A grammar of the German language for high schools and colleges

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From the Library of

Henry Tresawna Qerrans

Fellow of Worcester College^ Oxford

1882-1^21

Given /& JdCvk' .Q!>«^^

"ByhxTWife

H. T. f^*" '"''•^*

GRAMMAR

OP THB

German Language

roK

HIGH SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES

DESIGNED FOR BEGINNERS AND ADVANCED STUDENTS

BY

H. C. G. BRANDT

FROrBSaOK OP GBRMAN AND PRBNCH IN HAMILTON COLLBGB, CUNTON, N. V. :
POKMBRLY OP JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVBRSITV, BALTIIIOKB.

THIRD EDITION.

NEW YORK ft LONDON

G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS

S^e J^nichtibocktr ^ress

Copyright, 1884, By G. P. Putnam^s Sons,

^i-'-'-iS.

;,\ uw"»'4» 4

;^ ■

(;>-3N0V.Ki4l

•4 Of OirUWU S/

^ J

PREFACE,

rpHE author trnsts, that this work embodies the results of
philological research during the last twenty years, as far
as it concerns Gterman. Advance has certainly been made in
the study of Phonology, of Accent^ of Phonetics, and even in
Syntax. This adyance is largely due to improved methods of
investigation. Our views of language in general have changed,
certainly our views of the living languages, the study of which
it would seem, is gradually being looked upon as a science and
as worthy of serious pursuit

From the works of Osthoff, Sievers, Paul, Kluge, Braune,
and Sweet I have appropriated most of the new results and
methods, which are accepted and popularized only too slowly.
I have added a list of the books which have been of special
help to me and which I consider absolutely necessary for a
thorough study of German. Perhaps I should also have
mentioned for Syntax: The fourth volume of Gfrimm^a large
grammar ; Vemaleken^a deulsche Syntax, and the Syntax in
Biotas and Kraus^B grammars.

Because the grammar contains no exercises, and because
the illustrative sentences taken from the classics are not^ as a
rule, translated, it should not be inferred that it is intended
only for advanced students of German. On account of the

IV PBEFACE.

Btrict sepaxation of Accidence and Syntax, it is hoped that
the grammar can be used in the beginning classes of prepara-
tory schools.

The grammar was first announced as being prepared by
Professor J. M. Hart, of the University of Cincinnati, and
myself, but unfortunately for myself Prof. Hart's interest and
labors became centred more and more in English work and
he found himself obliged to withdraw from the undertaking
at an early date. I have nevertheless not been deprived of
his valuable counsel and suggestions, for which I herewith
express my thanks.

I am moreover specially indebted to my colleague Professor
G. P. Bristol, who has most faithfully read proof with me, has
tried to Anglicize my unidiomatic English and has so fre-
quently suggested changes and additions which were always
improvements.

Hamilton College, CUnton, JIT. F., Augtut, 1884.

LIST OF WORKS

USED OR REFERRED TO AS AUTHORITIES.

1. Paul and Braun^s Beitrdge zur Oeschickte der deulachen

Sprache und LUeratur. (YoL IX. is just complete.)
Niemeyer. Halle.

2. Sammlung kurzer Grammatiken germanischer Diakkte.

Niemeyer. Halle.

a. Gotiache Gram, von Braune. 2. aofl.

b. Ags. Gram, von Sievers. 2. aufl. (An American

edition by Cook is promisecL)

c. MUtdhochd. Gram, von Paiul. 2. anfl.

(With a syntax.)

d. AUnordische Oram, von Noreeru

3. PauPs Principien der Sprachgeschichte. Niemeyer. Halle.

4. Klug^s Mymol. Worterbuch der deiUschen Sprache. Trub-

ner. Strassbnrg.

5. Sweefa Handbook of Phonetics. Macmillan. London.

6. Sanders* Worterbuch der Bduptschtmerigkeiien in der

devischen Sprache. Langenscheidt. Berlin.

(A large and a small edition. The large one has now a yalna-
ble index.)

7. OrimnCs devJtsches Worterbuch. Hirzel. Leipzig.

Out as far as " NothwendigJceit,** with breaks sub G. and M.

TABLE OF OONTENTa

PAET L SECTION 1.

PAea

ACCIDENCE 1-47

PBONXmCIATION WITH AlFHABBTS 1-^

Tmo Abtiglbs 6-7

Declension of Nouns 7-17

Declension and Compabison of the ADjEcnYB 17-21

NUMEBALB 21-28

Pbonoxtns. 23-dO

Conjugation 80-47

Weak Verbs. 85-87

StioDg Verbs 87-48

Anomalous Verbs 44-47

PART n. SECTION 2.

SYNTAX.

SPECIAL SYNTAX 61-180

Abticles 51-65

Nouns 56-74

Gender. 56-62

Singular and Plural 62-64

Cases 64-74

Adjectives 74-80

numebals 80-82

Pbonouns 82-96

Personal Pronouns 82-65

Beflexive and Redproeal Pronouns 86

TIU TABLE 07 OOKTEKTS.

PAGX

Possessive ProDoans 8&-88

Demonstrative Pronouns 88-91

Interrogative Pronouns 91-88

Relative Pronouns 93-95

Indefinite Pronouns 95-96

Verbs 97-118

Classification of Verbs 97

Auxiliary Verbs 97-99

Modal Auxiliaries 99-108

Voice 102-104

Tenses 104-110

Moods 110-112

In fi niti ve 1 13-1 16

Participles. 116-118

Gerundive 118

Adyebb 119

Preposition 119-180

Conjunction 130

GENERAL SYNTAX. 131-152

The Simple Sentence. 181-135

The Compound Sentence. 185-147

Coordinate Sentences 185-187

Subordinate Sentences 187-147

Substantive Clauses 137-188

Adjective Clauses 139

Adverbial Oauses 140-147

Word-order 147-154

PAET IL ADVANCED GEAMMAR

SECTION 1.

A Phonology 157-193

Historical Notes on the Orthography 157-160

Analysis and Description of German Sounds 160-176

Ablaut. Umlaut 176-182

Grimm's Law, Vomer's Law 182-189

Accent 189-198

TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX

PAoa

B. Historical Commbntabt itfor the Accidence 194-216

Noon-Declension 194-198

Adjective-Declension 196-199

Pionoans. 200-206

Goigugation 206-216

C. History of the Language 217-260

Characteristics of the Germanic Languages 217

Classification of the Germanic Languages 218

Classification of the German Dialects 219-221

History of "German" 221-228

The German Wordstock 228-280

D. WOBDFOBMATION 281-264

Derivation and ComixMsition of Suhstantives 282-245

Derivation and Composition of Acy ecti ves and Numerals. . 245-251

Derivation and Composition of Verbs 252-261

Derivation of Adverbs, Conjunctions, and Inteijecdons. • 261-264

IiIBT OF ABBREVIATIONB AND StMBOLS THAT BeQITIBB EX-
planations 265

Subject-Index 266-270

WOBD-lNDBX 271-278

FIRST PART.

FIRST SECTION.

ACCIDENCE.

, ^ THE GERMAN
1—2.

Ctonnantype. Gemum script Kime. Gennantjpe.

Gemiaa script. Mime.

^;^j^

81 ^ ^

(S c

5D b

@ e

^ f

® 9

^^

3f t

•h

Uy

<^'

jot
kah
€ I ^^ el

em

9i tt ^^^

O

^^

// ah-umlaut
"* (h)ai(r>

oh-amlaut

Ue it ii^ '^•^ ^ ocumlaut

2lU

^^

t^ „ o' au-umlaut
(=oi)

X

^

en
oh

koo
air

®f«g "Sy^yS

% t

3E j:

3 J

tay

(t)oo

fona)

▼ay

ix

ipsilon

tset

tsay-hah
tsaj-kah

es-tsay-hak
(=Bh)

PROifUNCIATIOlsr. [a-

PRONUNCIATION.

The Gennan sounds are here only very inaccnrately represented by
English words and letters. A full analysis is found in the second part,
p. 160. The following description, with a few key-words, will suffice for
the beginner ; but it is meant to be only a popular description. As soon
as the student begins to read, be ought to study Part IL, p. 16(X-174

3. a as in Eng./a/^er: SSater, 2lal, Sa% i, not in Eng.,
bat similar to Scotch a as in Sc hand, land: 3Rann, iat(ti,

4. h = Eng. b, but surd ( =jp) at tho end of words: Sttbe,

ipaube, DleJ, ianb.

5. c, if = Eng. k : daxl, Sadfe, SScfer*

6. |l§, not in Eng., but in Scotch as in loch. A single guttural
sound. Two kinds : 1. Palatal (forward) after palatal yowels,
after e, i, 5, it, &, ti, m, and in the suffix g^iitn, e. g., iii, SBa^ter,
^Uij, mWt, tnii, ©erud^t, toeid^, 9R&Dd^en, "SRamaiim. 2. Back-
guttural after the other vowels, a, 0, u, an, e. g., aij, ^aif, ioij,
S3u4, ^anij (betrog in N. G.). In S^arfrel'tag and in foreign
words = k: fe^ara'fter, S^or; also like fd^ in foreign words:
fi^mpa'gner, d^angle'ren, S^nce*

7. b = Eng. d, but surd (= t) finally: bu, toil, Sat>, lub*

8. t, long, similar to Eng. a, ay, as in pay, pate, rate ; short,
like Eng. g, as in met, h fle^n, Seet, toert; e: xtd^t, SBette*

9. f = Eng./: l^offen, $afcn, fu^ren, glagge,

10. g = Eng. g, but surd {=Ic) finally: fllauben, J>lagen,
graben; but lag, 3ug, fragte, trug, Salg.

11. I = Eng. A if it stands initially : ^mt't, ^ofe, $afe«
After a vowel and after a t it is silent : fie^n, ^ti){t)n, ^af), t^un,
Stat, Z^al See the dropping of ^, p. 159.

12. t similar to Eng. i : Wn, fintie, Bringe.

t or ic = Eng. ee in fear: »ier, pegen, jnir, tir, 3gd, Stter.

24] PBONUKCIATIOK. 8

13. { edmilar to Eng. y : lung, iagen, 3agb.

14. i,it = Eng. k : Aa^e, ^ait, ^aten.

15. I similar to Eng. 1 : 2age, lac^en, too^I, ®aal, (alb*

16. m = Eng. m : iDloIc^, Saunt; fc^toimmen.

17. n = Eng. n. 1. Initially, finally, and before a den-
tal: 9laget^ nun, fein. fenten, gant, Sunb. 2. In the stemnsyllable
before (, and combined with g like Eng. ng in sing, singer:
Slnfang, ©finger, ginger, Sanf, fenfen, Minfen; but an^rge^pfommen,
un^gel)euer.

18. Q = Eng. o, oa^ in hold, foal : Sote, SSoot, tot, rot, Sood,
lod, £^on (day), o not in Eng., but short Sc. o ; e. g. : SBod^e,
ioii, @to(f, 9lo(f (not at all like Eng. aiock, rock, but see p. 164).

19. p = like Eng. p : )>Iagen, Aappe, Srapper, ©alo'pp.

p\ = p +f: 9)funb, 9lapf, Sumpfr tapfer. In Eng. only in
accidental juxtaposition, e, g., '^ a cap for him,'' ^' stop for me."

^1 in foreign words only =/: 3)l)lIoIogie', Selegra'p^.

20. q always followed by u, similar to Eng. qu: quer,
Dua|l, Duart, (equem.

21. r unlike Eng. r. 1. Trilled: SRegen, SRa^e, fern, gurt,
treu. This is the standard r. 2. Uvular or guttural in K G^
very much like the guttural ^, but sonant.

22. f, ff, I, g = Eng. surd 8; ipau«, 9Jlaufe, SSJaffer, giuj,
9)?u§e, fein ; but initially and after a vowel it begins surd and
ends sonant, as in N. and M. G. Standard unsettled. But
see p. 175.

23. fd^ = Eng. sh (surd) : fd^iden, fd^enfen, l^afd^en, @d^(ange.

24. fl, \p = f^i, f$^ initially in the standard pronuncia-
tion and in S. and M. G. But in the middle and at the end
of words, in N. G. also at the beginning of words = Eng. st,
9p ; f(!^t, fdjp : Stein, Strafe, ©tu^I, ®pa§, fpriegen \ st, ^: ^ajt,
»ii[tc, berjten, SBnrjt, SBefpe, ^afpeln. N. G.: ©pief, ©tod.

4 TROIXVIXCIATIOIX. [26-

25. i, if) = Eng. / ; ^|at, l^atte, SK 9lal^t.

2& it = Eng. 00 in ^ ; $ut, SBut, Sbtme, Sud^, Stt^Ie«
it = Eng. u in pit/ : Sutter, flu^n, ©ulten*

27. Ii = Eng./ in German words: Sotet, grctoel, toleL li =
German to in foreign words: Sifa'r, ^Intijie'ren, Safa'nj,

2& to like Eng. v dento-labial : SBetter, SBaffer, toamen.
After fij^ labio-labial like u affcer q^ bat not quite like Eng. w :
@d^me{ler, @d}mei§, (Sd^meUe. But see p. 170.

29. I in foreign words and |I§|, il§f = Eng. x : SUejrattter,

SBaAd, gud^d, Suc!6fln, feci^^.

t| = ii, which see.

30. J, ^ = Eng. fe, as in cols, vols : ^nnst, ^tu^, SBaqe,

C in foreign words before e, i, 9, a = te : cerebral, fiafu'r, (Jila'te,
&9K0')); bat the spelling is unsettled: 3^9^'^^^ 3^^^^/ Stn\u'x.

31. Modified Vowels (TTmlants).

a long = Eng. ai in fair: Sater, SRSber, flSl^Iem.

a short = Eng. and Oter. i : ip&nte, SB&nte, f&Qen.

B not in Eng. It has the lip-position of n, the tongae-
position of e: long in bofe, I5fen, ^ergdge ; short in ^iUtx,2iilt,
OerbOe.

tt not in Eng. It has the lip-position of u, the tongae-
position of i: long in ^u^t, Sucker, Aitci^Ieln; short in ^uOer,
©finbe, Suttel.

t| = it, as in (i^a'n, (l9)>re'{fe, only in foreign words.

32. Diphthongs.

ai (rare) and ri = Eng. i in find : Aaifer, 9tai, leife, toti^,
Ueiben. m = Eng. ou in house: ilan, ^au€, 9Rattd*

Sit and eit similar to Eng. ot in exploit : SR&ufe, I&itten, S3eute,
l^eute*

37] PBOKXTKCIATIOK. 5

Quantity of Vowels.

33. Vowels are long in an open syUablOy e. g^ Sagged,
jo^gen, 9iUd)er«. They are also indicated: 1. By doubling, bat
only in the case of a, e, oi @aal, @eele, iDlood. 2. By t) after
the Yowel and after t : ^ol^n, D^m, i^n, Sl)ran, Z^or. 3. By e
after i: litb, Htx, 'oith 4. a and e are generally long before
r^ rt, xt t root, tax, feet, »ert, rotxim, gart, 9?fert* Short in fertig
« ga^rt), ©arte, ©c^arte, ^era, ©d^meq*

34. The vowels are short before more than one consonant:

85* i counts as a single consonant ; it becomes |f medially (see
** Rules," § 12), e. g., glup — glttffed, OlfifTe ; flltf en — flog, ficjlofl>«» The
vowel remains long before inflectional endings, e.g.f loben, lobfl^ gelobt
(but ge](a6t» gemod^t); also in a closed syllable, when the stem- vowel stands
in an open syllable under inflection, e. g., %0l%, Xa^ged; dug, dunged* But
see p. 175.

Since 4 cannot be doubled, there is no telling the quantity of the pre-
ceding vowel from the mere looks of the word : e. g.^ long in 93u4 —
SBu^ed; Xu^ — Xud^ed; bra^ — ^rad^ett; but short in 9Ba4 — 93a4e0; la^m,
toad^en. As a rule, shortness may be expected.

36. The division into syllables difibrs somewhat from the English
custom. The " Rules " § 26 show how words are divided at the end of a
line. The following examples will illustrate sufficiently: (a^bcnr fu^^tc
(cei^renr 8ee-T(» »er'irren# gcirrt^ 9Bafsf(r» ©tra^ge^ U^f^m* ro^terf Sin^ger (but
see 17), ^t*Tit, SBei'^en* ^it^^Cf R9lx*'^\vx, (e^o^^a^tem na^^fa^gm* (t^glau^
bl-'gttt*

87. Gennan orthography is now regalated by the govemment, and the student
who is to write Qerman Bhonld provide himeelf with the official, 9tegeln unb SQ35rten»crs
tet^nid fftc bie beutf^e Sle^tf^reiBung tn ben preufif^eu e^ulcn. Berlin. It Ib a small
convenient guide of 40 pages, with a quite fdJl word-list See 361, S.

6

THE ABTICLBS.

[aa-

THE ARTICLES.

38. The definite article is ttt, Ht, bad +tke; the indefinite,

eitt, cine, eln + one, an, a.

The definite article declines:

maac.

fem.

neuter.

oommoii gender.

Sing. N. ^er

Die

tad

Plu. tie

G. ted

Ut

ted

ter

D. tern

ter

tern

ten

A. t)en

tie

tad

tie

e indefinite article declines:

Sing. N. tin

eine

ein

G. eincd

einer

eined

D. einem

einer

einem

A. einen

eine

ein

39. The articles are unaccented.

The definite article is the weakened demonstrative pronoun, which
has chief stress. It retains the short original forms of the same. The
indefinite article is the weakened numeral tin, which also has chief stress.
To mark the demonstrative pronoun and the numeral, they are some-
times printed spaced or with a capital letter : 9{ur (Etntn ®4rtttr fo Mf! bn
^xti, F. 4563 ; hut (£d tsar einntal ein 5tonig, F. 2212. Vtx ^o^ fonn gel^n
(Sch.). (£d t^ut mir lang' f^on toe^, baf id^ bic^ in b e r (Defclf^aft W, F.
8470-1.

40. Owing to their lack of accent hoth articles sufibr apheeresis and
apocope, and contraction with the preceding word, most frequently with a
preposition : bent and bad are, according to good usage, comhined with the
following prepositions : an, auf, Ux, hux6i, ^x, ^inttxt in, ultx, urn, unttx, ^ort,
^oxt and }u ; e. g,, am, andr aufd^ ind* umdr ^om, etc In general, contractions
with dissyllahic prepositions are rarer in the classics, common in the
spoken language, which allows the contraction of ben whether dative plu-
ral or accusative singular masculine with the ahove and also with other
prepositions. Some such are even in the classics : in = in^n^ F. 2429, »itt
®cffel,« Lessing's Nathan, irin Sad,"* »in Sto^pf," man Za^." 3n, urn contain

48] DEOL£NSIOK OF KOUK& 7

long (see 389,5) consonants and the article is not absent, as is generally
explained. In conversation is heard: nn 9rm# von tB^umcm aufn 8e(b€nt»
mlt^n ^Sttbctt, bur^^n SBalb* The apostrophe in aufd, fibtx% etc., is not at
all indispensable. Ibtx, dative singalar feminine, combines properly only
with gtt into |ur*

41* Attractions of the definite article, especially of the neater, to pre-
ceding words other than prepositions are common in the spoken lan-
guage, e,g., iri4 ttiU'd S3u4 l^oleiu'' »er ^t f!4'« 8ein 0((re4at.« ir93iiib'f4
9>fcrb ^i' anf (G.). »Unb ffaft'^ St^n mlernt'' (F. 4485).

1. The aphferesis of mtin^ common in the spoken langoage is also
found in the written, e. g„ »9Barf auf Htm Stutl bie ^anbf^u^'' (Uh.). Bold
abbreviations are these in Chamisso's, »^^ tt>ar 'mal .^nc ita^nfdnigin.'' The
dropping of (in before mal is not unusual : md^ toar mal tin itaifeT;" trSuc^
soar mal ein 9(t«< (BQ.). Notice fo'ne for fo (int. The early N. H. G. (16th
century) (im for einem (comp. M. H. G. eime for eineme), (inn or eln for
cincn occur still in some South German dialects. In M. H. G. the aphas-
resis of **ein" is unheard of, while the definite article is much more
pliant than in the present classical language. Apocope of the same Is
still allowable in certain S. G. dialects.

DECLENSION OF NOUNS.

42. There are three systems of Declension, the
Strong ( Vowel, Old), the Weak {Consonant, n-Bedension
or ^ew), and the Mixed.

The strong declension {see 43, 1) ha^ (e)d in the geni-
tive singular; the weak has (e)n in aJZ ca^es, singular
and plural, except in the nominative singular; the
mixed has (e)d in the genitive singular, (e)it in the
whole plural.

General Bnles.

43. 1. EeminiDe noons never vary in the singalar.

2. The only case-endings are (e)d for the genitive singular
and (e)n for the dative plural.

3. e in the case-suffix ought to stand in nouns ending in
1 5/ f*i h k, t, jl.

8 DBGLEKSIOK OF KOUKS. [44-

e is always dropx)ed after el, en, em, tt, ^en, lein* In other
cases it is optional If the genitive singular has ed, then the
dative singular has e as a role: ipaufed, gu ^aufe*

Distribution of nouns among these declensions according
to gender:

1. The bulk of feminine nouns belong to the n-dedension.
No neuters at alL

2. To the strong declension belong mainly masculine and
neuter nouns, and a few femininea

3. The mixed declension includes a few masculine and
neuter nouns.

Strong Declension.

44. We distinguish for practical reasons four classes,
according to the formation of the plural :

1. No sign unless it be umlaut: tad SJuntet, tie SOuntet; la
Soter, Ut Sater.

2. -e without umlaut: ber Sag, tie Sage; tad 2od, Me Sofe.

3. -e with umlaut : ter @oi|tt, tie @&^ne ; tie Stta% tie
ftrafte«

4. -er always with umlaut: tad Sat, tie S3&ter; tod ^anA,
tie ^aufer*

45. EiBST Class. — a. No sign:

Sing. N. ter ©paten tad ©emerbe ter Snge(

G. ted @)>atend ted ®ett>eried ted Sngeld

Plu. D. ten @paten ten ©emergen ten Sngebt

All other cases singular and plural like nominative singular.
6. With umlaut:

Sing. N., D., A. ter gaten ter Sruter

G. ted gatend ted Sruterd

Plu. N., G., A. tie gSten tie Sriiter

D. teng&ten tenSrittent

48] DBCLBKSIOK OF K0UH8. 9

46. To this class belong:

1. Masculine and neuter nonns in -€l, ~tt, -m, -^tn, -lein, -fel,
e. g., ter ^tUl, ter StUter, ^er So^en, ter i^opfen, la& ^vM&nn, tad
Atoleiit, tad 9l&tfeL

2. Neuters of the form (Se-e, e. g., tad ®etrfite, (SefAmeite.

8. The names of kindred in -er : Sater, Sruter, Zod^Ux, SRuttet,
@d}»ager, all with umlaut Also ter Std\t.

4. Certain nouns, if they take *tt in the nominative singu-
lar, as they may according to usage : tcr %A\tn, ter ©runnen, ter
Zvcp^m, ter Sd^reden (these so generally). The following not
BO frequently in the written language : ter 5unfe(tt), ©ai[!e(n),
grietc(tt), ®etanfe(tt), ®efalle(tt), iauit(n), (Same(n), e(i^ate(tt),

47. The nottiiB sub 1, in -fir -en, -«r# ore o-BtemB that lost the e of the
plural in M. H. G. (see 434, 8). Masculines in -e r < aere < M (oiigi-
nallj J0-Btem8), those of the fonn of vogel retained their c longest. 9tcm
(Obem), Srobemf (Sibantr S3rofam stand isolated. The plural, if it occurs, is
the -e of the next class. S3rofamtn is more common than Srofame*

1. The nouns sub 2 are originally ./o-stems, having -e also in the sin>
gular as the remnant of Jo, O. H. G. •'. Many have lost it and gone oyer
into the next class, as if -« were sign of the plural. St&^t is treated like
the preceding < O. H. G. ehdn < eddus < Lat. edseus,

2. All nouns sub 4, except grieber (S)efallei and (S^cbanfcr were weak in
M. H. G., and are not yet fully established in the strong declension.
Since usage is unsettled^ they might all be put under the mixed
declension.

48. The nouns of this declension that take umlaut, besides the
names of kindred in -er, are 9pfel, Mer, S3obtn» Sabcn (thread), (^xttn,
^afeiu ^ammerr fiabeitf ^an^th ^axAtl, ^a^tl, Ofettf battel, SAabciir ^d^mUU
S^wagCTr S^ogelr e, g., @auet# ^d^n&UU etc. Two neuters take it, 5t(ofler +
cloister < daustrum, and £ager (camp). In none of these is there any
cause that could produce umlaut as in i and jo stems or before -ir.
Umlaut has arisen from analogy with these. IBSiitXt S)?&tter» Srfiberr
XSc^ter had umlarat already in M. H. G. This way of forming the plural is
on the increase, because it is so convenient and some way of indicating
the plural seems necessary. SD£gen# Sfiger, etc, still sound objectionable,
but have no worse and no better claim to correctness than the above.

10 DECLENSION OF NOUKS. [49-

49. Second Class. — ^Plural -e, no omlatit.

Sing. N.,A. ^wXti We Erangfal lad 3<il^r

G. ted ipunted ter !Cran9faI ted 3at}red

D. tern ^unte ter Drangfal tern ^a\fct

Plu. N., G., A. ^uttte rrongfale ^a^xt

D. ^unten ■Erangfalen 3^^^^^

50. To this class belong:

1. A small number of feminines in -nid and -fal, e. g.^ tie
Drangfal, SruBfal ; tie ginflernid, Setrubnid, pL -nijfe.

2. Many masculines; some capable of umlaut, but without it.
These may be considered exceptions to the third dass: ter
ad, aor, arm, Sefucft, ambog, Tia6:i^, ®rat, Eoc^t, 8aAd, ^alm, 2u*d,
^mi, iautf $fat, $un&, $uf, Sag, @tojf, S^ron, Serfud^, and a very
few others.

3. Masculines in -ig, -(i) dft, -ing, -ling, -(f )ttt, -(d, -id, -i(!^, c. g. ,
ter «6nig, ©anfcrid^, 9Ro(d^, Bering, 3ungling, grcunt, iTOonot, 3ltid
(pi. SItiffe), $aM(^t.

4 Many neuters, among which monosyllabics; those with
the prefix ®e - ; in -nid, -fal : tad ^ai^x, ®f fd^enf, ©efSngnid,
©(j^idh'al.

61. The feminines and neuters in -ntd ended in M. H. G. in -« (-ntffe)»
both in singular and plaral. The ending of the singular was lost in earlj
N. H. G. Also -« of the neuters in ^t- was lost, and they really belong to
the first class. (See 45. a., 47.) Those in -nid and these are O. H. G.
;<>stems. The monosyllabic neuters followed the masculine o-stems with
-< in the plural (without umlaut sub 2), and can therefore never have
umlaut. In O. and M. H. G. they were either uninflccied or took -er (see
431). The masculines sub 2 and 3 are o-stems, and come properly by
their -e (see p. 195). The group sub 2 is on the decrease, because we can-
not tell on the surface whether a noun has umlaut or not. To avoid the
difficulty, several nouns form very anomalous plurals : ber 93au# bi( S3autfn
instead of S3aue. Of Wtox\>, pi. ^ox\>t is rare, rather SJ^orb^aten ; of (B^muSt
pi. Bdixmdt is rare, rather <3(^mit(ffa(i^en ; <3^(u(ff pi. ©^ludc is seldom
used, since it stands in the singular after a number, e. g,, brti <3d^Iu<f
S3ramittotin.

66] DEOLENSIOK OF KOUNS. U

52. Thibd Glass. — ^Floral -e, with umlatii

Sing. N., A. ter Stamm bie Au^ Ue Sraut

G. ted (Stammer ber Au^ bet draut

D. tern @tamme bet Jtu^ ket Sraut

PZu. N. . A., O. @tamme Jtu^e Sraute

D. @tammen Afiifien Sr&uten

53. To this class belong :

1. The majority of strong mascnline nonns, mostly monosyl-
labics : ter ©efang, ®ebraud}, Sail, ®a{l, @olf|n, etc.

2. A number of feminine nouns: Me Slngfl; Slxt, 93anf, Srunfl,
Srujl, gaujl, grud^t, ®and, ®ruft, ^aut, Aluft, Araft, ^htnft in com-
pounds, iani, ivi% Sufi, maiit, SRagD, ^aud, 9lad)t, 9la^t, 9lu§,
(San, @(!^nur, ®tat)t, SBant, Surfl, 3un^ ; audflud^t, %xmixu%
®ef(!^n)ulfl»

3. £)ad g(o§, ter or tad S(or.

54. The old bulk of these nouns are i-stems. Their number has been
increased by u-, o-, jo-, and e^Ti^-stems. Bug and dd^n were originally
eonsstemB, Comp. Gr. 7rod-6f, L. dent-is. They appear as tt-stems in
Gothic, OS t-stems in O. H. G. Sta^t is also a eans-Btom. Comp. L. noU-is,
Isolated cases of its old inflection are fRac^td the adverbial genitive and
the dative plural in SDei^nad^tni < 96n u^en nahten. In 9{a4tigaS +
nightinj^e appears the genitive of its •- stem -inflection ; compare also
SBrSutigam + bridegroom, lit. "bridesman." (See 480, 5.) An isolated
u-case is .^anben" < 0. H. G. ?UtyUuin, dative plural in ab^anbem lost ;
vor^anben + " on hand." f^fRSten^is an isolated dative plural; the nomina-
tive plural is obsolete. Compare the Eng. umlaat in mouse, mice ; louse,
lice ; loft, lift, Ags. lyft, but Go. luftus ; cow, kine, eta

66. No neuters belong here except H. G. meri, bad ?Kccr, bit 5WeerCr
now according to 2d Qass. J)ad glog is 0. H. G. masculine t-stem. ©er
and bad (S^or, borrowed from church-Latin "chorus," has joined the
group sub 2. !Dad SBoot, bie SBdte because it was also b(r Sootr a modem
borrowed word < D. ©if SBoote is more elegant. Dad JRo^r, bie 9ie^re is
not good. Besides there is bit IRi^trer feminine singular, the pipe, tube.

12

DECLEKSIOK OF KOUKS.

[66-

56. FouBTH Glass. — ^Plural -er, always with umlaut:

IXng. N., A. ta« atot)
G. t)e0 Slaved
D. bem Stotie

Flu. N., a., A. Slater

D. tenStattm

3rrtttm
bed 3ntumd
bem 3rrtume

3trtfimer
bm 3rrtument

57. To this class belong:

1. About sixty neuter monosyllabics : bad Sad (9f^); Slatt,
I)a(^, 8^4 etc.

2. All in "tarn, whether masculine or neuter: bad $er}ogtum,
ber Sieic^tum.

3. Some masculines, viz.: ber S95fe»id^t*, Vom*, ®elfl, ®ott,
2elb, 3Rann, Drt*, !Rattb, ©trauc^*, Sormunb, SOBato, aCurm.

4 A few neuters, with the prefix ®e- : bad ®tma(i^, ©entitt,
®efd^Ied)t*, ©eftdjt*, ©efpenfl, ®e»anb**

58. Only neuters had this plural -er at first. Of the sixty
sub 1, some twenty form a different plural, and usage is unset-
tled; so do those sub 3 and 4 marked with a "*". In the fol-
lowing a distinction is made in meaning between the different
forms of the plural:

Sub 1, 2, 4,—

bad 35anb,

Sanbe, ties,

Sanber, ribbons.

S)enfmal,

-male, monuments,

-maler, figurative sense.

Ding,

Dinge, things,

jDinger, coll., e. g.y girls.

®c(ld^t,

®efid)te, visions,

®ef!(!^ter, faces.

®ett)anb,

®c»anbe (poetic).

®e»an5er (commonly).

2ant),

2anbc (poetic),

SSnber (commonly).

8i*t,

Si^te, candles (only),

gl*ter, lights. -

©Aito,

masc. @(!bilte, shields,

©d^llter (sign-board).

m%

masc. ©tlftc, pencils.

©tifter, institutions.

aud>,

Su^e, kinds of cloth.

Sitci^er, cloths, shawls.

SJort,

SBorte, words (their mean-

SQorter, parts of speech.

^^)y

*■

62] DS0LBK8I0K 07 ^OUli^B. 18

Sub 8,—

her ^awx, Wtcinntn, retinuOy ZRinntt, men.

Ort, Ortm, D. pL only, Oerter, places, towns.

69. Xrfistmer oooars in the pi oral only. Bat a weak plaral Zrflmmmi
occurs in the classico. Singular Ziuvm + thrum, m^u'ptvx,** aa dative
plural, is isolated in i»stt ben ^^upten." ^axax was originally a eema-stem,
*mann' (see Eluge's Diet.). The form S^nn in funftig SHann is the real
nominatiye plural of the eonB-Btem. SRenft^ was originally neuter, being
an adjective O. H. G. menniKO. t>a^ Wttxt^^, bie 9Renf(^er» now implies a
eHur, si>eaking of woman = strumpet (see Elnge's Diet.). -SBit^t in Sdfe^
toiii^t was also once a neater, + wight

60. In early N. H. G. many of the neuters still occur without -cr.
itinbed Jtinb toerben beine SBerf preifen (B.). itinber unb j(inbed Stitib (tti^fjUtn)
«on bem $oIf no<i^ unb feincn ^^aren (Sch.).

The plural in -^ is not elegant. S&UUt Sungendr 8rauend# ^rSuteind
are more than colloquial, though found in the classics. This -d is strictly
Low German, and identical with English $.

Weak or n-Deolension.

61. Oharacteristics: (e)n in the plaral and also in the sin-
gular of masculine, except the nominative.

ICasc Fern.

Sing. N. bet Sole Whole sing. SutiQt

G. ted Soten

All through sing, and pZti. Whole plu. ^ntiQtn

Only feminine and masculine nouns belong to this deden-
sion.

like S^n^t decHne all feminines^ except : 1. SRutter and
Sod^ter. 2. The few in -nid and -fal (see 50. 1). 3. The
strong of the 3d class (see 53, 2).

62. Of the masculines belong here:

1. All of two or more syllables, except jt&fe and the doobt-
fol strong ones sub i, 1st class (see 46).

14 DECLENSIOK OF NOUNS. [6S-

2. Tlie following which generally do not show the e, which
belongs to them: Der 8ar, Sautr, Surfd^, gurjl, glnf, ®td, ®efca(c),
®raf, ipagcjlola, ipelD, iTperr, i^trtc, Snfajfc, 3Renf4, 3Ro^r, 9larr, Dc^fe,
9)rlna, |)fau, @pa^, ©prog, ©tetnmc^, S^or (fool), SSorfa^r*

3. Many nouns of foreign origin, which are difficult to tell
from strong nouns, many of them names of persons and ani-
mals. They generally end in -t, -nt, -jl, with the suffix -grap^,
-ard^, -ttat, -109(c), -nom, e. g., ^ot't, SanDt't, S^weli't, 9)atrio't,
ard^Uc'ft, «ome't, 9)Ianc't, «onfona'nl, ©tute'nt, g)^anta'jl, Selegra'p^,
©eogra'p^, 9>atria'r(b, aRona'rdj, autofra't, I:emoIra't, afholo'8(c),
3)^lloIo'8e, SSflrono'm, Dcfono'm (polite for *' farmer '*) ; also

4. Some names of nationalities in -ax, and -er, e. ^., ter
U'ngar, Sulga'r(e), Z(da't, SSaier, |)ommcr, Gaffer*

5. The adjective used as a noun when preceded by the arti-
cle (see 220).

Kehabk.— An isolated form is now ,,anf (Srben.'' (Srbe was either weak or strongs.
Bnt ^in (S^ren," „m\t %xtnUn'* are old datives plural (see 434, 1). Notice the spelling
ffdnigin, pi. ftdniginnen.

Mixed Declension.

63. Characteristics : G. sing. (e)d, plu. (e)n*
Only masculine and neuter nouns belong to this declension,
and very few have not double forms for genitive singular and
for the plural. The following generally belong here:

1. auge, SBctt, Snbe, Ocvattcr, ^mt, iotim, TOafl, TOurtel, D^r,
3>attto'{feI, ©d^mcra. ©ee, ©tad^el, <BtaaU 9lad)6ar, Untcrt^an, Setter
sometimes retain in genitive singular the (e)n of their former
declension.

Dad $erj inflects G. ted iperjend, D. tern ^erjett, A. bad iper^;
allowing for its being a neuter, which always has nominative
and accusative siDgular alike; it really comes under 1st Class,
strong, sub 4 (see 46). ©d^merj rarely has ©Amer^end* £er©porn,

64] DBCLEKSIOK OF ^OU^S. 16

ted @pomd, has taken an ~n in the singnlar, bnt the old weak
plural ©poren is still the rnle, thongh @pomen occurs. Z^ronen,
borrowed in M. H. G. < Gr.-L. thrones, is yery rare. The
plural of I/orn is either t:otnt (old) or generally £:i)mer ; rarely
S)omen.

The mixed declension is quite modem, and does not exist in M. H. G.

2. Foreign nouns in -or (o long and accented in the plural,
short and unaccented in the singular), e, g,, ter Do'ltor, tie
Dofto'ren, ter 9)rofe'ffor, Me yrofeffo'ren. Also ^n\t% Sntere'jfe,
^utoe'I, @tatu't, and others.

Colloqiilany yoa hear Bometimes -n after nouns in -tl and -<i: bit ig^ummern, lobsten;
6ttef cin, boota ; bat they are not to be Imitated.

Declension of Foreign Nouns.

64. Those which are fully naturalized come under the
declensions already treated of. It remains to speak of those
not at all or partly naturalized, and their inflection is very
irregular and complicated.

1. Those that retain their foreign inflection, e, </., 3(fud
(E^rifhtd,3efu S^rifli; JRart'a, 9Rariae; 9Rot)ud, pi. 9RoM ; Safu«,pL
Safud ; (l^ttuh, pL SberuMm ; Sonto, pL Sonti ; @aelulum, pi.
@aehtla; Sorb, pL Sortd; £empud, pL Ztmpoxa. Their number
is decreasing.

2. Those which take a German plural ending, -en for
instance, and do not inflect in the singular, e, g. : ta^ T^xama,
pi. Cramen ; Sterna, pi. iitmtn ; 3nt)it)i'liuum, pi. 3nDi)>ttuett.
®lobud, Slptl^mttd. But these are also found with -d in geni-
tiye singular, and then come under the mixed declension.

3. Nouns whose foreign plural ended in -ia take -tens
@tut)ium, pi. @tubien ; ©vmnaftum, pi. ®9mnaflen. The ending
of the singular may have been lost, and they have -d in geni-
tive singular, as k't'ot'xb, $artici')), @emlna'r, SRinera'I, Soffi'I, pL

16 DECLEKSIOK OF XOUKS. [85-

atijcrBien, gofpUen, etc Notice |>ri'mad/|>rlma'tett ; Wtla^, %iWntm }
Rli'ma, ^limaten* On the whole^ there is a great deal of irreg-
ularity, and therefore freedom in the inflection of foreign
words.

Declension of Proper Notins.

65. 1. The names of nations and peoples are inflected both
in the singular and ploraL Those in -er (except 93aier and
$ommer, where -er is not suffix, denoting origin) go according
to 1st Class (strong). All the others go according to the
tt-declension ': ^cr ipamBurgcr, ted ipamburgcrd, etc., D. pL ben
ipamburgem. But tit (Sa&i\t, Ui ©aci^fcn ; Der 9)rcu§e, tec |)rcu^en,
all through.

2. Certain geographical names (see 147), which always
have the definite article, are treated like any common noun,
e. g.y ter Stt^tin, ted Sl^eind; tad gldbtelgcHrge, ted -edj tad 61faf, ted
Slfaffed ; tie ©dbwcia, ter ®(^»etj, etc

3. Names of persons are uninflectedif preceded by the arti-
cle (an adjective or title between article and name makes no
difference), e. g., ted Stad, ted ftatferd &axl, tern gropen grietrtd).
If the title follows the name, or if the name in the genitiye
stands before the noun upon which it depends, then the name
takes -d, e. g., tad 9lei(i^ Sutwlgd ted grommen, ted gtof en grietrid^^d
©cncrale.

4. Names of persons, places, and countries without an arti-
cle take a genitive in -ed: ®oet^e, ®oetl^ed; Snglant, Sttfllantd}
Slnna, ^nnad. But names of males ending in a sibilant, if
inflected at all and an apostrophe is not preferred, and femi-
nine names in -e, form a genitive in -ettd^«. g., SRa^end, granjend,
^ariend, @op^iend. Surnames in a sibilant certainly prefer an
apostrophe, e. g., 3Rufdud' Solfdmirti^en, Opii^' SJerle, ®aug' Sot.
Names of places in a sibilant are constructed with )>on: tie
Slei^dfrei^elt »ott ito'ttjlanj, tie SefcjHgungen uon 5)<iti'd*

69] DEOLEKBIOK OF ADJECTITES. 17

66. A dative and an accoBatiye in -«n of names of persons are haidly
in use now, as e.g., 6<i^iaernf ®octteiw Jtlopflotfen. Christian feminine
nsmes retain them more easily than masculine, e.g., ^afl bu SXatien

67. Plurals of names of persons are formed in yarious
ways. The general role is: -e f or masculine and -e(n) for
feminine names, e. </., ^etnri^e, SRarien ; but also SBnm^ilte,
SIifaiete« -4 forms the plural of masculines ending in a vowel
and of feminines in -a: Snnad, ipugod«

68. 1. Here also belongs the plural of surnames denoting the mem-
bers of the family, formed by -4 if ending in a consonant not a sibilant ;
by -(e)n if ending in a vowel or a sibilant (occurs only in familiar lan-
goage however), e,g,^ @tcinbrttd0en# the SteinbrUgges ; ©u^Itngd^ the
Suhling family ; Jtit(f9. Other endings for the plural, generally of for-
eign names however, are -ne» Hten : (£ato» Catone; Scipionen, Ottone^ and
Ottonm ; but the first n belongs to the stem of course. Compare L.
Scipio, Sdpionia,

2. Biblical names retain classical inflection: (Si^angelittm SRott^aei^ in
Befu Sl^riflOf fBtaxht ^eimfu^uttd*

8. It should be borne in mind that the rule in the classical writers
before Qoethe's death is not the rule now. Leasing wrote bed Sut^erdf bed
Stelont^ttond; Qoethe, fieiben bed itm^ett SDert^d. The dative and aocnsa-
tive in -en are the rule in them« the exception now, ^abett @ic Staxlta
^xvtbta, S^il^Imen defu^tf

DECLENSION OP THE ADJECTIVE.

69. The adjective is inflected according to two sys-
tems of declension, the Strong and the Weak. It is
inflected strong when there is no limiting word before
it; weak, when there is an article or pronoun. It is
uninflected in the predicate.

18

DECLEKSIOK OF ADJEGHYBS.

[70-

1. Stbono :

masc

Sing.l^. guter

G. guted

D. gutem

A. guten

fem.

gute
guter
gutcr
gate

Denter. oommon gender.

guted Plu. N. gute
guted O. guter

gutem D. guten

guted A. gute

2. WniLK:

niase. fem. neuter.

Sing. N. ter gute tie gute tad gute -

A. ten guten tie gute tad gute

All other cases, sing, and plu,, guten*

Notice that the nominatiye and accosatiye singalar of the
feminine and neater forms are alike.

70. After ein, lein, and the possessive pronouns the adjec-
tive is strong in the nominative singular of all genders and in
the accusative singalar of feminine and neater, since it is like
the nominative, e. g, :

Sg. N. ein grower I:l(i^ter, eine rote Xix\iit, eln l^errli&ed ©etid^t
O. etned gro§en DtAterd, einer roten jtirf^e, eined ^enlid^en ©etid^ted
D. einem gropen "Biijttt, einer roten ^irfd^e, eincm ^errlld^en ©etid^te
A. einen gro§en !Di^tcr, eine rote ^irf(i^e, ein ^errlitfted Octitftt.

71* Adjectiyes endin^^f in -tU -err -nt as a rale drop the e of these
Boffixes when mflected, sometimes however the e of the case-ending^ -ni#
e.g., ebel» eblcTr ctlcr ebled; ma^tx, magrer, magrer magred; d^tn, eidner, eigntr
eigned ; but l^eitern and (eitren^ eblen and ebeln. Those in -tr like to retain
both e's: f^ttxtx, f^tiittt, l^eitered. Note therefore: (Sin magrer O^ftr eined
magern or magren 06fen, etc.; ber ^ttere or l^ettre ^tmmelr bed l^eitereiw (eitreor
or l^eitern ^immeldr etc. ; mein eigned ^an^, meined eigenen or eignen $aufed» etc.
For ^o4, ^ol^err (o^e, l^ol^ed see 490» 3, b,

72. Tlie (^nitive singular masculine and neater, -ed» is now so rega-
larly replaced by -en» that it should perhaps appear in the paradigm.
Though strictlj according to rule, -ed has become the exception ; -en has
prevailed since the 17th century. Voss, Elopstock, and Grimm opposed
it. Goethe favors it dbx, Uin, and the possessive adjectives never
allow -en for -ed; feised, never feinen !IX(umed.

76] GOMPABISOlir OF ADJECnVES. 19

COMPARISON OF THE ADJECTIVE.

73. Adjectiyes are compared by means of the inflectional
suffixes -er and -(e){l, e. g. :

positive.

comparative.

saperlative.

ittttg

iflitgcr

iflngjl

fA&n

f^bner

fi^&ttfl

rel^

retd)er

reic^fl

Those in -el, -en, -er lose this e before the comparative -er ;
but retain it and lose the e of -e{l in the saperlatiye, e. g,,
ntager, magrer, magerfl; tunfel, bunHer, tunle(fl. e in -efl is as a
rule retained after t, t, d, fe, 3, xA, §, and {I, bnt not necessarily,
e. g,y lautefle, getoiffefle, fit^efle. ®ro§te alone is classical, but in
the spoken language fugte, l^eipte, titrate, etc., are heard. „$ocl)"
retains the former ^ in the comparative ^5^er, and !^ in nal^e
becomes d^: nS^fl. See 490, 3, 6.

74. The umlaat generally takes place, bnt it is very diffi-
cult to tell when it does not. A not small number are doubt-
ful, e. g,, ila^f gefunn, fromm, etc No umlaut take: 1. Those
with the stem- vowel au, e,g.y lau, Uau, etc. 2. Foreign ones:
ixa'o, noMf etc. 3. Participles: befud)t, geioanbt, etc 4. Deriva-
tives : |haf6ar, fd^aK^aft, langfam, unglaublidb, etc. 6. Sunt, Want,
feumpf, falfd^, flaci^, fro^, ^o^l, l^oln, la^I, Har, la^m, lag. lo«, matt,
morfd^, platt, plump, raf^, rol^, runt), fanfl, fatt, [(i^laff, f*Ian!, fArojf,
flarr, {lola, fhraff, toO, «)oa, roa^x, ga^m, aart.

75. The comparative and superlative forms are declined
just like the positive. Examples :

®r5f crer @paf , flr&§ercd or grSgeren ©paged, etc. ; ter grBgcre
©pa§, M flrbgeren ©paged, etc. ; ein grbgerer ©pag.

^larjled SBajjer, tad Harjle SBafler, eln Harjted ffiajfer.

(SMerer mam, tier et(erc Wann, ein etlerer SKonn; eitelfler Surfd^,
ber eitelfle 9urf(!^, ein eitelfier Surfd^.

20 COHPABISOK OF ADJECTIYES. [70-

$elfrer ©anger, bcr ^cifrere Singer, eln ^eifrerer ©anger; G. etned
IJeifreren ©iingerd, etc. ; ter ^eiferjle ©Snger.

76. 1. Irregular Comparison.
By the use of different stems:

Positive. Comparatiye. Saperbttiye.

gut + good bejfer, adv. ha^ -f better 6ejl + best

)>iel me^r + more meifl + most

me^rer me^rjl

gering or menig minter mtntefl

®ut and ^iel are never compared regularly. SRe^rer and mel^rfl
are due to doable comparison. „^t\^x^" though occurring in
Qoethe and Schiller, is not classical 9Rebr and minber are really
not adjectives, but are used adverbially and substantively. „Sa§„
(me^r, very, much) is now archaic. ^Do^ ia^ ^e^ i^n Der Itnle
9Rann'' (Bu.). Surba§ (onward); Mi" ^o means fel^r, fiarl: „I)ad
ntad^t, er t^St |l^ ba§ :^er»or" (Sch.). „Unt warlD nicbt mel^r gefe^n"
(G.). 9Rorgen ein mel^rered = to-morrow (I will write) mora

2. Defective and Bednndant Comparison.

0. There is a class of adjectives derived from adverbs and

prepositions :

Ady. or prep. Compantiye.

Soperlatiye.

(auper) &u§er

&u^er{l

(Winter) Winter

^inteill

(tnner) inner

innerfl

(nleter) nieter

nieberfl

(ob[er]) ober

oberjl

(utttcr) unter

unterjl

(»or, fort) sorter

t)orterjl

For the derivation of these adverbs, see 551, 3. The
superlative sufix -fi is added to the comparative. This is
due to their former full comparison, as for instance, O. H. G.
pos. hirUaro, comp. hintardro, superL hintardst. The pres*

77J

HTUHEBALS.

21

ent comparatiyes i^itdttt, tAttt are not eyen now felt as real
oomparatiYes ; &uf er has a spnrioiis umlaut ; „56erfle'' and
„f^tltT^t" are colloquial ; „)>oiber'' comes from „fort/' O. H. G.
f ardor; compare "Eng. further, which has nothing to do with
far.

Oomparative.

tnittler

(e^et, adv.) + ere

b.

PoBitiye.

(mittel) + middle
(el^e, conj.)
(la^ + late)

m

(fiarbtr, ady.)

Saperlative.

mittelfl
erfl + erst
le^+last
Sflrfl(sub8t.)+ first

The first compares regularly like an adjectiye in -el. The
positiye occurs only in compoxuids now, and the comparatiye
has the force of the positive.

77. Cardinals.

eittd, + one

gttjet, + two

fcrei, + three

»ter, + four

ffittf, + five

fed)d, + six

fieben, + seven

aijt, + eight

tieun, + nine

gf^n, + ten

elf, eilf, 5If, + eleven

3»e(f, jtt)5lf, + twelve

treigel^n, -f thirteen

Dlerge^n, + fourteen

fibt^e^n, + fifteen

fe^(«)3c^n, + sixteen

jlDattjig, + twenty

eitt ttn^ J»anjl8, + twenty-one

NUMEBALS.

jttjei unb gmanjlg, + twenty-two
tret unb amangig, + twenty-three
brei^ig, + thirty
ein tmb brei§ig, + thirty-one

»l«^8t8f + forty
ffittfaig, funfetg, + fifty

^WS, WS/ + si^cty

ileB(en)aia, + seventy

«*tsig, + eighty

neimgig, + ninety

(unbert (bad ^unbert), + a hun-
dred

(ein) ^unbert unb ein(d), + a hun-
dred and one

(ein) (ttttbert unb ^toti, + a hun-
dred and two

(ein) l^unbert (unb) jel^n, + a
hundred and ten

22 NUMEBALS. [78-

(ein) l^untert unb itoan^i^, + a hundred and twenty

(ein) ^un^ert tin mtt itoaniiQ, + a hundred and twenty-one

(ein) l^unbert adift un^ ad^t^ig, + a hundred and eighty-eight

gttjeil^Utttert, + two hundred

trei^untert feci^d unt flebjig, + three hundred and seventy-six

taufent (bad Saufenb), + a thousand

(ein) taufenb unt) tin{^), + a thousand and one

(ein) taufenb brei unb 'oitx^iQ, + a thousand and forty-three

(ein) taufenb ein^unbert or elf^unbert, + a thousand and one

hundred
ein taufenb ati^t^unbert brei unb ad^tjig or ad^t^e^n l^unbert brei unb

<^^t)^df + one thousand eight hundred and eighty-three
brei(mal) l^unbert taufenb, 4- three hundred thousand
eine 9Ritlio'n, + a million
eine SRiKia'rbe, a thousand millions
eine Simo'U; + a billion

78. Inflection.

Fully inflected are only eind, ^totl, brei, as follows :

Nenter.

ein(e)d

eined, when used substantiyely.

ein, like the indefinite article
when used attributiyely.

„^« roar einer bem^d ju ^ersen glng'' (Oh.) ; „eind »on beiDen," one
of two things.

N. 3»ei G. 3»eier D. gtoeien A. gmel
N. brei G. breier D. brelen A. brei

79« Older inflections were masc. }»een# fern. }tt>o. Qtoti, the neutei;
has crowded out the mascaline and feminine forms, which may still
be foond in the older modem classics, and still in use in the S. G.
dialects. SDa« jtoeten re^t \% if! breien )u tn^t. Durd^ ^eier Beugen 3!ftnvb
toirb aSemirtd bit Satr^eit funb (F., I. 3013). dmeen bit mit mir ft^erfu^rtn

Hasc

Fern.

N.

einer

eine

G.

elnei

einer

N.

ein

eine

81]

PB0N0UK8.

23

« « . . (Uh.). Stop ^ofen eined Xu4d» cut from the same doth. irStto
Sungfem in ben bcflen Sa^^ren" (Gellert). The plurals imit and breie are in
analogy with the strong noun and acyective declensions From 4-12
the e in the plural represents O. H. G. t when they were I'-stems, fimfe <
flmfl. The only other case in which these nomhera are inflected is the
dative plural (in -en): auf aUtn Bitxtn txitditn, aQe Stere )9on fl(^ fhetfcn; mtt
©ec^fen fa^rcn; su ^reiciu QmitXi imitn are according to the adjective
inflection.

80. Ordinals.

The ordinals are formed from the cardinals by adding -te
to the numbers from ^19, and -fie from 20 on.

(Der) erfle, + first fe^fle, + sixth

gtoeite; + second f^^^e^nte, + sixteenth

britte, + third Stvanjigfle, + twentieth

»iertc, + fourth l^iinbertfle, + hundredth

ffinfte, + fifth taufenbfle, + thousandth

Their inflection is that of adjectives ; getter, ter imitt, eiit
jmeiter; O. einee }»eiten. See 438, 1.

PRONOUNS.

81. Personal Pronouns.

Special forms for gender in the

Common gender.

\

eingolar.

I.

n.

m.

III.
Masc. Fern.

Neater.

Sing. N. i(36

tu

er fie

ed

G. tneiner

teincr

ftiner

felner i^rer

felner

(mettt)

(tein)

(fetn)

(fein)

(feln, c«)

D. mir

Mr

P*

m i^r

i^m

A. mid^

Md^

Pd)

m fie

ed

Flu. N. »ir

i^r

—

Pe

G. tinfer

euer

—

i^ret

(unfrer)

(curer)

D. und

tnij

P*

ifinen

A.mtd

tuSj

m

P«

24 PBOKOUN& [82-

The first and second persons and the plural of the third
person are of common gender. The singolar of the third
person has a form for each gender.

82. In the genitive singolar the longer forms in -er are
conmion; the others are now archaic and poetic, e, g^ ,,Serg{f^
mzimW (the flower). „3d^ t>enle Dein/' etc. (G.). The length-
ened forms eurer, unfrer are not yet sanctioned, though common
in the spoken language, and, especially eurer, not very rare in
the classics, e. g^ ,,(9Bie er) »ei Safel (Surer feUfl nid^t a^' (Sch.).
ff'Dann (etarf ed unferer v\^i„ (Sch.). The genitiye singular nen*
ter „ed" occurs still in certain constructions, generally called
an accusative: „Sr ^ot ed leinen ipe^I tap . . . *" (Sch.). 3^ Mn
ed miine. Sd nimmt mxioi SQunter. (See 183.)

83. Beflezive Pronouns.

For the first and second persons the personal pronouns
serve as such, e. </., ^ fttrAte mi^, toir freuen xM, i^r fd^eut eud^*
For the third person the forms are made up of the personal
and the old reflexive pronouns :

Masc. and neater. Fern. Common gender.

Sing. G. fclner (il^rer, pers. pron.) Plu. (i^rer, pers. pron.)
D., K. fid^ fld^ fid^

84. The reciprocal pronoun has no special form; as such
are used und, vx&if ^i^, einanter; meaning '' each other," ** one
another."

The Possessive Pronouns.

85. The possessive pronouns are: mein + my; tein + thy;
feitt, his, its; i^r, her; unfer + our; euer + your; il^r, their; S^^r
your; feer jneitie + mine ; Itt tcine + thine, etc.; btr meinige +
mine; feer beiwigc + thine, etc.

They are inflected like adjectives (see 69); but the first

87] PBONOUKa 25

group, mtin, bein, fein, etc, like the indefinite article (see 38),
in which the nominatiye singular masculine and the nomina-
tive and accusatiye singular neuter are uninfleoted, e ,g, :

Nenter. ^ Feminine.

Sing. N., A. mtin ZuSj Mnt 9lid)te

O. meined Su^ed telnet SftU^tt

D. meinem Zui^t Uintx Slid^te

Plu. N., A. meine Ifldber teine 9lid^tctt

G. mctncr Siidber beincr 9li^ten

D. meinen Zixiitxn beinen 9li(!^ten

For the declension of ber meine, ber meinige, see the weak
adjective, 69, 2. The rest stand uninflected used predica-
tively and when they follow the noun (now archaic), e, g,,
9Sm mtin i% tad ifl bein unH toad tein ifl, bad ifl mein (B.). Su
l^afi bad iperge mein, fo gang Qtnommtn tin (Song).

86. (Suev, (SuTCr Getoetr Seine are often abbreyiated Into (S»., 6v.» 6e. : 6e. SD2aie{l&tr
(S». SBo^Igeboren. 3^ro is archaic, e. g.y 3^to Onaben. It is an imitation of the old
G. ben (see 80). It does not occor before the seventeenth centnry. It stands for mas-
eoline and feminine singular and plural : 3^ro Onabcn, Gminensi ^ur^tauc^t.

87. The posseBsive pronotms form oeitain compounds with toegetif
l^alhn, toiHettr and glet(!(en* Ex. : tneinetwegenf i^retwegen, meinetl^alBenr i^red^
glei^ntf euredgleid^en* The compoonds with toegen and l^aUen are reallj
D. plu. meinen tt>egenf beinen ^alben. After n sprang up the excrescent t '■=■
meinmttoegenf beinent$alben> current in the sixteenth century. These became
the now classical meinetwegenf beinetfal^en^ though the longest forms are
still beard ; also meintl^aUen, even meintd^albeni occur, but they are not
good. 3ReinettoilIen < metnentwiQen < meinenwiUen are original accusatives,
e. g., urn meinen wiQen = for my sake.

The origin of tl^redgleid^eny etc., is not so clear. ©leici^en is without
doubt the adjective used as a noun and governing a preceding genitive,
which was at first the genitive of the personal pronoun and became later
the possessive pronoun agreeing with gleic^en (M. H. G. «Cn« gelichen).
But whence d ? Is it the genitive sign -ed in compound nouns, fiiebed^
Briefs !0{lttagdfhmbef which was looked upon as a mere connective ? (See
618, 2.) In M. H. G. was a Gen. mines^ dines, which with tnttier, stood for

26 PBOKOUNS. [Sd-

min, almost exclnsively before sdbes. Bat beincdgleU^en is not old enough
to connect with M. H. G. dines selbes.

Other compounds with the possessiye, like meittedteild# meinerfeitd (see
652), are clearly genitives.

Demonstrative Frononns.

88. These are : 1. Itt, tie, tad + the, that ; 2. tiefer, tiefe,
tlefed + this ; iener, {cne, Jened, that, + yon. The first, when
used with the noun, differs only in accent and not in declen-
sion from the article (see 39). When used substantiyely
(without the noun) it declines :

Masc.

Fein.

Nenter.

Common gender.

Sing. N. ter

tie

tad

Flu. tie

G. tejfen

teren

tejfen

teren *

ted

ter

ted

terer (ter)

D. tern

ter

tern

tenen

A. ten

tie

tad

tie

89. The spelling of frbeg" for ^ted" is unwarranted. It implies that
it is an abbreviation of ^tt^tn," which it is ni t.

wDero" is the O. H. G. form retained in certain phrases, as in bero
®naben» ^erenttoegen^ ^^Uetu etc., are forms like mtmtmt^tn, etc., bat
rarely lose the n before t. For their explanation see 87.

Masc. Fern. Nenter.

90. tiefer tiefe tiefed and tied + this
jiener iene iened + yon, that

These are declined like strong adjectives, and stand adjeo-
tively and substantively: tiefe geter, tiefed Sitttenfa§^ iener Sanrn*
Sencd tort ifl mein Su^.

91. Another group of demonstrative pronouns, sometimes
called " determinative," consists of :

Masc. Fern. Nenter.

terjenige • tieienige tadjenige, the, that

terfelbe tiefelbe tadfelbe, the same

terfelblge tiefelbige tadfetbige, the same

felber, felbjl (iminflected), fettlger feftige fettiged, the same

fo^(er) fol^(c) fol^(ed), + such

82] PROlirOUNS. 27

1. The ixiflection of the first three is that of „ter" and a
weak adjective, e. g., berimige, tedjifnigen, temienigm, etc Their
composition is apparent, -ig is the nsnal adjective sofEix (see

In the 16th oentary ber is still separated from felB-f {tn-, and earlier
the latter were even declined strong, ber itntx, bent felbem# bat they soon
followed the n-declenslon. «»X)er ieney" from which wberientge* developed,
becomes obsolete in the 17th century. wDerfelbige" < wberfelbe,". Accent:
be'neni0e# but berfe'lbc*

2. @elber is a stereotyped form like ))oDer, and felbfl is a geni-
tive singular of felb, M. H. G. sdbes. The excrescent t appears
first in the 16th centuxy.

8. @oI(!^ is inflected like any adjective, even with -en in the
genitive singular, e,g.y foI^enfaUd, fo((!^en ®Iaubend* It may be
uninflectedy always if followed by ein and generally if followed
by another adjective. An apostrophe after fol^ is uncalled
for. (Solij ein 9Rann, fo^ f^5ne Slumen. dint fold^e Seleibiguttg
lann i^ nii^t ^^ergeffen. SU er folded fa$ . . . • (B.).

92. Interrogatiye Pronotins.

SBer + who ; toad + what ; mliitx + which ; mad fiir ein,
what sort of.

1. 9Ber declines :

Mate, and fern. Neater.

N. tott toai

O. toeffen, toed t^^fT^n, m^

D. »em

A. mn toad

IBeg or oefd: »ed as befTettt bed* See 89. The genitive lengthened
by -en like bed > beffen was not yet established in the 16th century.
SBed is now archaic, except in compounds, 0.^., tt>ed^Ib, medwegen. For
»effent^Iben» see beffenK berem^alben, 87» 89.

2. SBel^ + which, what, declines strong. Before „ein" it is

28 PBONOUNS. [93-

always, and before an adjective it is often left nninflected,
also in poetry when used adjectively: SBeld) ©etummel @tra§en
auf ! (Scb.). ffield) cin ©cfii^l (F. 1011). SBelc^er 3Rann mx ti ?

3. 2Sad fur, wad fitr eiit, what, what kind of. „Sitt" alone is
inflected like the indefinite article if used adjectiyely; like a
strong adjective if used substantively: „3Qad fitr 93erge, toad fiir
SBuflen . . . . trennen und Denn no^?" (Le.). ffiad fiir tin ^aum
ifl tad ? 2Ba« fiir Dinte ijl Died ?

93. Eelative Pronoims.

1. !Eer, Die, Dad, which, + that, who, declines like the demon-
strative, but the genitive plural is never Derer : Reiner flegte itoc!^,
Der ni^t gefiritten l^ot (Bo.).

2. 3BeI(!^er, mli^, me^ed, + which, who, that, always declines
strong: T^a^ ^n^i, melted id^ gelefen ^a6e«

3. 3Ber, + who, whoever. The inflection is the same as that
of the interrogative: SBer ed {andfj fei, whoever it be.

4. SBad, + what, whatsoever. The inflection is the same as
that of the interrogative : SBad er {avLdf) fagen maQ, no matter
what he says.

Indefinite Pronouns and Indefinite Nimierals.

94. 2lttDerer, anDere, anDered, + other, different : Der anbere,
Die anDere, ta^ auDere, Die anDeren* Declined like any adjective,
used substantively and adjectively.

95. (Siner, eine, eined, + one, the numeral with its deriva-
tives !etn, none, and einlge, generally only plural " some."

Sin- is always strongly inflected and stands only substan-
tively. Standing adjectively it is declined like the iodefinite
article (see 39).

Rtin is inflected like the indefinite article, but standing
substantively is declined lelner, lelne, lein(e)d : Reiner »irD aid
SWeijler geboren (Prov.).

I

^

99] PBOKOUKEL 29

96. &&i^, some; ettoad, anything; toer, anybody; mad, any-
thing, something; tveld^, some, any.

Stlidh and tpeld^ are always inflected strong. The singular
of etli^ is rare, haying the force of ''tolerable,** ''some": mit
etUAem Srfolge, with some success.

97. Compounds with Je: JeDer, eyery, each; JeglidJ, JcDweter
(= ieter) stand adjectiyely and substantiyely; ietrrmann, eyery-
body; iemant, anybody; niemant, nobody.

3e^er, leglic!^, ietmeter, each, eyery, are declined like strong
adjectiye& 3eglic^ and ietmeter are not common now; they
haye the same meaning. 3^^^^>nann has only a genitiye singu-
lar in -^« 3(ntant and nieman^ decline:

N. iemant
G. iemant(e)d
D. iemantem, -ten
A. iemanten

The accusatiye and datiye are N. H. O., taken from the
adjectiye inflection. Though the classics are full of these
cases, the best usage for the spoken language fayors no case-
ending for accusatiye and datiye.

98. ^an, one, any one. It is only nominatiye. The other
cases are made up from ein- or toir, 9Ran is old spelling for
9Rann, from which in M. H. O. it wbs not distinguished. Its
corresponding possessiye is fein : 9)tan glauit i^m ni^t. Wlan
faun fclnen cigenen Ao)>f nid^t fffm (Proy.).

99. 9lid}td, nothing, allows of no further inflection. It is
itself the genitiye of M. H. G. niht = ni-mht and nio-whiht^
Compare Eng. naught = na-wiht. 9li(i^td, the genitiye,
stands for the emphatic combination niJUea niht, "not a
thing " = gar nid^te.

3u nid^te, mit ni&Un, " not at all," show still that n{d)t was
once a noun fully inflected: Seffer etmad tenn nid^td (Proy.).

30 COKJUGATION. [lOO"

100. As indefinite numerals it is cnstomary to classify
an + all; beite + both; ttilti + each or either; Qan^, whole;
lanttv, "nothing but;" manci^ + many; me^r + more; mel^rere,
several; tie meijlen + most, the majority; tie me^rjlen (= tie
meijlen) ; eiit paax, a few, Ut. " a pair; " fdrntlici^e, all, altogether;
tad ubrige, tie iibrigen, the rest; )oiel, much, many; menig, Httle,
few; ein tvenig, a Httle.

Of these, aU, ^an^, manii, t)iel, tvenig may stand nninflected.
Otherwise they are inflected like adjectives: Siel (Bt^int gab^d
itnt toenig Srot (Uh.). „®ana £)eutfd)Iant lag in ^iimai^ unt
^i^mtti" (Mosen). Dad gange Deutfc^Iant foil ed fein (Amdt).

Sauter, mel^r, ein ))aar, ein tvenig are indeclinable.

CONJUG-ATION.

101. The verb varies for person and number; for tense
(present and preterit) and mood (indicative and subjunctive).
From the present stem are formed the imperative and the
noun-forms of the verb, viz. , the infinitive, present participle
with the gerundive, and the past participle in -(e)t. Accord-
ing to the formation of the preterit we distinguish two great
systems of conjugations, the ** strong ' and the " weak.** The
strong verbs form the preterit by substituting a different stem-
vowel from that of the present, e. g., geben — gab, tragen — trug ;
the weak, by adding -(e) te to the stem, e. g.^ loben — lobte,
glauben — glaubte.

102. The infinitive, the preterit, and the past participle
are generally given as the " principal parts " of a verb. The
infinitive represents the forms with the present stem. Know-
ing the preterit or the past participle, one can tell whether a
verb is weak or strong. If the preterit ends in -(e)te the past
participle ends in -(e)t ; if the preterit is strong, the past par-
ticiple ends in -en, e. gr., fagen, fagte, gefagt; faugen, fog, gefogen.

106]

OOXJUOATIOK.

81

The infinitiTe and the past participle help form the compound
tenses.

103. The following paradigms show the Tarions inflections :

WKAK.

STRONG.

PBESENT. ]

PBETKUT.

PBESEMT. FBBTKRTT.

Ind, Subj. Ind,and9ulii.

Ind.

Bubj. ' Ind. Bultj.

iil lobe lobe

lobte

Pnge

Pnge fang TAnfl^

ttt lobjl Iobei»

lobtefl

P«9P

Pngep fangP fdngP

ft lobt lobe

lobte

Pngt

Pnge fang fdnge

»ir loben loben

loiim

Pngen

Pngen fangen f&ngen

i^r lobt lobet

lobtet

Pngt

Pnget fangt f^nget

fie loben loben

lobten

Pngen

Pngen fangen f&ngen

Imp.

Inf.

Imp. Inf.

2. sg. lobe (lu)

loben

2. ag.

Png(e) (t)u) Pngen.

1. pi. loben »ir
^ \ loben ©te

Pre8.paiH.i
Oeru7uUve.

loben^

Past part.

> 1. pi.
2. pi.

Pngen toir -P^i^f*-'

r fl / \i. /i£ \ Gerundive.

IjingtnSU p^^^

gelobt

gefttttgen

104. The personal suffixes are:

8g. 1. p. -e, except for strong preterit

2. p. -(e)P for both tenses and moods.

3. p. -(e)t for the present indicative. In the pres. subj.

and in the pret. ind. and subj. the 3. p. is like
the first.
PL 1. p. -(e)n for both tenses and moods.

2. p. -(e)t for both tenses and moods ; also for the im-

perative.

3. p. -(e)n for both tenses and moods.

The retention or rejection of the thematic or connecting vowel -e- is treated later.
See lia

105. Imperative. The 2. p. sg. ends in -e in all verbs
excepting those strong on3s that have the interchange of

82 COKJUGATIOK. [106-

e — ^i or e — ie in the 2. and 3. p. sg. pres. ind, e. g., Sraue, f^ue,
Bete, Htte, grabe, ^ebe, but fprid^, fri§, nimm.

106. Infinitive. It always ends in -en except in those
weak verbs in which it is preceded by -el, -er : jranbeln,
tvantern ; also in fein, t^un, which are non-thematic verbs.
See 449, 2.

107. Participles. The present pari and the gerondive
always end in -ent: ^offent), ^clfenD, ein Slebeitter, ein gu be»eifenler
®a^, a proposition to be demonstrated. They are declined
like adjectives.

The past participle is formed by the prefix ge-, and the suf-
fix -(e) t for weak verbs, the sofi&x -en for strong ones: Ileben —
geltebt, blattern — geblattert, tragen — fletragen, jlngen — gefungen.

108. ®e- does not stand:

1. Be'fore ^ei§en, foffen, fe^en, l^elfen, lemen (?), le^ren (?), l^^ren,
when an infinitive depends npon them in a compound tense:
3d) \io.\it i^n ge^en l^eigen, (ommen lajfen, fagen ^oren. For lernen
and le^ren, gelernt and gele^rt are better usage.

2. In the preterit-present verbs (= modal auxiliaries, see
134) which form similar past participles, viz., fonnen, tiirfen,
megen, miiffen, foden, tvotlen. 3Ran ^at Dad xoWlt Sier nic^t fangen
fbnnen. See 113.

3. In the past participles of verbs having inseparable pre-
fixes, e. g., tterlajfen, entfagt, Uudt, getadjt, except frejfen < »er +
effen and verbs in which 6 and g are no longer felt to be the
prefixes be and ge (see 543), e.^f., gefreffen, geMieben < Weiben;
geglaubt; geglici^en < glei(i^en. See gegejfen, 128.

4. In verbs with the foreign ending -i'eren, e. g.y marfdjleren —
marfcftiert ; probieren — probiert. Even when these are com-
pounded with separable Germanic prefixes, they take no ge- :
audmarf^lert, einftolcrt.

5. SBorten < merten never takes ge-, when it is an auxiliary
in the passive voice, e. g., ®r ijl gelpbt worsen.

Ill]

CONJUGATIOK.

33

Compound Tensei.

109. These are formed by means of the auxiliary verbs
l^aben, fein, rotxltn ; the last in the future active and the whole
passive; Ijaitn and fein in the active voice. As a matter of con-
venience the simple tenses of these auxiliaries are given here.

110.

PBESENT.

Ind,

er l^at
mir i^cAtn
i5r mt
f!e l^aben

^abefl

Imperative,
2. sg. l^aie (tu)

1. pi. ^aitn »ir
(l^afienSic

PBESENT.

Ind, SuJbj.

iij toerbe merte

ttt n?ir|l wertefl

et ttHrb jocrte

»ir jDerten werben

il^r »ertet jDcrtet

fie toerten toerben

FBETEBIT.

Jnd SvJbj.

^atte ^atte

^attefl ^atte|t

^atte %m

i^atten l^atten

l^attet Httet

l^atten l^&tten

Inf.

Tree, part,,
gerund.

Past part,

FBETEBIT.

Ind,

mtt>, tourte
wattfl, jDUtbejl
toarti, tpurtie
jDurteit
tourtet
tourten

PBESENT.

Ind, Subj.

Mn fei
Mfl feiefl

tit fel
Pnt feien

feiD fclct

Pnd feien

imperative.
2. «gr. fei (tu)

1. pZ. feien tt)ir
^ ( feien <Sie

PBETEBIT.

mar m&re

n^arfl tpfirell

war tDcire

toaren to&xtn

toant toavtt

toaxtn tohtn

Inf,
fein

Pres. part.
feient)

Past part,

gcn?efen

Bubj,

wiirbefl

»firte

ttjurben

tpiirtet

totirDen

Ifnperative,
2. sg, mxU (tu)
1. pL werben »ir

2.pl\^''^'^^^^'^
I mxttn ®ie

Inf. ttjerten

Poet part. ftJOrten

111. 1. <&aben has contracted forms for the 2. and 8. pers. sing. : ^afl
< Jidst < habest; $at < Tidt < habet. The pret. has undergone the same
contractions : (atte < hdte < hdbete, etc. The pret. subj. has umlaut due
to the influence of strong and pret-pres. verbs. In dialect the long con-

34: CONJUGATION. [IISU

traded forms of M. H. G., prevailing tlirotigh the whole present, are still
heard. In M. H. G. haben as auxiliary has the contracted forms ; as an
independent verb, the uncontracted.

2. SBerben is a regular strong verb of the 3. class. It is the only verb
that has retained the two pret. vowels, generally the vowel of the sing,
prevailing over that of the plural. SBarb is more common as independent
verb ; tourbe/ as auxiliary. In elevated style marb is preferable.

112. The Perfect is formed with tHe present of ^aben or fein
and the past participle, e. p., iij ^abe getragen, I haye borne; td^
bin gcfaferen, subj. id) fei gcfa^ren, I have ridden. Perfect Infini-
tive: getragen ^aben, gefa^ren fein. to have carried, ridden.

The Pluperfect is formed with the preterit of ^aben or fcin: i^
l^atte getragen, subj. i(!^ ^iitte getragen, I had borne; id^ toar gefa^ren,
subj. ic^ n?arc gcfa^ren, 1 had ridden.

113. The past participles without ge- accompanied by an infinitive
(see 108, 1, 2), the modal auxiliaries and weak verbs which followed
their analogy, form such tenses as these : 3(i^ l^abe t^n gelbcn ^ti^tm I have
ordered him to leave, ©ie ^abcn cinen SRotf madden laflTeii* you have had a
coat made or ordered a coat to be made. ^iDer J^nabe \oX bie Seftion nid^t
lernen fdimen, the boy has not been able to learn the lesson. <£r \cX ed imr
fagen ^orett; he has only heard it said, ^er 9?ad^baT ^t ben SBettler arretteren
lafTeu tt>oIIen (or moUen arretteren laffen)^ my neighbor wanted to have the
beggar arrested.

114. The Futnre ind. and subj. is formed with the present
of iperten and the infinitive, e. g,, i^ jrerbc tragcn, id^ mttt fa^ren,
I shall carry, ride.

The Futnre Perfect is formed with the present of toerben and
the perfect infinitive, e. gr., ic^ jrerbe getragcn ^cAm, id^ werte
gefa^ren fein, I shall have carried, ridden.

115. The first Canditional is formed with the preterit
subj. of merben and the infinitive, e. g., ii^ murbe tragen or
fa^ren, I should carry or ride.

The second or perfect Conditional is formed with the pre-
terit subj. of mxttn and the perfect infinitive : id) JDurbc getragcn
^aitn or gefal^ren fein, I should have carried or ridden.

118] COXJUOATIOK. 86

FaBsive Voice.

116. The passive voice is formed by toerben and the past
participle. The tense of the auxiliary with the past participle
of the verb forms the corresponding passive tense. SQerten
forms its compound tenses with fein and mermen.

Pbesent : {$ totxlt gelp6t, I am praised, am being praised.
PBBTERTr : i^ toart or murte gelobt, I was praised.
Pebfbgt : i6) lin gelo&t mprten, I have been praised.
Plufbrfegt : i^ toax Qtloit wxttn, I had been praised.
FoTUBE : iii toerbe geloBt tper^en, I shall be praised.
FuTUBB FEBFECT *. Hj totxU gelobt wxttxt feitt, I shall have been

praised.

1. Conditional : iii mxU gelobt toerten^I should be praised.

2. or Conditional febfeot : i^ toiixtt gelobt morben fein, I

should have been praised.
Impebative : fei (bu) itleit, be (thou) praised.

felt(iDr)geIobtK ( ) j^^^

Infinitivb : gelobt toerbcn, to be praised.

gelobt toorben fein, to have been praised

Weak Coigugation.

117. The weak conjugation forms the principal parts by
suffixing -te or -etc in the preterit: loben, lobte, retten, rettete; by
prefixing ge- and suffixing -t or -et in the past participle:
gelobt, flcrettet*

1. Verbs of this conjugation are with few exceptions deriyatlre verbs, and most of
them can be recognized as such by certain marks of derivation, such as suffixes (-ein,
-em, -igen, -iecen, -itn, -f^^en) or umlaut (Bat there are a few strong verbs with
umlaut: Ukgeiii ttflgen, getftcen, etc.).

118. 1. The connectlog vowel always stands before t, whether per-
sonal suffix (8. p. s^. and 2. p. pi.) or in the participle and preterit, if the
stem ends in b or t (t^)| if the stem ends in m and n> preceded by another

■g-r^^-,^

36 COKJUGATIOK. [119-

consonant which is not m or % e.ff,,tt r^et# i^r mtlbet, toix toaltttm, getToflet/
er Qtmitt, i^ }(i($nete*

Those in m and n have loet an e before these consonants. Compare them with their
nonna : Ktem, ^ti^tn. Those in n are often treated like those in el, er, to which they
really belong (see snb 3) : jeU^ente, tegente. Bat these forms are not elegant.

2. The connecting vowel stands in the 2. p. sg. present incL, also after
stems in f, fd^. i, j]*/ i, i^, besides the stem-endings sub 1, e,g., bu xtht%
tt>altefl, fd^mad^tefl, re^nefi; reifef), fifi^ef}, fpa§efl, fafltfl, »ibme|l, hti^tft, fto^tft.

3. Verbs in -ein and -ern rarely show the connecting vowel t, e^g., i^
$anbelte# er ^nbelt» gelcici^elt oir manberten* In the 1. p. sg. present ind. and
subj., in the imperative 2. p. sg. they generally lose their own tt e.g,,x^
tt>anble, n>anbre, ^^mti^U (bu).

4. In solemn diction and in poetry any verb may retain the connecting
vowel. On the other hand, the poet and the people take many liberties
in the omission of it (sab 1 and 2). For instance, ^ad neue ^aud ifl aufgC"
rid^t't (Uh.). ectb mlr gegrilgt, ibefrranbHe ©d^aren ! (Sch.). SReb'flbu »on cinem
ber ba lebet? (id.). ®egrfi§ct fcib mir, ebic ^erm! ®cgruflt t^r, fd^one 'Jbamtn
(G.). See F. 3217, 3557. In fact though snch full forms as bu ftfc^efl,
rafrfl/ faffefl# ^u^t% etc., are written, yon generally hear bu flfd^t, rafl, fagtr
pu^t, etc. This applies also to strong verbs, e. g., bu tt)df($t» flo^t^ retgt*

5. The present subj. nearly always shows full forms, but the preterit
ind. and subj. have coincided : bap bu liekfl, i^r liebet; bap i^ lithtt, rebete.

Irregular Weak Verbs.

119. There are two groups of these verbs. One has a dif-
ference of vowel which looks like ablaut^ the other has besides
different vowels also a change in consonants.

1. The stems show nn or nb:

Inf.

Pret. ind.

Snbj.

Fast participle.

Brcnncn

branntc

fcrennte

gebrattnt

fenben

fanbte

fenbete

gefanbt

Here belong Brenncn, + bum ; lennen, to be acquainted
with, -f ken; ncnnen, + name; rennen, + run; fenben, + send;
wenben, to turn, + wend, went. The last two have also a pre-
terit ind. fenbete, menbete*

121J CONJUGATIOlir. 37

2. The stems show nl, ng. Here belong :

Inf. Fret. ind. SnbJ. Paat participle.

titnUn tad^te Vaiitt getad^t

tunfen teud^te (^eud^te) Itniftt Qtuni^t

Hnftt tiutfte getiinK

bringen ixaAtt irad)te gebrad^t

Strong Coigugation.

120. Strong verbs must have different stem-TOwels in the
preterit and present, since in this way difference of tense is
expressed. But the vowel of the past participle may coincide
with that of the present, as in geben^ gab, gegeben v, fasten, fu^r,
gefa^ren vi, ^alten, l^ielt, ge^alten vn; or with that of the preterit,
as in beigen, bif , gebiffen i, biegen, bog, gebogen n, glimmen, glomm,
geglommen vm. The past participle ends in -en, and has the
prefix gc-, e. g., gejbW^tt/ gerufen*

121. The personal sufiSxes are the same as in weak verbs.
Compare liebte, liebtefl, liebte, etc.; fa^, fa^fl, fa^, etc. The imper-
ative 2. p. sg. has no ending when the present ind. has inter-
change of e-i, ie, e.g., [6^ berge, tu birgfl, er birgt; imp. birg; bred}en
— bricb; effen — ig. This interchange of e-i,ie occurs in m 8,
IV, v; in verbs which do not have it there is no difference of
stem-vowel in the imperative and the present, e.g., l^alten —
^alt ; f(!^)oimmen — [(^toimm* But often e is added in analogy
with weak verbs, always when the verb' is either strong or
weak, e.g,, rufen — rufe vii; fdj(agen — fc^lagc vi ; always mit,
betoege, erm&ge vni. In the last group there is of course no
interchange of e-i, e. g.j tu bemegfl, er bemegt. When the stem
ends in t, the suffix t in the 3. p. sg. is not added, or rather
-tet passes into simple t. M. H. G. giltet > gill't > gilt. Com-
pare 118, 4 E. g.y geltett — cr gift ; fec^ten — er fidjt ; raten, riit.
Special mention is made of these peculiarities imder each
class and verb. The preterit subj. always has umlaut and

38 CONJUGATION. [12a-

tbe 1. and 3. p. sg. end in e, e. g.y id^ \a^, btt fa^fl, er \a^f etc. ;
but id^ fa^e, tu fdljcft, er fa^e*

The verbs are best classified according to the ablaut-series.
(See 393.)

122. I. Class. Ablaut : ei {, ie i, ie.

1. Division : ci i i.

The stem ends in g ((f), f, ^, t, M*

Examples: bei^en, Mp, geHjfen ; Welfen, fci^nff, gefd^liffcn ; fdjrelten,
fc^rttt, gefd^rttten; wcldjen, toiij, geroic^en; lelcen, litt, gelitten*

The following verbs belong here : betjcn, + bite ; Met(^cn (intrans.), +
bleach, but also weak, always when trans. ; {!($ ]&eflei§enf to apply one's
self; ^Ui^tn, to be + like, strong since the 17th centuij, in the sense of
+ liken it is still weak, a N. H. G. distinction, M. H. G. only weak ;
glcigem + glitter, nothing to do with the rare gleifcn < gelihsen, to
deceive, or ^glctfett" in cntgleifen < ®clcife, track, to derail ; gleitcn, + glide ;
grcifen, to seize, + gripe ; grcinen» + grin, rare and generally weak, grlnfm,
its derivative, has taken its place ; feifen^ to qaarrel, is strong or weak, <
L. G. ; fneifen, to pinch, L. G. > N. H. G. ; freiWcn and frcigem to scream,
are related, both weak and strong, not H. G.; Ieiben# to suffer, + loathe ;
pfcifcti/ to whistle, + pipe < L. pipare ; rcigen» to tear, + write, draw ;
rettenf + ride on horseback ; fd^Iei^etii to sneak (+ slick and sleek) ;
f(^Ictfcn# to grind, + slip, weak in the sense of ** to drag, raze"; f(^tet§cn#
+ slit, split ; [(^metpettf + smite, throw ; fd^neiben^ to cut ; [(^reitetif to stride ;
fpleijettf + split, L. and M. G. ; fhreid^en» to wipe, cross, + strike, etc., with
very varying meanings ; ftrctlcn, to strive ; xoti^tn, to yield ; compare
toti^if + weak, wicker ; weak, it means to soak« soften.

2. Division : ci • ie ie.

Examples : 0et)el^en, getie^, geMe^en ; rei6en, rleb, gcrteben.

Here belong: bleikn» to remain (+ leave) ; gebct^ciu to thrive, the part,
has a doublet, gcbie^cnf thriven, gebicgen, solid, pure ; leil^cnf to borrow, +
lend ; mciben# to avoid ; prctfcn, 4- to praise, strong only since the 15th cen-
tury, < ^xti9 < M. H. G. pris < O. Fr. pris < L. prelum, analogous to
Fr. priser ; xtiUn, to rub ( + rive) ; fc^eibciif to separate ; fd^ciiien» + shine ;
Wrciben, to write (+ shrive); fc^reteiif to scream (?) ; [(^weigen, to be silent,
weak in the sense of " to still a child ; fpeiciif to spit, + spew ; jlclgcn*
to climb; treibeiir + to drive; weifcn, to point out, in the 16th century
still weak ; itx^tn, to accuse (+ indict).

126] CONJUGATIOK. 39

123. Kotlce the Interchange of b-t in the flnt dlvleion, «. g,^ fc^neibeii; fi^nltt,
geft^nltten ; bat not in the second, yic., meiben, mieb, gemicben ; f^eiben, f^teb, gefd^iebcn.
(See 416.) When the stem ends in ^ or f, the 8. p. sg. present ind. is heard merely as
ending in % whether spelt so or not. The fall form -eii stands only in elevated diction,
«. ^., bu f<^mei|t, bei^t, bcjletlt bit^ ; bu neifefl and »etfl, bu pretfefi and preifl. (See 118,
4.) Notice also the doubling of t and f in ft^reUeii; ft^rttt ; fheUen, jhitt: f^^teifen, \^\\%
etc.

124. IL Class. Ablaut : ie (it, au) i, o o, o*

1. Diyision : ie (au) o i*
The stem ends in J (ff^, (^, f.

Examples : flicfen, flog, fleflojfen ; triefen, trojf, getrojfcii.

Here belong: loerbriegeUf to disgust, vex; fliefettr + flow (+ fleet);
fitepen, to pour ; fricd&en, + to crouch, creep (?) ; gentcfcn, to enjoy ; rieci^cn,
to smell, + reek ; fdjlejett, + to shoot ; fd)Uefcnr to slip, rare, supplanted
by its derivative fc^lftpfen; f(^Utfen, to close, lock ; fprlefen* + to sprout ;
triefen» + to drip ; faufen^ to drink (of animals), + sup and + sip.

2, •Division : ie, il, au o o.

Examples : fitegen, flog, geflogen ; triigen, trog, getrogen ; faugen,
fog, gefogen.

