Afforestation

ORESTATION

BY

JOHN BOYD

Crown Forester

I/'

net

LONDON: 38 Soho Square, W.I

W. & R. CHAMBERS, LIMITED

EDINBURGH: 339 High Street

AFFORESTATION

BY

JOHN BOYD

Crown Forester

LONDON : 38 Soto Square. W. 1

W. &> R. CHAMBERS, LIMITED

EDINBURGH : 339 High Street
1918

t>

MAIN LIBRARY-AGRICULTURE DEPT.

Edinburgh :
Printed by W. & R. Chambers, Limited.

DEDICATED

TO THE MEMORY OF

MY SON.

4-20003

PREFACE.

IN submitting this little volume to the public, and more
especially to those interested in afforestation, I would wish
to make it clear that although I am a Crown officer, this
publication is of a purely private nature. Any remarks
or opinions expressed in it are in no way official or inspired.

Chapters I., II., and III. were written for publication in
the Glasgow Herald during the winter of 1916-17, and
are now reproduced in slightly revised form by the kind
permission of the proprietors of that journal.

I wish also to thank Mr Geo. H. Crosfield and Mr W.
Power for the kindly aid they have rendered me in reading
my proofs.

AFFORESTATION.

CHAPTER I.

NATIONAL FORESTRY.

IT is quite three years since we had very forcibly brought
home to us some of the consequences of our national
neglect of forestry. The fact that we had for many years
been paying away to foreign countries immense sums
which ought to have been circulating in our now depopu-
lated areas is only one of these consequences. More
immediately serious was the awkward situation in regard
to our timber-supplies — a situation which aggravated high
prices, hampered our war industries, and put an extra
strain on shipping. If we have not learned our lesson
now, we are not likely to learn it at all.

Much has been done in the past with a view to awaken-
ing the nation and the Government to the urgent claims
of forestry ; yet little impression seems to have been made.
Commissions have been appointed, and have issued reports
in favour of a national scheme ; committees have deliber-
ated, and also reported favourably; a Scottish Board of
Agriculture has been established, with the development of
forestry in Scotland as one of its special official objects ;
the Development Commissioners have been acting for
several years, with the advancement of forestry in the
kingdom (among other things) as a specified purpose.
And what are the practical results ? Until very recently,
when a certain amount of preparatory work and planting
has been done, the actual afforestation has been negligible.

8 ^L : NATIONAL FORESTRY.

Had less money been spent on preliminaries and reports,
and a larger sum spent on planting, there would have
been something to show for the expenditure, some valuable
experience would have been gained, and we should have
had a certain number of acres under a crop of trees in
various stages of development.

The chief aim in the past has been to enlighten the
Government, so that they might be persuaded of the
necessity for action. Deputations have been met by
Ministers, and resolutions innumerable have been for-
warded to them with the object of convincing them that
there is no valid or sufficient excuse for their inaction.
But what is quite evident is that, whatever action may
be taken by the Government on the lines of a national
afforestation scheme, such action, to become effective, must
receive the impetus of popular conviction, clamantly and
persistently expressed ; and no effort, political or otherwise,
should be spared in keeping the question in the forefront
of national policy. The writer's contention is that effective
action should not, and need not, be delayed until the end
of the war, but should, and can, begin right now. The
initial stages would not make any appreciable demands on
labour. On the other hand, they must be got over before
forestry can absorb any appreciable amount of labour.
This is a point to be noted in connection with demobilisa-
tion. Forestry schemes ought not to be set in motion
in a month or even in a year. First of all, the pros
and cons for establishing forests in certain districts must
be carefully weighed. The selected districts must then
be surveyed, and a general scheme of operations for
several years drawn out and delineated on a plan. The
section to be dealt with immediately has then to be
surveyed in detail, subdivided into compartments of con-
venient size ; lines of roads and access paths defined, and
carefully set out on the plan ; and the different qualities
of soil and subsoil have to be investigated. Not till then

NATIONAL FORESTRY. 9

is the area ready for actual labour. The time required
for this initial work depends upon the nature and extent
of the ground which is being treated.

Even then it is not ready for the planter. Much more
preparation — which, however, entails a certain amount of
labour — has to be done. The area must be enclosed with
suitable fences and drained where necessary ; ground game
must be exterminated, and bracken-cutting attended to at
the proper season ; and any other preparatory work must
be carried out, according to the conditions, before planting
operations can commence. While this preliminary work
is in progress, the raising of plants for the ground under
survey will have been attended to in the nursery — work
which can be carried out to a great extent by women.
But the surveying and planning is the real preliminary
work, and it is that which should have immediate attention.
What is required is to have a number of suitable areas
earmarked, surveyed, mapped out, and so prepared that
when the time comes that labour is available there will
be no unnecessary delay in getting the planting set agoing
on systematic principles. Provided sufficient labour is
available to perform the draining and fencing and other
heavy work, women may (in most localities) be suitably
employed on actual planting operations and other light
work.*

Owing to the present denudation of existing woodlands,
there will be a great amount of planting required to
restock the cleared ground. It ought, therefore, to be the
primary aim of the Government to^ ensure that all such
areas are properly treated and not allowed to run to waste.
This, however, will be a simple process compared with
the treatment of new ground, because cleared woodland is

* This has been amply demonstrated during the last two winters. See
Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arbor icultural Society ', vol. xxxii.,
Part I., page 81. Seven months' experience of women-workers by the
writer confirms this claim.

AF, B

10 NATIONAL FORESTRY.

already in a suitable condition for planting and requires
little preparatory work, whereas the new ground that will
be available has lain in a more or less derelict state for a
century or longer, and will require a thorough survey, and
careful — in many cases laborious — treatment.

Some advocates of forestry are of opinion that little or
nothing can be done or even attempted until a staff of
skilled foresters has been trained. The writer cannot
agree with them, although he has no desire to underrate
the thoroughly skilled forester — rather the reverse. The
disagreement is in regard to the method of training. The
one method is to train men for the work, the other to
train them at it. The latter, which is claimed to be the
better, necessitates afforestation work being in progress,
so that the skilled foresters may be efficiently trained.
The natural inference is that unless planting is begun with
the best available men, it is not possible to train men
for larger operations in the afforesting of new or ' waste '
land. A good sound scientific groundwork in the principles
of sylviculture is an essential part of the training, but
unless that is backed up by practical knowledge gained
from experience, it is of comparatively little value for this
special work.

