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1 


A  GRAMMAR 


OF  Tm 


LATIN    LAKaUAGE. 


BY  C.  GrZUMPT,  Ph.D., 

FBorxssoH  iir  thb  univbhsitt,  and  mbhbeh  of  the  boyal  academy 

OF  BBBLIN. 


PKOM   THB   NINTH    EDITION   OF  THB  ORIGINAL,  ADAPTBD  TO  I'lIE  VSB 

OP   ENGLISH    STUDENTS. 

BY  LEONHARD  SCHMITZ,  Pn.D., 

lATB  OF  THB  UMirBBSITT  OF  BOMM. 


CORRECTED    AND     ENLAROED. 


BY   CHARLES   ANTHON.   LL.D., 

P&aFE8SOB  OF  THB  OBBEK  AND  LATIN  LANOUAOBS  IN  COLUMBIA  X  .L'  |<3*      ^  • 
NBW-TOBK,  AND  BBCTOB  OF  THB  OBABiK&VsCUdCJrj.^    J       *   '    !       <-  ! 


• 

» 

'               t 

THIRD  EDITION. 

.          •           1           » 

• 

NEW    YORK; 

) 

rf 

HABPER 

& 

BROTHERS,    PUBLISHERS, 

FBANKLIN    BQUABE. 

1872. 

IL 


LJ 


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^M 


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'■\y--'-  •* 


1 


▼i  author's  preface 

py  to  hfear  that  ultimately  the  execution  had  been  in 
trusted  to  Dr.  L.  Schmitz,  who,  I  feel  convinced,  hai 
done  all  that  can  be  desired,  both  in  point  of  correct- 
ness and  good  taste. 

The  Latin  language  is  so  rich  and  happy  in  its  or« 
ganization,  and  has  been  so  consistently  developed  by 
the  energetic  spirit  of  the  Roman  people,  as  well  as  by 
the  exquisite  tact  of  the  Roman  authors,  that  a  contin- 
ued study  of  it  is  amply  rewarded.  It  is  now  Upward 
of  thirty  years  that  I  have  been  before  the  public  as  a 
writer  on  Latin  Grammar  ;*  my  varied  studies  have 
always  led  me  back  to  this  subject,  and  I  may  trulj^e- 
clare  that,  during  each  fresh  revision  of  my  grammar 
when  J  was  engaged  in  mcorporating  with  my  system 
the  observations  I  had  made  in  the  mean  time,  and  in 
considering  the  doubts  and  objections  which  had  been 
raised  in  my  mind,  I  have  become  more  and  more  con- 
vinced of  the  inexhaustible  mine  of  human  wisdom 
which  presents  itself  in  the  language  of  a  happily-or- 
ganized nation  like  the  Romans.  I  am  not  speaking 
here  of  the  accidental  matter  contained  in  a  grammar,  ' 

nor  of  the  accumulation  of  similar  passages — it  will 
afford  far  greater  pleasure  to  the  pupil  to  discovei  for 
himself,  in  the  authors  whose  works  Ije  is  reading,  pas- 
sages which  confirm  or  illustrate  the  rules  he  has  learn- 
ed— ^nor  of  niceties  of  expression,  for  these  are  curios-  , 
ities  rather  than  anything  else  ;  but  I  mean  real  phil- 
ological  discoveries  and  peculiarities,  which  arise  from 
the  organic  structure  of  the  language,  derive  their  ex- 
planation from  it,  and,  in  return,  throw  light  upon  the 

*  The  first  foundation  of  the  present  work  was  laid  in  a  book  which  1 
wrote  for  the  use  of  my  pupils  under  the  title  "  Regein  der  Lateinischen 
Syntax,  mit  zwei  Anhfingen  uber  die  Grundregeln  und  die  nach  einem  nenei  ^ 

y«tem  Keordncten  unregelmfissigeR  Verba,"  Berlht,  1814,  8vo 


■55' 


I 


TO   TUB    ENGLISH    TRANSLATIOlf.  YH 

whole  fabric  of  the  language  itself;  and  the  result  of 
-  all  this  is,  that  the  general  principles  are  better  ascer- 
tained  and  established.  It  is  owing  to  these  continued 
studies  that  even  the  present  translation  of  the  ninth 
edition  of  my  Latin  Grammar  has  been  enriched  by 
tome*  not  unimportant  improvements,  which  I  have 
communicated  in  MS.  to  Dr.  Schmit2;  and  it  will 
henceforth  be  our  united  endeavour  to  remedy  every 
deficiency  that  may  yet  be  found. 

My  Latin  Grammar  has  met  with  great  favour,  or, 
as  the  phrase  is,  "  has  been  a  very  successful  book," 
as  I  must  infer  from  the  number  of  editions  and  cop* 
ies  that  have  been  sold ;  but  this  success  lias  not  weak- 

t  ened  my  exertions  in  labouring  Without  interruption 

for  its  improvement.  An  aythor  is  himself  rarely  able 
to  point  out  that  whidi  has  gained  for  his  production 
the  favour  of  the  public ;  he  is  satisfied  with  being 
able  to  labour  for  the  realisation  of  his  own  ideas  ;  a 
comparison  with  the  works  of  others  does  not  concera 

I  him,  nor  wcmld  it  be  becoming  to  him.    But  he  can 

^  state  the  princijple  which  has  guided  him  throughout 

his  work ;  and,  in  reference  to  the  present  grammar, 
this  principle  is  |^o  other  than  the  desire  to  trace  the 
facts  and  phenomena  of  the  language  to  a  philosophi- 
cal or  rational  source.    The  facts  as  such  must  first  be 

i  established ;  and  in  this  respect  it  has  been  my  endeav- 

our to  examine  the-  texts  of  the  authors,  and  not  to  aU 
low  myself  to  be  misled,  as  has  been  so  often  the  case, 
by  erroneous  traditions ;  farther,  to  distmguish  between 
the  periods  of  the  language,  the  diflferent  species  of  lit- 
erary productions,  the  ancient  and  genuine  from  latei 
and  affected  authors,  and  by  this  means  to  ascertain 
that  which  is  essential  and  peculiar  to  the  purest  Latic 


rill  AUTHORS   PREFACE 

idiom ;  but,  in  so  doing,  I  have  not  left  unnoticed  those 
points  which  must  be  regarded  as  frequent,  or  other- 
wise justifiable  deviations  from  the  ordinary  rulds.  It 
is  only  those  things  which  do  not  grow  forth  from  the 
living  body  of  the  language  that  must  be  passed  over 
in  silence.  In  order  to  separate  that  which  is  genuine 
and  ancient  from  what  is  arbitrary  or  recent,  I  have 
adopted  the  method  of  distinguishing  between  text  and 
notes,  the  one  being  printed  in  large  and  the  other  in 
small  type :  a  distinction  which  will,  I  think,  be  useful 
also  to  the  teacher.  Another  great  point  which  I  have 
always  endeavoured  to  keep  in  view  has  been  a  ration- 
al development  of  the  rules  from  <Mie  another.  By 
this,  however,  I  do  not  mean  a  demonstration  of  the 
principles  of  universal  grammar ;  that  is,  of  those  prin- 
ciples which  are  common  to  all  languages.  I  value 
this  branch  of  philology,  as  a  sort  of  applied  logic,  in- 
deed, very  highly ;  but  my  opinion  is,  that  it  can  be 
studied  with  advantage  only  by  those  who  are  ac- 
quainted with  the  languages  of  difierient  nations,  both 
civilized  and  uncivilized ;  and  I  have  confined  my- 
self to  explaining  the  peculiarities  of  the  Latin  lan- 
guage and  its  characteristic  difierencjps  from  the  mod- 
em European  languages  of  Roman  and  Germanic  ori- 
gin, referring  only  now  and  then  to  its  connexiofa  with 
the  Ghreek.  But  it  is  my  endeavour  to  reduce  these 
peculiarities  of  the  Latin  language,  to  simple  and  pre- 
cise principles,  to  proceed  from  the  simple  to  the  com- 
plex, and  to  distinguish  that  which  is  in  accordance 
with  the  rules  from  that  which  is  of  a  mixed  nature. 
What  I  here  say  refers  more  particularly  to  the  syn-  j 

ta?;  for,  in  regard  to  etymology,  it  ought  not  to  be  for-  ; 

gotten  that  the  Latin  language  is  something  which  hdit         I 


TO   THE   ENGLISH    TRANSLATION.  HI 

oeen  handed  down  to  us  in  a  given  form,  and  which  is 
to  be  learned  in  this  given  form.  It  would  have  been 
easy  to  go  back  to  certain  primitive  forms  which  con- 
stitute  the  first  elements  in  the  formation  of  the  Ian 
guagCy  and  thereby  to  explain  many  an  irregularity  in 
the  mixture  of  forms ;  but  in  teaching  a  language 
which  is  learned,  not  only  for  the  purpose  of  training 
the  intellect,  but  of  using  it  in  speaking  and  writing, 
the  eye  and  memory  of  the  pupil  ought  not  to  bo 
troubled  with  hypothetical  or  assumdd  forms  which 
he  is  expected  to  forget,  but  frequently  does  not  forget, 
and  which  h^  is  rather  apt  to  take  for  real  forms.  In 
etymology,  a  complete  analogy  alone  can  be' of  prac- 
tical use ;  hence  I  have  endeavoured  to  make  the  lis* 
of  iixegular  verbs  and  the  section  on  the  formation  of 
words — ^important  branches  of  grammar  which  had 
been  much  neglected  by  my  predecessors — as  com- 
plete as  possible.  In  the  syntax,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
right  that  there  should  be  a  philosophical  development 
of  the  complex  from  the  simple,  taking  that  which  is 
peculiarly  Latin  as  the  groundwork.  This  part  of  my 
grammar  has  ^isen  from  dictations  which  I  made  the 
basis  of  a  course  of  lectures  on  Latin  sjmtax ;  and  I 
still  believe  that  this  method  is  best  suited  to  teach  pu- 
oils — not  indeed  the  first  begiuiers,  but  those  who 
we  already  made  some  progi^s  in  the  understand- 
mg  of  Latin  sentences — the  whole  of  the  Latin  syn« 
tax  in  a  manner  which  is  at  once  a  training  of  their 
intellect  and  their  memory.  Some  example  or  other 
must  be  made  the  basis ;  it  must  be  explained  and  im^ 
Dressed  upon  the  memory  as  a  model  for  irritation. 
The  examples  given  in  the  text  of  the  present  gram- 
mar may  serve  this  purpose ;  all  have  been  selected 


author's  preface 


with  special  care,  and  each  contains  a  complete  though 
expressed  in  a  classical  form.  The  teacher  must  cause 
his  pupils  to  form  a  number  of  other  similar  sentences, 
and  make  the  pupils  translate  them  from  the  vernacu- 
lar tongue  into  Latin.  It  is  desirable  that  such  senten* 
ces  snould  be  chosen  with  taste,  or  be  carefully  prepa- 
red for  this  purpose  beforehand ;  but  as  their  object  is 
only  to  impress  the  rule  upon  the  mind  of  the  learner, 
it  is  advisable  to  pay  attention  to  variety  of  expressioc 
rather  than  to  particular  neatness  or  elegsmce. 

My  grammar  farther  contains  a  section  on  the  sig-. 
nification  of  the  adverbs,  prepositions,  and  conjunc- 
tions, which,  properly  speaking,  does  not  belong  to 
grammar,  but  to  a  dictionary.  But  it  is,  nevertheless, 
necessary,  since  the  ordinary  dictionaries  are  partly  in 
correct  and  partly  incomplete  in  their  explanations  of 
these  particles,  which  qon tain  the  life  and  soul  of  a  lan- 
guage, and  since  special  books  on  the  particles,  such 
as  were  formerly  used  in  schools,  arc  either  no  longer 
consulted,  or  do  not  answer  the  purposes  for  which 
they  were  written.  The  sjmtax  has  been  enlarged  by 
what  is  called  S3mtaxis  omata ;  and  it  is  strange,  that 
for  this  part  of  my  work  I  have  been  censured  by  sev- 
eral scholars,  who  thought  it  inconsistent  with  the 
strictly  progressive  a^rit  of  the  grammar,  and  the  phil- 
osophical development  of  the  grammatical  laws,  be- 
cause the. observations  which  form  the  substance  of 
the  Syntaxis  omata  are  not  given  as  necessary  princi- 
ples, but  in  the  form  of  suggestions,  which  may  be  fol- 
lowed or  not  at  discretion.  But  this  is  the  very  point 
which  I  myself  have  expressly  stated  in  the  introduc- 
Jioa  to  that  part  of  my  work  where  I  direct  attention 
fo  the  difl&rence  between  the  Syntaxis  regularis  and 


I 


TO  THS   BNOLISH  TRAN&LATIOlf.  XI 

the  Syntaxis  omdta.  But  ais  those  observations  on 
style  point  out  do  much  that  is  correct,  ingenious,  and 
peculiar  to  the  Latin  language,  should  they  not  be  made 
at  all  because  then-  application  is  left  to  choice  ?  or 
shall  we  allow  them  to  stand  in  a  somewhat  looser  con- 
nexion, and  arrange  die  different  observations  under 
rational  and  intelligible  heads  f  Surely  the  latter 
course  must  be  prefe^^d ;  and  I  see  that  my  critics 
have,  in  fact,  adopted  the  very  same  method,  except 
that  what  I  have  discussed  in  separate  chapters  on 
"  Peculiarities  in  the  Use  of  the  Parts  of  Speech,'*  on 
"  Heonasm,"  "  Ellipsis,"  "  Arrangement  of  Words  and 
Construction  of  Periods,**  is  treated  of  by  them  under 
the  heads  of  first,  second,  and  third  Appendices.  The 
real  appendices  in  the  present  work  on  metres,  meas 
ures  and  weights,  calendar,  dec,  are  of  a  diiBferent  na- 
ture. They  do  not,  indeed,  belong  to  grammar ;  but 
as  they  contain  information  on  matters  important  and 
necessary  for  the  understanding  of  the  authors  read  in 
schools,  and  as  this  information  is  either  not  to  be  found 
elsewhere,  or  is  not  sufliciently  correct,  no  one,  I  hope, 
will  grudge  it  a  {dace  at  the  end  of  this  grammar. 

I  cannot  part  from  the  English  reader  without  ex- 
pressing itay  delight  at  the  vigour  and  energy  with 
which  classical  studies  are  pr6secuted  in  Germany  and 
England*  In  the  former  country,  a  fresh  impulse  was 
given  to  these  studies  some  thirty  years  ago,  just  at 
the  time  when  the  liation  was  on  the  point  of  losing  its 
independence ;  in  England,  the  revival  of  classical  stud* 
ies  must  be  dated,  I  believe,  from  the  time  that  the  con- 
test between  idealism  and  realism  became  settled;  and 
these  two  branches  of  human  knowledge  have  now 
arrived  at  a  point  where  they  recognise  each  other  iw 


I 


A 


Xli    author's  preface  to  the  ENGLISH  TRANSLATION. 

peaceful  harmony,  the  one  exerting  itself  in  exploring 
the  treasures  of  nature,  and  the  other  those  of  mind. 
/7  Germany  owes  her  safety  to  her  free  schools  and  uni- 
^Iversities,  and  builds  her  hopes  upon  them;  England  to 
the  energy  of  her  people,  and  to  her  public  institutions ; 
and  the  two  countries  might  with  advantage  exchange 
some  of  their  excellences.  In  England,  the.educa* 
tional  establishments  and  teasers  appear  to  be  fet- 
tered by  old  traditional  and  conventional  forms ; 
while  in  Germany  the  sublimest  truths  which  are 
promulgated  from  the  professorial  chair  die  within 
the  lecture-rooms  of  the  universities,  and  produce 
no  fruit  But  be  the  difference  between  the  two 
countries  ever  so  great,  the  characteristics  of  the 
educated  men  in  both  consist  in  their  rising  above 
the  immediate  necessities  of  time,  place,  and  occupa- 
tion, and  in  their  recognition  of  the  connexion  existing 
between  the  individual  and  the  spirit  of  all  mankind. 
Hence  a  knowlege  of  antiquity,  and  of  what  it  has 
produced,  is  necessary  to  every  educated  person  in 
proportion  to  the  influence  it  has  exercised  upon  sub- 
sequent ages ;  and  the  study  of  antiquity  will  ever  have 
the  mostfsalutary  effect  upon  man  in  elevating  him 
above  the  trivial  wants  of  ordinary  life,  and  affording 
him  the  means  of  mental  and  intellectual  culture.  To 
those  among  my  contemporaries  who  are  anxious  to 
obtain, these  advantages,  I  otkr  the  present  work  as  a 
means  of  penetrating  more  deeply  and  more  easily 
into  the  spirit  of  the  Roman  classics  and  of  Roman  an- 
tiquity. C.  G.  ZUMPT. 

BerliHt  February  23d,  1845. 


• 

1 

I 

\ 


TRANSLATOR'S  PREFACE. 


r 


I 
r 


When  the  honourable  task  of  preparing  a  transia* 
(ion  of  the  ninth  edition  of  Professor  Zumpt's  Latin 
Grammar  had  been  intrusted  to  me  by  the  publishers, 
the  author  himself  most  willingly  consented  to  co-op- 
erate with  me  in  endeavouring  to  present  his  work  to 
the  English  public  in  as  perfect  a  form  as  possible.  His 
professional  engagements  in  the  University  of  Berlin 
have  enabled  him  continually  to  improve  the  success- 
ive editions  of  his  grammar,  which  has  thus  become 
infinitely  superior  to  what  it  was  when  originally  trans 
lated.  Scarcely  a  year  has  elapsed  since  the  publica- 
tion of  the  ninth  edition  of  the  original,  yet  the  au- 
thor^s  unceasing  labours  in  this  department  of  philolo- 
gy have  enabled-him  already  to  collect  a  large  num- 
ber of  corrections  and  additions  for  future  use ;  and 
all  these  improvements  he  has  been  kind  enough  to 
communicate  to  me  in  manuscript  for  incorporation  in 
the  English  translation,  which  hence  possesses  consid  - 
erable  advantages  over  the  German  work. 

In  the  etymological  part  of  the  present  grammar, 
some  additions  might  haVe  been  made  here  and  there 
from  English  sources,  and  some  English  scholars  may, 
perhaps,  be  inclined  to  censure  me  for  having  neglect- 
ed to  do  so,  since  the  etymology  of  the  Latin  language 
has  been  studied  by  a  few  scholars  in  this  country 
more  comprehensively  than  on  the  Continent.  But 
ProfessSr  Zumpt  has  abstained,  on  principle,  from  in- 
troducing into  his  wt)rk  etymological  disquisitions 
which  would  have  led  his  readers  beyond  the  imme- 
diate objects  of  his  grammar  ;  and  it  was  impossible 

2 


XIV  TRANSLATORS   PREFACE. 

for  me  to  set  aside  that  principle  without  making  ma 
terial  alterations  in  the  first  part  of  the  present  work, 
I  may  also  add,  that,  on  the  whole,  I  coincide  with  the 
author's  views  on  this  point ;  and  even  if  I  did  not,  1 
should  not  think  myself  justified  in  introducing  into  hia 
work  that  which  he  himself  has  purposely  excluded. 
The  few  points  on  which  I  have  added  any  explanato- 
ry remarks  are  such  as  arc  regarded  by  the  author,  in 
common  with  all  other  grammarians,  as  inexplicable 
difficulties  or  anomalies,  although  it  appears  to  me  that  ' 
the  language  itself  contains  sufficient  analogies  for  their 
explanation. 

When  I  undertook  the  present  translation,  I  expect- 
ed, as  was  stated  in  the  advertisement,  that  the  Latin 
Grammar- of  Professor  Madvig,  of  Copenhagen,  which 
had  appeared  about  the  same  lime  as  the  last  edition 
of  Professor  Zumpt's  work,  would  furnish  some  more 
or  less  important  improvements,  which  might  be  ad- 
vantageously imbodied  in  the  present  translation  ;  but 
a  comparison  of  the  two  books  soon  showed  me  that 
all  the  new  and  valuable  points  in  Madvig's  grammar 
were  known  to  Professor  Zumpt,  and  had  received 
from  him  their  due  share  of  attention,  Madvig  having 
published  his  views  on  several  grammatical  questions 
in  separate  dissertations  and  elsewhere  previously  to 
the  appearance  of  his  grammar. 

In  conclusion,  I  venture  to  express  my  hope  that  the 
present  translation  of  a  work  which  enjoys  the  highest 
reputation  in  Germany  may  contribute  also  in  this 
country  towards  a  more  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
language  of  a  nation  which,  above  all  others,  deserves 
to  engage  the  attention  of  every  well-educated  Eng- 
lishman. L.  S. 

London,  April,  1845. 


CONTENTS. 


9kti^ 


ELEMENTARY  PART. 

II  Of  the  Vowels  and  Consonants 
II.  Of  SyUables 

III.  Of  the  Length  and  Shortness  of  S /  Jables 

IV.  Of  the  Accent  of  Words  . 


1 
13 
14 
36 


V. 

VL 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XIL 

XIIL 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 

xxrv. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

<XVIL 

.VXVIII. 

XXIX. 

XXX 

XXXI. 

XXXII 


20 
30 
34 
36 


Thb  Accidence. 

Division  of  Words  according  to  their  Signification 

Nouns  Substantive. — General  Rules  of  Gender 

> 

Number,  Case,  and  Declension 

First  Declension 

Greek  Words  in  c,  as,  and  it  .  .  .  .  .37 
Gender  of  the  Nouns  of  the  First  iJeclension  .  .  39 
Second  Declension  .:.....  39 
Greek  Words  of  the  Second  Declension  .  .  .43 
Gender  of  the  Nouns  of  the  Second  Declension  .  45 
Tkird  Declension. — Genitive    .  .46 

The  remaining  Cases  of  the  Third  Declension  .    53 

Greek  Forms  in  Words  of  the  Third  Declension       .    62 
Gender  of  Words  of  the  Third  Declension. — Mascu- 
lines       • .        .        .        .        .        .        .66 

Feminines 67 

Neuters 70 

Fourth  Declension 71 

73 
74 
31 
84 
87 
89 
91 
94 
98 

:oo 

103 

loa 


Fiflh  Declension       ...... 

Irregular  Declension. — Indeclinables. — Defectives 

Heteroclita. — Heterogenea 
Nouns  Adjective. — ^Terminations. — ^Declension 
Comparison  of  Adjectives 


Comparison  of  Adverbs  and  increased  Compar 

Irregular  an<l  defective  Comparison 

Numerals  —iT  Cardinal  Numerals 

II.    Ordinal  Numerals 

HI.  Distributive  Numerals       ^ 

rv.  Multiplicative  Numerals     . 

V.    Proportional  Numerals 


son 


XVI  CONTENTS. 

Chap.  Pafli 

XXXIII.  VI.  Numeral  Adverbs    ,        .        .        .  .103 

XXXIY.  Pronouns  and  Pronominal  Adjeetires    .  .  105 

XXXV.  Declension  of  Pronouns 108 

XXXVI.  Declension  of  the  Possessive  Pronouns  and  of  Pro- 

nominals 114 

XXXVII.  The  Verb 116 

XXXVIII.  Moods.— Tenses 119 

XXXIX.  Numbers.— Persons       .  * 121 

XL.  Formation  of  the  Tenses 123 

XLI.  The  Verb  esse 127 

XLII.  The  four  Conjugations 129 

XLIII.  Remarks  on  the  Conjugations       .        .        .        .141 

TjIst  of  Verbs  which  are  irregular  in  the  Formatiox  op  TiiEih 

Perfect  and  Supine. 

XLIV.  First  Conjugation 149 

XLV.  Second  Conjugation 15) 

XLVI.  Third  Conjugation. — 1.  Verbs  which  have  a  Vowel 

before  o,  including  those  in  vo    .        .  157 

XLVII.  2.  Verbs  in  do  ^n^  to 160 

XLVIII.  3.  Verbs  in  io  and  770     .        .        .        .        .        .  163 

XLIX.  4.  Verbs  with  a  Palatal  Letter,  g,  c,  ct,  h^qu,  and 
gu  (in  which  u  is  not  considered  as  a  vowel) 

before  0 164 

L.  6.  Verbs  which  have  Itfi^n^r  before  o  .  167 

LI.  6.  Verbs  in  so  and  xo 170 

LII.  Inchoatives    .        . 171 

LIIL  Fourth  Conjugation 173 

LIV.  List  of  Deponent  Verbs 175 

LV.  Deponents  of  the  Second  Conjugation   .        .        .177 

L VI.  Deponents  of  the  Third  Conjugation     .        .        .178 

LVII.  Deponents  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation    .        .  179 

LVIII.  Irregular  Verbs      .......  180 

LIX.  Defective  Verbs 18i 

LX.  Impersonal  Verbs 190 

LXI.  Etymology  of  Nouns  and  Verba     .        .        .        .192 
LXIl.  Etymology  of  Particles  .        .•     .        .        .        .214 

LXIII.  Primitive  Adverbs 221 

LXIV.  Comparison  of  Adverbs 230 

LXV.  Prepositions 231 


LXVI   Prepositions  in  Composition  ....  244         \ 


CONTENTS.  Xvil 

LXvII.  CoDjunctions .  sSS 

LXYIII.  Interjections sas 

SYNTAX. 

« 

I.  Connexion  or  Subject  and  Pbedioati. 
LXIX.  Subject  and  Predicate 207 

II.  On  the  Use  or  Cases. 

LXX.  Nominative  Case 277 

LXXI.  Accusative  Case 278 

liXXII.  Dative  Case 290 

LXXm.  Genitive  Case       . 30] 

LXXIV.  Ablative  Case 316 

LXXV.  Vocative  Case 337 

III.  Use  or  the  Tenses. 
LXXVT.  Tbe  Tenses 338 

IV.  Or  THE  Moods. 

LXXVII.  Indicative  Mood     . 354 

LXXVIII.  Subjunctive  Mood 358 

LXXIX.  Imperative  Mood 393 

LXXX.  Infinitive  Mood 396 

LXXXI.  Use  of  tbe  Participles 420 

LXXXn.  Use  of  tbe  Gerund         .        .        .        .        .        .430 

tXXXm.  Use  of  the  Supine 436 

SYNTAXIS  ORNATA. 

LXXXIV.  Peculiarities  in  the  Use  of  the  Parts  of  Speech     .  439 

LXXXV.  Pleonasm 479 

LXXXYI.  Ellipsis 489 

LXXXYII.  Arrangement  of  Words  and  Structure  of  Periids  .  50^ 

Appendix     I.  Of  Metre,  especially  with  regard  to  the  Latin 

Poets 529 

Appendix    II.  The  Roman  Calendar 551 

Appendix  III.  Roman  Weights,  Coins,  and  Measures     .       .  551 
Appendix  IV.  Notae  sive  Compendia  Scripturae ;  or.  Abbrevi- 
ations of  Words 557 

Appendix    V.  Ancient  Forms  of  Declension           .        .        .559 
Appendix  YI.  Remains  of  early  Latin 563 

Index  op  Matters 56^' 


I 


J 

I 


INTRODUCTION 


The  Latin  language  was  once  spoken  by  the  Romans, 
at  first  only  in  a  part  of  Middle  Italy,  but  subsequently  in 
all  Italy  and  in  other  countries  subject  to  the  Romans. 
At  present  it  can  be  learned  only  from  books  and  the 
monumental  inscriptions  of  that  people.* 

The  earliest  Latin  writings  that  we  possess  were  com 

*  l^  Any  inquiry  into  the  origin  of  the  Latin  lansfuage  must  involve  an 
inquiry  into  the  languages  spoken  by  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Italy ;  and 
'3ur  information  on  this  subject,  notwithstanding  the  investigations  of  Mi 
cali,  Grotefend,  Miilier,  Lepsius,  and  other  distinguished  scholars,  is  at 

{iresent  very  imperfect.  So  much,  however,  appears  certain,  that  the  Latin 
anguage  was  oififerent  from  the  Etrurian  and  Oscan,  of  which  the  former 
was  spoken  b^  the  inhabitants  of  the  northern,  and  the  latter  by  those  of 
the  central  and  southern  parts  of  Italy.  The  Latins  appear  to  have  origi- 
nally formed  part  of  that  great  race  which  overspread  both  Greece  and 
Italy  under  the  name  of  Pelasgians.  Their  language  formed  a  branch  of 
that  extensive  family  of  languages  which  are  known  to  modem  scholars 
by  the  name  of  Indo-Germanic ;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  Pelasgians  who 
settled  in  Italy  originally  spoke  the  same  language  as  the  Pelasgians  who 
settled  in  Greece.  There  is  consequently  a  great  resemblance  between  the 
Latin  and  Greek  languages ;  though  each  possesses  an  element  which  the 
other  does  not.  Not  only  does  the  Latin  language  possess  many  words 
which  it  has  not  in  common  with  the  Greek,  but  also  in  some  parts  of  its 
grammatical  inflection,  as,  for  instance,  in  that  of  the  passive  voice,  it  dif- 
fers considerably  from  the  Greek  language.  It  therefore  becomes  a  ques- 
tion what  that  element  is  which  the  Latin  language  has  not  in  common 
with  the  Greek ;  and  here  we  must  attain  some  farther  knowledge  of  the 
languages  of  ancient  Italy  before  yre  can  answer  this  question  satisfactorily. 
The  Etrurian,  so  far  as  our  imperfect  knowledge  of  it  will  enable  us  to 
form  an  opinion  on  the  subject,  appears  to  have  exercised  little  influence 
upon  the  lormation  of  the  Latin  lan|[uage ;  but  the  Oscan  or  Opican  tongue, 
on  the  contrary,  seems  to  have  united  with  the  Pelasgian  in  forming  the 
Latin.  Niebunr  (Hist.  ofRotMt  vol.  i.,  p.  82)  had  remarked  that  the  words 
which  relate  to  agriculture  and  domestic  life  agree  in  Greek  and  Latin,  as, 
JtomuSf  ager,  aratnan,  vimim,  oleum^  lac^  bos^  «i»,  ovts,  &c.,  while  those  re- 
lating to  arms  and  war,  as  dudlumt  ensist  luutay  sapttUf  &c.,  are  different 
from  the  Greek.  But  this  remark  is  to  be  taken  with  considerable  limita- 
tion, for  there  are  many  exceptions  both  ways ;  indeed,  so  many  as  to  render 
the  position  itself  at  least  doubtful,  and  all  inferences  derived  from  it  conse- 
quently inconclusive.  The  words  relating  to  arms  and  war  may  have  been 
Oscan ;  and  it  has  therefore  been  supposed  by  Dr.  Arnold  {Hist,  of  Rome, 
vol.  i.,  p.  22),  not  only  that  the  Latins  were  a  mixed  people,  partly  Pelas- 
gian and  piartly  Oscan,  but  also  that  they  arose  out  of  a  conquest  ot  the  Pe- 
lasgians by  the  Oscans,  so  that  the  latter  were  the  ruling  class  of  the  united 
nation,  and  the  former  its  subjects." — Penny  Cyclop.^  voL  xx.,  p.  112. 
Compare  Xepsiu4,  Veberdie  TyrrhenischenPelasget  in  Etrurien,  heipsig,  1842 , 
Donalds<m^sVarronianuSt\t.  10,  &c.;  Baehr,  Geschichte  der  Romischm  lAterm 
<««r  vol.  i.,  p.  3,  &r. ;  Grotffend,  Alt-Italien,  Drittes  Heft,  p.  30.]-^ Am.  Ed 


iX  INTRODICTION. 

posed  about  200  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,*  and  in 
the  sixth  century  after  Christ,  Latin,  as  a  spoken  lan- 
guage, died  entirely  away.  It  had  then  become  quite 
corrupted  through  the  influence  of  the  foreign  nations 
which  had  settled  in  the  Roman  dominions,  and  it  be- 
came so  mixed  up  with  the  languages  of  the  invaders 
that  a  niunber  of  new  languages  (Itsdian,  French,  Span- 
ish, Portuguese)  were  gradually  formed  out  of  it.  All 
persons  who  wrote  Latin  in  later  times  had  learned  it  as 
a  dead  language. 

During  the  long  period  in  which  the  Latin  language 
was  spoken,  if  imderwent  various  changes,  not  only  m 
the  number  of  its  words  and  their  meanings,  in  theii' 
forms  and  combinations,  but,  to  some  extent,  in  its  pro- 
nimciation  also.  We  shall  in  this  Grammar  describe  the 
language,  though  not  exclusively,  such  as  it  was  spoken 
and  written  during  the  most  important  period  of  Roman 
literature,  that  is,  about  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar  and 
Cicero,  till  shortly  after  the  birth  of  Christ.  That  period 
IS  commonly  called  the  golden  age,  and  the  subsequent 
one,  till  about  A.p.  120,  the  silver  age  of  the  Latin  lan- 
guage. 

The  Latin  language,  in  its  origin,  is  nearest  akin  to  the 
Greek,  and  at  the  time  when  the  Romans  became  acquaint- 
ed with  the  literature,  arts,  and  institutions  of  Greece, 
they  adopted  a  great  many  single  words,  as  well  as  con- 
structions, from  the  Greek.t  Both  languages,  moreover, 
belong  to  the  same  family  from  which  the  English,  Ger- 
man, northern,  and  many  other  languages  have  sprung4 

♦  [Vid.  Appendix "VT.  Remains  of  early  Latin.]— Am.  Ed. 

t  [That  the  Latin  is  an  older  language  than  the  Greek  all  sound  philolo* 
ffiits  now  readily  admit.  Consult  lknald$<nCs  New  Craiylus,  p.  89.]— ulm. 
Ed. 

t  [On  the  general  question  of  I^guistic  affinity,  consult  JBopp,  VergMeh. 
Oramm.  /  IhnaMson*s  New  Craiylus,  ch.  iv. ;  Id.,  VarrommaUi  p.  40.  Tb« 
authorities  haying  reference  to  earlier  and  erroneous  yiews  respecting  Uio 
origin  of  the  Latin  tongue  may  be  found  in  Baeht,  GesehkhUdtr  R$m.  L« « 
tal.  L,  p.  3,  &C.1— -Am.  Ed, 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


ELEHEflTARY   PART. 
CHAPTER  I. 

OF   TUB  VOWELS   AND   CONSONANTS. 

[§  1.]    1.    The  Vowels  of  the  Latin  language  are,  A^ 

a;  Ef  e ;  I,  i;   O,  o;   U,  u  (Y,  y) :  and  the  diphthongfif, 

AE^  ae  ;   OE,  oe  ;  A  U,  au,  and  E  U,  eu.     Their  ancient 

pronunciation  di4  not  differ  jp  any  essential  point  from 

that  of  the  modem  Italian  or  German;  but  the  moderL 

pronunci^on  varies  in  the  different  countries  of  Europe, 

thougn  the  length  and  shortness  of  the  vovtrels  are  and 

ought  to  be  observed  everywhere.     The  Latin  language 

has  no  signs  to  distinguish  a  long  from  a  short  vowel, 

such  as  we  find  in  the  Greek  language,  at  least  in  the 

case  of  two  vowels.     The  names  of  the  vowels  are  mere 

imitations  of  their  sounds,  and  not  specific  words,  like  the 

Greek  alpha,  iota,  &c. 

Note. — The  vowel  y  (called  y  psJlon)  occurs  onW  in  words  which  were 
introduced  into  the  Latm  language  from  or  through  the  Greek,  at  a  time 
when  it  was  already  developed,  such  as,  syllabot  pyramis,  Pyrrhm,  Cyrua  ;* 
whereas  other  words,  the  Ureek  origin  of  which  leads  us  back  to  more 
ancient  times,  or  has  been  obscured  by  changes  <^  sound,  have  lost  their 
original  v  $  such  as  mus  (from  the  Greek  fjivCi)sUva  (from  ij2.rf),  and  lacrima 
(from  6aK(yvov.)\  The  word  stilus^  too,  is  better  wntten  with  i,  since  prac 
iice  did  not  acknowledge  its  identity  with  the  Greek  orvXof.  The  diph 
thong  ev,  if  we  except  Greek  words,  occurs  onW  in  heus,  Aeu,  and  eAeti,  in 
ten,  ««u,  and  fieu,  and  in  neuter  and  neviiquam.    The  diphthongs  containing 

*  [As  the  Romans  already  possessed  in  their  V  the  representative  of  the 
Greel;  letter,  it  may  be  asked  how  it  was  that  they  subsequently  adopted 
the  Y.  It  has  been  supposed,  in  answer  to  this,  that  the  Greek  character 
had  changed  its  power  from  the  original  sound  of  oo,  such  as  is  still  repre 
sented  by  the  Italian^,  to  a  sound  probably  like  that  of  the  French  u,  oi 
even  to  a  weak  >.    {Key  en  the  Alphabet,  p.  lii.)] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [It  would  be  rapre  correct,  perhaps,  to  say,  that  in  many  words  rather 
connected  with  the  Greek  than  derived  from  it,  the  v  is  represented  by  i,  as 
in  cliene,  m-cUtiu  (jcAvo),  cU-peue  {KpvirTu),  silva  (iXfTi),  &c.,  while  in  oth- 
f  rs  the  V  has  become  e,  as  in  socer  (iKvpdg),  remulco  i$vjjtov?Jcia),  polenta 
tnahfvr^)t  &c.  (Donaldsoiit  Varromanus,  p.  222.  Compare  BUlrotkf  Lai. 
Vr„  p.  S,  not.)} — Am.  Ed. 

A 


Z  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

An  t,  viz.,  et,  oi,  and  tu,  have  not  been  mentionea  ii  our  text  88  Latin  dip^ 
thongs,  because  they  occur  only  in  a  few  interjections,  such  as  Aei,  e1a^ 
pi>i,  and  kuiy  and  in  cases  where  ctetn,  proin,  hvic,  or  cui  are  contracted  intr 
oae  8ylla!)le,  which  is  commonly  done  in  poetr)'. 

The  ancients,  in  pronouncing  a  diphthong,  uttered  the  two  vowels  o( 
which  it  consists  more  distinctly  than  we  do.  The  word  neuter,  in  partic- 
ular, ^as  pronounced  in  such  a  manner  that  the  two  vowels  in  eu,  though 
united,  were  yet  distinctly  heard.*  In  this  manner  we  may  reconcile  th» 
assertion  of  the  grammarian  Consentius,  that  it  is  a  barbarism  to  pro 
nounce  neutmm  as  a  word  of  ivit  s^ilablts,  with  thdse  passages  in  Latin 
poetry  whic^  necessarily  demand  the  diphthong.  Neuiiquam,  in  the  comic 
poets,  has  its  first  syllable  always  short,  as  if  it  were  nUtiquamy  from  whicn 
w«  may  infer  that  it  was  not  so  much  the  long  diphthong  as  the  two  short 
vo^tels  that  were  heard.  In  like  manner  the  diphthongs  ae  and  oe  were 
pronounce,  and  hence  we  find  that  in  the  early  times  ai  and  ot  were 
pronounced  and  written  in  their  stead,  and  that  the  Latins  expressed  the 
Greek  at  and  o<  by  oe  and  oe;  for,  if  these  diphthongs  are  pronounced  in 
the  manner  above  described,  it  will  be  perceived  that  the  difference  be- 
tween the  sounds  of  e  and  i  is  but  slight.!  The  Greek  «  must  likewise 
have  been  pronounced  in  such  a  manner  that  the  two  vowels  were  dis- 
tinctly heard ;  for  the  Latins,  in  whose  language  this  diphthong  does  not 
occ*«r,  use  in  its  nlace  sometimes  e,  an&^  sometimes  t,  or  either  of  them 
indiscrmmiateiy.^  Before  consonants  we  always  find  t,  e.  g.,  ectipsiSf  Ni- 
lus,  Clihu,  Heraclidae ;  and  in  LsfRn  we  must  accordingly  pronounce  and 
write  Polyditusy  and  not  Polyclettu  (see  m^  remark  on  Cic,  in  Verr.,  iV.,  3) : 
Hilotea  or  Hilotae  {Ilotae,  for  the  Greek  is  'ElXurts  or  Et<w]|p(i)^and  no* 
Helotes.  Before  vowels,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Greek  tt  is  sAnetimei 
changed  into  e,  and  sometimes  into  t ;  the  e  appears,  for  example,  in  Aenet  s 
and  Medea,  and  the  t  in  IphigematxA  elegia,  whereas  Alexandrea  and  Alex- 
andria,  Thucydideua  and  Thucydidittt  are  used  indiscriminately.^  In  Cic- 
ero, the  forms  Ariopagtu  and  Aricmagitae  are  better  established*  than 
Areopagus  and  ArecmagUae,  and  the  uke,  which  we  commonly  find  in  our 
^itions,  whereas  the  form  Dareus  is  much  more  authentic,  according  to 
the  MSS.  of  Latin  authors,  than  Darltu.    This  fact  is  now  generally 

I  -  ■ 

♦"  [On  this  pronunciation  of  the  diphthongs  by  the  ancients,  both  Greeks 
and  Romans,  compare  the  remarks  of  Liskovius  (  Ueber  die  Aussprache  des 
Crriechischen,  &c.,  p.  14),  who  advocates  the  same  in  opposition  to  the 
Reuchlinian  system  of  pronunciation.  The  passage  of  Choeroboscus, 
however,  in  Bekker's  Anecd.  Grasc.,  p.  1214,  and  his  three  modes  of  pro- 
nouncing diphthongs,  would  seem  to  militate  against  this  view  of  the 
subject.  Compare  Theodos.,  Gramm.,  p.  34,  ed.  ChtettL,  and  Moschopul.  Op 
Oram.,  ed.  Titze,  p.  24.] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [We  must  not  suppose,  however,  that  in  the  earlier  Latinity  ai  was 
alone  and  exclusively  used  instead  of  ae.  Examples  of  the  latter  likewise 
occur.  Thus,  on  the  Columna  Rostrata,  we  have  praeda  and  At ;  in  the 
S.  C.  de  Bacchan.,  the  form  aedem  occurs ;  and  in  one  of  the  inscriptions 
from  the  tomb  of  the  Scipios,  we  find  aetate.  Still,  however,  ai  was  much 
more  commonly  employed,  as  in  aidilis,  quaiator,  qwuratia,  aitemu*,  aire,  &C 
{OnUer.  Ind.  (tramm.,  s.  v.  ai  pro  ae.)  The  same  remark  will  apply  to  w 
for  oe,  tne  former  being  the  more  common,  but  the  latter  occurring  on  the 
Col.  Rostr.,  "claseis  Poenicas,"  and  elsewhere.  |p  later  Latinity,  tl»# 
form  oi  appears  to  have  been  retained  only  in  the  interjection  oiei,  or  eoiei. 
of  the  comic  writers.  {Schneider,  Elementarlekre,  &c.^vol.  i.,  p.  81 ;  Bmt 
ley,  ad  Ter.  Eun.,  4  4,  47,  &c.)}--Am.  Ed. 

t  CX^^  '  sound  b';re  meant  is  the  continental  one,  namely,  that  ol  the 
long  JBn^lish  e  in  It^te.] — Am.  Ed. 

^  [This  change  of  ei  into  i  or  t  appears  to  have  arisen  from  a  variety  iu 
dialectic  pronunciation,  some  dialects  soundiBg  the  c,  and  others  the  i« 
more  Aronfifly.    Compare  Lisk&v.,  p.  18.1— -<4m.  ^- 


VOWELS    AND   CONSONANTS.  .  8 

acknowledged,  and  does  -not  require  here  ic  be  Bupportud  by  authori 
ties.* 

'  [^  2.]  It  was,  however,  only  by  degrees  that  the  pronunciation  and  oi 
thography  became  fixed,  and  this  was  mainly  the  worK  of  the  grammariani 
during  the  first  centuries  after  Uhrist.  Previously,  there  existed  many 
peculiarities  in  the  pronunciation,  which  were  also  adopted  in  the  written 
language,  and  some  of  these  are  still  retained  in  the  texts  of  a  few  of  the 
early  writers,  such  as  Plautus,  Terence,  and  Sallust,  for  historical  reasons, 
or,  so  to  speak,  from  diplomatic  fidelity.  But  such  peculiarities  should 
n  3C  be  imitated  by  •us,  for  they  were  gradually  given  up  by  the  ancients 
themselves.  With  regard  to  pronunciation  and  orthography,  we  must 
necessarily  adhere  to  the  rules  which  were  laid  down  by  the  ancient 
grammarians,  who  certainly  did  not  derive  them  from  the  vulgar  idiom  of 
the  people,  but  frdhi  the  uncorrupt  and  pure  language  o(  the  educated 
classes.  In  the  earliest  times,  the  broad  pronunciation  of  the  long  t  was 
ccKnmonly  indicated  by  «',  but  without  its  being  pronounced  as  a  diphthong 
«t,  which  is  foreign  to  the  Latin  lan^age :  for  example,  heic  for  Ate,  mteix 
for  quis  iquilnu:)t  eidus  for  idus,  and  m  the  accusative  plural  of  the  tnird 
declension  when  it  terminates  in  is  (see  ^  68),  such  as  omneisy  arteis,  for 
omnis  and  ariis,  which  termination  of  the  accusative  was  subsequently 
changed  into  is.  A  middle  sound  between  the  two  short  vowels  u  and  i 
was  preserved,  in  some  words,  down  to  a  still  later  time ;  and  many  per 
tons  pronounced  and  wrote  lubett  existianoy  clupetis^  inclutus^  saturoy  for  libety 
fsistimoy  clipeusy  &c. ;  the' adjective  termination  umus  for  imusy  disJinitumHs 
Ux  imitimusy  and  the  superlatives  optwmusy  maxumusy  and  piUcherrumttSy  for 
opttmusy  meufimus,  &c.  Julius  Csesar  declared  himself  in  favor  of  t,  which 
was  afterward  adopted  generally,  although  the  £mperor  Claudius  wanted 
to  introduce  a  new  letter  for  tne  indefinite  vowel  in  those  words.!  We 
must  farther  observe  that  in  early  times  o  was  used  instead  of  u,  after  the 
letter  t),  e.  g.,  voltyvohms,  avoniy  and  even  in  the  nominative  aws  mstead  of 
amis :  in  some  words  o  took  the  place  of  e ;  for  example,  vorto  and  its  de- 
rivatives fbr  vertOy  vaster  for  vester.t  U  instead  of  e  occurs  in  the  termi- 
nation of  the  participle  tmdus  for  endusy  and  was  retained  in  some  cases  in 
later  times  also.  (See  ^  167.)  Lastly,  we  have  to  mention  that  the  vulgar 
pronunciation  of  au  was  6 ;  e.  g.,  Claudius  was  pronounced  as  Clodius, 
plaustrum  as  plostruniy  and  plaudo  as  plodo ;  but  in  some  words  this  prcnun-  ' 
ciation,  which  in  general  was  considered  faulty,  became  established  by 
custom,  as  in  phstellumy  a  little  carriage,  a  diminutive  form  of  vlatistrum. 
This  was  the  case  more  especially  when  the  common  mode  of^  pronoun- 
cing servSj  to  indicate  h  difference  in  meaning,  as  in  »o<u«,*wasned,  and 
lautusy  splendid  or  elegant ;  and  codexy  a  tablet  for  writing  (or  a  book),  snd 
caudexy  a  block  of  wood.  In  the  compounds  af  plaudo  the  form  plodo  thus 
hpcame  prevalent. 