Here belong : 1. In ie : Megen, to bend ; bietem to offer, + to bid ;
|llegen» + to fly ; jlte^^cHf + to flee ; fricren* + to freeze ; fUeben» + to
cleave, split ; fd^ieben, + to shove ; fliebenr to scatter ; Joerlieren, + to lose ;
jic^en (jog, gcjogen)), to draw.

2. In fi : fftren (llcfen), + to choose ; lilgen, to lie ; trflgen, to deceive.

8. In au : faugen» + to suck ; f^naul^en (fc!^niel&en)f to snort, L. and M. G.;
Wraubtn, to screw (+ ?), L. G. > late M. H. G.

S., 8. pen. Bg. pree. Bhow archaic forms eometimes in eu *. ftcu^t, treu^t, ftcugt. (See
406.) Of thoee in au only faufen has omlant, viz., f&uffl, f&uft. The stem ending in %i
the 8. p. 8g. may he bu f^ie^t, genie^t. Notice the interchange of ^ In jte^en, |og,
ge)ogen, but % is silent (See 416.) Notice also the doubling of f : faufen, foff, etc.

125. m Class. Ablaut : ?, i fi u, S^
1. Division : i a «.

The stem ends in n + cona (t>, g, ()*

Examples : Hnben, Banb, geJunben; frtingen, frrang, gcfprungeti.

40 CONJUGATION. [127-

Here belong : btnbenr + to bind ; bingen^ to hire, oiiginallj and still at
times weak, the isolated weak past part, bebitigt is a regular adjective ;
bringett, to penetrate ; flnben, + to find ; gelingetu to be snccessfnl ; fUngen»
to be heard, resound ; ringen* to struggle, + wring ; f^inbcn* + to skin,
pret. fc^unb; fd^Ungen^ to twine, + sling, it also has the force of the now
lost [(l^Iinbetif to swallow ; ^d^mxibtn, to disappear ; fd^mingen^ + to swing ;
jingen, + to sing ; jlnfen, + to sink ; fpringen, + to spring ; (linfeiir + to
stink ; txixHttn, +to drink ; tt)ittben/ + to wind ; j»ittgcn» to force.

2. Division : i a S.

The stem ends in mm and nn*

Examples: fpinncn, fpann, subj. franne and fpSnne, jefponnen;
fd^mimmen, fd^tvamm, fd^mfimme and \iitt>ommt, gef(i^mommen«

Here belong : U^imtn, + to begin ; rinncn, to flow, + run ; fimtn, to
think ; f(^tt>imincn, + to swim ; fpinneii/ + to spin ; gc»innen# + to win.

3. Division : e-i a 6»

The stem ends in I, r + cons, except brefd^en.

Examples : ^elfen (Wlft), '^alf (^iilfe, '^iilfe), flf^lfm ; werfcn
(mirft), marf (wilrfc), gc»orfen»

Here belon^jr: Bcrgcn# to hide, + bury, bnrrow; htx^, + to burst;
bref(!^en^ + to thrash ; gelten, to be worth, pass for ; l&elfm» + to help ; f(5cUcn»
+ to scold ; jlerben, to die ( + starve) ; »erberberw to spoil (intrans.) ; ^tx*
bcrben (weak), to corrupt ; totxUn, to enlist, woo ; tt>crbcm to become, +
worth ; totifm, to throw (+ warp).

126. Notice the doable preterits enbj, (See 464, 8.) Sub 2, rinnen neyer has
„T&nne.'' The d. division has generally and better fi, because yon cannot tell /,]^Ufe''
from „^e(fe'' by ear. ^ref(^en and berjlen, once belonging to the next class, haye
br6f(^c — brifc^e, barjtc — ]&6rfte.

The 2. and 8. p. sg. present Ind. have i instead of e. (See 403.) As to the suffix,
berflen has bu i^trft, Ux^i% er Birfl; QtlUn, bu 9i(t{l (pronounced gUfi), et gilt; nerben/ bu
toix^, n »iTb; f^etten li^e getten.

127. IV. Class. Ablaut : &,?,! — t, ic 5 3, o*

The stem contains I, r, m after or before the root-vowel.

Examples: bredjctt (bridjfl), bra* (ixaiit), gcbrodjen; flc^len
(Ptc^), jla^t (pa^Ie, jlb^le), gejloWcn.

129]' GOKJTTGATIOK. 41

Here belongr : Bre^en^ + to break ; geB^rettf + to bear, bring forth ;
befe^Ictif to command ; m^ftfjltn, to recommend ; erfd^recfcn (erf^ra!), to be
frightened; ne(mett# to take, + nim ; fpre^en, to speak ; flecl^etu + to stick,
stab ; |le^Un» + to steal ; treffen (traf )» to hit ; fommcn» hvx, dcfommnw + to
come. (See 489, 1.)

IBefe^Ien and (tnpfe^ten belonged to the UL CIasb, and hare doable rabJanctlroB,
Bef&^Ie — bef&^Ief etc Bo has {te^ten, fiddle— fi&^(c. The nmlant in oe^&ren Ib onlj
graphic for e < ?. Those in -^t and geb&ven have ic in 8. and 8. p. sg. present ind. :
cmpfie^It, geMert. The rest have t : trifffl^fpri^^; bu t5mm{l, er I5mmt are quite common,
bat not elegant.

128. V. Class. Ablaut: i, ll—i,it « 1,1.
The stem ends in any sound but a liquid.

1. Diyision: t,l — i^ie fi i,f.
Example : geien (giebfl, giifl), goB (fi&ie), gegeBen*

Here belong: t^tn, + eat ; frelftitr + eat (said of animals) ; fie^eiu +
give ; gcnefeitf to recover ; fiefc!^eten» to happen ; Ufcn» to read ; nieffcn# + to
measure, + mete ; fcjot, + to see ; trttciif + to tread ; ucrgelfen* + to for-
get ; (mefcn) V6ax, getoefetti to be, + was.

2. Division : i, ie 5 i, e.

Here belong: Mttnw (at, ge^etem to ask, + bid; Uegeni la^ gelegen* + to
lie ; p^m, faf, gtfefTenf + to sit.

The form of the 2. and 8. persone 8g. of the present ind. of yerhs ending in ff is -$t;
of those in f is {I for both persons : bu, et t^t, vergtH fri|t ; bu, ei ttejl. Bat %tnt\tn, bu,
cr senefl, has no ie, probably becaase genie^ woald have coincided with geniclt < genielen,
%tno%f u. ; bu fi^efl may be contracted > fl^fl/ pronounced merely „f^t" The participle
of e^cn, yIZm ^t^^^tn, has ge- twice, becaase geeffen was contracted into ^tf^n very early.
This is now colloquial. (See F. S888, 4416.) Notice bu trittfl, er trttt ; bu bittefl, er bittet.

129. YI. Glass. Ablaut : S, a-& u fi, a.

The stem-Towel is short before more than one consonant ;
also in iuh

Example: 6a(fen,(6fi(Ifl),(ttI(6tife), gebaden.

Here belong : (acfntf + to bake, in N. G. generally weak ; fal^retir to ride«
+ fare ; graven, to dig; laben» to invite, and labetir + load ; laben (strong).

/^" UNIVr»?4ITY ^

42 CONJUGATIOK. [130*

+ to load, and laben (weak), to invite, have been confounded since early
N. H. G.; thej are of different origin ; fd^affen (fc^uf), to create (weak, "to
work ") ; fc^lagen* to strike, + slay ; tragen, to carry ; xoa^^ta, to grow. +
wax ; U)af(^en, + to wash ; {fitf^), fhinb» flanb (fhinbe, fldnbe), geflanbeur + to
stand, fhinb is still common in S. G.

Here belonged also formerly : ^cben (^ebfl), l^ub, gtl^oben, to raise, +
heave ; fd^tt)dren (fc^ttorjl), fd^wur — W»ot, gcfd^aorcn, + to sweat, ^ragen
(fr^dll)» frufl (but never gcfragcn), ** to ask," are frequently heard ; also jagcn
(i^9ll)# \Ht "to chase." The forms are still frowned upon by gram-
marians because they are " wrong," but the people use them just the
same.

In the 3. and 3. p. present ind. & le the role excepting fd^affen, fd^affft, which is under
the inflaence of the weak verb. Notice bu and er »&d^fl, bu v&fd^fl (pronounced »&fd^t).
Isolated participles : ^tmafjitn, ground ; mafjlUn Ib now weak, mo^UO/ mafjlltt, gemo^lt^
to grind ; er^abcn, lofty, < et^eben, er^oBen.

130. yn. Class. Characteristic is ie in the preterit,
which is no ablaut, while the past participle always has the
vowel of the infinitive.

For convenience we make two groups.

1. Division. The seeming ablaut is : d, a ie i, a*

a before more than one consonant, ie = short i before >ng*

Examples: fangcn (fiiitflP), fienfl, gefangen; ivatm (6r5tfl, briit),
brlet, gebtaten*

Here belong: lla^tti, + blow, + blare (?); BrttUttf to roast, fry; fatten
(ftcl), + to fall ; fangen (rarer fal^ctt)^, to catch ; (gc^n), gieng, gcgangcn, + go,
went, gone ; f^lttn, + to hold ; ^angenf + to hang ; laffettf + to let, cause ;
xattn, to advise ; Wlafcn# + to sleep.

IJmlant is the role in the 2. and 8. p. present ind. Notice bu t&ifl, ei r&t ; bu, er ((&fl ;
bu ^&U{1 (pronounced nW^")f cv ^^ ; bu t&ffefl or bu, er I&^t. The umlaut in this whole
class is late ; in later M. H. G. they bare it rarely. The ** Rules *' prefer the spelling
i to ie, yiz., ^Ina, fing, ging.

131. 2. Division : an, ti, o, it ie an, ti, o, u.

Here belong : f^antn, ^icb (b < »), ge^uettr + to hew ; laufcn, Ilef, gclaufcn,
to run, + leap; ^eigenr ^teg^ ge^eipem to call, command, + hight; flofen
(flte§), to kick, thrust ; rafcn (rief), to call.

133] COKJUGATIOK. 43

Only lichen and generally latifen take the umlaat : bu, er fi&^t ; bu I&uffl.

@(^eiben, once of this class, has gone into i ; ,^ge^ie|en," according to i, is 8ome>
times heard, but must still be rejected as incorrect. Of this class there are a great
many isolated participles of verbs that have changed conjogation, e. g,, bef^elben,
modest (bat befc^teben/' ordered^'); geft^roten, roogh-groond ; flcfaljen; + salt ; flefpalten,
" split " ; flewaljen, rolled, etc.

132. YIIL Class. Characteristic is o in the preterit and
past participle, long or short according to the following con-
sonants.

The verbs belonging here are stragglers from all the other ablaut-
series. There must be therefore a number that are still afloat ; that is,
according to the usage of the period in which they are taken, they be-
long to their regular class or to this. Present usage in the spoken lan-
guage always favors o — o* e,g.^ f%tt)flren# ^^toox, gef^»oren# vi ; brtf(%en,
broft^r gebroft^enf iii ; f^^m, l^obr ge^obeuy yi, which have been assigned by us,
however, to their proper classea fiitgeny n, and trugeitr ii, have sprung
from Uegen and trtegen under the influence of the nouns fifigty Xrug. They
might be classed here ; as also ffirenr n, for ftefen ; compare the noun
^ur('farfl)# elector.

133. The vowels of the present may be t, i, a, &, 5*
The ablaut is most frequently e o o*

We count here : beHen (bettt# billt)r to bark, in ; fed^ten (fid^tflr ^6^i), + to
fight, IV, III ; ped^ten (fli(i^tjlr pronounced fli(^fl, pidjjt), to braid, rv, in ;
^jflegen^ to carry on, undertake, v, rv, in the sense of " to be accustomed,^
" to care for," always weak ; melfen (melft and mil!t); + to milk ni ; queSen
(qu{Ut)i to swell, gush, in ; fi^eUen (fcbiUt archaic), generally fc^aUen the weak
verb, **to resound," weak = to cause to resound, ring, m; fci^mtljen
(Wmiljj!, Wmiljt), + to melt, in ; \^mUin (fdS)»iUt)# + to swell, in ; mUn
(tt)ebil)# strong and weak, + to weave, v; bcwcgcn (bcwegjl), to induce,
weak = to move, v ; gUmmoir to glow, in, 2 ; fUmmm* + to climb, in, 2 ;
gdren (g^rt); to ferment, also weak, iv ; erto^gen (emSdfl)r to consider ; lo^gen
or wicgm (if ie, n), wagjl, miegfl, + to weigh (-wagen, tt>lcgcn# -wegcn are in
M. H. G. the same word, v) ; r&'c^en (r^(^t)r + to wreak, sometimes has ro(b#
^txo^tn, but is generally weak, rv; erlofd^nti intrans., to die out (of a flame),
(erlifci^ejlr erlifc^Or but trans. Ibfc^em to extinguish, ni ; )9crn)irrenf to confuse,
m, is generally weak, but has an isolated participle, vertoorren = intricate,
complicated.

44 AlifOMALOnS TEBBS. [134<

ANOMALOUS VERBS.
L The Preterit-Present Verbs.

134. To this group belong the modal auxiliaries and toifen*
They are originally strong verbs, whose preterits are used as
presents. New preterits, past participles, and infinitiyes were
formed weak. The infinitives, the present plural, and the new
strong participle have the same vowel, sometimes with an
irregular umlaut : tonntn (inf.), »ir Knncn, Knncn (past part).
The different vowels of the present in the sg. and pL mi^,
tDiffen; the subjunct, with umlaut, tnag, ttti^ge; the lack of t in
the 3. p. sg., er ma^, are still traces of their strong conjugation.
The weak preterit was formed without connecting vowel^ and
has umlaut in the subjunctive : moQtn, moAte, mbAtt, gemod^t*
(See 119, 2, and 454, 3.) The strong participle in -en stands
in the compound tenses, when an infinitive depends upon the
auidliary: i^ ^abc fciftrelBcn muffen, but ici^ l^ah gcmugt. An im-
perative, the meaning permitting, is made up from the
subjunctive, e.^., »otte, m5flc.

135. 1. SBtjfctt, I, to know, + to wit (wot, he wist).

Inf. Fret. ind. SabJ. PEurticiples.

»tffe« wupte wfi^te {J-^

The pres. ind. inflects: iif wcip, tu toti^t, er toti^, t»ir toijfcn, i^r
»ijf(c)t, fie ttJtjfcn. Subj. : ic^ wiffc, »ij[cjl, »ij[e, etc. Imp. : totjfe,
toljfft, toijfen ®ie.

2. !E)iirfett, in, to be permitted.

Jut Free. eg. Fret. ind. SabJ. Past part.

kflrim kOTf *«rfte fcfirfte if!?*

I turf en

Pres. ind. : barf, batfjl, barf, bfirfen, biirft, bfirfm, Subj.: butfe,
bflrfejl, bfirfe, etc.

136] AKOMALOUS YEBBS. 45

3. Adnnen, m, to be able, + can.

Inf. Pros. «g. Ptet. ind. SnbJ. Put part

Knnen fann fonttte Hnnte -t ^^ ^

( Knnen

Ftea ind. : fann, fannfl, fann, fdnnen, etc. Subj. : linne, {5nne{l,
finne, etc. Imp. : Unm, Untd, Unmn @ie.

4. SK6gcn, V, iv, to be able, + may.

Inf. Free. Bg. Fret. ind. SabJ. Fast part.

Jtftt like IBnnen.

5. @oIIen, lY, + shalL

Inf. Free. eg. Ind. and sabJ. Fast part.

foDen foQ foOte

Pre& ind.: foQ, foUfl, fotl, foDm, etc.

IfoDctt

This is almost entirely weak now. The vowel-dlffbienoe in the prea.
has been levelled away. Comp. Eng. shall, should.

6. aRiijfcn, vi, + must.

In£ Pres. eg. Fret ind. SnbJ. Past part.

mflffm muf mu^ mflfte {^^^^^

Pres. ind. : mn^, mu^t, mu^. Subj. : milfe, etc.
This too is almost entirely weak.

7. SBoHen, i, + will.

Inf. Free. eg. SnbJ. Ind. and snbj. Fret. Fast part

( tooUen
Pres. ind. : »iff, toiDjl, toitl, rotten, ttoflt, tooDen. (See 472, 2.)

n. The yerbs gel^n, + to go, flel^n, + to stand, t^un,
+ toda

46 ANOMALOUS VERBS. [137^

136. 1. ®t^(t)n.

Pres. ini : id^ flcl^e, tu gc^jl, cr flcl^t, »ir flcl^n, i^r jc^t, flc flc^n*
Subj.: ^ gcl^e, t)tt flc^cjl, er gc^e, etc.
Imp. sg.: gc^; pL, flc^t, gc^cn Sic. Pari: gel^ent.
Pret. ind.: l^ glcng. Subj.: i^ fiicnge.
Part: gcgangen* According to vn ; from a stem "gang.''

2. ®tc^(c)n.

Pres. ind. : i^ flel^c, t>u jlel^jl, er \tt% »ir flc^ii; il^r jle^t, |le flel^n*
Subj. : i^ jle^c, t>u flc^efl, cr flc^e, etc.
Imp. sg.: flcl^; pi., (le^t, fle^en ®ie. Part.: fle^ent. ^
Pret. ind.: id^ jlanD (flunt). Subj.: jlante (jHinte).
Part: gcflantcn^ According to ti ; from a stem "stand"

3. S^utt^

Pres. ind. : i^ tl^uc, tu tH% er t^ut, »ir rtun, i^r t^ut, fie t^un*
Subj. : id) t^ue, tu t^ucjl, cr t^ue, »ir tl)ttn, i^r tljut, flc t^uen^

Imp. sg.: t§tt; pL, t^ut, t^un @ic. Part.: t^uent).

Pret ind. : id^ t^ot, tu t^atfl, cr t^at, tt>ir t^tctt, i^r t^atet, fie
t^aten. Subj.: i^ t^Jitt, in t^fitcfl, er tl^ate, etc«

Part.: gct^an*

The full forms with e of these three verhs are not used in the indica-
tive. The ^ is merely graphic, and is not pronounced, e. g,, id^ gel^e is not
gc-Jc, hut ge or gf'e.

137. The compound verbs are not inflected differently from
the simple verbs. Notice the position of the separable prefix
and ge- in separable compound verbs: i^ fdjreibe an, fd)rie6 an;
imp. f(^rci6e (t>u) an, ii) l^ait angcf(!^rieBcn, Id) merbc- attfd)rcibctt.
The separable prefix stands apart from the verb in the simple
tenses (pres. and pret. ), but only in main clauses ; ge - stands
between prefix and verb, angcfdjrickn, aufgct^an. Ex. : 3A
f^relbc, fd)rlc6 ben Srief ai, but wa^rcnb Id) ten Sricf aBf(i^rlc6
(dependent clause). In inseparable compounds notice the

138] AK03£AL0US YEHBS. 47

participle has no fle : left »erflc^c, »erjlanb, l^ait »erjlanfcm, toerbe
))er{le^n. (See 108, 3.)

1. Notice a class of inseparable compounds derived from compoond
nouns. These have ge. They can be easily recognized hj the chief
stress falling on the first element: bad dxWi^ft&d, verb fru'^fluden, frit^llittftei
gefrU^fl&tftf to breakfast; ber fRa't^^la^, verb ra'tf^lagCHf xat\^la^tt, geratf^lagt^
to take council.

138. Example of a reflexive verb, e. g., f!(!^ freuen, to rejoice:
Pres. i^ freuc mici^, bu freujl bi^, cr freut fid), »tr frcuen une, i^r

freut eu(!^, fle freuen fid^ ; ic!^ freute miij, f^abt mii^ gefreut, merbe mid^

frcuen, toerbe mld^ gefreut ^aben.

FIRST PART.

SECOND SECTION.

SYNTAX.

142J SYNTAX OF THE AfiTIOLE. 61

SYNTAX.

139. For practical reasons we divide the Syntax into
Special and General Syntax.

The Special treats of the function of the word, inflected or
uninflected, in a sentence.

The General treats of the combination of words into a
sentence, of the word-order, and of the combination of
clauses into a compound sentence.

It is of course difficult to keep tliese two divisions separate, as in fiust all the differ^
ent branches of grammar. Thus the separation of inflection and function, of phonol-
ogy and inflection, of word-formation and syntax is a yiolent one. The division into
special and general syntax is the custom of French grammarians, who have succeeded
best in freeing their grammatical system from the strait-Jacket of Latin and Qreek
grammars.

SPECIAL SYNTAX.

The parts of speech are treated here in the same order as they are in the Accidence.

Syntax of the Article.

140. The use of the demonstratiye pronoun as definite article is
much older than that of the numeral wdn" as indefinite article. ir<£in''
was used where the definite article could not stand ; hence the plural of
ein ^axm is still SR&nner. In O. H. G. the article is still lacking ; its use
spread in M. H. G., so that now it is almost a necessity.

Some General Cases of Absence of the Article.

141. Proper names, names of materials always when pre-
ceded by nouns expressing quantity and measure, have no
article. Ex. : ©octfec tmiijtt tin f^e^ti Sllter. ©d^ltter (lar6 "otx^
^altnidmafig iung. S(ei ifl toeid^er aU ®otD. Sin 9)funt) 3u(!er.

142. No noun preceded by a genitive can take an article:
Dcd Denfend gaten ijl 3crrlffcit (F. 1748). let altcn ®6tter hunt
®e»tmmel (O.).

52 SYNTAX OF THE ABTICLE. [143-

143. There is no article before nonns^ connected by unt,
mltv, noil, or nnconnected, in certain set and adverbial phrases;
in an enumeration of objects belonging to the same class or
genus. Ex. : ®elr) unr) ®ut. ^au« unD ipof. iUlit ®ott fiir Abnig
unD SaterlanD. 3tt ©aud uitD Stand, ©inn un^ Scrflanb »crlier^
id^ fci^icr (F. 2504). 9li4t irtifd^ ifl t>ed S^oren Sranl noii ©pcife
(F. 301). ©oU id) mit ©rijfcl, gWcipel, gercr fd^reiben ? (F. 1732).
Ura^ttc, ®ro§muttcr, 9Rutter unr ^inr in tumpfcr ©tube beifammm
finD (Schwab). Qn Sifdj, gu Sctte, §au0 an ^an^, ©tcin auf ©tein.
in Dflen, gen ©utjcn, »on 9lort>cn.

144. All pronouns exclude the article, except fold^, manif,
mliij, trad fiir, which allow an indefinite article after them, and
a(I(e), which allows the definite article after it; e. g. : SBad fott
aU t>er ©camera unt) Sufi (G.). SBct^ tin gefd^aftig SSoII citt ein un^
aud (id.). 3Cad fiir cin Santdmann H(i W, gagcr? (Sch.).

145. An abstract noun, and any noun denoting profession,
rank, position have no article in the predicate after neuter
verbs; e. g. : 5>^ito!te't,Der gang 9latur i(l, bringt au(i^ ten ?Rco}>toIc'm
gu feiner 9lahtr »ieter ^nxM (Le.). ^ei^e 3Ragi|ler; l^ei^e 'Coctor
gar (F. 360). (3(i^) bin ©obot, lomme niemate toic^er (Sch.),
Eng., I am a soldier.

146. 1. In technical phrases some nouns and adjectives nsed as
such take no article : ©^reiber biefed/ the writer of this ; StU^tx, plaintiff;
©efagtcr; Ocbac^ter; Dblgc^; fjolgcnbcd, etc. In headings: Ucber STimiut unb
SGBurbc (Sch.). eafudU^rc, glcxion«Ic^>rc.

2. In folk-lore and folk-songs : fftotU^i^d^tn, Little Red Riding-hood ;
©i^ncetDtttd^cn. ifnabc fprad^: tc^ brc(^e bici^. gi5«lcin fpraci^: i^ fle*c bt* (G.).
2:^ur4en fnarrt. Wt&n^ltin pfeift.

Article with Proper Nouns.

147. The rule is: no article before proper nouns just as
in English.

1. Names of persons may take an article when the bearer is

149] ARTICLE WITH PBOPEB KOUKS. 53

well known and his name has become a common noon; to ex-
press familiarity and intimacy, also contempt; to mark gender
and case more dearly (this applies also to names of places
and countries) ; when the author's or artist's name is used for
his work; before names of planets, of ships^ of the characters
of a play, of titles of books taken from a person. Ex. : Sin
SBaftlngtoit, Der SSJelfe, tie Dttoncn. Schiller's Tell and Wallen-
stein, G-oethe's Gotz and Lassing's M. von Bamhelm are full
of examples of the second use (familiarity, etc). !iDie Sufle bed
©ofratcs^ 2Car iii Dcm gcrt>inant> gettefen, toad Dctat)io mix toax . . .
(Sch.). gagt fld^ neitncn ten ffiattenjletn (Sch.) (contempt).
1^et)rient fpielte ntn ^lati^an. 51Rcin 8«wnb ^at ten Sorot »erfaufl
(painting by Corot). Der ^erfulcd tj^ befd)dt)igt.

2. Names of countries and provinces which are not neuter
take the definite article. Most of these are feminine and a
few masculine, viz., compounds : ter Sreidgau, 9t6eingaU; ter
©untgau; also Ux ^aag (+the Hague); Ux, tad SIfa§. Femi-
nines in -ei : tie Surf el', SBattaciftei' ; in -au : tie SRoItau, tie
SCetterau; in -marl: tie 9lcumarf, tie Dflmar!; tie 2au|I^, tie
Sci^welg, tie ilrlmm, tie Se»ante, tie ^\ali. Some neuters in -lantt
tad Bogtiant, tad SBenttlant, tie 9lleterlante, pi.

8. Names of oceans, lakes, straits, rivers, mountains, and
forests always have the definite article, e. g., tad SRlttelmeer, tie
Df^fee, tcr Sotenfee, ter Sclt, ter ©unt, ter Sl^eln, tie T)onau, ter
ipara, ^^^ ©peffart; tie 3Hpen, ter ©(Jfetvargwalt.

4. Names of the seasons, months, days of the week, of the
streets of a city: „Der SBlnter Ifl ein fi^rcnmann" (Clauiius).
3m 3<J«uar, ted ©onntagd, auf or In ter ^aiferf^ra^e, im griifeling*

148. Appellatives have an 'article as in English: tie £^rdne
qulUt, tie Srte ^at niiij wlete'r (F. 784). For exceptions see
141-146.

149. Abstract nouns have no article when they denote a
characteristic or state of mind : SRiit jelget aud^ ter Wamelud;

54 SYJSTTAX OF THE ARTICLE. [160-

©e^orfam ijl M 6l^rijlen ®iimui (Sch.). greube toor in Sroia^d
fatten (id.) Jtrieg ifi cmig gmlfd^en 2ijl unt) 3[rfl»o^n (id.). But
when they denote an act or motion they are treated as appel-
latives. They may also take the article that has generahzing
force, e. g., Der SoD ijl tier @ilnt)cn ©oft) (B.). Die SSa^I flc^t tir
nod^ frei (Sch.). Die ^unjl ijl lang utxo fuq ijl unfer 8c6cn (F.
658-9). Die Sotf^aft W id^ »o^I, aflcin mix fcl^U Der ©laube
(F. 765). Dad max tin ® d^up ! (Sch. ).

150. Names of materials have the generalizing article,
which denotes the whole kind or substance, or an article that
singles out a certain kind or quantity, e. g,y Der SBein erfreut
ted 3Renf4ett iperg (B.). Dad ®olt ijl fojlbar. Die ©teinfo^le ijl
fc^mara olicr braun. Without article: ©ilbcr unt) ®o(D ^abe iAi nic^^t
(B.). Slut ijl gefTolfcn (Sch.). 2a§ mir ten bejlen Seeder SBeind in
j)urem ®oIte rei(^en (G.).

151. Collective nouns take an article except when taken
in a partitive sense: 2Cad rennt tad Soil? (Sch.). SBcit ta^inten
»ar no^ \i(k^ gup^otf (id.). 2Dir %Oiiixi gufttoH unt Sleiterei (id.).

152. AU classes of nouns qualified by an adjective, by a
genitive, by a relative clause, etc., take an article in the singu-
lar, excepting names of materials and any nouns standing in
the predicate or in certain adverbial phrases. The plural has
the definite article or none. Ex. : Der ttcine ®ott ter 2DeIt Hei6t
jletd »on fllet^em ©djlag (F. 281). Der ®ott, ter Sifen toad^fcn
lie§ . ♦ ♦ (Amdt). Die ipauptjlatt t)on granhei*. But (©ic)
fpra^cn laut »ofl 6ol^en ©innd unt ®eful^Ied (G.). "^aA alter SJeife^
Sd flab fd^ijnrc 3eiten aid tie unfern (Sch.). Der alte Sarbarojfa
(Uh.).

153. The genitive preceding a noun always has the article
except a proper name : 3n ted 9Rarmord lalte SSauflen (Sch.).
3nted SBaltcd 9Ritte (id.). Schiller's „att Ufer^d Slant" Goethe
would have made a compound, „Uferdrant.'' Oomp. ,,Serfled^
%^W^ and other compounds of Goethe.

168] BEPETITIOK OF THE ARTICLE. 65

154. The definite article stands for an Eng. possessiye
pronoun, when the possessor cannot be mistaken. There
may or may not be a personal pronoun as object in the sen-
tence. Ex. : £)er Ao))f t^ut mix fo toti) (Song), ^aii i%x mix ten
ginger Uoi genommen? (Sch.). (@ie) rii^rt if^m leife tie @d^ulter
(H. and D. 4, 63). See 243, 3.

155. 1. In S. G. the definite article is always applied to members of
the family instead of the possessive pronoun. In N. G. no article is neces-
sary as in Eng. : ®xixi' ben Battx unb ^atcrd ^ritber ! (Sch.).

2. As with proper names so names of materials and abstract nouns
often have the definite article in the genitive and dative merely to show
the case : ber S^il^ SBaffer )9orite]^en.

156. The definite article is used in German for the indefi-
nite in English in a distributive sense : Sutter foftet antert^alb
SIRarf Ui g)funD, a pound ; biefed Sudj fojlet 90 g)fcnnifl(e) tie ®tte ;
funfmal bad ^af^x or im ^a\^xt^ This ** a " in Eng. represents the
preposition " on/' and is not the indefinite article.

157. (Sin can stand in German before certain indefinite pronouns and
neuter adj. where it does not stand in Eng.: ein {ebeTf ein ieglid^er, tin folc^er,
etn mand^er (better mand^ einer); ein fefled; = a fixed sum; ein mel^rered, =
more ; (in menige^ = little. 3(^ f^rcibe na^flend ein mel^rered.

Bepetition of the Article.

158. Before each of several nouns of different gender the
article must be repeated if it stand at all: !iDer Setter, bie 3)tutter
bie gingen t)or bed ^auptmannd $aud (Song). If two nouns, con-
nected by unb; denote different persons the article should be
repeated : Der Dnfel nnb ^at^t bed *inbc« toax bci ber Saufe
Sugegen (one person). But ber Dniel unb ber ^atl^t ♦ . . (two
persons).

Both rules are often offended against by Luther, Goethe, and Lessing,
and frequently in the spoken language : SBenn man ben ^akx nnb ^id^ter mit
etnanber ^^crgleid^en toill . • . (Le.).

The article before an apposition \b treated as in English.

56 SYKTAX OP THE GEKDEB. [159-

SYNTAX OF THE GENDER.

159. The grammatical gender of nouns is threefold, mas-
culine, feminine, neuter. As to living beings, the nouns de-
noting males are masculine, and those denoting females femi-
nine. Ex. : t)cr guci^d, Some, l)er gutc 3Rann, 9lcjfc, ^iteci^t, Ddjd,
Socf ; Die «u^, 3ieflc, Safe, fc^Sne aRagD, Me ®au, ©tute*

1. Exceptions : nouns denoting the young of animals, diminutiyes,
and bad Seib, bad S^enfd^ (see 69), bad Srauen^immer are neuter. Ex. : bad
f^erfeU BuQen, italb, 3)tdib4en, f^riuleim

2. Either grammatical gender is ascribed to the names of the species
without regard to sex. Neuter : bad ^ferb, bad S^weim bad ®(^f, bad
!Re^ Fern. : bie 9{a(^tigall, S^metfc, fdim, 3Raud, fftattu Masc. : ber %if^,
{)afer Da^d, Suci^d.

160. Where the grammatical gender does not coincide
with the natural, the following rules may be of service, based
on the meanings of nouns and on their derivation. See 159, 1.

GeNDEB AGCOBDING to MEANINa.

1. Masculine are :

The names of the points of compass, of the winds, seasons,
months, days of the week, of mammals (a few small ones like
tie iDlaud, tie 9latte excepted), most of the larger birds, most
fish, and stones.

Ex. : ter 9lort or 9lortcn; ©ommerj gebruar, augu'jl; SRontag,
©onnabent; ter Sfel, 85»c, (Slefant; ter ®trau§, Sltler, Stored; tcr
$ai, 3lal, ftarpfen (all compounds with -fifd), of course, as ter
ffialfifd^, «lippcttftfd)) ; t>er «icfct, Xiama'nt, gehfpat.

2. Feminine are :

The names of most rivers, trees, plants, and flowers (in -e),
insects, small singing birds, and nearly all derivative abstract
nouns.

161] QEKDER AGOOBDIKa TO DEBIYATIOK. 67

Ex. : We SBcfcr, Dt)er, gtte ; We gid^e, Zcmt, Sudfee ; tie JlcIIe,
Slofc, SUttbC; 9lejfcl, «artoffel; We Slmeife, SBanac, Slenc; Die 9lad)tlflan,
®iiwalbt, Serd^e; also tiie jtrii^e, Sule. !Die Slebe, Sugent, 3ugent^
Demut, grcuntlid^feit, etc.

3. Neuter are :

The names of places and countries except those always hay-
ing the article (see 147, 2), collective nonns (particularly those
with @e-) ; most names of materials, including metals; of the
letters of the alphabet; other parts of speech used as nouns,
particularly of adjectives not denoting persons (see 169).

Ex. : Ui fd^bne (Spanitn, „ein Hcin 9>arid/' ta^ Solf, ^m, ©eMrge^
®efc^a^; t)ad ^ols^^eu, ©dentals, Dbfl; t>ad eifen, Slei, Stnm, 3lnn;
tiad % g) ; Dad Summein, „Dad Sitm unt tad 'Mtx," tad (Suit, tad
SBa^re, tad <Bifint.

Bexabk.— So many risers are feminine becanee they are compounded with ^ha
(+Lat. aqua): SBefet and SBerra < WeBerft(h), Werraha ; bte ®alaa((^). Bnt notice bet
9i^ein, Wlaivu 9)ie ©d^wei^f SCattet have the article really on account of their exceptional
gender.

161. GeNDEB ACOOBDINa TO DEBIVATION AND ENDmOS.

1. Masculine are :

Most monosyllabics by ablaut^ e. g,, tet (Sptnii, @))ro§^ @tid^,
@d^irm; those in --er, -ler, -net (denoting agents); in -el (denote
ing instrument); all in -ling ; many in -en; dissyllabics in -e
according to the n-declension; in -id^.

Ex. : ter ©cferciBer, ilunjHcr, ^fdrtner ; ter Dedcl, ^ebel ; ter g'^emt^
llng^ ©iinjMlng, ©Sugllng ; ter ©cgen, Degen ; corresponding to
Eng. -om, S3ufcn, Sefen ; ter Jhtabe, 25»c, Bote ; ®anfcri(S^, SBiiteri:

2. Feminine are :

Many dissyllabics (by ablaut) ending in -e; abstract nouns
in -e, mainly from adjectives; in -ie, mostly foreign; many in

58 SYlsTTAX OF THE GENDEB. [162-

-t; all in -el, -in, -ung, -^elt, -!cU, -fci^aft; some in -nld and
-fal; foreign ones in -age (see 163, 5).

Ex.: Me ®ro^e, ^ij^e; Die ^pxaift, ®ahx tie ??^lIofo))^le, ®alatt^
terle; Die ipafl, ^aijt, «raft; Die 3Sflerel, 3urlflerel, SRelotel; Die
greuttDln, Secretin ; Die DulDung, SBlDmung; Die grei^elt, grbmrnlg^^
felt; ^eunDf^a^; Die SBllDnld, gdulnld; Die Slamage, Sourage*

3. Neuter are:

All in -^en, -leln ; most in -fel, -fal, -nU, -turn j nearly all of
the form ®e-e or ®e- without e; some in -el^

Ex.: Dad $unD(!^en, ftnaMeln; Dad SSatfel, UberWelifelj Dad Qijii^f
fal, Sabfal; Dad ®eDad^tnld, Serma^tnid; Dad ^bnlgtum, S^rlfientum
(only two masc, Der Sie^tum and Si^rtuni); ^<»d ®eftlDe, ®emalDe;
Dad ®e6llD, ®efc^ld(; Dad SiinDel, ®ef!nDeI, and the S. G. diminu-
tives Dad SSlnDel, Siibel, etc.

On the whole the gender of noans has changed very little in the history- of the lan-
guage. Bx. of changes are : tie @ttte < O. H. G. der gUu, already K. H. G. sometimes
diu site. XU SSlume was O. H. G. both masc. and fern. (Die $a^ae was O. H. G. der
fano.

162. The following groups of nouns have varying genders,
though some are of the same origin and have the same mean-
ing. They should be fully treated in the dictionary, to which
the student is referred. Only a few examples are given in
each group.

. Ist group. The same form and meaning, bat double gender (m. and
n.) ; ber and Dad ^etetr X^ermome'terr ^atomt'ttt, S3eret4r S^recfenr deug, etc.

2d group. Doable gender (m. and f.) with varying forms, bat the
same meaning and origin : Der ©d^urj — Die ©(ijiirje; Der Zxvupp — Die Xruppe;
Der Duett — Die Quelle; ber ©palt — bie ©palte.

Sd group. Doable gender, the same form in sg. and pi. if the plural
be formed of both genders, bat of different meaning and sometimes of
different orlg^ (the latter with *).

168]

GEKDEB OF SOBEIQK WOBDS.

69

All adjectives : bar (fitter + the good man ; bie (Sittt, + the good
woman ; pL bie ®tttett*

ber ^eibe, heathen

bie Mbe, heath

pi. bie ^eiben

•ber SBttttCr buU

bie fduUt (document)

bie SuIIeii

ber (ixU, heir

bad dxU, inheritance

bie dxbttt

ber l^erbienflf earnings

bad Serbienfl# desert, merit

bie ©erbienfle

*ber ®eifel# hostage

bie ®eigel, scourge

bie ®ei$eln

-felii
bie SReffer

*ber S^efTerr measurer

bad aftefTer, knife

There are perhaps forty in all.

4f.h group. Double gender, double plural, but different meaning and
sometimes difierent origin (the latter marked *). Perhaps a dozen or
more.

ber S3anbf volume

pi. ©fittbe

bad S3anbf ribbon

pi. S3&nber

*ber aXarfi^r march

SRarfi^e

bie ^ax\dif marsh

Wlax^^tn

ber @($ilb, shield

@(i^itbe

bad S^tlb, sign-board

e^ilber

♦ber X^oXf fool

X^oren

bad Xf^cx, gate

X^ore

GeMDEB of FOEEIGN WOBDS.

163. Foreign words retain generally the original gender :
Me ?)cin < L. /xena, later pina ; tad ftlojlcr < L. claustrum ;
tcr Verier < L. carcer(em).

Many have changed gender for various reasons They were
folly Germanized and foUowed German models according to
ending or meaning, or they followed French (Romance) rules.
Some changes are difficult to account for.

1. Examples of neuter nouns that became masculine, masculines that be-
came neuter, and f eminines that became neuter : ber 9)ala'flr < palatium ;
ber S3airam» < hakamum ; ber 3Rante(, < matni^um ; ber 9reid» < pr^-
iium ; ber ^unftr < punetum. Neuter nouns in -at : bad Jtonfula'tr < eon-
tvlatua ; bad ^^xxna'tt formatum or -us; bad 9liedr < V. L. risma (f.) ; bad
Jtreujr < erue(em) (f ).

2. Examples of nouns that have changed gender in analogy with Ger-
man words similar in meaning and ending : ber 3iegel» < tegula ; ber

60 SYNTAX OF THS GENDER. 164-

S^armor, mcvrmor, d., on acconnt of ber <5tein (see 160, 1) ; bcr ^imx, <
corpus, n. ; bet iJaba'»cr, < cadaver, n., on acooont of ber 2etb, bcr Scld^
nam, and the many maecalines in -er; bie 9htinmer» < numervs, sinoe bit
Bal^L (£uropa» ©parta, St^etu Xroja, now all neater (see 160, 8).

3. Nouns in -arium^ -orium, -erium^ -are, became all mascnline in
analogy with H. G. words in -cr, < arre < art : ber ^Ita'x, < altare ; ber
^cfler, < ceUarium; ber 9)faUer, < psalterivm; ber fflcijer, < O. BL G.
fjDitD&ri < vivarium ; ber 9)ia|ler/ < It. piasira, f., < V. L. plcutrum.

4. Neater noans, whose plaral ended in -a in Gr. or L., became
feminine in German from analogy with feminines in -<, < d, and also
through Romance influence : bie fdibd, < hibUan, V. L. Wdia ; bie Drgel,
< organum, -a; bie 9)fTimbe» < V. L. provenda (pL) ; bie ©tubie, <
studium ; bie ^ramie» < prcBmium,

5. Words in -a'ge# masculine and feminine in French, are all feminine
in G., e. g., bie ©ttga'ge, bie aSlama'ge, bie (Soura'ger etc. *£>it ®^rift» < scrip-
turn, bie ^aH^U < pactum, are due to analogy with G. noxms in -t» viz.,

bie %xa6iU Si^t, (B^id^t, ^ad^U etc

Gendeb of compound nouns.

164. Compound nouns have the gender of the last noun :
ter Simkum, bie ^au^ti^iix, tad @(!^ilterl^aud, bad Srauengimmer
(lady).

Exceptions : a. Many compoimds with -mut ; bie jDenmty bie ffStfyaxot,
bie ©anfhnut; but ber ^D^mut, ber $reimut» etc They are, however, only
seeming exceptions, -mut going back to compounds with O. H. G. and
M. H. G. -miu>t, m., and --muoti, f. This has given rise to the doable
gender of the same noun : 0. H. G. Mhmuoti, f. only, but M. H. G.
hochmHete, hoehmuot, f., and hochmuot, m. ; bie ©emut» < M. H. G.
diemilete, diemtu}t, always feminine : ber ^leinmut, bie STnmut, bie ®ro§mnt;
also ber ©rogmut; always ber ^o(^mut» For ^rmutf which is no compound
with -mutr see 611, 2, a,

h. Der 9(f($eu seems an exception, because bie Bd^tn is old and more
common than ber @(^eu.

e. Names of cities and places are neuter even if ending in nouns of
different gender : bad f^5tte Hamburg, Ciineburgr Stnnaberg, eta ; but bie SBart^
burg^ ^errenburd/ because these are castles, = fdnx^tn, t, and not towns.

168] CONCOBD OF OENDERS. 61

d. Xer 9y{ittti)0($ (SBo^e, f.) appears by the side of the legitimate bit
!Ritt»o4, already in M. H. G. It has followed the other days of the
week, which are all masculine. (See 160, 1).

e, jDie 9ntU)ort had doable gender in O. H. G., bat the neater waa
more common. Luther has still bit and bad Sntmort*

OONOOBD OF GENDERS.

165. This subject can be best treated under the head of
concords as between noun and adjective, noon and pronoun,
subject and predicate. The general rule that adjectives and
pronouns take the grammatical gender of the noun to which
they refer is only set aside when the grammatical gender does
not coincide with the sex. In that case the pronoun or adjec-
tive can take the natural gender.

166. Sy^db^m, SReisbleiiu Seib, ^reiulein admit of this construction ac-
cording to the sense, most commonly ; not so, Ainbr 9tauensiinineTr SRdnn^
leim @5^n(eim and the other diminutives : Unb f^nell mar i^re @pur ^txloxtn,
fobalb bad 3R(!ib(^en ^bfi^ieb na^m (Sch.). 3eiKd SH&b^en \fi% bad vertriebene,
bie bu fiewfiJU ball (H. and D., IV. 210). Du gtbraebciete unter ben ©etbern(B.).
Sit unglfitflic^eTf @le itngIM(i(6t« you unhappy man, woman. The a^ective
therefore also agrees with the sex.

^rdulein and the diminutives of names of females have irbie" sometimes
in colloquial language : bie SrMeiitr bie Sop^t'd^ta, bie Dortc^en (Dorothy).
But irSbre Stdiulein Sod^ter^ is quite common and correct : 3^^ gr&ulein
X^^ttx . . . roar audgelaffen (unrestrained) (G.).

167. Names in the predicate, not capable of forming a feminine from
a masculine, like Sejrerm < Sebrer, ©orlleberin < SJorfleJer, of course retain
the grammatical gender, no matter what the sex of the subject : ®te
toarb . . . gleicb mit befonberer ^cbtung aU ®afl bebanbelt (G.). But even pre-
dicate nouns capable of forming a feminine by suffix if used in the ab-
stract sense, and not the personal, form an exception, e. g,, ^ttx, iDleifler fetn
or tt>erben, " to be or become master of." Denn i(b bin euer Jtonig (Sch.).
®ie roar ber SJetbred^er (id.).

168. The neuter pronouns ed, iebed, bad, aDed may refer to
a masc. or fepi. noun, even to the plural and to a masa and

62 SYNTAX OF NUMBEB. [169-

fem. noun together : ©ic lommen ^troov eiit 3BclB ba, tin SRantt
♦ • ♦ ta« rcift ttun,c« tt)lll ft4 erge^en foglclci^, bic ^nbd^cl gur Stunbe,
= they stretch their bones for the dance, eager to enjoy them-
selves (in Gk)ethe's „ZoUntanf). aUe^ rennet, rettet, fliicittet (Sch.).
Da ma^ t)cnn ©c^merj unt ®enu§, ©elingen unb SerDrug mlt elnanter
mii\dn tt)ie e^ lann (F. 1756-8). ©tiHfdjtoelgenb Morten fie (three
persons) gu, intern JeDed in jtd^ felbjl guriicffc^rte (G.).

169. When adjectives are used substantively, the mascu-
line and feminine denote sex, the neuter an abstract noun or
thing : Ux ®ute, tie ®ute, the good man, woman; bad ®ute, the
good (abstract). £omm^ l^eraB, o l^olbe @d^one, unb )>erla§ beitt
flolacd ®d^lo§ (Sch.). Dtt ^ajl ipcrrlid^cd 'ooUbxaiit (id.). Da« 85fc,
bad id§ ni^t tolH, bad t^ue id) (B.).

SYNTAX OF SINGULAR AND PLURAL.

170. Names of persons and materials can take a plural
only when they denote several persons, species, or kinds, viz..

If

bie ipcinridbe, bie Scrt^ad, bie Die (the various kinds of oil), bie
®rafcr, bie gettc, bie ©alje.

171. Abstract nouns do not as a rule admit of a plural,
but as in English the plurals of such nouns were once
quite common, viz., SRinne, Onabe, SBonne, ^ulb, S^re* Some
of these plurals are left in certain phrases: in d^xtn, gu S^ren;
»on ®otted ®naben ; ju ©Aulten lommen lajfcn, to be guilty of;
®w. ®naben ; bie iperrf(3^aften. Compare Eng. thanks, loves (in
Shakspere), favors, regards.

172. To the sg. -tnann in composition corresponds often -leute^ pi.
only, which in sense really corresponds to SKenfd^* fKenfd^cn, without regard
to sex. Examples : (Sbelmarm — (Sbeffeute, gentry ; Canbmann, peasant, —
Sanblcutc, country folk : (£^cmann# married man, — S^eleutc, married people ;
but the pi (g^emanner means "married men" ; ^u^rmann — ^u^rlcute, driv-
ers, carters ; j^aufinann — ^an^tntt, merchants, etc. But SSiebermannr hon-

177] SYNTAX OF SIN6ULAE AND PLURAL. 63

est man ; (E^renntanm man of honor ; ^taotdmamu and a few more, form
only the regular plural in -€r«

173. For certain noons which form no plural, plural compounds are
used, some of which have also a singular. — E.g. :

bad ffeuer

hit ffeutrdbritnlh

ber Sob

bie ZoMfm

ber SRat

bie SRatfd^Uge

ber Tfant

bie X)anffadimdeii

174. Nouns only used in the plural are :

a. Diseases : Slattern, Wta^txn, IRatcIm

b. Certain dates : Ofleni# 9)fin0flen, IQ^ei^nac^ten, Serien, Qfaflciw to fi^od^ot
= in childbed.

e. Names of relationship : (Sltern; ®tlMtx, brothers, as ®ebniber ®rimmr
the brothers Grimm, but g^erally only in the names of finns ; (S^ef^toifletf
brothers and sisters, rarely in the sg. = brother and sister ; other nouns
as ®efilbe, Binfen, Srieff^aftenr Clnffinfte, etc.

175. Masc. and neater nouns denoting quantity, weight,
extent, preceded by numerals, stand in the singular, but fern,
nouns (except 9RarI) in the plural as in Eng., e. ^., 6 ®lad Sier,
10 gag SBclit; „an blc brclmal ^unberttaufenb Tlann" (Song of Prince
Eugene), 5 gu§ Hef, 3 aRarl 70 |)fennifi(c), 70 x 7 = flcbenaig
mal fleben mal (B.). Feminines : 3 3ReiIen brett, 10 %la\&itn $ort^
mixif 12 Stunbcit* The coins, bad 3al^r, ber 9Ronat, ©(i^ritt gener-
ally stand in the plural, e. g., 50 |)fennige ma6:itn 5 ©rofd^en,
3 I^ulotm, 20 @d}ritte lattg; yet also sing., 90 3^^^ — gebiidt ^nm
Sobc; 7 9)lottat(c) alt; but ^tf^n matt

176. In older German the plural was used in all genders just as in
Eng. That the singular was ever used came from the analogy of masc
nouns and *^diu mare" with the neuter nouns, in all of which sing, and
pi. would not he distinguished. See 431, 2. The fern, of the n-deden-
sion never followed this analogy. For ^axm see 68. Compare the Eng.
"a ten-year-old hoy," now considered colloquial. "Year" is an old
plural just like 3abr.

177. Notice the use of the singular in German for English plural in

64 SYNTAX OF THE CASES. [178-

snch phrases as : uitter ban )»ierten unb funften ®rabe ndrblic^er SSreite (Ho.) ;
ber erfle unb ber fitnfte ^erd tt)urbe(n) gefutidcn; bte brei (Sc^uler mu^m |ut Strafe
bie ^anb auf ben SRunb legen; t»tele ^aben bad Seben 9erloren» many lives were
lost or many lost their lives.

SYNTAX OP THE CASES.
Nominative.

178. The nominative is the case of the sabject and of
direct address: 9Keltt greunb, tie S^itm ber Sergangenl^elt ftnb und
tin Sud^ mlt jleben ©Icgeln (F. 575-6). 9Rit euci^, $err Doctor, ju
fpasiercn ifl c^ren^oll unb ifl ©etolnn (F. 941-2).

179. Neuter verbs and verbs in the passive voice which
govern two accusatives in the active, are construed with a
predicate nominative.

Such are : 1. ^m, mxUn, bletben# bun!en/ fi$einen# l^etpen (to be called),
gelten# n>a(i^fenr flerbenr etc.: !£)ed ^xmmeU ^ugungen {!nb immer bie beflen (Le.).
^Uer 2:0b wirb neued Seben (He.). (£r wirb ein gro§er ^rtn^ bid an fein (Enbe
fd^cincn (Sch.). X)aa attein mad^t f(i^on ben SBeifcn, ber |i$ jeber bftnft ju fein(Le.).
These verbs denote a state or transition. Preceded by aid the construc-
tion may be called an apposition : Slttcin er flarb aid (E^rijl (F. 2953). 3d^
fomme aid ©efanbter bed ©erid^td (Sch.). (&x gilt aid ein reic^er S^ann, = He
passes for . . .

2. Verbs of calling, thinking, making, choosing, scolding, viz.,
genannt, gebad^tr angefe^enr gentacbtr betrad^tetr ^m&tiltt gefd^olten n>erbenf and
others: SBil^elm )>on Dranien tt>irb ber <5(^tt)eiger genanntr SBill^elm t»on ber
Slormanbie, ber (Srobcrcr. (£r »arb ein Dieb gef(^olten, aid ein Saugenijitd
Hxa^ttU 3* barf mic^> nl*t bed Oliitfed Ciebling Welten (Kdrner).

Genitive.

180. The genitive is used chiefly as the complement of
nouns and adjectives, but also of the verb (object). The gen-
itive with nouns expresses the most varied relations. The
principal ones are briefly given and illustrated below. Ger-
man does not differ from other languages.

181] SYNTAX OF THE OASES — QENITIVB. 65

1. Q* of origin, cause, aathorship, relationsliip : tDad SDunber ijl btd
©loubend (tebfled ^inb (F. 766). (S)oet^e« 9aufl. Die 9ru(6te bed S3aumed*

2. Subjective O.: Die Ciebe ®otte«, ml^t J0^er ijl benn affe ©errainft (B.).
Der Oefang ber ©Sget Da« Ijl ber ^am^jf ber 9)ferbe unb gifc^e (Hu.).

8. Objective G.: Der ^nblid bierer (S^egenb (Hu.). Die (Srfinbund ber fbu^^
brudferfunjl*

The personal pronoun is rarely found in this construction. Instead of
wbie £iebe feiner" stands bie Sie6e su i^ntr gegen i^n*

4 Posaeseive G. : Ded Saturn* unp^tbare ^anb (Sck). Det ©arten be«
itanigd. Do(% 6e|fer ijl'd, V^x faflt In dotted ^«nb al« in (bie) bet !Kenf*en (Sch.).
Sometimes the possessive pronoun is put after the G. in colloquial lan-
guage. Lessing has it several times: Da* fc^ien ber alten Slrtiflen i^r
®ef(^ma(f nic^t }U fein (Le.). See 242, 2.

6. G, of quality OT eharacteriitic : Der Sfingling eblen ®epi^(e0 (H. and
D., IV. 66).

This G. and the preceding stand also in the predicate after neuter
verbs : @eli$ flnb bie reined ^ersend flnb (B.). (£iner SKeinung fein; bed Sobed
fein. (Sin fold^er SBafferflanb roar alfo eined ^Uerd mit ben ro^en Denhnfilern
ntenfci^lid^en i^unflfleiged (Hu.).

6. Appontive or specifying G.: Der SfeJIer bed STrgtoo^ndj bad Safler bet
Srunffut^t; bie @Me ber Unban!6arfeit* Staxl erl^ielt ben SDeinamen bed ®rogen*

This G. and that of characteristic are frequently supplanted by von +
Dative : (Sine (Eid^e «on (o^em ^Uer wurbe t»om S3U6e getroffen. Dieb «on (einem)
SBebicnten; Seufel »on ffieibe (Le.). See Prepositions, 303, 15.

7. Partitive G,, dependent upon nouns of quantity, weight, measure ;
with numerals, various pronouns ; comparative and superlative. Ex. :
Sl^ut ni(i^td (= no matter). (£r (ber SWantcl) l^i ber Xropfen me^^r (Le.). 9?un Ker
aSefdbeiben^eit genug (id.). Dem reid^te fie ber ®aben befte^ ber S3Iumen anerfc^ijnfle
bar (Sch.). Siinf nnferd Drbend waren fd^on . ♦ . bed fujnen 5Wuted Dpfer
ivorben (id.), fiafjl mir ben beflen S3ed^er 9Beind in purent ®oIbe reid^en (G.). Du
fd^Iugfl bi(i^ burd^ mit bunbert a(^tjig 9)?ann burd^ il^rer Saufenb (Sch.). Unfer einer
lann (1^ bad ni(3^t (eijleni = *• One like (of) us cannot afford that."

181. In the spoken language and also in the classics (excepting
poetry) this partitive G. has passed into more apposition ; especially
after nouns of weight, measure ; after numerals ; after nid^td^ ni(^tr and
the indefinite pronouns. Ex. : (Sin ^funb 2;^ee ; brei @(^effel ^orn. (£tn)ad
®d^aned, nid^td ^5fedr 9iel (Sauted are no longer felt as genitives. The adjec-

66 SYNTAX OF THE CASES — GEliaTIVB. [182-

tive used an Doun is governed independently of the prononn or nomeraL

Ex. : Beigt bad )»erfdlf(^te fdiatt ni(^t, man moQe ya ntc^td ®utcm und ^erbinboi?
(Sch.). Dad fotmte ju etn>ad <3(^re(fUc^ein fu^ren (id.). From Lather to Lesang
this G. is still quite freqaent, and it still remains in certain phrases, e. g.,
^xtt ill meined SSIeibend nid^U *' I cannot stay here." Siel ^uf^ebend ntad)en»
" to make much ado." 9Benn i(^ mtt ^enfc^en^ unb mit (Sngel^imdoi rebete unb
l^atte btr Siebe ntc^t • • . (B.), literally " and had nought of charity." It is
supplanted by 9on# au9, unter + D. See Prepositions, 303. SBer 90tt und»
unter und ?

Oenitive Dependent npon Adjectives.

182. It stands after adjectiYes denoting possession and
interest or lack and want; fulness or emptiness; knowledge or
ignorance; desire or disgust; guilt or innocence; e, g., f&^tg,
♦^ab^aft, fld^cr, tell^aftig, unfa^ig; tar, *Io«; *»olI, *fatt, leer, qultt,
»erlujltg ; funDlg, *gc»a^r, untunbig ; *mul>e, begierig ; fd^utolg, leblg,
etc. Ex.: Dc« langen ^aberd miitc (Bu.). De« 2cibe« bljl bu Ictig
(id.). De« ®crld)t« fd)uItl9.(B.). (^^cngjlc) Jeglcrlg tc^ ©tailed (H.
and D., VL 313). ®lc flnD »oD fiigett SSJelnd (B.). Da Hjl ed t)od^
gufrletien, Sitter ? (Le.).

183. The adjectives marked * and others not given also admit of
the accusative. In the last illustration mt^" was felt as A., and therefore
tr^ad" is much more common. See Pronouns, 199, 2. M g., 3(^ bin bad
ftttt, mitbe, " I have enough of it," " am tired of it."

The prepositions na^, ]»on» etc., + D. frequently supplant the geni-
tive, e,g,, wbegierig na^ bem ©tatte* would he commoner; tjott, rein fein »on
tttoai.

Genitive after Verbs.

184. It may stand as nearer object, as remoter object, and
adverbially.

As direct object after verbs with meanings similar to the
adjectives in 182; also ac^tcn, toarten, l^ancn, fpottcn, ladjen, fd^onen
geniejen, flerfccn, pflegen, bcnfen, ftcrgejfen, lo^nen, ^erfc^Ieit; firaud^en,
and others.

187] SYNTAX OF THE CASES — GENITIVE. 67

Ex. : t>a^ S^ergipmeiimid^t. 3^ benfe bein (G.)* -tungerd fterben. ^aelofitt
f!4 ber ^^t nic^ti = It Is not worth the trouble. (£d {!nb nl^t aUt frei ble
t^rer Stttitn fpotten (Le.). ®el)rau4t ber QtiU fie ge^t fo f^neS 9on (Innen (F. 1908).

185. After yerbs goyeming an A. of the person the G. of
the thing stands as remoter object, such as judicial yerbs, those
with priyatiye meaning, yerbs of emotion ; after many reflexive
verbs with meanings similar to the adjectives in 182, e.g., gei^en,
t^erHagettffrcifpred^en, 6efd^ulbigen,(erauben, entlabett, eittlaffen, entbintien,
iiber^eien, 'otx^iiftm, (ele^ren, ma^nen, and others ; fid) freuen, itW^
ncn, crlnncm, \iiamm, fceflcl^en, erfrcd^cn, P^ »c^ren»

Ex. : (Entlafn vx\^ meiner 9((nenpTober i^ toill ta^ eurer toieberum entlaffcn
(Le.). ffler farai mi$ elner ©flnbe jeijen? (B.). 3emanb be« fianbed »er»eifen ;
dned S^erbre^end anflagettr fiberf&^rem etc. (Emfd^Iage bid^ aHer [(i^toarsen ®eban(en
(Le.). Du barfl! hi^ beincr tQ^a|)l ni(^t f(^dimen (Sch.). But manj of these gen-
itives are sapplanted bj auf, itbcr + A., and by A. alone.

186. Oertain impersonal verbs expressing feelings, which
are construed with the A. of the person feeling and with the
G. of the cause and object of the feeling.

Ex. : (Sd efelt mic^f ed reut, ttlaxmU jammert, )»erbTte§t mi^ ; ed lo^nt fld^.
3)«rob erbarmt ben ^Irten bee alten Jojen ^errn (Uh.). Unb ha cr ba« ©olf fai^e,
{ammerte i(n befTelbigen (B.). But the nominative supplants here the A. of
the person, and the A. the G. in the spoken language as a rule; ^t^" was
again felt as A. See 183. Ex.: Dad gereut mi(i^> bauert mi(i^. Der (S)ered^te
erbannt j!(% felnee Siejee (B.).

Adverbial Genitive.

187. It expresses place, time, manner, and other adverbial
relations. •

Ex. : Place: Unfer ^anb, renter ^anb» atter Drten» ** everywhere." ^^
m5(^te (it is not likelj that . . .) biefed Seged fobalb nid^t tt>ieber fommen (Le.).
Time : bicfer Sage, be« 2lbenb«, »be« SWorgend in ber Sruie."
Manner : trocfnen gugc«, dry-shod ; fle^^enben §u§edr immediately ; ^er*
nitnftiger SDeire, reasonably. @ie famen unt^erri^teter Sad^e ^uriid (without suc-
cess).

68 SYNTAX OF THE CASES — DATIVE. Cl88-

A large number of these genitivee have paased into adrerhe, e. g., flitgd#
For genitive after Prepositions, see 802.

Oenitive in Exclamations.

188. Interjections are followed by a genitive only when it
denotes the cause or occasion of the exclamation. SBo^l and
toe^(e) have often a dative of the person and a genitive of canse
or origin: D bed graitgofen, ter feinen Serflant, ttefed gu itberlcgeit,
lein ^era tiefed )u fit^Ien ge^aM ^ot (Le.). O ted ®(u(tlid^en, tern ed
^erg&nnt ifl, e i n e Suft mit eud) ^u otmen (Sch.).

Dative.

189. It is the case of the indirect object, less remote than
the genitive. The nearer object can also stand in the dative,
but is more remote than the nearer object (the direct one) in
the accusative.

190. The dative stands as nearer object after intransitive
verbs denoting: 1, approach and removal, similarity and dis-
similarity; 2, pleasure and displeasure; 3, advantage and dis-
advantage; 4, command and obedience; 5, yielding and re-
sistance ; 6, belonging to, agreement, trust, etc. A large
number of these verbs are compounds, viz., those with ent-,
»er-, ai-, an-, auf-, tei- ein-, ml^, nad)-f »or-, »oran-, toiltx-,
jit-, and those with noun, adjective, or adverb: leiD t^un, ttJO^ls:
tvollen, fauer merten, guflatten lommen, toetd ma^tn, gu teil toertett, tad
SBort reten, "to defend," etc. 1, na^cn, nad^gcl^en, begegnen,
9lel(i^en, a^neln, aufe^en, entfprcAen, fel^Ien, entgcben, nad^fle^^en; 2,
flcfaUen, tianlen, genitgen, Be^agen, l^ufelgen, ml§mtlen, {(i^mel^eln, lajfen
(to look), broken, groUen, flud^en ; 3, ^elfcn, nu^en, Menen, beifle^en,
frommen, m%xvx, f(i^a^en; 4, geileten, Befe^len,b5rctt,gc^orci^en, folgen;
5, treid^en, triUfal^ren, »itierfle^en, tt)tter(h:ebcn, tro^en ; 6, antiDorten,
emietem, ge^Sren, eignen, 6ei|limmen, gureten, trauen, glauben, i^ers?
trauen.

184] BYKTAX OF THE OASBS— DATIVE. 69

Ex. : 7>t€ fieBend mtgemif^te greube »arb leineni ^tttblid^m }tt teil (Sch.).
©traflofe Srei^eit iVr^t ben (Sitten ^o^n (id.). Du rebefl i^m bad Sort, anflatt
i^n ansttflagen (id.), ^e ^tef^en »irb i^m fauer, It is hard work for him to
stand. 1. Dtt glei^fl bem ®ti% btn bu be0reiffl, nic^t mir (F. 512). Dad i»tttdfl
bu itr (ber 9{atur) ni^t ab mit ^ebeln unb mil @4r«tben (F. 675). 2. dvam
SEDirte I£§t nid^td fibler aU 9{eugterbe (Le.), Nothing looks worse in a host than
cariosity. @o flu4^ i($ aHem, n>ad ble Seele mit Sod" unb ®auUltotxt umfpannt
(F. 1587). Der fianbtjogt groffte bem Sefl. 8. (©ie) »ejret ben ifnaben, she
restrains the boys (Sch.). Vn Jtnappe folgt bem SRitter* Q^oU l^ilft benen, bie
(14 felber ^elfen* 4. <SoII i(^ gel^ord^en ienem !Drang ? (F. 681). X)u folgft mir
bodb balb nac^ (Sch.). (3$e^5rfi bu bir ? (id.). 5. Unb bie i^ebilbe ber 9}a4t tt>ei(^ett
bem tagenben Si(^t (id.). SBo^I tt)el§t bu, ba^ i(^ beinem dom nld^t tro^e (id.). 6.
Sraue, fc^aue »cm. 9©em elft^et ®ott (Le.), To whom does God belong, =
Who possesses him exclusively? Compound verbs: 3d^ l^be bir nt^t
nad^gefieUt (F. 1426). (Se^r gem fle^t StaxM bem 9){ini'fler nad^ (Sch.). Die
itdnigin fa^ bem j^ampfe )U (id.).

191. After transitive verbs the indirect object stands in
the dative and the direct in the accosatiye (see 198) : Ser^iiQe
mir bad twogcnbc ©clrangc (F. 61). Dad iKcnfcJ^cnred^t, bad l^m
Sflatur m^onnt (F. 136).

192. A dative still farther removed from the verb is the
ethical dative, or dative of interest (on the part of the speaker
or hearer). It is generally a personal pronoun.

Ex.: ®e^t mir» ni^td tteiter ba»on (Sch.), " Go, I tell you, no more of
that." Die Sfirfen ^aben bir aUe ®£beld mit Diamanten befe^t (Le.). (@ie) flnb
bir gar locfere, letd^te ©efellen (Sch.). Die U^r ft^liSgt feinem ®littfli(i!)en (id.).

193. After impersonal verbs: cd a^nt, Beliett, elelt, gel^t, fe^U,
iiiviiit, ed ixant, graufet, gelingt, liegt (mir) an ettvad, lommt (mir auf
ettvad) an, Waubert, fd)t»tttbcU, trSumt, jtemt, and many verbs in
190 can be counted here : T)em Sater graufet^d (G.). Sd liegt
mir ^kl baran, I care much for it. Sem jtaifer tparb^d fauer 6ei
W unb bci «dftc (Bu.).

Dative after Adjectives.

194. These have meanings similar to the verbs in 190,
e. g., angene^m, aljnlici^, eigcn, fcinb, folgfam, bienjttar, gnabig, l^olb,

70 STNTAX OP THE CASES — ^DATITB. [196-

nad)teUig, t)er(unten, aittraglid}* Ex.: VaA fle^t i^m &^ttlid}, =
that's like him. 9ud^ toav Itt Snfang il^ren SButtfd^en :^ofo (Sch.).
Die mcijlen fint mir augctfian (id.), "devoted."

195. Substitution of preposition + case, both after verbs
and adjectives.

%iaxf auf, an, degeiu uber + accusative, mit and ^en + dative may replace
the dative : 3($ litnie auf bi^, i^ glaube an h\^, vertrane auf i^n; Ibtn freunbUil
gegen bie Snnen. ^er Snjng (suit) tfl fe^r paffimb fitr bulft, etc.

196. Verbs with unsettled constructions.

With a number of verbs usage is either unsettled or the classics still
show two cases, while the spoken language has settled upon one, e. g,,
now only ed ban(^t mir, but t€ bunft mtc^/ classics have D. or A. after either.
Olauben with D. only, or an + A.; but F. 3438: 3(^ glanb' ijn (®oU) ni*t.
(£0 efelt mir and mic^. 9){an htiaffit ben Jlne^t (person), bad Srot (thing), bent
fd&dtx bad 93TOt. 34 rufe bir, I call out to you ; i^ rufe bic^, I call you, etc.

197. The few reflexive verbs after which the reflexive pro-
noun stands in the dative are really transitive verbs, and the
pronoun is the indirect object: Sr bl&et fl(i^ ettoad tin, " he imag-
ines something," "is conceited.'* 3^ ^<itf mir fd^meid^cln (Le.);
but see 190, sub 2: 3<^ ^^nfe mir ^ie @a^e fo*

Accusative.

198. The accusative is the case of the direct object after
transitive verbs, including many inseparable compounds of
intransitive verbs with it-, cnt-, er-, »er-, ger-, turd^, l^inter-,
iibcr-, unter-, um-, »olI-, icicter-; such as Befa^rcn, befolgcn, it^
fcu(3^tctt, cntfraften, cntfdjeibeit, crfa^rcn, crfiitbcn, "otxiaiitn, vcrtreiben,
3cr(h:citen, burti^fe'gcln, Mnterge'^en, ixbtx\t'i^tn, umgc'ben, yoUBri'ngen,
trlcbcr^o'Ien*

Ex.: S^r fe^t elnen SRann »le anbere mejr (F. 1874). SJeradJte nur SJemunft
unb SlfTenf^aft (P. 1851). Die ?Rflben ^aben nti(% \)ertriebcu (Folk-song). (£oof
l^at bie aOBelt umfegelt. S3. Sailor l^at ben ^au|l fiberfe^t.

199. Two accusatives may stand, one of the person and
one of the thing, after verbs meaning to ask for^ to inquire.

201] SYOTAX OF THE CASES— ACCUBATIVB, 11

teach, to cause to do a thing or have a thing done, and simi-
lar ones, e.g. J fragen, \^%xv^, laffen, Htten« Ex.: 9Ser le^rte bid^
biefe gemaltigen $Borte ? (Le.) Se^re mi(!^ tl^un na4 teinem SBol^U
gefaUen (B.) (t^un = second ace). SQoQen @{e ten 3(r)t nid^
lommen Ia{fen ?

1. After fragetu ^Uten> fibenebem bercbem the two accusatives stand, as a
rule, only when the accusative of the thing is a neuter pronoun, e. g., i4
(itte, frage bid^ etmad, ni^t^r i^leU If the pronoun is lacking, then fragen
na($ + D., Mttcn urn + A., flberrcben »on or ^u + D. or the G. without prep-
osition is the prevailing construction : ^afl bu nac^ i^m gefragt ? 3(^ ^abe i^n
barum gebeten*

2£igm fhafen, 9Bunber nel^men govern an A. of the person : Dad nimmt
ini4 SBunbetr " I wonder at that."

2. Bat these prononns, ba^# ni^tS, «ie(, stand for old genitives which were felt as
accasatlyes. The constraction was : SBunbet nimmt mi^ bed or beffen, wonder seiises
me on that aocoant. (See 186.) Sikgen is probably a Q. of cause : 3cmanb vegcn bet
Sftgen ftrafen. Semen for le^ccni though found in Qoethe, is wrong.

200. Notice a choice of constraction in certain cases, when
the personal object is further defined by another case or prep-
osition and case. The verbs that concern us here are such as
fd^Iagen, trejfen, treten, fled^en, and similar ones.

1. Dative of the person and accusative of the affected part:
^&i toafd^e mir tie ^hiU or meine $&nbe*

2. Dative of the person and preposition + A.: 3d^ trete i^m
auf ben gu^, fi^fage V^m in'd ®ef{(!^t.

8. Accusative of the person and preposition + A. : SQir fc^Iagen
fcen gclnb auf d ^au))t. SBlr treten bie ©d^Iange auf ben ftoM. The
choice is between 2 and 3. But 2 is preferable after intran-
sitive verbs; 3 after transitives.

201. These accusatives are both object-accusatives, but
after verbs meaning to name, scold, regarding, and others of
similar meaning, the second accusative is a predicate or facti-
tive accusative, while the first is direct object, e. g,y after ixttvxvXf
\iiiViiXi, fc9im)>fen, glauben, taufen, l^eif en (trans.).

72 STKTAX OF THE CASES— AOOUSATIVB. [202-

Ex. : 3tt tiefjler ©cele fd^metjt mx^ ber ©pott ber grembllnfte, ble im« ba
Sauernabel fci^clten, " who call us by the nickname of ' peasant nobility ' "
(Sch.). DieXrcue . . . iflicbcm 3Rcnfc^en tt)ie ber nacelle ©lutdfireunb, aW i^rcn
Slacker fujlt er fl(^ geborcn (id.), ^o^ f^lt i* vx\^ bmfelbcn bcr i* war (id.).
3^ a(^te i^n aid einen (g^renmami.

202. 1. After laffen + fein and iDtrben a predicate A. by attraction is
found instead of the predicate nominatiye, but the latter is the prefera-
ble construction, e. g,, Sa§ bad S3d(^Ieui beinen Sreunb fein (G.). Sag biefe ^aUt
felbfl ben @c^aupla^ »erben (Sch.).

2. For the passive construction, see 178, 2. The verbs in 199, 1,
may retain the accusative (pronoun), also le^ren. This would also admit
an accusative predicate noun in the passive : tDad @4Ummfle» toad und
toiberfd^rt, bad ttcrben tt>lr »om Xag gclc^rt (G.). 3d^ toerbc ben Sanj gelc^rt.
But it is best to avoid all these predicate accusatives. They sound
pedantic. Better say : 3($ l^aht Xaniunterri^tr Xanifhtnbe. 34 i^^bc immer
oteber barna(^ gefragtf barum gebeten*

203. The inner or nearer object stands in the accosatiYe
called the '* cognate." The noun has the same meaning as
the verb. Its idea is generally included in the verb : Sinen
gttten &amp^ ^abt id) gefam))ft (B.). (Sine @(!^Ia^t f(!^lagen, l^eipe
Z^xhnm toeinen, etc. ; Garten \pitUn, ©^lUtfd^u^ laufen* ®ax f^bne
©plelefricP i*mUHr(G.).

204. Notice that the nonn is sometimes replaced by an indefinite
pronoun, tt>ad# edr eind» etc. Compare Eng. '' to lord it," the unclassical
"to come it over somebody." %htt bie £iferfu(it ubcr ©panien gettann ed
btedmal U^er biefe poUtifd^e (Bpmpat^ie (Sch.). 2)ie ©otter l^alten ed ntit ben Xapfer^
flen (id.) ; fic^ tt>ad red^ted (prei^te) laufen^ fpringeny tan^en^ "to run, etc., a great
deal." 2^m <Bie mir eined auf eigene fStt^mn^ »or (Le.). 3(^ fi^wa^e eind mit
(Le.). See also F. 3416.

205. After many impersonal verbs and some other verbs
the logical subject stands in the accusative (see 186). The
verbs denote states of the body and mind : ed biirflet, ^ungert,
fd^lafcrt, JDUttbert, ttan% »erbrlc^t mid^*

Here belong also ed qjUbt, ed (at# ed fe^ti ed gilt : tDerglei^en @timmcn gibt'd
(Sch.), " There are such voices." fid Jot ®efoJr tt>enn »lr td^t gejen, " There

2081 SYNTAX OF THE OASES — ACCUSATIVE. 73

is danger . . . ". (£d fet^t ^itU, ^&vi>t\, ^djU&^t, There is a fight, a qoarrel
going on, somebody is being whipped. Comp. French Uy a»

206. After refleziye verbs the pronoun generally stands in
the acoosative : Sntfil^Ue^e MA. Sefinne (id) m in bi|l (Soh.).
But see 185 and 197.

Adverbial Accusative.

207. It denotes measure (amount), time, and place.

1. It denotes measure after Terbs like loiegm, (o|ien, ge(ten ;
after adjectives like (ang, brelt, ^od), alt, totxt, etc.

Ex.: Die IRu^e bcined Ofreunbed gilt cd, " is at stake " (Sch.). Die Jtifle
toicgt bici Jtilogramm, stoei Sentner» fitnf Sot, etc. Die Srucfe ifl me^iere Xaufenb
Sui langr ^unbert fcc^jig (o(6 unb ac^tjig Ofug breit. Dad Dorf liegt eine ©tunbe (an
boar's walk) »on bet ^tabt. griebrid^ ifl etncn ^alben Mcp\ grdier aH Dtetric^.

Tbe usage as to the case of the person with wfoflen" is unsettled : Der
Si^er) fof!et mi(^ or mir »tel @elb. Grimm's Dictionary favors the A.

2. It stands with verbs of motion to express the distance
and the v^aj, the noun being often followed by an adverb.

Ex. : SBei^t feinen ©d^rttt guriicf . Sn>ei SBanberer flel^t er bie Strage )ie6n
(Sch.). ®d iicjt tin ^aufc bad ob're I^al ^erab (Uh.). Der geU roDte ben ©erg
^inab. mt leifen ©djritten fc^lit^ er feinen bSfen ©eg (Sch.).

The A. of measure and distance supplanted the G. of an older period ;
that denoting the way is old. Tbe G. still occurs frequently. See 181.

208. The accusative of time denotes the duration and the
moment of an action. The former is often followed by an
adverb, lang, turd), fiber. Ex.: Der Sote fann ten Slugenblid Mer
fein (Sch.). gr f(!^lSft Den fianjen 9Worgen. !Du ^afl ed ^ai^xt lang
beta^t.

1. Compare the G. of time (see 187), which denotes a repetition of the
action or a custom. The A. denotes a definite point of time or fixed
period: (DeT)Ueg93etjhinb^ ^Itenbed !D{orgend 0leict(Sch.). @onnabenbd 9^ad^'
mittagd ^Un n>iT !eine (Sc^ule (= custom). 92dci^flen 9^itnD0(^ ^aben n>ir feine
©d^ule. 9Jod^ biefe ?»a(^t mug tr SWabrib JjerlafTen (Sch.). Tbe G. denoting
duration of time is rarer now : <£in ®ift bad neun ganger 3a(re bauert (Le.).
This may be partitive G.

74 STNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. [209-

Absolute Accusative.

209. This approaches the nature of an adverbial accusa-
tiTe. Ex. : 3" 'Etonv^, tern Zi^xcinntn, ]&iliif 9RiJro«, Den Dold> im
®emant)e (Sch.). @(!^on ten ^old ent6Iopt, htiet' ic^ auf meinem 3Ran^
tel (Le.).

SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE.

210. The adjective may be used attribntiTelj, predica-
tively, and substantively: ter rc^c 3la6fiax; ttx 9lac!^bar ijl ui6^;
ttx Sleid)^

le.

Attributive Use of the Adjective.

211. Some adjectives are only or mostly used attributively,
as : 1, the superlatives and ordinals; 2, certain adjectives de-
rived from adverbs: ^iejlg, tortig, felt^erig, bl^l^erlg, e.g^ tie l^icjige
3cttung, but not tie 3c^^w*^9 ^1^ W^S > 3, many adjectives in — tfA,
-li6^, -en : nortifdj, irtifd^, taglicb, anfanglid), enrlid), golten, feiten,
plbem, glafem.

1. If they do stand in the predicate, they must be inflected, and the
noun may be understood, e, g., bie Stcferung tfl cine fliinbltctef not fKtnbltc^.

For the adjectives in -en and -crrif »on + noun is substituted, e.g,^ ein
S3cd^cr »on purcm ®olbe. But in poetry the adjective is found; 2)cr ©tu^l
ijl clfenbeinctn (R.).

212. The attributive adjective is inflected and agrees with
its noun in gender, number, and case : ^it fitter ^ofl unt
frifc^em ©d^aum ^at er mid) »o^I gena^ret (Uh.). It may stand
uninflected, however: 1. Before a neuter noun in N. (and A.)
(very rarely before a masc. or fem.) : 3Relne SWutter l^at xa<in6!f
giilDen ®e»ant (G.). (Ed ijl ein ))utelnamf(i^ Sier (F. 1167). Fre-
quently in certain phrases like „bar ®elt)", " cash " ; „attf gut
©liid". Bare : ®ro§ 3Ra*t unb ttiel Slfl (Lu.). I:ad Sllter 1(1 ein
l^bflid) aWann (G.); „fremli unb frember ©tof' (F. 635.). 2. When
it stands after the noun, mainly in poetry; commonly after
coins, weights, and measures: ttx $au)>tmann fit^rt im @4tfo ein

214] SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 76

fRMtiti rot »on Oofce unk cinen gfcer ttllk (Uh.). Sin Siitoaxm »ott
©apen grog unD Ilcin (Bu,). 3e^n guj rteinifd), finf 3>furni flamifti^;
In prose also, when the adjective or participle has adjuncts:
Dort tin gutartiged, geflttctcd 4)antcldttclt, fdjMjelgent »on ten uptJigcn
griicJ^tctt elned gefegnctcn glclged, tt)a(!^fam auf ©cfe^c, tie feine ffio^I^
t^ater ttaren (Sch.). 3. Of two adjectives the first stands unin-
flected in certain set phrases; when the two express one idea;
in poetry, very frequently in Schiller : Die groj^eraoglldj tatifdbe
SRcgicrung ; Ui Kniglic^ preu§ifd>e S'Jf ^iw^' SB«^ ^CW/ ^^^ <*« ^^n
tt)iirtig alten ^auerot i^m rii^rt (Sch.). len folfd) i)erraterif(3^ctt Slat
(id.). „3n Me tteit unt brclte ffielt" (G.). Schiller has „traurig
^nfher ^x^mW ; M^^^tli^ eitle ^ol^eit'' ; „C ungliidfelig iammen»oU
let Sag"; „mit graufam teufcUfc^er Sufi/' etc.

1. SautcTr and generally eitel both in the sense of *' pure/' '* nothing
but/' are undeclined : I)ad ifl lauter Unfinn. Bat Compare wlautered SBaffer^
in the literal sense. <£ffct eitel undefauert S3rot (B.). (<£itel is archaic.)

213. The attributive adjective is inflected weak after cer-
tain limiting words, viz., after the definite article and pronouns
declined like it; after eitt, fein, and the possessives, excepting
the N. sg. of all genders and the A. sg. neut. and fern. Ex.:
ker gute SSipfc Ibaum (Uh. ) ; jur glMid^cn ©tunte ; gu {cnem frobcn
gejle; elned f(!^8nen Saged; an cittern latigett SSifle (Uh.); feitt griitte*
ipau« (id.); eitie artne Sauerltt (N. and A. sg.); eitt feitence StUil
(N. and A. sg.).

214. The adjective is therefore declined strong, when not
uninflected (see 218) and when not preceded by any of the
above limiting words, mentioned in 213, e. g,, ipolte ©e^tifudjt,
fuped 4>offen (Sch.). ©tuitime fitter toter eiS^e (Platen ?). Also
after the uninflected pronouns totl6:i, foI4, ^jlel, iDeitig, nte^r, ett»a«,
niift^, and after uninflected numerals. Ex.: Sr gibt ^ettt treuen
^irtett mani^ Matties Stild (piece of money) tat)ott (Uh.). S^et^
uiijiv ^itnmel (G.). @ol(^ trefflic^er 3Rottard| (Sch.) (see 216, 4;
221).

76 SYNTAX OF THE ADJEOnVB. [215-

216. The Bjntactical distinction between strong and weak inflection of the adjec-
tive, though very old, ia by no means clearly drawn even now. The oldest inflection
of the adjective is the so-cailed '* aninflected," identical with the strong noun declen-
sion. When the pronominal endings spread over the adjective declension, forming
the present strong adjective declension, the adjective probably was still declined
strong even after a pronoun (ind. article). Of this there are traces from O. H. G. down
to the 17th century. The n-declension of the adjective is a characteristic of the Ger-
manic languages. Having less distinctive and fewer endings than the strong, it is natoral
that the adjective should be declined according to it, when preceded by a word which
liad the strong endings. This lias given rise to the syntactical distinction and to the
feeling that two strong forms should not stand side by side. When an adjective be-
came a substansive or was used as such, it was always inflected weak, with or without
article. This explains 221, 1. In Gothic the present participle and the comparattves
were always inflected weak. In O. H. G. appear only a few strong comparatiyes and
superlatives.

216. Unsettled usage as to strong and weak forms.

1. The strong genitive sg. m. and n. tamed weak in the 17th oen-
tniy, which is now the prevailing form: i,^o^ed SPhitd" (BQ.); Mut'gctt
S^u^md (Uh.). ir^ortc fu^en ^aud)^" (Sch.). The pronouns always remain
strong, except itntx, \th(x, of which a weak form is rare, e. g,, icben S^olfd
(Uh.) ; jenen Sagd (Ba.). This weakening is dae to the feeling, that two
strong forms should not stand together. See 215, 217.

2. After personal pronouns the rule is strictly the strong form, as the
pronoun is not a limiting word. But as early as M. H. G. weak forms
hegin to appear. Usage now favors : after ic^f bU/ er (in address), xaxdit
bi(^ only the strong form, e. g., »btt jlarfcr itfinifldfoftn*' (Uh.) ; l^ armcr 2Rann;
after mir» bir mostly the strong form ; after mitr i(r the weak (if fern.
always), e,g,, SBer nie fein a3rot mit S^rSnen a$ * * • bar fennt eu4 ni(^t» \S^x
^tmmlifd^en SRad^te ! (G.). In »®e0TU§t i^r, f^ane ^amen ! (G.), the comma
makes a diflTerence. After und and eu(^ (A.) strong and weak are equally
frequent. After und and tu(6 (D.) strong and weak coincide of course :
3)?an follte tud^ fc^lec^te Jterle betfleden (arrest) laffen. <£u(b faulen SSurfc^en ifl ie^
bcT aSrotforb ^oi^cr gc^fingt.

8. In the vocative the rule now is strong form both in sg. and pi.,
e.flr., ttn»crfd^amter ! wcnnbic^ jcmanb gcl^ort ^attc (G.). Du, armcr Ocijl (Sh.).
The plural is still found weak, but rarely, as : Slcben ^reunbe* ed gab bcJTrt
Seitctt aU bic unfcrn (Sch.).

In O. H. G. the weak form was the rule ; in M. H. G., the strong in
the sg.

4. After certain pronouns, pronominal adjectives, and indefinite

219J SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 77

numerals* such as \oldit, m^t, etnigtr ttlid^t, aUt, mand^t, Uim, and others,
there stands in the N. and A. pi. very frequently the strong form against
the rule, but rarely in the G. pi. This strong form is the older. Even
after bitfe and iene strong adjectives may be found in the classics. Ex. :
Vtx Sdlumen^dnbler (at fetne fd^ane 9icfen mi^x. SBo l^afl bu folc^e (alb^oerfaulte
Sirncn gefauft ? After the Q. pi. )n>€ier and breier the weak adjective is fre-
quent, but in the spoken language these genitives are very rare : bcr
^nfauf «on itoci neuen ^dlufem or ixoti neuer ^&n\tXf and not ^eier neuen (or -er)

217. If two or more adjectives hold the same relation to the noun,
they have the same inflection. If the second adjective, however, be more
closely related to the noun, forming a joint idea, then it usually stands
in weak form in Q. and D., not in N. and A It can often be formed into
a compound noun, and has less accent than the first adjective : <£r traftitrte
imd mit f(^le(^tem roten SBeinc (= 9lotn>ein); bie Solgen blutiger biirgerli^en Jlrieac
(= ©argerfrieae).

1. After certain adjectives like folgenber^ oBtger» em^^nter^ gebac^tm etc.«
the second adjective, as a rule, is inflected weak in all cases : ®enatuucd
unum|l5pU4e ^rtitiipr obiger anerfamUe Sa)^.

The Adjective in the Predicate.

218. The predicate adjective is uninflected. If it stand
inflected in the predicate, the noun is supplied and the adjec-
tive is looked upon as attributive: S)ie jtraft ifl f^wad), aQein tie
8u(l ijl gro§ (F. 2203). Dein ®cf(i^iift Ifl tin fd^irierigce (supply
"one"); „tf« 5>oIialflen 8oe Ifl leln flludli^ce."