What is wanted to begin with, however, is an effective
co-ordination of forestry administration. At present there
are interested in the advancement of forestry the Develop-
ment Commissioners, the Board of Agriculture, the Scottish
Board of Agriculture, and the Office of Woods (which has
interests in England, Scotland, Wales, and the Isle of Man),
besides half-a-dozen or more corporations. It is question-
able if any one of these bodies can embark on a scheme
of any consequence without first obtaining Treasury
sanction. Until one authority with ample powers and
funds has been appointed for the United Kingdom, there
is little prospect of forestry being put on a sound footing
and promoted in a manner proportionate to our need.

OUR LOST FORESTS. 11

CHAPTER II.

OUR LOST FORESTS.

SCOTLAND was originally the site of several very ex-
tensive forests, and undoubtedly there were many others
of smaller area, all branching out towards the seaboard
along the glens and river-courses. The principal tree of
the Lowland forests was oak, with groves or odd trees of
elm, ash, and aspen in suitable situations; a fair amount
of birch on banks and higher ground ; and alder, with
saugh or willow bushes, on marshy land beside lochs or
rivers. An undergrowth of gean, bird -cherry, rowan,
hazel, holly, yew, sloes, thorns, and briers was more or less
prevalent throughout the forests, with patches of broom
and whins in openings and on hard knolls. The remnants
of this bygone forest are still in evidence in Cadzow Park,
near Hamilton. Patches of this type of forest, if it had
existed, would also be found all over the mainland, but
in the Highlands and southern uplands the extensive
primeval forests were composed chiefly of Scots pine,
and reached in some localities to an altitude of over one
thousand five hundred feet. Along with the pine much
alder would be found in moist places, and birch and rowan
in openings, the birch encroaching on the pine at every
opportunity. Among the birch there would be an under-
growth somewhat similar to that found in the Lowland
forests, but rather less varied in composition ; while amon^
the pines there would be a more or less abundant crop
of juniper -bushes. A few remaining fragments of these
great pine forests are still to be seen in the Spey Valley,
on Deeside, at Achnacarry, and at the head of Glen Orchy,
where the West Highland Railway passes through it. It
is more than probable that the pine forests never reached
the western seaboard of the Highlands except at the heads

12 OUR LOST FORESTS.

of the longer inlets. Along that broken coast the natural
tree-growth would be chiefly birch, alder, and hazel, with
patches of oak, ash, and rowan in situations suitable for
their growth, and the farther west they reached the more
would both the height of the trees and the altitude at which
they would grow decrease, until on the exposed coasts and
promontories they would be dwarfed to mere bushes, not
extending beyond an altitude of one hundred feet, or be
unable to flourish at all.

The clearances of these natural forests were no doubt
begun in prehistoric times, but probably the first great
clearances were made by the Romans in their attempt to
conquer the country. In 207 A.D. the Emperor Severus
employed legions of auxiliary troops in clearing the im-
penetrable forests which harboured the natives, and in
the process is stated to have lost fifty thousand men. At
a later period the Danes cut and burned large tracts.
John, Duke of Lancaster, is said to have had twenty-four
thousand axemen employed at clearances. King Robert
the Bruce is credited with having destroyed certain forests
in the neighbourhood of Inveraray. General Monk ordered
clearances to be made ' that so they (the forests) may not
be longer a harbour or shelter for loose, idle, and desperate
fellows.' In the early days of the industrial era, before
it was known that iron could be smelted wnth coal,
much needless destruction was wrought by the custom of
bringing the ore to forest regions for smelting, destroying
the wood for miles around, and then moving on to another
district where wood was to be obtained. Traces of this
devastation may be seen at many places in the Highlands
of Scotland and in the La.ke District of England. The
wind also would undoubtedly aid in the general destruction.
The final result is to be seen in the present treeless wastes
that meet the eye everywhere we turn.

The late Dr Smith, of Inveraray, has left it on record
that, in the beginning of the nineteenth century, a splendid

OUR LOST FORESTS. 13

crop of young seedlings sprang up almost yearly in the
pine forest at the head of Glen Orchy. But, instead of
these being protected, the inhabitants herded their cattle
among them, with the result that they were regularly
destroyed. Then the great increase of sheep through the
Highlands and the practice of allowing them free access
to the remaining natural woods still further prevented
Nature's remedial measures from having 'effect; and the
inordinate increase of rabbits during the latter part of
the past century made natural regeneration an absolute
impossibility. Natural decay unquestionably had a part
in this process, but only to a limited degree. When the
ordinary laws of Nature were thrown out of gear, and
her recuperative efforts rendered useless, natural decay
was bound to set in.

Doubtless our abundant supply of coal for fuel, and the
easy importation of high -class timber, have adversely
affected the protection of our forests; but our national
lack of appreciation of forests and trees is probably due,
in large measure, to our insular position. The sea to a
very great extent shapes the thoughts, the ideas, and the
characters of the inhabitants of our islands. With peoples
brought up in Continental countries, to whom the sea is
a name, an unknown feature, and a place the imagination
looks upon with more or less dread, the forests as a
formative influence correspond very closely to what the
sea is with us. Forest life and scenery have inspired most
of the poetry, legend, and music of east and central
Europe. This is particularly the case in Germany. The
inhabitants of that country arc traditionally the poorest
sailors and the best foresters in Europe. Their Govern-
ments have encouraged the forest tendency. But they
have also, for their own ends, overcome, so to speak, the
national inertia in maritime matters, and have within
living memory built up a naval and mercantile fleet of
no mean dimensions. How was this accomplished ? The

14 OUR DEPENDENCE ON FORESTS.

Government made up their mind tliat it was to be done ;
they educated the people up to the idea of doing it, and
so they got it done. What is there, then, to hinder us in
this country from accomplishing something of the same
nature, but in the opposite direction ? Are we prepared
to admit that the Germans can accomplish more than we
can ? Possessing the finest timber-raising climate in
Europe, are we to accept as an eternally fixed necessity
our present position of having the smallest forest area in
Europe, and no forest system at all ?

CHAPTER III.

OUR DEPENDENCE ON FORESTS.

THERE is scarcely a sphere or occupation in life in which
wood does not play an important part. Look round the
house and think what it would be if all that is derived
from the forest were removed — practically devoid of
furniture, floorless, and roofless. The worker in metals
without the use of wood would be as helpless as the
carpenter whose whole work is with timber; the miner,
tradespeople, the lawyer, clerk, and warehouseman would
be in a similar position. Without wood, tramway-cars and
railway - carriages would be intolerably uncomfortable,
books and newspapers would be high-priced luxuries,
and games like cricket, golf, and hockey would have to be
given up. Then there are the military needs : timber for
soldiers' huts, for the trenches, for temporary railways,
for dug-outs, for rifle-stocks; charcoal for trench fires;
and distilled products of wood for munitions.