[§  3.]  2.  The  conftonants  are,  .B,  h;   C,  c ;  D,  d ;  F, 

f;  Gy  g;  jFJ,  h;  (K,  k) ;  L,  I;  M,  m;  N,  n;  P,2>;    . 

Q,  q;  R,  r;  S,  s;   T,  t;  X,  x;  (Z,  zj.     With  regard 

♦  [Still  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  cite  the  following  :  Drakenb.  ad  Ziv , 
.Txxvi.,  I4,extr.;  Interpp.  ad  Vel  Pat.y  11,  69,  2:  11,  87,  init. ;  Oudfnd.ad 
Sueton,  Claud.y  42.]— .Am.  Ed. 

f  [The  whole  subject  is  fully  discussed  by  Schneider,  Element.,  p.  18, 
9eqq,\ — Am.  Ed. 

X  [The  employment  of  o  in  early  Latin,  where  at  a  later  day  u  was  usei 
u>pear8  to  have  been  much  more  common  than  is  8tated>in  the  text.  We 
tod;  fbr  example,  such  forms  as  consolf  primosy  captomy  exfocionty  &c.,  fo» 
amstUy  primusy  captuniy  effugiunty  &c.  The  employment;  on  the  other  hand, 
of  ti  for  o  is  mucn  more  rare.  Priscian  cites  huminemy  ftrntes,  knA/rvtn^€i, 
Cassiodorus  (p.  2'^^d)  has pr^stu.l—Am  la 


4  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

to  their  clasaification,  it  is  only  necessary  here  to  ooser\*« 

that  /,  m,  n,  r  are  called  liquids  (liquida),  and  the  rest 

mutes  (mut<B)^  with  the  exception  of  #,  which,  being  a 

sibilant  (littera  sibUansJ^  is  of  a  peculiar  nature.     The 

mutes  may  again  be  classified,  wifli  reference  tt  i  the  or 

gan  by  which  they  are  pronounced,  into  labials  (v^  h,p,fj^ 

palatals  (g^  c,  ky  qu),  and  Unguals  fd^  t).    X  and  z  (called 

zeta)  are  double  consonants,  x  being  a  combination  of  c 

and  s,  and  zofd  and  s. 

Note. — It  will  be  observed  that  there  are  some  letters  in  oar  own  alpha 
bet  which  do  not  occur  in  this  list :  j  and  v  were  expressed  by  the  Latins 
by  the  same  signs  as  the  vowels  t  and u,  vii.,  /and  V;  but  in  proaunci- 
ation  they  were  distinguished ;  wh^ice  we  hear  of  an  t  or  v  coTuonans , 
and,  like  ordinary  consonants,  they  make  position'  when  preceded  bv 
another  consonant,  and  do  not  form  an  hiatus  when  preceded  by  a  vowef. 
It  is  only  in  consequence  of  poetical  licenses  which  are  rendered  neces- 
sary by  the  metre  (which,  however,  at  the  same  time,  show  the  kindred 
nature  existing  between  the  sounds  of  the  vowel  and  consonant),  that  the 
V  is  at  one  ti;ne  softened  down  into  u;  as,  for  example,  when  the  words 
solvit  and  silva  are  made  to  form  three  syllables,  (comp.  ^'  184) ;  and  at 
others,  the  vowels  i  and  u  are  hardened  into  the  consonants  9'  and  v,  which 
is  very  often  the  case  with  t ;  by  this  means  the  preceding  short  syllable  is 
lengthened,  as  in  the  words  abiesy  aries^  consiliumtftuviusf  tenuis^  and  some 
others.  Virgil,  for  example,  uses  ^uv/orum  rex  "Eridanus;  Ovid,  at  the 
close  of  an  hexameter  verbe,  ctutos  erat  arjet'u  aurei,  for  arietis ;  LucreiiuM, 
copia  tenvis  and  ne<iue  tenvius  extat^  for  tenuis^  tenuius.    In  cases  whete  the 

E receding  syllable  is  already  long,  the  poet  may  at  least  get  rid  of  a  sylla- 
le  which  does  not  suit  the  verse,  as  in  Juvenal,  cotnitata  est  Hivpia  Ludjnm 
and  nuper  consule  Junjo  ;  and  (iv.,  37)  ^unijam  aemjanimum  laceraret  Pla- 
vhu  orbem.  We  may  therefore,  in  writing  Latin,  make  use  of  the  signs 
;  and  v.  which  are  employed  in  modem  languages,  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
tinguishing the  pronunciation  before  a  vowel  at  the  beginning  of  a  sylla- 
ble, and  we  need  not  retain  the  defective  mode  of  writing  of  the  Romans, 
since  they  viewed  these  letters  just  as  we  do,  and  would  willingly  have 
adopted  so  convenient  a  means  of  distinction  if  they  had  known  it,  or  if 
their  better  kfiowledge  had  not  been  obliged  to  give  way  to  h&bit.  But 
this  rule  cannot  be  applied  to  Greek  words^  since  i  and  v  with  the  Greeks 
baa  only  the  nature  of  vowels.  We  therefore  read  locaau^  iambtu,  lones^ 
Laitu,  Agaue,  euoef  and  the  i  at  the  beginning  of  these  words  is  treated 
as  a  vowel  in  their  connexion  with  prepositions,  as  in  oft  Zona,  ae  Ionia. 
Some  Greek  proper  names,  however,  are  justly  written  and  pronounced 
in  Latin  with  &j,  as  Grajusy  Ajax,  Maja,  Troja,  Adtaja.* 

[^  4.]  H  is  only  an  aspiration ;  it  is  not  considered  as  a  vowel,  and 
therefore,  when  joined  witn  a  consonant,  it  does  not  lengthen  the  preceding 
syllable.  The  ancients  themselves  (see  Quintil.,  i,  5,  $  21)  were  in  doubt, 
with  regard  to  several  words,  as  to  which  was  the  more  correct,  to  pro- 
nounce it  or  not ;  ibr  example,  as  t>    Mrhether  they  should  pronounce  have 

*■  [This  is  not  correct.  All  the^se  forms  should  be  written  with  an  1. 
If  the  author  mean  to  give  the  j  its  German  sound,  which  is  that  of  our  y 
before  a  vowel,  this  may  do  well  enough  to  express  the  pronunciation  of 
the  words  in  question,  but  certainly  not  their  orthography.  Key  thinkt 
tiiat  the  Englisn  sound  of  the  j  was  not  unknown  to  the  anciert  irihab« 
itants  of  Italy.  This,  however,  is  very  doubtful ;  and  if  knowr  at  all,  it 
must  have  been  a  mere  provincialism,  and  uot  aidcpted  by  the  educfttini 
riaascs.l — Am  Ed 


VOWELS  AND  CONSONANTS.  9 

Mr  avef  ftedera  or  ederOf  hturundo  or  arundOf  halucinor  or  edvcinor^  henu  or  *  «• 

»  pf Ae7n«n«  or  veemens  {vemens)^  ahenum  or  a^num,  mihi  or  »ni,  preheifdo  and 

deprehendoy  or  prendo  and  deprendOf  and  several  other  woras,  in*  which, 
however,  the  orthography  now  adopted  is  the  more  correct  of  the  two. 

The  letter  G  arose  out  of  C,  for  in  the  early  times  the  soands  of  *  (cl 
&r.d  g  were  not  distinguished  in  writing,  on  account  of  their  similarity :  and 

'  although  the  Romans  wj-o.te,  for  example,  ledones^  yet  they  pronounced 

legiones.  The.  fact  of  the  praenomina  Gains  and  Gnaeus,  when  indicated 
only  by  the  initials,  being  treciuently  written  C.  and  Cn.,  is  a  remnant  of 
the  old  orthography  ;  and  it  is  expressly  attested  by  ancient  grammarians 
(see,  e.  g.,  Quintil.,  i.,  7,  ^  28),  as  well  as  by  the  Greek  mode  of  writing 

I  those  names  (Tuiog  Vvatoc)i  tjiat  they  were  never  pronounced  otherwise 

than  Gains  and  GnaeuSf  which  was  at  the  same  time  the  invariable  mode 
of  writing  them  when  they  were  given  at  full  length.  Even  when  the 
initials  only  are  given,  we  meet  with  G.  and  Chi.  just  as  often  as  with  C. 
and  Cn.* 

^  [^  5.1  K  became  a  superfluous  letter  in  Latin,  as  its  place  was  supplied 

jy  c  In  early  times  it  was  chiefly  used  in  words  beginning  with  ca^  such 
ts  kaputf  kalumnioy  Karthago  ;  but  this  is  now  done,  according  to  the  ex 
ample  of  the  ancients,  in  abbreviations  only,  such  as  K.  for  KaesOf  K.  or 
Kal.  for  KalendoiA 

Q  is,  in  reality,  likewise  a  superfluous  letter,  not  differing  in  value  from 
e ;  but  it  has  been  more  fortunate  than  k  in  maintaining  its  place,  at  least ' 
in  those  cases  where  the  sound  of  c  is  followed  by  u,  and  the  latter  by 
another  vowel,  as  in  quamfjpiemj  qui,  qvOf  antiquus..    The  first  of  these 
words  is  to  be  pronounced  cuam,  as  a  monosyllable ;  and  it  remains  doubt 
ful  as  to  whether  the  u  is  still  a  vowel,  or  assumes  the  nature  of  a  con 
sonant  cvam.    There  are  some  few  words  in  which  the  pronunciation  and 
orthography  hesitate  between  qu  and  c;  e.  g.,  in  coquus  and  eqmdeua:  in 
some  others  c  is  known  to  be  the  correct,  pronunciation,  from  the  testi 
mony  of  the  ancients  themselves,  although  we  still  write  qu^  partly  foi 
the  sake  of  distinction,  and  partly  for  etymolpgical  reasons.!    Thus  we 

♦  [The  person  vyho  first  brought  in  the  G  was  Sp.  Carvilius,  a  freed-man 
and  namesake  of  the  celebrated  Sp.  Carvilius  Ruga,  who,  in  A.U.C.  523 
(B.C.  231),  furnished  the  nrst  example  of  a  divorce.  From  the  position  in 
the  alphabet  assigned  to  this  new  character,  namely,  the  seventh  place, 
corresponding  to  that  of  the  Greek  z,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the 
Roman  C  still  retained  the  hard  g  sound,  while  the  new  character  repie- 
sented  the  soft  sibilant  pronunciation  of  the  English  i'  and  the  Greek  z, 
which  is  also  expressed  by  the  modem  Italian  ^t.  {Key^  Alphab.,  p.  63 ; 
Donaldson f  VarroniantiSf  p.  197.)1 — -A^-  -Ed. 

t  [Although  the  letter  K  is  iiow  superfluous,  it  was  iK>t  so  when  the 
characters  of  an  alphabet  were  syllaoic  in  power.  Thus  the  letter  k 
appears  to  have*  denoted  at  one  time  the  syllable  /ra,  while  anothei 
cnaracter  represented  /co,  and  so  on.  Hence,  m  the  Greek  and  Hebrew 
alphabets,  the  former  was  called  kappa,  kaph ;  the  latter,  koppa,  koph. 
Tins  accounts  for  the  fact  that  in  Latm  the  letter  k  was  never  Jised  ex 
cept  before  the  vowel  a,  precisely  as  ^  is  found  only  before  «,  and  the 
Greek  koppa  only  before  o.  Even  our  own  alphabet  seems  to  implv  such 
a  limit  in  the  use  of  this  consonant,  when  it  gives  it  the  name  of  «a,  jK>t 
ke ;  though  the  latter  name  would  better  agree  with  6e,  ce,  de,  &c.  {Key, 
Alphab.,  p.  72.)]— Am.  Ed. 

t  [The  letter  Q,  like  K,  furnishes  evidence  that  the  alphabetical  charac 
ters  were  originally  of  syllabic  power.  Thus,  the  Hebrew  koph,  and  the 
Greek  koppa,  as  already  remarked  in  a  previous  note,  appear  to  have  beet 
used  only  in  th^se  words  where  the  sound  of  o  follows.  Indeed,  the  name 
of  the  letter  implies  as  much.  Hence,  Cos,  Corinthus,  Syracosii.  The 
Greek  alphabet  prolwiblv  stopped  at  one  period,  like  the  Hebrew,  at  t,  sc 
r        w  to  have  no  u.    On  the  other  hand,  the  Etrurian  alphahiH  had  a  «,  bul 

A  2     • 


6  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

cnsi^higiiish  the  conjunction  qwan  from  the  preposition  ctwi;  aiMl  vrritc 
^itc^idie  and  qxiotannis  on  account  of  their  formation  from  quot^  and  $eqituiwi 
ft»d  lo<piiUi:s  on  account  of  their  derivation  from  seouor  and  lotjuor^  althoagb 
It  is  quite  certain  that  ail  the  Romans  pronounceci,  and  most  of  them  also 
wrote,  cvnif  cciidie  {cottidie  only  to  indicate  the  shortness  of  the  vowel), 
gecutus,  locutu^.    The  last  two  must  absolutely  be  spelled  secutus  and 
locutus  (see  Schneider,  ElementarUhre,  p.  332) ;  and  with  regard  to  the 
others,  too,  it  ia  but  just  that  vve  should  follow  the  instructions  of  iLi* 
ancients.    The  reader  will  findjn  this  work  the  conjunction  spelled  ouum 
hut  he  ought  to  remember  that  it  is  done  only  for  the  purpose  of  aistin 
guishing  it,  to  the  eye,  from  the  preposition,  and  that  it  ought  to  be  pro 
nor.nced  as  cum.*  „ 

Z  occurs  only  in  words  borrowed  from  the  Greek,  e.  g.j^oza,  irapeza  > 
and  w  can  be  used  only  when  modern  words  are  introduced  into  the  Latin 
language  without  undergoing  any  change  in  their  orthography. 

[§  6.]  3.  Respecting  the  pronunciation  of  the  conso- 
nants, it  must  be  observed  that  the  rule'  with  the  Latins 
was  to  pronounce  them  just  as  they  were  written.  Every 
modem  nation  has  its  own  peculiar  way  of  pronouncing 
them;  and  among  the  many  corruptions  of  the  genuine 
pronunciation,  there  are  two  which  have  become  firmly 
rooted  in  licarly  all  Europe,  and  which  it  is,  perhaps,  im- 
possible to  banish  from  the  language.  We  pronounce  c, 
when  followed  by  e,  i,  y,  ae,  or  <?c,  both  in  Latin  and  Greek 
words,  like  our  *,  and  when  followed  by  other  vowels  or 
by  consonants,  like  a  k.  The  Romans,  on  the  other  hand; 
as  far  as  we  can  ascertain,  always  pronounced  c  like  k  ; 
and  the  Greeks,  in  their  intercourse  with  the  Romans,  did 
not  hear  any  other  pronunciation.  The  earliest  instance 
in  which  c  was  pronounced  in  this  oi*  a  similar  manner 
seems  to  have  beien  when  it  was  followed  by  %  with 
another  vowel  after  it,  for  the  tei*minations  titis  Bxiditia 
are  so  frequently  used  for  cius  and  cia,  that  we  must  infer 
that  they  were  similarly  sounded.  But  even  this  similarity 
seems  to  have  been  foreign  to  the  old  and  correct  pro- 
nunciation.    We  pronounce  ti  before  a  vowel  like  shi^ 

but  likewise  without  any  reason.t     But  it  is  easy  to  dir^- 

-  ' 

no  0.    Hence,  in  Italy,  the  ^,  which,  by  position  in  the  alphabet,  cor 
responds  to  the  Greek  kpppa,  was  limited  to  words  where  u  followed. 
Although  q  is  generally  followed  by  a  second  vowel  after  its  t*,  the  older 
practice  otthe  Romans  did  not'so  limit  its  use.    Thus,  Pequnia^  peqt^s^ 
qum,  equKy  are  met  with,    {Key^  Alphab.j  p.  89.)] — Am.  Ed. 

*  Lipsius,  in  his  ^ialogus  de  recta  Pronuntiatione  UngiuB  Latina,  ex.- 

resses  himself  upon  the  pronunciation  of  c  in  this  remarkable  manner: 

*  Pudet  non  tarn  erroris  quam  pertinaciae,  quia  corripi  patiuntur  at  nor 

corrigi.  et  tenent  omnes  qiiod  defendat  nemo.    Itali,  Hispani,  Germani 

Galli,  Britanni  in  hoc  peccato :  a  qua  gente  initiiim  einemlj^ndi  ?    Audeai 

enira  una  aliqua  et  omnes  audient." 

t  [Scheller  thinks  that  such  corniptions  as  c  with  an  a  sound,  and 
founded  like  sk  or  5.  arose  from  the  Prankish  dialqct  of  the  Teutonic  hia 


irOWELS   AND  .  CONSONANTS.  / 

cover  the  transit! dh  from  the  pure  pronunciation  to  tho* 
which  is  now  customary,  for  the  ti  in  all  these  cases  ia 
ihort,  and  in  quick  speaking  it  easily  changes  into  shi. 
For  this  reason,  it  would  be  quite  wrong  to  pronounce  tlie 
long  ti  in  the  genitive  totius  in  the  same  manner,  since 
there  caa  be  no  excuse  for  it.  But  there  are  some  cases 
in  which  even  the  short  ti^  according  to  the  common  pro- 
nunciation, is  not  read  like  shi :  1.  In  Greek  words,  such 
as  MiltiadeSy  Basotia,  JEgyptitis ;  2.  When  the  t  is  pre- 
ceded by  another  t,  by  *  or  x,  e.  g.,  Bruttiiy  ostiuniy  tnixtioy 
and,  3^  When  it  is  followed  by  the  termination  of  the  in- 
finitive passive  cr,  as  in  nitier,  quatier, 

Ndte. — Li  many  words  it  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  they  ought  to 
be  spelled  with  ci  or  ii.  The  question  must  be  decided  partly  by  a  correct 
etymology,  partly  by  the  orthography  adopted  by  the  Greeks,  and  partly 
by  ancient  and  authentic  inscripti(His ;  for  nearly  all  our  MS6.  were  made 
*at  a  time  when  ci  was  pronounced  in  the  wron^  way,  and  was  accord- 
ingly confounded  with  ti.  Thus,  it  appears  that  m  the  derivative  adjec- 
tives formed  from  liouns  and  participles  we  must, write  iciuSf  and  not  iiius 
e.  g.,  gentiliciuSf  adiliciusy  noviciuSf  commendaticiust  as,  indeed,  we  always 
write  patriciuSf  and  the  proper  names  Fabricius  and  Mauricius.  We  now 
commonly  write  conditio^  though  it  is  better  to  write  condicio  and  dicio.  In 
nuntiuSf  and  all  its  derivatives^  on  the  other  hand,  the  ii  is  correct ;  and 
also  in  otium^  infitior  (from  fateor),  and  fetialis  (Greek  ^7jTiu?i£ig).  In  In 
Fcriptions  and  ancient  MSS.  we  find  only  contiOf  and  not  concio. 

[§  7.1  M  at  the  end  of  a  word  (where  it  is  always  pre- 
ceded by  a  vowel)  was  pronounced  by  the  ancients  more 
indistinctly  than  at  the  beginning  of  a  word ;  perhaps  in 
the  &9xne  manner  as  in  the  French  le  nom,  where  the  m  is 
heard  /nuch  more  indistinctly  than  in  le  midi.  When  the 
word  foUowing  began  with  a  vowel,  the  final  m  of  the 
preceding  word  was  not  sou^tded  at  all,  according  to  the 
testimony  of  the  ancient  grammarians,  or»it  formed  only 
a  gentle  transition  fix)m  the  one  vowel  to  the  other.* 

<S,  like  the  Greek  <t,  was  pronounced  more  sharply  than 
with  us ;  ac^cumstance  which  accounts  for  some  irregu- 
larities m  the  «arly  orthography,  such  as  the  doubling  of 
the  s  in  caussa^  as  Cicero  wrote  according  to  an  express 
, ^ . 

guage,  in  which  thw  hissing  sound  of  the  consonants  predominated.-  (Gr. 
Lat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  14,  Walker's  transL)] — Am.  Ed. 

♦  [The  omission  of  M  at  the  end  of  words  does  not  seem  to  have  bees 
confined  merely  to  Uiose  cases  where  the  next  word  began  with  a  vowel 
Thus,  it  was  the  rule  to  omit,  ifi  the  present  tense  of  active  verbs,  the  im. 
portant  M,  which  characterizes  the  first  person  in  many  of  the  other 
tenses.  In  fact,  the  only  verbs  which  retain  it  in  the  present  tense  are 
ru-m,  and  inqua-nif  and  it  is  mentioned  as  a  custom  of  Cato  the  Censor, 
that  he  usea  also  to  elide  the  M  at  the  term  nation  of  the  future£  of  verhf 
U»  -o,  ind  ■••.     * Dwuddsont  K«rroniawi/»,  p.  I9>.)J — ^^  ^'^ 


S  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

testimony,  though  it  was  disapproved  of  as  useless  by  thfl 

^tncient  grammarians. 

In  the   ancient  pronunciation  there   must  liave  been 

a  peculiar  resemblance  between  the  letters  s  and  r 

since  it  ift  mentioned  by  Varro  (de  Ling.  LaL,  vii.,  6)  and 

others,  that  formerly,  that  is,  before  the  Latin  language 

had  assumed  a  fixed  form  through  its  literature,  s  was 

pronounced  in  many  words,  for  which  afterward  r  was 

substituted,  as  in  Papisius,  Valesius,  lases,  eso,  arhosem, 

tndioB,     Some  forms  of  this  kind,  such  ^ahonos,  lepas,  and 

arhos,  were  used  down  to  a  very  late  time,  and  occui 

even  in  the  language  of  the  classical  writers. 

Note. — This  affinity  between  the  t^o  sounds  accounts  for  Tariouji 
phenomena  in  the  accidence  of  the  Latin  language  (see  Schneider,  MU- 
mentarlehre,  p.  342.,  foil.);  but  We  do  not  by  any  means  believe  that  the  r 
in  the  abovemientioned  words,  and  still  less  in  all  cases  where  it  occurs 
between  two  vowels,  is  of  later  origin,  or  that  it  arose  out  of  the  «,  and 
that  the  latter  was  the  original  sound.  The  r  after  a  vowel  is  just  as  an- 
cient fmd  original  in  the  Latin  language  as  the  r  after  a  consonant ;  and 
wherever  the  s  is  not  a  mere  dialectic  peculiarity,  as  in  arbosem,  pignoaoy 
robose,  and  majosibus^  it  has  taken  the  place  of  r  for  definite  reasons  ob- 
served in  the  formatidn  of  words.  For  example :  we  do  not  think  that 
mosia,  mosi,  and  mosem  were  the  earlier  and  more  genuine  forms  for  moris^ 
mori,  morem;  or  that  the  nominative  91105  contains  the  original  form ;  and 
that,  in  the  other  cases,  the  s  was  afterward  supplanted  by  r  (as  has  been 
most  confidently  stated  by  KrOger  in  his  Grtunmatik  der  Lot,  Spraehe,  p 
190,  folL) ;  but  we  assert  that  mor  is  the  true  root,  and  that  monv,  nMm. 
and  moamiy  if  they  were  used  at  all,  arose  merely  from  a  difference  in  pro- 
nunciation. The  nominative  assumed  the  form  m69  instead  of  m^,  be- 
cause 8  was  a  kindred  sound  to  r,  and  because  ia  other  cases,  too, « is  the 
sign  of  the  nominative.* 

[§  8.]  4.  The  meeting  of  two  vowels,  one  of  whicli 
forms  the  ending  and  the  other  the  beginning  of  a  word, 
causes  an  hiatus  or  yawning.  It  is  impossible  to  avoid  it 
in  the  various  "combinations  of  words,  though  it  is  never 
considered  an  elegance.  In  verse  it  is  removed  by  the 
former  of  the  vowels,  whether  it  be  short  or  long,  being 
passed  over  in  reading  or  speaking  {disio.J,  When,  thero- 

*  [It  is  rather  surprising  that  the  jurist  Pomponius  (Digg.,  i.,2, 2,  ^  36) 
should  have  attributed  to  Appius  Clauddus  Csecus,  (c^stu  I.«  A.U.C.  44>, 
B.C.  307 ;  consul  II.,  A.U.C.  458,  B.C.  296)  the  invention  of  the  R,  a  let- 
ter  which  is  the  initial  of  the  names  Roma  and  Rcmulus,  He  can  only 
.  mean  that  Appius  was  the  first  to  inti^uce  the  practice  of  substituting 
R  for  S  in  proper  names,  a  change  which  he  might  have  made  in  his  cen 
sorship.  It  is  probable  that  Appius  Clau(^us  used  his  censorial  authority 
to  sanction  a  practice  which  haa  alread^r  come  into  vogue,  and  which  was 
Ultimately  connected  with  the  peculiarities  of  the  Roman  articulation.  In 
fact,  the  Romans  were  to  the  last  rejnarkable  for  the^same  tendency  to 
rhotacism  which  ij  characteristic  of  the  Umbrian,  Dorian,  and  Old  Norse 
dialects.  {Donaldson^  Varronfflnuj,  p.  205.— Compare  Schneider,  Elemtni* 
tol.  i ,  p.  341  )1— ilm.  Ed 


VOWELS  AND   CONSONANTS.  ¥ 

fore,  we  find,  e.  g.,  sapere  aude^  ox.mota  anus  wnd^  we  prc> 
nounce  saper'  aude  and  mot^  anus  uma.  (Comp.  Hein- 
dorf  on  Horace,  Serm.^  i.,  9,  30.)  How  far  anythmg  simi 
lar  wad  done  in  ordinary  language  (in  prose)  cannot  be 
said  with  certainty,  although  it  is  not  improbable  that  ai 
least  short  vowels,  when  followed  by  another  vowel,  were 
likewise  passed  over  in  quick  spes^ng,  and  that  peoph* 
pronounced,  for  instance,  narnqu*  erit  temjpus^  atqu*  egi* 
quum  viderem.  The  aspirate  h  does  not  remove  t]ip 
hiatus,  nor  does  it  therefore  prevent  the  elision  of  the  first 
vowel  in  verse,  so  that  we  pronounce  toller^  humo,  when 
we  find  it  written  tollere  %umo.  As  the  m  at  the  end  of  a 
word  was  not  audibly  uttered  when  the  next  word  began 
with  a  vowel,  the  vowel  preceding  the  m  is  likewise  passed 
over  in  reading  verse,  although  the  word  is  written  at  fiill 
length.  The  hexameter  line,  multum  tile  et  terris  jactatus 
et  cUtOf  is  therefore  read  rntdt'*  UV  et  terris^  &c.  In  the  com- 
pounds veneo  for  venum  c<?,  and  animadverto  foi  animum 
advertOt  this  elision  is  made  also  in  writing.  The  earlier 
poets  threw  out  the  s  in  the  terminations  us  and  %s  when 
they  were  followed  by  consonants.  Lucilius,  e.  g.,  says, 
Thim  laterali*  dolor  certissimu*  nuntiu*  morUs ;  and  even 
Cicero,  in  bis  youthfiil  attempts  at  poetry,  sometimes  did 
the  same,  as  in  de  terra  lapsu\  repente,  magnu*  leo,  and 
torm*  draco  ;  but,  in  the  refined  poetical  language  of  the 
Augustan  age,  this  elision  was  no  longer  customary.* 

[^  9.]  Note  1. — When  the  vowel  thrown  out  by  the  elision  is  preceded 
by  another  one,  the  latter  does  not  produce  a  disagreeable  hiatus,  as  in 
Capitolia  ad  alta^  which  is  read  in  verse  CapkolC  ad  atta.  Nor  is  there  any 
hiatus,  and  consequently  no  elision,  when  a  long  vowel  at  the  end  of  a 
wordis  shortened,  viz.,  in  the  case  of  monosyllabic  words  in  the  middle  of 
the  thesis  of  dactylic  verses,  and  in  the  dissolved  arsis  of  iambic  and  tro- 
chaic feet,  and  in  the  case  of  polysyllabic  words  at  the  end  of  the  thesis 
oC  dactylic  verses. f  (See,  for  example,  Horace,  iSerm.,  i.,  9,  38:  Si  mi 
mmas,  inmdtf  paulum  hie  odes,  pvid,  Metam.,  iii.,  501 :  dictoque  vale  vo/l 
hwuit  etjScho.  Virgil,  u£n.,  iii.,  211 :  insulae  Ionia  in  magnOf  and  man| 
otner  passages. 

(^  10.]  NoU  2.-^It  was  remarked  above  that  the  hiatus  is  not  removed  in 
writing;  and  that,  of  the  two  vowels  which  produc^it,the  former  is  thrown 
out  in  reciting  a  verse.  B:»t  an  exception  to  this  rule  occurs  when  a  woni 
tCTininating  in  a  vowel  or  an  m  is  followed  by  the  word  est ;  for  in  this 

*  [The  whole  doctrine  of  Hiatus  will  be  found  very  fully  and  ably  dis 
cussed  by  Schneider,  Element.,  vol.  i.,  p.  113-169.]— -Am.  Ed, 

t  [It  would  be  much*  more  correct  to  say  that,  in  all  such  casev 
an  eusion  is  only  appareruly  neglected,  the  long  vowel  actually  parting  by 
mbans  of  elision  v^tn  one  of  its  component  short  vowels.  And  wheneve  * 
the  residuary  short  vowel  is  in  the  arns  of  the  foot,  it  is  lengthened  again 
by  the  stress  of  the  voice.  Consult  Anthonys  Latin  Prosody^  ed.  1842,  p 
MO.l— ilm  Ed 


iO  LATIN    URAMMAK. 

case  we  find,  at  least  in  the  critical  editions  of  Plautus  and  Terence,  thai 
the  first  word  is  preserved  cntife,  and  that  est  loses  its  vowel  The  texts, 
therefore,  are  written  and  pronounced  tAnulenta  'si  mulier^  homit  ^st^  molesturn 
*st.  The  same  thing  has  been  found  here  and  there  in  very  anciCLt  MSS. 
containing  fragnieats  of  Cicero's  works,  e.  g.,  una  notio  ^st,  difficile  'st,  and 
in  the  oration  for  Milo :  quae  ilia  barharia  ^st.  (See  Nicbuhr's  note  on  the 
fragment  pro  Fonieio,  p.  60.)*  In  like  manner,  we  find  est  joined  with  a 
preceding  word  terminating  in  u«,  e.  g.,  ojnut  and  dictust ;  but  in  this  cast 
It  remains  doubtful  as  to  whether  the  s  oiopus  is  thrown  out,  or  whethei 
est  has  lost  its  first  two  letters.  Something  similar,  though  more  rarely: 
occurs  in  the  termination  f«,  e.  g.,  (piaii  *st.  Whether  the  second  person  et 
was  likewise  joined  with  a  precedmg  word  terminatii  ^  in  us  is  uncertaiii 


(§ee  Schneider,  Elementarlehrey  p.  162,  foil.) 
[^  11.1  Note  3.--The  hiatus  which  occurs 
removed,  and  for  this  reason  we  did  not  notice  it  above.    It  should,  how- 


[^  11.)  Note  3. — The  hiatus  wnich  occurs  within  a  word  is  generally  nol 


ever,  be  observed  that  two  vowels  of  the  same  sound  are  frequently  united 
(contracted)  into  one  long  vowel,  and  the  poets  always  make  dero  and 
desse  out  of  deero  and  deesse.  This  explains  the  forms  nil  for  nihil,  and 
deprendo  for  deprehendOf  which  arise  from  the  elision  of  the  aspirate.  The 
contraction  of  two  equal  or  unequal  vowels  in  the  perfect  ot  verbs,  aftei 
the  elision  of  the  v,  is  still  more  frequent ;  e.  g.,  audisti  for  attdivisti,  audiisti ; , 
deleram  for  deleveranif  nonmt  for  noverunt,  concerning  which  see  ^  160.  It 
also  not  unfrequently  happens  in  verse  that  two  different  vowels  arc 
united,  by  a  rapid  pronunciation,  into  a  diphthong ;  in  which,  however, 
both  vowels  are  audible.  This  is  called  by  a  grammatical  term  synaereais, 
and  occurs  when  the  two  vowels  of  the  words  dein,  deinde,  proin,  proinde, 
^ic  and  cui,  are  united  into  diphthongs  which  are  otherwise  foreign  to  the 
Latin  language.  In  this  way  alone  it  is  possible  to  make  use  of  the  word 
fortHUus  m  the  dactylic  hexameter ;  and  it  is  for  the  same  purpose  that  in 
nouns  terminating  in  eus,  when  this  ending  is  preceded  by  a  long  syllable, 
we  most  contract  into  a  diphthong  not  ofily  the  «  in  the  genitive  singular, 
and  els  in  the  ablative  plural,  but  also  ed  and  ed;  for  exantple,  alyeit  owm. 
Nereis  atareis  (also  anteis,  from  the  verb  anteeo),  Eurystheot  certa,  just  as  a 
synaeresis  sometimes  occurs  in  the  Greek  words  ^eof ,  NcoTrroAc/iOf,  and 
fa.  Some  harsher  kinds  of  synaeresis,  such  as  quid,  via,  vutis,  and  quoad, 
\xe  found  in  the  comic  poets  and  in  Lucretius.         • 

[§  12.]  5.  There  is  no  necessity  for  giving  any  special 
riles  about  the  ortJiography  in  Latin,  since  there  is  abso- 
lutely nothing  arbitrary  in  the  spelling  of  words  that  re- 
quires to  be  learned ;  but  there  aire  a  great  many  separ- 
ate words  of  which  neither  the  pronunciation  nor  the 
spelling  is  established,  and  with  regard  to  which  the  ap- 
cients  themselves  were  uncertain  even  in  therbeijt  times 
of  their  literature,  as  we  see  from  the  monuments  still  ex- 
tant. We  shall  here  notice  a  few  things  which  have  not 
been  mentioned  in  our  previous  observations.  We  spelj 
and  pronounce  anvltLs,  aticus,  patdum,  belita,  litus  better 
with  one  consonant  than  with  two ;  whereas  immo,  num- 

■   ■  t — a . 

♦  [This  species  of  elision,  as  Niebuhr  remarks,  was  previously  supposed 
to  be  pecuUar  to  the  comic  writers  oftly.  The  same,  writer  observes  that 
he  has  found  no  mention  made  of  it  in  the  ancient  grammariaift,  even  after 
diligent  search,  save  perhaps  in  a  mutilated  passage  of  Yelius.  Longus 
p.  2238.  Niebuhr  also  cites  a  somewhat  similar  usage  in  the  modem  Tus 
can  of  Florence;  as,  for  example,  lo*mpfradore.  In  'w«/m.1 — Am   EiL 


% 


VOVVB'-d    AND   CONSONANTS.  II 

inus*.  soUeninisy  solifirs,  sollicitus,  Juppiter,  and  qu^Uuof 
are  more  correctly  spelled  with  two  consonants  than  one. 
It  is  not  certain  whether  we  ought  to  write  litera  or  lit 
tera,  though  in  most  MSS.  the  t  is  doubled.  The  author- 
ity of  the  ancient  grammarians  and  the  best  MSS.  teach 
us  to  spell  the  singular  mille  with  a  double,  and  the  plu- 
ral mUia  with  a  single  /.  The  forihs  wara*  and  navus  are 
not  custbmary  now,  though  they  appear  to  be  better  than 
gnarus  and  gnavtts,*  Arttca  (narrow)  is  certainly  better 
^  established  than  arctus ;  auctor  and  auctumntis,  on  the 

other  hand,  are  justiy  preferred  to  autor  and  autumnus.^ 
<  The  insertion  of  a  jp  between  m  and  t,  e.  g.,  in  empttis, 

\  stempsi,  rather  facilitates  the  pronunciation  than  other- 

^  wise ;  and  the  verb  temptare  is  decidedly  preferable  to 

the  form  tentare^  which  is  nowKJommonly  used,  the  former 
>  being  found  in  the  best  MSS.     The  forms  conjunx,  quo- 

tiens^  and  totien^  are  demanded  by  most  of  the  ancien 
^  grammarians,  and  are  found  in  good  MSS.,  instead  of 

conjux,  qtioties,  and  toties.  The  words  caecus,  maereo,  are 
more  correctly  spelled  with  the  diphthong  ae  than  oe,  and 
saeculum,  saepire,  and  taeter  are  better  with  the  diphthong 
than  with  the  simple  vowel  e;  whereas  in  heres,  Jettcs, 
femina,  sjidjecundus,  and  therefore  probably  in  Jemis,Je 
*  noris  also  (which  are  of  the  same  root),  the  simple  vowel 
is  better  than  the  diphthong.  But  it  is  very  doubtful 
whether  we  ought  to  write  ^ceno^r  scaefuij  and  obscenus 
or  obscaenus^  or  obscoenus^  We  do  not  notice  any  other 
points  here,  because  the  orthography  now  commonly 
adopted  is  the  correct  one.  Compare  Cellarius,  Ortho' 
graphia  Latina,  ed,  Harles,  Altenburg,  1768,  8vo;  and 
Schneider,  Elementarlekre,  Berlin,  1819,  8vo. 

[§13.]  6.  The  Romans  had  no  other  point  than  the  full 
stop,  and  our  whole  artificial  system  of  punctuation  was 
unknown  to  them ;  but,  to  facilitate  the  understanding  of 
their  work8,^we  now  use  in  Latin  the  same  signs  which 
have  become  established  in  our  own  language.  The  pe- 
culiarities, however,  in  the  formation  of  Latin  sentences. 

♦  [The  foftmsgnarua  andgnotnM  are  the  original  ones,  and  were  softened 
down,  in  course  of  time,  to  narus  and  navus.  So  gncUus  is  older  than  naiuM, 
There  is  an  evident  connexion  between  gnatus  and  ylyvofiaif  and  a  proha* 
rfe  affinity  between  gnamu  and  levda,  or  yvdirra.'] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [Tnere  is  here  an  evident  inconsistency.  If  artua  be  better  than  arcf  iw, 
ysi  what  principle  can  autor  be  inferior  to  auctor?  Compare  Journal  ^ 
Kdwation^  vol.  i.,  p.  03.] — Am.  Ed. 


1^  LATIN   OBAMMAR. 

the  many  complications  of  their  part%  ai  id  tho  attractton 
i)f  the  I'elative  pronouns,  demand  great  c&ution  in  ap|^y 
ing  the  signs  of  punctuation,  in  order  that  we  may  not  by 
the  use  of  too  many  signs  separate  those  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence which  belong  to  one  another. 

7.  With  regard  to  the  use  of  capital  and  tmaZl  letters^ 
it  must  be  observed  Ihat  the  Romans,  generally  speak- 
ing, wrote  only  in  capital  letters  (lUterae  undales),  until  iu 
the  latest  period  of  antiquity  the  small  letters  came  into 
use,  which  are  now  always  employed  in  writing  Latin.* 
Capital  initi9.1s  are  at  present  used :  "(a)  at  the  beginning 
of  a  verse,  or  at  least  of  a  strophe ;  (b)  at  the  beginning  of 
a  new  sentence,  both  in  prose  and  in  verse,  afler  a  full 
stop,  and  after  a  colon  when  a  person's  own  words  are 
quoted ;  (c)  in  proper  names,  and  in  adjectives  and  ad 
verbs  which  are  derived  from  them,  e.  g.,  Latium,  sermo 
Latintcs,  Latine  loqui;  (d)  in  words  which  express  a  title 
or  ofEce,  such  as  Gcmsulf  Trihunus^  and  SenatuSy  but  not 

n  their  derivatives. 

8.  The  diaeresis  (puncta  diaereseos)  is  a  sign  to  facili- 
tate reading ;  it  is  put  upon  a  vowel  which  is  to  be  pro- 
nounced separately,  and  which  is  not  to  be  combined 
with  the  preceding  one  into  a  diphthong,  as  in  aer,  aeris, 
aerius,  poeta  ;  and  also  in  aurdiy  mtdi^  since  ai  is  (Mily  an 
ancient  form  for  ae.  In  cases  where  the  diphthong  would 
be  fi)reign  to  the  LatMl  language,  the  diaeresis  is  unne- 
cessary, as  tn  dieif  Persei,  bet^use  there  can  be  no  fear 
of  any  one  pronouncing  the  ei  as  a  diphthong ;  Jhrreus^  too, 
does  not  require  it,  since  in  a  Latin  word  no  one  will  re- 
gard ^  as  a  diphthong.  But  we  must  write  Ga^  and 
siliicBf  when  the  consonants  j  and  v  are  to  be  pronoimced 
as  vowels.  The  signs  to  indicate  the  length  or  shortness 
of  a  vowel  or  a  syllable  ("  and  ")  were  sometimes  used  by 
tlie  ancients  themselves. 

*  [The  cursive  character  arose  from  a  principle  of  rtpidity,  by  which 
the  letters  are  made  to  run  on.  in  continaous  succession.  Such  modes  of 
writing  were  no  doubt  common  in  very  early  times ;  and,  as  regards  thfl 
Romans,  we  are  not  left  to  mere  conjecture,  as  the  British  Museum  con 
tains  an  inscription  of  the  kind  on  papyrus,  which  is  referred  to  the  secon<i 
or  third  century.  The  statement  !n  tne  text  ^  herefore, requires  correctiov 
Keijf  Alphabet f  p.  36.)]— ilm.  Ed. 


CHAPTER  IT 

OF     SYLLABLES. 

[§  14.]  1.  A  VOWEL  or  a  diphthong  may  by  ilself  fom. 
a  syllable,  as  in  u-va,  me-o  ;  all  other  syllables  arise  firon 
a  combination  of  coiisonants  and  vowels.     The  Latin  lan- 
guage allows  only  two  consonants  to  stand  at  the  end  of 
a  syllable,  and'  three  only  in  those  cases  where  the  last  is 
*.     At  the  beginning  of  a  syllable,  also,  there  can  be  no 
more  than  two  consonants,  except  where  the  first  is  a  c, 
Vf  or  8f  followed  by  muta  cum  liquida;  and  at  the  beg^- 
ning  of  a  word  there  never  are  three  consonants,  except 
in  the  case  of  *c,  sp;  and  ^t  being  followed  by  an  r  or  ?  ; 
for  example,  do-ctrina,  Ba-ctra,  dorru-ptrix,  sce-ptrum,  ca- 
stray  magi-stri,  l-sihmus;  sprettLs,  strenuTiSy  scrihay  splendor 
2.  It  often  appears  doubtful  as  to  how  a  word  is  to  be 
divided  into  syllables,  and.  where  the  division  is  to  be 
made  at  the  6nd  of  a  line,  when  the  space  does  not  suf- 
fice.    The  following  rules,  however,  which  ar^  founded 
on  the  structure  of  the  language,  should  bq  observed. 
1.  A  consonant  which  stands  between  two  vowels  belongs 
to  the  latter,  as  in  ma'ter»    2.  Those  consonants,  which, 
in  Latin  or  Greek,  may  together  begin  a  word,  go  togeth- 
er in  the  division  of  syllables ;  e.  g.,  pa-trisy  and  not  pat- 
riSf  as  tr  occur  at  the  beginning  of  tres,*  *In  like  manner, 
li'bri  (brevis),  i-gnis  (gnomon),  o-mnisy  da-mnum  (fAvdofia^), 
a-cttis,  pun-ctum  (fCTTjfjia),  ra-ptus,  scri-ptus,  pro-pter  (Ptole- 
maeus)y  Ca-dmus  (djwSe^'),  re-gnum  (yvovg)y  va-fre  (fretus)y 
a-tMeta  (dXi6(»>),  i-pse,  scri-psi  (%pav(M>),  l/eshos  (adivwfu), 
e-sctty  po-sco  (scando)y'^  a-spery  ho-spes  (spes)y  pa-story  Jfau- 
stusy  i-ste  (stare).     The  cases  in  which  three  consonants 
begin  a  syllable  have  been  mentioned  above.     When- 
ever there  occurs  any  combination  of  consonants  which 
cannot  stand  at  the  beginning  of  words,  they  are  treated 
according  to.  the  analogy  of  the  rest.     All  combinations 
^otmuta  cum  liquida,  for  instance,  go  together,  as  most  of 
tbem  may  commence  a  word ;  and  we  must  therefore  di- 
vide ara-chne,  a-gmeny  fra-gw^entt'/my  Da-pJinCy  Pha-tnae, 
rhy-tkmuSy  smura-gdusy  ana  Lu-gdunumy  since  gd  is  to  be 

-  -  ;  — 

*  [This  mode  of  dividing  is  well  intended,  but  perhaps  too  methodical  it 
occasions  difficulty  to  learners,  an'i  has  little  use,  but  rather  betrays  soam 
4flrectation      {Scheller,  L.  G.,  vol.  i.,  31,  Walker's  trarisl)]— Am.  Ed 

B 


14  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

treated  like  cU  3.  In  compound  words,  the  division  must 
be  made  so  as  to  keep  the  parts  distinct,  as  inter-eram  (not 
inte-reram),  because  the  word  is  compounded  o^  inter  and 
eram.  So,  also,  ah-utor,  ah-radOf  ahs-condo^  abs-temius  (from 
temetum),  sus-cipio  (from  the  form  snhs),  dis-quiro,  et-iam, 
ob-latum;  and  red-eOy  red-undo ,  prod-eOf  and  sed-itio^  for 
the  dy  here  inserted  to  prevent  hiatus,  must  go  with  the 
preceding  vowel,  because,  if  added  to  the  second,  it  would 
obscure  the  elements  of  the  compound  word.  But  when 
the  component  parts  of  a  word  are  doubtful,  or  when  the 
first  word  has  drt>pped  its  termination  to  prevent  hiatus, 
the  syllables  are  divided  as  if  the  w;ord  were  not  a  com- 
pdund ;  e.  g.,  j^^'^^  (from  pote  or  potis  es),  ani-madverto, 
and  not  anim-advertOf  ve-neo  (from  venum  eo),  ma-gnani- 
mus,  am-hages,  and  lon-gaevics^ 


CHAPTER  III. 


OP  THE  LENGTH  AND  SHORTNESS  OP  SYLLABLES. 

[§  15.]  Syllables  are  long  or  short,  either  by  the  na- 
ture of  the  vowel  they  contain,  or  they  become  long  by 
their  short  vowel  being  followed  by  two  or  more  conso- 
nants, that  is,  by  their  position.  We  shall  first  speak  of 
the  natural  length  and  shortness  of  vowels. 

