principles  given  on  page  48). 
16  :   x   :  :  24  :  18.     Ans.  12. 
x   \  27  :  :   18  :  54.     Ans.  9. 
32  :  27  :  :    x   :  135.  Ans.  160. 
16  :   12  :  :  24  :    x.     Ans.  18. 

NOTE. — For  convenience  in  working  this  example  make  the  fourth 
term  the  missing  term,  or  the  required  answer.  Since  the  third  and 
fourth  terms  must  be  of  the  same  denomination  and  the  denomination 
of  the  answer  will  be  dollars,  take  $27  as  the  third  term.  From  the 
nature  of  the  example  the  answer  will  be  more  than  $27,  the  third 
term;  therefore,  make  32  wrenches  the  second  term  and  24  wrenches 
the  first  term.  The  proportion  will  then  be  stated  as  follows :  24 
wrenches  :  32  wrenches  : :  $27  :  x  (Let  x  represent  the  unknown  term). 
Multiplying  32  by  27.  and  dividing  the  product  by  24,  the  fourth  or 
missing  term  will  be  136. 


5O  The  Advanced  Machinist. 


EVOLUTION  OR  SQUARE  ROOT. 


The  SQUARE  ROOT  of  a  number  is  one  of  the  two 
equal  factors  of  a  number.  Thus,  the  square  root  of  25 
is  5-  5X5=25. 

To  FIND  THE  SQUARE  ROOT  OF  A  NUMBER. 

RULE. — Beginning  at  units  place,  separate  the  given 
number  into  periods  of  two  figures  each. 

Find  the  greatest  square  in  the  left-hand  period,  and 
write  its  root  at  the  right  in  the  form  of  a  quotient  in  divi- 
sion. Subtract  this  square  from  the  left-hand  period,  and 
to  the  remainder  annex  the  next  period  to  form  a  dividend. 

Double  the  part  of  the  root  already  found  for  a  trial 
divisor.  Find  how  many  times  this  divisor  is  contained  in 
the  dividend,  exclusive  of  the  right-hand  figure,  and  write 
the  quotient  as  the  next  figure  of  the  root.  Annex  this  quo^ 
tient  to  the  right  of  the  trial  divisor  to  form  the  complete 
divisor.  Multiply  the  complete  divisor  by  the  last  figure  of 
the  root,  and  subtract  the  product  from  the  dividend. 

To  the  remainder  annex  the  next  period,  and  proceed  as 
before. 

When  the  given  number  is  a  decimal,  separate  the  num- 
ber into  periods  of  two  figures  each,  by  proceeding  in  both 
directions  from  the  decimal  point. 

EXAMPLE. 

Find  the  square  root  of  186624.      Proof  432 
18,66,24(432  432 

16 


266 
249 


862  I  1724 

I  1724  166624 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  51 

EXAMPLE. 
Find  the  square  root  of  735. 

7/35(27.n  etc.  Proof  2711 

_4 2711 

47  I  335  

I  329  2711 

541   600  2711 

li_  18977 


5421       5900  5422 


734.9521 

We  proceed  as  before  till  we  get  the  remainder  6,  and 
we  see  it  is  not  a  perfect  square ;  we  wish  the  root  to  be 
taken  to  two  or  three  places  of  decimals;  there  are  no  more 
figures  to  bring  down,  therefore  bring  down  two  ciphers 
and  proceed  as  in  the  first  example;  to  the  remainder 
attach  two  more  ciphers  and  proceed  as  before,  and  by 
attaching  two  ciphers  to  the  remainder  you  may  carry  it  to 
any  number  of  decimal  places  you  please.  In  the  above 
example  the  answer  is  27.11,  etc. 

The  following  important  note  is  to  be  studied  in  con- 
nection with  example  at  the  bottom  of  the  opposite  page. 

NOTE. — Begin  at  the  last  figure  4,  count  two  figures,  and  mark  the 
second  as  shown  in  the  example  ;  count  two  more,  and  mark  the  figure, 
and  so  on  till  there  are  no  more  figures  ;  take  the  figures  to  the  left  of 
the  last  dot,  18,  and  find  what  number  multiplied  by  itself  will  give  18. 
There  is  no  number  that  will  do  so,  for  4X4=16,  is  too  small,  and 
5X5  =  25,  is  too  large ;  we  take  the  one  that  is  too  small,  viz.,  4,  and 
place  it  in  the  quotient,  and  place  its  square,  16,  under  the  18,  subtract 
and  bring  down  the  next  two  figures,  66.  To  get  the  divisor,  multiply 
the  quotient  4  by  2=8.  place  the  8  in  the  divisor,  and  say  8  into  26  goes 
3  times,  place  the  3  after  the  4  in  the  quotient  and  also  after  the  8  in 
the  divisor ;  multiply  the  83  by  the  3  in  the  quotient,  and  place  the 
product  under  the  266  and  subtract,  then  bring  down  the  next  two  fig- 
ures, 24.  To  get  the  next  divisor,  multiply  the  quotient  43  by  2=86 ; 
see  how  often  8  goes  into  17,  twice  ;  place  the  2  after  the  43  of  the  quo- 
tient, and  also  after  the  86  of  the  divisor ;  multiply  the  862  by  the  2> 
and  put  it  under  the  1724,  then  subtract.  Answer,  432. 


52  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

EVOLUTION. 

In  expressing  the  square  root  it  is  customary  to  use 
simply  the  mark  (\/),  the  2  being  understood. 

All  roots  as  well  as  powers  of  one  are  I,  as  <\/i=i. 

EXAMPLE. 
Find  the  square  root  of  588.0625. 

5,88.06,25(24.25 
4 

44  ' 


4845 


In  a  decimal  quantity  like  the  above,  the  marking  off 
differs  from  the  former  examples.  Instead  of  counting 
twos  from  right  to  left,  we  begin  at  the  decimal  point  and 
count  twos  toward  the  left  and  toward  the  right.  The  rest 
of  the  work  is  similar  to  the  other  examples. 

Notice,  that  when  the  .06  is  brought  down,  the  figure 
for  a  quotient  is  a  decimal. 

To  familiarize  oneself  with  the  extracting  of  the  square 
root,  it  is  well  first  to  square  a  number  and  then  work 
backward  according  to  the  examples  here  given,  and  by 
long  and  frequent  practice  become  expert  in  the  calcula- 
tion. But  in  first  working  square  root,  it  is  undoubtedly 
better  to  secure  the  services  of  a  teacher. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  53 

INVOLUTION 

Is  the  raising  a  number  (called  the  root)  to  any  power. 
The  powers  of  a  number  are  its  square,  cube,  4th  power, 
5th  power,  etc. 

2  x  2=  4  4  is  the  square  or  2nd  power  of  2. 

2X2X2=  8  8  is  the  cube  or  3d  power  of  2. 

2X2X2X2=16  16  is  the  4th  power  of  2. 

Etc.  Etc. 

RULE.  —  To  square  a  number  multiply  it  by  itself. 

EXAMPLE. 

What  is  the  square  of  27  (written  2f)  ? 
27 
27 


54 

729  Answer. 

RULE.  —  To  cube  a  number  t  multiply  the  square  of  the 
number  by  the  number  again. 

EXAMPLE.  —  What  is  the  cube  of  50  (written  So3)? 

50 
50 

2500  the  square 
50 

125000  the  cube. 

A  power  of  a  quantity,  is  the  product  arising  from 
multiplying  the  quantity  by  itself  one  or  more  times. 
When  the  quantity  is  taken  twice  as  a  factor,  the  product 
is  called  the  second  power  ;  when  taken  three  times,  the 
third  power,  and  so  on. 


54  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

INVOLUTION. 
SIGNS  THAT  REPRESENT  THE  ROOTS  OF  NUMBERS. 

The  sign  common  to  all  roots  is  */  or  /y/  and  is 
known  as  the  Radical  Sign.  If  we  require  to  express  the 
square  root  of  a  number  we  simply  put  this  sign  before  it, 
as  4/16,  but  if  the  number  is  made  up  of  two  or  more 
terms,  then  we  express  the  square  root  by  the  same 
in  front,  but  with  a  line  as  far  as  the  square  root  extends, 


as  V9  +  7  <>r  V4 

The  cube  root  is  expressed  by  the  same  sign,  with  a 


3  in  the  elbow,  as  \/8  or  A/7  (100—51.) 

All  other  roots  in  the  same  manner,  the  number  of  the 

5 

root  being  put  instead  of  the  3.     As  fifth  root  V»  and 
sixth  root  y',  etc. 

In  the  above  examples,  9+7  —  16,  and  the  square  root 
of  16  is  4. 

The  4  ^19+6)—  4X25—  100,  and  the  square  root  of  100 
is  10. 

The  other  way  of  expressing  that  the  root  is  required, 
is  by  putting  a  fraction  after  and  above  the  quantity,  as 
16*,  which  means  the  square  root  of  16,  (19+17)  ,  or 
{4  (194-6)  p  all  of  which  means  the  square  root  of  the 
quantities  to  which  they  are  attached. 

The  cube  root,  4th  root,  5th  root,  etc.,  are  written  in 
the  same  way,  as  729—9;  256*  —  4;  31  25*—  5,  etc. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  55 

THE  POWERS  OF  NUMBERS. 

SIGNS  REPRESENTING  THE  POWER  OF  NUMBERS. 

62  is  equal  to  6x6=36;  that  is,  36  is  the  square  of  6. 

53is  equal  to  5x5X5—125:  that  is,  125  is  the  cube 
of  5- 

44is  equal  to  4X4X4X4—256;  that  is,  256  is  the 
fourth  power  of  4. 

The  power  and  the  root  are  often  combined,  as  4!. 
this  is  read  as  the  square  root  of  4  cubed.  So  the  nume- 
rator figure  represents  the  power,  and  the  denominator 
figure  represents  the  root.  In  this  case  the  square  root  of 
4  is  2,  and  the  cube  of  2  is  2X2X2=8  Answer. 

Perhaps  the  most  common  form  that  the  student  will 
meet  with  this  sign  is  in  the  following : 

8^,  which  is  read  the  cube  root  of  8  squared.     Now, 
8  squared=64,  and  the  cube  root  of  64  is  4  Answer. 
Find  the  value  of  20  . 

20  cubed=8ooo,  and  square  root  of  8000—89.4,  etc. 
EXAMPLE. 

What  is  the  value  of  8*"t'81  ? 

3* 


J8i*—  9;  31—  VS^-V^-S-a  nearly. 


Hence,  4x2=11=2.5  or  2j    Answer. 
5.2      5.2 

(  )  are  called  brackets,  and  mean  that  all  the  quanti- 
ties within  them  are  to  be  put  together  first;  thus, 
7  (8  —  6+4X3)  means  that  6  must  be  subtracted  from  8=2, 
and  4  times  3—12  added  to  this  2—14;  and  then  this  14  is 
to  be  multiplied  by  7—98. 


56  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

THE  METRIC  SYSTEM. 


In  the  Metric  or  French  system  of  weights  and  meas- 
ures, the  Meter  is  the  basis  of  all  the  units  which  it 
employs.  The  Meter  is  the  unit  of  length,  and  is  equal  to 
one  ten-millionth  part  of  the  distance  measured  on  a 
meridian  of  the  earth  from  the  equator  to  the  pole,  and 
equals  about  39.37  inches,  or  39!  inches  nearly. 

The  standard  meter  is  a  bar  of  platinum  carefully  pre- 
served at  Paris.  Exact  copies  of  the  meter  and  the  other 
units  have  been  procured  by  the  several  nations  (including 
the  United  States)  that  have  legalized  the  system. 

In  this  system,  weights  and  measures  are  increased  or 
decreased  by  the  following  words  prefixed  to  them : 

Milli  expresses  the  i,oooth  part. 
Centi         "         "        looth    " 
Deci          "        "          loth    " 
Deka        "  10  times  the  value. 

Hecto       "          100    "        "      " 
Kilo          "       1,000    "        "      " 

TABLE. 

Millimeter (TT^JU  °f  a  meter)  =       .03937  in. 

10  mm.     =        Centimeter (T^  of  a  meter)     =        .3937    in. 

10  cm.      ~ 
10  dm.     - 


10  m. 
10  Dm. 


Decimeter (^  of  a  meter)  =      3.937      in. 

METER (I  meter)  r=    39.37        in. 

Dekameter (10  meters)  =  32.8          ft. 

Hectometer (100  meters)  =  328.09        ft. 

.    =        Kilometer (1000  meters)  =       .62137  mile. 

NOTE.— A  gramme  is  the  weight  of  a  cubic  centimeter  of  distilled 
water;  a  decigramme  contains  fa  of  a  gramme;  a  dekagram  me  contains 
10  grammes. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  59 


USEFUL  MEASUREMENTS. 


A  measurement  is  an  ascertained  dimension,  as  the 
length,  breadth,  thickness,  depth,  extent,  quantity,  capacity, 
etc.,  of  a  thing  as  determined  by  measuring. 

Mensuration  is  the  art  of  measuring  things  which 
occupy  space ;  the  art  is  partly  mechanical  and  partly 
mathematical. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  quantity  in  space,  viz.,  length, 
surface  and  solidity ;  and  there  are  three  distinct  modes 
of  measurement,  viz.,  mechanical  measurement,  geomet- 
rical construction  and  algebraical  calculations.  The  last 
two  modes  are  done  by  calculations,  while  in  mechanical 
measurements  they  are  made  by  the  direct  application  of 
rules  and  special  measuring  instruments. 

Lengths  are  measured  on  lines,  and  the  measure  of  a 
length  of  a  line  is  the  ratio  or  relation  which  the  line  bears 
to  a  recognized  unit  of  length — the  inch,  foot  or  mile  deter- 
mined by  reference  to  brass  rods  kept  by  the  United 
States  Government  at  Washington  as  a  standard.  The  use 
of  the  "  rules  "  is  called  direct  measurement. 

The  second  kind  of  quantity  to  be  measured  is  surface. 
This  sort  of  measurement  is  never  done  directly  or  mechan- 
ically, but  always  by  the  measurement  of  lines,  as  will  be 
seen  both  under  this  division  and  under  the  sections 
relating  to  geometry. 

The  third  species  of  quantity  is  solidity.  Direct  meas- 
urement of  solid  quantities  consists  simply  in  filling  a  vessel 


60  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

USEFUL  MEASUREMENTS. 

of  known  capacity,  like  a  bushel  or  gallon  measure,  until 
all  is  measured.  The  geometrical  mode  of  computing 
solids  is  the  one  hereafter  shown  by  examples  and  illustra- 
tions.   

SURFACES. 


A  surface  is  the  exterior  part  of  anything  that  has 
length  and  breadth,  as  the  surface  of  a  cylinder.  The  area 
of  any  figure  is  the  measure  of  its  surface  or  the  space  con- 
tained within  the  bounds  of  that  surface,  without  any 
regard  to  the  thickness. 

TO   FIND   THE  AREA   OF  A   TRIANGLE. 

A  Triangle  is  a  figure  bounded  by  three  sides,  and  is 
half  a  parallelogram  ;  hence  the 

RULE. — Multiply  the  base  by  half  the  perpendicular 
height. 


EXAMPLE. — The  base  of  the  triangle  is  12  feet,  and  it 
is  also  12  feet  high;  what  is  its  area? 

Half  the  height=6  feet;  and  12x6—72  square  feet 
area. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


61 


SURFACES. 

TO  FIND    THE  AREA   OF  A  TRAPEZIUM. 

A  Trapezium  is  any  four-sided  figure  that  is  neither 
a  rectangle,  like  a  square  or  oblong,  nor  a  parallelogram. 

RULE. — I.  Join  two  of  its  opposite  angles,  and  thus 
divide  it  into  two  triangles. 

2.  Measure  this  line  and  call  it  the  base  of  each  triangle. 

3.  Measure  the  perpendicular  height  of  each  triangle 
above  the  base  line. 

4.  Then  find  the  area  of  each  triangle  by  the  previous 
rule ;  their  sum  is  the  area  of  the  whole  figure. 


Fig.  7- 

TO  FIND  THE  AREA  OF  A  TRAPEZOID. 

A  Trapezoid  is  a  trapezium  having  two  of  its  sides 
parallel. 

RULE. — Multiply  half  the  sum  of  the  two  parallel  sides 
by  the  perpendicular  distance  between  them. 


Fig.  8. 


62 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


USEFUL  MEASUREMENTS. 

Let  the  figure  be  the  trapezoid,  the  sides  7  and  5  being 
parallel ;  and  3  the  perpendicular  distance  between  them. 

EXAMPLE. — Find  the  area  of  the  above  trapezoid,  the 
parallels  being  7  feet  and  5  feet,  and  the  perpendicular 
height  being  3  feet. 

7 
_5 

2)12 

6     And  6x3—18  square  feet. 

TO  FIND  THE  AREA  OF  A  SQUARE. 

A  Square  is  a  figure  having  all  its  angles  right  angles 
and  all  its  sides  equal. 

RULE. — Multiply  the  base  by  the  height ;  that  is,  mul- 
tiply the  length  by  the  breadth. 


Fig.  9. 

EXAMPLE.  —  What  is  the  area  of  a  square  whose  side  is 

feet? 

2-5 

2.5 


125 

50 


Answer,  6.25  square  feet 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


SURFACES. 

TO  FIND   THE  AREA  OF  A   RECTANGLE. 

A  rectangle  is  a  figure  whose  angles  are  all  right 
angles,  but  whose  sides  are  not  equal ;  only  the  opposite 
sides  are  equal. 

RULE. — Multiply  the  length  by  the  breadth. 


^jji\ 

ILL 


Fig.  10. 

EXAMPLE. — What  is  the  area  of  a  rectangular  figure 
whose  base  is  12  feet  and  height  8  feet? 

12 

8 
Answer,  96  square  feet. 

TO  FIND   THE  AREA  OF  A   PARALLELOGRAM. 

A  Parallelogram  is  a  figure  whose  opposite  sides  are 
parallel ,  the  square  and  oblong  are  parallelograms  ;  so  also 
are  other  four-sided  figures  whose  angles  are  not  right 
angles.  It  is  these  latter  whose  area  we  now  want  to  find. 

RULE.—  Multiply  the  base  by  the  perpendicular  height. 


Fig.  ii. 


64  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

USEFUL  MEASUREMENTS. 

EXAMPLE. — Find  the  area  of  a  parallelogram  whose 
base  is  7  feet  and  height  5  J  feet  ? 

5.25 
7 

Answer,  36.75  square  feet. 

TO  FIND   THE  AREA   OF  A   POLYGON. 

RULE. — Multiply  the  sum  of  the  sides,  or  perimeter  of 
the  polygon,  by  the  perpendicular  dropped  from  its  center  to 
one  of  its  sides,  and  half  the  product  will  be  the  area.  This 
rule  applies  to  all  regular  polygons. 


Fig.  12. 

EXAMPLE. — What  is  the  area  of  a  regular  pentagon, 
or  five-sided  figure,  BAD  whose  side  A  D  is  9  feet  and 
the  perpendicular  C  E  is  6  feet  ? 

9 

5 

45  the  perimeter. 
6 

2)270 
Answer, 1 35  feet. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  65 


THE  CIRCLE. 


The  circle  is  a  plane  figure,  comprehended  by  a  single 
curve  line,  called  its  circumference,  every  part  of  which  is 
equally  distant  from  a  point  called  the  center.  Of  course 
all  lines  drawn  from  the  center  to  the  circumference  are 
equal  to  each  other. 

.7854 

"  Why  is  the  decimal  .7854  used  to  ascertain  the  area  of 
a  circle  or  round  opening  ?  "  is  a  question  frequently  asked. 
Now,  if  you  will  divide  a  square  inch  into  10,000  parts, 
then  describe  a  circle  one  inch  in  diameter  and  divide  that 
into  ten  thousandths  of  an  inch,  you  will  find  that  you  have 
7854  of  such  squares,  each  one-thousandth  of  an  inch, 
hence  the  decimal  .7854  is  used  as  a  "  constant  "  or  multi- 
plier, after  squaring  the  diameter,  and  tb~  result  is  the 
area  of  the  circle. 

3.1416 

The  Greek  letter  n,  called  pi,  is  used  to  represent 
3.1416,  the  circumference  of  a  circle  whose  diameter  is  I. 
The  circumference  of  a  circle  equals  the  diameter  multi- 
plied by  3.1416,  nearly.  Another  approximate  proportion 
is  3f.t  and  another  still  nearer  is  f-^| . 

This  decimal  has  been  worked  out  to  36  places,  as 
follows : 

3.141592653589793238462643383279502884+ 
and  called  the  Ludolphian  number,  because  calculated  by 
Ludolph  Van  Ceulen,  a  long  cime  ago. 


66 


'1'fie  Advanced  Machinist. 


USEFUL  MEASUREMENTS. 
TO  FIND  THE  LENGTH   OF  THE   CURVE   LINE,  CALLED 

THE  CIRCLE  ;  THAT  is,  TO  FIND  THE  CIRCUMFERENCE  OF 
A  CIRCLE. 

RULE. — Multiply  3.1416  by  the  diameter. 


Fig.  13- 

EXAMPLE — What  is  the  circumference  of  a    circle 
whose  diameter  is  3  inches  ? 

3-1416 
3 

Answer,  9.4248  inches. 

To  FIND  THE  DIAMETER  OF  A  CIRCLE. 

RULE. — (i)    Multiply    the    circumference  by    7    and 
divide  by  22  ;  or,  (2)  Divide  the  circumference  by  3.1416. 

EXAMPLE. 

A  pulley   has   a   circumference    of    50.30",    find    its 
diameter? 


50.30  X  7 


22 


— =    1 6"  diameter.    Answer. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


67 


THE  CIRCLE. 

TO  FIND  THE  AREA  OF  A  CIRCLE. 

RULE. — Multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  .7854. 


EXAMPLE. — The  diameter  of  a  circle  is  3  inches,  find 
its  area. 

3  7854 

3  9 


Answer,  7.0686  square  inches. 


EXAMPLE. — The  diameter  of  a  circle  is  3.5  inches,  find 
the  area. 


3-5 

3-5 

175 
105 

12.25 


.7854 
12.25 

39270 
15708 
15708 
7854 

Answer,  9.621150  square  inches. 


NOTE. — "In  every  branch  of  science  our  knowledge  increases  as 
the  power  of  measurement  becomes  improved/' 


68 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


USEFUL  MEASUREMENTS. 

TO  FIND  THE  SECTIONAL  AREA  OF  A  RING  OR  PIPE. 
RULE. — From  the  area  of  the  greater  circle  subtract 
that  of  the  lesser. 


Fig.  15. 

EXAMPLE. — A  pipe  has  an  external  diameter  of  2" 
and  an  internal  diameter  of  if",  find  its  sectional  area  in 
square  inches. 

Thus  area  of  2"  —  23     X  .7854  —  3.1416 
if"  —  if3  X  .;B54  —  2.4053 

Answer,  .7363  square  inches, 
TO  FIND  THE  AREA  OF  AN   ELLIPSE. 
RULE. — Multiply  .7854  by  the  product  of  the  diameters. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  69 

THE  CIRCLE. 

EXAMPLE. 
What  is  the  area  of  an  ellipse  whose  diameters  are  5| 

and  4j? 

575  24.4375 

4.25  .7854 

977500 
1221875 
1955000 
1710625 

244375 

19.19321250 

To  FIND  THE  SURFACE  OR  ENVELOPE  OF  A  CYLINDER. 
RULE. — Multiply  3.1416  by  the  diameter,  to  find  the 
circumference,  and  then  by  the  height. 


!<m La/JL 


EXAMPLE. 

What  is  the  surface  of  a  cylinder  whose  diameter  is 
9  inches  and  height  15  inches. 


28.2744==c^rcumference. 
15 

1413720 
282744 


424.1 160  area  of  surface  in  square  inches., 


7o  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

USEFUL  MEASUREMENTS. 

To  FIND  THE  SURFACE  OR  ENVELOPE  OF  A  SPHERE. 
The  surface  of  a  sphere  is  equal  to  the  convex  surface 
of  the  circumscribing  cylinder  ;  hence  the 

RULE. — Multiply  3.1416  by  the  diameter  of  the  sphere, 
and  this  again  by  the  diameter ;  because  in  this  case  the 
diameter  is  the  height  of  the  cylinder ; 

Or  multiply  3. 1416  by  the  square  of  the  diameter  of  the 
sphere. 

EXAMPLE. 

Wnat  is  the  surface  of  a  sphere  whose  diameter  is 
3  feet?  See  figure  page  73. 

3.1416 
9=32 

28.2744  area  of  surface  in  square  feet. 

QUOTATION. — "Observe  any  of  the  best  known  mechanics'  pocket 
reference  books  after  it  has  been  used  a  few  years,  and  there  is  always 
indisputable  evidence  that  the  arithmetical  tables  are  used  oftener  than 
tony  other  part  of  the  contents.  Though  it  may  be  well  preserved  in 
all  other  parts,  the  tables  are  worn  to  a  useless  condition." 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  71 


SOLIDS. 


A  solid  is  a  body  or  magnitude  which  has  three  dimen- 
sions— length,  breadth  and  thickness — being  thus  distin- 
guished from  a  surface,  which  has  but  two  dimensions,  and 
from  a  line,  which  has  but  one  ;  the  boundaries  of  solids  are 
surfaces. 

The  measurement  of  a  solid  is  called  its  solidity, 
capacity  or  content. 

TO  FIND  THE  SOLIDITY  OR  CAPACITY  OF  ANY  FIGURE 
IN  THE  CUBICAL  FORM. 

RULE. — Multiply  the  length  by  the  breadth  and  by  the 
depth. 

EXAMPLES. 

A  tank  is  10  feet  long,  6  feet  broad  and  3  feet  deep ; 
how  many  cubic  feet  of  water  will  it  hold  ? 
iox6X3=Ans.  180  cubic  feet. 

A  bar  of  iron  is  24"  long,  6£"  broad,  and  2j"  thick ; 
how  many  cubic  inches  does  it  contain  ? 
24X6.5  X2.25=Ans.  351  cubic  ins. 

Find  the  cubical  contents  in  inches  of  a  shaft  3"  diam- 
eter and  15'  o"  long? 

32X.7854=7.o686xi5Xi2=Ans.  1272.348  cubic  ins. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


MEASUREMENTS  OF  SOLIDS. 

A  CUBE  is  a  solid  having  six  equal  square  sides.     To 
FIND  THE  CONTENTS — 

RULE. — Multiply  the  area  of  the  base  by  the  perpendic- 
ular height. 


Fig.  18. 

Ex. — What  is  the  contents  of  a  cistern  whose  sides 
and  depth  are  3  feet  6  inches? 

3'  6"X3'  6"X3'  6"=42'  10"  nearly  (42.875  cubic  feet). 

TO  FIND  THE  CONTENTS   OF  A  RECTANGULAR  SOLID. 

RULE. — Multiply  the  length,  breadth  and  height  to- 
gether. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  73 

EXAMPLE. 

What  is   the  contents   of  a  rectangular  solid  whose 
length  is  5  feet,  breadth  4  feet  and  height  3  feet? 

5  feet 
4  feet 

20  square  feet  of  base 
3  feet 

60  cubic  feet 
TO   FIND   THE   CUBIC   CONTENTS   OF  A  SPHERE. 

RULE. — Multiply  .7854   by  the  cube  of  the  diameter, 
and  tJun  take  f  of  the  product. 


Fig.  20. 

Ex.  —  Find   the   cubic   contents    of    a  sphere    whose 
diameter  is  5  feet. 

5  .7854 


25  39270 

5          15708 
—          7854 
125—  5s      - 

98.1750 

2 


3)196.3500 

Answer,  65.4500  cubic  feet 


74  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

USEFUL  MEASUREMENTS. 

The  rule  is  only  approximate,  owing  to  the  "  repeat- 
ing decimal"  used  in  the  calculations.  Another  rule  is 
as  follows: 

Multiply  the  cube  of  the  diameter  by  .5236,  or  the  cube 
of  the  circumference  by  .016887,  and  the  product  will  be 
the  solidity. 

TO  FIND  THE  SOLIDITY  OF  A   HEMISPHERE. 

RULE. — Multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  the 
radius,  and  multiply  the  product  by  .5236,  which  is  the  ratio 
between  the  solidity  of  a  cube  and  that  of  a  sphere,  whose 
diameter  is  equal  to  one  side  of  the  cube. 


Fig.  21. 

EXAMPLE. — How  many  cubic  inches  in  a  hemisphere 
whose  diameter  is  60  inches  ? 

6ox6oX3OX. 5236=56548.8  cubic  inches.    Answer. 

NOTE — The  convex  surface  of  a  sphere  may  be  found  by  multiply- 
ing the  circumference  by  the  diameter.  Or,  multiply  the  square  of  the 
diameter  by  3.1416,  and  the  product  will  be  the  convex  surface. 

The  solidity  of  a  sphere  is  equal  to  two-thirds  of  the  solidity  of  its 
circumscribing  cylinder. 

The  surface  of  a  sphere  is  equal  to  4  times  the  area  of  a  circle  of  the 
same  diameter  as  the  sphere ;  or  to  the  area  of  a  circle  whose  diameter 
is  double  that  of  the  sphere ;  or  to  the  convex  surface  of  the  circum- 
scribing cylinder. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  75 

SOLIDITY  OF  A  HEMISPHERE. 

TO  FIND  THE  SOLIDITY  OF  A  SEGMENT  OF  A  SPHERE. 

RULE  I. —  To  three  times  the  square  of  the  radius  of 
the  segment's  base,  add  the  square  of  the  depth  or  height ; 
then  multiply  this  sum  by  the  depth,  and  the  product  by  .5236. 


Fig.  22. 

EXAMPLE. — How  many  cubic  inches  in  a  spherical  seg- 
ment which  has  a  diameter  of  60  inches  and  a  depth  of 
20  inches  ? 

60-^2  =  30  inches  radius.  30X30X3—2700;  2700 
+  (20  X  2o)=-3ioo;  3100 X  20 X. 5236— 32463.2,  which  is 
the  number  of  cubic  inches. 

RULE  2. — From  three  times  the  diameter  of  the  sphere 
subtract  twice  the  height  of  the  segment;  multiply  the  re- 
mainder by  the  square  of  the  height,  and  that  product  by 
.52361  for  the  solidity. 

EXAMPLE. — If  the  diameter  of  a  sphere  be  3  feet  6 
inches,  what  is  the  solidity  of  a  segment  whose  height  is 
I  foot  3  inches?  Ans.  6.545  feet. 

Now,  3.5  X3  —  io-5 
1.25x2—    2.5 

8 

1.25X1.25  —  1.5625x8  —  12.5  Product. 
Then,  12.5 X. 52361  =  6.545  cubic  feet. 

NOTE. — When  the  segment  is  greater  than  a  hemisphere,  find  the 
solidity  of  the  lesser  segment  and  subtract  the  same  from  the  solidity 
of  the  entire  sphere. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


USEFUL  MEASUREMENTS. 

TO  FIND  THE  CUBIC  CONTENTS  OF  A  SOLID  CYL- 
INDER. 

RULE. — Find  the  area  of  the  basey  and  multiply  this  by 
the  height  or  length. 

EXAMPLE. 

What  is  the  cubic  contents  of  a  cylinder  whose  diam 
eter  is  4  feet,  and  height  or  length  7^  feet  ? 

4                .7854 
_4  16 

16  47124 

7854 

I2.5664=area  of  base  in  square  feet 
7.5==height  or  length  in  feet 

628320 
879648 

Answer,  94.24800  cubic  feet. 

TO  FIND  THE  SOLIDITY 
OF  A  CYLINDRICAL  RING. 

RULE.— To  the  thickness  of 
the  ring,  add  the  inner  diameter  ; 
and  this  sum  being  multiplied 

by  the  square  of  the  thickness,  and  the  product  again  by 
2.4674,  will  give  the  solidity. 


. — The  surface  of  a  cylindrical  ring  may  be  found  by  the 
following  rule  :  To  the  thickness  of  the  ring,  add  the  inner  diameter  ; 
and  this  sum  being  multiplied  by  the  thickness,  and  the  product  again 
by  9.8696,  will  give  the  surface  required. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


vSOLIDITY  OF  A  CYLINDRICAL  RING. 

EXAMPLE. — What  is  the  solidity  of  a  cylindrical  ring 
whose  thickness  A  B  or  C  D  is  6,  and  the  inner  diameter 
B  C  20  inches? 

Here  (20+ 6) X63X 2.4674—26  X  36  X  2.4674— 936  X 
2.4674=2309.4864  inches,  the  solidity  required. 

TO  FIND  THE  SOLIDITY  OF  A  CONE. 
RULE. — Multiply  the  area  of  the  base  by  the  perpen- 
dicular height,  and\  of  the  product  will  be  the  sohdity. 


Fig.  24. 
EXAMPLE. 

I.  Required,  the  solidity  of  the  cone  A  B  C\  the  diame- 
ter, A  By  of  the  base  being  12  feet,  and  the  perpendicular 
altitude,  D  C,  1 8  feet  6  inches. 

Here  .7854X  I22— 7854X  144— 113.0976,  the  area  of 
the  base;  and  (i  I3.O976X  1 8. 5)-^3==2O92. 30564-3— 697.4352 
feet,  the  solidity  required. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


USEFUL  MEASUREMENTS. 
TO   FIND  THE   CUBIC   CONTENTS   OF  A  FRUSTRUM  OF 

A  CONE. 

A  frustrum  of  a  cone  is  the  lower  portion  of  a  cone 
left  after  the  top  piece  is  cut  away. 

RULE. — Find  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  two  diam- 
eters (dt  D],  add  on  to  this  the  product  of  the  two  diameters 
multiplied  by  .7854,  and  by  one-third  the  height  (h). 


Fig-  25. 

EXAMPLE.  —  Find  the  cubic  contents  of  a  safety-valve 
weight  of  the  following  dimensions  :  12"  large  diameter,  6" 
small  diameter,  4"  thick.  Now  : 


X.7854XI.33 


,  etc.,  cubic  inches. 


TO   FIND   THE  SOLIDITY   OF  A   PYRAMID. 

Pyramids  may  be  trilateral,  quadrilateral,  pentagonal, 
hexagonal,  heptagonal,  octagonal,  etc.,  having  three,  four, 
five,  six,  seven,  eight  triangular  sides,  respectively. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


79 


SOLIDITY  OF  A  PYRAMID. 

The  trilateral  pyramid  has  three  triangles.  The  quad- 
rilateral pyramid  has  four  triangles,  and  the  pentagonal 
pyramid  has  five  triangles,  and  so  on. 

RULE. — Multiply  the  area  of  the  base  by  one-third  of 
the  perpendicular  height,  and  the  product  will  be  the  solidity. 


Fig.  26. 

EXAMPLE.— What  is  the  solidity  of  the  regular  penta- 
gon  pyramid  A  B  CD  E,  each  side  of  the  base  being  9 
feet,  and  the  perpendicular  altitude,  F  C,  24  feet? 

The  area  of  the  base,  see  page  64,  is 

135  ^et  X  i  of  24=  8 
8 

Answer,  1080  feet,  the  solid  contents. 


8o  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

USEFUL  MEASUREMENTS. 
TO  FIND  THE  SOLIDITY  OF  AN  IRREGULAR  SOLID. 

RULE. 

Divide  the  irregular  solid  into  different  figures ;  and 
the  sum  of  their  solidities,  found  by  the  preceding  problems \ 
will  be  the  solidity  required. 

If  the  figure  be  a  compound  solid,  whose  two  ends  are 
equal  plane  figures,  the  solidity  may  be  found  by  multiplying 
the  area  of  one  end  by  the  length. 

To  find  the  solidity  of  a  piece  of  wood  or  stone  that  is 
craggy  or  uneven,  put  it  into  a  tub  or  cistern,  and  pour  in  as 
much  water  as  will  just  cover  it ;  then  take  it  out  and  find 
the  contents  of  that  part  of  the  vessel  through  which  the 
water  has  descended,  and  it  will  be  the  solidity  required. 

If  a  solid  be  large  and  very  irregular,  so  that  it  cannot 
be  measured  by  any  of  the  above  rules,  the  general  way  is  to 
take  lengths,  in  two  or  three  different  places  ;  and  their  sum 
divided  by  their  number,  is  considered  as  a  mean  length. 
A  mean  breadth  and  a  mean  depth  are  found  by  similar 
processes.  Sometimes  the  length,  breadth  and  depth  taken 
in  the  middle  are  considered  mean  dimensions. 

There  are  five  regular  solids  which  are  shown  in  Figs, 
below.  A  regular  solid  is  bounded  by  similar  and  regular 
plane  figures.  Regular  solids  may  be  circumscribed  by 
spheres,  and  spheres  may  be  inscribed  in  regular  solids. 


Fig.  27.  Fig.  2$.          Fig.  29.  Fig.  30,          Fig.  31. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


THE  FIVE  REGULAR  SOLIDS. 

The  Tetrahedron  (fig.  27)  is  bounded  by  four  equilateral 
triangles. 

The  Hexahedron,  or  cube  (fig.  28),  is  bounded  by  six 
squares. 

.%     The   Octahedron  (fig.  29)  is  bounded  by  eight  equi- 
lateral triangles. 

The  Dodecahedron  (fig.  30)  is  bounded  by  twelve  pen- 
tagons. 

The  Icosahedron  (fig.  31)  is  bounded  by  twenty  equi- 
lateral triangles. 

TO  FIND  THE  SURFACE  AND  THE  CUBIC  CONTENTS 
OF  ANY  OF  THE  FIVE  REGULAR  SOLIDS. 

RULE. — For  the  surface,  multiply  the  tabular  area 
below,  by  the  square  of  the  edge  of  the  solid. 

For  the  contents,  multiply  the  tabular  contents  below, 
by  the  cube  of  the  given  edge. 

TABLE  OF  CONSTANTS. 
SURFACES  AND  CUBIC  CONTENTS  OF  REGULAR  SOLIDS. 


Number 
of  Sides 

NAME 

Area. 
Edge  =  i 

Contents. 
Edge  =  i 

A 

Tetrahedron  

1.  732O 

O.II78 

6 

Hexahedron  

6.0000 

I.OOOO 

8 

Octahedron  

3.464.1 

0.4714 

12 

Dodecahedron  

20.6458 

7.663  1 

2O 

Icosahedron 

8.6603 

2.1817 

A  constant  is  a  quantity  or  multiplier  which  is  assumed 
to  be  invariable. 


8s  The  Advanced  Machinist. 


PARTS  OF  A  CIRCLE. 


The  circumference  of  a  circle  is  supposed  to  be  divided 
into  360  degrees  or  divisions,  and  as  the  total  angularity 
about  the  center  is  equal  to  four  right  angles,  each  right 
angle  contains  90  degrees  or  90°,  and  half  a  right  angle 
contains  45°.  Each  degree  is  divided  into  60  minutes,  or 
60';  and,  for  the  sake  of  still  further  minuteness  of  measure- 
ment, each  minute  is  divided  into  60  seconds,  or  60".  In 
a  circle  there  are,  therefore,  360  X  60  X  60=  1 ,296,000  seconds. 


Fig.  32- 
The   above   diagram  exemplifies  the  relative    positions 

of  the 

Sine,  Tangent, 

Cosine,  Cotangent, 

Versed  sine,  Secant,  and 

Cosecant 
of  an  angle. 

NOTE. — The  circumferences  of  all  circles  contain  the  same  number 
of  degrees,  but  the  greater  the  radius,  the  greater  the  absolute  measures 
of  a  degree.  The  circumference  of  a  fly-wheel  or  the  circumference  of 
the  earth  have  the  same  number  of  degrees  ;  yet  the  same  number  of 
degrees  in  each  and  every  circumference  is  the  measure  of  precisely 
the  same  angle. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  83 

DEFINITIONS  OF  PARTS  OF  A  CIRCLE. 

1.  The  Complement  of  an  arc  is  90°  minus  the  arc. 

2.  The  Supplement  of  an  arc  is  180°  minus  the  arc. 

3.  The  Sine  of  an  angle,  or  of  an  arc,  is  a  line  drawn 
from  one  end  of  an  arc,  perpendicular  to  a  diameter  drawn 
through  the  other  end. 

4.  The  Cosine  of  an  arc  is  the  perpendicular  distance 
from  the  center  of  the  circle  to  the  sine  of  the  arc ;  or  it  is 
the  same  in  magnitude  as  the  sine  of  the  complement  of 
the  arc 

5  The  Tangent  of  an  arc  is  a  line  touching  the  circle 
in  one  extremity  of  the  arc,  and  continued  from  thence  to 
meet  a  line  drawn  through  the  center  and  the  othei 
extremity. 

6.  The  Cotangent  of  an  arc  is  the  tangent  of  the  com- 
plement of  the  arc.     The  Co  is  but  a  contraction  of  the 
word  complement. 

7.  The  Secant  of  an  arc  is  a  line  drawn  from  the  centei 
of  the  circle  to  the  extremity  of  the  tangent. 

8.  The  Cosecant  of  an  arc  is  the  secant  of  the  comple- 
ment. 

9.  The  Versed  Sin?  of  an  arc  is  the  distance  from  the 
extremity  of  the  arc  to  the  foot  of  the  sine. 

For  the  sake  of  brevity  these  technical  terms  are  con- 
tractedthus:  for  sine  AB,vfQ  write  sin.  AB ;  for  cosine 
A£,  we  write  cos.  AB ;  for  tangent  AB,  we  write  tan. 
AB,  etc. 

NOTE. —  Trigonometry  is  that  portion  of  geometry  which  has  for 
its  object  the  measurement  of  triangles.  When  it  treats  of  plane 
triangles  it  is  called  Plane  Trigonometry,  and  as  the  engineer  will 
continually  meet  in  his  studies  of  higher  mathematics  the  terms  used 
in  plane  trigonometry,  it  is  advantageous  for  him  to  become  familial 
with  some  of  the  principles  and  definitions  relating  to  this  branch  o' 
mathematics. 


84  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

MEASURING  MACHINES,  TOOLS  AND 
DEVICES. 


The  accuracy  of  a  man's  workmanship  can  usually  be 
determined  from  knowing  the  kind  of  measuring  instru- 
ments he  employs.  It  is  an  old  saying  among  mechanics 
that  a  blacksmith's  "  hair's-breadth"  is  anything  less  than  a 
quarter  of  an  inch.  There  used  to  be  good  ground  for 
this  statement,  the  reason  being  that  the  blacksmith  meas- 
ured with  a  square,  the  graduations  of  which  were  -]-  inch. 

When  a  man  begins  to  use  a  scale  graduated  to  hun- 
dredths  he  finds,  as  soon  as  he  learns  to  distinguish  the 
marks,  that  there  is  considerable  space  included  in  y^-  of 
an  inch. 

When  a  man  has  used  a  micrometer  caliper  for  a 
short  time  he  learns  to  determine  £  of  y^^  of  an  inch 
quite  readily,  and  then  begins  to  appreciate  the  value  of 
fine  measurements  and  close  fits.  In  considering  modern 
methods  and  comparing  them  with  older  practice,  we  are 
at  once  struck  by  the  definiteness  with  which  the  sizes  of 
parts  are  now  fixed.  The  fitting  of  one  part  to  another 
is  no  longer  a  question  of  working  to  gauges  of  which  the 
absolute  sizes  are  unknown,  but  of  working  to  sizes  which 

NOTE. — In  a  device  consisting  of  a  short  steel  rod  fitting  into  a 
hollow  cylinder,  the  rod  being  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  it 
was  found  that  the  fit  was  so  perfect  that  it  would  slide  freely  in  and 
out,  but  if  the  rod  was  taken  out  and  held  in  the  hand  for  a  few  sec- 
onds, the  slight  expansion  caused  by  the  warmth  of  the  hand  was 
enough  to  render  it  impossible  to  insert  the  rod  until  it  had  been 
allowed  by  gradual  cooling  to  regain  its  normal  size. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  85 

MEASURING  MACHINES   AND   TOOLS. 

are  definitely  fixed  and  stated,  and  which  are  at  any  time 
capable  of  reproduction.  To  carry  out  this  system  means 
the  general  provision  of  instruments  for  accurate  measure- 
ment which  were  formerly  only  to  be  found  in  a  very  few 
special  establishments ;  it  means  the  possession  of  skill  in  the 
use  of  such  measuring  appliances,  and  a  cultivation  of  an 
appreciation  of  the  value  of  small  units. 

Fig.  33  shows  a  side  view  of  a  standard  End-Measuring 
Rod ;  these  are  formed  of  steel,  hardened  on  the  ends  and 
accurately  ground,  so  that  the  ends  form  sections  of  true 
spheres  whose  diameters  are  equal  to  those  of  the  length  of 
the  rods.  They  are  suitable  for  making  internal  measure- 


Fig-  33- 

ments,  as  rings,  cylinders,  etc.;  and,  as  reference  tools,  are 
particularly  well  adapted  for  setting  calipers,  comparing 
gauges,  and  work  of  a  similar  character.  They  are  also 
suitable  for  measuring  parallel  surfaces,  as  the  spherical 
ends  will  pass  such  surfaces  without  cramping,  the  same  as 
spheres  of  like  diameters. 

Figs.  34  to  39  exhibit  Inside  Micrometer  Gauges. 
These  are  adjustable,  and  designed  for  making  internal 
measurements,  and  work  of  a  similar  character,  and  are  also 
adapted  for  measuring  parallel  surfaces. 

The  device  consists  of  a  holder  provided  with  a 
micrometer  screw  and  thimble.  The  screw  has  a  move- 
ment of  £" ;  and,  by  the  use  of  the  extension  rods  fur- 


86 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


MEASURING  TOOLS  AND   DEVICES. 

nished,   measurements   from    3"   to   6"  can    be  made  by 
the  thousandths  of  an  inch. 

The  extension  rods  vary  by  £",  and  each  rod  is  pro- 
vided with  an  adjusting  nut  and  check-nut,  which  are  set 


Figs.  34  to  39. 

to  obtain  the  proper  measurement  of  the  given  rod,  and 
should  be  adjusted  only  when  the  point  of  that  rod  has 
become  worn. 

This  instrument  is  provided  with  a  micrometer  screw 
and  nut,  and  is  graduated  to  read  by  half-thou'sandths. 

Provision  is  made  for  adjustment  to  compensate  for 
wear  of  the  screw  and  measuring  surfaces. 


Fig.  40. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


MEASURING  MACHINES. 

Fig.  40  shows  a  standard  form  of  measuring  machine 
for  use  in  the  tool  room  in  preparing  templates,  reamers, 
mandrels,  etc.  It  will  measure  differences  of  the  7-5--^^  of 
an  inch.  Adjustments  in  the  machine  provide  for  the 
wear  of  measuring  points. 


Fig.  41. 

Calipering  Machines  are  used  to  transmit  sizes,  and 
differ  from  fixed  calipers  in  that  they  record  as  the  size  is 
approached,  and  show  how  much  a  piece  is  to  be  reduced. 

Machines  of  this  type  are  used  in  connection  with 
standard  sizes  as  an  accurate  pair  of  calipers,  and  have  the 
features  of  a  measuring  machine,  as  they  will  measure 


88 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


MEASURING   DEVICES. 

accurately  above  and  below  a  certain  size  after  having  been 
adjusted  and  the  index,  which  is  on  the  edge  of  the  wheel, 
set  for  a  standard  size.  The  machine  shown  in  fig.  41 


Fig.  42. 

will  caliper  to  6  inches.     The   index  wheel  is  divided  tc 
read  to  ten-thousandths  of  an  inch. 

Fig.  42  shows  corrective  gauge  standards.  These 
discs  are  employed  for  testing  and  correcting  fixed  gauges, 
for  setting  calipers,  and  also  as  a  reference  to  prove 
dimensions  within  their  range.  Each  disc  is  separate  and 
is  ground  independently  to  size. 


Fig.  43- 

The  introduction  of  accurate  scientific  methods  into 
manufacturing  and  commercial  processes  involves  the  use 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


89 


MEASURING  TOOLS. 

of  a  great  variety  of  standards  of  far  greater  accuracy  than 
formerly  required.  Fig.  42  is  but  one  of  very  many 
measuring  devices  introduced  to  secure  the  essential  accu- 
racy. 

Standard  reference  discs  are  shown  in  fig.  43.  These 
are  employed  for  testing  and  correcting  fixed  caliper 
gauges,  for  setting  calipers,  and  also  as  a  reference  to 


Fig.  44- 


Fig.  45. 

prove  dimensions  within  their  range.     They  are  intended 
to  serve  principally  as  originals,  not  as  working  gauges. 

The  illustration  represents  "  a  set "  of  forty-five  discs, 
ranging  in  size  from  J"  to  3",  inclusive,  by  i6ths,  and  four 
handles.  The  discs  vary  in  width  from  J"  to  J",  according 
to  the  diameter,  and  afford  ample  contact  surface. 

The  figures  44  and  45  represent  the  common  form  of 
internal  and  external  limit  gauges.  Gauges  of  this  type 


90  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

MEASURING  DEVICES. 

are  stamped  with  the  words  "  go  on  "  and  "  not  go  on,"  for 
the  external,  and  "  go  in "  and  "  not  go  in "  for  the 
internal ;  and,  as  the  two  ends  are  of  different  shape,  the 
workman  is  enabled  to  easily  and  quickly  distinguish  the 
large  from  the  small  end  without  looking  at  the  sizes 
stamped  upon  the  gauge. 