The adjective (or participle) is also uninflected when it is
an appositional or factitive predicate : SQir famen glitdli(!^ an^
9lutt, t>ae finD id^ t>umm (F. 961). Dcr ©laubc mai^t felig (B.).

219. Certain adjectives are only used predicatively. Some
of these are really nouns, like fcinD, freunD, ^cil, fdjaDc, not, nii^c,
fd^ult. Others, originally adjectives or past participles, have
been restricted to this use, like ^ab^aft, ab^otb, getrofl, anf{d)t{g,
^erlufllg. All of them have not yet become full adjectives;
and many, if with adjective form, are of late derivation :

aifpenfUg, ai^ol^, aitoentig, audflntig, l^anbgemein* Ex.: Cttilit

78 8YHTAX OF THE ADJEOnTE. [220-

fonnte tern 9Ratc!^en ni*t feinb fein (G.). gin fcfeSner 3Rattn, fine
fc^one grau! Ifl ter Xlrcftor gliicflid) genufl^l^rcr ^abl^aflau jperDcn,
fo • • • (ii ). Xic Stnti^tt touttm ^antgcmeln^

1. In O. H. G. the adjective in the predicate is still inflected, though
not always. In M. H. G. it is rarely inflected. In N. H. G. voUer and
^albei are stereotyped strong forms used for both numbers and all gen-
ders : X)ie ^a^t ift f^lUx ^in (coll.) ; M^ 9la^t^ urn ^aVbtt BtoMf" (student
song). SoQer ©(^merien unb Jtranf^eit (B.).

Substantive Use of the Adjective.

220. The adjective when used as a noxm is inflected ac-
cording to the rules already given for the adjective proper :
9)llt ^leittcm fangt man an, mit (Sro^em ybxt man auf (Prov.). lu
©cbmert an ntcincr iinUn (Komer). lie Srflen werDcn tie Se^en
fein (B.). For gender see 160^ 3. No inflection is the rule in
certain set phrases: ©teid) unt ©(ei^ gefeUt fl(i^ gem (ProT.).
3ung unD 3llt, ®rog unb ^Icin, 9leic^ unt Itnn, ton JHcin on, ton
3nng auf; also in the names of languages : Snglifc!^, grangoftfcb ;
tttein gelleMed I^eutfc!^ (F. 1223). SBie ^cipt t)ie« auf Stalienlfc^ ? gr
^at t)on Mnti auf 9?or»egif(^ gefonnt. Also of colors: ®run, Stou*

221. Usage admits of many irregularities.

1. The weak form in the plural when no article precedes as Sebientett>
Seamtettr ©(^Snetir Sungenr or rarely the strong form in the singular like
any feminine noun, invariable in the sg. : ber Q^ovt, instead of ber Sd^dnen
(G. sg.). See 216.

2. The strong or weak plural after aUt, tinx^t, etU4e» etc : aHe ®ele^rte«

cinigt ®cfanbte.

8. After n>ad» ttvoa9, ^kX, etc., the weak form is rare. See 214.

4 If an adjective precede an adjective-substantive and is inflected
weak, the latter is of course weak ; if the adjective is inflected strong,
then the substantive may be either strong or weak. The latter form is
perhaps more common for the neuter, the strong certainly for the mascu-
line nouns : Slcin, fic (bad ffietb) ijl, o ^olbe ^^bntn, jur ©efefllgfett gema^t (G.).
Die annen S^em>anbten jlnb gmai^nlic^ ntd^t miflfommen. ^od^gefleSte a3eamtc |Inb
entlaflen* jDet neue Sdebietttc ^t ein angene^mtt) iupere*

223] BYKTAX OF THE ADJECTIVK 79

Do not coDfound bad fftt<iH, law — bad ^tdi\t, the right thing ; bad (Svt,
property — bad ®ute» the good (abstract) ; (bad) @d^n>ar}y black (the color)
— ha^ Sd^toarie (the bull's eye of a target), etc.

Syntax of Comparative and Superlative.

222. These may be used just like the positiye, only that
the superlative is never used predicatively, i, e,, uninflected,
excepting aUerliebfl, e. g.^ tie Slume ifl aQerliebfl* If it stands in
the predicate, it is always weak, being preceded by the definite
article: Diefer Saum i|l Ux l^bd}{le or Diefer Saum i|l am ]^&(!^flen«
These two should not be used indiscriminately, however, as
they too generally are in the spoken language. The first is
the strictly relative comparison; it can be strengthened by
aQer-,e. g., ter l^od^jle ))on aden^Der aderbbci^fle. The prex)08itional
superlative should only be used when not so much the objects
themselves or different objects are to be compared, but the
same objects under different circumstances of time and place.

It is generally the '^absolute ** superlative, expressed by an
adverbial phrase: !Cer @tarle ifl am ma(!^tigflen all e in (Sch.),
" The strong man is most powerful standing alone, unimpeded
by the weak." £)ie ^fe( fint auf ter fonntgen @eite ted ©ortend am
reifften. 9(td Soot^ Sitd^elteu fpielte, mar tia^ Z^tattv am t)o(I(len*

1. The "relative" superlative is generally preceded by the definite
article, the *' absolute " has, as a rule, ein or no article. Goethe is very
fond of such an absolute superlative : <£in aHerUebfled Jtinbr a most lovely
child. !D{ed beutet auf tin fp&tefled (a very late) 9{atuteretgnid (G.). Notice
also: mcil^d bie SBenigflm Umtn (G.), because very few know how; ber
8Urf!f bie <£lternr bte neueren @pra4en» and other examples. They show
absolute comparison with the definite article. The absolute superlative
is best expressed by an adverb + adjective in the positive. The more
common adverbs used are : fe^r/ xt^U ^5(6fl» ^uperft, itberaud^ e. g,, eine $5d^fl
angene^mc Uberrafd^ung, ein re(i^t bummer 3unge.

223. Any adjective can be compared by -er, -efl, except
those that are never used attributively (see 219) and a few
whose form seems awkward, like Ined}tifd^, ^^^if<^r but the latter

80 SYirrAX OF the KUHE1U.L8. [224-

are not absolutely excluded : SlOein, toeif ®ott, fie mar me^r f(!6ub
aU iij {¥. 2960).

224. When two qualities belonging to the same object are
compared, me^r, mentger, minltv are now used, but the classics
are still full of the comparatives in -cr.

According to Lehmann (L. Sprache, p. 206) Leasing uses me^r only
once : IDtefe ^udrufitngen ftnb r^etorifd^er aid grunblic^ (Le.). Present usage :
Der ^creUe ifl iveniger ^imtucfifc^ aid bumm. Der (Solbat ifl me^r lapfer aid flug*

225. Logically the superlative cannot be used of two objects, but it
is so used much more frequently in German than in English, e. g., dtoei
®5^ne, »o»on [it ben dltejlen • . . mit einem $feile erfc^o^ (Le.).

1. For the conjunctions benn# ald^ after the comparative, see 333.

2. Notice the bold comparative in H. and D., IX. 311 : 9}un# ijl bad
SReine meiner aid iemald. Such forms as ber !£>eint9fle# etc., at the end of
letters are rare. 2eibcr is a comparative of letb (adj.), which became a
noun very early.

SYNTAX OF THE NUMERALS.

226. The cardinals, used attributively, are indeclinable
now, except cin, cine, cln. The G. and D. of gmci and brcl now
and then occur still : ^wdtt ^tn^tn iWunt) ma*t aUc SBa^r^eit
funb (Prov.). Here „itotitT** shows the case; 3»ei 3^^6^^ SDlunb
would not be clear.

1. To express the year the cardinal is merely added to „im
3a6r(e)" or to „itt/' as im 3a^rc ad^tjc^n iuntert etn unb aci^tgig, or
shorter, in 1813. The cardinal shows the year, the ordinal
the month: ®&t^e flarb ten 22ten STOSra 1833; ^anno»er, ben (1.)
erflen augufl 1881*

2. The time is expressed in Tarious ways. Answering to
such questions as : SBie^lcl U^r ifl ed, weldje B^it ifl cd or ^aben
ttir ? »ie ifl ed an ber 3ctt ? we say : Sd ifl jmolf »orBei, aitx nod^
ni(!^t ein«» Se ifl ein Siertcl brei or awf brei,or dn Siertel naiii (fiber)
amei (all mean a quarter past two). Sd ifl brei Sierte( brei or auf

229] SYNTAX OP THE NUMERALS. 81

ltd or ein SSicttcl »or trci, = a quarter of three. 5d ijl Hlb 3tt)&lf,
= half past eleven, on the same principle as t)ierte^alb (see
229). We can say: 20 9Kinutctt mil ge^n (past ten), swanaig
\>ox jcbn (of ten). Dcr 3ug fa^rt 3 U^r 20 SKlnutcn nadimittafld ab.
2Clr woUen und urn fiinf trcjfen.

227. Used substantively the cardinals are more frequently
inflected, having a plural in -e (see 429) and a dative in -en
(see 79): Sd »aren l^rer fiinf (c), a»Mf(e)*

1, Ck)11oqmall7 this -e is very commonly used as far as 19 incl., even
when the figure itself be meant, which stands in the feminine singular :
Dicfc Sl*t(e) 1(1 mt gut ficmad^t. !Dlefc ?»cun(c) jlc^t fd^lef. (Klf i|l bie ©iinbe.
(£lfe iiberWrcitet ble jc^n ®cbote (Sch.).

2. Dte fWlUio'n, ble aSillio'tt, blc 3WiDiarbe are regular nouns, and, unlike
^unbert and taufenb» stand in the plural after the cardinals, e,g., brei ^iU
Ilonen, but funf IJunbertr fe^d taufenb. !Dad ^unbert, bad Saufcnb are common
nouns, pi.: ^unberte + hundreds, Saufmbc + thousands: e.g., in ^unbcr^
m, a hundred at a time ; bei ^unberttaufenben bie 37{enf(i^en bruden (Le.).

228. „^ti'^t" corresponds to Eng. "both "in form and
use: 3P ^<Jd Vf^^"^ fltt bcibcn 8lugen bllnb ? It may have the defi-
nite article before it: bie belDen Rix^t, "both the cows."

1. The singular bclb- means " either," "each " (of two), ©clbtd Wgt
fl(i l^oren = either statement is reasonable ; bad 5tbenbma^l unter bcibcr ®c*
ftalU the communion in either form ; but the masc. and fern, are archaic.
Denn ju einem gropen ^amt ge^drt betbed : Jtleinigfetten aU itleinigfeiten unb
mic^tige Dtngc aid toi^tige !Z)inde ivi bebanbein (Le.). SBcibed has supplanted
beibcr beidiu (pi.), which are still common in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Notice belbed — unb = both — and. aSclbcd, cln loblic^cr Stoni^ unb niiiid^ttger
©(^winger ber Canje (Btt.).

229* 1. Peculiar are the compounds of the ordinals with l^alb following
them and fclb preceding them : S5lCTt(c)5alb (8J), ncunt(c)balb (8 J), meaning
bad jjierte nur IJalb or wenlgcr ein ijalb, bad ncuntc nur Jatb. Drcijc^ntcbalb Sa§ =
12 Ofag aber bad 13te nur ^alb. Ags., Icelandic, Danish, and L. Q. have the
same forms, though in the two latter "half" precedes the ordinal. It
does not go back to O. H. G. (Sclbanber = cr(fclbjl) bcr jmcite, two of them ;
fclbbreiiie^nt, himself the 18th, thirteen of them (G.) ; felbbrltt, fclb»lert gen-
erally uninflected. Selbft in>an)ig|leT (Le.). The cardinal is not common,

82 SYNTAX OP THE PERSONAL PBOKOUN. 230-

but Lessing has ^felb funfitger." This composition is more common than
l^alb- in the modem dialects.

2. Notice also the cardinals in -er, as in ben funfjiger Sa^rcn— either
" from 1850-60 " or " from 50-60 years old." It is hardly dassicaL This
-cr occurs in the names of the unit, ten, etc : ber (Sinerr ber de^net^ etc
See 507, 1.

SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUNS.

Syntax of the Personal Frononn.

230. 1. ^n, Bg,, i^T, pi., are used in familiar interconrse
in the family and among intimate friends, in addressing God,
in sermons, in solemn discourses and in poetry. Ex. : ^ennfl
tu M^ 2ant), mo tie Sitronen bliifen ? (G.). Slintcr, alter Sater ! tu
fannfl ten Sag ter grel^eit ni6^t me^r f d^ a u e n ; tu fotljl x^n^bxtn
(Sch.). Sr^ab'ner ®eijl, tu gabfl mix, gabfi mix ailed, toaxum ^ hat
(F. 3218).

2. Sie, 3. p. pi., is used everywhere else, even among rela-
tives in some families; also when grown children address the
parents: SBo ttjo^nen ©ie, toenn i6^ fragen tarf ?

8. This peculiar use of @ie sprang np early in the 18th oentary. It is dne,no doubt,
to the Qse of the eingnlar @r and ®te in address, which were the height of politeness in
the 17th century. 6r and 8ie are due to the use of igerr and %tau in direct address. In
Chamlsso's /^^eter B^Umif^i" the gray-coat always addresses Peter with irberi^err,"
4t. g.t ,;S025ge ber igerr meine 3ubringtt(!^{eit entf^ulbtgen . . . i(^ f^abt cine S3Ute an i^n."
i&crr, grau, 3^re Onaben, (Sure GjccHenj, ©cine 9Kaie|lftt were followed by the "plural of
majesty" (see 311, 2): $crt IJoltor wurben ba fate^ifiert (F. 8534). gfttS et^ wotten
©eine aWajefiat, ba§ ble 5Irmc'c o^n* Sluffci^ub Socmen raumc (Sch.). $err was reduced
to mere „er" as early as M. H. G., e. g,, er Sigfrid ; in the 16th century, ,3ertet et
$faner.'' This form encouraged the use of the pronoun er in direct address.

4. S^r, in addressing one person, was early very respectful and has maintained itself
in the drama, except in comedy, to this day, and might be called the '^ stage-address,**
and is due to Eng. and Fr. influence. See Schiller's ilRaria @tuart.

231. The gradation as to politeness and etiqnette now is about as
follows : 1. For princes and all persons of high standing, 3]^re ©nabeitr
(£urc exccUenii, Cure SWaiejlcfr, with the verb in the pi. 2. <Sic, addressing
one or more persons, verb always in the pi., e.g., biirftc t(i^ <Sie fcegleitcn?
3. 3^rf pL of bUr and 3^r in the drama addressing one or more persons,

234] SYISTTAX OF THE PBBSONAL PEONOUK. 83

€,g.y (Spfit fommt S^r, bod^ 3^r !ommt (Scb.). See F. 981. 988. 4 (£r, @ie,
addressiDg one person, now rare. 6. Tixtt \%tt as in 230, 1.

232. The genitive of the pronouns of the 1. and 2. persons stands
very rarely after nouns. Goethe has it once, irmeln, be« ©cogno'llenr*' " of
me the geognost/' but it is common as the object of verbs, after adjec-
tives and numerals : 3(^ ^itt^ eud^» ne^mt eud^ meiner an (F. 1876). The un-
inflected possessive meiitf bein are by some interpreted as predicate genitives,
e. g,y ber 93cd^er ifl bein (Sch.). As it is much more probable that the posses-
sive adjectives were used as genitives of the personal pronoun than tnM
versa, this interpretation is hardly correct. (See 441, a.)

233. The personal pronouns always accompany the Terb.
In the imperative ,,@ie'' always stands, but bu and i^r only for
emphasis: iitUt tun geinbe (B.). SleiBen @ie gefaHigfl* See
F. 1908.

1. In poetry, colloquially, and In merchants' letters the pronoun is
often not put : ^in »eber ^rauleim xo&tx Win, !ann ungeleitet na(i^ ^aufe ge^n
(F. 2Q08). See F. 8429. 3^r 5Bertcd (viz., S^xtiUn) Jjom 18ten bicfed (viz.,
9)?onatd)r ^U cntpfangcn. Notice the set phrases Httt, I pray ; banfe» thank
you ; gefc^weige (conjunction, " say nothing of ")» before which H has to
be supplied. S^ut ni(i^tdf ber 3ube mirb ^erbrannt (Le.), no matter, the
Jew . • •

2. Colloquially the subject, if a noun, may be repeated in the shape of
a pronoun, as in Eng. : ber Jtird^b^^fr tx liegt »ie am Sage (G.). See 244, 8.

234. The pronouns of the third person bave demonstra-
tive and determinative force. (Compare the cognate Latin
is, ea, id,) Hence if they refer to lifeless objects or abstract
notmsy they rarely stand in the G. and D. cases, but they are
supplanted by the regular demonstrative pronouns or, if gov-
erned by prepositions, by ba(r), ^n, ^cr + the preposition.
Ex.: %m Slcbd^en fclncn ®rug! 3<^ »itl tatoon ni4t3 I)5rcn (F.
2104). ^abt Cttdj »or^cr »o^I ))ra))arlert (F. 1958). Mdn iij Q\aui\
tu ^aitfl nid)t »lel ta»on (viz., t)on ber SReliglon) (F. 3418).

1. Also cd (A.) is thus supplanted, when referring to an individual
object: ffio llegt g)an«? . . . !Den Singer brauf (not auf ed) bad ne^men »tr
( Arndt). S«enn'« ©lucf ! ^er| ! Siebc I ®ott ! ic^ ^abc felnen Slamen bapir (P.
8455-6), itennfl bu Sonbon ? Sdefud^e baflelbe iebenfaSd.

84 CONCOBD OP PRONOUN AND NOUN. [235-

Concord of Fronoim and Noun.

235. The pronoun of tbe third person agrees with the
noun which it represents in gender and number. The con-
cord of the pronoun with the natural and grammatical gender
has been treated, see 165, 166; also the neuter sg. ti repre-
senting a plural an(^any gender, see 168.

On the USB OP „ed".

236. 1. Sd is the indefinite subject of impersonal verbs
denoting states of the weather and other natural phenomena,
e. g.y ed rcgnct, t>onncrt, bli^, fdjncit, ^agelt, ed (lOt flcgla'tteijl, ed tagjt,
ed lointert, ed tunfelt, tammert, taut, etc.

2. Sd is made the indefinite subject of verbs, not really im-
personal : Sd Wc^Qt elf; ti hxtnnt, ed Kopft, flingelt, e« ge^t lod,
lautet; also in the passive and reflexive: ed toir^ getangt, gefungen,
gefpielt ; compare man tanat, man ru^. Sd gel^t, fpielt ^di ^ier gut
= it is good walking, playing here. SBo^in foQ ed nun ge^n
(F. 2051).

a. Such an ed is nsed by poets to ^ye a vagne, mysterious, ghostly
impression. Scbiller's ^Zan^tx," Goethe's ^^od^iettUeb" and irSotentan)"
are fall of them : Unb aid er im wiQigen (Bd^lwamtx Ia$, beti'tgt ed ftc^ utiter bent
93ette (G.). The ed (treated so far) except in the passive and reflexive verb-
forms cannot be omitted like, for instance, the expletive «ed^ sub 3, 5.

3. S0 is made the grammatical subject of a verb, when the
logical subject follows later: 6d gogen tret Swrfdje »o^I fiber ten
Sfl^cin (TJh.). g« f(i^rUt i^m frif* gwr ©ctte ttx Mu^enDe ®cno§
(TJh.). See F. 3490-1; 3674-77.

The logical subject cannot be another pronoun, e g,, ed tt>ar KHi, ed n>aren
©ie, as in Eng. " it was I," '* it was you," which is a late construction.

a. In ballads and other folk-lore this ed ie not required and invereion is still possi-
ble, as was the rule in O. H. O., without cS at the head of the sentence. For after all,
ti was here nsed not merely to denote an indefinite subject, but to account for an inver-
sion which had no apparent cause. It is an *' expletive ^* and superfluous as soon as
any other part of the sentence stands at the head bringing about the inversion. It is
oftenest translated by *' there." German tales begin „^i war einmat . , ,", ^ There

237] STKTAX OF THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUH^. 86

was ooce . . . " . Botfy eln $tnaV tin Kdflcin fle^n (Q.). 6teIIt* ein ftna^c fl^ mtr an ble
eeite (id.). The construction i^ bin ti, 3^r feib c8, "^yon are it," m in Ags. and as
Bnglish-speaking children still say, is already the nilo in O. H. O. Nor can we say
in German ,,i^ bin er" and ,,@tc linb cr," but i^ bin ed, bad bin i^, bet bin i^, i^ bin
bericnigc, mel^et . . . , I am he who . . .

4 Peculiar is the impersonal „t^ fllcbt/' " there are " or "is,"
which is not a very old phrase, but rare in M. H. G. , in which
ed with pL verb was even possible.

m^^" 18 here the indefinite subject and has taken the place of the more
definite irbad" or a noun, which "gave," '* furnished/' *' produced" a cer-
tain thing. Hence i^ed gie^t'' is always followed by the accusative : mt^
giebt ^djU&^t," " Somebody is giving or will give somebody a whipping."
(&u ba gab'd meflfdrfd^cn S^tnfen (Scheffel). »(Sd giebt" is not well followed
by a noun in the sg. denoting one object or individual, e. g., (Sd giebt l^ier
einen $unbr but by nouns in the pl.« by abstract and material nouns : (£d
giebt feincn dufaQ (Sch.). See F. Ilia

5. Sd is used as the subject of impersonal verbs followed by
ah objective personal pronoun (D. or A.), denoting states of
mind and body: Sd tiirfiet miiif ed l^ungert i^n, ti reut miii, ed ijl
i^m 6ange*

If the objective pronoun or any other part of speech precede the verb,
ed is not necessary, but it may be retained. Ex. : 3(^ fc^tDore eu(t lu, mtr
ifl'd aU tt)ic ein Sraum (F. 2040). Dir toirb getvtg einmal bei beiner ®ott(ii^nUd^^
leit bange (F. 2060). SRir if! f(i^Ied^t }u mute, *' I do not feel well."

6. Sd stands further as indefinite predicate and as indefinite
object. See 204. Sw biefem ©Inne fannjl tu'« wagcn (F. 1671).
See further, F. 2012-14 ; 2080. @ie mclnt Du fcl|l cntflo^n ; unO
^alb unb l^att M|l U c« fd)on (F. 3331-2).

In the last illustration and in similar ones ed» if translated at all, may
be rendered by " so " : 8ie finb too^ mitbe ? D nein» aber x^ bin ed gemefen,
= I was (so).

Syntax of the Beflexive Pronoun.

237. The reflexive pronoun always refers to the subject:
Sd ift ber io^n ber £:emut, bie |ld^ felbfl beatDungen (Sch.). X)ie W
^il ieglid^ed erlauit (id.).

86 SYNTAX OF THE BEOIPROCAL PBONOUIS'. [238-

1. The dative was already lost in O. H. G. In M. H. G. the nse of
f!(^ as dative is very rare. Luther's Bible is still full of the dative of the
personal pronoun for the reflexive, e. g , jDie ^eibcn ba fte bad QJefcft nit^t
^aben, fmb (fic) i^nen felbjl ein ®efeft. Die fficid^it Idffct ijr fagcn, = wisdom
will take advice. ®ott f(^uf ben ^enfc^en i^m )um Silbe. Lessing has: SBer
ft(^ SimH unb gafl i^m felbfl ju leben nit^t enlfc^liefen fann, ber lebet anberer ®fla»^
auf immerbar. But this nX^m" stands only because there is already one ft4*
It is very rare in the classics and does not occur in the spoken language.

2. @elb{l» felber strengthens the reflexive pronoun and prevents its con-
founding with the reciprocal. For examples see above. But felbfl (feller)
is far from as common as the Eng. self (selves).

Syntax of the Beciprocal Pronoun.

238. As Buch are used und, euc!^, flA, both in the accnsatiYe
and dative : Un^ (jte) ntdten fid) (D.) gu unD gru§teit ^ii (A.)
freunMid) Im ©plcgel (H. and D., YH. 42). SCenn ji(!^ Die gurflcn
befebbcn, mxi^tn lit IDiener fid) morten unD toten (Sch.).

But if any ambi^^uity arises, as is frequently the case, the unvarying
form etnanber or the inflected etner (ber etne) ben atibem is used instead of
them. In M^xt fra^ten [xti^i- m^xt rauften ft(^ bie ^aare oxl^," f!(^ is ambiguous.
<Bx&i einanbet/ eud^ etnanber are tautological, though often used. irUnter
etnanber'' is also unambiguous, e, g., unb Ueben m^ unter einanber (B.).

Syntax of the PoBsessive Prononns.

239. The possessive pronoun nsed adjectively agrees with
the noun like any other adjective. See 212. The uninflected
forms ntein, bcin, fcin stand in the predicate and can be subjects
only when used as nouns with or without the article, e. g.j
3)lcln unb Icln Ifl atlcd ^antt^ Urfprung (Prov. ).

1. Standing in the predicate, therefore, it is right to say : jDad 95u(S
ijl metm meinedf bad meine, bad meintge. As subjects referring to bad fdu^ :
fD^einedr bad meine, bad meintge ijl ^irloxtn, = mine is lost.

2. Care should be taken that the right possessive be used when per-
spns are addressed with ©le, bu» l^r (3^r). 3^r refers to ©ie, bein to bit»
euer ((£uer) to ijr {^})x), e,g.,<Bit ^aben SJre granSKutter ^erloren? ©ojtn

242] SYNTAX OF THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 87

SDirb bi4 t)eine 9$enneffen(cit m^ f^xtn ? !Dut4 M Scanned ftbermut ben 3$r
bur(^ (Suer SSrautgemad^ )um X^rone gefii^rt (Sch.).

240. Of ter, tit, bad mcine (ter, tie, tad meinifite), when used
substantively, ter, tic SJleinc, pi, tic SJlclncn (with capital let-
ters), denote persons, viz., friends, relatives, etc. ; tad SRelnc
or tad 3Rclnlgc denote my property, duty, share, deserts.

Ex. : Der ^err !emtct tie ©einen (B.). @ie ^at bad Sljrlge ertalten (her
dowry). !Jarbinal ! 3(^ ^abe bad SRcinifle get^an. X^m ©ie bad 3^re (Sch.).
Dlefen ^Worgen, aid i* @ie Im !Jrelfe ber SJrigen fanb . . . (id.). *®anj ber
S^rige,* »bic ^Delnige,'' „bie I)etnc* are proper lettei^endings.

241. The possessive pronoun must be repeated like the
article with nouns of different gender: @cin l^o^cr ®ang, feine
etlc (Seflalt, fclncd SKunted SSdjcIn, fclncr Sugcn ®c»aU * . • (F.
3395-8).

242. 1. As fetn and il^r are both reflexive (referring to the subject of
the sentence) and non-reflexive (referring to another noun) an ambiguity
may arise, which should be avoided by using the demonstrative pronouns
instead ; either bclfen, bcren always preceding, or bcffclbcm berfelbcn either
preceding or following the noun. Ex. : 9ioIanb rltt (interm Skater ^er mit
betTen ©c^ilb unb Sc^wcrte (Uh.). „3Rlt feinem ©cftilb'' would have meant
Roland's shield. Compare the following lines of the same poem, in
which i^m prevents ambiguity : 8%. ritt ^interm 93ater ^er unb trug t^m feinen
flarfen ©peer sufamt bem fe|len Sd^tlbe. Compare grau 9^. 9^ ging mit ber
^audl^iSlterin unb i^rer 9{i(^te nad^ bem ^arfte, i. e, Mrs. N. N.'s niece ; but
mit ber ^aud^^Iterin unb beren ^id^tt, t. e., the housekeeper's niece. <£d etfre
ieber feiner (the father's) unbeflo(^enen, «on ISorurteilen freien Siebe nad^ (Le.).

2. The possessive of the 8. person is in the people's language often
repeated for emphasis after a genitive of possession and also after a
dative : »2Rclnem SJetter feln Oartcn.- Comp. " John his mark." This is
not to be imitated though it occur now and then in the classics and quite
frequently in the 18th century: Sluf ber ijortuna i^rem Gci^iff (Sch.) ; bed
3Uo feinem <StuW (id.). 3^r artet me^r md) eured SJaterd ®ci(l aid nad^ ber
SWuttcr l^rem (id.). See 180, 4.

8. The definite article cannot precede the attributive possessive pro-
noun. Sener, biefer and such adjectives as obgeba^ter, ema^nter seemingly
do, but such constructions as biefer bein ©ojur obgebad^tcr mein ©(^reiber are
rather appositional.

88 SYNTAX OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PBONOUN. [243-

243. 1. By a license the possessiyes lose inflectional endings in sach
set phrases as occur in 3ci) moc^te bnttn mein Sag m(^t Uebm (F. 2920).
^ein 2tUa^ benf t(^ bran (Sch.). -^ab' t(^ bid^ bo(^ mein Xage ni(^t gefeben (F.
4440). These phrases are in the transition stage to adverbs and the
apostrophe may stand or not.

2. <3etn is in proverbs and in one phrase irfeiner Qiit*' = " in due time/'
'*in — time/' still used for the feminine if^x, a remnant of the earlier
periods, when if^r could not be used as the reflexive possessive: (Btin %^ox
fcnnt jebc ^u^ (Prov.). Untrcuc fc^lagt fcinen cigcncn |)cnn (Prov.). »Setncr
deit" is an adverbial genitive, in which feiner has become non-reflexive
so that it apparently stands at times for i^rer* unfere^/ etc. Reflexive :
w5lllcd !Ding »ajrt feinc Qtif* (Hymn) ; but non-reflexive : Bit toax feiner 3eit
(once) etne gro§e Sdngenn.

Compare the relation of Eng. "his" and ** its." The latter sprang
up in Shakspere's time. "Its" is the genitive of "it." InSh. "his"
stands frequently where later ** its" is used.

3. The use of the German definite article where in Eng, the possessive
is used, is by no means as strict and as common in the spoken language
as the grammarians would have us believe. Take for instance : 3Rdn
armer ^opf tjl mir »errucft. 5Kein armer ©Inn Ifl mir serflittft (F., I. 3383-6).
@olang t(^ mi($ nocb frtfc^ auf metnen S3einen fu^Ie, genfigt mir biefer j^notenfloif
(F. 3838-9). See 154.

In the 17th century ,,fi^" web used also for all persons. *' Simplicissimns " is fall
of this misuse.

Syntax of the Demonstrative Pronoun.

244. ^tx, tie, ta^, always accented, points out withont
reference to nearness in time or space. It is generally well
translated by "that," also by "this," and by a personal
pronoun.

Ex.: D ent fBc\U ^ter (this) njtrb ieber %a^ ein %t\t (F. 2162). Sfber, »ie
i^ mtd^ fcbne bid^ ju fc^auen, ^abe i(^ »or b e nt (that) 3J?enfc!^en (Mephistopheles)
ein l^ctmli(^ ®raucn (F. 3480-1). D gluff Ud^ b e r (he), ben i^r belc^rt ! F. 1981).
^CT (for her) l^ab^ \^ bic ^reube terbittert (Bo.). Seje b tm, ber S5oltair(en)«
©d^riften iib errant)! nid^t ntit bem ffeptifd^en ®ei|l liejl, In weld^em er einen %t\l ber*-
felben gefd^rleben (Le.).

1. The genitives be^f beJTen, beren sg. fern., berer and beren» pL, are used
substantively as follows :

246] SYNTAX OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN. 89

a. Ded is archaic, but occurs in compounds like ht^aV), Mtdt^tn, ber^
geflalt/ etc., e.g„ Ded freut jlc^ bad entntenfd^te ^aax (Sch.). SBir finb ber feined
mxt, bad xoxx bitten (Lu.), We are worthy of none of those (things), etc.

h. Deffettf beren G. sg. fern, and G. pi., are used when thej have the
force of possessives (see 242).

c. The present usage favors bcrer, G. pi., referring to persons and beren^
beffen referring to tilings. But the classics do not agree with this. Gen-
erally these forms are antecedents of relative pronouns. Ex. : 3e&o fa^'
mix bad (5nbf bcrer, bie »on Sroja fejrten (G.). ^at bad jfinb f*on 3fi(^ne? (£d
l^t beren )»ier« ^ort |ie:^t man bie fitter berer (of the gentlemen, lords) )9on
SBebelo^.

ft. The lengthened forms in -en and -er sprang np as early as the 15th centnry both
in the article and in the pronoun. Lather has ^^benen," D. pi., bnt the short genitives
„be8" and ^^ber.'' In the 18th century they lost -et and -en again, owing, no doubt, to
the desire of distinguishing between article and demonstrative, and between the sub-
stantive and adjective uses of the latter. Goethe has still „unb t>on benen aD2enf(!(en bie
fie befonberd fi!^&^en." Present usage, however, requires the short forms of the pro-
noun, when used adjectively.

8. Notice the frequent emphatic force of the pronoun, e, g.^ Som {Recite, bad mlt und
geloren i% toon b e m ifl leiber nie bie ^rage (F. 1978-0).

Dl cfcr, jicttcr*

245. liefer points out what is near in time and space, jener
■what is remoter. Diefer is "the latter," Jcner, "the former.'^
They are used substantively and adjectively : !Eiefed Jungc
grauen3lmmcr ^at ®efu^I unb ©timme (Le.). I)iefer xoW^ troden,
tt)ad jimcr fcud^t begel^rt. Died Slatt %\vc — biefed tt)iUfl bu geltenb
madden? (Sch.).

1. Dad, bied like ed, but less frequently, can be tlie indefinite subjects
of neater verbs. See 236. E, g,, Dad tfl bie SRagb bed !Ra(!^bard* Dad ifl
ein weifer S^atetr ber fein eigen Jtinb fennt (Sch.). Died if! bie %x\ mit 4>exen um^
jugebn (F. 2518).

2. Died unb bad, bied unb iened bave the force of irir^enb ein,'' e.^., SBtr
flnb nid^t mel^r beim erflen ®Iadr brum benfen n>ir gem an bied unb bad (Song).
Unb er fhetfte aid ifnabe bie $&nbe nid^t aud na(^ biefem unb ienem (H. and D.
V.64).

8. Diefet is strengthened by Jier ; ber, iener and bad by ba, «. ^., 3Rit
bem ba toerben @ie nic^t fertig (Sch.). :3ener, in the sense of " the other " and

90 QYlSnAX OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PBONOUiT. [246-

" to come," iritt icncr 3cU*, In iracm 2eben. ©Joffperc^d ©tfpenfl fommt »irHl(^
aud iener SBelt (Le.).

246. When not referring to persons ^ier + preposition
may take the place of tiefer, and ta + preposition the place o!
ter and jcner, e. g,, 2Cer fonjl l|l \^\x\X) taran aU l^r In fflien ? (Sch.).
Datton fc^ttjeigt te^ 6angcr^ ^bflici^feit (?). 4)icmad6 (according to
this) mup tie 2edart cine gang antere flemefen feln*

1. Notice the two strong fonns in Lessing's STHed biefcd, fetne (Erpnbmtscn
unb bie l^tflortfd^en S^aterialietw htrtet er benn in dnen fein lan^en, fein ft^toer su W*
fenben IRoman )ufammen. For an bad, toad . • . ^ )»on bent, uad * • « no
baranmad . • wbai^onmad . * * should be snbetitated, though this is done
colloquially. wSBir baci^ten baran, mad bu ie^t anfangen tDurbejl" is not elegant.

247. Der-, tie-, taejienigc is generally used substan-
tively followed by a relative clause or a genitive. Used adjec-
tively it stands for ter, tie, ta3 when a relative clause follows,
e. g., tieicnigen 9Kenf(^en, »eld)e ♦ ♦ ♦ The best usage accents
ber, bie, bad. Used adjectively it has only medium stress

Ex. : ^Diejenigen ber itnaben, »el^e i^re Sufgaben ni^t gema^t fatten, mugten
nad^ft^en (stay after school). £iebet bieienigen, tt>el(l^e eud^ )»erfolgen (B.).

248. T)er-, bie-, baffelbe denotes identity. It refers
to something known or mentioned. It is used equally well
substantively or adjectively. It can be strengthened by
„eben" : 9Wit aUer 2:reue ttertt)enD' id& eure ®aben ; ber Ciirftifle fofl fid^
berfelben erfreuen (H. and D. n., 74r-5).

1. T>tx ndntlid^e also denotes identity, bat is not written as one word.
if2)erfelbi9C« is rarer than bcrfclBe. 2Bar bad ntc^t ber Dicnflmann (porter) bcr
bie Sludwanberet betrogen l^t ? Der ndmU(^.

2. @elMg without bcr is rare, e,g., wjur felbigen ©tunbe* (B.).

249. ®eIB, felber, felijl distinguishes one object from
another. It strengthens personal and reflexive pronouns. It
is made emphatic by ebeit, also in the phrase ein(er) unb berfelbe^
®el6er and felbfl do not differ in meaning, but in use. @e(6er is

261] SYNTAX OF THE INTEBROGATIVB PBONOUN. 91

never made an adverb as feI6fl is. ©elber always follows the
word it qualifies, though it need not stand necessarily directly
after it: 3c^ fclkr or felbjl ^abe i^n gefc^en. 2Cer jwcifelt 9lat^an,
la§ ibr nidjt (see 309, 2) tic g^rll^fcU, Me ®ro§mut felbcr fciti ?
(Le.) SBer anUxn tint ©rube grabt, faUt felbjl ^Inein (Prov.).

1. Setbf! has become also an adverb with the force of irfogar*" and then
stands best at the beginning of the sentence, unaccented : ©elbfl ein fo
l^immltr^ed ^aax (viz., Psyche and Amor) fanb na(^ ber ^erbinbung \idi ungUt(^
(G.).

2. Notice the compounds bafelbfl^ l^le(r)fetbfl, in that or this very place ;
also the force of ir«on felbfl'' in : Die !D2u^Ie gebt ni(^t ]»on felbfl (of its own
accord).

For fclb with ordinals see 229. Alone it is vety rare, e. g., »eil er in
felbem (tm ^ala'fle) aUe urn flci^ )9erramtneU :^atte (Le.).

250. @ 1 d^ means + " such." It describes what is pointed
out. It is used adjectively and substantively: ^ilfrcidjc 9Kad>te I
einen folci^en (SCeg) 3eigt mir an, ten id) ^^ermag gu ge^en (Sch.). 3Bo
mar tie Uberlegung aid mir . . . \n\ijt SJtac^t gelegt in folci^e ^ant
(id.).

1. The use of fold^ for the personal pronoun or ber-r bie-, bafTelbe is not
good although found now and then in the classics, e. g, , ^Id fie bie SRood^
l^ittte erreid^ten, fanben fit fold^e auf bad lufligfle (see 300, 2) audgefc^mucft (G.)-

2. For ^oldi eiitr fo ein is a frequent equivalent. It is more common in
the spoken language than fol(i^ ein. Lessing and Goethe are very fond of
it, e,g., ©0 ein !Did^ter 1(1 @:^affpere unb ©^Pere fail ganj a^cin (Le.). ^^
laxm nii(^ ni(^t, n>ie fo ein SODort^elb, fo ein 2:ugenbf(^n>&^erf an meinem SBiSen xodx^
men nnb ®ebanfen (Sch.).

f,6o ein'' does not come from ,,fol^ ein," bnt from ein fo before adjective and noan :
„ein fo l^o^ev Sturm"— /,fo ein ^oi^er Xucm," then ,;fo etn Sturm."

Syntax of the Interrogative Pronoun.

251. SBer, + "who," "which," and load, + "what," are
used substantively only: SSad Kimmert ed bie ?5»itt, ter man bie
Suttgen raubt^in toejfen JCalte fie brftUt (Le.). 9lun, mn lieben a»ei

92 SYin'AX OP THE INTERBOGATIVB PBOlirOUK. [253-

tjon eu^ am mcijlen (id.). SBad ijl ttt latiflen fRtU furger ©inn ?
(Sch.).

1. Once the genitive after ton and tt>ad was common. SBer is almost
entirely supplanted by vytl^tx, and n>a<} by tt>ad fUr ein* Bat toad + geni-
tive, which generally looks like an accusative, still remains in phrases
Uke 9Bad SBunbeT(d) (Le.). 9Bad bed Xtn\tU, S^ad {)enfeTd. SBad if! 38ei§ed
bort am griinen SBalbc (G.). See 181, 188.

2. SBent only refers to persons. When it refers to things or whole
sentences »o(r) + preposition is substituted. SBoju bcr 2drm ? (F. 1322).
SBoran erfennfl bu ben ^ngeflagten ?

8. In the spoken language mtoa^" is preceded by a preposition that
does not govern the accusative : ^u xoa^t mit xoa^; but iDomitf tDOgu are pref-
erable. The classics*have it too. Even fur toa^, urn xoa^, huxdf toa^ are
supplanted by tDofiir, moruin, mobur(6« Qn mad bie ^offe ? (G.) 3R\t load
fann id^ auftoarten 7

4. 9Bad in the sense of toarum and mie is originally an absolute accusa-
tive, e. g., SBad fle^t t^r unb legt bie |)dnbe in (= in ben) e(!^op (Sch.). 9Bad
»irb bad |)erj btr fd^wer (P. 2720).

5. Mark the interrogative adverbs : »o, -f- where ; »ann# -I- when ;
»ie, + how ; tt>o(r)- with preposition ; »arum# + wherefore, •\- why, only
interrogative. For their etymology see

252. 30 e I d^ means -f '' wbicb " and singles out the indi-
vidual, though etymologically it inquires after the quality.
It stands adjectively and substantively: Unb tt)C^cr ijl^d, ten tu
<m meljlen liebfl? (Sch.). SBeld^cd Unge^eure finnet I6r mix dn^
(id.).

In exclamatory sentences njeld^ is originally interrogative, often fol-
lowed by ein : 9BeI(ib ein 3ubeln, n>el($ ein ©ingen luirb in unferm |)aufe fetn!
(Song). See F. 742.

253. 3Qad fitr, mad ftir ein inquires after the nature
and qualities of a person or thing. SBad fitr always stands
adjectively, toad ftit ein adjectively and substantively. S3ad is
separable from fiir ein. Lessing is particularly fond of this
separation. 9Qad fur stands before the singular of a noun

266] SYISTTAX OF THE BELATIVE PRONOUNS. 93

denoting material and before a collectiye noun; before the
plural of any noun. S3ad fitr ein inquires also after an indi-
vidual.

Ex. : SBad \ik SODetn ifl bled ? Sad f&r S3erge . • . trennen vaa bnm iu)4?
(Le.)- ^^^ tn Sab^lon ici^ bir ffir einen f^dnen ©toff gefauft (id.).

Syntax of the Belative Pronouns.

254. There being no original relative pronouns, the other pronoans were need m
such or conjunctions like «0, dar^ da, unde (see below) connected coordinate sentences,
one of which later became subordinate. The first pronoun used as a relative was ber,
lit, bad, in O. H. G. SBel^er, »er, »a8 developed into relative pronouns gradually. First
they were made indefinite pronouns by means of the particle «o, O. H. Q. no htoeUchiso),
90 hwer{80)^ 90 hw<u{90) > M. H. G. swelieh^ 9tper^ 9W<u = whosoever, whatsoever >
N. H. G. welil^er, »er, »a8, which can be strengthened by nur, au^, tmmet (= ever). To
say therefore that the interrogative is used as the relative is hardly correct, though, no
doubt, the indirect question had its influence in the coincidence of the forms of the
interrogative and indefinite relative pronouns. The demonstrative ber, tie, bad intro-
duced the coordinate clause, which afterwards became subordinate ; and dause and
pronoun were then called rdative, SBelt^er is only of the 16th century.

255. !Der and loeld^er are equivalent. After personal
pronouns Itx is preferable. Euphony should decide which is
to be used. Sin gtauengimmcr tad ben!t, ijl ebcn fo cfcl al« eln
aWann, bcr fid) fdjmlnft (Le.). SJJeld^cr is preferable after ter^?
ienige. The following sentence is bad : Hit, tie Me 9)tutter Itx
^InDcr xooXf ifl gejlortcn.

1. Of the four relatives ber, tvel^» xotXp mad only » e I ^ can also be
used adjectively, the other three only substantively. The j?enitive of
ber, bie, bad is always bcJTotr bercn, s^. and pi., never berer, e,g., 2Der fcin
®efe^ ad^tet ifl e^en fo m&^\\^ aid mer fein ®efe^ ^at (Le.). ^m S^ontag, an
meld^em ^age xo\x abrtif!en ... But this is not very elegant.

256. Set and xoil&tx will take any antecedent soever.
But mcr, xocl^, haying sprung from indefinite and compounded
pronouns, require none. SBer admits of no antecedent at all ;
tvad may have any other neuter pronoun, an adjective (pref-
erably in the superlative), or a whole clause, e.g,t %ixx xoo^i
brein ge^t unt nid^t trein (viz., ind ®e:^lrn), ein )>rii(i^tis SSSort au

94 SYin'AX OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. [267-

fcienflcn jlc^t (F. 1952-3). Mc^ m^ ijl, ijl Dmmn^fl (Hegel).
2Bad Du ercrbt »on teinen Satcm ia% cmlr6 ed urn e« gu bejt^en (F.
682-3). Dent ^mli6^^m, toa^ auij ler ®eifl em)>fangen, br&ngt
Immcr fremt unt) fremter ©tojf fidfe an (F. 634-5).

1. dx, toer; ber ^arni toer; ber* toer are impossible. Bat Goethe has (in
the '* Walpurgisnacht ''), F. 3964: ©o €Jre btm, tt)em (g^re gebu^rt. The
proverb says : wS^re bem S^re gebu^rtf" the Bible «»(£^Te ban bte (E^re gebul^rt.*

2. ^ad referring to a substantive and totl6^^ referring to a ^hole
clause are not present usage, though the classics use them so. Die SUrn
fannten bad Ding ni(^t, »ad xoix ^ojlici^feit nennen (Le.). ^on fritter 3ugenb an
^atte mir unb meiner <3(i^n>efler ber Skater felbfl im Sanjen Untenici^t gegebeUf melc^ed
einen fo emfl^aften S^ann munberlid^ genug ^dne fleiben foUen (G.).

8. If n>er has a seeming antecedent the latter stands after the clause.
The antecedent is nothing but the subject of the main clause repeated
for emphasis in the shape of another pronoun. If, however, trer and its
seeming antecedent do not stand in the same case, the latter is indis-
pensable. Ex. : ®er 9>ed^ angrelft befubelt ftc^ (Prov.). S©er itber gewtfTe Dinge
ben SBcrjlanb nid^t »erllert, ber l^t fetnen ju »erlieren (Le.). SBer dieted brtngt, otrb
ntand^em ettsad bringen (F. 97). But SDer ein Wtal litgt, bem glaubtman ni^t
unb toenn er aud^ bit SCBa^r^eit ftrld^t (Prov.). ®er ba ^t, bem tt)irb gegeben (B.).
The same is true of tt>ad : SDad man nid^t toti^, bad eben braud^te man unb mad
man n)ei§, fann man nid^t braud^en (F. 1066-7). grii^ fibt fid^, wad ein 5Kcifler
toerben xoiU (Sch ). For the gender in this illustration see 168.

4. The old short form n>ed is now archaic except in n)ed^alb» toed'
» e g e tt : 2Bcd SBrot td^ e|fe, bed Sieb idj jlngc (Prov.).

257. If the dative and accusative, governed by a preposi-
tion, do not refer to a person, too, now rarely tta, with that
preposition, are generally substituted : Jlid^td Ijl S^fflH ; dm
totnxQ^m bad, mo^on bie 2l6fl(!fet fo flat in tie Slugen Icu^tct (Le.).

1. ©0, the oldest relative conjunction, has now been crowded out from
the spoken language, though it was very common in the 16th and 17th
centuries: Die linfe ^anb, baju bad 4>aupt, fo er i^m abge^auen (Uh.). Son
alien, fo ha lamen (Bu.).

258. The relative adverbs » o, "where " and t) a (colloqui-

261] SYNTAX OF THE IKDEFIKITE PBONOUKS. 95

ally); ba, mann, menn, »o, **wben"; mle, "as*' take the
place of a relative pronoun governed by a preposition when
they refer to nouns denoting time, place, and manner.

Ex. : i^ennfl bu bad Oanb m bie Sitronen blii^n? (Q.), (£d gibt im aXenrd^en^
leben 9iigenMt(fe» oo er bem SBeltgeifl nd^er ifl aU fonfl(Sch.). 3n btrfem Sugen^
blidfe, ba n>ir rebem ifl fein Spta'nn me^r in ber @(^tt>ei}er fianbe (id.). «»Die Srt
unb ffielfe »ie,* ** the manner in whicli." (wffiie** is more forcible than win
rnXditi.*') D fc^dner Xa^, n>enn enblid^ ber @olbat ind Seben (eimfc:^rt (Sch.).

1. This oonstr action is old only with the demonstrative adverbs used
as relatives, viz., da, dd/r, danne. ^Qn)o» aU^a, too\tlb\t are archaic

Syntax of the Indefinite Pronouns.

259. S i n and e i n i g e can precede a numeral generally fol-
lowed by a noon. They mean " some," " or so," " odd ": eln
a^t Xage, a week or so; einige 'oittii^ ^Cii^v, forty odd years.
The order may also be: „ein 3a^r fiinf^e^n.''

1. Grimm thinks this phrase has lost „ohtx,'* as if it meant rincn Sag
obcr se^n, ein 3a$r ober f&tfie^n. No doubt Mtinige ^^iergig Ba^r" has lost
ffUnb" and stands for einige unb viersig 3a^r.

260. (Sin, tiroa^, toai, wtx, Itmant, t&tlijt, tlnl^t
can be strengthened by irgenb (compounded of is + hwar and
gin = **ever," "where," "you please," grin corresponding to
L. '<un). For the origin of tvad, totv, toel^, see 254. 9l(^, rotnn
id) etn>ad auf bid) fbnnte ! " if I could influence you at all (F.
3423). SBad anbcrd fuc^e gu beflinnen (F. 1383). Die Saflb i(l boc^
immcr »a« unb eine %xt »on ftrieg (G.). ^ier finb itirfc^cn gu »cr:s
faufen. SSiQfl bu loeld^e? $a{l bu irgenb mad verlorcn?

1. They stand generaUj only in the nominative and aocosativa (£inig
is rare in the singular, and for it irgenb cin is better used.

261. at 1 1-. The following examples show the many vari-
ous forms of aO- : ad bad (Mt>, att bed ®e(bed, aUed bad ®elb, m^
foil bad ailed ?

96 SYNTAX OF THE INDEFIIOTE PBOKOUNS. [262-

1. nt stood in M. H. G. only after prepositianfl as still now, e. g., M
aQe bem, " withal." mx oirb »on aOe ben fo bumm (F. 1946). The form aEe
before the article and not preceded by a preposition, though yeiy com-
mon in the classics and in the spoken language, is not so good as aS or
an with strong endings, e.g,, 9S btr &(^ner) (G.). WL or aSe in such
phrases as btr SBeiit tjl aSi " there is no more wine^" has hardlj been satis-
factorily explained yet.

2. Notice the following meanings : SSe @titnbfn dnen X^cloffel t»oS, ''a
teaspoon fall every hour." The singular in the sense of *' every " is
rarer, auf allrn ^oXl, in every case. Witt Snfang ifl [(^mer (Prov.). WLt^
!Ding tpd^rt feine ^61, dotted £teb in ^tdv^l^ (Hymn). The singnlar in
the sense of Eng. " all " is archaic, alien SDtnter (Logan, quoted in Grimm's
Diet.), all winter. For all day, all night, we say best bie gaiQe Stoc^tf ben
gaiticn Xag. Notice also in qSlu ^x^, *' very early/' in oiler @tile, in aHe SDelt

8. The plural of jeber, iebweber, iegU(^er is rare. It is expressed by mOSx:'
Even the singular of the last two is now archaic and rare.

262. 3)1 a n (^ e r does not differ from the Eng. " many " in
use and force. Compare ein mandier, man(!6 einer, manner gtite
SRann, manci^ eln guter SRann, mand^e fd^one Slume*

263. S i e I and to e n i g, denoting the indiyidnal and used
substantively denoting persons, mnst be inflected ; if they
denote an indefinite number, quantity, mass, they are gener-
ally xminflected. £:cnn i^iele f!nb berufen, aber menige finb au^cr^
mallet (B.). Siel nod^ ^a|l bu t^on mir au l^dren (Sch.). 3^<t^ tt>^i^
i(^ ))iel, tod) mbd)te i(^ ailed toiffen (F. 601). Sd ftubieren otel SlmerU
faner In ^Deutfci^lant).

1. SBieler, -e, -ed denotes "various sorts," e,g,, t»leler ©ein; in composi-
tion „*telcrlei ©eln^" *' many kinds of wine."

A ftiller treatment of the laige number of hidefinite pronoaiu and numeials beloDgs
rather to the Dictionary.

266] SYNTAX OF THE YEBB. 97

SYNTAX OF THE VERB.
Classifigation 07 Yebbs.

264. According to meaning and constniction the verbs
may be variously divided : 1, into independent verbs; 2, into
the small class of auxiliaries proper and the modal auxiliaries.
See 267. Again: 1, into persona/ verbs, which can have any
person, the 1., 2., or 3., as subject; 2, into impersonal verbs,
which have the indefinite subject ed, „ti rennet.'' See 236.

The personal verbs again divide: 1, into neuter or subjective
verbs, as tie @onne fd^eint (see 179;; 2, transitive or objective
verbs, the direct object of which stands in the accusative
(transitive proper, see 198) or in the genitive or dative
(called also intrans., see 184, 190).

As subdivisions of transitive verbs may be regarded: 1, the
reflexive verbs; 2, the causative.

The reflexives again: 1, into reflexives proper, which occur
only as reflexives, e.g., fld^ gr&men, to pine; fid^ erbarmen, to feel
pity; 2, into both transitive and intransitive verbs used re-
flexively, e, g,, fld^ loafd^en, flA 'otrdmn, fid) tot lacben.

The pronoun is always in the accusative.

1. Transitive verbs have often intransitive or neater force, but there
can be no direct object then. Dad ^fixh jte^t ben SBageitf but !Dte ^olfcn
Sie^en am ^immel* Personal verbs can also be used without a loprical sub-
ject : Dad SBaffer raufd^tf but (£d raufi^t im SRof^re. Also the modal auxilia-
ries occur still as independent verbs : SBad foil bad ? but SBo^in foQ ber
Dieb gefltt^tet f€in ? See 267.

Syntax of the Auxiliaries.

I. $aien and feitt.

265. $ a 6 e n forms the compound tenses :

1. Of all transitive verbs : lij ^ait getragen, iii %ait betedt, iij
t^abe angeKagt.

98 8TNTAX OP THE YEBB — AUXILIARIES. [266-

2. Of the modal aimliarieSy of reflexive and impersonal
verbs proper, fir ^at ed nl6t flemoc^t, ^ot (id) fle»afd)en, cd ^ot
geregnet, ed l^ot mic!^ gereut

3. Of intransitive verbs that have no direct object, at most
the object in the G. or D. fir ^atte mein gefpottet, er IJot mix
gefc^atet, er l^otte itlaijt, gemeint, gefc^Iafen*

4. Of (intransitive) verbs of motion when the mere action
within a certain space, the effort, and its extent are to be
emphasized, without reference to direction, point of depar-
ture or destination. ^. ))on ^umBoI^t (at 'oitl gereifi, = was a
great traveler. Dcr ©tatlfncdjt (at tint ©tuntc (in unt (er geritten*
!Cie Sbglein (aben gefungen unD gef))ntngen. £)ad 2&mmd(en (at
ge(itpft, Der Sif(( (at gefd^wommen. "Dad ^leine (the little one) (at
no(( nie gegangen (has never walked). @0)>(ie (at geHettert unt
fl(( tie (Sd^urae senijfen. Der @d(neUI&ufer (at f((on lattgfl gelaufen
(finished running long ago). Good usage favors: Die U(r (at
einmal gegangen aber jie^ fle(t fte fHQ. Die 3Ru(Ie, tiie aRafd(ine, Dad
9taD (at gegangen, but ift is frequently used.

5. Of P^en, fie(en, liegen, anfangen, begtnnen, auf(oren. - But in
S. G. fein is more common and it is also found in the classics.
2Bo (abt i(r gefejjcn, gc|lant>en ? SJann f^at Die ©Aule angefangen ?

266. @ e in forms the compound tenses:

1. Of all verbs of motion, except some, which take ^a'btn,
when action simply is denoted. See 265, 4. These take fein
when the direction, points of departure, destination and ar-
rival are mentioned. These circumstances are often expressed
by inseparable and separable prefixes in compound verbs.
Ex. : „Dcr OTai ijl gefommen." fir ttJirt gefatten fein, = he proba-
bly fell. aBlr fint) fdjned (tnabgefliegen. Die 6eefa(rer jlnt) auf Der
3nfel ©J^e gelanDet. Die ®t5rd^e fint) nad) (SiiDen gejogen. Der
(Btatlfned^t ijl in einer StunDe (in unD (er gcritten, = he rode to a
certain place (there) and back. Die geinDe fint entflo(en, tnU
laufen, eingetroffen. SCir jInD fd)on me(rere SWale umge^ogen (moved).

267] BYKTAX OF THE YEBB — AUXIUABIES. 99

2. Of certain Terbs denoting a springing into being or pass*
ing away, a transition and development, growth and decay,
often expressed by er-, tocr-, jcr-, and separable prefixes. lie
3Wilc^ Ijl flefrorctt « flefrlcrcn, but ed ^at flefrorcn < frieren, there
was a frost). £ad @eil i{l gerriffen. !Cer 8(^nee i{l gefd^molgen.
ffXtx Srut)er toare nid^t geflorben.'' Zad Saumd^en ifl gewad^fen* Xit
reic^en Seute f!nt im ^riege ))erarmt. Xa^ iW ijl erlofi^en. !I:ie
@^ale ifl gefprungen (cracked). Xer Settling war eingefci^lafen (had
fallen asleep). In the compound verbs it is just this prefix
that called for fein^ Compare trinfen — ertrinf en, fci^eincn — er:?
fd^einen, wac^en — crnjadjen, f^ungcrn — ml)ungem, fricren — erfricrcn,

3. Of fein, WeiBen, begegnett, folgcn, gelingcn, gefdsc^cn, gliidcn, for
which it is hard to account by meaning, but see 283, 2. Ex.:

Sd i{l i^m nid)t gelungen, geglucft. Sad i{l fd)on aUed tagemefen.
Sin fuger £rofl i|i i^ geblieben (Sch.).

i. ^a(en has gained upon fein In German, bnt not bo much as Bnglish " to have ^* upon
** to be.** ^olgen and (egegnen were once generally compounded with ^oben. Also the ten-
dency to nse intransitive verbs as trausitives, so strong in Bng., has increased in Ger-
man. While in Bng. yon can *' mn " a locomotive, a sewing machine, a train, a ship,
in German ffii^renr kiten, in ®ang (rlngen, gebrauc^en, or the verb of motion + laffen or
mailmen, will have to be nsed. (Der ftutf^r ^at unS f^neH gefa^rf n. ^er ^ofliQton l^at ben
SBagen eorgefa^ren. 9Ran (onnte bte ^euerfprfi^e ni^t in ®ang bringen.

S. The difficulty as to the use of ^aben and fein lies after all mainly in the way in
which a verb is used, transitively or intransitively, and in the meaning. The student
should attend particularly to these points and not be too timid, as in many cases usage
is by no means settled.

As to the omission of l^aben and fein in dependent clauses, see 346.

n. Special Uses of the Modal Auxiliaries.

This subject belongs really rather to the Dictionary, but the appreciation and trans-
lation of these verbs is so difficult that a brief treatment of them is given here.

267. 1. j( 5 n R e n denotes ability : Der %i\^ fann fi^wtmincn. |>ier fh^^
idi, id^ fann nic^t anberd (Lu.). PoBsibilitj : Six fdnntet i^r Serfucttg ^tvx, mtd^
in bad Q^axn iUiie^m (Sch.). Knowledge, *' to know how/' its oldest mean-
ing: JJannfl bu Stalie'nifd^ ? Compare fonncn, **to have learnt," then **to
be able " ; fennen (< kanjan^ causative of fann — Wnncn)» **to be acquainted
with" ; wlfTen, " to know."

2. 2) tt r f en denotes : 1. Permission and authorization : Du barffl au4

100 SYKTAX OF THE VERB — ^MODAL AUXILIAEIBS. [267-

ba mtr fret erfi^etnen (F. 886). Dffnt Sagbf^eui barf niematib osf bie Sftfib gcl^iu
2. •* To have occasion to," " reason for," ** need " i Watt barf bctt ©d^luffcl
mir iXDti SHal umbre^en unb bcr fftit^tl fpringt jurutf , ** You need ..." Du
barfjl binoudgeben^ bie £uft ifl bter fe^r Wt^t, " You have good reason to go
out ..." This force is the oldest, but rather rare now. 8. "To trust
one's self to" : SEBer barf ijn nennen unb tt>er befeimen: 3(b glaab i^n (®ott) (F.
8488-5). This force has sprung from 1 and 2 and from the verb tar —
turren + dare, whose meaning was embodied in barf — burfen. On the
other hand, it has nearly given up the original force of ** need," " want,"
still apparent in 2, to its compound beburfcn. In some editions of the
Bible bfirfen, " to want," and lar — tiirrcn, " to dare," are still the rule. In
later editions beburfen and burfen have been substituted for them. 4. The
preterit subjunctive (potential, see 284, 8) burfte is used for a mild asser-
tion : !Z)ie ^tad^totlt b&rfte Scbenfen tragen, biefed Urteil }u unterfi^reiben (Sch.),
" Posterity very likely will ..." !Da0 bflrfte su fpfit fein, *• I fear very
much, that is too late." Etiquette admits such redundant phrases as :
!Durfte or barf i(b mtr erlauben* etc.

8. W e n denotes : 1. In its oldest, but now rare sense except in dia-
lect, *' abDity " and " power." This it has given up to »f3nnen»* Compare
its cognates '* may " and '* can" in Eng.: 3br 9lnbU(f gtbt ben (Engeln @tarfe,
toenn fetner fie ergrunben ma^ (F. 247-8), " although no one Is able ..."
2. Concesedon, no interference on the part of the speaker : ^er SSurf($e
mag na(b ^aufe ge^n (It lies with him, I have no objection). SBer mtr ben
S3ed^er fann n>teber jeigen, er mag il^n bebalten (Sch.). 8. Possibility, the action
does not concern or influence the speaker ; fSnnen means a posability that
lies in the ability of another person or object. SBad fur ®ritttro(!^ mogen
bad fctn (Sch.). (£r mag bad gefagt ^abenr er mag bad t^vatt It is possible he
said so, he may do it. ^ad Xier mag ^e^n 3a^re alt fein« With this force
it supplants the potential and concessive subjunctives ; if it stands itself
in the subjonctive of the present or preterit, it supplants also the opta-
tive subjunctive. 3(^ »unf(^e ba§ bie gan^e SBelt und ^oren mag, :^dren mdge.
^oc^te aud^ bod^ bie ganje 9Bett und boten (Le.). 5. From 2 springs the force
of ** inclination," " liking," ** wishing." fBa^ fld^ »ertrdgt mit meiner 9>fli^t,
mag t(b ibr gern ^^S^xm (Sch.). 3(b mdd^te ba§ er ed nid^t loieber erftibre. 34
effe »ad t(b mag unb leibe xoa^ id^ mu§ (Pro v.).

4. SHuffetti + must, denotes : 1. In its oldest sense, ** to have occa-
sion, room," ** to be one's lot," *' it is the case." A trace of this is left
in the following uses : ^m ^unb roar obne S^aulforb ^tnaudgelaufen. Stun
mufte au<b gtrabe ein 9)oUit'fl baber fommen (as luck would have it, a police-

267] SYNTAX OF THE VERB — MODAL AUXILIAEIEB. 101

man came along). !X)er Sufall mugte i(n grabe $ln brmgen. Qum imittn Vial
foil mir fein Stlan^ tx^^Utn, er miifte benn (unlees it should) befonbern @inn
begrunben (G., quoted in Sanders' Diet.). 2. Necessity of various kinds :
SCUe aKenf^en mUfTtn flerben. Der ®enne mug f(^ciben (Sch.). Q^in Dber^aupt
muS fein (id.). !Z>ad mu§ ein f(^Ie(^ter SKiUIer fein, bem niemald fiel bad Sanbern
eiit (Song). (£r mug fe^r franf gewefen fein; er ifl no(!^ fo fdl^mci^. The force
of biirfen : 3(^ mug nl(^t )9erge|Ten» " I must not forget."

Srau^en -f- negative generally takes the place of mftJTen + negative when it denotes
moral necessity. ^aS (rau^fl bu niil^t ju ti^un, menit bu ni^t nlQfl. SBo^l bent, ber mtt
ber neuen (3elt) ni^t me^c brau^t ju (eben (Scb.).

5. So Hen, + shall, denotes: 1. Duty and obligation. jDu follfl ®ott
beinen ^errn lieben 9on fianjem ^er^eur »on ganser @eele unb un gan^em ®emUte
(B.). ^tt ^fittejl ba fein foffen. You ought to have been there. 2. Neces-
sity and destiny : X)iefe f^furd^t foU enbigen I il^r ^aupt foS faUen. 34 it^tH
grieben Jaben (Sch.). ^^ wefg ni*t waS foil e« bebcuten (Heine), ffiad fott
bod ? What (is that) for? !Z)arin foUte er f!4 tSufd^em In that he was bound
to be deceived, disappointed. 8. It denotes the statement and claim of
another, *' is to," ** is said to " : !Da« 9»eter foO aci^t XJaler fofien. Der @(!^tt^
ber 92tbelungen foU im fR^tint Xit^tn. ®ieben ©trdfiinge foQen entfommen fein. 4
SoUte approaches the force of the conditional, + " should." ®oIIte er no^
fontmen/ fag i^m, icb (£tte nicbt Un^tx n)arten fonnen. Oolite er au(^ wol^l franf
fein ? Is it possible that he is sick ?

6. 9B n e n, + will, denotes : 1. The will and purpose of the sub-
ject. SBad moQteft bu mit bem t>ol^t ? f^rid^ (Sch.). 3c^ mid ed n>ieber ^^ergef"
fen, totil Sit bod^ ni(!^t moUen bag id^ ed n>iffen foQ (G.). SoUe nur n>ad bu fannfl
unb bu tt)irfl f^nnen »a« bu Wtflfl. 2. "To be about," **on the point of."
(£in armer S9auer mollte fterben (Nicolai). (£^ toiU regnen. Frequent in stage-
directions, „ro\U ge^eUf'' »n>{a abge^n.'' SBiQ f!d^ Rector eioig )»on mir tsenben?
(Sch.). 8. The claim and statement of another, who *'says" or *' claims
to " : ^er deuge mill ben ^ngcflagten gefeben baben. Du miOft ibn in einem guten
Svotdt betrogen bciben. Notice the ambiguity of such a sentence as Der ^err
tviH ed get'ban baben» " claims he did it/* or according to 1, " wills or wishes
that it be done."

SBoQen is really the most difflcnlt to understand and nse. It occurs in a great many
mora idioms with ever varying shades of meaning. Notice, e. g,^ (Sd »iS verlauten, " it
is spread abroad." SSad niQ baS faaen? = "What does that amount to?" "that is
nothing." ^i!^ wlU i% nic^t gefe^f n l^aben, I will act as if I had not seen it or " nobody
shall see it," according to 1. JEBenn ber ®(l^&(er bo^ biefe {Reget lernen woQte, " if he only
woold . . . =s conditional. iBoUte Oott ba^ . . . , would to God that . . . ^iefe $ebet
»tfl nt^t, this pen does not write (well). But it is impossible to give all these meanings.

102 SYNTAX OF THE VEBB— PASSIVB VOICE. 268-

StiU Bng. ** win " is not far behind the German. €o1Ien and tDolleit should not be con-
founded with Bng. '' shaU " and " wiU " of the future. Bee 279, 8.

7. Saffeit/ sometimes classed here, is really a caasative aaxiliary
and never used as such without an inf., which stands as a further object,
^eine Stla^t ld§t flc fatten (Sch.). ttnterifigUd^ Ucg er brci ©attcrten aufwcrfcn
(id.). See 202, 1. A second force is " to allow," " not to hinder." X)cr
(Sefangenmdrter Iie§ ben ®efan$enen enttDifci^en* £affen (Sit bad bleibm (= to
leave a thing undone, not interfere).

For laffen + reflexive, see 272 ; in the imperative, see 287, 4.

Bkkabk.— Verbs of motion can be omitted, particularly when an adverb expresses
the direction. iSBiOfl bu mit ? 3^ mu^ ^in. *Da6 ^adt'i foSte fott (ought to be sent).
<X)er ^nt mv^ in bie G^ad^tet. Bat all except miiffen and bfirfen can be need as inde-
pendent yerbs, i. «., no other verb need be supplied. There is no call for a verb in SBaS
foil bet i^ut? (Sch.), *' What is this hat (here) for f Notice that foSen, mdgen, and woSea
are really the only ones that deserve the term modal auxiliaries, since they assist in
expressing the mood. See 287.

THE PASSIVE VOICE.

268. The active voice needs no comment. Only transitiYe
verbs form a complete passive. Bat transitives whose mean-
ing admits only of an object of the thing, also intransitives
and subjective verbs, form only the third person singular
with the grammatical subject ed or without it. 3^nen toirt
gcl^olfen. Sd toixt gelad^t nnr) gcfungen^ ©eflcrn tourbc flefpicft.
33ei und ju ^aufc (where I come from) »irb »lel SJJl^ijl flefplett*

269. In the transformation of the active into the passive
voice, the direct object in the accusative becomes subject-
nominative and the former subject is expressed by ))on -f-
dative denoting the agent and by burci^ + accusative denot-
ing means and instrument. Saumgartcn erfdjiug ten SBolfcn:?
fdfeic§cn» SB* rouxtt »on S* crfd^Iagen. l^er Srief tonxtt burdft elnen
£;icnflmann bcforgt (through a porter). See prepositions, 304, 2.

270. When a verb governs two accusatives both accusa-
tives become nominatives with the verbs of naming, calling,
scolding. Sr vomu fein gmtnt) genannt. See 179, 2.

273] SYNTAX OF THE VERB — PASSIVE VOICE. 103

1. With le^ren and fragen the accofiative of the thing may be retained,
partlcularlj if that accufiative be a pronoun, e, g,. Dad ^d^Ummjle tt>ad und
toiberfiS^Ttf bad toerben xoix 9om Za^ gele^rt (G.). For cttoad gele^rt loerbm it is
better to use unteni^tet toerben ; for cttoad gefiragt toerben, better m^ ettoad
gefragt loerbtn* The accosative of the noon now sounds pedantic, though
le^ren in M. H. G. always retained the accusative in the passive. See
202, 2.

271. With a verb governing an accosatiye, a genitive, or
a dative, the accosative becomes nominative in the passive, bnt
the genitive and dative are retained. ^* wurbe ted ^od^t^errotd
angeflagt* Deiner wurbr getad^t (no grammatical subject) or ed
tDurte beiner getaAt^ Stir wurte gefolgt, /was followed.

1. The verbs fotgen, ^elfen, ge^oril^en, f^mei^eln, ttiUrfpred^n, banfen often form a
perBonalpAasiYe in the claesics and In the spoken language, but it is very qnestionable
whether this use should be Imitated ; certainly not by foreigners who are aocostomed
to this construction in their own language and are apt to make mistakes in the active
and say „i(^ folge bit^" if they hear or say „{^ mcrbe (jcfotflt gcf^meic^ctt." Those who
defend the personal passive appeal to the older aocnsative after ^etfen and fd^meidf^eln.

272. The reflexive, encouraged by French influence, and man# ed +
active often replace the passive. For (£^ »irb gefungetu gtpod^t stands Stan
fhtdt, po^t. VCL affhtt fi4 bad Zt^ox, Then the gate is opened, ^er Sc^Iuffel
toirb f{(^ finbeitf The kej will be found. More frequent than the reflexive
alone is fI4 . . . laffen^ e, g,, (£r tolrb |t4 befHmmen laffen ju . • . # He will
let himself be influenced to . . . , He can be induced to . . . *Jba^ lagt
f!d^ (ei(^t ma(i^(n# That is easily done, ^ad I£§t |1(^ (5rem That is plausible.
See 290. 8, h. It is clear from this that the German passive is less fre-
quent than the English. The grammars boast more of the fuU and long
compound tenses than actual usage justifies.

273. Obigin of the Passive Voice.

1. In O. H. O. fein («l», wtsan), wetben (twrdoa) were used to expreaa the passive.
Gothic alone shows traces of anything like a Latin passive, bnt even there the peri-
phrastic form had to be resorted to. In M. H. G. the present is ieh toirde gelodet ; pre-
terit, ieh toari gelobet; perfect, ieh Hn geiodet; pluperfect, ich was gOcbeL Warden
was added to the perfect from the 18th century downward, but was not considered
essential until the 17th century. The passive idea lies originally only in the past or
passive participle and not in werben, which means only ^' I enter Into the state of being
„fleUebt," „9eWttgen," etc. Compare the ftiture, i^ werbe litUn, " I enter into the state
of loving." The M. H. G. ieh bin gdiebet, ieh was (war) gelitbet are by no means lost
Only they are not called tenses now. 3(^ Mn flelie^t, bad 3immet ifl gefeflt mean '* I am

104 SYNTAX OF THE VEBB^TBNSES, [274-

in the state of being loyed," ** tlie room is in a swept atate,** ** has been cleaned,'^ ** is
clean/^ The participles ore felt as adjectives, ^df Mn gedeM worben, la9 3iinner ifl
gefegt norben mean * I have passed into the state of being loved," " the room has
passed into the state of being swept** The transition Into this state, and not the
present state, but the fact or action are emphasiaed, hence the idea of tense is promi-
nent. The fltnesB of the name of perfect passive for this form and not also for i(^ bin
gettebt is apparent becaose U!^ bin geUebt toorben is composed of i^ Bin (ge)t»orben (the
perfect) + getlebt. In O. H. G. fein still formed the present as ** to be *' now in Bng., bnt
already in M. H. G. toerden was the prevalent aoxiliary (see above), while eein was
prevalent in the perfect.

2. Perhaps the following examples will illustrate the force of the vari-
ous forms :

Die Zo^ttt ifl «eTbbt# is engaged to be married, ^em CEife bcfreit fti^
©trom unb »a(^c (F. 903). Dlcfer ^cffcl ifl »on SBcrgen bfgrenjt (Hu.) These
three are not passive tenses. But compere : 3n bcm Sd^rrlti^en toirb fin
(Sontra'fl von SoQfommen^iten unb UnvoUfommcn^eiten erfbrbtrt (Le.) (present
tense). 2)icfcr 9)unft ijl »icl bcfhittcn ©orbcn (perf. pass.). The same difier-
ence between ttnrbe + participle (= imperfect pass.) and mar + partici-
ple (no tense), e.g., |>ome'r nxir »ot 3nicr« nnfhettig flciitgcr gcltfcn aW jc^t
(Le.). 2)it |>dufer ©arcn fcflUr^ gef^mucft (no tense). Det SRfiubcr^uutmann
roar fc^on ^t^an^tn gcnommen toorben, aU feint fieute ^erbeifamen (pluperfect
pass.). !Dtr ©pio'n wnrbe o^nc wtitercd an tintn ^\t &tM'pft unb crWngt (imper-
fect pass.)'

Examples of the future and conditional perfects passive are very rare

in the clasedcs.

Syntax of the Tenses.
SnfFLE Tenses.
274. The Present.

1. It denotes an action as now going on. SBie glatt^t Me
©onnc, »ic lad^t He glur (G.).

2. It is the tense used in the statement of a general truth
or fact or custom, in which the idea of time is lost sight of.
Drcimd Drcl ifl nt\xn. ®ott ijl tie 2le6e (R). Sorgen maiit ©orgen
(Prov.).

3. The historical present is used in vivid narrative for a
past tense. Do* a" Slna gegebene ©cifpiel flntct ott^cmeine 5«ad^^
atimung; man »crflu^ tea anDenlen ber Sen&terej aDe arme'eii foHen
Don i^m ci (Sch.).

275] SYNTAX OF THE VEBB^TBNSES. 105

4. For the English perfect German (also French) uses the
present when the action or state continues in the present
time, but there is generally an adverb denoting duration of
time qualifying it Ex.: 9tun bin id^ fieben Za^t Wv (G.)* 3^^^
Sage ge^en toix \iion ^ier Return (id.). 3(i) Mn aU^ier erfl furge ^tit
(F. 1868).

TMs use !b by no means new in German or unknown in English, e^f., " I
forget why." " The world by what I learn is no stranger to your generos-
ity " (Gbldsmith, quoted by Mfttzner). It is closely related to the present
Bub 3 and 8, and generally translated by '' have been " + present participle.

5. The fature present, that is, the present with the force of
the fature, is much more frequent in German than in English.
Ex.: 9lein, nein, i(% gc^e naij uv ©taut auriicf (F. 820). ffier »eif,
mx morgen iiber und befie^It (Sch. ).

It is a very old use of the present, from a time when the periphrastic
future was not yet developed.

6. The English periphrastic present in " I am writing/' ** I do write "
rarely has corresponding German phrases. For instance, t^un is dialectic
and archaic. Unb t^u^ nic^t mef r in Morten framen (F. 885). A large num-
ber of present participles are looked upon as adjectives and stand in the
predicate after fetm but they do not form a tense (see 273, 1). There is
a difference between the simple present and fein + pres. part. The for-
mer, if it occur at all, denotes an oc^ of the subject, the latter denotes a
quality of the same or of another subject. Ex.: fD^att nimmt %t\\ an ettoadf
one takes part in something. 3emanb ift teilnt^mcnb^ one is sympathetic.
1b\t garbe Wreit is hardly used, but bit Qfarbe ifl eine Wreienbe, the color is
a loud one. Die ^udfid^t rei)! einenrimmer l^d^er ivl fleigen» the prospect entices
one to climb higher and higher, but bit STudfid^t ifi rei|tenb» the prospect is
charming. Compare the Eug. *' charming/' " promising/' etc.

275. The Preterit.

1. It is strictly the " historical *' tense, used in narration,
-when one event is related in some connection with another
event, as following it or preceding it. Ex. : SSfar !am, fa6 un^
fieflte. fir »art gcBoren, er Icbte, na^m ein SBeib un^ jlarb (Ghellert).

In the Btory of the creation in Genesis only the pret. is used until

106 SYNTAX OF THE VERB— TENSES. [276-

cbapter 2, Terse 4, when the account is Bummed np STIfo ifl ^immel nnb d^rbe
getoorben^ which has the perfect as it should have. See 276.

2. It represents a past action as lasting, customary; also as
contemporaneous with another action* ®e{lem lam ter 3Reticud
l^ier aud ^er (BtaDt l^inaud ^um Slmtmann (connect „^navi&" with
„3um/' not with „au« Der @tatf ') unD fant ml^ auf to Srbe untcr
Sottend ^innem, mie eini^e auf mir ^tmmttaihtltm, antere mi^ nedten
(G.)- ^u^n mar tad SBort, metl ed Die S^at nid^t tvar (Sch.).

Compound Tenses.

276. The Perfect.

It is used to denote a past event as a separate act or inde-
pendent fact. The act is completed^ but the result of it is felt
in the present and may continue in the present. Ex. : 34 ^abe
genoffcn t>ad trtifci^c ©liicf (Sch. ). ®ott ^at Die SBelt crfcbaffen = Gtod
is the creator of the world, but 3nt Slnfang fd^uf ®ott ^immel unD
erDe (B.). X;u ^ajl^d crrci^t, Dcta»io (Sch.).

1. Iq the best writers this distinction is generally observed, but not in
the spoken language, in which the perfect is crowding out the preterit.
As an illustration of the exact use of the tenses, particularly of the pre-
terit and perfect, may be recommended the introduction to Schiller's

©efci^ici^te bed STbfafle bcr ^ercinigtcn 9?lcDcrlanbt.

277. The Pluperfect.

It denotes a past action which was completed before another
past action began. Ex.: Sitt^ l^atte faum feinen 9tu(fmarfd} ange^
treten aU Der RMq fein Sager gu @4»eDt auf^ob unD gegen §ranljitrt
an tcr DDcr riitfte (Sch.)*

278. The Future.

1. It denotes an action yet to take place. Ex : SBad toirD
aud tern ^itiDlcin werten ? (B.). Der Jlaifer wlrD morgen abreifen.

2. It denotes probability and should then not be translated
by an English future as a rule. Ex. : IJer ipunD »irD fed^d 3a^re
alt fcln (= Ijl »o^l or ttja^rfd^einlid^), the dog may be or is prob-

280] STKTAX OF THE VBBB — TENSES. 107

ably six years old. ffler Copft ? g0 »lrt) cln Settler fein, it is
probably a beggar.

3. In familiar language it stands for the imperative implying
confident exi)ectation of the result Du »irji ^ier Melben, You
shall stay here. £)u tvirfl tid) ^ttten, Take good care not to do it

For the present with the force of the future, see 274. 5.

279. The Future Perfect.

1. It is the perfect transferred to the future. Sergebend
»ert)et l!^r fur euren ^elD^errit tnii geopfert ^aitn (Sch.). More fre-
quently than the future, the future perfect denotes probability:
SBo toixn er ^ie 3laiit gugebraci^t ^abm ? (Le.), Where can he have
spent the night? S« wlr^ »a« ontircd »oW beteutet ^abcn (Sch.),
It probably meant something else.

2. As the present can have future force, so the perfect can
have future perfect force. 9lid^t e^er tenf iii biefed 93Iatt su
ixaniim, bid tint S^at get^an ifl, tie itnmiterfpteAHd^ ten ^oii'omat
Bcjeuflt (Sch.).

8. In M. H. G., the future perfect is unknown and its force is expressed
by ge prefixed to the present and by the perfect.

Guard against confounding the modal auxiliaries in German with
the Eng. future. Approach to a future might be felt in ooHen and foUeny
e.g., Wat rooUtn f!e bemt ^txant^tx^oxtn, mm einer unfd^ulbig ifl? (G.). Der
giteid^dtag ju ^ug^burg foU (offentti^ unfere 3)roie'fte sur ffttift Bringen (G.). See
283, 4.

280. The Conditionals.

They are future subjunctives corresponding to the preterit
and pluperfect subjunctive as the future corresponds to the
present. As in all subjunctives, the idea of tense is not empha-
sized. Preterit subjunctive and I. conditional, pluperfect sub-
junctive and n. conditional are nearly identical in force, but
preterit and pluperfect deserve the preference, particularly in
the passive. In dependent conditional clauses the preterit or
pluperfect subjunctive only can stand. In the main sentence

108 SYISTTAX OP THE YEBB — ^TENSES. [281-

there is no choice between them and the conditionals. Ex. :
D^ne teinen 9lat witrtie i^ ed nt^t getl^ott baben or l^dtte id^ ed ntd^t
get^an. SBad tvitrtefl tu an meiner 8tetle t(un? SBarejl tu ^ier
gewefen, mein ©ruter »are nid^t gejlorbcn (B.).

281. The conditionals should be substituted for the subjunctive of
the preterit and of the pluperfect : 1. When the force of the future is
to be emphasized as in : 9{a^m( ber Jtranfe bit SRebtjin regelmdgig etn# fo touibc
bad Steber »on bicfer 8tunbe an aHm&^Iic^ )>erf<^»inbtit* @ic glaubten, fie tDurbcn
ft(b leicbt aid {>clbm barflellen (Sch.). 2. When the indicative and subjunc-
tive forms coincide as is the case with certain persons in weak verbs :
9uf etnen (£ib toitrbe i^ tbm nid^t dtanben* »®Iaubte« might be pret. ind. Six
tourbtt bicd Stdtfel mir txtl&xtn, fa0te fie (Sch.). irS^r roti^tV oould also be
indicative future.

The Tense of Indirect Speech.

282. The rule is : The indirect speech retains the tense
of the direct. Ex.: Zit Saume feien gebannt, fagt er, unl mtt f!e
fd^atige, Dem ivad^fe feine $anb (eraud gum ®rabe (Sch.). Sgmont
Beteuerte, t)a§ tad ©angc nid)td aid ein Safelfdjerg gemefen fei. Xtt

Knait be^auptete, er ^atte ed nid^t get^an, tvenn er niiit von feinen
©efii^rten ba^u ))erleitet worben »&re. Sr fagte mij, er moQe ed nii^
wieter t^un, wenn man i^m ie^ ))ergebe. Der 3^uge fonnte ni^
fd^mbren, ba§ er ben Slngeflagten ie gefel^en ^(e*

1. But this rule is not strictly observed. If the main clause contains,
for instance, a past tense, the other clause may take a preterit for the
present, a pluperfect for the perfect, or a conditional for the future : Dad
woiren bic ^lamttn, fagte mir bet Sii^rcr, fie regimen bad ®ef*itf (Sch). SJr
wurbet bled SRitfel mir erflSren, fagte fte (id.). ?Klr melbet (pres. for perf.) er, er
Idge fran! (id.). If any ambiguity arises, as is not unfrequently the case,
this license should not be indulged in. If the main verb is in the pres-
ent, it is not well to substitute the preterit or pluperfect in the sub-
ordinate clause, because this license is due to attraction of tenses, viz.,
preterit in one — preterit or pluperfect in the other. Compare : (£r
beteuerti er fei bagegen# he asserts, that he is opposed. Sr beteuertr er tt>£re
bagegen might be construed as meaning er tourbe bagegen feiti# which means
*' he would be opposed." dx beteuertr er fei bagegen gen^efen, he had been

283] SYiriAX OF THE YEBB— TENSES. 109

opposed ; er to&rt bagegen getoefen mig^bt moreover be understood as baying
tbe force of tbe U. Conditional.

For the mood of the Indirect statement, see 285. For farther remarks on the OM
of tenses, see 284, also the General Syntax.

283. Obioin of the Compound Tknhes.

1. The compound tenses in all the living langnaffes are products of the derelopment
of so-called periphratiie coi\Jugation, which uses certain independent verbs denoting
existence, possession, transition, or the beginning of an action, in connection with an
InflnitiTe, participle, or gerandiye. The more the inflectional endings of the simple
tenses of the earlier periods weathered, the more Ihvorable were the chances for the
growth of analytical and circamlocatory tenses. Compare the Latin amor^ amaiut
turn oTfui; excuaaniy exeutatam, -um Aabeo or teruo with French Js tuit akimky -00,
i^fiM akni^ -U; je Pai txeuaS^ -««, Je Favais eaecmS, -4e. The Gkrmanic langoages
have only two simple tenses. Gothic shows still a mntllated passive. Bat the future
perfect and pluperfect active and passive sprang up within historic times fh>m a com-
bination of an independent verb with an infinitive or participle, which were at first
felt only as predicate noun or adjective. The participle in O. H. G. could be Infieeted
like any predicate adjective.

S. At difltoent periods of High German there were diftorent verbs which could be
thus employed. Besides the modem auxiliaries f^aUn, fein and loerben* in O. H. G.
Hffan, + to own. In Gothic haban + inf. was made to express the futare, in O. H. G.
win (shall) and toerdan + pres. part. ; in M. H. G. besides these, tceff^fi, m&ezen. 3(^
Ifaht ten 4>ut a^genommen or aufgefe(}t means originally I have, possess the hat in some
state or position, vis., in my hand (taken off) or on my head (put on). The German
order, too, shows this early construction much better than the English ** I have taken
off my hat.** Compare the Latin Itocutaium hab&at me rogOy *' Have me excused,
pray,'* ,,9iite, ffobt (^afte) tnt^ (fikr) entf^ulbigf S^Qhtn conld only be used with tran-
sitive verbs, but loelng tbe distinctive meaning of possession, it could combine with
verbs haying an object in the G. and D. and even with no object, viz., with intransi-
tive verbs. $aben required thtf past participle in 0. H. G. In the A., but fein required
It in the N. 6ein could not, fh>m the nature of its meaning, form the perf . or pluperf.
active of any transitive verb, but only of intransitives denoting a continuance of a state
(Meiben, fein) or transition into another state, where it, however, collided with werben,
used in the ftitnre. But notice that the idea of transition and change is in most verbs,
here in question, due to the prefix. ®ciii + past participle could only mean existence
in a certain state, at most the beginning or ceasing of an existence.