1.   All  Diphthongs  are  long,  and  also  all  those  single 

VQwels  which  have  arisen  from  the  contraction  of  two  into 

one,  such  as  cogo  (from  codgo),  mdlo  (from  mdvolo),  tihl 

cen  (from  tibiicen  and  tibia y  but  tubicen  from  tuba),  blgae 

(from  btjugae),  babus  and  bobu8(^voTCi  bovibus)^  and  so,  also, 

dls  for  diis,  gratis  for  gratiis,  and  nil  for  nihil. 

Note. — The  preposition  prae  is  commonly  made  short  when  compounded 
with  a  word  which  begins  with  a  vowel,  e.  g.,  Ovid,  Metanuy  vii.,  131 : 
^uM  ubi  viderunt  praeactUae  cuspidis  hastas.  Th6  reason  for  this  peculiarity 
is  explained  in  the  rule  following ;  but  there  is  no  other  instance  in  the 
Latin  language  of  a  diphthong  standing  before  a  vowel,  f  It  occurs  only 
in  Greek  proper  names,  in  which,  however,  the  diphthong  remains  long,  as 

Aeolides  Sisyphus,  and  Aeeta  relictus,{oT  the  examples  which  are  adduced  as 
gtoots  of  the  diphthong  being  shortened  (Ovid,  Heroid.i  vi.,  103,  and  Tristf 
ui.,  12,  2)  are  not  decisive.    • 

♦  [The  carrying  out  of  this  system  would  lead,  it  is  apprehended,  to 
■ome  ludicrous  results ;  as,  for  example,  in  such  cases  asfragmerUum, 
A'gmetL,  &c.     (Compare  Journal  of  Education^  vol.  i.,  ]).  94.)] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [The  syllable  pra  being  originally  prm  or  prae,  the  latter  of  the  two 
lowels  is  tacitly  elided.  Consult  Anthonys  I  xrin  Prosody,  ed.  1812»  p.  2S^ 
%ot.'\ — Am.  Ed 


t  lI:ngth  and  shortness  of  syllables.  H 

r  2i  A  Vowel  is  short  when  it  is  followed  by  another 

vowel  (Vocalis  ante  vocalem  brevis  est  J,  as  in  dettSfJilius, 
^ius,  ruOy  corruo  ;  and,  as  li  is  not  considered  as  a  conso- 
nant, also  in  such  woi'ds  as  traho,  contruho,  vekOf  and  ad- 
veko. 

[^  16.]  Note. — Exceptions.— 1.  The  vowel  e  in  eheu  is  always  long,  tho 

[  o  in  ohe  is  frequently  long,  and  the  i  in  Diana  sometimes.'^    2.  The  e  in 

the  termination  of  the  genitive  and  dative  of  the  fifth  declension  is  long 

^  when  it  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  as  in  dieiy  speciei.f    3.  a  is  long  in  the  ob 

solete  ending  of  the  genitive  in  the  first  declension,  as  in  awdi  and  pictdi^ 
for  aurae  una  pictae^  in  Virgil.J  4.  a  and  e  are  long  in  the  vocative  terinina 

'  tions  di  and  ei  of  the  words  ending  in  aius  and  eius;  e.  g.,  Gai,  Vultei 

(See  chap,  xi.,  note  3.)^    5.  All  the  genitives  in  mm,  except  alterhUf  have 

h  the  i  commonly  long ;  the  poets,  ho\vever,  use  the  t  in  illiusf  istiuSf  ipsiusy 

?  uniusj  totiusy  tUliusy  and  utrivsy  sometimes  as  a  long  and  sometimes  as  a 

short  vowel.    The  instances  of  the  t  in  soUus  being  shortened  cannot  be 

,  relied  upon ;  but  aSua,  being  a  contraction  for  alUusy  can  never  be  made 

short.  Alterius.  on  the  other  hand,  is  sometimes  made  long  (see  ^  49). || 
6.  The  verb^  nas  the  i  long,  except  when  an  r  occurs  in  it.    Ovid,  Trist.f 

''  L,  8, 7 :  Omnia  jam  fienty  fieri  quae,  posse  neg(U)am.%    7.  Greek  words  retain 

th^r  own  origmal  quantity,  and  we  therefore  say  aery  eos  (^(jf),  Amphion, 
Agesildwy  and  Meneldus.  The  e  and  t  in  the  terminations  ea  and  eusy  or  ia 
and  ius,  therefore,  are  long  when  they  represent  the  Greek  eia  and  eio^ 

•  

*  [The  interjection  eheti  is  thought  to*have  been  abbreviated  from  heu 
heu  by  the  transcribers.  The  first  abbreviation  would  be  heheuy  which  is 
common  in  the  MSS.,  and  hence,  in  process  of  time,  arose  eheu.   (Compare 

•  Wagner  ad  Virg.,  Eclog.,  ii.,  68.) — Ohe  follpws  its  primitive  O,  which, 

I  since  it  cannot  be  elided,  because  words  of  this  nature  require  a  strong 

emphasis,  is  made  either  long  or  short  when  it  falls  before  a  vowel. 
Diana  was  originally  Deiva  Jana,  the  lunar  goddess, 'contracted  subse* 
quently  into  Deiana,  and  at  last  becoming  Diana.    The  e  of  the  diphthong 

^  being  dropped  gave  rise  to  the  double  quantity  of  Diana,  since  it  could  be 

brought  under  the  general  principle^f  one  vowel  before  another.    {Ram- 

)  say^s  Latin  Prosody y^^.  25.     Voss,  de  Art.  Gram,y  ii.,  13.    VarrOjR.  R.y  i.,  37. 

CrrcBv.y  Thes.y  vol,  viii.,  p.*3ll.  Nigid. ap.  Macrob.,  Sat.  i.,  19.  Creuzery  Sym 
bolik,  par  Guigniauty  vol.  ii.,  pt.  L,  p.  433.J] — Am.  Ed. 

t  •        t  [This  peculiarity  arises  from  the  old  forms  of  declension,  ^ccordmg 

f  to  some,  the  nominative  of  the  fifth  declension  was  originally  dieisy  specieisy 

making  in  the  genitive  diei-is,  speciei-isy  which  case  afterward  dropped 
the  »,  and  became  dieii,  specieii,  and  eventually  dieiy  speciiiy  the  t  of  the  diph- 
thong being  dropped.  {Ramsayy  Lot.  Pros.y  p.  22.)  Others,  however, 
make  the  original  form  of  the  nominative  to  have  been  dieisy  specie-isy 
and  (he  genitive  to  have  dropped  its  characteristic  ending  in  *,  and  to 
have  terminated  like  the  old  locative  in  i^thus  making  rf/c-i,  specie-i^  &c 
{Boppy  Vergleich.  Gramm.y  p.  141,  ftqq.)] — *»«•  Ed. 

t  [The  old  form  of  the  genitive  singular  of  the  first  declension  was 
a  -{-  isyi.  e.yformdis,  aurdiSf  pictdia.  &c.,  which  was  afterward  abbreviated 

^  by  d "dipping  the  »,  as  formaiy  awdiy  pietdJi.     {Boppy  I.  c.    Allen's  Analysis ^ 

6iC.y  p.  xviii.)] — Am^  Ed.  * 

^  [The  original  forms  of  these  names  were*Cai/tM,  Pompeiiusy  &c.,  and 
hence  the  vocatives  Cdly  PompHy  &c.,  are  in  reality  Caii,  Pompei-iy  &c., 
which  last  undergoes  another  contraction,  in  Horace,  into  Pompei.  ( Herat. 
Od.,  ii.  7,  6.  Priscian,  vii.,  5.)]— Am.  Ed, 

i|  [Bopp  considers  the  Latin  genitive  ending  ius  analogous  to  the  San 
icrit  terminfition  syay  the  a  being  changed  to  u  before  the  final  *,  by  a  very 
•  isual  process,  in  early  Latin.'  (  Vcr^/eiJ^.  Gram,,  p.  220.)] — Am,  Ed 

^  rCoinparc  Anthon's  I^t.  Pros.y  ed.  1842,  p.  16,  tut.] — Am  Ed. 


16  LATIN   GRAMMAR*. 

m 

(ihu  Romans,  not  having  the  diphthong  ei  ni  their  langi  age,  represent  th< 
Greek  ei  sometime?  by  e  and  sometimes  by  t,  but  these  vowels,  of  course 
are  always  long) ;  e.  g.,  Galatea^  Medea,  ^SneaSf  Darius  or  Daiius,  Iphi 
aema^  Aterandria,  Antiochlaj  Nicomedia^  Samaria^  Ssleitciaf  Thalia^  Arivs^ 
Basiiius,  nosoconuum,  and  the  adjectives  Epicureus,  Pythagnretus^  spondeus, 
and  the  like  :  but  \Vlien  the  Greek  is  ea  or  la,  the  e  and,»  are  short,  as  iD 
idea,  philosophJaj  theologia.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  patronymic 
words  in  ides,  since  the  Greek  may  be  i6rjg^  as  in  Priamides  and  ^acldes , 
or  et&Tjg,  as  in  Atrldes,  Pelides,  which  are  derived  from  Atrexis  and  Peleus. 
ITie  only  exceptions  to  this  rule  are,  that  platea  (a  street)  has  the  e  short, 
though,  according  to  the  Greek  n^xiTeia,  it  ought  to  be  long,  and  that 
cfwrea  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  chorea  (xopela).  Some  of  the  l4te 
Roman  poets  use  academ\a  instead  of  academta,  although  in  Greek  writers 
it  is  always  long,  whether  spelled  with  ei  or  with  i.* 

Note  2.— It  is  a  part  of  the  above  rule,  that  a  long  vowel  or  diphthong 
^t  the  end  of  a  word^  when  the  word  following  begins  with  a  vowel,  i^ 
usually  made  short  m  the  thesis  of  a  verse.t  (See  above,  chap,  i.,  4, 
note  1). 

[§  17.]  3.  Usage  (auctoritas)  aloiie  makes  the  vow^l 
in  the  fii-st  syllable  of  mater,  Jrater,  pravus,  mano  (I  flow), 
dico,  dtico,  miror,  nitoTy  scriho,  dono,  pono,  utor,  muto,  sumo, 
cura,  &c.  long ;  and  short  in  pater,  avus,  cado,  maneo, 
gravis,  rego,  tego,  hibo,  minor,  cclo,  motor,  proho,  domns, 
sono,  soror,  and  others,  Ij  must  be  presumed  that  the  stu-* 
deut  makes  himself  acquainted  with  the  quantity  of  such 
words  as  these  by  practice,  for  rules  can  be  given  only 
with  regard  to  derivatives.  It  must  farther  be  observed 
that  the  i  in  the  following  words  is  long  :  formica,  lectica, 
lortca,  vesica,  *urtlca,  /leifilna,  reslna,  saglna,  saliva,  castl- 
go,  Biid.fo}rmldo. 

a.  Derivative  words  retain  the  quantity  of  their  root, 
as  in  declension  and  conjugation :  thus  the  a  iii  amor  and 
&mo  is  short,  and  therefore  also  in  amoris,  amat,  dmabam, 
amavi,  &c.  except  when  the  consonants  after  the  vowel 
of  the  root  produce  a  difference.  New  words  formed 
from  roots  likewise  retain  the  quantity ;  as  fit)m  amo — 
amor,  amicus,  amahUis ;  from  lux,  lucis — luceo,  lUcidus  ; 
from  mater — Tnatemus,  mdtertera;  and  from  Jinis-^^nio, 
/initio,  finitinms,  &c.    « 

[^  18.]  With  regard  to  Conjugation,  however,  the  following  rules  also 
must  be  observed : 

1.  The  perfect  and  supine,  when  they  consist  of  two  syllables,  and  the 
tenses  formed  from  tkem,  have  the  first  syllable  long,  even  when  in  the 
present  tense  it  is  short,  e.  g.*,  video,  vidi ;  fUgiOf/ugi ;  lego^  legi,  legisse, 
legeram,  &c4  (except,  however,  when  one  vowel  stands  before  another 

•  

*  [Compare  AnthorCs  Lat.  Pros.^  ed.  1842,  p.  22,  not,] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [Because  the  long  vowel  or  diphthong  loses  one  of  its  coroponen* 
vowels  by  elision,  and  there  is  no  stress  of  the  voice  to  lengtlven  again  thf 
remaining  short  onn.] — Am,  Ed.  * 

t  fAccO'-dinff  to  the  theor-  O""  Grimm  (Deutsche   Gtammatik.  vol.  ; 


LENtiTH    AND  SBOETNESS  OF   SYLLABLRS.  11 

• 

hi  which  case  the  genera,  role  ramaks  in  force,  as  in  rHo,  rii^  dirii), 
lOdeo,  wwn  ;  mSveo^  in5ium,  fnStua^  motwrus*  Seven  dissyllable  |>erf6cts, 
ttowever,  and  nine  dissyllable  supines^  together  with  their  compounds, 
make  their  penultima  short;!  tIz.,  bibi,  dediy  fhli  (from^do),  ttiti,  stuif 
tUlh  and  sadi  (from  tdndo),  and  dahany  rifum,  ^ituntf  ttum,  tUumj  eUum, 
qtittumf  sttunif  and  riUum.  Skto  makes  its  supine  ttStum,  whente  «ei/iw,  a, 
»m,  and  the  compounds  adstUumy  destUunif  restftum. 

2.  Perfects  wbioh  are  fonned  by  reduplication,  as  fidido,  tUtUdi ;  eano^ 
etUfnii  jpeUoj  jpHpUiy  hare  the  first  two  syUables  short;  knit  the  second 
Mxndtimes  becomes  long  by  position,  as  in  mordeo,  ml6mordi;  ttndot  tiUndL 
Ptdo  and  emdo  are  the  only  two  words  which  retain  the  lon^  Towel  in  the 
syllable  which  forms  the  root,  j>ep9dif  cnidi  ;  whereas  eado,  m  accordance 
with  the  nile,'ha8  cMdLt 

3.  The  perfect  DMilt  and  the  supine  poMitim  have  the  «  "hort,  although 
'mpom  it  IS  hmg.^  , 

With  regard  to  pedensio .,  we  must  notice  the  excefHion  that  the 
words  lar,  paf\  sal,  and  ^is  shorten  their  vowel  threu;:,hout  their  decien- 
0ion:  BoiiMfpidiSf  4cc. 

[^  ]9.]  In  the  formation  of  ne«ir  words  oy  Derivation,  there  are  several 
exceptions  to  the  abovB  rule.  The  following  woitls  make  the  short  vowel 
long :  mScer,  maeero  ;  t^^re^  lex,  ItgiMf  legttn  ;  rigo,  roe,  rigiSf  r^yla;  tiigo, 
tigula;  «eOM»,  secnu  ;  sideOy  wedea;  terOf  semeHf  sementis;  tfnOy  Rtera  (if  we 
do  not  prefer  Uttera) ;  stipSi  «flpi«,  st^pendnmif  mtapieoty  nujnde;  twtgwo, 
periona  ;  voeoy  vox,  vocia;  and  Almo,  kOmenimB.  The  following  words  have 
a  short  vowel,  although  it  is  long  in  the  root :  t&bearty  from  laki ;  n&$are, 

p.  1056),  those  verbs  which  change  a  short  vowel  in  the  root,  or  present 
^ense,  into  a  long  e  in  the  perfect,  had  originally  a  reduplication ;  tnus. 
veniOf  veveni,  veint,  vent, 

video,  vMdi,  vtidi.  vidif 

•    fUgiOf  f^f^g}f  /fi»1g»,  fftgi. 

foveOf  fc^ovif  focviy  f^'^t 

&c.  &c.  &c.  &c. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  remarRs  here  made  do  hot 
apply  to  such  preterites  as  /i?et,  rm^  naaif  &c.,  from  ludo,  rideoy  mitto,  &c., 
the  preterites  in  these  verbs  having  been  formed  by  the  insertion  of  9,  as 
htdti,  ridrif  mittsiy  and  the  consonant  or  consonants  before  the  «  naving 
l>een- subsequently  dropped  for  the  sake  of  euphony.  {Priuiiard,  Origin 
•/Celtic  Nations f  p.  161.)]— ulm.  Ed. 

*  [The  long  syllables  m  viswn,motumJletumr  &c.,  are  owing  to  a  change 
from  earlier  forms ;  thus,  vi*wn  comes  noaividsum:  mottmi,  from  mSvifum, 
througlkthe  intermediate  mSUum;  fletvm,  iiomflmtumyfiRtum,  &c.    But    . 
rihan,  &c.,  are  formed  by  syncope,  and  therefore  continue  shcnrt.] — Am. 
Ed. 

t  [The  seven  dissyllable  perfects  are,  in  reality,  no  exceptions  at  all,  but 
ere  all  reduplicating  tenses,  some  of  which  have  dropped  tne  first  syllable, 
instead  of  contractmg  the  first  two  into  one.  lAnthmCt  Last.  Pros.,  p.  32, 
not.)]— Am.  Ed. 

%  [The  first  syllable  in  reduplicating  preterites  is  short,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  since  it  consists  of  a  short  prefix.  The  second  syllable  folfows 
the  quantity  oi  the  verbal  root.  Hence  arise  the  two  exceptions  men- 
tioned in  tne  text,  namely,  aedo  and  pidoy  where  the  first  syllable  of  the 
verbal  joot  is  long.  The  early  form  of  the  perfect  of  eado  must  have  been 
eee^dL  (Consult  Priscian,  x.,  4,  p.  489,  ed.  Putsch.  Pott^  EtymoL  Forsch., 
v»»L  L,  p.  19,  seqq.  KUkner,  Gr.  Gr.,  vol.  i,  p.  84,  sejq.  Bopp,  Vergleiek. 
G-am.y  p.  697,  seqq.)^ — Am.  Ed. 

^•fSinive  thinks  that  the  old  form  of  pono  vr&a'posno,  thus  accounting 
for  the  a  in  the  perfect  and  supine,  this  letter  having  been  dr)ppei  in  the 
present.    (  Uebttr  die  Lot*  DeoUn.,  &c.,  p.  283.)]-  Am.  Ed. 

B2 


18  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

• 

(rom  nare  ;  paxiscoTt  from  pax,  pdcit ;  amblhu  and  omM/to,  from  anMre,  mmhk 
turn ;  dlcax,  from  £cere ;  fides  and  perffdus,  from/ido  and/idu«  (and  we  regu 
laiiy  find  infidus) ;  molestuSf  from  nto/«« ;  nota  Bn&notare,  from  noftw ;  odttun 
from  odi ;  sopor,  from  sopire ;  dux,  dUds,  and  rediue,  red&cis,  from  dfioo , 
lUcfrna,  from  /uceo ;  «fa/u«,  stdtio,  stabilis,  stabtUum  must  bo  derived  from 
tiito,  unlesfs  we  suppose  that  they  are  likewise  shortened  from  statnm 
from  stare). 

[^  20.]  The  Terminations,  3r  final  syllables,  by  means  of  which  an 
adjective  is  formed  from  a  verb  or  a  substantive,  are  of  a  different  kind. 
Among  these,  alis,  oris,  arms,  aeeus,  anus,  ivus,  and  osus  have  a  long  vowel ; 
but  idus,  icus,  and  icius  a  short  one ;  e.  g^  leidlis,  vulgaris,  numtanus,  cuH- 
vus,  vinpsus,  aiidus,  bellfcus,vatf!cius.  A  long  t,  however,  occurs  in  anucus, 
apricus,  pudicus,  aniicus,  and  posticus,  and  in  the  substantives  mendicus  and 
umbUMMs.  The  terminations  iUs  and  bills  have  the  i  short  whep  they  mako 
derivatives  from  verbs,  but  long  when  from  substantives;  e.  g.,/actits, 
iocilis,  and  aTmabXlis,  but  dviilis,  hostilis,  puenlis,  senilis^  &c.  The  i  in  the 
,  termination  inus  may  be  lo^g  or  short:  it  is  long  in  adjectives  derived 

from  names  of  animals  and  places,  as  anserinus,  asintnus,  ^uitiua,  iupinus, 
CaiuRnus,  Latinus,  and  a  few  others,  such  as  dwlnus,  gemunus,  clandesttnus, 
intestinus,  mannus,  peregfinus,  and  vidnus ;  it  is  short  in  most  adjectives 
which  express  time,  as  ycras&nus,  diulinus,  pristtnus,  seroCbms,  homotinus, 
perendinus,  and  in  those  which  indicate  a  material  or  substance,  as  ada 
numtfmts,  bombydlmis,  crystalllnus,  elepfumtinus,  cedr1nus,faeinus,  oleaginus. 
Some  adjectives  expressive  of  time,  however,  have  the  i  long,  viz.,  matu  , 
tlnus,  vespertimts,  and  rq)eit6mu. 

[§  21.]  (b)  Compounded  words  retain  the  quantity  of 
the  vowels  of  their  elements:  thus/fi'om  dvtis  and  nepos 
we  make  abdvtcs  and  ahnepos;  from  prdvus,  deprdvo;  from 
probusy  improbus.;  froriLJus  (juris J,  perjurus;  from  lego  (I 
read),  perlego;  and  from  lego  (I  despatch),  ablego,  ddego, 
collega.  Even  when  the  vowel  is  changed,  its  quantity 
remains  the  same :  o.  g.,  laedo,  illido ;  caedo,  incido ; 
aequus,  iniquus  ;  fauces^  suffbco  /  claudo,  recludo  ;  Judo, 
effuyio;  cddo,  incido;  rdtuSfirritUs;  rcgo,erlgo;  lego,  elf  go. 
We  may,  therefore,  infer  from  compounded  words,  the 
quantity  of  those  of  which  they  consist;  e.  g.,  from  add*- 
ro,  admiroTf  and  abutor  we  conclude  that  oro,  miror,  and 
utor  have  the  first  syllable* long;  and  fi^m  commdror  and 
desuper  xhdX  the  first  syllable  in  moror  and  super  is  short, 
which  is  not  always  accurately  distinguished  in  pronun- 
ciation, because  these  syllables  have  the  accent.  (See 
Chap.  IV.) 

We  shall  mention  here,  by  way  ot  example,  a  few  more  compounds 
from  which  the  quantity  of  the  vowels  in  their  elements  may  be  inferred. 
^-^ —  Wo  shall  choose  such  as  cannot  be  mentioned  in  any  of  the  subsequen 
lists,  and  present  them  in  the  third  person -singular  of  the  present  tenss 
We  have  a  long  vowel  in  exhalat,  concldmat,  (dldtrat,  deUbat,  consllpat,  etntat, 
trritat,  deplorat,  enddat,  compotat,  refHtat,  obdurat,  and  commUnit;  and  a  short 
one  in  exdrat,  comparat,  enatat,  irngat,  alltgal,  per/neat,  erCdit,  expolit,  dewrat, 
tumnrobat,  compHtat,  recUbat,  and  suppucUt. 

Bat  there  are  some  exceptions,  and  the  following  compounded  wordi 
change  the  long  vowel  into  a  short  one :  dejero  and  nejiro,  from  jitro;  c<m> 
fidtciif ,  fatidicus,  maledicus,  veridicus,  from  dicere  ;  ag^itus  and  wgnitns,  fron 


LCNGTH  AND  SHORTNESS  OF  SYLLABLES.      10 

,-  inniibCtis)t  -a,  and  pronUb^us),  -a,  from  nUbo.*    The  case  is  ererted 
in  imbicilhs  irolu  biciUus. 

£^  22.]  In  respect  to  Composition  with  Prepos.  tions^  it  is  to  be  re« 
marked  tba(  prepositions  of  one  syllable  which  end  in  a  vowel  are  long 
and  those  which  end  in  a  consonant  are  short :  diduco,  aboUOf  perimo.  Tra 
(formed  from  trans) j  as  in  trddot  trdduco^  is  lon^ ;  but  the  o  (for  ob)  in  omitto 
and  operior  is  short.  Pro^  in  Greek  words,  is  short,  as  in  prop/ieta ;  but 
prologus^  propola,  and  propino  form  exceptions.  In  Latin  woras  pro  is  long ; 
e.  g.f  prodo,  prottuUo  ;  but  in  many  it  is  short ;  profugiOf  profuguSf  pronepoSf 
vrofiteor,  prbj'ari^  pro/anus  jprofestusy  p-yfectOyj^rafuiscortOrdfundnSt  proteryu*, 
*  fToceUa,  and  a  few  others,  the  derivution  of  which  is  aoubtful,  as  prdcere*, 
propUius,  properare  ;  in  some  the  quantity  is  undecided.  Se  and  di  (for  ditS 
are  long ;  the  only  exceptions  are  dirimo  and  disertus.  Re  is  short ;  it 
long  only  in  the  impersonal  verb  referi:i  in  all  other  cases  where  it  ap 
pears  long,  the  consonant  which  follows  it  must  be  doubled  (in  verse),  as 
m  reppidif  repperi^  rethdi,  rettudif  recddoy  redduco,  relUgioy  relliquue;  the  four 
perfects,  remmif  repperi,  rettvUy  and  rettudij  appear  to  have  been  pronounced 
and  speUed  m  this  way,  even  in  prose.|  In  the  same  manner,  reddoj  reddere^ 
arose  from  do.  The  termination  a  in  prepositions  of  two  syllables  is  long, 
as  in  coniradico  ;  all  the  others  are  short,  as  anteftroy  praetirto. 

(^  23.]  When  the  first  word  of  a  composition  is  not  a  preposition,  it  is- 
necessary  to  determine  the  quantity  of  the  final  vowel  (o^  e,  t,  09  u,  y)  of 
tlie  first  word.  1.  a  is  long,  as  m  quire  and 'fua^ropfer,  except  in  quasi. 
2.  e  is  mostly  short,  as  in  calefacio  (notice  especially  nequCf  nequeoj  nefasy 
tufastuSf  rufaritts,  tiefandva)^  but  long  in  nequaniy  neqwdquam,  nequaquanif  and 
nirno  (which  is  contracted  from  ne  and  hemOf  the  anrient  form  for  homo) ; 
also  in  sededm  and  the  pronouns  memety  mectniy  /ec»<m,  and  seoum;  id 
venificue,  videUcety^  vecorSy  and  'vesanus.  3.  i  is  short,  e.  g.,  sigmficoy  aaari' 
leguMf  cormcetiy  tubiceuy  onmipotensy  undique ;  but  long  iu  compounded  pro* 
nouns,  as  qmlibety  vXnquey  in  ibideniy  ubiquey  utrobique,  ilictt,  ancl  scilicet ;  also 
in  the.  compounds  of  dies,  as  biduumy  tnduumy  meridies ;  and,  lastly,  in  all 
those  compounds  of  which  the  parts  may  be  separated,  such  as  lucri/acioy 
agnculturay  aquis,  because  the  t  at  the  end  of  the  first  word  is  naturally 
long,  and  remains  so.  4.  o  is  short,  hodicy  duodeciniy  sacrosatxr-tus,  but  long 
in  compounds  with  controy  introy  retroy  and  quando  {quandC^tiidem  alone 
forms  an  exception) ;  it  is  long  in  alioquiy  ceterdquiy  utroque,  «tud  in  those 

*  [The  second  syllable  in  connubium  is  naturally  short,  l)u»  it  is  occa- 
sionally lengthened  by  the  poets  in  the  arsis  of  the  foot.  Con  \»  are  Virg.y 
JRn,y  i.,  73,  with  iii.,  319J— ilm.  Ed. 

tJThe  re  in  refert  comes,  according  to  some,  from  the  dati»  ♦  m,  ac 
cording  to  others,  from  the  ablative  re,  of  the  noun  res,  and  the  ^erhfero. 
Verrius  Flaccus,  the  ancient  grammarian,  as  cited  by  Festus,  v\v8  in  fa- 
vour of  the  dative.  Reisig,  on  the  contrary,  maintams  that  refet\  comes 
from  the  ablative  re  and  the  verb/cr/,  and  makes  refert  wiea,  for'e^xmple, 
equivalent  to  re  fert  medy  "  it  brings  (something)  to  bear  in  my  viasei 
{Jieisigy  VorUsungeriy  p.  640,  ed.  Haase.  Benary,  Romische  LatUlehre,  vol.  i., 
9.  37.  Hartungy  iiber  die  Casusy  p.  84.  Schmidy  de  Pronom.y  p.  79.)  Key, 
on  the  other  band,  is  in  favour  of  the  accusative,  and  considers  rife-t  med 
as  originally  rem  fert  meam,  and,  as  an  omitted  m  leaves  a  long  vow«^  he 
accounts  in  this  way  for  the  long  vowels  in  re  and  med.  {Keyy  JJph*  bet, 
p.  78.)]— Am.  Ed. 

t  [The. classification  here  given  is  faulty  and  confused.  In r«cado,  rrf. 
iucoy  relligioy  and  reUiquitB  the  explanation  is  this,  that  the  aiicient  {  rm 
»f  re  was  red,  and  this  final  d,  in  three  of  the  words  given,  changer  to 
tnother  consonant  by  the  principle  of  assiraLation.  On  tho  other  hi  •  d 
'eppuU,  repperi.  rettuliy  and  rettudi  are  all  deduced  from  perfects  of  redi  "U 
cation.  {AntkotCs  Lat.  Pros.y  ed.  l842,  p.  129 ;  Journal  of  Edwatunty  v<  V, 
p.  95.)]— Am.  Ed. 

6  [Compare  Journal  of  Educatiuriy  vol.  i.  p  95  ] — Am.  Ed, 


no  LATIN  «EAMIIAR. 

Greek  words  in  which  the  0  represents  the  Greek  <•»,  as  in  geom^ruL  &  • 
Bnd  y  are  short,  as  in  quadrUpeSy  Polyphemus. 

4.  Jn  regard  to  the  quantity  of  Final  Syllables,  the 
following  special  rules  must  be  observed  : 

A.  Monosyllabic  Words. 

[§  24.]  1.  All  monosyllables  ending  in  a  vowel  are 

long,  except  the  particles  which  are  attached  to  other 

words :  qv^,  ve,  ce,  ne,  te  (tutej^  pse  freapsej,  and  pte^ 

fsuoptej. 

Note. — Ne^  the  interrogatiTe  particle,  is  always  short,  and  is  attached  te 
other  words  as  an  enclitic,  as  in  videmey  dost  thou  sea?  or  dost  thou  not 
see  ?  In  the  ordinary  pronunciation  it  was  still  more  shortened  by  throw- 
ing  off  the  vowel,  as  m  credon*  tibi  hoc  nunc  7  and,  in  case  of  ai^ «  preceding, 
this  letter  was  likewise  dropped,  as  cuvi  tu  ?  for  aun«  tu  ?  satin*  recte  1  satm^ 
salvae  ?  for  satitne  recte  ?  satisne  salvae  ?  The  conjunction  ne  (lest,  or  that 
not)  is  long.  Itespecting  n«,  as  an  inseparable  negative  p&rticle  in  com 
positions,  see  above,  ^  23. 

2.  Among  the  monosyllables  ending  in  a  consonant,  the 
substantives  are  long,  as  sol,  vvr^  fur,  jus ;  and  all  those 
are  short  which  are^not  substantives,  as  ut,  ety  ncc,  hiy  an, 
ad,  qmdy  sed,  quts,  quot,  Xhe  following  substantives,  how- 
ever, are  short :  cor,  fel,  mel,  viVy  and  os  (gen.  ossisj,  and 
probably,  also,  mas,  a  male  being,  and  vas,  a  surety,  since 
they  have  the  a  short  in  the  genitive :  m&ris,  vddis.  Some 
words,  on  the  other  hand,  are  long,  although  they  are  not 
substantives ;  as  en,  non,  qmn,  sin,  crdsy  plus,  cur,  and  par, 
with  its  compounds,  and  also  the  adverbs  in  ic  or  «c,  as 
stc,  hic,  hue.  The  monosyllabic  forms  of  declension  and 
conjugation  follow  the  general  rules  about  the  quantity  of 
finsd  syllables,  and  dasyfies,  and  *cw,  accordingly,  are  long, 
while  datyflit,  and  scit  are  short;  his,  quos,  quds  are  long, 
like  the  terminations  os  and  as  in  declension.  So,  also,  the 
ablative  singular  hoc  and  hae.  The  nominative  hic  and 
t)ie  neuter  hoc,  on  the  other  hand,  although  the  vowel  is 
naturally  short,  are  commonly  used  as  long,  because  the 
pronunciation  was  hicc  and  7u}cc  (as  a  compensation  foi 
the  ancient  form  hice,  ?ioceJ.*  The  abridged  imperatives 
retain  the  quantity  of  the  root,  so  that  die  and  dm  are 
long,  while yac  ajidfer  are  ^hort. 

Note. — ^We  formerly  thought,  with  other  grammarians,  that/ac  was 
long,  and  that  we  ought  to  read /ace  in  those  passages  in  which  it  is  found 
short.  (See  Heinsins  and  Burmann  on  Ovia,  Heroid.,  ii.,  98.)  But  there 
is'no  satisfactory  evidence  for /ac  being  long,  and  the  instances  quoted  by 
Vossi'is  {Aristarch.,  ii.,  29)  have  now  been  altered  for  other  reasons. 

*  [Compare  Anthonys  Lai.  Pros,j  p.  82,  not  ]^Am.  Ed- 


LENGTH   AND   SHORTNESS    OF   8YLLABLIB.  f  1 

13.    Final  Syllables  in  Words  cr  two  or  mors  Syllaiuch. 

[f  25.]  1.  Such  as  terminate  in  a  Vowel, 

A  is  short  in  nouns,  except  in  the  ablative  singular  of 
the  first  declension  and  in  the  vocative  of  Greek  proper 
names  in  as  v\rhich  belong  to  tke  first  or  third  declension, 
e.  g.,  JSnea,  Palld.  A  is  long  in  verbs  and  indeclinable 
words,  such  as  ama,  Jrtistra,  ergd,  anted,  and  posted  (ex- 
cept vrhen  separated  into  post  eaj,  except  itd,  quid,  eid, 
and  the  imperatives^  in  the  sense  of  **  for  example."* 
In  the  indeclinable  numerals,  as  triginta  and  quadragin- 
ta,  the  a  is  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short. 

lEl  is  sihort^  as  in  patre,  cwrre,  nempe;  but  long  in  the  ab- 
lative of  the  fifth  declension  and  in  the  imperative  of  the 
second  conjugation;  the  poets,  hovrever,  and  especially 
the  comic  ones,  sometimes  shorten  the  imperative  -of  the 
words  cave,  hahe,  jube,  mane,  tace,  vale,  and  vide.\  Ad- 
verbs in  e,  formed  firom  adjectives  of  the  second  declen- 
sion, are  likewise  long,  as  docte,  recti :  also,  fere,  fermCf 
and  ohe  (but  bene  and  male  are  always  short,  and  inferne 
and  superne  sometimes),  and  Greek  words  of  the  first  de- 
clension terminating  in  e,  as  crambe,  Circe,  and  Greek  plu- 
rals, as  Tempe  and  cete, 

[§  26.]  J  is  long.  It  is  short  only  in  the  vocative  of 
Greek  words  in  is,  e.  g.,  Alexi,  in  the  Greek  dative  in  i, 
which,  however,  occurs  seldom,  as  in  Palladt,  Teihyi,  ai\d 
in  nisi,  quasi,  and  cm,  when  it  is  used  as  a  dissyllable. 
The  i  is  common  or  doubtful  in  mihl,  sibl,  ibl  and  ubi ;  * 
in  compounds  we  commonly  find  ibidem,  and  always  ubi 
que,  whereas  in  ubivis  ajid  ubtnam  the  i  is  always  short. 
In  uti,  for  ut,  the  i  is  long,  but  in  the  compounds  utXnam 
and  utique  short. 

O  is  common  in  the  present  tense  of  all  the  conjugations, 
and  in  the  nominative  of  the  third  declension,  as  in  sernio, 
virgo }  the  Greek  words  in  o  (w,  Gen.  ovf),  however,  re- 
main long  in  Latin,  as  Jo,  Dido,  But  o  is  long  in  the  sec- 
ond declension,  as  in  lecto,  and  in  adverbs  formed  from 

*  [Compare  jlnlA<m*8  Xol.  Frot.,  p.  67,  not^—Am,  Ed. 

t  [The  apparent  anomaly  in  cave  is  easily  explained  by  the  supposition 
that  anciently  two  forms  of  the  verb  were  in  use,  one  belonging  to  the . 
second,  and  the  other  to  the  third  conjugation,  just  as  we  find  both/er»r« 
and/ervo ;  fidgeo  and  fulgo  :»oleo  and  ofo,  &'c.  {Struve,  aber  die  Lot.  DecL, 
&e.,  p.  189.)  With  regard,  however,  to  *aW5,  jubi,  mune,  tace^  &c.j  the 
evidence  of  their  employ nent  seems  very  donbtfu). '  The  question  will  bt 
♦nund  discussed  by  Ramn  ly  {Lat.  Piw.t  pf  44,  seqq )] — Am,  Ed. 


4!2  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

nouns  and  pronouns  by  means  of  this  term  nation  (see 

§264);  e.  g.,  vulgo^falso,  patdo,  eo,  quo,  and  also  ergo, 

icfdrcd,  qUandOf  and  retro.  In  the  poets,  however,  gerunds* 

and  the  following  adverbs  are  sometimes  short :  ergo,  tn 

the  sense  of  "  therefore,^'  porro,  postremo,  sera,  quando 

(the  compound  qtmn^oquidem  occurs. only  with  a  short  oJ,i 

The  adverbs  modo  (with  all  its  compounds,  and  also  quo 

modo),  cUo,  illico,  and  tmmOf  and  also  cedo  {fn  die  or  da  J 

egOj^duo,  and  octo^  are  always  short,  whereas  f/nbo  is  gen 

erally  long.  x 

Note. — O,  as  a  termination  of  verbs,  has  been  here  described  as  commoa ; 
it  Qiust,  however,  be  observed  that  it  is  naturally  longj,  and  is  used  so  b 
most  poets  of  the  best  age,  such  as  Virgil,  Horace  (in  his  Odes),  and  Ovid 
(in  his  Metamorphoses),  in  their  serious  productions.  In  their  lightei 
poems,  however,  and  in  the  works  of  later  poets,  it  is  also  used  shor  , 
according  to  the  example  of  the  comic  poets,  though  this  was  done  ac 
first  leas  frequently,  until  at  last  it  bec.ime  the  ])revalent  custom  to  make 
the  0  short.  (See  Lennep's  elaborate  note  on  Ovid,  Heroid.f  xv.,  32,  re- 
printed in  the  edition  of  Loers.)  The  same  is  the.  case  with  o  in  substan- 
tives of  the  third  declension,  for  the  earlier  poets  always  prefer  using  it  as 
a  long  syllable. 

[J  is  always  long,  as  in  diit,  vuliu,  comu^X 
Y,  in  Greek  words,  is  always  short. 

2.  SiccJt,  as  terminate  in.  a  Consonant, 

L§.27.]  All  final  syllables  ending  in  a  consonant  aro 
short,^  and  special  rules  are  required  only  for  those  end- 
ing in  the  sibilant  s. 

Note. — The  dissyllabic  compounds  of  par  retain  the  quantity  of  the  sin- 
gle word,  and  the  cases  ofistic  and  itlic  follow  thpse  of  Ate.  (See  ^  131.) 
Greek  words  retain  their  original  quantity  in  their  final  syllables,  except 
those  in  or,  as  Hector,  Nestor,  which  are  short  in  Latin,  although  in  Greek 
they  end  in  top.  The  onl^  exceptions  in  genuine  Latin  words  are  lien 
(formed  from  lienis,  which  is  still  used)  and  alec.  • 

[§  28.]  As  is  long  in  Latin  words,  with  the  exception 

*  [The  final  o  in  gerunds  is,  perhaps,  never  found  short,' except  in  wri- 
ters subsequent  to  the  Augustan  age.  (Consult  Heyne  ad  Tibull.,  iii.^ 
6,  3.)]— ilm.  Ed. 

t  [The  final  o  is,  perhaps,  never  found  short  in  ergo,  ideo,  immo,  porro, 
postremo,  sero,  vero,  except  in  writers  subsequent  to  the  Augustan  age. 
{Ramsay,  Lot.  Pros.,  p.  58.)] — Am.  Ed. 

X  [Irutil,  the  old  form  of  in,  and  nenU  for  non,  both  Lucretian  words,  havf 
the  tt  short.  The  «  continues  short,  also,  in- those  words  which  naturally 
end  in  short  ^»,  and  are  only  deprived  of  the  s  by  the  more  ancient  mode 
of  pronunciation,  in  order  to  preserve  the  syllable  from  becoming  long  by 
its  position  before  a  consonant  at  the  beginning  of  the  following  word ;  as^ 
pienH^  for  plenHs,  boniV  for  bontis,  &c.l — Am.  Ed. 

^  [The  language  of  the  text  is  rather  too  brief  here.  The  student  will 
do  well  to  consult  some  treatise  specially  devoted  to  matters  of  prosody.] 
'^Am.  £i  •  ♦ 


LENGTH    AND    8I10RTNESS    OF    1S¥LLAULE<.  23 

of  an68,  anMis ;  but  the  (xreek  nominatives  in  as,  which 
make  their  genitives  in  odp^,  and  in  Latin  in  adis,  such  as 
Bias,  Pallas^  and  the  Greek  accusativesj)lural  of  the  third 
declension,  are  always  short,  as  in  heroas, 

JSs  is  long,  e.  g.,  amis,  leges,  audits,  patres.    But  Latin 

u  iminatives  in  es,  which  increase  in  the  genitive,  and  have 

f.lieir  penultima  short,  are  themselves  short ;  e.  g.,  miles, 

mi  litis ;  seges,  segetis  (except  dbies,  aries,  paries,  Ceres, 

niid  the  compounds  of  pes  J;  also  the  nominatives  plural 

if  Greek  •words,  which  increase  in  the  genitive  singular, 

i}B  Amazones,  Troades  /*  the  preposition  penes  and  the 

MOcond  person  of  the  compounds  of  sum,  es,  e.  g.,  abes, 

fHtcs;  but  the  es  (for  edisj  from  edo  is  long.    (See  §  212.) 

[§  29.]  Is  is  generally  short,  but  long  in  ail  the  cases 

ol  the  plural,  as  armis,'vohis,  omnls  (accus.  for  omnes)  ;  in 

tlie  second  person  singnlar  of  verbs  whose  plural  is  xtis, 

'    tliut  is,  in  the  fourth  conjugation,  and  in  possis,  velis,  noUs, 

malts,  and  vis  (thou  wilt),  with  its  compounds,  such  as 

mavis,  quivis,  quamvis.     Ilespecting  the  quantity  of  is  in 

tin*,  perfect  subjunctive  and  in  the  second  future,  see  §  165. 

/v,  lastly,  is  long  in  proper  names  of  the  third  declension, 

which,  increasing  in  the  genitive,  have  their  penultima 

long;  e.  g.,  Quiris,  ttis;  Samnis,  ttis;  Salamls,  mis ;  Si- 

mats,  entis.\ 

Os  is  long,  as  in  nepos,  honos,  viros  ;•  it  is  short  only  In 
compos  and  impds,\  and  in  Greek  words  .and  cases  in  og, 
e.  g.,  DeloSf  Erinnyos, 

Us  is  sTiort  in  verbs  and  nouns  except  monosyllables^ 

^    .  but  lone  in  the  genitive  singular,  in  the  nominative  and 

accusative  plural  of  the  fourth  declension,  and  in  the  nom- 

^  inatives  of  the  third,  which  have  ii  in  the  genitive^  as  vii^ 

*us,  tUis ';  palus,  udis.    It  is  also  long  when  it  representg 

*.  die  Greek  ovg^  as  in  Tanthus,  Melampus,  SapphOs.  (Comp. 

R  59.) 

Ysj  in  Greek  words,  is  shorty  €is  Halys^  Tethys,  chlamys^ 

*  [The  final  es  is  likewise  short  in  Greek  neuters ;  «s,  cacoHthes,  hippo 
mania,  &C.    But  nominatiyes  and  vocatiyes  plural  in*  es,  from  Greek 
nominatives  forming  the  genitiye  singular  in  fs,  are  long;  as,  hareset. 
»  crueSfphraaea,  &c.] — Am.  Ed, 

t  [The  noun  vis  is  also  long,  and  likewise  the  adverbs  fms,  gratis 

ingratis.    It  must  be  observed  that /oris  is,  in  fact,  tne  ablative  plural  ol 

'  faro,  "  a  door ;"  and  that  rratis  and  ingrdds  are  contracted  datives  plura' 

»  for  gratOs  and  tttfraftw.  which  are  found  in  the  open  form  in  the  ccpiN 

r  writers.!— iim.  Ed. 

t  [And  also  in  o«,  "  a  b«ne/'  and  its  compound.  ex6sJ]^Am.  Ed 


*44  LATIN    QjaAMAtAK.     « 

niJi  long  only  in  tlie  few  instaiu5e8  in  wliich  the  yiis  of  liw 
genitive  is  contracted  into  ys. 

[§  30.]  5.  Syllables  (as  was  remarked  in  the  begin- 
ning of  this  chapler)  ij,9.y  become  long  by  their  voweJ 
oeing  followed  by  two  or  more  consonants,  that  is,  by  their 
position :  x  and  z  are  accounted  as  two  consonants. .  (See 
aiK)ye,  §  3.)  A  position  ma^y  be  formed  in  tlnree  ways : 
1*  When  a  syllable  ends  in  two  or  three  consonants,  as  in 
ex,  est,  mens,  stirps,  2.  When  the  first  syllable  ends  in  a 
consonant  and  the  second  begins  with  one,  as  in  Hie,  artna, 
mentis,  in  nova.  3.  When  the  first  syllable  ends  in  a  vow- 
el, and  the  one  following  begins  with  two  consonants.  By 
the  first  and  second  kiods  of  position,  a  syllable  which  is 
naturally  short  becomes  long.  Exceptions  to  this  rule  oc- 
cur only  in  the  comic  poets,  who  frequeiitly  neglect  posi- 
tion, especially  that  of  the  secondjkind. 

Note. — ^In  syllables  long  by  position  we  usually  pronounce  the  vowel 
itself  short;  but  the  ancients  in  their  pronunciation  even  here  distin- 
guished the  long  vowel  from  the  short  one,  just  as  in  Greek  we  must  pro- 
nounce wpaaaQ  with  a  long  a,  because  it  is  naturally  lung,  as  we  see  irom 
7rpo^£f  and  izpayfM.  With  regard  to  otUir  vQv^ela,  we  are  assisted  by  the 
Greek  signs  9,  a>,  and  e,  0 ;  but  in  Latin  words,  unless  we  can  be  guided  by 
verse,  we  can  derive  infonnation  only  from  et3Fmology  and  from  the  state* 
ments  of  the  ancient  grammarians.  Thus  they  disunguisbed  eat  (he  is^ 
from  eat  (for  edit),  and  they  pronounced  the  vowel  in  con  and  m,  when  fol 
lowed  in  compounds  by /or  «,  as  in  infetix,  inaanust  cdnsaUt  cmfecit.  {&ee 
Cicero,  Orat.,  48.)  Derut  gen«,  mens,  fona^frfyna,  and  mona  were  uttered 
with  a  long  vowel,  and,  in  like  manner,  poor,  lexy  /tq^  ror,  and  vox,,  because 
hey  have  their  vowel  long  in  the  genitive  also  (pleDa,plel>iat  belongs  to  the 
same  class) ;  whereas /a«,  nex,  nir,  mux  were  pronounced  with-theur  vowel 
short,  because  they  form  the  genitive /act>,  neda,  (Sic  (Comp.'  Schneider, 
EUmentarL,  p.  108,  £»U.) 