These  gauges  are  not  only  used  as  references  for 
finishing  operations,  but  are  of  advantage  in  roughing 
work  for  finishing.  When  used  in  this  way  the  same 
amount  of  stock  is  left  on  each  piece,  thus  enabling  the 
operator  who  finishes  the  pieces  to  work  to  better  advantage 
than  if  they  were  of  various  sizes. 


Fig.  46. 

The  fig.  46  shows  a  limit  gauge  as  used  in  shop  prac- 
tice. It  is  stamped  2j,  2.500,  2.4995  ;  the  end  marked  2! 
is  ground  accurately  to  size,  and  is  not  used  except  as  a 
reference  standard,  the  calipers  or  measuring  instruments 
being  set  by  the  ends  marked  2.500,  2.4995.  The  difference 
between  these  is  a  limit  of  .0005,  or  the  -g^Vr  Part  °f  an 
inch. 

The  advantages  derived  from  the  use  of  the  limit 
gauges  are  being  appreciated  more  and  more ;  as,  by  their 
use  the  time  consumed  in  testing  and  gauging  is  reduced 
to  a  minimum,  and  the  duplication  of  parts  is  insured. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


MEASURING  DEVICES. 

Fig.  47  shows  an  adjustable  parallel  measuring  gauge. 
It  measures  from  \  inch  to  4  inches,  and  measurements 
over  the  above  are  got  by  placing  a  base  beneath.  The 
slide  is  tightened  by  the  right-hand  thumb  nut  and  the 
scriber  by  the  the  left-hand  one,  by  which  both  work  inde- 


.  47- 


pendently  of  each  other.  It  is  graduated  into  64  parts 
to  the  inch.  The  graduation  on  the  tool  is  wider  than  the 
ordinary  scale,  it  being  on  an  incline,  but  the  operator 
should  read  them  just  the  same  as  a  scale  of  64ths,  match- 
ing the  line  of  the  slide  to  the  graduation  on  the  incline. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


GAUGES. 


English  or  Birmingham  gauges,  for  sheet  and  plate 
steel  and  iron,  are  shown  in  figs.  48  and  49.  The  former 
indicates  sizes  from  I  to  32  ;  the  latter  from  ooo  to  25. 
The  illustrations  are  about  two-thirds  the  real  size. 


Fig.  48. 


Fig.  49. 


Fig.  50. 


Fig.  50  represents,  two-thirds  actual  size,  the  United 
States  Standard  Gauge  for  sheet  and  plate  steel  and  iron, 
adopted  by  Congress  March  3,  1893. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


GAUGES. 

Figs.    51    and    52   are   gauges    for   use  in   measuring 
twist  drills  and  steel  drill  rods. 


ID  oo  o.o-  o  o  a  co  o  01 

J  13   14   lb   16   17   18   19   20   21   22  :  23   24   25  ~; 

0-tO  O  O   O   O   O   O   O  O:  O  O   O  OH1 

?2G  -    27      28     29     30     31      32     33     34-:-  35     3;6     37     38    39    40    41  ^f" 

^O  O .  O   O  O  O    o-  o  o   c    o   o   o  o  e  o  ^ 

'  .42-  43    44    45   4b"  47    48  49    50    51  ^52  -53-  :54,  55-  56:-  57  58-:59  60-1' 

vO-    ZQ        O         O        C         P-        f>.        e;        e      ---»        *.     -    *        :•        •        .... 

-"'  :  -••  :     /:vo^^^o^-C'%:^.^-.;^3^. 

Fig.  51- 

Gauge  No.  51  is  about  -fa"  thick,  if"  wide,  5J"  long, 
and   contains   gauge    numbers    from     I    to    60   inclusive. 


61 


G3 


66 


BROWNS-  SH  ASPE  MFG.EO . 


71 


75v7.6;,7.7:  78  79  80 


Fig.  52. 

Gauge  No.  52  is  about  Ty  thick,  |/r  wide,  2"  long,  and 
contains  gauge  numbers  from  61  to  80  inclusive. 


Fig.  53- 

Fig.  53  shows  an  angle  gauge,  with  the  addition  of  a 
protractor  and  registering  dial.  It  is  a  very  useful  tool  for 
testing  planed  and  finished  parts. 


94 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


ANGLE-GAUGES. 

Fig.  54  shows  a  simple  form  of  bevel  protractor 
operated  on  the  same  principles  as  that  shown  in  the 
preceding  illustration. 


Fig-  54- 


Fig-  55- 


Fig.  55  shows  still  another  form  of  the  same  device. 
In  each  of  the  above  instruments  the  circles,  or  parts 
thereof,  are  divided  into  degrees. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


95 


USEFUL,  MEASUREMENTS. 

This  tool  is  well  adapted  for  all  classes  of  work  where 
angles  are  to  be  laid  out  or  established ;  one  side  of  the 
stock  is  flat,  thus  permitting  its  being  laid  upon  the  paper 
or  work.  The  dial  is  accurately  graduated  in  degrees  the 
entire  circle.  It  turns  on  a  large  central  stud,  which  is 
hardened  and  ground,  and  can  be  rigidly  clamped  by  the 
thumb  nut  shown  in  cut. 

The  line  of  graduations  is  below  the  surface,  thus  pro- 
tecting them  from  wear.  The  blade  is  about  one-eighth 
inch  thick,  can  be  moved  back  and  forth  its  entire  length, 
and  clamped  independently  of  the  dial,  thus  adapting  the 
protractor  for  work  where  others  cannot  be  used. 


THE  VERNIER  AND  ITS  USE. 

SCALE. 

I  2 

''  U 


VERNIER. 
Fig.  56. 

The  Vernier  is  a  small  movable  scale  invented  by 
Pierre  Vernier  in  1631,  and  used  for  measuring  a  fractional 
part  of  one  of  the  equal  divisions  on  the  graduated  fixed 
scale. 

The  Vernier  consists,  in  its  simplest  form,  of  a  small 
sliding  scale,  the  divisions  of  which  differ  from  those  of  the 
fixed  or  primary  scale  ;  the  ingenuity  of  the  invention  has 
given  a  lasting  and  world-wide  fame  to  the  discoverer  of 
its  useful  application. 


96 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


THE  VERNIER  AND  ITS  USE. 

On  the  scale  of  the  tool  is  a  line  of  graduations  divided 
into  inches  and  numbered  o,  I,  2,  etc.,  each  inch  being 
divided  into  ten  parts,  and  each  tenth  into  four  parts, 
making  forty  divisions  to  the  inch. 

On  the  sliding  jaw  is  a  line  of  divisions  of  twenty-five 
parts,  numbered  o,  5,  10,  15,  20,  25.  The  twenty-five 
divisions  on  the  Vernier  correspond,  in  extreme  length,  to 
twenty-four  divisions,  or  ||  of  an  inch,  on  the  scale ;  each 


Fig.  57- 

division  on  the  Vernier  is,  therefore,  -^  of  ¥1Q-,  or  yoV-g-  of  an 
inch  shorter  than  the  corresponding  division  on  the  scale. 
If  the  Vernier  is  moved  until  the  line  marked  o  on  the 
Vernier  coincides  with  that  marked  on  the  scale,  then  the 
next  two  lines  to  the  right  will  differ  from  each  other  by 
Y^Viv  of  an  inch ;  and  the  difference  will  continue  to  increase 
10100  of  an  inch  for  each  division,  until  the  line  25  on  the 
Vernier  coincides  with  a  line  on  the  scale. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  97 

USEFUL  MEASUREMENTS. 

Fig.  56  represents  a  Vernier  caliper,  showing  the  two 
scales,  and  in  the  note  is  an  admirable  explanation  of  its 
use,  for  which  credit  is  due  to  Brown  &  Sharpe  Manufac- 
turing Co. 

NOTE. — On  the  bar  of  the  instrument  is  a  line  of  inches,  num- 
bered o,  i,  2,  etc.,  each  inch  being  divided  into  ten  parts,  and  each 
tenth  into  four  parts,  making  forty  divisions  to  the  inch.  On  the 
sliding  jaw  is  a  line  of  divisions  of  twenty -five  parts,  numbered  o,  5,  10, 
15,  20,  25.  The  twenty-five  parts  on  the  Vernier  correspond,  in  extreme 
length,  with  24  parts,  or  twenty-four  fortieths  of  the  bar  ;  consequently, 
each  division  on  the  Vernier  is  smaller  than  each  division  on  the  bar  by 
.001  part  of  an  inch.  If  the  sliding  jaw  of  the  caliper  is  pushed  up  to 
the  other,  so  that  the  line  marked  o  on  the  Vernier  corresponds  with 
that  marked  o  on  the  bar,  then  the  two  next  lines  to  the  right  will 
differ  from  each  other  by  .001  of  an  inch,  and  so  the  difference  will 
continue  to  increase,  .001  of  an  inch  for  each  division,  till  they  again 
correspond  at  the  line  marked  25  on  the  Vernier.  To  read  the  distance 
the  caliper  may  be  open,  commence  by  noticing  how  many  inches, 
tenths  and  parts  of  tenths  the  zero  point  on  the  Vernier  has  been  moved 
from  the  zero  point  on  the  bar. 

Now,  count  upon  the  Vernier  the  number  of  divisions,  until  one  is 
found  which  coincides  with  one  on  the  bar,  which  will  be  the  number 
of  thousandths  to  be  added  to  the  distance  read  off  on  the  bar.  The 
best  way  of  expressing  the  value  of  the  divisions  on  the  bar  is  to  call 
the  tenths  one  hundred  thousandths  (.100),  and  the  fourths  of  tenths, 
or  fortieths,  twenty-five  thousandths  (.025).  Referring  to  the  cut  shown 
above,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  jaw  is  open  two-tenths  and  three-quarters, 
which  is  equal  to  two  hundred  and  seventy-five  thousandths  (.275). 
Now,  suppose  the  Vernier  was  moved  to  the  right,  so  that  the  tenth 
division  would  coincide  with  the  next  one  on  the  scale,  which  will 
make  ten  thousandths  (.010)  more  to  be  added  to  two  hundred  and 
seventy-five  thousandths  (.275),  making  the  jaws  to  be  open  two  hun- 
dred and  eighty-five  thousandths  (.285). 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


USEFUL  MEASUREMENTS. 

Figs.  58  and  59  represent  the  entire  calipers  of  which 
the  head  only  is  shown  in  fig.  57. 

Th<-se  instruments  are  graduated  on  the  front  side  to 


Fig.  58.  Fig-  59- 

read,  by  means  of  the  Vernier,  to  thousandths  of  an  inch, 
and  on  the  back  to  sixty-fourths  of  an  inch;  the  jaws  can 
be  used  for  either  outside  or  inside  measurements;  points 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


99 


THE  VERNIER  AND  ITS  USE. 

are  placed  on  the  bars  and  slide,  so  that  dividers  can  be 
used  to  transfer  distances.  Verniers  are  applied  to 
minute  measuring  instruments,  as  the  sextant,  barometer, 


etc. 


X 


Fig.  60. 


This  double  Ver- 
nier caliper,  fig.  60, 
is  for  the  purpose  of 
accurately  measuring 
the  distance  from  top 
to  pitch  line,  and  the 
thickness  at  pitch  line 
of  gear  teeth,  measur- 
ing all  pitches. 

The  sliding  jaw 
moves  upon  a  bar 
graduated  to  read  by 
means  of  the  Vernier 
to  thousandths  of  an 


inch.  A  tongue,  moving  at  right  angles  with  the  jaws,  is 
graduated  in  the  same  manner.  Both  the  sliding  jaw  and 
tongue  are  provided  with  adjusting  screws. 


100 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


IO2 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


"  There  is  a  difference  between  '  cut '  and  '  wear  '  ; 
tightening  a  cut  journal  will  ruin  it;  steady,  uniform, 
rotary  wear  upon  a  journal  will  outlast  the  lifetime 
of  almost  any  machine." 


"  No  man  of  any  pretensions  has  any  right  to  mix 
up  the  terms  journal  and  bearing ;  a  journal  is  that 
part  of  a  shaft  or  axle  that  rests  in  the  bearings;  a 
bearing  is  the  part,  the  contact  with  which,  a  journal 
moves,  or  the  part  of  any  piece  where  it  is  supported 
or  the  part  of  another  piece  where  it  is  supported;  a 
bearing  is  a  guide  to  steady  a  shaft  or  rod  and  main- 
tain it  in  position." 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


103 


SCREW-CUTTING  IN  THE  LATHE. 


The  operations  of  turning  and  boring  are  performed  in 
the  lathe,  screw  machine,  boring  mill,  etc.;  in  these  the 
work  is  usually  made  to  rotate  to  a  cutting  tool,  which, 
except  for  "  the  feeds,"  is  stationary. 

The  movement  of  the  work  and  the  cutting  of  the 
tools,  produce  curved  or  circular,  external  or  internal,  and 
plane  surfaces. 


Fig.  62. 

The  lathe,  with  its  two  headstocks,  is  admirably 
adapted  for  all  kinds  of  work  supported  by  the  two  heads 
directly,  or  supplemented  by  supports  or  steady  rests. 

When  boring  and  facing  have  to  be  done  on  the 
headstock,  disadvantages  and  defects  are  encountered ;  the 
work  must  of  necessity  overhang  when  fixed  on  the  hori- 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


TURNING  AND  BORING. 

zontal  spindle,  causing  vibration,  etc.  Another  defect  of 
the  horizontal  lathe,  when  used  for  boring,  is  the  difficulty 
of  setting  and  securing  the  overhang  work  to  the  face- 
plate. 

The  illustration,  page  100,  is  a  lathe  designed  for 
screw-cutting  by  the  means  of  the  lead-screw  shown  on  the 
front. 

Fig.  62  shows  a  lathe  for  turning,  boring  and  screw- 
cutting;  it  has  self-acting  longitudinal  and  cross  feeds, 
actuated  by  the  spline  feed  spindle  in  front,  on  which  is 
a  sliding  worm  geared  into  a  worm  wheel  on  the  carriage  ; 
the  screw-cutting  mechanism  is  actuated  by  the  long 
leading  screw  shown  in  front,  under  the  rack  which  is  fixed 
to  the  shears  or  slides  of  the  lathe. 


There  are  two  ways  of  cutting  a  screw-thread  in  a 
lathe:  I,  by  tools  manipulated  by  the  hand,  called  chasers ; 
2,  by  cutting  tools  fixed  in  the  lathe  rest,  which  slides  auto- 
matically. 

Chasers  are  of  two  kinds,  the  outside  and  the  inside 
chaser;  fig.  63  shows  the  outside  or  male  chaser;  it  is  the 
one  which  cuts  the  male  thread,  on  a  pipe,  etc.;  fig.  64 
shows  the  inside,  or  female  chaser ;  this  cuts  the  interior 
thread  on  a  pipe,  etc. 

The  teeth  of  chasers  are  made  to  correspond  to  the 
number  of  threads  per  inch  which  they  are  intended  to  cut, 
and  each  size  chaser  can  only  be  used  to  cut  its  own 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


105 


SCREW-CUTTING  IN  THE  LATHE. 

number  of  threads,  although  the  same  chaser  is  equally 
suitable  for  different  diameters  of  work;  thus,  an  eight- 
thread-to-the-inch  chaser  would  cut  a  thread  of  this  pitch 
equally  as  well  on  a  piece  of  work  j£  mcn  diameter  as  on 
a  piece  I  inch  diameter. 

The  mode  of  applying  a  chaser  to  cut  an  external 
thread  is  shown  in  fig.  65.  Here  A  is  the  work  between 
centers,  B  the  tool  rest,  and  C  the  chaser.  If  the  tool  rest, 
By  is  placed  with  its  upper  surface  level  with  the  center  of 
the  work,  then  the  chaser,  C,  must  be  tilted  slightly,  as 
shown  in  fig.  65,  in  order  to  bring  the  cutting  angles  of 


Fig.  65. 


NOTE. — These  hand  tools  or  chasers  would  appear,  at  first 
acquaintance  to  many,  to  be  old-fashioned,  and  not  up-to-date  devices 
for  performing  the  very  beautiful  process  of  producing  a  perfectly 
uniform  thread  ;  nevertheless,  chasers  cannot  be  entirely  superseded, 
even  by  the  very  perfect  modern  lathe,  as  a  good  workman  can  produce, 
with  their  aid  and  with  ease  and  certainty,  screws  of  the  greatest 
cleanness  and  delicacy— the  pressure  required  being  very  slight — 
threads  can  be  cut  by  this  method  on  the  thinnest  and  the  most  fragile 
materials,  which  would  be  quite  unable  to  resist  the  more  violent  treat- 
ment to  which  they  would  be  subjected  by  any  other  process  of  screw- 
cutting  ;  this  system  is  used  by  manufacturers  of  brass  fittings  for  tele- 
scopes and  exceedingly  light  work,  the  thickness  of  the  tube  employed 
frequently  exceeding  only  to  a  very  small  extent  the  depth  of  the 
screw  thread  which  is  cut  upon  them ;  it  is  not  unusual  to  give  the 
finishing  touch  to  the  threads  of  machine  and  engine  work  with  the 
hand  chaser  when  accurate  and  perfect  threads  are  required. 


Io6  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

TURNING  AND  BORING. 

the  tool  into  the  right  position.  To  start  a  thread,  the 
end  of  the  work  should  first  be  beveled  off,  as  shown  in 
fig.  66,  and  the  points  of  the  chaser  teeth  applied 
lightly  to  the  work :  if  the  chaser  is  held  still  in  the  one 
place,  it  is  evident  the  teeth  will  simply  cut  a  series  of 
rings  or  circles  on  the  surface  of  the  work  instead  of  a 
spiral  thread  ;  at  the  same  time,  therefore,  as  the  teeth  are 
applied  to  the  work,  a  sliding  motion  towards  the  left  hand 
must  be  given  to  the  chaser ;  the  exact  rate  at  which  the 


Fig.  66. 

chaser  is  moved  depends  on  the  pitch  of  the  screw  to  be 
cut,  and  also  the  speed  at  which  the  work  is  revolved  in  the 
lathe. 

To  cut  a  true  thread,  the  chaser  should  move  through 
a  distance  of  one  tooth  for  each  revolution  of  the  work,  and 
this  motion  should  be  perfectly  uniform ;  the  speed  of  the 
lathe  also  should  be  constant  and  regular;  if  this  operation 
be  correctly  performed  the  teeth  of  the  chaser  will  produce 
one  continuous  spiral  line,  which  should  run  quite  true  as 
the  work  revolves ;  the  chaser  is  then  brought  back  to  the 
right-hand  end  of  the  work,  and  another  cut  taken,  so  as  to 
deepen  the  line  already  made. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  107 

SCREW  CUTTING  IN  THE  LATHE. 

Great  care  is  necessary  for  the  first  few  cuts,  to  insure 
that  the  chaser-teeth  engage  in  the  same  cuts  each  time, 
and  that  they  do  not  start  fresh  threads;  the  line  or  groove 
is  thus  cut  deeper  and  deeper,  until  it  becomes  a  V-shaped 
groove,  with,  of  course,  the  V-shaped  ridge,  or  thread, 
between. 

Fig.  67  shows  a  hand-chaser  being  used  for  cutting 
an  internal  thread.  In  this  case  the  tool-rest,  B,  is  placed 
across  the  mouth  of  the  hole,  and  the  chaser  is  inserted  and 
gradually  advanced,  with  its  teeth  against  the  interior 
surface,  as  shown. 


Fig.  67. 

In  chasing  wrought  iron  or  steel,  plenty  of  soap  and 
water  or  oil,  preferably  the  former,  should  be  used  as  a 
lubricant.  If  the  chaser  be  moved  along  unevenly,  or  if 
the  speed  of  the  lathe  fluctuate,  an  irregular  thread  will 
be  produced,  and  this  will  be  readily  recognized  by  the 
"wobbling"  appearance  it  has  when  running.  A  thread  of 
this  description  is  caused  by  incorrect  speed  of  travel. 

If  the  chaser-teeth  be  inserted  in  a  true  thread,  without 
any  cutting  taking  place,  the  screw  will  carry  the  chaser  along 
at  the  proper  speed.  By  trying  this  plan  with  the  lathe 


108  The  Advanced  Machinist, 

TURNING  AND  BORING. 

running  at  various  speeds,  the  reader  will  readily  see  how 
the  speed  at  which  the  work  revolves  necessitates  a  faster 
or  slower  sliding  motion  of  the  chaser  accordingly  to  pro- 
duce  a  screw  of  the  desired  pitch. 

When  it  is  desired  to  cut  a  screw  of,  say,  two  or  three 
inches,  with  a  hand-chaser,  the  first  inch  or  so  should  be 
well  started  before  following  up  to  the  remaining  portion 
of  the  screw;  this,  if  correctly  done,  will  then  form  a  guide 
to  lead  the  chaser  up  to  the  part  as  yet  uncut. 

The  second  method  of  screw-cutting  in  the  lathe  is 
performed  by  cutting-tools  fixed  in  the  lathe  rest. 

For  cutting  screws  of  any  pitch  by  a  tool  fixed  in  the 
lathe  rest,  the  lathe  requires  to  be  specially  fitted  with,  I 
a  leading  or  guide  screw ;  2,  a  quadrant  fitted  with  one  or 
more  studs  for  carrying  the  change  wheels  ;  3,  a  saddle  or 
carriage  upon  which  is  fixed  the  slide  rest  carrying  the 
cutting  tools ;  4,  a  nut  attached  so  that  it  can  be  readily 
put  into  or  out  of  gear  with  the  leading  screw. 

The  following  illustration,  fig.  68,  shows  the  general 
arrangement  of  lathe  for  cutting  a  screw.  A  is  the  leading 
screw ;  the  round  metal  bar,  B,  on  which  the  screw  is  to  be 
cut,  is  placed  between  the  steel  centers  of  the  fast  and 
movable  headstocks  of  the  lathe  ;  a  "  carrier,"  or  dog,  C,  is 
secured  to  the  bar  at  the  end  next  to  the  fast  headstock, 
which  engage  with  a  driving  stud,  D,  attached  to  the  face- 
plate. 

The  cutting  of  a  screw  in  a  lathe,  whether  V-shape  or 
a  square  thread,  is  an  operation,  the  most  important  part 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


109 


SCREW-CUTTING  IN  THE  LATHE. 

of  which  is  the  selection  of  the  proper  change  wheels. 
Every  turn  or  revolution  of  the  leading  screw  moves  the 
carriage  and  cutting  tool  through  a  distance  equal  to  the 
pitch  of  the  leading  screw.  If  the  iron  bar,  B,  fig.  68, 
revolves  at  the  same  rate  as  the  leading  screw,  A, 
the  pitch  of  the  screw  cut  upon  the  bar  will  be 


Fig.  68. 

the  same  pitch  as  that  of  the  leading  screw;  to  cut  the 
same  thread  as  the  leading  screw,  therefore,  the  driving 
wheel  on  the  lathe  mandrel  must  be  the  same  size  as  the 
follower  or  driven  wheel  on  the  leading  screw. 

If  the  bar  revolve  faster  than  the  leading  screw,  then 
the  pitch  of  thread  cut  on  the  bar  will  be  less  than  that  on 
the  leading  screw;  if  the  bar  revolve  slower  than  the 
leading  screw,  the  thread  cut  upon  the  bar  will  be  of 
greater  pitch  than  that  of  the  leading  screw. 

Fig.  68  shows  the  general  arrangement  looking  down 
on  the  work  of  a  lathe  arranged  for  cutting  screw  threads, 


110 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


SCREW-CUTTING  IN  THE  LATHE. 

with  a  cutting  tool  fixed  in  the  tool-holder,  which  slides 
or  travels  automatically. 

When  V-threads  are  cut  in  a  screw-cutting  lathe  by 
tools  sliding  automatically,  a  single-pointed  tool  is  gener- 
ally used. 

Fig.  69  shows  the  front  tool  for  cutting  the  male 
or  outside  thread  ;  fig.  70  shows  the  inside  tool  for  cutting 
the  interior  thread. 


Fig.  69. 


Fig.  7<x 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  tools  are  very  similar  to  the 
ordinary  turning  and  boring  tools,  but  with  the  points 
ground  to  a  V-shape,  the  angle  of  the  V  corresponding 
exactly  with  the  correct  angle  for  the  screw  to  be  cut. 


NOTE. — When  cutting  internal  screw-threads  it  is  important  to 
remember  that  the  diameter  of  the  hole  should  be  equal  to  the  diam- 
eter at  the  bottom  of  the  male  screw-thread,  which  is  to  fit  into  it ;  thus 
the  hole  intended  for  an  inch  bolt,  having  eight  threads  per  inch  on  it, 
would  be  bored  out  to  just  under  seven-eighths  inch  diameter. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  in 

SCREW-CTJTTING  IN  THE  LATHE. 

There  is  one  important  difference,  however,  between 
the  shape  of  a  turning  tool  and  a  screw-cutting  tool ;  i.  e., 
that  the  tool  point  is  canted  or  sloped  over  at  an  angle  ; 
this  is  necessary  in  the  screw-cutting  tool  to  prevent  it 
rubbing  against  the  sides  of  the  thread,  owing  to  the  slope 
or  "rake  '  of  the  latter;  the  rake  of  a  thread  depends  on 
the  pitch  of  the  screw  and  the  diameter  of  the  work  on 
which  it  is  cut ;  thus,  a  screw  of  one-eighth  pitch  cut  on  a 
bolt  of  one-inch  diameter,  will  have  greater  rake  or  slope 
than  that  of  a  thread  of  same  pitch  cut  on  a  bolt  of  two 
inches  diameter. 


Fig  71. 

It  maybe  said,  however,  that  in  actual  practice  it  is  not 
necessary  to  make  a  separate  tool  for  each  pitch  of  thread 
when  cutting  V-threads  of  reasonably  small  pitch  and 
diameter,  the  clearance  angle  given  to  the  cutting  edges  of 
the  tool  usually  being  sufficient  to  allow  for  slight  varia- 
tions in  the  rake  of  the  thread. 

It  is  necessary  to  have  some  gauge  to  which  the  tool 
can  be  ground  to  the  correct  shape ;  one  way  is  to  grind  it 
to  fit  between  the  threads  of  an  ordinary  plug-tap,  but  a 


112 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


TURNING  AND  BORING. 

special  screw-cutting  gauge  is  more  satisfactory ;  the  one 
shown  in  fig.  71  is  a  useful  form  ;  the  V-openings  are  cut 
out  to  the  standard  angle,  60°,  and  as  it  is  made  of  light 
sheet  steel,  it  can  be  readily  applied  to  the  tool  when 
grinding,  to  test  it. 


Fig.  72. 

The  method  of  setting  an  outside  screw-cutting  tool 
in  correct  position  with  regard  to  the  work  is  shown  in 
fig.  71,  and  fig.  72  shows  how  the  gauge  may  be  used  for 
setting  an  inside  screw-cutting  tool.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  a  steel  rule  or  other  flat  strip  of  metal,  A,  is  laid 
across  the  end  of  the  work,  B,  to  form  a  surface  for  the  end 
of  the  gauge  to  rest  against. 


Fig.  73-  Fig-  74- 

The  form  of  tool   used  for  cutting  square  threads  is 
very  similar  to  a  parting  tool,  only  that  canting,  or  rake, 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


SCREW-CUTTING  IN  THE  LATHE. 

must  be  provided  for  in  the  portion  that  enters  the  work, 
to  prevent  side  rubbing. 

A  tool  holder  of  the  kind  shown  in  fig.  73  simplifies 
the  making  of  square-thread  tools  very  much.  The  tool 
itself  is  filed  up  out  of  a  small  round  piece  of  tool-steel, 
A,  which  is  then  fixed  in  the  holder,  B,  by  means  of  the 
set-screw,  C.  The  tool-steel  being  circular  in  section,  can 
be  turned  round  in  the  holder  before  the  set-screw  is  tight- 
ened, so  as  to  give  any  desired  degree  of  rake. 


Fig-  75- 

Fig.  74  shows  the  end  view  of  the  tool  and  its  holder. 

The  width  of  a  tool  for  cutting  a  single  square  thread 
must  be  equal  to  half  the  pitch  of  the  thread.  This  will 
be  seen  from  fig.  75,  where  A  shows  the  pitch  of  the 
thread,  which  is  equal  to  the  thickness  of  a  thread  and  a 
space.  B  shows  the  width  the  cutting  tool  should  be,  i.  es 
exactly  half  of  A.  In  cutting  a  double  or  triple  thread 
the  case  is  different,  as  will  be  seen  from  fig.  76?  which 
represents  a  double  thread.  Here  the  pitch,  A,  is  equal  to 


Fig.  76 


1 1 4  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

TURNING  AND  BORING. 

the  thickness  of  two  threads  and  two  spaces,  so  that  the 
width  of  the  cutting  tool,  By  must  be  exactly  one-quarter 
of  the  pitch,  A, 

Fig.  77  shows  a  double-threaded  screw  with  only  the 
first  groove  cut.  When  the  second  groove  is  cut  in  the 
center  of  the  intervening  portions  of  the  work,  it  leaves  the 
double  thread. 

A  neat  way  of  finishing  off  a  square  thread  is  to  drill 
a  small  hole  into  the  work  at  the  end  of  the  thread  for  the 
tool  to  run  into,  as  shown  at  C,  in  fig.  75.  The  diameter 
of  the  hole  should  be  slightly  larger  than  the  thickness  of 
the  tool,  and  the  depth  a  little  greater  than  the  depth  of 
the  thread.  The  lathe  must  be  stopped  just  before  the 


Fig.  77- 

tool  reaches  the  hole,  and  pulled  round  by  hand  for  the  last 
half  turn  or  so.  As  soon  as  the  tool  finishes  its  cut,  it  is 
withdrawn  and  run  back  again  in  readiness  for  taking  a 
fresh  cut. 

The  process  of  cutting  a  screw  in  the  lathe  is  com- 
paratively simple.  The  work  being  mounted  between 
centers,  the  tool  fastened  in  the  slide-rest,  and  the  proper 
screw-cutting  change  wheels  placed  in  gear,  the  lathe  is 
started  and  a  preliminary  cut  taken  along  the  work ;  the 
tool  is  then  withdrawn,  the  clasp-nut  disengaged  from  the 
leading  screw,  the  carriage  is  run  back  to  the  starting 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  115 

SCREW-CUTTING  IN  THE  LATHE. 

point,  and  the  tool  is  set  in  a  little  deeper  than  before ;  the 
clasp  being  dropped  into  gear  with  the  leading  screw  again, 
a  second  cut  is  taken  along. 

This  series  of  operations  is  repeated  until  the  screw  is 
cut  to  a  sufficient  depth.  There  are,  however,  one  or  two 
precautions  which  must  be  observed  ;  in  the  first  place,  a 
screw-cutting  tool,  by  reason  of  its  shape,  is  weak  at  the 
point,  and  is  therefore  easily  broken ;  consequently,  the 
depth  of  cut  taken  should  not  be  greater  than  the  tool  can 
easily  stand,  and  this  should  be  regulated  in  a  systematic 
manner.  A  simple  plan  is  to  mark,  with  a  piece  of  chalk, 
the  position  of  the  cross-slide  handle  with  which  the  tool  is 
fed  to  the  work,  when  the  tool  is  withdrawn  after  a  cut  has 
been  taken ;  it  is  wound  in  again  before  taking  the  next 
cut,  so  that  the  chalk  mark  is  in  exactly  the  same  position 
as  before ;  this  shows  the  position  of  the  tool  during  the 
previous  cut,  so  that  the  operator  can  now  readily  judge 
how  much  further  to  turn  the  handle  round  to  advance  the 
tool  sufficiently  for  the  next  cut. 

This  done,  the  old  chalk  mark  is  wiped  out,  and  a 
fresh  one  substituted,  the  marking  being  repeated  as  each 
successive  cut  is  taken. 

The  same  guidance  can  be  obtained  in  a  neater  way 
by  placing  a  brass  ring  or  clip  over  the  handle  of  the 
slide  rest,  with  a  line  marked  across  it,  as  shown  in  fig.  78  ; 
the  ring  is  slipped  back  after  each  cut  has  been  set  in,  so 
as  to  bring  its  mark  again  opposite  to  the  arrow  mark  on 
the  boss  on  the  slide-rest,  in  readiness  for  the  adjustment 
of  the  following  cut. 

Some  lathes  are  provided  with  a  small  graduated  disk 


n6 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


TURNING  AND  BORING. 

on  the  handle  which  winds  the  tool  in,  a  fixed  pointer 
being  attached  to  the  lathe  saddle ;  in  this  case,  of  course, 
the  simpler  expedients  already  described  are  not  required. 
There  is  another  important  precaution  to  be  taken, 
viz.,  that  the  tool  shall  follow  in  the  same  path  at  each 
successive  cut.  There  will  be  no  trouble  on  this  point 
when  cutting  any  thread  which  is  an  exact  multiple  of  the 
thread  on  the  leading  screw,  or  guide  screw,  of  the  lathe. 
If,  for  example,  the  guide  screw  has  four  threads  per  inch, 


Fig.  78. 

and  the  screw  to  be  cut  has  twelve  threads  per  inch,  the 
work  will  always  be  in  the  right  position  for  the  tool  to 
follow  in  the  thread  when  the  clasp-nut  engages  w'tb  the 
leading  screw. 

The  same  will  be  true  if  the  screw  to  be  cut  has  eight, 
sixteen,  twenty  or  any  number  of  threads  per  inch  which 
is  divisible  by  four. 

The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  change-wheel  on  the 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  117 

SCREW-CUTTING  IN  THE  LATHE. 

spindle  and  the  change-wheel  on  the  leading  screw  are  in 
exactly  the  same  proportion  to  each  other  as  the  threads 
on  the  leading  screw  and  the  screw  being  cut ;  and,  since 
the  number  of  teeth  in  one  wheel  is  an  exact  multiple  of 
the  teeth  in  the  other  wheel,  the  smaller  wheel  of  the  two 
will  always  make  an  exact  number  of  complete  revolutions 
for  each  revolution  of  the  larger. 

To  cut  twelve  threads  per  inch,  as  in  the  case 
mentioned  above,  a  wheel  with  forty  teeth  would  be  placed 
on  the  spindle,  and  a  wheel  with  120  teeth  on  the  leading 
screw;  the  spindle  would  therefore  make  three  complete 
revolutions  for  each  revolution  of  the  leading  screw,  and 
the  commencement  of  the  screw-thread  on  the  work  would 
accordingly  be  brought  to  exactly  the  same  position  in 
relation  to  the  tool  each  time  the  clasp-nut  became 
engaged  with  the  leading  screw. 

If,  instead  of  twelve  threads  to  the  inch,  a  screw  of 
ten  threads  to  the  inch  is  to  be  cut,  the  wheels  required 
would  be  forty  on  the  spindle  and  100  on  the  leading  screw  ; 
it  will  be  apparent  that  for  each  turn  of  the  leading  screw 
the  spindle  will  now  make  only  2^  revolutions,  and  the 
work  will  therefore  be  half  a  revolution  behind  its  proper 
position,  thus  causing  the  point  of  the  tool  to  come  on  top 
of  the  thread  instead  of  in  the  groove  between  the  threads, 
if  the  clasp-nut  be  engaged  with  the  leading  screw. 

If  the  leading  screw  be  allowed  to  make  another 
complete  revolution  before  engaging  with  the  clasp-nut, 
the  work  will  make  another  two  and  a  half  revolutions, 
which  will  bring  it  into  the  right  position  again  for  start- 
ing the  tool  in  the  proper  groove.  The  work  is  therefore 


n8  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

TURNING  AND  BORING. 

only  in  the  correct  position  for  starting  a  cut  once  during 
every  two  revolutions  of  the  leading  screw.  Similarly, 
with  other  threads  which  are  not  exact  multiples  of  the 
thread  of  the  leading  screw,  it  will  be  found  that  to  bring 
the  tool  to  the  right  position  the  clasp-nut  must  only  be 
dropped  in  at  certain  intermediate  positions  of  the 
change-wheels. 

To  prevent  any  mistake  arising,  the  usual  plan  is  to 
stop  the  lathe  before  the  tool  commences  its  first  cut  along 
the  work,  and  chalk  a  tooth  on  the  spindle  wheel  and  a 
tooth  on  the  leading  screw  wheel,  placing  another  chalk 
mark  on  the  headstock  opposite  the  former  and  a  chalk 
mark  on  the  lathe  bed  opposite  the  latter,  the  clasp-nut 
being  then  engaged  with  the  leading  screw. 

The  saddle  is  run  back  to  the  starting  point  after  each 
cut,  and  as  soon  as  both  chalk  marks  on  the  wheels  come 
opposite  to  the  stationary  marks  again  at  the  same  instant, 
the  clasp-nut  may  be  engaged  with  the  leading  screw, 
and  another  cut  taken. 

When  cutting  a  double  thread,  a  wheel  with  an  even 
number  of  teeth  should  be  selected  for  the  spindle,  and 
a  chalk  mark  should  be  made  on  each  of  two  exactly 
opposite  teeth.  The  space  into  which  one  of  these  teeth 
falls  in  the  wheel  with  which  it  gears  should  also  be 
marked;  when  the  first  thread  has  been  cut,  the  mandrel 
wheel  should  be  disengaged  and  turned  through  half  a 
revolution,  so  that  the  other  marked  tooth  comes  opposite 
the  marked  space;  the  wheels  are  then  geared  together 
again,  and  the  second  thread  can  be  cut. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  119 

SCREW-CUTTING  IN  THE  LATHE. 

For  a  triple  thread  the  spindle  wheel  should  be 
divided  into  three,  and  for  a  quadruple  thread  into  four, 
and  so  on. 

For  cutting  a  right-hand  thread,  the  tool  traverses 
from  right  to  left,  and  for  a  left-hand  thread  it  traverses 
from  left  to  right. 

In  the  latter  case  the  necessary  reversal  in  the 
direction  of  rotation  of  the  leading  screw  is  obtained  by 
inserting  an  extra  wheel  in  the  train  of  gear  wheels  between 
the  spindle  and  the  leading  screw ;  this  extra  wheel  does 
not  in  any  way  affect  the  speed  of  rotation  of  the  leading 
screw;  it  simply  alters  the  direction  in  which  it  revolves. 

A  square  thread  must  be  finished  to  exact  size  with 
the  tool.  A  V-thread  can  be  finished  off  with  a  hand 
chaser. 

All  that  is  necessary  to  cut  any  pitch  desired  is  to 
arrange  gearing  to  revolve  the  screw  as  many  times  as  it 
has  threads  to  the  inch,  while  the  feed  stud,  or  spindle,  is 
making  as  man)/  revolutions  as  the  desired  pitch. 


Fig.  79. 

Fig.  79  shows   an   ordinary   V-thread,   of  which  the 
angle  is  60°. 


12O  Tke  Advanced  Machinist* 

TURNING  AND  BORING. 

Fig.  80  shows  the  American  Standard  thread  ;  it  is  the 
V-thread,  with  one-eighth  of  its  depth  cut  off  the  top  and 
bottom,  the  angle  being  60°. 

Fig.  8 1  shows  the  Whitworth,  or  English  Standard 
thread  ;  it  is  a  V-thread,  with  one-sixth  of  its  depth  rounded 
off  the  top  and  bottom  the  angle  being  55°. 

The  following  quotation  from  Low  and  Bevis*  "  Man- 
ual of  Machine  Drawing  and  Design"  presents  the  rela- 
tive merits  of  screw-threads  shaped  according  to  the  Whit- 


Fig.  80. 

worth  and  Sellers  system  respectively,  as  seen  through 
English  eyes.  The  comparison,  however,  seems  to  be  fair. 
Without  underrating  the  good  points  of  the  Sellers 
thread,  we  believe  that  the  Whitworth  thread  has  its  good 
points  also,  and  that  they  are  not  as  fully  appreciated  in 
this  country  as  they  might  be: 

"Comparing  the  'Whitworth'  and  'Sellers'  screw- 
threads,  the  former  is  stronger  than  the  latter  because  of 
the  rounding  at  the  root.  The  point  of  the  Whitworth 
thread  is  also  less  liable  to  injury  than  the  Sellers.  The 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  12 1 

SCREW-CUTTING  IN  THE  LATHE. 

form  of  the  Sellers  thread  is,  however,  one  which  is  more 
easily  produced  with  accuracy,  in  the  first  place,  because  it 
is  easier  to  get  with  certainty  an  angle  of  60  degrees  than 
an  angle  of  55  degrees,  and,  in  the  second  place,  because  it 
is  easier  to  make  the  point  and  root  perfectly  parallel  to 
the  axis  than  to  ensure  a  truly  circular  point  and  root. 
The  Sellers  thread  has  also  a  slight  advantage  in  that  the 
normal  pressure,  and  therefore  the  friction,  at  every  point 
of  the  acting  surface  is  the  same ;  while  in  the  Whitworth 
thread  the  normal  pressure,  and  therefore  the  friction,  is 
greater  at  the  rounded  parts.  The  surface  of  the  Sellers 
thread  will,  therefore,  wear  more  uniformly  than  the  surface 
of  the  Whitworth  thread.  The  total  friction,  and  also  the 

.___v 


Fig.  81. 

bursting  action  on  the  nut,  are  slightly  greater  in  the 
Sellers  thread  than  in  the  Whitworth,  because  of  the 
greater  angle  of  the  V ;  it  will  be  seen  that  for  a  given 
diameter  of  screw  the  diameter  at  the  bottom  of  the  thread 
is  greater  in  the  case  of  the  Whitworth  than  in  the  Sellers. 
A  bolt  with  a  Sellers  thread  is,  therefore,  weaker  than  the 
same  size  of  bolt  with  a  Whitworth  thread.  The  strength 
of  the  Sellers  screw  is  still  further  reduced  on  account  of 
the  sudden  change  of  the  cross-section  of  the  bolt  at  the 
bottom  of  the  thread." 


122 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


CHANGE-WHEELS. 


Cutting  a  screw  in  the  lathe  is  a  mechanical  operation, 
of  which  the  most  important  part  is  the  selection  of  the 
proper  change-wheels.  Change-wheels,  or  change-gears,  are 
the  gear-wheels  employed  to  change  the  revolutions  of  a 
lead-screw,  or  feed  motion. 


Fig.  82. 


Fig.  83. 


There  are  two  ways  of  arranging  the  wheels:  1st, 
with  two  change-wheels ;  2d,  with  four  change-wheels. 

Fig.  82  shows  the  two  change-wheels,  c  and  d;  the 
middle  wheel  serves  only  to  connect  the  two ;  c  is  the 
wheel  on  the  spindle  a;  d\$  that  on  the  leading  screw. 

Fig.  83  is  a  side  view  of  this  two-change-wheel. 

The  distance  between  the  spindle  and  the  leading 
screw  of  a  lathe  does  not  generally  admit  of  cutting  a 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


123 


SCREW-CUTTING  IN  THE  LATHE. 

screw  of  more  than  ten  threads  to  the  inch,  with  two 
wheels,  as  the  wheel  on  the  leading  screw  would  be  too 
large,  and  that  on  the  spindle  too  small. 

In  the  same  way,  for  cutting  coarse-pitched  screws, 
such  as  half  a  turn  to  the  inch,  the  second  method  is  gen- 
erally used,  or  else  the  wheel  on  the  leading  screw  would 


Fig.  84.  Fig.  85. 

be  too  small,  and  that  on  the  spindle  too  large.  Thus  trie 
second  method  is  employed  for  cutting  screws  of  coarser 
pitch  than  one-half  a  thread,  and  finer  than  ten  threads  to 
the  inch,  and  the  first  method  for  screws  of  a  pitch  inter- 
mediate between  one-half  a  thread  and  ten  threads  to  the 
inch. 

Fig.    84   shows    the   second    arrangement   with    four 
change-wheels,  cy  d,  e,  f;    c  is  the  wheel  on  the    spindle,    d 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


CHANGE-WHEELS. 

and  e  are  the  wheels  on  the  stud,  f  is  the  wheel  on  the 
leading  screw  b. 

Fig.  85  is  a  side  view  of  the  arrangement  with  four 
change-wheels. 

The  rule  for  calculating  the  size  of  the  change-wheels 
to  cut  threads  of  different  pitches  is  really  a  very  simple 
one,  though  frequently  a  source  of  difficulty  to  the  student. 
It  may  be  expressed  as  a  simple  proportion  sum,  thus : 

As  the  pitch  of  the  leading  screw  is  to  the  pitch  of  the 
screw  to  be  cut,  so  is  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  wheel  on  the 
spindle  to  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  wheel  on  the  leading 
screw. 

Putting  this  in  fractional  form,  we  have : 

Pitch  of  leading  screw  Wheel  on  spindle 


Pitch  of  screw  to  be  cut        Wheel  on  leading  screw. 


Fig.  86. 

EXAMPLE  i. — Suppose  that  the  lathe  has  a  leading 
screw,  a,  with  four  threads  to  the  inch  ;  what  wheels  will 
be  required  to  cut  a  screw,  b,  having  eight  threads  per 
inch? 


Fig.  87.  

.— It  simplifies  matters  by  using  the  number  of  threads  per 
inch  in  the  two  screws  instead  of  the  pitch,  as  in  most  cases  it  enables 
us  to  use  whole  numbers  instead  of  fractions  for  figures. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  125 

SCREW-CUTTING  IN   THE   LATHE. 

Now,  substituting  these  figures  in  the  above  fractions, 

we  get 

4       Wheel  on  spindle 

8        Wheel  on  leading  screw, 

therefore,  any  two  wheels  in  the  proportions  of  four  to 
eight  will  answer  the  purpose ;  if  we  multiply  both  these 
figures  by  the  same  number  we  do  not  alter  the  propor- 
tions at  all ;  therefore,  by  multiplying  both  by  five  we  get 
twenty  and  forty,  as  two  suitable  wheels,  or  multiplying 
by  ten  we  get  forty  and  eighty,  or  multiplying  by  fifteen  we 
get  sixty  and  one  hundred  and  twenty,  any  of  which  pair 
will  give  the  desired  result. 

Selecting  the  last  pair,  put  the  sixty  wheel  on  the 
spindle  and  the  one  hundred  and  twenty  wheel  on  the 
leading  screw,  and  gear  the  two  together  by  inserting  an 
intermediate  wheel,  which  may  be  whatever  size  will  fit  it 
best. 

EXAMPLE  2. — Suppose  a  screw  of  eleven  threads  per 
inch  is  to  be  cut  in  the  same  lathe,  the  leading  screw  has 
four  threads  to  the  inch,  as  before,  then  the  proportion 
required  between  the  wheels  is  ^T,  so  that  (multiplying  by 
ten),  a  forty  and  a  one  hundred  and  ten  wheel  will  be 
correct,  or  (multiplying  by  five),  a  twenty  and  a  fifty-five 
wheel,  or  any  wheels  having  the  same  ratio. 

If  a  fractional  number  of  threads  is  to  be  cut,  such  as 
9^  threads  per  inch,  exactly  the  same  plan  is  adopted. 
The  proportion  is  4:9!-;  multiplying  both  by  ten,  we  get 
forty  and  ninty-five  as  suitable  wheels. 

Similarly,  if  the  leading  screw  have  two  threads  per 
inch,  and  it  is  desired  to  cut  twelve  threads  per  inch,  the 


126  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

CHANGE-WHEELS. 

proportion  is  2:12.  Multiplying  both  by  ten,  we  get 
twenty  and  one  hundred  and  twenty  as  being  suitable 
wheels. 

It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  measure  the  exact  number 
of  threads  per  inch  in  places  where  there  is  a  fractional  part 
of  a  thread  included,  as,  for  instance,  five  and  a  quarter 
threads  per  inch.  It  is  then  better  to  measure  such  a 
length  of  the  screw  as  contains  an  exact  number  of 
threads,  and  compare  it  with  the  number  of  threads  in  a 
similar  length  of  the  leading  screw.  A  screw  with  five 
and  a  quarter  threads  per  inch  will  have  twenty-one 
complete  threads  in  a  distance  of  four  inches.  If  the 
leading  screw  has  four  threads  to  the  inch,  it  will  clearly 
have  sixteen  complete  threads  in  four  inches.  Therefore 
the  relation  between  the  two  screws  is  16:21.  Multiplying 
both  of  these  by  five,  we  get  eighty  and  one  hundred  and 
five  as  the  wheels  necessary  to  cut  such  a  thread. 

The  calculations  so  far  refer  to  a  simple  train  of 
wheels.  Cases  frequently  arise,  however,  especially  with 
fine  pitches,  in  which  the  wheels  calculated  in  this  way 
are  not  available.  If  the  leading  screw  has  four  threads  to 
the  inch,  and  it  is  required  to  cut  a  screw  of  forty  threads 
to  the  inch,  the  proportion  is  4:40.  Multiplying  both  by 
five,  we  get  twenty  and  two  hundred  as  the  necessary 
wheels,  but  in  all  probality  the  lathe  to  be  operated  is  not 
fitted  with  a  two  hundred  wheel.  A  compound  train  of 
wheels,  that  is,  four  change-wheels,  as  shown  in  fig.  84, 
must  therefore  be  selected. 