8. As to verbs of motion, their relation to these verbs is very intimate. When it is
not, ^(tben becomes the rival of fetn, as soon as the activity of motion is to be brought
out and not the result. That fein conld be used with a past participle of a verb of mo-
tion at all, was partly brought about by its use with a present participle and infinitive.
Such forms as oermutenb, ecrm&genbi nad^gebcnb fein, vermuten fein are remnants of the
use otAn + pres. part, or inf. in M. H. G. We do not feel the participle or infinitive
•B such now. They form no tense.

4. SEBetben + pres. part was in M. H. G. more common than tscrben + Inf., but the

110 SYNTAX OF THE VBBB — ^MOODS. 284-

latter was the establiBhed ftitnre in the 16th eentniy. From "• I paae into the state of
praising " to " I shall praise " is not a long step.

6. The conditionals formed with w&tbt sprang np in the 14th centory and were set-
Hod in the 16th, according to Orimm. In M. H. Q. before the 18th centory "«iftfe,"
" vwlde '' were nsed as in the other Germanic langaages, bat these lacked the nmiimt,
and therefore were not easily disdngnishable as snbjnnctives.

THE MOODS.
Subjnnctiye.

284. The indicative is the mood of realitj, the sabjtmctiye

is the mood of unreality, contingency, possibility.

1. The imperative subjunctive helps to fill out the imperar
tive for the third persons sg. and pL and the first person pL
It is a strong optative, see sub 2.

Ex.: 9[IIed [(^weigc, jcbcr neigc ernflcn Sdnen mm fcltt D^r (Song). ©t^jAer

tt)ie er'« treibe, fc^c ieber »o cr Mcibc (G.). Seioi ©ie mlr »ittfo mmoi. Baffoi

toil badr let as not do this. ®e^cn loir bieftn ^aragrap^en) ta^ mal bnr^f let

us go over this paragraph once more. ®tj^n ©ie. Xrettn bit {>erren gefdl*

ligjl etn (rare).

2Berbe and f ei, feib reallj subjnnctiyes, are nsed as ImpeiatiTes in the second person.
SBerbe munter, mein (Semitte (Hymn). &ei mlr gegrfi^t, mein SBer^ (Sch.).

2. The optative subjunctive expresses a wish or request.

The present subjunctive implies confidence of fulfilment

Only the third person is used.

Ex. : Vidi fubre bur^ bad mtlbbmtgte Seben ein gndbiged G^efd^td (Sch.). titbn
fRarne fci vergejfen (Uh.). ®ctt ^crmetrc bie ®abc (G.).

The preterit subjunctive implies less assurance, and, like
the pluperfect subjunctive, even no expectation of realization.

Ex. : D todren mir welter ! o toUx id^ i\x f)au« (G.). D fdljll bu »offer 3Ron*
benjci^eitt ... (P. 386). SBdre er nur wd^ am 2thtn I (Implying irer ifl aber tot").
^Tommer 8tabr o l^dtt^ id^ nimmer mtt bem @<^merte bi^ ^eTtauf($t (Sch.). See
also F. 392-7.

3. The potential subjunctive expresses an opinion as such,
a possibility, a mild assertion of an undoubted fact {diplomalic
subj.); it stands in questions, direct and indirect; in exclama-

2a6J SYNTAX OF THE VERB — ^MOODS. Ill

tiona The preterit and I. conditional are the potential sub-
junctives of the present ; the pluperfect and U. conditional,
of the past.

Ex.: 34 t{ime» bdd^t^ i^, bod^ no4 fo sientlid^ sufammm# toad jufammen ge^ort
(Le.). !Dad ginse nt>6i, "that might do yet" (id.). SBcr tofigte bad ni(^t?
Everybody knows that. $^tte i(^ bo^ nimmermef r gebad^t^ bap cr fo grog ton*
ben to^rbe (Le.). ®ie liege fi^ aUed f^reibenl (G.) (Implying .ed ifl unrndgUd^'').
^aH ^ttt td^ bad SBefle verdefTen (id.). S3elna^e todre i4 gegen einen S3aum gerannt.
!X)u (^ttefl bad getougt? (Implying »id^ glaube ed nii^t). !Ri(^t; bag i^ toiigte, not
as far as I know.

See also the modal auxiliaries, 267.

4. The concessive subjunctive denotes an admission, yield-
ing, and supposition. Generally only in the third person of
the present and perfect. It borders closely upon the optative
and conditional.

Ex.: (Ed fofie toat ed woffe (Le.). (£d fei, "(it is) granted." ®efeffe, bu
feifl ein guter ober f(^Ummer» leg' bi^ aufd O^r (Uh.). See mdgen, 267, 8.

5. The unreal subjunctive stands in conditional sentences
both in the premise and the conclusion, i. e. in the dependent
clause and in the main clause, when the premise is not true.
The preterit and pluperfect stand in the premise; the preterit,
pluperfect, and the two conditionals in the conclusion. The
preterit has present and future force, the pluperfect has future
force only.

Ex. : QEd liege P4 <^^t^ treffitd^ Wi^ttn, fdnnte man bie Sadden imimal ^tx^
ri(^ten (G.). 3(^ nx^re nid^td, &>enn t(^ bliebe toad i^ bin (id.). SBenn tt)ir Q^elb
bet und ge^abt ^^tten, fo tDftrben »{t ben ^rrnen »ad gegeben baben.

The premise omitted or represented by an adverb, etc. : 3(i^ tl^dte bad
nid^t an Deiner SteQe = uenn \^ an Deiner (SteQe »are. SSDlr tt)dren bed Xobed*
D^ne ^Ipenflocf wdrc ber ©anberer in bie Xiefe binabgefallen.

The conclusion omitted : 3a ttenn tt)lr nld^t »(!iren# fagte bie Saterne }um
SRonb. 'Jba ging fie aU (Folk-lore).

285. The subjunctive is the mood of the indirect state-
ment, in which the speaker expresses the ideas of another or

112 SYNTAX OF THE VEEB — MOODS. [286-

renders the speech of another in his own words. For exam-
ples and tense, see 282.

The subjanctive in dependent claoses is treated nnder the head of ** dependent
clauses " in the Qeneral Syntax, which see.

Imperative.

286. It expresses a command and occurs only in the 2. p.
sg. and pi. For the 1. and 3. p. pL, see 284, 1. SUe mit 3BeiIe,
Make haste slowly, ithxt Du mid) meine £eute feniten (Sch.).
Sin^et ibn (id.). SGartet i^t, intern tt)ir 9oran laufen*

1. The pronoun is quite optional ; only when there is a contrast, as in
the last sentence (il^r — xoxx), it should stand. In the suhjunctive it al-
ways stands.

The imperative is only used in the present and has future force,
but by a license also a perfect imperative occurs ; Sefen ! S3efen ! Sei&^d
gewefen 1 says the apprentice when he wants the brooms to cease being
watercarriers (G.).

287. Other verbal forms that take imperative force and a
very strong one, are :

1. The infinitive : 9RauI (3Ruttt)) l^altm ! Hold your tongae.
9li(^t anfaffcit I Do not touch.

2. The past participle : Die Srommcl geruirt (G.). %d\ii ouf
Jtameranen, aupd ^fert, auf^d |)fcrt) ! In tag gete, In Me Stei^eit
geaogctt (Sch.).

3. The present and future indicative : ®eorg, tu 6Iel6fl urn
mxi} (G). Du »irfl ten Slpfcl fd^iegen »on tern t^opfted ftnaben
(Sch.). See 278, 3.

4. The modal auxiliaries denoting a necessity, duty, can
express imperative force, also laffen. !Eu fottfl nl(^t flcl^len (B.).
^ein iOlenfc^ mu§ miiffen (Le.).

Since the Eng. "let" shows no inflection, notice the German forms:
Safi und ge^en, to a person addressed as bu ; plural jQaffl und ge^en. Saffrn
@ie und ge^eitr to a person addressed as @ie.

290] SYlSnAX OF THB VERB — INFINITIVE, 113

Infinitive.

288. It Ib a verbal noun and the present infinitiye has
neither voice, tense, nor inflection. The compound infinitive
arose like the compound tenses (see 283) : gelobt totttm, to be
praised; geloM morten fein, to have been praised; gelofct ^aben, to
have praised.

1. Notice the marked di£fereDce in meaning between the present of some
of the modal auxiliaries + perfect infinitive, and the perfect or pluper-
fect + present infinitive. Ex. : Dcr ihjtf*er »iff bctt OJefangencn flcfe^
IJaben = claims to have seen him, but ^t ijn ftjen ttotten = wanted to see
him. X)er {>auflm mui \>oxUiman^tn fein = must have passed by, but ifat
)9orbetge(en muffen# was forced to pass by, etc.

289. We distinguish between the infinitive wiLhovi gu and
wfiik gu.

The former is the older constmction. BAing a nonn, the InflnltlTe always stood In
the D. after ju in O. and M. H. O. Bnt in early N. H. O., when it was no longer in-
flected, the prepositional Inflnitive gained ground and gave also rise to the gerandive
(see a08X Usage Is in many cases still ansettled as to the ase of }u. Its ftequent use
Is the source of much bad style (see Sanders* „$auptfd)n>ieriaCeitcn" . . . snb Inf.). The
cases where the infinitive has taken the place of the present participle are mentioned
below ander each head. In the gemndiye alone the participial form has taken the place
of the inflnitive. See 298.

The Infinitive without gu*

290. 1. It is dependent upon the modal auxiliaries. Xer
Sote mta ed aud aOer Seute iIRun( erfa^ren %^Un. 9Ran foD ten Za^
iticbt toor tern Sbent loBen (Prov.). Also upon t^un in quaint and
dialect siyle, e. ^., I)a t^aten jle jld) trennen (Uh.). See the
speeches of 9Rartt>e and SRargarete in P., I. Upon tjabcn in the
phrase ivii Ijaben* Du §afl gut reteti, it is easy enough for you to
talk. Sr tl^ttt ni(]^td aid « • • , he does nothing but . . .

2. In cei*tain phrases dependent ux)on some verbs of motion;
also upon "^elfen, ^ei§en (command), laffen, le^ten, lenten, m^iiixit
ttennen. The verbs of motion are: f))a3lcren reitcn, fasten, ge^en;

fcj^afen gel^en, P4 fc^Iafen legen, etc $ei^ mii^ nid^t reten,

114 SYNTAX OP THE VBBB — ^INFUSTTIVB. [291-

l^ei^t miii f(i^»eigen; benn mein ®tf^dmniA tp mix ^id^t (G.). Se^te
mi(i^ t^un nad) teinem SSBo^Igefatlen (B.).

3. Dependent upon certain verbs of rest: iU\btn (most fre-
quently), liegen, fle^en (rarely); and upon verbs of perceiving:
ftnten, fit^Ien (rarely), ^xm, fe^en; also ^ohtn* ®ttdtn Met6en, to
stick fast (intr.). @d)(afen liegen* SBir fanten ten Seid^nam im
SCahe liegcn* SBir fa^cn ten gii^rcr ubcr tcm abgruntc fd^meben^
Der Sproler ^at gemo^nlic^ getern am $ute fleden, ber Snglanber
Santer l^erunter^dngen. 34 ^i^^^ ^^ i'fterd riil^men l^oren, eitt Aom5^
lia'nt TonnV einen |)farrer le^rcii (F. 526-7).

a. 8eln Is still so used in dialect. Gr tfl fifteen, iagen, he has gone aflshing, ahnnt-
Ing; er ifl fifc^en genefen/ he ha6 been aOshing. With all the verbs sab 3 and several
sub 2 the present participle was once the role in older German. Compare the parti<d-
ple in the predicate, 294, 3.

b. After ffl^Ien, ^&ren, ia^tn,\ef^tn the Infinitive has either passive or active fbrce,
and often an ambigaity arises wtiich should be avoided by a different confitmction.
SDtr ^aben ed fagen ^oren, We have heard it said, ^ie ^ogge l&^t fi^ nid^t ntdtn, The
bnlldog will not be teased. SBtr ^&ren ben ftnaben mfcn, calltnig and called (generally
the first). <Z)eT So^nfutfd^er tte| un$ ni^t fasten, the hackman did not let us go, did not
allow us to drive, did not have as driven <DeT SReiflrr Iie| bie Xo^ter ni^t nalcn, did
not allow her to paint and did not have her portrait painted.

4. As subject or predicate with fein and ^ci§en, to be, to
amount to : 9lod^ ei'nmal tin SBunter l^offen l^ie§e ®ott verfud^en
(Sch.). Sin Sergniigen emarten ifl auii ein Sergnugen (Le.).

The Xottnttivb with ^u*

291. 1. It expresses the purpose of an action and in gen*
eral the indirect object ; also necessity and possibility after
neuter verbs, e, g., fein, bleiben, fle^en, when it has passive force.

!Die @ad)e ifl nid)t ju dntem. Sd bleiBt nod) t)ie( gu t^m. Vai flc^t
no(^ jtt iifeericgcn. Da tttiiV^ i^n, Den fofl(i(!^en |)rct« su erwerben
(Sch.).

This is the old and proper nse of the infinitive, originally a noun in
the D. governed by ju. In N. H. G. urn was added to express purpose,
but it was really superfluous, though common in the spoken language.
Urn ble (5tr9mune abiuleiten gruben fie ein frif^ed S3ette (Platen). SBir leben ni^t

292] SYNTAX OF THE VBBB — IKFINITIVB* 116

nm |u effenjonbern »ir cffen urn su le^en. The force of p was macb weakened
when urn oonld thus be added. Besides um, anflatt and o^ne can precede
in : anflatt n>eg iu lanftn, !am ber S3aT n&^cr ^eran. Df^ne ftc^ umjufc^ciwltef ber
Dte6 ba9on. Bat irum" should never be used except to express purpose.
It is used too frequently. See sub 4.

2. It stands as direct object of verbs, often preceded by, or
in apposition to, a prononn or pronominal adverb + preposi-
tion. Ex. : %ani an pi leaden ntca gu ffcaitn (F. 2355). 9lieman0
fdume in geben. 3<^ ^^nte niiii laxan, bir bad gu getv&l^ren*

In older periods of the langaage there was no ju in this case.

3. It stands as subject, in the spoken language, more fre-
quently than without ju ; there is no choice, ©efatirlid) i|l^d ben
2cu au mdtn (Sch.). ginc fci^one SKenft^cnfeele ftntcn 1(1 ®e»ltttt
(He.).

4. As adjunct of nouns and adjectives, the latter often being
qualified by gu and genug. „Zii Jtunfl ^6^ beliebtau maiim.** 3"
^ok, £anl einauernten, too iif i^n nici^t fdete (Le.). !£)u n>arefl blinb
genug, bad nid)t ein)ttfe^n ? * * * Sereit, bit gur ®e(e(lfd^aft ^ier au
Blelbcit (F. 1431).

After adjectives »ttm in'* is now far more common than in alone. 34
Bin )tt alt, nm nur in l^ielen, )u iungf urn o^ne SBunf^ su f^in (F. 1546-7). Quite
rare is aU su + infinitive.

5. For the independent nse of infinitive, see imperative, 287, 1.
With or without }u in elliptical expressions : 9Bad t^utw fprid^t Qtn^ (Sch.).
SBad, am fRavb M ®xal^ }U liigcn I (F. 2961).

ACOUSATIVE WITH THB InFUUTTVE.

292. In this construction the logical subject of the infini-
tive stands in the accusative. The infinitive stands with or
without au. Ex.: ^itx ntl^et SRartitt Saulermann, tvenn man ^en
ru^cn fagctt tann, ber fcinen 8c6tag nid^U gct^an (Wechherlin, quoted
by Blatz). Siigen, Me matt Silgett au fein t»el§ (Le.).

1. Accaeative with infinitive was not rare in O. H. G. in the translations from Latin
and Greek. It is largely due to foreign Inflaence. In M. H. G. it is very rare. In

116 STKTAX OF THE VEBB — PABTICIPLE8. [293-

modem German It is discoaraged by the best anthoritles, thoogb Lessiog uses it quite
frequently.

2. The corresponding English constmctions must therefore be rendered freely into
German. I believe him to be my friend, ^df %lAuhe ba^ cr mein 9r<unb ^ or ^^ ^oUc i^n
fur meisen greunb. German loses thus a compact oonstmctlon.

The Infuhtivk as a Noun.

293. Some infinitiyes are felt as nouns only, e. g., tad SeBen,
tad ^nfe^en, tad Seiten* The infinitive used as noun generally
has the article. Dad Staucben i^ l^ier vertoten. Scim Ufrerfe'^n
mu§ man bid an^d Uniiberfe'^Iid^e ^erange^n (Q.). Der Srben SBetnen
Ijl tin ^eimlid^ Sadden (Prov.).

Participles.

294. The participles cxe really adjectiyes derived from
verbal stems. The present participle retains more of the
verbal construction and force than the past, in which the
idea of tense only appears in intransitive verbs.

The present participle has active force in all verbs and the
noun is the subject of the action. Der Ia(!^e(nte @ee, tie axi\^
gc^ente ©omtc, tad fd^lagcntc 2Better, " fire-damp." Both parti-
ciples can be used as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs very
much as in English. They stand in apposition in the predi-
cate and as attributes.

1. Participles in which the noun is not the subject of the action, and those
in which lies passive rather than active force, are still current, but not so
frequent as in early N. H. G. They are not generally countenanced, e, g. ,
Ui Wlafcnbcr !«a<^t, " at night time," " when everybody sleeps ** ; einc fl^enbe
Cebcndartr a sedentary habit of life ; effenbe ffiaaren, eatables (better (Eg*
waaren); eine ^orbabcnbe fftti\t, an intended journey. Some of these can be
defended: fal^renbe ^aU, movables, chattels (intrans. verb); crPaunenbe
9la(i^rt(^t, astonishing news (trans, verb); eine melfenbe 5ht^ (intrans. like
„mtld^en*); Me reitenbe 9)o(l, postman on horseback. Poetic are bet fc^tom*
belnbe geld, the giddy rock. Son bed |>aufed weitWauenbem ®iebel (Sch.).

2. In the predicate appear now only such present participles as have be-
come regular adjectives : bebeutenb, important ; reljenb, charming ; binrei§enb#
ravishing ; leibenbr in pain, ill health ; bringenbf urgent. See 274, 6.

296] SYNTAX OF THE YEBB — ^PASnCIPLES. 117

3. In apposition : ^od^enb» ttic an^ Dfcnd ffta^tn, fi^n hit fiflftc (Boh.).

34 empfange fnieenb bied ®ef4en! (id.).

4. The participial clause with the present participle is only in rery
restricted use in German compared with English. It cannot express an
action preceding or following another action, a cause, purpose, etc. It
has usually the value of an ai^ective clause and can often be explained
as in apposition. Der ^xmt, f!4 fttt mi4 »enb(nb# fprad^x iahtn ®ie 9{itleib#
mein f>err.

295. The past participle of a transitive verb has passive
force ; that of a verb which forms its compound tenses with
fein has active force: ter lauBumfr&nste Sed^er (Sch.); tad ^erge^
fii^rte Soil (id.); tie aBgefegelten Sd^ijfe; ber turd^efallene (unsuc-
cessful) (Eantita't«

1. But not all verbs that have fein in compound tenses can be thus used ;
the participle must denote the state produced by the action of the verb.
^It gefcgelten ®4lf e^ ber geloufene Stnt^t would not do. 2)er entlaufenc ©flave
means " the runaway servant." This force is clear from the origin of the
compound tense with fein (see 273, 283).

2. Seemingly a large number of past participles have active force, but
they are either quite wrong or they can be explained as having had origi-
nally passive force. Thus : ^Ungebetet igt man ni^t* (Gerok) ; wungegeffen |tt
S3ette ge^n" are as wroug as their English equivalents: One does not eat
xmprayed, go to bed uneaten. »SBeblent« means " in service," "invested
with an office," hence a servant, ein ©ebienter. ^Serbientr* one who has
merits, n>eit er |1(^ urn enoad or iemanb ^erbient gemad^t ^t; eingebtlbet meaus
conceited, taken up with one*s self ; ein terlogener SRenfc^^ a man given to
lying ; ^erfof ener 9Henf4f given to drinking, and many other compounds
with »eT- : »er»einte Slugen, eyes red with weeping.

a. That some are now felt as having actiye force cannot be denied, else the wrong
use mentioned coald not have sprang up : ^otts, pflic^tveTgeffen, foigetflil of one's duty,
of God; verf^lafen, **one who slept too long " ; oermctfen, ''presumptuous" j Mrtegen,
embarrassed ; besides the above.

296. The peculiar past participles of verbs of motion,
which seemingly have active force, stand in a sort of apposi-
tion or as predicates with fommen, rarely with gc^cn* Ex.:
Stam ein Sogel geflogen (Song). !Da bmmt bed SQegd geritten ein
fd^muder SDeltne^t (Uh.).

118 SYiirrAx of thb adterb. [207-

1. This nse is by no means modern, itomsten and ge|n are felt as
auxiliaries. Compare t^erloren ge^en.

2. Special notice deserves the past participle with ^ei^ettr fetn# and
nenneitf which has the force of an infinitive, but belongs nnder this bead.
!Z>ad ^eigt fc^led^t geworfen^ That is a bad throw. Unter e^rlt^tt Stttlen nennt
man bad ,»gelogen*« 8rif(^ geioagt ifl ^lib getoonnen (Prov.).

297. The participle appears in an absolute constraction.
The logical subject is left indefinite (Lessing is very fond of
this). The logical subject stands in the accusative and with
a few, like audgenommcn, eingefd^lojfen, abgere^nct, even in the
nominative. ?(De toavtn ^ugcgcrt, ter ^S^^antv au^genommett. Un^
tiefed nun auf Saofoon angewentct, fo ifl t>ic Satire Uav (Le.).

1. Closely related to this constraction is the absolute accusative + a
past participle (see 209) and in some cases there may be doubt as to
which is meant. Unb {le fingt ^inaud in bie fUiflm 9^a4t# bad ^uge ^on SBetnm
getriibct (Sch.).

The past participle is in elliptical construction in the imperatiYe, see

287, 3.

The Gerundive.

298. It stands only attributively. In the predicate the old
infinitive stands, which it has supplanted. £)er no^ 3U 'otv-
faufenbc (Bijxanl, the wardrobe which is still to be sold; but ^er
©djranf ifl nod) ju »ertaufcn, the wardrobe is still to be sold.
See 289, 452.

Though the form is rather that of the gerund than of the genmdive, in constraction
it closely resembles the Latin gerundive. Hence the name in German.

SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB.

299. The adverb qualifies a verb, an adjective or another
adverb. Ex.: Du ^afl mic^ miiAtig angejogcn (F. 483). Die
unbegreiflid) ^o^en fficrfe flnt) :§errlid^ »ic am crjlen Sag (F. 249-60).
Da« ijl fe^r fd)on gefc^rieien.

1. The adverbs of time and place often accompany a noun with the
force of an attribute : SJor Scnem broben jlc^t gebucft, ber ^elfcn Icl^rt unb ^Ufe
Widt (F. 1009-10). ©wrg V. (ber %imftt), etn|l Stonx^ »oji |>aimotcr, flart im
^ttdlanbe*

3011 SYNTAX or THE PEBPOSITION. 119

2. The adverb stands as a predicate : Ibit ^^dnen Stittn «on Kraniue)
flnb nun torftber (Soh.). Die S^flr ifl ju (one can sapply ^gema^t*)* Der or
bem 9)^ini'f!eT ifl ni(^t n)o^U

a. Do not oonfomid gut and wo^I. Except in a few cases, m In »o^l t^un« to do
good, »o^I does not qnalify a transitiTe yerb. We do not say In German tooffi f^rct^en,
»o^( anhooTten, too^l anfangen in the sense of English " well." (5c f^ai ti »o^( gef^rie^en
means " he wrote it, indeed, (I assure yoa) *' ; or it is concessive and can mean : " to be
sore he wrote it, bat then — ." In the last sense mo^l has no stress.

8. With adjectives or participles used as noons that are felt rather as
snlistantiyes than as adjectives or as derived from a verb, the adverb
changes to an adjective: ein na^ l^eroanbter > ein na^er Senvanbter; ein
imtm 93efannteT > ein intimer 93efannter. But compare Goethe's famous line :
Da0 Soig^SBetMid^e jie'^t und ^inan.

300. An adverb may strengthen the force of a preposition
by standing before or after the preposition + case. This is
always the case when the adverb is the prefix of a separable
compound verb: rittgd urn tie @tatt (Return), mitten Wxij ten
SQalD, in tad Dorf ^inein, and tern ®arten ^eraud* Sd ritten tret
Sfteiter jum S^ore ^inaud (Uh. ).

1. Mark the adverbs which are only adverbs and not adjectives :

loo^lf faf!» f(^on# fe^r, neuUd^, freili^r fru^ (rare), fpat (rare), haVb, and others.

2. The uninflected comparative and superlative of adjectives serve
also as adverbs. Notice the difference between auf + A. and an + D.
@ie fangen auf bad bef!e (Uh.), they sang as best they knew how. This is
abwluU superlative. @ie fangen 9m beflen» they sang best of all, any. This
is relative superlative.

SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION.

301. The prepositions express the relations of a noun to a
verb or to another noun.

1. Prei)OBit1onB are originally adverbs, and the distinction between prepositions,
adverbs and conjanctions is only syntactical. (Denn is, for instance, a conjanction =
for, and an adverb = then, than ; to&^renb is a conjanction = while, and a preposition
= during. Prepositions conld not originally *' govern " cases. A certain case was
called for independently of the preposition, then still an adverb. In Greek there are
prepositions governing three cases, which shows how loose the connection between
case and preposition was. hi fact nearly all adverbs, old and new, can be traced back

120 SYNTAX OF THE PEEPOSITTON— GBNinVB. [30»-

to cases of nouns or pronouns. They are isolated or *' petrifled" eases, and as sach
coold only stand in the loosest connection with the living cases, which they gndnaUy
began to " goyem."

S. Prepositions can govern different cases in different periods of the langoage.
The preposition has been partly the caose of the loss of case-endings. Its function
becomes the more important the more nninflectional (analytical) a language becomes.
It is one of the most difficult and subtle elements to master in the study of a living
language. For another reason the preposition is very important, via., the preposition
-f case has supplanted and is continuing to snpphtnt the case alone, directly dependent
upon a verb or noun. The two together are much more expressive and explicit than
a case alone. In <Die fiiebe bed SaterS, the genitive may be subjective or objective, but
there is no ambiguity about bie Siebc jnm Satcr, bed iBaterd Siebe lum @o^ne.

Classifigation and Treatment of the Pbepositionb AccoBDnra

TO THE Cases thet Goyebn.

302. Prepontions goyeming the Oenitive:

UntDeit, mittete, Iraft unt ma^renb; (aut, i9erm&ge, ungea^tet; oUt^
^alb m(^ unter^db ; inner^alb vM auf er^att ; Me^fettd, ienfeUd, l^oKen,
toegm ; flatt, au^ langd, sufolge, tro^«

These are all cases of substantives or adjectives (participles) and their
number might be easily increased, e.g., by (e}flgli(^, with reference to ;
an$e|!(i^t0, in the face of; feittnd, on the part of ; inmitteiw in the midst of,
etc.

(The order is the one in wliich they are given in German grammars. Tbe semicolon
shows the ends of the lines of the doggerel.)

We comment in alphabetical order briefly upon those that seem to xequire comment.
Often a mere translation will suffice.

1. Slnflatt, an — fitttt, fiatt, + instead of. Draii* (from which,
from whose breast) flat! bcr gotbencn Cieber tin ©lutfhrajl ^od^ ouf fprin9t(Uh.).
^n Xod^ter fiatt, in daughter's stead, ©tatt sometimes with the dative. It
also governs an infinitive like o^ne, translated by " without + participle."
See Infinitive, 291, 1.

2. augcrjalb + outside of; inntxf^alh + hislde of; obcT^aU,
above; unttx^alh on the lower side of, below. They are all more
expressive than the simple forms. They rarely govern the dative.

8. X) i e # f t i t (9), i ( n f e i t (9), this side of, on the other side, beyond.
Rarely with the dative.

4. $aUen# f^al^tx, f^al^, on account of , + in behalf of. FoUows

^02] SYSTTAX or THB PREPOSITION — QEl^IXIVE. 121

it8 case. Frequent in composition : hUf^Xb, therefore ; meinet^oKeiw on my
l)ehalf ; 9Uer9 $aU(r# on account of age. Comp. toegcn and toiSen*

5. it raft, according to, by virtue of. Stxaft M (Sefe^ed ; fraft M
5Imted. Formerly only in Jlraft,«.^.,ba§ (lew bnliebfie(@oitt) . ♦ ♦ In Stxaft
aflein bed 9iingd# bad $aupt> ber Bflrfl bed l^aufed toerbe (Le.). Comp. laut.

6. 2 ant, from, ^na^ ^aut," lautd (Luther), means "according to,*
" by." Sant 8efe^U» by command ; laut bed Xeflamentedr according to the
last will and testament.

Plural nouns without articles in which the genitive could not be dis-
tinguished stand in the dative : laut 8riefen# according to letters, fiaut
means literally according to a verbal or written statement ; fraft gives a
moral reason.

7. flftitttli, mittelfi (most common), )»ermittelfl# by means of,
with. 3)littelfl eined |>ammeTd# eined So^rerd. It is more expressive than
mit or bur(^. Barely with the dative.

8. D h, rare and archaic. With genitive if causal (on account of) ;
with dative if local (above), and temporal (during), ^a oeinten iufammen
bie ^renabier^ n)o^I ob ber fl&glid^en itunbe (Heine). Db bem )Q3alb; nib bem
SBalb (Sch., Tell) ; ob bem Slltare (id.).

9. X r $» with genitive and dative, in defiance of, in spite of ; in the
sense of **in rivalry with," *'as well as," always with the dative. Srojj
bed Mtigen IRegend fu^ren toix ab. ^ie ©dngerin jlngt tro^ einer ^lad^ti^aU, as
well as a nightingale. Comp. the forms i\x or )um Xro^e preceded by a
dative : ^ir fium Xro^e fii^r er fort }u lefenr in defiance of me or to defy me
he continued reading.

10. Unangefe^enf setting aside, unbefd^abetr without detriment to,
ungead^tet, notwithstanding (very frequent). The last two also with a
preceding dative; bemungead^tet is felt as an adverb. These are very
modem prepositions. Unioeitf unfern# not far from, occur also with
dative.

11. ^ ixmi^t, in virtue of, through, in consequence of, by dint of.
Denotes a reason springing from a quality of the subject : t^ermiige feiner
SReblid^feitr through his honesty. We could not say fraft feiner 0^.; i^ermdge
(and not fraft) grof er 9[n|lrengungen» by dint of great efiforts. (Perhaps from
»na(^ 9)erm6den**)

12. SB & ^ r e n by during. Sometimes with the dative : to^(renbbem»
meanwhile.

18. 9B e d e Ur on account of, both preceding and following the noun ;

122 SYNTAX OF THE PBEFOSITIOl^ — DATIVE. [SOS-

alflo with the dative. SBtgen denotes also a motive and an impediment.
@eintr ®rd§e toegtn fonnte ha€ ®c^if rti^t bur^ btn StamL ^er duller max
soegen feiner Bt&xft btru^mt. 9Begen from )»oii — toegen, still common in ^voit
Slte^td oegen," strictly, in justice.

14 S3 ill e It/ generally u m — tt> i U e n^ denotes the purpose, the ad-
vantage or interest of a person. Um meiner 9{u^e totSen ttd&xta ®ie ^
beutltc^er (Sch.). Um M @o^ned toillenr um mdntmiUm, for the sake of or in
the interest of the son, for my sake. SBegeiw ^Vbtn, and loiScn aU appear
with pronouns, and are used promiscuously.

15. 3 n f ( g €/ as frequently with the dative, denotes the result, ** in
consequence of." dufolgt bed Suftragedr in consequence of the commission ;
ben ll^erabrebungen }ttfoIger in accordance with the verhal agreements.

Prepositions goyeming the Dative.

303. @^retb: mit, nad), nad^fl, nebfi, famt; [eit, )9on, gu, lutoi'ltt;
entgcgen, au§er, aui — jleU mit bem Dotto ntcber.

1. ^ 16/ still used in the Alemanic dialect (Baden, Switzerland) as a
preposition. In business style it denotes the place from which merchan-
dise is delivered or the time affcer which anything is to be had : ab ^m*
burg, ab SReujabr, ah = "all aboard."

2. ^ u d denotes the starting point of a motion, the opposite of in +
accusative, = "out of," "from": 9[u« ben Slugen, au* bem ©inn, "out of
sight, out of mind " : au« bem Senfler fe^en, to look out of the window.
Origin and descent: and alten deitenr from olden times; aui ^annot^er,
from Hanover. Material : aud Se^m, of day ; and 9?e^l, of meaL Motive :
avLi ?Kltleib, ^a^, from pity, hatred. Origin also in and Crfabrung, from
experience ; and ^erfe^enr by mistake. Notice the idiom : and Stein geburttg,
a native of Cologne, bom in C.

8. STuger, outside of, beside, the opposite of In + dative. Denotes
also exception and " in addition to." More frequent in the figurative than
in the local sense, because au§et^lb is more precise. Sfuger bem ^nfe, not
at home ; ttnjer ^fe fpelfen, to dine out ; anger (1(^ fein, to be beside one's
self. 9hir ber ©etter ttar anger mtr ba. Mark once the genitive anger Sanbed
^l^en, to go to foreign parts ; also the accusative in auger alien 3tt>«ifel fe$en#
•o put beyond all doubt. (@e^en being a verb of motion.)

4. © e i. Original meaning is nearness, hence by, near, with : bel ber
<5(ieune» near (by) the bam ; bet ber 3:ante, near the aunt or at the house of

mam

GERMAN AND FRENCH LANGUAGES, II

FOR STUDENTS IN FRENCH.

XABLBAUX DE LA REVOLUTION FRAN^AISE. Ed.
ited for the use of Students in French, with explanatory and critical
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[ovbr]

^22 SYNTAX HP TTjp ^r,„

FRENCH CLASSICS FOR STUDENTS.

VOL. II. LE ROMANTISME FRANQAIS. A selection

from the writers of the French Romantic School — 1824-1848.

Edited, with introduction and notes, by T. F. Crane, Professor

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3S39 [over]

303] SYNTAX or THE PEBPOSTTION— DATIVB. 123

the aunt ; beim Qm9, by Jore ; Me ^d^lad^t Ui S5rt$, the battle of W. ; (ei
Xifi^ feittr to be at dinner ; Ui %a^ unb bet 9ta(tt# by day and by night ; (ei
(einem) 9tamtn nennenr to call by name (but Qriebri^ m i t 9tamcn> Frederic
by name) ; bet (rare) neunjig Q^efangeneitr about ninety prisoners ; Ui Strafe
9on itJfn ^axt, ten marks fine. 3(^ ^U fetn ®elb bei mix, I have no money
about me. The accosative stands in bei Seite legen^ bringenf fleUeiti to lay,
put aside. In M. H. G. after verbs of motion regularly the accusative,
but in the spoken language now discarded, though still found in the
classics.

5. Sinneitr sometimes with genitive, expresses now time only,
" within " : binnen bret Sabreur within three years. <h6 — innen.

6. Sntge'gen denotes approach, both friendly and hostile, towards
and against ; stands generally after its case. SBir gingen bem Qreunbe ent^
gegen; fiibren bem SBinbc entgegen. With verbs of motion it frequently forms
separable compounds and is really more adverb than preposition.

7. ® e g e n it' b e r» opposite, facing ; generally after its case ; rarely
gegen — iiber. !Dem ©(Jblofle gegenilber.

8. ® e m d fir preceding and following its case, according to, in accord-
ance with ; really an adjective, ^em S^erfpre^en ^tm&i, according to the
promise; gem&g bem &t^t^, according to the law. It is more definite
than nac^*

9. ^ i t means " in company with," " with " ; denotes presence, ac-
companying circumstances and instrument, ^rm in ^rm mit bir^ fo forbVe
idb mein ^a^rbunbert in bie S^ranfen (Sch.). !IRtt ffreuben, gladly; eile mit
©eiler hasten slowly ; mit gug unb SRetbt, justly (emphatic) ; mit ber Beit
pflflcft man ffto^n, in due time . . . ; mit d^tii, intentionaUy ; mit bem 9)fei(,
bem Sogen (Sch.). (See mitteU, 302, 7.)

10. 9^ a c^ denotes originally a " nearness to," being an adjective (nabe);
then "a coming near to," and generally corresponds to Eng. "after" in
point of time, order. With verbs of motion (literal and figurative) " to "
and ** after." SHadb ettt)a« flrebenr ^^ febnen, to strive after, long for ; nad^ SWit-
tema^t ; na^ bir fomme i(^# it is my turn after your ; nac^ ©erlin reifen. " In
accordance with," not so expressive as i»gem&§»* in this sense often after
its case, fla^ ben ®efe^en verbient er ben %eh ; bem SBortlaute na^, literally.
Aim: nacib etwad fc^lagen, fcbie^enr to strike at, shoot at. 9{a(b ettt>ad f(bmecFenr
Tie(ben# etc., something has the smell, taste of; nac^ etn>ad urteilenr to judge
by ; nad^ et»a^ or iemanb f(4i(fen# to send for. (See ju and gem^p.)

124 STl^AX OF THE PBEPOSITIOIif — DATIVB. [80^-

11. 9{ d (^ fl is the superlative of na^e (na^)f and denotes very close
nearness to in place, order, = + " next to." dunac^fl has no different force.
Unb nai^fl bem £eben toad crfle^fl bu bir? (G.).

12. 9^eb|l denotes very loose connection and connects also things
and persons not necessarily belonging together; \amt, on the other hand,
only what naturally belongs together, ^uf einer Stance trSgt f!e einen $ut
nebfl einer ^al^m (Sch.) (a hat and a banner). < nebenfl < L. G. nevens,

13. Sam t, mtt famt, $u famtr " together with.'* fEftiib famt meinem gaiQen
^cere bring^ ic^ bem ^er^og (Sch.). See nebfl. It implies a close union, which
does not lie even in mit*

14. <Bti t, older flntf = + since, denotes the beginning of an action and
its duration to the present moment. Sett btefem Sage fti^toetgt tnir ieber
3)7unb (Sch.). (£r ifl herein felt me^reren Stunben (id.), it is several hours since
he came in (into the city). @eit eintgen Barren ^a^U er feine Sinfejii For sev-
eral years he has paid no interest.

15. S3on,** from/' denotes the starting point of a motion or action in
time and place. Its case is often followed by another preposition or by

l^er. 9$ on ber f>anb in ben SRunb; »on SBorten fam'd gu S^Ugenr from words
they came to blows. Son Dflent bid ^flngften ifl f^iig Sage* Origin:
Saltier »on ber Sogelweibe. d^xft 9on 8{dmar(f. ^err 9on ©(^nlcinbttrg.
Hence i9on in the names of persons denotes nobility : ^en I90n @o mib @o.
Son 3ugenb auf; 9on ®runb aud» thoroughly ; 9011 Dfien l^er. Separation :
freir rein t^on etwad. Supplants the genitive : ein fBlam wn df^xt, »on grogen
jfenntniffen ; ber 9)5bel "oon 3)arid. Denotes the personal agent : SBaOenfhtn
tourbe t^on ^iccolomtni ^intetgangen unb ]»on ^itlvx ©eneralen tm ®ti(^e (in the
lurch) gelaffen. Notice : Sd^urfe i9on einem SBirt (Le.). Cause : nag )»om
(with) Saur t9oni 9{egen.

16. du denotes first of all the direction toward a person (but nad^
toward a thing) + " to " : )u jemanb ge^enr fommen» fDred^en^ etc. Sit fang }u
ii^rn* f!e fprac^ in i^m (G.). du jtd^ fommen, ** come to'* ; etnKid jn {{<i^ fle(fen# to
put something in your pocket. (This is its only use in O. H. G. In
M. H. G. its use spread.) In dialect and in poetry it stands before names
of cities and towns (= at). Qu ©tra§burg auf ber ©d^ina (Folk-song). 3Jr
fetb metn ®a|l )u ^Bd^mi (Sch.).

In certain very numerous set phrases and proverbs $tt stands before
names of things. Direction: ]»on Drt su Dxt, from place to place; }tt
S3ett(e)» iur itirc^er m S^vXt, )u ©runbe^ ju 9tate ge^n = "take council";

304] SYNTAX OP THE PREPOSITION— AOCUSATIVB. 125

many loose oompounds with fa^ren; su %aU, gu ^tattcn^ iu €>4abcn> su (Enbe>
gu @^rm fommen; su Sc^anbettr git 9{i4te toerben.

Place where?: i,)u beiben Seiten bed 9{^eln9« (Song) ; in ^au\t, lUX ^(inb
fetn; ^u B^figen Itegen. Maimer of motion : |u Satib, gu fBafftx, )u fPferb (su
fftoi), lu SBagen^ gu Suf = Eng. "by" and *'on." Transition or change :
|um StM^ ma4en# to&ijiltn, entennen ; jum fRarrtitr )um kflen ^bcn* to make a
fool of. Degree or size, numbers : )um %til, in part ; su f>unberteni by the
hundred ; gu breien toaren tvlr im dimmerr there were three of us in the
room ; ym, Sobe betrfibt (G.), sad unto death. Combination of things :
SJe^men Sle nic 9>feffcr, <Satj ober ©enf ju (with) bcm (£i? Dfl ^att^ tr faum
SBafTer su ©d^tDarjbrot unb Surfl (BU.). Notice the use of ju before nouns
followed by j^inein^ ^eraud^ etc.: )um X^oxt ^inaud; sum Qenfler ffttau^. Time
(rare) : Unb hmmt er nid^t gu Dflerni fo fommt er jit S^rinita't (Folk4K)ng). After
the noun = " in the direction of," *• toward " : bem ©orfe ^vi, toward the
village ; na^ bem SDorftr to the village.

Prepositions governing the Acousative:

304. 8U, tur^, fur, gegen, o^ne, fonter, urn, »ilicr»

1. 93 i dr till, until, denotes the limit in time and space. When denot-
ing space it is followed by other prepositions, except before names of
places. The nouns of time rarely have an article or pronoun. fd\€ 8afl«-
na^t ; bi^ and (£nbe aller X)inge ; bid l^ier^er unb ntd^t n>eiter ; bid an ben ^eHen
Xag ; neunjig bid ^unbert ^ait; bid Sdraunf^oeid* (a3id <I>i -{■ az, -^ Eng.
by + at.)

2. I)ur^# + ** through," denotes a passing through : burd^ ben 2Balb#
bur(^d 9{abeI6bT. Extent of time (the case often followed by btnbur(i^):
bur^ 3abTie^nte ^tnburd^; bie ganje Beit (btn)burd6. Cause and occasion, very
much like and ; burd^ 9{ac^l&ff!gfeitr bur^ eigene ^d^ulb. Means: burd^ einen
9)feil i^enounbenr burd^ einen Dienflmann beforgen, attend to through a porter.
(t£)ur(b more definite than miU See this and mitteld. It denotes now no
longer the personal agent.)

8. 9ux, + for, denotes advantage, interest, destination : SBer nid^t fiir
ml4 x% if! ttiber mtc^ (B.). dx fammelt ffir bie SIrmen* Die ©d^cere ifl fein Spiel^
jeug fur itlnber. Die ©a^rbeit ijl »orbanben fiir ben SBelfen, bie ©d^anbelt fiir ein
fitblenb ^erj (Sch.). Substitution and price : Da trltt fein anberer fur i^n ein
(Sch.). 2Reln Ceben \\t fur ®olb nl*t fell (Bil.). Limitation : 3d) plr meine
9>erfon. ®enu3 Pxjbiefed 3Wal, Sbt seigtet einen fetfen SKut ... fur eure Sabre
(Sch.). ^tiitf fiir @tittf, point by point. In its old sense (local) only in
certain phrases : @(^ritt f&r (by) (Sc^ritt^ Sag f&r (by) Xa^, @a^ fUr (after)
@a$* (See i»or.)

126 SYirrAX OF THE PBEPOSmON— AGGUSATIYE. [304-

4. ® e g e n denotes " direction toward," bnt with no idea of approach
that lies in }U and m^. It implies either friendly or hostile feeling if
persons are concerned = " towards,'* ** against" ®cgtn bie SBanb le^nni;
gegen ben ©trom fc^totmmen. fBkm i(^ mv^ dtegtn fte i»crpflt(^ten foS# fo muffcn jtc'd
aud)de9tntni^ (Sch.). ®iM t« cin Slittcl gegen bie S^tombfu^t ? i&t^mt>vam*
(eit fampfm hotter felbfl verge^end. Exchange, comparison : 3^ totttt (tmbort
gegen rind. ffteXavb xoax ein Qxotx^ gegni ben Sl^iefcn. Indefinite time and num-
ber : " towards." Der ^xatUt fc^Iief erfl gegtn Storgen ein. 2)er 9elb^ ^tie
gegen brei^unbert taufenb Solbaten. ®egen bret U^r. (S^egen once governed the
dative almost exclasively and traces of it are still found in Goethe.

® e n is still preserved in irgen ^immel.'' ®en < gen < ffein < gegtny
+ again. See entgegen^ which implies a motnal advance.

6. D i n e, " without," the opposite of »mit,* •^ei.* SRit ober ojne itlaufel,
gilt mir gleic^ (Sch.), ** With or without reserve, it is all the same to me."
CEtn Slitter ol^ne Qurd^t unb S^abel. In irO^nebem'' is a remnant of the D. in
M. H. G. ; )n>eifeldol^ne of the G. occurring after the M. H. G. adverb dne,
from. (Sttoad ifl ni(^t o^ner there is something in it (Coll.). Df^ne ai Com-
position, see 489, 3 ; + infinitive, see 291, 1.

6. ©onbetr "without," is now archaic except in set pnrases like
•fonber ®lci(!&en,* irfonber Swcifel,* "without compare," " no doubt," + Eng.
asunder. Once governed the accusative and genitive.

7. Unir ** around," " about." Unb bie ©omie, fie mad^te ben »eiten aiitt am
bie SBelt (Amdt). Unb urn i^n bie ®ro§en ber itrone (Sch.). ^ix or ^erum often
follows the case : 3n einem ^albfreid flanben urn i^n \n fed^d ober fieben grogc
itonigdbilber (Sch.). It denotes inexact time or number : Urn ^ittemad^t
begrabt ben Seib (Bil.). Urn brei bunbert ^orerr an audience of about three
hundred. (®egen is rather " nearly," nm means more or less.) But irum
brei»iertel fSnf* means "at a quarter to five." "At about" would be
wungeffibr urn* or mVLxei ttngeffi^r,* e.g., ungefabr um 6 Uljr. It denotes further
exchange, price, difference in size and measure : Sug^ urn Suge* d<^^n um
3abn (B.). mt9> ijl eu* fcil um ®elb (Sch.). Um jtDci Soli |U flrtn. (£r ^t
(Id^ um jtt>ei 3>fenmge »erre(%net. Ijoss and deprivation : um^« Ceben bringen, to
kill ; um^d ®elb fommen, to lose one's money. Da ©ar'd um i^n gefi^ebn (G.),
He was done for. ffier brad^te mid^ brum ? (um betne Siebe) (P. 4496), Who
robbed me of it? It denotes the object striven for: vm. ettt>ad toerbenf
fpielen# frttgen* bitten, Iheiten, beneiben, etc. The object <if care, mourning,
weeping : SDein^ um ben 8ruberr bod^ nidftt um ben ©eliebten meine (Sch.). ^^^^^
»)dr'« um eure (Hiare (id.). SRid^t um biefe t^ut'4 mir leib (id.).

306] THE PBEPOSinON — DATIVE XNJ) AOOUSATIYE. 127

8. 9B i b e r» " agunst " always in the hostile Bense. Denotes resistaaoe
and contrast : 9Bad ^ilft und Se^r unb Safe n)iber ben? (Sch.). <£^ ge^t i^m
loibcr bU fflatax, It goes against his grain ; + Eng. '* with " in withstand.

Prepontions governing the Dative and Aoonsative.

305. an, auf, winter, in, nefcen, fiber, unter, t)or, jwifi^ett.

1. In answer to the question whither? they require the
accasative. In answer to the question where? the dative.
y^an^t tie S&ume )>or ta^ ^aud. X:ie Saume fie(en ^ov tern ^aufe.

2. In answer to the question how long and until when ?
they require the accusative. In answer to the question when ?
the dative : 3nt ^af^tt 1872 toutu ©trapburg »ieoer old teutf^e
Uni)>er{ltat erbffhet. SBir reifen auf ^oieqe^n Sage ind Sat«

3. When an, auf, in, iiier, unter, )>or denote manner and cause,
then auf and fiber always require the accusative, but an, in, unter,
loor generally the dative, in answer to the questions how and
why? SBir freuen un« fiber (= over) and auf (= looking for-
ward to) feine ?lnfunfl. Sluf tiefe SBeife, but in ttefer JCeife*
Der Settler toeinte )>or Sreuten fiber tie l^errlid^e ®abt.

The above general rales, as giyen in Eiaase'a grammar, will be found of mocfa
practical yalne.

306. 1. %n + Dative.

After noons and adjectiveB of plenty and want : ^an^tX an ®tlb» rei^ on
®fitent. After adjectives when the place is mentioned where the quality
appears : an Mben B^ilpen Ia^m» an einem Kuge blinb. After verbs of rest,
increase or decrease, and after those denoting an immediate contact
or a perception : %n ber DueUe fap ber ^ndbt (Sch.). <S^ fe^It an SBuc^em.
^er Sudtoanberer Utt am SBed^felflebeT* ^er did^uner f&btt ben SB^ren an finer
Sttttu 'Jbm S^ogel erfennt man an ben ffebem (Prov.). It denotes an office
and time of day : am S^eateir an bet Unit^erflt^t^ am 9(mte angefleUt feim to
hold an office at ... ; am 9){orgett# 9lbenb| ed ifl an ber Seil * « « # it is
time . • • •

128 THE PBEPOSITIOK — DATIVB AOT) A00U8ATIVB. [306-

2. 9n + AoeuBatire.

After benfai# (runicro# mal^nen and similar ones, and verbs of motion,
^enfet an bm ^uf^m, ni^t an tie ®efa^r* @e^ ®ie f!(^ bo^ and %tnfttt (near
the window). Inexact number: an bie brei mal ^unbcrt laufenb Vlarm. (as
many as). From its English cognate "on" on differs very much in
meaning. *' On " generally is auf. See also 300, 2.

3. 9uf + "upon/' For auf + Dative, see 305, 1, 2, 3.
It denotes rest or motion upon the surface.

9 u f + Accusatiye.

Stands after verbs of waiting, hoping, trusting, etc, e.g., auf ttioa9
xoaxttn, ^ojfcn, jt<^ befinncn (recall), gefagt ftin, f\^ frtacn (see 305, 3), versi^tow
(ed) auf ttma€ xoa^m, ^dren. Here it stands generally for the old gen. with>
out preposition. 3(^ fann mi^ anf bie gcnanen Unt^&ibe ni^t Itfinnm, I cannot
recall ... 2)er ^unb wartet auf fein Sreffcn. Wtttft anf bie SS^orte bed 2e^TCT9.
Xro^t ni^t anf euer fftt^t (Sch.). After adjectives denoting pride, envy,
anger, malice, e.g., eiferfn^tig, netbtfi^, floli, bdfe, erbofl: eiferffit^tid auf feine
G^re (Sch.) ; M auf feme Unfi^nlb; erbofl auf ben dkfangenen (iiber would mean
cause). Exact time, limit, and measure ; often with »bt9.« Here belongs
the superlative, see 300, 2. a3td aupd SInt. fbii auf Speif unb 2:ran!
(Le.). (£0 ifl ein SJiertel auf brei, a quarter past two. 5(nf bie SKinn'te,
©efu'nber auf S^uitotitt, at shooting distance. SB id auf bie 9{etger to the
last drop. Suf fleben f^on eined tt)ieber (Le.). (Nathan had ** toward " or
" as a return for " his seven dead sons one child in Becha.) Suf eine Wtad
ge^en l^unbert ^fenntge*

4. $ i tt t e r + " behind," opposite of „wr." See 305, 1, 2.

It denotes inferiority : Die franj5f!f(^e SfrttUerie ftanb meit ^btter ber bentf^en
luriidE (ambiguous, either stood far back of the G. or was much inferior to
the G.). Notice the following idioms : fld^ Winter enoad ma^tUt to go at with
energy. 3(1^ fann nid^t babinter fommen, I cannot understand it. (Sd l^tnter
ben D^ren l^aben, to be sly (oolL) ; Winter bie O^ren fd^lagen# to give a box on
the ear ; M ^^^^ ^^^^ ^i^ D^ren fd^tetben^ to mark well

5. 3tt + in, into (A.).

The German and English prepositions are more nearly identical than
any other two. See 305, 1, 2.

806] THE PREPOSITION — DATIVE AND A00U8ATIVB. 129

3n + Aoousative.

Denotes direction, including transition, change, division : CDeim ber
fieib in Staub ittfaUtn, Uht ber groge 9^anie no4 (Sch.). Deutf(^(anb jcrrif auf
biefem 9tei(!bdtage in imi fftdi^ie'mn unb itt>ei )>oUtir(be ^artti'en (id.).

6. ^titn, near, by the side o£ See 305, 1, 2. < eneben,
lit, "in a line with,"

7. fiber + over, above. See 305, 1, 2, 3.
fiber + Aoousative.

After verbs denoting rule and superiority over, e.g., ^errfdjettr ^t%tru
verfiiden (dispose) ; laughter, astonishment, disgust, in general an expres-
sion of an affection of the mind, e.g., Hihtt tnoad lad^tn, erflauneUr {14 • • , U*
flagenrfld^ . • « entriifleni fld^ ^rgern. (For an older simple genit.) j^arl ber ®roge
flegte iibcr bie ©ad^fen. !Dae Jeflament Jjerplgt fiber ein grof e0 ©ermagen. ®le
fhifrte ber 9)3bel iiber bie neuen Ciore'en (G.). Die Oefangenen bcflagen |i(^ fiber
ibre a3ebanblung. fiber fein Senebmen babe i($ mi4 re(bt ge^rgert. It denotes
time and excess in time, number, measure : fiber^d ^at^x, a year hence,
only in certain phrases, duration : fiber ^ad^t, bie 9{acbt fiber* !Z>en ®abbatb
iiber oaren fie fUlIe (B.). fiber ein Sa^x, more than a year (ambiguous,
either " more than a year" or " a year hence "). fiber brei taufenb ifanonem
fiber aUe Segriffe f^dn» beautiful beyond comprehension.

When It denotes duration or simultaneousness, or when the idea of
place is still felt, then the dative follows ; when it denotes the reason
then the accusative follows. This is dear when the same noun stands
in both cases, as in 3(b bin fiber bem 8u(^e eingefd^lafen^ means " while reading
it I fell asleep." 34 bin fiber bad Oud^ eingeft^lafen means " it was stupid,
therefore I fell asleep." fiber ber SBefi^reibung ha ftergefT i^ ben ganjen itrieg
(Sch.). ®d)abe, bag fiber bem fcbbnen 9Ba(n bed £ebend befle ^dlfte babin ge^t
(Sch.).

Notice )0on etoad and fiber etoad n)red^en. 3d^ (abe ba)»on gef^rod^en^ I have
mentioned it. 3($ ^U barfiber gef^ro^en^ I have treated of it, spoken at
length.

8. U n t e r + under. See 305, 3.

In the abstract sense this rule holds good. It denotes protection, in-
feriority, lack in numbers (Dative, opposite of fiber), mingling with, con-
temporaneous circumstance (D.). It stands for the partitive genit.
(= among). Unter bem ©cbufte. !Der gelb»ebel flebt nnter bem Dfflder. ®er
t»iQ nnter bie 6obaten» ber • « . ^ he who wants to become a soldier (Folk-

130 SYNTAX OF THE CONJUKCTIONa [dOS-

Bong). (St ifl bntnter gebliebnw he did not Teach the nomber. (Samurai
dffnete fetnem Cnbtfc^ofe unter (amid) frcubigtm durufe bte Xffen xoithtx (Sc1l.)>
SDer untcr (among) biefen (D.) rcu^t an unfern Srteblanb Y (Sch.) (von bieftn would
be " of these "). It denotes time when none of the exactor modes of ex-
pressing time is used : SGBir fmb gebortn unter glei^en ©ttrntn (Sch.). Unter
ber SRegterunfi ber j^onigin Sictoria = in the reign ; wd^renb implies not a sin-
gle act, but a commensurate duration, = during. Der ©afrifto'n f^Iief
tvci^renb ber ^rebigt, but ging unter ber |)rebi0t ^inaud* In irttnterbeffenf" and
other compounds of that class, inbeffen# etc., the gen. is probably adverbial
and not called for by the preposition.
See }n>tfd^en.

9. S r + before, in front of. See 305^ 1, 2, 3.
S r + Dative.

Introduces the object of fear and abhorrence : itein (Sifengitter f^fi^^t i»or
i^rer Sifl (Sch.). ^or geoiflfen d^rinnerungen xaJ^i* US^ mii^ gem (uten (id.). 3Rix
grant 9or btr. Time before which anything is to happen or has happened :
Der itonig ift gefonnem ^tx 9(benb in Slabrib no(^ einiUtTeffen (Sch.). Sor breifig
3a(ren# thirty years ago. Sl^ox ac^t Xagen# a week ago. Hindrance and
cause : !Z>te (S)rogmutter utrb ^ox itummer flerben (Sch.). ^Den SBalb ^ex tauter
93aumcn nic^t fe^n (Prov^.). Sor ^ungerr «or !£urfl flerben. Preference : s»or
aUen Dingenr above all things ; l^nli^ ^9X alien.

^ox and fur are doublets and come from fora and furi respectively. In
M. H. Q,fur + A. answered the question whither? «ar + D. the ques-
tion where ? In N. H. G. they were confounded, even in Lessing very
frequently, but in the last seventy years the present syntactical difference
has prevailed. Goethe and Schiller rarely confound them

10. 3t»if^en.

" Between " two objects in place, time, and in the figurative sense. 9tein
nitt§ t€ bleiben smifd^en mir unb i^nt (Sch.). ^ie SBolfenfSuIe fam stttf(^en bad ^eer
ber Sd9pter unb bad |>eer 3draeld (B.). See 305, 1, 2 ; also unter = among,
sub 8.

SYNTAX OF THE CONJUNCTIONS.

307. The conjunctions are divided : 1. Into the coordinat-
ing, like unb, tenn, etc. ; 2. Into the subordinating, e. g., tveil,
ba, aU, etc. They are treated in the General Syntax, where
see the varions clauses.

808] GEXEBAL SYNTAX — SIMPLE SElirrBNOE. 181

GENERAL SYNTAX.
I. THE SIMPLE SENTENOK

308. Subject and verb make up the nmple sentence. This
sentence may be expanded by complements of the subject and
of the verb. The subject may be either a substantive, a sub-
stantive pronoun, or other words used as substantives. The
attributes of the subjects may be adjective, participle, adjec-
tive pronouns, numerals. These are adjective attributes.
Substantives, substantive pronouns, and the infinitive are
substantive attributes. Their relation to the subject may be
that of apposition and of coordination; or they may be con-
nected by the genitive, or by preposition + case in subordi-
nation. Preposition + case is more expressive than the
genitive alone, when the subject is to be defined as to time,
place, value, kind, means, purpose.

The predicate is either a simple verb or a copula + adjec-
tive or substantive or pronoun which may be again expanded
like the subject. The complements of the verb are object and
adverb. The object is either a noun, substantive pronoun, or
other words used as nouns. It stands in the accusative, dative
or genitive, or is expressed by preposition + case. The
adverb qualifies the verb, adjective, and other adverb. It is
either an adverb proper or preposition + case of substan-
tive or what is used as such. It may also be a genitive or an
accusative.

309. As to form the main sentences may be divided as
follows :

1. Beclarative sentences, which either affirm something of
the subject or deny something with regard to it. Affirmative :
Aura ijl Ux ©djmcra unt) cwig i|l Die greuDc (Sch.). Du bafl Dia^
ma'tdm unl ^txUn (Heine). Negative : £)ad ititn Ifi ber ©itter

132 GENERAL SYNTAX — SIMPLE 8BNTEN0E. [309-

Ji^^ti tiid^t (Sch.). ®it foQett i^n nid^ ^a(m, tm fretm beutfii^m
Sl^ein (Beck).

1. The doable negatiye is still freqaent in the classics and coUo-
quiallj, but it is not in accordance with correct nsage now : Sttmt £uft von
feincr Stxtt (Gt., classical). fBtan {!c^t» haf er an nid^td Umtn StnteU ntmmt
(F. 3489) (said bj Margaret, colL). Alter the comparative it also occors
in the classics : SBir mitfTen bad Serf in birren n^^flen Xagm n>citer ^jbtm, aid
ed in 3a^ren rd^t gebie^ (Sch.).

2. After verbs of "hindering." "forbidding/' « warning," like »«-
ptnu ^er^inbenu n>amen# 9crbietctt# etc., the dependent daose may contain
,rnid}U: fitvLx ^iitel ru^, ba§ i^r mir ni^td 9ergU|t (G.). ^imm bi^ in 9(i^t, tag
bi(^ 9la4e ni^t )>(rb(rbe (Sch.).

8. When the negative does not affect the predicate, the sentence maj
still be affirmativ& Sti^t mir, ben eignen Ittgcn rndgt i^r glonben (Sch.). But
ni(^t mir stands for a whole sentence.

2. Interrogative sentenees: ^afl tu bad @(!^Io§ gefe^en? (XTh.).
2Ber rcitet fo fpat burd^ ^lad^t unb SSlnC ? (G.). Double question :
aCar ber Settler »erru(ft ober war er bttrunfen ? ©laufcjl bu Dad ober
ni^t ? SBiUfl bu Immer welter fdjweifen ? (G. ). 2Ber »ei§ bad itiAt ?

For the potential subjunctive in questions, see 284, 8.
For the indirect question, see 325, 2.

8. The exclamatory sentence has not an independent form.
Any other sentence, even a dependent clause, may become
exclamatory: D, bu S3ate, o i^r Serge briiben mie feib i^r fo jung
geblieben unD i^ Mn worben fo aU! (Uh.). T^i ifl bad Sod Ded
@^5nen auf ber (Srbe ! (Sch.). ^a^ lanV (owe) i^ iim niAt aUU I
(id.). SQie ber Stnait gewa(^fen ifl I

For the imperative and optative sentences, see 284, 2 ; 286.

310. Elliptical clanses generaUy contain only the predicate
or a part of it, including the object or adverb. ®uten SRorgen !
®elt ! Truly I ©etroffen ! You have hit it I Sangfam ! ® d^neU !
etc. It is very frequent in the imperative, see 287.

Proverbs often omit the verb : SJicl ®cf(^rci unb ttcntg SEBolIe. ^letne
jlinbetr fletne ©orgen; gTO§e ^xvbtx, grofe @0Tden. See 309, 3, in which the
last examples are really dependent questions.

313] GENEBAL SYITTAX — SIMPLE SBITrBKOE. 188

Concord of Subject and Predicate.

311. The predicate (yerb) agrees with the subject in num-
ber and person.

Two or more subjects (generally connected by unt) require
a verb in the plural : Unttr ten Snmeienten wed^feln gur^t unt
Srflauntn (Sch.). Do^ an tern ^eqen nagten mix itt Unmut luit tie
©treltbeflier (id.).

1. If the subjects are oonoeiyed as a unit and by a license ^Toater in
German than in English, the verb maj stand in the singular ; also in the
inverted order if the first noun is in the singular. Ex. : SBad ifl bad fiir
tin aXttnn# bag i^m SBinb unb SKecr ge^orfam ifl (B.). SV fP^e^e ^^^ unb ^a^
mU, etc. (Sch.). <Da fontmt ber fBtixUtt unb feinr ihir^te* By license : (Sagm
unb X^un if! sn>rierlei (ProT.). S>ad SRidtrauen unb bie (Elferfu^t . . . rmad^te
loXb mieber (Sch.).

2. The plural verb stands after titles in the singular in addressing
royalty and persons of high standing. In speaking of ruling princes the
plural also stands. Servants also use it in speaking of their masters
when these have a title. Ex.: (Sure ((£».) !lRaie|!ditf ^UT(i^lau(^tr SrceQen)
Befe^Un? (Seine SRaiefl^t ber StaiStt }^Un geru^t, etc. X)er ittx ©e^eime
ioftat flnb ni(!^t ju ^aufe. X)te ^errfti^aft flnb audge^angen*

312. After a collective noun the verb stands more regularly
in the singular than in Eng. Only when this nouin or an in-
definite numeral is accompanied by a genitive pi., the plural
verb is the rule. In early N. H. G. (B.) this plural was very
common. Die ^Rcnge flo^. Mt SCett nlmmt Seil (G.). Unb M^
lunge S5oIf ber ©(j^nittcr fKegt aum Sana (Sch.). Mt aWengc teined
^aufed foQen flerben (B.).

313. When the subject is a neuter pronoun, ti, bied, tai,
etc., the neuter verb agrees with the predicate noun or sub-
stantive pronoun in number: Dad waren mix fellge Sage (Over-
beck). g« (fnb bie %xixiiU lt>re« S^un« (Sch.). 60 jogen brei 35fler
mo^I auf bie Sirf(!^ (Uh.). In this case ed is only expletive. SBer
finb biefe ?

134 GENERAL SYNTAX — SIMPLE SBlSiTBKCB. [314-

314. When subjects are connected by entmeber — ober, ni^t
nur — fontern auc^, meter — noif, fowo^I — aU (audfe), the verb has
the person and number of the first subject and joins this one
if the subjects are of different persons. The verb for the
second subject is omitted. Stttmeber tu ge^fl (or gebjl In) ottr
iij, Seild mar id) f<i^uto, teito er. Subjects of the same person
connected by the above correlatives ; by o^tt, nebfl, tnit, famt
have as a rule a singular verb and the verb joins the second
subject. Sent Solfe !ann meter S^uer bet nod) SBajfer (Sch.),
Neither fire nor water can harm those people.

315. If the subjects are of different persons, the first has
the preference over the second, the second over the third.
Moreover, the plural of the respective pronouns is often
added. !£:er ba unl id), mir flnb an^ Sger (Sch.). Du uitb let
Setter, (t^r) getit nadj ^aufe*

The adjective as a predicate or attribute has been sufficiently treated
under the adjective, see 210-225.

316. The noun as a predicate agrees with the subject in
case ; if the subject is a person, also in number and gender,
but in the latter only when there are special forms for mascu-
line and feminine. See 167. Ex.: Die 3Beltgef(!^id)te ifl bad
SBeltgeriAt (Sch.). Die Slot ijl Me SMutter ter firfintiuttg (Prov.).
!Cad Sl'^atii^en mill ie^ Sraie^erin merten, auerfl moDie fie ©^aufpielerin
merben.

1. If one person is addressed as @ie or 3^r» the substantive stands of
course in the singular. ^Sit jtnb ein grofer 3){ei|l(r im @(i^iep(n.« Poetic and
emphatic are such turns aa : SRegierte ffit^t fo laget i^r )»or mir im ©taube ie|t#
benn id^ bin (£ucr Stbni^ (Sch., spoken bj Maria Stuart).

317. The substantive in apposition has the same concords
as the substantive in the predicate, only the rule as to case is
frequently found unobserved in the best writera SBad 9itn\i^
baitb, bie Sringerin bed ®IM^, fann SRard, ter @tern bed Ungliidd

320] GENERAL SYNTAX — COMPOUND SENTENCE. 135

(AneQ aerreifeti (Sch.). 3^r lennet i^n, ben @d^&)>fer lu^ner ^eere
(id.).

The appoBltion maj be emphasized by n&mU4 and aU i S^ntnt M dnen
0ercif)cii fEftoxm, ^Uatbta mir.

II. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.

318. The compound sentence consists of two or more
clauses, which may be coordinate (of equal grammatical
yalue) or subordinate (one dependent upon the other).

COOBDINATB SeMTENOES.

We may distinguish various kinds of coordinate sentences,
T^bich may or may not be connected by conjunction&

319. Copulative Sentences. The conjunctions unb, auA,
be^gleid^en, gTei(^faQd, e6enfaQd, and their compounds, bedgleici^en
auAj'o au(^, e(enfo aud^; nicbt nut — fonbem aud^; niAt aUein —
fontern au(6 ; fotooU — aU (au(^) ; rotltx — nod^ indicate mere
parataxis. 3ubem, au§ertent, ttbertied, ia, fogar, la fogar, ^iclme^r
emphasize the second clauses. Partitive conjunctions are
tcild — tcite, ^aI6 — ^alb, ^nm ZM — jum Scil. Ordinal con-
junctions are erflend — j»citen«, etc. ; juerfl — tann — fcrner,
enblic^, iyAz%i\ bate — kiD. Explanatory are nSmtid^, unb atuar.
Ex. : Die SKflV tit Heln, ber ©pag i|l flro§ (F. 4049). ^alb m P«
i^n, l^att fang er ^in (G.). 3d^ tuitt njcber Icugnen nod^ Beft^ftnigcn,
tag idfe (fc bcrebetc (id.). 9lidf|t aflein bit erjlett ©lutcn faOen ab,
fonbent aud^ bie Sriid^te (id.).

1. Notice that the adverbial oonjanctions such as Balb, jule^tr batm^
mbrr — no^r ^alb» teUd» etc., always cause inversion. Some admit of
inversion, but do not require it, «.^., au(!^, crjlend, nfimU(i. The ordinal
conjunctions and n^mlid^ are frequently separated by a comma, then no
inversion takes place, (grflend ifl ed fo ber Srauti^, }»eiund toid man^e felber
auc^ (BuBch).

320. Adversative Sentences. 1. One excludes the other
(disjunctive-adversative) : obcr, or, tntweber — ober, fonfl (else),

136 OEKEBAL STirrAX— GOMPOUKD SENTENCE. 320-

antemfaOd, otherwise. Ex.: St (SSallenflein) mu^te entmtber gar
ni(^t befe^Ien oltv mit t^ollfommentr grti^eit ^antelit (Sch.). One
contradicts the other (contradictory - adversatiye) : fon^ent,
))ie(me^r, fontern . . . ^ielme^r. The first clause contains ni^t,
iroav, freilicb, aDtrtingd, mo^l. <Bo magten fie f!^ nid^t in tie 9ld^t
tcr gfitttc, fontern feferten un^errid^teter ©acfee ^uriid (Sch.).

2. The second sentence concedes the statement of the first
in part or wholly. The first may contain nid^t, etc., as above;
the second has a6er, often in the connection aitx tod), tennod)
abtx, abcx gleid^too^I; aMn, iibrigend; nut. SlUein is stronger than
aitx.

Mark the contrast between abrr and fonbent# Eng. bat. SBer concedes,
fonbem contradicts. (£r xoax jtoar nic^t franf, aber bo(^ nid^t ba$u aufgele$t« " bat
he did not fee] like it." dx wax ni^t fronf, fonbern er mar rmx itt^t ba)u anf"
gelegt (he only did not feel like doing it). Spirit fbb berufen abcr xotxA^t ftnb
au^emdi^Iet (B.). X)m Unge^eutrUf ben ®t$antifd^en l^atte man i^n (Q^omeille)
nennen foUen, aber nic^t ben ®rogen (Le.). SBaffer t^ut^d freili(^ nid^t (It is not
the water that is effective in baptism), fonbern bad ©ort ®otte«, fo (which)
mit unb bei bem ©affer If! (Lu.).

8. The second sentence states something new or different
or in contrast with the first without contradicting or exclud-
ing or limiting the same. It occurs commonly in narrative
and may be called " connexive- or contrasting-adversative. "
Conjunctions: aber, ^ingegen, tagegcn, iiBriflend, tro^bem, flletd^too^f,
inl'effen, etc. I:ic Seleitigung ifl grog ; aitx gr5§er ifl feine ®nabe
(Le.). (S« fci^fint ein SRatfel unD tod> ijt eHelnd (G.). SdijlMe
fdjbnjle ^offnung; tod^ i|l ed nur cine ^offnung (Sch.).

321. Causal Sentences, One gives the reason or cause for
the other. Conjunctions: b(a)ntm, tc^wegen, la^tx, benn, nSmUd),
etc. The clause containing the reason generally stands
second, the one beginning with „tenn" always. Notice tcnn,
"for," always calls for the normal order. Ex.: ©oteaten toaxtn
teuer, tenn bie iKcnge ge^t na^ bem ®\M (Sch.). Sine DurAIauii^
tigfeit laft er fld^ nennen ; brum mug er (Bolbaten fatten f&nnen (id.).

325] OElirERAL STNTiLX — SUBOBDINATB SEKTBKOBS. 187

322. niative Sentences. One sentence is an inference or
effect of the other. Closely related to the causal Conjunc-
tions : fo, a'{\o, fomi't, folglici^, mit^i'ti, tt'mnad), etc. 9Reine 9le((te
(right hand) if} gegen ten Dni(f Itx iitbt ttnem)»f{nt(i4 « * * fo
(then) feit i^r ®d^ i»on Setlid^ingett (G.). D i e @(mnrn olfo fd^tinett
itiid nidit me^r (Sch. ).

SuBOBDUf ATB SENTENCn.

323. We shall distinguish three classes of dependent
clauses, according to the logical value of the part of speech
they represent:

1. Substantive clauses, with the value of a noun.

2. Adjective clauses, with the value of an adjective.
S. Adverbial clauses, with the value of an adverb.

SUBSTANTIVB CLAUSES.

324. The dause is subject : £ad Am ifl ter glud^ ter 65fen
2:(at, ta^ fie fortn)%ent S5fed mu§ geb&ren (Sch.). 9Ri(!^ rruet, tag
i^'d t^at (id.). Predicate (N.) : Xie 9Renfd)en fint niAtimmer
toad fie fd^einen (Le.). Object (A.): ®lau6fl tu nid^t, taf eine
SBarnungdfUmme in Sriiumen torieteutent px nnd fpridbt? (Sch.).
SBad man fd^maq auf n>ei§ Bef!^, lann man getrofl nad^ ^aufe tragen
(F. 1966-7). Dative : SBo^I tern, ter H« auf Me Sffeigc (to the
very end) rein flelcit fein Se6en l^at (He.). Genitive : SBcd tad
iperg ^oll ifl, bed ge^t ter 9Jlunb fiber (B.). Apposition: Den ebein
®tol3,t)af t)tt t)ir feftfl nid^t genfiflefl, tterjei^ id? tir (G.).

325. As to their contents the substantive clauses may be
grouped as follows:

1. Da§, or declarative clauses, always introduced by „baf *''
(Sd^on @ofrated lei^rte, ba§ tie ®eele ted SRenfd^en unflerbliA fei, or tie
2e^re,t)af tie ®eele . . . , or koir glauben, ta§ tie @eele . « «

More examples in 324.

138 OEKEBAL SYNTAX — SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. [325-

2. Clauses contoimng indirect questions : a. Questions after
the predicate always introduced by o6 ; in the main clause may
stand as correlatives t^, tad, teffen, lo!Ot>n, etc. Sr ^otte nicbt
gef^ricben, ob tr flefunD gcbUebtn (Bu.). (See F. 1667-70). 6.
Questions after any other part of the sentence, introduced by
an interrogative pronoun, by an interrogative adverb, simple
or compounded with a preposition, viz., tott, toa^, toit, too, xoann,
toomit, mo^er, too^in, etc. Ex. : graget nid^i, mantm i6^ traure (Sch. ).
See F. 1971. Segreiffl bu, toit atiDad^tig fd)m&rmen t)iel leid^ter aU
gut ^anteln ifl ? (Le.). ^odj fe^It und Aunte, mad in Untemalten
unt ©djw^g gefci^c^en (Sch.). c. The question may be diqunc-
tive, introduced by ob — oter; ob — ottx ob; ob — ob. Ex.:
Slber fag^ mix, ob lolr flcl^en otcr ob loir todtcr gc^en (F. 3906-7).
UnD eV tcr Sag f!(i^ neigt, mu§ ft(!^^d erRaren, ob id^ ten greunt, ob id^
ben Sater foil entbe^ren (Sch.).

Remarks. — 1. The mood in 1 and 2, according to drcmnstances, is
either the indicative or the potential subjunctive. See the examples
sub 1 and in 324.

2. In lybaf^-clauses the other two word-orders are also possible, bat

without bag: SoftaM Uf^xtt, bie @rele fei mftttUx^* d^ tourbe bc^uptrt* gtflcni
^abe man i^n nod^ auf bet ^trage gefeben.

8. When the subject is the same in both clauses or when the subject
of the dependent clause is the object of the main clause, in short, when
no ambiguity is caused, the infinitive clause can stand in place of bag +
dependent order, ^an boft^ bad untergegangrne S^iff no^ |tt bebes. ^te
^oU^ei bat bem JSaufmanne befo§Un, fein <S^xlh b^ber gu ifin^tn*

8. Claases with indirect speech — ^after verbs of saying, as-
serting, knowing, thinking, wishing, demanding, commanding.
They either begin with ba§ with dependent order or they have
the order of the direct speech. The subjunctive is the reigning
mood. For examples and tense, see 282.

4. Glauses containing direct speech, a quotation: jDad SQort
ill fret, fagt ber Oeneral (Sch.). ©er «5nlg rtef: 3fl ber ©anger
ba?

328] GENERAL SYNTAX— ^UBORDIKATB SENTENOES. 139

Abjecuve Ciaubbs.

326. The clause is introduced by a relative pronoun or by
a relative adverb. Nothing can precede the pronoun in the
clause except a preposition. Unless the personal pronoun is
repeated after the relative, the verb stands in the third person.
Ex.: Dtt fpri^fl ))on ^tittn, tie t)ergangen fint (Sch.). Die Stotte,
tie eitt guter HRenfd^ htttat, if} eingemei^t (G.). Der tu ton tern
^immel Mjl, fu§er gricte . • . (id.).

For nse of the pronouns and more examples, see 255-268.

827. 1. The relative pronoun can never be omitted as in English.
In several relative clauses referring to the same word, the pronoun need
stand only once, if the same case is required ; if a different case is neces-
sarj, the pronoun should be repeated. This is often sinned against, for
instance bj Schiller : @ie^ bd tie i8eTfr» bie cr fi^rieb unb feinr ®lut grfle^t^
instead of worin rr . « . ficfle^t.

2. The relative clauses beginning with toer^ toad without antecedents
are really identical with substantive clauses, e.g,, ^a fe(t» ba$ i^r tieffltmig
faStf mad in bed S^enf^en ^int ntd)t pagt. 9&r »ad breln 0e^t unb ni^t brein ^t%
eitt frdftifi Sort ju Dienflen flcjt (P. 1950-8).

8. Case-attraction between relative and antecedent is now rare.

9ld totl^tx, denoting rather a cause than a quality, is now archaic, but
still quite frequent in Lessing's time, tnta^, aid toelc^er {1<^ an ben blogcn
(mere) giguren erge^et, = "iBneas, since he delights ..." (Le.). ®on bet
3:rag5bte» aid fiber bit und ble 3eit Mcmltcb ailed barand (of AnHoOe^s Poetics)
gSnnen ..." about tra^y, in so far as time has favored us ... " (id.).
irDa" in the relative clause is no longer usage. SBcr ba flel^eti fe^e pi, ba$ et
nic^t faHe (B.).

328. The mood depends upon drcamstances. The poten-
tial subjunctive (of the preterit and pluperfect) is frequent
after a negative main clause. Sd ifl feine gro§e @tatt in Deutfd}^
Unt, tie ber Dnfel nidjt befuAt ^iitte (= did not visit). The sub-
junctive of indirect speech also stands. Die Slegierung ^er
Sereinigten ©taaten bt\iixotxtt fid^ iiber bie Sanbimg \oMtx ^xmtn,
mliit mand^e euro)>Sif(^e Slegierung fortfd^ide.

140 QEIl^EBAL SYNTiLX — SUBOBDISrATE SENTENCES. [320*

Adtxbbial Clattses.

329. They are introduced by the subordinating conjunc-
tions. The main clause often has an emphatic adverb, e, g.,
alfo, Xann, ta, H^n, ie^t, balder, latum. ®o does not, as a rule,
stand after main clauses expressing time and place, and gen<
erally becomes superfluous in English after main clauses of
manner.

330. Temporal Clauses. 1. Contemporaneous action imply-
ing either duration or only point of time. Conjunctions :
wa^rent, intern, inbcd (Inteffen), tt)ie, ta (all meaning "while,"
"as"); folange (aU); fo oft (aU); fo bait (ate); t>a, wo (rare and
colloquial) = when; wenn (mann is old) + ** when," refers to
the future; aU, "when," refers always to the past with the
preterit; »cil, tleweil, bcwcil, = + "while," are archaic.
@oIange, fo oft, fo6aIt are now much more common without
„aii."

Ex.: 9(^ ! vieHeic^t inbem (as) n>tT bofen» $at und Unbetl fc^on grtroffen (Sch.).
9{ur ber @tarf( toirb ba9 ©cbicffal }n)ingen» toenn bcr Sc^w&d^Img uttterliegt (Sch.).
Unt> tt)ie (afl) er fl^t unb toie er laufi^t, teiU {!(^ bie %lvit empor (G.). ^U M
©anctud Sorte famm» ba fc^eUt er breimal bei bem Stamen (i»@anctttd ..." is
part of the mass) (Sch.). (£d im ber !Renf4» folang' er fhebt (F. 817). Sobalb
bie erflen Serpen fc^toirrten (erf^ien) ein 9){db4en \^bn unb wunberbar (Sch.). X)ad
(gifen mu§ gefci^miebet merben, meil ed glil^t (Prov.). SBia mir bie ^anb no4
rei(^en» bertoeil vSi eben lob (= while I was loading the musket) (Uh.).

2. Antecedent action^ i. e., the action of the dependent clause
precedes that of the main clause. Conjunctions : na(!^tem,
after ; ba, ate, toenn, after, when ; feitbem, feit, feitbem ba§ (all
mean + since) ; fobalb (aU), fomie, mit, as soon as ; the adverb
laum + inverted order.

Ex. : 9{immeT (no more) fang i(^ freubige Steber, feit i4 beine Stimme bin
(ScK). SDenn (after) ber Seib in Staub jerfallem lebt ber gro§e Jtamt nod| (Sch.).
Unb tt>ie er toinft mit bem ^in^n, auf tbut f!(^ ber meite Qroin^tx (id.)- Staum toax
ber Skater tot# fo fommt ein ieber mit feinem fftin^ (Le.). (Notice the invezsion.)

882] QE^EBAL SYNTAX— SUBOBDINATE SENTENCES. 141

^tr itdnig 9trU(g ^Mbtt^, nad^bm er e^ inr Sftrforge mit riner (inl^lUtcn
Sefa^ung ^tx\ttitn ^m (ScK>

3. Subsequeni actum. Tbe action of the dependent daose
follows. Conjunctions: S^e, bwor, + "ere", "before"; M«,
until, with or without ba^.

Ex. : 9t{e vera^te ben aXamif eV btt fein 3mi^TC« nfaitnt ^af! (H&). lB(i»or
loir^d lafTcn nimen, belet einrn frommen Sprud^ (Sch.). 8id bir ®lotfe f!4 ^tt"
Ifi^Utf lafll bit fhenge %xU\X vx%n (id.). S^e toir ed imd ^erfaten (unexpectedly),
bra4 ber Sagen gurammen.

a. The main danse may be emphasized by barni, bamaU» bamu baronf,
and fo» if it follows the dependent clause.

la 2 and 8 the potential subjunctive can stand.

331. Local Claiues. They denote the place and direction
of the action of the main danse. They begin with »90, mol^in,
tool^er, and the main clause may contain a corresponding ba,

Ex. : SBo S^enfii^rnfunfl ni^t gureic^tr W ber ^immel oft geraten (Sch.). Die
SBelt ifl ^omommen ilberatt^ too ber 9^enf<^ nic^t (tnfommt mil fetner Dual (id.).
2>emt eben too IBegriffe fe^leiti ba f!e0t etn SDort %ux reti^ten Beit |14 ein (F. 1995^).
j(ein SBafTer if! }U ^betir tool^in man fi^ ^^ toenbe.

a. The demonstratives ba» ba^tn^ ba^er in the local clause are now
archaic. Do not confound the relative clauses and indirect questions with
the local clauses which generally refer to an adverb.

The potential subjunctive may stand in them.

Clauses of Manner and Cause.

332. Modal clauses express an accompanying circumstance
and are therefore related to cootemporaneous clauses. Con-
junctions: iitbem, ta§ ni(!^t, o^ne bap, without, inbem ni(^t, flatt or
anflatt bap, instead of. Ex. : !Cer Slitter gtng fort, intern er auf ben
®egttcr einen »er&d^tli*cn ©lid t»arf. 3(!^ bin nit in Sonbcn, bap ii^
ttid^t bad SRufeum (efuc^te (snbj.).

1. They may have the potential subjunctive. ~ But these clauses occur
more frequently in the form of participial and infinitive clauses with

n

142 GEKEBAL SYNTAX — SUBOBDUirATfi SENTEKCES. [33^-

irO^ne lu," iranjtatt lu" : ^Uiafi, anflott su em)>fandeiw mnfte ja^Un* (£r ritt fort

333. Comparative clauses denote maimer, degree, and
measnre. Conjunctions: mie, aU, " as," '^ than'' with the corre-
sponding fo, alfo, ebenfo (= so) in the main clause. After the
comparative aU, tenn (rarely) + ''than ;" other forms: glei^:^
toit — fo; fo »ie — fo; just as — as, sa SBlt denotes rather
manner and quality, aU the degree and quantity. When the
predicates are the same the contracted form is quite common.
Then mie denotes Hkeness, aU identity.

Ex. : 3(^ flnge n)te ber Sogtl flngt (G.)- '£)anfet ®ott fo toarm al€ i^ f&r biefm
Xrunf cu* banfc (id,), ©ie bu mir («tl^u|l« underBtood),fo id> bit (Prov.).* Du
(ifl mir nici^td me^r aid fein @o^n (Sch.). ^er trage ®ang bed itriegcd ^ bent
J!onig ebenfoviel S^aben get^n aid er ben SRebellen S^ortetl brac^te (id.). •€>atte fU^
etn 0tan$letn angemdijt't aid tt>te ber Doftor Sutler (F. 21^-80) (aid toie is coUo-
quial). ,rffite ein mtttx," " like a knight " ; »ald (ein) fftitttx,*' " as a knight."
(Setn ^lud n>ar grower aid man bere^net ^e (Sch.). Sincd ^tt)>ted (by one
head) Idnger benn aUt^ ^olf (B.).

1. Specially to be noticed are the clauses with aid tib, aldtoennr gener-
ally followed by the potential or unreal subjunctive. For n>enn + de-
pendent order occurs also the inverted without tt>enn. Ex.: 3^t eilet ia, aid
tt>enn i^r fflugel ^attet (Le.). @u(^e bie Siffenfc^aftr aid ttitrbefl en>tg bu ^ier fein;
Sugenbr aid l^ielte ber Xob bic!^ f^on am flr^ubenben ^aar (He.). But the indica-
tive is possible : Unb ed tt>all€t unb fiebet unb braufet unb jifd^t mie toemt SDaffer
mit geuer jlc^ mengt (Sch.).

2. 2)enn is preferable after a comparative when several ^ald* occur.
SBie is colloquial. (£d fragt ft^ ob Sefjtng grower aid Dic^ter benn aid Witn\^
getvefen fei. !Ric^t in the clause after aid is no longer good usage, though
common in the 17th and 18th centuries. Lessing has it very frequently.
3d^ lebte fo etngejogen, aid i^ in 9)2etgen nid^t gelebt ^atte (Le.).

a. 92iAtd tvenigcv aU means ** anything bat/' literally " nothing less than that," gen-
erally felt by English speakers as meaning ** nothing bnt," e. g.^ Sl^er id^ baxf fagenf ba|
Mefe (Sinvid^tung bev tyaBel nid^td weniger old nohoenbtg ifl, i. «., that this arrangement of
the plot is anything bat necessary (Le.). In ,,ni^t8 aid" = " nothing bat," as after all
negative pronoans, ,,niemanb aid bu" = nobody bat yoa, old has ezclnsive force, —
•' bat."