[§  31.]  In  the  third  kind  of  position  (mad^  by  two  con- 
sonants beginning  the  syllable  after  a  vowel),  we  must  dis- 
dngtdsh  as  to  whether  it  occurs  within  a  word  or  between 
two  yrotiB,  and  whether  the  consonants  are  muta  cum  li- 
quida,  or  not.  Within  a  word  a  syllable  ending  in  a  short 
vowel  is  regularly  made  long,  when  it  is  followed  by  two 
consonants,  or  x  and  z<,  as  in  c^ptusf  Ja-ctus^.a-ocis ;  but 
when  the  first  consoncmt  is  a  nmte  and  the  second  a  liquid 
(which  is  called  ^m^  debiUsJ,  they  make  the  vowel  only 
common,  according  to  the  pronunciation  in  prose.  Thus» 
we  may  pronounce  either  cerebrum,  lugubris,  mediocris^ 
integriy  or  cerebrum,  Itigubris,  medidcris,  int^gri,  Ovid, 
for  example,  says :  Etprimo  simdlis  volmri^  max  vera  vo- 
lucris,  (Metam,,  xiii.,  607.)  Between jtwo  words  the  vow- 
eiis  rarelv  length enod^  except  in  the  arsis  of  a  verse.  Th# 


LRNGTH  AND  SHORTNESS  OF  SYLLABLES.      25 

last  sylluble  of  a  word  thus  remains  short,  e.  g,,  in  Horace 
at  the  beginning  of  an  hexameter:  quern  mala  stultitia  aut; 
or  at  the  end :  praemia  scribac*  An  instance  in  which  the 
vowel  is  lengthened  by  the  accession  of  the  arsis  occurs  in 
Virgil,  Bucol.f  ir.,  51. :  Terrasque  tractusque  maris  coelum- 
que  projundum. 

Qu  IS  not  accounted  as  two  consonants,  for  u  is  not  a 
true  consonant,  though  we  usually  pronoimce  it  as  such. 
But^*  alone  is  sufficient  to  make  position,  because  this  con- 
sonant was  pronounced  double  (m  early  times  it  was  also 
written  double) ;  e.  g.,  major  like  maijor^\  and,  in  like  man- 
ner, in  ejus  and  Trcja,  In  the  compoimds  ofjugum  alone 
it  does  not  lengthen  the  preceding  vowel,  as  bijugus^  quad- 
ryugusy\  nor  does  it,  according  to  the  rule  mentioned  above, 
lengthen  the  vowel  when  it  begins  a  new  word,  and  the 
preceding  word  ends  in  a  short  vowel,  as  in  the  hexame- 
ter of  Virgil  (Georg,f  i.,  125.) :  Ante  Jovem  nulli  suhige- 
bant  arva  colonL^ 

Note. — ^The  determination  of  the  quantity  of  a  vowel  before  muta  cwh 
Uquida  within  a  word  has  great  difficulties,  and  we  must  add  the  foUowing 
ODserrations :  The  practice  of  the  different  poets  varies  greatly.  Virgil, 
e.  g.,  is  particularly  fond  of  lengthening  a  vowel  by  its  position  before 
muta  cum  HqtUda ;  and  he  and  the  poets  in  general  usually  contrive  to 
make  the  vowel  thus  lengthened  coincide  with  the  arsis  in  the  verse ;  by 
the  same  contrivance,  he  also  lengthens  the  short  final  syllable  of  a  word, 
especially  the  enclitic  fur,  in  the  second  foot  of  an  hexameter,  by  the 
muta  cum  liouMa  which  follow  it.  We  have  farther  to  observe  particular 
woitls  whicn  have  their  vowel  short,  viz.,  liber y  ntger^ptger^  and  rfi6er;  but 
in  their  inflections,  where  the  muta  cum  Uquida  occurs,  the  vowel  almost 
always  becomes  long;  coififter,  e.  g.,  is  short;  but  colubrae^  colUbris^  are 
long,  and  migro  is  made  long  by  the  best  poets  in  the  hexameter.  Othei 
wonis,  however,  are  either  never  lengthened,  as  arlntror.  or  very  seldom, 
as  locUples.  There  are,  on  the  other  hand,  some  cases  of  muta  cum  Uquida 
which  form  a  strong  position  both  in  Latin  and  Greek,  viz.,  where  the 
Uqnid  is  either  I,  m,  or  n,  and  the  mute  either  6,  gf  or  d.  (See  Buttmann's 
Ure4t  Grammar,  ^  7. 10.)  Thus  the  Latin  words  jnMicus^  agmen^  regtium, 
and  ignarus  always  have  their  first  syllable  long. 

It  IS  almost  superfluous  to  repeat  here  that  we  are  spe9king  only  oi 
■QGh  vowels  as  are  naturally  short;  |br,  when  the  vowel  is  naturally  long, 
a  lengtheoiog  by  posUio  dehUs  is  out  of  the  question,  and  we  therefore 
always  say  ambmdcrum,  lavdcrumf  delUbrum,  tntw/ficrum,  and  salubris.  Wher 
the  consonaMie  muta  cum  Uouida  belong  to  different  syllables,  as  in  ab-luo 
ob-ruo,  quam-ob-rem,  they  ma|Le  rQal  position. 

*  [As  regards  the  initial  SC,  SM,  SP,  fitct,  consult  Schneider,  L.  C,  vo* 
li.,  p.  694 ;  and  Rqmsay,  Lai.  Pros.,  jt.  260,  stqq.^^Am.  Ed. 

*  [It  18  far  more  correct  to  consider  the  j  m  major,  &c.,  which  is,  in 
ftujt,  nothing  more  than  an  t,  as  forming  «  diphthong  with  the  preceding 
vdwel,  the  word  being  paronotinced  as  if  written  mai-or.'] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [It  could  not  by  any  possibility  lehgthen  the  preceding  vowel,  since 
U^igmsvad  quadrijugua  are  in  fact  kiugus,  quadniugu8.}^Am.  Ed. 

^  [Here,  again,  the  initial  letter  of  Jovem  is  a  mere  vowel,  and  the  word 
li  to  be  pronounced  as  if  written  Yov-en.}-  -Am.  Ed. 

c 


^M  LATIN   6RAMMAB. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

* 

OP    THE    ACCENT    OP    WORDS, 

[§  32.]  Ir  is  a  general  rule  that  every  word  has  an  ao 
cent  on  one  particular  syllable.  This  accent  is  twofold, 
either  the  circumjlex  (*)  or  the  acute  ('),  for  what  is  call- 
ed the  grave  in  Greek  meang  only  the  absence  of  either 
accent.  Some  words  have  no  accent,  viz.,  the  enclitics 
»e,  que,  t?e,  ce,  which  never  appear  by  themselves,  but  are 
attached  to  other  words.  Prepositions  lose  their  accent 
when  they  precede  the  cases  which  they  govern. 

Note.—The  addition  of  these  encjitics  produces  a  change  in  the  accent 
of  the  words  to  which  they  are  attached,  and  which  thus  become  com 
pounds.  The  ancient  gramioarians  have  established  the  rule  that,  when 
ever  an  enclitic  has  a  meaning  of  its  own,  the  accent  is  thrown  back*^ 
upon  the  syllable  immediately  before  the  enclitic,  and  either  as  the  acute 
(u  the  vowel  of  that  syllable  is  short),  or  as  the  circumflex  (if  the  vowel 
is  long),  as  in  Musdaue  (nominat.)  hominequet  and  Musdque  (ablat.)  arm*que. 
When,  on  the  other  hand,  the  enclitic  has  no  meaning  by  itself,  and  forms 
only  one  word  with  that  to  which  it  is  attached,  the  accent  varies,  as  will 
be  shown  hereafter.  This  is  the  case  with  ^ue;  for  in  some  compounds 
it  either  does  not  possess  the  meaning  of  "  and"  at  all,  or  only  very  in- 
distincUy.  Hence,  in  itatme  (and  so)  the  accent  belon|[s  to  the  short 
penultima,  and  in  itaque  (therefore),  m  which  the  meanmg  of  *'  and*'  is 
quite  obscured,  the  pronunciation  places  the  accent  upo0  the  antepe 
nultima.  In  the  same  manner,  we  have  to  distinguish  between  utiqxu 
(and  that)  and  Mque  (certainly.)  By  way  of  exception,  the  same  gram- 
marians place  the  accent  on  the  penultima  in  tUrdque  and  pleraquey  on  ac- 
count of  the  accent  of  the  masculine  forms  tuerque  and  vleHque ;  although, 
according  to  the  general  rule,  aw.  not  meaning  "  and,''  we  ought  to  pro 
nounce  ^trat^  and  pleraque.  They  farther  inform  us  that  we  should 
pronounce  nequando  and  siquandOf  in  order  that  quando  may  not  be  taken 
for  a  separate  word,  and  aliquandOf  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  aUqudnto, 

[§  33.]  2.  Monosyllables  are  pronounced  with  the  cir 
cumflex,  when  theii:  vowel  is  long  by  nature,  and  not  mere- 
ly by  position,  as  in  dds^  mds^JlSsyju*^  lux^  spes^Jons^  and 
m&ns  ;  but  when  the  vowel  is  naturally  short,  they  are  pro- 
(loimced  with  the  acute,  although  the  syllable  ia%y  be  long 
by  position ;  e.  g.,  dr*,  p&ra^fax^  du^. 

Note. — Sic  (so)  the  adverb  should  be  pronounced  with  the  circumflex 
— . ■  — — —  » 

*  [This  phraseologjr  is  objectionable.  A  tkrotoing  back  of  the  accent,  in 
the  case  of  enclitics,  is  the  common  form  of  expression,  but.  is  calculated 
to  produce  a  wrong  idea  of  the  nature  of  such  words.  When  the  enclitic 
is  joined  in  pronunciation  with  the  preceding  word,  a  chan^^e  of  accen 
necessarily  takes  place,  these  enclitics  increasing  the  precedmg  word  b« 
cs  many  syllables  as  each  enclitic  possesses.  {GottUngf  Element*  qf'A^ 
unhuUhiu  OxU  1831,  p.  100.)]— ilm.  Ed, 


ACCENT    OF    WORDS.  '^1 

•od  stCf  which  indicates  a  wish,  with  the  acute ;  e.  g  ^  Sic  te,  divapoteru 
€j/pri,  6cc.y  in  Horace.    Comp.  Priscian,  De  XII.  Vers  JEn. 

3.  Words  of  two  syllables  have  the  accent  on  the  first, 
either  as  circuxifiex,  when  the  vowel  of  that  syllable  is 
naturally  long,  and  that  of  the  second  one  short ;  or  as 
acute,  when  the  vowel  of  the  first  syllable  is  short  and 
that  of  the  second  long;  tr  when  the  vowel  of  the  first,  aa 
well  as  that  of  the  second,  is  long ;  e.  g.,  Rdma,  mdts&y  liice, 
juris;  hut  hdrriof  becaus'e  both  syllables  are  short;  deas^ 
because  the  first  is  short  and  the  second  long ;  drtCf  be- 
cause the  first  is  Ic  ng  only  by  position ;  and  doii^  for  al 
though  the  vowel  of  the  first  is  naturally  long,  yet  that  of 
the  second  is  likewise  long.  The  ancient  grammarians  do 
not  notice  those  cases  where  a  syllable  long  by  position  is, 
at  the  same  time,  long  by  the  nature  of  its  vowel  (see  above, 
§  30) ;  but  it  is  probable  that  cCnstd^  monte,  dSnte,  esse  (for 
ederej^  dsthmaf  and  sciptrum  were  pronounced  in  the  same 
manner  as  lUice, 

4.  Words  of  three  syllables  may  have  the  accent  on  tho 
antepenultima  and  penultima;  the  acute  on  the  antepenul- 
tima,  when  the  penultima  is  short,  as  in  caSdereypergerCy 
homines;  the  accented  syllable  itself  may  be  long  or  short. 
The  circumflex  is  placed  on  the  penultima  on  the  condi- 
tions before  mentioned,  as  in  amdsse^  Romdnus  ;  and  the 
acute,  when  those  conditions  do  not  exist,  and  yet  the  pe- 
nultima is  long,  as  in  Romdnis,  Metellus.  No  word  can 
have  the  accent  farther  back  than  the  antepenultima,  so 
that  we  must  pronounce  Constantinopolis,  sollicitadini' 
Ims. 

Note. — Priscian  (p.  803,  ed.  Putsch)  remarks  as*  an  exception,  that  the 
compounds  of /ocere,  which  are  not  formed  by  means  of  a  preposition,  such 
as  calefacU,  tepe/acUf  and  (p  739)  the  contracted  genitives  in  t,  instead  of 
it  (see  ^  49),  have  the  accent  on  the  penultima,  even  when  it  is  short,  as 
in  inghii,  Valerij  so  that  we  mutt  pronounce  ctUefdcitf  ingeni.  He  asserts 
the  same  with  regard  to  the  vocative  of  proper  names  in  tus,  e.  g.,  VirgUi^ 
Valeri ;  while  other  ^ranunariana  (A.  GeUius,  xiii.,  25)  leave  to  this  caso 
its  regular  accentuation,  Virgiliy  and  not  Virgin. 

[§  34.]  5.  Words  of  two  or  more  syllables  never  have 
the  accent  on  the  last,  and  it  appears  that  it  was  only  the 
grammarians  who  invented  a  different  mode  of  accentua- 
tion, for  the  purpose  of  distinguishing  words  which  would 
otherwise  sound  alike.  -  They  tell'  us^that  the  words  pone 
(behind)  and  ergd  (on  account  of)  should  have  the  accent 
on  the  last  syllable,  to  distinguish  them  fi-om  p&ne  (put) 
and  ergo  (therefore).     They  fartffer  accentuate  the  last 


28  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

syllables  of  the  adverbs  circum^  doctc^  raro^  ptifnoj  solum^ 
and  modo^  to  distinguish  them  from  the  cases  which  have 
the  same  terminations.  The  interrogatives  quando^  qti<dis^ 
quantus^  ubi^  and  others,  are  said  to  have  tha  accent  on  the 
tir^t  .syllable,  according  to  the  rule ;  but  when  used  in  the 
senAe  of  relatives,  to  have  the  accent  on  the  last  syllable, 
unless  the  acute  be  changed  into  the  grave  by  reason  of 
their  connexion  w^ith  qther  words  which  follow.  The 
words  ending  in  as,  which  originally  ended  in  atis,  such  as 
'  optimaSf  nostra^^  Arpinas^  are  said  to  h&ve  the  accent  on 
the  syllable  on  which  they  had  it  in  their  complete  form, 
and  which  is  now  the  last.  .  The  same  is  asserted  vnth 
regard  to  the  contracted  perfects,  such  as  audit  for  audi- 
vit.  It  is  impossible  to  determine- how  much  of  all  this 
was  really  observed  by  the  ancients,  since  it  is  expressly 
attested  by  earlier  writers,  such  as  Quintilian,  that  in  Lat- 
in the  accent  was  never  put  on  the  last  syllable.  But  it 
is  certainly  wrrong  to  put  the  grave  on  the  last  syllable  of 
all  adverbs,  as  some  persons  still  do,  or  to  use  accents  for 
the  purpose  of  indicating  the  natural  length  of  a  vowel, 
which  is  better  expressed  by  a  horizontal  line  ("). 

[§  35.]  6.  These  rules  concerning  accentuation  ought 
CO  lead  us  to  accustom  ourselves  to  distinguish  accent  from 
quantity ;  to  read,  for  example,  homines^  and  not  Jiomines^ 
and  to  distinguish,  in  our  pronunciation,  edo  (I  eat)  from 
edo  (I  6dit),  lego  (I  read)  from  Ugo  (I  despatch),  and  in 
like  manner, yjim  (thou  ravest),  Z<^m  (thou  revest),  and 
regis  (thou  rulest)  from  the  genitivesytirw,  regis,  and  legis; 
farther,  levis  (light)  from  levis  (smooth),  m6ltLs  (bad)  from 
tnMus  (an  apple-tree),  palus,  iidis  (a  marsh),  from  pdlus,  % 
(a  post),  Snus  (an  old  woman)  from  Anus  (7rp6)«T6f ),  lUtum 
(mud)  from  lutum  (a  dyer's  weed),  and  also  lU'teus  (dirty 
or  muddy)  from  lH'teus  (yellow),  and  pB^ptdus  (the  people) 
from  po^pulus  (a  poplar).  Ill  our  own  language  accent 
and  quantity  coincide,  but  it  is  very  vn-ong  to  apply  this 
oeculiarity  to  a  language  to  which  it  is  foreign.* 

*  [The  student  will  find  some  very  sensible  remarks  on  this  subject  in 
the  dissertation  of  JIf.  Burette  on  Plutarch's  Dialogue.on  Music.  {Mem, 
U  lAtt.f  tirezdes  regietrea  de  VAcad.  Roy,  dee  Inecriptiom,  &C.,  vol.  x.,p.  189.) 
Noth^g  can  show  more  clearly  the  utter  absurdity  of  pronouncing  Greek 
oy  accent  alone  than  the  applying  of  this  same  svstem  of  pronunciation 
ID  the  Latin  language.  *  (Compare  Luikomue^  uber  die  Avtsprache  du 
Otieeh.,  p.  250.)}— Am.  Ed, 


DIVISION  OF   WORDS. 


THE  ACCIDENCE. 


CHAPTER  V, 

DITISION    OF    WORDS' ACCORDING    TO    THEIR    SIGNIFICATION. 

[§  36.]  The  words  of  every  language  are  either  nouna, 
verbs,  or  particles. 

A  noun  serves  to  denote  an  object  or  a  quality  of  an  ob- 
ject, and  may  accordingly  be  either  b.  substantive,  as  donrns 
!a  house),  a  pronoun^  as  ego  (I),  or  an  adjective,  as  parvus 
small).  Nouns  are  declined  to  indicate  their  different 
relations. 

A  verb  expresses  an  action  or  condition  which  is  ascri- 
bed to  a  person  or  a  thing,  as  scribo,  ire,  dormire^  amari. 
A  verb  is  conjugated  in  order  to  indicate  the  different 
modes  in  which  an  action  or  condition  is  ascribed  to  a 
person  or  a  thing. 

Particles  are  those  parts  of  speech  which  are  neither 
declined  nor  conjugated,  and  which  are  neither  nouns 
nor  verbs.  They  are  divided  into  the  following  classes : 
1.  Adverbs  express  the  circumstances  of  an  action  or  con 
dition ;  Qs,scribit  bene,  he  writes  well ;  diu  dormit,  he  sleeps 
long.  2.  Prepositions  express,  either  directly  or  indirect- 
ly (§  295),  the  relations  of  persons  or  things  to  one  an- 
other, or  to  actions  and  conditions;  as,  amor  meus  erga  te^ 
my  love  towards  thee ;  eo  ad  te,  I  go  to  thee.  3.  Con- 
junctions express  the  connexion  between. things,  actions, 
or  propositions ;  as,  ego  et  tu  ;  clamavity  sed  pater  non 
audivit.  4.  Interjections  are  the  expressions  of  emotion 
by  a  single  word ;  as,  aA,  ohe,  vae. 

These  are  the  eight  parts  of  speech  in  Latin :  all  at 
tbem  occur  in  the  following  1  exameter : 

Vae  tibi  rtdenti^  quia  nurx  post  gaudiaflebu^ 


so  LATIN   GRAMMAK* 


CHAPTER  VL 

NOCNS  SUBSTANTIYE. GENERAL  RULES  OF  GENDER. 

[§  37.]  Nouns  substantive  are  either  proper  (nomina 
^opria),  i.  e.,  the  names  of.  one  particular  man  or  thing, 
or  common  (nomina  appeUativa)^  i.  e.,  such  as  denote  per- 
sons or  things  in  so  far  as  they  belong  to  a  class. 

All  nouns  have  one  of  three  genders :  masculine^  femi- 
nine,  or  neuter. 

The  manner  in  which  the  gender  of  a  noun  can  be  as- 
certained from  its  termination  will*  be  explained  under 
each  declension.  Our  object  here  is  to  show  the  gender 
.>f  nouns,  both  proper  and  common,  i»so  far  as  it  depends 
upon  their  nieaning.* 

1.  The  following  are  masculine:  the  names  of  men  and 
of  male  beings  ;  as,  homo^  vir^  scriba^  flamen^  consul^  rex, 
deus^  daemon^  Cupido  (the  God  of  Love),  manes  (the  spir- 
its of  the  departed),  lemures  (spectres) ;  and  the  names 
of  rivers,  winds,  and  months,  the  words  fluvius^  ventiis^ 

•  mensis  being  themselves  masculine* 

[^  38.]  Exceptions. — ^There  are  some  substantives  which  do  not  origi* 
nally  denote  men,  but  have  come  to  be  apjilied  to  them  by  custom ;  as, 
operae^  labourers;  vigiliae  and  excvbiae^  sentinels;  c^'ae, ^troops ;  auxiliOf 
auxiliary  troops ;  mancipium^  a  slave ;  scortum  and  prostUnUvm^  a  prostitute. 
All  such  words  have  the  gender  which  belongs  to  them  according  to  theii 
termination. 

The  names  of  rivers  in  a,  belonging  to  the  first  declension,  vary  in  their 
gender.  (See  Schneider,  Formenlehre^  p.  14.)  Modem  writers  commonly 
make  them  feminine ;  but  the  ancients,  in  most  cases,  make  them  mascu- 
lines, which  is  the  gender  belonging  to  them.    (See  ^  47.)    The  mytho- 

*  [**.  Dr.  Zumpt,  in  this  part  of  his  Grammar,  appears  to  place  too  much 
reliance  on  the  authority  of  the  Latin  grammarians.    It  should  be  recol 

•  lected  that  most  of  these  writers  lived  long  after  the  authors  upon  whom 
their  comments  are  made,. and  at  a  time,  too,  when  the  very  structure, 
and  certainly  the  very  idioms  of  the  language,  were  materially  altered. 
The  living  tdn^^ue  of  their  times  was  an  unsafe  standard  of  comparison ; 
while  the  relation  in  which  they  stood  to  the  waitings  of  Cssar  and  Cicero 
was  the  same  in  kind  as  that  in  which  we  ourselves  stand.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  not  one  .among  them  possessed  any 
of  that  philosophical  spirit  which  begins  to  distinguish  modem  philology. 
Those  who  have  been  in  the  habit  of  consulting  the  commentaries  of  Do- 
natus  and  Servius,  or  the  more  systematic  work  of  Priscian,  will  admit 
that  the  testimony  of  this  class  of  writers,  though  ot  occasional  value, 
should  always  be  received  with  caution.    The  judgment  of  even  Varro 

,  and  Quintilian  is  not  always  to  be  depended  upon,  and  their  errors  of 
judgment  are  often  aggravated  by  the  particularly  cormpt  slate  In  which 
their  writings  have  come  down  to  us."  {Joxatud  of  Educaiion^  vol.  i.,  p  95^ 

»«W«)1 — -A^"*^'  ^' 


GENDER  OF  SUBSTAN  fl V  ES.  31 

ogical  rivers  Styx  and  Lethe  are  temihine,  as  in  Greek.  The  nameii  of 
vrinds  and  mouths  are,  without  exception,  masculine ;  hence  hi  Etesia^ 
hie  Liba,  hie  ApriUs.  With  regard  to  the  names  of  the  months,  it  must  ba 
obserred  that  all  of  them  are  adjectives,  and  tl^at  Uie  best  writers  use 
them  only  as  such,  the  substantive  menais  being  understood.   Hence,  also, 

]  Calendae  Jantiariae,  Notiae  Sextiles,  Idas  Martiae^  Maiae^  ante  CeUendae  Au- 

fustfigy  Idilnts  DecenAribus.  See  DrakenbOTch  on  Livy  (iv.,  37),  who,  with 
most  other  commentators,  is  so  strongly  c(Mivinced  of  this,  that  he  does 
not  heatate  to  correct  passages  in  which  this  rule  is  not  obeerv^. 

I  The  names  of  mountains  are  generally  said  to  be  masculine ;  but  when 

I  the  word  mone  is  not  joined  with  them,  the  gender  depends  upon  theii 

I  termination,  as  in- oiia^tna. 

'  [§  39.]   2.  The  following  are  feminine :  the  names  of 

I  wc»nen  and  female  beings;  e.  g.,  ttxor^  wife;  soror^  sister; 

amiSf  an  old  woman ;  socrus^  mother-in-law ;  Jwno^  Venus; 

and  even  when  they  end  in  uwr^  as  Phanium^  Glycerium^ 

Leontium.     Most  of  the  names  of  trees,  towns,  countries, 

and  islands,  just  as  the  words  arbos^  urhs^  terra  fregio)^  and 

msula  themselyes  are  fethinkie;  e.  g.,  (dta  cedrtis^  pinus, 

abiesy  the  high  eedar,  pine,  fir;  wmhrosa  fixgus^  the  shady 

beech;  ficus  htMica,  opulenta  Corintkusy  aniiquU  Tyrus^ 

dura  Lacedaemon,  Aegyptus  auperstitiosay  clara  Salamis. 

Exceptions. — ^The  names  of  trees  and  shrubs  ending  in  er,  and  following 

the  third  declension,  are  neuter ;  as,  acer,cicer,papaver,  to  which  we  must 

add  robur,  the  oak.    Masculine  are  oleaster  and  pinaster^  which  belong  to 

(he  second,  and Vtynur,  which  belongs  to  the  third  declension:  also  many 

shrubs  and  smaller  plants  in  u«,  t;  e.  g.,  amaranttu,  asparagus,  calamus^ 

duinus,  heUebioruSy  intulms,  rhamnus^  and  spinus.    The  following  vary,  and 

<nay  be  used  as  masculine  or  feminine :  cytisus,  raphanus,  rvbus,  and  grossus, 

an  unripe  fig. 

^  Among  the  names  of  towns  the  following  are  masculine  :  1.  All  plurals 

'  in  i,  as  Argi,  Delphi,  Puteoli,  Veii ;  2.  Four  names  in  o :  Hippo  (with  the 

I  surname  regitui),  Narbo  Marcius,  Frusino,  and  Sulmo  ;  the  analogy  of  which 

'  is  followed,  also,  by  Croto,  although  the  regular  form  in  Greek  is  jj  Kporov ; 

3.  Tunes,  etis,  and  Canopus,  as  in  Greek  6  KuvuSog.    Some  names  in  Us, 

untis,  such  as  Pessinus,  SeRnus,  and  in  us,  i,  such  as  Pharsalus,  Abydus, 

t  .   and  also  Marathon,  are  mascyline,  according  to  the  Greek  custom,  though 

•  they  are  sometimes  also  used  as  feminines.    The  following  are  neuter : 

1.  Those  ending  in  vm,  and  the  Greek  names  in  on,  as  TusaUum,  Iliom ; 

2.  The  plurals  in  a,  onan,  e.  g.,  Susa,  Arbela,  Ecbataha,  Leuctra  ;  3.  Those 
eliding  m  c  and  ur,  which  follow  the  third  declension ;  as,  Caere,  Reate, 

V  Praeneite,  Tergeste,  Nepete,  or  Nepet,  AlkxvT,  and  Tibwc  ;  Tuder  is  likewise 

neuter ;  4.  The  indeclinable  names  in  t  and  y  ;  as,  Illiturgi,  Asty,  and  some 

others,  particularly  barbarous  names,  the  declension  of  which  is  defective ; 

as,  Suthul,  Hispal,  Gadir,  whereas  their  Latin  forms,  Hispalis  and  Gades^ 

[  turn,  are  feminme.    Argos,  as  a  neuter,  occurs  only  in  the  nominative, 

\  otherwise  Argi,  orum,  is  used.  *The  many  exceptions  we  have  here  enu- 

I  merated  might  render  us  inclined  altogether  to  drop  the  rule  respecting 

the  feminine  gender  of  names  of  towns ;  but  we  must  adhere  to  it  on  ac- 

coimt  of  the  numerous  Greek  names  in  us,  i,  and  of  the  Greek  or  non 

Italian  names  in  on  (o),  onis;  and  there  appears,  moreover,  to  have  been  a 

^  tendency  to  make  feminine  even  those  which  ^re  of  a.  different  gender, 

provide^a  they  are  in  the  singular.  This  is  the  case,  besides  those  we  have 

i  already  mentioned',  with  Croton,*and  may  also  be  observed  in  the  case  of 

f  Praeneste  ;  for  Virgil  says,  Praeneste  svb  ipsa,  and  Jll"enal  ^elida  Praenesff 

but  otherwise  the  neuter  gender  is  well  establishod     (Liv.,  vi.,  29.    Sil 


32  LATIN   GRAMMAR* 

Ital.,  iz.,  404.)  The  poets  change  the  names  of  scoie  places  eoJing  ia  urn 
into  us^e.  g.,  Sagimtus,  and  use  them  as  feminines.  (See  Sclmeider, 
Formenl.f  p.  479.) 

Among  the  names  of  countries,  those  m  um  and  plurals  in  a  are  neuter, 
as  Jjathanj  Bactra ;  the  names  BosponUf  PonhUi  and  HellespontiUf  which 
properly  denote  the  seas  adjacent  to  these  countries,  are  masculine ;  the 
same  Is  the  case  with  Istkmutf  when  used  as  the  name  of  a  country,  for 
originally  it  is  a  common  noun,  signifjring  *'  a  neck  of  land."  Of  the  names 
of  islands,  some  ending  in  wn  are  neuter,  as  is  also  the  Egyptian  Delta, 

It  must  farther  be  obsenred  that  most  names  olpreciom  «fmie»'are  fern- 
inine,  as  in  Greek ;  but  beryUu9,  carbuncultUf  opalut^  and  MuaragdM  are 
masculine.  The  names  of  dramatic  compositions  are  used  in  me  early 
and  good  language  as  feminine,  the  word/a6if£a  being  understood ;  e.  g., 
hoc  TrucuUniut  (Plauti),  Eunuckui  {TererUu)^  acta  ut^  &c.  (See  QuintU., 
i,  5.  52,  with  Spalding's  note.)  Juvenal  (i,  6),  however,  says,  Ore«/M 
nondumfinitus. 

[§  40.]  3.  There  are  many  names  of  persons  which 
are  common  to  both  sexes,  as  they  denote  an  occupation 
or  quality  which  may  belong  either  to  a  man  or  a  woman, 
although  the  one  is  more  frequently  the  case  than  the  oth- 
er. Such  words  are  called  common  (communia).  Those 
found  in  Latin  with  two  genders  are  contained  in  the  fol 
•owing  hexameter  lines : 

Antistegy  vates^  adolescens^  auctor  et  augur ^ 
DuXfjudeXy  index,  testis,  cum  dve  sacerdos, 
Municipi  adde  parens,  patrueli  affinis  et  hsres, 
Artifid  conjux  atque  incola,  miles  et  hostis, 
Par^juvenis,  martyr,  comes,  infans,  obses  et  hospeSf 
Interpres,  praesul,  custos,  vindexqae,  satdles. 

Some  other  words  are  not  noticed  here,  because  they  are  used  only  m 
apposition  to  feminines ;  those  mentioned  above,  however,  may  be  accom- 
panied by  adjectives  in  either  gender ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Cat.^  2 1  In  hoc  aumm 
aapicHieSf  quod  naturam  optimam  ducem^  iamquam  deuintf  $eqmmur.   Pro  Balb.^ 
24 :  Sacerdos  iUa  CererU  civis  Romana/acta  est.  Virg.,  ^n.,  x.,  2^ :  Alma 
parens  Idaea  dewn.  Idv..  i.,  7 :  Mater  meat  veridica  interpret  dettm.  To  the&^ 
we  may  add  cowtvbemaUMy  properly  an  adjective,  which  cannot  be  accem 
modated  to  verse,  and  perhaps  also  esul  vndijprincepst  ^i^h  regard  to  which 
the  passages  of  the  ancients  are  not  decisive,  since  the  non  alta  emd  in 
Tacit,  ilnn.,  ziv.,  63,  may  be  explained  as  apposition,  and  Romana  prin 
cept  in  the  J5/«^.  ad  lAviam,  356,  v^y  be  taken  as  an  aajective,  as  in  othei 
cases.    Obeet  is  well  attested  as  a  nomen  commune  by  Plin.,  HiH.  Nat. 
zzxiv.,  13 :  Obeidibusy  quae  Porsenae  mittebantur.    Auspex  yet  awaits  a  bet 
ter  authority  than  praeclaram.  auspkem  in  the  Deelam.  {Porcii  Latronis)  » 
Catil.,  c.  16. 

It  is  farther  to  be  observed  that  antistea  and  hospea,  in  the  sense  of 
priestess  and  hostess,  are  not  attested  as  wel.  as  the  feminine  form 
antistita,  ae,  and  hoepUa,  ae. 

[§41.]  4.  Suhstantiva  mohiUa  are  those  substantiYes 
in  which  the  root  receives  different  terminations  for  the 
masculine  and  feminine  genders.  The  termination  for  the 
feininine  is  always  a  or  trix,  and  the  latter  occurs  in  those 
cases  in  which  the  masculi^ie  ending  in  tor  is  derived  fixim 


t 


r 


GENDER  OP   SUBSTANTIVES.  33 

transitive  verbs,  as  in  victor^  victrix;  idior^  ultrix;  pr(u- 
ceptor^  pracceptrix ;  inventor,  inventrix.  The  feminine  is 
indicated  by  a  when  the  masculine  ends  in  tu  or  er,  or 
some  other  termination,  e.  g.,  coqmi^  coqua  /  p^er^  putra; 
or  more  frequently  the  diminutive  form  puella  ;  magUter^ 
tnagistrcC;  Jeno^Uma;  caupo,copa;  tibicen^tibicma;  avus, 
avia  ;  rex^regina;  cuUista,  anUstUa.  The  feminine  tei- 
mination  tria  is  Greek,  and  is  formed  from  masculines  in 
tC8  or  ta ;  as, psaltes, psaUria ;  po'eta^ poetria. 

[§  42.]  5.  Some  names  oi  animals  have  special  forms 
to  ^tinguish  the  two  sexes:  agnus^  agna;  cervus^  cerva; 
columhuSf  columba  ;  equus^  9qua  ;  gallus^  gaUina  ;  juven- 
cus^  juvenca ;  lupus ^  lupa ;  leo,  lea  and  'leaena  ;  parcus, 
porca;  vitulus^  vitula;  ursus,  ursa*  In  some  cases  the 
words  are  altogether  dif!erent,  as  in  taurus^  vacca^  a  bull 
and  cow ;  aries^  ovis,  ram  and  sheep ;  hoedus^  capella ; 
catas^fdis. 

Most  other  names  of  animals  are  common  (eptcoena); 
that  is,  they  have  only  one  grammatical  gender,  which 
comprises  both  sexes,  e.  g.,  passer^  anser^  corvus^  cants, 
cancer  are  masculine ;  aquila^felis,  anas^  wipes  are  fqpii- 
nine,  though  they  may  denote  animals  of  either  sex.  With 
regard  to  those  names  which  may  distinguish  the  genders 
by  terminations,  it  should  be  observed  that  one  form  (gen- 
erally the  masculine)  predominates,  such  as  eqwus,  leo,  lu' 
pus  as  masculine,  anajelis,  ovis  as  feminine. '  If  the  sex 
of  the  particular  animal  is  to  be  stated,  the  word  mas  or 
'Jemina  is  added  to  the  same;  as,  anas  mas,  anas  Jemi- 
na,femma  anguis,  nmsca  femina,femtna  piscis^  and  lujpus 
or  porcus  femina,  although  we  have  the  forms  lupa  and 
porca.  Instead  of  mas  we  may  also  use  masculus  or  mas 
eula,  e.  g.,  vulpes  mascula,  a  male  fox ;  pavo  ma^scultts,  h 
peacock. 

Some  of  these  nouns  epicene,  however,  in  which  the  dif- 
ference of  sex  is  more  frequently  noticed,  axe  used  as  real 
conunon  nouns,  so  that  they  are  masculine  when  the  male 
animal,  and  feminine  when  the  female  animal  is  particu- 
larly specified.  Of  this  kind  are  hos,  canis,  elephantus^ 
lepus,  vespertiHo,  mus,  which  are  masculine  when  the  dif* 
ference  of  sex  is  not  noticed ;  but  feminine  when  the  fe- 
male is  designated.  Thus  we  generally  iind,  e.  g.,  ele* 
p&anti  prudentissimi  hahentur,  lepores  timidi  sunt ;  but,  at 
the  name  time,  canes  rabidae,  dephantus  gravida,  lepus  fi 


34  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

cunda;  and  Hoi*ace,  abandoning  the  usual  gendei,  takei 
the  liberty  of  saying  (Serm.,  ii.,  8,  87),  membra,  gruu 
sparsi,  and  j(icur  anseris  albae,     (See  Bentley's  note.^ 

The  following  nouns  are  sonoetimes  masculine  and 
sometimes  feminine,  without  regard  to  difference  of  sex  * 
anguia  and  serpens,  a  serpent ;  damUf  fallow-deer ;  talpa^ 
a  mole ;  also  sus,  a  pig ;  and  tigris,  tiger ;  but  stis  is  com- 
monly feminine,  while  tigris  is  commonly  masculina  Oth- 
ers are  of  uncertain  gender,  in  as  far  as  they  have  both 
a  masculine  and  a  feminine  form,  which,  however,  are 
used  indiscriminately  and  without  vegard  to  seSc.  Thus 
we  have  the  feminine  forms  tolubra  lacerta^  lusdnia,  and 
simia  along  widi  the  masculines  coluber,  Utcertus^  luscinius, 
and  simiusj  without  simia,  for  instance,  having  any  refer- 
ence whatever  to  a  female  monkey.  In  like  manner,  ^a- 
lumhus  and  palumba  (the  same  as  palumbes)  are  used  in- 
discriminately. 

[§  43. J  6.  The  following  are  neuter.  All  indeclinable 
substantives,  as  gummi,  pascha,  sinapi,  and  ^ondo,  which 
is  used  as  an  indeclinable  noun  in  the  sense  of  "  pound  ;'•* 
Jie  names  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  as  e  triste,  o  km" 
gum,  Graecum  digamma,  &c.,  and  all  words  and  expres- 
sions which,  without  being  substantives,  are  conceived  and 
used  as  such,  or  quoted  merely  as  words ;  e.  g.,  vltimum 
vale,  scire  tuum  nihil  est,  vivere  ipsum  turpe  est  nobisy  ter- 
geminum  ao^g^  hoc  ipsum  diu  miki  molestum  est  (Cicero), 
lacrimas  hoc  mild  paene  movet  (Ovid),  where  the  words 
diu  and  paene  are  quoted  from  the  sayings  of  another  per-* 
son,  and  it- is  said  that  the  very  word  diu  or  2'ame  is  pain- 
ful. . 

Note. — The  names  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  however,  are  sometimes 
used  as  feq^nines,  the  word  liitera  being  understood ;  e.  g.,  Quintil.,  i.,  4, 
11:  Sciat  etiam  Ciceroni  placuisse  aiio  Maiiamque  geminata  i  scribere.  The 
names  of  the  Greek  letters  in  a,AS  heta^  gamma,  data,  are  used  as  femininea 
only  by  Ausonius,  Tecfmop,  de  Lift, 


CHAPTER  VII. 


NUMBER,   CASE,   AND    DECLENSION. 

[§  t4.]  The  Latin  language  distinguishes,  in  nouns  and 
verbs,  the  singular  and  plural  fnumerus  stnguktris  and 
pluralis)  by  particular  forms ;  it  has  also  different  forma 
to  distinguish  six  different  cases  (casus)  in  the  relations 


NUMBER,   CASfi,   AND   DECLENSION. 


35 


mud  connexions  of  ncuns.  The  ordinary  names  of  these 
cases  are  nominative,  genitive,  dative,  accusative,  vocative, 
and  ablative.  The  difierent  forms  of  these  cases  are  seen 
in  the  terminations  which  are  annexed  to  the  crude  form 
of  a  word.  Declension  is  the  deriving  of  these  different 
^rms,  both  in  the  singular  and  plural,  from  one  another, 
the  nominative  forming  the  starting  ^int.  The  nomina- 
tive and  vocative  are  called  casus  recti,  and  the  others  ca« 
9US  ohliqui. 

There  are  five  declensions  distinguished  by  the  termi- 
nation of  the  genitive  singular,  which  ends : 

12  3  4  5 

ae  i  is  us  ct 

All  declensions  have  the  following  points  in  common : 

1.  In  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  declensions  there 
are  neuters  which  have  three  cstses  alike,  viz.,  nominative, 
accusative,  and  vocative. 

2.  .The  vocative  is  like  the  nominative,  except  in  the 
second  declension,  and  some  Greek  words  in  the  first  and 
third. 

3.  Where  no  exception  arises  fi*om  neuters,  the  accu- 
sative singular  ends  in  m. 

1  2     •  3  4  5 

am  um  em  um  em 

4.  The  genitive  plural  ends  in  um, 

1  2  3  4  5 

Srum  drum  um  uum  erum 

5.  The  dative  plural  is  in  all  declensions  like  the  ab1a« 
!iv«  plural. 

12  3  4  5 

is  U  thus       tbtu(iuhus)      ebus 

The  following  table  contains  the  terminations  of  all  thi 
ihre^declensions : 


SlNGUtAR. 

neut 

n^ut; 

1 

Nom.  a  (e,  as,  csj 

us. 

er,  um 

a,  Cf  0  c.  If 
n,  r,  s,  t,  X 

us. 

% 

es. 

G-en.  ae  (es) 

is 

us 

ei. 

Dat   ete 

0 

• 

ui 

•• 

Ace.  am  (en) 

um 

em  (im) 

um, 

u 

em 

Voc  a  fe) 

e,  er,    um 

like  nom. 

us. 

u 

cu 

Abi  a(e)  ^ 

0 

e(i) 

u 

u 

86 


LATIN  OSAHMAB. 


Plural. 

neut. 

neut. 

neut. 

Nom.ae 

*» 

a 

c*,     a  (ia) 

21^,   .  ua 

er. 

Gen.  arum 

orum 

um  (ium) 

uum 

cnn^ 

Dat.  w 

is 

thus 

ibns(ubus) 

elms. 

Ace  a 

OS, 

a 

e»,     a  (ia) 

us,     ua 

€S* 

Voc.  ae 

• 

a 

es^     a  (ia) 

us^     ua^ 

es. 

AW.   u 

• 

IS 

ibus 

ibus(Mku^) 

ebus. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 


FIRST    DECLENSION. 


[§  45.]  The  first  declension  comprises  all  nouns  wluch 
form  the  genitive  singular  in  ae.  Tne  nominative  of  gen- 
uine Latin  words  of  this  kmd  ends  in  a.  Greek  words 
in  a,  as  mtisa,  historia,  stoa,  follow  the  example  of  tlie 
Latin  ones,  and  shorten  the  final  vowel  when  it  H  long 
in  Greek.  Some  Greek  words  in  S,  as^  and  es  have  pe 
culiar  terminations  in  some  of  their  cases.  (See  Ohap. 
IX.) 


SlNGULAB. 

Nom.  vi'H,  the  way. 
Cren.  vi-ae,  of  the  way. 
Dat  t?i-ae,  to  the  way. 
Acci  vi-am,  the  way. 
Voc.  vi'H,  O  way ! 
Abl.  vi'dyfrom  the  Way. 


.  Plubal. 
Nom.  vi-ae,  the  ways. 
Gen.  vi-arum,  of  the  ways. 
Dat.  vi-tSj  to  the  ways. 
Ace.  vi-asj  the  ways. 
Voc.  vi-ae,  O  ways ! 
Abl.  vi-is,  from  flie  ways 


*  In  like  manner  are  declined,  for  example,  the  substan- 
tives barha,  causajcura,  epistola,  fossa,  hora,  rnensa,  no- 
verca,  penna,  porta,  poena,  sagitta,  silva,  stella,  uva,  victo- 
ria, and  the  adjectives  and  participles  with  thd  feminine 
termination  a ;  as,  longa,  libera,  ptdchra%  lata,  rotu^^da, 
lecta,  scripta. 

Note  l.T^An  old  form  of  the  genitive  siQgiliar  in  as  has  been  retained 
•▼en  in  the  common  langnage,  in  the  word^mi/ia,  when  compounded  witb 
pater,  mater,  fiUut,  and  fiia ;  so  that  we  say  jtaUrfamiUas,  patresfamiUas 
JUtosfamiUas.  But  the  regular  form  familiae  is  not  uncommon ;  sometimes, 
though  not  often,  we  ^na  famiUarum  in  composition  with  the  plural  of 
those  words.*  _ 

Note  2. — An  obsolete  poetical  form  of  the  genit.  sing,  is  at  for  the  diph- 
thonff  ae  or  ai,  as  in  auUu,  atirm,  pictai,  which  three  forms  occur  even  ii 
VirgU. 


*  ^Consult  Appendm  v.,  on  the  ancient  f  :rms  of  declension.  1—jlm.  Ed' 


4 


6BEEK    WORDS   OF  THE   FIRST    DECLENSION.       '    31 

N'Ote  3. — Poets  form  the  genitive  plural  of  pfttronymics  in  e$  and  4,  o' 
MTeral  compounds  in  cola  and  gena^  and  of  some  few  names  of  nations,  hy 
the  termination  um  instead  of  arum  ;  as,  Atneadum,  Dardanidumf  cotlicolumf 
terrigenum,  LapithunL  Of  a  similar  kind  are  the  genitives  tmvhorvm, 
drackntvm,  which  are  used  even  in  prose,  instead  of  amphorarum,  drachma^ 
rum.    (Comp.  ^  51.) 

Note  4. — Some  words  form  the  dativs  and  ablative  plural  in  alnu  instead 
of  i«— such  as  animaf  dea,filiaj  libertaf  nata,  mulot  tqua^  oMma — for  the  pur 
pose  of  distinguishin|^  them  from  the  dative  and  sblative  plural  of  the 
masculine  tbrms,  which  would  otherwise  be  the  same.    The  regular  ter 
mination  is,  however,  is  generally  preferred,  notwithstanding  the  possi 
bility  of  ambiguity ;  ajid  it  is  only  deabus  and  jUidbua  that  can  be  recom- 
mended, for  the  former  is  used  in  a  solemn  invocation  by  Cicero :  dis  dea?' 
busque  omnibus  ;  and  the  latter  by  Livy  (xziv.,  26),  c%im  duabus  fUatus  iwr- 
gmwus.    labertabus  frequently  occurs  in  inscriptions.    The  termination 
abus  has  remained  in  common  use  for  the  feminine  of  duo  and  ambo 
dmabus,  ambabus.* 


CHAPTER  IX. 