To  calculate  these,  proceed  as  follows :  The  propor- 
tion, as  already  stated  is  -fa.  Split  each  number  up  into 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  127 

SCREW-CUTTING  IN  THE  LATHE. 

two  separate  numbers,  which,  if  multiplied  together,  will 
produce  the  original  number,  thus  /^"—•f  X*f«  Multiplying 
each  of  these  numbers  by  10,  we  get  f  g-Xff.  This  means 
that  a  wheel  on  the  spindle,  gearing  into  a  50  wheel  on 
the  intermediate  stud,  and  another  20  wheel  on  the  inter- 
mediate stud,  gearing  into  an  80  wheel  on  the  leading 
screw,  will  give  the  desired  result. 

It  will  be  more  easily  understood  if  the  student 
considers  the  fact  that  the  first  20  wheel,  c,  gearing  into 
the  50  wheel,  d,  reduces  the  speed  in  the  proportion  of 
2^/2  to  I,  and  the  second  20  wheel,  e,  gearing  into  the  80 
wheel,/,  on  the  leading  screw  again  reduces  this  speed  in 
the  proportion  of  4  to  I,  making  a  total  reduction  in  speed 
of  10  to  I,  which  is  the  proportion  between  the  thread  to 
be  cut  and  the  thread  on  the  leading  screw,  i.  e.,  4  to  40. 

A  few  other  examples  are  worked  out  to  assist  the 
reader  to  thoroughly  grasp  the  rule. 

EXAMPLE  i. — Leading  screw  two  threads  per  inch, 
required  the  wheels  to  cut  twenty-five  threads  per  inch. 

2__2Xi 
25     5X5 

Multiplying  each  pair  of  numbers  by  the  same  figure, 

2oX  10 

we  get  •     as  one  set  of  wheels,  or  using  different  mul- 

tipliers we  get ————  as  another  set  of  wheels,  either  of 
75  /N  i^5 

which  will  cut  the  desired  threads.  The  respective 
wheels  may  be  identified  by  comparing  the  above  fractions 
with  the  following : 

Driving  wheel  on    spindle  X  driving  wheel  on  stud  • 
driven  wheel  on  stud  X  driven  wheel  on  leading  screw. 


128  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

CHANGE  WHEELS. 

The  figures  in  the  fractions  of  all  the  examples  corre- 
spond to  the  wheel  here  indicated  in  the  same  position. 

EXAMPLE  2.  —  Leading   screw   two    threads  per  inch, 
required  the  wheels  to  cut  nineteen  threads  per  inch. 
_2_      2X1     20X40 
19     (£X2 


as  one  set  of  wheels,  or  -  s^   as  another  set  of  wheels. 

95X70 

EXAMPLE  3.  —  Leading  screw  four  threads  per  inch, 
required  the  wheels  to  cut  thirty-three  threads  per  inch. 

4      2X2       40X20 
"SS^SXII  =6oxno 

as  one  set  of  wheels,  or    .5——  -  as  another  set  of  wheels, 

45X110 

either  of  which  would  do. 

Ex.  4.  —  Leading  screw  four  threads  per  inch,  required 
the  wheels  to  cut  seventeen  and  a  half  threads  per  inch. 

If  there  are  seventeen  and  a  half  threads  in  one  inch 
of  the  screw  to  be  cut,  there  are  thirty-five  threads  in  two 
inches.  In  two  inches  of  the  leading  screw  there  are  eight 

Q 

threads,  so  that  the  proportion  is  — 

8^2X4^20X40 
3  5~~         ~ 


as  one  set  of  wheels,  or    ^      --  as  another  set,  which  will 

100x105 

cut  the  desired  pitch. 

If  any  doubts  exist  as  to  the  correctness  of  the  calcu- 
lations for  a  set  of  wheels,  the  result  may  easily  be  tested 
by  multiplying  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  driving  wheels 
together  and  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  driven  wheels 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


129 


SCREW-CUTTING  IN  THE  LATHE. 

together,  and  placing  these  totals  one  above  the  other,  in 
the  form  of  a  fraction.  Then  reduce  this  fraction  to  its 
lowest  terms,  and  the  figures  obtained  should  correspond 
with  the  ratio  of  the  leading  screw  to  the  screw  to  be  cut, 
expressed  in  its  lowest  terms.  Thus,  to  prove  the  second 


Fig.  88. 

wheels  obtained  in  example  (i),  we  have  thirty  and  twenty- 
five   as   drivers,   and   75    and    125    as   the   driven  wheels. 


30X25=75o,and  75x125=9,375. 


9375 


reduced  to  its  low- 


est  term=—  —  •  »  which  represents  the  ratio  of  the  leading 


130 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


CHANGE-WHEELS. 

screw   (two   threads   per   inch)   to    the   screw   to   be   cut 
(twenty-five  threads  per  inch). 

It   should    be   remembered    that   the   u  drivers "   are 
those   wheels   which   impart    motion,   and   the   "  driven '' 


No.  6. 


No.  7. 


Figs.  89-98. 


wheels  are  those  which  receive  motion.  The  wheel  on  the 
spindle  is  a  "  driver,"  while  the  wheel  on  the  leading 
screw  is  a  "  driven  "  wheel ;  the  wheel  on  the  intermediate 
stud,  which  gears  with  the  spindle  wheel,  is  a  "  driven  " 
wheel,  and  the  other  wheel,  on  the  intermediate  stud, 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  131 

SCREW-CUTTING  IN  THE  LATHE. 

which  imparts  motion  to  the  wheel  on  the  leading  screw, 
is  a  *'  driver." 

Fig.  88  shows  a  specially  devised  tool  in  operation, 
cutting  a  screw-thread  on  the  lathe ;  the  tool  consists,  as 
will  be  seen,  of  a  disc  of  steel  having  ten  distinct  teeth  on 
its  rim ,  these  teeth  are  graded  for  cutting  the  thread  in 
distinct  operations  of  the  tool. 

The  cutter  is  mounted  on  a  hand-sliding  rest,  which  is 
bolted  to  the  ordinary  lathe  carriage,  and  the  tool  is 
adjusted  to  each  cut  by  the  hand  lever.  Fig.  99  shows  a 
separate  view  of  the  cutter. 


Fig.  99. 

Figs.  89-98  show  a  screw  as  it  would  appear  after  each 
cut  has  been  performed.  Commencing  at  No.  I,  the  thread 
is  finished  in  ten  trips,  each  of  which  removes  an  exact 
depth  of  stock.  The  first  tooth,  No.  I,  makes  a  shallow 
cut  the  full  width  of  the  thread ;  each  following  tooth  cuts 
deeper  (as  well  as  narrower),  until  the  last  one  (No.  10), 
with  its  cutting  point,  does  the  finishing. 

When  fine  work,  such  as  for  taps,  etc.,  is  required,  the 
pawl  is  thrown  back  out  of  action,  the  micrometer  adjust- 
ment used,  and  another  trip  taken  across  the  thread. 
Advancing  the  lever  one  hole  in  the  micrometer  adjustment 


132  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

CHANGE-  WHEELS. 

brings  the  cutting  point  a  fraction  of  a  thousandth  of  an 
inch  forward.  Successive  trips  with  advance  of  lever  will 
give  the  finest  finish  possible  to  a  thread. 

The  heel  of  the  tooth  in  action  rests  upon  a  stop,  so 
that  it  can  be  ground  until  but  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in 
thickness,  and  still  retain  the  full  strength  and  power  to  do 
the  work ;  a  square  is  employed  against  the  face  of  the 
cutting  disc,  and  the  thread  angles  are  ground  from  this 
face. 

When  once  set,  neither  tool  nor  cross-slide  adjustment 
need  to  be  changed  in  cutting  the  screw  or  any  number  of 
screws  in  exact  duplication. 

This  form  of  tool  requires  very  little  grinding,  as  the 
point  of  the  tool  is  reserved  and  only  used  in  the  finishing 
or  last  cut. 

Ingenuity  on  the  part  of  the  lathe  builders  has 
resulted  in  the  design  of  a  simple  contrivance  by  which  the 
gears  which  are  mounted  under  the  head  can  be  instantly 
set  to  cut  any  required  thread  at  the  will  of  the  operator, 
without  delay  of  calculating  or  of  changing  the  gears. 
The  mechanism  consists  of  a  set  of  gear  wheels,  usually 
ten,  mounted  on  a  shaft  called  the  "  change  gear  shaft," 
which  is  placed  in  the  bed  under  the  headstock  of  the 
lathe. 

By  an  arrangement  consisting  of  a  sliding  or  tumbling 
gear,  any  of  these  ten  fixed  gears  can  be  brought  into 
operation ;  these  combine  with  a  set  of  intermediate  gears 
located  outside  of  the  head,  also  varied  in  their  arrange- 
ment by  a  lever  mechanism,  to  vary  the  speed  of  the  lead 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


133 


SCREW-CUTTING  IN  THE  LATHE. 

screw  to  cut  any  of  the  following  forty  threads  or  feeds 
per  inch. 

Fig.  100  shows  an  index  plate  for  the  '•  change  gear 
shaft  ";  this  is  usually  attached  to  the  front  of  the  lathe, 
"  handy  "  to  the  two  levers  to  which  reference  is  made. 


THDslKlMOB 

THDS[KNOB 

THDS]KNOB 

THDG]KNOB 

08-        2 

Q       2_, 

-4X*        2 

a         '  C 

^IQ          C3 

f     9Xa          3 

434        3 

2^4        2  ^ 

20      ^ 

IO          -4 

5           *0- 

2!^         -4- 

22         5 

1  1            5 

5Xa           5 

2%        5 

23      e 

1  l>£         6 

53A        6 

2%     e 

2^      7 

12           7 

G           7 

3          7 

2e      e 

13       e 

6V£        B 

3>4         B 

2Q        9 

1-4         O 

7           Q 

3X2        Q 

30       10 

15         IO 

7>fe        IO 

354        10 

32       1  1 

16         1  1 

8          1  1 

-4-         f  1 

D 

80To4O 

R  EIEIDS 

CP 

10  To   5 

<4OTo  20 

20  To  IO 

18-Inch  Index  Plate. 
Fig.  100. 

EXAMPLE. — Should  the  operator  desire  to  cut  12 
threads  per  inch,  he  engages  the  sliding  gear  on  the  lead 
screw  intermediates,  opposite  the  table  showing  20  to  10 
threads  per  inch,  and  then  places  the  lever  in  front  of  the 
lathe  head,  which  carries  the  sliding  or  tumbling  gear  into 
the  hole  marked  "  7,"  as  indicated  in  the  index  plate 
opposite  12,  the  number  of  required  threads;  the  tool  is 
then  ready  for  operation. 

The  gears  required  are  obtained  by  moving  two  levers 
only ;  one  being  on  the  intermediate  gear  of  the  lead  screw, 
the  other  beins  outside  the  headstock. 


134 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


CHANGE-  WHEELS. 


/TH.  TOOTH. 


O      TOOTH 


TOOTH. 


Section  of  seven-pitch  V-thread, 
enlarged  four  times,  showing  the 
regular  ten  cuts  taken  by  the 
Rivet-Dock  thread  tool  shown  in 
fig.  88. 


Figs.  loi-iio. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


135 


SCREW-CUTTING  IN  THE  LATHE. 


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The  Advanced  Machinist. 


CHANGE-WHEELS. 

The  gauge,  fig.  112,  is  used  as  a  standard  for  grinding 
tools  to  cut  threads  according  to  the  United  States  Standard. 

The  angles  are  60  degrees,  and  the  flat  surfaces  at  top 
and  bottom  of  threads  are  equal  to  one  eighth  of  the 
pitch. 


Fig.  112. 

Fig.  113  shows  a  center  gauge  of  United  States 
Standard,  60  degrees ;  the  method  of  setting  a  screw  cut- 
ting tool  by  its  use  is  shown  in  illustrations,  figs.  114-116, 
on  page  1.37. 

This  gauge  is  also  used  for  a  guide  in  grinding  screw 
cutting-tools.  The  table  on  the  gauge  (see  full  size  cut) 
is  used  for  determining  the  sizes  of  tap  drills  for  V-threads 


Fig.  113. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


'37 


SCREW-CUTTING   IN  THE 

and  shows  in  thousandths  of  an  inch  the  double  depth  of 
thread  of  taps  and  screws  of  the  pitches  most  commonly 
used. 

Tlg.l 


Figs.   114-116. 


Noa  E. — In  fig.  /,  at  A,  is  shown  the  manner  of  gauging  the  angle 
to  which  a  lathe  centre  should  be  turned  ;  at  B,  the  angle  to  which  a 
screw  thread  cutting  tool  should  be  ground  ;  and  at  C,  the  correctness 
of  the  angle  of  a  screw  thread  already  cut. 

In  Fig.  2  the  shaft  with  a  screw  thread  is  supposed  to  be  held 
between  the  centres  of  a  lathe.  By  applying  the  gauge  as  shown  at  D, 
or  E,  the  thread  tool  can  be  set  at  right  angles  to  the  shaft  and  then 
fastened  in  place  by  the  screw  in  tool  post,  thereby  avoiding  imperfect 
or  leaning  threads. 

In  Fig.  j,  at  /''and  G,  the  manner  of  setting  the  tool  for  cutting 
inside  threads  is  illustrated. 


138 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


Fig.  117. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  139 


BORING  OPERATIONS. 


The  operation  of  boring  is  the  enlarging  and  trueing 
of  holes  already  formed,  and  differs  from  drilling,  which 
applies  to  making  holes  in  solid  stock. 

Boring  can  be  divided  into  two  classes:  i,  horizontal ; 
2,  vertical  Horizontal  boring  is  done  in  a  lathe  in  two 
ways:  I,  the  work  rotates  and  the  cutting  tool  is  stationary; 
2,  the  work  is  stationary  and  the  cutting  tool  rotates. 

Vertical  boring  is  generally  performed  in  special 
machines ;  in  light  work,  the  cutting  tool  revolves,  as  in 
drilling,  the  work  being  stationary  ;  in  heavy  boring,  the 
work  is  revolved,  and  the  cutting  tool  is  stationary  except 
for  feed  motions. 

Vertical  boring  machines  having  suitable  automatic 
traverse  for  the  cutting  tool  are  largely  used  for  turning 
and  surfacing  work  which  rotates ;  these  machines  are 
known  as  boring  and  turning  mills,  and  may  be  described 
as  revolving  planing  machines. 

The  most  simple  form  of  boring  in  a  lathe  is  done  on 
the  chuck  or  face-plate,  to  which  the  work  is  fixed  and 
rotated  to  a  stationary  tool  in  the  saddle  or  carriage. 
When  the  hole  is  deep  and  the  tool  has  to  project  beyond 
the  holder,  it  is  liable  to  spring,  and  the  work  itself,  being 
overhung  on  the  headstock,  is  liable  to  jar ;  in  such  cases, 
the  work  is  more  advantageously  attached  to  the  carriage 
of  the  lathe,  and  a  bar  used,  as  shown  in  fig.  1 18.  This  is 
designed  to  pass  through  the  work  and  revolve  between 


140  The  Advanced  Machinist. 


BORING  OPERATIONS. 

the  lathe  centers,  as  shown  in  figs.  120  and  122,  the  carriage 
feeding  the  work  to  the  rotating  cutter. 

In  some  cases,  it  is  found  needful  to  fix  the  work  with- 
out any  motion,  the  boring  bar  having  both  rotary  and 
feed  motion  combined  ;  such  a  boring  bar  is  shown  in  fig. 
119.  AT  is  a  stout,  strong  bar,  usually  of  cast-iron,  because 
it  does  not  "  spring  "  as  readily  as  wrought-iron  ;  the  cut- 
ting tool  L  is  fixed  to  a  sleeve  H  sliding  on  bar  K  b«* 


Fig.  118. 


means  of  the  feed  screw  actuated  by  the  handle  G,  or  auto- 
matically by  the  provision  /  at  the  other  end,  as  shown ; 
the  work  to  be  operated  on  is  securely  fixed  between  the 
clamps  or  bearings  F  and  J,  the  splined  boring-bar  K  is 
rotated  by  the  worm-wheel  E,  which  is  operated  by  the 
worm  D  connected  to  the  driving-pulley  or  sheave  A. 

This  is  a  portable  tool,  useful  for  boring  cylinders,  etc., 
without  removing  them  from  their  beds,  as  it  can  be  fixed 
at  any  angle  or  position  ;  it  may  also  be  used  between  the 
centers  of  the  lathe  instead  of  the  plain  boring  bar  shown 
in  fig.  1 1 8. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


141 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


TURNING  AND   BORING. 

Special  horizontal  boring  machines  are  made  which 
differ  from  the  ordinary  lathe  in  that  the  work-table  is  con- 
structed with  three  movements,  one  being  in  a  vertical  and 
two  in  the  horizontal  plane ;  when  the  work  has  been  set 
vertically,  the  work-table  is  moved  crosswise  and  lengthwise 


Fig.  120. 

until  the  horizontal  setting  has  been  found ;  no  blocking  of 
any  kind  is  needed  ;  such  an  arrangement  is  shown  in  fig. 
1 20. 

Boring  of  taper  holes  in  a  lathe  is  illustrated  by  the 
arrangement  shown  in  fig.  122  ;  this  is  used  when  neither 
attachment,  compound  rest  nor  reamers  are  available ;  A 
is  the  headstock  of  the  lathe,  and  W  W  the  piece  of  work 
mounted  on  the  face-plate. 

Now,  set  over  the  tail-stock  B  the  same  as  if  turning^ 
an  outside  taper  the  same  as  the  hole  to  be  bored.  Fit  up 
a  boring-bar  F,  of  as  large  diameter  as  practicable,  with  a 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


BORING   OPERATIONS. 


key-way  G,  and  a  traveling-head  D  carrying  a  cutter.  Con- 
nect this  traveling-head  to  the  cross-carriage  of  the  lathe  C 
by  the  link  E.  Set  a  lathe-dog  (see  figs.  123  and  124)  on 


Figs.  121  and  122. 


the  outer  end  of  the  bar  to  prevent  the  bar  from  turning. 
Use  the  usual  power  longitudinal  feed  of  the  lathe,  and 
adjust  the  cutter  in  the  traveling-head  for  size  the  same  as 


Figs.  123  and  124. 

for  cylinder  boring.      This  is  a  satisfactory  way  of  taper 
boring  where  the  conditions  are  suitable  for  the  method. 


144 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


THE  BORING  MILL. 


The  boring  mill  is  essentially  a  vertical  face-plate  lathe, 
without  the  defects  of  the  horizontal  construction,  i.  e.,  the 


Fig-  125. 

difficulty  of  setting  and  securing  the  work,  and  the  necessity 
pf  heavy  overhanging  parts?  etc, 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  145 

BORING  OPERATIONS. 

Fig.  125  shows  a  boring  mill,  in  which  the  horizontal 
table  B  is  driven  by  internal  bevel-gearing  from  a  belt-cone 
K,  the  power  being  increased  by  external  spur-gearing. 
The  bed  A  is  cast  in  one  piece  and  well  ribbed  and  braced 
for  all  stresses ;  the  "  housings  "  M  are  of  hollow  section, 
having  wide  palms  where  connected  to  the  bed,  to  which 
they  are  fixed  by  bolts  passing  through  reamed  holes ;  a 
cross-brace  N,  at  the  top,  stiffens  the  whole  structure ;  the 
cross-rails  c,  c,  are  of  box-girder  form,  having  wide  slide 
surfaces  for  the  saddles  b,  b,  and  for  the  "  housings;"  power 
gears  Q  are  used  for  elevating  the  cross-rails ;  the  saddles 
b,  b,  are  made  "right"  and  "left,"  to  permit  the  tool-bars 
E,  E,  to  come  close  together ;  these  tool-bars  are  octagonal 
in  section,  held  in  adjustable  capped  bearings,  and  will 
swing  to  any  angle,  being  counter-weighted  in  all  positions, 
and  having  convenient  adjustment  by  racks  H,  H,  and 
hand  pinion  wheel  /,  which  have  a  power  feed  at  all  angles 
by  friction  nut  J,  J. 

P,  P,  are  the  gears  for  elevating  the  cross- rails ;  the 
friction  disc  X  communicates  motion  to  rod  R  through  the 
friction  wheel  V,  which  gives  the  quickest  possible  adjust- 
ment by  handwheel  U  while  running ;  a  system  of  double 
gears  at  the  end  of  the  cross-rail  gives  vertical  and  horizon- 
tal traverse  feeds  to  the  tool ;  these  are  instantly  reversible 
by  sliding  any  one  of  the  four  slip  gears  shown  in  sketch. 

The  tool  holders  F,  F,  fig.  125,  are  solid  steel  forgings, 
held  in  the  tool-bars  by  steel  shanks  and  keys ;  these  tool 

NOTE. — The  names  of  the  parts  and  the  above  description  are 
furnished  by  the  makers  of  this  admirable  tool. 


146 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


BORING  MILL. 

holders  will  grip  tools  in  any  position,  and  are  easily  remov- 
able for  the  insertion  of  cutter-bars  or  special  tools,  for 
which  purpose  the  right-hand  bar  is  set  exactly  central  with 
the  table  ;  the  counterweight  acts  at  all  angles  through  the 
wide  bearing  surface;  in  addition,  the  table  has  an  annular, 
angular  bearing  which  increases  the  bearing  surface  and 


Fig.  126. 

gives  steadiness  of  motion  ;  it  has  also  a  self-centering  tend- 
ency, so  that  the  combined  weight  of  the  table  and  spindle, 
as  well  as  that  of  the  work  upon  the  table,  tends  to  pre- 
serve and  not  destroy  the  alignment. 

The  advantages  in  the  boring  mill  are  that  the  work 
lies  upon  the  horizontal  table,  and  the  total  weight  of  the 
table  and  the  work  is  distributed  on  a  large  angular  bearing 
provided  for  that  purpose,  as  shown  in  section,  fig.  126, 
which  gives  rigidity  and  smooth  cutting  qualities,  thus 
avoiding  all  jar  or  trembling,  which  occur  in  overhung 
lathe?. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


147 


BORING  MILLS. 

Vertical  boring  machines  are  largely  taking  the  place 
of  planing  machines  for  doing  "  surface  "  work.  The  contin- 
uous motion  of  the  boring  mill  gives  economy  in  time 
saved ;  an  additional  advantage  is  that  a  cutting-tool  on  a 
circular  surface,  when  once  it  commences  the  cut,  is  contin- 
uous, whereas,  in  the  planing  machine,  the  tool  gets  into 


Fig.  127. 

and  out  of  the  work  at  each  stroke,  often  causing  a  ridge 
at  the  commencement,  or  a  break-off  at  the  termination,  of 
the  cut. 

Fig.   127   shows  a  valve,  held  by  angle-plates  on  the 
table,  being  faced  or  operated  by  two  tools. 


148  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

TURNING  AND  BORING. 

Fig.  117  shows  a  boring  mill  driven  by  an  external 
bevel-ring  attached  to  the  table.  In  many  boring  mills,  an 
internal  worm-wheel,  geared  into  a  worm  on  the  cone  spin- 
dle, is  used,  instead  of  chain  L  and  the  sheaves  S,  S,  and 
does  not  pull  the  swinging  tool-bar  over,  nor  does  it  inter-' 
fere  with  the  moving  saddles. 

A  section  through  the  center  of  the  revolving  table  is] 
shown  in  fig.  126,  the  center  spindle  being  of  large  diameter 
giving  toothed  gear  the  advantages  claimed  for  the  worm 
gearing,  i.  e.,  steadiness  in  motion,  and  the  table  is  closer 
to  the  floor  level,  thus  being  more  convenient  for  handling 
heavy  work. 

When  worm  gearing  is  adopted,  it  is  necessary  that  it 
and  the  thrust-bearing  should  run  in  a  flood  of  oil,  which 
reduces  the  friction  to  a  minimum. 

On  page  149  are  shown  a  set  of  turning  tools  for  gen- 
eral use  in  a  boring  mill. 

Fig.  128  being  "  a  skiveing  tool." 

Fig.  129  is  "a  round-nose  tool." 

Fig.  130  is  "  a  boring  tool." 
Fig.  131  is  "a  hog-nose  roughing  tool." 
Fig.  132  is  "a  side  tool." 

Fig.  133  is  "a  broad  finishing  tool." 

On  page  1 50  are  shown  a  set  of  boring  tools  for  fin- 
ishing cored-holes.  Fig.  134  is  an  adjustable  reamer  with 
floating  shank,  the  arrangement  of  which  is  shown  in  sec- 
tion in  fig.  135.  Fig.  136  is  a  boring  bar  with  an  adjust- 
able cutter.  Fig.  137  is  a  four-lipped  roughing  drill. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  149 


BORING-MACHINE  TOOLS. 


Fig.  128.  Fig.  129.  Fig.  130. 


Fig.  131-  Fig.  132.  Fig.  133. 


150 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


BORING  MACHINE  TOOLS. 

A  boring  mill  is  practically  an  endless  or  continuous 
planer,  that  is,  a  planer  without  reversing.  The  convenience 
and  facility  with  which  work  can  be  set  on  the  vertical 
table,  and  the  ease  with  which  pieces  can  be  secured,  are 
apparent,  the  weight  of  the  piece  being  on  the  machine 
and  not  on  the  securing  device. 


Fig.  134. 


Fig.  135. 


Fig.  136.          Fig.  137. 


Irregular  shapes,  such  as  eccentric  discs,  offset  valves, 
brackets,  etc.,  require  no  counterbalance  in  the  boring  mill, 
thus  saving  the  time  adjusting  counterweights,  which  are 
seldom  satisfactory  on  the  overhung  lathe,  even  when 
specially  designed. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


Fig.  138. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  153 


PLANING  OPERATIONS, 


The  operation  of  planing  constitutes  straight-line  cut- 
ting by  means  of  a  planer,  a  shaper,  a  slotting  machine  or 
a  key-way  cutter,  with  a  steel  cutting  tool.  In  the  planer, 
the  piece  to  be  planed  is  given  a  straight-line  motion  to  a 
stationary  tool ;  while  in  the  shaper  and  slotting  machine, 
the  work  is  stationary  and  the  cutting  tool  is  given  a 
straight-line  motion  over  the  surface  of  the  former.  The 
planer  is  a  very  important  tool  to  the  engine-builder,  as 
well  as  others,  being  instrumental  in  the  production  of 
engine  and  lathe  beds,  slides,  parallel  pieces,  etc. 

The  work  to  be  planed  is  securely  fixed  to  the  table 
of  the  machine,  and  is  moved  backwards  and  forwards  by 
means  of  suitable  gear,  the  cutting  tool  being  held  in  the 
tool  box,  mounted  upon  the  cross-slide. 

The  devices  feeding  the  cutting  tool,  and  regulating 
the  traverse  of  the  table  in  planing  machines,  are  of  differ- 
ent forms;  the  general  practice  is  I,  the  employment  of 
two  driving  belts,  one  for  the  forward  and  the  other  for 
the  backward  movement  of  the  table ;  2,  the  feeds  are 
actuated  by  independent  frictional  devices,  the  tappets  on 
the  carriage  being  employed  only  to  shift  the  belts; 
3,  narrow  driving  belts  moving  at  a  high  speed  to  facilitate 
shifting  on  the  pulleys. 

Also,  the  rack  and  pinion  movement  is  employed  in 
nearly  all  planers  to  give  the  traverse  to  the  table. 


154 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  155 

PIvANING  OPERATIONS. 

Fig.  139  shows  a  heavy  planer  designed  to  plane  IO 
feet  long,  34  inches  high  and  34  inches  wide.  The  cabinets 
A  support  the  bed  B,  which  has  parallel,  V-shaped  grooves 
D,  on  its  upper  side.  Drip  cups,  to  receive  the  overflow 
oil  from  these  grooves,  are  shown  at  C.  The  table  F  is 
moved  by  rack  and  gear ;  on  its  under  side  are  parallel  V- 
shaped  strips,  which  are  fitted  to  slide  smoothly  in  the  sim- 
ilarly-shaped grooves  D,  on  the  bed  ;  the  wipers  E  contain 
felt  to  filter  the  oil  entering  the  grooves,  and  also  tend  to 
keep  them  clean. 

The  long  dog  G  strikes  the  rocker  arm  //",  which  has  a 
removable  arm  for  hand  use ;  this  rocker  arm,  through  a 
system  of  mechanism,  shifts  the  driving  belts,  reversing  the 
motion  of  the  table  ;  X  is  the  back  or  short  dog ;  the  cutter- 
head  is  on  the  cross-bar  and  consists  of  the  tool-post  /, 
where  the  cutting  tool  is  clamped  ;  «/is  the  clapper  or  tool 
box,  fastened  to  the  vertical  slide,  or  feed  regulator,  Z,  and 
swivels  to  any  angle,  being  attached  to  the  shoe  Nt  which 
slides  on  the  cross-bar  K,  thus  giving  the  cross-feed  or 
"advance"  of  the  tool. 

The  down-feed  or  depth  of  cut  is  regulated  by  the 
handle  shown  over  slide  L.  The  head-lift  bevel  pinion  O 
raises  or  lowers  the  cross-bar  K,  being  geared  to  head-lift 
shaft  P,  on  which  is  the  spur-wheel  Q,  geared  into  pinion 
S,  operated  by  the  pulley  R  and  belt  W,  driven  from  the 
pulley  shaft  Z. 

The  front  post,  or  housings,  V,  are  of  box-form  in 
section,  and  are  bolted  to  the  sides  of  the  bed,  being  con- 
nected at  the  top  by  a  substantial  box-shaped  cross-girt. 
The  pulley-shaft  Z  is  driven  by  two  driving  belts;  the 


156 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


PLANING  MACHINES. 

forward,  or  cutting  belt,  Ty  and  the  backward,  or  return 
belt,  U\  the  belts  being  moved  on  the  fast  and  loose  pul- 
leys by  belt  shifter  F.  The  backing  pulleys  A  A  are 
shown  in  the  illustration  •  the  forward,  or  cutting  motion 
pulleys,  are  on  the  other  side  of  the  bed. 

The  friction  box  B  B  revolves  through  an  angle  which 
is  varied  by  turning  the  worm  shaft  D  D,  which  moves  a 
segment  having  stop-lugs,  so  placed  that  the  lugs  on  the 
back  of  the  friction  box  strike  them,  thereby  actuating  the 
cross-feed.  E  E  is  the  center  gear  which  meshes  with  the 
table-rack. 


Fig.  140. 

Planing  machines  run  at  a  linear  velocity  of  15  to  20 
feet  per  minute.  The  depth  of  cut  depends  on  the 
material.  The  average  cutting  speeds  for  the  various 
metals  are  as  follows:  Brass,  30  feet;  gun  metal,  25  ;  cast 
iron,  15  to  20;  wrought  iron,  16;  steel,  12.  For  general 
work  the  cross-feed,  or  advance  of  the  tool  should  be  from 
12  to  14  cuts  per  inch  for  roughing  cuts.  The  finishing 
cuts  should  be  done  with  a  broad  tool,  advancing  from 
one-fourth  to  three-eighths  of  an  inch  with  each  cut. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  157 

PLANING  OPERATIONS. 

The  tools  used  in  planing  are  very  similar  in  form  to 
lathe-turning  tools — a  front  tool  used  for  roughing,  a  side 
tool  for  edge  work,  and  a  spring  tool  for  flat  work  or  sur- 
facing. In  fig.  140,  A  is  the  cutting  angle,  B  the  angle  of 
relief  or  clearance,  and  C  the  tool  angle. 

The  "  cutting  angle  "  for  cast  iron  is  70°,  for  wrought 
iron,  65°,  for  brass,  80°,  according  to  the  table  below. 

TABLE. 

Cast  Iron.  Wrought  Iron.  Brass. 

Cutting  angle 70°  65°  80° 

Clearance 3°  4°  3° 

Tool  angle 67°  61°  77° 

One  cutter  head  is  shown  in  fig.  139,  but  it  is  quite 
common  to  have  two  cutter  heads  or  clapper  boxes,  as 
shown  in  front  view  fig.  138,  on  the  cross-bar,  and  in  large 
machines  there  are,  in  addition,  "  side-heads,"  one  on  each 
housing,  making  four.  All  these  heads  will  swivel  to  any 
angle. 

Fig.  141  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  cutter  or  cross- 
bar head  which  moves  on  the  cross-bar  parallel  with  the 
work  table  or  platen.* 

A  is  the  tool-post-apron,  sometimes  called  the  clapper- 
box,  being  hinged  so  that  the  tool  can  lift  upon  the  return 
or  backward  stroke ;  this  prevents  the  tool  edge  rubbing 
on  the  work ;  B  is  the  swivel  apron  ;  C  the  "  slider  "  which 
carries  the  apron ;  D  is  the  swing  frame  or  swivel  head ; 
E  is  the  saddle  which  slides  on  the  cross-bar. 

*  Platen  is  a  very  old  word  meaning  a  covering  plate ;  the  more 
modern  definition  for  this  is  ' '  table." 


158 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


PLANING  MACHINES. 

The  cross-bar  heads  are  operated  by  self-acting  mech- 
anisms both  in  the  cross  and  angular  feeding,  the  side- 
heads  being  fitted  with  vertical  self-acting  feed  motions. 


Fig.  141. 

Planing  machine  tables  are  provided  with  bolt-holes 
and  T-slots  or  grooves  on  the  surface  for  fixing  the  work, 
which  is  usually  bolted  direct  to  the  table.  This  cannot 
always  be  done,  on  account  of  the  shape  of  the  work. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


159 


PLANING  OPERATIONS. 

Fig.  142  shows  an  open-side  planer;  this  tool  is 
adapted  to  accommodate  work  when  bolted  to  the  table, 
of  a  greater  width  than  the  ordinary  planer ;  the  cross-vail 
or  beam  is  a  right-angle  casting  having  a  vertical  leg  with 


Fig.  142. 

a  very  long  bearing  on  the  front  face  of  the  post ;  the 
horizontal  arm  is  supported  at  the  back  by  a  heavy  brace 
bolted  securely  to  it,  this  arrangement  insuring  stiffness 
and  stability ;  the  brace  has  a  sliding  bearing  on  the  side 


i6o 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


CHUCKS. 


and  at  the  rear  of  the  post,  being  rigidly  clamped  to  it 
when  set  in  position  for  planing.  The  beam  and  brace 
are  raised  and  lowered  by  power. 

Fig.  143   shows  a  swivel  chuck  which   is  sometimes 


Fig.  143- 

used  ;  it  is  bolted  on  the  table  and  travels  with  it,  the  work 
being  held  between  the  jaws  as  in  a  vise.  Frequently 
work  has  to  be  held  as  on  a  lathe  ;  for  this  purpose  two 


Fig.  144. 

"  planer  centers ''  are  used,  as  shown  in  fig.  144.  These 
are  bolted  on  the  table;  one  of  these  is  shown  with  a 
"  dividing  index." 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


161 


PLANING  MACHINE  TOOLS. 

The  following  illustrations  show  the  tools  in  general 
use  in  planing  machines.  The  name  of  each  tool  is  given 
below  in  Note. 


Figs.  145-156. 


NOTE. — No.  i,  Left-hand  Side  Tool ;  No.  2,  Right-hand  Side 
Tool ;  No.  3,  Left-hand  Diamond-point  Tool ;  No.  4,  Right-hand 
Diamond-point  Tool ;  No.  5,  Broad-nose,  or  Stocking  Tool ;  No.  6, 
Scaling  Tool ;  No.  7,  Right-hand  Siding  Tool ;  No.  8,  Left  hand  Siding 
Tool ;  No.  9,  Finishing  Tool,  for  corners ;  No.  10,  Cutting-off  Tool ; 
No.  n,  Left-hand  Bevel  Tool ;  No.  12,  Right-hand  Bevel  Tool. 


362 


The  Advanced  Machinist, 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  163 


SHAPING  MACHINES. 


The  shaper,  or  shaping  machine,  is  a  straight-line 
cutter  of  the  planer  class ;  they  perform  a  large  variety  of 
operations  formerly  executed  by  hand-chipping  and  filing. 

In  this  machine  the  work  is  held  stationary,  the  tool 
being  given  a  reciprocating  cutting  motion. 

The  feed-motion  of  shaping  machines  may  be  commu- 
nicated either  to  the  cutting-tool  or  to  the  work ;  when  the 
feed  is  given  to  the  cutting-tool  the  machine  is  described 
as  a  traveling-head  shaper ;  such  an  arrangement  is  shown 
in  fig.  157. 

More  generally — and  in  all  small  shapers — the  feed  is 
communicated  to  the  work-table,  as  shown  in  fig.  158,  the 
ram  or  tool-head  having  no  side  travel,  the  feed  motion 
being  given  to  the  table  carrying  the  work. 

The  shaper  is  a  useful  and  handy  tool,  and  is  made 
in  a  variety  of  forms  for  special  purposes,  the  work  ranging 
from  key  grooves  in  shafting  to  planing  valves  and  steam 
ports  in  engine  cylinders. 

Fig.  157  shows  a  usual  type  of  traveling-head  shaper; 
the  tool-head  is  carried  in  a  saddle  having  variable  self- 
acting  feed  in  either  direction ;  it  has  also  a  rapid  move- 
ment along  the  bed  by  hand  through  a  rack  and  pinion,  or 
in  some  cases  it  is  operated  by  a  powerful  square-cut 
screw ;  the  tool  has  ratchet  down-feed  motion ;  it  can  be 
swiveled  and  will  act  at  an  angle ;  two  tables  are  provided, 

NOTE — Shaping  machines  are  generally  run  at  a  tool  speed  of  155 
to  20  feet  per  minute. 


164 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


PLANING  OPERATIONS. 

each  having  a  hand  movement  along  the  bed,  and  also  a 
vertical  adjustment  by  screws ;  one  table  has,  generally,  a 
horizontal  surface  for  clamping  work,  the  other  being  pro- 
vided with  horizontal  and  vertical  slotted  surfaces  for 
clamping  the  work  in  any  desired  position. 


Fig.  158. 

For  forming  teeth  in  spur-wheels  cut  out  of  solid 
blanks,  shapers  of  special  design  are  made,  of  which  an 
example  is  given  in  fig.  159 — it  is  the  "Fellows'  Gear 
Shaper," 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


165 


SHAPING   MACHINES. 

At  B,  C,  are  change  gears ;  D,  the  "  module  "  or  pitch 
gear,  the  number  of  teeth  of  which  must  have  a  fixed  ratio 
with  the  teeth  of  the  cutter ;  E,  feed  trip  ;  F,  lower  index ; 
Gy  apron  ;  //,  chip  pan  ;  /,  work  arbor ;  /,  cutter ;  K,  cutter 

Q 


Fig.  159- 

slide ;  Z,  work  support ;  M,  saddle  binder ;  JV,  saddle 
adjustment ;  O,  upper  index ;  P,  adjustment  for  the  posi- 
tion of  cutter;  Q,  to  rotate  cutter;  R,  driving  crank; 
S,  pilot  wheel ;  J1,  locking  pin  ;  £7,  apron  lever ;  V,  detach- 
able lever ;  W,  worm  adjustment. 


1 66  The  Advanced  Machinist, 

PLANING  OPERATIONS. 

The  Fellows  Gear  Shaper  goes  back  to  first  principles 
and  generates  its  tooth  form  from  flat  and  circular  surfaces 
which  can  be  made  absolutely  true  and  can  be  proven  to 
be  so. 

The  work  is  done  automatically,  by  a  circular  cutter 
of  the  correct  pitch. 


Fig.  1 60. 

An  example  of  the  work  produced  is  shown  in  fig.  160. 
This  is  effected  as  follows :  The  blank  to  be  cut  is  securely 
fixed  on  the  work  arbor  and  the  machine  being  started, 
the  cutter  reciprocating  vertically  on  its  center  line 
is  fed  towards  the  blank,  and  cuts  its  way  to  the 
proper  depth ;  at  this  point  both  cutter  and  blank  begin  to 
revolve,  the  cutter  maintaining  its  reciprocating  motion  ; 
this  revolution  of  the  cutter  and  blank  is  obtained  by 
external  mechanism,  which  insures  that  the  movement 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


167 


SHAPING  MACHINES. 

shall  be  as  though  the  cutter  and  blank  were  two  complete 
gears  in  correct  mesh;  fig.  161  shows  a  section  through  the 
centers  of  blank  and  cutter  which  will  explain  the  process 
of  cutting  an  external-toothed  gear  wheel ;  internal  gears 
can  be  cut  with  equal  ease  and  regularity. 

Fig.  161   shows  the  action   of  the   gear  cutter,  also 
each  cut  and  the  wedge  form  of  the  gear  shaper  chips. 


Fig.  161. 


The  combined  result  of  rotary  and  reciprocatory 
motions  is  that  the  cutter  teeth  generate  conjugate  teeth 
in  the  blanks  which  mesh  correctly  with  the  cutter  teeth 
and  with  each  other. 

Fig.  162  illustrates  a  device  for  setting  planing  or 
shaper  tools  ;  it  consists  of  a  body  containing  a  spirit  level, 
the  bubble  of  which  appears  through  an  elongated  opening 


1 68 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


DEVICE  FOR  SETTING  TOOI^S. 

formed  in  the  top  plate,  attached  to  the  body  and  provided 
at  its  side  with  linear  graduations  having  their  zero  points 
coinciding  with  the  zero  point  of  the  bubble.  The  body  is 
provided  with  a  downwardly  extending  web  terminating  in 


Fig.  162. 

legs,  extending  at  an  angle  of  150  degrees  and  having  their 
apex  in  vertical  alignment  with  the  bubble  of  the  spirit 
level.  The  outer  faces  of  the  legs  are  provided  with  linear 
graduations,  reading  from  the  apex  outwardly. 

NOTE. — The  figure  shows  the  instrument  on  the  shaft  and  the  tool 
in  position  in  the  tool  post  ready  to  cut  a  keyseat.  For  setting  a 
square- nose  tool  in  the  shaper  or  planer,  to  cut  a  keyseat  or  groove, 
the  operator  places  the  instrument  upon  the  shaft  with  the  legs  touch- 
ing the  sides  of  the  shaft  and  turns  the  instrument  until  the  bubble  of 
the  spirit  level  is  at  zero.  The  planer  tool  is  then  brought  to  the  cor- 
rect position  by  aid  of  the  graduations  and  is  set  with  its  edge  parallel 
with  the  top  surface  of  the  instrument. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  i6< 


THE  SLOTTING  MACHINE. 


The  slotting  machine  may  be  classed  as  a  vertical 
shaper,  or  planing  machine ;  it  performs  straight  line 
cutting;  the  tool,  as  in  the  shaper,  receives  the  motion, 
the  bed  or  table  being  stationary,  except  for  feed  adjust- 
ment. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  slotters,  both  light  and 
heavy ;  the  small  machines  are  usually  crank-driven,  the 
larger  ones  have  steel  racks  and  pinions  driven  by  a  train 
of  spur  gears,  with  shifting  belts ;  for  slotting  heavy  forge 
work,  especially  cutting  propeller  shaft  cranks  out  of  the 
solid,  they  are  built  of  great  cutting  power. 

The  principal  features  aimed  at  in  all,  are  smooth 
running  and  convenient  handling  of  the  work. 

The  advantageous  features  of  the  slotter  are,  first,  that 
the  lay-out  of  the  work  is  always  visible,  the  line  to  be 
worked  to  being  on  top  where  the  tool  begins  to  cut, 
instead  of  where  it  finishes  the  cut  as  in  the  case  of  the 
shaper ;  and  secondly,  that  there  are  three  feeds — longi- 
tudinal, cross  and  circular — all  with  a  wide  range. 

For  the  slotting  of  interior  surfaces,  and  the  planing  of 
such  exterior  surfaces  as  for  one  reason  or  another  cannot 
be  done  advantageously  on  the  planer  or  turned  in  the 
lathe,  and  where  the  pieces  are  of  medium  or  large  size, 
the  slotter  is  a  necessity. 

For  cutting  keyways  in  wheels,  etc.,  the  slotting 
machine  has  no  equal  and  in  addition  nearly  all  descrip- 
tions of  broaching  work  can  be  accomplished  with  it. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


PLANING  OPERATIONS. 

Fig.  163  shows  a  well  known  form  of  the  tool  in 
common  use  for  machine-shop  purposes ;  the  tool-bar  can 
be  adjusted  to  suit  the  height  of  the  work,  or  any  length 


Fig.  163. 


of  tool  used;  the  work-table  has  power  feed  for  the  lon- 
gitudinal, cross  and  circular  movement ;  all  the  feeds  are 
moved  at  the  top  of  the  stroke,  when  the  tool  is  clear  of 
the  work. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  171 

THE  SLOTTING  MACHINE. 

The  ram,  or  tool-bar,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  is 
counter-weighted  and  easily  regulated ;  the  hand  cranks 
and  levers  for  all  adjustments  are  placed  within  easy  reach 
of  the  operator. 

The  cutting  tools  in  slotting  machines  are  gripped  in 
a  relief  tool  block,  J,  carried  by  the  ram,  K,  moving  verti- 
cally in  the  slides  of  the  upright  frame,  A  ;  the  work  being 
operated  on  is  fixed  on  the  work  table,  H,  which  lies  hori- 
zontal beneath  the  ram  ;  the  work  table  is  carried  on  a  com- 
pound slide,  having  two  horizontal  motions:  the  lower  slide 
or  carriageway,  G,  is  operated  by  the  rod  or  feed-shaft,  J", 
and  the  end  main  feed  gear,  F;  the  upper  slide  or  saddle- 
way,  E,  is  operated  in  a  similar  manner  by  the  main  inter- 
mediate gear,  C.  D  is  the  transverse  adjusting  screw;  the 
small  wheel,  B,  operates  a  worm,  which  engages  with  a 
worm  wheel  on  the  periphery  of  the  circular  table,  H,  to 
rotate  it ;  the  tool-posts,  /,  /,  are  carried  in  the  relief  tool, 
block  or  apron,/;  the  ram,  K,  may  be  varied  according  to 
the  thickness  of  the  work  on  the  table  by  the  adjusting 
screw,  Z,  on  the  ram;  M  is  the  counterweight  which  bal- 
ances the  ram  and  prevents  "jump"  when  the  tool  is  enter- 
ing or  leaving  the  work;  N  is  the  connecting  rod  attached 
to  the  crank-plate,  (9,  which  gives  motion  to  the  ram ;  the 
gear,  P,  on  the  crank-plate  shaft  is  driven  by  a  pinion  on 
the  driving-cone  pulley,  Q;  the  feed-rod,  R,  gives  motion 
to  the  feed-shaft,  T,  by  means  of  the  bell-crank,  S. 

The  cutting-bar  slide  is  made  adjustable  on  the  out- 
side of  frame,  and  by  making  the  slide  very  heavy,  no 
matter  at  what  point  the  cutting-bar  is  set,  it  will  be  very 
rigid.  To  adjust  the  cutting-bar  slide,  it  is  only  necessary 


172 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


PLANING  OPERATIONS. 

to  tighten  up  one  of  the  gib  screws  and  loosen  the  clamp- 
ing bolts,  and  by  revolving  the  driving  cone  the  slide  can 
be  adjusted  in  any  desired  position  to  bring  it  down  close 
to  the  work. 

The  accompanying  drawings  (fig.  174  being  a  side 
view  and  fig.  175  a  front  view)  will  show  the  detail  of  the 
relief  tool-block  on  all  these  machines. 

A  is  the  adjustable  slide  attached  to  the  main  frame 
by  the  bolts  C;  B  is  the  ram  having  slides  H,  H\  D  is  the 


B. 


Fig.  174. 


Fig-   175- 


pivot  or  pin  on  which  the  apron  or  tool-box  E  hinges  ;  F  is 
the  relief  spring  which  presses  the  apron  E  against  the  ram 
B  on  the  downward  or  cutting  stroke  of  the  tool,  as  illus- 
strated  in  fig.  176;  on  the  return  or  idle  stroke,  the  relief 
spring  yields  and  takes  the  pressure  off  the  cutting  point 
of  the  tool,  which  is  carried  in  the  tool  posts  G. 

Fig.  177  shows  a  form  of  machine  used  largely  in 
machine  shops  for  cutting  keyways  up  to  one  inch  wide ;  it 
is  constructed  on  the  principle  of  a  broacher  or  drift  cutter, 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


173 


THE  SLOTTING  MACHINE. 

the  work  being  fixed  to  the  adjustable  table,  A,  by  the 
heavy  clamping,  D.  The  cutter-bar,  6",  which  has  coarse 
teeth,  as  shown,  is  drawn  through  the  work :  there  is  a  pro- 
vision for  automatic  relief  on  the  return  stroke,  which 
prevents  the  breaking  of  the  cutter-teeth ;  B  is  the  sup- 
porting bracket  used  when  cutting  sleeves  or  hubs ;  it  has  an 
adjusting  screw,  C,  for  holding  the  work ;  the  clamp,  D,  is 
used  for  holding  all  large  work  such  as  pulleys,  spur  and 


Fig.  176. 

bevel  gears,  etc.,   being   fixed    by  the  screwed  studs,  Ey 
which  compress  springs  Q. 