3. Other correlatives are fo elner — n>te; ber namllc^e — »le; berfelbe —
»ie; folder fp + positive adjective — tt)te (quality) and aid (degree) ; after

836] GEKEBAL SYWLkX — SUBORDIKATE SENTEKCB& 143

in, affutt + positive and after tin anbner stand aU + ba§ or totim* aid and
infinitive, e.g,, (£r brnft in ebtli aU bag cr fo ettoad 9on und emarten fdnnte*
(3^r ifl bet ndmlic^e toie er \mmtt mar* (Sure iBerf^^nund toar cin mntid ju Mnrlli
aU bag fie bauer^iaft ifittt fein foUen (G.).

Notice the potential subjunctive after mdU baf .'^

334. Under this head comes really the proportional clause^
which expresses the proportion of the decrease or increase of
what is asserted in the main clause. The conjunctions are
the following correlatives : ic — tcflo, nm fo (or urn tejlo, rarely) ;
ie — je, = the — the; it nac^bem (or nad^tem or »ie, rarely),
according as. If the main clause stand first, its correlative
is dispensable.

Ex. : 3e me(r ber ^oxxax f^molg^ beflo f^retflid^et toud^ ber hunger (Sch.).
3e Unger^ ie Ueber (Piov.). 3e mebc er bat» ie me^r er »UI» (3e) na^bem einer
ringt, na(i|^bem i^m gelingt (G.), " The success depends upon the efibrt."

1. 3e = ever ; beflo» " on that account," "* hence/' see 442, a. Notice
the dependent order in the first, the inverted generally in the second.

335. CoruiecutiDe dauaes express the result or effect of the
predicate of the main clause. Conjunctions: ba§ (foba^), that;
in the main clause, if any correlative, fo, fo fel^r, bergcjlalt, terart,
fold^. Ex. : @o »eral»fc^eut 1(1 bie Scrannel', lag ffe fein SBerfjcug
ftn^et (Sch.). Sr fcblug, bag laut ber SOafo erftang unb aUed Stfen in
©tiidfctt fprang (XJh.).

1 The result maj also be expressed in the form of a main clause or
of an infinitive clause : X)o(^ itberna^m^ icb gem no(!6 et'nmal aUe ^la^i, fo lieb
toar mir bad JSinb (F. 3128-4). 34 bin ^u alt» urn nur }u fpielen^ }U iung urn o^ne
ffiunW iu fein (F. 1546-7).

2. Mark the potential and unreal subjunctives of the preterit and plu-
perfect which maj stand in these clauses : ^ermeint 3bv mi<^ fo Jung unb
f(^wa(b# ba$ i(^ mit SRiefen jlritte? (Uh.). X)ad ^ferb n>ar fo la^m,ba$ wir fc^neQer
}U 9ui b^im gefommen xo&xtn*

336. Restriciive clauses limit the value and scope of the
statement of the predicate and border closely upon the con-
ditional and comparative clauses. Conjunctions: nur ba§, only

144 QElirERAL SYirrAX— SUBOBDUTATE SElirCBl^rCES. [337-

(that)y auper ba§, except that, in fo fern (old), trofem, in tote fern,
in fo or in tote meit, in as far as, in as much as. The negatiTO
force is given also by the subjunctiYe and the normal order
with the adverb benn or by ed fei Itnn, t€ mfire benn, ba^, which is
now more common.

Ex. : SBir xoaxm gar nidft fo ibtl bran, mtr ba$ uKr ni^td in trinfrn pattern We
were not at all so badlj off, only ... 3n fo fent mtn bufe SBefen i^oiper jti^»
fc^itbert bie 9>cefle au(^ itdrper (Le.). (£t entfentte fi^ niemold tocitr er fagt^ ed
i^T betm (H. and D., lY. 4^-3). 3^ laffe bi4 ni^t, bu fegnefl mid^ benn (nnlees
thou bless me) (B.). !Ru^ig (g^enfe i(^ mvS^ lu ^er^lten); e9 fei bcmir baf
(unless) er ft^ an metner (3^§re ober meinen ®ittem vergreife (Sch.).

1. This is a very old constraction, qaite common in M. H. G. The
negative force lies not in benn^ bat in the lost ne + the potential or con-
cessive sabjonctive. jDetm < M. H. G. danne, is nnessential. Compare
M. H. G. den Up wU ich verliesen, si en toerde min u^ = my life will I
lose, (slie become not mj wife) onless she, etc Sioaz lebete in dem toaide
ez entrUnne danne halde, das toas eehant tot, = SBad tai Salbe IthXtt bad war
auf ber ©telle tct» ed fei benn ba$ ed balb bavon lief or gtlaufen xo&tt (quoted by
Paul). Ne disappeared as early as late M. H. G., particularly after a
negative main clause. It is left in nnr < ne wiere = (ed) toare nid^t bog.
Bee Paul's M. H. G. gram., § 835-40.

337. Causal clauses denote the cause, reason, and means.
Conjunctions: ba, since, toeil, because, inbent = by + present
participle in Eng. Correlatives, if any: ba'mm, ba'^er, fo, bed^alb
etc. £)a't)urd^ ba§, ba'mit bap express rather the instrument.
SBeil expresses the material cause; ba the logical reason; „in^
bem'' is a weak causal and borders rather closely upon the
contemporaneous ^intern.'' Denn + normal order expresses a
known or admitted reason. It is emphatic. See 320.

Ex. : !£>ae ®(i^(el»ptau (hawser) ytxix^, »eU ber @(^lei9pbam))fer (tug) ju fdi^nefl
an^og. !0{it bem befien Sillen letflentoir fo tt>enig# tteil und taufenb SDilen freiQen
(G.). 3eben anbern ivl fd^iden ifl befler, ba KOi fo flein bin (G.). Dir Mu^l getoig
bad f(^5n|le ©lud auf (Erbem ba bu fo fromm unb ^eiltg bijl (Sch.). 9^i(i^elieu tt>u§te
^ nuT babuT(^ |u ^elfen^ bag er ben Sfeinbfeligfeiten ein fc^Ieuniged €nbe ma^te (Sob.).

1. 9htn# bietoeil/ aUbietoeilr magen* fUttcmal* and others, are rare and
archaic.

839] GENERAL SYIHIAX— BUBOBDINATB SENTENCES. 145

2. The dausefl with ba'bttrd^ baf, ba'mit baf border cloeely upon the
substantive clause. 2)a» says Becker, denotes the leal and logical rea-
son, tQcil the logical only when the kind of reason is not emphasized.
SGDeil stands in a clause that answers, the question as to the reason.
SGDarum tourbe SBaaenflein abgrfeftt? SBeil man iftn f&x rinen ^txx&ttt (ielt.

338. Final clauses express intention and object. Oon-
jnnctions: X^ami't, baf, ''in order that." 3(uf la^, unb baf are
archaic. In the main clause i*arely stand barum, baju, in ter
8lb(id)t, gtt bcm 3»ccfc (both followed by baj)*

Ex.: <Darttm eben leibt er Uinm, hamit er flrtd lu gebm %aU (Le.). <Daiu n>crb
i^m bcT Serflaitbf ba§ rr im iitnent ^tr)en fpitrttr toad « erf^aft mit feincr ^anb
(Sch.). (£^re iBater unb Sautter, auf ba| bir'd loo^l 0tbe unb bu lange lebefl auf
(Krbcn (B.).

1. The reigning mood of this clause is the subjunctive. If the object
is represented as reached, the indicative may also stand. Urn |U + inf.
forms a very coounon final clause ; !D?an lebt ni^t urn }tt tffm, fonbern man ipt
urn su leben.

339. Concessive dances make a concession to the contra-
diction existing between the main clause and the result ex-
pected from it in the dependent clause. They are called also
adversative causal clauses. Conjunctions : obglet'c!^ (ob • • •
glei^), obf^o'n (06 « * . f<^on), obmo^I (ob . . « wof)!), ob andii, oB
Itoat, mnn aud), menn iUiij, ob, all = '* although.'' The main
clause may contain be'nnoci^, bo(^, nid^tdbeflomeniger, gIei(!6mo^(, but
fo only if it stands second.

Belatiye clauses with indefinite relative pronouns and
adverbs, met • • * mij (immer,nur), toie * . . au(^, fo • . • auii
(nod^) ; inverted clauses and those with the normal order, con-
taining the adverbs fci^on, glti(!^, ^mar, mo^I, freili^, no(!^ have also
concessive force.

Ex. : 3fl td filei(^ ffta^U fo leud^tet unfrr ffttd^t (Sch.). (Ck)mpare Dbglei^ e«
^a^t i% ob ed dUi(b fftad^t ifl . . *) SBad 9euerd»ut Ibm au^ geraubt, etn fiiger
Xrofl ifl ibm 0ebltebrn (id.). ^Dhittg f^rad^ cr |u 9ieine!end beflen (in favor of R.)
fo falfd^ au(b biefer befannt toar (G.). QEin ®ott ifli ein l^eiliaer SBiHe Iebt» toie att(i
ber menfd^Ii^e toanfe (Sch.). QErf&lI^ ba^on bein (>eTs, fo groS ed ifl (F. 8453).

146 OEKESAL SYITEAX — SUBORDINATE SENTENCES. [340-

9Xan lommt ind ®ercbtr tote man fi<^ inmier fltSt (G.). 2)em 96dfetoi4t »ixb oled
f(^meT, CT t^ue toad er mH (Hdltj). dtoar locig i^ viel, bo4 mdd^t^ i4 oSed loiffeit

(F. eoix

1. Mark also the form of the imperative and unb + inversion : @ti
tied) fo humm, td gibt bo<^ iemanb(en)f ber bi(^ fur tDtife ^tt. t)tx 9lcnf4 ifl frti
gefd^f en# ifl freir unb tsurbe er in 5tetten geboren (Sch.).

2. Mood : if a fact is stated, the indicative; if a sapposition, the con-
cessive and unreal subjanctive. See examples above.

8. When certain parts of speech are common to both claoses, there
may be contraction. Dbmo^l t)on ^o^^em @tamm» liebt er ba^ SSolt (Sch.).

340. Conditvyiwl clauses express a supposition npon which
the statement of the main clause will become a &ct. If the
supposition is real, the conditional clause has the indicative;
if only fancied or merely possible, the potential subjunctive;
if it implies that the contrary of the supposition is about to
happen or has happened, then it has the imreal subjunctive
of the imperfect or the pluperfect. CJonjunctions : xovxix, if;
faUd, im Sade ba§, in case that; toenn anberd, if ... at all; also
toofem, fofem (such often difficult to distinguish from a conces-
sive clause) ; toO; fo (rare). The main clause may haye ba, bann,
in bem %oXiif and if it stand second, generally begins with fo«

Ex.: SBenn ^ bie Golfer felbfl befrein, ba fann bie So^Ifal^rt ni^t gebei^n
(Sch.). SBenn bu aid Wtonxx bie SBiffenfc^aft ^erme^rfir fo fann bein <3o]^n ju ^oVrem
Biel gelangen (F. 1063). 9Ber miebe ni(4t# menn er^d umge^en fann^ bad iu§erfie
(Sch.). ©0 bu fampfefl ritterlld^, freut bein alter ®ater ft<^ (Stolberg).

1. Other forms of the conditional clause are the inverted order, the
imperative, and the normal order with benn + subjaDctive (= if . . . not,
onless ; see 336, 1). <3ei im S3e|i^e unb bu toobnft im 9{ed^t (Sdi.), Possession
is nine points of the law. !£)em Ueben ®otte tt>ei(^^ nid^t and* ftnb^fi bu i^n auf
bem Scg (Sch.).

2. SBofem ni^t, auper menn# ed fei benn baS# if not, unless, denote an ex-
ception to a statement true in general. Der SBoIf ifl ^armlodr auper menn er
hunger $at. See 336, 1.

8. Sometimes the preterit ind. is substituted for the unreal subjunc-
tive in the dependent or in the main clause or in both. Its force is

343] GSlirEaAL SYNTAX— WOBD-OBDSB. 147

assurance, certainty. %xaf eitt ^xM ncitt ®e{i4t» a4f fo ItlV i^ (!4cr ni^t
(Gleim). ^\i bicfem 9)fcil bur(^f4og i4 <Ett4» tomii i4 mein ttcM Jtinb sctrofm
^ttt (Sch.). O to4rfl btt toafr smcfen unb 0crab(f ide lam c4 ba^Uw allc4 fUtobc
anbcrd (Sch.).

4 Contracted and abbreviated forms : C^ttttoorfnt IM i|l^4 ein dtndnet
grevel; voOf&^rt ifi'd tin nnfhrbli^ Untemc^mm (Sch.). SDcmi nit^ti too ni^t,
too mofili^ are yerj common. 9Blr ocrfuc^ten i(n too m90U(( ^n bcrufigeiw tocnn
ttl^t gans &u cntfernen.

For tlie tenaes see also 276-280.

WORD-ORDER.

341. We distingnisb three principal word-orders according
to the position of subject and verb:

1. The normal, viz., subject — verb.

2. The inverted, viz., verb — subject

3. The dependent, viz., verb at the end.

(By ** Terb ** we shall nnderstand for tbe sake of brevity the personal part and by
** predicate" the non-persoDal part of the verb, yia., participle and inllnitive.)

342. The normal occurs chiefly in main sentences : !Cer
93istt tot% It is identical with the dependent order if there
is only subject and verb in the dependent clause. !Die ^ix^U
it% mil ter SBinb m%

343. The inverted order occurs both in main and depend-
ent clauses: ®e^t tit m&W ? Se^t Ux SBistt, (fo) ge^t W iDtit^Ie.
It occurs :

a. In a question.

b. In optative and imperative sentence&

c. In dependent clauses, mainly conditional and after aU +
subjunctive when there is no conjunction like mnn, t>b, etc.

d. If for any reason, generally a rhetorical one, any other
word but the subject, or if a whole clause, head the sentence.

e. For impressiveness the verb stands first
Examples with adjuncts (objects, adverbs, etc.) added:

148 GEia^ERAL 8TNTAX — ^WOBD-OEDEB. [343-

a. Sd^reibt ttt %tcmt ? SleiBt ttx Xiener ni^t lange (m^i 9Qad
firelbt tir ttx greunJ ?

Bat when the inquiry is as to the sabject the normal order stands of
course. SBer fc^reibt einen Sricf? SDad i^ bex longen 9lebc fuxitt <Btxm? (Sch.).

6. 9Ko0e nie Itt Sag crfci^einen, »«m bed tauten ^egcd Morten
tlefed jHDe Sl^al ^urd^jtoben (Sch.). For more examples, see
284, 1, 2.

But the inverted order is not required: Die 3# bet Zxe^ffta, bie er ^gt,
fei euren Xagen iugelegt ! (F. 98&-990).

c. SBidfl Dtt genau erfal^ren toad f!(!^ giemt, fo frage nur Bei etileii
grauen an (G.)- SB^'^^ JW^^ ^^ (=ir9entwo) gut aufgenommen,
ntuf man nld^t gleid^ wleterlommett (Wolff). (Sr) ®trt(^ ^auf elii
©pange, «ett' unD 3ltng\ aid »aren'd eben |)flfferHn8' ; banft' ni(%t
wenlger unb ni(]^t me^r, aU ob'd ein jlort ooD 5Riiffe war' (F. 2843-6).

Notice here the inversion after aid alone, but dependent order after
aid Ob. See 340, 1 ; also F. 1122-25, 1962-3.

Bat for emphasis and to add vividness, the normal is still possible :

2>u fiel^eft fHE, er toaxttt auf ; bu fprt(49 i^n an, er fhrebt an bit l^inauf (F. 1168-9).
This is mere parataxis.

d. Die Sotfd^a^ Pr' ^ »o^l, aDeltt mir fe^ft ber glaube (F. 765).
grnfl Ifl t)a^ Seben, ^elter ifl Die «unjl (Sch.). 9Ri(^ i^d mcin ipera
betrogen (id.). 2So abcr tin ^a^ i% t>a »erfammeln fl^ Me 2lbler (B.).
Delned ®elfled ^ab' iij elnen ^anii oerfpurt (Uh.). See also F. 860-
1, 1174-5, 1236. flberfe'^en lann Saj^Iud bied ®tmalu ni*t ^aben
(Le.). ®c)%ieben jle^t: „3m anfang »ar bad SBort'' (F. 1224).
See also 236, 3.

1. The main clause, inserted in any statement or following it, has in-
version according to this rule. Dad» fprid^t er* ifl !etn ^ufent^Ur load fotbert
^tmmelan (Sch.). 2Bte feib i^r ^am, ebler ®raf 1 (ub er »ott 9[rgUf! an (id.).
For emphasis the speaker can insert a clause uninverted : jDenn^ id^ toeig
ed, er ijl ber ®iiter bie er bereinfl erbt, »ert (H. and D., III. 53).

2. The coordinating conjunctions aber^ aEein^ bemtr nimltd^f oberr fonbemr
unb standing generally at the head of the sentence, any adverb with the
force of an elliptical sentence (ixoax, ia, etc., having generally a comma

346] OEKBRAL STirrAX— WOBD-OBDBB. 149

after them) call for no inyersion. After ntttoeber there is optioii. Ex.:
SIber bit ihm[l ^t in ben neueren Beitcn ungleii^ »clttrc (&xmtn tt^alttn (Le.).
atoax eutr fdatt ifl frauds bo4 ^tht l^r ni^t bie dtiegel (F. 671). 8finoa(r ! i^
bin ber tinsige eo^n nur (H. and D., IV. 91). 3a, stir ^t e« bet (0cifl stfast
(id., IV. 95). 2)cnn bit Sttoncr finb (eftlg (id., IV. 148).

8. When the dependent claoae precedes, the main danse can for em-
phasis and very freqnentlj colloquiallj have the normal order. Ex. :
^dtte cr bie ttrfa^en biefcd aOgemeinen 9{berglauben0 an Sb^ffpcre^d @(^dttbeltrn
and 0eru((t# or mMt {!c balb gcfunben (aben (Le.).

e. ^at Me JtSnigin tod^ itiAU t)orattd «)or tfm gemeinen Siiroenoeibe
(Sch.). ®te^en »ie Selfen bo^ atoei 9l&nner gegen einanber I (H. and
D., rV. 229). GteneraUy oontains toil*

344. The dependent order occars only iu dependent
clauses. The (danse begins with a relatiye or interrogative
prononn which may be preceded by a preposition ; with a
relatiye or interrog. adverb; or with a subordinating conjunc-
tion. Ex. : SBenn iii nid)t SUeranber toare, mo(!bte id^ »o^l Diogened
fein. 3e mebr er iot, (e me^r er wiQ (Claudius). @o jlol) idft bin,
tnu§ iii mlr felbfl gefle^en: berglei((en ^ab' id^ nie gefe^n (G.). ffiie
foIAe tiefgepr&gte SUber bo(!^ ju S^i^^n in und tWafen nnnrn, bid ein
SBort, ein Saut fie medt (Le.). See also F. 2016-18, 2062.

345. The dependent order does not occur in main clauses,
but it is not the only order of the dependent clause.

1. The yerb precedes two infinitives. One may be the past
participle of a modal auxiliary. Ex.: jtann idb t)ergeffen mle^d
^&tte fommen Knnen? (Sch.). I)af ein SDtenff!^ bod^ einen SDtenfd^en
fo loerlegen foO mai^m Ibnnen! (Le.).

a. Bat in this case and in other compound tenses the ** verb " (t. e., the
personal part) may also stand between the participle and the other aux-
iliary or the infinitive, e. g,, mcil ber Jtaufmann bad ^au^ fofl gefauft b^ben or
gefottft feU baben (in poetry), ^efauft (aben foS is the common order.

2. The normal order may stand:

L In dependent clauses containing indirect speech. Sr

160 GENERAL SYNTAX — WOBD-OBDBB. [346-

^lavM, ©^atfpere l^aBe Snttud pan ^eben bed ©tuded ma^en moQen
(Le.).

2. In certain danses with negative force containing an
enditio „Unn": ed fei teitn ta§+ dependent order. See 336.

3. In snbstantiye clanses : ®ott »fi§; iii Un nid^t fc^ub
(Le.). This is mere parataxis without conjunction.

346. The auxiliaries l^aben and ffin are also frequently
dropped in dependent clauses to avoid an accumulation of
verbal forms, both in prose and poetry. Leasing, Goethe,
and KJopstock, especially the first, drop the auxiliary very
freely and skillfully.

Ex.: 9Qie itnkgreifli(!^ idj t>on i^m beleiDigt toorDen (supply Mn
here or before beleitigt) imt noif mttt (Le.). 3RogUd}, ba^ t^er
Sater Me SprantteH ted einen Slingd ni(!^t langer in feinem ipaufe
(supply ^at) tnlltn »oUen (id.).

347. The dependent order in main danses is aicluiic and poetic.
Ex. : Siegfricb bm jammer tDo^l [(^wingcit fumtt (dialect for fonnte) (UK).
Ura^ne, ®xciwatttt, 9Ruttcr nnb Stw^ in bumpfer <Stnbe Mfammm finb (Schwab).

348. 1. The inyerted order in the conditional clante and in a main clause for the

sake of impressiveness has sprang from the order of the question. Compare, for
instance: 1. 3fl bet ^resiib treu 7 (question), ft, 3ft t>tt Srrcunb treu ? (qnestion). Ont,
fo »irb et mir betfle^en. 8. 3|i bet ^rennb treu (conditional danse), fo tvitb et mit bei^^en.
4. 3|i mit bet ^Tcvnb boA tren geMleben 1 (impreesiye inrersion).

S. The main danse has inyersion when the dependent dause precedes, because it
generally begins with an adverb like fo, bann, etc ®el^fl bu nt^t, fo t^nfi bu Unxe^t
Without fo, the inversion really ceases. Hence we say, the normal order may still
stand tor emphasis. But fo, etc., were so frequent that inversion became the rule.
Inyersion is therefore limited originally to the qnestion and to the choice of placing
the emphatic part of the sentence where it wlU be most prominent.

848. 1. The dependent order was in O. H. Q. by no means limited to the dependent
dause. Toward the 10th century it begins to become rarer in the main clause. In
early M. H. O. it became limited to the dependent clause, so that now we may justly
call it the " deprndeat-dauM ofder."

3. The verb at the end is, no doubt, a great blemish of German style— second only
to the separation of the little prefix of separable compound verbs, which may turn up
after many intervening parts at the close of the sentence. According to DdbrOck, the
dependent order-HBubject, object, verb— was the primitive one, still in Ibrce in Latin.

362] GENERAL SYNTAX — WOBD-OBDER. 151

GEiinEBAL Bulbs fob the Ordeb or other Parts or the
Sentence besides Subject and Yebb.

PoBition of the Predicate.

350. The predicate, be it an adjective, a substantive, par-
ticiple, infinitive, or separable prefix of a compound verb or
the first element of a loosely compounded verb, stands at the
end of a main danse in a simple tense. The adjuncts of the
predicate, such as objects, adverbs, stand between verb and
predicate.

Ex.: Der ©enne muf fd)cltett,t)cr ©ommer Ijl ^n (Sch.). y^i fcit
eltt SRelfler (id.). Sr ^at t>erlor^ne SBorte nur gefprod^en (id.). Xtin
€d)U^ flng titefen SRorbflre^ auf (id.). Straflofe gred^^eit fprid^t Un
©itten ipo^n (id.). ®eflem \ant tin SQagner^^&once'rt flatt

In the dependent clause onlj the verb changes position, subject and
predicate remain as in the main clause, and the adjuncts stand between
them. For instance : ®lanbt bad nid^t 1 3$r »erbet biefcd J(ampfcd (£nbe nisi"
mer txUidtn (Sch.), becomes ®Iattbtni4t# bag i(tbiefc0 StaxmpfU (£nbeic crMitfen
toerbet.

351. In the compound tense the separable prefix immedi-
ately precedes the participle, be it in a main or in a dependent
clause. Drei§ig ^oi^xt ^abtn »ir ^ufammen avi^tUbt itnb audge^altm
(Sch.). Die S^olera toiQ (is about to) ii'ber^anl nel^men*

Order of Objects and Cases.

352. a. Case of a person before a case of the thing, ^itx
anil nodb bamt * * * fui^r ler jtaifer fort, ben @tanben ttn Srieben gu
jeigen (Sch.).

6. Case of a pronoun before a noun, ^an Betlimmte fie
(them) bem aKgemeinen UnmiOen ^ixm Dpfer (Sch.).

c. The dative stands before the accusative; if both are per-
sons, the accusative may stand before the dative. Sr feI6|l
l^otte bem Dienfie biefed ^aufed feine erflen Sebafige getoibmet (Sch.).

152 GENEBAL SYKTAX — ^WOBD-OBDEB. [853-

d. The accusative-object stands before remoter objects, a
genitive or a preposition + case. But see also a. Wlan mbd^e
fagen, Soltaire ^obe ein ®efii^I \>on r>tt SBid^tigleit biefer ^tt^n\x&/ttit
0e^a6t (H. Grimm). £{e ©(i^ttlerin fd^riei einen Sluffa^ fiber Un
SClttter*

e. As to pronouns, fidb stands generally before t9, and both
before every other pronoun. The personal pronoun stands
before the demonstrative. The personal and fjiii may stand
before the subject, if it be a noun, in the inverted and depend-
ent orders. Sr ^ot fl(^ ed ongeeignet. jtrummau (a proper name)
na^ert fid) i^m (Sch.). SBer tarf fi(^ fo tttoca trlauben ? 3enem ten
SBeg 3u t)em bomifd»en S^rone git s>erfd)(te§eit, ergrijf man tie Sajfen
fc^on unter Wlatt^a^ (Sch.). SQad i^m Me t)ersr5ferte 9Rad^ ter
@tante (estates) an (SelbfU^otigfeit no(!^ fibrig lief, (ielten feine
SSgnaten (relatives) unter einem [(i^iinpflid^n B^^^d (^^)- '^^^ P<^
tie glotte ergeben ? $a|l tu ed i^m mieter it^tbtn ?

1. 6 also includes the personal pronoons : SBte fotmt^ id^ o^ne dcugett mill
i^r na^n ? (Sch.). The rales a, e, d are by no means strict.

353. For the position of the acljectiye, see the use of the
adjective, 194, 212. Notice that what depends upon an
adjective, participle, or infinitive precedes them. I)ie Sng^
lanter fint il^rem iperrfd^er^aufe ergeben. S^m ®e^en geboren, ^um
@d}auen befleitt; tern Surme gef(!^»oren, gefaKt mir tie SBelt (O.).
SBir baten i^n, ten Srief auf tie |)ojl gu geben. (@^al|>ere^« SJerle
fint) feine £ngentle^ren, in XapM gebrad^t unt tur(!^ tetente dv^mptl
erliintert (Le.).

Position of Adverbs.

354. In general, adverbs stand before the words they
qualify. The modal adverbs nid^t, ctnoa, imax, fc^on, tool, etc,
and ibe adverbs of time immer, ftibon, Itijt, nit, nimmer stand
generally immediately before the predicate or in place of it if
there is none. Died 9i(tni§ ifl bejaubemt fd^&n (Mozart's S^^^t^

368] OEKEBAL SYKTAX — WOBD-OBDSB. 153

f[5te). (Silt fel^r l^eftiget ^uflen greift ttn jtronlen {latl am Dad
fAtoere .^era toirt nidbt tttt(^ SBorte lei(i6t (Sch.). @d^on )9iele Xage
feV i<% ed fd^weigent an (id.). 3(6 ^a(e eud^ tio(^ nie ertannt (B.).
^aft ttt i^n nod^ nid^t (efud[}t ? (Notice the opposite of the Eng-
lish order in "never yet^** "not yet")

355. An adverb of time stands before one of place, and
both before one of manner. Ex.: Stele Sauem toaxm geflent
nail t>tx Statit au SDtarfte gefa^ten* 9Bir fal^ren morgen per Sifenbal^n
stad^ 9lu^oI{lat)t @d tangt fid) auf tiefem glatten 5u§(oDen nic^ fe^r gut*

1. Of several adverbs of time or place the more general precede the
more spedfic. Sir reifen morgen frit^ urn 6 tt^r 59 S^iimten ab, ^cr 9oIiiifl
fanb ben Setrunfenen auf ber Sa^rfhage im Drttfe liegrn.

2. Adverbs of time precede objects when these are noiuui, bat pro-
noons precede all adverbs. 9Bir ftiern f>aVb ben 4ten SitUr ben Sag ber UnaB"
^dndidfeit^erflfirung* SBir (offen i^n morgen auf bent JBaJ^nfofe in treffen.

356. Only aber, n&mlid^, ietod^, and a few others, can sepa-
rate subject and verb. Ex. : Der Sftid^ter aber fprad^ (Le.). £)ie
9lad^ti0an jie^odb flngt munDerfc^bn.

357. As to the position of the prepositions, they, with very
few exceptions, precede the noun \ when they follow the noun
has been stated under Prepositions. See, for instance, 303,
7, 8, 10.

Position of Clauses.

358. Dependent clauses have, in general, the positions of
those parts of speech and of the sentence which they repre-
sent, t. 6., the substantive clause standing for the subject or
object has the position of the subject or the object in the sen-
tence, etc. No special rules are needed for them. When
there are several dependent clauses, the last often takes for
variety the normal order introduced by unb.

The following examples show well-placed dependent clauses : Sttin

i^aifer Yanni toad nnfer iflf «erf(l||en!en (Sch.). )S}er|Iegelt ^V idfi^d nnb verbrie^^

164 GENEBAL SYNTAX — WOBD-OBDER. [359-

ba$ CT mdn guttr (Engd ifl (id.). Die (£ix\ bie Hm gcbfirt, geb^ i(( t^m gtrn; bad
8tci^t bad CT |i<^ nlnuitt, venoeigr^ 14 i^ (id.). 9ld k^ lunger max, Ivtbtt i4 ni^td
fo fc^Tr aU aioma'iK (novels) (G.). dti^eUeu tougte {!(( babut^ p ^Ifcn, bap er
ben 9(inbfeltdfeUat itpifc^n beiben ein fcblemtiged Snbe mic^t (Sch.). ^ein gnter
®eijl bctoa^rte mi(^ ba^or^ bie Scatter an ben 8itfeii mir ju legen (mir before bit
fftatttt in proee) (id.). Der 9Venf4 bege$rt« aSed an {i4 }u reifen (G.). SBie
0lit(f li(^ i|l bet, btTr urn fi^ mit bem S^ift^al in (Einigfeit in fe^n^ ni^^t fein gonjed
voT^eTdctenbed £eben toegiuioctfen bran^t (id.).

859. The rales giTen can hardly be ahetncted from poetry. Bven in proee fhey
will be found freqaently Infringed. Bhyfhm, rhyme, and, in proee, emphasis control the
order of words and allow of much choice. Bat stadents translating into Qerman should
adhere to the rales yery strictly. It win be noticed that tlie Geraian woid-order coin-
cides very nearly with the old BngUsh, and does not diifer after an so mnch ftt>m the
modern English word-order. The chief points of difference are the dependent order,
the position of .adrerbs of time, which in English stand generaUy at the end, and the
position of the adjmicts of ad jectiyes, participles, and inflnitiyes, wliidi precede the
latter instead of foUowing th«n as in Boglish.

1. The word-order required by certain conjnnctions has been fteqnently mentloDed
in the Gkneial Syntax. See, for instance, 820.

SECOND PART.

ADVANCED GRAMMAR

FIRST SECTION,

OONTAININa PHONOLOGY, HISTORICAL COMMENTART

ON THE ACCIDENCE. HISTORT OF

THE LANaUAQE.

861] PHOKOLOQY. 167

A. PHONOLOaY.

Hifltorioal Notes on the Orthography.

860« The letters used in Ctonnanj are the strongly modified Latin
(Roman), called ** Gothic/' in rogue all over Europe during the later
Middle Ages, when printing was invented. Ctermanj is the only nation
of the first rank which retains them, and for this reason they may he
justly called " German " now. In Denmark, Sweden and Norway they
are also still in use to a certain extent. Italy, France, England and
Holland abandoned the ugly ** Gothic*' alphabet very early and returned
to the Roman. The German people and the more conservatiye among
the scholars make the retention of the "German" letters a matter of
patriotism.

1. An edition of Schiller in Latin type mined a Leipzig publisher twenty years ago.
Yet in tlie 18tli century mucli literature was printed in Latin type. It is an interesting
fiict, stated by a correspondent of the "EvetUng Pott^" of New York, that the first
German book published in America was printed In Latin type by Bei^amln Franklin.
It was a sectarian hymn-book, " Matft ZiOM."

2. Nearly all German scientific books are printed in Ij. type to-day,
because all scholars and dvilized nations that would read such books are
accustomed to this type. Qrimm advocated it strongly and had all his
books printed in it. KobergteirCs Literaturgeachichte ; Bauer^B^ Eraus^n,
and WUrfumnff grammars are printed in it. That G. type was not ban-
ished from the schools by the new "Rules" is due to the personal
prejudice of the Chancellor of the German Empire, who, not long ago,
when a publisher sent to him a book in Latin type, returned it, because
it was more troublesome for him to read than German type.

8. Qerman children therefore still continue to learn to read eight alphabets and to
write in four, viz., capital and small Latin script, and capital and small German script.
In the Swiss schools German type and script have just been given up. The Latin type
and script seem bound to prevail in Germany before very long.

861. The German alphabet represents the sounds of the language
more adequately than the EngUsh does the English sounds, but that is
not saying much. In no living language do the signs keep step with the
sounds ; they are always behind, nowhere more so than in English. But

158 PHOHOLOGY. [362-

in German also are seyeral signs for the same sound and one GOgn may
have to stand for several sounds. For instance, <| in mCuSi^ and ^iH^," n in
fanfr fattb, fang/ denote different sounds ; ^, f» ffr f stand for the same sound ;
also & (short) and e. The long vowel is indicated bj doabling in ^aal, Sootr
S3eet; by 1^ in SBa^U SBo^I, SBe^, and not at all in 8u4, dui, ^uU And yet,
while German spells more phonetically than English, its standard of
spelling is as uncertain as the English, if not more so.

1. In 1876 an orthographical confwence was caUed at Berlin, which was to diflcass
certain modifications and propositions aiming at miiformity, laid before them by
R. yon Raamer. They met and agreed upon certain rules, which proved, however,
unacceptable both to the government and the public.

2. In 1879 and 1880 the various governments in Germany took the
matter in band and prescribed the spelling to be followed in their schools.
Thus we have Prussian, Bavarian, Saxon, Austrian rules, but they vary
very little. The kingdom of Wiirtemberg alone, with true Suabian
tenacity, still clings to the old spellings. Some seven millions of chil-
dren, therefore, now have to learn spelling according to these official
rules. All new books introduced must be spelt according to them.
Influential Journals and periodicals have taken up the matter. The
excellent new edition of the classics now appearing in CoUa's '* BibUathek
der WeUlUeratur" is spelt accordingly. While these "Rules" leave
much to be wished for, yet no one can deny that some of them are a
great step in advance. They change the spelling abont as much as the
five rules for modified spellings of the American Spelling Reform Asso-
ciation would change English spelling. This grammar is spelt accord-
ing to the rules. We shall not give them, since they can be so easily
obtained. For title of the speller, see 37.

A few explanatory remarks are given on certain points.
362. TTmlaut signs.

Of the numerous signs in M. H. G. only two are left, viz., e after and *
over the vowel ; e is to be discarded now entirely even with capitals, after
which it was generally put. Umlaut of a was always t, not to be con-
founded with S, which is old e. In N. H. G. & has been put for e in words
whose connection with words containing a was transparent. SSattt, pL
a^^terr but better; alt, alter, but (Eltem; 9Ramu Wl&xmtt, but S^enfi^.

1. Dictionaries and encyclopedias often pnt &, & after ah, 9(b, which is very annoy-
ing. Unfortunately none of the nmlaats have a fixed place in the alphabet. They
stand generally mixed up with a, o, n.

364] PHOKOLOOT. 159

2. i was aCf i, a in M. H. Q. I was mtelj marked ; } was otyOB, I ;
fir also frequentlj not marked, was it ue« ft, ft. The stroke over «i» is the
remnant of o over Ur which stood for the diphthong a*. This became 8
in N. H. G. (see 488, 4), hence the stroke.

363. On the marki to show length.

1. M. H. G. it > {, but the sign it of the old diphthong remained and
was put also where i was lengthened as in kil > ^iel* spil > ®p{e(.

2. <^ was used as a sign of length for several reasons. 1. It became
silent as in %t^n, S^m&lftx, ^tfftn, gcbei^* It stands frequently now, where
an old i or » was dropped, as in (Ifi^, fftnl^t, bro^ Jhi(» Btxoff, but it
is not pronounced. The preceding rowel was long originally, or became
long according to the general yowel-lengthening. See 488,2. 2. O.H.G.
th (= Eng. th) passed into d. This sign after the sound had changed
appears still in the M. G. of the 12th and in the succeeding centuries,
and stands not only for b but also for t.

8. Since the 15th century many MSS. have regularly t( for t, and this
t$ was used indiscriminately whether the vowel after or before it was
long or short, when printing was invented. In the 16th and 17th centu-
ries 4 ^As ^^^ frequent. Whether the breath-glide (aspiration) after t
was then pronounced, and if so, whether it was appreciated and expressed
by ^r is a question. Paid thinks this was the case. It would then be a
development parallel to the Eng. t in teh for eh {= tsh). Certain it is
that ( after t was no ** d^nunga-}^ " originally. In Sirtf and ZffVixm, still
in vogue, in older t^osme (= Zcamt), tMf4 (= 2:if4)' d<^Tt(tn (= ®axttn), ^
could not be " dehnungi-ff,*' The grammarians of the 17th and 18th cen-
turies began to consider it a dehnungs-f and tried to limit its use. It has
lost ground with every coming generation, and it is a pity that the offi-
cial spelling does not abolish it entirely.

4. The doubling of vowels is the oldest method to show length. XL, i,
and the umlauts are never doubled.

364. The use of initial capitals.

This is a self-imposed task of great difficulty and mSit^h^ln^tn*" In
the MSS. capitals were only used for the beginning of a paragraph,
sometimes of each line ; so also in the early printed books, in which the
capitals were added by hand. In 1529 KolroM prescribed capitals for
the beginning of every sentence, for proper names, for irQ^ott* and n^txt"

160 PHONOLOGY— THE TOWELS. [366-

(Lord), as be sajs m®ott itt mm nvb rei»erent|»« Soon capitals spread over
appellatives, then over neuter noons, and then over the abstract. In the
17th centory every noun and any part of speech that could possibly be
construed as such got a capital. English can boast of some superfluous
capitals in the names of the months, days of the week, points of the
compass, adjectives derived from proper nouns, but German carries off
the palm among the languages of civilized nations. The official speUing
reduces capitals considerably.

366. The spelling of foreign words is in a hopeless muddle. There
is no system and no rule. All that can be said is that there is a prefer-
ence of one spelling over the other. The official spelling leaves much
liberty.

ANALYSIS AND DESCRIPTION OF GERMAN SOUNDa

866. In Part I. we have treated of the alphabet and the pronnndation of the letters
in the traditional way. But this way is qaite nnscientiflc and is barely sufficient to stut
the student in reading. To describe the sonnds of a language, however, is not an easy
matter. If the instmctor were acqaainted with the Bell-Sweet system as presented in
Sweet^s ** Handbook of Phonetics," Oxford, 1877 and in Sweet's '* Soond-Notation,**
the matter wonld be comparatively easy and might be disposed of within small space.
The system analyzes the vowels as well as the consonants aocording to the position of
the organs, for nothing is more delusive than to ** catch " vowels by the sound alone
as is generally done. Sweeps Hdbk. gives specimens of German, Fren<^, English,
Dutch, Danish, Icelandic, and Swedish, transcribed in Latin type, and if the student
have a little perseverance, these transcriptions will be a great help to him in learning
to pronounce any of the above languages.

The system nses none of those big Latin terms, which hide a nmltltade of inaccu-
racies and which are so much affected by philologians.

The Vowels.

367. 1. The most tangible quality of vowels is " round-
ness," produced by the rounding of the mouth-cavity in that
region where the vowel is made. Pronounce le of Siene, round
it and you have & of ©u^ne* Pronounce e of Sccte, and round
it and you have 5 of 335te. Pronounce a of gaiter, round it and
you have o of goiter. In o is very little lip-rounding (labializa-
tion), but mostly cheek or inner rounding.

2. The second, but less palpable quality, of vowels is " nar-
rowness." Its opposite is " wideness." A vowel is " narrow

n

868] PHOKOLOOT— THE VOWELS. 161

by fhe convexity of the tongae cansed by a certain tenseness
in it. It is " wide " when the tongue lies flat and relaxed.
This is the difference between t of Siene and t of Mn, between
long it of SRii^Ie and short it of SRitUer, between o of @o^Ie and
of fotl, between the Eng. yowels of ''mare" and ''man/'
" sought" and *' sot"

8. The third important element in producing yowels is the
position of the tongue. Two positions should be distin-
guished, the yertical (height) and horizontal (forwardness or
retraction). In each we distinguish three grades, viz., " high,"
"mid," and "low" ; "back," "mixed," and "front." In the
Towels of „UeflV' „2i(i^t," ,,iagt/' „2fl(Ie" the tongue is " high " and
" front " ; in the vowels of ,,9ud}'' and „Sud^t'' the tongue is
"high" but "back." The table on next page shows the rela-
tion of the German vowels to each other and also to the
English Towels.

Key-words for Vowels.

We give below some more key-words, some hints as to acquiring the
BoiindB and some of the dialect-variations in pronunciation.

High Vowels.

368. 1. n (high-back-narrow round) is only long. Ex.:
t)ut, Su^, Slu^e, U^u. Short it is rare in S. G. TOutter, gutter.
Since u < t40, the second element still appears in S. O. as eh
(in ®aU), but this pronunciation is not classical See Hart's
Ooethe's prose^ p. 40. Identical with Eng. oo in too, booi
Its length is either unmarked or indicated by 1^, e. g., Sud),
^u^n, tl^un. It is never doubled.

2. u (high-back-wide-round) is identical with Eng. u in
'"full," but for a stronger labilization in O. Ex.: iDlutter,
i^unger, ®prud^. It is always short The ik pronounced by the
extreme N. G. is rather like Eng. lu

162

PHONOLOGY— THE VOWELS.

P

^ «2

1

1

3

i-s

Ti-'

•2 ©

i^-

"^f^

■gS"

1

1

H

•g

if

.4

S

^11

>i

II

O -

P

o
p

•8

-a.

I"

•8

H '^

1

MO

I

as

I

•d

a

o

I

o

I

o

1-9

Of c S

H

1

OH

8

18

to

3

'2

a®

o

^d

8

3

h

Q

o

"A

go

3^

a e t:

I

1

1

•a

3 H

1 «^

o

8

I
1

o

I

o

869] PHOKOLOGY — THE TOWELS. 168

8. 7 (high-front-narrow round). This differs from u by
having the tongae-position of i, that is, it is high-front^ instead
of high-back. Ex.: (titen, gti^tn, Sii§e. Long all over Oer-
many, but diphthongal in S. O. ,,®ute" = „®flete/' which, like
ue for % is not classical, though old. M. and S. O. rounding
of tt is not so emphatic as N. O., so that ii sounds more like i.
Its length is sometimes shown by 1), oftener unmarked. Ex.:

4. y (high-front-wide-round). This is N. G. short ii in
^iitte, %li\ft, etc. S. O. short fl is only slightly rounded and
rather the short of their long narrow &, and therefore itself
narrow. Extreme N. O. it (in Bremen, Holstein, etc.) is rather
'' mixed ** than front The first ii (N. G., Hanover) is das-
sicaL

In the alphabet the ft-umlants are represented by ft, ^, and 9/ as in
9fltfte (short), 9)Pi^( Qong), aX^rte, Sv'rif.

369. 1. i (high-front-narrow). The same all over Ger-
many. Ex.: @ieg, ntir, "oUx, f!et)* Before final / and r it is
slightly diphthongal, showing a ''vanish" or ''glide'' before
the consonant Siel, ^itt are not fil, fir, but, marking the
voice-glide by ^, fiy^l, fiy^r. (See Sweet's Hdbk., p. 133.)
Always long. It is represented by i, i!^, ie^, but generally ie«
Ex. : 2Rlr, i^r, Sier, jHe^tt.

2. t (high-front-wide). Peculiar to Hanover and M. G., as
in (in, SBin^, Jtinb* The strict Low Germans of Holstein,
Hamburg, Bremen lower this i toward e as in Eng., making it
e^, so that their jtiitb sounds much like kent. In S. G. neither
{ occurs. For it the medium long narrow i is substituted.
Hence a S. G. pronunciation of Eng. little sounds like '^ leetle,"
while a N. G. has no difficulty with it. The wide { of Hanover
and M. Germany may be considered dassicaL Always short.
It is represented by i; by ie in ^ittiif^n, ))ier)ig, generally also in

164 PHOKOLOGY— THE VOWELS. [870-

Mm Vowels.

370. 1. o (mid-back-narrow-roTind). The regular Gterman
o of (Bo^n, Z^xcn, ^of. d is S. G., as in !)offen, ic&i, to^. o is
represented by o, o^, oo. Ex.: ^on^, toof^ntn, Soot.

2. o (mid-back-wide-ronnd). ^ of M. and N. G., where S. O.
has the narrow 6. Ex. : @omte, toO, @to(!. This and 5 are per-
haps the most difficult vowels for Eng. speakers. Do not
lower 6 to low-back, making it like Eng. o of stock, not. Eng.
o is equally hard for N. G., as they too feel that the effect upon
the ear is much the same, and they do not readily appreciate
the difference in articulation.

The o-amlaat has very different shades in different parts of the coon-
try. The S. G. 0, whether long or short, is narrow (more *' dose ")•
The N. G. is wide (more " open ").

3. o (mid-front-narrow round) is both long and short in
S. G. Long 5 in b^c, lofen, ®oet^e ; short 5 in Hbdiftx, Jtod^er,
@t5cle« S. G. 5 is identical with Er. eu in/eu.

4. 9 (mid-front-wide -round) is long and short in N. G.
Long 5 in fdjoii, 9)l5t)e, 85»f ; short 5 in ®6tter, ©potter, ©tonfte.
Do not confound 5 with the vowels of Eng. bust, bird. The
o-umlauts are represented by 5 and 5^ ; by tu in French words:
Souleu'r.

Popularly speaking, S. G. 6 is closer than N. G. 6. To acquire the soond It Is beet
to start with 6 as in ^beete" and contract the month comers, in which the roonding
mainly consists in this vowel, and „^btt" will hare to result. In ft the rounding is
mainly in the lips (Ifthlalization).

In Berlin and M. Q. there is a provincial pronunciation of 5 which sounds very much
like 6. It is caused by imperfect rounding and is by no means to be imitated.

371. 1. e (mid-front narrow) is easily produced. But guard
against diphthongi2ang and widening it as in Eng. may, I>aid9
pate. Ex. : Seet, toth, 3;^ee, Ste^. Pure Er. and G. narrow e
sounds as if it were out off short, and so it really is compared
with Eng. ei in say. Signs are tf^, ee. Always long.

372] PHONOLOGY — ^THB VOWBIA 166

2. 6 (mid-front wide) is the common short e in Eng. and G.
Ex.: 2Renf(i^, menu, 3ett(fl)*

9 («i) is slightly lowered toward the Eng. vowels of man, mare ; for
instance, St&\t, i^Te# tP^rt. Complete lowering to the Eng. yowel is pro-
vincial. Signs, t, <r &(} loenbeiw •fr^ntti 3Rd(r. Distingaish therefore:

3. eh (mid-mixed-narrow) is unaccented e and distinct from
** long " and ** short " e. It is more closely related to the Eng.
"neutral" vowels of " cut" and "cur" than to any German
voweL Ex.: trage, glaube, ®etr&nl, getvettet*

4. a (mid-back-wide). This has various sounds. In the
city of Hanover a is almost fully lowered to low-back. It
sounds affected. The average G. a is almost identical with
the a of Eng. father, only the latter, as I have frequently heard
it, has the slightest trace of rounding.

The Austrian long d has a very " deep " hollow soand. It is distinctly
rounded and lowered, and is either low-mixed or low-fh)nt-wide-round.
Signs, a, aa, al^i Sage, ^Baal, SBa^I.

DlPHTHONQS.

372. There are three of these, in which both elements are
short and by no means the same throughout Germany.

1. The first is represented by ei and at in the alphabet.
The value of the signs is the same in N. G. and is de\ Its first
element is not fully retracted and is exactly identical with the
first element of Eog. ''long" i. In S. G. the second element
is clearly raised and even narrowed I, and is better repre-
sented by ai. The first element of S. G. at is clearly mid-back.
(See Sweet's Hdbk., p. 133.)

2. The second diphthong, spelt an, is composed of a and o
(short wide o) = ao, certainly in S. G. In N. G. the second
element is, in my opinion, mid-mixed narrow-round, t.6., the
e of ®ait rounded.

166 PHOKOLOGT— THB OOHrSOKAlSTTS. [873-

3. The third diphthong, spelt tu, an, rarely oi, is oe' {e' = e
raised towards i) in N. G. and oi in S. O., e. g., %ttmt, ®el&ute«
The former is classical Any approach of tu towards ei is pro-
Yincial and not elegant.

373. Oeneral Bemarks on the Vowels. There are thirteen
Yowels, counting either N. G. or S. G. b and not counting &
lowered mid-front. There are no ^ low " vowels in G. at all
as in Eng. naught, not, snare, err, bag. All £ng. long vowels
tend toward diphthongization, as in say, so, saw. The German
vowels are pure single sounds and seem to an Eng. ear cut off
short, (Bit, fo. Er. and G. vowels are alike in this respect
They are strictly narrow. While German has no low-back-
round vowels (saw^ sot), the front-rounding is very emphatic^
and the back-vowels are very fully back, yielding a fall
sonorous tone. See Sweety p. 132.

The Consonants.
Open Coitsonants.

374. 1. H (throat-open-surd) is the same in Eng. and G.
It has always the articulation of the following vowel, and
might be called therefore a surd vowel. Ex.: ^at, $ut, ^ier,

Sign : ](. A ^ not initial is always silent, e. g., gefeni fie^t# tlftxtu ifat^ber.

2. R (throat-open-sonant) is strongly " guttural," and the
provincial N. G. pronunciation of r, r^, e. g», in Stegett, Sieger,
SSr, gurc^^e.

For the regular, classical r (divided) see 377.

375. 1. kh (back-open-surd) is the surd guttural spirant
after back vowels, viz., a, d, u, H, o, i.

Sign : ($. Ex.: Sod^, 9)?a($ti tDad^etti a3u(!^i 9au($. This is the Sc. eh, as
in lock. After a» finally and before a consonant, it is more easily acquired
than after u and before a front vowel. In S. G. dialect this is the only
cl^-Bonnd, the front d^ being unknown there.

376]

PHONOLOGY— THB COK80KAKT8.

167

^ * ST "
g.3 to Si

9

f

M

fff

S

I"

Said.

» ttf

Sonant

5 Q^

£S

Sard.

I

E

Bonftnt.

S B' Surd.

S «* fc*

Sonant.

1*9

o
a

Surd.

9.

* 0*

ts'P

Sonant.

P

Sard.

fg'

Sonant.

|P-

Said.

^

Pi

OS*

Sonant.

a "^

Sard.

Sonant.

I qpap I

Sard.

BBLh

Q

«

5»f o*

p^5

Sonant.

a

Sard.

*.W^

Sonant.

a •^

Sard.

wajg

O^

Sonant.

S

§

168 PHONOLOGY — ^THE CONSONANTS. [877-

2. jh (froni-open-snrd) is sometimes called the " palatal-
guttural." It stands after the front (palatal) vowels (i. e., after
all vowels except a, o, u), including the diphthongs, at ei, eu an,
and always in the suffix -dben, Ex.: 34r ^^^t ^VL&itx, mSdjte, fei<l^t

3. The sonants corresponding to kh and jh are gh andj ;
gh stands after back vowels, y after front vowels and initially.
Ex. : SSoge, 3w0e ; S^tQt, ©lege, luflen, Je, Jaflen, bSge. But gh for
g (back-shut-sonant) in this position, though very common, is
not classicaL

4. In the alphabet these foar soands are represented as follows :

kh hy ^ after back vowels, as above ; by final g in N. G. after back
yowels, not counting consonant suffixes, e. g., Za^ Qa^ bogfl, n>agt» Sagb*
See d^9, 383.

jh by cb after front vowels and consonants ; always in -^tn no matter
what precede. Ex. : 2x^t, %ux^, ^tox^t S^tcib^en, ^amaH^tn, loL^^ttn, ta^,
9RoI(^, ^xl^. See (b«, 383. Also by g final or at the end of a syllable in
N. G. after front vowels and consonants, not counting consonant suffixes.
(S^fflgf tcoUi^, lugflf Uegti fegneitr (egfl. Also by initial df in forei^ words
before front vowels, e. g., (S^b^mi'e» (£b^Tub» ^%\vi'x%. See also 383. Do
not confound this sound with ^ + j ( = y) in Eng. huge, hue.

gh by medial g after back vowels, e. g,, fiagei Sogm. See sub 3.

j by medial g after front vowels, liegenr Bntgtr gut^ger. But this sound
of g is provincial even in N. G. and the "hard" one (= shut, stop) is
preferable.

Regularly by j initial. In N. G. a strong friction (buzz) is heard as in
Eng. ye, yew. Ex.: 3flgtr, jung. S. G. j is a mere t, jc = te, jung = iung.
The latter is, no doubt, the better pronunciation. I have heard even a
regular Eng. j (= dzh) in Bremen.

5. Sweet, I believe, was the first to notice a slight labial element after
Hi when preceded by u and wx, indicated by w. Hence (Uid^ = aokhm.
See 378.

377. r (point-open-sonant) is the classical r of M. and
S. G. Eng. r is rather "blade " (dorsal) than "point."

Popularly speaking, Eng. r is ** rolled," G. r is trilled. The effect
upon the ear is very different in the two r's, though their articulation is
not so dissimilar. See Sweet, § 109 and p. 134.

a78] PHOKOLOQY — ^IHB COKSOKAITrS. 169

378. 8, z, sh, zh (blade and blade-point) form a group of
** sibilants " closely related to each other and to Eng. Ih, dh
(point-teeth). They are very mach alike in Eng. and G., and
no description is needed to acquire the Oerman. (For the
different varieties see Sievers' Phonetik, § 15, 2, and Sweet's
Hdbk., p. 39.) The N. O. sounds are more forward than the
S. G. and Eng. Eng. th is farthest forward (point-teeth), then
8, and then shy on the palate. In th the current of air passes
over the *' point" (tip of the tongue), in s over the *' blade''
which is back of the point, and in sh over blade and point,
presenting more tongue-surface. In the G. sounds a slight
labialization is noticeable, marked by Sweet shw. It consists
in a slight contraction of the mouth comers.

1. 8 (blade-surd) is represented by various letters of the
alphabet (except in N. G.), viz., by f, d, f, ff. Ex.: foQ, $au0,
gluf , SEaflfer.

2. z (blade-sonant) by medial and initial f, peculiar to N. G.,
as in lefen, rafen. Initial f begins surd, marked by Sweet s^, as
in s^cly but ends sona^^t. The standard is hardly fixed in
favor of B or z. $ee 391, 4.

3. 8h (blade-point-surd) by fd) and f in the initial ^, fp of
S. and M. G., as in ©d^langc, ©djlnfen, wafdjcn, ©tabt, Sprac^^e.
The first word would be = shwlaqe. By d) in foreign words,
S^ampa'gner, (E^tta'ne. See 375, 4. On {I, fp also 389, 4.

4 zh (blade-point-sonant) occurs only in foreign words;
by 9 in (Efcarflc, Oage, f>afle, io^t, ©en^Darm. = J in 3ournal. In
ioi9ia( t = j and frequently I in 3ournaI = dzh, Eng. j. Com-
pare Eng. azure, crosier, glacier.

379. bh (lip-sonant) is the S. and M. G. to, pronounced
with the lips only. Blow to cool which would be surd bh and
then intonate the breath (Sweet, p. 41). Do not confound
with Eng. w, in which the back of the tongue is raised and

170 PHONOLOGY — ^THE CONSONANTS. [380-

the cheeks are narrowed. S. G. tt) is less consonantal than
Eng. w.

380. f (lip-teeth-sard), v (lip-teeth-sonant). The above
sounds are " labio-labiaL"* These are labio-dental. The pas-
sage is formed by the lower lip and npper teeth.

1. f is represented by f, 19, as in ^afet, faul, @clai9e, Sret)el,
9len), 5>af|!tt, 2«)foie; by p^ in foreign words : |)5iIologie. For
))f see 389, 1.

2. V is represented by to in N. G., like Eng. and Fr. v but
less energetically buzzed. Ex.: Sagen, Sbtoe, ©AtDefier* After
\il, however, to is often made labio-labial in N. G., as well as
in M. and S. G. The pronunciation of as 6/1 or v between
vowels is hardly classical, for instance, greocl = frevd or
frd)heL By initial in foreign words, as in Sala'ttg, Safe,

381. German I# tr bf n differ somewhat from the Eng. The place of
contact (on the palate) in the G. sotrnds is mnch more forward than in
the Eng. and the " point " of the tongue is used in the former while the
"hlade" is used in the latter. Eng. ** weil" is the shihholeth of the
German speaking Eng., and G. wtoo^l" that of the Englishman speaking
German. The difference should be thoroughly appreciated by all who
wish to speak " pure " German.

1. 1 (point-divided) is represented by I, as in iUji, %a\l, toofjli,
gaiter.

German U is peculiarly hard. Practise upon 9BeS(, SaQe, ^oUcr SBolIt.
See 376.

Shut Consonants or Stops.

382. Next comes a group •£ sounds in which there is a
complete closure of the mouth-channel. When the closure
is opened an explosion takes place^ hence their name " expLo-
dvoB," '^ Stops '' is a less pedantic name. When the closure
is far back, formed by the root of the tongue and the soft
palate, we get the back-stops k, g, called also not so well " gut'

384] PHOKOLOGY— THE 00KS0NAKT8. 171

tural " and *' palatal" When the closure is forward, formed
by the point of the tongne and the teeth, gums, or pakte, as
the case may be, we have the point-stops /, d, called also
"denUW or ^lingualy' or *^ alveolar," If the closure is made
by the Kps, we have the lip-stops or ^^ labials." The great
difference between G. and Eng. stops, particularly of the surd,
lies in the more energetic closure and explosion of the Q.,
amounting almost to an H (aspiration).

383. 1. k (back-shut-surd) is represented by f, as in Aa^e,
6u!, Aragen; by (!^: a, before tf (in the same stem); 6, in foreign
words before back vowels. Ex.: a. Sud)d, fed}^, Su(!^d6aum,
toacbfen | but tvad^fam. 6. (E^ara'cter, ^^^m^, S^olera. But see
375, 4; 378, 3. Also by d, it, with prolonged closure: ^\xdif
gurudfe^ren. By final g in S. O. and according to the standard
pronunciation. See 375, 4; 385, 3; 20.

This g is not strongly exploded, has no aspiration, and is called with
final b and b.by German phonetists *'Umlos6 mediae** hj tbe people
** hard " bi b» To English speakers it seems absurd to speak of a ** surd "
or " hard *' h. We would call these sounds p, t, k ; i, e» surd stops, unas-
pirated, slightly exploded.

a. Also by final g preceded by n, but only in N. G., as in langr iung.
See 386, 1.

2. g (back-shut sonant) is represented by g initial and when
doubled, as in ge^en, fagen, &rgern, baggem, Sgge. See 375, 4.

384. 1. t (point-shut-surd) is represented by t, tt, as in
SBettc, ^eutc, Sante, ^ut; by t^, as in Zbat, ZM, formerly very
common finally, as in 9)tut^, ^eirot^, ^eimat^. which are now
spelt without ^. Also by t final, as in Zct, gef^ei^, f!nt, Jtleit,
^anD^ci^en. See 385, 3. By It only in @tatt and its deriva-
tiyes, but formerly more frequent, as in tobt, Srott, gefdjeitt,
Srntte, which are now spelt tot, Srot, etc

2. d (point-shut-sonant) is represented by b initial and
medial, as in banlen, ter, ^ottn, Aleiter, SBitter.

172 PHOKOLOGT— THE C0N80KAKTS. [386-

385. 1. p (lipHshut-sard) is represented by p, pp (see 382,
but Eng. p before vowels is often as strongly aspirated, e. g.,
pound, par, pat. Ex. : |)uber, ftaiit, $aupt, jtappe, 3Bappen«
Also by b final, as in Zitl, i<A, lUi, ^cb, l^o6{}, mb^t, lieb^t. See
sab 3.

2. b (lip-shut-sonant) is represented by medial and initial b*
For final b see sub 3. Ex.: Sofe, ^ubt, &bt, ttabbdn.

3. Final bf b are therefore pronoanoed t, p all over Gennany, and g as
k according to the standard prononciation, but not in N. G. See 383, 1.
For g after n see 383. 1, a.

4. Before b» b» g# pronoanoed as surd stops, the liquids l# ii# m are short,
and not long as in English. Pronounce tt>ilb therefore nearly with the U
of Eng. wilt, unb with the nd of hunt, not of hound, wUd,

Nasals.

386. The nasals are also " shut " consonants, but they are
not stops (with explosion). The air passes through the nose,
and we distinguish them according to the place of contact

q is the ^' back-nasal-sonant " common to Eng. and G., as
in Eng. bring, G. bringc, flitge.

1. q is represented by n before I, before g in N. G., and by
medial ng. Ex. : Zxant, Siinl, bange, lange, i^inger. Final ng is
q according to the standard, e. g., ©efang, ^Ing. For N. G.
final ng see 383, 1. Also by n of en, in, on, an, ent final in for-
eign words, as in laup^in, balanclercn, 2l»ancement, S^cabron,
93onbon.

This is an unsuccessfol attempt of Germans at pronouncing the
French nasal yowels, which are not at all identical with q ; q does not
exist in French. Though incorrect, this sound is given by the educated
classes and by the stage.

387. n is the "point-nasal" (half-dental). For Eng. and
G. ?i, see 381. n is represented by n, nn as generally written,
except where it becomes either guttural or labial by the prox-
imity of guttural and labial consonants. (See 386.) Ex.:

389] PHONOLOGY— THE CONSONANTS. 173

fentien, ^atdi, @)>inne, SiUttel, mand^e, Siind^e, too^nen, Zfixon, toav^ttn
= vantn.

388. m, the lip-nasal, is identical in Eng. and O. It is
represented by m, mmx iStunt, @timme, toarm ; also by en after
i and p, as in pumpert z=zpumpm, Sreppen = trq/m.

1. In untaught proDundatlon not influenced by the letter, n is also
pronounced as m before f, as in fanft, funf, ^anf^ duhtnfti dunft* Over-
precise speakers pronounce as two full syllables words like hUi^hm fium^
ptn, |in'ben# fln^gem etc., but persons speaking naturally pronounce as
stated above.

Compound Consonants.

389. These are composed of single sounds already de-
scribed, but some of them seem to call for special mention.
Their elements are closely joined together without any glide.

1. pf is composed of p and f, and is always represented by
pf, as in ^ftrfid), Aampf, Aarpfen, @umpf. But this pf is not pro-
nounced except by a special effort The current and "natu-
ral " pf is composed of a lip-teeth-stop and f. (This was first
noticed by Sievers and Sweet.) The first element being formed
by lower hp and teeth instead by lower and upper Ups, as in
a real lip-stop. Final pf is in N. G. commonly made into f,
but it is not to be imitated.

2. ks is composed of the surd back-shut and the surd
blade-open, as in Eng. Eepresented by Xr as in ^jA, ZtT:t, ^ivt,
9Lit%anltt ; also by d}d and d}f, if of the same stem, as in S3a(!^d,
D^fen. See 383, 1. *

3. ts is composed of the surd t (point-shut) and a the surd
blade-open. Bepresented by 3, as in S^Wt 3^^'r SBel^en, SJarje 5
by tj, as in @prii^en, fd)toi^en, fta^e ; by c in foreign words before
front vowels, as in Jlcce'nt, Stoi'l, Slccenfc'nt, S5llba't, etc; by t in
foreign words before t, as in ^otie'nt, 9latio'n, etc.

174 PHONOLOGY — ^THB CONSONANTS. [390-

4. G. ts differs from Eng. ts in cats, hats in this respect . in G ts 8 is
long, in Eng. ts t is long. In fl = sht and fp = shp (see 378. 3) the first
element is also short. In " natural " pronunciation final i^ m N G. is
made into d after n, rarely after r and I ; so that gaiQ becomes ®and>
®4tt>an) > <3cl^tt>and. But this is not classicaL

5. Though there are doubled letters, both yowels and consonants,
there are no doubled sounds. Double vowels denote one long vowel, as
in <Baal, ^taaU Wtoci, and double consonants are long energetic conso-
nants, as in SBette^ l^affetv Srepp(» lerren^ Xreffcr^ Sevatt, aUt, But the conso-
nants are not always long and short in G. in the same places where they
are so in Eng. See, for instance, 385, 4. Final consonants are short in
German. Compare ^axau toeijil, f>ut with Eng. man, well, hut The
Eng. sonant stops d, g, b are very long and their sonancy is very em-
phatic. This is not so in German. Compare dihlK — ebb, (l^gge — dagger,
etc.

ON A STANDARD OF PRONUNCIATION.

390. While Germans have a common literary langaage,
fhey have not a common spoken language. German cannot
boost of such authorities in pronunciation as French has in
Paris, in the French Academy and in the Theatre Frangais.
Provincialism, so strong in German politics and other institu-
tions, is particularly strong in pronunciation. All sections of
the country readily acknowledge the " Schriflsprache" as the
common language of the country, but in pronouncing the
same they claim the utmost liberty.

1. You can hear professors of the German language at the universities
speaking in the purest dialect-pronunciation ; so you can, preachers in
the churches and representatives in the state-legislatures and in the

2. The great authors of the classical period, Lessing, Goethe, Schiller,
Elopstock, etc. , pronounced the literary language with strong dialect
coloring. One of Lessing's favorite phrases was : ^(&9 !ommt hodi nid^td
babet ^eraudr" which he is said to have pronounced ^^^ Bmmt bo^ nif4ta)>ei
^raud.^ Goethe was called " Oeie" by them. Compare Goethe's defence
of dialect in ^%}x9 metnem ^thtvif (Hart's Goethe's Prose, p. 19-20).

891] PHOKOLOGY — STAKDABD OF PROKUKOIATIOK. 176

8. To dialect pronunciation are mostly due such bad rhjmee as : 2cute t
SBeite; \dfin : ge^n; frii^ : nie; f>d(^^: ®ee; fcrnc : (Sk^drne; which occur in
their poems. Platen, Bilckert, and Bodenstedt carefully avoid these
rhymes. In families of culture in Cologne you hear dU and dot for bic9
and bad« In Bremen are still families who take pride in haying the
children leam the L. G. dialect first.

4. In Hanover, both in the city and in the surrounding districts of the
province, the pronunciation is generally considered classical, and yet
Hanoverian has three strong provincialisms : 1, fl# fl}f which most Ger-
mans pronounce fc^ti f(i^p ; 2, they pronounce the sonant stop g as the
spirant, while it should be pronounced as a surd stop just what all Ger-
mans make of B and b; 3, in the city itself a is made almost into long L

391. The only institution .that claims to have a standard
and tries to come up to it is the staga The best theatres of
Q^rmany and the better actors, followed by a very small num-
ber of the cultured, stride after a dialect-free pronanciation.
The standard set up by them decides the dieputed points as
follows :

1. Initial ^, fp are to be pronounced fd)t, \iip. But only the
initiaL Never pronounce i(l — tfii^t, blfl — bifd^t*

2. Pronounce fl surd : Scrj = Serf, ffitfl = SBcI, lleflt = lieft*

3. Pronounce r trilled, not uvular or guttural, as in North
Germany.

4. North and Middle Germans pronounce initial ( and f be-
tween vowels as sonants ; the standard is not quite settled,
but will probably come to sonant f.

5. The rounded vowel should be fully rounded. The ex-
treme N. G. pronounces u, o, i (short) in $age6utte, hmm\
{)utte too much like Eng. but, come, hut. The extreme S. G.
likes to unround it > i, 5 > e.

6. Sag, SHp ^^9 hB,Ye long vowels, == tac, zuc, wee See
sub 2; also 488, 2, b.

7. The lip-teeth m and not the S. G. labio-labial bh has the
preference.

176 PHONOLOGY — ABLAUT. [392-

392. 1. Bat it is possible to have a dialect-free pronunciation and
yet have dialect-accent, ». «., " intonation," " modulation of voice." Very
pronounced are, e, g. , the " accents " of Berlin, Vienna, Bavaria (Munchen),
Saxony, which can be distinguished without much difficulty even in a
good pronunciation. The stage favors the North Qerman " accent," par-
ticularly the Hanoverian, and this is at bottom what is meant by saying
the Hanoverian is the best pronunciation.

2. There is another reason, however, why the N. G. pronunciation is
" purer," as it is generally called, than S. G. The Low German dialects
are farther removed from the classical language than the High German.
The contrast is felt more in North Germany than in South Germany.
The school and the educated make a stronger effort to acquire the stan-
dard pronunciation as far as there is any. The N. G. is more influenced
by, and has a higher respect for, the written language. He pronounces
according to the letter before him. Compare, for instance, ( and pf
which the Saxon calls a " soft ( " and a ''hard (."

3. Another reason for the purity of N. G. lies also in the political and
intellectual predominance of the Northern half of Germany for nearly
two hundred years. The speakers of S. G. dialects are divided between
Switzerland, Germany, and Austria. The modem theatre also developed
earlier in N. Germany than in S. Germany.

4 The Swiss too can speak dialect-free German when conversing
with strangers, of whom they of course see a great many. They make
then a special effort to drop their dialect, which is nearly as far removed
from the written language as is a Low German dialect

5. One thing is surprising, viz., that the excellent G. school-system
has not more power to spread a common spoken language. It is true,
the school does modify the dialect, but when the child has left school, its
language relapses, as a rule, into pure dialect.

SOME PHONETIC LAWS, LIKE ABLAUT, UMLAUT,
GRIMMS AND VERNER'S LAWS. ETQ.^

Ablattt.

393. Ablaut is the gradation of yowels, both In stem and
snffix, tinder the influence of accent. The vowels yary within
certain series of related Towels called ablavi-series.

395] PHOKOLOGY— ABLAUT. 177

The abUnt of safilz-Towels, i. g.^ of case^nflUeB, Is dittcolt to determtno even for
BO early a period as O. R G. or Ags. We shall speak only of the stem-yowel-ablaot.

The phenomenon of ablaut appears in all the L E. languages and is characteristic
of the Teutonic languages, only in so flur as a very large system of verb-inflection baa
been developed. On the Greek ablaut, see Amer. Joarn. of Phil . vol. L, No. 8, p.
S81~, an article by Bloomfleld.

394. Osthoff and Brugman have the credit of establishing as
many as four grades or stages of ablaut, viz., hochstufe^ strong
and weak; tiefstufey strong and weak, which may be called in

'Eng. strong^ medium^ weaky zero. They do not appear in every
series. But the second has them all, viz., *^au** strong; ^*ea — iu**
medium ; " t2 *' weak ; '' £ " zero. The first two stand under the
strong accent; the third under the secondary, the last in the
unaccented syllable.

Why there should be a difference of vowel under the strong accent is not clear, but
the fact of two grades is undeniable.

1. For the I. E or Parent-speech-period three series have been recon-
stnicted with tolerable certainty and there are traces of several more.
Bat the exact quality of the vowels can hardly be determined, o of the
first I. E. series was probably unrounded, and more a than o, see 469.

1. e— o, Q. T. e, i — a, appears in I. to V. ^

2. &— 5, G. T. fr—a, in VT., see 469, 4.

8. &— d, O. H. G. S— uo, in G. tUt, S^at — tuon, t^un.

We give the Qermaoic series in Branne^s order. (See his Gothic grammar, followed
also by Bievers in his Ags. and Paul in his M. H. Q. grammar.)

395. "^ I. Ablaut-series.

*1 9 8 4

itrong, fMdium, weak, nero,

G.T. ai ei t i

O. H. G. ai, ei, d i i, e

N.aa ei(te,t),f ei i(i«),?,?.

Oompare Or. ir^otda, irtitfu, (cXtfial, win%Bi$Mf\ oZftor, fflfAi, Ifuvaiy Ififlv. I Is the aero
stage, because the flret element of the diphthong, e— o, has disappeared, while the
■econd, the consonant element of the fiilling diphthong, has become a vowel.

• The figures I.,n., etc., always relbr to the ablant-aeriea : the fignrea 1, S, 8, 4 refer
to the ablaut stage.

178 PHOKOLOGY — ABLAUT. [396-

Ex. : 1, leren, le^rttb < la^fan, to teach ; lera, 2tffttt + Ags. Idr, Eng.
lore ; £ti{ltn + last (Kluge) ; pret. eg. of strong yerbs of Gl. L 2 and 3,
pres. of verbs of CI. L 4, fiifl» Umtn, with the words of 1, from the same

V\xa. z represents the yowel that is to appear according to accent and
is an unknown quantity in the root 1, jttgtn, BttgefUtdtr; 2 and 8, sti^en;

4, itlit^tn, oerjt($ten# all from a Vdxc. Ck>mpare L. dicere. Notice the
Eng. cognates show in 1, a, : ladder, wrote, last, lore, loaf; in 2 and 3 :
i, rise, smite ; in 4, 1 : risen, smitten, list

396. U. Ablaut-series.

19 8 4

O. T. au en t u

O. H. O. ou, 6 in, eo, io ti ft, 5

N. H. G. 0, 5 ie, eu cat n, 9, 3.

All fonr grades efcUl apparent in German. 11 bears the same relation to 0a, an as I
to fii, aL See above. Compare x«Fwi x^Fih x^t*^t x^m .

Ex.: From the Vlxk : l,£o(e, flame. 2, Sid^t < UMM^ttn, + light

4, Su^d + l3mx(?). From a V^ : 2, Seunmnb. 8, tout < hlHi + loud ;
4, Sub»ig» Sutl^CT, Gr. k^vtoc, L. indfUus, Again, 2, f!td^ + sick, @cit^#

and 4, ®u4t* See the strong verbs of CI. IL < Vb'xd' : 1, bot pret. of
bitten* 2, bitten, ®tVxtt. 4, Sote, ®ebot, Suttel + beadle. Eng. bid repre-
sents older heodan II. and Inddan Y, The corresponding Eng. vowels are
very irregular.

397. m. Ablaut-series.

1 9 8,4

G* T. a e, i a before r, 1, m, n

German a, e (umlaut) t, i u, o*

As to 8 and 4, see 460, 8, a. The roots all end in r, 1, m, n + cons.

Ex. : See the strong verbs of CI. III. From the root of toinbtn, toanb#
$ett)unben» + wind : 1, bit 9Banb» oenben < *wancfjan, + Eng. wend, getoanbt,

toanbern + wander, etc. 2, bit 9Binbe# SBinbel. < Germanic Vbxrg.
1, barg pret. sg. 2, ©erg, ©eMrge, bergen. 8, 4, Surg, + burgh, borough,
to burrow. SBfirger, SBfirge, borgen + borrow(?). Also + bury. Ck>rrespond-
ing Eng. vowels in verbs before nasals are i in 2, a in 1, u in 4, e, g., spin,
span, spun. In nouns, etc., they are quite irregular, but generally also
i, a, u, o.

400] PHOKOLOOT— ABLAUT. 179

39& IV. Ablant-series.

G. T.

1
a, d

a
3

8r4

n

0. H.G.

a,A

§,i

n,

N. H. G.

a

I, I, it, i

% it, 9, 9*

The roots end in a single liqnid or nasal, or these stand before the Towels. I, ft are
not yet explained.

Ex. : Verbs of CI. IV., ftt^Xtn, flal^I^ gePol^lcn* 1, Diebflal^U < Vdxm.

1. sa^ntr iSimtn + tame. 2, dejiemen. 8, 4, dunft. < Vb'xr. 1, bU Sal^rt*
+ bier, barrow(?), f!d^ $e6atren» tie ©eb^rbtf -bar. 2, gebdrra + bear, (Simer <
efrn-&er, duber < twiber (see Eloge). 8, 4, bit 8firb( + burthen, bit ^eburt
+ birth, bit ®tl^x(^)t gebftl^rlU^* Eng. cognates show generally ea, 0,
0. ^., bear, bore.

399. y. Ablaut-series.

1

8.8,*

G.T.

a, &

e

0. H.G.

&,&

8,i

N. ao.

a, a

e, I i, if

Only two grades. The roots end in a single consonant, not a liqnid or nasal.

Ex. : Verbs of Gi, V. < Germanic VgxE 1, ^al, ^aU. 2, 8, 4,
0ebtn# dtgebatf bu gicbfl, bie and bad ®ift Eng. vowels the same, + give,
gave, gift

400. YI. Ablaut-series.

1

2,8

4

G.T.

6

a(o?)

n

0. H.G.

no

a, e

u

N. H.G.

u, it

a, e (umlaut)

%u

4 Not in the past part, only in nonns. A difficnlt series.

Ex. : Verbs of Gi. VI. < f pxr. 1, fujr, filjren. 2, 8, fajren, ble Sfaljrt.
4, ble gurt + ford. < Vmxl. 1, M. H. G. muol (now mailte). 2, 8,
maifUn, SRe^I + meal, malmtn, ^alttx, 4, Wt^U + mill, !D{fiaer, fDluS, 3Kaul^
tturf + mole, by popular etymology < molitDurf + mould-warp.

180 phokology — umlaut. [401-

TJmiaut.

401. Umlant is the modification of an accented Towel by
an i (j) in the next syllable.

1. By it a, o, n become soimdB lying nearer to L In other words, back and mixed
Towels become more like front vowels throngfa the inflaenoe of trout vowds. The
tougne-position of back and mixed vowels changes to ** front,** while the rest of the
articalation remains the same. This "fronting" is called by the Germans "mooil-
lierang," i.^., palatalization. Sievers* theory is that the intervening consonants were
first affected and then the immediately preceding vowel. Snch palatalized consonants
are the Fr. 1 and n still in 'feuiOe " </afitim, Etpagne < Mtpanki.

2. To understand umlaut we must go back to a period in which i (j)
was still tolerably intact as in O. H. G. But there was only one umlaut
marked in that period, viz., that of & and its sign was e just like the
original e now distinguished by " = S. In M. H. G. the umlaut of the
other vowels appears and is unfortunately very irregularly represented.
Sievers supposes that the consonants were already palatalized in O. H. G.
and that they imparted their change to the vowel in M. H. G. But it is
also very likely that the vowels were already palatalized in O. H. G.,
only the alphabet was not sufficient to show the change.

Ex. : lamp — lembir, Sfimmer; ^oM > gad>e > %Sbt, pret shj. ; gast —
gasti > geste, ®d|!e; *aU-lantjo > eU-Unti > eBende> tlenb» unfortimate
because in an ''other country;" sedni > sehoene > f(j^9it; angU > (gngel;
bSsi > boft, etc.

402. The extent of this phenomenon varies with the period and the dialect. Certain
consonants have prevented nmlant. Bat we cannot enter npon a further discussion.
Compare gebulbig, gewatttg. By umlant, then, a > &^ e; o (^) > 5 (s) ; u > ft (^) ; au >
&u, eu, bat this only seemingly in cases where au < 11, since 11 passed into 11 (iu) and thla
into eu, hu, according to 488» &

1. While in German umlaut is still a living principle, it is dead in Bug. and has been
for some 8-900 years. Eng. only has isolated forms with umlaut, e, g^ mouse— mice,
cow— kine, etc., that belong to no system of inflection or derivation in which umlaut
serves as the expression of a function or meaning. We call the above examples *^ ir-
regular " plurals.

2. There is no such thing as ** rlickumlaut *' = '* umlaut reversed," as the old graio-
marians caUed it. «. ^r., in benfen, bail^te/ gebail^t. See 464, 8.

Interchanges of Vowels: e — i, ie; no Umlaut — Umlaut;

tt — ; ie — ctt*

403. e — i (te)« 1, where e is original, that is G. T. and
I. E. e. e passed into i before i (j) standing in the unac-
cented syllable, a process exactly analogous to umlaut; e > i

405] PHOKOLOGT — PHOKETIO LAWS. U — 0. 181

also before a nasal belonging to the same syllable, generally
before nasal + oons. The physiological reason for the latter
change is not clear.

Ex.: The present of CI. III., IV., V., see also the O. H. G. paradigm.
The first p. sg. mmu may be due to analogy, but in O. H. G. and Ags.
S > i also before u and it may therefore be a phonetic transition. f!|^tiw
lit^tn, bitten have i all through, see 467. 1, but ®t|rel < te^aL dtXb-^tfiVot
< gifildi, reiftt — ri^ttn < *rih^n, + L. rectus, gtber — ® rjlebtr ; fern —
firn < fimi. Verbs of UL CI.: fUtbcn, Moisuncft. Q^tfm^Qiift < giftu

2y i is original, but passed into 3 before a, e, o in the next
syllable or if the word ended in a consonant, i remained
before i (j) and before w.

The cases of i > fi are not namerons. It is a High Qerman and Old Saxon pecaliar-
ity. Bng. has stiU i.

Ex.: !«f — erqulcfm + quick, quicken; leben + live, flcbtn + cleave,
f^totben belong to ablauts. I. with the zero grade. S^emefem to decompose,
compare L. tiWuBt Skr. tith-am, fieber + liver. 9)cd^ + Eng. pitch <
\j,pic-8, @tt3 < same root as jleiflcn I.; ©edjfcl — + Lat. mo-ea. tr <
tr, + Lat is,

404. Umlaut — no nmlant.

Ex. : Verbs of VI. and VII. CL, but in the latter mostly by analogy,
«. g. , faru, fwst, fert — fa Jre, ffi^r jl, fSbrt. %\X — (£ttcrn < eUir6n, Comp.
+ elders. Sbtl < adal — tbel < ediU, Comp. + Ethel. Very numer-
ous and the umlaut often more or less hidden.

405. It — 0* In the stem-syllable n is always the older and
passed into o before a, e, o. It was preserved like i before
i (j), w and a nasal belonging to the same syllable.

This process is also one of assimilation similar to nmlant, caUed ** brechung^^ by
the older grammiirianB.

Ex.: See verbs of CI. II., IIL, IV. in the past part, and compare with
them the pret pi. and nouns from the same stem, e,g.f %ivi^t, du($tf S^er^
nunft, Sunft^ ©oflte < «»«to — <S*ulb; IJoIb — <)ulb < hvldi; ^o^l — .f^flfle,
( < ykxl. Q^olb — ®ulben (a coin), but golbcn + golden by analogy ; SSote
— S3iUtel < huiU. The transition before nasals is quite modem and M. G.
Comp. Sonne < sunna ; ©ommer < sumer : ®o^n < sunu ; past part, of IIL
Before n + oons. (not n) u remains now, gtfunbcni S3unb# gtfunfen^ 9nlunft«.

182 PHONOLOGY — PHOKETIC LAWS — GEIMM'S. [406-

406. te (io) — eu (iii)« iu being levelled away and ie stand-
ing for both io and iu, this interchange is not common now.
Both iu and io < G. T. eu. eu > iu before i (j) and w, but
> eo before a, e, o; and later eo > io > ie, it* The process
is e > i and u > o in the same diphthong.

Ex. : Ablauts, and CI. IL, see 124, Remark. 9Bad ba frend^t nnb {lettgt
(Sch.). ]&ietcn — ©eute (?), SBcutcl (?).

Grimm's Law or the "shifting ofmiUeSy' Sauberfd^ieBmtg*

407. It concerns the so-called '^ mutes,'' b, p, f; d, t, th; g,
k, ch, media, tennis, aspirates. This law was discovered by
Bask, but first fully stated by Jacob Grimm. It includes two
great shiftings, the first prehistoric, that is, General Teutonic
or Germanic; the second, historical or German. The first is a
peculiarity of the whole group and shared to very nearly the
same extent by every member of the group; the second is a
peculiarity of the German dialects proper, is partial both as
to the number of sounds and of dialects affected. We very
briefly represent the first shifting. See the author's article
in the Amer. Jour, of PhiL, vol. I., for a fuller account Let
y represent the sonant stops, z the surd ones and x the so-
called ''aspirate," which represents various sounds. The fol-
lowing formulas will be of use. G. is added now merely for
illustration.

Fftrent-epeech, L E.

G.T.

G.

L

X >

y

>

Z

n.

y >

Z

>

X

1 1 1.

z >

X

>

y

Notice L E. is the oldest stage of the language reconstracted from the varions L B.
dialects. You can substitute for I. E. any language but the Teutonic, provided you
make allowance for any changes in that particular language, e. g.^ d* has become f or d
in Latin, ^y General Teutonic or Germanic is meant that stage which is reconstructed
from all the Teutonic dialects. By G . we mean the written language of Germany ; H. G.
iieans South and Middle as opposed to Low German.

410] PHONOLOGY — PHOKETIC LAWS— OBIHIl'S. 183

Substitute in each formula the labials, dentals, etc.

408. Form. I. 1. z = d'. L K d' = d + sonant aspiration
(Ellis), " sonant affricate/* this d' through G. T. dh (sonant
spirant) > d > H. O. t, but dh remains in Gk>. and Scand., e.g,y
L E. * rf'wr-, Gr. ^v'^«, lu fares, > G. T. ♦ dur-, Eng. door >
G. S^or— S^ur, doublets.

2. X = b'. I. E. b' > G. T. bh, b > G. b, e. g., L K \/b^
ablauts. ±1., Gr. nv»^ > G. T. \/bS, Eng. bid > G. Hcteti, fcot,
ge6oten. No German shifting of b > p therefore.

S.iL=_^. I.K^> G. T.gh, g > G. g, e. g., < V^

(Skr. Vht > G. T. Vgu-), *gud-, Eng. God > G. ®ott, "the
being invoked " (see Eluge). No German shifting of g>k.

4. z = g^, the second series of gutturals, the ^ labialized *' >
G. T. g, gw (w) if medial, > G. g, or zero if medial, e. g,^
I. E. * ang^t L. angustua > G. T. angu--. Go. aggwus > G, enje
< angi < * angwjo. L K * g^stis, L. hodia > G. T. gJiast,
gaaty + Eng. guest > G. ®a^«

409. Form. II. x in G., see later.

1. y=:d. LE.d>G. T. t,Eng. t. < Vdint, to eat, I. R
d(mt-y li. denir^ > G. T. tunth-y Eng. tooth > 3fl^n, < zand.
Before d the vowel has disappeared by apocope. The form
is participial = "the eater" (Eluge). Comp. L. edere >
Eng. eat > G. effen.

2. 7 = b. I. K b is very rare and examples doubtful.

3. y = gSgf. I.Kg*>G.T.k = G.k. < Vg3"., L.^6tore
> G. T. * kald, Eng. cold, cool + G. fait, m/i, ablauts. VL

I. K g« > G.T. kw, k = G. !, qu, e. g^ < Vg^m, L. venio «
* gvemio)> G. T. qvsman, Eng. come, + G. fommen, adj. frequent.
The phonetic change of y > z consists in the loss of sonancy.

410. Form. lU. x = G. T. surd spirant, I. E. z = unaspi-
rated surd stop.

184 PHOKOLOGY — PHOlSrETIC LAWS — ^VEENEfi'S. [411-

1. z = L K t. t through the transition stage t' = t + surd
aspiration > G. T. th > H. and L. G. d, e. g^ L. tertius >
G. T. thridj-, Eng. third, > tritte.

2. z = p. L K p > G.T. £, bilabial, Eng. f > G. f: lupi9c^

> G. T. ^fisk-os > gifc^, + Eng. fish.

3. z = kML2. I.Rki>G.T. h,kh, >G.|,*. Ex. : L.
pecus > G. T.fehu, Eng. fee, > SSic^ I. E. k^ > G. T. hw, h,
Eng. wh, > G. \o, zero = silent 1§. L. sequnyr > G. T. sehunm

> fe^en, + Eng. see. L. quisy qitod > G. T. Awr, hvxxt + Eng.
who, what, > G. »er, ti>ad.

Vemer's Law.