Our dependence on forests is no less evident when
we consider their effect on the atmosphere. Every child
knows that the atmosphere we breathe is composed mainly

OUR DEPENDENCE ON FORESTS. 15

of a mixture of the gases oxygen and nitrogen. The
former is that on which all animals, including man, and
indeed all living organisms, are dependent for breathing;
so far as that function is concerned, the latter is useful
only as a diluent. Of the other components in the
atmosphere, one of the chief is carbonic acid gas (C02).
This gas is. produced mainly by combustion and by the
breathing of all living organisms. By both of these
processes a large amount of oxygen is used, is combined
with carbon, and returned to the atmosphere as CO2. If
this process went on without another of a counteracting
nature, the inevitable result would be that atmospheric
oxygen would gradually diminish, with a corresponding
increase of COL>, which ultimately would produce a
condition in which life would be impossible. Indeed, some
scientists have asserted that with our present extravagant
method of the use of nature's products, we are actually
hastening on to such a state. Others declare that science
will intervene by inventing some means of liberating
oxygen from oxides abundant in the earth, and thus
maintain a sufficient supply for all purposes. But nature
has a use for C02 in the atmosphere, and also a means of
removing it, and if a proper balance can be maintained by
natural means there will be no occasion for science to make
up the deficiency of oxygen by artificial means. All green
plants in the presence of sunlight use up CO2 from the
atmosphere. The green leaves of plants take in this gas,
utilise the carbon, and return to the air part of the oxygen.
Of all plants, trees provide the greatest leaf-surface on a
given area of the earth. It follows that if a balance is to
be maintained in the atmosphere, a proper proportion
of every country should be devoted to forests. Further,
trees can be successfully raised on land which will not
produce other useful crops ; and if such land is devoid of
plants, excepting a scanty covering- of heaths, useless
grasses, and mosses with the most meagre leaf -surf ace,

16 FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURE.

there is a certain and very considerable loss in the natural
process of maintaining the atmosphere in proper condition,
The climatic influence of a greatly increased area of
woodlands is also well worthy of consideration. The
benefits to be derived by agriculturists from the shelter of
woods are by no means negligible. Sir Walter Scott, in a
review of a book on forestry, remarked : ' Indeed, it has
always seemed to us not the least important branch of this
great national subject that the increase and the proper
management of our forests cannot but be attended with
the most beneficial effects on the population of the country,
Where there lies stretched a wide tract of land, affording
scanty food for unsheltered flocks, the country will soon,
under a judicious system, show the scene most 'delightful
to the eye. ... In numerous places we are surprised to
see the marks of the furrows upon plains, upon bleak hill-
sides, and in wild moorland. We are not to suppose that
in the infancy of agriculture our ancestors were able to
raise crops of corn where we only see heath and fern.
But in the former times, and while the hills retained their
natural clothing of wood, such spots were sheltered by the
adjacent trees, and were thus rendered capable of producing
crops. There can be no doubt that, the protection being
restored, the power of production would again return.'

CHAPTER IV.

FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURE.

THERE seems to be a suspicion in some quarters that
forestry operations are prejudicial to the interests of
agriculture. A careful study of the needs of both in-
dustries will rid the mind of any such fallacy. Forestry
and agriculture are allies, not enemies, and eacli stands to

FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURE. 17

gain much from the other. This has been sufficiently
proved in certain of the more barren districts of Germany,
where forestry has kept in a healthy state agricultural
communities that otherwise would have dwindled away
and disappeared. It must be borne in mind that all land
suitable for cultivation, excepting such small areas as are
required for nursery purposes, will be excluded from plant-
ing in any well-considered planting scheme. Such land
will be used for agricultural purposes in the most economi-
cally advantageous manner for the benefit of the com-
munity, without in any way prejudicing the operations of
either agriculture or forestry. A few suggestions are
offered as to how this may best be done.

With regard to grazing-land, a good deal of it must
necessarily be taken up by planting. It is questionable,
however, whether the loss in grazing will be in direct ratio
to the amount of land taken up. An undoubted benefit
will be derived by agriculturists from the shelter provided
by forests for stock on wind-swept hillsides and moors;
and those who know the value of this will admit that
it will very largely compensate for the reduction in
grazing area.

In many districts of Scotland where an afforestation
scheme may be profitably . embarked upon, there will be
found included in rough hill or moorland pastures not only
a small percentage of more or less useful arable land in the
valleys and on the lower slopes, but also large stretches
of grazing-land which from altitude or other reasons will
be quite unsuited to tree-growth. The problem is to
utilise these areas to the best advantage. If judiciously
dealt with, a great part of them should prove to be of no
little agricultural and grazing value. These lands cannot
be left out of consideration in drawing up a scheme of
afforestation.

The question of utilising the more or less arable land of
the valleys and lower slopes for crofters and small -holders,

AF.

18 FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURE.

presents no difficulty. With regard to the large tracts of
inferior land, there are alternative methods of reaping some
benefit from them. The question of their utilisation for
sport will be dealt with in a subsequent chapter. What
we have to consider meantime is how they may best
be treated as an agricultural subject in conjunction with
forestry.

While small-holdings along with forestry may be estab-
lished on a sound and lasting basis, scope will be found
through these latter classes of lands to fit in with small-
holdings a class of farms of considerable or even large

e

area.

In face of recent legislation, it is somewhat difficult to
state precisely what is a small-holding and what a farm.
All holdings with rents of £50 or under may be included
within the Small-Holders Act, yet it is possible to rent in
the Scottish Highlands as much as two thousand acres at
a rental of £50. It requires some straining of terms to
class such an acreage as a small-holding. What we have
first to do, then, is to arrive at an understanding of what —
in connection with forestry — constitutes a small-holding.
When this has been done, other agricultural holdings may
be treated as farms.

Small-holdings may be divided into two classes. The
first includes places where one to three cows and their
young may be kept summer and winter, with sufficient
arable land to raise crops for the holder, his family, and
stock. The holder will cultivate his holding in spare
evenings and afternoons, with a few whole working-days
in spring and autumn. Subject to these conditions, he
will have permanent employment at a steady wage from
forestry work. This class of holding will serve the
interests of forestry by providing a means of sustenance
for the forest worker; it will fulfil the wants of the
agriculturist by utilising advantageously any small patches
of good land that occur in the area of planting operations.

FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURE. 19

Forest areas, however, may also include good land of
sufficient extent to justify a second class of larger holdings,
where more stock may be kept and more cropping done,
but still not large enough to enable the holders to make a
decent living or to occupy their time fully. The holders
of these larger holdings will also be useful in the forestry
operations, and thus augment their livings in their spare
time. These larger holdings will, of course, not be so
numerous as the former class.