An  adjustable  chuck,  F,  is  used  for  centering  small 
work ;  the  vertical  cutter  bar,  G,  is  connected  to  the  cross- 
head,  V,  which  reciprocates  in  vertical  guides  under  the 
table ;  a  scale,  //,  is  provided  for  graduating  the  depth  of 
the  key  seat ;  collars  or  packing,  /,  regulate  the  height  of 


174 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


PLANING  OPERATIONS. 

the  clamp,  D ;  an  adjustable  clamp  arm,  /,  is  used  for 
holding  small  work ;  it  has  hand  feed  screw  ;  an  adjusting 
post,  Ny  and  clamp  screw,  M,  for  attachment  to  the  table. 

c  H    », 

/  A 


- 


Fig.  177- 


The  spur  gear  enclosed  in  case,  O,  are  driven  by  the 
tight  and  loose  pulleys  revolving  at  175  revolutions  per 
minute ;  in  this  machine  the  work  is  chucked  by  the  hole 
or  bore. 


76 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


Fig.  178. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  177 


MILLING  MACHINES. 


A  milling  machine  is  a  power  machine-tool  for  shaping 
metal  by  means  of  a  cylindrical  cutter  or  serrated  spindle. 

No  special  tool  has  come  more  rapidly  to  the  front  in 
recent  years  than  the  milling  machine ;  by  its  use  a  large 
variety  of  work  which  was  formerly  done  by  the  planer, 
shaper,  and  by  hand,  is  now  performed  on  various  types  of 
these  tools. 

A  milling  machine  has  been  defined  as  "  a  whole  ma- 
chine shop  in  itself";  it  has  a  movable  table,  to  which  the 
work  is  fixed  and  on  which  it  is  brought  to  the  cutter ;  it 
is  fitted  with  index-plates  and  other  appliances  for  securing 
accuracy  in  the  work  executed. 

Milling  is  nearly  identical  with  grinding ;  the  former  is 
a  cutting  and  the  latter  an  abrading  process ;  the  milling 
machine  resembles  in  its  action  a  high  type  of  emery- 
grinder  ;  the  rotating  cutter  in  the  grinder  being,  however, 
of  emery,  while  in  the  milling  machine  it  is  a  steel  cutter, 
the  latter  producing  plain,  curved  or  special  formed  surfaces 
on  the  material  operated  upon. 

Metal  may  be  cut  away  by  a  rotary  milling  cutter  at 
from  four  to  ten  times  the  speed  at  which  it  can  be  cut  in 
a  shaping  or  planing  machine. 

A  "universal  milling  machine"  is  shown  in  fig.  178; 
this  is  capable  of  cutting  spirals  on  either  taper  or  parallel 
work,  being  provided  with  an  index  head  arranged  with 
suitable  gearing  or  feed  motion  to  rotate  the  work  while  it 


78 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


MILLING  MACHINES. 

is  travelling  beneath  the  cutter;  hence,  when  these  two 
feed  motions  act  simultaneously,  the  path  of  the  work 
beneath  the  cutter  is  a  spiral,  and  the  action  of  the  revolv- 
ing cutter  in  the  work  is  therefore  similarly  spiral ;  grooves 
may  be  cut  or  spiral  projections  left  on  the  work  according 
to  the  shape  of  the  cutter  employed. 


Fig.  179  shows  a  plain  horizontal  milling  machine,  fitted 
with  a  vertical  head  and  rotary  cutter. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  179 

PARTS  OF  MILLING  MACHINE. 

Following  is  a  description  of  the  principal  parts  of 
this  machine  tool  and  their  use : 

A  is  the  standard  on  which  is  attached  all  the  main  parts  of  the 
machine. 

B  is  called  the  horn,  and  contains  the  elevating  screw  for  raising 
the  knee,  C,  which  is  adjustable  vertically  on  the  slide,  P. 

D  is  the  spindle  with  micrometer  attachment  for  operating  the 
elevating  screw  of  the  knee,  C.  This  is  also  connected  with  the 
power  feed  spindle,  W,  through  connecting  spindle  O. 

E  is  the  horizontal  adjustment  for  the  saddle,  which,  in  turn,  sup- 
ports the  table,  G.  This  is  also  connected  in  the  same  manner  as  D. 

F\&  the  hand- wheel  shown  connected  with  the  quick-return  longi- 
tudinal movement  of  the  table.  This  handle  can  also  be  used  on  the 
spindle,  K,  which  also  operates  a  quick -return  movement  connected 
with  the  table. 

G  is  the  table,  which  is  shown  with  oil  grooves  on  each  side 
and  oil  pockets  on  each  end.  On  each  end  of  the  table  on  the  side, 
and  shown  connected  by  the  T-slot  running  longitudinally  with  the 
table,  is  a  dog,  which,  by  engaging  with  the  locking  lever,  7?,  in  the 
center  of  the  saddle,  this,  in  turn,  being  connected  by  the  rod,  N,  with 
the  lever,  Z,,  throws  the  power  feed  off  when  the  machine  is  in  motion. 
This  power  feed  is  connected  to  the  longitudinal  and  transverse 
motions  of  the  table. 

H  is  the  rotary  table  which  is  shown  bolted  to  the  regular 
platen  of  the  machine  and  connected  with  the  power  feed  by  the 
spindle,  /.  This,  in  turn,  is  connected  by  gearing,  which  is  shown 
encased,  with  the  spindle,/,  which,  in  turn,  is  connected  with  power- 
feed  spindle,  W. 

M  is  the  lever  connected  with  the  interior  mechanism  of  the 
rotary  table  for  tightening  the  same  when  the  table  is  to  remain  in  a 
fixed  position. 

O  is  a  spindle  on  which  is  the  pull  gear  for  connecting  the  cross 
or  vertical  feed  with  the  power-feed  spindle,  W. 

Q  is  the  vertical  attachment. 

R  is  the  overhanging  arm,  on  which  is  used,  at  times,  the  out- 


i8o 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


board  bearing  for  supporting  the  end  of  horizontal  spindle.     S  is  the 
driving  cone  on  main  spindle  of  machine. 

T  is  the  back-geared  sleeve,  and  gears  which  are  thrown  in  con- 
nection with  the  spindle  by  the  lever,  U. 


Fig.  180. 

^is  the  feed  cone  connected  by  gearing  with  the  end  of  the  main 
spindle. 

X  is  the  feed-driving  cone,  which  is  connected  by  a  belt  with 
cone  V.  This  cone  drives  the  complete  feed  mechanism  of  the  machine. 

Fig.  1 80  shows  a  milling  machine  of  the  simplest  de- 
sign, with  horizontal  cutter ;  it  is  a  similar  machine  to  the 
one  illustrated  in  fig.  179.  without  the  vertical  head. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


181 


Fig.    181    shows  a  dividing   head   and    tail   stock  for 
a   milling   machine ;    the   index   plate   has    five    rows    of 


bo 
ft 


holes  drilled  in  circles  of  48,  56,  60,  66  and  72  ;  the  spindle 
can  be  solidly  bound  for  taking  heavy  cuts,  thus  relieving 
the  index  pin  from  strain. 


182 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


Fig.  182  shows  a  dividing  head  and  tail  stock.  In 
this  example  the  dial  is  moved  by  a  worm  and  gear  which 
turns  and  at  the  same  time  holds  the  head-stock  spindle, 
thus  relieving  the  index  pin  and  the  dial  of  strain,  and 


also  the  attendant  wear  and  loss  of  accuracy ;  the  worm 
can  be  dropped  out  of  gear  when  it  is  desirable  to  turn 
the  dial  by  hand;  the  tail-stock  spindle  has  a  vertical 
adjustment  for  taper  work,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  • 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


183 


Fig  183  shows  a  regular  vise,  mounted  on  a  graduated 
base,  and  held  by  a  beveled  friction  disk  and  bound  at  any 
angle. 


The  base  is  provided  with  two  clamping  surfaces,  so 
that  the  vise  can  be  mounted  horizontally  or  vertically,  and 
clamped  at  any  angle  in  either  position. 


84 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


The  Feed  Mechanism  is  a  special  feature  of  the 
Garvin  Milling  Machine 

As  shown  by  the  illustration,  fig.  184,  the  Change-Gear  Box  is  set 
into  the  column  and  driven  by  a  chain  from  the  spindle.  The  Feed- 
Box  is  movable  vertically  and  provided  with  an  adjusting-screw,  so 
that  any  slack  in  the  chain  can  be  taken  up  at  once.  A  slip-friction 


"iS  v  Sliding  Key 

Index  Lever 


AH  Hardened  Steel  Gears 


Fig.  184. 

device  is  set  in  the  feed-box  sprocket,  so  that  if  any  unusual  strain  is 
put  on  the  machine,  the  frictional  resistance  will  be  overcome  and 
prevent  breakage. 

Two  double  cones  of  gears  are  employed,  which  arrangement 
gives  a  larger  number,  and  greater  range,  of  feeds  than  is  possible  with 
a  single  cone.  Nine  direct  changes  are  obtained,  and  by  reversing  the 
two  outside  gears,  eighteen  changes  are  obtained,  ranging  from  fa"  to 
\"  per  revolution  of  spindle. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


185 


The  change-gears  in  the  box  are  all  hardened  steel  and  run  in  a 
bath  of  oil.  Gears  are  connected  to  the  shaft  by  means  of  two  sliding 
spring-keys,  as  shown,  which  require  no  waiting  for  key  ways  to  come 
in  line.  Each  index  lever  is  connected  to  a  sliding  key,  and  when 
each  lever  is  moved  the  key  is  changed  from  one  set  of  gears  to  another. 

The  numbers  on  the  index  table  represent  numbers  of  revolutions 
of  spindle  per  inch  travel  of  table.  Feeds  marked  "pinion  "  mean  that 
the  outside  pinion  must  be  attached  to  the  upper  shaft,  and  feeds 
marked  "gear"  mean  that  the  large  outside  gear  should  be  attached 
to  the  upper  shaft  lo  obtain  the  indicated  feed-speed.  Supposing  that 
a  feed  of  yfo/'  is  required  ;  examine  table  and  see  that  combination 

2 5  gives  this  feed  ;  first  lift  the  locking  lever,  and  then  bring  No.  2 

on  the  outside  lever  around  to  the  setting  point ;  then  No.  5  on  the 
inside  lever  is  brought  to  the  setting  point.  The  locking-lever  is  now 
pushed  down  into  place,  thereby  locking  the  index  levers  in  place, 
when  the  connection  will  be  made  for  this  feed.  These  feeds  are  all 
positive. 


Fig.  185. 


Fig.  185  represents  a  side  view  of  a  face  or  straddle 
mill  in  operation ;  the  direction  of  the  motion  of  the  tool  is 
shown  by  the  arrow — the  movement  of  the  work  being 
from  the  left  hand  to  the  tool. 


1 86 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


MILLING  OPERATIONS. 


Fig.  186. 


Fig.  187. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  187 

SPEED  FOR  MILLING  CUTTERS. 

The  face  mill  shown  in  fig.  185  is  a  form  in  general 
use ;  it  has  straight  teeth  arranged  at  equal  distances  on  its 
"  face,"  parallel  to  its  axis,  and  radial  teeth  on  one  side,  as 
shown  in  fig.  186.  When  two  of  these  mills  are  arranged 
in  pairs,  or  when  a  single  mill  has  teeth  on  its  face  and  on 
two  sides,  it  is  called  a  "  straddle"  mill. 

Should  a  mill  have  a  wide  "face,"  the  teeth  are  cut 
spirally,  as  shown  in  fig.  187;  wide,  straight  teeth  would 
not  maintain  a  uniform  cut  on  entering  or  leaving  the 
work;  with  spiral  teeth  the  cut  begins  at  one  end  of  the 
tooth ;  the  cut  being  started,  the  cutting  is  uniform,  pro- 
ducing smooth  work,  also  avoiding  a  sudden  shock  when 
entering  or  leaving  the  cut. 

The  face-mill  cutter  is  provided  with  a  center  hole, 
which  fits  on  an  arbor,  and  is  provided  with  a  keyway, 
shown  in  the  illustration ;  the  end  of  the  arbor  fitting  into 
a  conical  seat,  is  securely  held  in  the  machine  spindle,  per- 
mitting the  arbor  to  revolve  in  either  direction,  without 
becoming  released ;  the  mill  can  be  reversed  on  the  arbor, 
and  the  feed  of  the  work  can  be  changed,  which,  it  is  plain, 
could  not  be  done  if  the  mill  was  on  an  arbor  that  screwed 
upon  the  driving  spindle  of  the  machine. 

The  proper  rotating  speed  of  the  cutters  is  essential 
to  the  economical  production  of  work  done  by  milling 
machines.  The  following  rules  and  table  will  be  found  of 
value. 

RULE. — Divide  the  required  speed  per  minute  in  inches  y 
by  the  circumference  of  the  cutter  in  inches •,  and  the  result 
is  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute  of  the  cutter. 


i88 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


MILLING  OPERATIONS. 


Fig.  189. 
Angle  or  Spiral  Cutter. 


Fig.  188. 
Angle  or  Spiral  Cutter. 


Fig.  191. 
Face  Milling  Cutter 


Fig.  192. 
Angle  or  Spiral  Cutter. 


Fig.  193. 
Face  Milling  Cutter. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


189 


SPEEDS  FOR  MILLING  CUTTERS. 

EXAMPLE  FOR  FIGURING  CUTTER  SPEEDS. — If  a 
milling  cutter  is  3  inches  in  diameter,  and  it  is  required  to 
cut  wrought  iron  at  a  peripheral  speed  of  40  feet  per  min- 
ute, how  many  revolutions  per  minute  must  the  cutter 
make?  Now, 

40X12"  480  inches 


3"  X  3- 1416        9.4248"  circum. 


=  51  revols.,  nearly.     Ans. 


RULE. — Multiply  the  circumference  of  the  cutter  in 
inches  by  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  cutter  per  minute, 
divide  by  12,  the  result  is  the  cutting  speed  per  minute 
in  feet. 

If  a  milling  cutter  of  4  inches  diameter  makes  60 
revolutions  per  minute,  what  is  its  peripheral  cutting 
speed  in  feet  per  minute? 


4X3.1416X60 


12 


63  feet  per  minute,  nearly.     Ans. 


SPEEDS   FOR   MILLING   CUTTERS 


Brass 

Cast  Iron 

Machine 
Steel 

Tool  Steel 
Annealed 

Ft.  per  min.  .  . 

80  to  120 

40  to  60 

35  to  45 

25  to  35 

The  speed  of  the  cutters  varies  considerably  with  the 
kind  of  material  to  be  operated  upon,  and  is  another  case 
where  the  workman  will  be  called  upon  to  use  his  own 
judgment.  The  table  shown  above  may  be  taken  as  a 
guide. 


190 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


MILLING  OPERATIONS. 


Fig.  201. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


191 


SPEEDS  FOR  MILLING  CUTTERS. 

It  is  more  satisfactory  to  run  milling  cutters  up  to 
nearly  the  maximum  speed,  with  comparatively  light  feed, 
than  to  reduce  the  speed  of  cutter,  and  overfeed  the 
work. 

A  second  table  is  added  to  the  one  printed  on  page 
189;  this  gives  the  speeds  for  roughing  and  finishing,  and 
also  the  traverse  feed. 

TABLE    SHOWING    AVERAGE    MILLING    SPEEDS,    VIZ.,    THE 

PERIPHERY   SPEED   OF  CUTTER  (IN   FEET) 

PER    MINUTE. 


Steel 

Wrought 
Iron 

Cast 
Iron 

Gun 
Metal 

Brass 

Roughing  cut  

3O 

AO 

60 

80 

1  2O 

Finishing  Cut  

4O 

cc 

7^ 

IOO 

IA.O 

Feed  per  min.,  ins.  . 

l"tof 

f  "  tO  2" 

/  D 
i"toii" 

Iito2// 

2* 

Where  there  is  no  great  depth  of  material  to  cut  away, 
these  feeds  may  be  taken  as  the  maximum  figures. 

On  page  188  are  illustrated  a  variety  of  milling  cutters 
or  "  mills." 

Figs.  1 88  and  189  are  angle  mills  used  in  cutting  spiral 
grooves. 

Fig.  190  is  a  double  angle  cutter. 

Figs.  191  and  193  are  face  milling  cutters. 

Fig.  192  is  an  angle  or  spiral  cutter. 

On  page  190 :  figs.  194-196  are  T-slot  cutters,  figs.  197 
and  198  are  bevel  mills,  fig.  199  is  an  end  mill  or  shank  cut- 
ter, figs.  200  and  201  are  surface  mills  or  form  cutters. 


I92 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


MILLING  OPERATIONS. 


Fig.  205. 


Counter  Bore  Mills. 


Fig   206. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  193 


MILLS  AND   CUTTERS. 


Fig.  207. 


Fig.  208. 


Fig.  209 


Fig.  210. 


Fig.  211. 


Fig.  212. 


Fig.  213. 


Fig.  214. 


194 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


MILLING  OPERATIONS. 

Figs.  202-204  are  rose  mills  or  groove  cutters. 

Figs.  205  and  206  are  counter-bore  mills,  or  irregular 
cutters. 

On  page  193 :  fig.  207  is  a  special  surface  cutter,  fig. 
208  is  a  hollow  end  mill. 

Fig.  209  is  a  center  reamer. 

Fig.  210  is  a  counter-bore  mill. 

Fig.  211  is  a  parallel  reamer. 

Figs.  212-21 4  are  taper  reamers. 


Fig.  215. 

Fig.  215  exhibits  a  side  cutter  in  operation,  finishing 
the  end  of  a  milling  machine  table  ;  formerly  this  work  was 
done  in  a  planing  machine,  which  required  to  be  very  large, 
in  order  to  permit  the  casting  to  pass  between  the  housings. 


The  Advanctd  -\fackinist.  195 


MILLING  OPERATIONS. 

Fig.  216  illustrates  a  rose  mill  (see  fig.  203)  operating 
on  the  periphery  of  a  circular  casting,  cutting  a  groove ; 
this  class  of  work  can  be  done  very  much  faster  on  a  mill- 


Fig.  216. 


ing  machine  than  it  could  be  accomplished  in  a  lathe ;  in 
addition,  the  shape  of  the  recess  is  secured  without  a  possi- 
bility of  an  error  on  the  part  of  the  operator,  by  the  use  of 
the  rose  mill. 


196 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


MILLING  OPERATIONS. 

Fig.  217  illustrates  a  bevel  or  angle  mill  in  operation, 
finishing  a  cone  or  bevel  surface  on  a  circular  casting ;  this 
cutter  bevels  the  internal  face  of  a  corresponding  ring,  in^ 


Fig.  217. 


suring  accuracy  of  fit  between  the  two  faces ;  this  mill  is 
largely  used  for  economically  finishing  valves  and  many 
forms  of  similar  work, 


TJic  Advanced  Machinist. 


197 


MILLING  OPERATIONS. 

Fig.  218  shows  an  angle  mill  in  operation,  finishing 
the  parallel  vees  on  the  inside  of  a  sliding-head  casting ; 
both  the  vees  can  be  finished  at  one  setting ;  the  slides  can 


Fig.  218. 


be  made  to  match  in  duplication,  or  duplicate  work,  in  less 
time  in  the  milling  machine  than  the  same  work  could  be 
done  in  a  planer.  For  the  four  last  illustrations  credit  is 
due  to  the  Becker-Brainard  Milling  Machine  Co, 


198 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


Fig.  219. 


200 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


Fig.  220. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  201 


DRILLING  OPERATIONS. 


The  word  "  drill  "  has  a  history ;  it  is  formed  from  the 
word  "  rille,"  now  called  rill,  meaning  "  a  channel,"  hence 
the  root  signification  of  the  word  is  "  to  turn,  wind,  or 
twist?'  a  trickling  stream  wearing  its  own  channel. 

A  drill  is  a  tool  to  pierce  holes  ;  a  drilling  machine  is 
adapted  for  drilling  holes  in  metal ;  boring  and  drilling  are 
nearly  the  same,  the  former  term  being  applied  to  very 
large  and  the  latter  word  to  smaller  operations ;  drilling, 
too,  differs  from  boring  in  that  the  latter  term  applies 
specially  to  the  enlarging  and  "  truing  "  of  a  hole  already 
formed. 

The  operation  called  drilling  is  the  perforation  of  solid 
metal  with  revolving  tools ;  these  are  made  pointed  and 
adapted  to  suit  the  work.  The  tool  receives  the  "  feed," 
the  work  being  stationary. 

Two  classes  of  stress  are  imposed  upon  drilling 
machines ;  this  is  owing  to  the  fact,  never  to  be  forgotten, 
that  a  revolving  drill  does  not  cut  at  its  central  point, 
while  its  outermost  circumference  may  have  excellent 
cutting  effect ;  hence,  the  two  strains,  one  of  direct  press- 
ure and  the  other  of  twisting  or  torsion,  are  to  be  always 
reckoned  with  in  designing  a  drilling  machine. 

The  torsion  is  easily  met  by  a  spindle  of  high  carbon 
steel,  accurately  cut  gearing,  and  stiff  driving  shafts;  to 
reach  large  work  the  drill  must  overhang,  and  therefore 
needs  a  very  strong  frame  to  stand  the  end  pressu*~. 


2O2 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  203 

DRILLING   OPERATIONS. 

Drilling  machines  are  made  in  many  forms  and  sizes, 
suitable  for  fixing  to  the  floor,  the  bench  or  the  wall, 
according  to  requirements. 

Drilling  machines  are  described  by  some  special  feature 
which  they  possess,  as  a  "single  cutting,"  "multiple  drill- 
ing," "direct,"  "double-geared,"  "  rigid,"  "  radial,"  "self- 
acting,"  "friction  feed,"  etc. 

Fig.  221  shows  a  vertical  drilling  machine,  double- 
geared,  with  hand  and  self-acting  feed,  and  adjustable  table, 
with  the  parts  lettered,  to  aid  in  the  description  following : 

A  is  a  substantial  base  plate,  having  planed  upper  face  having 
bolt-holes  for  fixing  to  foundations,  and  also  provided  with  T-slots  for 
bolts  used  to  fix  large  or  special  work,  which,  on  account  of  size  or 
shape,  cannot  be  operated  on  the  ordinary  table,  C. 

B  is  the  upright  pillar  frame,  or  standard,  which  carries  the  drill 
spindle  and  its  driving  and  feed  motion. 

C  is  a  circular  table,  or  face-plate,  provided  with  slot-grooves  for 
sliding  clamping  bolts  ;  it  has  a  cylindrical  box  on  the  under  side 
which  fits  into  a  recess  in  its  supporting  bracket. 

D  is  the  vertical  drill  spindle  or  arbor  which  has  recess  and  pro- 
vision for  fixing  drills  and  boring  tools. 

E  shows  the  power — fast  and  loose — pulleys  for  shifting  belt. 

.Fis  the  speed  cone  fixed  on  pulley  spindle. 

G  is  the  speed  cone  which  receives  motion  from  Cone  F. 

H  is  the  spur  gear,  to  reduce  speed  of  cone  and  thereby  increase 
the  power  of  cutter. 

/shows  a  pair  of  bevel  wheels  which  transmit  the  motion  and 
power  from  the  horizontal  spindle  to  the  vertical  drill  spindle,  D ;  the 
bevel  wheel  slides  on  spindle  Z?,  and  rotates  it  by  means  of  a  key  or 
feather  sliding  in  a  groove  running  the  length  of  spindle. 

J  exhibits  the  hand-ratchet  motion  for  raising  and  lowering  table 
by  a  spur  pinion,  or  ratchet  spindle,  geared  into  rack  K. 


204  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

DRILLING  OPERATIONS. 

A"  is  the  rack  fitted  into  a  groove  in  the  bracket ;  this  rack  slides 
loose  with  bracket  round  the  pillar,  and  is  used  to  raise  and  lower  the 
table,  the  rack  being  confined  between  the  collars  of  the  pillar. 

L  is  the  bracket  supporting  the  table  ;  this  slides  every  way  on 
pillar  according  to  adjustment. 

M  shows  a  foot-lever  actuating  belt  fork  or  guide  on  fast  and 
loose  pulleys  for  starting  or  stopping  the  drill. 

N  is  a  self-acting  feed  for  vertical  spindle  D ;  it  receives  its 
motion  from  horizontal  shaft  through  pulley  O,  which  communicates  it 
through  a  pair  of  spur  wheels  and  a  pair  of  worm  wheels  to  a  spur 
pinion  gearing  into  rack  ^?  on  sleeve  Q. 

O  is  a  pulley  for  self-acting  feed  motion. 

Pis  a  hand  wheel  for  hand-feed  attachment  fixed  on  worm  spindle  ; 
when  using  the  hand  feed  the  self-acting  feed  can  be  disconnected  by 
cam  attachment. 

Q  is  a  sleeve  for  raising  or  lowering  drill  spindle  Z>,  which 
revolves  in  it. 

R  is  a  rack  on  sleeve. 

.Sis  a  hand  lever  for  quickly  adjusting  spindle  Z>,  used  for  hand 
feed. 

T  is  a  balance  weight  and  chain  to  counterbalance  weight  of 
spindle  Z>,  drill,  etc. 

On  page  198  is  shown  a  wall  drilling-machine ;  it  is 
double  geared,  with  self-acting  feed  motion,  as  shown  in 
the  upper  portion  of  the  illustration  ;  the  lower  part  shown 
is  the  table,  with  an  elevating  screw  beneath  to  regulate 
the  height ;  these  portions  shown  are  bolted  to  a  wall, 
hence  the  name. 

The  advantage  of  the  machine  consists  in  its  porta- 
bility, allowing  its  use  in  rough  and  temporary  situations, 
aside  from  its  extreme  lightness. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


DRILLING   MACHINES. 

Fig.  220  shows  one  form  of  the  approved  "  radial  " 
drill  ;  the  name  is  derived  from  "  radius  "  —  from  a  center. 

The  base  of  this  machine  has  traverse  slots  for  facili- 
tating the  clamping  of  the  work  ;  the  column  extends  to 
the  top  of  the  sleeve,  which  is  a  feature  affording  stiffness 
to  the  machine,  which  is  so  essential  to  true  work  ;  the 
radial  arm  is  raised  and  lowered  by  power  under  the  control 
of  a  lever  located  within  convenient  reach  of  the  operator  ; 
the  arm  describes  a  free  circle  about  the  column,  which  is 
desirable  for  many  classes  of  work  ;  the  back  gears  are  fitted 
with  friction  clutches  ;  the  feed  is  automatic. 

Drills  used  in  machines  vary  in  size  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  work  ;  in  ordinary  shop  practice  f-inch  to 
3-inch  diameter  is  the  range  of  holes  drilled.  Therefore, 
tools  are  made  in  sets  ;  with  each  set  is  a  steel  socket 
which  fits  the  drill  spindle  at  one  end,  and  at  the  other  end 
the  recess  fits  all  the  drills  in  the  set  ;  they  are,  therefore, 
interchangeable. 


Fig.  222. 

A  socket  or  collet  is  shown  in  above  illustration. 

To  enable  the  drill  to  be  easily  extracted  from  the 
socket,  the  latter  is  provided  with  a  slot,  as  shown  in'  the 
figure ;  this  slot  passes  through  it ;  the  drill  end  protrudes 

NOTE. — Usually  the  sockets  are  in  sizes  from  \  to  if  inch  ;  f  to  ff 
inch  ;  \\  to  i£  inches  ;  i/0  to  2  inches,  and  2T^  to  3  inches  diameter. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


DRILL  CHUCKS. 


Fig.  224. 


into  the  stop,  so  that  a  key  driven   into   the  aperture  will 
force  the  drill  out. 

Fig.  223  shows  one  of  many  forms  of  drill  chucks  ;   it 

__-^^^==5-*^^ 


Fig.  225. 


Fig.  2260 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  207 

DRILLING   OPERATIONS. 

consists  of  two  movable  jaws  operated  by  a  spindle,  on 
which  are  formed  a  right-hand  and  a  left-hand  thread ;  the 
spindle  is  operated  by  a  key,  as  shown  ;  the  jaws  which 
grip  the  drill  move  simultaneously  towards  or  recede  from 
one  another,  closing  or  opening  as  required. 

Fig.  224  shows  a  similar  chuck  in  section. 

Fig.  225  is  a  patent  drill  chuck;  the  jaws  are  oper- 
ated by  the  action  of  a  nut  or  collar  as  shown  in  section  in 
fig.  226. 

Twist  drills  are  illustrated  in  figs.  228  and  229.  These 
are  fast  superseding  all  other  forms  of  drills  used  in  machine 
work. 

Care  must  be  exercised  in  grinding  and 
sharpening  both  the  ordinary  "  flat  drill  " 
and  the  "  twist  drill,"  to  get  a  proper  cutting 
angle.  Authorities  differ  on  the  question  of 
the  angle,  but  one  found  excellent  in  actual 
practice  is  to  grind  each  cutting  Tip  to  an 
angle  of  60°,  with  a  line  taken  through  the 
Fig.  227.  central  axis  of  the  drill,  as  shown  in  fig.  227. 


NoTE. — The  flat  drill  must  be  forged  in  order  to  keep  it  up  to  the 
required  size  and  to  keep  its  point  thin  enough  for  cutting  ;  on  account 
of  this  forging  it  is  difficult  to  get  a  flat  drill  to  run  true  ;  the  sides  of 
the  drill  form  a  very  indifferent  guide  in  the  hole  ;  the  diameter  of  the 
hole  made  by  the  drill  depends  on  the  accuracy  of  the  grinding  of  the 
cutting  edge  ;  should  one  edge  be  longer  than  the  other,  as  soon  as  the 
end  pressure  is  applied,  the  flat  drill  will  endeavor  to  revolve  on  its 
point,  and  the  tendency  of  the  drill  will  be  to  cut  eccentric,  the 
greatest  cutting  radius  making  a  larger  hole  than  the  diameter  of  the 
drill. 


208 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


TWIST  DRILLS. 


Fig.  229. 


Fig.  231. 


Fig.  230. 


Fig.  228. 

Fig.  228  is  a  roughing  drill,  having  two  cutting  edges ; 
fig.  229  is  an  enlarging  drill,  having  three  cutting  edges, 
and  fig.  230  is  a  finishing  reamer;  fig.  231  is  an  adjustable 
reamer;  ng.  232  is  an  adjustable  shell  reamer;  fig.  233  and 
fig.  234  are  fluted  shell  reamers. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


209 


DRILLING  OPERATIONS. 


Fig.  232. 


Fig.  233. 


Fig.  234. 


Fig.  235  shows  a  device  designed  for  use  on  a  twist  drill. 
To  grind  twist  drills  to  the  proper  angle,  place  the  drill 
parallel  and  against  the  left-hand  leg,  to  bring  the  cutting 
edge  parallel  with  the  other  leg.  Note  the  length  of  one 
cutting  edge  by  the  graduations,  then  turn  the  drill  half 


Fig.  235. 

way  round  to  get  the  length  of  the  other  cutting  edge,  and 
continue  turning  the  drill  and  grinding  the  edges  until 
they  are  the  same  length. 


2IO 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


TABLE  OF  SPEEDS 

The  table  below  gives  the  revolutions  per  minute 
for  drills  from  r^  inch  to  2  inch  diameter,  as  usually 
applied ;  the  table  shows  the  drill  speeds  recommended  by 
the  Morse  Twist  Drill  and  Machine  Co.  for  cutting  steel, 
iron  and  brass. 


TABLE  OF  SPEEDS  FOR  TWIST  DRILLS. 


Diameter 

Revolutions  per  Minute 

Diameter 

Revolutions  per  Minute. 

of  Drill 

of  Drill 

in  inches. 

For 

For 

For 

in  inches. 

For 

For 

For 

Steel. 

Iron. 

Brass. 

Steel. 

Iron. 

Brass. 

A 

940 

1280 

1560 

t 

75 

105 

130 

\ 

460 

660 

785 

1 
T 

65 

90 

U5 

A 

310 

42O 

540 

I 

58 

80 

100 

i 

230 
IQO 

320 
260 

400 
320 

If 
if 

Sl 
46 

70 
62 

90 
80 

l 

150 

220 

260 

'1 

42 

58 

72 

A 

130 

185 

230 

if 

39 

54 

66 

115 

1  60 

200 

If 

36 

49 

60 

A 

100 

140 

1  80 

If 

33 

45 

56 

1 

95 

130 

160 

If 

3i 

4i 

52 

2 

29 

39 

49 

To  drill  I  inch  in  soft  cast  iron  will  usually  require  for 
drill,  125  revolutions;  for  |--inch  drill,  120  revolu- 
tions; for  f -inch  drill,  100  revolutions,  and  for  i-inch  drill, 
95  revolutions. 

NOTE.— The  advantages  of  a  twist  drill  over  a  flat  drill  are 
chiefly  : — The  cuttings  can  find  free  egress  in  the  twist  drill  ;  in  the  flat 
drill  the  cuttings  jamb  between  the  hole  and  the  wedge-shape  sides  of 
the  drill,  causing  frequent  removal  of  the  drill  to  extract  the  cuttings. 
In  deep  holes  more  time  is  occupied  in  this  manner  than  in  the  actual 
cutting  operation.  The  twist  drill  always  runs  true,  and  requires  no 
retorging  or  tempering,  and,  by  reason  of  its  shape,  fits  closely  and 
produces  a  straight,  parallel  hole,  provided  tae  point  is  ground  true. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


211 


SPEED  OF  DRILLS. 


The  following  is  a  table  given  by  the  Standard  Tool 
Co.  and  recommended  by  them. 


SPEED  OF  DRILLS. 


Diameter 
of  Drill. 

Revolutions  per  Minute. 

Diameter 
of  Drill. 

Revolutions  per  Minute. 

Steel. 

Iron. 

Brass. 

Steel. 

Iron. 

Brass. 

TV 

890 

I22O 

1550 

I* 

37 

52 

63 

1 

445 

630 

775 

ITV 

35 

50 

60 

* 

291 

405 

525 

4 

34 

48 

58 

223 

305 

395 

33 

46 

55 

A 

178 

245 

315 

*i 

32 

44 

53 

I 

148 

205 

260 

in 

42 

50 

rV 

122 

175 

225 

i-J 

30 

40 

49 

i 

III 

ISO 

195 

'it 

29 

39 

46 

A 

98 

135 

175 

2 

28 

38 

45 

4 

89 

125 

155 

2»V 

28 

37 

44 

81 

1  10 

140 

27 

35 

43 

£ 

74 

IOO 

125 

2A" 

27 

34 

42 

W 

69 

95 

2i 

26 

33 

1 

63 

85 

no 

2A 

25 

33 

40 

if 

59 

80 

105 

24 

25 

32 

39 

I 

55 

75 

IOO 

2rV 

24 

31 

38 

JiV 

52 

70 

95 

24 

23 

30 

37 

!-l 

49 

68 

90 

2rV 

22 

30 

36 

*"A 

46 

65 

,  80 

2-| 

22 

29 

35 

ij- 

44 

60 

75 

2| 

21 

28 

34 

lySj- 

42 

58 

70 

2-J 

20 

27 

33 

4 

40 

56 

68 

3 

19 

26 

32 

38 

54 

65 

The  above  table  gives  a  suitable  speed  for  drills,  tor 
general  use,  but  it  can  be  increased  from  50  to  75  per  cent 
to  suit  special  conditions, 


212 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


Fig.  236. 


214 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


237. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


215 


GRINDING  OPERATIONS. 


To  grind  is  to  wear  down,  smooth  or  sharpen  by  fric- 
tion, as  by  friction  of  a  wheel  or  revolving  stone  to  give  a 
smooth  surface,  edge  or  point  to  an  object. 

To  abrade  is  the  act  of  wearing  or  rubbing  off  or  away 
by  friction  orf, attrition.  An  abrasive  is  a  material  used  for 
grinding,  such  as  emery,  sand,  powdered  glass,  etc.  The 


Fig.  238. 

operation  of  grinding  is  an  abrasive  process,  the  material 
being  ground  away  rather  than  cut;  grinding  makes  possi- 
ble the  accurate  finish  of  the  hardest  metals. 

In  modern  machine-shop  practice  the  grinding  machine 
has  become  recognized  as  an  indispensable  tool,  and  no 
shop  equipment  is  considered  complete  without  it.  The 
use  of  hardened  spindles  in  lathes,  milling  machines,  drilling 
machines,  etc.,  also  hardened  crank  pins  and  cross-head 
pins  in  steam  engines,  is  made  possible  by  its  use;  with  it 
can  be  ground  milling  cutters  of  all  shapes,  taps,  reamers, 


2l6 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


GRINDING  OPERATIONS. 


Fig.  239. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  217 

GRINDING  OPERATIONS. 

arbors,  keys,  gauges,  holes  in  cutters  or  other  articles^ 
edges,  sides  and  ends  of  flat,  square,  hexagon  or  octagon 
objects,  leaving  the  ends  square  with  the  sides  or  edges, 
and  also  many  other  kinds  of  work. 

Grinding  machines  are  of  various  designs,  and  range 
from  the  simple  rotating  emery  or  corundum  wheel  to  a 
perfectly  automatic,  self-acting  universal  and  surface-grind- 
ing machine.  One  of  the  former  is  shown  in  fig.  236.  On 
page  218,  fig.  240,  is  shown  a  machine  of  the  latter  de- 
scription. 

Fig.  236  shows  a  simple  Wet  Tool  Grinder ;  the  emery 
wheel  being  mounted  on  a  spindle,  running  in  broad  bear- 
ings, is  driven  by  the  pulley ;  the  emery  wheel  is  covered 
with  a  shield,  to  prevent  the  water  splashing ;  it  has  no 
pump  ;  the  water  trough  is  raised  to  the  wheel  by  pressing 
on  the  footpedal  shown  in  front  of  the  machine. 

Fig.  237  shows  an  emery  grinder  sharpening  a  twist 
drill ;  a  rest  is  provided  for  the  shank  of  the  drill,  also  an 
adjustable  end  stop,  for  any  length  of  drill. 

Fig.  238  shows  an  emery  grinder  sharpening  a  circular 
saw ;  a  self-centering  device  holds  the  saw  in  position  ;  the 
attachment  can  be  "  tilted  "  to  give  any  desired  bevel  to 
the  saw. 

Fig.  239  is  a  Grinder,  on  which  a  variety  of  work  can 
be  done ;  the  arbor  is  arranged  for  two  wheels,  one  on 
each  end  ;  A  is  the  "  head  "  of  the  machine,  mounted  upon 
the  "  standard  "  J;  the  head  contains  a  spindle  driven  by 
the  "  pulley  "  B,  and  having  emery  wheel  D  on  left-hand  end, 


218  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

GRINDING  OPERATIONS. 

and  cup  emery  wheel  C  on  right-hand  end  ;  H  is  the  hand- 
wheel  which  operates  the  bevel  gears  /,  and  gives  the 
vertical  adjustment  to  the  knee  N,  by  the  screw  P\  G  is 
the  hand-wheel  fastened  to  the  cross-feed  screw,  which 
moves  the  cross-carriage  M  forward  or  back ;  K  is  the 
binder-screw,  which  clamps  the  knee  N  when  in  the  re- 
quired position  ;  F  is  the  hand-wheel  fixed  on  pinion, 
which  operates  the  long  slide  E ;  L  is  the  adjusting  screw, 
which  swivels  the  pair  of  centers,  (9,  which  can  be  fixed  on 
long  slide  E,  when  grinding  reamers,  taps,  etc. 


Fig.  240. 

Fig.  240  exhibits  a  front  view  of  a  grinding  machine, 
for  straight  and  taper  work,  that  revolves  on  two  dead 
centers.  To  obtain  the  best  results,  a  great  variety  of  table 
work  and  wheel  speeds  are  necessary ;  all  speed  changes  are 
adaptation  of  the  belt  and  cone,  easily  understood  by 
operators. 

Provision  is  made  for  the  amount  of  power  and  water 
demanded  by  the  rapid  rate  at  which  the  machine  is 
designed  to  work. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


GRINDING  OPERATIONS. 


Fig.  241. 

Fig.  241  is  a  front  view  and  fig.  242  is  a  back  view  of 
the  machine  shown  in  fig.  240.  From  these  views  the 
arrangement  of  the  machine  can  be  easily  understood. 


.big.  242. 


22O 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


GRINDING  OPERATIONS. 


The  following  illustrations  show  several  of  the  many 
kinds  of  accurate  work,  for  which  the  universal  grinding 
machines  shown  in  fig.  178  are  adapted. 


243 


Fig.  243  and  fig.  244  exhibit  the  method  of  grinding 
the   sides    of    a  face,  or  straddle  mill,  by   means   of   the 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


221 


GRINDING  OPERATIONS. 


emery  wheel.  The  straddle  mill  is  placed  upon  the  table  of 
the  grinding  machine,  and  is  revolved  on  a  stud,  so  as  to 
bring  each  tooth  in  turn  under  the  action  of  the  revolving 
emery  wheel. 


Fig.  246. 


222 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


GRINDING  OPERATIONS. 

Fig.  245  shows  the  grinding  of  the  same  object,  the 
emery  wheel  acting  upon  the  face  of  the  mill,  which  is 
carried  on  a  stud  in  the  universal  cutter-head. 

Fig.  246  illustrates  the  grinding  of  a  spiral  tooth 
cutter,  carried  on  a  sleeve,  sliding  on  the  arbor,  between  the 
head  and  the  adjustable  collar. 

Fig.  247  shows  the  sharpening  of  a  tap  held  in  reamer 
centers,  which  are  fitted  in  the  universal  cutter-head. 


247. 


"POINTS"  RELATING  TO  GRINDING 
OPERATIONS-. 


It  is  considered  good  engineering  practice  to  push  the 
work  of  a  grinding  machine  to  the  utmost  limit,  get  all 
that  can  be  got  out  of  it  in  work  and  get  it  out  quick.  This 
does  not  imply  wasting  the  tool;  it  is  intended  to  save  the 
time  of  workmen.  At  the  same  time,  where  grinding  is  to 


The  Advanced  Machinist,  223 

GRINDING  OPERATIONS. 

be  done  rapidly  and  well,  a  machine  to  do  it  must  be  heavy 
and  powerful. 

The  durability  and  usefulness  of  all  machines  depend 
largely  upon  proper  care,  which  if  not  given  will  in  a  short 
time  cause  them  to  become  unreliable,  even  though  the 
machines  are  well  constructed.  The  grinding  machine 
being  a  tool  upon  which  great  accuracy  is  required,  be- 
comes, therefore,  most  susceptible  to  bad  results  through 
such  lack  of  care. 

The  machine  should  be  kept  clean  and  the  bearings 
well  lubricated,  using  the  best  oil  only,  to  prevent  gumming. 

In  order  to  produce  correct  work  it  is  important  that 
the  spindle  boxes  be  kept  in  proper  adjustment,  so  that 
there  may  be  no  lost  motion.  This  is  true  of  the  head- 
stock,  foot-stock  and  emery  wheel  spindles  and  also  the 
wheel  spindle  boxes,  which,  to  do  accurate  work,  should  be 
adjusted  closely,  even  though  they  warm  up  slightly. 

The  adjustment  of  the  emery  wheel  slide  is  equally 
important;  it  should  be  close  and  yet  not  tight  enough 
to  move  hard  ;  the  slide  should  be  well  oiled. 

Wheels  for  internal  grinding  should  be  softer  than  for 
external,  as  the  surface  in  contact  is  greater ;  therefore  the 
wheel  will  not  let  go  the  dulled  particles  so  readily.  It 
should  be  very  keen  cutting  and  of  coarser  grade  than  for 
external  grinding.  As  the  surface  speed  of  the  wheel  is 
not  as  great  as  that  for  external  grinding,  the  work  cannot 
therefore  be  done  as  rapidly,  and  more  time  must  be  given 
to  remove  the  stock,  and  the  work  must  be  revolved  slower. 

Too  great  a  variety  of  work  should  not  be  expected  of 
one  grade  of  wheel,  and  when  the  amount  of  grinding  will 


224  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

GRINDING  OPERATIONS. 

warrant  it,  several  grades  of  wheels  can  be  profitably  em- 
ployed, each  carefully  selected  for  its  particular  purpose. 

All  machines  should  be  securely  fastened  to  a  solid 
floor  or  foundation  where  there  is  no  vibration. 

To  grind  tools  without  drawing  the  temper  requires  a 
soft  grade  of  wheel,  which  would  not  be  suitable  for  rough 
work ;  moreover,  much  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the 
material  to  be  ground  as  to  whether  a  hard  or  soft,  coarse 
or  fine  wheel  should  be  used. 

A  wheel  should  be  kept  perfectly  true  and  in  balance 
to  obtain  the  best  results,  both  as  regards  rapidity  and 
accuracy  in  grinding.  For  the  sake  of  economy  it  is 
necessary  that  a  dresser  be  kept  constantly  at  hand  to 
dress  up  the  wheels  a  little  and  not  allow  them  to  become 
out  of  true. 

It  should  be  remembered,  the  contact  between  an 
emery  wheel  and  the  work  is  entirely  different  from  that 
of  the  lathe  or  planer  tool  in  operation.  In  the  latter  case 
some  extra  pressure  is  always  required  to  counteract 
spring  between  work  and  tool;  but  in  the  former  condition, 
some  material  is  removed  at  the  slightest  contact. 

The  speed  of  work  should  be  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  stock  removed  at  each  revolution,  as  the  wheel 
must  always  have  sufficient  time  to  do  its  work;  if  the 

NOTE. — There  can  be  no  hard  and  fast  rules  for  the  speed  of  emery 
and  polishing  wheels,  since  there  is  so  great  a  variety  in  the  nature  of 
the  work  to  be  done,  but  a  peripheral  speed  of  a  mile— 5,280  feet — a 
minute  for  ordinary  emery  wheels  is  commonly  regarded  as  good  prac- 
tice. For  water  tool-grinders  the  speed  is  usually  about  two-thirds  that 
of  dry  grinders,  while  on  the  other  hand,  polishing  wheels  are  gener- 
ally run  at  about  one  and  one-half,  and  buff  wheels  at  twice  the  speed 
of  dry  grinders.  Emery  wheels  are  classed  as  water  grinders  and  dry 
grinders  ;  the  former  run  at  about  one-third  less  than  the  dry  grinders, 
that  is,  about  two-thirds  of  a  mile  per  minute  on  the  surface. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  225 

GRINDING  OPERATIONS. 

work  is  revolved  too  rapidly  the  wheel  is  liable  to  crowd, 
chatter  and  waste,  and  make  an  unsatisfactory  job.  There 
is  no  fixed  rule  as  to  speed,  but  by  a  little  experience  the 
operator  will  soon  learn  what  is  best. 

These  numbers  represent  the  grades  of  emery,  and  the 
degree  of  smoothness  of  surface  may  be  compared  to  that 
left  by  files  as  follows : 

8  and    10  represent  the  cut  of  a  wood  rasp. 

16   "       20        "  "      "     "  a  coarse  rough  file. 

24   "       30        "  "      "     "  an  ordinary  rough  file. 

36   "      40        "  "      "     "  a  bastard  file. 

46    "       60        "  "      "     "  a  second-cut  file. 

70   "       80        "  "      "     *  a  smooth  file. 

90   "     ico        "  "      "     "  a  superfine  file. 

120  F  and  FF    "          "      "     "  a  dead-smooth  file. 

Nearly  all  emery  wheel  makers  use  a  letter  to  desig- 
nate the  grade  of  hardness  of  wheels,  grade  M  being  the 
medium  between  the  hardest  and  the  softest.  All  letters 
before  M  are  softer,  as  L,  K,  J,  I,  in  the  order  given ;  while 
all  letters  after  M  are  harder,  as  N,  O,  P,  in  their  order. 

Wheels  are  numbered  from  coarse  to  fine ;  that  is,  a  wheel  made 
of  No.  60  emery  is  coarser  than  one  made  of  No.  100.  Within  certain 
limits,  and  other  things  being  equal,  a  coarse  wheel  is  less  liable  to 
change  the  temperature  of  the  work  and  less  liable  to  glaze  than  a  fine 
wheel.  As  a  rule,  the  harder  the  stock  the  coarser  the  wheel  required 
to  produce  a  given  finish.  For  example,  coarser  wheels  are  required 
to  produce  a  given  surface  upon  hardened  steel  than  upon  soft  steel, 
while  finer  wheels  are  required  to  produce  this  surface  upon  brass  or 
copper  than  upon  either  hardened  or  soft  steel. 

Wheels  are  graded  from  soft  to  hard,  and  the  grade  is  denoted  by 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  A  denoting  the  softest  grade.  A  wheel  is 
soft  or  hard  chiefly  on  account  of  the  amount  and  character  of  the 
material  combined  in  its  manufacture  with  emery  or  corundum.  But 


226  The  Advanced  Machinist. 


GRINDING  OPERATIONS. 

Other  characteristics  being  equal,  a  wheel  that  is  composed  of  fine  emery 
is  more  compact  and  harder  than  one  made  of  coarser  emery.  For 
instance,  a  wheel  of  No.  100  emery,  grade  B,  will  be  harder  than  one 
of  No.  60  emery,  same  grade. 

The  softness  of  a  wheel  is  generally  its  most  important  character- 
istic. A  soft  wheel  is  less  apt  to  cause  a  change  of  temperature  in  the 
work,  or  to  become  glazed,  than  a  harder  one.  It  is  best  for  grinding 
hardened  steel,  cast-iron,  brass,  copper  and  rubber,  while  a  harder  or 
more  compact  wheel  is  better  for  grinding  soft  steel  and  wrought  iron. 
As  a  rule,  other  things  being  equal,  the  harder  the  stock  the  softer  the 
wheel  required  to  produce  a  given  finish. 