411. After the first shifting and when the accent was not yet
limited to the root-sjllable (see 420, 2) a new phenomenon ap-
peared, viz., Vemer^s Law or the " shifting of spirants." The
G. T. surd spirants th, kh, f, s became sonant spirants and
later sonant stops, when ihe immediately preceding Towel was
unaccented. This affects only form. UL, but the transition
of sonant spirants into sonant stops is identical mih the tran-
sition of the sonant spirants which sprang < sonant affiicate
according to form. L See 408. Hence there is an inter-
change of the following consonants: th — dh, d which became
G. t; f — bh, b; kh, khw — gh, ghw, g, w; s — z, r. See 416.

As to accent, see 420. Students who know Greek can
generally go by the Greek accent, which is often still the L E.

Ex. : Gr. narvp > G. T. fathar > fadhar (Go.) > fddar (Ags.) > G.
S^ater^ M. Eng. has again dh (through Norse influence?), but lt,frdt€T >
G. T. brSthar, Eng. brother > G. Sruber according to form. JJL G. T.
lUTian, laith, but pi. lidhon-, part, lidhanr-, Eng. loathe, > G. leiben (litt by
levelling), gelitten. L. 8equ-or > G. T. aShtoan, tahw, seffvrum', sigtoanr-,
O. S. 9e?ian, sah, sdwum, gUewan, Eng. see, saw, seen (levelling) > G.
fe^en# fa$, geft^en (levelling, | silent). G. T.' tc^Mn, tms, werun^, wSaan- >
Eng. was — were > G. war (levelling), warewr gmefcn (levelling). Com-
pare ficfen — M (for, levelling) — gtforen.

413] PHOKOLOGY — PHONETIC LAWS— GERMAN SHIFTING. 185

412. In certain consonant grou]>8 the first sliifting of Grimm's Law
allows of modifications.

1. Original st, 8k» sp remain, e.g,, L. vutigium + G. ®teg» Gttig; L.
8c in po9C€re + G. T. sk, Eng. and G. sb, f4 in forfc^cn, tpaf^cn (see 467, 4).
L. sp in spicere, speculum + G. fp^^ + espy, spy.

2. Before t eyery dental has become s, eyery labial f, eyery
gattaral kh, d), while t remains intact, bnt st can become ss by
assimilation. Examples are yery numerous.

2)tt t9dSt < wM < *iMiM2+t; L. eap-tui + G. -^ft (bat see Eluge) ;

L. noeUm + G. 9ta4t + night; fRad^t + might < Vmxg*, from which

mag — ntdgeitr ablaat& VI.; gn»ii < 'wid-U/ a past participle < i^wzd, +
L. yid-, + to wit, wist. The differentiation into st and ss is difficult to
explain. K6gel ascribed it to accent, but see Kluge, P. and B. Beitrftge,
yol. YIII. A different origin has the st of 9tefl, SRafl (of a ship), ®txftt,
and a very few others, viz., < ad. For these see Eluge. See also 454, 8.

THE GERMAN SHIFTING.

The second or German shifting we shall treat chiefly with a view to represent Bng.
and G. cognates. We shall not treat of every dialeet separately. It mnst sofflce to say
that upon the extent of shifting the dassiflcation of the dialects is based. See 480.
For a ftiU account, see Braone^s article in P. and B. Beitr., vol. U. In fact, to Braone
we owe the best light that has been thrown npon this difflcalt sabject. This second
shifting, though coming within the historic period of the langnage, had been mach less
understood and more misrepresented than the first shifting. The material was veiy
different from that of the first shifting and the result had to be diftorent, though Grimm
supposed that the first stage was reached again in H. G. Nor is there room to enter
into the chronology of the various steps, though it has been tolerably settled. The
latest shifting, th > d, we find still going on in the 18th century, and is the most exten-
sive of all the shiftings. Geographically the movement began in the South and the
flirther North it spread the less it grew and the later it occurred. See 480. We follow
the order of the formulas. Where Bng. is identical with G. T., as 1b generally the case,
the Eng. examples will at the same time illustrate the corresponding sounds and the
cognates of Bng. and G.

4ia Form. I. 1. G. T. d > G. t. Eng. dead — G. tot ; do

— t^unj bed — Sett; steady — jlctigj mother for M. Eng. moder

— aJlutter (see 411) ; hoard + 4>ort.

a. Where Eng. d — G. b in a small numher of words, there d has been
restored in N. H. G. through L. or M. G. influence, M. H. G. showing t ;
or the word has come from L. G. into the written lang^uftge. Eng. dumb

186 PHONOLOGY — PHONETIC LAWS— GEEMAN SHIPTING. [414-

— bumm; dam — jDamm; down — jDune; "Dutch" ia L. Q. > Eng., while
G. beutf(^ belongs to form. III. After 1 and r are some cases of d — &, e.g,,

wild — toilb; mild — ntilb; murder — SJi^orb* These are due to a change
of Ags. th > d. Also after n, e.g., wind — »inbett; bind — binberu These
are due to a change of O. H. Q. t > d.

2. Eng. b and g = G. ( and g, see 408, e. g., bold — (alt;
beck — Sad^ ; gold — ®ofe ; garden — ®arten«. For mb — mm,
see 490,4. Butb and especially g have often disappeared in
Eng. Compare hawk — ^abid^t ; ^caxpi, < houbU, — head ;
SHegen — rain; Sia^tn — wain. G. b — Eng. v, \^abtn — have;
Heben — love, etc.

3. G. T. bb > G. ppx fftapp^ < *r<q>pOy G. T. rabbo-, buf
Sftabe — raven. Stnappt < * knappoy G. T. knabbo-, but jtnobe
— knave. Sfrbe + ebb, is L. G.

4. G. T. gg > G. if, but G. T. gg > Eng. dzh (-dge).
*mugj6^ Ags. mycge, Eng. midge — G. WlMt. * hrugjOy Ags.
hrycge, Eng. ridge — G. 9luc!en« Eng. edge — Scfe, bridge —
Sriicfc, etc. Sgge, harrow, is L. G.

5. y = BonaDt stop has sprung either from L E. x = sonant affiricate according to
form. I. or from I. E. z = surd stop > O. T. snrd spirant according to form. m. and
Vemer's Law, in both cases through a sonant spirant. Notice " affiricate^* is a doable
consonant, ^* spirant " is a single one. The process of O. T. j > O. z is loss of sonancy
the same as I. E. y > G. T. z. Notice that consonants were doubled, i. «., lengthened
before West-germanic J, w, r, 1, as the examples show, see 389> 6.

414. Form. H 1. G. T. z > G. ac. G. T. t > G. ts (a, ^)
and this remains when initial, affcer r, (, n and when sprung
from tt, but becomes ^ (Grimm's sign), supposed to have
been a lisped s, and later s (f, ^), see 490, 2.

In M. H. G. this ^ and s never rhyme, hence they must have been diffn^^it sounds.
tt > ts is much later than t > ts.

Examples exceedingly numerous: ton^e — Qm^t ; wart — IBaric;
holt — ^olj; mint — 2Rfln|c < L. maneta through *mil7Uta; * Batman >
Eng. set — G. fe^n ; whet — »c^n; wheat — SBeijcn; sweat — fd^tt>lten; '
water — SBaffer; hate — ^ai, lafftttr etc. All seeming exceptions can be
explained in some way or other, e, g.y in foreign words introduced since
the shifting : tar — %ux < L. G.; temple — XemptI < L. templum ; ton

416] PHONOLOGY— PHONBnO LAWS — DEEM AN SHIFTING. 187

— Xonne > Keltic (?). The combination tr is an exception. Compare also
ft, kht, 8t, 412, 2. True — trcu ; bitter — bitter < G. T. biir-os ; winter —
SBittter. Winter and unter are M. H. O. hinder, under, see 413, 1, a.
Words introduced before the shifting are Germanised, e, g„ plant — *
9)flan)e < L. plarUa ; tile — Bit^tl < L. tegula,

2. G. T. p > G. ^\f which remains initially, after m, and
when sprung from pp, but passes into f after vowels and r, 1.

Ex. : Eng. path ^- G. 9>fab ; pea(-cock) — 9>fau < L. paw; plight —
9fli(l^t; swamp — Gumpf (?) ; rump — Shtmpf; hop, hip — l^&pfcn; stop —
flopfen; sleep — Waftn; hope — iofftn; sharp — f(^rf; help — Jclfen.

a. Where Eng. and G. p correspond, tliey indicate either L. G. or other
foreign words introduced since the shifting, 0.^., pocks — 9^o(fen; poke
— po<^cn < L. G. ; pain — 9>cln < L. pcBna; pilgrim — 9)llgcr < L.
p&regrinus; pulpit — 9>ult < L. pvlpUum,

3. G. T. k > G. kh, jh (i^)^ except initial k and doable k,
which appears as d* Eng. has frequently palatalized its k
into tsh, written ch, tch.

Ex.: Eng. like — gleid^; bleak — bUidben; knuckle — i^nd^el; knee —
jtnie ; church — jtir^e ; cook, kitchen — Jtod^# itft^e. Westgerm. kk —
Eng. k — G. (f : bake, baker — badtiw SS&dtr ; waken — toecten; acre —
9((fer ; naked — nadft.

0. The links between G. T. i and G. x are probably enrd stop -f aspirate, surd
stop + spirant, spirant, «. 0r., k > k + H > kkh, an aflHcate, > kh. kkh is still S. G.,
tth is the Irish pronnndatlon of Bng. th. The processes are identical with those of
L B. a > 6. T. X. Bat G. x is a long consonant or an aflHcate, while G. T. x < L E. a
is a single, weaker consonant. Compare the present nat^n haying a long and strong
^ with SBa^t ; ^offen, ^onf with the initial f as in f&r, Bfeuer, Dot. The latter corre-
sponds to G. T. f , the former to G. T. p. See below.

415. Form, IIL G. T. x > G. y. This shifting only took
place in the dentals. G. T. th > G. d. Eng. thing — G. Itng 5
that — ta« ; hearth — ^ttt ; earth — Srtc ; brother — ©ruber*

As to extent and time of this shifting, see p. 185. The process of the shifting of the
G. T. surd spirant under the accent > G. sonant stop, final sard stop is identical with
that of G. T. surd spirants nnaccented > G. T. sonant spirant > G. T. sonant stop in
certain positions. For this G. T. y > G. a, see 41 1.

1. Eng. h, gh> f correspond to G. ]|, i^, f {^), bat Eng. gh is
often silent

188 PHOKOLOGY — PHONETIC LAWS. [416-

Ex.; Eng. floor — G. gUir; fowl — ©ogcl; heart — ^crj| hart — ^irf^
< Mn^, ; might — SWat^t; fraught, freight — gfrac^t.

2. G. T. hw, Eng. wh — G. to. Ex. : Eng. which — G.
todii ; whelp — 2Celf .

8. All irreguhaities must he explained as hefore, either as due to
levelling or to foreign origin. See ^4, 1. herd — ^erbf, L. Q^ but ^ixtt

— shep-herd according to rule ; throne — XJron < Gr.-L. thronu^. The
relation of Saufenb to thousaDd is not cleared up.

Eng.f — Q. (6, L.G.,see 493, 4. hbeforeland r has been lost in both

languages. Comp. kXvtoc, Ags. JU4d — Eng. loud, G. laiU j < Vkrx,
ablauts 11. Lat. eruor — Ags. hrea — Eng. raw, G. roj.

The Intebghakges BEsuLTiNa from the SmrriNa of G. T.

Spibants. See 411.

416. Levelling has so largely done away with the results of Yemer's
law in German that what is left of them may be looked upon as isolated
cases. Thej appear more in derivatives of the same stem than in the
verb-inflection,

1. t) — t most frequent : letoctt — Iltt, gelttten ; lelten ; (iebm —
fott, gcfottctt. f — 6: barf, biirfcti, 9lot^urft — barren, toerberBen (?).
^,^—r* li^W (^ silent), 3ud^t — flcaogcn, ^^ergofl. f — r: 8er^
lujl, + loss — loerlicrett (levelling), ioerloren + forlorn; fiefen —
^ur, erforen*

417. Correspondences between Eng. and G. consonants
outside of the shif tings.

1. Loss of n before spirants in G. T. and later. Before
G. T. kh as in fallen (archaic for fangcn) < "'fanhan ; tadJtc <
*danhte, + thought, etc. Ags, — Eng. also before th and f,
when G. has preserved n. Compare: tooth — 3^^^] mouth

— 9Kuttt); but south — ©lib, of L. G. origin; soft — fanft, but
fad^t, of L. G. origin.

2. Eng. wr — G. r: Eng. write — rei^en, ri^cn ; wrench —
tenfen; wretch — Slccfe; wring — ringcn^

3. Eng. w, r, 1, m correspond to G. tt), r, I, m*

419] PHONOLOGY— AOCBKT. 189

4, For Eng. m — G. n, see 490, 6. For Eng. mb — G.
mm, see 490, 4.

5. Eng, s (original s) — G. s: honse — i&att«; sink — finfttt.

a. Eng. X — Q.Xt^* The phonetic value of the sign is the same in
both languages. The sign Xt borrowed from Latin, stands for d^, tii tf^.
Ex.: Eng. wax — G. toad^fett ; fox — 9ud&d ; axlo — 9d^ft; box — 8it4fe
< Gr. irvfig; box — S3ttd^dbattm < L. Inixtu,

ACCENT.

418. We are following BtlU the traditional method of treating of the accent, bnt, as a
matter of fkct, in speaking we never divide the word into the syllables or the sentence
into the words as they are printed or written. Such a division is parely for the eye and
artificial. We speak in '* breathffraupty" as Sweet calls them. Sievers uses ** JSpfxieh-
iakt^'* bnt " apr^chtoM ** woald be better. A breathgroap consists of a certain nnmber
of sonnds that can be pronounced ** in one breath,** as we say. If one or two sonnds
hav e very strong stress then the nnmber of *^ syllables ** in the group is small, because
the store of air is spent. If one syllable has only the amount of air spent upon a
secondary or medium accent, then the number of syllables can be larger. Bug. and
G. have a prevailingly fttlling rhythm, that Is, the stress fhUs upon the initial sounds or
syllable of a group. French is difRBrent. Its stress is very uniform and the predoml-
nant stress very difAcult to place in the group. Bxcellent authorities, both French
and Dutch, claim that the stress lies at the beginlng ; other authorities. Just as high,
that it lies at the end of the group. The French groups are very long.

In G. and Bug. the amount of stress concentrated upon some part of the group
varies, else there would be a great monotony as in French, but Fr. has a more varied
intonation or ** tone," which gives it an advantage over Bug. and G.

1. For very trustworthy division into breathgroups, see Sweet*s transcriptions of
Eng., G. and Fr. in his ** Handbook.^^ For the whole difficult subject of the synthesis
of sounds, see Sweet and also Sievers* Phonetik, $ 88. Notice that the principle of
breathgroups is recogniaed when we speak of proclitics and enclitics. All syncope,
elision, contraction, metre, assimilation take place according to this principle. When
there are too many syllables to to be pronounced conveniently by one breath-impulse
some are cut off and always according to a certain fixed rule varying with the different
languages. Or If the sounds coming together in a group are very different we assimi-
late them to each other. This we call " ease of utterance ** or " euphony.**

419. We distinguish three degrees of accent or '^stress/'
viz., chirf (strong, primary), medium (secondary), and weak,

marked respectively J, 1, Z. Thus : 8l>fcl, ta'tttta>, ^Da'nf-?
ba^rfei^

1. " Weak" also includes '' unaccented/' when there are not syllables
enough, e, g,., ^\^^CL\\i^% 9r'l)fe'^lbau''m. But when the word is very long

190 PHONOLOGY— ACCENT. [420-

or in a group of several words we may distinguisli not merelj between
weak and unaccented, but tbe variety of stress can be further marked by

figures, fl. g., ©CTc'bfa"'m!ti^ (©c unmarked or *'«"): Orop^rjogtum,

Sltertumdmnber Sieraigjd^rtger*

Accent in Unoomponnded Words.

420. The chief accent rests in all oncomponnded words on
the stem-syllable (no matter if suffixes and inflectional end-
ings follow). This syllable is always the first, e. g,, 8a'tcr,
»a'tcrlic^, fo'Igfam, 8a'(^erii(i^!eit, XUi'non, f^mei'c^cln, tit ^u'ngembcn.

1. Exceptions: lebe'nbig from le'^tn; words in -ti and -itx, -itrtn, e.g.,
fRalerei^ (tntbei'ou ^ttmaltbti'tn, fbtbie'reiw 8ar6te'r; lut^t'rifc^ (long e), mean-
ing " Lutheran/' pertaining to that confession, but ltt't^r(i)f(^» of, per-
taining to Luther; ^t^rif^ ; a few derivatives in -^'ftig (see 626, 2);
oatr^a'ftig, leit^'ftig, sometimes teil^'ftig; also »a{^Tf(^ei'nli4, but see 422,2.

8. This limitation of tbe primary aooeDt to the root eyllable is a peculiarity of the
Germanic languages. It is called the logical or ** gebondene ** accent. The other
Indo-Buropean languages have the **f^«e" accent, which can Ikll on any syllable.
The original accent must have been preseryed In G. T. until after the ahifting of I. B.
z > G. T. X, because then the law of spliants (see 411) went into efPset,

8. The Teutonic element of Bng. has, of course, the same accent as G. and even the
Norman-French element in Eng. has largely submitted to the Germanic accent, e. or.,
sea'son < L. saHt/nem ; rea'son < L. ratio'nem ; li'berty < L. Uberta'tem. Compare
the foreign accent in G. ©aifo^n, raifonnie'ren, Ouattt&'t. It is to be noted that the two
past participles and the pret. pL were not stem-accented, originally, standing in con-
trast with the pros, and pret. sg. The accented suffixes we cannot enumerate.

Accent in Gomponnd Words.

421. In compound words the chief accent rests upon the
stem-syllable of the first component paxt if the second paxt
is a noun (subst. or adj.); on the stem-syllable of the second
part if this is a verb or derived from a verb : ga'^rfhra'f e,
9la'*t»a^d>tcr, ©d^o'^^u^nti, lie'brel^d^, gna'De^n^o^n, Srt'trag, a'nt^
njort, Sii'rfprcd^, U'rtcil, tto'me^m, aRi'f gunjl ; but ^erfpre'd^en, crtel'^
Ictt, \>emc'^mctt, betra'gctt, uolttrt'ngcn, mif ll'ngen, iDoHfo'mmen.

1. This old principle should be understood even by the beginner, though to him there
will seem to be many exceptions, which an advanced scholar will generally account
for. 9'iittooitetty tt'rteUen are no exceptions, because they are derived from tha nouns

422] PHONOLOGY — ^ACCENT, 191

91'ntn>ori, U'rteil; nor are bad Qetla^ngen, btt Oefc^I, »enic'(mll4f because they are de-
rived from the corresponding verbs. SoIQo'mmeii has the correct accent, becaase it is
a past participle.

The prefixes are fhlly treated in the word-formation, which see.

422. The more striking exceptions are as follows :

1. A large group of words whjch have not become real oomponndfl
but h^ve spmng from mere jaxtaposition in orthography : 1>a^ itUt^o'd^,
vivat ; vieHei'dbt, S^ieaie'b(^en, 2thmo'J^l, Dergi'Smeiimi^t, ^n^na'rr, ^o^er^
prie'fleTf fiangmei'Ie (but fia'ngtoeil after the genuine compound J(u'riti>eU)r
3a5rK«*«t, 3a}n«'i«*f fcrri«i'nis# DreiernigWt, atttr- + -Wh% -c'rfl, -iel'Ugtn*
fef!# etc. ; ^reif0'niddfefl« Their etymologies are apparent.

2. In a number of adjectives, most of them ending in -Xi^t and their
derivatives, the chief accent has shifted from the original position to the
syllable preceding the suffix : VPtiit'gUc^f but Do'rsug; 90Ttre'ffli($; abfc^eu'Uc^i
but ^'bfiieu; audbrfi'ifU^, but 9u'dbnt(f; bie ^ortre'flli^feitr bie Sudf^'^rU^feit,
leibei'gen* In some the accent is uncertain, but the chief accent on the
first element is preferable, e. g,, (a'nbgretflic^ better than ^anbgrei'flic^; no't'
tDenbtgi ma'frr^einltd^, ei'gratfimlici^, A distinction is sometimes made be-
tween tV^tntikmli^, ** belonging to," and eigemft'mli^f " peculiar to." Notice
pffcn^a'r.

8. bannfe'Tjigr full of pity. Star-- (formerly (Efar) as in itarfrti'tag, Good-
Friday, ifartoo'c^ef Holy Week (itar-r+c«r<?, sorrow,but also Sta'xrood^i),
%xof^vlii'(Sinaxa, Corpus Christ!, perhajMS because the meaning of the first
element is no longer clear. @fibo'ft# @&bfubo'ft» norbme'fllic^ as in English.

4. In a large number of adjectives in which the first element denotes
a comparison or a high degree, «.^., ^tmmel^o'd^y as high as heaven, eidfa'It»
as cold as ice, fo^If(^n>a'r$# the accent may stand on the second element, but
must remain on the first when the adj. is inflected. @teinrei'(^» " very
rich," originally '* rich in precious stones," flei'nrei(^» stony, are sometimes
distinguished.

5. aQer- is accented only in a'Uerl^anb and a'llerle{# doubtful in several,
as in a'Qerfeitd. aU- is generally unaccented : aUei'tt^ atim&'il\(f^, aU^mti'n,
but also ^'Ilma^tf WU^attx, WUta^ and its derivatives, but also aUtdi'gUci^, as
sub 4.

0. nn^* For this prefix it is difficult to find a general rule. The best
founded and most practical is this, based upon nominal and verbal com-
pounds : Un- compounded with nouns and adjectives not derived from

192 PHOKOLOGY — ^ACCENT. [423^

verbs attracts the chief accent ; if they are derived from verbs, then the
stem-syllable retains its original accent, e, g,, u'nfrttdjtbar, tt'obanfbar, tt'nHatf
U'nmrnfc^, bat utidlau'Mi($# uiifd'glid^» nnent^e'^TUd^, unt^era'ntwpttli^f unBegrei'flid^.
Notice, however, ixatlMvii, ungc^'er — u'nge^euer. See a.

a. With regard to adjectives there is also a feeUng approaching a principle, that sn
Bhoald have the chief accent, when a regular a4jective exiets, of which the compound
with un- denotes the contrary or negation : bran't^^or, n'oirauil^iai, fi'^tbar, u'nfi^tfeav,
etc. This feeling frequently unsettles the aceent, as uitDeigei^Ii^ > n'noeisei^U^

7. Dber- varies in accent in compounds consisting of three parts. When
it belongs to the second part it has chief stress, and the third part secon-
dary stress : Syi^erfiefer'toerle^liutgf injury of the upper jawbone. But if the
second and third form one subdivision and Dl^er- denotes rank, then it has
less stress than the third part and the second has chief stress : Ober^
f(3^u'ttt*^rar = chief school-teacher; Dbcr^nm'iibfd^c'itf ; Dbcrgtrl'd^lda^moalt,
chief attorney. But accent the first and last examples differently and
they mean different persons, viz., CXberfd^ulIe^^TeTy teacher at a high-
school ; £)'beTgeri(^tdan^maU# attorney at a high-oourt of justice.

423. In compound adverbs the chief accent iaWs generally
upon the second element, if they are compounded of a simple
adverb and a preceding or following nonn or pronoun; or if
compounded of two adverbs, e. g,y bcrgau'f, fbroma'b, ia^rel'n,
ia^rau'd, W^%^f aitjla'tt, l^iitu'ber, l^cr\)o'r, fofo'rt, lOi%x% ta^e'r,
iiberau'^, ukrei'n, ukr^au'))t, ^orta'nbcit, ab^a'ntcn*

1. This includes their derivatives fofo'rtig, jufrie'ben, »or^a'nben»
Exceptions are: 1, compounds which contain demonstrative and posses-
sive pronouns, e.g., be'mnaii^, be'rgc|laU#mei'ncttt)C8en,etc.; a'nbcr- or a'nber*-,
-'Jalb, *^»firW, -fieflern, 6.g,, a'nberdwo, a'nbcrfcitd, o'btr^Ib, ]^ci'm»firtd, »o'r-
wartd, uo'rgeflcrtt, etc.; be'imod^, c'twa; 2, many compounds which are fused
adverbial phrases and derivatives from compounds. They retain their
original word accent, e,g., a'ngellc^td, a'bfeitd» na'(|mittad^» u'bermorgetw
ju'fe^enbd.

See the rhetorical accent, 426.

424. For the secondary accent rules can be given only in
derivatives and compound words.

1. OertaiQ nominal suffixes have always medium stress.

427] PHOKOLOGT— AOCEirr. 193

o. Substantive suffixes: Hit, -ut, -ot; ^eit, -rtc^t, -In, -leit,
-leitt, -ling, -ni«, -fal, fcbaft, -turn, e.g,^ ^erma^t, Jttel'no'^,
e'tpifllel't, gl'ttjlcrnl^d, Irfi'bfaU, JtB'nlfittt'm.

b. Adjective suffixes : -tar, -l^aft, -Ic^t (?), -4)6^ (?), -Iid>, -fam,
-f*9^ «. S'-* beOa'flba'r, cV«i<>a^fl, e'rtl^c^, ^e'rrl'f*, la'ttgfa'm,
trii'bfeUlfl*

2« In nominal compounds the secondary stress &Ils upon
the root-sjUable of the second part, e. ^., Sftit'dgra't, Sa'^rtDa'ffer,
SItt'gettferte, 9ll'^terfii^attng, U'ngere^^tigleU, It'UnmiCU, ^I'lfiSbe:^

8. In double compounds when one or both parts are again compounded
the secondary stress falls upon the first or the only stem -syllable of the
second part But care must be taken in properly separating the parts,

«. g., ©e'tt-Do^rJangf R^^nunfid-a'Magc, ©o'lb-be'rgwe^'rff 9>e'lj-^i^nbWu"1#
gc'lbmaM*«tt; but ^a'tibfcju'^^wa'c^er, Vln'if^vTm-^o^ ©(^Ti'ftjle^aenjerei^u
The misplaced medium stress would give no meaning at all, e. g.,
fltu'^lau)sa:iolh because bau'ml^p^Is is meaningless. In Seu'enoerfld^ng^
^t^CU^diaft secondary accent on -fC^ is only ix>sBible, if there is such a
thing as ffeu'er-re'ttung^gefeSrc^afL

4. The foreign endings, of course, also cross this accentuation, e, g,^

»u'*brutfmr, tt'nterfefretaria't, i'rrlic^teUe'reiu

425. Unaccented are aU inflectional endings, many pre-
fixes and suffixes. The syllables generally contain e = eh.

426. The rhetorical accent (emphasis) can interfere with
the placing of the various degrees of stress, but this does not
differ from the English : ba'rbei and babel' ; ei'nmal, einma'I. In
Sch.'s Wallenstein occurs jta'nn nic^t fein, lann ni'(i^t fein, eta

427* The accent in foreign words is as a rule foreign. Very few words
have taken German accent when introduced since the 0. H. G. period.
Substantives in -ie and -ei, verbs in -ieren retain, for instance, the prima-
ry accent on these suflixes, 0.^., SHagie'f XffteU^it', IbtudtxtV, flttbie'rtn>
(antie'ren.

194 msroBicAL oomkehtaby on accidence. [428-

B. HISTORICAL COMMENTARY UPON THE

ACCIDENCE.

Comments on the Honn-Dedeniion. 1. Yowel-Declension.

i8ae table on neBBtpaffe."}

Tbere we two niimben, three genden. Onlj two caeea taftve now endingB, Tic,
G. «g. andD. pL, but other parts of speech still inflect for the N. and A. The number
of cases was gndoally rednced. In O. H. 6. then is stiD an Instrumental.

428. 1. There were two Iftrge STBtems of dedenslon according as the
Btem ended in a vowel or in a consonant. Vowel stems ended in o or in &.
We generally count here also the i- and tf-stems, bat they really belong
to the consonant stems, since i and n haye the functions of consonants
as well as of vowels. Stems in o (Jo, too) belong to the L £• e — o
ablaut-series and are always masculine or neuter. Stems in d (Jd, tod)
belong to the a — fi series and are always feminine, jo, too, jd, wd are
counted as separate classes, because j and w produced some peculiar
changes, tf-stems are very rare, eince they soon became i-stems, e.g,,
tunu, pi. 9uni, Sd^nc There is only one neuter instem in 0. H. G., vis.,
meri, bad ^ecr + L. m(vre.

2. The consonant stems end in n, r, in a dental and in a gutturaL The
most frequent are the TiHBtems, to which went over a great many fem.
noons from the earliest times, e.g,<t tunga + L. Ungua for dingua.

8. J. Orimm flmcied that there was strength in the yowel-declension and so called It
**" strong," the consonant declension he called ** weak." The names have been genei^
ally accepted and though Grimm's reasons are flmciftil the terms have the advantage
of brevity.

4. The stem and case endings have been very mach redaced according to certain
prindples called the ** laws of finals ** and the '' roles of syncope.** We cannot illus-
trate these here, as it wonld presuppose a knowledge of the older dialects. There was
also a great levelling of cases, «. g.y the N. sg. fem. (^stem) took a from the A. sg. fem.
Its own Towel had to go according to the law of finals.

429. /-Stems.

The paradigms of ''kraft" and "gast" show which cases
were entitled to umlaut. The sg. of the maso. very early took
its G. and D. from the o-stems. The feminine was made in-
variable in M. H. G. since the apparent cause of umlaut had
disappeared and since aU other feminines, strong and weak,
did not vary in the root-vowel.

HISTOBICAL OOHMBNTABT ON ACCID£NCB.

196

QQ

A fl Q §

CD OB (D B

7 I

OQ

• s SoboSbSo

GQ

■

O -

m

o

I •^ 'f™ >fm •«

\AAAA

J^^

q,'©

•S aS (3

rtj V o w V a«

lll§>

^ >->-►►

&&
gg

66

. O ^ S) o & %

a;

V

g

||:jiil'3»

QQ

" d f« cs § ?

«gg§3

Q M N N N

d -^-^

H 43 5 ^ ^

as 2 S 8 § S

4

ftd »i4 4d

fa

^

•a .a

Sll

9 4> O

^

•J n4 -^ _-

1^

jii5 ill _^

222

f Ori

ll

O « p

at

a:

M o O O

gSa

QJ 0) V

a

:Sll

•J4 *^ JM

111

^ ^ ^

Si

'dniaimaj

y

196 HISTORICAL COMMEKTABY OK ACCIDENCE. [430-

430. 1. A smiill group of fem. is interesting, because the sg. was lev-
elled in favor of the longer amlant-forms of the G. and D., while the pL
became weak at the same time. For Instance, bie (&tttt, the duck, inflected
M. H. G. at first anty ente, ente, ant; pL ente, ente, enten, ente. Then it
became ente for the whole sg., enten for the pi., as it is now. Similarly
M. H. G. hltiot, now bie Slftte + blowth ; M, now bie ^Mt, oolunm ; fmrch,
bie BruTJ^e + furrow, no umkut in M. H. G. ; huf, bie ^iafti, this form
'* huft " with excrescent t, + hip, also Eng. with umlaut, + Ags. hype;
stuot, bie Bmt, + stud. %^x&nt, d^^re + tear, SbfirC?) + door, are origi-
nally plurals, that have become singulars. See E^luge.

a. In this way doablets could spring np, «. g., M. H. Q. eg. stai^ stete^ ttete, Uat tax-
nished bie 6tatt + Btead, bie @tabt, pi. ©tftbte, city, and bie @t&tte, pL -n, place, spot-
all + Eng. stead. @tatt on] j occurs in the sense of representation " in place of,'^
anflatt, an feinet @tatt, an ftinbeS^att, to adopt as one^s own child. Another sncb Is
M. H. Q./ar^— modem bie ga^rt, pL ^a^rten, ride, and bie 9&^ite, pi. g&^iten, track,
scent.

2. All nouns in -$ett» -fei^ -r^^f^ and a large group of others were in
M. H. G. still strong (mostly i-stems), but are now weak.

8. The modem fern, nouns in -in, pi. -imien# are also strong in O. H. G.
The suffix -in < -f^ See paradigm of mdgin. They had the fate of
all fern, nouns, viz.. Invariable in the sg., generally -en in the pL

431. Plurals in -er« See paradigm, p. 195.

1. This sign started from old 08-stems corresponding to L.
genus^ generis ; corpuSy corporis. It is rare in O. H. G. in the
sg., where it may have been even reintroduced from the pi.
In the G. and D. pi. -o, -um are the regular case-endings.
"ir therefore is really stem-ending, but it was too convenient
a form for the pL to escape being used as a pL sign. Some
eight to ten nouns are thus inflected in O. H. G. In M. H. G.
-er spread and gradually formed a pi. even of masculines.

2. The word (&i is originally a ^'^-stem. The double plurals in -t and
-er have sprung up from the apparent necessity of distinguishing sg. and
pL of neuters, which according to the law of finals had to lose all end-
ings. Some nouns took t, some er^ some both. In the latter a distinc-
tion in meaning developed. See 68 and the inflection of wort and kM,
p. 195.

434] HISTORICAL COMMENTARY OK ACCIDRKCB. 197

2. Consonant Deoleniion.

432. The masculine and neuter n-stenis ended onoe in -o/i,
-jon^ the feminines in -tfn, -j6n. They correspond to the L.
homOy hominiB; fxdmen^ fulmini%; ratio, rationis. As to their
frequency in the Teutonic languages, see 478, 5. The Latin
declension shows also in the singular, how the case-endings
were added ; in 0. H. G. these appear still in the pL, e. g., in
herzonS 6 is sign of G. pL What was therefore the mere stem-
suffix has become a means of inflection in the course of time.

1. r-stems are the names of relationship, SSaUx, etc. They with the
dental stems were forced into the strong, first into the o-, then into the
i^eclension for lack of case-endings, which coold appear only in the Q.
and D. pi., viz., fatero, faterum. Already in M. H. G. the umlaut
appears in the r-stems.

S. Noims like ttftte, iRengc, QHr5|e end in f or fn in O. H. O.: guoil^ manat/i, -In. That
is, they were>d- and/dn-Btems. They are all derivatives ttom acUectives, and those In
f n are later than those in I. In O. H. Q. they bad f or In throa^hoat except in the G.
and D. pi., which were managinOt manoffim respectively. Therefore umlaat through-
out. The fn-forms had to coincide in time with the strong femlninee In -4fi(}i) at least
In the 8g. and therefore disappeared. Tliey were rarely used In the pi. See paradigm
of mdgin^ p. 195.

433. 1. AH feminines having now no inflection in the ag. and the old strong Ann.
having taken c(n) in the plural, it is difficolt to tell the original yowel-stems from
n -stems. It would be correct to summarize the changes that have taken place in them,
thus:

All fern, nouns have become strong in the sg. and most of them by
far, weak in the plural.

9. The fem. ^•sterns (see paradigm) had already two cases In -m, via., O. and D. pi.,
the other two were like the whole sg. It is not to be wondered at, then, if N. and A.
pi. also took -€n and thus a sharp contrast was formed between the sg. with no varia-
tion and the pi. with -en throughout. By this levelling and by the^ (t and in) stems
the loss of -m in the sg. of »-stems was brought about

434* 1. -n in the D. and G. sg. is still frequent in the 16th century and
is preserved in certain phrases and in poetry. Schiller's Wallenstein's
Lager has j^ird^tn^ ®tubntf®onntn. Oeflgemaurrt in bn (Erben (Sch.). Bee 171.

3. The masculines in -e are the bulk of old n-stems in M. H. G. Some
nouns have become strong, «. g., ^ax, ^a^n ; others have become weak, i

^irte (originally j(hstem), ^elb (already in M. H. G.). See 61. )

8. As to the nouns in 46, 1, in M. H. G. e was dropped after r and 1 in

198

HISTORICAL COMMENTARY OK ACCIDBNOB.

[435-

the N. 8g. and all through ; after m and n only in the N. In modem
G. no -t is the usage. See paradigm of f>ogel, p. Id5.

435. 1. In O. H. O. were only four neuter n-etems, yis., 6ra, O^t ; auga, SCnge ;
Asrza^ i^erj; wangci^ iZBange. In M. H. Q. thej inclined toward the strong and now the
first three haye joined the mixed declension ; wanffa lias become weak and fern.; namOf
hit iRame, was once neater. Comp. L. nonuHt nomiMs. ■

2. Interesting are bit 9iene + bee and bie Sinie + pear, in which the inflectional n has
entered the stem. Compare the older 0C0, Mr. This entering of n into the N. of mae-
culines is very common and has fkunished the hoik of strong nonns, 1. class mh 1 and
4, 46, e. 0r., ytiidtn, (Salgen, $f o|len, Soggen, Gl^aben (but notice the isolated ^ed tfl
Qd^aht," it is too had). One can tell these hy comparing them with their Bng. oogi-
nates + ridge, gaUowCs), post, rye, etc, which show no n,

8. In be r i^eibc < heidan + heathen ; C^rifl + Christian < krMen < L. ckriOkuniB ;
Vtaht < robe and raben + raven, n is lost aa if tt had heen regarded an inflectional snfliz
and the nouns became weak.

4. In bie %tx^t </er8ana^ Ags. fynn ; ftette < tetene, cheHna + Bng. chain through
Romance < V. L. ettdina, L. eatSna ; in bie 9^^ < kSchene, kuehtn < V. L. «ii^na, L.
eoqtdna + Eng. kitchen ; in bie SRette < meiten, mettina < V. L. hm^jui, L. matutlima
(hora) + Sng. matin, the n has also been lost and the nouns became weak.

Comments on the Adjective-DeclenBion.
436. O. H. G. paradigm of o-stems:

Masc.

8g. N. BLiNT, blint^r
G-. BLnrrEB
D. blintema
A. blintan

Instr. BLDTTU

PL N. blinte
G. blintero
D. blint^m, ^n
A. blinte

Fem.

BLDTT, blintiu, -(i)u
blintera, -u
blintero, -a

BLINTA, -e

blinto
blintero
blint^m, -dn
blinto

Neuter.

BUNT, blintaz

BLINTE8

blintemn
BUNT, blintaz

BUNTU

blintin, -(i)a
blintero
blintdm, -^
blintin, ^i)n

437* The adjective was once declined like the suhstantive, when hoth
were still "nouns." In the Teutonic languages the so-called **unin-
fleeted " forms are stiU the noun inflection, hecause *blindoz > blind(t) just
as *daffaz > tag. The Hrong declension is the pronominal inflection, which
in some cases coincided with the substantive declension. These casea
and the uninflected forms are put in small capitals in the paradigm.

438] HISTORICAL COlfKBNTABT ON AOCIDENOB* 199

1. The aclJectlTe pronouos tod the way in this eoaleicenoe of the two bifleetloiis hito
the one ttrong one. bUMir is only S. U., the iininlleeted alone ooenra in M. and L. O.

8. The doable forma WnHu^ Ulntiit are perhaps due toio-stems (PiMil). MntUt ooiild
give M. H. O. blinde. The M. U. U. forms, both strong and weak, dUfer very little
from the O. H. Q. In the nenter pi. bUtuHu lasted long.

8. In O. H. G. the vowel-stems are rednced to <h and jto-etema.
The id-stems are atUl recognisable by the nmlant which rons throoglioat, «.^., Wn,
b&f(, tr&se.

4. The weak declension was exactly like the n-sabst. dedensfen. Now the ag. A.
fem. and neater are like the sg. N. just as in the sabstantives.

Comparison of Ajyeotivei.

438* -^» -eft represent O. H. G. -^o, -dro, -Mf , -^. The ^fomiB, are
not freqaent in O. H. G. % in ir^itt prodaoed ninlaat, which spread in
M. H. G., so that even then the amlant hegan to he looked upon as an
essential part of comparison.

They were declined almost exdosively weak at first, e of bef^&re (K.
sg.) was lost just like the e of vogele, see p. 196.

1. It is generally stated that -iro^ -oro come from an L B. soiBz -^ont, bat how baa
never been made clear. It is probable that, since -oro was at first attached only to
o-etem^ the o Is secondary and dae to the stem-safilx. The comparatiye-saflix seems
to have been -4s and to this -^ was added for the saperlative. fiat -t- is probably
identical with the ordinai-safflx.

Irregular Comparison.

439. Beffcr < O. H. G. hesfjiro^ Ags. hetera^ Bejl < befpd^ Ags.
heUi ; mel^r < O. H. G. mirOf Go. maiza, meifl < O. H. G. meisi.
Go. maists; minber < O.H. G. minniro, M. H. G. minrey mittte|l
represents O. H. G. minnist, M. H. G. minnesL

1. All contain the regular sofSxee. (effer comes perhaps from a stem
*b'ad. lai is the regularly developed comparatiTe adverb. Comp.
M. H. G. min, mS, Ags. min, mSL r disappeared according to the law of
finals. Whether me^r is related to L. magis, major, is doubtfnL minbcr
has excrescent b. The O. H. G. nn shows that L. minur^ is its cognate,
minbcfl is a N. H. G. superlative < minber.

S. (Sifl is < O. H. O. ifisto, comparative iriro. ($|e is a modem formation for the
positive, + Bng. ere, erst. Sc^t comes ttom a stem *iat^ from which Bng. late, later;
Ust — latest ; also + to let = *' hinder.'* la% tired. Qe^t < lett, iatii)8t, Jnst as Eng.
last < latest See Eluge. ^ftift + first is < O. H. O./kiH (adverb), yMfV,yVri«fo.

200

HISTOBIGAL GOMMElTrABT ON ACCIDENCE.

[440-

Comments on the Pronouns.
440. Personal Pbonounb.

M. H. G. Common gender.

L

1 1 .

ITT. refl.

Sg. N.

ich

do, dft

G.

rmtn
((mines,

din

Bin

-er)

diner

fllner

D.

mir

dir

(im)

A.

mich

dich

Rich

Fl. N.

wir

•

ir

G.

unser

iuwer

(ir)

D.

nns

in

(in)

A.

runs
nuRich

rinch
(iuwih

sich

ill. penon with form for each gender.

Sg. N.

er

sin

e^

G.

sin, es

ir, ire

es, sin

D.

im(e)

ir, iro

im(e)

A.

in, inen
O.H.G.

inan

sie

«5

N.,A.

si(e)

Bi(e), si

sin

G.

ir(0.

H. G. iro)

D.

in(0.

H. G. im)

1. The pronouns of common gender come from Tarions stems, which as well as the
Inflections are difficult to analyze, tt, fU, ti come from two stems i{<H —of) and
^ For ed< e^ + Qoth. ita, see 490, 8. Compare L. fo, «a, id.

2. The pronoans were extended by two endings, -er and -en* hi N. H. G.
The G. Bg. meincTf etc., are no donbt due to the inflnenoe of the strong
adjective declension and to unferi eutr (G. pi.). The same endings appear
in berer and benem but these are kiter, since both mtnea and ndner appear
in M. H. G. sporadically, iuch, originally A., spread over D. like the
reflexive "sich." tin crowded oat es (G. masc.) already in O. H. G. and ea
(neuter G.) has general force, not referring to a single object. N. H. G.
3!ffxo is probably an analogous form with " dero " before a title and not

443] HISTORICAL C0MM£1{TAKY OK ACGIDBNCE. 201

the old fern. G. eg. or pi. iro as generally stated, ir (G. pL) was still tbe
rule in the 16th century and as G. sg. still in the 17th. beiner was estab-
lished later than mtiner and ftmer» which were the rule early in the IVth
century.

441. PossBSSiVB Pronouns.

a. The poBseBBlve pronouns ue of the eame origin as the genitives meln, bcln, fctUr etc,
of the personal pronoun. They are most likely not derived from the latter as is gener-
ally stated, but rather the reverse. The adjective suffix -in< f n seems to lie in them
attached to the primitive stems ^mOt *ttoa^ ^ttoa, which appear in all Indo-Buropean
languages. Comp. L. meu8^ tuu8^ tmu^ mdl, ^, tuL

1. In 0. H. G. the poesesBives were declined strong even when preceded
by the definite article. In M. EL. G. the weak declension came into use.
The long forms in -ig sprang up late in the 16th century.

d. 3(tr her, their, however, is derived from the G. of the personal pro-
noun of the third person. It sprang up in the 12th century and was
fully established in the 16th.

442. Thb DEMONSTBATiyB Pbonoxtn.

O. H. Q. Masc. Fem, Neat

Sg. N. d« (thie), der diu da;

G. dgs d§ra, -o des

D. d§mu, M. H. G. d6m(e) deru, M. H. G. der(e) d§ma

A. den d^, dea, dia da;

In. dia diu

PL N.9 A. d^, dea, dia deo, dio del, dia

' , '

G. d§ro

D. ddm

a. Slevers assumes two I.-B. stems, to, tfo ; Paul only one, to, explaining 1 as due
X> the diphthonglsation of 6 > ea > ia. di without r Is the older ; r is the same as in
weTy er^ + L. guia^ is. to is treated as o and i stem, di < thai, del is probably dual
like zwel. O. H. O. tUu < G. T. thata, in which final t is a particle. The Instr. exists
still in the isolated nbeflo," + the In *' the more," < dMde < du^iu, des is the Gen.

448.

0. H. G.

Hasc.

Fem.

Neut.

Sff. N. dfiee, ddsd-r

delsu, dinsin

die, dSiad, di^

G. ddsses

dfisera, derra

dSsses

etc.

etc.

etc.

d4»i Is composed like a strong a4)ective of de and a particle sa. In the G. sg. both
elements are inflected, generally only the second, dif has in f the neuter pronombud

202 HISTOBICAL COMMENTABY OK AGCIDEKCE. [444-

safflz, but nothing else in it iB explained. In If. H. O. the fofaa tteg^natng with di"
prevailed, always short, bled goes back to O. H. O. dif, bat UcfcS first appears as late
as the 15th century. Hans Sachs still spells diz^ dWL,

1. jen-er seemB to contain the same suffix -4n as the posBessive pronoona.
Its stem is limited to the Teutonic languages.

The origin of m^tlh" + self is dark.

fol($ + such is compounded of swa, so, fo and llch, like, -H^.

2. The pronominal stem hi, which appears also in the Eng. pronoun he,
his, him, her, is hidden in ^eute < hiudagu (Instr.), l^cuer < Mu0€iru, ^nt
(now dialectic) < M. H. G. hinet < Mnaht, + to-night It occnis also
in the adverbs (im fftt, + hi-ther. Compare L. M-e, hae^, ho-c,

444. iKTEBROOATiyE Fbonounb.

O. H. O. Masc. and Fern.

N. huer

G. hues

Neater.

•

H.H.Q.

w6r, waj
w§s

D. huemu

wem(e)

A. haen(aii)
Instr.

hna^
bnin, hin

wen, way
win

From the stem -ko with k* that was labialized in Latin and

the Tentonic lanffu

Compare L. quit— quid, quod, which perhaps requires another L B. stem H. A. AiMium
is only O. H. O. and the ending is taken from the adjective dedension.

1. »it < O. H. Q. win, huiu, + why, how, comes from this stem, G. T.
htoor-, I. E. ko-, + Go. htoaiteOf Ags. hiL But the phonetic relation be-
tween tt)ie» why and how is not jet cleared up.

Eng. whom is really the D. + totm, but served as D. and A. very
early.

2. totld^ < O. H. G. hu&ih, toeUeh, + which < Ags. htoyle, lit "how
or what like.'*

8. toeber + whether, now only conjunction, is still a pronoun in the
16th century. Formed by the comparative suffix -btr < thar < tero from
ko- the interrogative stem. Comp. Gr. Korepoc, archaic form.

445. Indefinite Pbonounb.

1. itbcTf iemanbf niemanb contain the prefix to, m, ie^ + ever, io gave the
original interrogative toeder indefinite force, ieber < ieuMer < iotoSder,
Like " either," it meant *'one of two," " which ever you please." The end-

446]

HISIOBIOAL OOMXflNTABT OK AOCIDBVOB.

203

ing -er was oonf onndr) With the iidyectiye-endliigB -n# -c# -<4 and the
full forma ithmx, icbcrc> iAtxt^ are praerved, though raiep down to the
17th century.

iemanb ia compoxmded of ie — man, ttiemoiib of nt — i0 — man* Aa to b»
aee 401. 2.

iegtidj < iegdih < io—gUih, " ever (the) like."

2. iebweber < ie — detoSder, " anj one of two." It oontaina an element
de, which is also in etU(t» tttoa^* Its origin is unknown, frin < deehdn.
This also oontaina an obeoure element dee^.

8. anber + other is a comparatiye like wcbct# < O. H. Q. andar < *aii
— ^teio.

Comments on the Conjugation.

446.

Stbonq YicBBa

1

O.H.G.

H.H.a

Pres, ind.

BtOii.

8g. 1. nimn

ngme

nime

nSme

2. niniiR(t)

nemes

nimest

nSmeat

3. nimit

ngme

nimet

n3m»

PL 1. nemam(6s)

nem£m(6s)

nemen

nemen

2. nemat) et

ngmSt

nemet

nemet

8. nSmant

ngm6n

nSment

n3men

Pret, ind.

8ubi.

Sg.l, nam

nAmi

nam

naome

2. nAmi

1

n&mis

nsBme

nsBmest

8. nam

n&mi

nam

nsBme

PL 1. n&miim(68)

n&mim(6s)

n&men

nsBmen %

2. n/9.Tnat

n&mtt

n&met

naomet

8. nftmiin

nftmin

n&men

nsBmen

Imp.

2. sg. nim

I^f. nSman

nim

nemen

1. pi. n@Tnam(6s)

Ger, ze n§manne

nemen

ze nemenne

2. pi. nemat

Pre8.part. nemanti

ngmet

nemende

Pott part, ginoman

genomen

204 HISTOBICAL COMMEKTABY ON ACCIDENCE. [447-

447 Weak Yebbs.

O. H. G. M. H. Q.

Imp. 2. sg. neri salbo ner salbe

Pret. nerita saTbdia, d^ta nerte salbeie

AA neren salbdn nem salben

Part, nerenti salbdnti nemde salbende

ginerit gisalbdt genert gesalbet

a. Grimm called a verb " strong" because It would form Its preterit of its own
Bonroes, without the aid of composition. We retain the terms ^ strong *' and ^* weak '*
simply because they are generaJly used.

44& Tenses.

There are only two simple tenses left in the Genniinic languages, yix^
the present and the " preterit" which corresponds in form to the " p^
feet " of the other I. E. languages. What we call " the sabjonctive " is
in form the optative, the suffix for which was ie—i, in an o-verb of course
-oi. Compare the Greek ^pot— Go. nimai,

449. Personal suffixes. There were two classes. The prima-
ry were added to the present and the sabjnnctiye mood, the
secondary to the preterit and the optative mood. The O. H.
G. 1. pi. in -mis is qnite a mystery. The 2. p. sg. present in
8t, prevailing in O. H. G., has sprang from analogy with
nimis — tu and the pret.-present verbs, e. ^., cansi. '^bistu**
occurs in the very oldest sources.

1. The 1. p. sg. present is either u < o in nearly all verbs or m < m»
in the few mi-verbs, e.g., nimii hut t%u>m. Peculiar is that the 2. p.
preterit subj. has entered the preterit ind. The regular ending was -t,
as still found in Gothic and in the preterit-present verbs, e, g.. Go. namt^
G. bu toilt, foU (archaic). The other personal endings are quite regular.

2. These suffixes were either attached to the bare stem as in the wit-
verbs or by means of a connecting vowel generally called ** thematic
vowel," which was I. E. o — e for all strong verbs and in O. H. G. i, S or
6 for weak verbs.

4B0. Impkrattvb. The 2. p. sg. has the syncopated form of short-
stenmied verhs which once ended in -e: neme > nimi > nim. In

463] HISTORICAL COJUCBirCABY ON ACCIDENCE. 205

weak vetha the ending is amalgamated with the oonnecting vowel :
neri, taXbo, neri should heoome ner, hut there was levelling in favor of
the long-stemmed verh. The 1. p. pi. is exhortative. It is Indicative.

45L iNFiNmYE. This is a verbal noon ending in -nth-. Perhaps aa
isolated aocnsativa

462. Gebunditb. It is confounded with the infinitive with which it
has originally nothing to do. Suffix is -t^ ; hence the double n. It
was inflected like anj noun. Since in modem German it has taken a
construction similar to the Gerundive of Latin grammar, we have called
it " Gerundive." The form with -t occurs, according to Weinhold, aa
earlj as the Idth century in Alemanic. fi tuanne and fi tuande were con-
founded. In the latter form lies the modem construction, as in cim in
bccu^tenbe S)oif4rifi«

463. Partigiflbb. The suffix of the present participle was -nt, a
consonant stem, but afterwards a j<h, jd^em, hence nematUL For the
^ouns Srcunbr ffeinby $eUanbi see 606.

1. The passive participles are two verbal adjectives formed by means
of -t6- and -n6- (both accented) from the verb-stems, not from the
tense-stems. They were at first not limited, --t^ to weak verbs and
-n^ to the strong. Compare mtM- (the modem prefix mig- + En^.
mis-) < misto < *mith — 16 the weak stem of the verb inc{ben# vi'
gemiebetu to avoid : gmig < gawisa < ^-vitta < *tDi(Ud, from the stem
of mii, toiffen; aU + old < al— t6- from the strong verb (Go.) alan + L.
alere, to nourish. Besides in these and other isolated forms -t6- occurs
in the past part, of the pret-pre& verbs and in a class that had no con-
necting vowel, e.g., gebra^tf geba^ty etc., see 464, 8. Compare Gr. -roc, L.
^tiM. -no is rare in non-Germanic languages ; compare L. dignuB, plenuB
+ full.

3. The prefix ge-. It is the inseparable prefix ge- and belonged at first
only to the participle of verbs compounded with it. But in simple verbs
it could give the present the force of the future, it would emphasise the
preterit or give it the force of the pluperfect and give the infinitive de-
pendent upon a modal auxiliary the force of the perfect inf. Thus also
n the participle it emphasissed the completion of an act. Some parti-
ciples very rarely took ge- in M. H. G., 6. ^., komen, warden, funden,
Id^eUf flrepfen, heifen. »®nabe funben" is common in the Bible. The
Patriarch in Lessing's Ifathan uses it Compare Eng. ydad, yclept

206 mSIOBIGAL COMMENTABT OK JLOCIDSNOE. [454-

454. Weak Ykbbs.

1. The connecting vowels are iQ), 6, in O. H. O. The original type of connecting
vowel is sapposed to have been ojo— ejo, but the reduction to 6 (Go. a!) and A is by no
means clear. The large majority have iQ) < *4^, but a not small number both of orig-
inally strong and weak verbs have none. The preterit is formed by the suffix -<a, now
-te. Its origin is by no means settled. Paul reconstructs two suffixes^ via., -<tAd
and -ta. The Old Saxon forms M^da, Aaftdo, Mda with corresponding participles can

only come from VdAdj from which is atoo t^on + to do. The majority of verba take
I. B. -to,> tha>da>ta according to yenier*8 Law. See 411.

2. We distiDgaish originally three classes : 1, no connecting vowel in
the preterit ; 2, connecting vowel and short stem ; 3, connecting vowel
and long stem.

8. There was very early (in O. H. G.) a levelling between the 2. and 8.
classes, because in short-stemmed verbs, in which no syncope coold take
place, j(i) caused doubling of the final consnant. This made them appear
like long-stemmed ones. The first class has now been reduced to the
three verbs ben!m# bunfen* and bringen, see 454, 3. Ck>mpare O. H. G.
denken, ddhta, giddJU ; dunken, dHAta, gidOM; bringen, brdhta, gibrdht
Long H < a nasalized < an. braud^etif f&T(^ten# fut^etif tDtrfen (< toitrfen)
belonged here also. Eng. bay, bought, bought ; work, wrought, wrought
show still their origin in the gh before t. Sringen is of coarse a strong verb
and so are hrOkan (II.), suochen (VI.) as their ablaut shows. 93egimien be-
longed here perhaps too, since we find still in dialect (egoimte (F. 8176).
That these verbs never had any connecting vowel is shown : 1, by the
ehange of the guttural stop > guttural spirant which takes place only
directly before t ; 3, by the umlaut in the pret. subj. For the M. H. G.
forms are denken, ddhte — doshte, geddht; dunken, d4hte — diuhte, gedHht;
hringen, hrdhte — brcBMe, {ge)brdlU. bMm, bfinftCr gebunft begins as early
as M. H. G. The present mir baud^t is a N. H. G. formation from the
preterit. That fitr(^tra once belonged here Is shown by the archaic
form irfitT^te,'' e.g., Der toadVe Sd^toaht fox^V f!d^ nit (U.). Lessing has
wfur^te," < O. H. G. furhten (vUrhten), far{a)lUa, gifor{a)lU (the a is a
secondary development).

455. The verbs in 119, 1, are the only verbs that still sh
the difference between the long and short-stemmed of the i(j)-
dass. They formed their principal parts in O. H. G. : brennen,
branta, gibrennU — gibrantSr ; nennen, nantOy ginennit — ginantSr.
According to Efyncope *brannita, *gibrannUir had to become
brardOy gibrantSr. The i that produced umlaut in brennen^

467] HISTOBIOAL GOKMENTABY OK JLOOIBBKOB. 207

gibrennU had disappeared from trannUOj gUbrannitSr and
therefore there is no nmlant in brannte, geirannt. The parti-
ciple with umlaut was levelled away.

1. The tunlaut in the modem pret. snbj. is due to analogy with br£4te»
b&rfte» etc. It Is a liiddle German feature. Even preterits indicative
with e of renneiu brennciw nemten occur now and then in the classics. The
levelling into fcnbttu fcnbetc* 0efcnbet$ tootben^ tocnbete, getoenbet is not uncom-
mon. Schiller hss • . • bk ^xta^t, too er bad »on ben 8(^oebm erobertc
C^am bcremtte.

3. All other differences were levelled away, e.g,, M. H. Q. haren, Mrte,
gekoBret—gehSrty becomes (dreiw (9rte# gcl^dTt; fttrc^teur fikrd^tete# gcfftr^tet ;
fpreitden, f^rengtCf gefprengt; fiiaeit, ffiStCr gef^t; becfen, Mtt, gcbetft.

8. A few isolated participles are left, such as gefklt (ttngeflaU)^ dctrofl
(adverb), and others.

Stbono Yebbs.

456. The Present

1. The interchangoB of e — i ; ie — eu ; no umlaat^nmlaut in the present and the nm-
lant in the pret. snbj. are accoonted for in the phonology. See 403. Bee also nnder
each class of yerbs.

2. The first p. sg. has followed the analogy of the forms that have e
and of the verbs of VI. which had of course no umlaut in 1. p. sg., e.g.,
O. H. G. faru, ferist, ferit. The contrast is now for all classes between
2. and 8. pers. sg. with i, &, etc.: bu faVf^r tx fa(rt# bu gi(fi# cr 0ibt and
all the other forms with a and e : fa^rem id^ faVe# toix fa(rfn» i^r fa^rt, ffc
fajren; gebra, i^ %tU, ttir ^tUxi, l^r gebct, |!c gcben. Formerly the contrast
was between the whole pres. sg. and the whole pi. for CI. III., IV., V.
Bee paradigm, p. 208.

457. Of the numerous formations of the pretent-ttem the following
are still to be recognized by certain peculiarities :

1. I. E. jo~-J6, L. eapiOj fugio, German bitten V. < h%c(jan < *bec^jan,
according to the interchange of e— i, hut the participle gcbeten < bedan-.
Exactly Tke this Wen V., Uegen V., but gefcffen, fielegen. Also ^cbcn VI. and
W»iJrm Vi., e.g., W»9rtn < etoem < stoerien < stoarjan, aiodr, stDaran-,
Hence i, or in the last two, a umlaut through the whole present This
was once a large group. Here belonged for instance the class bmfeiti
ba(^tc# see 464, 8, + Go. (harden.

2. The suffix -n (~nw, tij), which also entered the pret. if it was
within the roQ(6, fraacn < ^frehnan, Ags. frignan, but already weak in

208 niSTOBICiLL COMMENTABT OH ACCIDENCE. [458-

O. H. G. tmUntn < an O. H. G. ((fy-ioahhinnen, nn < nj. ibeginneiu
rinnen and others have nte. Go. itandan, GFeiman flunb, fianb — geflanbtn;
(de^ai)# gien0f gegangetu fandtn* etc Compare L. tundOf tuttidi.

8. Reduplication, corresponding to Gr. rt&rifu and nitrru, is preserved
in bebcn < biben, to quake, and sittcnu to tremble, both weak (Kluge).

4. Bk, corresponding to L. -sco, in brcfc^ctu forf<^ tounfti^ toaf^en (see
Kluge's Diet for these words).

45a The Preterit

1. Bedvplieation, There are traces of ablaut without rednplication, hat general^ the
two occurred together. In Gothic are stUl Terbe which have both. The redaplicatioii
coneieted in the repetlton of the initial consonant + e or if beginning with a vowel by
prefixing *e. e. g.^ Go. haidan^ haUuUd (ai = 6 in Gothic), aukan^ aiauk. O. H. Q. has
only one clear example, vis., Uta^ i^ t^ot. Compare L. faUo^ftfiUi^ tango—UHffL
How the redaplicating syllable was lost, how it coalesced with the stem la not yet
clear. Oar YII. class inclades the redaplicating verbs, that is, those still redaplicat-
ing in Gothic, though it is by no means certain that Gothic baa preaerved the original
method of reduplication.

2. In 0. H. G. the stem-vowel of the reduplicated preterit appears as 6
and eo, e. g,, rdtan ret, fdhan feng and flng (fahan < fimhan). t hj
diphthongization > ea> ia> ie; eo > io > ie, bo that already in M.
H. G. we have ie as the regular vowel of the preterit. Examples:
stfk^an — ateoi^, stio^, M. H. G. ttie^—gistS^n; Jdovfan — KUof, Miof^
M. H. G. lief—gMmfany N. H. G. laufen— lief— gelaufen ; faUan—fU
> feal > flal > fiel {U.R. Q.)-^ ffifaOan, N. H. G. faflen— fici— gefanen;
hei^an—heff, heof, hic^, M. H. G. Me^—giheif^an, N. H. G. teiien— l^iej
— gejeigctt.

& However the vowel appearing in the pret may have aiisen, it ia not aNaut, It
never appears in derivatives as all the ablaut vowels do. Unterf^ieb is only a seeming
exception, since it stands for the older ,,UnteTf^ib/' which was crowded out, because
the verb went over into the I. CI.

The Ablaut-series and the Verb-classes.

459. No one verb shows all the four stages of ablaut as they have
\)een determined. See 394. The first five classes belong to the origi
nal I. B. e— o series, the VI. is the I. B. & — a, G. T. & — series. To
the latter series belong also the reduplicating verbs which have in the
stem a + liquid + cons, (halteu) ; ai (ei) ; and bxl, o.

460] HISTORICAL COKMEKTABT ON ACCIDENCE. 209

In the first groxip 6 oorresponds to O. T. 6, 1 ; o to O. T. a In the prel
i^., for in L and II. we must count i and a as conaonanta. The fire
classes can he grouped as follows :

1. a. I., n.: 1 and a as consonants in the pres. and pret. sg.; at
Towels in the pret pi. and part, via.,

6 - i + cons. a - i + cons. i + cons.
6 - a + cons. a - u + oons. a + oons.

The stem ends in i or u + cons.

h, m., lY., y. have in the present 6 - 1 + Uquld or nasal + cons. (III.);
e + liquid or nasal (IV.), or e + con& (V.). In the pret Bg, they have a.
The stem ends in a liquid or nasal + oons. (III.) ; in a single liquid ot
nasal (IV.) ; in a single oons. not liquid or nasal (V.).

3. L, II., m. have the weakest stages of ablaut in the pret. pi. and
partidple ; IV. in the part only ; V. in neither. IV. and V. have a long
vowel in the pret pL, that is very difficult to account for. 0. H. G. ft
corresponds to G. T. S, the length of which may be due to comx>ensation,
^'ff'» *g%bum > g@bum. See 468, 1.

8. A third grouping Is possible according to the quality of the vowel,
viz., L to V. run in a system of unrounded vowels, VI. runs in a system
of rounded.

a. tL (o) In n. \b either consonaat in the aooented stage (pree. and pret. sf(.) orTowel
In the nnaocented atage (pret pL and past part), a before r, 1, m, n in the unaccented
stage is also dne to their doable natore, aooording to which they senre as vowels or as
consonants. NoioHt and Idqtdda mnant (Bmgman) are represented In all the Tea-
tonic dialects by or, ol, am, an, a ehaiacteristie of the whole groap.

4. VI. stands alone and contains rounded vowels. Its a cannot have
been originally the same as the a of the other series. It was probably
more o than a.

Levelling in the Pbetebit.

460. Tracing the classes from O. H. G. to N. H. G. we have to notice
one great levelling in all the classes, via., of sg. and pi. pret. This was
started by VL and VII., which had qg. and pL alike. In IV. and V. the
difference was only one of quantity. The sg. was short and the pi. was
long. The sg. had to take a long vowel according to 488, 2.

1. In cm. G. T. au> ao> 6 before dentals, before 1, r, h, and finally

310

HISTOBIGAL COMHENTABY OUSC jLCdDEVCE.

[401-

There were therefore already 0*8 in the imt. tg. The leveUiiig was ia
favor of 6, but of 6 before oertaiii coiia(MiaiitB(fr, (^, f, b — t). 5 was already
in the past part < it Only L and IIL are left. Bat in L i > ei accord-
ing to 488, 5. The pres. and pret. had to become alike. The principle of
ablaut was thus interfered with in I., and the levelling in the pret. was
in flBkvor of the pi. and part., viz., i or ie according to the following con-
sonants. IIL is the only class in which the levelling was in favor of the
pret. sg. Before nasal + cons, n stood in the pL and part A levelling
in favor of the pi. was therefore not likely. In IV. and V., where such a
levelling occurred, the pi. and part, had different vowels. Before 1, r, +
cons., to be sure, there was a in the pi., o In the part., but a — o stood
in no ablant-relation. Bat this levelling was the latest of all and we
find none in S. G. dialects at the present day. In the written language
of the 16th and 17th centuries it is rather rare ; in the 18th it is the rule
with not a few exceptions. SBerbem loarb — tourbe, geivorbenis the only
verb of IIL in which the pi. -vowel stands by the side of the sg. But this
verb stands isolated from the rest as an auxiliary verb. The pret.-pre8.
verbs have not suffered levelling except rolIm(see 471, 2), but these have
stood in an isolated position toward all the other strong verbs from pre-
historic times.

461. We give a few examples of the classes in fhelr earlier stages. Space will not per-
mit to trace each verb of each class. It would be easy to show what verbs have died
ont, what verbs have become weak, and what weak or foreign verbs have hecome
strong. The stock of verbs belonging to each class varies with every period; in fact,
it is ever varying. Compare, e.ff,, ias, ia%, fta%, fcng VI. (see 129)» and the huge num-
ber of doubtfnl ones in Yin.

462. I.CL O. (M.)H. G. 1

ei, 6

grtfan

greifm

greif

zihan

snidan
fAneiten

nneit

f^nltt

grifnm
flriffen

zignin

snitom
fAnitten

-gri&n
flegriffen

— zigan
geale^en

Hsnitan
gefd^nttten

1. The interchange of h— g, d— t according to Vemer's Law, see 416.
1 > ei according to 488, 6. N. H. G. i in the whole pret. by levelling,
ei > e before h, r, w. i represents both the medium stage G. T. €i and
the weak stage i. i is the zero stage.

464]

HISTORICAL OOKMBirrABY OK ACCIDENCE.

211

. n. 0. H.

G. in — io

OUy 6

il 6

triofan

trouf

trofum

-trofan

trtefen

trojf

troffen

fletroffen

kiosan

kds

kanun

-koran

llefen, titrm

b«, br

(er)brrn

erforen

siodan

sdt

sutum

-fiotan

fleten

fott

fotten

0efotten

stdsji

8onf

Bufam

Hsofan

faufen

foff

fojfen

flcfoffen

1. The interchange of in — io aooording to 406; in in the pres. Bg.
trlnAi, triufist, trinfit, hut pi. triofam^ etc., inf. triofan. For a period
this iu, having passed > U, became en by diphthongiiation. These forms
aie now archaic, ie prevailing through the whole present, see 124.
M. H. G. io > ie. G. T. au > ou, but > ao > 6 before dentals, 1, r, h
and finally. The interchange of s — r, d — t according to Yemer's Law,
but levelled, as in f(^neibtn I., in favor of t, in the whole preterit. In
M. H. G. kiesen, kos, kom, gekoren for a while, but later, !icfni# !od#
gefofen; fiefen# for, gcforen; now VXxtn, for, geforen. See 132.

2. In this series all the four grades of ablaut are represented, ou
strong ; io, iu medium ; ^ the weak ; {L zero. ^ > au regularly. ^ ap-
peared in verbs that had the accent on the sufllx. Ck)mpare 467.

464. ni. CI. 0. (M.) H. G. e— i &

V a, a before nasal + oons.; e — i, n — o before r, 1 i- cons.

a— d

Bwimman

swam

Bwnmmum

Hjwumman

f(!^mimmen

fAtvantm

fd^toammen

gffd^toontittctt

fintan

fant

fonliim

-fantan

ftn^en

fanb

fantm

gefunten

helfan

half

hulfnm

-holfan

^elfen

M

(alfen

ge^olfen

1. This is in N. H. G. the most primitive series, finben, fanb, gefunben Is
already the G. T. series. In the second group (see 126, 2) the secondary

212

HISTOBICAL COMMENTiLBY ON ACCIDENCE.

[465-

transition of a > o is a M. G. feature. It takes place before vm and mm.
The older transition from a > o before 1, r + cons, is already O. H. G.
See 406.

2. The interchange of S — i is regular (see 403). It appears in III.,
IV., V. alike.

8. The double preterit subjunctiye (see 125) is due to the levelling of
the indicative. The subjunctiye was regularly formed with the vowel of
the pi. and omlaut of the same. Now when the vowel of the sg. spread
over the pL it is natural a new subjunctive should be formed also by um-
laut: fdnbCf hSx^t, Wherever the new pret. subj. in d did not approach
too closely to, or coincide with, the present ind., it prevailed as in the
first division: ftabe — fdnbe# blnbe — bdnbe, gclingc — gcldngc. Where such
a coincidence was the case, the old subjunctive is still in use and prefer-
able as in the third division: bngc — (bdrgc) bfirgCr fhrbc — fWrbc, Wttbc —
rovixU, see 126. Seftl^len and empfe^Ien of IV. belong here since in M. H. G.
they were bevelhen, enpfelhen, containing 1 + cons, fttfjltn TV < stein has
followed the analogy of III., 8, on account of ftafjUt, the regular subj. and
fleble the pres. ind. The 2. division has 6 for older Vl just as it has o for
u : gewllnne > getoomier but the new ones in & are quite common except of
rinnm# on account of renncn.

4. e — i is the medium stage, a the strong ; the weak and asero appear
as u — o.

465. IV. CI. O. (M.) H. G. e— i

&

stelan stal

fle^Ien flabl

koman, qu^man qnam

lommen lam

st&lum
fla^Ien

qa&mnm
lamen

a

Hstolan
geflo^Ien

-koman
gelommen

1. Here is again interchange of e^i. ft prevailed in the pret. u >o
regularly.

8. Queman > koman according to 489, 1. It is possible that *^ koman "
is the weak grade (see 471, 2). jled^eti belonged originally to Y. ; it has
no liquid. Before ^ and ff the vowel is short, except in the pret. of
course : flld^en/ ^6i, aeflo(^en.

469]

HISTORICAL OOKHBirrABT OK ACCIDKKOE.

213

466. V.a. O.H.G. e

&

&

e

geban
geben

gab

60i

gftbom
goben

-g€ban
S^fleben

d^^an

effen

4?, aj

af

a^en

-e^an
(aOfl^fftn

bitten
iitten

bat

lot

bAtom
loten

-bdtan
gebeten

wdsan
(fein)

was

max

w&rom
toarfti

-wdsaa
gnoefen

1. In 6 the three lowest grades are represented, there was no liquid or
nasal to represent the & and 4. grades. & is the strong stage. The origin
of £ is not certain. &^ is perhaps from'ea^, 'e being the reduplicating sjl-
labia For bitten, see 457, 1. In the part, the interchange of s — r was
levelled away after the in£ as early as 0. H. G.; in the pret. with the
levelling of the vowels. SDad is archaic in Fenchteerleben's : ®o (if)
bit gefd^tnft ein J(n5n)Iein toad. Interehange of e — i as osiial and quantity
of € depends upon the following consonants.

467. VLCLO.H. G. a— e

faran
fasten

beffen
M. H. G. heben

faor
fu^r

huob
huop

l^ob, ^ub

no, 6

faomm
fttl^ren

hnobum
hnobnm
l^oben, l^ttben

no, 6 a

-faran
gefa^ren

-haban
-haben
ge^oben
(er)iaben

1. This series has only two grades, strong and weak-medium, see 400.
G. T.d>uo>tl. For e in heffen, bebcUf see 467, 1. For a >o, see 480, 8.

468. YII. CL Its verbs do not form an ablaut-series, see 458.

469. Vlll. CI. Its yerbs have mostly o for &, a in the pret.
and the majority belong to HE., IV., Y. Some of these were
unsettled very early, e. g,, M. H. Q.pjkgen IV. and V. For
4 > o, 6, see 489, 3.

214 HI8I0BI0AL GOMHKNTABT OK AGOIDENGS. [470^

The Preterit-Present Verbs.

470. In theee the meaniDg admitted the perfect to be tised as a pres-
ent. They are a primitive class. Compare Qr. olda, idfiev, Lat. odi, n-offi.
With a few irregularities they can yet be assigned to the regalar ablaut-
series as has been done (see 135). Weak preterits were formed without
connecting vowel. Therefore umlaut in the subj. The stem-vowel is
th6 same for the old pret. pi., the new preterit, the participles and the
infinitive. The participles (see 463, 1) were formed either weak or strong,
generally weak. Since the infinitive is a new formation as well as some
of the strong participles, and since as in gan— gunnen (gonncn) the strong
participle was formed before there was an infinitive, it is hardly correct to
say the infinitive is used instead of the part, in modem German : eigeiu
O. H. G. gatoi^an, M. H. G. gunneUy gegunnen^ {eryeunnen are strong
participles. The others, bilrfm^ fdnnen* m5g(n, folIfn» were formed later. No
doubt, participles like hei^^en, Ifi^en, etc. (see 463, 2), had their influence
in the non-use of g^-.

1. The inflection of the present is that of the regular strong pret. They
have even one very old feature, viz., in 2. pers. sg. t is used, the second-
ary ending, while in all other strong verbs the optative has entered the
indicative, e. g., ndmi, but tarsi ( + durst) darfty 9caU ( + thou shalt),
maht. St in canst, anst is a mystery. This t still occurs in the 16tb and
17th centuries, bu foU nic^t fle^len (B.).

471. 1. O. H. G. wei^ — wi^^mn I. corresponds exactly to
Gr. olda — fSiiev, in ablant and consonants.

2. scal^ scalt (2. pers. sg.), senium, scolta lY.

It is possible that senium is older than the long vowel of IV.
{** stalum "), for it may be the weak grade of ablaut, like -boran, sflf an.

8. 0. H. G. mvLOj muost muo^um muosa and muosta

M. H. G. muo^ muost mde^en muose, muoste

subj. mtlese, mlleste

N. H. G. muSf mu^tr mitfrenr mu^te, m&itt.

Of the double form muose — muoste the former is the older and regu-
larly developed, muose < *m5t-ta, muosta has the sufSz added once
more. The umlaut that appears in M. H. G. and later in the pres. pi. and
inf. is difficult to account for.

474] HISTOBICAL GOMXEirrABY OK ACCIDENOK. 216

4 foS < Bchol < Bchal < seal. Why f < M f Ckimpftre O. and Bl

H. G. skal — 6al, but always @(ttt(b.

6. gSmien III. and taugm II. have become weak. They come respec-
tively < ganr-gunnen, in which g- is prefix, and < toue-tugen, to be fit,
+ Eng. do in " it will not do," " how do you do " (?).

6. cigeti + own < eigtm Is the strong part, of a stem of which there
appears only a pL aigum in 0. H. G. g according to Vemer's Law. It
belongs to the a — % ablant-aeries like hei^an — hS^ — gihei^p^. tar
— turien + dare has disappeared. Its meaning has passed into barf —
burfen.

472. 1. Notice that Eng. mutA is really a doable pret.-pres. verb,
must is the weak preterit used again as a present, loufte < weste, see
488, 1. Compare Eng. to wit, wist, wot. See Skeat.

2. 0. H. G. wili wilt, wili, pl. wellemes, wellet, wellent, pret. welta, inf.
wellan. o appears already for e in this period (see 480, 1). M. H. G. 8.
I>erB. sg. is wilt, wiL N. H. G. toiUfl. This is really no pret.-pres. verb,
but we have according to custom put it at the end of this class. It is
really a mi-verb, whose ind. was lost. Compare L. telim,

Mw,^ /. i Mi-Verbs.

473. fein.

1. O. H. G. bim, bis(t), ist, birom, birut, sini Subj. st, eto.
Inf. stn, wesan V. Imp. wis, wesat, stt ; pret. was ; subj.
w&ri. In M. H. G. the pres. pL runs: 1. p. birn, sint, stn;

2. p. birt, sit, sint ; 3. p. sint, sin. In N. H. G. toir fint < tbe

3. person; {%x fcl^ < tbe subjunctive; (le finb is primitive, comp.
L. 8unt^ sint.

2. Three stems have helped to form its conjugation, viz., Ves-, l^'x-,
L. fui, Gr. 0V6), and the verb wSsan. It would lead us too far to enter
minutely upon the part each plays, but the development is not at all dif-
ficult to trace. Only r in birum, birn is a mystery, but it appears also in
the reduplicating verbs of VII.

474. gdriy gSn, gangan, it^n, + go.

1. O. H. G. gdm, g&s, g&t, g&m, g&t, gAnt; g^m, gSs, g^t, g^t,
g^nt; tbe subj. only g&, g^s, g^, etc. Imp. ganc, gdt, g^i

216 HISTOBICAL COMXElirrABy ON AGGIDEKCE. [475^

2. The verb gangan is ofVll. The relation of & to d is not dear. Elnge

has shown that g^n is oomponnded of ga (prefix) + V]~ L. tre. Then gem
< ga-im, ges < ga-is, etc. See his Diet.

475. 8tdn, siin^ stantav^ fi ^ ^ n, + stand.

1. It inflects just like g@n. standan, stnont — gistandan according
to VL A past participle gest&n occurs also.

2. Both gangan and ttatUan show a secondary stem and a present-
formation with n (see 467, 1), which n also entered the preterit and the
other forms.

476. tucm^ t^Utt, + do.

1. O. H. G. tuom, tnos, taot, tnom, tnot, tuont ; sabj. tuo>
tuoB, tao, tuom, taot, tuon; pret. ieta, t&td, ieta^ t&tam, t&tnt,
tdtmn ; sabj. tdti, tatts, tati. M. H. G. subjunctiye with
umlaut Past part, git&u.

2. teta is the pore reduplicated perl te + ta, the stem. The pL in &
is probably ablaut of the almost lost series L-E. e — d, 0. H. G. & — uo.

Comp. Gr. prjywfu — ippuya, N. H. G. t^ < M. H. G. ^ is archaic and
has a curious spelling as if it were subj.

478] HI8I0BT OF IHK LA.SQVA.aR. 217

C. HISTORY OP THE LANGUAGE.

477. " Oennan " belongs to the Germanic or Teutonic group of langungefi, which
again is a member of the Indo-European group. To the latter belong the following :
the Aryan (Sanskrit, etc.), the Iranie (old Batric and Persian), Greek, LaUn^ Keltic^
Slavic^ Lithuanian^ Germanic, and perhaps as a separate member Armenian. Whether
the Germanic languages are more itftimately related with one member than with an-
other is considered very doubtful by most anthorltios, though aome think Slavic and
Germanic so related.

478. Charaoteristios of the Oermanio Languages :

1. Grimm's Law with Vemer's Law (see 407^416).

2. The doable verb-inflection, one by ablaut, the other bj oomposition.
All the related Indo-European have ablaut to be sure, but none so exten-
sively developed in the verb. The suffixes -da, -ta in the preterit are
quite peculiar.

8. A certain ** law of finals " showed itself in General Teutonic in the
consonants, but the ** law of final vowels " belongs entirely to the indi-
vidual dialects. For instance: I.-B. *b*eroit became G. T. *b€roi, Go.
berai (e written for Go. ai). N. s^. masc. o-stems : G. T. *dagoz, Go.
dags, Scand. dagr, Ags. ddg, O. H. G. too.

N. 8g. fem.: I.-E. *gebd > G T. geb6, Ags. girfa, but by levelling of
Ace. and Nom. O. H. G.

4. The limitation of the accent to the stem-syllable was probably
General Teutonic, though Vemer's Law shows that the Indo-European
accent was preserved until the surd spirants in the unaccented syllable
became sonant. Gr. irarj7p shows I.-E. accent, but G. T. fath4/r > Go.
fadhar > fadar > O. H. G. fcUer,

5. The spread of the n-declension, which in German is still going on.
See 428, 2.

6. The double adjective declension. The other I.-E. dialects decline
adjective and substantive alike. The Germanic has, 1, a strong declen-
sion made up of substantive and pronominal case-endings; 2, a weak de-
clension identical with the n-declension of substantiveB. See 437.

218 HISIOBY OF THB LAJiTQUAOE. [479-

Classification of the Gtermanio Languagea

479. The following is in our opinion the best daesification .

I. East Germanic, viz., Gothic, the language of the Qoths, who cmoe
probably occupied European Russia. The chief literary monument is
part of the Bible translation made for the Westgoths by their bishop
Ulfila (A. D. 810—381). The manuscript is of the sixth century.

a. In comparison with Anglo-Saxon and 0. H. G. the language is
"simple," but in spite of the great age of its literary monuments, it
should be made the basis for the comparative study of the group only
with great caution.

IL The North Germanic or Scandinavian Langtiaobs. Two
groups: Ea>8t'8candinavian,yiz,,9u>eduh2Ji^ Danish; West-Scandinavian,
▼iz., Norwegian and Icelandie, Earliest literature of East-Scandinavian
of the fourtheenth century consisting of laws. Runes of the 10th cen-
tury. Rich literature of West-Scandinavian on Iceland, colonized by
Norwegians, of the 12th century and earlier. The literary langoage of
Norway, Sweden and Denmark is East-Scandinavian. Norwegian exists
only in dialects. Icelandic is the state-language of Iceland.

IIL West Germanic Dialects. English was very early isolated
from the rest of the group, being the language of the early colonists in
England, who were mainly Frisians, viz., Angles, Saxons and Jutes.
The Frisians emigrated from their old homes on the coast of the North
Sea from the Zuider Zee to the river Eider in Schleswig. The Jutes
lived to the north of them. This settlement continued during the 5th
and 6th centuries. In the 9th the Danish conqaest occurred and in the
11th the great Norman conquest, which gave to English that great influx
of Romance words and removed it still more from its cognate dialects on
the continent. Literature beginning with the 7th century. Runes,
Beowulf, Csedmon, etc.

a. The oldest dialects are, 1, Anglian, ind. Northumbrian and Mercian ;
2, Saxon, the chief is West-Saxon ; 8, Kentish.

480. The Continental West-Germanic dialects are divided according to
Grimm's Law. The North and East-Germanic, and English only under-
went the first shifting, that is, the General Germanic (Teutonic) shifting.
The continental dialects shifted again, some more, some less.

4811 HI8T0BY OF THE LANGUAGE. 219

Claaiifioation of the Oerman Dialeeti.

1. The Low (or Nobth) Oebmah shifted only th > d, oompare Engl.
" the " — Low Qennan " de ".

2. The Middle Qebmam shifted mach mora.

8. The South Qbbman (OberdetUtch) shifted most of a]].

a. " High German '* if it is to translate ** HocMeuUch " is ambiguons,
since many still make " hochdeutech " inclnde " OberdeuUch** and " MU-
teldetUsch," Nieder (low), Mittel (middle), and Ober (upper, south) refer
to the geography of the country only.

481. L Thb Low Gebmak Dialects.

1. Frigian. Though the literature is only of the 16th and 16th cen-
turies, the language shows a stage at least some 800 years older. Its
territory (see 484) has been largely encroached upon by Low Saxon and
Prankish. It embraces still the northern provinces of Holland (West
Frisian); Oldenburg and the Hanoverian county of Ostflriesland (East
Frisian); North Sleswic with the islands off the western Sleswlc-Holstein
coast (North Frisian). But the modem dialects of the region described
are strongly influenced by Low Saxon.

2. Loto 8axan, Earliest literature the Heliand of the 0th century.
Territory very large.

Draw a line ttom DftsBeldorf to C&bmI earring Bllghtly Boathward; from Cutnei to
QnedlinbnrK to Poeen and to the boandary of the empire. All that is north of this,
except Frisian and Slavic in Bast Prussia, is Low Saxon. Two thirds of its territoiy
is colonial, however. The Slavic conqaests fi-om the 6th to the 9th centuries had their
western limit in the following line : Kiel, halfway between Bmnswick and Maedcbnrg,
Nanmburg, Cobnrg, Linz, Klagenfnrt. What is east of it is colonial for the German
langnage, either for Low, Middle, or High German. Abont half of Germany and three
fourths of Prussia therefore are on once Slavic territory.

a. Frisian and Low Saxon together are now often called '* IHattdtuUeht''^ which even
in our day can boast of a poet, Klaus Groth (Holstein dialect), and of such a capital
novelist as Fritz Renter (Mecklenburg dialect) who died a few years ago.

8. Law Frankihh. Literature : oldest the Lex Salica, very badly pre-
served, and fragments of a translation of the Psalms. Of the 12th century
the'' Eineide" by yeldeke,and in the 18th a very rich literature in Hol-
land and Brabant. Territory : Holland (Dutch crowding out Frisian),
the northern half of Belgium (Flemish), and the northern part of the
Prussian Rhine Province. Dutch is now the only Low German literary
language. Attempts are making to revive Flemish.

220 HISTOBY OF THE LANGUAGE. [482-

482. II. Middle Qsbicak.

For this group draw about the foUowing line, which win eeimnte it from the
South German dialects : From Nancy (but this is French) across the frontier with a
curve north of Strassburg to Bastatt in Baden, through Heilbronn to Eichstftdt, then
north to Eger, from there directly eastwaxd, but Bohemia is Slavic, of course.

Begiuning in tlie west we have then :

1. Middle Prankish (according to Branne). Its territorj consists chiefly
of the Rhine Province, whose centre is Cologne. Very little literature.

2. Sa^ith Prankish and Hessian. South and west of 1, and north of
South Qerman line. The eastern limit would be a line drawn from
Cassel to Heilbronn. A rich and old literature : Isidorus of the 8th cen-
tury. The great gospel harmony of Otfrid of Weissenburg. The Lud-
wigslied and much more.

8. East or High Prankish. East of 2. Eastern limit is the S. G. line
from Eichstadt to Eger and a line from Eger to Cassel. Its old literary
centre was Fulda. The larger monuments are Tatian, and Williram'a
paraphrase of the Song of Songs, about the year 900.

The next three are almost entirely on colonized territory, vis., 4. Thu-
ringian, north of 3 and south of the Low Qerman line; 5. Upper Saxon,
chiefly the present kingdom of Saxony ; 6. Silesian, 6. and 6. are east
of the rest, but do not extend to the boundary of the empire, since there
is a long stretch still Slavic, though with German written language.
Their literatures belong to the M. U. G. period.

483. III. SouTQ German.

The southern limit towards the Romance dialects would be, roughly speaking, a
line drawn from the lake of Geneva eastward to Elagenfurt in Austria and beyond,
then directly north through Pressbuig to Brftnn. The eastern boundaiy is the Hun-
garian, the northeastern the Slavic of Bohemia and Moravia.