Then there is the land already referred to as unsuitable
for either afforestation or cultivation, but for which some
profitable use must be found. As such land is not adapt-
able to small-holdings, it will be necessary, in preparing a
planting plan, to sacrifice considerable stretches of good
plantable land adjacent to farm-houses, and connecting
with the higher and rougher ground which has been
excluded from the proposed forest area. By this means
the grazing value of large tracts will be maintained, and
in course of time, through the shelter provided by the
forest, the sacrifice of timber-producing land will be amply
compensated for by the greatly enhanced value of the
poor land.

Further, the grading of holdings and farms as outlined
will provide facilities for aspiring agriculturists to rise by
progressive stages from small-holders to renters of large
farms; while those inclined to make a profession of
forestry will have scope for their advancement as the
work of afforestation increases.

The housing question will present a serious difficulty in
many localities. Existing farm-houses will be available
for the largest farms, but to take advantage of all avail-
able land much building will be necessary. In many rural
districts the cost of erecting houses is extremely high;
and it will be a serious handicap to any scheme of affores-
tation if it has to bear the whole cost of extra building.
Since the joint operations of forestry and agriculture are

20 THE GAME QUESTION.

demonstrably for the general good of the nation, it would
appear to be somewhat unfair to expect the timber-
growing side of the project to bear the whole expense of
housing. This is clearly a case in which a special annual
grant should be made. As agriculture would benefit as
well as forestry (for their interests, in Highland areas,
would be quite inseparable), such a grant would be
profitable economy. For it would mean that within the
forest area housing for all classes of holders would be
provided at about half the cost that a dual scheme would
entail; and, as has been shown, it is only by the joint
use of the ground by forestry and agriculture that great
stretches of the Highlands (and of the southern uplands)
can be made a real source of national strength.

CHAPTER V.

/

THE GAME QUESTION.

THE question of dealing with game may prove to be one
of the most troublesome problems to be encountered in the
advancement of forestry. The protection and encourage-
ment of certain game birds and animals has developed a
sport which now occupies a position altogether dispropor-
tionate to its utilit}'. From the point of view of forestry
it has become a positive evil. No good is to be gained by
detailing the damage that has been done by game during
the last half-century through the excessive importance
that has been attached to it. Suffice it to say that game
has been responsible for a great amount of unskilful (and
therefore unremunerative) management of woods. In too
many cases woods have been reared to produce good game-
coverts rather than good timber. The interests of forestry
do riot demand the total abolition of sport or the wholesale

THE GAME QUESTION. 21

destruction of game ; but the interests of sport and game,
in so far as they clash with the national interests of
forestry, must be relegated to their fit and proper place.

Different classes of game in the forest area will require
different methods of treatment. Rabbits are the greatest
enemy to plants, although they may not always be the
most difficult pest to deal with. They must be extermi-
nated wherever there are young plants, if the young plants
are to have a reasonable chance of success. Nor would
this be without advantage in other respects, because in
many parts of the rough grazings throughout the country
the best land is so overrun by rabbits that farm stock
cannot live on it. If owners of lands adjoining newly
formed plantations will keep a stock of rabbits, power
must be obtained to compel them to confine the rabbits to
their own land. It is unfair that a proprietor, whether a
private individual or a public body, should clear ground
of these pests for the cultivation of timber for the benefit
of the country, and also be expected to fence out his
neighbour's stock of rabbits.

Black-game may be placed as a good second to rabbits.
The recommendation in the report on the proposed planting
scheme for Glen Mor, ' that they must be reduced from
their status of game to that of vermin/ will require to be
legally enacted to enable forestry to be established satis-
factorily. Black -game will be more difficult to deal with
in some respects than rabbits. The latter may be fenced
out ; the former cannot. To save the plants in a compara-
tively small area it may be necessary not only to ex-
terminate these birds in the neighbourhood of young
plantations, but also to have them reduced to an absolute
minimum over a very wide district.

Capercailzie, where numerous, may require similar treat-
ment to black-game, but this bird has a less evil reputation
for causing damage to young plants, and is neither so
plentiful nor so widespread.

22 THE GAME QUESTION.

Hares, brown and blue, although less likely than
rabbits to be a serious menace, may also be very injurious
to young plants if not kept down to reasonable numbers.
This can be more easily done than in the case of any of
the previously named pests, and drastic treatment should
be required only on rare occasions.

Grouse, stated by some to be addicted, like black-game,
to picking the buds of young plants, although to a lesser
degree, may safely be given reasonable scope as a game-
bird for sport. They are comparatively harmless, because
they frequent mainly land which to a large extent will be
only partially useful for timber production, but which as
grouse-moors may bring in substantial rents.*

Other game-birds, so far as experience shows, are not
in themselves prejudicial to the interests of forestry.

Deer have been placed last on the list of the young
plants' enemies, not because they are by any means the
least harmful, but because they form a class by themselves,
and are not usually classed as game. They may be more
correctly designated beasts of the mountains in the case
of red deer, and of low ground and plains in the case of
roe deer. Fallow deer may be left out of consideration in
Scotland. Roe deer may cause great damage to young
plantations, and will necessarily have to be allowed only
in very limited numbers, if at all, in the neighbourhood of
the afforestation area during the initial stages. Red deer,
being more numerous, are likely to demand stringent
measures, and their proclivities for damaging agricultural
crops will require consideration. Red deer, like grouse,
may, however, prove to be a useful adjunct in many dis-
tricts of the Highlands where the greater portion of the
land which is their chief haunts will be outside the plant-

* This is submitted as an alternative use to which the poor upland
excluded from the planting area may be put. The question of using
such land for grazing has been treated in a previous chapter. Sport and
grazing may also be combined

SOME PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 23

ing area. The question will arise as to whether the cost
of fencing them into their own preserves can be justified
through the increased revenue to be derived from sporting
rents.* Where they are not likely to be of some financial
value, they must be ruthlessly dealt with in the neighbour-
hood of the afforestation area. Circumstances may also
arise where a contemplated afforestation scheme may abut
on a property on which deer are numerous. In such cir-
cumstances the only workable plan will be to require the
owner of the deer to keep them on his own land, the cost
of fencing to be borne jointly, or to have them treated in
such a manner as will render them harmless to the adjoin-
ing plantations.

Finally, it will be necessary, in reference to all classes of
game that are or may be injurious to young plantations,
or that do, or may, hinder the successful prosecution of
forestry, to establish forest laws to operate in the neigh-
bourhood of forest areas, forbidding the keeping of an
undue stock of certain species of game, the forest
authority being empowered to give notice to the re-
sponsible party to reduce any particular class of game
to requirements within a specified time. Such a law would
have to be enforced by the entailment of severe penalties
on those who failed to comply with its provisions.

CHAPTER VI

SOME PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS.