Generally  speaking,  a  wheel  should  be  softer  as  the  surface  in 
contact  with  the  work  is  increased.  For  example,  a  wheel  i/i6-inch 
face  should  be  harder  than  one  }&  inch  face.  If  a  wheel  is  hard  and 
heats  or  chatters,  it  can  often  be  made  somewhat  more  effective  by 
turning  off  a  part  of  its  cutting  surface  ;  but  it  should  be  clearly  under- 
stood that  while  this  will  sometimes  prevent  a  hard  wheel  from  heating 
or  chattering  the  work,  such  a  wheel  will  not  prove  as  economical  as 
one  of  the  full  width  and  proper  grade,  for  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  grade  should  always  bear  the  proper  relation  to  the  width. 

Pieces  intended  to  be  ground  can  frequently  be  profit- 
ably turned  in  the  lathe  to  near  the  finished  size  before 
being  tempered.  After  hardening^  the  pieces  can  then  be 
accurately  finished  in  the  grinding  machine,  thus  securing 
the  utmost  accuracy  united  with  great  durability.  Many 
pieces  of  work  require  but  one  cut  to  prepare  them  for  the 
grinding  machine;  if  the  tool  has  dulled  or  the  work  has 
sprung  in  hardening  or  in  turning,  it  causes  no  trouble 
when  being  ground. 

NOTE. — Emery  is  a  granular  mineral  substance  and  belongs  to  the 
species  corundum,  but  is  not  pure,  being  mixed  with  magnetic  or 
hematite  ores.  Corundum  is  a  mineral  substance  found  in  a  crystalline 
torin.  Its  hardness  is  next  to  the  diamond.  Emery  is  granular  corun- 
dum more  or  less  impure.  As  an  abrasive,  corundum  cannot  be  ex- 
celled, its  diamond  like  hardness,  brittleness  and  sharpness  giving  it 
lasting  qualities. 


228 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


Fig.  248. 


PUNCHING  AND  SHEARING. 


To  punch  is  to  pierce,  to  perforate  or  indent  a  solid 
material. 

To  shear  is  to  clip  or  cut  with  a  sharp  instrument ;  the 
act  or  operation  of  cutting  by  means  of  two  edges  of 
sharpened  steel,  as  on  the  principle  upon  which  shears  are 
operated. 

A  punch  is  a  tool,  the  working  end  of  which  is  pointed 
or  blunt,  and  which  acts  either  by  pressure  or  percussion — 
applied  in  the  direction  of  its  length — to  drive  out  or  in, 
or  to  make  a  hole  or  holes,  as  in  sheet  or  plate  iron  and  steel. 

Shears  consist  of  two  blades  with  beveled  edges 
facing  each  other  and  used  for  cutting.  There  are  in- 
numerable forms  of  these  two  implements — punches  and 
shears — but  this  volume  has  to  do  only  with  those  actuated 
by  power,  hence  called  "  power-punching  machines "  or 
"power-cutting  machines,"  etc. 

Punching  machines  are  very  commonly  combined  with 
shearing  machines,  the  work  of  both  being  essentially  the 
same.  In  some  cases  the  construction  is  such  as  to  allow 
of  the  removal  of  the  shear-blades  and  substitution  of  the 
punch,  and  vice  versa,  as  desired.  More  usually,  however, 
the  two  contrivances  are  separate,  though  arranged  in  the 
same  supporting  frame.  Fig.  248  represents  a  punching 
and  shearing  machine.  The  reason  the  two  are  combined 
in  one  machine  is  that  it  is  very  usual  for  both  shearing 
and  punching  to  be  needed  on  the  same  plate. 

Presses  used  for  stamping  or  forming  purposes  are 
properly  punches;  the  term  punch  includes  two  very  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  instruments ;  i,  tools  whose  duty  is  to  indent 

229 


230 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


PUNCHING  AND  SHEARING. 

the  material  without  absolutely  separating  or  dividing  it , 
2,  tools  which,  in  conjunction  with  a  bolster  placed  under- 
neath the  work,  cut  or  divide  it  similarly  to  the  action 
of  a  pair  of  shear  blades. 

Punching  machines,  as  is  evident  from  the  flat  or 
obtuse  angle  of  the  edge  of  the  punch,  do  not  effect  the 
division  of  the  material  by  cutting,  but  by  a  tearing  apart 


View  of  throat,  showing 
topis  in  position. 

Fig.  249. 

of  the  fibre  of  the  material;  this  is  equally  true  of  the 
upper  and  lower  blades  of  a  shearing  machine,  as  shown  in 
fig.  249;  the  blades  are  not  cutting  edges,  but  are  flat  or 
nearly  so. 

The  operations  of  both  punching  and  shearing  may  be 
regarded  as  similar,  one  being  done  with  circular  or  curved 
and  the  other  with  straight  tools.  The  blades  of  a  shear- 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


PUNCHING  AND  SHEARING. 

ing  machine  will  pass  through  a  plate  an  inch  and  a  half 
in  thickness  with  a  rapidity  and  appearance  of  ease  which 
give  little  idea  of  the  power  actually  used. 


Fig.  250. 

Fig.  251  shows  an  enlarged  view  of  the  arrangement  of 
the  punch  end  of  the  machine  illustrated  in  fig.  248 ;  the 
operation  is  that  of  perforating  a  hole  in  a  heavy  plate ; 


232 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


PUNCHING  AND  SHEARING. 

each  portion  is  named,  to  more  readily  convey  the  idea  of 
the  work  and  the  several  parts  of  the  machine. 


BOTTOM  OF  PLUHGER 


COUPLING 


TOP  OFDIE 


Fig.  251. 

The  above  cut  shows  the  positions  of  punch,  plunger 
and  die  ;  also  the  positions  of  the  stock,  punch  and  coupling, 
and  the  correct  position  of  the  stripper  relative  to  the 
punch  and  plate,  in  use,  to  prevent  the  plate  from  binding 
when  the  punch  is  drawn. 

In  punching  and  shearing  machines  the  power  is  ap- 
plied in  many  ways  :  I,  by  screw  pressure  ;  2,  by  hydraulic 
pressure  ;  3,  by  a  lever  ;  or,  4,  by  eccentrics  —  the  latter  is 
the  usual  method. 

A  complete  set  of  punching  tools  includes  I  punch,  I 
die,  I  die  block,  I  die  holder,  I  socket,  I  stripper  or  pull-off, 
I  edge  gauge  and  wrenches.  The  die  block  bolts  on  to  the 
lower  jaw  to  receive  the  die  holder  or  the  die,  and  the  die 
holder  is  made  to  fit  in  the  die  block  and  is  bored  to  receive 
the  various  sizes  of  small  dies.  The  edge-gauge  bolts  to 
the  frame  of  the  machine,  and  its  edges  serve  as  a  gauge 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  233 

PUNCHING  AND  SHEARING. 

for  the  edge  of  the  piece  being  punched.  The  stripper  or 
pull-off  is  a  pivoted  lever  whose  forward  end  straddles  the 
punch  and  strips  the  sheet  as  the  punch  rises ;  it  is  adjust- 
able up  and  down  by  means  of  a  pin  at  the  rear  end  of  the 
lever,  so  as  to  accommodate  different  thicknesses  of  metal. 
The  capacities  of  the  different  machines  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  size,  and  the  throats  in  the  same  size  vary  in 
depth.  The  distance  from  the  edge  of  the  sheet  at  which 
punching  or  shearing  can  be  done,  is  governed  by  the 
depth  of  the  throat ;  by  the  depth  of  the  throat  is  meant 
the  distance  from  the  center  of  the  punch  to  the  back  wall 
of  the  throat. 

Fig.  248  shows  a  double-ended  eccentric,  punching 
and  shearing  machine. 

This  machine  is  double-geared,  the  frame  cast  in  halves 
securely  bolted  and  dowelled  together.  The  driving  and 
eccentric  shafts  are  of  steel,  and  the  latter  drives  the  slides 
through  short  connecting  rods.  The  slides  have  large  rec- 
tangular bearing  surfaces,  those  for  the  punch  and  the 
shears  being  fitted  with  stop  motions. 

Fig.  250  shows  a  double-ended  lever  punch  of  approved 
design. 

This  machine  is  double-geared,  and  the  punch  and 
shear  slides  are  worked  by  levers  which  allow  the  slides  to 
remain  at  the  top  of  the  stroke  during  half  a  revolution  of 
the  main  shaft,  thus  affording  time  for  adjustment  of  the 
plate. 

In  single-ended  machines  the  punching  and  shearing 
are  both  operated  from  one  slide,  the  shears  being  placed 
at  the  top. 


'1  lie  Advanced  Machinist. 


ADJUSTING 
SCREW 


MACHINE  BOLT  CUTTING. 


This  subject  also  properly  includes  nut  tapping  and 
bolt-heading.  Bolt-cutters,  like  most  other  machines,  re- 
quire additional  tools  and  devices,  according  to  their  com- 
plication and  general  construction ;  an  example  of  this  is 
the  special  cutting-off  tool  designed  to  reduce  round  rolled 
iron  to  the  exact  length  necessary  for  heading  in  the 
heading  machine,  which  is  in  itself  an  accessory  of  the 
bolt-cutter ;  another  example  is  the  power  feed-attachment, 
designed  to  be  applied  to  the  main  machine,  to  produce 
coarse  bastard  threads  true  to  the  pitch. 

Fig.  254  shows  an  improved  bolt-thread  cutter,  arranged 
with  gear  for  screwing  large  diameters  of  bolts. 

The  cutters,  four  in  number,  are  arranged  in  a  revolv- 
ing die  head  ;  fig.  252  is  a  front  view  of  same;  the  carriage 
is  moved  to  and  from  the  die  head  by  a  rack  and  pinion 
operated  by  hand  wheel ;  the  lubrication  for  the  dies  is 
supplied  by  an  oil  pump  of  plain  plunger  type,  placed 
within  the  column  of  the  machine,  and  is  driven  from  the 
cone  pulley — the  throw  of  the  crank  pin  can  be  adjusted 
to  and  from  the  center,  thereby  decreasing  and  increasing 
the  stroke  of  the  plunger,  and  regulating  the  supply  of  oil 
to  the  cutters. 

A  substantial  metal  box  frame  A,  provides  an  oil  tank 
in  the  base,  the  top  forms  the  bed  and  the  slides  for  the 
carriage ;  the  headstock  B  carries  the  live  spindle  C,  to 
which  is  bolted  the  die  head  D ;  the  hand  wheel  F  opens 
and  closes  the  vise  E,  which  slides  with  carriage  (9,  and  is 
operated  by  hand  wheel  //"and  the  rack  and  pinion  shown; 

235 


236 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


MACHINE  BOLT  CUTTING. 

the  hand  lever  7  operates  the  clutch   ring,  opening  and 
closing  the  dies,  which  is  also  automatically  accomplished 


IU 


by  the  stop  rod  Jt  which  slides  through  the  vise  block,  and 
the  stops  K  K,  being  set  to  the  length  of  the  screw  to  be 
cut,  are  operated  by  contact  with  the  vise. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


237 


MACHINE   BOI/T  CUTTING. 

The  driving  cone  L,  with  pinion  M,  gear  into  wheel  N 
on  the  live  spindle ;  the  oil  supply  O  is  fed  by  the  pump  P, 
in  the  metal  box  frame,  through  the  center  of  the  overflow 
pipe;  the  discharge  end  is  curved  downwards  slightly  below 
the  top  of  the  overflow  pipe,  which  prevents  splashing  of 
the  oil. 


N 


Fig.  254. 

The  pump  is  of  ample  size,  so  that  when  running  on 
the  slow  speed  a  sufficient  supply  of  oil  is  discharged  hitc 
the  oil-pot  to  keep  a  constant  stream  on  the  dies  when 
cutting  threads ;  the  removable  chip-pan  will  hold  the  chips 
of  a  day's  work. 


238  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

MACHINE  BOI/T  CUTTING. 

Fig-  253  is  a  section  side  view  of  the  machine,  showing 
the  interior  arrangment  of  the  parts  and  the  plunger  pump 
P;  it  also  shows  a  device,  a  substitute  for  the  rack  and 
pinion  motion  for  travelling  carriage,  which  is  not  shown  in 
fig.  254,  viz.,  a  self-acting  lead  screw  S,  which  is  driven  from 
the  live  spindle  by  two  spur  gears,  T  and  U,  and  idle  or 
carrier  wheels  R,  which  reverse  the  motion  for  right  or  left- 
hand  screw  cutting. 


Fig.  257. 


Fig.  255.  Fig.  256. 

The  die  ring  is  made  of  cast  iron  ;  this  ring  controls 
the  movement  of  the  dies  radially  to  and  from  the  center, 
by  means  of  recesses  at  an  angle  to  its  face;  the  clutch 
ring  has  a  phosphor-bronze  ring  working  in  a  groove  and 
attached  to  the  automatic  spring  and  closing  device ;  the 
movement  of  the  clutch  ring  is  transmitted  to  the  die  ring 
through  the  rocking  lever  and  toggle. 

The  cutters  are  four  in  number;  fig.  255  is  a  side  view, 
fig  256  an  end  view,  of  the  cutter  with  cast-steel  head 
attached;  figs.  257  and  258  show  the  tool-steel  caps;  the 
upper  one  is  for  a  full-size  die.  When  recut  several  times, 
it  is  needful  to  use  the  deeper  steel  cap,  to  make  up  for 
the  shortening  of  the  cutter  by  recutting. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


239 


MACHINE   BOI/T   CUTTING. 


Fig.  259. 


Fig.  260. 


240 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


MACHINE  BOLT  CUTTING. 

Fig.  261  shows  the  side  view  of  the  die  head,  which  is 
made  of  cast  iron,  turned,  milled  and  bored.  To  the  post 
end  is  fastened  a  face  plate,  which  serves  to  hold  the  dies 
and  die  bushings  in  place — see  fig. 
252;  in  the  outer  surface  of  the 
barrel,  there  are  four  longitudinal 
grooves  milled  to  within  a  short  dis- 
tance of  the  flange,  and  in  these 
grooves  are  fitted  steel  strips,  hard- 
ened and  ground  to  resist  the  wear 
of  the  sliding  die  ring. 


A  section  on  line  A  B  of  revolving  die  head ;  figure 
252  shows  the  dies  and  die  caps,  etc.,  fig.  259;  a  sec- 
tion on  line  C  D  of  the  die  head — see  fig.  260 — shows  the 
opening  and  closing  device  operated  by  the  clutch  ring  and 
the  rocking  lever  and  toggle. 

Fig.  262  shows  a  lead  screw,  and  fig.  263  a  split-nut ; 
these  are  required  for  each  pitch  cut;  the  lead  screws 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


241 


MACHINE  BOLT  CUTTING. 

are  made  short  and  they  can  be  changed  from  one  pitch  to 
another;  the  bronze  split-nut  fits  in  the  carriage  and  is 
opened  and  closed  by  means  of  a  cam  disc  and  lever  oper- 
ated by  hand. 


Fig.  262. 


mmm 


\\\\\\\\ 


Fig.  263. 
The  cutting   speeds  for  dies  in  bolt  cutting  are  as 


follows : 


TABLE. 


Diameter  of 
Bolt. 

Revolution  of 
Dies. 

Diameter  of 
Bolt 

Revolution  of 
Dies. 

i 

460 

'i 

50 

A 

230 
1  88 

: 

45 
40 

1 

153 

If 

38 

A 

131 

l|- 

35 

IJ5 

if 

32 

102 

I-J- 

30 

93 

2 

28 

75 

2i 

25 

65 

2i 

22 

I 

55 

2f 

2O 

3 

18 

The  usual  cutting  speed  for  bolts  in  machine-shop 
practice  is  fifteen  lineal  feet  per  minute ;  the  above  table 
is  based  upon  that  capacity  of  work.  In  tapping  nuts,  the 
same  number  of  revolutions  of  the  taps  are  required. 


242 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


-If 


Fig.  264. 


244 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


AUXILIARY  MACHINES. 


The  introduction  of  a  new  machine  or  device  implies 
the  immediate  employment  of  a  whole  series  of  auxiliary 
and  dependent  appliances. 

Some  of  these  are  seemingly  of  more  importance 
than  the  parent  machine,  and  frequently  are  much  more 
complicated  and  expensive  to  build ;  they  are  named,  fre- 
quently, by  their  use,  and  largely  aid  in  the  practical  suc- 
cess of  the  new  machine  which  they  are  designed  especially 
to  operate  with. 

Thus  a  "  cutting-off  "  machine  is  used  to  cut  off  stock 
to  the  required  length  before  it  can  be  operated  on  by  the 
lathe,  etc. ;  one  of  these  machines  is  shown  on  the  opposite 
page  and  described  below. 


CUTTING-OFF  MACHINES. 


When  rods,  etc.,  are  required  to  be  cut  to  a  certain 
length,  the  operation  is  performed  in  several  ways;  I,  either 
by  a  special  lathe  designed  for  the  purpose,  or,  2,  by  a 
power  saw ;  when  executed  in  a  lathe,  the  revolving 
spindle  in  the  headstock  is  constructed  hollow,  the  rods 
pass  through  the  hole  and  are  then  cut  to  exact  length 

245 


246  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

AUXILIARY  MACHINES. 

by  an  ordinary  "  parting  "  or  cutting-off  tool  fixed  in  the 
rest  or  carriage  of  the  lathe. 

A  special  cutting-off   tool   for  the  purpose  is  shown 
in  fig.  266;   it  consists  of  a  substantial  drop-forged  steel 


Fig.  266. 

holder;  the  under  edge  is  extended,  giving  a  firm  support 
to  the  blade  directly  under  the  cut ;  the  blades  are  six 
inches  long,  seven-eighths  inch  wide,  milled  and  ground 
on  both  sides  to  give  proper  clearance.  The  top,  or  cut- 


Fig.  267. 

ting  edge,  and  bottom  are  ground  square,  to  gauge  of  slot 
in  holder.  Hence  the  blades  used  in  this  style  of  holder 
require  grinding  on  the  end  only.  In  use,  the  blade 
should  be  set  to  project  beyond  the  supporting  lip  of 
holder,  or  under  side,  a  sufficient  distance  to  cut  to  center 
of  stock ;  on  heavy  stpck  the  blade  can  be  advanced  after 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  247 

CUTTING-OFF  MACHINES. 

making  a  cut  of  one  inch  or  so  on  the  outside.  The  blade  is 
held  in  position  by  a  substantial  strap,  bolts  and  case- 
hardened  nuts. 

Fig.  267  is  a  similar  cutting-off  tool,  but  fitted  with 
an  offset  holder  for  particular  work  which  could  not  be 
executed  by  the  straight  tool  holder  shown  in  fig.  266. 

A  "  cutting-off  "  saw  is  a  machine  designed  for  "  crop- 
ping "  the  ends  of  work  and  cutting  it  to  length ;  in  the 
ordinary  machine  shop  practice,  a  power-driven  hack-saw 
is  used,  but  when  cutting  large  work,  a  circular,  revolving 
saw  is  used  to  cut  the  work  cold ;  this  is  commonly  styled 
a  cold  saw  cutting-off  machine;  the  latter  is  shown  in 
fig.  265. 

The  power  hack-saw  illustrated  in  fig.  268  is  especially 
designed  to  meet  all  the  requirements  of  a  machine  for 
sawing  metal.  The  upper  arm  of  the  frame  can  be 
extended  so  that  large  work  can  be  cut;  the  jaws  holding 
the  work  are  planed  and  can  be  set  so  that  work  on  any 
required  angle,  as  well  as  straight  sawing,  can  be  done. 
The  machine  has  an  8-inch  stroke  with  quick  return ;  by 
loosening  the  set  screw  in  the  stud  holding  the  connecting 
rod,  the  frame  can  be  swung  to  either  side  ;  by  this  adjust- 
ment the  saw  can  be  made  to  cut  perfectly  straight ;  the 
lower  arm  of  the  frame  passes  through  a  hole  in  the  sliding 
thimble  with  a  projecting  stud,  to  which  the  connecting 
rod  is  attached,  and  on  which  friction  nuts  are  placed ;  a 
set  screw  runs  through  this  stud  and  holds  the  frame  in 

NOTE. — It  has  been  the  custom,  when  cutting  a  piece  of  iron  or 
steel,  especially  hard  tool-steel,  to  send  it  to  the  blacksmith  to  heat 
the  metal  in  the  forge  and  cut  it  to  the  required  length  ;  this  method 
has  the  disadvantage  of  deteriorating  the  steel  in  quality  consequent  on 
the  heating,  and  the  rod  is  returned  in  a  rough  shape. 


248 


The  Advanced  Machinist, 


AUXILIARY    MACHINES. 

any  set  position  ;  a  piece  of  steel  with  concaved  end  is 
placed  under  the  set  screw  to  prevent  the  point  from 
coming  in  contact  with  the  arm.  The  slide  in  which  the 
thimble  runs  is  split  so  that  any  wear  can  readily  be  taken 
up  by  tightening  the  screws  at  each  end.  There  is  no 
drag  on  the  saw  during  the  backward  movement. 


*' 


Fig.  268. 

By  adjusting  the  friction  on  the  connecting  rod  the 
saw  can  be  made  to  lift  gently  from  the  work  when  going 
backward,  and  the  pressure  on  the  forward  stroke  can  be 
increased  or  diminished  by  the  same  means.  A  coil  con- 
taining twenty-five  feet  of  saws  is  placed  in  the  magazine 
on  the  rear  end  of  the  arm,  and  can  be  drawn  through  the 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  249 

CUTTING-OFF  MACHINES. 

proper  distance  for  the  work  being  sawed.  By  using  the 
magazine  coil  principle  the  saws  can  be  used  their  entire 
length.  This  feature  alone  reduces  the  cost  of  saws  fully 
one-half,  and  as  the  saw  is  firmly  clamped  at  both  ends 
instead  of  being  held  by  pins,  the  danger  of  the  holes 
being  pulled  out  of  the  ends  of  blades  is  entirely  obviated. 
The  usual  speed  of  the  blade  is  40  strokes  per  minute. 
After  a  cut  is  finished,  the  clutch  is  automatically  thrown 
out  and  the  machine  is  stopped. 

With  flexible  hack-saw  blades  the  teeth  only  are  hard- 
ened, the  back  remaining  untempered  ;  thus  the  blade  will 


Fig.  269,  Fig.  270. 

neither  snap  nor  break,  assuring  full  efficiency  until  the 
teeth  are  worn  dull.  Fig.  270  shows  the  construction  of  the 
flexible  back  blade ;  fig.  269  shows  the  set  of  the  teeth. 
These  blades  for  cutting  iron,  steel,  brass,  etc.,  are  made 
from  23-gauge  stock,  and  have  15  teeth  to  the  inch ;  for 
cutting  tubing  and  sheet  metals  the  teeth  are  finer,  being 
made  24  teeth  to  the  inch. 

Fig.  264  shows  the  countershaft  used  with  the  power 
hack-saw  shown  in  fig.  268  ;  the  motion  is  stopped  by  shift- 
ing the  driving  belt  from  the  fast  on  to  the  loose  pulley  • 
these  are  the  pair  shown  in  the  cut,  the  small  pulley  being 
the  driving  pulley  connected  to  the  pulley  on  the  machine. 


250 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


M 


Fig.  271. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  251 


THE  ARBOR  PRESS. 


The  arbor  press  is  a  machine  devised  for  accomplish- 
ing the  work  described  in  the  note,  which  is  ordinarily 
done  by  hand,  by  means  of  a  hammer,  etc.  The  arbor  or 
mandrel  is  a  spindle  which  is  forced  or  driven  into  a  bored 
hole  in  the  work,  such  as  a  pulley  or  wheel,  to  enable  it  to 
revolve  between  the  centers  of  a  lathe,  milling  cutter,  etc. 

Fig.  271  shows  such  a  machine,  which  is  a  very  useful 
device,  being  quick  in  action,  and  which  can  be  bolted  on 
the  end  of  the  lathe-bed  or  on  a  separate  bench,  and  which 
is  always  ready  for  use.  Operated  by  a  hand  lever,  a 
pressure  of  seven  and  a-half  tons  can  be  obtained  by  an 
ordinary  man  by  means  of  the  gear-wheels  shown  in  the 
engraving ;  it  is  exceedingly  simple  in  action,  and  consists 
of  a  massive  standard  A,  which  carries  a  sliding  or  adjust- 
able knee  B,  which  can  be  regulated  to  the  height  of  the 
work  by  a  square-thread  screw  G,  which  acts  in  a  nut  in 
the  top  of  standard  E  ;  the  handle  C  operates  the  screw  G\ 
the  plate  H  is  free  to  revolve  on  the  knee  B,  and  is  pro- 
vided with  lateral  openings  of  graduated  sizes  for  various- 
dimensioned  mandrels ;  when  released  from  the  work,  the 
arbor  or  mandrel  drops  on  the  soft  babbitted  cushion  D, 
and  is  caught  or  retained  in  the  large  steel  ring  F\  the 
plunger  or  ram  J  has  a  rack  cut  on  one  side ;  this  rack  is 
engaged  with  two  pinions,  one  on  spindle  J/and  one  on 

NOTE. — Very  generally  the  mandrel  is  driven  into  the  work  with 
a  lead-headed  hammer,  or  an  ordinary  sledge  is  used  ;  as  a  precaution, 
a  piece  of  sheet-brass,  copper  or  hard-wood  is  placed  against  the  end 
of  the  mandrel  to  receive  the  force  of  the  blow  of  the  sledge  and  thus 
prevent  the  "center"  in  the  mandrel  being  damaged  or  destroyed,  as 
the  brass  strips  will  spread  and  become  thin  from  repeated  use,  soon 
rendering  it  unfit  for  the  purpose. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


Fig.  272, 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  253 

THE  ARBOR  PRESS. 

the  lever  spindle,  and  they  are  geared  together  by  the 
spur  wheels  L  and  O ;  the  leverage  is  obtained  by  means 
of  wheel  Q  and  a  pinion  hidden  in  the  drawing  by  the 
ratchet  N;  a  pawl  fits  into  the  casting,  into  which  the  lever 
/is  fixed;  a  leverage  of  135  to  I  is  thus  obtained.  The 
counterweight  R  balances  the  lever  and  keeps  it  in  an 
upright  position  when  not  in  use ;  a  pin  projects  from  one 
side  of  the  pawl,  so  that  when  the  lever  casting  is  upright, 


Fg.  273. 

the  pawl  rides  the  "shedder"  P,  disengaging  the  pawl  from 
the  ratchet,  thus  leaving  the  ram  J  free  to  be  moved  up  or 
brought  down  to  the  work  by  means  of  the  hand-wheel  K. 

Fig.  272  shows  a  very  powerful  press,  designed  for 
mandrels  up  to  7  inches  diameter  ;  the  ram  is  made  of  four- 
inch  steel  and  has  a  rack  cut  on  two  opposite  sides  ;  the 
gears  are  steel,  have  a  leverage  of  250  to  I  and  exert  a 
pressure  of  about  sixteen  tons  at  the  end  of  the  ram,  with 
a  man  of  ordinary  strength  at  the  lever. 


254  The  Advanced  Machinist. 


SHAFT-STRAIGHTENING  MACHINES. 


Fig.  271  shows  a  hand-power  shaft-straightening 
machine  intended  for  bench  use ;  it  has  a  powerful  screw 
made  of  steel ;  the  bed  is  planed  true  and  has  two  steel 
blocks  or  vees  fitted  to  slide  upon  it ;  these  can  be  adjusted 
to  suit  the  bend  or  twist  in  the  shaft,  and  will  accommo- 
date work  of  any  length. 

This  is  but  one  of  many  devices  of  this  nature ;  some 
of  these  are  much  more  complicated  and  costly  and  oper- 
ated by  pneumatic  and  other  powers ;  one  of  the  most 
common  is  a  machine  used  in  railroad  shops  in  straighten- 
ing car  and  locomotive  engine  axles. 


TURRET  MACHINES. 


These  were  originally  named  from  their  resemblance 
to  the  turrets  or  "  little  towers  rising  from  or  otherwise 
connected  with  a  larger  building;  "  the  word  turret  was  in 
very  frequent  use  in  the  middle  ages  as  defining  movable 
towers  used  in  military  operations  ;  at  the  present  date 
turrets,  in  engineering  practice,  are  always  understood  to 
mean  a  revolving  mechanism,  as  the  turret-gun,  designed 
for  use  in  "  a  revolving  turret,"  and  the  turret  lathe,  which 
has  a  revolving  tool-holder. 

NOTE. —  The  monitor,  or  turret  lathe,  derives  its  name  from  the 
Ericsson's  Monitor,  designed  and  built  in  1862  ;  this  carrries  on  its 
deck  one  or  more  revolving  turrets,  each  containing  one  or  more 
great  guns,  which  can  be  successively  brought  into  range  by  revolving 
the  steel-clad  turret,  thus  combining  the  maximum  of  gun  power  with 
the  minimum  of  exposure.  Ericsson  named  his  newly -invented  ship 
The  Monitor,  from  its  use  as  a  caution  or  warning  to  the  enemies  of  his 
adopted  country. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  255 

AUXILIARY   MACHINES. 

In  modern  machine  shops  a  turret  is  known  as  a  revolv- 
ing tool  holder;  that  is,  a  tool  holder  which  contains  a 
number  of  cutting  tools,  any  one  of  which  may  be  used  by 
revolving  the  holder,  which  brings  the  cutting  tool  succes- 
sively into  position  to  operate  on  the  work ;  while  the 
turret  is  principally  used  on  lathes,  screwing  and  drilling 
machines,  it  is  applied  to  many  other  machines,  such  as 
the  planer,  and  shaper,  and  also  in  wood-working  machines. 


Fig.  272. 

Fig.  272  shows  a  turret  fitted  on  the  shears  or  bed  of 
a  lathe ;  the  turret  is  bored  with  holes  for  the  reception  of 
six  tools ;  it  has  hand  longitudinal  and  cross  feeds,  the  tur- 
ret being  revolved  by  hand ;  it  has  at  its  base,  a  steel  index 
ring  of  large  diameter,  hardened  and  ground  ;  the  locking 
bolts  are  hardened  and  ground,  and  provided  with  a  taper 
gib  for  taking  up  the  wear ;  a  spiral  spring  forces  the  lock- 
ing bolts  into  the  slots,  and  is  adjusted  by  a  screw  at  the 
back  end  of  the  turret  slide.  The  turret  slides  move  in 
flat  bearings  with  adjustable  taper  gibs  to  maintain  correc^ 
alignment. 


256 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


THE  TURRET  LATHE. 

Fig.  273  exhibits  a  turret  fitted  on  the  carriage  of  an 
engine  lathe,  similar  to  that  illustrated  in  fig.  61  ;  it  shows 
the  hexagonal  turret  mounted  on  the  carriage,  being  inter- 
changeable with  the  compound  rest  shown  in  fig.  61, 
enabling  the  lathe  to  be  used  either  as  an  engine  lathe  or  a 
turret  lathe. 


The  advantages  of  this  turret  are  that  it  has  power, 
longitudinal  and  cross  feeds,  and  is  screw  cutting ;  it 
has  all  the  changes  of  feed  that  the  lathe  has ;  it  may  be 
used  in  connection  with  the  half-nuts,  and  therefore  chase  a 
thread ;  it  permits  running  in  such  taps  as  conform  with 
the  threads  cut  by  the  lathe  at  their  proper  pitch  and  bring- 
ing them  out  without  danger  of  stripping  any  of  the 
threads ;  it  may  be  "  set  over  "  either  way  from  the  center 
and  is  provided  with  centre  stops. 

NOTE. — In  practice,  all  pieces  made  from  the  continuous  bar  are 
machined  as  follows  :  A  long  bar  of  the  rough  iron  or  steel  is  pushed 
through  the  spindle,  until  the  piece  projects  beyond  the  chuck  long 
enough  to  make  the  piece  desired.  The  various  tools  on  the  turret  are 
set  for  the  different  diameters  and  cuts,  and  after  each  performs  its 
operation,  it  is  turned  out  of  the  way  to  admit  the  next  tool.  Since  a 
number  of  tools  are  set  for  the  various  diameters,  it  gives  this  machine 
a  great  advantage  over  the  lathe  where  there  is  but  one  tool. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  257 


Fig.  274. 


258  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

THE  TURRET  DRILL. 

Fig.  274  shows  a  turret  head  fitted  to  a  drilling 
machine  described  as  a  turret  drill.  On  the  trunnion  of 
the  frame  is  mounted  the  turret  head  with  any  number  of 
projecting  bearings ;  six  are  shown  in  the  illustration 
fig.  275,  which  is  a  front  view  of  the  turret  head.  These 
projecting  bearings  support  and  guide  the  drill  spindles ; 
through  the  frame  passes  the  driving  shaft,  on  the  end  of 
which,  inside  of  the  turret,  is  fastened  a  bevel  gear  in  mesh 


275. 


NOTE. — Pivoted  on  the  front  of  the  gear-case,  fig.  275,  in  the 
interior  of  the  turret  head  is  a  bell  crank  lever,  one  end  of  which  is 
forked  and  loosely  connected  to  the  driving  spindle  ;  the  other  arm  of 
this  lever  is  connected  to  the  locking  bolt  that  holds  the  turret  head  in 
position.  Fastened  to  the  locking  bolt  is  a  rod  connected  to  the  foot- 
treadle  shown  on  left-hand  side  of  the  base.  When  the  treadle  is 
pressed  downward  it  moves  the  locking  bolt  outward  ;  at  the  same  time 
the  driving  spindle  moves  upward  and  is  unlocked  from  the  drill 
spindle  before  the  locking  bolt  leaves  its  socket,  thus  making  it 
impossible  for  the  turret  to  be  moved  while  the  driving  spindle  is  in 
contact  with  the  drill  spindle.  When  the  turret  is  revolved  to  the  tool 
wanted,  the  bolt  will  automatically  drop  in  its  socket,  and  the  driving 
spindle  moves  downward  and  engages  the  drill  spindle. 

The  feed  is  by  hand  and  foot  lever.  The  table  is  balanced  and  has 
a  vertical  feed  motion.  The  knee  that  supports  the  table  is  fastened  to 
the  face  of  the  column  and  balanced  by  a  weight  inside  of  the  column. 
The  drill  bpiudles  are  of  steel,  hardened  and  ground,  and  reamed  to  fit 
the  Morse  taper  ;  the  spindles  have  an  independent  drill  stop. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


259 


AUXILIARY  MACHINES. 

with  another  bevel  gear,  loosely  splined  to  the  driving 
spindle,  which  has  on  its  lower  end  a  clutch  that  engages, 
when  in  operation,  with  a  corresponding  clutch  on  the 
inner  end  of  the  drill  spindle. 

Fig.  276  shows  a  screw-cutting  die-head  which  is  self- 
opening  and  adjustable  ;  it  is  designed  for  use  on  screwing 
machines,  lathes  and  in  turrets,  being  provided  with  an 
internal  adjustable  gauge  for  varying  the  length  of  the 
threads.  It  has  few  parts,  yet  admits  of  the  finest  adjust- 


Fig.  276. 

ments;  being  graduated  upon  one  side  of  the  shell  and 
provided  with  an  index  by  which  quick  and  accurate  varia- 
tions in  the  diameter  of  threads  may  be  made,  and  as  the 
index  is  controlled  by  one  screw,  both  dies  are  adjusted 
simultaneously.  It  is  provided  with  four  single-point  dies, 
and  also  with  a  roughing  and  finishing  attachment,  by 
means  of  which  two  cuts  may  be  taken  in  making  a  thread, 
and  insures  a  more  perfect  quality  of  work  than  is  possible 
to  produce  with  one  passage  of  dies, 


260  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

SCREW-CUTTING  DIE  HEAD. 

The  roughing  and  finishing  attachment  is  operated  by 
a  small  handle  located  at  one  side  and  back  of  the  head 
proper,  and  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  so  arranged  that 
by  moving  it  to  a  forward  position  the  dies  are  opened 
slightly  for  the  roughing  cut,  and  when  the  handle  is 
returned  to  its  original  or  backward  position,  the  dies  are 
closed  and  locked  at  a  predetermined  point  for  the  finish- 
ing cut ;  this  handle  is  easily  and  quickly  manipulated  by 
the  left  hand  of  the  operator.  In  regular  practice  the 
tripping  of  the  dies  is  effected  by  the  stock  as  it  passes 
through  the  dies  and  comes  in  contact  with  the  end  of  the 
gauge,  but  they  may  be  tripped  at  any  point  on  the  cut  by 
moving  the  handle  which  operates  the  roughing  and  finish- 
ing attachment  to  a  central  position,  which  unlocks  the 
dies  and  causes  them  to  open. 


Fig.  277. 

Adjustable  collapsing  taps,  as  shown  in  fig.  277,  are 
designed  for  use  in  screwing  machines  and  lathes  and  are 
held  either  in  the  turret,  or  in  the  rotary  or  live  spindle. 
By  reason  of  not  requiring  to  be  reversed,  these  taps 
retain  their  cutting  edges  longer  and  will  cut  smoother  and 
cleaner  than  a  solid  tap ;  the  standard  size  of  thread  can  be 
maintained  by  adjusting  the  chasers  or  cutters  in  a  similar 
manner  to  the  adjustable  dies  described  on  page  259. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


261 


KEYSEATING  MACHINE. 

Fig.  278  shows  a  machine  which  will  cut  keyseats  on 
any  portion  of  a  shaft,  without  removing  it  from  its  bear- 
ings ;  the  machine  being  firmly  fastened  to  the  shaft  by 
two  clamps,  the  cutter-head  is  fed  along  the  shaft  and  will 
mill  a  keyseat  12  inches  long  without  resetting,  and  as  it 
has  a  sliding  support  under  the  cutter  at  all  times,  it  cuts 
without  jar  and  produces  keyseats  with  straight  sides  and 


Fig.  278. 


smooth  bottoms.  The  machine  is  provided  with  an  auto- 
matic feed  while  cutting,  but  this  feed  may  be  disengaged 
if  desired,  and  the  cutter-head  fed  by  hand. 

Five  milling  cutters  are  used  with  each  machine;  by  em- 
ploying one  or  more  of  which  on  spindle,  keyseats  of  any  of  the 
following  sizes  may  be  milled  full  width  at  one  operation : 

i  fV  f-  TV  i-  rV>  i  U.  I-  i-f-  *.  H.  i.  'TV.  'i  in. 


262  The  Advanced  Machinist. 


Fig.  279. 


264 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


Fig.   280. 


American  JUactiiniat 


Fig.  281. 


UTILITIES  AND  ACCESSORIES, 


Fig.  282. 

A  utility  is  defined  as  a  useful  thing ;  a  machine  shop 
utility  is  a  tool  or  device  adapted  for  use  among  machines 
of  larger  and  more  pretentious  reputation  ;  each  shop  has 

265 


266 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


JIGS,  SHOP  KINKS  AND  WRINKLES. 

its  own  utilities,  and  upon  their  proper  application  depends 
largely  the  success  of  the  whole  organization. 

An  accessory  machine  or  tool  is  one  contributing  to  a 
general  effect  and  belonging  to  something  else  as  a  prin- 
cipal;  a  "jig,"  defined  below,  is  properly  an  accessory 
machine  or  device. 

A   jig  is  defined  as  any  subordinate  mechanical  con- 


Fig.  283. 


Fig.  284. 


Fig.  285. 


trivance  or  convenience  to  which  no  definite  name  is 
attached ;  a  jig  is  a  small  special  tool  or  otherwise  a 
"  wrinkle  "  or  shop  "kink." 

NOTE. — In  repetition  work,  where  hundreds,  thousands  or  even 
millions  of  similar  pieces  are  to  be  worked  upon,  the  profitableness  of 
these  special  devices  is  most  apparent.  Jigs  to  the  number  of  many 
thousands  have  been  devised  and  used,  although  not  always  to 
advantage;  they  have  often  "cost  more  than  they  come  to"  in 
economical  results. 

The  few  examples  shown  on  the  following  pages  are  rather  as 
suggestions  than  an  attempt  to  fully  explain  all  the  useful  contrivances 
known  under  the  names  of  utilities,  jigs,  etc. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  267 

UTILITIES  AND  ACCBSSORIKvS. 

Fig.  279  shows  a  pressed-steel  shop  pan  used  for 
handling  bolts,  rivets,  nails,  screws,  nuts,  washers,  castings 
and  other  substances ;  they  are  also  used  under  lathes  and 
drilling  machines,  to  catch  the  turnings,  trimmings,  oil  drip- 
pings, etc.  The  pressed  steel  pans  are  found,  in  practice, 
more  durable  than  riveted  ones,  and  are  lighter  and  more 
easily  cleansed. 

Fig.  280  shows  a  lathe  pan  ;  the  lower  pan  or  "  shelf ." 
is  intended  for  the  usual  lathe  extras,  the  upper  pan  is  for 
the  chips  or  cuttings.  The  top  tray,  which  catches  the 
chips  and  oil,  is  sometimes  provided  with  a  strainer  and 
draw-off  cock,  as  shown  in  section  in  fig.  281;  by  using 
this,  the  lubricant  can  be  separated  and  used  again. 

When  emery  wheels  wear  out  of  true  or  glaze  on  the 
surface,  it  becomes  necessary  to  true  them.  For  this  pur- 
pose a  hand  tool  is  used,  which  consists  of  a  pure  carbon 
or  black  diamond  set  firmly  in  the  end  of  a  steel  rod  pro- 
vided with  a  suitable  wooden  handle ;  with  this  tool  any 
desired  shape,  round  or  bevel,  can  be  given  to  face  of  the 
wheel ;  the  diamond  produces  true  and  smooth  work,  but 
the  cutting  qualities  of  the  emery  are  slightly  impaired  by 
its  action. 

The  above  device  is  designed  to  be  operated  by  hand ; 
it  is  not  illustrated ;  a  similar  tool  is  used,  which  can  be 
fixed  in  the  tool-post,  the  diamond  being  set  in  a  solid 
steel  shank. 

Emery  wheel  dressing  tools  usually  held  in  a  sliding 
holder,  are  shown  in  three  figures  on  the  opposite  page. 

NOTE. — The  chips  are  made  at  or  near  the  headstock  end  and,  of 
course,  drop  in  one  end  of  the  pan ;  when  brass  and  iron  work  alter- 
nate, to  keep  the  chips  separate,  simply  turn  the  pan  end  for  end — for 
this  purpose  the  wheels  of  the  casters  are  large  and  swivel  readily. 


268 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


EMERY-WHEEL  DRESSING  TOOLS. 
For  the  purpose  of  removing  the  smoothness  from 
emery  wheels  which  have  become  glazed,  emery-wheel 
dressers,  as  shown,  are  used ;  they  are  serrated  or  grooved 
discs  which  are  pressed  against  the  wheel  and  traversed 
back  and  forth  across  the  face ;  the  tool  shown  in 
fig.  283  is  specially  intended  for  large,  thick  wheels, 
say  from  8  inches  diameter  and  2  inches  thick  or 


Fig.  286. 

more,  but  are  not  practical  for  use  on  small,  thin  wheels ; 
while  the  dressers  shown  in  fig.  284  and  fig.  285  are  gener- 
ally used  on  smaller  and  thin  wheels,  but  can  likewise  be 
used  on  the  large  wheels. 


Fig.  287.  Fig.  288. 

Figs.  286  to  288  are  steel  clamps  made  from  drop 
forgings,  case-hardened,  and  have  take-up  blocks  to  slip  on 
and  off  the  end  of  the  screw.  They  will  hold  work  square 
and  parallel  for  laying  out  on  surface  plates,  drilling,  etc. 
A  round  piece  may  be  rigidly  held  in  two  of  the  clamps 
and  drilled,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  fig.  288. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  269 


UTILITIES  AND   ACCESSORIES. 

Various  devices  are  used  for  stamping  on  metal  sur- 
faces impressions  of  trademarks,  etc.;  the  machine  shown  in 
fig.  282  is  designed  for  this  purpose  ;  it  will  mark,  by  means 
of  steel  dies,  letters,  numbers,  etc.,  on  either  flat  or  round 
metal  surfaces,  such  as  twist  drills,  taps,  dies,  reamers,  etc. 
The  piece  of  work  to  be  marked  is  held  on  the  table 
by  a  suitable  fixture.  For  marking  flat  surfaces  a  cylin- 
drical die  is  used,  carried  in  a  yoke  or  holder,  which  is 
attached  to  the  slide  bar  or  rack,  and  which  is  moved  by 
the  lever  and  pinion  shown.  By  using  a  round  die  only  a 
single  point  on  its  circumference  is  in  contact  with  the 
work  at  one  time.  Many  kinds  of  material  that  would  be 
distorted  by  the  use  of  a  punch  press  can  readily  be  stamped 

by  this    machine.     When 
marking  round  surfaces,  as 
the   shanks   of   drills  and 
reamers,  a    flat  die   is  at- 
tached to  the  rack  or  slide, 
and  the  work  allowed  to  roll  on 
the  table  as  the  die  comes  in  con- 
tact with  it.     Adjustments  are 
provided    when    using    flat    or 
round  dies,  so  that  the  proper 
character  on  the  die  shall  come 

in  contact  with  the  work  at  a  stated  point ;  the  amount  of 
travel,  after  contact  is  made,  is  governed  by  screw  stops  ; 
the  round  die,  after  use,  is  relieved  of  pressure  and  returned 
by  spring  tension  to  its  original  position. 

Fig.  289  shows  a  screw  jack,  which  is  useful  for  lifting 
heavy  castings  into  position  on  the  planer,  etc.  The  illus- 
tration explains  itself,  the  cap  being  self-adjusting 


270 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


MACHINE  SHOP  UTILITIES. 

Fig.  290  exhibits  a  pair  of  "  two  and  two  "  sheave  rope 
blocks,  fitted  with  an  "  automatic  lock  "  or  self-sustaining 
brake,  which  holds  the  load  in  any  desired  position ;  this 
lock  can  be  released  only  by  a  pull  on  the  rope,  hence  it  is 
a  safety  block ;  for  many  purposes,  rope  blocks  are  superior 
to  chain  blocks. 


291.    Fig.  292. 


Fig.  293. 


Fig.  294. 


Fig.  291  is  a  snatch  block;  fig.  292  a 
double,  or  two-sheave  block  ;  fig.  293  is  a 
three-sheave  block;  fig.  294  is  a  snatch 
block  with  disconnecting  side  strap. 

Fig.  295  illustrates  a  wall  crane,  de- 
signed for  use  with  a  lathe,  slotting  planer 
or,  in  fact,  any  tool  in  which  heavy  articles 
are  machined ;  the  construction  enables 
this  crane  to  be  used  without  occupying 
any  of  the  floor,  nor  does  it  interfere 
with  the  movements  of  the  workman ; 
with  this  description  of  crane,  pulley 


The  Advanced  Machinist* 


271 


SNATCH  AND  SHEAVE  BLOCKS. 

blocks  are  generally  used  to  raise  the  work,  to  a  trolley 
which  slides  on  the  top  of  the  crane  arm,  as  shown  in 
fig.  295. 

Fig.  296  shows  a  simple  and  convenient  method  of 
supplying  a  grindstone  with  water,  an  essential  feature 
being  to  provide  a  supply  of  water  for  the  wheel  while  in 
operation,  and  to  keep  the  wheel  dry  when  not  in  use.  The 
wheel,  as  illustrated,  is  mounted  on  a  wooden  frame,  and 
the  trough  for  the  water  is  made  of  galvanized  iron,  the 


Fig.  295. 


trough  being  high  enough  to  enter  the  top  of  the  frame, 
which  serves  as  a  guide,  thus  returning  all  the  water  to 
the  trough  again.  When  down,  the  water  is  below  the 
bottom  of  the  stone  ;  the  treadle,  made  of  a  piece  of  pine 
1X5  inches,  is  connected  to  the  trough  by  a  couple  of 
kettle  ears  and  fulcrumed  about  the  center  of  its  length 
to  the  floor.  The  weight  of  the  water  keeps  the  trough 
down,  and  a  presssure  of  the  foot  quickly  brings  the  water 
in  contact  with  the  stone. 


272 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


MACHINE  SHOP  UTILITIES. 

Fig.  297  shows  a  "buff"  or  polishing  machine.  The 
stand  or  pedestal  is  hollow,  and  the  wheel  guard  is  of  such 
shape  'that  the  draught,  caused  by  the  rapid  movement  of  the 
wheel,  carries  the  larger  part  of  the  dust  produced  by  pol- 
ishing, from  the  operator  to  the  bottom  of  the  stand;  this 
may  be  connected  with  a  blower,  and  the  dust  almost  com- 
pletely removed. 


Fig.  296. 