GREEK   WORDS    IN   6^   OS,   AND    es. 

[§  46.}  1.  In  the  dative  singular  and  throughout  tha 
plural,  week  words  in  e,  as,  and  es  do  not  differ  from  tlie 
regular  declension.  In  the  other  cases  of  the  singular 
they  are  declined  in  the  following  manner : 

Nom.  e  as  es. 

Gen.  es  ae  ae. 

Ace.  en  am  (sometimes  an)  en. 

Voc.  €   .  a  e  and  a; 

Abl.  e  a  a  and  e. 

Words  of  this  kind  in  «  are :  aloe,  crambe^  epitome,  Ow-- 
ce,  Danae'j  Phoentce;  in  as:  Aeneas^  Boreas,  Gorgias^ 
Midag,  Messias^  Satanas  ;  in  e^  .*  an^ignostes,  cometes^  dy- 
nastes^  geomitres,  pyrites^  satrSpes,  sopkistes,  Anchises,  and 

*  FThis  termination  in  abus,  however^  though  now  appearing  in  but  few 
wofos,  was  originally  the  common  ending  of  the  dative  and  ablative  plural 
of  the  first  declension,  and  was  merely  retaihed  afterward  in  a  few,  as  a 
convenient  mode  of  distinguishing  between  certain  feminines  and  mascu 
lines.  In  the  change  from  abus  to  is,  Bopp  thinks  that  there  must  havf> 
been  an  intermediate  form  tbus  after  a-bus  nad  weakened  the  stem-vowe) 
i  into  t,  and  that  this  i  was  subsequently  lengthened  as  a  compensatioi^ 
K>r  tae  removal  of  bu.  Hence  terris  would  arise  from  tern-bus,  for  terra-bus^ 
just  as  the  verb  malo  arose  from  mavolo.  (Bopp,  Vergleich.  Gram.,  p.  282. 
Besides  the  words  given  in  the  text,  many  more  occur  in  inscriptions  aria 
ancient  writers.  Thus,  we  have  Mirabus  (Gruter,  92, 1) ;  nymfahus  (Id.. 
99,  8) ;  and  also  raptabus,  paucabus,  puellabus,  pudicabuf,  porlabus,  ^U^^ms' 
Ac.  There  is,  therefore,  no  foundation  whatever  fcr  the  ojiinf  n  ^Iial 
such  forms  as  these  were  merely  brought  in  by  the  ancient  juristf  fr.r  tha 
nke  of  cdhvenient  distinction  in  testaments,  although  his  is  ms  t6d  Iv 
PIfay  {Apud  Charis.,  p.  103,  »eq.)'\—Am.  Ed, 

D 


•50     "  LATIIM    GRAMMAR. 

Thersiies,  patronymics  (i.  e.,  names  of  persons  deriveo 

from  tbeir  parents  or  ancestoi's,  see  §  245) ;  e.  g.,  Aene 

atlesf  AlcideSf  Pelldes,  PriamtdeSj  Tt/dides. 

Note. — Common  nouns,  such  as  epistola  and  jmta^  which,  on  their 
adoption  into  the  Latin  language,  exchanged  their  Greek  termination  rj  or 
tji  for  the  Latin  a,  are  treated  as  genuine  Latin  words,  and  no  longer  fol- 
low the  Greek  declension.  But  a  great  many  other  common,  as  well  as 
proDor  nouns  likewise  follow  the  Latin  declension ;  and  it  must  be  espe- 
ciafly  remarked  that  the  early  Latin  writers,  including  Cicero,  show  a 
tendency  to  Latinize  the  declension  of  those  words  which  they  have  fre- 
quent occasion  to  use.  Thus  we  prefer,  with  Cicero,  grammatica,  rhetorica, 
ditdecticaf  musicaf  to  grammatice,  rhetorke^  diaUctice^  muaicef  and  we  n^ay  say 
Creta  and  Penelopa  just  as  well  as  Hecuba  and  Helena,  although  some 
writers,  especially  the  later  poets,  with  an  afifectation  of  erudition,  pre- 
ferred Crete  and  Penelope,  But  there  is  no  fixed  law  in  this  respect.  In 
the  words  in  es  Cicero  prefers  this  Greek  lermination  to  the  Latin  a ;  e.  g., 
P^iloeteteSf  Scythes,  Perses,  sophistes^  to  Persa,  sophista,  &c.  In  the  accu  • 
sative  he  sometimes  uses  en ;  as,  Arsino^n,  Circen,  Sinopen.  (See  my  note 
on  Cic,  in  Verr  iv.,  18.)  But  although  he  would  use  the  nominative 
Sinope  for  Sinopa,  yet  he  makes  the  genitive  Sinopae  in  the  adverbial 
sense  of  "  at  Sinope,"  e.  g.,  in  RuLL,  ii.,  20.  As  to  the  practice  of  Horace, 
see  Bentley  on  Epod.^  xvii,  17. 

2.  Greek  words  in  as  commonly  take  the  accusative  an 
in  poetry,  and  Virgil  imiformly  uses  Aenean.  In  pilose 
the  Latin  am  is  much  more  frequent,  although  Livy,  too, 
has  Aenean f  and  in  Quintus  Curtius  we  not  unlfrequently 
find  the  forms  Amyntan^  ThUotan,  Perdiccan,  and  others, 
along  with  Amyntam,  Philotam^  Perdiccam. 

The  vocative  of  words  in  e«  is  usually  e,  as  in  Virgil : 
ConjugiOf  Anchise,  Veneris  dignate  superho  ;  but  the  Latin 
vocative  in  a  also  occurs  frequently,  e.-g.,  at  the  end  of  an 
\iexameter  in  Horace,  Serm,  ii.,  3, 187 :  Atriddf  vetas  curl 
and  in  Cicero :  Aeeta,  Thyesta  !  The  vocative  in  a  sel- 
dom occurs,  as  in  die  oracle  mentioned  by  Cicero,  De  Di- 
vin,,  ii.,  56 :  Aio  te,  Aeacida,  Romanos  vmoere  jtpsse.* 
Words  in  es  form  their  ablative  regularly  in  5,^  e.  g.,  in 
Cicero :  de  PhUoctetay  de  Protagwa  Abderita,  The  po- 
ets, however,  sometimes  uSe  the  termination  c,  as  in  "\^r 
gil :   Uno  graditur  comttatus  Achate, 

3.  Generally  speaking,  however,  the  patronymics  in  ^5", 
genit.  ov,  are  the  only  Greek  words  that  follow  the  second 
declension ;  and  the  majority  of  proper  names  ending  in 
es  follow  the  third  declension ;  as,  Alcihiades,  MUtiades, 
Xerxes.  But  many  of  them  form  the  accusative  singular 
in  en  (as  Euphraten,  Mithridaten,  PhraatenJ,  and  the  voc- 
ative in  e,  together  with  the  forms  of  the  third  declension 
m  em  and  es.     (See  Chap.  XVI.) 

■  [The  a  is  here  lengthened  by  the  arsit.l — Am.  Ed. 


FIRST    AND    (SECOND    DECLENSIONS.  39 

A'oie. — The  word  satrapes  (aarpuTnjCi  ov)  is  best  declined  after  the  first 
dec  ension ;  but  no  ei^ample  of  the  genit.  sing,  being  •atrapae  is  Known : 
Nepos  {Lysand.,  4)  uses  satrapis.  This  does  not  necessanly  presuppose 
the  existence  of  a  nominative  satraps^  which  occurs  only  in  later  times, 
but  may  be  the  same  as  MiUiades^  genitive  Miltiadis,  Instances  of  the 
dative  satrapae,  accus.  satrapieriy  and  abiat.  satrapif  occur  in  other  writers,  as 
well  as  in  the  correct  texts  of  Q.  Curtius.  The  form  tatrapem  must  be 
rejected;  but  the  Latin  form  satrapam  may  be  used.  Tne  plural  is 
throughout  after  the  first  declension,  fUrapae^  sdtraparum^  &c. 


CHAPTER  X. 

.     GENDER    OF    THE    NOUNS    OF    THE    FIRST    DECLENSION. 

[§  47.]  Nouns  in  a  and  e  are  feminine,  and  those  in  as 

and  es  (being  cbiefly  names  of  men)  are  masculine. 

Note.— Nouna  denotiiig  male  beings  are  of  course  masculine,  though 
they  end  in  a  ;  as,  ovriga,  coUegaf  nauta^  parricidal  poSta,  scriba.  Names  of 
rivers  in  a,  such  as  Gantmnaf  2Ve6ui,  SequanOf  Himera  ho  be  distinguished 
from  the  town  of  the  same  name\  and  Uadria  (the  Aoriatic),  are  mascu- 
line, according  to  the  general  rule.  (See  Chap.  Yl.)  The  three  rivers 
Allia,  AUnda,  and  Matrona,  however,  are  feminine.  Cometa  snd  planeta, 
which  are  usually  mentioned  as  masculines,  do  not  occur  in  ancient 
writers,  who  alv^ys  use  the  Greek  forms  cometf*^  planetes;  but  cometa 
«nd  pUmUa  would,  according  to  analogy,  be  masculine. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


SECOND     DECLENSION. 


[§  48.]  All  nouns  which  form  the  genitive  singular  in 
i  belong  to  the  second  declension.  The  greater  part  of 
them  end  in  the  nominative  in  us,  the  neuters  in  um  ;  some 
in  er,  and  only  one  in  ir,  viz.,  vir,  with  its  compounds,  to 
which  we  must  add  the  proper  name,  TVevir.  There  is 
only  one  word  ending  in  ur,  viz.,  the  adjective  satur,  sa- 
tura,  satdftum,^ 

*  [Originally  this  declension  had  but  two  terminations,  us  for  the  mas- 
culine and  feminine,  and  vm  for  the  neuter.  All  the  forms,  therefore,  be- 
longing to  this  declension,  wMch  subsequently  ended  in  er,  tr,  or  wr,  ter- 
minate in  early  Latin  in  ems,  inu^  una.  This  is  plain  from  the  remain 
of  the  early  language  that  have  reached  us,  as  well  as  from  other  sources. 
Thns,  in  Plautos  (3fen.  v.,  6,  84)  we  have  aocenu  instead  of  eocer.  The 
Mme  writer,  and  others  also,  employ  the  vocative  form  puere,  which  sup- 
poses, of  coarse,  a  nominative  puems.  In  later  Latin  we  have  even  Siler 
and  Silenu  both  occurring,  the  former  in  Lucan^  ii.,  426 ;  the  latter  in 
Pomponiui  JtfeZa,  ii.,  4,  9 ;  and  with  these  we  may  compare  Vegver  and 
Vetperu*.  That  the  Latin  vir  arose  from  virus  is  also  highly  piobable,  and 
is  in  some  degree  confirmed  by  the  existence  of  tnVa,  as  a  feminine,  in  ear 
ier  Latinity.    (Festus,  s.  v.  Querquetulanse      Serv.  ad  Virg.  ^f2n ,  xii. 


40 


LATIN   GRAMMAR. 


Tho  genitive  of  those  in  us  and  um  is  formed  by  chan 
ging  these  terminations  into  i.  The  vocative  of  words  ia 
us  ends  in  e;  as,  Ofdix  anne,  O  happy  year !  In  all  othei 
cases  the  vocative  is  like  the  nominative. 


SiNOULAR. 

Nom.  gladi-us,  the.  sword. 
Gen.   gladi-if  of  the  sword. 

Dat.    gladi'O,  to  the  sword. 
Ace.    gladi-urrit  the  sword. 
Voc.    gladi-e,  O  sword ! 
Abl.    gladi'O,     from      the 
sword. 


Plural. 
Nom.  gladi-tf  the  swords. 
Gen.  gladt'Orum,     of    the 

swords. 
Dat.    gladt'ts,  to  the  swords. 
'Ace.    gladi'OSf  the  swords. 
Voc.    gladi-x,  O  swords ! 
Abl.     gladi'ts,     from     the 

swords. 

The  neuters  in  um  ai*e  declined  in  the  same  way ;  but 
in  the  plural  they  have  the  termination  a,  and  the  nomina- 
tive, accusative,  and  vocative  are  alike  in  the  singular  as 
well  as  in  the  plural. 

Plural. 
Nom.  scamn-df  the  benches. 


Singular. 

Nom.  scamn-unif  the  bench. 
Gen.  scamn-if  of  the  bench. 


Gen.  scamn-arum,    of    the 

benches. 
Dat.   scamn  -  Is^      to      the 

benches. 
Ace.  scamn-df  the  benches. 
Voc.  scamr^'d,  O  benches ! 
Abl.  scamn-iSf     from     the 

benches. 


Dat.   scamn-o,  to  the  bench. 

Ace.  scamn-um,  the  bench. 
Voc.  scamn-um^  O  bench  ! 
Abl    scamn-Oy     from      the 
bench. 

Vir  and  its  compounds,  as  well  as  satur^  simply  add  the 
erminations  of  the  different  cases  to  the  nominative. 

Some  of  the  words  in  er  are  likewise  declined  by  mere- 
ly adding  the  terminations  to  the  nominative ;  B&^puer^pu- 
er-ij  puer-Oy  puer-um^  jmer-orum,  puer-is,  puer-os  ;  others 
reject  the  short  e  in  the  oblique  cases ;  as,  liber  (a  book), 
libr4,  libr-o,  liifr-um,  &c.  Those  which  retain  tho  e  are 
not  very  numerous,  viz.,  adulter^  gener^  puer,  socer^  vesper 
Liber  (the  god  Bacchus),  and  liberi  (the  children,  only  in 

68.)  So  Iber  is  only  shortened  from  Ibenu,  and  »atur  from  satttms,  &c. 
Many  Greek  words  likewise  appear  in  Latin  shorn  of  their  appropriate  ter< 
mination;  as,  &yp6c  (agrust  agents),  agar;  "EiiavdpoCt  (EuandruSf)  Ewmder, 
&c.  It  may  be  adied  that,  in  most  words  of  this  class,  the  e  in  the  middlf 
is  syncopated ;  as,  liber,  libri ;  ager,  agri.  That  this  is  a  true  syncope  ii 
clearly  shown  by  dexter,  gen.  dexteri  and  dextri     (Sfruve.  iiber  die   Lm. 

^eclin.,  &c.,  p.  11  )]— ilm.  Ed. 


riRST    AND   tJLCOiVD  DECLENSIONS.  41 

the  plural) ;  the  adjectives  aaper^  lacer^  liber  (free),  miser, 
prosper^  and  tener.  To  these  we  must  add  the-  compoundjf 
oi  Jerre  and  gerere;  bs^  Lucifer^  armiger,  and  the  worda 
presbyter^  Iber^  and  Celtiber  (plural  CeltiberiJ^  The  adjec 
dve  dexter  has  hoth  forms,  dextera  and  dextra^  dexterum  and 
dextrum^  although  the  elision  of  the  e  is  more  frequent. 

[^  49.]  Note  1. — The  genitive  of  nouDs,  both  proper  and  common,  in  ius 
and  hmit  in  the  best  age  of  the  Latin  language,  was  not  ii,  but  i;  as,^! 
ioxfiliit  and,  |n  like  manner,  yl^ipt,  ingem,  imperii  amsitif  negoti.  So,  at  least, 
«t  was  pronounced  in  the  poets  before  and  during  the  Augustan  age,  as  in 
Virgil,  Horace,  and  Tibulius.  Propertius  is  the  first  who,  in  a  few  in- 
stances, has  u,  which  occurs  frequently  in  Ovid ;  and  in  the  later  poets, 
who  preferred  regularity  of  formation  to  euphonv,  it  is  quite  common. 
(See  Bentlev  on  Terence,  Andr.^  ii.,  1,  20.)  With  regard  to  poets,  the 
metre  must  detenmne  this  pomt ;  and  it  was  in  consequence  of  the  metre 
that  Lucretius  (v.,  1004),  though  one  of  the  early  poets,  wrote  namgii,  be- 
cause oUierwise  the  word  would  not  have  suited  the  hexameter,  but  the 
orthography  of  prose  writers  who  lived  before  the  Augustan  age  is  doub 
fui,  on  account  of  the  great  discrepancy  which,  on  this  point  as  on  every 
thing  connected  with  orthography,  prevails  in  th*e  MSS.,  even  in  the  most 
ancient  ones  of  Cicero,  which  nave  recently  been  discovered.  It  is,  how- 
ever, probable  that,  although  u  may  have  been,  written,  only  one  i  was 
pronounced,  as  was  always  done  in  the  words  dii  and  diis.  The  genitive 
mancqn  for  mancipiit  which  occurs  in  many  legal  expressions,  is  a  remnant 
of  the  ancient  practice,  and  remained  in  use  in  later  times.  Concerning  the 
accent  of  these  contracted  genitives,  and  of  the  vocatives  of  proper  names 
m  tut,  of  which  we  shall  speak  hereafter,  see  above,  ^  33,  and  BeVitley,  /.  c. 

Note  2. — ^The  following  nine  adjectives  or  adjectiife  pronouns,  unut, 
folu$,  totus,  yJltu,  utetf  neuter,  alter,  nullue,  and  eUms,  together  with  theii 
compounds  taenrue^  utervis,  vterlibet,  utercunque,  and  alteruter,  form  the  geni- 
tive m  all  their  three  genders  in  hu,  and  the  dative  in  i ;  in  addition  to  which, 
ufcr  and  naUer  eject  the  e  preceding  the  r.  The  t  of  this  genitiv&is  long  in 

{)ro8e«  but  in  verse  it  is  sometimes  made  short.  (See  ^  1&)  Alterius  alone 
las  the  I  short  both  in  prose  and  in  verse  (with  a  few  exceptions,  as  in 
Terence,  Andr.,  iv.,  1, 4;  see  ^  830),  according  to  the  statement  of  Prls- 
,ian,  p.  694,  958.  It  is  true  that  alterius  cannot  be  used  in  the  dactylic 
lexameter  without  the  i  being  short,  but  it  is  used  in  the  same  manner  in 
a  trochee  by  Plautos  (Ct^.,  ii,  2, 56).  There  are  only  a  few  instances  in 
which  these  words  follow  the  regular  declension.  (See  below,  ^  140.) 
[^50.]  Note  3. — The  vocative  of  proper  names  in  lv«  ends  in  i  instead  o^ 


names  in  hu  from  the  Greek  eios,  as  in  Arius,  Heraclttu ;  nor  to  thosi^ 
names  which  are  in  veality  adjectives,  and  are  used  as  proper  names  onlf 
mhsxijUiuM,  deut^  or  hiroe  is  understood,  such  as  La^iue,  the  son  oi 
Laertes,  i.  e.,  Ulysses ;  Cimthku,  Delius,  the  Cynthian  or  Delian  god,  L  c. 
Apollo;  TvrwUlmu,  the  "nrynthian  hero,  i.  e., Hercules.  All  such  won|s 
retain  i«in  tbe^ocative ;  and  in  like  manner  Phu,  when  used  as  a  proper 
name,  probably  formed  tha  vocative  Pie ;  for  all  common  nouns  and 
adjectives,  according  to  the  testimony  of  the  ancient  grammarians,  rogo* 
larly  formed  their  vocative  in  te ;  as,  mmtie,  adversarie,  impie,  although  there 
are  no  passages  in  ancient  writers  to  prove  it.  But^»iw  and  genhu  m^ks 
their  vocative  ^i,  getu,  and  meua  (though  n3t  mea  or  meum)  makof  mi 
DeuM,  in  the  vocative,  is  like  the  nominative ;  as,  O  de%t$  I  mi  deua  f* 

*  [The  form  dee,  as  a  vocative,  first  occurs  at  a  later  period,  ii   tht 
Chiistian  writers ;  as,  for  example.  Prudentvis  and  Tertullian.] — An    R4 

D2 


12  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

What  has  here  l>een  said  of  dtus  alone  is  applied  by  poets  to  othe. 
words  also:  they  not  unfrequently  imitate  the  Greeks  by  making  the  voc* 
ative  like  the  nominative,  e.  g.,  Terent.,  Phorm.y  il,  2, 10 :  O  virfortu 
utque  amicus!  Horat.,  de  Art.  Poi't,  292,  fos,  O  Pompiliiia  sangitut  Carm., 
i.,  2,  43,  almaeJUius  Maiat.  Ovid,  Fast.^  iy.,  731,  populus.  In  Livy,  too.  it 
occurs  in  some  ancient  formulas ;  as,  viii.,  9,  agedumponfifexpublictu  pojndt 
Rom. ;  and  i.,  24,  tuvopidua  Albanus ;  but  there  is  no  reason  for  doubting 
the  form  pojndef  whicn  occurs  in  other  passages. 

[^  51.]  Note  4. — The  genitive  plural  of  some  vsrords,  especially  those 
which  denote  money,  measure,  and  weight,  is  commonly  um*  instead  of 
orum,  particularly  raunmumyxestertmmf  denarium,  cadum^  nudininum^^modittm^ 
ju^erumf  talentum.  Nummum  is  commonly  used  in  this  y/Rj  in  connexion 
with  numerals;  whereas  otherwise,  when  it  merely  denotes  money  in 
general,  nummorum  is  the  usual  form,  e.  g.,  tantum  nummanan^  acervi  num- 
morum.  There  are  some  other  words  in  which  this  is  the  usual  form  in 
certain  combinations,  such  as  praefectusfcJirum.,  or  socitun,  from  faber  and 
nociits  ;  so,  also,  duumvirumt  trtttjnvirumf  decemvirttnu  lAberi  and  deus  have 
both  forms,  Hbfrorvm^  deorvm,  and  Uberuni,  deum.  Poets  indulge  in  still 
greater  licenses,  especially  v^ith  names  of  nations ;  they  say,  e.  g.,  Argi- 
tmm,  Danaumf  Poenwn%  &c.,  instead  of  Argivonmif  Danaorum,  Poenorum, 
and  in  Livy  we  find  Celtiberum^  as  well  as  Celtiberorum.  We  might  point 
out  several  more  isolated  peculiarities  of  this  kind ;  as,  q)horum  in  Corn. 
Nepos,  Agesil.^  4.  Respecting  the  genitive  of  numerals  (cardinal,  and 
especially  distributive  numerals),  see  below,  Chap.  XXIX.  and  XXX. 

Note  5. — Detu  has  thj^e  forms  in  the  nom.  and  ablat  jMur.,  viz.,  deif  dii, 
and  diy  and  dew,  dUst  and  die.  The  forms  in  t  are  the  most  usual,  and  in 
reality  only  one  of  them,  since  dii  and  diis  were  pronounced  as  monosylla- 
bles (Priscian,  p.  737),  and  are  most  frequently  lound  thus  spelled  in  th« 
ancient  MSS. 

The  following  words  may  serve  as  exercises  of  decleti  • 
«ion:  Anntis,  year;  corvus^  raven;  hortus^  garden;  lectus^ 
bed  ;  medictis^  physician ;  morbus^  illness ;  nuntius^  mes- 
senger^ populus^  people;  rivus^  brook;  taurus^  bull;  ven-^ 
t'us,  wind.  Neuters  in  um :  Astrum,  star ;  heUum,  War ; 
collum,  neck ;  dolium^  cask ;  dovi^m^  present ;  memhrum^ 
limb ;  negotium^  business ;  ovum^  egg ;  poculum,  cup ;  proe-  * 
Hum,  battle ;  sepulcrum,  sepulchre;  signunij  sign ;  tcrgum, 
back ;  vinculum^  fetter.  Those  in  er,  genit.  m,  have  been 
mentioned  above.  -  The  following  are  the  most  common 
among  those  which  reject  the  e  before  the  r :  Ager^  field ; 
aper,  boar ;  arbiter^  arbitrator ;  ouster ^  south  wind ;  cancer^ 
cancer,  or  crab ;  coluber^  snake ;  cutter^  knife ;  faher^  work- 
man liber,  book;  magister^  teacher;  minister^  servant. 
To  these  must  bo  added  the  proper  names  in  er,  e.  g.,  Al- 

ixandeff  genit.  Alexandri.     The  adjectives  which  reject 

■ 

*  We  do  not  write  i2m,  as  is  done  in  most  editions,  foi  several  reasons : 
1.  Because  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  form  arose  from  contraction;  2.  Be- 
cause, according  to  the  testimony  of  the  ancient  grammarians,  no  final 
syllable  in  m  with  a  vowel  before  it  is  long  (which  would  be  implied  in 
tne  circumflex),  whence  no  one  would  be  able  to  distingrish  by  his  eta 
such  a  genitive  as  i\itmmum  from  the  accus.  sing.,  as  QuintiliaUi  i.,  6,  l'^ 
tttests;  and,  3.  Because  no  accents  are  used  in  Latin. 


,)    • 


GREEK    WORDS    OP  TUB   SECOND   DECLENSION.        43 

t!i^  e  aie  aeger^  ater^  creher,  glahtr^  macer^  niger,  piger, 
impigcr,  ptilc/ier,  ruber^  sacer^  scaher^  sinister,  taeier. 
v€^er^ 


CHAPTER  XII. 

'^  6REEK   WORPS   OF   THE    SECOND   DECLENSION. 

[§  52.]  Greek  words  in  09  and  neuters  in  ov,  which 
msJ^e  ov  in  the  genitive,  are  commonly  Latinized  in  the 
nominative  by  the  terminations  us  and  um^  such  as  the 
common  BOuriS  taurus,  antrum  f  theatrum,  and  the  proper 
.  names  Homerus,  P^rhus,  Corinthus.  Other  common 
DounSy  which  are  more  rarely  used,  admit  of  both  termi- 
^  nations  in  the  nominative;  os^arctos  and  arctus,  harhitos 

and  barhitus,  scorpios  and  scarpius ;  and  this  is  still  more 
firequently  the  case  in  proper  names,  so  that,  e.  g.,  Paros, 
DeioSf  Isthmos,  and  Hian  are  used  along  with  Parus,  Dc' 
lus.  Isthmus,  and  Ilium.  Generally  speaking,  however, 
the  Greek  forms  belong  more  particularly  to  poets  and 
the  later  prose  writers.  Greek  names  in  pog,  with  a  con- 
sonant before  it,  sometimes  become  Latinized  by  the  ter- 
mination er,  and  sometimes  they  change  pog  into  rtis,  and 
mako  their  vocative  in  c.  The  former  takes  place  in  by 
far  the  greater  number  of  cases,  e.  g.,  Alexander,  Maean- 
dcr,  Teucer  ;  the  only  instances  in  which  the  terminc^tion 
n«  is  found  are,  Codrus^  Hebrus,  Locrus,  Petrus,*  In  the 
compounds  of  [drpov,  and  a  few  others,  both  forms  are 
used,  as  hexameter  and  hexariietrus,  though  the  latter  oc- 
curs more  frequently.  Words  cmding  in  os  in  the  nomi- 
native may  make  the  accusative  in  on  instead  of  um ;  as, 
Delon,  Bosporon^  Tarson,  The  nominative  plural  some- 
times ends  in  oe  (the  Grreek  diphthong  ot),  as  in  canepho" 
roe,  Cicero,  in  Verr,^  iv.,  3,  8;  Locroe,  Quintil.,  x.,  X,  70  T 

*  [To  these  Schneider  subjoins  Myriandrua^  Antandrus,  hydrus,  amphi 
macrus,  diametrus,  and  perimetnu.    {L.  O.,  vol.  iii,  p.  75.)] — Am.  Ed. 

f  [This  ending  belongs  properly  to  the  earlier  state  of  the  language. 
Thus,  in  Plautus  (Caa.prolf  31)  we  have  derumewt^  and  also  {Poen.y  i., 
1, 9)  UrtB.  In  many  MSS.,  too,  the  Comedy  of  Terence  which  we  enti- 
tle Adelpku  is  called  Adelpkoe.  Besides  Cicero  and  Quintilian,  however, 
we  find  it  m  Nepos  {Miltiad.,  iv.,  3),  hanerodroma;  in  Pliny  {H.  N.,  37,  10), 
Mcb;  and  most  frequently  in  the  names  of  nations  and  cities;  as.  Selim 
iMcan,  iii.,  180);  Holmn  {PUn.,  H.  N.,  v.,  27);  Arimaspa  {Pomp.  Mda,  ii, 
i,  2),  &c     (Consult  Schmidtr,  L.  G?.,  vol.'iii.,  p.  82,  $eq.)}—A7n.  Ei* 


44  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

The  genitive  plural  in  on,  instead  of  orum^  occurs  in  the 
titles  of  books,  such  as  Bticolicon,  Georgican,* 

2.  Greek  proper  names  in  ovg,  contracted  &om  oof,  are 
in  Latin  either  resolved  into  ous  or  end  in  us;  as,  Alcmdu9^ 
Aristonus^  Panthus,  The  vocative  of  the  latter  form  isu; 
as,  Pantku. 

3.  Some  Greek  proper  names  in  gh;^  vtrhich  in  Greek 
follow  the  second  Attic  declension  (as,  AthoSj  Ceos^  Cos 
TeosJ^  in  Latin  either  follow  the  Greek  declensioii,  e.  g., 
Athosi  gen.  and  dat.  Atho,  accus.  Atho  or  Athon  ;  or  they 
take  the  Latin  form;  as,  Tyndareus  for  TyndarebSy  and 
Cous  (for  Cos^  Kwf ),  Coo,  Coum,  ablat.  Co,  e.  g.,  in  Co  in" 
sula,  Athos,  however,  is  also  declined  as  a  noun  of  the 
third  declension  with  the  nominative  AtJion  or  Atho — 
Athonem,  Athone, 

4.  Greek  words  in  tvg  of  the  third  Greek  declension, 
such  as  Orpheus,  Idomeneiis,  Pkalereus,  Prometheus,  were 
pronounced  in  Latin  sometimes  "ms,  as  one  syllable,  and 
sometimes  eus.  The  best  way  is  to  make  them  follow 
entirely  the  second  Ladn  declension;  as,  Orphei,  Otpheo, 
Orpheum,  with  the  exception  of  the  vocative,  which  (ac- 
cording to  the  Greek  third  declension)  ends  in  eu.  The 
Greek  terminations,  gen.  eos,  dat.  ei  (contracted  Ti),  accus. 
ca,t  are  chiefly  found  in  poetry ;  but  the  accusative  is 
frequent  also  with  prose  vmters,  though  Cicero  (ad  Att,, 
viL,  3)  does  not  approve  of  it ;  as,  Phalerea,  Promethea, 
Tj/dea.  The  terminations  ei,  eo,  ea  are  sometimes  con- 
tracted by  poets  into  a  diphthong,  because  the  metre  re- 
quires it.  (See  above,  §  11.)  Horace  makes  the*  genitive 
of  AchiUcs  and  Ulixes — Ashillei,  Ulixei,  or  contracted 
Achillei,  TJlixei,  as  though  the  nominative  still  ended  in 
evg.  The  name  Perseus  is  usually  formed  by  Cicero  af- 
ter the  first  declension :  nom.  Perses,  gen.  and  dat.  Per- 
sae,  ace.  Persen,  abl.  Perse  and  Pers4.  Livy  preferred 
the  second  declension :  Persetts,  Persei,  Perseo  (rarely 
Persi,  according  to  the  third,  like  the  Greek  Hepael),  but 
in  the  accusative  he  has  more  frequently  Persea  than  Per* 

teum, 

.  ■■       ■  ■ 1  •        ■   • 

*  [And  in  some  unusual  geographical  names ;  as,  Cohnia  Ther<Bon  {Sail,, 
Jug.,  xix.,  3)  ;  Philenon  ara  {id.  ifiw)  ;  TegestrcBon  (Pwc,  Perieg^  375.)]-» 
A.1H.  Ed, 

t  In  83m«  words  also  ea,  if  the  verse  requires  it ;  as,  Idomenea,  IlkmH 
fa  and  ea  are  Ionic  forms,  tad  the  Attic  ea  is  not  customary  in  Latin 


SENDEE  or  NOUMS  OP  8BOOMD  DECLENSION.    45 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

GENDER   OP.  THE   NOUNS    OP   THE    SECOND   DECLENSION. 

[§  53.]  1.  N.UNS  in  us,  er^  sxid ir  are  masculine;  tlioso 
m  um,  and  the  Greek  nouns  in  on^  are  neuter. 

2.  Of  those  in  t«,  however,  the  following  are  feminine: 
the  names  of  plants  and  precious  stones,  as  well  as  those 
of  towns  and  islands,  with  a  few  exceptions.  (See  aboTe, 
§  39.)  It  must  be  observed  that  in  many  cases  where  the 
name  of  a  tree  ends  in  us  fem.,  there  is  a  form  in  um  de- 
noting  the  finit  of  the  tree,  e.  g.,  cerasus^  cerasum ;  malus^ 
malum;  TMyrus^  morum;  pirusy pirum ;  prunt£s,prunum; 
pomzts^  pomum  ;  hut  Jlcus  signifies  both  the  tree  and  the 
fruit.  There  are  only  four  other  genuine  Latin  words  in 
us  which  are  feminine,  viz.,  alvtis,  humus,  vannus,  and  co- 
lus^  which,  however,  is  sometimes  declined  after  the  fourth 
declension,  gen.  us,  Pampinus,  a  bi'anch  of  a  vine,  is 
rarely  feminine,  but  commonly  masculine.  Virtis  (juice 
or  poison)  BJid  pelagus  {rd  TveXayog,  the  sea)  are  neuter. 
Vfdgtis  (the  people)  is  sometimes  masculine,  but  more  fre- 
quently neuter. 

[J  54.]  Note. — With  regard  to  the  numerous  Greek  f^minines  in  us  (or  os) 
which  have  been  adopted  into  the  Latin  language,  such  as  the  compounds 
of  ff  66of :  exoditSf  methlodus'  perwdiis,  and  sytwduSf  the  student  must  be  re« 
ferred  to  his  Greek  grammar,  for  the  Latin  differs  in  this  respect  from  the 
Greek.  The  words  hihlusy  and  papyrus  f the  Egyptian  papyrus),  bytms^ 
and  carbasu9  (a  fine  flax  and  the  linen  maae  out  of  it),  kre  feminine,  being 
names  of  plants ;  but  they  retain  this  gender  also  when  the^r  denote  things 
manufactured  from  them.  PharuSf  being  the  name  of  an  island,  is  femi- 
nine ;  but  it  is  also  feminine  in  the  sense  of  a  light-house,  which  meaning 
it  obtained  from  the  fact  of  the  first  light-house  being  built  in  that  island 
near  Alexandria;  it  is,  however,  now  and  then  used  as  a  inasculin9 
(Sueton.,  Claud.,  20).  Arctua  {oa\  denoting  a  bear,  is  properly  both  masc. 
and  fern. ;  but  as  ^e  name  of  a  constellation,  it  is  in  Latin  always  femi- 
,  nine.  Barbitus  faiyre),  or  barbuos,  is  ^emetimes  used  as  fem.  and  some- 
times as  masc.,  \mt  we  also  find  hoc  barb^ton. 

We  must  notice  here  especially  a  number  of  words  which  in  Greek  are 
properly  adjectives,  and  are  used  as  feminine  substantives,  because  a  sub- 
stantive of  this  gender  is  understood.  Such  words  are :  abyssus,  atomus, 
diaUctUM,  difhtlwnguSf  eremut,  paragraphus^  diornietnu,  and  perimitrus,  the 
last  two  of  which,  however,  are  used  by  Latin  writers  also  with  the  Greek 
tenninatioi:  o«.  For  the  subctantives  understood  in  these  cases,  see  the 
Greek  Granmiar.  As  different  substantives  may  be  understood,  we  have 
both  aw^aUut  and  antidlotuni.  The  word  epodua  also  belongs  to  this  class, 
tat  its  gender  varies  according  to  its  different  meanings :  when  it  denotet 
a  lyric  epilogue,  it  is  feminine ;  when  it  denotes  a  shorter  iambic  verse 
■Iter  a  longer  one,  or  when  it  is  the  name  of  the  peculiar  species  of  Ilorft 
tian  poetry,  it  is  masculine.  "^ 


Kl  LATIN    GRAMMAE. 


CHAPTER  XTV. 

THIRD   DECLENSION.— aENITlf]^ 

[§  55,]  Nouns  of  the  third  declension  form  their  goni 
rive  in  is.  The  nominative  has  a  great  variety  of  termi 
nations,  for  sometimes  there  is  no  particular  ending,  and 
the  nominative  itself  is  the  crude  form,*  such  as  it  usually 
appears  after  the  separation  of  the  termination  of  the  geni- 
tive ;  frequently,  however,  the  nominative  has  a  special 
ending  CsJ,  The  former  is,  generally  speaking,  the  case 
with  those  words  the  crude  form  of  which  ends  in  I  or  r, 
so  that  the  nominative  ends  in  the  same  consonants,  and 
the  genitive  is  formed  by  simply  adding  is;  e.  g.,  sol,  con- 
sulf  calcar,  agger,  auctor,  dolor,  murmur.  Words  like  pa- 
ter and  i?nber,  the  crude  form  of  which  appears  in  the 
genitive  and  ends  in  r,  with  a  consonant  before  it,  aspatr-is. 
imbr-is^  admit  of  a  double  explanation :  either  the  nomi- 
native was  increased  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  the 
pronunciation,  or  the  genitive  rejected  the  short  e ;  the 
former,  however,  is  the  more  probable  supposition.  Id 
some  words  the  nominative  has  s  instead  of  r ;  ns,j/los,  gen. 
fior-is;  telltis^  tdlur-is ;  in  addition  to  which  the  vowel 
sometimes  undergoes  a  change,  as^in  carjms,  corpor-is ; 
onu^,  oner-is.  When  the  crude  form  ends  in  n,  with  a 
vowel  before  it,  the  formation  of  the  nominative  is  like- 
wise accompai\ied  by  changes :  on  throws  off  the  n,  and 
f»  becomes  en^  or  is  changed  into  o.  Thus,  leo  is  made 
from  leon  (leon-is)^  carmen  from  carmin  (carmin-is)^  and 
virgo  from,  virgin  (virgin-is.)  Only  when  the  genitive 
ends  ui'^nis,  the  nominative  retains  in,  as  in  lien-is,  lien, 
2.  The  particular  termination  which  the  i^minative  re- 
ceives in  other  cases  is  e  for  neuters ;  as,  mar-is,  mar-e^ 
and  *,  or  x,  which  arises  out  of  s,  for  masculines  and  femi 
nines.  This  *  is  sometimes  added  to  the  final  consonan* 
of  the  crude  form  without  any  change,  as  in  urh-is^  urb-s, 

*  [See  some  excellent  remarks  on  the  crude  forms  ot  nouns,  in  AUen't 
Etymological  Analysis  of  Latin  Verbs,  p.  8,  seqq.  As  every  crude  /bm 
must  end  either  in  a  consonant  or  a  vowel  (a,  e,i,  o,  w),  we  have  the  more 
philosophical  arrangement  of  the  consonant-declension  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  a-declension,  e-declension,  t-declension,  o^leclension,  and  u-declen* 
non  on  the  other.  The  term  crude  form  was  first  employed,  as  is  thougVtt 
by  Bopp,  in  the  Annals  ofXhiental  lAterature,  vol.  \.')f—Ani.  Ed, 


TUIRD  -DECLGM^ION  -^ENlTtVE.  41 

duc'is,  dux  (dues J  ;  legis^  lex  (legs) ,  when  the  crude  form 
ends  in  d  or  t,  these  consonants  are  dropped  before  the 
ff/  e.  g,f  Jrond-is,  Jrons  ;  numt-is^  tn&ns  ;  aetat-U,  aetds  ; 
seget-iSf  seges;  in  addition  to  this  the  vowel  i,  also,  is  some- 
times  changed  into  ^,  as  in  mUU-is,  milis ;  jtidtc-iSf  judex. 
In  all  thes^  cases  where  the  nominative  is  formed  by  the 
addition  of  an  «  to  the  final  consonant  of  the  crude  form, 
the  nominative  has  one  syllable  less  than  the  genitive,  or, 
in  other  words^  the  s  assumes  an  6  or  f  before  it,  and  then' 
the  nominative  has  the  same  number  of  syllables  as  the 
genitive,  or,  in  case  the  nominative  assumes  t,  both  cases 
are  quite  the  same ;  e.  g.,  nub-es^  civ-is f  pan-is. 

These  are  the  most  essential  points  in  the  formation  of 
the  nominative  in  the  third  declension.  We  shall  now 
proceed  to  the  particulars,  taking  the  nominative,  as  is 
the  usual  practice,  as  the  case  given,  and  we  shall  point 
out  in  what  way  the  genitive  is  iR)rmed  from  it. 

[§  56.]  1.  The  nouns  in  a,  which  are  neuters  of  Greek 
origin,  make  their  genitive  in  ads ;  as,  po'ema^  j?oemdtis^ 

2.  Those  in  e  change  e  into  is ;  as,  mare^  maris ;  Prat* 
neste,  Praenestis^  and  probably  also  caepe^  caepis^iav  which, 
however,  there  is  also  the  form  cepa^  ae, 

3.  The  nouns  in  i  and  y  are  Greek  neuters.  Some  of 
them  are  indeclinable;  as,  gummi;  and  others  have  the 
regular  genitive  in  is;  ns^sinapifdnapis  (there  is,  however, 
a  second  nominative  in  if ,  as  in  several  other  words  end- 
ing in  i,  as  haec  sijiapis) ;  misy^  misyis  and  misys  or  mis- 

'  yos.  The  compounds  of  meli  (honey)  alone  make  their 
genitive  according  to  the  Greek  in  ttis;  aa^melomeli^melcr' 
melttis, 

4.  Those  in  o  (common)  add  nis  to  form  the  genitive, 
sometimes  only  lengthening  the  Oj  and  sometimes  chan- 
ging it  into  i.  Of  the  former  kind  are  carho,  latro^  leo,  ligo^ 
pavo^praedojsermo;  and  all  those  ending  in  io;  oa^actio^ 
dictio^  pugw.  Of  the  latter  kind  (genit.  tnisj  are  all  ab- 
stract nouns  in  do;  as,  consuetude^  mis  ;  most  nouns  in  go  ; 
as, tmago^  virgo^  origo  ;  and  a  few  otners ;  as,  cardo^  hirundo, 
turbo^  homo^  nemo.  Caro  has  camis.  The  names  of  na- 
tions in  o  have  this  vowel  mostly  short;  as,  Macedones^  Se- 
nmes,  Saxones ;  it  is  long  only  in  lanes,  Lacones,  Nasa* 
mones^  Suessones^  and  VettoTies. 

5.  The  only  nouns  ending  in  c  are  alec  or  allec,  allex, 
fen.  aUecis  ;  and  lac,  gen.  lactis. 


%H  LAI  IN    GRAMMAB.    • 

C.  Nouns  ending  in  I  form  the  genitive  by  nierely  add 
ing  isj  such  as  sol,  sal^  canstd,  pugil,  animal.  Mel  haa 
inellUf  and  in  plur.  ntdla;  jfel  hasjcllis,  but  is  without  a 
plural. 

7.  Those  in  en  (which  are  all  neuters,  with  the  excep- 
tion ofpectenj  make  inis;  mfCarmenyJlmnen,  lumenrnomen. 
Those  in  en  retain  the  long  e  and  have  enis;  but  there  aiv 
only  two  genuine  Latin  woi'ds  of  this  kind,  ren  and  lien  ; 
for  lichen,  splen,  and  attagen  are  ofGreek  origin. 

Greek  worda  in  an,  en,  in^  yn,  and  on  follow  the  Greek 
rules  in  regard  to  the  length  or  shortness  of  the  vowel, 
and  also  in  regard  to  the  insertion  of  a  ^  .•  Paean^  Pae* 
dnis ;  Siren  and  Troezen^  enis;  Philopoemen^  Philopoe- 
menis;  JEletcsin,  Eleustnis ;  Phorcyn,  Phorcynis ;  agon^ 
agonis ;  canon,  canonis ;  Cimon,  Cimbnis ;  MaratJwn^ 
mis;  Xenophon,  Xenophontis,  It  is,  however,  to  be  ob- 
served that  very  few  Greek  words  in  wv,  wvo^  (except 
names  of  towns)  have  in  Latin  the  nominative  on^  but 
generally  o.  Thus  we  always  read  Hiero,  Laco,  Plato, 
Zeno,  and  in  Cicero^  also  Dio  and  Solo  ;  in  the  poets,  on 
the  odier  hand,  and  in  Nepos  and  Curtius  among  the 
prose  vmters,  we  find  several  nominatives  in  on;  as,  Conon, 
Dion,  Phocion,  Hephaestion,  The  name  Apollo  is  com- 
pletely Latinized,  and  makes  the  genit.  ApolUnis,  Those 
in  (ov,  (OVTO^  vary,  and  we  find  Antipho  without  the  n, 
though  most  end  in  on;  OByXenophon.  Those  in  uiv,  ovog, 
and  wv,  ovTog,  usually  retain  in  Latin  the  same  nomina- 
tive in  on^  but  we  always  find  Macedo^  and  never  Maccdon. 

[§  ^7.]  8.  Those  ending  in  r  must  be  distinguished  ac- 
cording to  the  vowel  which  precedes  it:  they  may  end  in 
ar,  er,  yr,  or,  or  ur. 

fa)  Those  in  ar  have  sometimes  oris,  as.  in  calcar,  lutnir, 
pulvinar,  t&rcular,  and  Nar;  and  sometimes  Sris;  as,  hoc- 
car^juhar,  nectar j  Idr  (plur.  lares J^  par,  and  its  compounds 
(e.  g.,  impar,  impdris),  and  the  proper  names  Ccesar,  Ha- 
milcar^  and  Arar,  But  Lar,  or  Lars^  the  Etniscan  title, 
has  Itartxs,  Far  makes  its  genitive  farris^  and  hepar^ 
hepStis, 

(h)  Many  of  the  Latin  words  in  er  make  eris ;  as,  agger ^ 
aggeris;  mtdier,  mulieris.  &c.,  and  the  adjectives  jpaw^cr 
and  tther.  Others  drop  the  short  e ;  as,  (or  instance,  all 
those  ending  in  ter  (e.  g.,  venter,  uter,  pater J^  with  the  ex- 
r«ption  of  later ^  and  the  words  tmher,  September^  October^ 


THIRD   DECLENSION. GENII  IVE.  40 

NovemhcTf. December.  Iter  makes  its  genit  (from  a  dif 
ferent  nominat.)  itineris. '  Juppiter  (JbvV  pater)  makes  tb# 
genitive  Jam*,  without  the  addition  of 2fatris.  Greek  wordt 
in  er  follow  the  rules  of  the  Greek  language,  whence  we 
say  crater,  eris ;  aer,  aeris,  Ver  (the  spring),  geni  veris^ 
originally  belonged  to  the  same  class. 

fcj  Nouns  ending  in  yr  are  Greek,  and  follow  the  rule? 
of  the  Greek  Grammar :  martyr,  martyru. 