IT is proposed in this chapter to consider briefly various
problems which are bound to arise in connection with the
inauguration of any scheme of afforestation — questions as
to where planting operations should commence, of altitude,
shelter, and aspect, and soil quality. The suggestions

* See note on previous page.

24 SOME PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS.

offered are based upon personal observations made during
the writer's practical experience of these problems over a
period of twenty years, and although they are submitted
in separate form, it must be borne in mind that, except in
the case of the first mentioned, these questions are inter-
dependent, and must be considered as such to arrive at a
decision in any particular case.

Firstly — Where should planting operations be com-
menced ? A ready answer would be : Start wherever suit-
able ground is available. But several things besides the
mere establishment of forest areas must be regarded, and
the most important consideration is how the timber, when
produced, can be taken to the market. Next in point of
importance is the consideration of existing facilities for
carrying out the initial work expeditiously and economic-
ally. Not the least of these is the presence on or near
the area of a nucleus of labour available for the initial
work. Next we come to the question — What road and
railway or shipping facilities exist ? And the existence of
these, and the use that can be made of them, determine
whether this or that place is the more suitable. Hence,
to sum up, begin on the most suitable ground that is most
convenient or accessible to the consumer, has at least a
nucleus of labour available, and has a good system of roads
for the carrying out of the planting. Inconvenient and
inaccessible districts should be the last places to be planted)
in the hope that by the time they are approached facilities
may then be improved, and that when the timber has
reached marketable age the markets may be more readily
accessible, or may even have come nearer by reason of new
industries having sprung up in the wake of the earlier
created forests.

The altitude to which planting may safely be extended
is a question to which no definite answer can be given.
In a general way, other conditions being equal, the altitude
will increase as we approach the equator or recede from

SOME PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 25

the seaboard. But latitude or distance from the sea does
not wholly determine the altitude at which trees may be
grown. For example, trees are grown successfully to
greater altitudes in middle and eastern Inverness-shire
than in the south-western counties of Scotland, showing
that other influences must be taken into account. In the
treatment of new ground it will be a wiser and more
profitable policy to keep within the absolute limit of
altitude than to exceed it, and in determining what this
point is, aspect and shelter, and soil quality, frequently
have a greater influence than latitude or distance from
the sea.

The effect of aspect and shelter has an important bearing
on the ultimate success of tree-growth. This is especially
so in proximity to the seaboard. In all cases their effect
is determined by the proximity or absence of land that is
considerably higher than the planting limit. As a general
rule, slopes facing south and west — that is, facing the
prevailing winds — have a lower planting-line than those
facing north — that is, on the sheltered side of the hills.
But shelter is provided not only by higher ground to wind-
ward. Even on an exposed slope trees will grow better
and straighter, and be less liable to be blown down, and
the altitude for tree-growth will be increased, if in the
immediate background of the slope there is ground of a
considerable height above the limit of tree-growth. It
has been observed that such high ground, provided it be
in the immediate background, serves to lift the wind and
break its force upon the trees. In all cases, and particularly
in mountainous regions, the effect of shelter on the progress
and stability of trees in general, and also on the quality
of timber, must be carefully taken into account, because
the shelter afforded by the high tops may not infrequently
discount to a great extent the effect of latitude or proximity
to the seaboard.

Soil quality is, under all conditions, of primary import-

26 SOME PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS.

ance. Indeed, in many parts of the West Highlands of
Scotland it will be in practice the determining factor
when selecting ground for planting. Many areas of com-
paratively low and sheltered ground will be encountered
quite unfit for tree-growth on account of the inferior
quality of soil even after expensive preparation ; whereas
stretches of higher and more exposed ground of superior
soil quality in the same neighbourhood may safely be
planted.

These conditions are due in the main to the absence or
presence of peat. Where peat is absent, provided there
be a reasonable depth of soil, altitude, shelter, and aspect
are the determining factors of suitability for tree-growth
of one kind or another according to the nature of the soil
and of the situation. Much land, however, which will
come under treatment will, in varying degree, be composed
of peat, or be what is commonly called peaty soil. As
regards pure peat, where it is less than eighteen inches
in depth the ground will normally, with more or less
treatment, be plantable. But the underlying soil or rock
must be taken into consideration. Areas will be found
where, with only a thin covering of peat, trees will not
grow ; but such exceptions are due in a greater degree
to the nature of the soil beneath the peat than would on
first sight be apparent. For the quality of the peat is
greatly influenced by the degree of imperviousness to
water of the soil on which it rests. Indeed, fairly steep
slopes will frequently be encountered with only six to twelve
inches of peat of very poor quality overlying boulder-
clay or some such retentive soil ; such slopes, although
having no appearance of undue moisture, are quite unfit
for tree-growth until thoroughly drained, and even then
are frequently inferior to peat several feet deep. The
same effect is not infrequently produced even with a non-
retentive soil, where a soil-pan has formed under the peat.
Until this pan is broken the area will be quite unplantable.

SOME PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. 27

Again, in many places there will be found, overlying the
solid rock, stretches of pure, or almost pure, peat. Generally
these are of no value for planting ; but in this case also
the quality of the peat depends upon the nature of the
rock. Where the rock is of a hard close-grained nature
the peat is of the poorer quality, and the softer and more
easily decomposed the rock is, the peat is correspondingly
the better. On slopes where rocks of a softer nature are
partly exposed, the peat becomes mixed with a certain
amount of mineral substances from the rock, and such
slopes are not infrequently quite good planting subjects.
Indeed, it would appear that the value of the peat for
planting purposes is governed in most cases by the nature
of the underlying soil or rock more than by its actual
depth.

On flat bogs where the soil or rock is out of reach, the
draining necessary to render the land plantable can, as a
rule, only be undertaken at a prohibitive cost; but even
on deep peat there will be found some areas which are
quite worth draining. These places can best be judged by
the nature of the surface growth. Again, peat on a high
flat, with slopes of good soil leading from it, frequently
renders parts of these slopes more or less useless through
the drainage from the higher bog running over or per-
colating through the soil, which will often be found to be
quite acid. This effect can only be counteracted by good
drainage along the margin of the peat, and by carrying
down the water collected in well-defined channels. Ex-
perience has proved that the value of all soils, including
peat-bogs, may be most readily and correctly estimated by
u careful study of the natural herbage. In the succeeding
pages some notes on that phase of the subject gained from
observation will be offered.

28 NATURAL HERBAGE AS A GUIDE.

CHAPTER VII.

NATURAL HERBAGE AS A GUIDE.