Polishing  wheels  are  made  of  different  materials,  such 
as  wood  covered  with  leather,  canvas  clamped  between  iron 
plates,  felt,  unbleached  muslin,  etc.;  the  best  wheels  are 

NOTE. — While  most  shops  are  provided  with  special  tool  grinders 
and  sharpeners,  the  old  grindstone  still  seems  to  have  a  place  of  its 
own  among  them,  and  most  machinists  prefer  the  grindstone  when  it 
is  kept  in  good  shape  and  well  supplied  with  water.  The  chief  objec- 
tions to  grindstones  are  that  they  do  not  hold  their  form  any  great 
length  of  time,  and  that  the  means  usually  employed  to  keep  them 
well  supplied  with  water  are  unsatisfactory.  If  the  stone  is  kept  sub- 
merged in  water  when  not  running,  soft  spots  will  result,  and  these  will 
wear  much  faster  than  the  rest  of  the  stone. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


273 


THE  GRINDSTONE. 

solid  leather  and  are  made  in  three  grades:  soft,  medium 
and  hard  ;  and  they  are  well  adapted  to  all  kinds  of  polish- 
ing. These  wheels  are  made  of  discs  of  oak-tanned  leather, 
held  together  with  elastic  water-proof  cement,  and  com- 
pressed under  a  hydraulic  pressure  of  from  75  to  100  tons. 
They  have  advantages  over  other  wheels,  being  more  plia- 
ble and  elastic,  can  be  turned  to  any  shape  face,  saving  the 


Fig.  297. 


expense  of  re-covering,  as  a  coat  of  emery  is  all  that  is 
needed  to  make  them  ready  for  service.  Being  water-proof, 
they  can  be  washed  like  a  leather-covered  wood  wheel 
when  a  new  coat  of  emery  is  needed,  and  they  can  be  run 
at  any  speed  with  perfect  safety. 

A  tool  chest  is  shown  in  fig.  298.     This  is  preferably 
made  of  hardwood  and  furnished  with  locks  and  handles. 


274 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


"  The  user  of  the  machine  tool,  wiser  in  his  gen- 
eration than  the  agitator,  refuses  to  make  sudden  and 
radical  changes  in  methods  which  have  proved  suc- 
cessful. To  him  machines  are  but  a  means  to  an  end. 
He  does  not  purchase  them  because  they  make 
watches,  or  engines,  or  ships.  For  these  things  he 
does  not  care.  He  wants  them  to  make  money,  and 


Fig.  298. 


if  he  finds  that  a  new  machine  can  turn  out  more  of 
it  in  an  hour  than  an  old  machine,  he  tries  the  new. 
But  it  is  labor  lost,  explaining  the  beauties  of  its  con- 
struction, the 'excellence  of  its  work,  and  the  rapidity 
of  its  output,  if  it  cannot  be  shown  that  it  makes 
more  money  than  a  tool  his  grandfathers  found 
good." 


276  The  Advanced  Machinist. 


"The  most  successful  managers  are  those  who 
manage  men,  not  things.  By  selecting  the  right 
heads  of  departments,  encouraging  them  to  do  their 
best,  by  showing  in  a  substantial  manner  their  work 
is  appreciated,  the  manager  or  superintendent  can 
suggest  improvements  to  the  various  departments  that 
far  out-weigh  the  whole  cost  of  some  of  the  details. 
It  is  well  to  know  the  details,  so  as  to  be  able  to 
examine  them  occasionally,  but  to  attempt  to  follow 
them  continually  prevents  attention  to  features  of 
more  importance." 


"  The  shop  manager  must  educate  his  foremen  ; 
must  train  them  to  his  methods ;  must  teach  them 
concentration  along  the  line  of  their  particular  work. 
Imbued  with  this  spirit  the  shop  foreman  will  train 
the  gang  boss,  and  he  in  turn  the  workmen  under 
him.  All  must  understand,  that  the  greatest  output 
of  perfect,  finished  product,  with  the  least  delay  and 
waste,  is  the  sole  object  in  view." 


SHOP  MANAGEMENT. 


The  advanced  machinist,  in  common  with  other  trades 
and  professions,  has,  in  very  recent  times,  learned  the 
value  of  co-operation  between  man  and  man,  and  between 
man  and  machines ;  at  last  he  is  working  on  the  principles 
he  has  found  to  underlie  good  results  in  any  trade — division 
of  labor  and  organization. 

When  the  modern  machinist  undertakes  a  problem  of 
construction,  or  a  special  line  of  manufacture,  he  looks  it 
squarely  in  the  face,  and  if  the  equipment  is  not  equal  to 
the  demands  of  the  situation,  supplies  the  need  with  the 
most  approved  machines  or  he  invents  new  and  improved 
devices  and  tools,  and  guarantees  successful  and  definite 
results  even  before  the  work  is  begun.  He  does  this  by 
what  is  broadly  named  shop  management. 

The  subject  suggests  two  things — a  shop  and  a  man- 
ager ;  or,  to  enlarge  a  little,  shops  with  machinery  in  opera- 
tion and  a  foreman  ;  again,  to  widen  the  view  still  further, 
shop  management  may  properly  include  as  its  field  of 
operations,  a  vast  establishment  with  thousands  of  skilled 
and  unskilled  workmen,  with  their  gang-bosses,  foremen, 
and  superintendents  of  departments,  the  whole  animated 
and  directed  as  a  single  whole  by  a  general  manager,  who 
in  turn  is  responsible  to  a  board  of  directors,  representing 
the  capital  employed. 

For  its  most  effective  use,  the  shop  may  be  considered 
a  machine,  sometimes  large  and  sometimes  small,  of  which 
the  equipment  and  men  are  the  moving  parts.  These  are 
so  placed  as  to  work  one  with  another,  so  that  the  product, 

277 


278  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

SHOP  MANAGEMENT. 

passing  through  the  shop,  reaches  the  finished  condition 
with  the  least  expense,  in  the  desired  state  of  finish  and 
accuracy,  thus  effecting  the  combination  of  superiority  and 
low  price. 

Be  the  "  plant "  large  or  small,  the  first  thing  that 
enters  into  its  successful  management  is  a  "  system " 
adapted  to  its  size,  condition  and  location.  The  word 
system  explains  the  idea :  A  plan  or  scheme  according  to 
which  ideas  or  things  are  connected  together  as  a  whole ; 
a  union  of  parts  forming  a  whole ;  whatever  savors  of 
system,  savors  of  accuracy,  speed,  ease  and  comfort. 

Let  it  not  be  forgotten,  that  of  thousands  of  machine- 
shops  now  in  existence,  the  exceptions  are  few  in  number 
but  what  they  had  -their  beginnings  in  the  days  of  small 
things,  as  to  men  and  equipment ;  they  have  simply  grown 
with  passing  years,  but  with  all,  the  fact  has  been,  that 
success  and  continuance  has  depended  upon  a  proper 
system,  which  has  been  classified  as 

I.  Organization ; 

2.  Management; 

3.  Equipment. 

NOTE. — "System is  not  work,  but  is  simply  a  law  of  action  for 
reducing  work  ;  it  does  not  require  special  executors,  but  permits  few  to 
accomplish  much.  It  loads  no  man  with  labor  but  lightens  the  labor 
of  each  by  rigidly  defining  it.  Hard  work  begins  when  system  relaxes. 

System  never  under  any  circumstances,  interferes  with  variations 
in  human  action,  but  includes  them  ;  elasticity  is  not  a  quality  of  sys- 
tem, but  comprehensiveness  is.  System  is  the  result  of  two  rigid  laws  : 
i,  a  place  for  everything  and  everything  in  its  place,  and,  2,  specific  lines 
of  duty  for  every  man.  The  laws  being  written,  understood  and  exe- 
cuted, lighten  the  responsibility  of  every  man.  " — Chorda?*  Letters. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  279 

ORGANIZATION. 

The  term  organization  refers  to  the  arrangement  of 
departments  and  the  positions  they  occupy,  but  in  this 
book,  the  term  does  not  include  the  commercial  organiza- 
tion, of  account  keeping,  financing  or  business  management. 
EQUIPMENT. 

The   term   equipment    may   be   said    to    include   all 
machinery,  tools,  gauges,  auxiliary  plant,  means  of  trans- 
portation and  shop  fittings ;  this  is  nearly  a  definition  of  a 
power-plant. 
MANAGEMENT. 

The  above  enter  into  the  operation  of  every  shop 
and  "  plant,"  and  so  the  problems  of  to-day  in  shop  and 
factory  management,  are  not  so  much  problems  of  machinery 
as  of  men ;  the  question  of  men  is,  and  always  will  be  a 
difficult  one ;  men  are,  as  a  rule,  willing  to  do  a  good, 
fair  day's  work  for  a  fair  day's  pay.  They  do  not 
have  to  be  driven  to  this.  It  is  only  necessary  that  the 
foreman  let  them  know,  in  manly,  inoffensive  ways,  what 
is  expected  of  them. 

Many  schemes  of  co-operation  have  been  attempted 
in  the  various  trades  and  factories,  with  varying  success. 
Many  schemes  have  been  too  complicated,  and  many  have  a 
serious  drawback  in  the  length  of  time  necessary  before 
the  workman  knows  to  what  extent  he  has  participated  in 
the  profits.  Many  schemes  are  too  visionary,  and  some 
good  ones  may  have  been  failures  on  account  of  the 
methods  taken  to  introduce  them.  Any  plan,  to  succeed, 
must  be  practical  and  simple  enough  to  introduce  without 

NOTE. — The  Century  Dictionary  defines  a  "plant"  as  "the 
fixtures,  machinery,  tools,  apparatus,  etc.,  necessary  to  carry  on  any 
trade  or  mechanical  business,  or  any  mechanical  process  or  operation." 


2 So  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

SHOP  MANAGEMENT. 

displacing  entirely  the  old.  The  most  practical  schemes 
seem  to  be  those  in  which  the  workman  is  able  to  partici- 
pate in  the  profit  on  a  given  piece.  That  is,  he  is  given 
opportunity  to  reduce  cost  of  production  and  is  allowed  an 
increase  of  wage  for  so  doing. 

PIECE-WORK  PLAN. 

The  piece-work  is  the  most  widely  introduced  of  any 
system  in  which  the  machinist  shares  in  his  increased  pro- 
ductiveness. It  consists  in  paying  a  fixed  price  for  a  certain 
piece  of  work.  Although  it  was  originally  intended  to 
benefit  the  manufacturer,  in  its  first  result  it  most  directly 
benefited  the  workman,  as  he  received  an  increase  of 
wage,  while  the  price  per  piece  remained  constant  to  the 
manufacturer,  who,  however,  gains  something  by  the  greater 
output  of  his  plant. 

THE  DIFFERENTIAL  PLAN. 

The  differential  plan  consists  of  paying  a  man  a  high 
price  per  piece  in  consideration  of  his  reaching  a  certain 
high- water  mark  of  production  per  day,  and  a  lower  price 
per  piece  provided  he  falls  below  this  rate  of  production. 
This  plan  congregates  the  ablest  of  workmen,  but  leaves 
the  medium  men  considerably  in  the  shade.  It  necessi- 

NOTE. — "A  tour  of  the  machine  shops  of  the  United  States  and 
the  newer  works  of  Europe  gives  few  impressions  more  striking  than 
the  one  created  by  the  widespread  evidence  of  growing  thought  for  the 
comfort  of  the  workman.  Humanitarian  considerations  aside,  it 
pays — pays  in  quality  and  lower  cost  of  output — when  the  worker  is 
kept  well  nourished  and  in  good  hygienic  surroundings.  It  is  not,  of 
course,  possible  for  all  works  to  go  so  far  as  some  others,  but  the 
general  principles  are  everywhere  applicable." — The  Editors  of  the 
Engineering  Magazine. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  281 

PIECE-WORK  AND  PREMIUM  PLANS. 

tates  a  radical  change  from  the  method  of  paying  by  the 
hour,  but  perhaps  conforms  more  closely  than  any  other 
plan  to  the  true  theory  of  having  the  wage  proportionate 
to  the  production. 
THE  PREMIUM  PLAN. 

The  premium  plan  consists  of  setting  a  "  time  limit  " 
upon  the  piece,  within  which  limit  the  piece  is  expected  to 
be  completed.  The  man  is  paid  his  hourly  wage  for  every 
hour  he  works  upon  the  piece,  and  a  specified  premium  for 
every  hour  he  saves  or  does  not  work  upon  the  piece  inside 
the  "  time  limit  "  set.  The  "  time  limits  "  and  premium 
rates  are  not  changed  or  cut.  The  advantages  of  this  plan 
are  :  First,  adaptability  to  ordinary  work  fitting  in  along- 
side of  regular  day  work  ;  second,  its  self-regulating  feature, 
whereby  the  cost  per  piece  is  reduced  to  the  employer  and 
the  wage  per  hour  increased  to  the  workman  every  time 
any  improvement  is  made  in  production  ;  third,  its  flexibil- 
ity, due  to  the  opportunity  at  the  start  of  fixing  a  premium 
rate  adapted  to  the  conditions  or  business  in  hand,  and  the 
opportunity  thereafter  of  setting  either  a  liberal  or  close 
"  time  limit  "  to  regulate  cost  per  piece.  It  does  not  crowd 
out  the  medium  machinist,  but  gives  him  encouragement 
to  become  better. 

It  also  serves  the  foreman  as  the  best  indicator  possi- 
ble for  setting  the  rates  of  men  per  hour,  by  affording  him 
an  opportunity  to  note  the  amount  of  product  turned  out 
in  a  given  time. 

Of  these  three  plans  of  co-operation,  the  piece  work 
plan  requires  the  least  knowledge  in  fixing  prices ;  the 
differential  plan  requires  a  most  extensive,  minute  and 


282  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

SHOP  MANAGEMENT. 

complete  knowledge  of  the  exact  maximum  rate  of  pro- 
duction. The  premium  plan  requires  a  fair  knowledge 
and  judgment  of  machine-shop  operations,  in  order  to  set 
a  reasonable  "  time  limit,"  but  with  proper  premium  rates 
the  "  time  limits  "  may  vary  considerably,  without  varying 
the  actual  cost  to  a  dangerous  extent. 
AN  EQUITABLE  METHOD. 

An  equitable  method  of  scaling  the  rates  for  machine 
labor  would  tend  to  clear  the  atmosphere  for  those  who 
are  in  doubt.  An  even  rate  for  all  machinists  greatly 
handicaps  the  most  skilled  labor  and  benefits  most  the 
incompetent. 
PLANNING  A  SHOP. 

In  planning  a  shop,  however  small,  the  possibility  of 
its  steady  growth  for  many  years  to  come,  should  be  kept 
constantly  in  mind.  No  building  should  be  erected  that 
does  not  conform  with  part  of  the  whole  scheme  of  what 
the  plant  might  be  in  the  remote  future.  Another  con- 
sideration is  to  provide  for  the  unity  of  the  plant,  even 
though  it  trebles  or  quadruples  in  size. 

NOTE. — A  notable  example  of  forethought  in  guarding  against 
this  possibility  is  the  new  Allis-Chalmers  shop  at  Milwaukee.  Pro- 
vision has  been  made  not  only  for  its  doubling,  but  for  its  expansion 
indefinitely,  without  loss  of  its  integrity.  The  foundry  and  pattern  shop 
run  parallel  to  each  other.  At  right  angles  and  abutting  the  foundry 
are  three  machine  shop  bays,  and  at  the  other  end  of  these  bays,  run- 
ning out  at  right  angles  to  them,  is  the  erecting  shop,  so  that  the 
castings  from  the  foundry  go  through  the  various  machine  shop  bays 
and  into  the  erecting  shop  by  the  most  direct  routes.  But  the  finest 
feature  of  this  whole  plant  is  that  more  bays  may  be  added  and  the 
foundry,  pattern  shop  and  erecting  shop  lengthened  without  damaging 
the  correct  proportions  of  these  departments  relatively  to  each  other, 
and  without  their  growing  apart. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  283 

DEPARTMENTS. 

As  an  army  is  divided  into  divisions,  brigades  and 
companies,  so  are  the  large  shops  of  the  present  day 
divided  into  departments,  each  of  which  has  its  official 
head. 

A  description  of  one  will  be  sufficient  to  indicate  the 
management  of  many.  It  is  that  of  a  well  ordered  pattern 
shop,  which  constituted  a  department  in  an  extensive 
establishment. 

The  closing  paragraphs  of  the  article  are  especially 
worthy  of  attention  : 

"  The  shop  was  on  the  second  floor  of  a  separate  building,  having 
windows  on  all  sides.  Benches  were  around  the  outer  walls,  each  hav- 
ing a  window  over  it.  Windows  had  shades  to  roll  from  both  top  and 
bottom,  thus  getting  all  possible  light  without  the  glare  of  the  sun. 
Each  bench  had  a  tool  rack  at  back  of  same  for  tools  most  commonly 
used,  and  drawers  built  in  the  bench  for  workmen's  supplies  and  such 
tools  as  were  only  occasionally  used.  A  small  clothes  closet  with 
towel,  rack  and  mirror  over  each  bench  completed  the  individual 
equipment.  Bach  workman  was  required  to  leave  his  bench  clean  and 
in  order  at  night. 

"  The  shop  floor  was  swept  every  night,  and  the  refuse  taken  out, 
thereby  lessening  fire  dangers.  The  lumber  was  kept  in  racks  on  edge, 
one  size  above  another,  the  heavier  pieces  near  the  floor.  In  ihis  way 
any  piece  could  be  taken  out  without  moving  any  other.  There  was 
but  one  scrap  pile  in  the  shop.  Instead  of  being  thrown  on  the  floor 
in  a  heap,  pieces  of  lumber  were  properly  sorted  in  a  rack  next 
the  band-saw,  shelves  being  provided  for  the  smaller  pieces  and  cross- 
bars for  longer  ones.  But  little  time  was  lost  getting  nearly  the  right 
piece.  No  scrap  was  allowed  under  the  benches.  All  pieces  left  had 
to  be  put  in  the  rack  or  thrown  in  the  waste.  The  floor  under  the 
benches  was  kept  as  clean  as  the  rest  of  the  shop. 

"The  machines  were  in  groups  in  the  center  of  the  shop  at  one 
end,  leaving  a  large  floor  space  at  the  other  end.  This  made  the  ma- 
chines accessible  from  all  sides.  All  machines  were  belted  from  below, 
thus  avoiding  belts  across  the  shops.  All  face-plates,  centers,  wrenches, 
calipers,  etc  ,  were  kept  on  shelves  under  the  lathe,  and  back  of  same 
to  be  easily  accessible.  Each  workman  was  required  to  leave  machines 
clean  and  in  order. 


284  The  Advanced  Machinist. 


SHOP  xWANAGEMENT. 

"  A  great  deal  of  work  was  only  sandpapered  after  sawing. 
Some  was  only  sawed.  Saws  were  kept  in  order  by  the  foreman  and 
hung  alongside  the  machine.  The  buzz  planer  was  kept  in  the  best  pos- 
sible condition.  The  30- inch  grindstone  ran  450  revolutions  per  minute, 
taking  water  on  its  side,  centrifugal  force  carrying  it  out.  The  stone 
was  properly  hooded,  had  tight  and  loose  pulleys  and  iron  frame. 
This  machine  had  the  fast  cutting  qualities  of  an  emery  grinder  with- 
out its  heating  disadvantages.  There  was  a  small  bench  drill  taking 
small  twist  drills  and  the  ordinary  wood  bits  up  to  one  inch.  There 
was  one  large  trimmer  and  iwo  smaller  ones  conveniently  arranged 
about  the  shop.  Round,  concave  and  convex  sandpapering  blocks  of 
standard  sizes  and  curves  were  kept  in  a  rack  for  that  purpose. 

"  Time  slips  and  approximate  amount  of  material  used  were  turned 
in  to  the  foreman  every  night.  The  aim  in  this  shop  seemed  to  be  to 
waste  nothing ;  to  do  work  at  as  low  cost  as  possible ;  to  do  good 
work  ;  to  be  considerate  of  the  comforts  and  conveniences  of  the  men, 
and  to  have  good  order  and  cleanliness  everywhere." 

Mr.  Sibley,  in  the  same  journal,  tells  of  a  new  foreman 
who  reformed  a  shop  noted  for  its  untidiness : 

"  Shortly  after  his  appearance  on  the  scene,  he  started  a  crusade 
against  dirt  and  rubbish  ;  he  had  the  carpenter  build  a  bin  in  one  cor- 
ner of  the  yard,  which  was  roofed  over  and  fitted  with  a  door,  made  in 
sections  which  could  be  successively  inserted  as  the  bin  filled,  after 
which  he  sawed  in  two  a  half  dozen  empty  oil  barrels,  which  were 
painted  a  bright  red  and  on  which  were  inscribed  in  large  white  letters  the 
legend  "  Refuse  ;  "  these  were  located  in  convenient  places.  A  laborer 
was  selected  and  given  an  outfit  consisting  of  broom,  rake,  shovel  and 
wheelbarrow,  and  to  him  was  assigned  the  task  of  raking  up  and 
wheeling  away  all  litter  from  the  yard  ;  also  once  a  day  cleaning  out 
the  chips  and  scraps  from  the  various  boxes  around  the  machine  tools 
and  depositing  them  in  the  bin. 

"  It  is  an  axiom  that '  Like  begets  like,'  and  the  result  of  such 
surroundings  was  to  make  the  men  more  careful  and  painstaking  in 
their  work,  reducing  the  loss  from  waste  and  spoiled  jobs,  and  also 
having  the  effect  of  drawing  and  holding  a  much  better  and  more 
intelligent  class  of  workmen  than  could  otherwise  be  obtained  for  the 
same  wages." 

THE  FOREMAN. 

The  man  upon  whom  the  success,  comfort,  character, 
and  continuance  of  a  "works"  depends  in  the  ultimate  is 
the  model  foreman  ;  he  has  been  described  as  follows : 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  285 

THE  FOREMAN. 

"  A  foreman  is  a  chief  or  leading  man,  with  those 
whom  he  is  appointed  to  manage  and  direct ;  a  success- 
ful foreman  must  be  two-sided.  He  must  not  only 
keep  the  machinery  under  his  charge  in  proper  order, 
but  he  must  discipline,  direct  and  control  the  animated 
human  machine  that  operates  the  inanimate  tools.  He 
should  be  a  good  mechanic  as  well  as  a  good  leader  of 
men. 

"  To  be  a  leader  of  men,  he  should  cultivate  perfect 
patience,  forbearance  and  self-control,  remembering  that 
no  man  has  controlled  others  who  did  not  start  by  control- 
ling himself.  He  should  be  even-tempered,  or,  if  not  born 
so,  should  not  let  anyone  discover  it.  He  should  be  strictly 
just,  granting  cheerfully  everything  due  his  employees, 
while  jealously  guarding  his  employer's  interests,  curbing 
his  generosity  in  spending  funds  intrusted  to  him.  A 
man  so  qualified  should  make  a  successful  master  mechanic, 
but  will  not  long  remain  one  in  the  present  day  of  keen 
competition  in  all  branches,  calling  for  competent  men  for 
advancement." 

The  shop  manager  should  be  keen  to  remove  and 
keep  removed  from  the  foreman  such  tasks  as  do  not  bear 
directly  upon  the  production.  The  foreman  must  turn 
out  the  maximum  of  good  products.  To  do  this  he  must 
have  his  materials  supplied  to  him  without  effort  on  his 
part.  He  must  be  left  time  to  pick  and  choose  the  men 
best  suited  to  the  various  classes  of  work.  He  must  train 
them  into  rapid  and  skillful  workmen.  He  must  keep  the 
machine  tools  in  good  order  and  see  that  they  are  worked 
to  their  full  capacity,  and  the  organization  of  which  he  is  a 


286  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

SHOP  MANAGEMENT. 

part  must  make  it  possible  for  him  to  do  all  this,  and  must 
not  distract  his  attention  with  anything  else. 
GANG  BOSSES. 

Gang  bosses  are  now  common  on  the  erecting  floors  of 
even  small  shops,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  gang  bosses 
should  not  be  appointed  to  oversee  work  on  tools  also. 
For  example,  the  best  lathe  hand  in  a  group  of  three  or 
four  is  paid  a  trifle  more  and  put  in  authority  over  them. 
The  foreman  instructs  this  man  in  regard  to  the  work  laid 
out  ahead  for  these  lathes,  while  the  man  in  turn  sees  that 
it  is  carried  out  in  detail.  He  is  still  a  producer, but  at  the 
same  time  he  is  relieving  the  foreman  of  a  considerable 
burden.  In  this  way  the  foreman  is  left  freer  to  plan  out 
the  more  important  details  of  his  work. 

A  quotation  expresses  a  strongly-felt  need  for  in- 
formation: "There  are  a  great  many  problems  for  the 
small  shop  to  solve,  and  the  methods  of  the  big  shops 
furnish  no  solution.  I  mean  the  small  shop  that  is  just 
big  enough  to  have  troubles,  but  not  big  enough  to  have 
a  fine  organization — where  one  man  has  to  do  many 
things — where  the  question  of  commercial  expediency 
turns  up  daily.  I  mean  the  shop  employing  from  twenty- 
five  to  fifty  hands  and  doing  a  variety  of  small  work — 
sometimes  a  quantity  of  pieces,  sometimes  a  limited  num- 
ber of  special  machines.  Something  a  little  beyond  the 
jobbing  machinists,  but  away  behind  the  great  sewing 
machine  companies  and  small  arms  companies  and  type- 
writer concerns.  /  sometimes  think  the  manager  of  such 
a  shop  has  a  tougher  job  than  a  man  with  one  ten  times 
as  large" 


288  The  Advanced  Machinist. 


"  A  machinist  must  love  the  tools  he  uses.  They 
are  his  work-day  companions  during  life  ;  he  learns 
to  handle  them  with  skillful  gentleness  ;  he  learns  to 
regard  them  with  that  sort  of  warmth  of  feeling 
which,  during  the  long  years  of  association  with 
them,  unfolds  itself  into  a  genuine  love  for  those  that 
have  stood  by  him — have  remained  •  good  to  the  last.' 
They  are  his  'never  fail  me's,'  and  with  certain  ones 
he  would  not  part  for  ten  times  their  cost  to  him." 


WORKSHOP  RECIPES. 

A  recipe,  in  popular  usage,  is  a  receipt  for  making 
almost  any  mixture  or  preparation. 

Shop  recipes  pertain  to  the  shop,  and  embrace  a  thou- 
sand processes,  receipts,  kinks  and  formulas,  in  common 
report  among  mechanics ;  these  are  passed  along  from  man 
to  man  and  frequently  are  printed  and  thus  pass  into  liter- 
ature. 

Each  establishment  has  its  own  particular  collection 
of  recipes,  and  many  of  them  are  applicable  only  in  their 
own  home-land,  where  necessity  has  given  them  birth.  In 
the  same  way,  each  machinist,  engineer  and  artisan  should 
possess,  as  a  part  of  his  private  equipment,  a  good  store  of 
these  useful  and  most  helpful  items  of  knowledge. 

Each  one  is  advised  to  keep  a  memorandum-book  in 
which  he  may  record,  from  time  to  time,  such  recipes  as, 
in  his  line  of  activity,  may  be  considered  valuable,  elimi- 
nating and  omitting — like  old  lumber — all  such  as  belong 
to  outside  affairs  and  hence  of  no  service  to  the  compiler 
of  what  may  be  properly  called  a  "  list  of  useful  recipes." 

A  few  only,  of  many  of  such  in  current  use,  are  here 
presented,  more  as  a  guide  for  such  collections  which  each 
one  can  make  for  himself,  rather  than  as  a  complete 
exhibit  of  recipes  and  formulas. 

BABBITT  METAL. — Babbitt  metal  is  an  alloy,  com- 
posed of  tin  45.5,  copper  1.5,  antimony  13,  lead  40  parts. 

Formerly  the  alloy,  originated  by  Isaac  Babbitt,  was 
used  for  all  purposes,  but  there  is  no  one  composition  that 
will  bring  equally  good  results  in  all  kinds  of  machinery, 
hence  are  given  the  following : 

289 


290  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

WORKSHOP  RECIPES. 

Babbitt  metal  for  light  duty  is  composed  of  89.3  parts 
of  copper,  1.8  parts  of  antimony,  8.9  parts  of  lead. 

Babbitt  metal  for  heavy  bearings  is  composed  of  88.9 
parts  of  copper,  3.7  parts  of  antimony,  7.4  parts  of  lead. 

SOLDERS. — Alloys  employed  for  joining  metals  together 
are  termed  "  solders,"  and  they  are  commonly  divided  into 
two  classes :  hard  and  soft  solders.     The  former  fuse  only 
at  a  red  heat,  but  soft  solders  fuse  at  comparatively  low 
temperatures.      Common  solders  are  composed  of  equal 
parts  of  tin  and  lead  ;  fine  solder,  two  parts  of  tin  to  one  of 
lead ;  cheap  solder,  one  of  tin  and  two  of  lead ;  common 
pewter  contains   four  lead   to   one   of  tin ;    German  silver 
solder  is  composed  of  copper  38,  zinc  54,  nickel  8  parts=ioo. 
How    TO    SOLDER    ALUMINIUM. — In  soldering  alu- 
minium, it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  upon  exposure 
to  the  air  a  slight  film  of  oxide  forms  over  the  surface  of 
aluminium,  and  afterwards  protects  the  metal.     The  oxide 
is 'the  same  color  as  the  metal,  so  that  it  cannot  easily  be 
distinguished.     The  idea  in  soldering  is  to  get  underneath 
this  oxide  while  the  surface  is  covered  with  the  molten 
solder.     With  the  following  procedure  quick  manipulation 
is   necessary:     I,  clean    off   all  dirt  and  grease  from  the 
surface  of  the  metal  with  a  little  benzine ;    2,  apply  the 
solder  with  a  copper  bit,  and  when  the  molten  solder  is 

NOTE. — The  best  treatment  for  wrought  steel,  which  has  a  knack 
of  growing  gray  and  lustreless,  is  to  first  wash  it  very  clean  with  a  stiff 
brush«and  ammonia  soapsuds,  rinse  well,  dry  by  heat  if  possible,  then 
oil  plentifully  with  sweet  oil,  and  dust  thickly  with  powdered  quick 
lime.     Let  the  lime  stay  on  two  days,  then  brush  it  off  with  a  clean 
very  stiff  brush.     Polish  with  a  softer  brush,  and  rub  with  cloths  until 
the  lustre  comes  out.     By  leaving  the  lime  on,  iron  and  steel  may  be 
kept  from  rust  almost  indefinitely. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  291 

HOW  TO  SOLDER  ALUMINIUM. 

covering  the  surface  of  the  metal,  scratch  through  the 
solder  with  a  little  wire  scratch-brush.  By  this  means  you 
break  up  the  oxide  on  the  surface  of  the  metal  underneath 
the  soldering,  and  the  solder,  containing  its  own  flux,  takes 
up  the  oxide  and  enables  you,  so  to  speak,  to  tin  the  sur- 
face of  the  aluminium. 

To  TIN  A  SOLDERING  IRON. — File  the  bolt  clean 
over  the  part  to  which  the  tinning  is  to  be  applied.  Wet 
this  part  with  soldering  fluid.  Heat  the  bolt  till  it  is  hot 
enough  for  use  and  rub  it  into  solder  placed  upon  a  piece 
of  tin.  If  this  does  not  secure  an  even  coating,  heat  the 
bolt  again  and  attend  to  the  bare  spots  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  before.  If  you  use  a  soldering  pot,  you  can  keep 
sal-ammoniac  on  top  of  the  solder,  and  dip  the  iron  into 
the  solder  through  the  liquid. 

BRAZING  CAST  IRON. — The  reason  that  cast  iron  can- 
not be  brazed  with  spelter  as  wrought  iron  can,  is  that  the 
graphitic  carbon  in  the  former  prevents  the  adhesion  of  the 
spelter,  as  a  layer  of  dust  prevents  the  adhesion  of  cement 
to  stone  or  brick.  A  process  to  remove  this  graphite  has 
been  patented  in  Germany,  consisting  essentially  in  apply- 
ing to  the  surfaces  to  be  united  an  oxide  of  copper  and 
protecting  them  against  the  influence  of  the  air  with  borax 
or  silicate  of  soda.  When  the  joint  is  heated  the  oxide  of 
copper  gives  up  its  oxygen  to  the  graphite,  converting  it 
into  carbonic  oxide  gas,  which  escapes  in  bubbles,  while 
particles  of  metallic  copper  are  deposited  on  the  iron. 

NOTE. — For  removing  rust  from  iron  the  following  is  given  :  Iron 
may  be  quickly  and  easily  cleaned  by  dipping  in  or  washing  with  nitric 
acid  one  part,  muriatic  acid  one  part  and  water  twelve  parts.  After 
using  wash  with  clean  water, 


292  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

WORKSHOP  RECIPES. 

Any  oxide  of  iron  which  may  be  formed  is  dissolved  by 
the  borax,  and  the  surfaces  of  the  iron,  thus  freed  from 
graphite,  unite  readily  with  the  spelter  which  is  run  into 
the  joint  before  it  cools,  the  copper  already  deposited  on 
the  iron  assisting  the  process.  The  inventor  claims  that 
cast  iron  can  in  this  way  be  readily  brazed  in  an  ordinary 
blacksmith's  forge. 

A  CHEAP  LUBRICANT  FOR  MILLING  AND  DRILLING. 
— Dissolve  separately  in  water,  10  pounds  of  whale-oil  soap 
and  15  pounds  of  sal-soda.  Mix  this  in  40  gallons  of  clean 
water.  Add  two  gallons  of  best  lard  oil,  stir  thoroughly, 
and  the  solution  is  ready  for  use. 

SODA  WATER  FOR  DRILLING.— Dissolve  three-fourths 
to  one  pound  of  sal-soda  in  one  pailful  of  water. 

FUSING  POINTS  OF  TIN-LEAD  ALLOTS. 

Tin  i  to  lead  10, 


o, 

.    .     .     558°  F. 

Tini> 

z  to  lead  i,  . 

•.    •    334°  F. 

5, 

.     .     .    511°  F. 

"     2 

"     "     I,  . 

.   ...  340°  F. 

3, 

.    .     .    482°  F. 

"    3 

"     "     i,  . 

.    |  356°  F. 

2, 

.     .    .    44i°  F. 

"    4 

«     «     T 
1>  • 

.    .    365°  F. 

I, 

.    .    .    370°  F. 

"    5 

"     "     i,  . 

i  .  378°  F. 

USE  OF  LIME  TO  KEEP  SHOP  FLOORS  CLEAN.— In 
the  Elevated  Railroad  shops  of  Chicago  it  has  been  found 
that  the  use  of  lime  aids  in  cleaning  up  the  shop  floors  and 
in  keeping  them  in  good  condition.  This  lime  is  simply 
swept  over  the  floor  every  day,  in  addition  to  the  regular 
cleaning.  Very  little  remains  on  the  floor  after  the  sweep- 
ing, but  it  is  sufficient  to  counteract  the  effect  of  the  oil 

NOTE. — Among  all  the  soft  metals  in  use  there  are  none  that 
possess  greater  anti-friction  properties  than  pure  lead ;  but  lead  alone 
is  impracticable,  for  it  is  so  soft  that  it  cannot  be  retained  in  the  recess 
of  a  bearing.  In  most  of  the  best  and  most  popular  anti  friction  metals 
in  use,  sold  under  the  name  ' '  Babbitt, ' '  the  basis  is  lead. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  293 

MARKING  SOLUTION. 

and  grease,  and  to  make  it  easy  at  the  beginning  of  each 
day  to  clean  up  what  has  fallen  the  previous  day,  as  well 
as  to  improve  the  appearance  of  the  floor. 

NICKEL-PLATING  SOLUTION. — To  a  solution  of  5  to 
10  per  cent,  of  chloride  of  zinc  (5  grains,  drams  or  ounces, 
to  95  of  water,  or  10  parts  to  90  of  water)  add  enough 
sulphate  of  nickel  to  produce  a  strong  green  color,  and 
bring  to  boiling  boint  in  a  porcelain  or  stoneware  vessel. 
The  piece,  or  article,  to  be  plated  must  be  free  from  grease 
(by  dipping  in  dilute  acid) ;  it  is  introduced  by  hanging  on 
wire  by  a  stick  across  the  vessel,  so  that  it  touches  the  sides 
as  little  as  possible.  Boiling  is  continued  from  30  to  60  min- 
utes, water  being  added  to  supply  that  lost  by  evaporation. 
During  boiling,  the  nickel  is  deposited  as  a  white  and 
brilliant  coating.  Boiling  for  two  or  three  hours  does  not 
increase  the  thickness  of  the  coating.  As  soon  as  the 
object  appears  to  be  plated,  wash  in  water  having  a  little 
chalk  in  suspension,  and  then  carefully  dry.  Polish  the 
article  with  chalk.  The  chloride  of  zinc  and  nickel  suL 
phate  must  be  free  from  metals  precipitable  by  iron.  If, 
during  the  precipitation  of  the  nickel  on  the  articles,  the 
solution  becomes  colorless,  more  nickel  sulphate  should  be 
added.  The  liquid  spent  may  be  used  again  by  exposing 
it  to  the  air  until  the  contained  iron  (from  the  articles)  is 
precipitated,  filtering  and  adding  the  salts  as  above. — 
W.  B.  BURROW  in  Power. 

MARKING  SOLUTION. — Dissolve  one  ounce  of  sulphate 
of  copper  (blue  vitriol)  in  four  ounces  of  water  and  half  a 
teaspoonful  of  nitric  acid.  When  this  solution  is  applied 
on  bright  steel  or  iron,  the  surface  immediately  turns  cop- 


294  The  Advanced  Machinist. 


WORKSHOP  RECIPES. 

per  color,  and  marks  made  by  a  sharp  scratch  •v.'wl  will  be 
seen  very  distinctly. 

FOR  BLUING  BRASS. — Dissolve  one  ouivvc  (or  any 
other  unit  in  the  same  proportions  will  do)  of  antimony 
chloride  in  twenty  ounces  of  water  and  add  three  ounces 
of  pure  hydrochloric  acid.  Place  the  warmed  brass  artic)e 
into  this  solution  until  it  has  turned  blue.  Then  wash  i*. 
and  dry  in  sawdust. 

To  PROTECT  BRIGHT  WORK  FROM  RUST.-  Use:  i. 
a  mixture  of  one  pound  of  lard,  one  ounce  of  gum  camphor 
melted  together,  with  a  little  lamp-black ;  or,  2,  a  mixture 
of  lard  oil  and  kerosene,  in  equal  parts ;  or,  3,  a  mixture  oj 
tallow  and  white  lead  ;  or,  4,  of  tallow  and  lime. 

VARNISH  FOR  COPPER. — To  protect  copper  from  oxi- 
dation a  varnish  may  be  employed  which  is  composed  of 
carbon  disulphide  I  part,  benzine  I  part,  turpentine  oil  I 
part,  methyl  alcohol  2  parts  and  hard  copal  I  part.  The 
varnish  is  very  resisting;  it  is  well  to  apply  several  coats 
of  it  to  the  copper. — Die  Werkstatt. 

To  REMOVE  THE  SAND  AND  SCALE  FROM  IRON 
CASTINGS. — Immerse  the  parts  in  a  mixture  composed  of 
one  part  of  oil  of  vitriol  to  three  parts  of  water ;  in  six  to 
ten  hours  remove  the  objects,  and  wash  them  thoroughly 
with  clean  water;  this  is  called  "pickling."  A  weaker 
solution  can  be  used  by  allowing  a  longer  time  for  the 
action  of  the  solution. 

NOTE. — A  common  sewing  needle  held  in  a  suitable  handle  makes 
an  excellent  scriber  for  accurate  work.  It  is  so  cheap  that  grinding  is 
unnecessary,  as,  when  dull,  it  can  be  simply  replaced  by  a  new  one. 
The  point  on  a  needle  is  ground  by  an  expert,  and  is  far  superior  to 
anything  possible  by  the  ordinary  machinist. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  295 

EXTRACTING  BROKEN  TOOLS. 

RUST  JOINT  COMPOSITION. — This  is  a  cement  made  of 
sal-ammoniac  I  lb.,  sulphur  \  lb.,  cast-iron  turnings  100  Ibs.; 
the  whole  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  and  moistened  with 
a  little  water;  if  the  joint  is  required  to  set  very  quick,  add 
i  lb.  more  sal-ammoniac.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  use 
too  much  sal-ammoniac,  or  the  mixture  will  become  rotten. 

RUST  JOINT  (slow  setting) — Two  parts  sal-ammoniac, 
I  flour  of  sulphur,  200  iron  borings.  This  composition  is 
the  best,  if  joint  is  not  required  for  immediate  use. 

CEMENT  FOR  FASTENING  PAPER  OR  LEATHER  TO 
IRON. — The  following  ingredients  are  required :  I  pound 
best  flour,  %  pound  best  glue,  ^  pound  granulated  sugar, 
YZ  ounce  powdered  borax,  ^  ounce  sal-ammoniac,  %  ounce 
alum.  Soak  the  glue  in  three  pints  of  soft  water  for  12 
hours,  or  if  you  have  glue  already  melted,  pour  in  the 
quantity.  Mix  the  flour  in  one  quart  of  soft  water,  mix  all 
together,  and  boil  over  a  slow  fire,  or  cook  with  a  steam 
jet.  When  cool  it  is  ready  for  use.  The  face  of  the  pul- 
ley or  surface  where  the  leather  is  to  be  applied  must  be 
thoroughly  clean  and  free  from  grease. 

EXTRACTING  BROKEN  TOOLS.— To  extract  the  frag- 
ment  of  a  drill,  punch  or  steel  tool,  which  has  broken  off 
while  working  any  metal  but  iron  or  steel.  The  object 
containing  the  broken-off  piece  is  immersed  in  a  boiling 
solution  composed  of  I  part  common  alum  to  4  or  5  parts 
of  water.  This  solution  may  be  held  in  a  vessel  of  stone- 
ware, porcelain,  copper,  etc.,  but  not  of  iron.  The  object 
should  be  so  placed  that  the  gaseous  bubbles  that  form  as 
the  alum  attacks  the  metal  are  easily  disengaged.  At  the 
end  of  a  short  time  the  fragment  of  the  tool  is  entirely  dis- 


296  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

WORKSHOP  RECIPES. 

solved.  A  piece  of  steel  spring,  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch 
thick,  dissolved  in  a  concentrated  solution  of  alum  in  three- 
quarters  of  an  hour. — Herr  Bornhauser,  Prussia. 

LUBRICANTS  FOR  USE  IN  CUTTING  BOLTS  AND 
TAPPING  NUTS. — Dissolve  i^  pounds  of  sal-soda  in  three 
gallons  of  warm  water,  then  add  one  gallon  of  pure  lard 
oil.  This  is  called  a  soda  solution.  Pure  lard  oil  is  the 
best  for  fine,  true  work.  Never  use  mineral  oil. — Acme 
Machinery  Co. 

SOLDERING  FLUIDS. — Add  pieces  of  zinc  to  muriatic 
acid  until  the  bubbles  cease  to  rise,  and  the  acid  may  be 
be  used  for  soldering  with  soft  solder. 

Mix  one  pint  of  grain  alcohol  with  two  tablespoonfuls 
of  chloride  of  zinc.  Shake  well.  This  solution  does  not 
rust  the  joint  as  acids  are  liable  to  do. 

When  soldering  lead,  use  tallow  or  resin  as  a  flux,  and 
use  a  solder  consisting  of  one  part  tin  and  \\  parts  lead. 

PREVENTING  RUST  ON  TOOLS. — To  prevent  rust  on 
tools,  use  vaseline,  to  which  a  small  amount  of  gum  cam- 
phor has  been  added  ;  heat  together  over  a  slow  fire. 

IN  LAYING  OUT  WORK— on  planed  surfaces  of  steel 

or  iron,  use  blue  vitriol  and  water  on  the  surface.     This 

will  copper-plate  the  surface  nicely,  so  that  all  lines  will 

i   show  plainly.     If  on  oily  surfaces,  add  a  little  oil  of  vitriol ; 

this  will  eat  the  oil  off  and  leave  a  nicely  coppered  surface. 

A  METAL  THAT  WILL  EXPAND  IN  COOLING— is  made 
of  9  parts  lead,  2  parts  antimony,  and  I  part  bismuth. 
This  metal  will  be  found  very  valuable  in  filling  holes  in 
castings. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  297 

AID  TO  THE  INJURED. 

To  COPPER  THE  SURFACE  OF  IRON  OR  STEEL 
WIRE. — Have  the  wire  perfectly  clean,  then  wash  with  the 
following  solution,  when  it  will  present  at  once  a  coppered 
surface :  Rain  water,  three  pounds  ;  sulphate  of  copper,  I 
pound. 

To  KEEP  WATER  FROM  FREEZING. — Common  salt  is 
the  best  material,  and  by  using  common  (agricultural)  salt 
the  expense  is  the  least. 

AN  OIL  THAT  WILL  NOT  GUM.— Take  good  Florence 
olive  oil  and  put  it  in  a  bottle  with  some  strips  of  zinc  and 
shavings  of  lead,  which  should  be  clean.  Expose  the  bot- 
tle to  sunlight  until  the  curdy  matter  ceases  to  be  depos- 
ited ;  this  will  require  considerable  time,  but  the  oil  when 
decanted  will  be  of  very  fine  quality  and  will  not  gum. 


AID  TO  THE  INJURED  IN  ACCIDENTS. 

A  noted  surgical  writer  has  said  that  the  fate  of  an 
injured  person  depends  upon  the  acts  of  the  one  into 
whose  hands  he  first  falls.  In  the  time  of  an  accident,  the 
presence  of  a  person  with  a  knowledge  of  what  to  do  and 
the  presence  of  mind  to  carry  such  knowledge  into  effect, 
is  invaluable. 

NOTE. — Few  subjects  can  more  usefully  employ  attention  and 
study  than  the  proper  treatment  and  first  remedies  made  necessary  by 
the  peculiar  and  distressing  accidents  to  which  persons  are  liable  who 
are  employed  in  or  around  machinery;  under  the  title  of  "First  Aid," 
etc.,  there  are  most  helpful  instructions  printed  and  distributed,  well 
worth  the  study  of  the  advanced  machinist ;  where  enough  in  number 
of  the  trade  are  together,  it  would  be  worthy  of  praise,  for  owners  to 
provide  each  year,  a  short  course  of  lectures,  illustrated,  for  the  benefit 
of  those  unfortunately  injured,  as  they  are  sure  to  be  from  time  to 
time,  and  in  a  greater  or  less  degree. 


298  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

USEFUL,  RECIPES. 

A  clear  head,  a  steady  hand  and  some  practical  know- 
ledge of  what  is  to  be  done,  are  what  are  needed  in  the  first 
moments  of  sudden  disaster  of  any  kind ;  an  experienced 
machinist  or  engineer  is  nearly  always  found,  in  the  con- 
fusion incident  to  such  a  time,  to  be  the  one  most  compe- 
tent to  advise  and  direct  the  efforts  made  to  avert  the  dan- 
ger to  life,  limb  or  property,  and  to  remedy  the  worst  after- 
effects. 

To  fulfill  this  responsibility  is  worth  much  previous 
preparation,  so  that  the  best  things  under  the  circumstances 
may  be  done  quickly  and  efficiently.  To  this  end  the  fol- 
lowing advice  is  given  relating  to  the  most  common  accidents 
which  are  likely  to  happen,  in  spite  of  the  utmost  care  and 
prudence. 

I,  Keep  cool.  2,  Summon  a  surgeon  at  once.  3,  Send 
a  written  message,  describing  the  accident  and  injury  if 
possible,  in  order  that  the  surgeon  may  know  what  instru- 
ments and  remedies  to  bring.  4,  Remove  the  patient  to  a 
quiet,  airy  place  where  the  temperature  is  comfortable. 
$,  Keep  bystanders  at  a  distance.  6,  Handle  the  patient 
gently  and  quietly. 

IN  CASE  OF  WOUNDS. 

Arrange  the  injured  person's  body  in  a  comfortable 
position;  injuries  to  the  head  require  that  the  head  be 
raised  higher  than  the  level  of  the  body ;  when  practical 

NOTE. — An  entire  chapter  on  "  Accidents  and  how  to  avoid  them," 
would  be  useful ;  the  first  advice  might  be  this :  To  resolve  firmly  to 
be  constantly  careful,  and  determine,  with  all  the  solemnity  of  an  oath, 
neither  to  be  injured  oneself,  nor  to  cause  injury  to  another.  This  has 
been  the  author's  rule  and  it  has  resulted  well ;  again  :  always  to  look 
in  the  direction  in  which  one  is  moving. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  299 

AID  TO  THE  INJURED. 

lay  the  patient  on  his  back  with  the  limbs  straightened  out 
in  their  usual  natural  position.  Unless  the  head  be  injured, 
have  the  head  on  the  same  level  as  the  body.  Loosen  the 
collar,  waist-band  and  belts.  If  the  patient  should  be  faint, 
have  his  head  rather  lower  than  his  feet.  If  the  arm  or  leg 
be  injured,  it  may  be  slightly  raised  and  laid  on  a  cushion 
or  pillow. 

Watch  carefully  if  unconscious. 

If  vomiting  occurs,  turn  the  patient's  body  on  one  side, 
with  the  head  low,  so  that  the  matters  vomited  may  not  go 
into  the  lungs. 

If  a  wound  be  discovered  in  a  part  covered  by  the 
clothing,  cut  the  clothing  in  the  seam.  Remove  only 
sufficient  clothing  to  uncover  and  inspect  the  wound. 

All  wounds  should  be  covered  and  dressed  as  quickly 
as  possible.  If  a  severe  bleeding  should  occur,  see  that 
this  is  stopped,  if  possible,  before  the  wound  is  finally 
dressed. 