1. Alemanic, divided into : a. Alemanic proper, covering Alsace, the
larger part of Baden and Switzerland, b, Suabian, covering the larger
part of Wtirtemberg and Suabian Bavaria. The eastern limit would be
a line from Eichstadt to Ftlssen. The literary centre was St. Gallen.
Abundant literature of the 8th and Och centuries. The ** Benedictiner
Kegel." The Paternoster and Credo of St. Gallen. Vocabularius St.
Galli. Murbach Hymns. "Christ and the Samaritan woman." The
extensive works of Notker.

486] HISTOBT OF THB LANQUAGB. 221

2. Bawman-Auttriati, covering the larger part of Bavaria and non-
Slavic Aostria. The oldest of all Old H. O. ia the Gloeaary of Kero
(740); theOioflsaryofBrabanasMaums; the so-called " Exhurtatio " and
the poem Mospilli, besides smaller pieces.

484. It IB impOBsIble for na to give here a deierlptloD of the phoDologj of tbeee dia«
lecte>. Besides Orimm's Law the long vowels and the diphthongs are the chief criteria for
their classification. Their territories have not remarkahly changed. Note that Frisian
has been driven ont of Holland by Datch and tn Oermany it leads a very precarious
existence upon the isiands off the coast of Hanover and Oldonbarg, tiavtng been
crowded out by *' Flattdeatsch.'* Low German has also encroached upon Middle
German territory in northeastern Germany. The only scientific description that we
have of any modem dialect is that by WInteler of the Kerenaer dialect (Swisa-
Alemanic).

History of Oerman.

485. In point of time we divide the history both of the lan-
gaage and of the literature into three periods, viz., Old High-
German till 1100; Middle High German till 1500; New High

German since then, perhaps better till abont 1800, because
the literary language of the 18th century is already taking on
an archaic character in comparison with the language of the
last fifty years. See 487, 3.

1. The literatare of the O. H. G. period is entirely dialectic and clericaL
We have one poem, anfortunately only f^gmentary, the HUddiTantdied,
that goes back in matter and meter to the period before the introduction
of Christianity.

2. There has been much contention, T^hetber there was a standard
written language in the M. H. G. period. Lachmann and his school main-
tain that there was and that it died out with the decay of literature in
the 14th century. But the opinion is losing ground. The reasons
against are well stated in Paul's "Gab es eine mittelhochdeutsche
Schrif tsprache ? " Tbe literature was mainly lyrical and epic. Its climax
falls in tbe 12th century. The chief differences between the O. and M.
H. G. periods are : 1, the spread of umlaut ; 2, the weathering of unac-
cented and inflectional vowels to mere e.

486. With the N. H. G. period begins the written language that became
not suddenly, but gradually the standard literary language of Germany.
In phonology it agrees with that of the East Prankish dialect, which is
the M. G. dialect that is most closely related to S. G. Its territory was in

222 msiOBT OF the iakouaqs. [487-

the veiy centre of Gtennany. Both this position and this lelationship are
two elements tliat help to account for its spread.

1. From this same centre started the Reformation. Luther's share in
the establishment of the written language is generally not well stated and
even overrated. Fourteen translations of the Bible had been published up
to 1518 in H. Q. alone, made from the Vulgate. The language was bafied
upon the *' JTa/M^euproc^/' t. e,, the "official" language in which em-
peror and princes published decrees and laws and in which all govern-
ment business was transacted.

2. There were at first several of these "Eanzlei8pnchen«" difEering more
or less. We find traces of them as early as the 14th century. Those of
Austria, Bohemia and Saxony were first amalgamated. It was this lan-
guage that Luther used in his Bible translation, moulded by him, of
course, as every man of genius will mould his mother-tongue. Luther,
by birth a Low German, had come in contact with people of all stations,
speaking Low and South Qerman. No Bible, the circumstances being the
same, translated into strict South German would and could have been
accepted by North Qeimany. Again Luther had sprung from among
the people and had a most hearty appreciation of folk-lore and all that is
" volkstiimlich,'* of proverbs, saws and songs. This made him a trans-
lator for the people. The proverbs of Solomon and the psalms are with-
out doubt the most taking portions of his translation.

487. The spirit of the Reformation was one roused from the lethargy
of the preceding centuries and ready for something new. Luther's New
Testament appeared in 1522, the whole Bible in 1584. Besides the
Bible the catechism, hymns, sermons and the numerous polemical
pamphlets were written and read in the new language. With the
Reformation began also the public school (" volkssehvle ") and the first
grammars and **formelbfi4iher" appeared, written often by the lawyers,
who, of course, favored the " Kanzleisprache." But last and foremost of
all the invention of printing some fifty years before the Reformation
made a common language possible.

1. The clerks would write and spell as they spoke, ».€., according to their
own dialect. Printing brought about a certain uniformity in the orthog-
raphy. It spread the language to the most difierent parts of the country.
About the year 1600, books were already cheap in comparison to the costly
manuscripts. In 1528 a Bible was printed at B&le, which had as appendix
a sort of dictionary explaining the terms unfiuniliar to the Swiss.

488] HIBTO&Y OF THE LANGUAGE. 228

2. The straggle of the new language was liardest in SwitierlancL Both
Catholic and Calvinist objected to a Lutheran language. In North Ger-
many it was favored hy the fact that the whole North became Protestant
en masse. Yet hymns were printed there in Low German for a long time.
In the 17th centozy High German preachers came to the North. But
through printing the writings of one man exercise a great influence upon
the speech of his readers. Printing in fact has introduced into the de-
velopment of language a certain stiff, artificial clement that tlie written,
and especially the unwritten, dialects do not have. Tlie printed language
has more of a fixed, stereotyped character than dialect. But on the otlier
hand we must remember that the letters of the alphabet are not the
language. They are only contrivances that represent speech very im-
perfectly, contrivances invented several thousand years ago, which we
try to apply now to that most subtile institution— language, that has
been changing and developing ever since,

8. The language of the lOth century diflfers not a little from the lan-
guage of the 16th. The difibrences in forms and functions have been treated
to some extent in Part I. The 17th century is a dark gloomy page in the
history of Germany and almost a blank in its literature. In the first half
of the eighteenth we see the beginnings of the classical period. Until
then Latin was the language of the learned, and in the 17th and 18th
centuries there was a large number of foreign words both in the written
and spoken languages that were never assimilated, but driven out again
by a school of literary men that started a revival of the love of old
German.

The following are the more important and fai'-reaching sonnd-
changes in the transition from M. H. G. to N. H. G.

488. A. Vowels.

1. The further spread of umlaut by analogy (levelling).

Ex. : as a sign of the plural, see 48; in derivatives as in: gldubtgi t^iter"
Ii(i^» briiberUti^f Sdrilberc^etif Sdc^terlein ; in long-stemmed weak verbs as in :
(dren# ^drtti ge^drt < hceren, h6rte, geh6rit — geh6rter (see 455, 2).

2. The lengthening of short accented stem-vowels in the
open syllable, and of a and e before r, rt, rd. To this process
the largest number of the present long vowels is due.

224 HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. [488-

Ex.: SJogel, f>of— ^ofc«; gebofrm (< bSrn), ^mSffxtru \ibtn, »ebe«, fe^cn;
^a^n — ^a^ned; ^^uti mir, totTi er, btr (demonstratlTe), kr (but bSrfu§) ; ^erb,
mxbt, xottt, laxt, 8art Ur in the sense of " great " as in : Vix^xc^attx, other-
wise short or long : VLxUaib, Urfprungi but Urteil is always short -art and
-ar) are unsettled stilJ. Compare ^xi, SDSi}e.

a. The short vowel is retained before more than one consonant and in
a closed syllable, except before r (rt, rd). Ex.: Ij^ofem OoQr renneiw ^tdt,
XooUta, fafl# etc, but mir, totrr as above.

b. This point of N. H. 6. phonology \b by no means aD cleared np. Paal is the only
one that has thrown any light npon it. See P. and B. Beitrftge, VTL p. 101-. When
throagh inflectional endings the stem- vowel is now in an open, now in a closed sylla-
ble, the standard pronunciation demands levelling in favor of the long vowel of the open
syllable. For instance, bad (3lai, &la^t9, ®(afe, ®ia9, Otafer, all with long stem-vowels.
In N. G., however, (Slai, &xti9, Stag, 6ob, (N. and A. Bg.)i sre always short according to
the law of short vowel in a closed syllable. N. and S. G. agree in the levelling betwe^i
the sg. and pi. pret. of ablaat-series, IV. and V. in favor of the long vowel of the plural,
«. flr., %ah—%abtn, fa^fa^en.

e. This principle may be stated in another way : N. H. G. makes a M.
H. G. accented syllable containing a short vowel long, either by length-
ening the vowel or by lengthening, ie., ** doabling," the consonant, par-
ticularly if that consonant be t or m, and if a single consonant is followed
by tx, eir en*

Ex.: ^tattt, Sittt, Tomttteit# Semmtx, SBetter; in the pret. and past jutrt. of
the I. and II. ablaut-series : fi^nttt — gefc^nitteiif fott — gefotten. This change
began in the M. H. G. period, starting from L. G. it spread over M. and
over S. G. as late as the 16th century.

3. Long accented vowels are shortened before more than
one consonant.

a. This process is not far-reaching, but includes also the long vowels
sub 4, that have sprung from diphthongs. It started with the M. G.
dialects.

Ex.: e(^t L. G., see 493, 4, < Shaft; ba($te, brar^te (see 454, 3). 9($t <
dhte; |)cm ^cnfr^en; ^otd^cn ; flngr W^» fi^wg <fiene, hiene,giene; »tCT in
the compounds ^jierjcjn, -jig, uiertcU etc., SWulter < muoter.

4. The simplification of the diphthongs ie > i^ still spelt
ie; no > u; ue > ii long.

Examples very numeroas : Slut < Ntuit; Wtixt < muot; ®utc < gUete;
fug < rne^e; fiitren < f>Qerm; blft^en < bUl^en; litb; ttef; always in the

489] HISTORY OF THE LAKOUAOB. 225

preterit of Class VIL and in the present of Class IL, yis.» xitt, fitl, bieteiir
fieben, but see 3.

a. This also is a M. G. featare that was fixed npon the " Schriftsprache,"
showing itself as early as the 18th century. The S. 6. dialects do not
know it yet (see Hart's OoetMs Prose, p. 40, bottom).

5. The diphfchongization of the long vowels 1, A, iu

(whether < O. T. 6a or umlaut of tk, value u long) > ei, an,

eu {an), respectively.

Ex.: brei < dri, SBeib < u^; ei in the present of the I. Class ; laut <
lUt; ^aut < hUt; Ban <9&; ^dufcr < hiutir < hiU; Wdufc < miuse <
miU; Xxvxt < triuvoe; eu^ < tucA; Senate < livMe; er beut < biuteU The
Eng. cognates, e, g,, the verbs of the I. Class write — wrote, shine — shone;
loud, hide ( < Ags. hjd), sow, house, mouse — mice show that a similar
diphthongization of long i and u has taken place, o in wrote, shone

< Ags. d <<d corresponds to the old diphthonijr, M. H. G. ei as in
Bchein, rei^, etc. Modem German ei therefore goes back to 1 in ^etrat <
hirat ; to ei in fc^eiben < mheiden; ai always goes back to ei, al as in Stai^
j^aifer. an < fi in ^aud < hiU; but < ou in laufen < loufen; ftn (tu) < iu <
ii by umlaut, in ^^ufer < Muwr < Mis; but cu < iu (Su) in Seutr < IMe,
^len < hitUen; and another eu < 6u umlaut of ou (< au) in flfreube <
vrdtide ( < *frauwida), beugen < hdugen < haugen ( < *baugjan, ablauts, II.).

a. This is a S.G. feature, especially Bavarian, in which dialect it started
about 1200. It spread over East Prankish and Upper Saxon in the 14th and
15th centuries and latest over Suabian. All the other dialects whether L.,
M. or S. G. do not know this change. " House *' is still " hiU ** in Bremen
and in B&Le. The new diphthongs are still kept apart from the old ones
in dialect, but the standard spoken language recognizes no difference.

489. The following changes do not affect very many words. They are
mostly S. G. features and though quite old, the standard and the common
spoken language do not agree upon all words. The former favors r and
{, the latter S and ii.

1. e, 8 > 5 in tx^^tn (Classics still erge^en), Wtit, fiSffel 2Jim, ito5tf (stand-
ard imif), fc^toSren and a few others. Rarely e, § > o or u after to: tooHen

< wdien ; wo^t < wSia; fommen < qtiSman* This is as old as O. H. G.,
however.

3. i> iiinftfitfe — ftilfc; ftriltett — ft)rlt«i; toflrWg; t»fi§te; (Spri^wort —
Gftfi^too't. i < ft in toirfen + work and Sti\ftxu but also still itftfTen -h cushion.

226 HISTOBY OP THE LANGUAGE. [490-

3. a > 0, D^nmac^t, folk-etymology for D^mad^l < dmaht ; tto < wtf ; o^nc

< dne; S^lonat < mdnSt; and Do^le < tdhek. Gompue SBafn and Hr0«

toobtu

4 Both S. and M. G. is u >o, it > o, reg^tdarly before modem mnv
nn and n + any other cons.

Ex.: Past part, and pret subj. of Class IIT.. 8.; SBonne < wunne; fromm

< fyrum ; fonbcr < junbcr ; umfonfi < umbems ; @o Jn < mn. Compare
Sronn (poetic), but 93ntnnen (why u is not clear) ; 9)ldn4 < mtinich

5. Before palatal g/ 4 e > i. By this -ig and -14 have become the
only Boffixes Instead of 0. and M. H. G. ec, ae^ eeh, aeh, see 609.

Ex.: 9tttid( < fettach; Jtraftid^ < hranech, O. H. 0. ehranvh; fertig <
f>ertee; ^onig < honee,

490. B. Consonants.

1. The spread of fd^ for f before I, m, it, and m»

Ex.: @4tof < Mf, + sleep; ^d^Ieim < fUm + slime; S^meer <
*8mear; fc^meiien < <7n%en,+ smite; @(^nee < «n^, -f snow; @<^nci»fe <
snepfe, + snipe; ^dj^toetg < «u)e^ + sweat; f^tointmcit < mommefi, +
swim. The Eng. cognates still show old s.

a. This is a S. G. feature, starting in the 15th century and extending

over the M. G. and the colonized eastern L. G. dialects (Paul). In the

16th fc^ was substituted for f after r in a few words and later still in

initial fp. %

All these f(!^*8 are recognised by the standard pronnnciation, but the S. and M. G.
dialects know ahnost no limit in the nse of fil^. H. G. dialects aabBtitnte it even for
^; viz., mtf^ for mi^. See 381, 1.

6. @ < fd^ also after r, e.g., ^trffi < Air5:+ hart, 5JlrWe< *M'«e+ cherry,
^enfd^en < Mrsen, Since f($pr f<^t are not recognized in the spelling of
initial fp, % Eng. st, sp^ and G. fl, fp correspond : ®tabt» @tatti ©tatte <
Stat, + stead ; ©pief < spi^ + spit.

c. This \6i for f is not a phonetic change as is generaDy taken for granted. In the
transition from O. > M. H. G. sc had become sch first before the front vowels, then
before all the vowels and then before r. so sch before a palatal vowel is a phonetic
transition called pakUalbsation dne to the following Towel and attended by loosening
of the contact, and is known in Eng. and the Bomance dialects as well. See SUis*
Early Eng. Pronanciation, p. 1164-. The traneition-soond was no donbt the present
Westphalian sjh, a double sonnd. At first only sc > sch in the above order, and not
■ > sch. The links were sk + pal. vowel > at^ > sjh > sh.

490] HI8T0BT OF THE LANOUAQIL 227

d. Before vowels and r G. f^ oonespondfl to Eng. 8h« e. g,, 64iff +ship ;
&diam + shame ; fd^On + sheen ; 6(^t + shread, shioad ; Sd^rcln «f
shrine. When Eng. sc, sk corresponds to G. f4# ffr there is something
wrong, due generallj to foreign origin or influence, in one or the other,
Ck>mpaTe ^d^uU + school ; ®(^aum + scam (Norse) ; Sanbf^aft + land-
scape (D.) ; ©fanta'l + scandal (Fr.).

2. J (< z < t, see 414, 1) > s, written f, «, jf, f .

This is a S. G. feature, beginning with final s in the 18th century,
spreading over M. G. L. G. still like Eng.; notice the cognates. Ex.:
load < iJDcu; -f what ; an^ < Hm -^ out ; 9Ba(frr < im^^ + water ; Sinfe
< bin^, + hentgrass. Examples very numerous.

8. (^ = kh (< old oh, cch and medial h) has become jh
after front-vowels and after r, 1, and n. See 375.

This transition is not shared by S. G. The Eng. cognates show k or
silent gh for 1.-E. k: nic^t < niht (= nikht) + not, nought ; SBl^t < toihi
+ wight.

0. ij before s in the same syllable > ks, the same in Eng. as
early as Anglo-Saxon.

Ex.: Sut^d <fuhi + fox ; a3tt(ibd < hiha^boum, + box; fer^d < «eA«-i-
■ix ; Kd^fe < oAm, + axle ; %iX < aechus + axe (t is excrescent).

h. Medial ( at the end of a syllable is silent now, fe(nt» jte^fl, but ^
still in ®ef!(^t; fleu(^t — flie^; (o(^ — l^il^er; raud^ still in 9{au4toer!# furs,
— rau(; fd&m^l^en — @4ma(^.

4u v(b > mm, Eng. still mb: fiamm < lamp — lambea + lamb ; ihimmer
.< kumber, -f to cumber.

5. m — n, Eng. still m. Sefra < hsiem + besom ; 9aben < fadem +
fathom.

6. w < bh, the labio-labial bh has become labiodental v in the standard-
pronunciation ; it has disappeared after ou, iu (now an, eu); in a few cases
fiw > au ; after 1 and r it became b, beginning in the 14th century. Eng.
cognates show a vowel + some silent letter.

Ex.: neu < niuwe, + new; fd^auen < aehoutoen + show ; gtott < grd —
grdtoa, + gray ; Ibtau <M — bldwea + blue, due to Fr. l)kfi, ^xhtn <

228 HISTORY OF THB LANGUAOB. [491-

garwen, + yare ; QdftoalU < stoalwe, + swallow; ftaxhtt a scar < nartoe,
+ narrow, lit. "contracted sarfiace;" gelb < gel — gdwes, + yellow.
Some cases show doublets doe to leTelling in favor of the uninflected
form : fajl — falb < vol — ttaltoes + fiedlow ; ©l^er-ling + sparrow —
©perber < aptxrwaere + sparrow-hawk.

491. 1. Other transitions are not general enongfa to desenre special mention. It
is important to distingaisb real phonetic transitions and differences between the two
periods in the history of the language due to levelling and analogy. The latter have
been frequently treated in the comments apon the varions inflections. See the lev-
elling in the declension of fern, nouns, 433, between sg. and pL pret., 460.

2. The disappearance of sounds by contraction onght also to be con-
sidered, e.g., of i for which a merely orthographical t has been sabstituted
(see 363, 2) or of e in 8. pers. sg. pers. of strong verbs whose stem ends in
t as fd^ilt < schiltet. Examples of new sounds are e between !, uo, ti and
r as in 3^raueT < tr&re, ®t\tx < gir; of t(b) after final n and s as in iemanb
< ieman, etgratlic^ < eigenliche, Dbjl < obez^ %%i < aekes.

The Oerman word-stock.

402. The following sources have furnished words and forms older
than any occurring in the literatures :

1. Runes, e.g., the famous inscription on the golden horn, which reads
ek Tdewagastiz Tioltingaz Jwma tavddS = I, Hlewagastiz (= lea-host ?) of
Holstein, made (the) horn.

2. The words borrowed by Fins and Laplanders before the race-mi-
grations, when the latter were in contact with the Scandinavians, the
former with the Goths in the South, e. g., " kunungas" ** king."

3. Words and proper names occurring in Latin and Greek authors,
e.g.f the name " Teutanes" would seem to go back to a period before
Grimm's Law (see Kluge's dictionary) ; glSsum = amber. Ago, glcsre, +
glass in all Germanic dialects; " akes ** in Caesar = meaning '* elk," O.
H. G. elch, Ags. eolch; modern Eng. " elk " is reimported from Norse.

4 German has a much larger Germanic word-stock than Middle and
modem English, because through the Norman conquest the Romance
was engrafted upon old English and so many old English (Germanic)
words died out. But compare the couplets calf — veal ; deer — venison ;
sow, swine — pork ; hunt — chase.

483J HISTOEY OF THB LANQUAOB. 229

a. Geraian, nerer hM.rfBg had to aooept raeh a large foreign ehnnent, hai treated
foreign words very atepmotherly. BngUah welcomes every stranger, at least our
laige dictionaries do, which contain as ntoch as ten per centnm of words that are
no more BngUsh than they are German. A Qennan, seeing such a dictionary with
colored flags, steam-engines, animals, and what not, takes it tor an encyclopedia. In
German a foreign word has to undergo a long period of probation before it is accepted
in the language and in the dictionary. Foreign words are collected mostly in the
**JV«fuii0i0risr&iMA,** i. s.. Dictionary of foreign words.

483. The first larger influx of foreign wordB into German came
through contact with Roman dvilisation, e^„ ^ixait, 9W, JtafCr St^M,
StttU, SRfinier SttSitx, Qfenfier ; the second through ChrisUanization : Stix^,
fafht'otf Stttoi, (Engelr Vrieflerr 9faffe, j^rebignir and a great many others.
These and other foreign words of the O. H. Q. period were quite
thoroughly Germanized. They took part in the shifting then going on
and their accent was put upon the stem-flyllabie.

1. In later O. H. Q. and in M. H. G. the chief source, from which foreign
words came, were the crusades and the institution of chivalry ; in later
M. H. G. and early N. H. G., the revival of learning and the thirty years
war, €4/.^ 9ala'flr 9Unte» Zouxraftx, %\^xen; in fact all older nouns in -ie'r and
verbs in -ic'Tcn« Schiller's Wallensteln has many foreign words, e.g.,
9nn(ntf!; malrbei'en; ^anitx, ^ultteri 9u(t.

2. In the last 200 years Germans have taken up, as all nations have done,
a large number of words from Greek, Latin and the Romance languages,
words which the progress of civilization calls for. But beginning with the
M. H. G. period German has not been able to change the foreign accent,
e,g., the verbs in -Wxtn, even when this ending is added to German words as
|ofieren,f!ol)ieTtnr(au{leren; 3)^eIobei' or-bie'i Qaflei'r 8ataiao'n» Saaa'bci SBalfo'iu
9afle'te ; the many nouns in -it'* Compare English which changed in its
middle period the accent of nearly all Norman-French words, e.g.,
reason, season, melancholy. Later telegraph, but German Selegra'p^.

a. There has sprang np since 1870 a tendency In high oflicial circles to banish foreign
words, bat it is not likely to meet with mnch soccess. The military system uses hun-
dreds of them still.

The Postmaster-General of the German empire objected to ZtUp^o'n, because he
coQld not decide npon the gender, and so „%tvn\ptt^n'* was made the official word. A
letter to be called for mast have on It ,i$o{Ua9enib,''not "poste restante " as formerly.

3. One more large source of borrowed words has to be mentioned
which began as early as the 15th century, viz.. Low German and Dutch
(also English). All words that contain " p," for instance, must be either
foreign (^at)t)eli ^ant^er) or non-High-German, because there can be no p

230 HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE. [494-

in H. G. (see 409, 2). If the words do not come directly from Low
Qenuan, they have been influenced by it and taken L. G. form.

Ex.: pttffetu pufieiw 9ocfe, ^e% fiatu ^Innber^ 9Bapi)cn. Words in gg,
lU dhU, (EgdCr Stogge, Sflaggti Sagger, Pgge«

4. Notice the many shipping terms : BlaggCi fdoih, Sootr ^ptitt,' 2tCtt
SBradT, @tet9en (9 = »>). Words in -c^t for ft, e.g., fad^t, H. G. fanft ; @d^(^t,
H. G. @4afi ; @($Iu4t for (Sd^luft. The ending Hi^en is Low and M. German ;
-leittf South German, gett for ftijl is L. G.

494. A small group of words was introduced twice, but at different
periods, e,g,, 9)fal) (O. H. G.), ^ala'\t (M. H. G.XpakUium, but see Eluge'is
Diet. 3argc (O. H. G.), Sartfd^t (M.H.G.)+Eng. target < V. L. targia (if
this is not originally German and belongs to the next group). SKelobei was
really borrowed, SHelobie is a later doublet after the many nouns in At^
gc^kn + to fail, faaierem to fail (in business) < F.faUUr.

1. Compare Eng. frail and fragile ; quite — quiet ; exploit — ex-
plicite. Many originally German words, adopted by another language,
are borrowed again in a foreign form : ®agcn — ffiaggon + Eng. wain
— wagon ; ©pion < fpajen — German ©pd^r j ©bouaf < Uwackt, ©cittHK^t;
tie ®arb«,bic ®arbero]6c + guard, + wardrobe < warta, wartSn--bl« 3Bartc,
ber ©art + ward; ©tudf < Ital. ttiuxo and this from G. ©tfitf, O. H. G.
stitechi,

2. Besides isolated and obscure German words a large number of for-
eign words are exposed to " folk-etymology," because they are not under-
stood. These have been collected by Andreten in his *' deutsche Volks-
etjrmologpe." (See also Palmer's Folk-etymology), ^ebftid^ < L. hede-
racea, ground-ivy. SJbtntcuer (archaic spelling even Hbenbtnicr), < M. H. G.
aventiure < Rom. averUure,

3. 2Ji«lfrag, wolverine < Norse jgwt^;yy*M«=moutain-bear, as if it were a
great eater ; ©unbflttt as if from ©finbe and glut, "the flood that came on
account of sin," but it is from ©in— meaning '♦ ever," « universal" as in
©ingriln, evergreen. S«umunt as if it meant ^gfigemntttib*' or irCeutemttrtb," but
< hliumuntf hlium, in which -munt is suffix, *' hliu " < the same root as
hut, loud + Gr. kXvu, See SRaulmurff 400. Compare Eng. causeway <
O. Fr. chaueie < L. calciatam {viam) ; country-dance < counter-dance,
Fr. contredanse.

Hundreds of examples will be found in Andrettn and PbAimtV coUeetioiis. The
words in 494, 494, !« have never been collected.

496] WOBDITOBICAIION. 231

D. WORDPORMATION.

This ehapter does not contain a oomplete German etymology. It alma merely at
Siving a brief, practical Bur?ey of the derivation of German words for BtttdentB who
know a little Bnglish and Latin. A knowledge of the older forma of some Germanic
dialects cannot be expected from the student. For practical reasons only, the follow-
ing subdivisions of the chapter are made.

495. We may dJBtiingniHh four ways of forming and deriv-
ing words :

1. By ablaut without deriyative suffix, see 496, 1, 3.

2. By suffixing some element which was onoe perhaps an
independent word.

3. By prefixing suoh element.

4. By composition of independent words.

486. The pronouns have roots peculiar to themselves and many adverbs are formed
from the pronominal roots. Nouns (that is, substantives and adjectives) and verbs
had probably the same roots, though it is customary to speak, in contrast to pronomi-
nal roots, only of verbal roots, from which nouns were formed later. We count as
primitive all strong verbs and those nouns which have no apparent derivative suffix.

From a Vb'xnd', in which s represents the vowel, that is to appear according to the
various ablaut-grader, both nouns and verbs were formed. In G. T this root would
be baond. It ftimished Mnden, band, gtbunden, bad iBanb, ber tBunb, bet SBanb, bad
Cunb (for SBftnbel). Both nouns and verbs had their stem-sufflzes, of course. These
made them into words. Boots are to the etymologist what z, y, a are to the mathe-
matician. They are something unreal and abstracted from the actual phenomena of
languages. No one ever spoke in roots. In a word, we distinguish the stem and the
Inflections. The stem minus the etem-eufflz is the root. Of every root, noun and
strong verb are not now extant, for instance, (ieb, Sob, but weak verbs by means of

the sufflz Jo—je^ were formed from the same root, I. B. Vb:ub\ G. T. tlznb, e. g.^
(g)tauben, toben. z appears as «— i in Iteb, Qiebe < liobfi^ *ieub^ ; as a in (s)Iauben, (er)tau
Un ; it disappears In Sob, loben, the weakest or zero stage of ablaut. See 394.

1. Formed by ablaut alone, we consider strong verbs, nouns of the same roots and
nouns from roots that may have no strong verb extant.

8. The stem-sufflx may hare been o,/o, i, «, d,Jd (fern.), etc. We are inclined to look
upon the^o-stems as derivatives because they suffered umlaut, «,g.y Sftrge, ®ef^ft|.
There Is some reason for this because /o,^<S, tco, wd are not primary stem-sufflzes, but
for our purposes there is no harm in confounding the primary and secondary sufBxea.

232 WOBDFOEMATIOK — SUBSTANTIVES. [497-

8. Examples of tlie deriyation of verbs and of substantiTes bj ablaat
alone.

L ablaal^series : Betgen, ber 931$; Tei4» 9^etb* IL: Wirgeiu bad @($log,
ber @(^(ug; trtefeiu ber Zxeipf, blc Xtaufe; bad £o(^» bie SMe« III.: ft^tpimmen,
ber ©d^mamnif ber ©urnpf (?), bie ©d^toemme; bet @d}Iunbf ber dtm%. IV.: bergenr
ber S3erg» bie Surg, ber Surge ; fd^aSeiii fd^acnr ber @d^Q« V.: gebem bie Q^abe
(rather ^^), gebe or ^Sbt (adj.). VL: grabett, bad ®rab^ bie Q^rube; 14 mug#
ber ^abn, bad ^u^n.

To the G. T. & — 6 series : t^utt, getbaiu bie %^. See 476, 2.

Derivation of Substaiitives

497. Derived by a late ablaut, also directly from a weak
verb.

Ex.: Der @(^uiib < fd^inbenr = refuse ; ber Sefe^l < befe^len; ber^onbel <
^anbeln ; ha^ Dpfer <opfent ; ber ^rger < argem. Feminines in -< : bie
2Bint>e + windlass < »inbcn; bie gdjre + ferry < vem <faran,

498. Derivation by Vowkl-Sufpixks :

1. e < i formed from adjectives, all feminine, e.g,, ®r5ge < gro§; ^S^t
< l^od^ ; ®(^6ne < Won"; 93albe < bolb (now only adverb) ; ®iite < pt —
guoti < giLot, i produced umlaut.

2. e < i <jo ^irte < |)erbe.

3. el < le < Eomance ie, ia, always with chief-stress
upon it, at first only in foreign words, then spreading very
rapidly in N. H. G.

It is attached most frequently to nouns and verbs ending in -iU -^x,
-en, so that the ending was felt to be -erei, e, g., Sauberei', STrjenei', ^eud^elei*
3ageret. It denotes also a place of business : ^ruderei^ 93d(Ierei. It im-
plies a slur, 3urij!eretr ^inberei.

4. ie only in foreign words. It is th6 later form of ia, ie,
and the nouns were formed after i had become ei.

Ex.: 5[fhonomie', &t^o^xavW' Sbc^ologie', etc. -ie has crowded out the
older -ei, or they appear together with a difference of meaning. 9^elobei
— 9KeIobie, both mean "melody " ; 9)artei = party, faction — 9)artie = game,
mat>eh, company, excursion ; 3)^tttarei + fancy, — ^^antafle + phantasy.

600] WORDFORMATION — SUBSTANTIVES. 233

DSRIYATION BT GONBONAlTr StTFFIZBS.

499. Liquids and their oombinations.

1, generallj el < O. H. G. vJ (oZ), U. U produces umlaut
It is weak or unaccented. + Eng. le, + L. -tiZ-us. Majority
of substantives are masculine.

Ex.: 1. I <ul,(U: ter fdvi}^t)U @laili tad fddl, ^aul, Me Seele.

2. el ( < ul, al)i ber SBanbel, ^aii%tl, 9laUl, ^finoM, Sottel* fitUl; bie dadtU
Ourgelr SBunel* ffafeli 8(^»fel.

8. el < U, Most of them denote means and instruments like the fem-
nines < tU, al,

Ex.: bet Senteli 8utte( ( + beadle), fidffel, itegel + cudgel (?)» ^^Mii,
irmelr d&det* These are very numerous.

4. eir + Eng. -le. sign of diminutives, < Ua, Ui Neuter gender. A
S. German fiayorite from old times, now It, h see Goethe's famous Bd^toti^
erlteb.

Ex.: Siittbel, Sitd^el, 9liiibe(. Proper names: griebeli Qa^ttU

5. el in foreign words : ble Drgel < V. L. organa ; Seufel < SidPoXoc ;
bad ©irgel < L. rigiUum; bet (Efet < Lu (uinus; ber itibnmel < L. cum»-
num.

500. I combined with other suffixes.

1. with s in fel (weak accent), fal (secondary accent) < tai, ia + al,
generaUy producing umlaut. Gender prevailingly neuter, but also a
few fem. and very few masc.

Ex. of -fel: ber Sec^fel, bad mm, ttberMeibfelr t>&m^

Ex. of -fat: bad ^^idfal, bad £abfal, bad ^d^enfal^ bie Saumfalr bie %xiSA^aU
Some have double gender.

2. -lein < U ■{■ in, secondary accent, very numerous, produces umlaut,
noun always neuter. See 493, 4. Now only in solemn diction and poetry.

Ex.: itinbleiru Sdmrnleutr SR^igbleiiw €>d^nleiiu etc. -el^en is rare : S3it(^el4en#
F. 3779.

8. -Itttg < ulf U -^ infft + Eng. -ling, weak accent, often with a
depredative force. Its second element was at first only added to nouns
in -1, then -Ung became the suffix.

234 WORDFORMATIOir — SUBSTANTIVES. [601-

Ex.: BfrembUnd^ ^tnblfaig + foundling; 3&igUn0 + youngling; 9Bi|lmg»
Ddumling; S^tietlingr hireling; ©duglind + suckling; ©^dflmgy Btottting.

a. -Ungen (en is Dative pL) fonns many names of places, ^amelingettf
®ra)9eUngen.

4 ler < I + er is a quite modem suffix. For er# see 607, 1. It started
with nouns that came from verbs in -ela or nomis in -cl.

Ex.: ^unfller < funfleln ; ^^m^Ux < ftmcici^cltt ; but |)fiu«ler < |>au«5
%Wtx < Xifdi. Implies a slur, e^., fftt^tXtx < IRe^t. Comp. Eng. hostler

< hostel.

501. em, m, amf t(i<^tm. Of these m, en are unaccented
and form no syllable ; -em has weak accent, am has second-
ary. < O. H. G. m, um, am, + Eng. m, om. For em > tn,
see 490, 5.

Ex. : ber 93aum, + beam ; Sraum» + dream ; Qavim + team ; ©^marrn
+ swarm ; ber ^tem (Obem, the biblical form), 6robem ; ber Sobeitr ber
93ufenf ber Sabetir ber S3efen ; ber (StbatHy ber Srofamr in which am has been
restored in place of older -tm. bad SBtttum belongs here, but turn has
crept in for older " ttfidem" as shown in the verb totbmen.

m is a suffix in -turn < Vd% see 616, 5.

502. tn, n, < O. H. G. an, in + Eng. en, n, on, in.

Ex. : ber Donir + thorn; ^afctt/ + haven; bad Stoxn, + corn; bad Qtiditth
+ token, ber Degen# + thane. Slegen. + rain ; Sagen, + wain, wagon.
Often lost in G., compare ber fftaU, + raven ; bte SBoIfei + welkin ; Ria,^, +
kitchen ; ^ette» + chain, en of inf. is lost in English. In Q. en has crept
into the Nominative and changed the inflection, see 436, 2. In some cases,
e,g,t ^orn» dom + Ags. torn, n is the participial suffix -no, see 463, 1.

1. The -en of the weak declension really belongs here, since it forms
nouns denoting the agent, for instance, from verbs, bieten^ ber fdoit, bed
S3oten. But we feel it now as an inflectional ending. See 432.

-ner is not a real suffix. Compare ler, 600, 4 In SRebner n belongs to
the stem < redina, redinSn, In others n is added by analogy : ©IStfner

< ®lo<fe; ^lr(§ner<^ir(^e; W^txttt < portenaHus; (Sdlbner < wldenarius,

eolb.

2. en < in, a now rare diminutive except in composition in -leltt# -^en.
Ex. : bad OfflHen (golen) + filly, foal ; <Sd|^n>einr + swine < G. T. sft; bad
Mttn for j^&^letn + chicken < from the same stem as " cock."

606] WOBDFOBHATIOlir — BUBBTANTIYES. 236

503. nid, ttijf-, forms neater and fem. noonB, generaUj
abstract ones denoting existence and condition, sometimes
place, + Eng. -ness.

Generally from, noun and verb stemB, bat also irom adjectives: bie
SBilbnid < toilbi Binflernid < finfler. It represents now older -niM^ and
-ntuiB-, Go. -noMUSy and generally produoes amlant. -^iM, -ntua are
compounded of n + im^ issa and n + tusi.

Ex. : M Bt^x&M, ®ef(Stipidf 8$en»£4tnid I bie <ErIaubnl9» JlemUni0i

Setrilbnid.

504. in, inn- forms fem. nonns, denoting females, from,
masc. < M. H. G. tn, in, inne < O. H. G. innd, in, + L. ina
in regina,

Ex.: ®otti ®5ttin ; %Vi^^, %ii^\in -f vixen; ^imoveraneri ^aimoverantrin.
Very nameroos. Not extant in Eng. except in vixen, Ags. fyxen. To
be translated by " female," " she-," " lady-."

1. -in has become (e)n and is attached to surnames having the force of
the more elegant 8rau+ surname without suffix, eg,, bit SRftllctn instead
of Bfrau S^iUIeif bie ^pann^afen instead of %taix ©pannl^fe.

505 -nb, enb, (anb, ant), really participial sufGlx (see 453),

+ Eng. -end.

Ex.: ber ^reunb + friend ; 8einb + fiend ; SDeiganb* champion ; |)eilanb» +
Heliand, Saviour ; S^alant^ bat the cognate ant is foreign and has chief-
stress, &,g,, ^Btn^ta'nU SRiniflra'nt. No participial ending in ber ^bttih, ber
(Elefa'nt.

506. -nfl, -Ing, -nn^, < older ing, ung, + Eng. ing, ng,

weak accent.

Ex.: ber $&ritt0 + herring; ber <S($iIIing + shilling; bad a^efflng, brass,
Ags. mdding.

1. n is lost in RM^, + king ; ber ^\tm\^ (< pfenninc) + penny.

2. ung forms numerous fem. nouns from verbs. Like Eng. ing they
denote mostly action The suffix is gaining ground. But Eng. nouns in
log are frequently best translated into German by an infinitive. Ex.:
bie (Krfa^rungf ®ilbung# deitung + tidings, ^nfertiguns + manufacture; i^er^
bami^fungr evaporation, etc. Biding + bad Steiten; building, bad IBauen.

236 WOEDFORMATIOI?^ — SUBSTAlfTIVES. [507-

8. ing and ung + er and en form manj patronjinics and names of places :
3:^uringen# SReixtingnu X»t|hingen» SRo^rungm, ^omung» ^Zibelungenr 'IRerottngeir
3a^rittger, Cot^ringer. For cr (see 607, 2). -en is originally dative pi.

507. -er is of yarious origiBS.

1. It denotes the agent, < ere < asre < driy + Eng. er, or,
ary, + Lat. -ariv^.

It is attached to both nonns and verbs and is preceded by nmlaut as a
rule.

Ex.: Soubcrer, ^fimmerer, ©d^uler, 9!litter, ©djneibcr, fStfiXtt, Xfinjcr. Very
nnmeroos.

a. Borrowed words not denoting the agent : dnttnet# < L. eerUenaritis
+ centenary, a hundred weight; Irid^ter < late L. tractarius (?i, fonneL

2. -er denotes origin and home, attached to names of
places and countries.

It was originally a Genitive pL, bnt of the same origin with
the preceding : Springer, Berliner, SBiener, ©d^toeiger*

3. -er without any particular force, and words with it are
looked upon as primitive < r, ur (ar), ir, + Eng. r, er, re, +
I.-E. -ro-.

Ex. : Der Slder, jammer, ©ommer, I)onner; Me 3(^er, gcber, 8e6et,
©djulter; Da0 gutter, SeDer, SBetter, ©ilber, SCajfer*

4. -ier in foreign words, e. g., ter Eattalier, ©artier, is iden-
tical with er sub 1, but is of Romance form, < L. -arius.

For -er as a sign of pi., see 431.
608. Suffix -ter, ker*

1. < tar, forms names of relationship + Eng. ter, ther, < I.-R -t-r.
It is unaccented. Ex. t)er Skater, ©ruber, tie SWuUer, ©d^»e|lcr, Xo(^ter.

2. < tara, tra, ^»ra+Eng. ter, der. Denotes Instrument. Not numer-
ous, unaccented. + L. trum, Q-. rpw, rpia,

Ex.: Stlafttx, cord; Me Ceiter+ ladder; t)a« ®eWdbter+ laughter; fiafhr <
Uthstar, lasta/r < lahan, to blame. In the last word -ster is secondary

611] WOBDTOBMATIOK— BVBSTAinriYES. 237

finffiz. It appears also in bar ^mfhr, badger ; bie <EIfler» macule, which
are of doubtful origin. 'La9 Sfntfler < Lat. fenedra.

ber (ter) aa comparatiye suffix, see 630.

8 and t, Eng. g and k, it is difflcolt to leparate from tha rest of the ttam. Noons
ending in thom must be considered primitive.

509. -id), sometimes spelt -ig, forms a few maso. norms.
It represents M. H. G. --ech and -ich < uh, ah and ih < uk,
aky ik H- Eng. -ock, -k. See 489, 6.

Ex.: ber S3otti4 (+ buttock), bcr ^abid)(r) + hawk; itrani^ + crane;
Sittid)r 3:eppi4| bad f^t\^, 9leif!gr brushwood; ber ^tXA% (-i(^) + radish < L.
radie^em; !Rol4 < M. H. Q^. mol, + mole, but means lisaid. btr Sffig
(ig for i(^)» (+EDg. add) < L. cuv^m, through *ate€um{1), ^aW^^tn is
of later importation. !Der itdfigr St&^di, does not belong here, but < kevje
(> kefge) < L. cavea,

1. Adit = i(^+t# for which see 612, 2, forms a number of neuter nouns
denoting fullness, plenty, frequency. Late suffix of 15th century, ^ad
l^kdi^t, +Eng. thicket (but -et is Romance) ; bad Stttfxi(i^t, sweepings ; bad
!Rd$ri(^t, reeds, ^cr taU^t (see above).

510. -d)en forms the common neater diminutiYes and has
crowded out -lein in the spoken langoage. See 493, 4.

Compounded of i^, see above, and n < in, in, see 602, 2. Always
produces umlaut. Has weak accent, + Eng. kin. Ex.: bad SR^t^en^ +
manikin ; SdmnK^enr + lambkin ; SB&nn(^en# 9Rdb(l&m# X^eil^en.

b; i, i. i W-

511. 1. -t>- + Eng. -th, < G. T. -th-, < I. E. -'t-.

Ex.: ^er Xob» + death ; 9)>hinb» + mouth ; bad (bie) 9Ra$b» + aftermath ;
bte ®ube» + booth ; bie 9iirbe» burthen. Not numerous in German. Where
Engl, forms, abstract nouns in -th, from adjectives generally, G. forms
the same in -e x SBtfrmer warmth ; Zxtw, truth ; Xitft, depth.

2. -te < -irfa, -4dd, nnaooented; -ob, -6be, -at, < -rf/o, -SU,
-uoti, secondary accent, form neuter and fern, nouns.

238 WOEDFOBMATION — SUBSTANTIVES. [612-

Ez.: ^te Brembe, %xtttbt, ®ebarbe, BitiU, Idegterbe ; ha€ ©ttreibe < ge-
tregede < gUragida, what is bom on the fields, crops, grain, ^ad &tlvihbt,
®tHuU, ®emdlbe.

a. jDad 5llctnob# jewel; bie (Sinijbe due to folk-etymology after Dbc, desert,
then wilderness = solitude, lone-nes& T>tx ^onat + month < mdnot; bif
|)eimatf + home, native land ; ber Qitxat, ornamentation. But |)ctTat» mar-
riage < hi < Mw + rott, *Jb\t %xmvX belongs here, its ut < uoti, O. H. G
armuotu SBermut, + Eng. wormwood, has this suffix, but its root ir
doubtful. For -at in foreign words, see 163, 1.

512. -t forms nximerons fern, nouns and a few masculines,
-f Eng. t when preceded by snrd spirants, see 412, 2, < origi**
nal t.

Ex. : blc Stxaft + craft; bit SRadJt 4- might; bic %n^ + drift; bit 8flu<^t +
flight; bcr grofl + frost; ber ®etjl + ghost; bcr ®afl+guest; bie SKtt|l,+ mast
(of animals); (Sift, + gift; ®nip -f crypt.

1. This -t forms other nouns, but it then corresponds to Eng. d, rarely
th ; mostly < I.-E. -t- before the accent, with which the suffix of the
weak past participle is identical (see 463, 1) : bie Svrt + ford ; ber SEDart
+ ward ; (Baat, + seed ; %^t, + deed ; bie ^UU + flood ; bie Splitter bloth;
bie St&m, (Btabt, + stead; ber SPtat, +mood ; bie ©ut, + wood (mad).

2. Notice the excrescent t, which the many noons ending in a spirant + 1
encouraged, e.g., ber ©aft + sap; bie SIrt+axe ; bad Dbjl < obes; in -f(!^fi
+ -ship, -scape (?). After -^, see 600, 1. In foreign words, e. g,, ber
9>ala'il, + palace ; 9)aj)flr 4- pope ; SKorafl, + morass.

8. -ft in 5?uttfl < Umvx, 93run|l < breraten, ®unjl < gonnen is not clear. To
caU it *' euphonic" does not explain. Slrjt < O. H. G. arzat < late L.
archiateVy but phonetically not quite clear. !Die ^agb^ SKaib + maid <
M. H. G. magety meit has the suffix b-t, < G. T. th, derived from a masc.
magtis/*hoy."

513. d, f- is rare, + Eng. s, < is-, es-.

Ex.: %la^€ + flax ; dvi^^t+ fox ; gu(%d + lynx (?); bie Sld^fe, + axle;
bie ^Slfe, pod ; ber RxtH < erdfe^e + crayfish, due to popular etymology,
as if *' cray-fish " ; bie ©remfe, brake; bie ^orntJTe+ hornet; bie ©and + goose.

614. \6h- is of various origins, but generally inseparable.

< isk- comes the frequent adjective suffix -fi^ + Eng. ish, sh, e.g., ber
fD'^enfd^ < O. H. G. menniskOt an adjective ; ber Srofd^ + frog (see Elnge) ;

615] WORDFOBMATIOK— SUBSTAKTITES. 289

SBelfdi^ + welsh. In ^ir^ + hart, f(^ < 8, ^. In iTirf^e + cherry <
*eere9ia fit < 8. See 626, 4.

a. -f^e is added to Bnnuunefl to denote Mrs., bat 1b quite coIloqiiiAl, bit IRrlii^xHf^
for ^oti meln^otbt, blc 8anbn>c^cfi^ for Stan 8anbt»c^r.

Nouns Debivsd bt Xoicznal Suffixbs, which can be Traced to
Independent Wobds still Extant in the Older Uebmanio
Dialects.

For eariier periods of the langnage tliis derlTttlon would therefore property come
nnder the head of wordcomposition.

515. The suffixes are: -^flt,-teit,-r{d),-fdHxft,-htm. They all
form abstract fern. noHUS, chiefly from substantives and adjeo-
tives, except those in -rid) and -turn, and have secondary accent

1. -l(tit + Eng. -hood, -head. < 0. H. G. keit, Ags. Tidd, meaning char-
acter, nature, rank. In a few noons it means *' a hody of/' and has oollec-
tive force. Very frequent : tie Srtil^eit ; ®ott^eit + godhead ; i(inb^elt +
childhood; !Rettf4^eit» mankind ; (E^riflen^t# Christendom.

2. -leit composed of -^eit and the adjective suffix -ec or ic, to which it
was attached in M. H. G. First ec-heit, ic-heit (> echeit, icheit) >
ekeit, ikeit > keit, feit. -feit is attached only to adj. in -bar^ -<x, -ig^ -\i^
luid -fam. Very numerous.

Ex.: bte Danf^arfeit, Sitelfeitr ^eiterfeitf dxoi^Uit, ^rtuMidj/MU C^infamfelt.
The derivation from adjectives in -ig is so common, that -Igfeit was looked
upon as the suffix and adjectives in -M and 6aft only form nouns in this
way : bie Cirloflgfclt, ©traflorisfcit, Sugcn^xftiflfelt, Jlranf^aftisfeit. In -ig-fcit ig
has heen restored in many nouns, after it had helped form feit, e, g.,
ea^igfeit < 9ilezek€U ; (^wigfeit < etoecheit. See 488, 5.

a, Mark the distinction sometimes made between noans in -Igtclt, -feit and -^It fh>m
the same adj. ^i( ftleinigeeit = trifle, bie fttein^tt » litUeness ; bie iRcttigtett s a piece
of news ; bie iReu^eit = newness ; bie IReinU^Icit, cleanliness ; bie Kein^cit, parity,
clearness.

8. -ri(ft + Eng. -ric, -ly < 0. H. G. rich + L, r^x, rigia^ forms a numher
of proper names. Denotes ** powerful," "commanding." Ex.: ©utertc^,
blood-thirsty person, tyrant ; griebrit^ + Frederic ; ^cinrt(^ + Henry ; ® e*
gerid^, a plantain, lit. " ruler of the way."

a. -xxif appears in the names for certain male birds. The oldest is (Snterid^ + drake <
tndrake. This is certainly not identical with the above -HeA ; it may have been shaped
after it on account of cmtreche^ O. H. O. an/roAAo, which cannot go back to -r(cA-.

240 WOBDFOBMATIOlIf — BUBSTAlTriyES. [516-

O&nfnU^ + gftnder, St&nBeti^, cock-pigeon, are N. H. G. fonns after Snterii^, < Oanfer,
Xauber < (Sand, Staube. ^A^ntt^, ensign, < older G. venre, faneri, has -i^ by analogy.
9&^nbrU!^ may be due to D. tfendrie (Wiegand) < Bfo^ne, flag. By folk-etymology . bee
^cberi^, fh>m L. hederaeea,

-vei^ comes under composition.

4 -f(^aft -I- Eng. nship, shape <0. H. Q. ieqft, meaning character, being,
creature ; itself a derlTative by t < G. T. Vskap, from which to shape,
fd^affen* Forms mostly fem. abstract nouns and a few collectives.

Ex.: tie Sreunbfc^fi -l- friendship ; ®raff(^ft, county ; fianbfd^ft -i- Ags.
landnpe^ + Eng. landscape (acape due to D. and Norse influence) ; bie ®e'
fanbrd^aft, embassy ; ^rieflerf^aftr priesthood ; S^ermnbfi^aftr relationship ;
®efeflf(^afti company.

5. -tum + Eng. -dom < O. H. G. tuom, M. and If. ; Ags. ddm JK +Eng.
doom = judgment, law, dominion, power. It forms neuter nouns from
nouns, but neuters and masculines from adjectives. The nouns are
abstract, but many denote domain and place.

Ex. : bad ^ergogtum -{- dukedom ; ltdm$tttm« -(- kingdom ; ^eibtntum, +
heathendom ; ^eilidtumf sanctuary ; ber 3ntttm» error, Sletd^tum -{- riches.

a. Mark a difllerence In meaning between noons derived by means of ^ett, f^ft, -torn
from the same stem : bie (Sigen^eit, stnbbomness, pecoUarity ; bie Cigenf^ft, qnality;
bad (Sioentum, property ; bie C^rifien^eit = Christendom ; bad G^rtflentum = Christianity ;
bie Cfirgerf^aft, all the citizens ; bad Obrgertum, citizenship ; bie iEBeid^ + wisdom ;
bad SBeidtum, statute.

Debiyation of Nouns bt Mbans of Inseparablb Pbsfixes.

516. The composition of nouns by means of independent parts of
speech, such as prepositions and adverbs, will not be treated here except
the composition by means of those prefixes, such as \z\, Ur^ etc., which re-
tained the strong form under the noun-accent, but wore down to a weaker
form in the verb accentuation and thus became " inseparable." For the
principle of accent, see 421. Whenever the prefix of a noun is unac-
cented and has weak form, the noun is not old, but it is late and derived
from the verb, except in one case, viz., the prefix ge-y g^.

This is really composition, bat wo treat of the subject here for convenience.

1. 9 b e r- has the force, 1) of obtr- &ber# from Dutch = excessive. It is
rare. jDct ^berglaube^ superstition, bie ^berad^t; "pracriptio superior;"
Slbemt^, conceit, presumption, imbecility, is M. H. G. iAertoiUe, abewitae,
in which aber = abe, ab. 0. H. G. dwiud.

BIB] WOBDFOSXAXIOK— BUBSTAJmTBS. 241

The force of again towaid, against It la depnelatlTe: bcr 9^^
iponbelr forfeit, back-sliding ; Uhttmmt, nick-name ; bic Vbcrfoat, Becond-aow-
ing ; bcr VbcTfaifcr=(lk0cnIaifeo rival emperor. In thia aenae = after and
both probahlj <qftdb -k- -or and -tor xeapectiveljr.

2. 9 f t c r-+ Eng. after : not the first, not genuine, second, retro-, false :
2>a« UftfxbUtU stipule (in botany) ; bie Xftarmufe, false muse ; bie Vflerfritifr
false, second-hand criticism ; XftemcU = Ka^toclty posteritj ; Vft(nniete«
subletting.

8. 91 n t- + Eng. an-, a-, am- in answer, acknowledge, am-bassador,
+ L. ante-, Gr. ** dvri" Force : against, opposite, in return, removal

Ex. : bie 9ltttn)ortr+ answer ; bad 91mUt^ &oe ; bar 9ntlaj# absolution ; bad
9imt, office, court < O. U. G. ambaht, Go. andbahti, and+bahto, a servant,
Eng. ambassador, embassy < Romance forms < Low L. amhoita < O.
H. G. anibaht.

Unaccented it became rat (see 641). Xnt- has in some really old nouns
given place to the ent- of verbs, 0^., ber dxapfa'n^ for older dntvane,

4. ® e i-r h- rare as old prefix, but common in modem compounds, con-
sisting of preposition + noun, + Eng. by ; in verbs U, + Eng. by-, be- <
H,he; see Eluge. Perhaps related to Gr. dfi^ L. ambi.

Ex. : ha^ 8eifpietr example < Mapd; bie 8ei(^te, confession < liihte <
IngihU < hi + jehm; ber 8eif<^lafr cohabitation ; ber 8eifa§, + settler, un-
naturalized comer ; S3eifugr wormwood. The weak unaccented form be«
is very common in late derivatives from verbs. In M. H. G. appear the
doublets bUraht — Setra'd^t ; Mgraft ^ begr6ft ; bteiht — beMt,

6. 9 ft r- occurs only in one old noun, Qiirfpre^, mediator, attorney. In
the 18th century f&r and por were used indiscriminately and a great many
compounds now have IBor- only. Unaccented SSer- sub 11.

6. (Erj-, -f- Eng. arch-, means chief, original, great- < V. L. arei- < Gr.

Ex.: ber C^r)Mf(l^of+ archbishop; CErjtitgneTi a great liar ; CErjnarrr arrant
lool ; (Erifpieler^ professional gambler.

7. (^t-t 0-r the traces of its accent are difficult to find even in the oldest
stages of the Germanic dialects, though there are some in Ags. (found by
Eluge) and in Qo, There are none left in German. It is always unac-
cented. < O. H. G. ga, gi. Its connection with L. cum, eon, is generally
asserted, but is difficult to prove. Has intensive, generally collective

242 WOBDFOBMATION— OOMPOUKD HfOUlirS. [617-

force. Nouns of the form ®c— e# < gor^ are almost all nenter and yeiy
numerous.

Ex.: ber (S^Iasbe + belief ; ber ®efdle; ta« ®Uebr bie ®cbttlb» bit ®nab(; bie
®efa^r ; bad ^b^e; ®etreibe; ©cMmetbe; ®merbe; ®ebirBe; ®c|dlse. ®-
appears before !» r» n*

8. 9)1 i g- + Eng. mis-. Force : negative, Mse, fidlnre. For its origin
see 463, 1. In M. H. Q. still an adjective, now inseparable, always accented
prefix. Only one compound with its derivatives retains muM-, viz., ^Xif"
fet^t + misdeed.

Ex : Very numerous : ber a)2i$bratt(^ bie WS^mXt^ ber aJKignang, ber W\^
wxx, ber aKiggriff.

9. II r + Eng. or^ only in " ordeal " and ** ort," < older im, ur. Force :
origin, great age, great-. Weak, unaccented form = er- in verbs and
their derivatives, n always long except in UrteiL bad Urteil + ordeal ; ber
Urfprung, bie Urfunbe; ber Urloubr ber Urgrogi^ater ; bie Urfati^ ; ber UrqueS.

10. Utt + Eng. un-, of like force, privative, + L. »n-, Gr. ai>-, a-.

Ex.: bie ttnart« ber Unbanfr bie Ungunfl^ ber Umoile. In nngef^r un- stands
for o^n-, < An gewjsre, but in O^mnad^t* o^n stands for O^mo^t < dmaM,
containing the obsolete H privative.

11. S3eT-y fr- always in this weak form and unaccented like ®e-.
Traces of early accent upon it very rare, none now, + Eng. for-. Bare
in older nouns, very common in later nouns derived from verbs, see 616,
< O. H. G./ar,Jlr.

Ex.: beraJeTluft,btea5emunft,gre»)cI + AgB^frctfele; graf— freffett; Srad^t
+ fraught, freight (see Eluge's Diet.).

12. d e r occurs only in nouns derived from verbs. See therefore 646.
Ex.: bie Berfhreuung^ derfli^rung.

a. For trittel, Diertel, see 532, 2. dnnflfer, maiden <Jun^fhMV}ey daughter of a noble
fiimily. SnnCer, yoimg nobleman + younker <junc4ierr. ^nndftau, virgiD, ie a modem
compound. In anch words as 9(blet, SEBlmper» 92a^bar, @4fn1lcr, and many others, the
second elements are no longer felt ; they are suffixes to all intents and purposes.
See the dictionary for their derivation.

Composition of Nouns.

617. The second element is always a noun, in a few cases an adjective,
but used as a noun. This noun always determines the gender and inflec-
tion of the compound. The first element always has the primary accent
the second the secondary accent. See 421 ; 424, 2, The first element may

618] WOBBFOBMATIOK— COMFOUKD NOUNS. 248

be any other independent part of speech, a noon, acUective, verb, adverb,
or preposition.

NouH + Noun.

618. The relation of the component parts is syntactical ; the first ele-
ment may stand in apposition to the second or it stands in csse-relation
to it.

In appoBition : boS ^mmclxci^r ^ GommeiaeU ; many names of plants and trees,
bet apfetbaum, bie ^tbcttcere.

In the G. relation : bet VusspfHr bet fttalg^fe^iw b4c ftu^mtt^.

In the D. relation : bet CM^aftrant baft Xlntenf oft, b4c SUntllttiibc.

In the A. relation, incladiug the objective Genitive : bet SBegwetfctf ^laoii/ Qatcta
inSrbct.

In the AUttlve relation of ori||[in, material, eanse : Mc gftcttbctit^t&ne, bet VBefhsinb,
Ue eta^Ifebet.

In the Lutr. relation, denoting Instmment, means, connection : bet ^u^^ittr bet
^ttff^Iaa, bie ficimrute.

In the Locative relatlan, denoting place, association, even time : bte ^a^fhibe, boC
3a^n1lelf4, 3:a(|e»ei(r bet ^nMoIbat.

a. The earliest method of combining the nouns was that of attaching
the second nonn to the stem with its stem-suffix, that is, to the *' theme."
The vowels of the stem-saffizes became e in M. H. G. or were lost. A
later way was that of joining the second noun to the Genitive sg. or pL
of the first noun. This way originated in the relation of noun and its
dependent genitive. The sign of the G. eg. 9, t^ was then added also to
feminine nouns, which of course were not entitled to it

1. Stem + noun. ChmpasUion proper,

a. With stem-suffix : btr Sagebie^ btr ^geborn^ bad Sageliebr bie SBabe^
rtife, ber ®r£utigam, bie ^ad^W^aU, bie Qkinfeblttme. See the examples with
en sub 2, since en was originally stem-suffix. See 502, 1.

b. Without stem-suffix. Very numerous : bet SBilbbiebr tad 3agb$oni#
bad SBeltmeetr bad ®aTten^ud# bad $anbtt>erf.

2. G. sg. or plural + noun. Secondary composition. Case-endings :
(e)d> err en« en and er were also encouraged by the other cases in which
they stood, e, g., N. and A. pi. and in the other cases of the sg. of masc.
weak nouns. Indeed (e)d and (e)n were gradually looked upon as connect-
ing elements between two nouns and crowded out many compounds of
proper composition.

Ex.: bad ^onntagdneib, bad Sirtd^ud^ ber £anbed(en; ber ^^'ufenocrlaufr bie
itinberle^rerbie^^nnemiirbe; ber S^ren^ortr bad 9reubenfefl» bie S3(umenlefe» ber
yolmenbaum^ 8eigenbaum» ber (£t(^m9alb> ber Sternen^immel.

244 WOBDF(mMATIOK — COMPOUKD KOUKS. [519-

8. d between fern, noon + noon. This began as early as the 12th cen-
tuiy. -d is a favorite after nouns in t, particularly after the suffixes -it
-(eit {ttit), -fi^ft and -ung ; and the foreign nonns in -ion and -tdt.

Ex.: ber (^eburtdtag; bie ^rei^^ltebe, ^cimatdlicbe ; bcr Steunbfc^fidbote;
bad ^ofTnungdgl&df (G.) ; ber SBei^nac^ldmamu ber ^oc^ititdtag ; bad SXintond"
blatt, bie Uni^erfltdtd^Qe, ber Siebedbrief.

Adjegtiyb + Noun.

518. The adjective appears without stem-suffix, but see 622. The
relation of adjective and noun is that of an attribute or of apposition.

Ex.: bie ®uttbatr bie 9Beibna(|t, ^0(^}eit; ber Sangbetn, ber !Rittfe)tt>o4; bie
3Rtttfaflen; bie Sungfrauy bte (S^clbfu^tr bie iturstDeil; ber ®roginaul; ber S^ofe"
n>i<i|)t.

1. In many compounds the adjective is used as noun and is then in-
flected, generally in the weak G. pi.: bie S3ltnben^, bie Xaubfhtmmeiianlialt,

2. There is a small group of compounds in which the union of the
elements is not intimate and the adjective is inflected^^^., bie fia^igcipe'ilef
£a'ngn>ei'le ; ^o^ert^rie'flerr ber ^o^prie'fltr; <l)e)eimerrat> ein (S^e^eimerrat (but
also uninflected ber, ein ®e(einiratX 9R^tlttnailft is a secondary compound
for the older fnUna?U + midnight. For their accent, see 422, 1.

620. 1. NUMEBAL + NOXTN.

Ex.: ber Ibxtxfai, bad Sieredf, bie Stnbeere, ber dtocifam^fr ber Btoiebatf, bad
B»icU(^t + twilight, bad ©iebengeflirn, bie Crflgebnrt.

2. Advkkb + Noun.

Many of them are formed from compound verbs.

Ex.: bie 9Bo^U^at, bie ^erhtnft, ber ^ingangr bie SBoHufi, bie 9u§enibelt, bie
9it(i^tanerfenttttttg (= non-), bie 5lbart, ber 5tbgott, ber (Kingang.

8. Prbsposition + Noun.

The majority are formed from compound verl)s. But not a small
number are made directly of preposition + noun.

Ex.: bie STnjabtr ber 9lmbo§» bie ^nfprai^e, ber ^ufgang» ber SBetname, berSei^
tragi bie 3)nr4fabrt» ber ^urcbbruc^i ber Brftroi^ or ^orwi^r bie (S^egengabe, bie
^interlifl, ber 3nbegriffi ber !fRinnenfd^r ber fRa^hmmt, bad 9{ebengeb&tbe, bie ^it^
berlage, bad Obbaii^, ber OberfeHner, bie Dberbanb, bie ftberma(btr ber Umfreid, ber
Unterfa^, bie ttnterwelt, bie »ortt>elt, ber ffiiber»iae, ber 3nname, bad 3v>i^d^\tl

622] WORDFORMATION--ADJ£CrnYES. 245

4. Vbrb + NOUK.

Very numerooB. A few with the oonneeting vowel -t, which repre-
sents the saffix-vowel of weak verbs, older 6, S.

Ex.: ber Gpur^unb^ ber @mg«OdeU bit G^Teibfeber^ bad Zt\tH^, ber £ebe'
ntantii bie dlrifelttflr ber ScUfhrn. (See below.)

a. Oflthoff (see his Verbum in der Nominal Om^ntUUm) has proyed that these eom-
ponndB are not prlmitlTe In the I. E. langoagee, but that they are originally com-
poanded of noim + noun, in which the first noon was felt to be, on aoooant of its steni-
Bofflx, a Yerb-steni, and this led to the formation of many compounds, in the Qermanic,
Oreek, Slavic and Romance langnageB, by analogy. Thus fiellflcni, + lode-etar, does
not come ftom letten and 6tem, though meaning ,,Ieittnbcr Gteni," but < M. H. G.
leUegtem, in which teUe + lode is a noon = guidance, direction.

521. Compounds of more than two words. The accent
deserves here special attention, see 421; 424, 3.

1. Three words, but only two parts: bar ^ei'ratda^iitrag» ber SRi'tgliebdfc^^nr
bieDa'm^f-fcbi'^a^rt^ steam-navigation, bat5Da'ml»ffd^iH<^^(rtf steamboat-ride;
ber 9e'IbittB«-))la'n# ber $a'nb»erf^u'rfc^e» bie Se'bendverflibentng^'eefe'afii^ft.

2. Four words and more. These are not common, much rarer than
is generally supposed. ObeT))o(i)el'0er{(btdprdftbe^nt# ^taa'tdfcbulbentilgungd'
fommifflo^td^ureaUf office of the commission for the liquidation of state-
debts ; @tei'nIo^lenbe^rgn>erf» ©eneralfelbmarfd^aO.

a. To get a quick surrey of such a word, « ought to bo inserted once at least in the
first and second words and the last words might begin with a capital as in English.

b. The capacity of German for forming such compounds is generally exaggerated and
that of English underrated. The custom of writing these long nouns as one word is
very bad. We might just as weU write them so in Bng., e, g,^ ^irHnsuraneeeompany't-
0^, and we should have the same compound. Ofiicial language, certain schools of
phUoBophy and the newspaper are the miUn sources of such monstrosities. Moreover,
the composition exists only for the eye. When we speak we do not divide according
to words ; we speak in breath-groups, see Sweet^s Hdhlc, p. 86-.

8. Similar to the compounds in 520, 4, are such whole phrases as Ste'H'
bi(4ei\i, rendez-vous; Xl^'nif^tgu^t^ ne'erdowell; Xatt'getti^cbtdf goodfor-
nothing.

Derivation of Adjectives.

The comparison of adjectives, and the past participles come really under this head,
but see 438 and 468, !•

622. ADjEcrnvES Formed by Ablaut.

These may be called primitive. See 496. They fit into the ablaut-

246 WOBDFOBMATIOK — ^ADJECTIVES. [623-

series just as snbstantiv-es and verlxi do. All have lost stem-sufBxes
except the jo-stems, still recognizable by the omlaat and generally by
the final e.

Ex.: reifr fleif* bUf ; lith, tief ; blinbr W, Wn, Uffu, bumm. With -t :
enge, ia^Cr raSibt, U\t, trage.

ADJBcnTBS Derived bt Suffel

623. 1. -el, see 499, roots generally obscure: eitel -(- idle; evil,

fibcl; cbel(+ Athel-, Ethel) ; bunfeL

2. -e ntr see 601, rare. Ex.: toaxrn -f warm.

8. e r < -or, ~r, rare, same as ar of noons in 607, 8. Ex.: tvadfer +
watchfdl, brave ; bitter + bitter ; l^eitetf lavittt, fd^oanger; fidget < L. aeeunu.

524. -en, -n, see 502. Very freqnent and of various
sources, + Eng. en, n.

1. e n < O. H. G. an, in a few words of doabtfdl origin.

Ex. : eben + even; fleiiw small + clean ; grfin + green ; f(biln + sheen ;
fent + &r ; rein < Vhrl. It is late in albent < aitoofret lit|ienw fc^u(^tem«
from a4i. in -er, < -ni, -jyo.

2. < tn, in. Denoting material, " made of."

Ex.: golben for older gttlben + golden ; toollen + woollen ; feibeiw silken ;
jilbertt + silver; Icbern + leather.

8. ern<n-(-er, dne to the influence of er in such nouns as <Silberr
Seber and of er in the ploraL Ck>mpare -lerr ner in nouns, see 600, 4.

Ex. : |le!ttem# of stone ; tl4<if«ni + flaxen ; t^anem, of day ; ^Sljeni, wood-
en ; ttfici^tem (?), sober.

4. e tt < on, »n < G. T. -nd in all strong past participles. Some fifty
or sixty of these stand now " isolated," that is, separated from the verb
still extant or the verb is obsolete. See 468, 1.

Ex.: elgen + own VIL CI., gebiegen I. CI. (old doublet of gebiejen), pure ;
befc^eiben VII. CI. (old doublet of be^^en L CI.), modest ; gelegen, conven-
ient (verb obsolete) ; fterlegen, embarrassed (v. obsolete); erbabenVLCl.
(doublet of erboben), lofty ; beritten I. CI., mounted ; offexi (?), open ; troifcn

+diy,< Vdrftk.

525. 1. -ifi, + Eng. -y, represents now both older -ee,
-ac and -ic. See 489, 5.

636] WOBDFOBMATIOK— ADJEOnYBS. 247

The omlaat ooold oocnr only in the a^)^^^® which had Ac It ia a
living suffix and new adjectivea are atill being formed with it from any
part of speech except verbs.

Ex.: trourtg/ (l]itig# ffinfi^ 0ftltig# flMltis» gcmalHg; late formations : ^utig»
(ieflgr o^ig, bortig. For fcUg, see 628, 2, a. 3Xaiu^ -(- many, < manec. Its
4 for g is L. G. (?).

2w ig + li4 = {gH(!(» once very common and attached whore there
was no -eCy -io. It is now rather adverbial, see 664, 2, and rare in ad-
Jectiyes, &,g^ cnKgli^r gn^bigll^.

3. -i (i^ t < -eU, -o?U, -ohti, is more common in adjectiyea
than in substantives. See 509.

a. -ig and -id^t famish doublets, sometimes with a distinction in force.
i4t with i must he due to -ig with i, as it is very late.

Ex.: flcini^t + stony, itari^t, foolish, ntUWdiU foggy, H^tli^t, prickly.
-i(^t implies only a sUght resemblance : dli^tf slightly oily — 6Ug« oily.

4. -i f (^r -fi^ + Eng. ish < older -isk^, implies a bad sense in contrast
with ~U4# as in Eng. ish and like. See 614.

Ex.: finbifd^ + childish, finbUd^ + chUdlike; (£it(e)rif(^ + boorish, hSntt^
lidi, rustic ; denotes origin : )^reug{f(^ + Prussian ; bairif^ + Bavarian.
Corresponds to -ieua in adjectives derived from L. : !omif((# logif<^f pi^H^
logifd^. See 614.

6. -^ nb in the present participle, see 463 ; 606.

6. -(e) t, the past participle, see 468, 1.

But notice those that we no longer feel as partidples : toU IxoU UHU
etc. Later formations : ixaviU {art

526. Adjectives derived by the nominal snfiSxes -bar,
-"^aft, -lid^ and -fam, which were once independent nonns
(see SIS). For accent^ see 424, 1, 6.

1. -b a t < M. H. G. bcBre < O. H. G. bdri, < the root of the verb gebfiren +
Eng. bear. Should have become -Uxt which really occurs in living dia-
lects, but the levelling was in favor of the full form. Ck>mpare L.
-fer-, Or. ^opoc,

a. In meaning it corresponds to Eng. -able, -ibie, -ful. It means :
bearing, producing, capable of, and is attached only to nouns and verbs.

248 WOBDFOBMATION — ^ADJECTTVES. [626-

The onlj adjective to which it is attached is offtahafx, with the accent of
the verbs oftnha'xtn, oe^'iren.

Ex. veiy numeions: tTernibaT^ separable; ^Max, audible; haxHtbax,
grateful; e^rbar, honorable. Ux'hax < M. H. G. urbor^ has the weak
ablaut like the L. and Gr. forms given above.

2. -^ a f t, a participle either from the root of fyAttt + have,
or L. capere, cc^us (Kluge).

a. It denotes " possessing," " similar to-/' *' approaching-." In mean-
ing it corresponds frequently to Eng. -y ( + G. tg), -fnl, -ly. It is attached
to nouns, adjectives and verbs and is sometimeB increased by -ig.

Ex. numerous : fe^ler^aft + faulty ; fd^bl^ftr harmfd] ; le^^fl + lively ;
fpag^aft, funny ; tt>a'^T^fir# toa^r^'ftig, truthful, true : f^uI^T^ft + scholar-
like, boyish ; meifler^ft + masterly ; leib^ftigf bodily, incarnate.

3. -It d> < M. H. Q. ZicA < O. H. G. lich, + Ags. -Zfc +
Eng. ly, later again "like.

99

Originally an adjective, occuring only in compounds, but derived from
the subst. Ags. ZCc, O. H. G. ^ = body, form.

a. In both laDgoages its earliest meaning is " like ** or *^ similar to,'* then " appro-
priate,*' " adapted,** finally it became very frequent and often withont particular force.

b. The umlant generally precedes -li^, bnt Is not prodnced by it It started origi-
nally in stems with i suffix and spread by analogy. This la the most frequent snfOx
and attached to sabstantiYes, adjectives, and verba.

Ex. g5Uli(i^» godlike ; ritterlid^, Ghivalrous ; tranli^, familiar, devoted ;
fro^U^f merry + frolic ; flerblid^, mortal; be^rrli($, persistent ; (egrelfltd^r
comprehensible ; erl&auUd^f edifying ; glaubUd^^ credible. For -iglid^ see
662, 2.

c. er in leferli^, ffivt^terli^, etc., is due to analogy. These lengthened forms havo
crowded out the proper old forms \t%\vSi, ffir^tli^. In certain acfjectives the ending
has been mistAkon for -ig, and the spelling has followed this notion, abcftg, biSig^
ttnj&blid l^^o the Bnfflz -lit^, bnt cannot now be corrected. aSiiiil^lit^ is the official
spelling, though frequently aEma^ng is met with < oUgemad^r gentle, manageable.

4. -fa m < older samy originally a pronoun ( +Eng. same),
+ Ags. -ewwi, + Eng. -some^ + Gr. bnog, + L. stm-Uis.

It denotes originally identity, similarity, but has now no particular
force, unless it be capacity, inclination.

Examples not so nnmerous, the suffix has lost ground.

62 WOBDFORMATIOK— ADJEOnVES. 249

Ex.: einfam + Eog. lonesome ; lattsfam, dow ; 9Ciiic{iifam# oommon ; ax*
Uit^am, indaBtriooB ; ^eilfam + wholesome ; graufam, erael, + graeeome.

-^eU, + ful, -to4 + leas, oome under oomposliion, though In £og. they
might oome under this hesd.

For -fa^y -faUig#-fSlttg, see the numerals 631, 1.

Derivation of Adjeotiyes by Preflzei.

527. The prefixes in substantives have the same force and
accent when attached to adjectives, but only aber, er^^, ge-,
un-, ux- form immediate compounds. Adjectives with the
other prefixes are derived from substantives, verbs, etc Ex.:
a'berKug, e'^faul, ^ttctn', u'miH^, u'ralt, etc.

Composition of Adjectives.

628. The second element is always an adjective or participle. The first
element may he any part of Epeech and stands In the same relation to the
second as it does in a compound noun. Accent and form of the first ele-
ment are also the same. Some old past participles without ge^ are pre-
served in composition, 0. g., trunfettr hadtn, in toonnetrunfttt, intoxicated with
delight; ^audkcfen + homebaked, homely.

1. ADjBcrrvB 4- Adjecttve.

Ex.: toUfft^n* bummbreifl ; bunfelblau; (o<i^iniitie < ^0(^mttt(see 2, h); hUu*
£ugig# rotb&tfig.

2. SUBSTANTIVB + ADJBCTTVB.

Ex.: totfranir *frei'be»eigr *goI^dtIb« litMhantt mmttmUtu *maufttot»
^erlei^tf licbMoU, gfban!mreid6» ^offnungdlo^r freubeletTf t»ttMt\^, ^9tf^xift^*
mdgigf aintd»ibrig# *b(utiungr (ulbreidbr *feirenf(ft In those with * the noun
expresses a comparison and has often intensive force. Notice -rclc^^ Iod#
i^oH have almost become suffixes.

a. Adjectives in -fclig are of double origin.

1. The real adjective felig < BttU, + soul, as in gliidfeligf Ieutfclig# gottfelig.

2. felig < fal (see 600, 1) + ig t mftKe^* triibfelig, faumfelig < ^Hm^
Sriibfair etc It does not belong here at all.

b. A large class of adj. do not come under this head, e. g,^ ^off&rtig, e^rgei^ig; many
in -fft^tig/ as monbfftt^tis/ fi^nlnbffl^tig. They are derivatiyes of the compound noons
^offol^Tt ( < AMvaH, ch and f asaimUatad), iKRoabfu^t, (Sl^vgtii.

250 WOBDFOBHATIOlir — ^NUMERALS. [529-

8. Pronoun + Adjbctivb.

Ex.: felbfhebenbr felbflficnugfamr fclbfilo^r etc, only with felbfl-.

4. Verb + Adjective.

Ex.: tt>i§begiengf benffaul; many with -tottt and -mftrbtg : banfendtoertr
liebendtourbig.

6. Numeral + Adjectiye.

Ex.: eindugigf irodtdi^, jtoeifc^netbtgr erflgebortn^ d'ngeboren# only child.

6. Adverb + Adjectivb.

Ex.: (od^gepriefmr aU~, frtfd^/ nm-hadta, T»9ilftil, tool^Igeborm.

7. Preposition + Adjectives.

Ex. : an^eif(^ig, eiiti^eimifc^f eingeboreitr native, + inborn ; aHetb, iabttfln^,
W'xntt^m, tt'ntert^iu *)o'rlaut. ffirlle'b does not belong here, fur = kr, maU",
aU \xtf> amte^metw anfef^n. Compare iufric^eitr at peace, content.

DerivatioxL of Hmnerala

520. dtoet is probably an old dnal. Qxown < zw^ has the distribntive
suffix ni,+ Eng. twain, twin, + L. hini. With j»o fem., < older ztcd, zwo,
compare M. Eng. twa, two, also feminine. The numerals, as far as 10
incl., can be easily compared with the cognates of other languages accord-
ing to Grimm's and Y erner's Laws, elf and jtoelf contain perhaps a stem
liky ten, that appears in Slavic. They come from older eirUif, zudif. eilf
is archaic. As to gtodlf for %tat% common in N. H. G., see 488, 1.

1. The ending -jig, < zug + Eng. -ty, differs originally ftom geljn in
accent, jel^n < I.-E. ^deknif L. decern. See Vemer's Law.

2. <&unberti + hundred, is compounded of hund+ra;th- ; the latter from
the same stem as SRebCr Go. ra(hjan, to count, hund alone means 100,
compare L. centum, Gr. Uarov according to Vemer's Law. Bee further
Kluge's Diet. S^aufenb < older tilsunt, a fem. noun. It is not an I.-E.
numeral like all the others. Boot doubtful.

530. The suffixes for the ordinals are really the superlative suffixes
-to, -sta Only German and Icelandic use Hsto. jtoett- only sprang up in
the 15th century. Instead of it was used, as in all Germanic dialects, anbfr
+ other, a comparative in -ter. Comp. L. dUer, anber has not quite died
out. Comp. jum erflen^ jum anbern unb jum britten 9Rale, still used at auction.
9l(^ ®oU! toie bod^ mem erflcr tt>ar, flnb^ i(^ ni(i^t leid^t auf biefer SBelt ben anbentr
S. 2992-8. onbert^alb^zone and a half ; felbanber=lit. himself the second.

583] WOBDFOBKATIOK— KUHEBALS. 251

i,e, , two of them, of ub, britt- baa the ahort vowel of the atem '* thriu"
Btill in the neater 0. and M. H. G. driu. tt < dd < 4j aa in Qo. ihru^fa,
Ags. thridda, + L. ter-ti-us, ber ^unbcrtflc waa in O. H. G. uhantogSdo,
teharutug being the other word for 100 ; really '* ten tena." For crjl# It^U
S&rfl, aee 438, 2.

Numeral DerlTatiYM and Compoimdi.

631« From cardinals.

1. MULTIPLICATIYBS :

Suffixes -fa^r -faltig* e.g,, breifa((, ^\ttfa^, »ietfa((» In O. H. G. -fa4 ia
only noun, -fa^ expresses a certain number of parte, diviaions, =
i»9£4tT*'' -faltf-faltigf fSlHg + -fold, expresses also variety besides q nan tity.
It comes from the same stem as the verb fatten + fold, and is quite old.
-fait is archaic now. boppeU+ double, ia < French, t ia "excrescent" ;
in compounds t does not appear : DoppelableT^ Doppclddnger*

gn>ic- in |n>iefa(^» gmiefSltigf comes itom older et^i, +Gr. d<-, L. H-,

2. Iteratiybs :

-mat, rare -jlunb^ ei'nmal gtt>ei'mal« brei'mair maiu&mal ; tivmoJl, " once
npon a time." -mal is the noun ^a^l+meal, O. H. G. mdl. Notice ^aUx^
mal{€y*, once more, adverb mdhtx" = "again;" ein(maO f&r aOemaU wdni"
+ " once/' is seemingly the neuter N. or Aoc., but it is a Gen. < older
" eines," form which einfl with excrescent t, + once, ** oust." mtbM" is now
rare and so is ^fhinb." Uhland has vaQfiu'nb" = all the time. @tttnb and
Wb are isolated now ; mal is plaral, being neuter (aee 176).

S to i e Tr now rare, comes from older innro, twirSr (r < ?)

632. From the ordinals:

1. Adverbs like erllendf imittn^t etc, see 666, 2.

2. Fractions by -tel < ZtiU Drittel, ^ittttl, Sfitnftel, one t is lost in
writing, Stoanjigflel. They are neuter, of course. irDritteil^ the full form
is now archaic. wStoeitel" has not come up on account of the late origin of
irgmeite," wanbert^alb" is used, see 228. Notice ber QtoMi^tt, next to the
last ; ber Drittlej^te, third from the end.

See also syntax, 226-228.

633. Vabiatiybs are formed by -lei < M. H. G. leie, fem. meaning
'* kind," probably < Romance. The numeral preceding it is inflected like
an adjective, matu^erlei (G.), ticlerlei ; idiererlei^ four kinds, etc. But the com-
pound is invariable.

252 WOBDFOBMATIOK — ^YEBBS. [634-

Deriyation and CompositioiL of Verbs.

534. Ab primitiTe are r^[ftrded all Btrong yerbe except pteifen, f^eiSen, which art
foreign, and a large nomher of weak verbs, which are either very old, each slb ^aBen,
fragen, or they are those whose origin is obecore or whose stem no longer appears in
other primitive parts of speech, e. g.^ ^olen, ^offcn. All other weak Terhe are derivatives
except the originally strong that have become weak, «. ^., noUen/ ma^len, hthtn, (see
Kl.). They are derived from other parts of speech by means of c» the connecting
Towel representing older i, ^, ^, which unites Uie verbal inflections with the root or
with those words from which the verb is derived. (This e may drop oat.) The con-
necting vowel i or j ( < Jo) produced nmlant, which, since the J dass was l>y far the
largest of the three dasaes of weak verbs, was soon used throng analogy as a com-
mon means of deriving verbs after nmlant had ceased to work. Besides the yowel t,
there occnr certain secondary snfllxes, some of which have a pecnliar force.

535. 1. Deriyatioii with mnlaut dne, a, either to an old i
or^ h, to aoalogy, or, c, to the fact that there was an nmlant
already in the nonn-stem.

a, A large number from strong verbs of the 11., HI., IV., V., VI. ab-
laut-series with the strong ablaut, ».«., with the vowel of the pret. sing.«
and from the reduplicating verbs with the vowel of the infinitive,
e,g., flogen < fliefctt, flo§, seffoflctt Kf^an < *fl6tjan, to cause to float, IL;
ftnfen < flnfrn» fan!, gefunfeiu < senken < *sanl^n, to cause to sink. III.;
S^l^men + tame < eemen <*zamjan^ this < eemen, IV., now a weak verb
gicmen; Icgen < lit^tn, lag, gelegtn, < *lagfan-^hLj, V.; fu^ren < fasten, fulfx,
gefal^ren < vfkren < fuorjan^ VI., to cause to go, to lead ; faSeiK fatten, ^,
gefaarn, < M. H. O. fellen < *falljan, to cause to fall, + fell ; fur^ten <
gurd^t ; W^mm < lajm; tSten < tot ; trdflen < *tr6ttjan < trost + trust.

h. vPd^ < ^flug, brdunen < haun; i^fnen < S^^n; b&ffen < baff! ; rdumeit
< 0launi ; fiffnen < offen,

e. 0ritttett < grutt ; trubcn < trflbc.

Bern. 1. If the strong verb is intransitive then the derivative is transitive or
cansative ; if transitive, then the derivative is intensive or iterative, «. g., fd^uxmmen <
fd^ioimmen, to cause to swim ; fe^en < ^n, to cause to sit ; Uizn, to pray, < Bitten (!),
to ask for. Tbe same principle prevails in English : to fall — to fell, to lie — to lay, to
drink — to drench.

Bern, 3. j (or i) has caused certain changes in the final consonants of the stems
hecause these were doubled before the **lautver8chiehnng,*' and when doubled they
shifted differently from the single consonants. For Instance in metfen — n>a^en, beifen
— ®a<^, if <kk < kj, but t^^ <k; in ifeen — effen, Beiicn — bei^en, f^nifeen — f^ncibeti,
V<K« — *«!' J/ (» < tt, tj, hut ^ < t. Shnilarly fiispfen (for f<^epfcn) — fi^affen ; ^enfen —
^angen, compare Bng. henchman ; Mcgen — Bfltfen ; f^^miegen — f^mftifen ; gefc^e^n —
fil^iif en. Compare also Bng. drink — drench ; stink — stench.

637] WOBDFOBMATION — ^VEBBS. 263

2. DeriTation by e without nmlaai

These are late or if old, absenoe of umlaut ia doe to the &ct that cer-
tain vowels did not sufibr nmlaut in certain positions or that the con-
necting Towel was 6 or 6.

Ex.: Ba^nen < IBa^iu fu§cn < dui, atfern < 9(fer« formcn < Sorm, altmi<
9Uer» Older are Uttii<bet6n < beUi, prayer ; faffcn < faff6n < fof; faflm
< fasten < fasta; bulbtn < diilten < duU, Notice the difference between :
brtt(fen» to print, hrMttit to press ; hanfnif to be HI, frdnfen» to grieve ; toaU
iettf to roll, technical as in a rolling-mill, m^l^au to roll, revolve ; crfaUcii#
to grow cold — txUlttn, to take cold.

536. Derivation by e preceded by a saffix, but e drops oat
after ( and r»

1. -4 cttf intensive force, rare: (or(^en» listen + hearken < (drtn + hear;
f4iiar(i^ + snore < fc^narren.

2. -eln^ always preceded by umlaut if attached to other
Yerb& It is also attached to substantives and adjectives.

It has intensive, iterative force and, from association with the noun-
sufl^, diminutive and hence derisive force. Numerous in N. H. G. on
account of the many nouns in -e(. Qenerally umlaut.

Ex.: l6etteItt+beg(Y)< Utm, Wttn, pray, ask ; fd^meid^eln^ flatter < fc^tnei^ett
(rare), smooth ; \&Mn, smile < Ia(^en+ laugh ; hdnfeln^ be sickly < hanfcn,
be ^ok ; fraf!eln» to feel chilly < Qfrofl; liebeln* to dally < liebeiw licb; fr9m^
mtln, cant < fromm^ pious; $anbeln» to trade < ^n^»

537. 1. -ttCtt + Eng. -n, on (rare).