THE most useful and convenient guide for the classification
of new areas is to be obtained by careful observation and
discrimination of the nature and quality of the natural
herbage. This may be more or less uniform, or it may be
very varied in quality or species or in both, ranging from
scrub-wood of various descriptions down to the poorest
grasses, mosses, and kindred plants. In many districts
which will come under consideration the variation may
range between the two extremes, even within comparatively
small areas ; whereas in other places there may be large
areas with comparatively little variety. Subjects of the
former nature will obviously be more difficult to deal with,
and even in a preliminary survey careful discrimination and
examination of the whole area will be necessary to decide
wThat is suitable land and what is unsuitable for forestry
purposes. This phase of the subject has proved a most
engrossing and interesting study, and at times is - even a
puzzling problem. It is hoped that the hints and opinions
Submitted, which are derived from careful observation
during eight or nine years, may be of some guidance to
those who may be engaged in the carrying out of afforesta-
tion schemes on new land, in enabling them more easily
to discriminate between the different qualities of ground
•according, as it were, to their face value. It should be
stated that the remarks are based chiefly on experience
gained in the moist West of Scotland climate, although it
is hoped they may be useful for guidance in any district.
Certain modifications may be necessary in different dis-
tricts, and more especially on different soils.

It is not possible in a short treatise to deal with all
-classes of herbage that may be encountered. But a

NATURAL HERBAGE AS A GUIDE. 29

reference to those which experience has proved to be
important, as good guides, may be" of practical use.

There are several plants which can be classified as
indicating a quality of soil entirely or partially inimical
to tree-growth. Some of these may compose a pure crop
covering small or large areas, or they may be found
along with plants of similar nature or with those of better
quality ; while others are only encountered in patches
scattered over ground chiefly occupied by different plants.
Deer's-hair (Scirpus ccespitosus) is found frequently almost
pure over areas of all dimensions ; and no such area
should be planted. It is certainly more plentiful on higher
altitudes which are outside the range of planting, but is
also met with in abundance at all altitudes. Sphagnum
also comes within this class, and is found not infrequently
along with deer's-hair, producing a mixture which is
invariably evidence of unplantable ground. But when
plentiful, even by itself, it forms a peat of the very poorest
quality. Cotton-grasses (Eriophorum vaginatum and E.
angustifolium) in abundance indicate bad planting-ground.
They are often found along with sphagnum, but not so
frequently with deer's-hair, although often in close prox-
imity. Bog asphodel (Narthecium ossifragum) is a plant
of bad omen wherever found. Fortunately it seldom covers
large areas, although frequently found scattered in small
patches over ground with other plants and inferior grasses.
Small sections of ground having a mixture of deer's-hair,
asphodel, and grasses are not infrequently to be found
scattered throughout areas of better soil quality. Heath
and ling are frequently found in company with any or all
of the before-mentioned plants. Although in themselves
not of an ominous nature, their danger has to be considered
relatively to the value of the company in which they are
found. All land with a covering of heath or ling or both
mixed with deer's-hair and asphodel is of the very poorest
quality, and should be excluded from any planting area.

30 NATURAL HERBAGE AS A GUIDE.

unless they are merely small areas in the midst of better
land. These might in such cases be utilised in a limited
way for experimental work in reclamation. Ground of
this quality and that with a pure crop of Scirpus have
already been mentioned as frequently being the means of
reducing the value of good slopes through the acid water
draining on to them, and encouraging a growth of Scirpus
on what is to it unnatural soil.

What appears to be the poorest class of land worthy of
direct treatment is that referred to previously as having a
varying depth of peat up to eighteen inches — generally
less — over boulder-clay, with a good slope — even steep in
places — and showing little indication of excessive moisture.
This ground may be recognised by the presence of a small
percentage of deer's-hair and sphagnum and occasionally
cotton-grasses along with dwarf blaeberry (Vaccinium
myrtillus), the hair-grass (Aira ccespitosa), bent-grass
(Agrostis canina), bushes of the dwarf willow (Salix
fusca), yellowish-green moss (Hypnum purum, L.), and
green moss (Polytrickum commune, L.) in tufts, and occa-
sionally the grass purple molinia (Molinia ccerulea), the two
last-named only on the best parts. . The quality of the soil
is variable, but generally may be fairly accurately valued
by the proportions of the above grasses to those of the
previously discussed injurious plants. A rough estimate
may be made by assessing the value of the ground as
being in direct proportion to the prevalence of the grasses,
and if these are less than^ three-fourths of the crop, the
ground had better be set aside for experimental work. If
there is little evidence of injurious plants among the grasses,
the ground may be considered safely plantable after drain-
ing; but if the grasses are less plentiful, and replaced by
blaeberry and heath, with much pale moss and more deer's-
hair and sphagnum, the ground is not so good, and will
require closer drainage. Should deer's-hair be in excess,
with little grass excepting Aira cwnitosa, the ground had

NATURAL HERBAGE AS A GUIDE. 31

better be classified as doubtful, and earmarked for experi-
mental work. All ground of this nature requires to be
well drained — closer or wider according to quality. It is
recommended that a few inches of the boulder-clay should
be removed from the bottom of the drains, which, except
the leaders, should be cut across the hill with as low
a gradient as possible. It is also a benefit to have the
ground drained at least a year before planting commences.
It has been observed that as a result of drainage the
grasses increase and improve in vigour, whereas the
injurious plants decrease and decline. From this it is
inferred that all land bearing this nature of herbage may
be sooner or later brought into a condition to carry a crop
of timber, although in the poorest quality of ground it is
probable that the first crop may be more preparatory than
profitable. On land of this class small groups of Carex
binervis and green moss are not uncommon, and their
presence always indicates a patch of better ground.

Purple molinia, being a very widely distributed and
important grass on moorland, deserves special mention.
As already stated, it is found along with other grasses,
but is frequently the principal or almost the only grass
over large areas. It is a peat-lover, but is seldom found
plentifully unless on peat of good or fair quality, and
rarely on deep peat unless of good quality. Careful
observation of its health and vigour gives a very good
indication of the nature and drainage requirements of the
land. On well-drained land or good moderately dry peat
it is luxuriant, and in normal seasons comes to maturity in
July or early August. If it is later in coming to full head,
or, as is often the case, does so only sparingly, the ground
will have to be improved by drainage, and the later and
more sparingly it seeds, and the less luxuriant the growth,
the more drainage will be required. It was quite remark-
able that during the season in 1917 this grass was most
vigorous, and seeded early and most profusely, all over the

32 NATURAL HERBAGE AS A GUIDE.

usually wet moors and hills, a fact which can undoubtedly
be attributed to the abnormally low rainfall from January
to July of that year.