Bleeding  is  of  three  kinds  :  I,  from  the  arteries  which 
lead  from  the  heart ;  2,  that  which  comes  from  the  veins 
which  take  the  blood  back  to  the  heart ;  3,  that  from  the 
small  veins  which  carry  the  blood  to  the  surface  of  the 
body.  In  the  first,  the  blood  is  bright  scarlet  and  escapes  as 
though  it  were  being  pumped.  In  the  second,  the  blood  is 
dark  red  and  flows  away  in  an  uninterrupted  stream.  In 
the  third,  the  blood  oozes  out.  In  some  wounds  all  three 
kinds  of  bleeding  occur  at  the  same  time. 

The  simplest  and  best  remedy  to  stop  the  bleeding  is 
to  apply  direct  pressure  on  the  external  wound  by  the 
fingers.  Should  the  wound  be  long  and  gaping,  a  compress 


3oo  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

USEFUL  RECIPES. 

of  some  soft  material  large  enough  to  fill  the  cavity  may  be 
pressed  into  it ;  but  this  should  always  be  avoided,  if  pos- 
sible, as  it  prevents  the  natural  closing  of  the  wound. 

Pressure  with  the  hands  will  not  suffice  to  restrain 
bleeding  in  severe  cases  for  a  great  length  of  time,  and 
recourse  must  be  had  to  a  ligature ,  this  can  best  be  made 
with  a  pocket  handkerchief  or  other  article  of  apparel,  long 
enough  and  strong  enough  to  bind  the  limb.  Fold  the 
article  neck-tie  fashion,  then  place  a  smooth  stone,  or  any- 
thing serving  for  a  firm  pad,  on  the  artery,  tie  the  handker- 
chief loosely,  insert  any  available  stick  in  the  loop  and  proceed 
to  twist  it,  as  if  wringing  a  towel,  until  just  tight  enough  to 
stop  the  flow. 

Examine  the  wound  from  time  to  time,  lessen  the 
compression  if  it  becomes  very  cold  or  purple,  or  tighten 
up  the  handkerchief  if  it  commences  bleeding. 

Some  knowledge  of  anatomy  is  necessary  to  guide  the 
operator  where  to  press.  Bleeding  from  the  head  and 
neck  requires  pressure  to  be  placed  on  thj  large  artery 
which  passes  up  beside  the  windpipe  and  just  above  the 
collar  bone.  The  artery  supplying  the  arm  and  hand  runs 
down  the  inside  of  the  upper  arm,  almost  in  line  with  the 
coat  seam,  and  should  be  pressed  with  the  finger  or  thumb. 

The  artery  feeding  the  leg  and  foot  can  be  felt  in  the 
crease  of  the  groin,  just  where  the  flesh  of  the  thigh  seems 
to  meet  the  flesh  of  the  abdomen,  and  this  is  the  best 
place  to  apply  the  ligature.  In  arterial  bleeding,  the 
pressure  must  be  put  between  the  heart  and  the  wound, 
while  in  venous  bleeding  it  must  be  beyond  the  wound,  to 
stop  the  flow  as  it  goes  toward  the  heart. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  301 

AID  TO  THE  INJURED. 

In  any  case  of  bleeding,  the  person  may  become  weak 
and  faint ;  unless  the  blood  is  flowing  actively,  this  is  not  a 
serious  sign,  and  the  quiet  condition  of  the  faint  often 
assists  nature  in  staying  the  bleeding,  by  allowing  the 
blood  to  clot  and  so  block  up  any  wound  in  a  blood  vessel. 

Unless  the  faint  is  prolonged  or  the  patient  is  losing 
much  blood,  it  is  better  not  to  hasten  to  relieve  the  faint 
condition ;  when  in  this  state  anything  like  excitement 
should  be  avoided,  external  warmth  should  be  applied, 
the  person  covered  with  blankets,  and  bottles  of  hot  water 
or  hot  bricks  to  the  feet  and  arm-pits. 

IN  CASE  OF  CUTS. 

The  chief  points  to  be  attended  to  are:  I,  arrest  the 
bleeding ;  2,  remove  from  the  wound  all  foreign  bodies  as 
soon  as  possible ;  3,  bring  the  wounded  parts  opposite  to 
each  other  and  keep  them  so ;  this  is  best  done  by  means 
of  strips  of  adhesive  plaster,  first  applied  to  one  side  of  the 
wound  and  then  secured  to  the  other ;  these  strips  should 
not  be  too  broad,  and  space  must  be  left  between  the  strips 
to  allow  any  matter  to  escape.  Wounds  too  extensive  to 
be  held  together  by  plaster  must  be  stitched  by  a  surgeon, 
who  should  always  be  sent  for  in  severe  cases. 

For  washing  a  wound,  to  every  pint  of  water  add  2j 
teaspoonfuls  of  carbolic  acid  and  2  tablespoonfuls  of  gly- 
cerine— if  these  are  not  obtainable,  add  4  tablespoonfuls  of 
borax  to  the  pint  of  water — wash  the  wound,  close  it,  and 

NOTE  —Severe  bleeding  is  not  usual  after  machinery  and  railroad 
accidents,  as  the  wounds  inflicted  are  such  that  the  blood  vessels  are 
generally  closed,  because  they  are  torn  and  twisted  off.  This  is  not 
the  case  with  cuts. 


3O2  T/ie  Advanced  Machinist. 

USEFUL  RECIPES. 

apply  a  compress  of  a  folded  square  of  cotton  or  linen  ;  wet 
it  in  the  solution  used  for  washing  the  wound  and  bandage 
down  quickly  and  firmly. 

If  the  bleeding  is  profuse,  a  sponge  dipped  in  very 
hot  water  and  wrung  out  in  a  cloth  should  be  applied  as 
quickly  as  possible — if  this  is  not  to  be  had,  use  ice,  or 
cloth  wrung  out  in  ice  water. 

Wounds  heal  in  two  ways:  I,  rapidly  by  primary 
union,  without  suppuration,  and  leaving  only  a  very  fine 
scar ;  2,  slowly  by  suppuration  and  the  formation  of 
granulations  and  leaving  a  large  red  scar. 

Do  not  touch  the  wounds  with  the  hands  either  during 
examination,  or  while  applying  dressings,  unless  they  have 
been  previously  made  clean. 

After  dressing  a  wound,  do  no  more  to  the  patient 
unless  necessary  to  restore  him  to  consciousness  or  relieve 
faintness. 

If  suffering  from  shock,  place  him  in  a  comfortable 
position  and  await  the  arrival  of  the  surgeon. 

IN  CASE  OF  BROKEN  BONES. 

The  treatment  consists  of:  I,  carefully  removing  or 
cutting  away,  if  more  convenient,  any  of  the  clothes  which 

NOTE. — "  Bones  do  not  break  directly  across  ;  they  break  zig-zag 
and  one  bone  overlaps  the  other,  sometimes  with  many  sharp  points, 
and  if  you  pick  up  a  patient  and  do  not  pay  special  attention  to  how 
you  carry  him,  the  first  thing  you  know,  one  sharp  end  of  the  bone  will 
be  sticking  out.  This  is  a  great  element  of  danger  to  the  case.  If  he 
is  to  be  conveyed  some  distance,  and  no  one  is  on  hand  to  attend 
to  him,  the  best  thing  to  do  is  to  apply  a  splint  and  bandage.  Take  a 
piece  of  board  about  four  inches  wide  and  two  and  one-half  feet  long 
and  put  it  on  the  back  side  of  the  leg,  then  put  two  or  three  turns  of 
the  bandage  around  it.  This  will  answer  well  enough  to  convey  the 
patient  some  distance."— J.  EMMON  BRIGGS,  M.D. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  303 

AID  TO  THE  INJURED. 

•are  compressing  or  hurting  the  injured  parts ;  2,  very  gently 
replacing  the  bones  in  the  natural  position  and  shape,  as 
nearly  as  possible,  and  putting  the  part  in  a  position  which 
gives  most  ease  to  the  patient ;  3,  applying  some  tempo- 
rary splint  or  appliance,  which  will  keep  the  broken  bones 
from  moving  about  and  tearing  the  flesh  ;  for  this  purpose, 
pieces  of  wood,  pasteboard,  straw,  or  firmly  folded  cloth 
may  be  used,  taking  care  to  pad  the  splints  with  some  soft 
material  and  not  to  apply  too  tightly,  while  the  splints 
may  be  tied  by  loops  of  rope,  string  or  strips  of  cloth  ;  4, 
conveying  the  patient  home  or  to  an  hospital. 

To  get  at  a  broken  limb  or  rib,  the  clothing  must  be 
removed,  and  it  is  essential  that  this  be  done  without 
injury  to  the  patient ;  the  simplest  plan  is  to  rip  up  the 
seams  of  such  garments  as  are  in  the  way.  Boots  must  be 
cut  off.  It  is  not  imperatively  necessary  to  do  anything  to 
a  broken  limb  before  the  arrival  of  a  doctor,  except  to  keep 
it  perfectly  at  rest. 

How  TO  CARRY  AN  INJURED  PERSON. 

In  case  of  an  injury  where  walking  is  impossible,  and 
lying  down  is  not  absolutely  necessary,  the  injured  person 
may  be  seated  in  a  chair,  and  carried;  or  he  may  sit  upon 
a  board,  the  ends  of  which  are  carried  by  two  men,  around 
whose  necks  they  should  place  his  arms  so  as  to  steady 
himself. 

Where  an  injured  person  can  walk  he  will  get  much 
help  by  putting  his  arms  over  the  shoulders  and  round  the 
necks  of  two  others. 

A  seat  may  be  made  with  four  hands  and  the  person 


304  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

USEFUL  RECIPES. 

may  be  thus  carried  and  steadied  by  clasping  his  arms 
around  the  necks  of  his  bearers. 

If  only  one  person  is  available  and  the  patient  can 
stand  up,  let  him  place  one  arm  round  the  neck  of  the 
bearer,  bringing  his  hand  on  and  in  front  of  the  opposite 
shoulder  of  the  bearer.  The  bearer  then  places  his  arm 
behind  the  back  of  the  patient  and  grasps  his  opposite  hip, 
at  the  same  time  catching  firmly  hold  of  the  hand  of  the 
patient  resting  on  his  shoulder,  with  his  other  hand ;  then 
by  putting  his  hip  behind  near  the  hip  of  the  patient,  much 
support  is  given,  and  if  necessary,  the  bearer  can  lift  him 
off  the  ground  and  as  it  were,  carry  him  along. 

To  carry  an  injured  person  by  a  stretcher  (which  can 
be  made  of  a  door,  shutter  or  settee — with  blankets  or 
shawls  or  coats  for  pillows),  three  persons  are  necessary.  In 
lifting  the  patient  on  the  stretcher  it  should  be  laid  with  its 
foot  to  his  head,  so  that  both  are  in  the  same  straight  line ; 
then  one  or  two  persons  should  stand  on  each  side  of  him, 
raise  him  from  the  ground  and  slip  him  on  the  stretcher; 

NOTE. — A  broad  board  or  shutter  may  be  employed  as  a  stretcher; 
but  if  either  of  them  be  used,  some  straw,  hay,  or  clothing  should  be 
placed  on  it,  and  then  a  piece  of  stout  cloth  or  sacking  ;  the  sacking  is 
useful  in  taking  the  patient  off  the  stretcher  when  he  arrives  at  the 
bedside. 

Always  test  a  stretcher  before  placing  the  patient  on  it.  Place  an 
uninjured  bystander  upon  it  and  let  the  bearers  carry  him  a  short  dis- 
tance, practicing  placing  him  upon  it,  laying  down,  raising  up,  turning 
around,  etc. 

Never  allow  stretchers  to  be  carried  on  the  bearers'  shoulders. 

Always  carry  patient  feet- foremost,  except  when  going  up  a  hill. 
In  cases  of  fractured  thigh  or  fractured  leg,  if  the  patient  has  to  be 
carried  down  hill,  carry  the  stretcher  head-first. 

In  carrying  a  patient  on  a  stretcher,  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid 
lifting  the  stretcher  over  walls  or  ditches.— -Johnson's  First  Aid  Manual. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  305 

AID  TO  THE  INJURED. 

this  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  any  one  stepping  over  the 
stretcher,  and  the  liability  of  stumbling. 

If  a  limb  is  crushed  or  broken,  it  may  be  laid  upon  a 
pillow  with  bandages  tied  around  the  whole  (i.  e.,  pillow 
and  limb)  to  keep  it  from  slipping  about.  In  carrying  the 
stretcher  the  bearers  should  "  break  step "  with  short 
paces ;  hurrying  and  jolting  should  be  avoided  and  the 
stretcher  should  be  carried  so  that  the  patient  may  be  in 
plain  sight  of  the  bearers. 

IN  CASE  OF  BURNS  AND  SCALDS. 

Burns  are  produced  by  heated  solids  or  by  flames  of 
some  combustible  substance;  scalds  are  produced  by  steam 
or  a  heated  liquid.  The  severity  of  the  accident  depends 
mainly,  I,  on  the  intensity  of  the  heat  of  the  burning  body, 
together  with,  2,  the  extent  of  surface,  and,  3,  the  vitality 
of  the  parts  involved  in  the  injury;  thus,  a  person  may 
have  a  finger  burned  off  with  less  danger  to  life  than  an 
extensive  scald  of  his  back. 

In  severe  cases  of  burns  or  scalds  the  clothes  should  be 

NOTE. — The  immediate  effect  of  scalds  is  generally  less  violent 
than  that  of  burns ;  fluids  not  being  capable  of  acquiring  so  high  a 
temperature  as  some  solids,  but  flowing  about  with  great  facility,  their 
effects  become  most  serious  by  extending  to  a  large  surface  of  the  body. 
A  burn  which  instantly  destroys  the  part  which  it  touches  may  be  free 
from  dangerous  complication,  if  the  injured  part  is  confined  within  a 
small  compass ;  this  is  owing  to  the  peculiar  formation  of  the  skin. 

The  skin  is  made  up  of  two  layers ;  the  outer  one  has  neither 
blood  vessels  nor  nerves,  and  is  called  the  scarf-skin  or  cuticle;  the 
lower  layer  is  called  the  true  skin,  or  cutis.  The  latter  is  richly  sup- 
plied with  nerves  and  blood  vessels,  and  is  so  highly  sensitive  we  could 
not  endure  life  unless  protected  by  the  cuticle.  The  skin,  while  soft 
and  thin,  is  yet  strong  enough  to  enable  us  to  come  in  contact;with 
objects  without  pain  or  inconvenience. 


306  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

USEFUL  RECIPES. 

removed  with  the  greatest  care — they  should  be  carefully 
cut,  at  the  seams,  and  not  pulled  off. 

In  scalding  by  burning  water  or  steam,  cold  water 
should  be  plentifully  poured  over  the  person  and  clothes, 
and  the  patient  then  carried  to  a  warm  room  and  laid  on  the 
floor  or  a  table,  but  not  put  to  bed  as  there  it  becomes 
difficult  to  attend  further  to  the  injuries. 

The  secret  of  the  treatment  is  to  avoid  chafing,  and 
to  keep  out  the  air.  Save  the  skin  unbroken,  if  possible, 
taking  care  not  to  break  the  blisters ;  after  removal  ot  the 
clothing,  an  application  to  the  injured  surface,  of  a  mixture 
of  soot  and  lard,  is,  according  to  practical  experience,  an 
excellent  and  efficient  remedy.  The  two  or  three  following 
methods  of  treatment  also  are  recommended  according  to 
convenience  in  obtaining  the  remedies. 

Take  ice  well  crushed  or  scraped,  as  dry  as  possible, 
then  mix  it  with  fresh  lard  until  a  broken  paste  is  formed ; 
the  mass  should  be  put  in  a  thin  cambric  bag,  laid  upon 
the  burn  or  scald  and  replaced  as  required.  So  long  as  the 


NOTE. — A  method  in  use  in  the  New  York  City  Hospital  known 
as  the  "glue  burn  mixture,"  is  composed  as  follows:  "7^  Troy  02. 
white  glue,  16  fluid  oz.  water,  i  fluid  oz.  glycerine,  2  fluid  drachms 
carbolic  acid.  Soak  the  glue  in  the  water  until  it  is  soft,  then  heat  on 
a  water  bath  until  melted ;  add  the  glycerine  and  carbolic  acid  and 
continue  heating  until,  in  the  intervals  of  stirring,  a  glossy,  strong  skin 
begins  to  form  over  the  surface.  Pour  the  mass  into  small  jars,  cover 
with  paraffine  papers  and  tin  foil  before  the  lid  of  the  jar  is  put  on  and 
afterwards  protect  by  paper  pasted  round  the  edge  of  the  lid.  In  this 
manner  the  mixture  may  be  preserved  indefinitely.  When  wanted  for 
use,  heat  in  a  water  bath  and  apply  with  a  flat  brush  over  the  burned 
part" 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  307 

AID  TO   THE  INJURED. 

ice  and  lard  are  melting,  there  is  no  pain  from  the  burn, 
return  of  pain  calls  for  a  repetition  of  the  remedy. 

In  burns  with  lime,  soap,  lye  or  any  caustic   alkali, 
wash  abundantly  with  water  (do  not  rub),  and  then  with 
weak  vinegar  or  water  containing  a  little  sulphuric  acid  • 
finally  apply  oil,  paste  or  mixture  as  in  ordinary  burns. 
INSENSIBILITY  FROM  SMOKE. 

To  recover  a  person  from  this,  dash  cold  water  in  the 
face,  or  cold  and  hot  water  alternately.  Should  this  fail, 
turn  the  patient  on  his  face  with  the  arms  folded  under  his 
forehead  ;  apply  pressure  along  the  back  and  ribs  and  turn 
the  body  gradually  on  the  side ;  then  again  slowly  on  the 
face,  repeating  the  pressure  on  the  back  ;  continue  the 
alternate  rolling  movements  about  sixteen  times  a  minute 
until  breathing  is  restored.  A  warm  bath  will  complete 
the  cure. 
HEAT-STROKE  OR  SUN-STROKE. 

The  worst  cases  occur  where  the  sun's  rays  never  pene- 
trate and  are  caused  by  the  extreme  heat  of  close  and  con- 
fined rooms,  overheated  workshops,  boiler-rooms,  etc.  The 
symptoms  are  :  I,  a  sudden  loss  of  consciousness  ;  2,  heavy 
breathing;  3,  great  heat  of  the  skin,  and  4,  a  marked 
absence  of  sweat. 

Treatment. — The  main  thing  is  to  lower  the  tempera- 
ture. To  do  this,  strip  off  the  clothing,  apply  chopped  ice 
wrapped  in  flannel  to  the  head  ;  rub  ice  over  the  chest,  and 
place  pieces  under  the  armpits  and  at  the  side.  If  no  ice 
can  be  had  use  sheets  or  cloth  wet  with  cold  water,  or  the 
body  can  be  stripped  and  sprinkled  with  cold  water  from 
a  common  watering  pot. 


308  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

USEFUL  RECIPES. 
FROST  BITE. 

No  warm  air,  warm  water,  or  fire  should  be  allowed 
near  the  frozen  parts  until  the  natural  temperature  is  nearly 
restored  ;  rub  the  affected  parts  gently  with  snow  or  snow 
water  in  a  cold  room ;  the  circulation  should  be  restored 
very  slowly  ;  and  great  care  must  be  taken  in  the  after- 
treatment. 
To  REMOVE  FOREIGN  BODIES  IN  THE  EYE. 

Take  hold  of  the  upper  lid  and  turn  it  up  so  that  you 
can  look  on  the  inside  of  the  upper  lid.  Have  the  patient 
make  several  movements  with  the  eye  ;  first  up,  then  down, 
to  the  right  side  and  to  the  left.  Then  take  a  tooth-pick 
with  a  little  piece  of  absorbent  cotton  wound  around  the 
end  and  moistened  in  cold  water,  and  swab  it  out.  The 
foreign  body  will  adhere  to  the  swab  and  you  will  get  the 
object  out  of  the  eye  without  any  trouble. 
DEATH  SIGNS. 

The  note  following  is  added  with  some  doubt  as  to  its 
useful  application,  but  this  whole  subject  relates  to  very 
serious  occurrences,  and  it  may  be  well,  considering  all 
things,  to  print  it. 

NOTE.— Hold  the  hand  of  the  person  apparently  dead  before  a 
candle  or  other  light,  the  fingers  stretched,  one  touching  the  other, 
and  look  through  the  space  between  the  fingers  toward  the  light.  If 
the  person  is  living,  a  scarlet  red  color  will  be  seen  where  the  fingers 
touch  each  other,  due  to  the  still  circulating  fluid  blood  as  it  stows 
itself  between  the  transparent,  but  yet  congested  tissues.  When  life 
is  extinct  this  phenomenon  ceases.  Another  method  is  to  take  a  cold 
piece  of  polished  steel,  for  instance  a  a  razor  blade  or  table  knife,  hold 
this  under  the  nose  and  before  the  mouth  ;  if  no  moisture  condenses 
upon  it,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  there  is  no  breathing. 

In  cases  of  severe  shock,  etc.,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  test  the  cessa- 
tion of  the  heart-beat  by  feeling  of  the  pulse  at  the  wrist.  An  acute 
ear  can  generally  detect  the  movement  of  the  heart  by  the  sound  when 
the  ear  is  applied  to  the  chest  or  back.  The  electric  battery  may  be 
used  under  the  advice  of  a  physician  in  doubtful  cases. 


Ti.e  Advanced  Machinist.  309 

AID  TO   THE   INJURED. 

THE  D'ARSONVILLE  METHOD  OF  RESUSCITATION  FROM 
ELECTRIC  SHOCK. 

The  proof  of  the  efficacy  of  this  method  is  now  so 
complete  that  no  one  following  pursuits  in  which  there  is 
danger  from  electric  shocks,  is  justified  in  neglecting  to 
make  himself  familiar  with  it. 

First,  it  must  be  appreciated  that  accidental  shocks 
seldom  result  in  absolute  death  unless  the  victim  is  left 
unaided  for  too  long  a  time,  or  efforts  at  resuscitation  are 
suspended  too  early. 

In  the  majority  of  instances  the  shock  is  only  sufficient 
to  suspend  animation  temporarily,  owing  to  the  momentary 
and  imperfect  contact  of  the  conductors,  and  also  on 
account  of  the  indifferent  parts  of  the  body  submitted  to 
the  influence  of  the  current.  It  must  be  appreciated  also 
that  the  body  under  the  conditions  of  accidental  shocks 
seldom  receives  the  full  force  of  the  current  in  the  circuit, 
but  only  a  shunt  current,  which  may  represent  a  very  insig- 
nificant part  of  it. 

When  an  accident  of  this  nature  occurs,  the  following 
rules  should  be  promptly  adopted  and  executed  with  due 
care  and  deliberation  : 

i. — Remove  the  body  at  once  from  the  circuit  by 
breaking  contact  with  the  conductors.  This  may  be 

NoTH. — The  introduction  of  electricity  as  an  industrial  and  use- 
ful agent  has  been  attended  with  many  distressing  accidents,  causing 
great  suffering  and  frequently  loss  of  life;  while  happily  these  accidents 
are  becoming  less  frequent,  none  the  less  it  is  important  to  both  know 
and  observe  the  rules  for  safety  so  constantly  repeated. 

Currents  of  electricity  passed  through  the  limbs  affect  the  nerves 
with  certain  painful  sensations,  and  cause  the  muscles  to  undergo  invol- 
untary contractions.  The  effect  experienced  by  the  discharge  with 
nigh  potential  difference  is  that  of  a  sharp  and  painful  shock. 


3 TO  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

RESUSCITATION  FROM  ELECTRIC  SHOCK, 
accomplished  by  using  a  dry  stick  of  wood,  which  is  a  non- 
conductor, to  roll  the  body  over  to  one  side,  or  to  brush 
aside  a  wire,  if   that  is   conveying  the  current.     When  a 
stick  is  not  at  hand,  any  dry  piece  of  clothing  may  be  util- 


Fig.  299. 
ized  to  protect  the  hand  in  seizing  the  body  of  the  victim, 

unless  rubber  gloves  are  convenient.  If  the  body  is  in  con- 
tact with  the  earth,  the  coat-tails  of  the  victim,  or  any  loose 
or  detached  piece  of  clothing,  may  be  seized  with  impunity 
to  draw  it  away  from  the  conductor.  When  this  has  been 
accomplished,  observe  Rule  2. 


Fig.  300. 
2. — Turn  the  body  upon  the  back,  loosen  the  collar 

and  clothing  about  the  neck,  roll  up  a  coat  and  place  it 
under  the  shoulders,  so  as  to  throw  the  head  back,  and  then 
make  efforts  to  establish  artificial  respiration  (in  other  words, 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  311 


AID  TO  THE  INJURED. 

make  him  breathe),  just  as  would  be  done  in  case  of 
drowning.  To  accomplish  this,  kneel  at  the  subject's  head, 
facing  him,  and  seizing  both  arms  draw  them  forcibly  to 
their  full  length  over  the  head  (as  shown  in  fig.  299),  so  as 
to  bring  them  almost  together  above  it,  and  hold  them 
there  for  two  or  three  seconds  only.  (This  is  to  expand 
the  chest  and  favor  the  entrance  of  air  into  the  lungs.) 

Then  carry  the  arms  down  to  the  sides  and  front  of 
the  chest,  firmly  compressing  the  chest  walls,  and  expel 
the  air  from  the  lungs  (as  shown  in  fig.  300).  Repeat  this 
manoeuvre  at  least  sixteen  times  per  minute.  These 
efforts  should  be  continued  unremittingly  for  at  least  an 
hour,  or  until  natural  respiration  is  established. 

3. — At  the  same  time  that  this  is  being  done,  some 
one  should  grasp  the  tongue  of  the  subject  with  a  hand- 
kerchief or  piece  of  cloth  to  prevent  it  slipping,  and  draw 
it  forcibly  out  when  the  arms  are  extended  above  the  head, 
and  allow  it  to  recede  when  the  chest  is  compressed. 

This  manoeuvre  should  be  repeated  at  least  sixteen 
times  per  minute.  This  serves  the  double  purpose  of  free- 
ing the  throat  so  as  to  permit  air  to  enter  the  lungs,  and 
also,  by  exciting  a  reflex  irritation  from  forcible  contact  of 
the  under  part  of  the  tongue  against  the  lower  teeth,  fre- 
quently stimulates  an  involuntary  effort  at  respiration.  If 
the  teeth  are  clenched  and  the  mouth  cannot  be  opened 

NOTE. — Linemen's  rubber  gloves  are  designed  to  prevent  the  fre- 
quent and  often  fatal  accidents  occurring  to  linemen  from  shock  while 
handling  electric  light  wires  or  other  wires  in  contact  with  the  same, 
and  also  the  dangers  of  line  work  from  lightning  in  stormy  weather. 
The  gloves  are  also  useful  in  handling  the  strong  acids  of  batteries, 
being  impervious  to  the  same. 


312  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

USEFUL  RECIPES. 

readily  to  secure  the  tongue,  force  it  open  with  a  stick,  a 
piece  of  wood,  or  the  handle  of  a  pocket-knife. 

Commence  always  with  pulling  the  tongue,  but  the 
method  of  artificial  respiration  should  be  applied  at  the 
same  time  if  possible. 

Concurrent  efforts  should  be  made  to  bring  back  the 
circulation  by  rubbing  the  surface  of  the  body,  smartly 
striking  it  with  the  hands  or  wet  towels,  throwing  from 
time  to  time  water  on  the  face,  and  causing  the  victim  to 
inhale  ammonia  and  vinegar. 

The  dashing  of  cold  water  into  the  face  will  sometimes 
produce  a  gasp  and  start  breathing  which  should  then  be 
continued  as  directed  above.  If  this  is  not  successful  the 
spine  may  be  rubbed  vigorously  with  a  piece  of  ice.  Alter- 
nate applications  of  heat  and  cold  over  the  region  of  the 
heart  will  accomplish  the  same  object  in  somd  instances. 
It  is  both  useless  and  unwise  to  attempt  to  administer 
stimulants  to  the  victim  in  the  usual  manner  by  pouring  it 
down  his  throat. 

While  this  is  being  done,  a  physician  should  be  sum- 
moned. 

COLIC. 

Apply  heat  in  the  form  of  hot  water  bags,  or  bottles, 
hot  plates,  and  mustard  plaster  over  the  seat  of  pain.  Hot 
baths  are  sometimes  useful. 

VOMITING. 

Give  large  amounts  of  hot  water,  as  hot  as  can  be 
taken.  Patient  should  always  lie  down.  Small  bits  of 
ice  held  in  the  mouth  or  swallowed,  will  relieve  vomiting 
caused  by  indigestion.  A  lump  of  ice  held  against  the  pit 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  313 

AID  TO  THE  INJURED. 

of  the  stomach  will  sometimes  bring  relief.     When  other 
means  fail,  apply  a  mustard  plaster  to  the  pit  of  the  stomach. 

BANDAGES. 

These  are  frequently  made  by  cutting  a  piece  of  linen 
or  calico  forty  inches  square  into  two  pieces  crosswise,  and 
may  be  used  either  as  a  "  broad  "  or  "  narrow  "  bandage. 
The  broad  is  made  by  spreading  the  bandage  out,  then 
bringing  the  point  down  to  the  lower  border,  and  then 
folding  into  two  folds.  The  narrow  is  made  by  drawing 
the  point  down  to  the  lower  border,  and  then  folding  into 
three  ;  a  bandage  should  always  be  fastened  either  by  a 
pin  or  by  being  tied  with  a  reef-knot. 

When  rolled  into  strips,  the  following  sizes  have  been 
found  advantageous  ;  for  hand,  ringers,  and  toes,  one  inch 
wide,  one  to  two  yards  in  length ;  for  arms,  legs,  and 
extremities,  two  and  a  half  inches  wide,  seven  yards  in 
length  ;  for  thigh,  groin,  and  trunk,  three  inches  wide  and 
eight  to  ten  yards  in  length. 

POULTICES. 

These  outward  applications  are  useful  to  relieve  sud- 
den cramps  and  pains  due  to  severe  injuries,  sprains  and 
colds.  The  secret  of  applying  a  mustard  poultice  is  to 
apply  it  hot  and  keep  it  so  by  frequent  changes — if  it  gets 
cold  and  clammy  it  will  do  more  harm  than  good.  A  poul- 
tice to  be  of  any  service  and  hold  its  heat  should  be  from 
one-half  to  one  inch  thick.  To  make  it,  take  flaxseed,  oat- 
meal, rye  meal,  bread,  or  ground  slippery  elm ;  stir  the 
meal  slowly  into  a  bowl  of  boiling  water,  until  a  thin  and 
smooth  dough  is  formed.  To  apply  it  take  a  piece  of  old 
linen  of  the  right  size,  fold  it  in  the  middle,  spread  the 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


RESPONSIBILITY  OF  EMPLOYERS. 

dough  evenly  on  one-half  of  the  cloth  and  cover  it  with 
the  other. 

To  make  a  "  mustard  paste  "  as  it  is  called,  mix  one 
or  two  tablespoonfuls  of  mustard  and  the  same  of  fine  flour, 
with  enough  water  to  make  the  mixture  an  even  paste  ; 
spread  it  neatly  with  a  table  knife  on  a  piece  of  old  linen, 
or  even  cotton  cloth.  Cover  the  face  of  the  paste  with  a 
piece  of  thin  muslin. 
CARE  OF  SELF. 

Want  of  care  is  the  cause  of  more  injuries  than  want 
of  knowledge;  hence  care  and  knowledge  should  be  well 
commingled.  It  is  easier  to  form  a  habit  than  to  break 
one  off,  therefore  we  should  strive  to  form  correct  habits 
in  relation  to  avoiding  accidents. 

PRINCIPLES  INVOLVING   THE   RESPONSIBILITY  OF   EM- 
PLOYERS FOR  THE  SAFETY  OF  THEIR  WORKMEN. 

The  following  are  abstracts  chiefly  from  recent  decis- 
ions in  the  higher  courts  of  various  states.  In  general 
they  are  indicative  of  the  law  throughout  the  country  : 

The  risks  and  dangers  assumed  by  an  employee  are 
such  as  are  incident  to  his  employment,  such  as  are  known 
to  him,  and  such  as  are  obvious  and  patent.  (Pa.  p  Dist. 
Rep.  2pi.) 

To  show  that  an  employee  assumed  the  risks  con- 
nected with  the  operation  of  a  machine  it  must  appear,  not 
only  that  a  defect  was  patent,  but  that  he  knew  the  dan- 
ger of  operating  it  in  its  defective  condition.  (Minn.  92 
N.  W.  Rep. 


NOTE.  -The  portions  of  the  above  abstracts  printed  in  italics  are 
the  Law  References  to  cases  which  have  established  and  confirmed 
verdicts  in  test  cases.  The  American  Machinist  is  entitled  to  the 
credit  for  this  list  of  cases. 


The  Advanced  Machinist.  315 

RESPONSIBILITY  OF  EMPLOYERS. 

A  minor  cannot  recover  for  an  injury  received  while 
working  a  machine  when  the  danger  of  the  machine  is  such 
as  can  readily  be  seen,  and  he  was  duly  instructed  in  its 
use,  and  the  machine  was  in  good  condition.  (Pa.  17  L.L. 
Rep.  247.) 

Where  an  employee  is  injured  while  obeying  the 
orders  of  his  employer  to  perform  work  in  a  dangerous 
manner,  the  employer  is  liable,  unless  the  danger  is  so 
imminent  that  a  man  of  ordinary  prudence  would  not 
incur  it.  (88  III.  App.  Ct.  Rep.  169.) 

In  order  to  recover  for  defects  in  the  appliances  of 
the  business,  the  employee  must  establish  by  proof  three 
propositions :  First,  that  the  appliance  was  defective ; 
second,  that  the  employer  had  notice  or  knowledge  of  such 
defect,  or  should  have  had  ;  third,  that  the  employee  did 
not  know  of  the  defect,  and  had  not  equal  means  of  know- 
ing with  the  employer.  (87  III.  App.  Ct.  Rep.  55/.) 

It  is  incumbent  on  an  employer  to  exercise  ordinary 
care  to  provide  and  maintain  a  reasonably  safe  place  and 
reasonably  safe  machinery  and  appliances  in  which  and  by 
means  whereof  an  employee  is  to  perform  his  service. 
(U.  S.  Ct.  App.  163  Fed.  Rep.  265.} 

It  is  not  only  the  duty  of  an  employer  to  warn  his 
employee  against  the  danger  that  lies  in  the  unskillful  or 
careless  operation  of  machinery,  involved  in  his  employ- 
ment or  task,  but  he  should  also  give  suitable  instructions 
as  to  the  manner  of  using  the  same  so  as  to  avoid  danger. 
(ij  Pa.  Sup.  Ct.  Rep.  21  p.) 

While  it  is  settled  law  that  an  employee  assumes  the 
ordinary  and  apparent  risks  of  his  employment,  he  does 


316  The  Advanced  Machinist. 

RESPONSIBILITY  OF  EMPLOYERS. 

not  assume  the  risk  from  defects  in  the  plant  itself,  which 
the  employer  is  bound  to  make  and  keep  in  a  reasonably 
safe  condition.  (Me.  4.6  At  I.  Rep.  804..} 

An  experienced  workman  of  mature  years  cannot  con- 
tinue to  operate  a  machine,  which  he  knows  is  dangerous, 
without  assuming  the  risk,  simply  because  the  employer 
has  assured  him  that  it  is  safe,  when  the  workman  has  just 
as  much  knowledge  of  the  danger  arising  from  its  use  as 
the  employer.  (Mich.  82  N.  W.  Rep.  7^7.) 

The  burden  of  proving  that  an  accident  arose  out  of 
and  in  the  course  of  the  workman's  employment  lies  on 
the  employee ;  but  the  burden  of  proving  serious  and  will- 
ful misconduct  lies  on  the  employer.  (Eng.  80  L.  T.  J/7») 

If  the  negligence  of  the  employer  operates  as  a  con- 
curring and  efficient  cause  of  an  injury  to  an  employee,  his 
liability  will  not  be  relieved  by  the  negligence  of  fellow- 
employees  also  concurring.  (88  III.  App.  Ct.  Rep.  162.) 

To  constitute  fellow-servants  they  must  either  directly 
co-operate  in  the  particular  business  so  that  they  may 
exercise  an  influence  on  one  another  promotive  of  proper 
caution,  or  their  duties  must  be  such  as  to  bring  them  into 
habitual  association  so  that  they  may  exercise  such  influ- 
ence on  each  other.  (88  III.  App.  Ct.  Rep.  169.) 


TftlftlT 
SNStL 


I 


r, 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


TABLES 
USEFUL  FOR  MACHINISTS. 


The  speeds  required  for  machining  advantageously 
the  different  materials,  according  to  the  different  diameters, 
may  be  termed  "  surface  speeds."  Roughly  speaking,  the 
surface  speeds  for  the  different  materials  vary  in  compara- 
tively narrow  limits.  We  may  assume  the  following  speeds 
for  the  following : 

TABLE  OF  SURFACE  SPEEDS. 

Cast  iron 30  to  45  feet  per  minute. 

Steel 20  to  25  feet  per  minute. 

Wrought  iron. . .  .30  feet  per  minute. 
Brass 40  to  60  feet  per  minute. 

For  cast  iron  as  found  in  Europe,  we  may  assume  20 
to  35  feet  per  minute.  This  is  owing  to  the  fact  that 
European  iron  is  considerably  harder. 

SPEED  OF  SAWS,  ETC. 

Band  saws  for  hot  iron  and  steel  run  at  about  200  to 
300  feet  per  minute.  Plain  soft  iron  discs  run  at  a  rim 
velocity  of  12,000  feet  per  minute,  and  are  sometimes  used 
to  cut  off  ends  of  steel  rails,  jets  of  water  playing  on  the 
circumference  of  the  saw. 


320 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


AVERAGE  CUTTING  SPEED  FOR  DRILLS. 

The  following  table  represents  the  most  approved 
practice  in  rate  of  cutting  speed  for  drills  ranging  from  -^ 
inch  to  2  inches  in  diameter. 


Diameter 
of 
Drills 

Speed 
on 
Steel 

Speed 
on 
Cast  Iron 

Speed 
on 
Brass 

Diam  ster 
of 
Drills 

Speed 
on 
Steel 

Speed 
on 
Cast  Iron 

Speed 
on 
Brass 

| 

1,712 
855 

2,383 
1,191 

3,544 
1,772 

iF 

72 

68 

1  06 
102 

180 

170 

571 

794 

1,181 

IT3TT 

64 

97 

161 

X 

397 

565 

855 

IX 

58 

89 

150 

Tff 

3Ig 

452 

684 

ITIT 

55 

84 

143 

M 

265 

377 

570 

\y^ 

53 

81 

136 

$ 

227 

183 

323 
267 

489 

412 

$ 

50 
46 

77 
74 

130 
122 

1 

163 

238 

367 

I  Yff 

44 

7i 

117 

M 

147 

214 

330 

1^6 

40 

66 

H 

133 

194 

300 

JTF 

38 

63 

I09 

¥ 

112 

168 

265 

1% 

37 

61 

105 

H 

103 

155 

244 

IT! 

36 

59 

IOI 

8 

96 

144 

227 

Ift 

33 

55 

98 

if 

89 

134 

212 

III 

32 

53 

95 

76 

H5 

I9I 

2 

3i 

51 

92 

SIZE  OF  DRILLS  FOR  U.  S.  STANDARD  TAPS. 


Diam. 

Threads 

Diam. 

Diam. 

Threads 

Diam. 

Diam. 

Threads 

Diam. 

of  Tap 

per  inch 

of  Drill 

of  Tap 

per  inch 

of  Drill 

of  Tap 

per  inch 

of  Drill 

K 

20 

ft 

H 

9 

u 

I3/ 

5 

jI/4 

tV 

18 

X 

I 

8 

11 

I#J 

5 

if6 

H 

16 

iH 

7 

H 

2 

ijj 

T$ 

14 

1/4 

7 

i-fg 

2M 

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The  Advanced  Machinist. 


321 


TABLE  OF  EMERY  WHEEL  SPEEDS. 


Diam. 
Wheel. 

Rev.  per  Minute 
for 
Surface  Speed 
of  4,000  ft. 

Rev.  per  Minute 
for 
Surface  Speed 
of  5,000  ft. 

Rev.  per  Minute 
for 
Surface  Speed 
of  6,000  ft. 

i  in. 

15,279 

19,090 

22,918 

2  " 

7,639 

9,549 

n,459 

3" 

5,093 

6,366 

7,639 

4  " 

3,820 

4,775 

5,370 

tec 

3,056 

3,820 

4,584 

« 

2,546 

3,183 

3,820 

I"' 

2,183 
1,910 

2,728 
2,387 

3,274 
2,865 

10  " 

1,528 

1,910 

2,292 

12   " 

1,273 

i,592 

1.910 

14  " 

1,091 

1,364 

i,637 

16  «' 

955 

1,194 

1,432 

18  " 

20   " 

849 
764 

I,o6l 

955 

1,273 
1,146 

22    " 

694 

868 

1,042 

24" 

637 

796 

955 

30" 

509 

637 

764 

36   " 

424 

531 

637 

The  above  table  designates  the  number  of  revolutions 
per  minute  for  specific  diameters  of  emery  wheels  to  cause 
them  to  run  at  the  respective  periphery  rates  of  4,000, 
5,600  and  6,000  feet  per  minute. 

The  medium  of  5,000  feet  is  usually  employed  in 
ordinary  work,  but  in  special  cases  it  is  sometimes  desir- 
able to  run  them  at  a  lower  or  higher  rate,  according  to 
requirements. 

The  stress  on  the  wheel  at  4,000  feet  periphery  speed 
per  minute  is  48  Ibs.  per  square  inch;  at  5,000  feet,  75  Ibs.; 
at  6,000  feet,  108  Ibs. 


322 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


U.  S.  STANDARD  SCREW  THREADS. 


4 

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at  Root  of  Thread. 

fl      "     * 

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Machinery,  New  York. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


323 


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"  Any  shop  which  makes  it  a  fixed  rule  to  discharge 
any  man  for  any  act,  not  distinctly  malicious  or  re- 
vealing incurable  habits  of  carelessness  or  negligence, 
will  soon  lose  its  best  men,  and  the  average  of  skill 
and  reliability  in  its  force  cannot  fail  to  deteriorate. 

"It  is  just  the  same  the  other  way,  too.  A  man 
shouldn't  be  in  too  much  of  a  hurry  about  discharging 
his  boss.  His  job  calls  for  skill  as  much  as  any 
other,  and  the  skill  that  is  required  to  do  a  first-class 
job  of  bossing  is  just  as  rare,  and  takes  as  much  sift- 
ing and  training  to  produce,  as  any  other. 

"  To  retain  an  employer  it  is  necessary  sometimes 
to  overlook  some  of  his  shortcomings.  As  he  learns 
by  experience  that  it  will  not  do  to  discharge  every 
man  whenever  he  proves  that  he  is  not  quite  perfect, 
so  it  is  well  to  remember,  on  the  other  side,  that  you 
can't  run  things  very  well  or  very  long  without  a 
boss,  even  if  he  may  not  be  the  most  satisfactory  boss 
in  the  world.  It  is  a  rather  poor  boss  who  is  not  gen- 
erally better  than  none  at  all." 

TECUMSEH  SWIFT. 


INDEX 

FOB  THE  ADVANCED  MACHINIST. 


ABRASIVE,  definition,  215. 
ACCESSORY,  definition,  266. 
ACCIDENTS    AND     HOW     TO     AVOID 

THEM,  note,  298. 
ADDITION,    28. 

Of  decimals,  46. 

Of  fractions,  42. 
AID  TO  THE  INJURED,  297-316. 

Note  on    the    importance    of    the 

subject,  297. 

ALGEBRA,  definition,  23. 
ALUMINIUM,  how  to  solder,  290. 
AMERICAN  STANDARD   THREAD,    120. 


ANGLE     OR     SPIRAL     CUTTERS    for 

milling   machines,    illustrations, 
188. 

ARBOR    PRESS,    description  and  illus- 
trations, 251-253. 

ARC,  complement  of  the,  definition,  83. 
ARISTOTLE,  quotation  from,  34. 
ARITHMETIC,  formulas,  22. 
Note,  19 

Summary  of,  19-56. 
AUTOMATIC  SCREW    CUTTING    DIES, 

238. 

Illustrations,  234,  238, 239, 240,  241. 
AUXILIARY  MACHINES,  243-262. 


BABBITT  METAL,  recipe  for,  289. 
BAN  DAGES,  how  to  make,  313. 
BAND-SAWS,    speed    for    cutting   hot 

iron,  319. 

BEVEL  PLANING  TOOL,  161. 
BIRMINGHAM    GAUGES,  illustrations, 

92. 

BLADES,  flexible  for  hack-saws,  249. 
BLEEDING,  how  to  stop,  299,  300,  301. 

Of  three  kinds,  299. 
BLOCK,  rope  sheave,  illustration,  270. 

Snatch,  illustration,  270. 
BLUING  BRASS,  recipe,  294. 
BOLT-CUTTING,  speed  for,  241. 

Thread  cutter,  235. 
BONES,  broken,  how  to  treat  in  case  of 

accident,  302. 
BORING-BAR,  illustrations,  140, 141. 

With  adjustable  cutter,  description, 
148,  illustration,  150. 


BORING  MACHINES,  horizontal,  142. 

Taper  holes  in  the  lathe,  illustra- 
tion, 143. 

Vertical,  147. 
BORING  MILL,  advantages  of,  140. 

Description,  144-150. 

Facing  a  valve  in  a,  illustration,  147. 

Illustrations,  138,  144,  146. 

Tools  used  in  a,  illustrations,  149, 150. 
BORING-OPERATIONS,  139-150. 
BOSSES,  gang,  286. 
BRACKETS,  definition,  21,  55. 
BRASS,  recipe  for  bluing,  294. 
BRAZING  CAST  IRON,  recipe,  291. 
BROAD    FINISHING    TOOLS,    descrip- 
tion, 148 ;  illustration,  149. 

Nose  planing  tool,  161. 
BROKEN   BONES,   the  treatment  for, 

in  case  of  accident,  302. 
BUFF  MACHINE,  illustration,  273. 
BURN  MIXTURE,  recipe,  306. 
BURNS,  treatment  of ,  305, 306, 


325 


326 


Index. 


CALCULATION,  definition,  19. 

CANCELLATION,  40. 

CALIPERING  MACHINES,  illustrations, 

87,88. 

CARE  OF  SELF,  314. 
CASTINGS,  recipe  for  "pickling,"  294. 
CAST  IRON,  cutting  angle  for,  157. 
Recipe  for  filling  holes  in,  296. 
Surface  speed  for  machining,  319. 
CEMENT,  for  fastening  paper  or  leather 

to  iron,  295. 
CHANGE-WHEELS,     illustration     and 

description,  122-128. 
CHASERS,  illustrations,  104, 105, 106,107. 
Operation  of,  104-108. 
Note,  105. 
CHUCKS  FOR  DRILLS,  206,  207. 

The  swivel,  illustration  and  descrip- 
tion, 159. 
CIRCLE,  circumference  and  area  of  a, 

65-67. 

Definitions,  65. 
Degrees  of  a,  note,  82. 
Parts  of  a,  82. 
Radius  of  a,  definition  and  illustra- 

tration,  82. 

Rule  for  finding  diameter  of  a,  66. 
"CLAMPS,"   illustration  and  descrip- 
tion, 268. 

CLAPPER-BOX,  illustration,  158. 
CO,  definition,  83. 


COLLET,  description  and  illustration. 

25. 
COMPLEMENT  OF  AN  ARC,  definition, 

83. 

CONSTANT,  a,  definition,  81. 
COPPER,  varnish  for,  recipe,  294. 

To,  iron  or  steel  wire,  recipe,  297. 
COSECAN  I  OF  AN  ANGLE,   definition, 

82. 

COSINE,  definition  and  illustration,  82. 
COTANGENT  OF  A  CIRCLE,  definition 

and  illustration,  82. 
COUNTERSHAFT,  illustration,  249. 
CRANE,  wall,  illustration,  271. 
CUBE,  definition,  72. 
CUTS,  how  to  treat,  301. 
CUTTERS,   for  milling  machines,   188, 

190,  192,  193. 

Side  and  other,  in  operation,  illus- 
tration, 194. 

CUTTER-SPEEDS,  explanation  for  fig- 
uring, description.  189. 
CUTTING     ANGLES,     for     cast    and 

wrought  iron  and  brass,  157. 
CUTTING-OFF      MACHINES,     descrip- 
tion, 245. 
Planer  tool,  161. 
Saw,  description,  247,  illustration, 

247. 

Tools,  illustrated,  246. 
CYLINDER,  rule  for  finding  the  sur- 
face of  a,  69. 


DECIMAL  POINT,  location  of,  21. 
DECIMALS,  44. 

Reading  of,  26. 

DEFINITIONS,  arithmetical,  20. 
DEGREES  OF  A  CIRCLE,  note,  82. 
DENOMINATE  NUMBERS,  35. 
DEPARTMENTS  IN  SHOPS,  283. 
DEVICE,  for  setting  planer  and  shaper 

tools,  168. 

Use  on  twist  drills,  illustration,  209. 

DIAMOND-PO:NT  PLANING  TOOL,  iei. 


DIE   HEAD,  screw-cutting,  description 

and  illustration,  259. 
DIE  OF  POWER   PUNCH,  illustration, 

232. 