(d)  Those  in  or  have  oris;  as,  am^or,  error,  soror ;  bui 
arhor^  the  three  neuters  ador^  aeguor,  Tnarmor,  and  the  ad- 
jective memor,  have  oris.  Cor  has  cordis^  and  so  also  in 
the  compounded  adjectives  concors^  discors,  misericors. 
Greek  proper  names,  such  as  Hector^  Nestor,  and  others, 
have  oris,  as  in  Greek. 

(e)  Those  in  ur  have  uris,  e.  g^^fulgur,  vultur,  and  the 
adject,  cicur.  Fur  (a  thief)  alone  has /wrw  /  and  the  four 
neuters  ehur,  femur ^je<Mr,  and  robur  nave  oris^  as  eboris^ 
roboris,  Jecur  has,  besides  jecoris,  also  the  forms  jesci- 
noris,  Jocifunis,  and  jocineris, 

[§  58.]  9.  Those  ending  in  *  are  very  numerous;  they 
may  terminate  in  as,  c*,  is,  os,  us,  aus,  or  in  s,  with  a  con- 
sonant preceding  it. 

faj  Those  in  as  form  their  genitive  in  Ais ;  as,  aet<is^ 
aetdtis.  Anas  alone  has  anatis ;  wus  has  maris ;  vas 
(ft  surety),  vadis ;  vds  (a  vessel),  vdsis,  and  as^  dssis. 
The  Greek  words  vkry  according  to  their  gender ;  the 
masculines  make  antis^  the  femiuines  adis,  and  the  neuters 
Otis,  (See  the  Greek  Grammar.)  Consequently,  Pallas, 
the  name  of  a  male  being,  has  the  genit.  Pallantis,  like 
^gas,  gigantis  ;  as  the  name  of  the  goddess  Minerva, . 
PaUadis ;  and  artocreas  neut.  has  artocreatis, 

(b)  Those  ending  in  es  must  be  divided  into  two  classes. 
Those  belonging  to  the  first  increase  in  the  genitive,  the 
letter  d  or  t,  which  was  dropped  in  the  nominative,  be- 
ing restored  to  its  place,  and  their  termination  is  either 
Itis,  etis,  etis,ovidis,  edis,  edis.  The  genitive  in  vtis  occurs 
in  most  of  them,  as  in  antistes^  comes,  eques,  hospes,  miles ^ 
pedes,  satelles,  'caespes,fomes,  gt^X  !S,  lim£s^  merges^  palmes, 
ttipes,  and  trames,  together  with  the  adjectives  ales,  hocles^ 
dives,  sospes,  and  superstes,  in  all  of  which  the  es  is  short 
(See  §  28.)  The  following  make  their  genitive  in  etis : 
abies,  aries,  paries,  interpres,  seges,  teges,  and  the  adjec- 
tives hebes,indiges,  praepes,  and  teres.  The  genit.  in  ttis  oc 

E 


M  LATIN    GKAMMAK. 

curs  in  the  Greek  words  lebes,  tapes ^  Cebes,  MOjgnes;  u 
the  words  quies^  inquies,  requiesf  and  the  adjective  locu 
pies.     Those  which  make  idis  are,  obses^  praeses^  and  th* 
adject,  deses  and  reses.     The  genitive  in  edis  occurs  in  pes 
pedis^ '  and  its   compounds,  e.  g.,  the  plural  compedes 
Heres  and  mercesy  lastly,  make  their  genitive  in  edis.    Tht 
following  words  must  he  remembered  sepai*ately :   bes 
bessis ;    Ceres,  Cereris ;  pubes  and  impubes^  puberis  anc 
impuberis ;  but  the  forms  imptibis,  genit.  impuhis,  neut 
impube^  are  also  found.     The  proper  name  Caeres,  (from 
the  town  of  Caere) ^  has  Caeritis  and  Caentis.   The  second 
class  of  words  in  es  change  the  es  of  the  nominative  into 
1^,  without  increase,  such  as  caedes,  clades,  James,  nubes^ 
rupes ;  it  must  also  be  observed  that  several  words  be 
loneing  to  this  class  vary  in  the  termination  of  the  nomi 
native  oetween  es  and  ^$  so  that  along  vnth  fetes,  vtdpes 
vehes,  aedes,  we  also  have  vulpis,  vehis,  aedis  (see  Liv 
iv.,  25 ;  Cic.  in  Verr,,  iv-,  55) ;  and,  on  the  other  hand 
we  have  tarqtees  and  valles,  along  vnth  the  more  usual 
forms  torquis  and  vaUis, 

(c)  Most  words  in  is  form  their  genitive  in  w,  vdthou: 
any  increase ;  as,  avis,  civis,  panis,  piscis,  and  a  great  man^ 
others,  togetJiAr  with  the  adjectives  in  is,  e.  Others  in- 
crease by  one  syllable,  and  make  their  genitive  in  idiSi 
itis,  or  eris  :  idis  occurs  in  cassis,  cuspis,  tapis,  and  in  tht 
Greek  words  aegis  arid  pyramis ;  Itis  occurs  only  in  lis. 
Quins,  and  Samnis,  plur,  Quirites,  Samnites;  and  eri^ 
only  in  cinis^  cucumis,  ani-pulviSf  gen.  dneris^  cucumeris^ 
BJaa  pulveris.  Glis  has  gliris;  poUis  (the  existence  of 
which,  in  the  nominative,  cannot  be  proved,  so  that  soma 
suppose  pollen  to  have  been  the  nom.)  and  sanguis  have 
poUinis,  sanguinis  (but  the  compound  exsanguis  remains  in 
the  genit.  exsanguis)  ;  semis,  being  a  compound  of  as, 
makes  semissis.  Greek  words  which  have  the  genit.  in 
log  or  ecjg  fomv  their  .genit.  in  Latin  in  is,  witibiout  in- 
crease ;  but,  if  their  genit.  is  idog,  they  increase  in  Latin 
and  have  idis.  Of  the  former  kind  we  have  only  the  ver- 
bal substantives  in  sis ;  as,  basis,  maihesis,  the  names  of 
towns  compounded  with  TrdAtf ,  e.  g.,  Neapolis,  and  a  few 
other  proper  names  of  the  feminine  gender,  such  as  La- 
Jiesis,  JNemesis,  Syrtis,  Charybdis.  All  other  proper 
and  common  nouns  regularly  make  the  genitive  in  icUs  ; 
tigris  alone  has  both  forms,  and  ibis,  ihidis,  tikes  in  th© 


THIRD    DR<;LENBI0N. QCMTIVE.  5 

plural  the  shcoter  foim  ihes.  Later  authors  use  the  geni 
live  in  is^  and  th^  dative  and  ablative,  in  e,  instead  of  %du^ 
idi^  ide,  in  other  cases  also,  such  as  Serapis^  Tanaisy  for 
Serapidisy  Tanrndis^  and  in  the  dat.  and  ablat.,  Serapi 
tind  Tanaiy  for  Serajndiy  Serapide^  and  Tanaidi,  Tanaide. 
(See  below,  §  6  2.)  ScUafJiis  stands  alone  by  making  its 
genitive  Salamtnis  (from  a  nominative  SalaminJ, 

[§  69i]  fdj  Those  in  os  sometimes  have  otis;  as,  cos^  dos, 
nepos,  sacerdos,  and  sometimes  om,  like  da  (the  mouths* 
flosy  glosy  mosy  roSy  and,  in  like  manner,  hands  and  lepdg^  thtt 
.  more  common  forms  for  honm*  and  lepor.  Gustos  makoi 
custodis;  as  (bone),  ossis ;  hos^  hovis.  The  adjectives 
compos  and  impos  have  potis.  The  Greek  masculines  . 
herds.  Minds t  and  Tros  have  dis;  and  some  neuters  in  &% 
<nich  as  Argos,  eposy  occur  only  in  the  nominative  and  ac- 
cusative. 

(e)  Of  the  vsrords  in  «w,  the  feminines  in  us  make  their 
genitive  in  utis;  as,  virtiiSy  juventusy  senectus  ;  or  udis^  as 
the  three  words  ineus,  palus,  and  subscus,  Tellus  alone  has 
teUurisy  and  Venus,  Veneris,  The  neuters  in  Os  have  some- 
times em,  yrz,,foedus,funus,  gemis,  lattis,  munus,  olus,  onus, 
opusy  pondiiSy  scflusy  sidusy  ulcitSy  vtdntis  ;  and  sometimes 
oris;  ssycorpusy  decus,  dedecus yf acinus,  femiSyfiiguSy  litus 
nemusy  pectusy  pecusy  which  in  another  sense  has  pecudis, 
pignusy  stercus,  temptMy  and  the  noun  epicene  leptiSy  lepd* 
m,  a  hare.  All  monosyllables  which  have  a  long  u  form 
their  genitive  in  uris  ;  as,  crus,jtiSy  pus,  rtes,  tus,  and  7nus, 
Grus  and  sus  have  uis :  gruisy  sum  ;  the  fidjective  vetiis^ 
veteris,  and  intercus,  intermtis.  Greek  proper  names  in  Os 
have  tmtis ;  as,  Amaihusy  Sdinusy  Trapezus;  the  com- 
pounds of  TTo;^  make  pddis;  as,  tripus  and  Oedipus,  which 
name,  hovrever,  is  sometimes  made  to  follow  the  second 
declension,  the  usf  being  in  that  case  shortened.  Polypus 
always  follows  the  second* 

(fj  Greek  words  in  ys  make  the  genitive  yisy  contract- 
.  ed  ysy  or  altogether  in  the  Greek  form  yos.    Some  few. 
as  Mamysy  have  ydis. 

(g)  The  only  Houns  eAding  in  nes  are  nes,  aeris,  and 
praes,  praedis. 

(h)  There  are  only  two  words  in  ausy  viz.,  laus  and 
frauB,  o£  which  the  genitives  ftre  laudis,  Jraudis. 

*  Cicero  uses  throughout  on\yho7ios  (for  PhUip.^ix.y  6  must  be  corrected 
from  rhe  Vatican  MS.),  and  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  honor  in  the  frag: a 
Fto  Tullio,  ^  21,  (h1.  Pevron,  must  likewise  be  changed  into  Acnoc. 


^2  LATIN    GUAMMAR. 

(i)  Among  the  nouns  ending  in  8  preceded  by  a  con- 
ionant,  those  in  Is  (except  pulsj^  nSf  and  rs  change  the  j 
mto  tiSy  e.  g.,  y«w*,  monSy  pons^  ars,  pars.  Mars — Jontts, 
partis,  &c.  There  are  only  a  few,  such  as  Jrons  (a 
branch),  glanSfjuglanif  and  some  others,  which  make  dis 
--frandis  ;  but  ^<?»*  (the  forehead)  makes^<wi<w.  The 
other  words  in  s  with  a  consonant  before  it,  that  is,  those 
in  hs,  ps^  and  ms,  form  their  genitive  in  bis,  pis^  mis,  e.  g., 
urbs,  urbis;  plebs,  plebis;  stirps,  stirpis ;  hiems,  hiemis,' 
which  is  the  only  word  of  this  termination.  Caelebs  has 
cadibis  ;  the  compounds  of  capio  ending  in  c^s  have  tpis;  . 
as,  princeps,  particeps — principis,  participis  ;  auceps  alone 
has  attciipis.  Xhe  compounds  of  caput,  which  likewise 
end  in  ceps,  such  as  anceps,  process,  biceps,  triceps,  make 
their  genitive  in  cipitis,  like  caput,  capitis,  Greek  words 
follow  their  own  rules^  those  in  ops  make^i^,  9S,Pelqps, 
epopSf  merops;  or  ojns,  as,  Cyclops^  hydrcps.  Chryps  (a 
griffon)  has  gryphis^  and  Tiryns,  iSrynthis. 

10.  The  termination  t  occurs  only  in  caput  and  its  com 
pounds,  gen.  capitis, 

[§60.]  11.  The  genitive  of  words  in  x  varies  between 
cis  and  gis,  according  as'  the  x  has  ariseii  from  cs  or  gs^ 
which  may  be  ascertained  by  the  root  of  the  word.  The 
former  is  more  common,  and  thus  the  foilowinff  monosyl- 
lables, with  a  consonant  before  the  a;,  make  their  genit.  in 
cis :  arx,  cdlx,  falx,  kmxj  merx ;  gis  occurs  only  in  the 
Greek  words  phalanx,  sphinx,  and  syrinx. 

But  when  the  x  is  preceded  by  u  vowel,  it  must  be  as 
certained  whether  this  vowel  remains  unchanged,  and 
whether  it  is  long  or  short.     The  Latin  words  in  ax  have 
acis;  zs,pax,fom4ix,  and  the  adjectives,  e.  g.,  atidax,  effi 
cax.     Fax  alone  has  a  short  a^jacis.    Greek  words,  too, 
have  mostly  ads;  as,  thorax,  Ajax;  and  only  a  few  have 
ads;  as,  cor  ax,  climax,  while  the  names  of  men  in  nojx  have 
nactiSf  such  as  Astyanax,  Demonax.    Words  in  ex  gener- 
ally make  their  genitive  in  ids;  bs,  judex,  artifex,  supplex;    .         i 
but  egis  occurs  in  rex  and  lex  ;  and  egis  in  aquilex,  grex^  \ 

Ldex  ;  eds  in  nex,foenisex,  and  in  preds  (from  prex^  which ' 
is  not  used) ;  eds  in  verrex,  Myrmex.    Remex  has  remtgis; 
senex,  senis ;  and  supellex,  supeUecMis,     The  words  in  ix 
sometimes  make  their  genitive  in  tds  and  sometimes  in 
ids.    Of  the  former  kind  are  cervix,  cicatrix,  comix^  ca 
turnix^  lodix,  perdix,  phoenix,  radix,  vibix,  and  all  fh« 


1 


KEMAININQ  CASBS    OF  THIRD  DECLENSION.  53 

words  in  trix  denoting  women,  such  as  nutriXf  victrix,  und 
rhe  adjectives  Jelix  and  p^mix,  and  probably  also  appen- 
dix ;  ids  occurs  in  calix,  choenix^  coxendiXf  Jilix,  fornix^ 
fidix,  hystfiXy  larix,  natrix,  pix,  salix,  varix^  and  CUix, 
Nix  has  nXvis ;  and  strix^  Hfigis^  The  words  ending  in 
ox  have  dds,  e.  g.,  voXf  vecis ;  ferox^  feroda ;  but  two 
words  have  ocis,  viz.,  Cappadox  and  the  adjective  prctC' 
cox,  Nox  has  Tioctis  ;  AMobrox,  AUehrbgia,  The  follow- 
ing words  in  ux  form  the  genitive  in  uds:  crux^  dux^nnxj 
and  the  adjective  trux;  the  u  is  long  only  in  two  words, 
viz.,  lux  and  PoUux,  gonit.  lucia,  PwMcis,  Conjux  (con- 
junx  hS  established  on  better  authorities)  has  conjugu^ 
and /rwa;  (which,  however,  does  not  occur),  ^-ii^.  The 
words  iB  yxare  Greek;  and  viry  very  much  in  the  for- 
mation  of  their  genitive :  it  may  be  yds  (Eryx)y  ycu 
(homhyx)^  ygis  (lapyx,  PhryXy  Styx  J,  ygis  (coccyx),  and 
ychis  (onyx),  Th6re  is  only  one  word  ending  in  aex^  viz., 
faex,  gen./aecis,  and  in  aux  on]jJaux,  gen.jfauds. 


CHAPTER  XV 


TUE    REMAININQ    CASES    OF    THE    THIRD    DECLENSION. 

[§  61.]  All  the  remaining  cases  follow  the  genitive  iti 
regard  to  the  changes  we  have  mentioned,  it  should  be 
remarked  that  any  other  of  the  oblique  cases  might  have 
been  chosen,  instead  of  the  genitive,  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  the  changes  in  which  all  participate;  but  we 
have  followed  the  common  practice.  It  now  only  re 
mains  to  give  a  tabular  view  of  the  terminations. 
Singular.  Plural. 


Nom. — 

<3-en.  w. 

Dat.   t. 

Ace.  em  (neut.  like  nom.). 

Voc.  like  nom. 

Abl.    e  (some  i). 


Nom.  eSf  neut.  &  ^some  ta), 
G-en.  um  (some  ium). 
Dat.  ibus» 
Ace.  like  nom. 
Voc.  like  nom. 
Abl.  thus. 


Examples  for  exercise  are  contained  in  the  preceding 
chapter ;  but  we  subjoin  the  following  words,  either  with 
or  without  adjectives,  as  exercises  in  which  the  student 
may  also  apply  the  rules  contained  in  the  next  chapters : 
Sol  ^^plendens  (lucidMs)y  the  shining  sun ;  agger  eminem 

E  2 


54  LATTN   GRAMMAS. 

f alius  J,  a  high  mole ;  pater  prudens  fproMus)^  tlie  prii» 
dent  father ;  dolor  levia  fparvuij^  a  slight  pain ;  uxor  can* 
COTS  (fida)^  a  faithfiil  wife ;  leo  nobilis  (superbus),  a  nobi«« 
lion ;  virgo  erubescens  (pudica)^  the  blushing  maiden , 
urhs  vetus  (vetusta),  the  ancient  town ;  lex  acris  faspera)^ 
a  severe  law ;  Jrons  tristis  fseveraj,  a  grave  for^ead ; 
civitas  immunis  (libera )j  a  free  city;  casaUfulgens  fsplen- 
didaj,  a  brilliant  helmet;  judex  clemens  (beni^usjy  a 
mild  judge ;  miles  fortis  (stremwus)^  a  brave  soldier ;  avis 
cantrix  (canwa),  a  singing  bird ;  rupes  praeceps  (ardua)^ 
a  steep  rock;  calcar  a>cre  (acutum),  a  sharp  spur;  ammal 
turpe  (foed%m)y  an  ugly  animal ;  atrmen  dulce  fgfatum)^ 
a  sweet  poem ;  corp^us  temie  fmacrwmj,  a  thin  body ;  in^ 
gens  (vastum)  mare^  the  vast  sea;  'sidus  radi/ms  faw-eumj, 
the  radiant  ^tar. 

Remarks  on  the  separate  Ca^es, 

1.  Cicero  commonly,  and  other  authors  of  the  best  age 
frequently,  make  the  genitive  of  Greek  proper  names 
ending  in  es^  i  instead  of^  is.  Thus,  in  the  most  accurate 
and  critical  editions,  we  read  Isocrati,  Timarchidi^  The- 
ophaniy  Aristotcli^  Praxiteli^  and  even  Herctdi ;  i,  instead 
of  is,  is  found  most  frequently  (even  in  ordinary  edi- 
tions) in  the  names  ending  in  des  ;  as,  Agathodit  Dioclt, 
Neocli,  Prodi,  Peridiy  Thenmtodi,  The  genitive  i  is 
used,  also,  in  barbarian  names  in  es,  which  were  inti'odu- 
ced  through  the  Greek  into  the  Latin  language,  such  as 
Ariobarzani,  Mithridati,  Hystaspi,  Xerxi,  and  others. 
The  genitives  Achilli  and  Ulixi,  which  likewise  frequent- 
ly occur  in  Cicero,  probably  arose  from  the  contraction 
of  Achillei  and  Ulixeiy  first  into  Achillei  and  Ulixei,  and 
then  of  ei  into  t,  which  had  the  same  sound.  (See  above, 
Chap.  XII./  4.)  After  the  time  of  Cicero,  however,  the 
genitive  in  is  alone  was  used.* 

[§  62.]  2.  Many  words  in  is  make  the  accusative  ^in 
gular  im  instead  of  em,  viz., 

♦  [Consult,  on  this  whole  subject,  Schneider,  L.  G..,  vol.  iii.,  p. '.  63,  »eqq 
Veehner,  Hellenolea:.,  p.  32,  aeqq.,  ed.  Heusing.  ■  Drdkenborch  ad  lAv.^  42,  25. 
Bentley  ad  Tereni,  Andr.,  ii.,  2,  31.  Ottdendorp  ad  AptU.  Met.,  i.,  p.  46. 
We  must  bear  in  mind,  however,  that  no  genuine  Latin  word  in  es,  gen 
r*.  also  forms  the  genitive  in  i,  although  Valerius  Probns  (p.  1473)  a^Muces 
from  Cicero  the  genitive  Verri.  Neither  are  we  to  assign  this  ending  in 
I  to  the  genitive  of  those  Greek  words  which  do  7jot  terminate  in  es,  get 
ut,  and  hence  Goerenz  is  wrong  in  thinking  that  we  oug^t  to  rt\id  <!al& 
p'lonti  as  a  genitive  in  Cic.  Tusc,  v,3\,87  {Goeren?  lul  tic  cii  7m,j 
i;,    l   35)]— Am.  Ed. 


KEMAR&w    OH   THE  SEPARATE   CASES.  56 

( a  J  All  Grreek  nouns,  prc^>eT  as  well  as  common,  and 
Bitch  as  have  passed  through  the  Grreek  into  Latin,  and 
form  the  accusative  in  that  language  in  iv;  but  those  v^ldch 
have  in  Greek  both  terminations  iv  and  i6a  (i.  e.,  the  Dary- 
tones  in  ig,  gen.  tdof)  may  in  Latin  also  have  the  accusa* 
tive  in  idem^  though  it  does  not  often  occur.*  The  ordi- 
nary Latin  accusative  of  such  words,  therefore,  is,  basim 
poesim^  paraphrasim^  Ckarybdim^  Neapolim^  Persepolim^ 
Tanaim^  and  of  those  which  make  their  genitive  in  idog, 
idis^  at  least  when  they  are  proper  names,  the  accusatives 
AgiMf  Memphim^  Ostrim^  Parinif  Fhalarim^  Serapim^ 
Ttgrirn^  Zeuocim^  &c.,  are  more  frequent  than,  e.  g.,  Bu- 
.rirtdem^  Paridem.  But  in  feminine  derivatives  from 
names  of  places  and  in  substantives  (properly  a^ectives) 
in  tis^  and  especially  itis,  the  accusative  in  idem  is  more 
frequent,  e.  g.,  lAmnatidem^  Phthiotidem^  arthritidem^ 
pleuritidem.  The  accusative  in  tm  for  idem^  therefore, 
does  not  prove  that  the  genitive  ends  in  is  instead  ofidis^ 
or  the  ablative  in  i  instead  of  ide,  although  an  ablative  in 
f  not  seldom  occurs  in  proper  names  in  t^,  which  make 
their  genitive  in  idisy  e.  g.,  Osiri,  Phalari,  Tigri,  instead 
of  the  regular  Osiride,  &c.  Latin  writers,  however,  and 
especially  the  poets,  for  metrical  reasons,  often  use  the 
Grreek  form  of  the  accusative  in  instead  of  jm.  (See 
Chap.  XVI.) 

(bj  Many  proper  names  (not  Greek^  of 'rivers  and 
towns  which  do  not  increase  in  the  genitive,  make,  ac- 
cording to  the  analogy  of  the  Greek,  the  accusative  in  im 
instead  of  em,  e.  g.,  Albim,  Athesim,  Baetim,  Tiberim^ 
Bilbilinif  IBspalim. 

(c)  The  following  Latin  common  nouns:  amuseis,  rdvis, 
titis,  tussiSf  and  vis.  In  the  following  the  termination  em 
IS  less  common  than  im  :  Jebris,  pelvis,  puppis,  resits^  tur» 
lis,  and  especially  securis.  The  words  clavis,  messis,  na 
viSf  have  commonly  davem,  messem^  nafftm,  but  may  have 
also  im. 

Note, — ^An  accusative  in  tm  now  and  then  occnrs  in  some  other  words. 
18  in  hipettnim^  from  bipennu  ;  burintf  from  burU  ;  cucvnam,  a  rare  form  foi 
tucmnerem,  from  cucumir;  neptim;  and  tementim,  which  is  much  less  com 
uon  than  sementem. 

-        •  lit  I.  .1  I... 

♦  Those  which  in  Greek  end  in  Ig,  gen.  Idof  (oxytona),  have  in  Greek 
only  iSot  and  in  Latin  only  idem :  e.  g.,  aegis ^  pyramut  tjifrannis,  Thaia^ 
Bacehu,LaiSf  CAakif,  and  especially  the  feminine  patronymics  and  gentiU 
^mes,  such  as  Aeneia,  HeracUU^  ihebais^  Aeolisy  Doris^  Phocis. 


56  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

J§  63ul  3.  The  dative  and  ablative  singular  seem  ony 
iy  to  nave  had  the  same  termination,  which  was  cithei 
i  or  e,  just  as  those  two  cases  ai*e  alike  in  the  scc.ond  de- 
clension, ^nd  in  the  plural  of  all  declensions.  At  a  latej: 
time,  it  became  jhe  general  rule  to  use  i  exclusively  in  the 
dative  and  e  in  the  ablative;  but  aere  (from  aesj  for  aeri^ 
in  Cicero  fad  Fam.f  vii.,  13)  and  Livy  (xxxi.,  13),  and 
"wre  for  juri  in  inscriptions  and  in  Livy  (xlii.,  28),  seem 
to  be  remnants  of  early  times.  The  termination  t,  how- 
ever, which  properly  belongs  to  the  dative,  is  much  more 
commonly  used  m  the  ablative  instead  of  e.*     It  occurs, 

(a J  In  all  words  which  form  Iheir  accusative  in  im  in- 
stead of  em,  wi^  the ,  exception  of  those  Greek  words 
which  make  the  genitive  in  idis.  Thus,  we  have  po'esi^ 
NeapoU^Tiberi,  sometimes  also  Osiri^Phalari;  and  among 
Latin  common  nouns  not  only  ttissi  and  vi^hxitjehri^pdvi^ 
puppi,  tterrif  securi,  though  the  ablative  in  e  is  not  entirely 
excluded  in  these  latter  words.  But  restim  has  more 
commonly  re^^e,  and  navem^  on  die  contrary,  more  usually 
Tiavi  than  nuve.  Clave  and  clavi,  and  semente  and  sementi^ 
are  equally  in  use. 

fhj  In  neuters  in  e^^al,  and  ar,  e.  g.,  mari^  vectigali, 
calcari,  &c. ;  but  far,  f arris,  and  haxxar,  juhar^  hepar, 
nectar,  and  sal,  which  have  a  short  a  in-  the  genitive,  form 
the  ablative  in  e.  Rete  has  both  rete  and  reti,  and  rus 
ruri  as  well  as  rure,  but  with  some  difference  in  meaning, 
(Se'e  §  400.)  The  poets  sometimes  use  the  ablative  mare, 
e.  g.,  Ovid,  Trist,,  v.,  2,  20.  .Names  of  towns  in  e  (see 
§  39)  always  make  their  ablative  in  e;  as,  Caere,  Reate  (at 
Caere,  at  Reate),  Livy,  xxvii.,  23 ;  xxx.,  2 ;  and  Frae- 
neste  (at  jPraenopte),  in  Cicero. 

(c)  In  adjectives  and  names  of  months  ending  in  is,  e, 
and  in  er,  is,  e;  for  example,  JacUi,  celehri,  celeri,  Aprili^ 
Septemhri,  and  in  those  substantives  in  is  which  are  prop- 
erly fidjectives,  ^  g.,  aeqtialis,  qffinis,  annalis,  hipennis^ 
eanalis,  famUiaris,  gentilis,  molaris,  natalis,  poptdaris, 
rivalis,  sodalis,  strigilis,  vocalis,  triremis,  and  qttadrircmisf 

*  [Instances,  on  the  other  hand,  arc  sometimes*  given  of  datives  in  e  oc- 
cumng  in  later  writers.  These,  however,  turn,  for  the  most  part,  on  felse 
readings.    In  other  passages  the  form  appears  to  hav»  arisen  from  an  em« 

$loyment  of  the  ablative  beyond  its  legitmiate  bounds.  (Consult  Auswl, 
*opma,  de  usu  antiq.  locut.,  1,  9.  Vossius,  Arist.,  4,  10.  Ursin.,  T.,  L 
p.  124  Schwartz,  Or.  jLat.,  ^1011.  Burmann,  ad  Propert ,  3, 9. 40.  Scfauidm 
L  G.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  200.)]— Am.  Ed. 


.    REMARKS    ON    TIIR    SEl'AllATK    CASBjd.  67 

and,  according  to  their  analogy,  perhaps  also  contubemal- 
w.  But  these  words,  being  used  also  as  substantives^  have 
more  or  less  frequently  the  termination  e,  and  juvenis  al- 
ways make*  juvene,  aedilia  commonly  aedile ;  in  affinis* 
famUiaris,  sodalisy  and  triremis  the  ablative  in  e  is  attested 
by  the  authority  of  prose  writers,  although  i  is  generally 
pref  srred.  When  such  adjectives  as  these  become  propei 
names,  they  always  have  e;  as,  Juvenale,  Martiale,  Later 
ense,  Celere, 

Note,— The  ablative  in  e^  from  adjectives  in  i»,  and  in  er,  is^  e,  is  very  rare, 
thoagh  it  is  found  in  Ovid  {Heroid.,  xvi.,  277,  Metam.^  xt.,  743,  coeleste. 
Henmi,  viii,  64,  Fast.^  iii.,  654,  perenne.  Faat.y  vi.,  158,  porca  bimtstre). 
The  amative  in  i  instead  of  e,  on  the  other  hand,  is  used  by  good  writers 
in  several  substantives  in  t^,  besides  those  mentioned  above,  e.  g.,  in  amnis, 
tmiSf  dvis,  cUusisyfustia^  igmSf  orbisy  ungtdSf  and  sometimes  in  mpelUxy  *u- 
velUctiU.  Of  substantives  in  er,  imber  has  more  frequently  itnbn  than  tm- 
\re;  vesper  has  both  vetpere  and  vesperi;  but  the  latter,  especially  in  the 
sense  of  "  in  the  evening,"  as  opposed  to  'money  in  the  morning.  Cicero 
and  LdTT  often  use  the  ablatives  Cnrthaginiy  Ansuri,  Tibmriy  to  denote  the 
place  where  (see  the  commentat.  on  Liv.,  zxviii.,  26) ;  and  in  the  preface 
of  Com.  Nepos  we  find  Lacedamoni.  But  the  common  practice  of  the  an- 
cient writers  does  not  allow  us  to  extend  this  system,  or  to  make  it  the 
rale  for  all  names  of  towns  which  follow  tlie  third  declension ;  it  must 
rather  be  supposed  that,  though  the  ancient  language  was  so  uncertain 
between  e  and  t,  that  we  find  in  Plautus  cami,  partiy  semumiy  along  with 
came,  6cc^  the  forms  becune  m(M»  decidedly  separated  in  the  course  of 
time,  and  only  a  few  isolated  remnants  and  particular  phrases  remained 
in  use  with  the  classic  authors.  (Comp.  ^  398,  in  fin.)  Thus  we  have 
tempariy  "in  times."    (See  ^  475.) 

[§  64.]  4.  The  ablative  singular  in  i  or  e  indiscrimi- 
nately occurs,  generally  speaking,  in  adjectives  of  one 
termination  and  in  the  comparative;  aa, prudefis, prudente 
and  prudenti ;  elegans,  elegante  and  cleganti;  vetus,vetere 
and  veteri ;  locuples,  locuplete  and  locupleti  ;  dives y  divite 
and  diviti ;  degener^  degenere  and  degeneri ;  felixy  fdice 
and  fdici  ;  Arpinas,  Arpinate  and  Arpinati ;  major ^  ma- 
jore  and  majori.  But  it  is  also  a  general  rule  that  words 
m  ans  and  ens^  when  used  as  substantives,  e.  g.,  infana 
and  sapiens  (except  continensjy  and  when  they  are  actual 
participles,  especially  in  the  construction  of  the  ablative 
absolute,  always  prefer  e;  e.  g,,Tarquinio  regnante^  when 
Tarquinius  was  king  j  but  when  they  are  adjectives,  they 
prefer  itoe. 

Note  1.— It  should,  however,  be  observed  that  there  is  no  rule  so  full 
of  excepti(ms  as  this,'for,  on  the  one  hand,  the  adjectives  themselves  vary 
their  terminati6ns  according  to  euphony  or  the  requirement  of  a  verse, 
and,  on  the  other,  the  writers  (ana  the  editions  of  their  works)  widely 
diflfer  from  one  another.  In  Horace,  for  example,  we  find  the  (articiplei 
in  ant  and  ensy  when  used  as  adjectives,  almost  irvariably  fotmuig  the 
■blative  in  e  (aoe  Bentlev  or.  Carm.y  i.,  25, 17\  whereas  the  same  wordf 


68  lATIN    GRAMMAR. 

ire  generally  fouixd  with  t  in  Cicero.  On  the  whole,  however,  it  wiH 
always  be  safest  to  make  the  ablative  of  adjectives  of  one  teimination  in 
I ;  for  the  e  exclusively  occurs  only  in  pauper^  aenex,  and  princeps,  and  in 
the  majohty  of  those  in  es,  viz.,  hosptty  sospes^  dMet,  pubet^  mtpUbts,  and 
superste*.  The  i,  on  the  other  hand,  is  certain  in  the  following  words 
mentioned  by  the  ancient  grammarians :  memor,  immemor,  and  par  with  its 
compounds  (in  par,  also,  when  used  as  a  substantive),  and  also  in  most 
adjectives  in«;  SL9ftnuPfatrox,amiaae,p(rtinax,an(^pervicax;  especially  in 
hose  in  plex  :  simplex ^  duplex,  triplex,  multiplex :  farther  in  anceps  and  prae" 
ceps,  inops,  iners,  and  heoes,  cohcors,  diacora,  ingena,  recena^  ana  repena.  It 
must  forther  be  observed  that  praeaena,  when  used  of  things,  makes  the  * 
ablative  in  i,  and  when  used  of  persons,  in  e,  as  is  confirmed  by  the  phrase 
in  praeaenti  (soil,  tempore),  which  is  of  frequent  occurrence.  Comparatives 
are  found  in  Cicero  and  Livy  more  frequently  with  e  than  with  t,  but  the 
latter  afterward  became  more  general,  especially  in  Curtius  and  Tacitus. 
Note  2. — The  following  substantives,  which  are  properly  adjectives, 
trtifex,  (^maora,  nutrix,  vigil,  victrix^  ana  ttltrix,  have  as  substantives  the 
termination  e,  but  as  adjectives  of  the  feminine  or  neuteY  gander  they  pre- 
fer the  ablative  in  ».  rroper  names,  also,  when  they  are  in  reality  adjec^ 
tives,  have  only  e  ;  as,  Felix,  Clemens — Felice,  Clemenie, 

[§  65.]  5.  The  nominative,  accusative,  and  vocative 
plural  of  neuters  end  in  a  ;  but  neuters  in  e,  al,  and  ar, 
which  also  form  the  ablative  Angular  in  i,  and  all  partici- 
ples and  adjectives  which  make  the  ablative  singular  ei- 
ther in  i  alone,  or  vary  between  e  and  t,  have  ia  instead  of 
a,  except  the  adjective  vettis  and  all  comparatives ;  e.  g., 
maria,  vectigalia,  calcaria,  paria,facilia^  sapientia,  ingen 
tia,  victrifda;  amantia,  sedentia,  audimtia;  but  majora^ 
doctiora,  &c. 

Note. — ^The  neuter /or,  however,  hss/aira  ;  jvbar,  hepar,  and  nectar  have 
no  plural ;  and  aal  has  no  neuter  plural,  but  only  seUes  with  masculine 
gender.* 

Those  adjectives  which  make  the  ablat.  sing,  in  e  exclusively  should, 
for  this  reason,  make  their  plural  only  in  a ;  but,  with  the  exception  of 
hospita  (if  it  be  really  derived  from  hospes,  and  not  from  Ao«]D»tu«),  no  neuter 
plural  of  them  is  found,  although  some  grammarians  mention  paupera  and 
ubera.  It  must  be  remarked,  in  general,  that  the  neuter  plural  occurs  in 
adjectives  of  one  termination  in  as,  ans,  ens,  rs,  and  x,  and  besides  these 
only  in  par,  hebes,  teres,  iocuples,  ouadrupes,  versicolor,  anceps,  and  prasceps, 
and  that  in  all  these  eases  it  ends  in  ia.  Thus  there  remains  oniv  vetus, 
Vetera,  although  the  ablative  sing,  is  vetere  or  veteri. ,  No  authority  nas  yet 
been  addhcedfor  bicorpora  and  tricorpora. 

Pluria  is  said  to  make  an  exception  amon^  the  domparatives,  but  it  is 
only  an  obsolete  form,  and  is  not  found  in  ancient  writers,  who  invariably 
have  plura.  Complures.  on  the  otlier  hand,  which  has  lost  its  signification 
of  a  comparative  in  the  ordinary  language  (it  signifies  several  ot^some)^ 
makes  both  complwria  aiyl  complura, 

[§  66.]  6.  The  following  words  make  their  genitive 
plural  in  ium  instead  of  um : 

(a)  All  neuters,  which  have  ia  in  the  nominative  plu- 

*  [Sales  has  the  meaning  of  "witticisms."  The  form  salia,  "  salts,**  if 
only  employed  by  modem  medical  writers.  (Consult  Seyfert,  SproMshrs 
p.  88.)1— Am.  Ed. 


REMARKS   ON   THE    SEPARATE    CASES.  59 

k-al,  ibat  is,  those  in  e,  al,  and  ar,  and  all  particjtilefl  and 
adjectives  which  foUov/  the  third  declension.  Crom])ara- 
tives,  therefor^  (with  the  exception  of  plurium  and  com* 
plurium)^  and  those  adjectives  which  have  only  e  in  the 
ablative  jshigular,  retain  the  termination  um  in  the  genit. 
plur. ;  as,  pauperum,  superstitu7n.  To  these  we  must  add 
die  adjectives  cadehsy  celer^  cicur,  comport  impoSy  dices, 
memoT,  immemoTf  supplex,  uher,  veius,  and  vigil;  all  com- ' 
pounds  ofjacio  and  capio,  and  of  such  substantives  as 
.  make  the  genitive  plur.  in  um,  e.  g«,  degenerum,  bicarpo- 
rum,  inopum,  quadrupedum,  versicotdrum,  and  perhaps  also 
andpitum  and  tridpitum.     The  poets  sometimes  form  the 

•  genitive  plural  of  adjectives,  especially  of  participles  in 
ns,  by  a  -syncope,  in  um  instead  of  ium;  and  later  prose 
writers,  such  as  Seneca  and  Tacitus,  sometimes  follow 
their  example,  and  use,  e.  g.,  potentum,  dolentum,  salutan- 
tu?n,  ^ 

(h)  Words  in  es  and  is,  which  do  uof  increase  in  the 
genitive  singular  (e.  g.,  nuhes,  fmhium;  dvis,  civium;  but 
militAm  and  lapidum^  from  miles  and  lapis,  gen^  militis, 
lapidisj;  the  following  words  in  er:  imher,  linter,  venter, 
uter,  and  the  word  caro,  cdmium.  Vates,  strues,  the  plu- 
ral ambages,  and  generally,  also,  sedes,  together  with 
apis,  canis,  juvenis,  and  voliccris,  form  exceptions,  and 
make  their  genitive  plur.  in  um.  Panis  is  uncertain. 
(Respecting  m^nsis,  see  my  note  on  Cic.  in  Verr,,  ii.,  74 ; 
Schneider  on  Cses.,^eZZ.  Gall.,  i.,  5.) 

(c)  Many  monosyllabic  substantives,  and  without  ex- 
ception those  ending  in  s  and  x,  preceded  by  a  conso- 
nant, make  ium ;  as,  montium,  derUium,  arcium,  merdum, 
from  mons,  dens,arx,  merx.  *  Lynx,  however,  has  lyncum; 
sphinx,  sphingum ;  and  opes,  from  ops,  has  opum.  Gry- 
phum,  also,  is  probably  the  genit.  plur.  oi  gryps.  But  the 
greater  number  of  monosyllabic  words  ending  in  *  and  x, 

.     preceded  by  a  vowel,  msJie  their  genitive  plural  in  um, 

and  not  in  ium.     The  latter  occurs  only  in  as,  assium ; 

glis,  glirium ;  lis,  lUium ;  rruis,  murium  ;  os,  ossium ;  vis, 

virium;  and  generally  also  in  Jraus,  Jraudium,  and  mus^ 

murium.     To  these  we  must  add  Jatix  (which,  however, 

is  not  used  in  the  nominative  Biugiil&r),  jaudum ;  nix,  ni- 

viUm ;  strix,  strigium ;  and  nox,  noctium. 

Note. — The  genitive  plural  in  tun,  therefore,  is  used  in  aes,  jruSf  doa^flo*. 
m$,juSf  lotM,  mos,  pea  with  its  compounds  (except  compedes,  of  which  thff 
farm  compediwn  is  well  attested),  praeSf  *«*,  Cres,  7Vo»,  ius,fax,frwr,  aiirf 


60  LATIN    GfiAMMAft. 

• 

prex  (which  uccur  only  in  the  plur.).  ;?rea?,  /«:,  nux^  rea  «ar,  Phryx, 
Thrax.  Fur  and  ren  have  funmif  renum ;  lar^  too,  has  more  frequently 
larum  than  larium.  Of  those  words  which  have  not  beer,  noticed  liere  a 
genitive  cannot  be  proved  to  exist ;  but  it  ie  probable  that  the  genit.  plur. 
of  vas  (vadU)  was  vadium ;  and,  in  like  manner,  cor^par,  aifd  sal  probably  had 
cordiuniy  parium^  salium,  in  order  to  avoid  the  ambiguity  which  would  ari»2 
frcmi  vadunif  coidum,  parum^  solum.  Cordium  occurs  in  the  Vulgate,  Jer*-^ 
Iv.,  i. 

fd)  Substantives  of  two  or  more  syllables,  ending  in  m 
and  rs,  have  ium  and  umj  though  the  latter  occurs  more 
rarely ;  e.  g.,  cliens,  cohors,  Picens,  Veiens^  Gamers  ;  and, 
n  lifee  manner,  those  which,  like  adolescens,  infans,  parens,^ 
tapiensj  serpens,  are  properly  participles,  and  admit  urn 
only  because  they  are  substantives  (whence  we  frequent- 
ly find  pUrentum,  from  parentesjy  commonly  make  their 
genitive  ir  ium:  adolescentium,  sapientium,  &c.  The 
names  of  people  in  as,  atis,  such  as  Arpirias^  Fidenas, 
form  their  genitive  almost  exclusively  in  ium :  Arpinati- 
um^  Fidenatium,  Penates  and  optimates,  which  usually 
occur  only  in  the  plural,  follow  their  analogy..  Other  sub- 
stantives in  as  generally  have  wn  f  e.  g.,  aetatum,  civita- 
turn ;  but  ium  also  is  correct ;  and  Livy,  for  exampTb,  al- 
ways uses  civitatium.  ^  The  genit.  plur.  ium  in  words  with 
other  terminations,  if  it  should  occur,  must  be  regarded 
as  an  exception.  Quiris  and  Samrtis^  however,  contrary 
to  the  rule,  generally  make  Quiritiumf  Samnitium. 

(§  67.]  7.  Names  of  festivals  in  alia^  which  ai-e  used 
y  in  the  plural ;  as,  Bacchanalia,  Compitalia,  Saturna- 
lia, Sponsalia,  make  their  genitive  plural  in  ium  or  arum ; 
as,  Bacchanalium  or  Bacchanaliarum.  And  Horace  ( Carm . , 
iii.,  5,  10),  on  this  principle,  makes  ancUiorum  from  ancllc, 
plur.  ancilia;  and  Suetonius,  in  several  passages,  has  ver- 
tigaliorum  instead  of  vectigaUum* 

8.  With  regard  to  the  dative  and  ablative  plural,  it  is 
to  be  remarked  that  the  Greek  words  in  7/ta  prefer  the 
termination  is  of  the  second  declension  to  thus.  Thus, 
Cicero  and  other  authors  use  poematis,  epigrammatis,  em- 
hlematis,  Jtypbmnematis,  peripetasmatis,  peristroTnatis,  Uh 
reuniafis  ;  but  ibus  occurs  now  and  then ;  as,  diplo?natibns, 
in  Tacitus  and  Suetonius;  po'ematihus  in  the  Rhetor,  ctd 
Hcrenn.,  iv.,  2 ;  and  in  Sueton.,  Tit,  3 ;  strategematihus  in 
Frontinus,  Strategy,  Praef.,  lib.  iv. 

[§  68.1  9.  The  accusative  plural  of  words  which  make 
the  genitive  plur.  in  ium  ended,  in  the  best  acre  of  the 
Latin  language,  in  ?*,  which  was  also  written  e?>,  but  not 


REMARKS   ON    THE    SBrAUATC    CASES.  <^) 

k  pronounced  so;  e.  g.,  artisj  mantis,  civu^  onrniM^  iimdis 

mediocris.  But  the  terminatiQQ  Is  was  also  in  use,  and  }^ 
the  course  of  time  became  .so  prevalent  that  is  yvas  pre* 
soTved  only  in  a  few  exceptions,  such  as  trts. 

Note. — Piiscian,  towards  the  end  of  his  seventh  book,  discusses  tho 

accusatiTe  plur.  in  is  inste&d  of  e«,  more  minutely  than  any  other  ancient 

writer.    Among  modem  works,  see  especially  Norisius,  in  his  Latinittu  et 

Orthogrtqihia  tUriusqut  Pimnat.  Tabulae,  V^hich.M  reprinted  in  Cellarius, 

L  fJrthiira^fua  Latma,  vol.  il.,  p.  233,  foil  ed.  Hafles.    There  is  no  donbt, 

>  Uiat,  xmiH  the  time  of  Augustus,  those  wordg  which  form  their  genitivo 
olaral  in  turn  {to  which  must  be  added  celer,  as  in  all  other  respects  it  fol- 

I  ow8  the  analogy  of  Ihe  adjectives  in  er,  is,  e,  although  it  makes  th^^it. 