Several plants which flourish on peat or wet peat soils
are very safe guides in making decisions as to what is
worth draining. These are rushes, both single and tufted,
the former being the more common, and bog-myrtle.
Experience has proved that, almost without exception,
where any one or all of these are abundant along with
grasses or heath or both, the ground may be profitably
planted after it is sufficiently drained. The single rush,
however, is found at times in fair quantity on flat swampy
ground of deep peat, which it may be very difficult to
drain thoroughly, and which in most cases had better be
left for experiment.

Certain plants which are always to be found on good
planting-land may be enumerated, although they are really
of more guidance, when considered along with the plants
among which they are found, for deciding what class of
tree is likely to prove most successful. They are : all good
pasture grasses, bracken and ferns, and heath on dry
land, provided it is well mixed with grasses. Ling also is
an omen of fair soil, provided it be well mixed with grass
on dry ground ; but the ground generally is poorer,
frequently very much so, and hard and shallow. Its value
as a guide may be estimated more or less accurately by
considering the nature, percentage, and vigour of the
grasses found along with it; generally, the less grass
the poorer the quality of the soil. Further, plants are
proportionately longer in becoming established and slower
in growth. This is still more marked if the ling is of
stunted growth on bare, hard land.

The best planting-ground of all is that which has been
cleared of a crop of scrub or coppice, oak, ash, birch, or
hazel, or a mixture of two or more of them; although
exceptions to this may be found where the crop has been

NOTES ON TREES. 33

a very poor one on hard, stony, shallow land over rock.
Where alder has been cleared on wet land or on edges of
water, the soil quality is equally good; but the land usually
requires drainage if it is to be stocked with conifers, and
owing to the shallow spreading roots of alder, drain-cutting
is both a tedious and an expensive operation.

CHAPTER VIII.

NOTES ON TREES.

IN the afforestation of waste-lands, unless under special
circumstances, coniferous trees will almost invariably be
the crop. It is proposed to offer some opinions and
remarks on those trees that have come under the writer's
close observation in that particular phase of forestry. The
classification of soils by herbage has been dealt with in
the previous chapter, and prominence will again be given
to the natural herbage as a guide to which tree or trees
will be most likely to give the best results on any given
situation, judging it by the soil-covering.

Pines. — Though the first tree to be considered, the moun-
tain pine is one not usually classed among timber trees, yet
in the advancement of forestry it may prove to be very
useful in the reclamation of inferior peats. It is reported
that mountain pine (Pinus montana, var. uncinata) has
been extensively used in Denmark for planting thinly on
bog-land after draining, with the object of improving the
quality of the peat, and that good results have been
obtained in rendering this soil suitable for the growth of
spruce, which was introduced when the condition of the
peat had been rendered satisfactory. This pine has been
tried on Inverliever in recent years with the same object
in view. It has not yet been long enough established to
give results, but it has been proved that it will grow on

34 NOTES ON TREES.

drained ground which will not grow spruce or any other-
timber tree that has been tried on it. It has also been
tried, with varying results, on moderately wet peat with-
out drainage. It will be of inestimable value to forestry,
for reclamation work, if this or some other tree can be
proved so to improve the quality of the poorer classes of
peat that spruces may be successfully cultivated on them.

Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) is so well known and so
accommodating that it is frequently planted in localities
and situations quite unsuited to its proper development.
It should not be extensively used in the West of Scotland.
It is much better suited for the dryer climate of the east and
inland parts of the country. In the west, however, there
will be found places with a crop of short hair-grass and
ling where it may be the most suitable tree to plant. It
generally succeeds better among ling than any other
timber tree; but it should not be planted on land that
will grow spruce, larch, or silver fir satisfactorily.

Corsican pine (Pinus Laricio) is likely to give a better
return than Scots pine, and seems to be better suited to
the climate in the west. It has been tried in recent years
on soils bearing a crop of short hair-grass and ling, but it
is not yet advanced enough to enable one to offer an
opinion as to its ultimate success. So far, it is successful,
but is slow in becoming thoroughly established, some
plants getting away, but the majority just keeping ahead
of the herbage. It does well on a better soil which may
be too poor for European larch, silver fir, or Douglas, or
too dry for spruces.

Austrian pine (Pinus Austriaca) has only been used in
a limited sense as a wind-break. It is a partial success on
ground that is growing spruce well, ground bearing a
natural crop of various grasses, which prefer a moderately
high degree of soil moisture; but it has done better on
dryer ground. All pines give best results with spring
planting.

NOTES ON TREES. 35

Spruces, — Common or Norway spruce (Picea excelsa) is
decidedly suitable for the western climate. It succeeds well
on a soil with a natural crop of pasture grasses thoroughly
mixed with tall fescue (Festuca elatior), or a few rushes, or
with any of the following plants : queen of the meadow
(Spiraea ulmaria), lady's mantle (Alchemilla vulgaris),
water avens (Geum rivale), and yellow iris (Iris pseud-
acorus). It also grows well among soft grass (Holcus
lanatus or H. mollis), and on ground that has been cleared
of alder scrub, but in some cases only after draining. It
flourishes where there is a good crop of bracken, and also
among a thin bracken-crop with grasses or a little heath
beneath, the results being better the heavier the bracken-
crop. This ground, however, may likewise be used for
other species. It also grows on soil of poorer quality,
does moderately well among purple molinia, but is less
vigorous among mat-grass (Nardus stricta), hair-grass
(Aira flexuosa), and bent-grass (Agrostis canina), and still
less so among the hair-grass, Aira ccespitosa. It is always
better where there is a bottom of green moss than where
the yellowish variety forms the bottom, and where there
is a good mixture of single rushes among the grasses it is
sure to succeed. A mixture of ling with any of these
grasses greatty impairs the results. Spruce has no aversion
to growing among bog-myrtle if the latter is not too dense
and strong, although it is said by some that its life is
short along with that plant. Almost all ground bearing
bog-myrtle requires more or less draining to grow spruce,
which in, any case is slower in getting away and less
vigorous than if grown among the better herbage.

Sitka spruce (Picea Sitkaensis) is also decidedly suit-
able for the moist West of Scotland climate. It may be
planted on any situation that will do for common spruce.
It has, however, a decided advantage over the common
spruce where there is a rank growth on the ground,
especially of rushes or iris; for it establishes itself more

36 NOTES ON TREES.

quickly, and, being of more rapid growth, frees itself from
danger in a shorter period. With Sitka spruce strong-
plants are decidedly preferable for planting out; two-year
two-year plants of moderate growth give much better
results than two-year one-year. The smaller sizes of the
former should be planted among short herbage, and the
stronger ones where the growth is more profuse. It also
succeeds better among soft grass than common spruce or
any other plant that has been tried. With these reserva-
tions there seems to be little to choose between common
and Sitka spruce in their requirements. Neither of them
does well among ling ; in fact, unless there is a good
proportion of grass among it, results are unsatisfactory.
Neither do they succeed well on hard slopes or on sandy or
gravelly banks. Where they have been tried on doubtful
ground, with a varying proportion of plants inimical to
them, results have been somewhat similar, the Sitka, if
anything, showing greater vitality.