Ex.: Menem from the same stem as ^e- in jDemut; lemen < the same
stem as le^ren; re(i^nen < O. H. G. rehhanSn, + Ags. recenian; roamtn, +
warn, < same stem as toa^ren (?) ; toerbammenr + condemn, also contains
-tt < M. H. G. verdamnen, but < L. damnare. Compare jeic^nctt < Seic^en
+ token, regnen < SRegen + rain, in which n belongs to the noun, see 602.

2. -em, + Eng. -r, has intensive, iterative, and causative
force. Barely preceded by umlaut ; not unfrequent both in
Eng. and German.

Ex. : gti^ern + Eng. glitter, < glitzen < gW^en; ftimweni < flimnien;
gUmmem+Eng. glimmer <glimmen; ftottem< L. G. Bt5tem< Bt5ten,+H. G.

254 WOBDFOBMATIOK — ^YEBBS. [538-

flo§en, + Eng. statter ; s5gent < eogen < |ic^n ; fUteni + Age. sieerian, to
trickla

a. Noons both sg. and pL , adjectives and their oomparatiyes in -er have
started many of these verbs, e, g., faubem# tsmiUxn, bldttmi# rdbertu drgenK
arg; forbentr to promote, forbern# to demand.

538. ~i e r e n^ -ixtn, of Bomance origin^ always accented,
at first only in borrowed words, and then added to German
noun-stems.

Ex.: Foreign words : faQtertn + fail, rcgittnt + reign, fbibieren + stndy,
]^antteren# trade (rather from French hanter than from ^avb, see Kloge).
German stems : l^uflerenf peddle ; floUicrcttf strut ; falbieren. In Goethe's
Faust : irrU^telieren*

a. These were formed as early as M. H. G. in no small nombers, bat were most
nnmeroas during the ThLr^ Tears* War and the first half of the 18th century. Now
they are excluded, except the oldest of them, from elevated style. These verbs are
very numerous in the Journals.

639. 1. -f e n, -c f e n, + Eng. s, < O, H. G. -ison. Rare both

in English and German.

Ex.: grinfen, + grin, < greineiw, M. H. G. grinen; grauftn < O. H. G.
gruwiMm < stem grd, G. graufantr ®T&tteI, + gruesome, grapfen + Eng.
grasp.

a. -fen is hidden in gei)cn < gitsen < gUiwn < sahst gU, Compare
Eng. cleanse < clean, --fen stands for -sen in gatffeit < gageen, mucffen <
M. H. G. muchzen.

2. -f<^ en. This is of double origin : 1) From -fen, see 490, 1, b :
Jerrfd^en < htrsen < herison < ^crtr herro; feilfdjen < veiUen < feil.

2) From Hsk, L. «c, + Eng. sh, forfcjen < foraken ; perhaps in Jafcften
< *haf8k6n, if that comes from a stem haf-. For moro examples, see
457,4.

8. -^en < older Hseen. Has sometimes iterative and intensive
force.

Ex.: btt^en^ ifirjen, erjen, to call thou, yon, he ; ^d^^en < ac^r to groan; \^
}enr to thirst, < le6hen + leak ; fenfjen < aiufzen, from the same root aa
faufen; f($lu(4ien# to sob, M. H.G. Awdkz&n. < fd^lutfen.

a. -enjen in faitlenacn < faulf is due to the influence of L. noons in -eniia.

641] WOBDFOBMATION — ^VEEBS. 255

4. -i g e n. This is a Beoondarj safflx, starting with verhs derived from
adjectives in -ig (see 625), e,g,, ttftrbificn < ©firbig, notigcn < ndtig. It was
felt to be a verbal suffix, hence : enbigen < dtvS^t, frcusigcn < Stxtuy rcinigm
< Tcin# (ulbigen < ^ulb* Quite numerous.

Yebb Formation bt Means of Inseparable Pbefizbb, viz.:
be-, en t-, e x-, g e-, » e x-, j-, | e r-. Always unaccented.

540. 6 C-, b- before I, + Eng. be-. See 33ci-, 616, 4.

1. SB e- has lost nearly all local force of *'by/* "near," "around,"
which is felt still in Uif&n^tn, cover by hanging, bef4neiben# cut on all
sides, to trim, but in these it approaches already its common force, which
is intensive : bebauen, befragen, begebrenr berit^reiw bebetfem berufen.

2. It makes intransitive verbs transitive : faffen— befallen + befall ; reifen
(in cittern fianbe) — ein Canb bereilcn, travel all over a country; fajren auf et».»
but etUHid befabren. This is its most frequent use.

8. In verbs from noun-stems it denotes " provide with," "make":
befcbuben* provide with shoes ; htoolkxn, populate ; befreunben + befriend ;
betrilbettr make sad ; befldrfenr confirm. Notice certain participial adjec-
tives which have no corresponding verb, e. g., be(eibt» corpulent ; betagt,
" full in years ; " belefenr well read ; or they are isolated from the verb, e.g.,
befcbeiben, modest ; bef!allt» holding an office ; bef($affenr conditioned.

4. It has privative force still in benebmettr to take away ; fl(( begeben
(with G.), to give up. Compare Eng. behead and M. H. G. hehouheten,
for which now entbdupten. N. H G. bebau^ten strangely represents M. H G.
Miaben and heheben, for which once hekovJben, to maintain, assert.

541. c n t-, e m p- before f, < 0. H. G. in^. See ant-, 516, 3.

Its force is : 1. " Opposite," " in return ; " in entvfeblen^ reconmiend ;
empfangen# receive ; entgelten^ pay back, restore ; see sub. 3.

2. Contrary, '* against," privative, " away from : " entgelten» suffer for ;
entfagen^ renounce; entblnben* deliver; entfleben^ to lack (but see below);
entbecfettr entlaufen. From nominal stems : entgleifen^ run off the track ;
enttl^Tonettr dethrone ; entt^dlfern^ depopulate.

8. " Transition into," inchoative " springing from," " out of : " entfleljen*
spring from, arise ; entbrennen^ to take fire, break out ; entfcblafettr fall
asleep. A quite common force.

256 WOBDFORMATION— YEBBS. [542^

542. er- < 0. H. G. ir, ar + Eng. a-, see 516, 9.

Force: 1. "Out from," ''upward": er^e^n# arise; cme<Ien# awaken;
erforf^ettf find out ; erfUtbeiv to invent.

2. Transition into another state, inchoative like cnt- : erfaltem grow
cold ; erblu^ hloom ; erbcbcn, tremhla Many from a^jectiveB : crtronfem to
fall ill ; erMinbeiu to become blind.

8. Completion and success of the action : criageitr txltiUXn, to obtain bj
huDtinpf, by begging ; very frequent* Compare Eng. arise, abide.
In certain forms : only pret. erflar(# past part, erlogcn^ erpi^t*

543. t-f fl- before 1, see 516, 7, + Eng. a-.

Force : 1. " Together " only in few verbs like : fiefrierov congeal ; gcrin*
nen# curdle ; 0e^oren# to belong ; geleitem accompany ;*0efalIcnr to please.

2. Frequentative and intendve : geloben# g^(n!en» debiettn» and finally no
force at all as in the past participle and in verbs like : gebei(en# gelttflcln#
gmefen# gcnieSen* Numerous past part from nominal stems, with the force
of ** provided with/' see 640, 4: gefhefebi in boots; geflimtr disposed;
0e(lirnt» + starry.

544. m i §-, + Eng. mis-, as to its force, see 516, 8; as to
its origin, 453, 1.

Ex. : mi§glfi(fcn# to fail ; ini§(oreiu to misunderstand ; miSdoimeiw to grudge.

545. »cr-; fr-; < ver, far^ fir^ Go. fra, fr, + Eng. for-.

Very frequent.

Force : 1. ' Through," " to the end," intensive, " too much : " ueTlimtt,
+ lose, + forlorn ; ijergeben + forgive; ijeraUeru grow antiquated ; ^ergraten,
hide by burying ; terbergerir hide ; Jjerjlnbem, prevent ; uerfd^lafen, + sleep
too long; toerfomnten, to deteriorate; "^ttll^tti, fade; i9eTiagm» despair; i^er^
flud)en« curse ; terlaufetw scatter ; freJTot, to eat (used of animals).

2. The opposite, the wrong, a mistake : i^erfaufciw t>erbietot» verfii^reii;
i^erlegen + mislay, but also (sub. 1) to publish (a book) ; )>eTbauen# build
wrongly ; ^6) »erlaufcn, lose the way ; flc^ »er^3ren» to mishear ; fld^ »crgret'
fettr to get hold of the wrong thing ; (fid)) tergebetu to misdeal (in cards).

3. Waste and consumption of the object : )>crMuen» use up in building
(see sub. 4) ; terfaufen^ waste in drinking ; toerfpieleiti lose, gamble away.

4. From nominal stems : i* change into," " give the appearance of,"
"bring about a certain state of," e.g., toerglafeitr glaze, turn into glass ;
l»eT80lb(nr + gild ; "ottbt^tvx, ossify ; «er}tt(fcm# cover with sugar, turn into

547] WOBDFORMATION— VBBBS. 267

0agar ; i»crftrmeii» grow poor ; »erf4te(ttcnu make or grow worse ; tcrKtitni
(sub. 8X cover by building in front of.

a. t»CT- in paat participles : t»fmailbtr related, bnt of the regnlar verb =
"applied;" «erfit^^ basbfal.

546. 3cr- < M. H. G. «er-, 2»-, O. H. G. zur, zar, zir, +
Gk). tus-, + Gr. (Jvf- + O. Eng. to-brecan> atrbred^en. Least
frequent of these suffixes.

Its force is: <* separation/' ''scattering," '* dissolution/"* to pieces " :
Ittiautn, cat to pieces; lerglicbcnw dismember ; irrhrilmmcnw dash to pieces.

1. If (e- and 9tr~ precede other prefixes, separable or inseparable, the
verb is always an inseparable compound. Ex. : ttru^nglucf cn» ^tti'ntx&^ti^tn,
benat^ri^^tigen. These come from the compound nouns ttnglit(f» Sintrac^tr
9{a(^Ti4t. See 547. Notice the difference between bc9o'nnunben< Sormunb
(insep.) and bc9o'rfle$tn<be)»OT + fh^ (8ep.X

S. Notice such compounds as an'fnfle^nu a'mxiititn$ i»oran'4teTfttiibigen# in
which the second prefix $s inseparable. The first and second do not occur
in the simple tenses. Their past part, are aufcrflanbenr annriogrn. The pret.
of the third is ffinbigte i»orau4» but the past part, is )>oraud»erfiUibi0t# without
gc-. See 660.

Compoimd Verbs.

547. The first element is either substantive or adjective or
adverb or preposition; the second is always a verb. The im-
portant questions are accent and whether the compounds are
separable or inseparable, or both; whether direct or indirect.

1. Indirectly compounded are the verbs derived from compound sub-
stantives and adjectives. They are inseparable and have noun-accent-
ualion, t. e,, accent on the first element

Ex. : i^xhtt^tn < ^xUxqit, inn ; ra'tfd^Iagen < 9tat' Wagr council ; wl'H*
fabrttn < aBaflfabtt, pilgrimage ; frilbPtftn < 8tii(fl&tf ; argme^iien < Krg"
tt>o(n« suspicion ; bemiSfommen < SBiUfontmm.

2. That these are not genuine compound verbs their inflection shows.
The seemingly strong verbs, as in Ta'tf(^lagen# (tiratettf etc., are not in-
flected strong, but weak : ratfd)lagte» geratfcblagt; bdraletCf gt(cirattt. Note
also : ^anb^btt# gt^aiibbabtr not ^nbbatte» ^'nb^abt or ^nbgcbabt.

8. Under this head come also: 1. Verbs of which the compound sub-
stantive or adjective is no longer common, €. g., ioctterleu(^ten < ^MterUich ;
tc4tferttgcn<r0fi^Mr^; bra'nbr<i^t^< IBraiibf<4a(. d. A few verbs which

258 WOBDFOBKATIOlSr — ^YEBBS. [648-

Beem due to analogy with the ahoTO and fonned by mere juxtaposition
of adjective or substantive and verb, e. g., IWhtefviu toiQfa^ren (accent
doubtful), fro^Io'cfen, Ixi'bdvi^tln, toet'dfagen (as if it were from tDcife and fagen,
but it comes from the noun toi^ago, prophet). Principal parts : liebfofcn,
UeMofle, geliebfofl; frof^Iodeiu gefro^lodt.

548. All the other compound verbs are directly compounded, separa-
ble and accented on the first part excepting certain propositions, see 649,
which form the only genuine old compounds with accent on the stem-
syllable of the verb. These and the verbs in 54(X-646 are the compound
verbs proper with the original verb-accent.

1. SuBSTAirnvB + Vebb.

The substantive is the object of the verb.

Ex.: fla'uftnbetv ^au'd^altetu tetlnc$men# ban!fagen# prctdgeBeiu

NoTS.— But for the fact that in certain tenaes they are written together and the
anbstantive is now according to the ** Boles'^ to be written without capital, these
verbs are no more eompoands than tiie corresponding Eng. to keep honee, take place,
give thanks. As late as early N. H. O. these and the following groaps were not treated
as eompoands.

2. Adjective + Vebb.

The adjective is generally factitive predicate, e. g., mfjimimttu " take
notice of"; totWlagcn, strike dead; frcifprcd^cn, declare not guilty; »ott*
0iegen» -f4iitten» see 649, 5.

a, A large number of compounds with substantives and adjectives oc-
cur only in certain forms, viz., in the two participles and in the infinitive
used as a noun, e.g., blutflittenbf }fi^x^t»tt^tfftn, fHflbtglMt, ba« ©*6«Wreibctt,
bad ©tiQfd^wetgen.

8. Adyebb or Preposition + Vebb.

The adverb qualifies the verb expressing manner, direction, time.
The preposition in this case has the force of an adverb. Exceptions
below.

Ex.: Ji'nf*i(fen, Jc'rjolett, na'(^mtt«ett, uorau'efttcn, jufa'mwenfommctt, roo'^U
mUtn.

549. Separable and inseparable compound verbs occur with
bur*, (Mtttcr), iibcr, urn, unter, »oU, wtDcr, tt)iel>en

a. Inseparable verbs compounded with these prepositions are transi-
tive, and have the old accentuation of verb-compounds (see 421). Here
belongr also all verbs with Winter-, wibcr- and a few with »oII-r e. g., »ofl*
Mn^ttL These verbs are nearly all old, but some new ones have been

540] WOBDFOBKATIOK— TBBB8. 269

formed after them. The force of the preposition has entered into and
modified the meaning of the verb, so that if the simple or separable
oompoand verb was intransitive the inseparable compoond became tran-
sitive ; if transitive, the compound developed a different meaning, gen-
erally figurative, often intensive.

The separable compounds have not the verb-aocentuation and the
force of the preposition remains literal and intact.

Very few verbs allow of both compositions.

1. b u r (^ means + "through," " thoroughly," completion of the action,
" filling with," **to the end of a fixed limit of time," bu'rc^bringou crowd
through, penetrate, carry to a saccessfiil issue, 0.p., tie i^ttgel ifl bUT(^ebrunden#
the ball went through. Trans.: Die i^ugrl ^t bod IBrett bttrd^bnt'iidciw the ball
penetrated the board ; iri^on bem ®efiitle feined 9{i(^te bttT(^bru'n0en.'' In m1>it
if* ifl bur(^ bad fbxttt fiebrungcn" there is no compound. !&u'r4f(!^ttcn# lo<^
through, ttxoai burd^fc^au'eiti see through, understand thoroughly ; burd^^
ta'n^em to spend in dancing, bu'rc^tan^etu to dance through, to pass through
dancing; bu'r^fel^enf to look through (a hole), hurriedly through a book ;
the inseparable burc^fe'f^en is obsolete, it would have the force of burd^^
f($au'en# to understand thoroughly.

S. ^ i n t e Tf + behind. Separable compounds with (inter do not really
occur in good style. In (i'ntergie§en» -hingen it stands for (inunter = pour
down, swallow. The inseparable compounds are always figurative and
transitive, its force is the opposite of straight, " deceptive " : (interge'^n^
deceive ; (intertreibenr to prevent, circumvent ; (fnterge^en would mean the
more usual (inter^e'r or bintena'ngef^enr to walk behind.

8. ii ( er = a) separable : over, beyond, across = (iniibrT; h) in close
compounds : transfer, covering, a missing, figurative sense, extent of a
certain limit of tima

a. ft'bcrft^en^ cross, take across (a river) ; &'^rge(en» go over.

h, iklniWf^ttu cover with ; ilbema'(^tenr spend the night ; ii(crf($rei'ben# head
a column or chapter ; &berb5'reny not to hear ; fiberlc'9en« consider ; it'btrft^Ia'
gen = u'mfcblagenf tip, turn over ; but ii6fTf(^la'8cn» calculate (expenses) ;
ikUxW^^f to translate ; Uberge'^ettr pass over, skip ; fibtrfe'^eiv overlook.

4. urn* a, separable = around, about, again or over, upside down,
change of place, loss of something, failure.

Ex.: u'ntb&'ngen (einen 9)tantel)» put on, (ein S3i(b) change the place of a pict-
ure ; u'ntlaufmr overthrow by running ; u'mfleibenr change clothing ; u'lti^
fe(ren» turn back ; u'mfommen (viz., um^d fiebcn)» perish, u'mbcingenr take the
life of ; fl4 u'mgc(en# take a roundabout course.

260 WOBDFOBMATlOlSr— YEBBS. [550-

5. inseparable : literally denotes the encircling of an object, figura-
tively it lias the force of J i u t e r, deception : uma'nncn, embrace ; imif^i'f'
fen, sail around, double ; ttm!In^cn# cover, drape ; mnge'^enf avoid, deceive.

5. II n t e r» separable : under, down, among (with) : ii'nter^Iten» hold
under, down; u^nterbringtitf provide for (figurative) ; tt'nttrgcjen, go down, set.

Inseparable, figurative sense : nnter^a'Ueiw entertain ; umerfa'^en (Dat),
forbid; ftd^ unterfle'^en, make bold; vrntttnt't^mm, undertake; vxitttWfftiu
leave undone ; uatttWqicn, to be overcome by.

6. ^olU separable : + full, always literally with verbs denoting pour-
ing, filling and similar ones: i»o'llbrin0en# »o'Ilgiegett» 9o'0fii^iitttn(ein®efag),
bring, pour a vessel full. Inseparable : "to the end," accomplishment :
t»oIIf{i'tren» toQbri'ngeitr execute; toUtfvhttu finish, compare Eng. fulfil;
yoEfo'mntcn (part.), perfect

7. » t b c T in the sense of '* against *' is always inseparable and unac-
cented, generally figurative sense : toibcrlc'gen, refute ; tt)tber|hc'6cn (with
Dative^ resist ; totberfpre'd^tu contradict (also Dat.) ; roHbtxfit'f^tti, to resist.

8. toieber, separable: "again," "bock": ttie'ber^olen, fetch back;
toie^bfTgeben* give back ; loie'bcTfagfiw say again. Veiy loose compounda
Inseparable : figurative sense only in n>ieber(o'leny repeat ; toiber^a'Sen^
tDiberfc^ei'nen also xoit'htx^^tiatn, tot'ebcr^Sen; usage is unsettled in these.

a. The difference in the spellhig ivibcr— u>iebct is quite modem.

550. Separable and ineeparable composition with these adverbs is quite old, bat in
O. H. G. probably no distinction was made in force or meaning. Bven now „(Z)ie
ftuflel f^at ba6 iBrctt burd^bru^ngen'' and „bie St. ift bur^ bad SBrett gebrunflen" amonnt to
quite the same thing. In fact separable composition is no real composition. Many
still write the prefixes separately before the verb where any other adverb would stand.
In M. H. Q. the great minority of our modem separable compounds are not felt at all
as compounds. Two things haye brought about this feeling that they are such :

1. The substantiyes compounded with the same element as the yerb, e. g,^ U'tngang,
(Du'i^fa^rt, ^^htixdf, have lead us to associate um and fle^en, bui^ and fasten, ab and

2. When a meaning different from the literal or common one was developed, verb
and adverb were felt as belonging together, e. g.., ettoaS bu'x^fe^n^ to carry something
through, to the end ; Dotf^Iagen, to propose ; na^f^Iagen, to look up a reference, etc.

a. Very often there is no difference in meaning, but only in oonstraction, between
the simple verb + preposition and the close compound, e. g.^ 1, <Da9 ipferb ifl fiBer ben
®ra(en gefprungen, = ** The horse has Jumped over the ditch/* and, 2, ba8 ipferb ^at ben
Graven fibetfpningen, The horse has Jumped the ditch. In 2, perhaps the act of the
Uags is emphasized, it did not sttHm across; in 1, the extent of the leap. But compare

602] WOBDFOBMATION— ADVBBBS. 261

Also the other, not Uteml nnwmtng of tiU^vti'9%tn, tIx., to skip, omit, hi : Set Rctfenbc
^ot einen tpoflen ftfterfpntneen, the traveller has skipped one item. Set 91. ifl ftbct ben
ipo^cn flefpnragen would be meaningless.

Deriyation of Adverbs.

The adverbs are derived from pronominal stems and from
noun-stems.

551. The two snffixes en and er, < older an{a), ar{a),
are attached to the stems.

Adverbs from Pbokominal Stems.

1. From the stem of the demonstrative prononn:

a. From the stem tar4ha : hat, ba + there, baim + then and bemif oooj.
" for/' this doable form is M. H. G., but the difference in meaning was
only established as late as the 18th oentoiy, < older danne, denne, which
have not been explained yet. ^annen < dannana stands only in ir«on
banntn''r hence. Dcflo^ see 442, a ; bort < dor^ ; bo4 + though (?).

h. From the stem hi : (er + hither ; (iiu away ; (itr + here ; (imicnr
in «on (Umen, hence, ^inteiir (etttc» $rint» (tuer, see 443, 2.

2. From the stem of the interrogative pronoun:

toaim + when, toeim^ if; loor-r loo + where < wd, vAt ; oon mamten +
whence is rare. For toie + how + why, see 444, 1. ©artt'm < toflr +
uinSbe or toara + wmhe (?).

8. From the stem mor- : fo + so ; famt/ lufammen (?)» fonbetr Mt alfo^ fonfl
< wivoBt, sttst, sus. From varioas stems : oben» + above ; tttUen» itntCT> +
under; nib (rare), nieben + beneath ; nun + now ; aupenr aupcr; innen» inner*

552. Adverbs from Nottn-stemb.

These adverbs are always cases of noxms, the Gbnitive
being the most frequent. See 187.

1. Oenitive : a^enbd^ morgendf na^td, M^, flttg9» bmoetU bennaSen# ni^te*
was looked upon as an adverbial ending and added to fem. nouns and
even to other cases and whole adverbial phrases, e.g.^ -feitd in many
compounds: bic'efeit^/ mti'mrfeitd/ attcrbi'ngd (really a G. pi.), oo'rmaUr unter^
n)c'g9i t'^tmaU, aHertoc'dcn* Compare Eng. needs, now-a-days, always,
sometimes.

2. Dative: lumi'ltn, mittenr ^Ibtn, tTaun(?)» morgen(sg.Y), aB^^nbcn, oor^

262 WOBDFOBMATION — ^ADYEBBS. [653-

Ja'nben, jufolge, anflatt. Compare Eng. to-morrow, o'clock, a year < on
(in) the year, a day < on (in) tlie day, because, asleep, whilom.

8. AecuscUive : m^ (t) + away ; ^im + home ; inali once ; bicmeil, +
while ; ubcrfKittpt, \t, nie.

-n>etfe following at first only after a Qen., later the nninfiected noun :
jtoangdmeife, by force, audna^mdtoeifef exceptionally, fHttfrneifCr piecemeal.
Compare Eng. nowise, otherwise, the while.

4. InMrumerUal : ^tutt, this year< hiujaru; Ifiutt, todaj < kiutagu ,'
(eint < hinoM (a Dat?). See 443, 2.

553. Derivation by suffix: -littgd and-martd«

1. -lingd comes from the G. of nouns in "Imo^ and is a late formation :
rfidningdr backward ; blinblingd, blindly. Compare Eng. sideling, headlong.

2. -tDdrtd + ward is really the G, of an adjective wert, toarL It is very
common after prepositiona : l^mtoirtdr homeward ; malbt9&rtd# towards the
forest ; ahto&xt^, downward, aside; »omdTtd+ forward.

Advebbs fbom Adjectives.

554. Almost all adjectives can be used as adverb&

Adverbs with a suffix :

1. -e, this is now rare but once very frequent < older -o, which was
probably the A. sg. fem.: Qtm{t), fem(e), balbe in Goethe's tt'Baxtt mx, balbe
IRu^efl bu au^.**

a. Remark here the doublets fa(l — fcfl, fd^ott — fc^on, fru^ (rareX — ftu^t
rpat (rare), — fpdit. Those without umlaut are the regularly formed ad«
verbs from jo-stems. Those with umlaut are adjectives used as adverbs.
In trdgCf bofe* etc., e does not go back to -o, but O. H. G. i< jo, since they
are adjectives (jo-stems) used as adverbs and not transformed into adverbs.

2. -U (^ + -ly, is really no adverbial suffix, but the adjective suffix to
which the adverbial e ( < o) was added, -4iche, -liho : treuUc^ — treu + truly,
fMthfuUy ; ma^rlic^ — toa^x, giitlid^ — 0Ut# frcilui^, to be sure, — frel ; bitterlic^
— adjective l&itter.

a. The corresponding adjective in -lic^ is perhaps no longer in use.
Compare freili(i^# to be sure — fret + free.

b. -1x6) has also been added to other stems : einf($Ueg(i(i^r (offentltt^^ tDif^

666J WORDFOBHATIOK — ^PBEFOSITIONS. 263

555. Adverbs, cases of adjeotWes.

OeniHve: 1. red^tdf Unfe» cilmb^f vnrdeicndr fletd+Bteadily.

2. -e n d from superlatiyes and ordinab : tt^ttA, (9<l^f!end» meiflcn^r brit"
lend* -end contains the inflection -en of the adjective.

a. Genitive with excrescent t. Such are felt as superlatives : {fingf!#
Mngflr ne&fl; einfl (?)» but in O.H.Q. are doublets einM and einea. Compare
Eng. onoe< dnu and dial, "onst" ; also amidst, amongst, dial. *'acrGst."
Pore Gen. in Eng. else < elles, unawares, etc

Bm/L The above ezpUnation is rejected by Lexer in QrimnC$ Diet.

8. Dative. It is hidden In }tt>ar < tewdre, lit. '* in truth," to be sure.
Cinielni singly < einzd by sufllx -U from «/i(a«) < ein; a<y. einjeln-er.
In adverbial phrases : am leic^tefien* am f^dnflen* In M. H. G. this Dative
was very frequent, «.^., in -Ziehen, --lingen, etc

4. Accusative, also in the comparative and superlative degrees : xotni^
^itl, genu0» me^Tf meiflr U^tt, 1^1^^% mdgU^f!. In adverbial phrases : indbe^
fonbere, fitrtoa^rr aufd reinfie, f(^5nfie. See 300, 2.

a. Note also those preceded by prepositions : iixUi^t, at least, nel&en ( <
end>en), iuglei(!^# at the same time, ^xW^ or fiX'xH^t fiEurther.

Pbepositioits and Cokjunotionb have the same origin as the
adverbs, being originally adverbs.

Three classes of words may be comprised under the head
of Pabtiglbs.

Prepositions.

666. 1. As old and simple prepositions may be regarded : a'b, an, auf^
audr M, )9or and fur (doublets), buT(^» gegen ( + again), in# milr ob» )tt» urn ( <
umbe\

2. Derived by suffixes : -er* -^er, -ter» mostly from pronominal stems
and from the older forms ar, dar, tar, which are probably all three com-
parative suffixes : dBeTr unter, (interr n>leber# auger. See 661, 8.

3. A number of nouns and adjectives in the various cases : haft, un*

mxt, n>^^renb» mitteld (mfttelfl)r flatty Un^9, txei^, ^alben> xot^tn, millen# nd(^|lr

nebjl, Iaut> na^r itt>iri^en.

a. The number of prepoBiiione goyeming the Gen. is really dUBcult to state, be-
cauBOf like maiiy of the above and many otbers, they are really noans with a O.
dependent upon them, yia., anetfS, be^ufd, Behrep, {etten^i etc.

264 WOBBFOBMAIIOK-— DilTEBJECTIOKS. [557-

557. Compound Pbepositionb are generally adverbs, but the
following may be classed here :

1. Preposition (or ad verb) + preposition or adverb: bbmeiK lu+innen,
bid < bi + a^ (a^ + £ng. at), ne^n <en+ eben, iumibct ; ' cntge'gen < en +gegen
(t excrescent,) etc.

2. Noon + noun, or prep. + noon, or pronoun + noon : iufolgCr several in
-^Ib and -feit : augerbolb, imfcit» anfktt*

Coignnctions.

668. 1. From pronominal stems: For ba^ bemtr fOf xotcoL, x»\t, and
others, see among adverbs, 66L 9l[ber» osd^r luibr obcTr fonbenu tpebetr show
suffixes.

2. From nouns and adjectives : faQdr gld^, V6%touS^XtX, meiU toa^renbf and
otliers.

8. Compounds: adverb and preposition: betOTr fobalb^ mttbiitf fomitr
babtr# barunif and others.

4 Preposition or adverb + pronoun or adjective : iAbem, feitban, fobaf #
M bagf aS(in» mmeber < ein- d^ toeder, one of two ; ni^dbcflotDOtigtr,
nevertheless.

Inteijections.
559. Interjections proper.

1. Joy is expressed by: ab» o, ^ iu^% ^d^a, l^urrab. Surprise: ei, )>o^
ba. Painbj: cf^, m^t, m, ad^, ^u* Disgust: pfiti, fi, bab* Doubt: l^m^
bent> l^unt. Commands to be silent are : pfi, bflf fd^ ; to stop or pay at-
tention ; bnr (to horses), ^tha, be» b^r f^oUa, baHob*

2. Imitations of sounds in nature : ))Iumpd (fall), piff, paff, puff (shot),
but (whizz), bau^ (fall)* mub (cow), miau (cat), wou (dog), l^opfa (stumble),
bum — bum (drum).

8. Burdens of songs : Dubelbumbct, Suubattera, fdbrum — f^rum — f^rum.

660. Certain regular words which have become exclamations, often
oaths in much changed forms : ^lU SBetterr jDonner unb S3It^enr ^o^taufmb,
^eiU S3ra90r D ie^ D iemine, (Sappermentf ^aferlot^ 3Kein ^immel, Domienpctter
094 nnmaU

LIST OP ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS THAT

REQUIRE EXPLANATIONS.

AgB- = Anglo-Saion.

(B.) = Bible.

(Bo.) = Bodenstedt.

(Ba.) = BQrger.

(Ch.) = ChamiBSO.

D. = Datch or Dative.

(F.) = Hart's Edition of Qoethe's

Faust, Part I.
Fr. = Frencli.
(Q.) = Goethe.
Go. = Gothia
Gr. = Greek.
G. T. = General Teutonic.
(H. and D.) = Hart's edition of

Goethe's Hermann and Dorothea.
(He.) = Herder.
H. G. = High German.
(Hu.) = A. von Humboldt.
I.-E. = Indo-European.
L. = Latin.
(Le.) = Leasing.

L, G. = Low German.

(Lu.) = Luther's works excepting
his translation of the Bible.

M. G. = Middle German.

M. H. G. = Middle High German.

N. G. = North German or North
Germany.

N. H. G. = New High German.

O. Fr. = Old French.

O. H. JG. = Old High German.

(Prov.) = Proverb.

(R.) = Rttckert.

Rules = the o£Qcial rules for spell-
ing, see 37.

(Sch.) = Schiller.

S. G. = South German.

(Sh.) = Shakespere translated by
Schlegel and Tieck.

(Uh.) = Uhland.

V. L. = Vulgar Latin.

< means " derived from," ** sprung from," " taken from."

> means " passed or developed into/' ** taken into."

+ between a German and non-Gterman word denotes common origin
or ** cognates." In other positions it means "accompanied or followed
by."

* before a word means that that form of the word does not actually
occur, but is conjectured or reconstructed.

: = : or : as : means a relation as in a mathematical proportion.

I, II, III after verbs indicates the strong verb-classes.

— between letters means " interchanges with," e,g,, ( — (^ as in («f er—
(o4 or r — i as in ne^mcn — nimmfl*

SirBJEOT-i:N"DEX.

The numbers refer to the paragraphs. The nmUnits have a separate plae^ & after
Ot h after O; ft after n.

Ablaut: Batnre of. 393; four grades,
394, 463. 2 ; 496 ; 497.

Ablaat series : and yerb-classee, 122-
129 ; I.-K., 394, 1 ; G. T., > O. H. G. >
N. H. G., 395-400; 459^^67 ; group-
ing of, 469.

Abstract nouns : article before, 149 ; no
article, 146 ; 166, 3; plural of, 171 ;
62, Bern.

Accent: 417, 418; degrees of, 419;
chief on stem-syllable, 420* 420, 3;
478, 4; Bng. m Norman-Fr. words,
420, 8 ; in compounds, 421-42^ : seo-
ondaiT, 424 ; rhetorical, 426 ; " free '*
in I.-B., 420, 8 ; in foreign words, 427,
420. 1 ; 424, 4; characteristic of Ger-
manic Lang., 478, 4; = intonation,
302, 1.

Accidence : 38-138 ; Historical Commen-
tary on, 428-476.

Accnsatiye : office of, 198 ; after verbs,
198-206: two A. after verbs, 109;
predicate in passive, 202 2 ; cognate,
203 ; logical subject in, 206 ; after re-
flexive verbs, 206 ; adverbial, 207 ; dif-
ference between A. and G. of time, 208,
1 ; after adjectives, 207, 1 ; 183 ; abso-
lute. 209 ; 297, 1 ; by attraction in the
Srea. after (affcn, 202, 1 ; after prepos.,
04-306.

Adjective: decl. of, 69-72 ; 436 ; origin
of strong decl., 437; comparison of,
73-76, see comparison, compar. and
superlat. ; 438, 439; used as nouns,
220, 221, 181 ; gender of same, 160,
3 ; 169 ; 162, 8 ; G. after, 182, 183 ;
D. after, 194 ; A. after, 183 : 207, 1.

Attributive use of, 211-217 ; only
used attributively, 211 ; uninflected
uBed attributively, 212 ; in the predi-
cate, 218, 220 ; as nouns declined
strong, 214 : G. Be. m. and n., 216, 1 ;
declined weak, 213 ; 217, 1 ; as nouns,
221, 1 ; origin of double decl., 215 ; un-
settled usage as to strong and wei^
decl., 216, 221 ; after indef. pron.,
214; 216, 4; 181 ; after person, pron.,
216,2; two or more adj., 212,8: 217.
In the predicate, 218, 219 ; only used
in pred., 219 ; position of adluncts o^
353 ; accent in certain compounds.

422, 1-7; derivation of, 522-628;
used as adverb, 554.

Adjective Glauses : nature of, 323 ; 326-
328; 339.

Adverbial Clauses : nature of, 323, 329 ;
various kinds of, 330-340 ; see tempo-
ral, local, danaee of manner and cause
(332-340), final (338), conditional,
(340), etc.

Adverbs : origin of, 551-655 ; < G. of
nouns, 187,562; + prepos. supplanting
the person, pron., 234 ; syntax of, 299,
300; after prepos. + noun, 300; ad-
verbs which are only advenw. 300, 1 ;
564, 2; adjective as, 300, 2; 564:
comparison by, 223, 224 : relative and
absolute Buperl. of, 300, 2 ; nature of,
301, 1 ; interrogative, 251, 5 ; relative,
258, 326, 331 ; demonstrative, 327,
8; in local clauses, 331, a* position in
a sentence, 354 ; order of adverbs of
time, place, manner, 355; accent in
compound, 423.

Adversative Sentences : coordinate, 320.

AfiHcate : 413, 5 ; 408, 1.

Alemanic : 483, 1.

Alphabet : printed and script, 1, 2 ; ori-
^n of the G. letters, 360 ; Latin letters
in G., 360, 3 ; relation to G. sounds,
361.

Anglo-Saxon, see Boyish.

Apposition : < G. ot nouns, 181 ; 179,
1:317,7.

Articles: inflect, of; 38; accent of, 39;
contraction with prepositions, 40; spell-
ing of, 39 ; 41 ; syntax of, 140-158 ;
nature of 140 ; general cases of absence
of, 141-146 : before proper nouns,
147 ; before abstract nouns, 149 ; be-
fore names of materials, 150 ; before
collective nouns, 151 ; repetition of,
158. See A., del. and inder,

Article, Def. : infl. of, 38 ; attraction to
precedinjg words not prepositions, 41 ;
contraction with preceding prepos., 40 ;
relation to Eng. possessive pron., 154,
243,8; distributive for Eng. ''a,'* 156.

Article, Indef. : infl. of, 38 ; aphaeresis of,
41 ; after certain pronouns, 144, 252 ;
before certain pronouns, 157.

Austrian: 483.

BUBJECT-INDBX.

267

Anzillailefl: of tense : Infl. ot 110 ; um
of, 865, 866 ; 883, 3 ; omiiseion uf,
346 ; in passive voice, 873.

Modal : see pret pros, verbs ; special
uses of, 867: verbs of motion omitted
after, 867, Rem. ; imperative force oU
887, 4 ; -I- pert and pres. inf., 88S, 1 ;
890.

Bavarian-Anstrian : 483, 8 ; 488, 6» a.
Bible: 486; 487.
Brtchung : 405, Bern.

Capitals: initial, 364; in prononnB of
addrosB, 830.

Cardinals, see Numerals.

Cases : see individual cases, N., O., etc. ;
order of cases in the sentence, 368.

Causal Sentences : coordinate, 381 ; sab-
ordinate, 337.

Comparative : see comparison ; use of,
888 ; by adverbs, 88d, 884 ; conjunc-
tions after, 333.

ComiMirative Clausea : 333, t-i ; with
ni(9t, 333, 2.

Comparison: of adjectives, 73-76; 438;
439; irregular, 76, 1; defective and
redundant, 76, 9; the suffixes, 73, 438 ;
by adverbs, 883, 884, 888, 1 ; of two
qualities of the same object, 884.

Compound words : accent of, 481-484 ;
iri-egular accent of certain nouns, adjec-
tives, and prefixes, 488 ; secondary ac-
cent in, 484 ; 581 : see nouns, a4j.%
etc. ; 516 ; compared with Bug., 581,

Compound tenses : lOOuliS; 883.

Concesi^ive Clauses : 339.

Couditiouals : formation oil 115, 883, 6 ;
force of, 880, 881, 884, ft.

Conditional Clauses : tenses in, 880, 884.
6 ; nature o^ 340 ; several forms of,
340, 1 : word-order in, 343, e.

Conjugation : strong and weak, 101-103 ;
446,476 ; weak, 117, 118, 447, 454,
455 ; strong, 180-133, 446,456-469.

Conjunctions : classification of, 307 ; ori-
gin of, 301, 558.

Coordinating : copulative, 819; adver-
sative, 380 ; concessive, 380, 8 ; causal,
381 ; illative, 388.

Subordinating : in temporal clauses,
330 ; in comparative cianses, 333 ;
334 : in consecutive clauses, 335 ; In
restrictive clauses, 836 ; causal, 337 ;
final, 338 ; concessive, 339 ; condi-
tional, 340.

Consecutive Clauaes : 335.

Consonant-declension, see n-declension.

Consonant-stems : become i-stems, 54 ;
488, 9 ; 438, 1 ; 438-435.

Consonants: description of, 374-389;
open, 374-381 ; shut, 388-385 : na-
sals, 886-3881; compound, 389 ; long,
380, 6; cons.-tabto,p. 107; see Grlmm^s

and Vemcr's Laws ; doubling or length-
ening of, 389, 6 ; 413, 6 ;^I8, S, e.

Coordinate Sentences : 318 ; Tariooa
kinds of; 319-388.

Copulative Sentences : 319.

Danish : 479, IL

Dative: office of, 189 ; as nearer object
after intrans. and certain compound
verbs, 190 ; as indirect object after
trans, verbs, 191 j ethical, 198 ; after
impen. verbs, 193; after adj., 194;
190 ; supplanted by prepos. + cafe,
195 ; after prepos., 303, 305, 306.

Declension : oi articles, 38 : of nouns, 48-
68 ; 488-435 ; of foreum nouns. 64,
68, 8 ; of proper nouns, o5-68 ; or the
adjective, 60-78 ; of pronouns, 81-
100.

Demonstrative Pronouns : 88-91 ; use of,
844-850 : origin of, 448 ; supplanted
by ^ier and ba -i- prepos.. 851, 9.

Dependent Clauses, see Subordinate.

Dependent order of words : 341, 344 ;
in main clauses, 347, 349; the oldest
order, 349, 9.

Dialect : and written langnage, 390 ; in
M. H. O.. 485, 9 ; In N. H. O., 486,
487 ; in the pronanciation of the edu-
cated, 390 ; and the public school, 398,
5.

Diphthongs : pronunc. of, 38 ; analvslsot
378 ; become single vowels, 488, 4 • <
long vowels, 488, 6.

Dutch: 481,8; 493,8.

Bast Franklsh : 488, 8 ; 486.
Blliptical clauses and phrases: 310 ; 884,

6, Rem.; 887 {S4S, rf, 9.
Bnglieh : 479, m. ; 498, 4 ; umlaut in,

408,9.
Bnphony: 418,1.
Bxclamation: Q. in, 188, 309, 8; order

of words in, 343, e ; see interjections.

Final clauses : 338.

Flemish : 481, 8.

Foreisn nouns : decl. of, 64 ; gender of,
163.

Foreign words : spelling of, 365 ; ac-
cent, 487, 480. f ; 484, 4; in G. word-
stock, 498-494.

Fractions: 533,9.

Frisian: 481,1.

Future: formation of, 114; force of,
878; imperative tone of, 878, 3;
887, 8 : present with iViture force, 874,
5 ; conolt. for sub), of, 881 ; origin of,
883,4.

Gtonder : of nouns and their distribution
among the declensions according to,
43; syntax of, 159-169; grammati-
cal and sex, 159, 160; concord of the

268

SUBJEOT-IKOEX.

Bune, 1611^168 ; aeeordlni? to meaning,
160; according to endins?, 161; doubt-
ta\ and doable, 169 ; <mange of, 161,
Bem^ 163; of compound nouns, 164:
concord of, 166-168; between subject
and predicate, 313, 316.

Genitive : office of, 180; varioua kinds of
Q., 180, 1-7 ; partitive Q. passed into
apposition, 181, 261: supplanted by
prepos.. 181 ; dependent upon adj.,
89, 183; dependent upon verbs as
nearer object, 184; as remoter object,
186: after impersonal verbs, 186; ad-
verbial G. of place, time, etc., 187; sup-
planted by A., 307, Rem.; diflbrence be-
tween A. and G.^ 308 : after prepos.,
303; in exclamauons, 188.

German Dialects : clasaflcation ofL 480-
483; 484.

German Language : see SeKfiftspradke ;
history of, 478-494 ; relation to otber
Germanic languages, 480-486.

German Sounds : analysis of, 366-389.

Germanic Languages: relation to other
I.-E. languages, 477; charactetistiGs of ,
478: dassificadon oL 479-484.

Gerunclive: 107 ; 389, Bem. ; 398; 463.

Gothic : letters, 360 : language, 470, 1.

Grimm's Law : 407-416 ; G. 1*. shifting,
407-410; G. shifting, 413-416; mod-
iiications of; 413.

Hessian : 483, 9.

High German : explanation of term, 480,

8, a. See South German.
HUdebrantalied: 486,1.

Icelandic : 479, IT ; 339. 1 ; 630.

Illative Sentences : co-ordinate, 333.

Imperative : 106,' 460 : in strong verbs,
131 : personal pron. in, 386, 1 ; Ihture
with imperative force, 378, 3 ; 387, 3 ;
force of, 386 ; other yerbai forms with
the force of, 387: conditional and con-
cessive force of, 339, 1 ; wordrorder in.
343, b.

Indefinite Pronouns : 94-100, 446 ; use
of, 369-363.

Indirect Speech : tenses in, 383; mood in,
386; 336,8.

Indo-European: 477.

Infinitive: 106,461: nature of, 388;
300, 8, b ; perfect, 388, 1 ; imper. force
of, 387, 1 ; without and with au, 389-
391 ; 391, 8-6 ; without ,^u, 389, Bern.;
after certain groups of verbs, 390 ; with
5u, do., 391, 1 ; as object and subject,
391, 3, 8 ; A. with, 393 ; as a noun,
393 : governed by prepos. + jtu, 391, 1 ;
inf. clause, 336, 3, Rem. 8 ; 333, 1; 336,
1 ; position of two, in dependent clause,
346, 1 ; position of adjuncts of, 363.

Instrumental: 194.

Interjections: 669, 660.

Interrorative Pronouns: 93,444; use of,
361-363 ; D. supplanted by »o(r) +
prepos., 361, 8.

Interrogative Sentences: 309,3; Indirect,
336, 3; disjunctive, 336, 3, «; word-
order, 343, a.

Inverted order of words: 841, 348; in
inserted main clause, 343, 1 ; origin oi;
in oonditi<mai and in main clauses, 348,
1 ; after certain co-ordinating co^}unc-
tions, 319 ; to a clanse instead of o^«
flleii^, etc. 339.

I-stems: 63-66; 439.

Iteiatlvea: 631, 3.

Jo-stems: 46,8; 47; in adi., 43T, 8;
496, 8; 633.

Kanzleisprache: 486, 487.

Labialisation, 867, 1 ; 370, 4, Bem.
Language: written. See ikshr^ttpraehs.
Law omnals : 478, 8.
Levelling: nature ofL 491,1: in the strong

pret., 460 : in tne weak verbs, 464,

466.
Low Fxsnkish : 481, 8.
Low German I>ialects: 480, 1; 481;

> H. G., 493, 8 ; their relation to the

written tanguMTS. 393, 1-8 ; 391.
Low Saxon: 481,1
Lather: 486,487.

Middle Frantdsh : 483, 1.

Middle German Dialects: 480, 8 ; 482 ;

488, 8, a ; 488, 4.
Middle High German : 486, 8 ; tianaitSon

of sounds to N. H. G., 488-491.
Mi-verbs: 136; 449,1,8; 473-476.
Modal Clauses: 333.
Modal Auxiliaries. See Auxiliaries.
Mood : see snbj., imper. ; in a^jectiye

clauses, 338.
MnltipUcatives: 631,1.

N-declension : of nouns, 47, 61, 63,
433-436 ; of adjectives, 69, 313, 316.

Narrowness of vowels : 367, 8.

Negatives : 309, 1 ; double negative, 309,
1 ; in comparative clauses, 333, 8.

New High German : 486, 480.

Nominative: syntax ot, 178. 179; pred^
icate. 179 ; A. for, in predicate, 303, 1.

Normal order of words : 341, 343 ; in
subordinate clauses. 346, 3; after co-
ordinating conjunctions, 343, 3 ; when
the snborainate clause precedes, 343, 8;
348,3; 343, c; 368.

North German : see Low G.

Norwegian: 479,11.

Nouns: decl. of, 43-68 ; systems of noun-
decl.. 43 ; distribution of nouns among
the three declensions according to gen-
der. 43, 433 ; general rules for noun-
decl., 43 ; strong decl. of, 44-60, 438-
431 ; weak ded. of, 61, 63, 438, 8 ;

SUBJECT-INDEX.

269

489 ; mixed decl. ot 63, 485, 1 ; use
of caaea, see individnal cases ; deriva-
tion of, 496^16; composition, 517-
521. gender of compound. 164 ; ac-
cent of, 491. 498. See Namber, Proper
N., Foreign K. Abstract N.. Oompoond.

Knmber: Bingiuar and plural of noans:
pi. the basis of classiftcatloo of strong
nouns, 44; no sign, 45, a: umlaut,
45,6: -c. 49-55; -ft, 56-60, 431;
(e)n, 61-63 : pL in -0, 60 ; irr^ular,
51, 179, 173 ; double forms, 58, 169,
4; 431, S: of abstract noans, 171;
nouns only in pi., 174.

Sins, or pi. after nouns of quantity,
etc., 175: why sing., 1 76 ; sing, where
Eng. pL, 177; Slug. nent. of pronouns
refer to nuisc., fern., and plural nouns,
168, 313.

Binui, and pi. of yerbe : 311 ; j>l. after
a collective noun, 319 ; ** pL of mi^os-
ty," 311, 8.

Numerals: 77; infl. of, 78; when in-
flected, 996, 997; cardinals, 77-79;
SI. in -e, 997 : in -cr, 998, S ; ordinals,
o. 530, 539; indefinite, 100; deri-
yation of, 599^33.

Old High German : 485.

Ordinals : see Numerals.

Orthography : division into nrUables. 86;
regulated by government, 37, 361, 2;
historical notes on, 360-365; umlauU
signs, 369; on the marks to show
length, 363 : on use of capitals, 364 : of
foreign words, 365 ; government rules,
37»

O-stems : lose sign of the pL, 47, 51,
498.

FArtlcipial Clauses : 904, 4 ; 889, 1.

Participles : 109, 107. 463 ; ase of, 994
-907 ; position of adjuncts of, 353.

Past part, without ge-, 108, 113,
463, 8; 470, 598; isolated, 199,
Rem. : 131, Rem.; 594, 4 ; imper. force
of, 987, 8 ; pansive force of, 995 ; act-
ive force of, 995, 8 ; 996 ; dependent
upon fommen. ^i|en, etc , 996 ; of
verbs of motion, 996; absolute con-
struction, 997.

Pres. pait., 974, 6 : 983, 8, 4 : 994 ;
463 ; in compound tenses, 983, 1, 8 ;
351.

Perfect : formation of, 119 ; force of,
976; with future perf. force, 979,8;
Eng. perf. — G. pres., 974, 4 ; impera-
tive, 986, 1 ; infinitive, 988.

Personal Pronouns : 81, 89, 440 ; syn-
tax of, 930-935; sender of, 81 ; use
of. in address, 930-933 ; repetition of,
933, 8 : omission of, 933. 1 ; sup-
planted by other pronouns ana preposi'
tions, 934 ; in the imper., 986, 1.

Phonology : 360-497 ; orthography, 360
-365; analysis of sounds, 366-389;

as standard of pronnnc., 390^.399 ; pho-
netic laws. 393-417 ; accent, 418-497.

Plattdeutsch : 481, 8, a ; 484.

Pluperfect: formation of, 119; foroeof,
977 ; relation to Oondit., 980, 981,
984, &

Plural : see Number.

Popular Etymology : 494, 9, 8.

Possessive Pronouns : 85-87 ; syntax ci,
939-943 ; origin of, 441 : compounds
with, 87; used substantlveiy, 940;
repetition of, 941, 949, 8 ; relation to
def . article, 154, 943, 8 ; supplanted by
demonstr. pron., 949, 1 ; uuinfiecteo,
939, 943, 1.

Predicate, 308 ; concord of subi. and
pred., 311-317 : number of verb after
collective noun, 313; when subjects are
connected by coi^nnctions, 311, 314 ;
person of verb when subjects are of dif-
ferent persons, 315 ; position of, 360,
351.

Prepositions : syntax of, 301-306 ; nat-
ure of; 301, 1,8; 566; classification
of, according to cases, and treatment of,
in alphabetical order, 309-306: gov-
erning the G.. 309 ; ffoveming the D.,
303 ; governing the A., 304 ; govern-
ing D. and A., 305 ; general position of,
357.

Present: infl. of, 103: of weak verbs,
118, 447 ; of strong verbs, 191, 456 ;
O. H, Q., 446 ; of pret.-pree. verbs,
134 ; uses of, 974 ; jieriphrastlc. 974,
6 ; imper. force, 987, 8 ; formation ox
present-stem, 467.

Preterit: infl. of, 103; weak, 454;
strong, 458 ; levelling in, 460 ; double
subj., 196, 196. 464,1 ; 199 ; of pret.-
pres. %'erb6, 134, 470* force of, »76 ;
relation to condit., 980,981,984,6;
ind. for unreal subj., 340, 8.

Pret.-pres. verbs : 134 ; 135 ; 108, 8 ;
967 ; 470-479.

Pronouns: inflection of, 81-100, 440-
445; syntax of, 930-963; concord
with noun, 166-168, 935; origin oi;
496 ; position of; in the sentence, 359,
€ ; neut. pron. refers to masc. or fem.
nouns, 168 ; neut. pron. one of two
accusatives, 199, 1, 8. See reciprocal,
possessive, etc., separately.

Pronunciation: of letters. 1-37, 866 ;
standard of, 390-399 ; disputed points
in standard, 391 ; Hanoverian and N.
G., 390, 4 ; 399, 1-8 ; dialect in, 390,
1-8.

Proper Nouns: ded. of, 65-68; arilde
before. 147, 155, 1 ; gender of, 160, 8,
with Rem. ; 164.

Question: eee Intenogative Sentenoei.

Redprocal Pronouns: 84, 197, 906,

938.
Reduplication : nature of, 458 ; in VII. CI.

270

BUBJBCT-INDEX.

of verba, 130, 131; in the present,

457,3.
Beflexiye Pronouns : 83, S3 7 ; personal

for, 832, 1.
Belatiye Giaases : see Adjective CI.
Belative Prononns : 93 ; nse of, 254-

258 ; origin of, 254 ; supplanted l»y

adverbs and conjonctiona, 257, 258,

326, 327.
Bestrlctive Clauses : 330.
Boandness of vowels: 307, 1 : in 8. G.,

391, fi.
Bones, 492, 2.
HOciBumknU : 402, 2 ; 456.

Scandinavian, 479, II

Sehriflsprache : 390 ; 485, 9; 480, 487.

Sentence : stmctare of simple, 308 ; con-
stitaeDts oi; 308 ; arrangement of; see
word-order: various kinds of main,
309 ; 284, 2 ; 280 ; oomponnd, see co-
OTOinate and subordinate.

Shifting of mutes : see Grimm's Law.

Shifting of spirants : see Vemer's Law.

Silesian: 482,6.

Singular : see Number.

Slavic : 477 ; 481, 3, Bern. ; 482, 4-0.

Sonancv: 370.

South Frankish : 482, 2.

South German Dialects : 480, 8 ; 483 ;
488, 6, a ; 489 ; 490, 1, a : relation to
the written language, 391, 892, 4.

Suabian : 483, 2.

Subject : 308 ; concord of, and predicate,
311-317 ; position of subject and verb,
341, 350.

Subjunctive: kinds of, 284; potential,
284, 8 ; 325, 2. Bern. 1 ; 325, 3 ; 328 ;
in conditional clauses, 340, 448.

Subordinate Sentences : 318, 323, 324-
340; word-order in, 343, ei 344-
340 ; 350. Bern. : omission of auzil.,
340 ; position of, 358.

Substantive Clauses: 323-325 ; nature
of, 323 ; various Idnds of, 325 ; nor-
mal order in, 345.

Superlative : see Comparison ; use of^ 222
-225 • never uninfiected, 222 ; absolute
and relative, 222 ; applied to two ob-
jects, 225.

Surdness : 370.

Swedish : 479, IL

Swiss : 483, 1, 0.

Temporal Clauses : 830.

Tenses : simple, 101, 103, 448 ; use of,
274, 275, 283.

Compound: 109, 112-110, 270-
281 ; origin of, 283 ; position of sepa-
rable prefix, 351. See the separate
tenses.

Thuringian: 482,4.

Time : modes of expressing time, 220 ;
G. oU 107 ; A. oi; 208.

Umlaut : signs of, 31, 302 ; as a sign of
the pi.. 45, b; 48 : in comparison of
adj., 74; in pret. suDj. of strong verbs,
121 : in the pres. of strongverbs, 127,
Bern. ; 120, Bern. ; 130, Rem. ; 131,
Bern. : 404 ; nature of, 401 ; in Eng.,
402, 8: spread of, 488, 1 ; in derived
verbs, 535.

Upper Saxon : 482, 6.

Yarlatives: 533.

Verb : principal parts of, 102 ; infl. of,
103 ; personal suflOxes of, 104, 118,
121. 449 ; classification of, 204 ; ir-
regular weak, 119, 454, 455; weak
verbs are derivative, 117,1.

Beduplicating: 130, 131, 458; non-
thematic, see mi- verbs ; anomalous,
134-130.

Compound : 137 ; D. after, 190 ; A.
after, 198, 547-550 ; accent in, 421 ;
reflexive, 138; 107; 200; 230,2;
204.

Impersonal: subject of. 230, 1, 2, 5;
cases after, 180, 193, 205 ; G. after,
184-180 ; D. after, 189- 193 ; D. or A.
after, 190, 200 ; A. after, 198 ; two A.,
199, 201 ; neuter, 179 ; trans., 191,
204 ; intrans., 204.

y. of motion : comp. tense of, 205, 4:
200 ; 283^ ; 290, % ; past part, of;
290; see Kumber, Predicate, auxil.,
pret. pres. verbs ; person of, in relative
clauses, 320 ; position of, 341, 350,
Bern. ; derivation of; 534-550.

Vemer's Law : 411, 412, 410.

Voice : passive, infl. of; 110 ; construc-
tion in. 179.2; 202, 2; 208-273;
replaoea by reflexive construction, 272 ;
ongiu of. 273 ; hi Go., 283, 1.

Vowel-declension : see Noun, strong :
428-431.

Vowels: quantity of, 33-35, 488, 3,6;
analysis and description of, 307-373 ;
vowel-table, p. 163; general remarks
upon, 373; doubling of, 33,303,4;
connecting v. in conjugation, 118;
449, 3 ; 454, 3, 8 ; in abUiut, 393-
400 ; in umlaut, 401, 402, 404 ; in-
terchanges of, 403-400; lengthening
of, in W. H. G., 488, 8 : shortening o^
488, 8; diphthongization of long y.,
488, 5.

Vowel- stems : see Vowel-Declension.

Wordformation :

substan-

tives, 495-521 1 pronouns, 490 ; ad-

495-559;
UTCB, -mtrt^-tMx^M.. pronouns, ^•'v, ob-
jectives, 522-533; verbs, 534-550;
adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions,
551-558 ; interjections, 559.
Word-order: 341-359; normal, 342;
inverted, 343; dependent, 344. See
these separate heaos; in poetiy and

W^rose, 359.
ord-atock: 492-494.

WOED-INDEX.

It contains a list of the words, praflzes, suffixes, and letters treated of in tlie gram-
mar. The numbers refer to the paragraphs. The omlauts hare a separate place, &
after a, A after O; ft after u.

91.

a, prononc. of. 3: description oi^ 371, 4;
quantity of, beiore t, vt, xh, 33, 488, 2 ;
m ablauts, VL, 450, 4; in ablauts, L-
v., 459.

al, prepos., 803, 1; 510, 1.

aber, 3^0, 3, Rem.

9iUv^, 610, 1.

ae as sign of umlant, 30)i, 8.

aeu as sign of umlaut, 302, S.

«fter-; 510, S.

-aac; noun-snfflz ; fem. gender, 101, 3 ;
103, 6.

at, pronuuc. of, 82, 872, 1.

aU, 100; def. art. after, 144; neuter, 108;
use of, 201; accent, 422, 5.

aSet- + superl., 222; accent, 422, 1, 6.

aaerlie'aft, 222; 422.

allma^tt(<^, 520, 8, c.

aid, before a predicate noun, 179; in ap-
position, 317; before a relatiye pro-
noun, 327, 8; in comparative clauses,
333 ; after comparative, 333, S ; after
adjectives, nltf^td, anber-, 333, 2, a, 8.

alt, 453, 1.

-am, 501.

Kmt; 610, 8.

an, 305, 8; 300, 1, 8.

anber, 94; 423, 1; 445, 8: 530.

anflatt, 302 : + )u and inf., 291, 1, Bern.

«nt-,5io,i

-ant, 505.

Slntwort, 104, e.

SCrmut, 104, a; 511, a.

-at. 511, 8, a; in neut. foreign nouns,

au, pronunc. of, 82; analysis of, 372, 8;

oiigin ofl 488, 6.
OUf, 305, 8.
auferfte^en, 540, 8.
a-umlaut, see &. e.
9(St, 491, 8; 512, 8.
6, pronunc. of; 31; 302; 371, 8, Bem. 8;

see umlaut.
&u, pronunc. of, 32 ; 372, 8 ; origin oi;

488,6.

».

I, pronunc. of, 4; description of, 385, 8;
Ana}, 385, 8; „9arte8" b, 383, 1, Rem.;

392, 8; Bng. correspondents of, 408, 8;

413; 2; 49&, 6.
b-r see be-; 557, 1.
hadtn VI., 129; in compos., 628.
-bar, 620, 1.
baimbe'vAta, 422, 8.
bal, 70; 439.
be-, 108, 8; see bet; 540, 1.
beben, 457, 8.
bebient, 295, 8.
befeblen IV., 127.
beflei^en I., 122, 1.

beainnen m., 125, 8; 454, 8; 457, 8.
bebaiipten, 540. 4.

bet, prepos., 303, 4; in oompoe., 518, 4
beib-, 100; use of; 228.
bei|en I., 122, 1.
bequem, 409, 8.
bettenvm., 133.
beraen ni., 125, 8.
berftenIII.,125,8.
befAeiben, 624, 4.
betfer, beil, 70,1; 489.
beneoen VIIL, 133.
bid CBng.), 390.
bieaen IL, 124, 8.
bleten n., 124, 8.
blnnen, 303, 6; 657, 1.
blnben IIL. 125, 1.
m, 304, 1; 567, 1.
bitten V., 128, 8; 199; 233, 1; 457, 1;

400.
blafen VH., 130, 1.
bleiben L, 122, 2; + inf., 290, 8.
blei^enL, 122,1.
broten VII., 130, 1.
bte^enrv., 127.
btennen, 119, 1; 455.
btinaen, 119, 3; 454, 8.
aSruber, 411.
a3uTg, 897; incomp., 104, e.

c, pronunc. of; 5; in foreign words, 380,8.

4 pronunc. of, 0: 375, 4; 378, 8; 383,
1: description of. 375; quantity of Tow-
el before, 35; Inig. correspondents of;
410, 8; 414, 8; 415, 1, 8; 490,8;
t^ — g, 410.

272

WOBD-IifDEX.

-^n, 46, 1; 510: neater gend., 161,8;

pronanc oL 6; 376, S.

fe(n); in Terofi, 536, a.
(Sbrift, 435, 3.
A), df^, pronanc of, S9, 383, 1.

a, 14; 383, 1; £ng. oorrespoodentB of^
413, 4; 414, 8.

b, pronanc of, 7, 385, 8; deflcription oi,
384, 2; Buff. correepondenta o^ 410, 1;
413, 1, a; 415; b — t, 416.

-b, 511, 1.

bamit, 338.

ba(T), in relative clause. 3Ji7, 8; In local

claaae, 331, a; caosai, 337; oitein ofL

551, 1.
bad, 168; for Oen., 183; see ber.
b&ud^t, see beud^t.
-be, 511, S.
^ebnunad:^, 363, 8.
benfen, 119, 3; 40S, 2; 454, 8.
benn, caasal coi\]anction, 3^1, 337; after

comparative. 333, S ; in restrictive

clauses, 336; origm of, 551, 1.
ber, del art., 38-40; demonstr. pronoun,

88, 449; lengthened forms in en, cr,

SS44^; relat pronoan, 93.
beren (Q. pL), 88, 93, 1; nae oil 844, 1.
betent-. 87, 89.
be'rgeflalt, 335.
berer, see beren.
betienige, 91, 1; 847.
bero, 89, 44S.
betfelbe, -felbige, 91.
bem>eil, 330.
bed, bei, beffen, 89.
beflo, 448, a; correlative of ie, 334.
• beuAt. 119, 3: 454, 8.
Uv^i, 413, 1. a.
bieS, biefer, 90; 443; use of, 245, 846:

bieS unb bod, jened, 245, 2; sapplanted

by adverb + prepos., 846.
bieraeit, 330; 558, 3.
bingen HE., 185, 1.
boppet-, 531, 1.
bref^en lU., 185, 8; 18S.
bringen m., 185, 1.
brttt-, 410, 1; 530.
buid), 304, 2; in comp. verbs, 549, 1.
bfinfen, 119,2; 454,3.
b&rfen, 135, 2; ase of; 867, 2; 416.

e, pronanc. of, 8; description of, 371, 1-
8; unaccented, 371, 8; 485, 2; sign of
length, 33, 363, 1; sign ofamlant, 368;
be^re x, rt, tb, 33, 488, 2; sign of pin-
ral, 47, 49, 51, 52; in cardinals, 887;
intheadj.-saffixes -el, -er, -en, 71; coo-
necting vowel in conjugation, 118; de-
rivative e in verbs, 535, 536: seconda-
ry before t, 491, 2; e — ii ie, 187, 188,
403.

-e in noons < 84).» 498, 1; gender of snch

nouns, 161, 2.
-€ in,^o-8tems, 46. 47, 51, 437, 8; gender

of such noons, 161, 8.
-e in adverbs, 554, L
ebel, 404.

ebe, 76, 2, b\ 439, 2.

et, 1

such noons, 161, 2.

pronanc. of, 38; analysis of, 378, 8;
origin oi; 488, 5.

-ci, 498, 3; gender of

eigen, 470, 471, 6.

eigcntnmliq, 488, S.

ein, indef. art, 38, 41 ; after toetA, wad
fftr, 98, 8, 8 : indef. pronoun, 78, 95,
859, 860.

eingeboren, 588, fi, 7.

(Sindbe, 511, a.

eind, 531, 2; for cognate Ace, 804.

etnfl, 531, 2; 555, £

einAeIn, 555, 8.

eitel, 818, 1.

-el, noon-saffiz, 46, 47, 499; sender of
sach noons, 161,1; 161.8; a^.-sofBz,
71, 583, 1; verb-Boffiz, l06.

elenb. 401.

-eIn in verbs, 536, b,

eitem, 174, 404.

-em, 501. 583, 2.

tVKp-f 541.

empfe^ten IV., 187, 464, 8.

-en, noon-Bomx, 46; 47; 501; 608; in-
dicates masc gend., 160, 1; in the n-de-
clension. 61, 68; in the pi. of foreign
noons, 64, 2, 8; in D. ana A. of proMr

nouns, 66; in O. ag. of adj. for ^d, 78;
440, S.

91, 3; 816, 1

pronoons, 844, 2;

Ajj.-sofflx, 71; 811; 584; in the

past part., i07; 453; 508; 584: in

the inf., 106; 451; in adverbs, 551.
enb (nb), in the pres. part., 107; in noons,

505; in the gerond., 107.
-end, 555, 2.
ent-, 541.
(Snte, 430, 1.
(Snteiii^, 515, 8, a.
entgegen, 303, 6; 557, 1.
entweoet, 558.
-er, noon-sofliz, 47, 65, 507; Indicates

masc gend., 161, 1; 163, 8; as sign of

ploral,56, 431.
Adj.-sofnx, 71, 583, 8; in adverbs,

551; 556; compar. sofflx, 79; 438;

in the G. of pronoons, 88, 88, 844, 2;

440,8.
er-, 548.

-erel, 497, 8, Bern.
er^aben, 189, Rem; 467.
-eittA, 586. 8, c,
erl&f^n VIlL, 133.
-em, adJ.-sofQz, 584, 8; a4]. in —9 nnin-

fleeted, 811.
-er(n), verb-sufflx, 537, 8.
erfAaUen Vni. (erltJ^aOt), 133.
erfftreden IV., 187.
etfl, 76, 2, d: 439, 2.
erw&aen VIII., 133.
eno&^ncn, 457, 2.

WOBD-INDES.

278

S(»-,B1&B.

ft, n. aDd A. ■g.Dent- 81; pocullar uw
of, ase: nodar, 1A8 : nuladng oog-
UM A., 804; »ia, 8; Q. c» muc ud
maler, SS ; 183 ; A. rapptonud by
prepoi., >34, li lodeflntla subtMti ^^8,
),>, 4, B; gnunmatlad rabject and oi-
pletlve, 99«L S: 313; dmIUdd of c*
^^ |m. «i rt (N.) »d ta««i«..
jJLS8, 1; A0», I; 46Q.

s

tu, pranuDC. or'a^; auilfiti o^ 318, ■;

I, proniiDC. of, V; deMtlptliRi at, 330;
Boe. coTKapoDdenU oi 410, 1; 414,
«:41B, 1; i8S,4; (-6, 41«.

-fi«, G31, 1.

■-'--VII., 130,1; 4H, 1; 408,8.

.in "" MTi+ ji,«(tenii, 880, 1

•.ti VII., 130,

liraa"iViL',130, 1.
taulHijED, S38,8,a.
-UUtg, 631, 1. ^
fRtttn VltL, IBS.
HViti, 4»4.
Stlnl), aiO; SOB.
flnben m_ l8S, 1; 41
|eitltBVm.,l^S.
ffi(»nn.. 184,1.

htitil XL, 184, 1.
foif, 76, 1,
fi-, S4S.

ftogtn, 18B; 457, »;
199.

iiauintlmsin, 186.

iiauKln, 186.

ItntR, 108, 8: 188, 1.

[Knn IL, 184, 8.

ma, 183: 461.

iftifli, S64.

iaUtn, BOS, s.

ti, 76,1,6; 304,3; B

Bcfttrii. 4B4, 8.

itUti. 888,7.

r(lifl,76,S,*!43»,».

g(-,j-, Blft7: B4S: !n the p. pirt, 107,
loa; 4A3, 1; I11I8; In noaui arnaaCet

fli6<n T., I!i3, ll 466; Impanon*!, 80S:

938,4; sab.
fltbtlicnll., 188,1.
gcMtgiD, i3b, 1.
gt^ VII- 130,1; 136,1; 467,8; 474;

+ tnf_4»0, 1; put pirt, 888.
etUngtn m., ias,l.
gilUiim., ISl; 181
am, 304 4.
fllMhn v., 188, 1.
e(nlc»liill., 184,1.
antna, comparison of, 76, 1.
fl.lfcVTjia8,l.
glMlKUt, i33.

StftKi 188, Rem.
(tnilil, Bil.

••C

I; gmder ^ 168,1.

ic ot 11; daseripUon oC 374;
arrespondents ot410, S; 41S,
ice o^ 33; 383, S; 401,8; lou
S, 3 ; tlga of leoglb, 38, 363, »,
■ li, VB; 4»0,3, b\ »-g,li4,

o ; contracted tormf,

^'8Ba,l,'»; +ln£,SeO,L

274

WOBD-LNDEX.

^Ifen IILf 125, 8 : past part, of, 108, 1;

464; + inf., S90, 8.
^ften VIL, 108,1; 131,468,3; intrans.,

170, 1; trans., 201; + inf., 290, 2, 4;

+ past part., 296, 2.

iber, 443, 2.
^rr, rednced to „er/' 230, 8.
euer, 443, 3.
eute, 443, 2.
in; 443, 8.
inter, 306, 4; in comp. Terbs, 549, 8.
^offabrt; 528, 2, 6.
bolD; 405.

Ifbnn, inst. of ge^ftrt, 108, 1; + Inf.,
290, 8.
^Utb, 405.

^unbert, 226 ; 529, 2.
^fifte, 430, 1.

3.

i, pronunc of^ 12; desciiption of^ 869, 1,

2; <ie,488,4.
Adf, 509; indicates masc. gend., 161, 1;

489, 5.
A^t, 509, 1; 525, 8.
ie, pronnnc. of, 33, 8 ; see i: in rednpli-

eating verbis CI. Vn., 458, 2; 488, 8, a.
ie-eu, 124, 406.
-ie, nonn-safiix, 498, 4; indicates fern.

gender, 161, 2.
-ieren, verbs in, 108, 4 ; 493, 2 ; 538.
-iS; adj.-snifiz, 525, 1^; 489, 5; for -i^,

509; 526, 8, c
-igen, 639, 4
-igfeit, 516, 2.
-igUiJ^, 525, 2.
i^r, poss. pron., 85 ; origin of, 243, 2 ;

441, 2.
3^W, 86 ; 441, 8.
in, 306,6.
-in> noan-8nfflx,504; indicates fem.send.,

161, 2: 430, 3.
inbetn, 330,1; 337.
-ing, 506.
trgenb, 260.
-4fi^, adJ.-Bufflz, 211; 514; 525,4.

3.

i, pronnnc. of, 13; 378,4; description of,
376, 4.

iagen, 129.
t, 334.
eber, infl. of, 97 ; 216, 1 ; 445, 1 ; in
comp., 97; pi. of^ 261, 8.

IebeS, 168.
ebneber, 445,2.
i^m, 97; 445, 1.
emanb, 97, 260, 445, 1.
lener, 90; 443, 1; O. sg. of, 216, 1; use

of, 246, 246.
3ungfet, 616, 12, a.

\aq, prot^ 129.
Jilnail; 556,

a.

t, pronnnc of; 14. 883, 1; Bng. corre-
spondents of, 469, 8 ; description of;
883, 1.

fait, 409, 8.

$t(tt~, 422, &

feifen L, 122, 1.

Uin, 72; 96; 445, 8.

-!cit, 616, 2; fern, gend., 161, 2.

fennen, 119, 1; 267, 1.

ftette; 435, 4.

fiefenlL, 124,2; 132; 411; 463.

JiTteinob, 511,0.

Kieben n.jl24, 2l

fllmmen ViII., 133.

flinaen m., 126, 1.

fneifen Lji22, 1.

fomtnen iV., 127: 465; 489,1; nmlant
in pres., 127, Bern.; -i- past part., 296:
409, a

foflen + A. or D., 207, 1, Bern.

Ibnnen, 135, 8; 267, 1.

ItnH, 513.

freife^nL, 122,1.

het^enl.,122, 1.

triet^n II., 122, 2.

StOtt, 435, 4.

UrenIL, 124,8; 132.

I, pronnnc. oi; 15; description of, 381;

385, 4.
-1, see -«I.

laben VL and weak, 129.
laffen VIL, past part, without fte-» 108, 1;

130, 1 ; constr. after, 199, 202, 1 ;

267, 7; +reflexiTe, 272: in the imper.,

287, 4; +inf« 290. 8^ 8, d.
laufen VlL, 131; 212, 1; 458, 2.
taut, 396.
(outer, 100.
I&ngfl, 666, 2L
Ic^ren instead of getebrt, 108, 1; constr.

after, 199 ; in passiTe, 202, 2 ; + int,

290,2; 395.
-Ui, 633.

leiben L, 122, 1; 411.
leibcr, 225. 2.
leiben I., 122, 2.
Atin, nonn-Bufflz, 46, 1; 600, 2; neat.

gend., 161, 8; 493, 4.
fiettfiern, 620, 4, a.
-ler, nonn-snffiz, 500, 4; indicates masc

gender, 161, 1.
lernen instead of geTernt, 108, 1; for Id^ren,

199, 2 ; + inf., 290, 2 ; 396.
lefen V., 128, 1.
leferlie^, 626, 8, c.
let, in imper., 287, 4.
k|}t, 439, 2.
fienmunb, 396; 494, 8.
-foute in comp., 172.
-lid^, adj.-enfOz, 211; 625,4; 526,8; ad-
verbial isafflx, 644, 2.

WOBD-UTDSX.

275

OcaenVM 188,9; 457,1; n^ 138; -i-iiif.,

890.8.
-ttg, 586, 8, <?.
•4tn9, nonn-eufflz, 500, 8; indicates idmc.

ffender, 161, 1.
-iGsgen, 500, 8, a.
-Ung4, 553.
Uf^en, 133.
IftSCil II., 184, 8; 138.
SftgeR {toafen, 109, 8.

nifpTonanG. of, 16; desorlptioii of, 388;

sag. oorreflpondents ot, 400, 4, 6.
-m, Bee em.
mcOftn + lof., 800, 9.
SKaab, 518. 8.
mo^ien, 400.
mait, 518, 8.
-mal, 531, 8.
mand^, lOO; 868; 585,1.
SD2ann, 58, 50; in comp., 178.
SRauItonrf, 400; 404,3.
mtffx, oomparlBon of, 76, 1; 100 ; 480;

lued in comparat, 884.
mtf^ttt, 76, 1: 100.
neiben I., 18», 8.
mtintt, comparat., 885, 8.
mcift, oomparison of, 76, 1; 100.
melteii ym.,^ 133.
SKelobei, 493, 8.
Wltn\^, 50, 514.
meffen V., l88, 1.
SRcite, 485, 4.
mlnber, comparison oi; 76, 1; 430; used

in comparat., 884.
SRifr.. 453,1 ; 516, 8 : 544.
mitteljl, snperl., 76, 8, 0; prepos., 308, 7.
flRiitetnaef^C 519, 8.
flRUtwoA, 164, d,
mdoen, 135, 4 ; 867, 8 ; 418, 8.
nmnt 135, 6 ; 867, 8 ; 471, 8.
-mut, in comp., 164, a.

91.

11/ pronnnc of, 17; natnre o^ 886^87;
floal n in foreign words, 386| 1, fiem.;
short before sonant stops, 385, 4; n =
9, i. e., "guttaral" nasal, 386, and see
nt, ng : before labial. 388. 1 ; lost in
Bng., 417, 1; entered the N. of nouns
of the n-decl., 435, 8; loss of; 435. 8, 4;
508 ; Bng. correspondenta of, 490, 6.
8ee-«n.

n&Ail, 303, 11.

92a(^t, 54.

-nb, 505.

neben, 306, 6 ; 557.

nebjlr 303, 18 : 555, 8.

ne^men lY., 187; (iEBunbct), 199, 1.

-iie(n), yerb-soffix, 537, 1.

Bcnnen, 119, 1; 455; oonstr. with, 801;
890,8; 896,8; 803,4.

-ner, 508, 1 ; indicates masc gender,

161,1.
m, pronnnc. o^ 17, 383, 1. a; 386, 1.
mt, Bii^td, 99; 199, 1, 8: 309,1: in

comparative danses, 333, 8 ; 490, 8.
tii^btd wenlget aU, 333, 8, a.
tiiemanb, 445, 1.
-nl^i 50; 51: forms nenter and fern.

nonns, 161, 8, 8 ; origin of; 503.
nlf pronnnc. of, 17; 380, 1.
no#iiiAt, 354.
ttttv, 886, 1.

o.

0/ pronnnc. of; 18 ; description of, 870^

tj, 8; in ablants, Yl.. 450, 4; < n, 405,

489,4; <£489,k
oh, prepos., 308, 8; coBJ., 385, 8.
oUv-, accent. 488, 7.
oe, as sign of umlant, 368, 8.
C^ma^^t, 489, 8 ; 516, 10.
o^nr, 891, 1, Bern. ; 804, 6 ; in comp.,

516, 10.
e-mnlant, see b.
b, pronnnc ot 81; description of, 870, 8|

4 ; 5— f, 480, 1; <ft, 489, 4.

pf pronanc. of, 19 ; description of. 885,

1; Bng. correspondents of; 413, 8;

493,8.
ipolaft, 163, 1 : 494.
pf, pronnnc or, 19 ; description of; 389,

1; Bng. conespondentB of; 409, 8;

414,8.
iPfala, 494.
Pf«if«ttlMl88,l.
pnegen VuL, 133: 469.
pp, pronnnc of; 19.
pui)tn L, 188, 8.

O.

^, pronnnc of; 80 ; 409, 8.
queOen VIII.. 133.
quiman, 400, 8.

T, pronnnc. ofL 81 ; 391, 8 ; description

of, 374,8; 377.
fRaht, 435, 8.
taten VIL, 130, 1.
T&Aen YTtL, 133.
rtiben L, 188, 8.
-rti<^, 515, & a.
rtt|en I., 188, 1.

reiten I., 188, 1 ; -i- fp(i)tmii, 890.
tetttten, 110, 1.
-TiA, 515, 8.
tU^n U., 184, 1.

WOBD-IITDBX.

c.

liaa or, 3TB, I, a, S ; Id Q. ag., *»i In
Uie pi,, 60 ; ST ; In compoiuids, ST 1

B18, a.

fl< fl, *1», a; in Vemet'a Liw, 411,
416 ; Edk. comnKUkdeDU ot 414, 1;
41J,bT*»<I,S.

-t, DIHID-Hlfflz, SIS : lu tdieilM, SSS.

faiU, 4 IT, 1.

Mu. SO, bl ; 000, 1 : noiuii of dDDbtfal

Hvnq^ A ox,
m, 91^6, 4.

Ullt^n ru 124^1.

MUntitD in., tas, t

jini''rSsI'iiL,'l«a,'l.'
"—■Ma VIII., 133.
ittn n., 134, 1.

tinlL, tS4,l.
ita L, laa, i
:b l, laa, s.

,...i[nlyia»,l.

iniet«(nr,12a,a.
eitDtln, 60a, s.
ttbnlntKa m , laM.

jStvlaintn nl, 1 as, t ; «e4.
fSiDhtii TL, ISO ; I3a ; 4ST, L

t^ X^Sl * In
3M, 1 ; +pn

Ipim, 137,1:

I; Se0.4l3BI,

oL 4ia.

,1; iBOldllwU,

WOBD-IKDEX.

277

1^ proavnc of; 95: tea t^; Bug. corre-

Bjpondents oi; 408, 1; 41»; 418, 1;

414, 1; deBcripdoD oil 884, 1 ; In j,

889,8,4; ezcreBoent, 87; 91,8; 491,

9 ; 612, S, 8 ; Btop* Into spinuita be-

foro, 412.
-4, noQD-safliz, 512 ; fom. gend., 161, 2 ;

163, 5.
-t, in the participle of weak Terba,

453.
-t S. pen. 8g. in pret-piea. verba,

470, 2.
taugenr 471, fi.
Staufenb, 226 ; 529, S.
-te, Bulfiz in ordinals, 80 ; 530.
■4t, inpret, 117; 464, 1.
-te(, 632, 2.
-ter, noun-snfflx, 608.
t^ pronanc of, 126 ; origjln of, 363, 8 ;

384, 1.
t^&t; 274.6; 290: 476,2.
St^or, 162; 408.1.
t^un, 136, 8 : 464, 1; 476 ; aa an anziL,

274,6: 290,1.
Zf^tt, 408, 1.
traaen VI^ 129.
treffenrv., 1»7.
trelben I., 122, S.
tretenVM 128,1.
iriefen IT., 124, 1; 463.
trteaenIL, 132.
trinten III., 124, 1.
-trunfen, 628.
iTftgenn.,124,S; 189.
-turn, sonn-sufilz, 67, 4 j mostly nent.

gend., 161, 8; origin oL 501; 615, 6.
%, pronanc oi; 889, 8 ; 414, 1; see a*

It

V, pronnnc of. 26 ; description of, 368, 1,
8 ; < uo, 488, 4; n—t, 405 ; +naiaUt
and Hquida sonoM^ 469, &

w, as sign of umlaut, 362, 9.

um, 291, 1, 4, Kem. ; 304, 7 ; in oomp.
verbs, 649. 4.

un-r accent, 422, 6 ; 516, 10.

-ttng, 606, 8 ; fem. gender, 161, 2.

nnfrer for nnfer (O. pi.), 82.

unter, 306, 8, 10 : in comp. verba, 540, 6.

Untetf*ieb, 468, 8.

Ur-, 616, 0.

UrBatr 626, 1.

tt-umlaut, see ft.

ft, pronanc. oil 31; sign of omlaut, 862,
8; 368, 4 ; description of; 367 ; 368,
8, 4 ; <11«, 488, 4 ; ft-i, 489, 9.

hUx, 306, 1 ; in comp. verbs, 549, 8.

8.

t, pronnnc oi; 27; 880, 1, 8;

416, 1.
Soter, 411; 478,4.

fi

Mr-, 516, 11; 545; In certain participles,

296, 8 L646, Rem. r- r -•

Mtberben IIL, 126, 8.
v<ftri(|eii U., 124. 1.
vcrseffett Y., 128, 1 ; past part in comp.,

296, 8, a.
Dettegen, past partn 524, 4.
Mtlieren n., 124. 9 ; 416.
»er»itreii Vm., 13S.
MTOorten Vm., 133.
«ie^, 410, 8.
Dtel, comparison of, 70, 1 ; 100 ; 109, 1,

2; 263.
Dolt-, 649. 6.
WtUt, 219, 1.
tfolDo'mnieii, 421, 1.
wn, 303, 16 ; 306, 7, Rem.
»0T. 306, 8: 1S16, oL
sorbet, 76, 8.

»i nronnnc of, 28 ; description of, 379 ;
880, 8; loss oi; 417, 8; Sng. corre-
spondents of, 410, 8 ; 416, 8 ; 490, 6.

maifUn VI., 129.

SBagetir 494, 1.

war, see witan and fein.

warb, prec. of merben, 111, 8.

warum, 261, 4 ; 661, 9.

na9, inteiTOg. pron., 92 ; 444 ; use of,
261 : + Q., 261, 1 ; preceded by lu,
m\if 251, 3 ; with fftr and eln, 263 ;
fbroe of toarum, 261, 4; relat pron.,
93: 266; 266,9; Indefl pron., 96;
204; 260.

waft <toffMiii, 466,1.

mS^n VI., 129 ; 412.

iD&aen ym., 133.

-»att9, 663.

"weak," 428, 8.

weben yin., 133.

webct; 444, 8.

-oegen, In comp. with prononns, 87:
prepoB., 302, 18.

8Beib,166.

ttci^n L, 122, 1.

toeil, 330,1; 337.

tDeifen L, 122, 9.

mUSf, interrog. pron., 92, 9 ; 444, 9 ; with
ctn, 144; 262: rclat. pron» 93, 9;
265, 266 ; indef. pron., 96, 260.

iDctI, see »Wen.

iDcnbeur 110,1.

IDCT, interrog. pron., 02 ; 251 ; 410, 8 ;
444 ; relat. pron., 03, 8 ; 254 ; 266 ;
indef. pron., 96 ; 264; 260.

tDCtben III., 126, 8.

toerbcn in., inil.of, 110; 111,9; 460,
1 ; in passive, 273 ; in comp. tenses,
283. 9^.

ivetfcnllL, 125,8.

VHi, IDCffcnr 87 ; 92, 1 ; 266, 4.

JJjjJJ^ t v., 128, 6 ; 411 ; 466.
mtber, 804, 8 ; 549, 7.

278

WOBD-INDBX,

wie, 444, 1 ; in eompar. cUoBeB, 333 ;

after comparative, 333, 2.
tvieber, 549, 8.
wieaen Vm., 133.
»iaen, in compos, withpron., 87; prepos.,

30S, 14.
tvinben III., 126, 1.

Wiffen, 135, 1; 412,8; 471.1; 472,1.
t9o(r), sapplants cases of interrog., aod

relat. pron., 251, 8; in local ciaiises,

331 ; origin of, 490, 8.
»oM, prommc. oL 381 ; 489, 1
»onen; 135, 7 : 472, 2 ; special force of,

267,6; 279, 8: 283, &.
loorbeiti past part., 108, 6.
SBunber, see ne^men.
tvurbe, 111,3.

S, proxranc. of, 29 ; 389, 2 ; 417, S, a.

9-

^, pronimc. oi; 81.

of,' 409,

8# pronimc. of, 30 ; 389, 8, 4 ; Bne. cor-

1; 414, 1;

respondents

490,2.
3«^n, 409, 1.

hdfftn L, 122, 2: 895 ; 462.
-)en, in verbs, 539, 8.
|er-, 546.

ite^enn., 122,2; 416.
-tig, 629, 1.
gttteni; 457, 8.
Sn, 303, 16 ; before InH, 291 ; before an

adjective, 291,.4 ; 333, 8.
3ttnft, 398.
g»ar, 655, 8.
jween, 79; 629.
8»ei, iniL of, 78 ; ftvm and gender ol^ 79 ;

529.
8»elf, 529 ; 489, 1.
gwie-^ 520, 1 ; 531, 1.
{iDinaen III., 125, 1.
itDi\^, 306, 10.
a»o, 79 i 529.

^ Gximm*8 sign, 414 ; > b^ 490^ 2.

Jl

i

l-i

I

*£