'  plur.  celenmi),  had  in  the  accusative  plural  more  commonly  the  tffiiina- 

tion  ia  than  ee;  but  it  must  be  home  in  mind  ^at  es  was,  at  the  same 
time,  in  use  with  m«  Thus  we  find  even  in  the  Columna  Rostrata  of  Du- 
ilius,  closes f  that  is,  cZa««f«,  together  with  claseis ;  ai)d  in  the  ancient  Flor 
entine  MS.  of  Virgil  we  find  urbes,  ignesj  tres,  fines,  as  well  as  urlns,  ignis, 
&c.,  aUhomgh  es,  od  the  whole,  is  not  so  ireqiient  as  is,  (Comp.  GeUiuo^ 
ziiL,  20.)    In  the  newly-discovered  fragments  of  Cicero,  it  is  true,  we 

•  .  generally  find  is  in  words  of  this  kind :  but  there  are  instances,  also, 
of  es  being'  used  in  the  same  words.  The  ancient  grammarians  in  vain 
attempted  to  fix  the  varying  practice  by  rules  and  exceptions.    Pliny 

>  (ap.  Charisium,  p.  104,  ed.  Putsch.)  denied  the  accusative /imw,  and  Varro 
\wid.)  the  accusatives /aZcit,  mercis,  axisJlintris,  venttis,  stirpist  corbis,  vectis, 
neptis,  and  evoD  wins,  and  in  his  work,  J)e  Jang,  Lot.  (viii^  67,  ed.  MiiUer)^ 
he  asserts  thmi mentis  alone  was  used,  an<L  on  the  other  hand,  that  mentes 
and  dnUes  were  the  only  correct  forms.  Valerius  Probus  (see  Ortho^aph. 
Noris.,  p.  242)  gives  us  to  understand  that  the  words  in  es,  genit.  is,  did  not 
form  toe  accusative  in  is,  although  they  have  mm  in  the  genitive  plural. 

I  Thus  much  is  clear,  that  the  termination  is  gradually  became  antiquated, 

I  and  that  the  desire  of  scholars  to  have  an  outward  distinction  of  the  accu- 

sative from  the  nominative  gave  way  to  the  general  practice.    Charisiu* 

^  (p.  122,  e4-  Putsch.)  says :   consuetudo  traditxit  ad  nominativi  >(  accusativi 

formam.  And  this  probably  took  place  about  the  end  of  the  Augustan  age ; 
for  in  the  ancient  MS.  containing  the  fragment  of  the  ninety-first  book  of 

)  livy  we  no  longer  find  the  accus.  in  iv ;  and  in  the  best  M8S.  of  the  com- 

plete books,  it  occure  only  in  a  few  isolated  passages,  and  Quintilian  does 
not  mention  this  disputed  point  at  all.  Afterward  w  was  still  sometimes 
used  by  Tacitus  and  Gellius ;  but  with  Tacitus  this  arose  from  his  desire 
to  revive  the  ancient  power  and  energy  of  the  language,  and  v\dth  GelUu» 
from  his  antiquarian  studies.  This  is  not  the  place  to  inquire  in  vyha' 
manner  an  editor  of  ancient  authors  has  to  act  in  the  face  of  this  obviout 
mconsisteiicy'of  the  writers  themselves ;  there  are  few  who  faithfiiUy  fol 
low  the  authority  of  the  MSS. ;  others,  such  as  Bentley,  in  his  Terence  an« 
Horace,  everywhere  restore  the  accus.  in  is  (why  Bentley,  without  incon 
sistency,  edited  arces  and  ^Btes  in  Horace,  has  not  yet  been  examined) 

'  azMl  most  of  than  pay  as  little  attention  to  the  difierence  in  doubtful  cases 

as  to  the  ancient  orthography  in  general,  but  merely  follow  the  vulgar  tra 

dition.   ^e  have  noticed  here  (W  difference  of  opinions  to  caution  the 

•     student,  that,  in  reading  the  ancients,  he  may  not  confound  the  short  is  ol 

the  genit.  sing,  with  the  long  Is  of  the  accus.  plur. 

[5  69.]  10.  Juppiter  (which  was  more  common  than 
Jupiter  J  is  declined  as  follows :  genit.  Javis,  dat.  Jovi, 
accus.  Jovemj  voc.  Juppiter^  abl.  Jove,  In  the  plura) 
Jov9$  only  is  found.* » 

♦  ITupiter,  gen  Jovis,  is  to  all  appei  ranee  very  ii regular:  but  there  If 

F 


62  LATIN  G&AMMAK. 

Bos,  bavis,  makes  the  nominat  and  accus.  plur.  bov€9^ 
gen.  bmm,  dat.  and  ablat  bubus,  and  less  frequently 
bobus,  Sus  makes  the  dat.  and  ablat.  plur.  subus,  wkioli 
is  a  cc  ntraction  of  the  less  frequent  form  swibus. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

ttlUEK  FORMS   IN   WORDS    OF   THE   TH(RD    DECLENSION. 

[§f|0.]  A  GREAT  number  of  Greek  words,  especially 
prof  er  names,  belongs  to  the  third  declension ;  and  as 
thftir  genitive  terminates  in  og  (ewf ,  ovf),  they  follow  the 
third  declension  in  their  own  language  also.  Among  the 
terminations  of  the  nominative  mentioned  above,  some 
br*long  exclusively  to  Greek  Words,  viz.,  ma,  i,  y,  an,  in, 
on,  yn,  er,  yr,  ys,  eus,  yx,  inx,  ynx,  and  the  plurals  in  e  / 
but  there  are  also  Clreek  words  with  other  terminadons, 
most  of  which,  however,  are  quite  treated  as  Latin  words, 
for  which  reason  the  termination  on  is  gmierally  Latinized 
into  o  (see  above,  §  56),  and  the  Greek  forms  are  used  by 
Latin  wjiters,  especially  the  poets,  only  in  some  cases. 

1.  In  the  genitive  singular,- the  poets  frequently  use  the 
Greek  termination  os  instead  of  the  Latin  is,  especially  in 
words  in  is  which  usually  make  their  genitive  idis,  whether 
simple  or  derivative  (see  §  245),  e.  g.,  Daphnidos,  Phasi- 
dos,  Atlantidos,  Erymantkidas,  Nere'idos  ;  so  also  in  nouns 
in  as  mid  ys;  2A,PaUados,Tethyos;  andinete^/  BS,Pdeds^ 
Theseos  (Ovid,  Metam,,  viii.,  268),  althougn  the  Latin  ter- 
mination ei  or.  contracted  ei  (according  to  the  second  de- 
clension), as  in  Thesei,  Terei,  is  more  commonly  used. 
(See  above.  Chap.  XII.,  4.) 

But  in  prose  the  Greek  termination  of  the  -genitive  is 
seldom  used.  Substantives  in  is  derived  from  verbs  in 
particular,  such  as  basis,  ellipsis,  mathesis,  poesis,  make 
their  genitive  like  the  nominative,  and  not  baseos,  mathe^ 

seos,  &c.,  which  forms  are  foun^  only  in  unclassic  writers. 

* 

here  in  reality  a  blending  of  two  forms  of  declension.  According  tc 
Priscian  ?6,  p.  695,  Pu/«cA.),  the  regular  genitive  is  JupiteriSf  or  Jupitru. 
On  the  otner  hand,  the  genitive  Jovis,  as  well  as  the  other  oblique  cases, 
are  to  be  traced  to  a  nominative  Jcvia,  which  occasionally  occurs,  and  of 
which  Varro  makes  mention.  (X.  L.,  viL,  38.)  The  stem  of  this  appears 
to  be  Jovt  or  rather  Jou^  which,  with  the  Latin  deuty  the  ^Eolic  Aevf,  the 
common  fbnn  Ze^g,  the  Oriental  Ja,  Jao,  Jehovah^  &c ,  points  to  one  and 
the  same  origin.  (Compare  MiUlar^  Etrusker^  vol  i\,  p.  43.  Butlnuutm 
MythologtUy  vol.  ii ,  p.  7i.)]—Am.  Ed. 


GREEK    FORMS   IN  THE    THIRD   DECLENSION.  6S 

!See  Vitruv.,  x.,  15.  Spaitian.  Ad:  Vertis,  3 ;  Sever.,  3.) 
H  the  few  words  in  y  the  genit.  Jn  yw  is  used  for  tlio 
%ake  of  euphony,  e.  g.,  misyos,  Pan^  the  shepherds'  god, 
admits  the  Greek  genit.  Panos  in  prose,  to  distinguish  the 
word  from  panis,  bread.* 

The  feminines  in  o,  however,  such  iq  echo^  Calypto^ 
'  Dido^  lo^  SappJio^  have  usually  the  Greek  genitive  in  us  ; 
as,  echtLs^  Didus,  Sapphus,  the  Latin  termination  onu 
being  less  common.  Their  dative,  accusative,  and  ablar 
tive  end  in  <?,  and  tlyg  Latin  terminations  oni^  onem^^one. 
are  but  rarely  used. 

[§  71.]  2.  The  Greek  accusative  of  the  third  decler- 
4}ion  in  a  is  very  often  used  by  the  Latin  poets  instead  of 
ew».  Thus,  Horace  uses  only  heroa,  Cydopa,  Memnotia, 
Agcumemnona^  Hdicona,  Chremeta,  and  not  Cydopem^ 
Agamemn&nem^  &c.  Among  the  prose  vmters,  Cicero 
•most  studiously  avoids  the  Greek  termination,  except  in 
aefy  aether^  and  Pa«,  of  which  he  makes  the  accu*;ative 
aera,  aethera,\  and  Pana  (for  the  reason  mentioned 
above).  In  all  other  instances  the  Greek  accusative  in  a 
must  be  looked  upon,  in  Cicero,  as  an  exception^  It  oc- 
curs much  more  frequently  in  Nepos,  Livy,  Curtjus,  and 
the  authors  of  what  is  called  the  Silver  Age,  though  prin- 
cipally in  proper  names  and  along  with  the  common  Latin 
termination  em,  e.  g.,  Babylonaf  Eleusina,  Lacedaemona^  . 
Marathona,  ParmenioTia,  Sidona,  Timoleonta,  Troezena, 
also  Peridea,  Stratoelea,  and  similar  names  ending  in  the 
nominative  in  des.  In  like  manner,  words  in  is  and  ys 
admit,  even  in  prose,  the  Greek  forms  in  and  yn,  together 
with  the  Latin  im  and  ym,  but  Cicero  uses  them  only  by 
way  of  exception ;  Livy  and  Curtius  have  them  more  fre- 
quently, e.  g.,  Nabin,  Agin,  Halyn,  Tigrin.  The  accus. 
Eleusin,  instead  of  Eleusinem  (a),  must  be  traced  to  the 
form  £f/«m*,  gen.- w,  which,  however,  is  not  well  attested. 
For  the  accusative  of  words  in  et^^,  which  later  writers  usu- 
ally make  ea;  aBfPersea,l?emetriumPhalerea,aee  above, 
Chap.  XIL,  4. 

*  rfiat  hj  no  means  to  the  exclusion  of  Pants.    (Consult  Schneider, 
L.  O.J  vol.  lii.,  p.  285.)]— Am.  Ed. 

f  [These  two  accusative  fon?*-  ain-a  and  <c/A«iyt»  appear  the  more  re*> 
markabie  in  Cicero,  when  We  compare  them  with  his  own  language  on 
mother  occasion :  '*  a€r ;  Cfracum  i  *ud  qtudem^  sed  receptwnjam  tamen  uau 
fl  nostrit :  tritum  eat  entm  pro  Latino  ....  sth$r :  mtUuemur  hoc  ouo^ 
\frbum,  dicaturqw  tarn  aether  Latine  qiuun  iicitur  aer."  {Cic.^  K  D  tL 
^9\,  seqj.y]—Am.  Ed 


$4  LATIA    GRAMMAR 

Proper  nameb  n.  atj  which  in  Greek  follow  the  first  de- 
clension (gen.  ov),  and  in  Latin  the  third  (gen.  is  J  (see 
Chap.  IX.,  3),  have  in  the  accusative  the  tennination  en 
along  with  that  in  em,  e.  g.,  AescJdnen,  AJiiUen^  and 
Ulixen  (inasmuch  as  these  names  are  not  formed  from 
'kxf'^tv^  and  ^Odvooevg^  but  from  the  less  conuncn 
'Ax^^^Tj^  and  ^Odvaarjc:,  ov),  and  especially  barbarian 
names,  such  as  Mithruiaten,  Phraaten,  Xerxen,  Araxen, 
Euphraten»  The  termination  en  for  em  is,  moreover,  fouml 
in  those  compounds  which  in  Greek  follow  the  third  declen- 
sion, but  in  the  accusative  admit  of  rjv  and  rj  (contracted 
from  Ea) ;  but  en  is  used  much  less  frequently.  Instances 
of  this  kind  are,  Sophoclcn,  in  Cic,  De  Off'.,  i.,  40;  Hijypo^^ 
craten  and  Epicyd'CUy  in  Livy.  Some  words  are  in  Greek 
declined  in  two  ways,  either  after  the  iii-st  or  aftef  the 
third  declension,  such  0aA^^,  Xpe/^i/^,  gen,  ov  and  «yTOf ;  iw 
Latin  they  may  have  the  shorter  form  and  yet  follow  the 
third  declension  (e.  g.,  the  ablat.  Thale),  and  in  the  ac- 
cusative they  admit  also  of  the  termination  en,  e.  g.,  Chre* 
metem  and  Chremen^  Thalem  or  Tkaletem  and  TJuilen, 

[§  72.1  3.  The  vocative  singular  is  in  most  Greek 
words  lite  the  nominative ;  but  those  ending  in  s  form  a 
distinct  vocative  by  rejecting  that  consonant,  both  in 
Greek  and  Latin.  Thus,  the  vocative  of  words  in  is,  ys, 
eus :  Daphni^  Phylli,  Thai,  Coty,  Tiphy,  Orpheu,  Perseu, 
Words  in  is,  idis,  however,  make  the  vocative  just  as 
often  like  the  nominative ;  as,  Bacchis,  My  sis,  Thais. 
Nouns  in  as,  antis^  make  their  vocative  in  Greek  av  anc 
d,  but  the  latter  only  is  used  in  Latin,  e.  g.,  Atla^  Cdlclia. 

Proper  names  in  es,  gen.  is,  have  the  vocative  of  the 
first  declension  in  e,  together  with  the  regular  one.  Thii 
is  the  case  with  those  which  in  Greek  follow  the  first  de- 
clension (e.  *  g.,  Cameade^  Simonide,  and  AchiUe,  see 
above);  and  with  those  which,  although  they  follow  the 
third  in  all  other  respects,  yet  admit  of  the  accusative  in 
rjv.  Thus,  we  sometunes  find  Damode,  Feride,  Sophocle 
Socrate. 

[§  73.]  4.  The  plural  of  those  Greek  proper  names 
which  by  the  forms  of  their  accusative  ana  vocative  sing 
show  their  tendency  to  follow  the  first  declension,  la 
sometimes  formed  after  that  dec  ension.  Thus,  we  find 
in  Cicero,  De  Orat,,  ii.,  23,  the  r-iom.  Naviratae  ;  and 
OraL,.9,  the  accus.  Thticydidas.  * 


f 

\ 


fiBNDEft   FORMS    IN    TUB   TliIRD    DECLENSION.  dS 

5.  The  Greek. termination  of  the  nom.  plur.  e^,  instead 
of  the  Latin  e*,  is  not  uncommon  in  poetry,  e.  g.,  Arcades ^ 
AilantideSy  Erinnyes ;  but  the  metre  must  decide.  The 
termination^^,  Latin  xs^  occurs  even  in  the  nominative  oi 
the  names  of  towns  TraUis  and  Sardis^  though  princi- 
pall^r  in  the  latter.  Horace,  Epist,,  i.,  11,  2,  says:  Croesi 
trgia  Sardis, 

In  the  nominative  plural  the  neuters  in  w  have  the 

(jrieek  termination  e;    as,  cete^  mde^  and   the   plural 

Tanpe^  tql  TifATTij. 

Note. — No  other  casei  are  formed  from  these  iieuters  in  ocr  &n(]  in  th« 
singular,  too,  they  occur  only  in  the  nom.  and  accus.,  and  we  must,  there 
fore,  use  the  Latin  forms  ceius  and  vnelum  (according  to  the  second  declen- 
sion).   So,  also,  cftflof,  gen.  chai^  abl.  chao.    See  ^  87. 

6.  In  the  genitive  plural  only  a  few  words  retain  the 

Greek  termination  6n  {f»nf),  and  that  generally  only  m 

titles  of  books,  e.  g.,  metamorphasedn^  epigrammatdn. 

Note. — Ctirtin8,iv.,  60  (13),  makes  the'genitive  Malam,  from  MaAectf,  or 
HaXieic  (sing.  'iiiaXie^),  entirely  in  the  Greek  Aishion,  for  the  l^tin  namn 
is  JdaUenses. 

7.  In  the  dative  plural  the  Greek  termination  *i,  or  **», 
is  used  very  rarely,  and  only  by  poets.  Ovid,  e.  g.,  has 
Lemniasi  and  Trodsin^  firom  Lemniades  and  Troades,  In 
prose  vmters  there  are  very  few  examples  that  can  be  re- 
lied upon ;  such  as  ethesi,  from  rd  ^^.T 

[§  74.]  8.  The  accusative  plural  in  as  is  admissible  in 
all  words  which  have  this  termination  in  Greek.  It  is, 
however,  seldom  used  in  prose,  though  in  common  nouns 
it  occurs  more  frequently  than  the  accusative  singular  in 
d ;  e.  g.,  harpaganasj  phalangasy  pyramidasy  and  even  in 
Cicero  we  find  aspidas^  cant^aridas.  He  also  uses  the 
proper  names  Aethiopas,  Arcadas,  and  CyclopaSf  and  Livy 
always  has  the  accusal.  Macedonas.  It  is  surprising  to 
find  that  the  samiB  termination  is  now  and  then  given  also 
to  barbarian  names  of  nations,  e.  g.,  Allohrogas  in  Caesar, 
and  Jjingonas,  Nemetas^  Ordovicas^  Brigantas^  Siluras* 
and  Vangionas  in  Tacitus. • * 

*  [In  Greek  we  find,  at  one  time,  TpdXXeig  and  ^dpdeig ;  at  another, 
TpaA?.ig  and  ^dpdig.  The  former  lure  nominatives  plural  in  the  Attic  dia- 
jlect,  the  latter  m  the  Ionic.  (Consult  Maittaire,  Dial.  X.  G^.,  p.  145,  ed. 
Sturz.)}-^Am.  Ed. 

t  [According  to  Pliny,  as  quoted  by  Charisius  (p.  38),  Varro  often  made 
use  of  these  datives  in  si  or  «»n,  but  probably  only  with  Oreek  characters. 
Pliny  adduces  as  an  instance  the  form  echemnsirit  for  tchematiSf  and  in  n 
fragment  of  Uie  same  Varro,  in  Nonius  (iv.,  377),  we  have  "  in  tthesin  T«* 
reiutue  palmam  poseit."  QuintiUan,  also,  has  allowed  himself  to  sa  «  '*  ««i 
OvicUus  landvire  m  Metamorphoeesi  eolet"  (iv.,  i.,  77. )] — Am.  Ed. 

F  2 


6G  LATIN  GRAMMAB. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

«JENDCR    OF    WORDS    OF    THE    THIRF    DECLENSION. MiiK* 

CULINES. 

[§  75.]  Masculine  are  those  which  end  in  o,  ar^  09^  and 
er,  and  diose  in  es  which  increase  in  the  genithre^  espe- 
cially those  in  r«,  Uis ;  e.  g.,  sermo,  error ^  sudor,  flos^  mos, 
venter^  stipes. 

Exceptions  in  o. — Words  ending  in  do^  go,  and  io,  arcj 
feminine ;  e.  g.,  consuetudo^jbrnudotgrando^  inutgo,  oratio^ 
dictio,  lectio^  auditio,  cofmmmio^  ^c  ;  also  coro,  and.  the 
Greek  words  echo  and  Arg0  (the  ship  of  the  Argonauts). 
The  following,  however,  are  masculine ;  in  do^  the  words 
cardo  and  ordo,  together  with  udo  and  cudo,  or  cndcm;  in 
go :  ligo,  margo,  and  karpago  ;  and  all  words  in  io  which 
are  not  abstract  nouns  derived  from  verbs  ar*d  adjectives, 
but  common  names  of  things,  such  as  pttgio  (a  dagger), 
scipio  (a  staff),  septentrio  (north  pole),  titio  (a  fire-brand) ; 
several  names  of  animals,  as,  curculio,*  papilio,  scorpio, 
stellio,  vespertilioj  and  a  few  others  of  rare  occurrence ; 
and,  lastly,  those  formed  from  numerals,  such  as  unio,  hi- 
nio  or  duplio,  temio^  qtcatemioy  quinio^  senio^  &c.  Umo^ 
in  the  sense  of  a. particular  pearl  (margarita),  is  like- 
wise masculine ;  but  when  it  signifies  unity  (unitas),  and 
is  used  in  an  abstract  sense,  it  is  feminine ;  but  it  is  only 
in  ecclesiastical  writers  that  it  has  this  meaning. 

Note. — CupidOf  desire,  therefore  is  feminine,  but  masculine  when  it  la 
the  name  of  the  god  of  Love.  Poets,  however,  sometimes  use  it  as  a  mas- 
culine, even  in  the  former  signification,  and  Horace  does  so  always ;  as, 
praviu  cupidof/alsus  cupido.  Margo  may  have  either  gender,  but  the  mas- 
culine  is  more  frequent,  as  was  remarked  above. 

[§  76.]  Exceptions  in  or, — The  fijllowing  words  in  of, 
oris,  are  neuter:  ador,  aequor^  marmory  and  cor,  cordis. 
Arbor  is  feminine,  according  to  the  general  rule.  (Seo 
§39.)  . 

Exceptions  in  os^ — Cos,  doi,  and  the  Greek  eos  are  fem- 
inine. Os,  ossis,  and  os,  oris,  and  the  Greek  words  chaos^ 
ethos,  epos,  melos,  are  neuter. 

Exceptums  in  er. — ^A  great  many  words  in  et'  are  neu* 

^  Also  spellH  gurgulir  it  is  masculine  in  its  two  significations  of  '*  aif 
pipe"  and  *  wo  »d  worn*.  * 


t;bNUISil   OF    A'ORDS   OF  THb  THIRD   DECLENSION.     67 

ter,  viz:,  cadaver,  iter,  spintker,  tuber  (a  hump),  vher^  ver, 
and  verber  (rarely  used  in  the  singular,  but  very  frequent- 
ly in  the  plural,  verberaj,  and  all  the  names  of  plants  in 
er  :  acer,  deer,  laser^  papaver^  piper ^  siler,  siser,  suber,  and 
zingiber,  Tiiher  (a  kind  of  peach-tree)  is  feminine,  but 
when  it  denotes  the  fruit  it  is  masculine.  lAnter  is  com- 
monly used  as  a  feminine,  but  is  well  attested  also  as  i 
masculine. 

Exceptions  in  es  increasing  in  the  genitive. — The  fiil» 
lowing  are  feminine:  mfrges^  ttis;  seges  and  teges,  etis; 
merces^  edis ;  qnies,  etis^  with  its  compounds  inquies  and 
requies.  Compes,  which,  however,  does  not  occur  in  the 
nominative  sing.,  but  only  in  the  plural  campedes,  is  femi- 
nine. Aes,  aerisj  is  neuter ;  ales  and  quadrupes  are  prop- 
erly adjectives,  but  as  substantives  they  are  mostly  used 
as  femsiines. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


MBNDER   Of   WORDS   OF   THE   THIRD    DECLENSION. — ^FEMI- 

NINES.  « 

S§  77.]  Feminine  are  those  which  end  in  as,  is,  ys,  aus^ 
[  X,  those  in  es  which  do  not  increase  in  the  genitive, 
and  those  in  s  preceded  by  a  consonant,  e.  g.,  auctorita^^ 
navisj  chlamys,  laus  BJidJraus,paXf  radix,  arx,  nubes^pars, 
mors^hiems. 

Exceptions  in  a*. — The  following  are  masculine:  as, 
gen.  a^sis,  and  its  compounds,  though  they  have  different 
terminations ;  as,  guadraais,  a  fourth  of  an  as ;  hes,  two 
thirds  of  an  as;  decussis,  ten  ases  ;*  and  the  Greek  words 
which  make  their  genitive  in  antis ;  as,  adamas,  elephas, 
and  the  namQS  of  mountains :  Acragas^  Atlas,  Mimas. 
Mas,  maris,  and  vds,  vUdis,  are,  of  coufse,  masculine. 
The  following  are  neuters :  Greek  words  in  as,  which 
make  their  genitive  atis;  as,  artocreas,  erysipelas  (see 
§  58),  and  the  Latin  words  vas^  vasis,  and  Jos  and  nejus, 
which,  however,  occur  only  in  the  nom.  and  accus. 

Exceptions  in  w. — The  following  are  masculine :   1 
Those  in  is  gen,  eris  ;  as,  dnis,  cucamis,  puCvis,  and  vomis 
{commonly  vomer  J;  2.  The  following,  which  increase  in 

*  See  the  Appendix  o  i  Roman  weights,  coins,  and  meaauros. 


68  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

the  genitive :  glis^  lapis^  poUisj  and  sanguis  ;  3.  The  foi 
lowing, which  do  not  increase:  amnis^  axis^  ccdlis^canalu 
cassis  (used  especially  in  the  plural  casses^  a  hunter's  nei, 
and  not  to  be  confounded  with  cassis,  Idis,  a  helmet) ; 
caulis  or  colisy  collis^  crinis,  en^is^  fasds  (generally  in  the 
i^limX^  fasces  J  ^  Jinis^  follisy  funis^  fastis^  ignis,  mensis,  or- 
bis,  paniSf  piscis,  postis,  scrobis,  sentis,  torquis,  tbrris,  un^ 
guis,  vectis,  vermis.  Some  of  these  words,  however,  are 
used  by  good  authors  also  as  feminines,  though  not  often, 
especially  callis,  canalis,  scrobis,  torquis,  and  finis,  dnis, 
in  the  singular ;  whereas  the  plural  J?»e»,  in  the  sense  of 
boundary  or  territory,  and  cineres,  in  the  sense  of  the  ashes 
of  a  corpse,  are  always  masculine. 

As  mensis  is  masculine,  Aprilis,  QuintUis,  and  SextUis 
have  the  same  gender.  Some  substantives  in  is  are  prop- 
erly adjectives,  and  a  substantive  masculine  being  always 
understood,  they  are  themselves  used  as  masculines;  e.g., 
annalis,  commonly  in  the  plural  annates  (libri),  annals  ^ 
jugales (equijytvfo  horses  yoked  together ;  molaris  (lapis  ^ 
a  millstone ;  or,  if  dens  is  understood,  a  back  tooth  or 
grinder;  natalis  (dies),  birthday;  pugillares  flibellij,  a 
tablet  for  wyiting.  • 

Note. — Anguis  and  tigrU  may  have  either  gender;  cania  is  generally 
masculine,  but  when  it  denotes  a  dog  used  in  hunting,  it  is  very  often 
feminine.  (See  ^  42.)  AquaUs,  calUsf  anrbis,  and  cluniSf  plur.  clunesy  are 
used  by  good  writers  as  words  of  either  gender.  Delphis  is  masculine ; 
but  the  more  common  forms  are  detpkinua^  or  ddphm.  CossU  has  not  been 
mentioned  above,  because  the  only  authority  we  have  for  it  is  a  doubtful 
passage  in  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.j  zxx.,  39,  and  cosstist  i,  is  more  probable. 

That  the  names  of  rivers  in  is  are  masculine  follows  from  the  general 
rule  (^  37) ;  thus  we  read  horridus  AUns,  flamu  Tiberia,  rapidus  Tigria, 
Names  of  mountains  with  this  termination  are  not  numerous :  Lucretilht,  a 
hUl  in  Latium,  is  masculine ;  for  Horace  says,  amoenus  Lucretilis.  The 
Greek  names  Caramf/is^  a  promontory  on  the  Asiatic  coast  of  the  Black 
Sea,  and  Pehris  in  Sicily,  are  femimne,  the  word  uKpa  being  understood. 

All  the  masculines  in  is,  whatever  may  be  their  genitive,  are  contained 
«n  the  following  hexameter  lines : 

Mascula  sunt  panis^  pisdtt  erhuSf  einist  ignitf 
Funis,  glis,  vectiSffolUst  fascia f  lapis f  omnia ^ 
Sic/u«f»,  postiSf  scrobisj  axis,  vermis  et  unguis, 
Et  peniSf  collis,  callis,  sic  sanguis  et  ensis, 
Mugilis  et  mensis,  pollis,  cum  caule  canaliSf 
£t  vomis,  seniis,  pulvis,  finis,  cucumtsque, 
Anguis,  item  torquis,  torris,  cum  cassibus  oroia. 

Exceptions  in  ys, — Names  of  rivers  ami  mountains  witk 
this  termination  are  masculine,  according  to  the  rules  lai'J 
down  in  Chap.  VI. ;  e.  g.,  Halys,  Othrys, 

[§78]  Exceptions  \nx, — The  following  are  masculine: 
I.  The  Greek  wonls  in  ax:  as,  anthrax,  cordax,  thorax 


GENDER    OF    A^URDS   OF    THE    THIKD    DECLENSION.     69 

2.  The  majority  of  those  in  ex :  apex,  caudex,  codex^  c% 
mex,  cortex^  adex^  JhUex,  grex^  irpex^  latex^  murex^  obex^ 
podeXf  poUex,  pulex^  pumexj  ramex,  tilex^  sorex^  ulex^  ver- 
tex or  vortex,  3.  Some  in  ix:  \iz,y  calix^Jpmix^  phoenix^ 
sorix;  and  generally^  also,  vam;.  4.  One  word  in  ux: 
viz.,  tradux^  properly  an  adjective,  palmes  being  under- 
stood. 5.  The  following  6reek  words  in  yx:  calyx^ 
*coccyx^  onyx,,  oryx  an^  bombyx  (in  the  sense  of  silk- worm ; 
it  is  feminine  when  it  signifies  silk) ;  and  the  names  of 
mountains,  such  as  Eryx.  6.  The  subdivisions  of  an  a« 
which  end  in  unx ;  as,  quxTicunx^  septunx^  deunx.  (See 
Appendix  III.)  * 

Note. — ^Mauy  words  in  er,  commonly  enumerated  in  these  lists,  are  mas- 
culine from  their  signification ;  such  as  reXf  pontifex,  camijfex^foeimex,  ver- 
vex.  Some  words  vary  between  the  masculme  and  feminine  genders ;  as, 
cortex,  cbejB,  punux,  and  siUx,  which  have  been  mentioned  alx>ve,  but  the 
masc.  is  better  attested.  To  these  we  must  add  imbrex  and  rumex,  both 
genders  Of  which  are  supported  by  equal  authority.  It  may  be  remarked 
that  the  nuBiber  of  masculines  in  ev  is  greater  than  that  of  feminines ;  for 
if  we  put  aside  the  above-mentioned  masculines,  there  vemain  only  the 
followmg  feminines :  for/ex,  lex,  nex,  supelUx^  j>rex  (not  used  in  the  nom.), 
and /oev.  PelleXf  3eXf  viter,  and  carex  are  femm|nes  from  their  meaning,  ac- 
cormng  to  the  general  rule.  Atriplex  is  the  only  neuter  in  ex,  and  is  rarely 
used  as  a  febiinine. 

Onyx  is  masculine  when  it  denotes  a  species  of  marble,  or  a  vessel  made 
of  it ;  but  as  the  name  of  a  precious  stone  (see  ^  39)  it  is  feminine.  Calx 
18  sometimes  used  as  a  masculine  like  the  diminutive  calctdus,  but  It  does 
not  occur  in  ancient  ^vriters.  Lyiue  occurs  as  masculine  only  in  a  single* 
passage  of  Honceftimidoe  lipMMt)^  and  is  otherwise  feminine,  as  in  Greek. 
The  archaic  cum  primo  he*  is  believed  to  be  preserved  in  a  passage  of 
Cicero  {De  Off.,  ih.,  31.    Cobip.  Varro,  De  L.  L.,  vi.,  9). 

Exceptions  in  es,  gen.  is,  without  increase. — The  Greek 
ward  adnaces  alone  {oKivdKrjg,  ov)  is  decidedly  masculine. 
Vepres,  which  rarely  occurs  in  the  singular,  and  palumbes, 
though*  commonly  masculines,  are  found  also  as  feminines. 

Exceptions  in  s  preceded  by  a  consonant.— The  follow 
ing  axe  masculine  :  dens,  foTis,  mans,  and  pons  ;  adeps 
commonly,  and  Jbrceps  sometimes.  Some  words  are  prop- 
erly adjectives,  but  are  used  as  masculine  substandres, 
because  a  substantive  of  that  gender  is  understood  :  con- 
JUtens  or  confluences  (anmesj^  torrens  (amnis),  oriens  and 
occidens  (sol),  rudens  (funis J,  bidens  and  tridens;  and 
several  Greek  words,  such  as  elops,  epops  (Lat.  upupa)^ 
fnerops,  gryps  (gryphis),  hydrops,  ohcdybs, 

N9te. — ^The  divisions  of  the  at  ending  in  ns,  e.  g.,  sextans^  quadrans,  trtens, 
dodrane,  are  masculine,  as  was  remarked  ^  77.  Serpens,  in  ]^rose  writers, 
is  senerally  feminine,  but  the  poets  use  it  also  as  a  masculine.  Stirps,  in 
a  fig^irative  sense,  is  always  feminine,  but  in  its  original  sense  of  '*  siem* 
i*  iafiequeoAly  found  as  a  masculine.    Cowtinent,  the  conunent,  properN 


70  LATIN   OKAMMAR 

an  adjeclive,  u  ol  doubtful  gender,  though  the  feminine  is  i>erhap8  prettfia 
blp.  Bidetu,  a  fork,  is  masculine ;  but  when  it  signifies  **  a  sjieep  two 
years  old"  it  is  feminine,  ovu  being  understood.  The  plural  torremia,  from 
iorrens^  occurs  in  CurtiuSf  ix.,  35,  and  must  be  explained  by  supplyinf 
Jlwnma,  torrent  being  properly  an  adjective.  A  few  participles  used  as  sub 
stantives  in  philoso^nical  language  are  neuters;  as,  ens.  accident,  conse 
mtena.  AnimanSf  bemg  properly  a  participle,  t)ccurs  in  all  three  genders . 
but,  according  to  the  practice  of  Cicero,  it  is  generally  feminine  in  the  senet 
of  " a  living  being,^'  and  masculine  in  the-  sensp  of  "a  rational  creature.' 
(See  Schneider,  Formenlehre,  p.  126,  fol.) 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

CIENDER  OF  WORDS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. ^NEUTERS 

[§  79.]  Words  ending  in  a,  e,  t,  y,  c,  Z,  «,  t^  ar^  «er,  im 
are  neuter ;  e.  g.,  poema,  marcj  sinapi^  misy^  lac  and  alec^ 
animal^  mcl^  carmen^  Jiumen^  captU  (the  only  word  of  this 
termination),  ccUcar,  ptdvinar^^gur^  guUur^  opus^  tempus, 

1.  Exceptions  in  I, — The  following  are  masculine :  sol^ 
sal,  and  mtLgU,  which  form  is  more  common  than  mugiUs* 
Sal,  in  the  singular,  is  sometimes  found  as  a  neuter,  but 
in  the  plural  the  ancients  use  only  sales,  both  in  the  sense 
of  "  salt"  and  in  the  more  common  one  of  **  witticisms." 
Salia,  in  the  sense  of  "  different  kinds  of  salt/'^is  only  a 
modem  medical  term.  • 

2  Exceptions  in  n, — There  are  only  three  Latin  words 
in  en  which  are  masculine,  viz.,  pecten,  pecfinis,  ren  and 
lien  (or  Itenis)  ;  the  others  in  en  are  of  Greek  origin ;  e. 
g.,  attagen,  lichen,  and  splen.  Deiphin  (commonly  ddphi- 
nusj,  paean,  agon,  canon,  gnomon,  horizon,  and  the  names 
of  mountains  in  on;  as,  Cithaeron,  Hdicon,  are  likewise 
masculines.  The  following  in  on  are  fbminine:  a'idon, 
halcyon  (Lat.  alcedoj,  icon,  and  sindon;  and,  according 
to  ^e  general  rule,  ail  the  Gh:-eek  names  of  towns,  with  a 
few  exceptions,  such  as  Marathon,  which  is  more  fre* 
quently  masculine. 

3.  Exceptions  in  ar, — Par  is  common  in  the  sense  of 
•*  mate,*'  but  neuter  in  the  sense  of  •*  a  pair*" 

4.  Exceptions  in  ur.^^Astwr,  turtur,  vvlttsr,  and  fafft^ 
are  masculine.  * 

5.  Exceptions  in  us, — ^AU  words  of  two  or  more  sylla- 
bles whicb  retain  the  u  in  the  genitive,  that  is,  which 
end  in  utis  or  udAs,  are  feminine ;  e.  g.,  juventus,  salus^ 
senectus^  servitus,  virtus;  incus,  pah**  end  subscus ;  also. 


rOUUTII    DBCLENSION. 


71 


%eUtds^  teUuris,  and  pecus^  pecudis^  a  sheep,  wheieas  pecus^ 
peearis  (neut.),  signifies  ''  cattle''  in  general.  Venus^  Ve* 
meriSf  the  name  of  a  goddess,  is  naturally  feminine ;  but 
it  retains  the  same  gender  in  the  sense  of  "  gracefiilness** 
(generall]^  in  the  plural).  Respecting  the  names  of  ani* 
mak  in  us,  see  above,  §*42.  JUepus  and  mus  are  mascu- 
line ;  grus  and  sus  are  feminine  when  the  particular  sex 
is  not  to  be  specified.  Of  Greek  words  in  us,  tripus^  trir 
podis^  is  masculine ;  apus  and  lagopus  are  feminine,  per- 
haps only  because  avis  is  understood.  Rhus,  as  a  tree,  is 
feminine ;  as  a  seed  or  spice,  masculine. 


CHAPTER  XX. 


FOURTH     DECLENSION. 


\J 


Plural. 


[§  80.]  The  fourth  declension  is  only  a  particulcu:  spo 
cies  of  die  third,  which  has  arisen  fi*om  contraction  and 
Elision.   The  nominative  of  masculine  and  feminine  words 
ends  in  us,  and  of  neuters  in  u.     The  following  is  the  form 
ci  their  declension : 
•  Singular. 

l^om.yiruct'us,  fruit. 

Gen,  fruct'Us. 

Dat.   fruct-uu 

Ace.  %.t^ra. 

Voc.  Jruct'us. 

Abl.  Jruct'U, 

Nojn.Jruct'Us, 
Gen.  Jruct-uum. 
Dat.  frucp^bus. 
Ace.  Jruct-us* 
Voc  fructrus.    ' 
Abl.  fruct-xbus*  * 

The*  following  words  may  be  used  as  exercises :  adus, 
coetus^  cursus,  gradus,  lusus,  mugistratusf  motus,  sensus^ 
iumptuSf  vuttus:  the  only  neuters  are,  genu,  gdu^  veru^ 
pecu  (the  same  as  pecus^  oris),  Tonitrus  and  tonitruum^ 
plar.  tamitrua,  are  more  commonly  used  than  tonitru. 

Formerly  it  was  believed  that  the  neuters  in  u  wore 
ttdetlinable  in  the  singular,  but  recent  inveetiga'ions  (et 


com-Hj  horn. 

com-Hs, 

(com-ui)  com-u, 

com-u, 

com-u, 

com-u, 

com-ua, 

com-uum. 

com-tbus, 

com-ua, 

com-ua, 

com-tbus. 


•^2  LATIN    GRAMMAt:. 

jiecially  those  of*  Freund,  in  an  ap^ndix  to  the  ^  re^te« 
to  his  Tiutin  Dictionary)  compel  us  to  give  up  this  o]»inion, 
especially  with  regard  to  the  genitive ;  for  it  is  only  in 
late  i;echnical  writera  that  we  find,  e.  g.,  comu  cervimem 
and  comu  bubulum  making  the  genitive  writhout  any  ter- 
mination of  the  first  word :  comucervini,  comubtibulu  The 
dative  ui  is  likewise  mentioned  by  an  ancient  grammari- 
an (Martian.  Capella,  lib.  iii.),  but  there  is  no  instance  ex- 
cept comu  in  Livy,  xlii.,  58,  which  must  be  looked  on  as 
a  contraction  of  comui, 

[^  81.]  Note  1.— The  genitive  of  the  words  in  us  was  ori^nally  um,  which 
was  afterward  contracted  into  Us,  Instances  of  the  ancient  form  are  still 
found  in  our  authors ;  as,  anvis  in  Terence.  Sometimes,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  genitive  of  words  in  us  was  i,  after  the  second  declension,  which 
.is  still  found  now  and  then,  as  weH  as  us,  not  only  in  comic  writers,  but 
in  good  prose,  e.  g.,  senati  and  tumuUi  in  Sallust.  The  dative  in  u  instead 
of  vi  is  still  more  frequent,  esi)ecially  in  Cesai^  who  is  said  by  Gellias 
(iv.,  19)  (p  have  simctioned  this  form  exclusively;  e.  g.,  equitatu,  magis- 
hatu,  usu,  for  eqtdtatidj  &c. ;  it  is,  however;  found  also  in  a  few  passages 
of  other  writers. 

[^  82.]  Note  2.--Some  words  make  the  dative  and  ablative  phiialin  fifrtw 
instead  of  ibus.    They  are  contained  in  the  following  two  hexameters :    , 

Arcus,  acus,  portus,  quercus,  ficus,  hcusy  artuSf 
£t  tribus  et  partus ,  specus,  adde  veruqne  pecuqae. 

But  it  must  be  observed,  that  instead  ofjicubus  a  better  form  iBfids,  iruio 
ficuSf  i  (see  ^  97),  and  that  areubus  and  quercubuSf  though  mentioned  by^ 
ancient  grammarians,  do  not  occur  in  other  writers  any  more  tj^an  arcUms, 
or  quercUms,    Portu*  has  both  forms,  ubus  and  ilmSf  and  totdtrus  has  more 
commonly  tonitribus  than  Un^ruims. 

[^  83.1  Note  3. — Domus  takes,  in  some  of  its  cases,  the  forms  of  the 
second  declension ;  £>ut  this  is  exclusively  the  case  only  in  the  genit.-domt 
m  the  sense  of  "  at  home  ;"*  in  the  abl.  domo  in  the  sense  of  "  from  home  ;** 
and  in  Ihe  ace.  plur.  domoa  in  the  soise  of  "  home,"  when  several  places 
are  alluded  to.  In  the  other  signification,  the  forms  of  the  fourth  declen 
sion  prevail,  though  we  find  the  ablat.  domo,  genit.  plur.  domorvm,  ace 
plur.  domosy  along  with  domu  (see  Garatoqi  on.Cic,  Philip,,  ii.,  18),  do 
muum,  and  domUs  (see  my  note  on  Cic.  m  Verr.,  iv.,  4);  but  domo  foi 
domvi  seldom  occurs. 

Gender  of  Words  of  the  Fourth  Declension. 

[§  84.]  The  words  in  us  are  masculine.  The  following 
only  are  feminines:  acua,  domus ^  manus'^  porticus^  tribus, 
and  the  plurals  idus,  iduum,  and  quinqtiatrv^^  guingtiatrU' 
um.  To  these  must  be  added  colus^  ^hich,  however,  also 
fi>llows  the  second  declension.  (See  §  53  and  97J  The 
words  anusy  nurusy  s&erus,  difid  quercus  are  feminme,  ac- 
cording to  die  general  rule,  on  account  of  their  significa- 
tion. 

Noie. — Penus,  us  (provisicms),  is  feminine ;  but  there  are  two  othet 

*  [Domi^  "  at  home,**  is  in  fact  not  a  genitive,  but'  an  old  locative  cast 
Compare  AnthmCs  Cheek  Prosody ^  p.  227,  seq.y^Am.  JBd.  '  .  '• 


rtrru  declension.  73 

of  this  word,  one  aftw  the  second  declension,  penum,  t,  and  the 
•econd  after  the  third,  penus,  SriSf  both  of  which  are  neuter.  Speeut  is 
most  frequently  masculine;  but  in  the  early  language,  and  in  poetry,  it  is 
found  both  as  a  feminine  and  as  a  neuter.  In  Valer.  Maximus,  i.,  2,  we 
have  m  quoddam  praealtum  speau  for  m  qumdam  wpeevm  ;  but  the  reading  is 
doubtful.  Secua,  when  used  for  Mtxus^  is  neuter,  but  occurs  only  in  the 
nominat.  and  accus.  in  the  connexion  of  viriU  and  mtdit^t  tecua,  (Com 
pare  ^  89.) 

The  few  words  in  %  are  neuter,  without  exception. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

FIFTH     DECLENSION. 

'§  85.J  The  fifth  declension,  like  the  fourth,  may,  with 
&w  changes,  be  traced  to  the  third.     The  nominatiye 
ends  in  es^  and  the  declension  is  as  follows : 

Singular.  Plural.       ^*  * 


I 


Nom.  di-es,  a  day. 
Gen.  di-ei, 
Dat.   di-ei. 
Ace.  di-em. 
Voc.  di-es, 
Abl.  di-e. 


Nom.  di-es. 
Gen.  di-erum* 
Dat»   di'dbus. 
Ace.  di-es, 
Voc.  di-es, 
Abl.   di-ehtM, 


N»u  l.—Only  the  three  words  ctie*,  rea,  and  apeeiet  have  their  plural 
complete ;  and  Cicero  condemned  even  apecjerum  and  apeciebua  as  not  being 
Latin.  The  words  adea^fadea^  effigieay  aerieay  and  apea  are  found  in  good 
prose  writers  only  in  the  nominadve  plur.  (perhaps  in  the  vocative  also) 
and  accus.  plur. ;  the  others  have,  from  their  signification,  no  plural 

Note  2. — ^The  e  in  the  termination  of  the  genitive  and  dative  singular  is 
long  when  preceded  by  a  vowel,  as  in  c2tei,  macieif  but  short  in  apeit  com« 
mon  iD.]fidei  and  m. 

NoU  3. — An  old  termination  of  the  genitive  was  ea  Contracted  from  cm), 
but  is  not  found  in  our  authors,  except  in  the  word  Dieaviter:=Diei  pater. 
But  thete  are  several  instances  of  i  and  I  being  used  for  tne  ei  of  the  geni- 
tive and  dative.  The  i  for  the  genitive  occurs  very  frecguently  in  poetry 
(Virg.,  Georg.f  i.,  208,  die.  Horat.,  Carm.,  iii.,  7, 4 ;  Ovid,  itfctom.,  iiL,  341, 
and  vii,  728,,^) ;  and  also  in  some  passages  •of  Cicero,  Caesar,  and  Sal 
lust ;  e.  g.,  pernide  cauaa  (some  write  pvnicu),  in  Cic,  pro  Roac.  Am.,  45. 
In  ainiatra parte  ade  in  Cses.,  BeU.  OalL,  ii.,  23,  and  several  times  in  Sallust. 
Instances  of  the  dative  ending  in  e  occur  in  Horace,  Serm.,  i.,  3,  95,  com- 
wuaaafida  ;  and  in  Livy,  v.,  13,  inaanabUi  pernide  nee  cauaa  nee  lima  ixvenia- 
batur.  The  dative  in  t  occurs  in  Nepos,  Thraayb.,  2 :  pernidi/uU  ;  and  the 
genitive  in  i  appears  in  Livy,  ii.,  42,  in  the  connexion  of  tribuni  plebi  for 
plebd  (plebea^jdeba). 