White American spruce (Picea alba) has recently been
tried on a poor class of land with a growth of hair-grass,
purple molinia, bent-grass, and a little deer's-hair. It has
made a good start, equal to, if not better than, the other
varieties of spruce. All varieties of spruce are most suc-
cessful with late spring planting.

Silver Fir. — The common silver fir (Abies pectinata)
gives promise of being a most valuable tree in suitable
situations in the West of Scotland. It is exacting regard-
ing soil quality, and should only be planted where the
herbage indicates a high or at least moderate degree of
fertility, and no evidence of excessive moisture — for
example, tall fesca, rushes, spiraea, or iris. It succeeds
well among bracken, but requires attention for several
years if the bracken- crop is dense; where the latter is
thin, with an undergrowth of good grasses, the firs require
little or no attention. Frost-holes should not be planted,
however good they may be. Soils where hair-grasses are

NOTES ON TREES. 37

much in evidence are not very suitable — decidedly unsuit-
able if the grasses are thin and have a mat of the yellowish
moss as a bottoming. Unlike the spruce, silver fir does
not transplant so well in late as in early spring, and is
better planted along with larch. It is also very susceptible
to injury it' there is delay in planting after lifting.

Nobilis (Abies nobilis), raised from seed collected locally,
has been planted on Inverliever in groups for wind-breaks,
and is very successful on soils similar to those suitable for
common silver fir, and also on a good peaty soil.

Douglas fir (Pseudo-tsuga Douglasii) has come exten-
sively under observation, and in general is doing well.
In some cases where groups have been extended into
rather unfavourable ground there is a marked falling off
in the results. The conditions required for silver fir are
generally applicable. But it is much better suited than
silver fir to situations where there is a dense growth
of bracken. Indeed, no tree is so well suited to these
conditions, provided there be a fair degree of shelter.
Generally, it should be planted in spring, after March.

Thuja. — Thuja giyantea gives a wider range in choice
than Douglas fir in that it stands exposure much better,
grows at a higher altitude, and stands a higher degree of
soil-moisture ; in a good soil, indeed, it is most successful
with a degree of moisture quite unsuited to Douglas. It
has been tried in a frost-hole among purple molinia and
bog-myrtle, and is flourishing, with few deaths, at the end
of three years.

Larch. — European larch (Larix europwa) does well in
Argyllshire, and is remarkably free from canker. It
stands exposure better than Douglas, but should not be
planted on wind-swept ridges or promontories. Otherwise
its requirements are similar to those of Douglas, and, as
with silver fir, frost-holes should be avoided.

Japanese larch (Larix leptolepis) will succeed well on any
soil that will grow the common larch, and succeeds even

38 NOTES ON TREES.

with a poorer soil if need be. It is advisable to confine this
variety to the poorer qualities of larch soils, where it is less
rank in growth and gives evidence of producing a better
quality of timber. Soils with a thin crop of bracken and
poorer grasses, with a little heath or ling, suit it very well.

Both varieties love a high degree of atmospheric moisture,
but must have good drainage in soil, and in the subsoil
if the former is shallow. They should be planted in early
spring. In large schemes of afforestation care should be
taken that larch is not planted to such an extent that the
supply of it will exceed the demand.

Beech. — The sylvicultural qualities of common beech
(Fagus sylvatica) are too well known to require repetition.
In all planting schemes it should be used as an auxiliary
to the crop, if not as a timber-producer. Its soil require-
ments are very similar to those of larch and silver fir, but
it is better fitted for exposed situations than the former,
and on promontories makes a most useful wind-break along
with the latter. It may be used with great advantage to
the crop in filling up blanks in larch groups after these
have had a good start. It may also be advantageously
planted among spruces on good soils, and, with great
benefit to the crop, on patches of better ground dotted
throughout areas of poorer soil quality. The altitude to
which it may be used in this respect will have to be
decided independently for each locality. Beech may not
succeed to the same height as spruce, but where it can be
introduced its beneficial qualities demand that it should
have due consideration.

The study of natural herbage as a guide in the discrimi-
nation of land which may be profitably planted from
that which may not, and also as a guide to what class of
tree should be planted, is a phase of the science of afforesta-
tion which is yet in its infancy. What has been said, the
experience of the past ten years would appear to support ;
but one is daily ascertaining new facts and encountering

NOTES ON TREES. 39

new conditions, and although it would perhaps be over-
bold to put forth any of the results of a study over so
short a period as unchangeable facts, it is submitted that
the deductions made have so far proved themselves correct
in practical experience. We must proceed by easy stages
of development, and the sooner a national scheme of
afforestation is an actuality, the sooner shall we be able
to co-ordinate the various branches of the science, which
are still in their infancy, and to unite them firmly to a
central trunk of practical forestry, planted firmly on our
native soil.

NOTE.

THROUGHOUT this book the scheme, or schemes, which
the writer has mainly in mind are national — that is,
carried out by the State on land purchased or rented for
the purpose from the present owners. Obviously, however,
these would have to be supplemented by schemes carried
out by private owners on their estates; and for such
private schemes a State loan or subsidy, secured under
proper conditions and guarantees, would in many cases
have to be given. Municipalities and County Councils
and other public bodies, such as Wholesale Co-operative
Societies, would also be entitled to subsidies if they
required them. It is impossible to lay down rules as to
the proportion of State-owned forests ; but there are some
grounds for believing that the ideal proportions would be :
Owned and worked by the State . . 25 % ;

ii it other public bodies 40 % ;

ii n private owners . 35 %.

These proportions, however, would depend very largely on
the future course of land legislation. In any case, of
course, the rules followed in the State forests as to
management would have to be made binding on all other
owners of forests who had received loans or subsidies

APPENDIX,

SOME SIGNIFICANT FIGURES (PRE-WAR).

Annual value of timber and timber
goods imported ....

Acres under forest ....

Publicly owned forests (in acres)

Persons employed in agriculture (the
British figures include forestry;
the Germans figures do not)

Persons employed in domestic service

United Kingdom. Germany.

£40,000,000

3,000,000

120,000

£15,000,000
35,000,000
17,000,000

2,000,000* 20,000,000
2,000,000* 1

* A comparison of these figures gives special food for thought, par-
ticularly when it is remembered that the vast majority of British
domestic servants were in the south of England, and that, of the persons
employed in agriculture, 800,000 were in Ireland ; that is, England in
1913 had probably nearly half-a-million more domestic servants than
agriculturists !

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