DIES,     automatic    bolt-cutting,   illus- 
trations, 234,  238,  239,  240,  241. 
Lubrication  of,  235. 
Revolutions  of,  241. 
DIFFERENTIAL   PLAN    OF   PAYMENT, 

280. 
DISCS,  plain  iron,  speed  for  cutting  off 

ends  of  steel  rails,  319. 
Standard  reference*  illustration,  87. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


327 


DIVIDING  HEAD  AND  TAIL  STOCK,  181. 

Illustrations,  181, 183. 
DIVISION,  32. 

Of  decimals,  47. 

Of  fractions,  43. 
DODECAHEDRON,  the,  definition,  81. 

DRESSING-TOOLS     FOR    EMERY 

WHEELS,  268. 

DRILL  CHUCKS,  description  and  illus- 
trations, 206,  207. 
Turret,  illustrations,  257,  258. 
DRILLING    MACHINE,  adjustable 

reamer  for,  illustration,  2^3. 
Description  of  parts,  203. 
Drill  chucks,  illustration,  206. 
Radial,  206. 
Recipe  for  a  cheap  lubricant  for,  292. 


DRILLING     MACHINE,    shell    reamer, 

illustration,  209. 
Socket  or  drill  collet,  description 

and  illustration,  205. 
Speeds  for  twist  drills,  210, 211. 
Special  forms  of,  203. 
Twist  drill,  grinding  gauge,  209. 
Vertical,  illustration,  202. 
DRILLING  OPERATIONS,  201-211. 
DRILLS,  how  to  grind  flat,  207. 

Table    of    average  cutting'  speeds 

for,  320. 
Table  of  sizes  for  U.  S.  standard 

taps,  320. 

Table  of  speeds,  211. 
Twist,  illustration.  208. 
Variations  of,  205. 
DRIVER  AND  DRIVEN  WHEELS,  130. 


ELECTRIC  SHOCK,  how  to  resuscitate 

from,  309-312. 

ELLIPSE,  rule  for  finding  area  of,  68. 
EMERY,  description,  in  note,  226. 

Grinders,  illustrations,  212,  214,  215, 
216,  218,  219;  in  operation,  illustra- 
tions. 220,  221,  222. 
EMERY    WHEEL     DRESSING    TOOLS, 

illustration,  266. 
Speeds,  table,  321. 
Grade  of,  by  numbers,  225. 
44 Points"  relating  to,  226. 


EMERY    WHEEL    DRESSENG    TOOLS, 

stress  per  square  inch  when  run- 
ning, 321. 

EMPLOYERS'  responsibility  to  work- 
men in  case  of  accident  314.  316. 

ENLARGING  DRILL,  illustration, 208. 

"EQUIPMENT"  IN  SHOPS,  279. 

EVOLUTION,  50. 

EXPANSION  OF  A  STEEL  ROD,  84. 

EXTRACTING  BROKEN  TOOLS,  recipe, 
295. 

EYE,  treatment  for  removing  foreign 
bodies,  308. 


FACE  OR  STRADDLE  MILL  IN  OPERA- 
TION,  185. 

FACTORS,  definitions,  24,  30. 

FEED  MECHANISM,  milling  machine, 

184. 
Illustration,  184. 

FELLOWS'    GEAR    SHAPER,    illustra- 
tion, 165. 

FILES,  equivalent  grades  of  emery,  225. 

FIVE    REGULAR   SOLIDS,  illustration, 


FOREMAN,  who  reformed  shop,  284. 

Model,  284,  285,  286. 
FORMULA,  definition,  22. 
FRACTIONS,  37. 

Addition  of,  42. 

Division  of,  43. 

Subtraction  of,  42. 
FRENCH  SYSTEM  OF  MEASURES  AND 

WEIGHTS,  56. 

FROST  BITE,  treatment  for,  308. 
FUSING    POINTS    OF    TIN-LEAD    AL- 
LOYS, 292. 


323 


Index. 


GANG  BOSSES,  286. 

GAUGE,  U.  S.  standard,  illustrations, 

92,136. 
GAUGE    FOR    MEASURING    ANGLES, 

illustration,  93. 

GAUGES,     adjustable    parallel    meas- 
uring, illustration,  91. 
Corrective  standards,  illustration, 

87. 

English  or  Birmingham,  illustra- 
tion, 92. 
Inside  micrometer,  illustrations,  85, 

86. 

Internal  and  external  limit,  illus- 
trations, 89,  90. 

GAUGING    ANGLE    OF    LATHE    CEN- 
TRES, 137. 

GEAR   SHARER,  Fellows',  illustration, 
165. 

Example  of  work,  160. 
GENERAL  MANAGER,  277. 


GLOSSARY,  definition,  20. 
GREEK  LETTER  7T,  definition,  21. 
GRINDING,   a   face  or  straddle  mill, 
illustrations,  220,  221. 

A  spiral  tooth  cutter,  illustration, 
221. 

Cutting  tools,  224. 
GRINDING  MACHINES,  definition,  215. 

Description  of  parts,  217. 

Self-acting,  universal  and  surface, 

217;  illustrations,  218, 219. 
GRINDING  OPERATIONS,  214-226. 

Hardening,  226. 

Sharpening  a  circular  saw,  illustra- 
tion, 215. 

Sharpening  a  twist  drill,  illustra- 
tion, 214. 

Sharpening  a  tap,  illustration,  222. 
GRINDSTONE    TROUGH,    illustration, 
271. 

Note  relating  to,  272. 


HACK  SAW  BLADES,  flexible,  illustra- 
tion, 249. 

Magazine  coil,  description,  248. 
Power,  illustration,  248. 


HEXAHEDRON,  the,  definition,  81. 
HOG-NOSE  ROUGHING  TOOL,  descrip- 
tion, 148. 
Illustration,  149. 


ICOSAHEDRON,  the,  definition,  81. 
INDEX- PLATE  FOR  CHANGE-GEAR 

SHAFT,  133. 
INVOLUTION,  53. 


IRON,  cast,  recipe  for  brazing,  291. 
Cutting  angle  for  cast  and  wrought, 

157. 
IRON  PIPE,  table  of  sizes,  323. 


JACK-SCREW,"  illustration,  269. 


I  "JIG,"  definition,  266. 
I 


Note,  266. 


K 


KEYSEATING    MACHINE,    illustration, 
261. 


KEYWAY  CUTTING   MACHINE,  172-174. 

Illustration  of,  174. 
"  KINK,"  shop,  definition,  266. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


329 


LATHE,   arrangement  of,  for  cutting 

screws,  108. 
Centers,  manner  of  gauging  angle 

of,  137. 

Pan,  illustration,  264. 
Screw  cutting  in  the,  103-137. 
LAYING  OUT  WORK,  recipe  for  mark- 

ing  surface  on  steel  or  iron,  296. 
LEAD,  as  an  anti-friction  metal,  293. 


LEFT-HAND  "SIDE"  PLANING  TOOL, 

161. 
LIME,  use  of,  to  keep  shop  floors  clean, 

recipe,  292. 

LIMIT-GAUGES,  illustrations,  89,  90. 
LOGARITHM,  definition,  23. 
LUBRICANT,    recipe  for  milling  and 

drilling,  292. 
For  use  in  cutting  bolts  and  tapping 

nuts,  296. 


M 


MACHINE,  bolt  cutting,  235-241. 
Cutting-off,  description,  245. 
For  buffing,  illustration,  273. 
For  shaft  straightening,   illustra- 
tion, 254. 

Keyseating,  illustration,  261. 
Screwing,  illustration,  235. 
MACHINES,  auxiliary,  243-262. 
MANAGER,  works  or  general,  277. 
MANDREL,  how  driven  into  work,  25. 
MARKING  SOLUTION,  recipe,  293. 

Presses,  illustration,  265. 
MATHEMATICAL  STUDIES,  value  of,  34. 
MEASURING-MACHINE,  standard 

form,  illustration,  87. 
End  rod,  illustration,  85. 
MEASURING  MACHINES,  TOOLS  AND 

DEVICES,  84. 
MECHANICS'      POCKET      REFERENCE 

BOOKS,  note,  70. 
MENSURATION,  58. 
METAL,  a,  that  will  expand  in  cooling, 

recipe,  296. 

METER,  definition,  56. 
METRIC  SYSTEM    OF   WEIGHTS  AND 

MEASURES,  56. 
MILLING  MACHINES,  a  cheap  lubricant 

for,  292. 

Bevel  or  angle,  in  operation,  illus- 
tration, 196. 


MILLING  MACHINES,  cutters,  illustra- 
tions, 185,  186, 188, 190, 192, 193. 

Cutter  in  operation,  illustration,  185. 

Descriptions,  177-197. 

Illustrations,  176, 178, 180. 
MILLING  CUTTERS,  dividing  head  and 
tail  stock,  description,  181 ;  illus- 
trations, 181, 182. 

Feed  mechanism,  description   and 
illustration,  184. 

Horizontal,  plain,  illustration,  180. 

Horizontal  with  vertical  head,  illus- 
tration, 178. 

Operation  of,  177-197. 

Rose  cutter  in  operation,  illustra- 
tion, 195. 

Rule  for  finding  the  speed  of  cutters, 
187. 

Side  cutter  in  operation,  illustra- 
tion, 194. 
Traverse  feed,  191. 

Used  with    keyseating    machines, 

sizes  of,  261. 

MILLING  MACHINE,  "universal,"  177; 
illustration,  176. 

Vise,  description  and  illustration, 

183. 

MONITOR  LATHES,  why  so  named,  254. 
MULTIPLICATION,  30. 

Of  decimals,  46. 

Of  fractions,  42. 


330 


Index. 


N 


NEEDLE  FOR  "SCRIBER,"  294. 
NICKEL-PLATING,  solution,  recipe,  293. 
NOTATION,  25. 

Arabic,  method  of,  25. 
Roman,  27. 

NUMBER,  a  compound,  35. 
A  simple,  35. 


NUMBERS,  definition, 24. 
Denominate,  35. 
Powers  of,  54. 
Roots  of,  54. 

NUMERATION,  25. 

Table,  26. 


OCTAHEDRON,  the,  definition,  81. 
OIL-PUMPS,  described,  235,  237. 


"ORGANIZATION,"   in  shop  manage- 
ment, 279. 


PAN,  shop,  illustration,  262. 
PARALLELOGRAM,  definition,  63. 
PARTS  OF  A  CIRCLE,  82. 
PATTERN  SHOP,  a  model,  283,  284. 
PENTAGON,  definition,  64. 
PERSON,  an  injured,  how  to  carry,  303, 

304. 

"PICKLING"  CASTINGS,  recipe,  294. 
"PIECE-WORK,"  definition,  280. 
PIPE,  rule  for  finding  sectional  area  of 

a,  68. 

Wrought  iron,  table  of  sizes,  323. 
PLANER,    the   open  side,   illustration 

and  description,  159. 
PLANER  CENTERS,  illustration,  160. 
PLANER  OPERATION,  centers,  160. 
PLANER  TOOLS,  device  for  setting,  168. 
PLANING,  tools  used  in,  15r. 
PLANING    MACHINE  TOOLS,   descrip- 
tion and  illustration,  161. 
Illustrations,  152, 154, 159. 
PLANING  OPERATIONS,  153-174. 

Cutter  or  cross-bar  head,  illustra- 
tion, 158. 

Cutting  tool,  illustration,  156. 
Cutting  tool,  speed  of,  156. 
Device  for  setting  tools,  167 ;  illus- 
tration, 168. 

Tool  post  and  clapper  head,  the,  157. 
PLANNING  A  SHOP,  282. 
PLANS  OF  PAYMENT,  piece  work,  dif- 
ferential and  premium,  280,  281. 
"  PLANT,"  definition,  279. 


PLATE    STEEL    AND    IRON     GAUGES, 

illustration,  92. 

PLATEN,  definition,  157, 

"POINTS,"   relating  to  emery  wheels, 

226. 
Relating  to  grinding  operations,  222. 

POLISH  FOR  WROUGHT  STEEL,  290. 

POLISHING  MACHINE,  illustration, 273. 

POLYGON,  definition,  61. 

POWERS  OF  NUMBERS,  55. 

PREMIUM  PLAN  OF  PAYMENT,  281. 

PRESS,  arbor,  description  and  illustra- 
tions, 251-253. 

PRESSES,  properly  punches,  229. 

PROPORTION,  or  rule  of  three,  48, 

PROTRACTOR,  bevel,  illustration,  94. 

PUMP,  for  lubricating  with  oil,  235,  237. 

PUNCH    END   OF    MACHINE,  illustra- 
tion, 231. 

PUNCHING   AND    SHEARING,    similar 
operations,  230. 

PUNCHING  AND  SHEARING   MA- 
CHINE,   eccentric   driven,    illus- 
tration, 231. 
Illustrations,  228,  231. 
Lever    punching,  description,  233; 

illustration,  231. 
Presses  for  stamping,  229. 
Why  combined,  229. 

PUNCHING    AND   SHEARING    OPERA- 

TIONS,  229-234, 

Action  of  the  punch,  230;  illustra- 
tions, 231,  232. 

PUNCHING  TOOLS,  set  of ,  description, 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


33t 


QUANTITY,  definition  of,  24. 


|  QUOTATIONS,  274, 276,  288. 


RADIAL  DRILL,  description,  205;  illus- 
tration, 200. 

RATIO,  definition,  22,  48. 
REAMER,  adjustable,  description,  148; 
illustration,  150. 

Adjustable  shell,  209. 

Finishing,  illustration,  208. 

Fluted  shell,  209. 

For  milling  machines,  illustration, 

194. 

RECIPES,  useful,  287-316. 
RECTANGLE,  definition,  63. 
REDUCTION,  35. 

Of  decimals,  45. 

Of  fractions,  38. 

RESPONSIBILITY  OF  EMPLOYERS,  to 
workmen  in  case  of  accident,  314- 
316. 

RIGHT  HAND  SIDE  PLANING  TOOLS, 
161. 

ROMAN  NOTATION,  27. 

ROOT,  square,  50. 

ROOTS  OF  NUMBERS,  54. 

ROPE  SHEAVE  BLOCKS,  illustrations, 
270. 

ROSE  CUTTER  FOR  MILLING  MA- 
CHINE, 192. 

ROUGHING  DRILL,  illustration,  208. 
Tools,  description,  148 ;  illustration, 
149. 

ROUND-NOSE  TOOL,  description,  148; 

illustration,  149. 
RULE,  addition,  29. 

Addition  of  decimals,  41. 

Addition  of  fractions,  42. 

Adjusting  change  wheels,  122-130. 

Cancellation,  41. 

Division,  32,  33. 

Division  of  decimals,  47. 

Division  of  fractions,  43. 

Extracting  square  root,  50,  51. 

For  notation,  26. 


RULE,  Multiplication,  30. 

Multiplication  of  fractions,  42. 

Reduction  of  fractions,  38. 

Subtraction,  29. 

Subtraction  of  decimals,  46. 

Subtraction  of  fractions,  42. 
RULE  FOR  FINDING,  the  diameter  of  a 
circle,  65,  66. 

The  length  of  a  circle,  65,  66. 

The  solidity  of  a  cone,  77. 

'The  solidity  of  a  cylindrical  ring, 
76. 

The  solidity  of  a  pyramid,  78. 79. 

The   solidity    of    a  segment  of  a 
sphere,  75. 

The  solidity  of  an  irregular  solid,  80. 

The  solidity  or  capacity  of  any  fig- 
ure in  the  cubical  form,  71,  72. 

The  speed  for  milling  cutters,  187. 

The  surface  and  contents  of  the  five 
regular  solids,  81. 

The  surface  of  a  cylinder,  69. 

The  surface  of  a  sphere,  70. 

RULE   FOR   FINDING  THE  AREA,  of  a 

circle,  67. 

Of  an  ellipse,  68. 

Of  a  parallelogram,  63. 

Of  a  pentagon,  64. 

Of  a  polygon,  64. 

Of  a  rectangle,  63. 

Of  a  square,  62. 

Of  a  trapezium,  61. 

Of  a  triangle,  60. 
RULE  FOR  FINDING  THE  CONTENTS, 

Of  a  hemisphere,  74. 

Of  a  rectangular  solid,  72. 

Of  a  f  rustrum  of  a  cone  (cubic),  78. 

Of  a  solid  cylinder  (cubic),  76. 

Of  a  sphere  (cubic),  73. 
RULE  FOR  PROVING,  division,  34. 

Multiplication,  30. 

Multiplication  of  decimals,  46. 


332 


Index. 


RULE  FOR   PROVING,  the  correctness 

of  addition,  28. 
RULE  OF  THREE,  48. 
RULE  FOR  USING  THE  VERNIER,  B.  & 

8.,  97. 


RUST,   to  protect  bright  work  from, 
recipe.  394. 

Iron,  recipe  for  removing,  291. 
On  tools,  to  prevent,  recipe,  296. 
RUST-JOINT  COMPOSITION,  295. 


SADDLE,  illustration,  158. 

SAWS,  speed  of,  319. 

SCALDS,  treatment  of,  305,  306. 

Important  note,  305. 
SCREW-CUTTING   DIE-HEAD,   descrip- 
tion and  illustration  259. 
Example    showing    use  of    index 

plate,  133. 
Machine,  235. 
Section  of  seven  pitch  V-thread, 

129-134. 
SCREW-CUTTING      IN      THE      LATHE, 

103-137. 

American  standard   thread,  illus- 
tration, 120. 
Change  wheels,  122-130. 
Cutting   a  double   square   thread, 

118;  illustration,  113. 
Cutting    a    single    square   thread, 

illustration,  113. 

Gauge  for  setting  in  tool,  illustra- 
tions, 111,  112. 
Hand  tools,  illustrations,    104,  105, 

106, 107. 

Head  screw,  the,  124. 
Illustrations,  104-138. 
Pitch  of  screw,  124. 
The  cross-slide  feed  screw,  illustra- 
tion, 116. 

V-thread,  illustration,  119. 
With  automatic  cutting  tools,  108- 
137;  iJ lustrations,  109,  110,  111,  112. 
Without  changing  the  wheels,  132- 

135. 

SCREW-JACK,  illustration,  269. 
SCREW    THREADS,    U.   S.    Standard, 

table,  322. 

"SCRIBER,"  sewing  needle  for,  294. 
SELF,  care  of,  314. 


SET  OF  PUNCHING  TOOLS,   descrip- 
tion, 232. 

SHAFT-STRAIGHTENING      MACHINES, 

illustration,  254. 

SHANK    CUTTER    FOR    MILLING    MA- 

CHINE,  191. 
SHAPING   MACHINE,  description,  163- 

168;  illustrations,  163, 164. 

Fellow's  gear,  164 ;  illustrations,  165, 
166, 167. 

Fellow's  gear,  operation  of,  166. 
Setting  tools  in,   device   for,  167 

illustration,  168. 
Speed  of  Tool  for,  163. 
Travelling  head,  163. 
SHEET  METAL  GAUGE,  U.  S.,  illustra- 
tion, 92. 

SHEARS,  definition,  229. 
SHOCK,   electric,  how  to  resuscitate 

from,  309-312. 
SHOP,  planning  a,  282;  note,  282. 
SHOP   FLOORS,   use  of  lime  to  keep 

clean,  292. 

"SHOP-KINKS,"  definition,  266. 
SHOP  MANAGEMENT,  275-286. 
SHOP-PANS,  illustrations,  262-264. 
SIDE  PLANING  TOOL,  161. 

And    other    cutters    in  operation, 

illustrations,  194-197. 
SIGNS,  arithmetical,  20. 
SINE,  definition,  82. 

SKIVING  TOOL,  description,  148;  illus- 
tration, 149. 
SLOT,  provided  for  drill,  205. 
SLOTTING  MACHINE,  description,  169- 

174;  illustration,  170. 
For  cutting  keyways,  172;  illustra- 
tion, 174. 


The  Advanced  Machinist. 


333 


SLOTTING   MACHINE,  Operation,  169 ;  | 

illustration,  173. 
Relief-tool  block,  172;  illustration. 

172. 

SNATCH-BLOCK,  illustration,  270. 
SOCKET  FOR  DRILL,  description  and 

illustration,  205. 
SOCKETS,  size  of,  205. 
SODA  WATER  FOR  DRILLING,  292. 
SOLDERING  FLUIDS,  recipe,  296. 
SOLDERING  IRON,  how  to  tin,  291. 
SOLDERS,  recipes  for,  290. 
SOLIDS   definition,  71. 

Five  regular  illustration,  80. 
SPEED,  for  bolt  cutting,  241. 
Of  emery  saws,  319. 
Of  emery  wheels,  table,  321;  note, 

224. 
SPHERE,  rule  to  find  the  surface  of  a, 

70. 
SQUARE  ROOT,  50. 


STOCKING  PLANING  TOOL,  161. 
STRIPPER,  OR  PULL-OFF,  OF  POWER 

PUNCH,  illustration,  232. 
SUBTRACTION,  29. 
Of  decimals,  46. 
Of  fractions,  42. 
SUN    OR    HEAT    STROKE,    treatment 

for,  307. 

SUPERINTENDENTS,  277. 
SURFACE   FOR    LAYING    OUT   WORK, 

recipe,  296. 
SURFACE    SPEEDS    OF    IRON,    STEEL 

AND  BRASS,  table,  319. 
SURFACES,  definition,  60. 
SWING  FRAME  OR  SWIVEL-HEAD,  11- 

lustration,  158. 

SWIVEL  APRON,  illustration,  158. 
SYMBOLS,  ABBREVIATIONS  AND  DEFI- 

NITIONS,  20-24. 
"SYSTEM"   IN   SHOP  MANAGEMENT, 

quotation  from  Chordal's  letters, 

278. 


TABLE,  of  average  cutting  speeds  for 

drills,  320. 

Of  cutting  angles,  157. 
Of  cutting  speeds  for  dies,  241. 
Of  fusing  points  of  tin-lead  alloys, 

292. 

Of  the  grades  of  emery,  225. 
Of  Roman  notation,  27. 
Of  speeds  for  emery  wheels,  321. 
Of  speeds  for  milling  cutters,  189. 
Of  speeds  for  twist  drills,  210,  211. 
Of  standard  sizes  of  wrought  iron 

pipe,  323. 

Of  surface  speeds.  319. 
Showing  the    periphery   speed    of 

milling  cutters,  191. 
TABLES    USEFUL    FOR    MACHINISTS, 

319-323. 

TJ.  S.  Standard  screw-thread,  322. 
TANGENT   OF   AN    ANGLE,  definition 

and  illustration,  83. 


TAP,  sharpening  a,  illustration,  222. 
TAPPING  NUTS,  lubricant  for,  296. 

Speed  table  for,  241. 

TAPS,   adjustable   collapsing,  descrip- 
tion and  illustration,  259. 
TETRAHEDRON,  the,  definition,  81. 
TIN,  to,  a  soldering  iron,  291. 
TIN-LEAD   ALLOYS,    fusing  points  of, 

292. 
TOOL,  angle  for  planer,  table,  157. 

Broad    finishing,   description,   148; 

illustration,  149. 
Four-lipped  roughing  drill,  150. 
Hog-nose  roughing,  description,  148 ; 

illustration,  149. 

Round-nose,  description,  148;  illus- 
tration, 149. 
Side,  description,  148;  illustration, 

149. 

Skiving,  description,  148;  illustra- 
tion, 149. 


334 


Index. 


TOOL  CHEST,  illustration,  273. 
TOOL-GRINDER,  wet,  illustration.  212. 
TOOL-POST,  description,  157  ;  illustra- 
tion, 158. 

TOOL-POST  APRON,  illustration,  158. 
TOOLS,  broken,  how  to  extract,  295. 

Cutting  off,  illustration,  246. 

To  prevent  rust  on,  recipe,  296. 
TRAVELING-HEAD  SHAPER,  163;  illus- 
tration, 162. 

TRAPEZIUM,  definitional. 
TRIANGLE,  definition,  60. 
TRIGONOMETRY,  definition,  83. 


TURNING  AND  BORING,  operation  of, 
103. 

TURRET,  fitted  on  the  bed  of  a  lathe, 

illustration,  255. 

TURRET-DRILL,  illustrations, 257,  258. 
TURRET    LATHE,    advantages  of,  256; 

illustration,  256. 

TURRET  LATHES,  description  in  note, 
254. 

TURRET  MACHINES,  description,  254. 
TWIST  DRILLS,  illustration,  208. 

Note,  210. 

Sharpening,  illustration,  214. 

Table  of  speeds  for,  210. 


u 


UNIVERSAL    MILLING    MACHINE,    de- 
scription, 177 ;  illustration,  176. 
USEFUL  RECIPES,  287-316. 


UTILITIES  AND  ACCESSORIES,  263,274. 
UTILITY,  definition,  265. 


VARNISH  FOR  COPPER,  recipe,  294. 
VERNIER,  the,  and  its  use,  95  99;  illus- 
trations, 95,  96,  98,  99. 
VERTICAL  DRILLING  MACHINE,  203. 


VERSED  SINE,  definition  and  illustra- 
tion, 82. 

VISE  FOR  MILLING  MACHINE,  descrip- 
tion and  illustration,  183. 


w 


WALL  CRANE,  illustration,  271. 

Drilling  machine,  description,  204: 

illustration,  198. 
WATER,  to  keep  from  freezing,  recipe, 

297. 
WET  TOOL  GRINDER,  217;  illustration, 

21','. 


WHITWORTH 

120. 


THREAD,    illustration, 


WORKS  MANAGER,  277. 
WOUNDS,  how  to  treat,  298,  299. 

Recipe  for  solution  for  washing, 
301,  302. 

Two  ways  of  healing,  302. 
"WRINKLE,"  definition,  266. 
WROUGHT  STEEL,  polish  for,  290. 


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make  a  first-class  machinist ;  so 
that  when  one  is  well  qualified  he 
is  also  prepared  for  many  other 
openings. 

The  aim  of  this  work  is  to  point 
the  way  of  advancement  to  those 
who  become  fitted  to  assume  these 
responsibilities  and  rewards. 

The  advanced  machinist  is  a 
work  of  sterling  merit,  a  few  of 
the  hundreds  of  subjects  are  here 
named,  but  they  in  no  way  show 
the  scope  of  this  work,  which 
must  be  seen  to  be  appreciated  ; 

A  Course  in  Machine  Shop 
Mathematics;  Various  Measuring 
Instruments  and  Their  Uses; 
Screw  Cutting;  Boring;  Milling; 
Drilling ;  Grinding ;  Punching  and 
Shearing;  Bolt  Cutting  Machinery ; 
Special  and  Auxiliary  Machines; 
Shop  Management:  Work  Shop 
Receipts  and  Devices,  etc.,  etc. 

The  personal  character  of  the 
book  appeals  to  all  in  any  way 
associated  in  the  machinery  and 
allied  trades. 

This  book  is  a  companion  volume  to  Progressive  Machinist 
and  is  uniform  in  binding  and  style,  but  more  advanced  m 
the  subject  of  Machine  Shop  Practice  containing  about  the 
same  number  of  pages,  illustrations,  etc. 


-PRICE,  $2,  Postpaid 


THEO     AUDEL  &   CO, 


63    FIFTH   AVENUE,   NEW   YORK 
4 


PROGRESSIVE   MACHINIST    $2 


^  I  f  HIS  is  a  valuable  volume 
for  all  Metal  Workers  ;— 
J.       the  following  are  a  few 
of  the  many  subjects 
treated : 

Materials.— Definitions;  Qual- 
ities of  Matter ;  Iron,  Steel ;  Va- 
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and  Tables;  Three  I^aws  of 
Motion  ;  Strength  of  Materials ; 
Fatigue  of  Metals ;  Table  of  Melt- 
ing Points  of  Solids;  Useful 
Weights  and  Measures. 

Shop  Drawing. — Free-hand 
Drawing;  Instruments;  Pencil, 
ing;  Inking;  lettering  Drawings; 
Dimensioning ;  Shading ;  Section- 
Lining  ;  Reading  Working  Drawr 
ings;  Problems  in  Geometrical 
Drawing— Points  Relating  to 
Drawing. 

Gearing.— Cog  Wheels,  Sput 
and  Bevel  Wheels ;  Mitre  Wheel 
Mortise  Wheel ;  Worm  Gearing  \ 
Helical  Wheel ;  Designing  Gears ; 
Speed  of  Gear  Wheels. 

Bench  and  Vice.— Tempering- 
and  Hardening  Metals;  Grades 
of  Steel;  Cementation  Process; 
Bessemer  and  Siemen-Martin  Pro^ 
cess ;  Case- Hardening ;  Anneal- 
ing ;  Hand  Tools  ;  Machine  Tools ; 
Work  Benches ;  Sledge  and  Anvil ; 
Surfacing;  Red  Marking;  Hand 
Drilling ;  Broaching ;  Screw  Cut- 
ting by  Hand  ;  Pipe  Cutting. 

Tools  and  Machines. — 
Machine  and  Hand  Tools ;  Port- 
able Tools  ;  Action  of  Machines  ; 
Classification  of  Machine  Work ; 
Turning  and  Boring;  Planing; 
Milling;  Drilling;  Grinding; 
Punching  and  Shearing. 

Irathe  Work.— Forms  and 
use  of  Foot  loathes ;  Hand  loathes  ; 
Chuck  or  Surfacing  loathe;  En- 
gine loathe ;  Parts  of  the  loathe  ; 
Cutting  Tools  Used  in  the  loathe  ; 
Tempering  of  loathe  Tools  Rule  ; 
loathe  Practice ;  Measuring  Instruments ;  Mandrels ;  I^athe- 
Dogs  ;  Driving  Work  Between  Centers ;  Turning  Work  Between 
Centers  :  loathe  Speed  ;  Chuck  and  Face-plate  Work ;  Drilling; 
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Description  of  Binding.— The  book  is  handsomely  bound 
in  black  cloth,  with  gold  edges  and  titles,  printed  on  fine  paper, 
illustrated  with  330  diagrams  and  drawings  of  practical  work, 
containing  over  360  pages  of  valuable  information,  and  1081 
ready  reference  index  for  quick  information.  This  volume  will 
be  mailed  to  any  address  postpaid  upon  receipt  < 


AUDELS    GAS    ENGINE    MANUAL    $2 


*  I  ^HIS  volume  just   published 
gives  the  latest  and  most 
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Foreign  Engines  —  Oil  Engines  — 
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and  illustrations,  printed  on  fine  paper, 
size  5M  by  8*4  inches,  with  generously 

good  binding.    Highly  endorsed.    This  book  will  be  sent  to  any 
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2  PARTS 

ris  with  pleasure  we  call  your  attention  to  the  recent  publi- 
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work  actually  constructed  and  in  operation ;  the  rules  and 
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practice.    No  expense  has  been  spared  in  the  endeavor  to  make 

this  a  most  helpful  instructor 
on  the  subject,  useful  to  all 
pump  attendants,  engineers, 
machinists  and  superintend- 
ents. 

Subjects  Treated 

The  Air  Pump ;  Air  and  Vac- 
uum Pumps.  Air  Compress- 
ors ;  The  Air  1,1ft  Pump  ;  The 
Steam  Fire  Engine  ;  Miscella- 
neous Pumps  ;  Mining  Pumps; 
Marine  Pumps;  "Sugar- 
house"  Pumps;  Circulating 
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Ammonia  or  Acid  Pumps;  The 
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ugal Pumps ;  Turbine  Pumps  ; 
Injectors  and  Ejectors;  Pul- 
someter-Aqua-Thruster;  Pump 
Speed  Governors ;  Condens- 
ing Apparatus;  Utilities  and 
Attachments,  ^  Tools,  Valves 
and  Piping,  Pipes,  Joints  and 
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bles and  Data ;  Glossary  of 
Pump  and  Hydraulic  Terms  ; 
Elementary  Hydraulics;  Flow 
of  water  Under  Pressure  r 
Water  Pressure  Machines 
Water  Wheels;  Turbine 
Water  Wheels;  Turbine 
Pumps ;  Water  Pressure  En- 
nes ;  Hydraulic  Motors ;  Hydraulic  Apparatus ;  Hydraulic 
:ack ;  Hydraulic  Press ;  Hydraulic  Accumulator ;  Hydraulic 
alam:  Pumps  as  Hydraulic  Apparatus  :  Classification  of  Pumps  ; 
Hand  Pumps ;  Power  Pumps ;  Belted  Pumps ;  The  Electric 
Pump ;  The  Steam  Pump ;  The  Duplex  Pump ;  Underwriter 
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writers Relating  to  Duplex  Fire  Pumps. 

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are  six  by  nine  inches. 

PRICE,  $4,  DELIVERED 


MARINE    ENGINEERING    $2 


treatise  is 
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plete published 
(or  the  practical  en- 
gineer, covering  as  it 
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ematics, the  manage- 
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boilers,  pumps,  and  all 
auxiliary  apparatus,  the 
accepted  rules  for  figur- 
ing  the  safety-valve. 

The  book  is  divided 
into  two  parts :  Part  I, 
Construction:  Part  II, 
Operation;  it  contains 
700  pages. 

The  volume  is  illus- 
trated with  plate  draw- 
ings, diagrams  and  cuts, 
having  an  Index  with 
more  than  1 ,000  ready  refer- 
ences.SOyQuestions  on  practical 
marine  engineering  are  fully  answered 
and  explained. 

Size  is  5#  X  8K  inches,  1  ^  inches  thick, 
and  weighs  nearly  three  pounds,  strongly  and 
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accepted  standard  on  Marine  Engineering. 

Price    $2,    sent    free    to    any  address  in    the  world. 
Money  will  be  refunded  if  not  entirely  satisfactory. 


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9 


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'> 

•*  I  'HE  work  has  been  carefully  arranged  according  to  the 
fundamental  principles  of  the  art  of  drawing,  each  theme 
being  clearly  illustrated.  A  list  of  the  subjects  are  given 

below ;  " 

Chalk  Work ;  Preliminary  Terms 
and    Definitions ;    Freehand 
Drawing;  Geomet- 
rical Drawing ; 
Drawing 


Mate- 

^    rials  and  In- 
struments; Mechan- 
ical Drawing;   Penciling; 
Projection ;  "  Inking  in  "  Draw- 
ings ;  Lettering  Drawings ;  Dimensioning 
Drawings ;  Shading  Drawings. 

Section  Lining  and  Colors ;  Reproducing  Drawings ;  Draw- 
ing Office  Rules ;  Gearing ;  Designing  Gears ;  Working  Draw- 
ings; Reading  Working  Drawings;  Patent  Office  Rules  for 
Drawings ;  Useful  Hints  and  Points ;  Linear  Perspective ;  Useful 
Tables ;  Personal,  by  the  Editor. 

The  book  contains  320  pages  and  300  illustrations,  consist- 
ing largely  of  diagrams  and  suggestive  drawings  for  practice.  It 
is  bound  in  dark  green  cloth  with  full  gold  edges  and  titles ;  it  is 
printed  on  fine  paper,  size  7x10  inches;  it  weighs  33  oz.,  and 
will  fit  into  any  engineer's  or  mechanic's  library  to  good  advan- 

tage.  PRICE,  $2,  Postpaid 

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10 


ELECTRICITY    FOR     ENGINEERS    $2 


^  I  *HE  introduction  of  electrical  machinery  in  almost  every 
power  plant  has  created  a  great  demand  for  competent 
engineers  and  others  having  a  knowledge  of  electricity 
and  capable  of  operating  or  supervising  the  running  of  elec- 
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that  is  required,  explained  in  a  pratical  manner* 

Plan  of  Study 

The  following  is  a  par- 
tial list  of  the  topics  dis- 
cussed and  illustrated : 

Conductors  and  Non- 
Conductors ;  Symbols, 
abbreviations  and  defini- 
tions relating  to  electric- 
ity;  The  Motor ;  The  Care 
and  Management  of  the 
Dynamo  and  Motor. 

Electric  lighting ;  Wir- 
ing; The  rules  and  re- 
quirements of  the  Na- 
tional Board  of  Under- 
writers in  full ;  Electrical 
Measurements. 

The  Electric  Railway; 
I^ine  Work:  Instruction 
and  Cautions  for  linemen 
and  the  Dynamo  Room  ; 
Storage  Batteries ;  Care 
and  Management  of  the 
Street-Car  Motor ;  Electro 
Plating. 

The  Telephone  and 
Telegraph ;  The  Electric 
Elevator;  Accidents  and 
Emergencies,  etc.,  etc. 

One-third  of  the  whole  book  has  been 
devoted  to  the  explanation  and  illustrations 
of  the  dynamo,  and  particular  directions  relat- 
ing to  its  care  and  management ; — all  directions 
being  given  in  the  simplest  and  kindly  way  to  assist  rather 
than  confuse  the  learner. 


It  contains  550  pages  with  300  illustrations  of  electrical  ap- 
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book for  Electricians  and  Engineers. 

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II 


EXAMINATIONS       $2 


*  I  'HIS  work  is  an  important  aid  to  engineers  of  all  grades, 

and  is  undoubtedly  the  most  helpful  ever  issued  relat- 

ing  to  a  safe  and  sure  preparation  for  examination.    It 

presents  in  a  condensed  form  the  most  approved  practice  in  the 

care  and  management  of   Steam   Boilers,  Engines,  Pumps, 

Electrical  and  Refrigerating  Machines,  also  a  few  plain  rules 

of  arithmetic  with  examples 
of  how  to  work  the  prob- 
lems relating  to  the  safety 
valve,  strength  of  boilers 
and  horse  power  of  the 
Steam  Engine  and  Steam 
Boiler. 

It  contains  various  rules, 
regulations  and  laws  of 
large  cities  for  the  examina- 
tion of  boilers  and  the 
licensing  of  engineers.  It 
contains  the  laws  and  reg- 
ulations of  the  United  States 
for  the  examination  and 
grading  of  all  marine  en- 
gineers. 

The  book  gives  the  under- 
lying   principles   of   steam 
engineering    in    plain   lan- 
guage, with  very  many  sam- 
ple questions  and  answers  likely 
to  be  asked  by  the  examiner. 

It  also  gives  a  short  chapter  on  the  "  Key 
to  Success"  in  obtaining  knowledge  necessary 
for  advancement  in  engineering. 

This  helpful  volume  contains  300  pages  of  valuable  informa- 
tion not  elsewhere  obtainable ;  it  is  bound  in  rich  red  leather 
with  full  gold  edges  and  titles ;  it  measures  5x7}$  inches  and 
weighs  twenty-two  ounces. 

PRICE,  $2,  Postpaid 

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12 


STEAM   BOILER   PRACTICE  $2 


THIS  book   of   Instruction    on 
boiler-room  practice  will  be 
of  great  help  to  firemen,  en- 
gineers and  all  others  who 
wish  to  learn  about  this  impor«art 
branch  of  Steam  Engineering. 

It  treats  on  materials,  coals,  wood, 
coke,  and  oil  and  gas,  fuels,  etc.,  their 
composition,  properties,  combustive 
value,  also  on  combustion  and  evap- 
oration. 

HRRfflTiPiil  Giving  the   practical   rules  to  be 

UkKlitUlMlLllkgjM  observed  in  firing  with  various  fuels, 

management  of  steam   boilers,  pre- 

„____—.._  yention  of  foaming,  tools  and  fire 

'IHIIMiMil  irons;   covering    stationary,  marine 

•MiHIilfcAii  an(j  locomotive  boilers. 

It  enumerates  sixty  important 
points  of  cautions  to  be  observed  in 
the  proper  management  of  boilers. 

It  contains  a  description  of  and  full 
treatise  on  stationary,  marine  and 
locomotive  boilers,  and  the  historical 
development  of  boilers ;  specifications 
for  boilers;  riveting;  bracing;  rules 
for  finding  pressure  or  strain  on 
bolts. 

It  gives  inspectors  rules  relating  to 
braces  in  steam  boilers.  Also  rules 
and  tables  for  calculating  areas  and 
steam  and  water  space  of  boilers. 

It  treats  on  boiler  tubes,  construc- 
tion and  drawing  of  boiler  sections ; 
defects  and  necessary  repairs  ;  inspec- 
tion of  steam  boilers ;  mechanical 
stokers'  corrosion  and  scale,  boiler 
compounds,  feed  water  heaters, 
injectors,  pumps,  boiler  settings; 
pipes  and  piping ;  steam  heating, 
chemistry  of  the  furnace ;  boiler 
making ;  plumbing,  and  hundreds  of 
other  useful  subjects. 

It  states  several  plain  rules  for  the 
calculation  of  safety  valve  problems 
and  those  sanctioned  by  the  U.  S. 
inspectors. 


The  volume  has  330  pages  and  185  illustrations  and  di- 
agrams. It  is  6x8^  in.  in  size  and  weighs  28  ounces.  The 
binding  is  uniform  with  that  of  the  "  Calculations  "  and  "  Cat- 
echism of  the  Steam  Engine,"  being  bound  in  heavy  green  cloth, 
with  ornamental  titles  and  edges  in  gold. 

PRICE,  $2,  Postpaid 


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c 

13 


CALCULATIONS  FOR  ENGINEERS  $2 


THE  Hand  Book  of  Calculations 
is  a  work  of  instruction  and 
reference   relating    to     the 
steam  engine,  the  steam  boiler,  etc., 
and  has  been  said  to  contain  every 
calculation,  rule  and  table  necessary 
to  be  known  by  the  Engineer,  Fire- 
man and  a  steam  user. 

Giving  a  complete  course  in  Mathe- 
matics for  the  Engineer  and  steam 
user;  all  calculations  are  in  plain 
arithmetical  figures,  so  that  the  av- 
erage man  need  not  be  confused  by 
the  insertion  of  the  terms,  symbols 
and  characters  to  be  found  in  works 
of  so-called  "higher  mathematics." 

Mechanical  Powers;  Natural  or 
Mechanical  Philosophy ;  Strength  of 
Materials  ;  Mensuration ;  Arithmetic ; 
Description  of  Algebra  and  Geom- 
etry. 

Tables  of  Weights,  Measures, 
Strength  of  Rope  and  Chains,  Pres- 
sures of  Water,  Diameter  of  Pipes, 
etc. ;  The  Indicator,  How  to  Compute  ; 
The  Safety  Valve,  How  to  Figure  ; 
The  Steam  Boiler ;  The  Steam  Pump  ; 
Horse  Powers,  How  to  Figure  for 
Engines  and  Boilers ;  Steam,  What  It 
Is,  etc. 

Index  and  Useful  Definitions. 


This  work  contains  330  pages  and  150  illustrations ;  it  is 
durably  and  handsomely  bound,  uniform  in  style  and  size  with 
the  "  Instructions  for  the  Boiler  Room  "  and  the  "  Catechism  oi 
the  Steam  Engine  ;>r  it  has  gold  edges  and  titles,  ana  weighs 
over  28  ounces. 

PRICE,  $2,  Postpaid 

THEO.  AUDEL  &  CO.,  63  FIFTH  AVENUE,  NEW  YORK 

14 


STEAM  ENGINE    PRACTICE  $2 


|  NEW    j 
CATECHlsl 


"It  has   been  well  said   that   en- 

§ineers  are  born,  not  made  ;  those  in 
euiand  to  fill  the  positions  created 
by  the  great  installations  of  power- 
producing  machinery  now  so  com- 
mon, are  men  who  are  familiar  with 
the  contents  of  good  books,  and  as 
well,  are  the  product  of  a  hard  bought 
practical  experience." 

rHIS  work  is  gotten  up  to  fill  a 
long- felt  need  for  a  practical 
book.  It  gives  directions  for 


gines  that  are  to-day  in  the  market. 

A  list  of  subjects,  which  are  fully 
yet  concisely  discussed,  are  as  follows : 

Introduction ;  The  Steam  Engine ; 
Historical  Facts  Relating  to  the  Steam 
Engine:  Engine  Foundations;  The 
Steam  Piston;  Connecting  Rods; 
Eccentric;  Governor;  Materials; 
Workmanship;  Care  and  Manage- 
ment; Lining  up  a  Horizontal  or  Ver- 
tical Engine ;  Lining  Shafting;  Valve 
Setting ;  Condensers ;  Steam  Separa- 
tors ;  Air,  Gas,  and  Compressing  En- 
gines: Compounding;  Arithmetic  of 
the  Steam  Engine;  Theory  of  the 
Steam  Engine ;  Construction.  e 

There  also  is  a  description  of  nu- 
merous types  of  the  engines  now  in 
operation,  such  as  the  Corliss,  Westing-. 
house,  and  many  others. 

The  book  also  treats  generously 
upon  the  Marine,  Locomotive  and  Gas 
Engines. 


This  is  a  rarely  fine  book,  handsomely  bound  in  green  silk 
cloth,  with  full  gold  edges  and  titles  ;  it  contains  440  pages,  325 
illustrations ;  in  size  it  is  6x8J4  inches,  and  weighs  2  pounds. 


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STEAM    ENGINE    INDICATOR    $1 

f  I  ^HE  work  is  designed  for  the  use  of  erecting  and  operating 
engineers,  superintendents,  and  students  of  steam  engineer- 
ing, relating ;  as  it  does,  to  the  economical  use  of  steam. 

The  following  is  a  gen- 
eral outline  of  the  subjects 
denned,  illustrated  and  pre- 
sented most  helpfully  in 
the  book. 

Preparing  the  Indicator 
for  use;  Reducing  Mo- 
tions ;  Piping  up  Indicator ; 
Taking  Indicator  Cards ; 
The  Diagram ;  Figuring 
Steam  consumption  by  the 
diagram;  Revolution  Coun- 
ters; Examples  of  Di- 
agrams; Description  of 
Indicators;  Measuring  Di- 
agram by  Ordinates ;  Plani- 
meters;  Paragraphs,  Ta- 
bles, etc. 

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promotion  and  better  things. 

The  work  is  fully  illustrated,  handsomely  bound,  and  Is  in 
every  way  a  high  grade  publication. 


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16 


TELEPHONE    ENGINEERING    $t 


TE  "  A  B  C  of  the  Telephone  "  is  a  book  valuable  to  all 
persons  interested  in  this  ever-increasing  industry.  No 
expense  has  been  spared  by  the  publishers,  or  pains  by 
the  author,  in  making  this  the  most  comprehensive 
handbook  ever  brought  out  relating  to  the  telephone. 


TABLE      OF      CONTENTS 

29    CHAPTERS 

The  Telephone  Apparatus  and  its 
Operation  ;  A  Brief  Survey  of  the  The- 
ory of  Sound,  Necessary  to  an  Under- 
standing of  the  Telephone  ;  A  Brief 
Survey  of  the  Principles  of  Electric- 
ity; Electrical  Quantities;  History 
or  the  Speaking  Telephone ;  I,ater 
Modifications  of  the  Magnet  Tele- 
phone ;  The  Carbon  Microphone 
Transmitter ;  The  Circuits  of  a  Tele- 
phone Apparatus  ;  The  Switch  Hook 
and  its  Function  in  Telephone 
Apparatus  ;  The  Switchboard  and  the 
Appliances  of  the  Central  Station  ; 
The  Operator's  Switch  Keys  and 
Telephone  Set;  Improved  Switch- 
board Attachments ;  Switchboard 
lyamp  Signals  and  Circuits  ;  The  Mul- 
tiple Switchboard;  lyocally  Inter- 
connected or  Multiple  Transfer 
Switchboard ;  Exchange  Battery  Sys- 
tems ;  Party  I^ines  and  Selective 
Signals ;  Private  Telephone  I^ines 
and  Intercommunicating  Systems ; 
Common  Return  Circuits ;  Private 
Telephone  lyines  and  Intercommuni- 
cating Systems;  Full  Metallic  Cir- 
cuits; I/arge  Private  Systems  and 
Automatic  Exchanges ;  Devices  for 
Protecting  Telephone  Apparatus 
from  Electrical  Disturbances;  The 
General  Conditions  of  Telephone  I<ine 
Construction  ;  Telephone  Pole  lyines  ; 
Wire  Transportations  on  a  Pole  I^ine. 
Telephone  Cables  and  their  Use  in 
Underground  and  Pole  I^ines ;  Circuit 
Balancing  Devices;  The  Microtele- 
phone ;  Wireless  Telephony  ;  Useful 
Definitions  and  Hints  on  Telephone 
Management. 

WITH   READY  REFERENCE   INDEX 

The  volume  contains  375  pages,  268  illustra- 
tions and  diagrams  ;  it  is  handsomely  bound  in 
black  vellum  cloth,  and  is  a  generously  good 
book  without  reference  to  cost. 

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Hawkins*  Dictionary,  $3.50 

THIS    volume 
is  the  most 


useful  book 
in  Mechanical 
Literature. 

If  constantly 
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enable  the  stu- 
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correct  knowl- 
edge of  the 
words,  terms  and 
phuases  in  use  in 
Mechanical  En- 
gineering and  its 
various  branches 
^Its  greatest 
value  lies  in  this: 

that  no  man  rep- 
resenting the  me, 
chanical  profess- 
ion can  find 
excuse  fer  not 
knowing  the  use 
and  meaning  of 
the  terms  used  in 
his  work. 

HAWKINS1 


explains  and  de- 
fines  in  plain 
language  the  use 
of  all  words  and 
terms  now  used 
or  heretofore 
used  in  the 
Mechanic  Arts. 
Trades  and 
Sciences. 

It  JS_  an  unequaled  reference  work,  and  is  the  one  book  of  per- 
manent value  no  student  or  expert  should  dispense  with; 
Complete  from  A  to  Z.  Highly  endorsed. 

Contains  704  pages,  handsomely  bound,  price  $3.50 
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