Gender  op  Words  of  the  FIefth  Declension. 

[§  86.]  The  words  of  the  fifth  declension  are  feminine, 
with  the  exception  of  dies,  which  is  mascul.  and  femin.  in 
rhe  singular,  and  masculine  only  in  the  plural.    The  com 
pound  meridies  is  masculine  only,  but  does  not  occur  in 
the  plural,  as  was  remarked  above. 


74  >ATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Abte.— -Good  prose  writers  make  the  singular  of  diu  uMch,  iii>rti  tm 
^enUy  masculine  than  feminine.    The  latter  gender,  gei  erallv  speaking 
is  used  only  when  dies  denotes  duration  or  length  of  time,  and  m  tne  sens* 
of  A  fixed  or  appointed  day.    Thus  we  find  certa,  eMutUvtOf  pne$tiutK. 
dktOffouta  dits,  but  also  atato  4m. 


CHAPTER  XXIL 

IRREGULAR   DECLENSION. — ^INDEOLINABLES. — DEFECTITE0. 

[§  87.]  The  irre^aritiea  in  the  deelension  of  substan- 
tives may  be  comprised  under  two  general  heads :  A.  jG»- 
dedinahles  and  defectives;  B,  Heterodita  and  heterogenea* 

A.  Some  substantives  have  a  defective  declension,  in- 
asmuch as  they  have  either  no  terminations  at  all  to  mark 
the  different  cases  (indeclinahlesjy  or  want  particular  ca- 
ses, or  even  a  whole  number  (defectives), 

I.  Indedinables,  or  v^rords  which  retain  the  same  form 
in  all  cases,  are  chiefly  the  names  of  the  letters  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  alphabets,  e.  g.,  alpha^  beta,  gamma, 
digamma,  delta,  iota,  a,  c,  v,  &c.  It  is  only  late  and 
unclassiccd  authors  that  decline  the  Greek  names  in  a. 
Delta,  as  a  name  of  a  country,  is  likewise  indeclinable ; 
but  it  is  found  only  in  the  nomin.  and  accus.  Farther,  a 
number  of  foreign  words,  such  as  git,  manna,  ^pascha,  and 
a  few  Greek  substantives  in  t  and  y,  such  as  gwmmi  an<? 
misy,  which,  however,  occurs  also  as  a  declinable  word 
(see  §  b^") ;  and  besides  the  indeclinable  gummi  there  ex 
ist  other  declinable  forms  also,  e.  g.,  haec  gummds,  hot 
gumma,  and  hoc  gumen.  Hebrew  proper  names,  which 
differ  in  their  terminations  fixmi  Greek  and  Latin  words, 
are  either  npt  declined  at  all,  as  Bethleem,  Gdhriel,  Ruth, 
or  they  take  a  Latin  termination  in  the  nominative  also, 
e.  g.,  Abrahoimus,  JoAxhus,  Josephus,  Juditha,  Damd  and 
Daniel  are  the  only  names  vrhich,  vnthout  taking  any  tei> 
mination  in  the  nominative,*  make  the  genitive  Davidis 
and  Damielis.  Others,  as  Joannes,  Moses,  Judas,  Maria, 
have  already  acquired,  through  the  Greek,  a  declinable 
terminatipn,  and  are  accordingly  declined  afler  the  first 
or  third  declension.  Jesus  makes  the  accusat.  Jesum,  but 
in  the  other  cases  it  remains  unchanged,  Jesu. 

*  [ModeYn  writers  of  Latin  verse,  however,  give  Davidis  as  a  form  fo 
the  nominative.  Compare  Hodgaom,  (Provost  of  Eton),  Sacred  Hietor^.fi^ 
halm  Verse^  p.  95.] — Am.  Ed, 


IRREGUI^AA   DECLKN810N.  741 

.  A.^^^^^  ^®  genuine  Latin  words  we  must  notice pondo, 
wl^h  is  used  only  as  a  plural,  and  remains  unchanged  in 
all  its  casesy  e.  g.,  auri  quinque  pondo^  five  pounds  of  gold. 
This  peculiaiity  arose  from  the  omission  of  the  word  li- 
brae, to  which  was  added  the  superfluous  pondo^  an  ahla- 
tive  in  the  sense  of  "  in  weight"  (in  which  it  still  often 
occurs ;  see  §  428) ;  afterward  librae  was  omitted,  and 
pcndo  retained  its  place.  Semis,  half  an  as,  has  h^come 
an  indeclinable  acyective  (one  half)  from  a  declinable 
.substantive,  gen.  semissis,  and  is  used  as  such  in  connex- 
ion with  other  numerals. 

[§  88.]  II.  Defectives  in  case*  are  those  substantives 
which  want  one  or  more  cases.  There  are  many  words 
3f  which  the  nominative  singular  cannot  be  proved  to  have 
existed  ^  as,  for  instance,  of  the  genitives  aapisy  dicioms, 
feminis  (for  which  the  uomm^t,  femur  is  u^edi),  Jrugis, 
ijntemedonis,  opis,  pollinis,  vicis,  and  of  the  plurals  preces 
and  verbera  (for  which  we  use  as  a  nom.  sing,  plaga  or 
ictus).  The  genitive  neminis,  from  nemo,  occurs  very  rai'e- 
ly,  and  its  place  is  supplied  by  nuUins,  (See  §  676.)  The 
vocative  is  wanting  in  a  great  many  words,  from  their  sig- 
nification. The  genitive  plural  is  "panting,  that  is,  does  not 
occur  in  our  auQiorities,  in  several  monosyllabic  words ; 
as,  OS,  oris;  vas,  vadds;  glos,  pax,  and  others.  (See  §  66.) 
The  genit.  and  dat.  sing,  of  t;««  are  very  rare,  but  the  plural 
vires,  virium,  &c.,  is  complete. 

[§  89.]  With  regard  to  words  which  want  several  ca- 
siBs,  it  most  frequently  happens  that  only  those  cases  ex- 
ist which  are  alike  (i.  e.,  especially  the  nominat.  and  ac- 
cusal), all  the  others  being  wanting.  This  i»  the  case  (a) 
with  Greek  neuters  in  es  (properly  adjectives)  and  in  os 
in  the  singular^  and  witlv  those  in  e  in  the  plural,  e.  g., 
cacoethes,  chaos,  epos,  melos,  cetoW  which  make  the  plural 
mele,  cete,  B:d  in  Greek),  and  Tempe.  Some  of  these 
words,  however,  have  a  declinable  Latin  form  in  us,  i,  or 
mn,  i,  viz.,  cltaus,  ceius,  mdus  (mascuL),  and  melum,  from 
which  the  ablatived  chiw,  mdo  are  derived ;  and  besides 
(to)  Argos,  there  is  a  declinable  Latin  form  Argi,  Ar go- 
rum,  Argis.  (b)  With  the  Latin  neuters^/2w,  n^a^,  nihil, 
parum  (too  little),  axidtnstar,  which  was  originally  a  suo- 

♦  [Consult,  on  this  subject,  the  following  passages  of  thfi  andent  grain 
manans :  Charts.,  p.  22,  seq.  Id.,  p.  72,  seq.  IHom.,  p.  288.  Pw.,  p.  672 
964*-  Phw:.,  p.  1708,  ttq.  Asper,  p.  1729.  Donat.,  p.  1749.  Setf.,  p.  184& 
Cltdon  ,  p.  190  .     Consent.,  p.  203i.l— iim.  Ed, 


76  LATCN    GRAMMAR. 

fttautive  signifying  '*  an  image,"  or  "  resemblance,"  a.id 
was  then  used  as  an  adjective  in  the  sense  of  "  like,"  but 
only  in  such  connexions  as  admit  of  its  being  explained 
as  a  nominative  or  accusative.  Sectcs,  sex,  is  likewise 
used  only  in  cases  that  are  alike,  especially  as  an  accu- 
sative absolute,  virile  sectcs,  mtdiebre  secus^  e.  g.,  canis, 
mtdiehre  secus  ;  in  other  phrases,  sexus,  us^  is  the  ordina 
ry  wtrd.  fcj  With  the  plural  of 'many  monosyllabic 
woids;  BS^neceSf  kinds  of  death;  paces ,  treaties  of  peace 
especially  neuters ;  as,  aera^  brazen  images ;  jura,  rights ; 
rura^  fields;  tura,  inctnse;  and  others,  the  plural  of 
which  generally  occurs  only  in  poetical  language;  as, 
farra,  com;  mella^  honey;  fella^  bile.  To  these  we  must 
add  the  poetical  plurals  flamina^  murmura^  sUentia,  colla. 
The  following  plurals,  grates,  munia,  munera,  likewise 
occur  only  in  the  nom.  and  accus.,  and  the  ablatives  grat- 
ibiis  and  munihus  are  rarely  used.  MetttSj  which  is  cont- 
plete  in  the  singular,  and  astus,  of  which  the  ablat.  singu- 
lar is  used,  have,  in  the  plural,  those  cases  only  which  are 
alike. 

The  following  must  be  remembered  separately :  Jbrs 
occurs  only  in  the  nom.  and  abl,  singular  (forte,  by  chance) ; 
lues^  in  the  nom.,  ace,  and  ablat.  singular ;  mane^  in  the 
nom.,  ace,  and  abl.  singular,  and  is  alike  in  all  of  them, 
but  it  is  used  also  as  an  adverb.  Satiasj  for  satietas,  does 
not  occur,  in  good  prose,  in  any  other  form.  There  are 
several  words  which  are  frequently  used  in  the  plural 
(see  §  94),  but  which  in  the  singular  have  only  one  or 
other  case,  more  especially  the  ablative ;  e.  g.,  prece, 
from  preces,  occurs  in  prose  also ;  but  the  ablative  singular 
of  ambages^  compedes^  fauces,  obices^  and  verbera  is  used 
only  in  verse,  and  not  m  ordinary  prose. 

[§  90  ]  Some  words  occur  only  in  particular  combina- 
tions, and  in  a  particular  case :  dicis,  vsdth  causa  and  gra* 
tia  ;  naud^  in  the  phrase  non  nauci  facere,  or  esse  ;  diu 
iwctuque^  or  die  et  noctu^  old*ablatives,  for  which,  howev* 
}pte  et  interdiu  are  more  commonly  used ;  derisui, 
despicatui^  dimsui^  ostentui,  in  combination  vnth  dtici  or 
esse;  i7ifitias,vntYi,ire;  suppetias, yrithf erre;  pessum  and 
venum^  with  ire  and  dare  ;  whence*  venire  and  vendue,  foi 
which  Tacitus,  in  the  same  sense,  uses  veno  ponere^  exei* 
cere  ;  fans  and  foras  (from  farae  zz: fores  J  •  gratis  (fbl 
grativtj,  ingratiis  ;  sponte,  with  a  pronoun ;  as,  mea^  f  aeai 


IRREGULAR   DECLfiNSION.  Tl 

sua,  or  agenidvo;  impromptu  and  inprodnctu^covomovX} 
with  esse  and  stare.  We  must  particularly  notice  sumc 
verbal  substantives,  which  frequently  occur  in  good  wri* 
ters,  but  rarely*  in  any  other  form  than  the  ablat.  sing,  in 
combination  with  a  genitive,  or  still  more  frequently  with 
a  pronoun,  such  a^  meo,  tuo,  &;c.,  e.  g.,  concessu  and  per* 
missu;  manitu  and  admonitu;  mandatu^  rogatu^  oratu; 
arhitraiUf  jussu  et  injttssu;  acdtu,  coactuatque  eJ^fiUUu 
meo,  ^^^ 

[§91.]  III.  Defectives  in  number*  are  words  which 
have  either  no  plural  or  singular. 

1.  Many  words,  from  their  signification,  can  have  no  plu- 
ral, and  are  termed  singtdaria  tantum.  This  is  the  case, 
(a)  with  abstract  noims  which  have  a  simple  and  univer- 
sal meaning,  e.  g,,justitia,  pietas,  pudor,  temperantia^  ex- 
perientia^  it^antiaj  pueritia,  adeUscentiaf  juventus,  senectus, 
fames,  sitis ;  (h)  with  words  which  denote  a  substance 
or  mass  without  division  or  subdivision ;  as,  aurum^  argen- 
tum^  argilla,  sabtdum,  coenum,  limus,  sanguis,  and  panis, 
inasmuch  as  we  thereby  do  not  understand  a  single  loaf 
but  the  substance  of  bread  in  general.  Some  words  of 
this  kind,  however,  when  used  in  the  plural,  denote  sep- 
arate objects,  consisting  of  the  substance  indicated  by  the 
name;  as,  aera^  works  in  bronze;  cerae^  wax-tablets; 
ligna^  pieces  of  wood ;  (c)  collective  words ;  as,  indoles, 
the  whole  natural  abilities  of  a  person;  plebs  and  vulgus^ 
victus,  supeUex^  virus.  Proper  names  should  strictly  have 
no  plural,  but  cases  often  occur  where  a  plural  is  neces- 
sary, viz.,  when  persons  of  the  same  name  or  character 
are  spoken  of,  and  it  may  be  remarked  in  general  ihat  in 
cases  like  this  the  person  who  speaks  or  writes  must  de- 
cide for  himself  It  is  surprising  that  tliere  exists  no  plu- 
ral of  the  words  vesper  (vesperaj^  meridies,  ver,  justitium 
letum,  and  spe^men. 

[^  92.]  iVor«  1. — ^It  it,  however,  remarkable  that  the  plural  of  abstract 
Bouns  is  much  more  common  in  Latin  than  in  our  own  language,  to  de 
note  a  repetition  of  the  same  thing,  or  its  existence  in  different  objects 
Cicero  {Pro  Leg.  Man,,  h\  for  example,  says :  advent&B  imperatomm  noatro- 
tmninvrbedtociarwn:  inPis,,22'„eoncursH»fid>antundique;  effutiones  homi- 
num:  De  Q/f.,  ii.,  6;  interitftt  exerdtuum:  ioid.,  ii.,  8;  exitus  erant  bellarvm 
mU  mites  out  necettaru :  ibid.,  ii.,  7 ;  reliquorum  timiUs  exitus  iyrannorum  i  in 

*  [The  passages  of  the  ancient  grammarians  that  have  reference  to  thii 
subject  are  the  following :  Varro,  L.  L.,  vii.,  25 ;  /d,  viii.,  40.  Aul.  GelL, 
fix.,  8.  Charts.,  p.  19,  21,  seg.  ^iom.,  p.  314,  seqq.  Prisc.y  p.  662,  Mf 
Pkoc.,  p.  1707,  sea,    Donat.,  p.  1748.     Cemma.,  p.  2029.1— ilm.  Rd, 

0  2 


/ 


78  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

V$n.t  ▼.,  11;  extllit  c&nvitiorum  ttdesfMrvnt  The  phrases  ineuntrn  m  otfii 
hmninum  tnd  animos  addere  mUitibm  are  of  quite  common  occuneace.  and 
animus  is  used  in  the  pfural  whenever  the  courage  or  anger  of  several  per- 
sons is  spoken  of,  just  as  we  always  read  terga  vertere^  io  take  to  ffight, 
when  the  act  is  ascribed  to  many,  and  never  tngum,  Ammit  however, 
like  spiritHs^  is  used  in  the  plura'  also,  to  denote  iheferocia  animi  of  one 
man.  Quahties,  when  attriouted  to  several  persons,  are  frequently  (not 
always)  used  in  the  plural ;  e.  g.,  pnceritates  arbonfm^  Cic,  Cat.j  17 ;  odi»* 
ti»  kommvm  nocwrmn  indfatrw^  m  Verr^  ia.,  4 ;  ingemit  exeelkntibus  fp/tedki 
homines J^  Fin.^  ▼,,  24.  The  plural  in  this  case  oflen  denotes  di0erent 
speciesj^Mie  same  quality;  e.  g.,  wapieru  nostreu  ambitiones  leviiatesque con- 
temnitf^K.,  Tusc^  v.,  36;  »aepe  excellentiae  quaedam  in  atnieUia  sunt,  LeteL, 
19 ;  somnuM  et-quUtea  ceterae,  Dt  Og,^  i.,  29.  in  like  manner  we  find  invidict 
muititudinut  insaniae,  desperationeSf  iracundiaeffortitudineSf  turpitudmeSf  mortes, 
exitia,  omnes  et  metus  et  aegritudinea  ad  doiorem  reftrwiaw^  &c.  (See,  in  pai- 
tioular,  Cic,  Z^  Qf.,  iil,  32.)  We  must  l»rther  BOttce  the  frequent  use 
of  the  plural  in  words  denoting  the  phenomena  of  the  weather ;  as,  ntves, 
pnanoe,  grandinesy  imbregj  pluviae ;  1.  e.,  falls  of  snow,  showers  of  hail,  dec; 
and  soiu,  sunbeams.  OSee  Quintil.,  zi,  3,  27.)  All  we  have  said  hitherto 
relates  to  good  prose ;  the  poets  go  still  ^rther^  and  use  the  plural  with- 
out either  of  the  two  reasons  mentioned  above ;  e.  g.,  amorts,  iracy  metilt, 
and  UmoreSfflammOj  murmurat  otia,'Vt7entus,  partly  for  the  purpoM  of  being 
•nore  emphatic,  and  partly  on  account  <^  the  metre,  where  the  ^ngttlar 
Joes  not  suit  it. 

Note  2.--The  names  of  fruits  of  ^rdcns  aril!  fields,  on  the  other  hand^ 
are  fiequenUy  used  in  the  singular  m  e  collective  sens^  where  we  are  in 
the  habit  of  employing  the  plural;  e.  g.,  Pytbagorei/aba  abtUnuerunt  (Cic); 
fabanif  Icntemt  rapum  serere  ;  ciceris  catinus.  In  like  manner,  nttx  or  tiva  does 
not  denote  a  single  nut  or  grape,  but  the  particular  kind  of  fruit ;  as  in 
Horace,  Serm.j  ii.,  2, 121 :  pmMtiiM  wa  ateunda*  et  ima  amabat  menetu.  In  a 
similar  way  Cicero  uses  the  names  of  species  of  animals :  vj/Za  abwuka 
porcOf  haedo,  agnOygallinaj  Cat.y  17 ;  and  Livy,  v.,  53,  of  building  materials : 
tegidti  pttbhce  pruebita  eat, 

[§  93.J  2.  Otber  words  fpluralia  t<mtma)  occur  only  in 
the  plural,  and  in  the  singular  either  not  at  all,  or  only  in 
writers  who  cannot  be  taken  as  models.  This  is  the  case 
(a)  With  the  following  collective  names  of  personal 
beings :  liberie  gemini,  majores,  poHeri,  primores  and  pro- 
ceresy  fuperi  and  iwfcri^  coeiites^  cofoentes,  penatis,  lemuret^ 
excubtaCf  operae.  When  in  any  of  these  cases  an  individ* 
ual  is  to  be  indicated,  it  can  be  done  Only  by  making  it  a 
part  of  the  collectiTe,  e.  g.,  one  child,  unus  or  una  libero* 
rum  or  ex  liberis  ;  manes  or  dii  manes,  however,  is  used 
in  the  plural  also  to  denote  the  departed  soul  of  an  indi- 
vidual. 

fbj  A  great  number  o£  other  pluralia  tantum  denote  a 
complex  of  things,  the  constituent  parts  of  which  are  not 
conceived  separately,  or,  at  least,  are  not  designated  by  the 
i;^e  word  as  the  whole  complex  itself.  SMph  words  are 
^h^ared  iti  English  either  by  plurals  or  collective  words. 
^^.^  .most  important  among  them  are : 
gratiisjM^'^*  ^^^ia,  intcstina  and  viscera^  f aria  (ojumj^tm^ 


lERBOOLAR  DECLENSION.  7S 

fliMtfy  iUa^  arma^meiua,,  impedimenta^  uteimltu,  ikduvute 
txuviae<,  manubide^  patietinae,  teli&inaey  sentes,  vepres^  vir* 
gulta,  heUaria,  crepundia^  scruia,  donaria^  lautia\  ir^etiae^ 
justa^  sertai  compedes,  verhera^  gr<Ues^  lamenta^  minae^ 
preces^  dirae^  ambageSy  argutiae^  deliciae,  divitiae^  facetiae^ 
nugae,  gerrae^  quisquHiae^  insidiacy  praestigiae,  tncae.  To 
these  we  may  add  some  other  but  similar  ideas,  which  are 
more  frequently  expressed  by  die  plural  than  th^8iiie;u 
lar;  as,  angustiae,  MondUiae^  iUecehrae,  ineptiae^  tjJmtUtat, 
Vcttebraty  sOlebrae. 

[§  94.]  p.  The  following  words  are  used  in  Latin  in 
the  plural,  because  itiej  denote  things  composed  of  sev- 
eral parts,  whereas  we  frequently  express  the  same  things 
hi  die  singular:  AUaria  fakdre  is  less  common),  arma^ 
fnoeniaj  h^ae^  trigae,  quadrigae  (in  the  so-called  Silver 
Age  tlie  singular  also  was  used,  the  chariot  being  the 
main  thing  thought  of),  cancdli  and  clathri,  causes  and 
plagae^  exequuie^jfide$  (a  lyre,  properly  the  strings,  which 
were  also  called  nerviXjbres  and  valvae,  loculi^  p&aierae^ 
taliTtae^  scalae,  scopae^  oidiciUi,  pugtUarea^  tabnlae^  cerae^ 
dunes  and  nates.  The  paeaning  of  the  plural  is  more  ob- 
score  in -the  following  words:  cervices,*  Jauces^  cliteUae^ 
eunae^  cunahtda  and  incwnahtda^  inimicUiae  (is  used  by 
Cicero  in  the  singular  only,  as  expressing  a  philosc^hicaJ 
idea,  otlierwise  it  is. a  plmale  taniwnjf  induciae^  nuptiae^ 
obiceSf  pantices,  praecor€Ua  (orumj^  sordes^  tenebrae.. 
.  It  is  curious  that  the  plural  of  some  of  the  words  of 
this  class  expresses  also  a  plurality  g(  the  Bsm^  things  g£ 
which  the  plurale  tantum  indicates  Init  one,  e.  g,,.  that 
fauces  signifies  not  only,''  a  throat,''  but  **  several  tl^oats," 
Qi;  f'  mouths.''  In  this  casd  the  distributive  numerals  are 
U8«d  instead  of  cardinal  oi^es.     (See  §  119.) 

S\  95.]  The  names,  of  certain  days  in  the  Roman  cal- 
ar  ara  plurals ;  ast  cdle^dae^  wmae^  iduSf  nundinae,  and 
feria£  ;  so,  also^  die  namei^  of  festivals  and  festive  games 

ilike  /t^i  itself) ;  e.  g.,  JSadchanalia,  Floralia^  Satuma- 
ia^  Pl^fmpia^  ana  nat^icia^  spqnsaUa  and  r^otia  /  farther, 
many  names  of.  towns,  such  as  AthenaCf  Thebacy  Gades^ 
the  neuters  Axbela^  Bactra,  Leuctra,  and  a  considerable 
iwmbe^r  of  names  of  towns  which  are  properly  names  of 


*  hi  aMient  Latin  prose,  i.  e.,  especiallr  in  Cicero,  it  is  a-p/uni/e  umiumi 


80 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


the  people ;  as,  "Del/phi^  LeatUmi^  Parisii^  Treviri.  Sucb 
plund  names  of  nations  are  often  used  for  that  of  the 
country  they,  inhabit.  Horace,  for  example,  says,  tollar 
m  arduos  Sahinos^  L  e.,  into  the  high  country  of  the  Sa- 
bines.     (See  §  680.) 

[§  96.]  Some  words,  which  are  apparently  the  same, 
vary  in  meaning  according  to  their  number,  which  is 
Gometimes  accompanied  by  a  di&rence  of  gender.  Ijus* 
irum  IB  a  peiiod  of  five  years,  and  lustra^  dens  of  wild 
beasts ;  yo^^Mf,  fM,  -^Ixa.  fastus,  pride,  andyZute*,  the  cal* 
endar ;  forum^  market,  and^^irt,  passages ;  txmpiu^  time, 
and  temfcra  (sometimes  tempui  also),  &e  temples  of  this 
head. 

In  other  words  the  plural  has  a  different  meaning  £com 
the  singular,  though  one  nearly  allied  to  it,  and  without 
giving  up  the  meaning  of  the  sing^ar  for  the  plural,  e.  g. : 

Singular. 


Aedes,  a  temple. 
Aqua^  water. 
Auodlium^  help.* 
Banum^  someuiing  good. 
Career^  a  prison. 

Castrum,  a  fort,  [man  forum. 

Comitiunif  a  part  of  the  Ro- 

Copia^  abundance. 

Oupedia^  daintiness. 

JEpulum,  a  solemn  feast 

Facultas,  power  to  do  some- 
thing. 

Fartimaf  fortune. 

Hartus,  a  garden. 

[bet. 

lAttera^  letter  of  the  alpha- 

LuduSi  pastime^ 

NariSi  nostril. 

Natalis  (dies),  birthday. 

(Ops^  obsoi.)  OpU^  help. 

Opera^  labour. 

Pars,  a  part. 

Rostrum^  a  beak,   pointed 
head  of  a  ship. 

iS%,  salt. 


Plural. 
^  Aedes^  a  house. 
Aquae,  medicinal  springs. 
Auxilia,  auxiliary  troops. 
JB(wia,  property. 
CarcereSf  the  barriers  of  a 

race-course. 
Castra,  a  camp.  [tion. 

Camitia,  assembly  for  elec- 
Copiae,  troops.  [ties. 

Cttpediae,  or  cupedia,  dain- 
Eptdae,  a  feast,  a  meal. 
Facultates,  property. 

Forttmae,  goods  of  fortune. 
Horti  and  nortuli;  pleasure 

grounds. 
Litterae,  an  epistle. 
Ludi,  public  games. 
NareSf  turn,  no8e=:nasvs. 
Natdles,  birth,  high  or  low. 
Opes,  power,  woSth. 
Operae,  workmen. 
Partes,  (commonly)  a  party 
Rostra,iiie  raised  place  from 

which  the  orators  spoka 
Sales,  witticism^' 


IRREGULAR  DECLENSION.  81 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

IRREGULAR  DECLENSION. HETEROCLITA. HETEROGSNEA. 

[i  ^"^O  -^*  ^^^  second  kind  of  inegularity.  in  the  de- 
clension of  substantiyes  consists  in, too  great  an  abnn* 
dance  of  forms.  It  haf^>^:is  either  that,  jdthomgh  there  is 
but  <Hie  nomiittetiTe,  the  other  cases  hare  two  rorms  after 
different  declensions,  or  that  both  the  nominative,  and  all 
the  other  cases,  have  two  diffei-ent  forms.  If,  owing  to 
the  different  terminations,  such  a  word  has,  at  the  same 
time,  different  genders,  it  is  called  a  heterogenes;  if  it  has 
merely  different  fonns,  it  is  called  a  heterodUon.  It  must, 
howerer,  be  observed  that  there  axe  only  very  few  words 
in  which  the  practice  of  good  prose  does  not  give  prefer- 
ence to  one  of  the  forms,  and  in  the  following  list  we  shall 
always  put  the  preferable  form  first. 

Forms  of  different  declensions  are  found  with  the,  word 
jugerum  ;  for,  besides  the  ablative  sing,  and  'plur.  jugerc 
andjugeriSf  poets,  for  metrical  reasons,  use^^cre  and^'i^ 
gerwus.  Some  names  of  trees  in  us^  viz.,  cupressiis^jicusy 
laurusy  pintis,  besides  the  forms  of  the  second  declension, 
also  take  those  of  the  fourth  in  us  and  Uy  i.  e.,  in  the  genit. 
and  ablat.  singular,  and  in  the  nom.  and  accus.  plural, 
e.  g.,  laurus  (after  the  second  and  fourth  declension),  gen. 
lauii  and  laurus^  dat.  lauro^  ace.  laurum,  voc.  laure^  abL 
lau/o  and  lauru,  Nom.  plur.  lauri  and  laurus^  gen.  lau- 
rorum^  dat.  and  abl.  lauriSf  accus.  lauros  and  laurus^  voc. 
lauri.  In  other  names  of  trees  the  second  declension 
greatly  predominates,  except  quercus^  which  follows  the 
fourth  entirely.*  The  same  is  the  case  with  colus^  a  dis- 
taff; but  the  cases  in  t,  orumy  is,  do  not  exist,  perhaps 
only  accidentally ;  for,  according  to  the  ancient  gramma- 
rians, the  word  may  follow  botii  the  second  and  fourth 
declensions.  Respecting  senatus,  tumuUtis^  gen.  us  and  t, 
see  §  81.  Vas,  vasis,  a  vessel,  sometimes  makes  the 
genit.  vem,  from  vasum,  which  is  not  altogether  out  of  use. 
The  glural  dlia  has  iliorum  and  iliis  along  with  ilium  and 
ilihus. 

*  [Consult,  on  this  snlnect,  Prisdattj  p.  711  and  12M.  Serv.t  ad  Virf 
Ed,,  n.t  54.  Bentley,  ad  Ilorat.,  Od.,  ii  15,  5.  Schneider  L  O.,  Tol.  ill 
p.  4Tl^—Am.  Ed. 


t\. 


LATIN  «JRAMMASw 


[s  Words  which  have  different  forms  in  the  nomi- 

nati\u  )k.s  ^. ell  as  other  cases  may  follow  the  same  declen- 
sion iu  either  case ;  as,  haltetis  and  halteunif  callus  Ka^cal' 
lum,  dipeus  and  dipeum  {especiallj  a  consecrated  shield), 
carrus  and  carrunif  commenUtrius  and  cammentarium^  cu*^ 
hittts  and  cubttum,pileum  and  pilett^,  baculum  and  bactdtis^ 
palatum  wid  paiahu,  jugidum  s.ndji^idfU,  catinais,  cdtil- 
lus,  9sad  eatimtm,  catUlum ;  aild  «ome  names  ofplaasts^  as, 
hipinus  and  lupmum^  papyna  ^oxkA.  papyrum,  parrwn  and 
parrus  t  or  they  follow  differeht  de^eflsions ;  as,       * 

AlimoTiia  ae,       —  altiftoniuM,  i. 

—  amy^daluT/if  i, 

—  vesper^  t,  the  evening  star,  is  regular. 
In  the  fiense  of  evening,  we  find 
the  nom.  vtfspier  and  accus.  vespe- 
rum,  but  the  ablative  vespere  and 
vesperi^  from  'oisper^  is;  in  the  Sil- 
ver Age  generally,  we  also  flndi?f»- 
pera,  at, 

—  cingula,  a^, 

—  esseda,  ae, 

—  ineesm,  fe. 
• —  delpkin,  inis, 

—  el^has,  antis. 


Amygdala^  ae, 
Vespera,  ae. 


OingutuM^  i. 
Essedum,  i, 
Incestuntf  i, 
,  DelpkinuSj  i. 
Elephantus,  i. 


Consartio,  onis,    —  consortium,  i. 


— —  fneiida,  ae, ' 

—  pdntis,  <b  /  and  pthus,  dris, 
"^  terguSf  oris,  only  In  poetry^  and  in 

prose  e^er  Augustus. 

—  pavus,  i, 

—  scorpius,  i, 
' —  paiht^tiSf  i  ;  and  pcdutkba, 

—  colluvies^eu 
^■^  cratera,ue. 
-^  pldfcs,  ei. 

Paupertas,  atis,  —  pavperies,  ee. 

JuveMus,  utis.     -^^  jwventa,  ae ;  zndjuoenlai,  aits. 

Seiiectus,  uHs,     -^  senecta,  ae: 

CraMsape,is  (dlso — gausapum,i;  and  gausapa^  ae.  • 

goMsapes     is, 

masc). 
"Praesepe^is  (also:^  praesepium^  i.  ^ 

praes^es,    is^,, 

fem.). 


Mendum,  i, 
Penum,  t. 
Tergum,  i. 

Pavo,  bnis, 
Scorpio,  onis, 
Palumhes,  is, 
Collwvio,  onis. 
Crater,  Iris, 
Plebs,  is. 


IRRhmSiiASL  JDEGLQKaiON.  ^ 

is,  "**  ta^Uwnf  i ;  and  topet,  etis. 

Angipertus  us,    -—  angiportum^  u 
BMtus^  us,    .       —  rictum^  u 

Arcus^us.  • —  arctiSyi  {in  CiG^De  Nat,  D€or,fmf2Q). 

IhnitruSy      us     —  tonitruum. 
(tonitru). 

Fames,  is,  and  requies,  elis,  take  the  forms  of  the  fifth 
declension :  fames  makes  the  ablatyome,  and  rtquies  has 
retpiim  and  rtquie,  besides  r^^fuietem  and  requiete.  It  is 
of  comparatively  frequent  occurrence  that  substantives 
have  different  forms  both  of  the  first  and  fifth  deelensions  ;* 
as,  harharia,  harharies  ;  luxuria,  es  ;  duritia,  es  ;  materia, 
es ;  Tnollitia,  es;  segmtia,  es  (the  forms  after  the  fifth  de- 
cleiBion  commonly  occur^nly  in  the  nom.,  ace.,  and  abl.), 
and  that  verbal  substantives  of  the  fourth  declension  have 
a  second' form  in  um,  i,  like  the  participle  of  the  perfect; 
as,  conatus  and  conatum,  eventus  and  eventum,  praetextus 
and  prastextum,  suggestus  and  suggestum, 

[§  99.]  To  this  class  belong  Siose  substantives  which, 
in  die  plural,  assume  a  different  gender  and  a  different 
form,  in  some  instances,  along  with  the  regular  one : 

1.  Masculines  which  in  the  plural  become  neuters: 
jocus,  plur.^W  and^oca  (of  pretty  equal  authority,  though 
joca  is  better  established  by  the  practice  of  Cicero) ;  lo- 
cus, plur.  loci  (generally  passages  m  books  or  subjects  for 
investigation  and  discussion  =  topics)  and  hca  (in  the  com- 
mon sense  of  '*  places,"  whence  the  difference  is  briefly 
expressed  thus :  hd  lihrorum,  loca  terrarum).  The  poets 
use  sihUa  for  sihUi  ;  and  of  intubus  and  tartarus  they  make 
the  plural  tnto^a  and  tartara, 

2.  Feminines  which  in  the  plural  become  neuters :  car- 
basus,  a  species  of  flax,  plur.  carbasi  and  carbasa,  sails 
made  of  it;  astrea,  plur.  astreae  and  astrea,  orum;  margari- 
tai  plur.  margaritae,  and  in  Tacitus  also,  margarita,  orum, 

3.  The  following  neuters  become  (a)  Masculines:  coe- 
htm,  codi  ;  siser,  siseres;  porrum  (which  is  much  more  fre- 
quent in  the  singular  than  porrus),  porri;  (b)  Feminines : 

*  [Bopp  thinks  that  the  i  in  the  Latin  fifth  declension,  as  in  almost 
ever^  instance  an  i  preceofes  it,  has  heen  changed  from  a  by  the  influence 
of  this  t.  This  may  serve,  according  to  him,  to  explain  why  we  have  oc* 
casionally  two  forms  for  the  nominative,  one  of  the  fifth  and  the  other  pf 
the  first  declension ;  the  latter  of  these  will  follow,  therefore,  the  analogy 
of  the  Greek,  and  allow  a  to  psmain  unaltered  before  i,  as  in  aoAUu  Tnt 
Ionic  form,  on  the  other  hand,  follows  the  Zend ;  as,  fro^/9.]-r-4m.  1^4- 


84  LATIN  ^BAMMAR. 

delictum f  ddicuU;  epuluni,  ep^dae;  balneum^  baineae  (m 
the  sense  of  a  public  bath  balnea  is  more. frequent) ;  fcj 
Both  masculines  and  neuters :  rastrunif  rastri  and  r<utraf 
firenum^Jreni*  vsi^frena.  * 


CHAPTEE.  XXIV. 

NOUNS   ADJECTIVE. — ^TERMINATIONS. — DECLENSION. 

[§  100.}  1.  The  noun  adjective  denotes  a  quality  of  jb 
person  or  a  thing,  expressed  either  by  a  substantive  or  a 
pronoun.  The  participle  is  an  adjective  fbrmed  from  a 
verb,  and,  as  far  as  its  form  is  concerned,  is  an  adjective. 
An  adjective  has  three  genders,  and  can  thus  be  joined 
with  substantives  of  different  genders.  Bujt  there  are 
only  two  classes  of  adjectives  in  which  the  three  genders 
are  indicated  by  three  different  terminations,  namely,  the 
adjectives  and  participles  in  t»,  a,  um;  such  as  bonus^ 
boiuif  bonum  ;  amataa^  amata^  amatum  ;  and  those  in  er, 
a,  um ;  such  as  Uher,  libera^  liberum;  and  the  isolated 
iatuTy  satura,  saturum. 

To  these  adjectives  of  three  terminations  the  following 
•  thirteen  in  cr,  w,  e  must  be  added :  acer,  acris,  acre  ;  ala- 
cer,  alacris,  alacre;  campester,  campestris^  carnpestre;  cdc 
ber,  Celebris,  cdebre  ;  cder,  ceteris,  celere ;  eguester^  eques- 
trisj    equestre ;    paluster^  paltMris,  paiustre ;    pedester^ 
pedestris^  pedestre  ;  puter,  putris,  putre^  saluber,  saluhrisy 
Malubre ;  silvester,  silvedtris,  silvestre;  terrester,  terrestris^ 
terrestre;  volticer,  volucris,  volucre.    Originally  they  had 
only  two  terminations,  is  for  the  masculine  and  feminine, 
and  e  for  the  .neuter.     The  termination  er  for  the  mascu- 
line exclusively  was  afl;erward  added  to  them ;  but  as  the 
termination  is  is  not  very  often  used  in  good  prose  for  xhe 
masculine,  it  will  be  best  to  treat  them  as  a  class  of  ad- 
jectives w'hich  h^ve  three  terminations  for  the  three  gen 
ders. 

Note  1. — Emesti,  on  Tacit,  Annal.^  il,  in  fin.,  goes  too  far  in  asserting 
that  the  masculine  in  it  is  not  suited  for  j^rose.    He  himself  quotes  twi 
r>a3«ages  from  Tacitus  for  Celebris^  and  one  in  ^he  Auct.  ad  Hererm,,  ii.,  4 
'oeus  Celebris. .  Several  dthers  may  be  added  from  Curtius.     In  Cicero 
De  Divin.,  i.,  57,  we  find  annus  sahibris;  and,  in  like  manner,  Ukusj  veyitas 

*  The  nominative /rent,  for  which  Schneider  {Formenlehre,  p.  476)  hai 
B9  authority,  occurs  m  Curtius,  iii.,  34  ;  vii., 40.    Valei.  Maxim., it.  9,  a 
Seneca,  de  ira,  1,  7 ;  Sil.  Itol.  i.  £40. 


IfOONS   ADJECTIVE.  6& 

^9Chts  ttihAris  in  Cdsos,  i,  3 ;  ii,  1 ;  iii,  6 ;  in  Liry,  xxrii.,  1 :  tunwlhu 
eouestris;  zziz.,  35:  exercitus  terrestru;  and  zzvii,  26:  tumultw  tilvestriti 
also  coUis  and  hcus  silvestrts  in  Caesar,  BeU.  Gall.,  ii.,  18,  vi.,  34 ;  vomihu 
mcf^  in  Celsns,  Tiii,  4. 

NoU  2. — ^The  names  of  the  months  SejOembn,  October,  November,  De- 
cember, also  belong  to  this  class  of  adjectives.  As  adiectives,  however. 
they  are  defective,  since  the  neuter  never  occurs,  and  tne  masculine  and 
feminine  scarcely  in  any  other  connexion  than  with  menns  (masc.)»  Coim- 
dae,  Nonae,  and  Idas,    Horace  uses  libertate  Decembri. 

[§  101.]  2.  Other  adjectives  have  m  reality  two  formsy 
the  one  for  the  masculine  and  feminine  in  common  fgefi" 
eris  communisj,  and  the  other  for  the  neuter.  This  class 
consists  of  those  in  is,  neut.  e ;  as,  levis  (masc.  and  fem.), 
levtj  and  the  comparatives  in  en-  (masc.  and  fem.),  its  (neut.) ; 
as,  levioTf  levius. 

Note. — Some  adjectives  have  a  double  form ;  one  in  u»,  a,  um,  the  otlier 
in  >«,  0. 

Hilarut,  a,  um.  —  kUaris,  e. 

^  hnbecUhu,  a,  vm,  —  imbedUii,  e  (rare). 

Imberbus,  a,  vm  (rare).  —  imberbis,  e. 

Inermus,  a,  um  (rare).  —  inermit,  e. 

Semermus,  a,  um,  —  »emcmu,  e. 

Semiaomnue,  a,  um.  —  but  insomms,  e,    * 

Exanimus,  a,  um.  —  exatwnis,  e, 

Semianimua,  a,  um.  —  aemianimis,  e. 

Uruuumue,  a,  um.  —  unammi8,'e  (rare). 

Bijugus,  a,  um.  —  bijugis,  e  (rare). 

^uadrijugus,  a,  um.  —  quairijups,  e. 

HiuUijugus,  a,  um.  —  muUijt^is,  e. 

The  forms  accUvus,  decliviu,  proclivus,  and  a  few  others  not  mentioned 
here,  are  but  rarely  used  for  accUvis,  dedhns,  and  prodivis. 

[§  102.]  3.  All  other  adjectives  have  only  one  termina- 
tion for  all  three  genders ;  as,  Jelix,  prtidens,  ancepa,  sol- 
lers,  pauper,  dives,  vetus,  Arpinas.  So,  also,  the  present 
participles  in  7is ;  as,  lattdans,  monens,  legens,  audiens. 
But  all  the  adjectives  of  this  class  have  the  termination  ia 
in  the  nom.,  ace,  and  voc.  plural  of  the  neuter  gender. 
(Very  few,  and,  properly  speaking,  only  vetus,  veteris, 
have  the  termination  a,  respecting  which,  see  above,  §  65.) 
E.  g.,Jeli&ia,  pnidentia,  ancipitia,  sollertia,  laudantia.  Op- 
ulens  and  violens  are  only  different  forms  of  opulentus,  vi- 
olentus. 

Note  1. — Dives  is  an  adjective  of  one  termination,  and  the  neuter,  there 
fore,  is  divta ;  as,  dive*  ojnu,  dive*  munus.  Tliere  is  another  form  of  the 
word  with  two  terminations,  dis,  neut  dite,  but  it  very  rarely  occurs  in  the 
nominative  singular;  dis  being  found  only  in  Terence,  Adelph..,  v.,  1,  8, 
and  dite  in  Valer.  Flacc,  ii.,  296 :  but  in  the  other  cases  and  m  the  plural 
it  is  frequently  med ;  as,  ditem  Asiam^  diti  gaza^  ditia  stipendiafacere,  dit^bui 
pn^nissis ;  the  nominative  plural  divitia  does  not  seem  to  occur  at  all.  l.i 
the  comparative  and  superlative  both  fonns,  dtvi/tor,  <ittn7iMrmu9,  and  di:io\ 
iiiissimus,  are  equally  in  use ;  the  Icnger  forms  in  the  prose  of  CM*<»ro.  frn: 

n 


86  LA^IN  omAUHAM^ 

Ihe  shorter  oiieii  iu  poetiy  and  later  proae  writers  PubM^  gai^  jankra^ 
is  an  adjective  of  one  termination ;  but  the  com|>ound  impQbet,  eriSf  appean 
also  in  tne  form  itnpubiSf  e,  genit.  impHbia,  e.  g.,  impube  corpus. 

Note  2.-^ubstantive8  in  tor  derived  from  transitive  ver^a  may  Siiewise 
be  classed  amon^  adjectives ;  aa^ prateept$rt  victor;  for  as  they  may  easilv 
form  a  feminine  m  trix  (see  ^  41),  they  have  almost  the  character  of  ao* 
iectives ;  and  even  in  prose  we  read,  e.  g.,  victor  eaerdtug,  victricet  httenup 
m  tarn  corruptricc  prapmda.  Thus  Livy  surs  of  Ii.  Brutas,  «U«  libermtor 
popuU  Ronuuu  aninuu  ;  that  is,  aliguando  liberaturus  pmhfm  iSoifi* ;  and 
Tacitus,  educHu  in  domo  regnatrice.  (See  Bentley  on  Horace,  Carm.,  iv., 
9, 39.)  The  use  of  these  svbstantrros  as  adjectives  is  limiteMi  prose ; 
but  thi  poets  extend  it  much  &rther,  and  use  even  the  Greek  patfionvmics 
in  a*  and  is  in  the  same  manner.  Ovid,  e.  g.,  says,  PeUas  hasta,  laurus 
Peamasis,  Ausonis  ora^  SithSnis  unda;  and  Virgil,  ursa  LUn/stiSj  &c.  A 
singular  feature  of  these  words  is^  that,  together  with  the  feminine  ter* 
mination  of  the  plural  trices,  they  have  also  a  neuter  tennination^  trida ; 
e.  g.,  victrida  beUa^  tdtricia  tela ;  hence  in  the  plural  they  become  adjective 
of  three  terminations ;  as,  victorest  victrices,  victrida.  The  substantive  hospei 
too,  has  in  poetiy  a  neuter  plural,  hospita,  in  the  sense  of  an  adjective. 

[§  103.]  4.  With  regard  to  the  declension  of  adjectiYes 
it  must  be  observed  that  the  feminines  in  a  follow  the  first 
declension ;  the  masculines  in  us  and  er,  which  make  ihe 
feminine  in  a,  and  the  neuters  in  nm^  follow  the  second. 
All  other  terminations  belong  to  the  tibird  declension.  As, 
therefore,  adjectives  follow  the  same  declensions  as  sub- 
stantivesy  the  former  also  have  been  treated  of  above,  and 
their  irregularities  )iave  been  pointed  out.  (See  $  51  and 
66,  &c.) 

Note. — ^The  following  table  shows  the  declension  of  adjectives  of  one 
tananation: 


SlNODLAK. 

Norn.  — 

Gen.    is. 

Dat.    t. 

Aoc    em,  neuL  like  nom. 

Voc.    like  nom. 

Abl.     t,  sometimes  i. 


Plusal. 
Nom.  es,  neut  as. 
Gen.   iunif  sometimes  um, 
Dat.    (bus. 
Ace.   like  nom. . 
Voc.   like  nom. 
Abl.     ibus. 


5,  Indeclinable  adjectives  are :  nequam ;  frugi  (prop- 
erly a  dative  of  the  o\oBo\eXjQfrtiXf  but  is  used  quite  as  an 
adjective ;  its  derivative ^^T^g^a/w  is  not  found  m  any  an- 
cient writer) ;  praesto  (occurs  only  in  connexion  vnth  the 
verb  €$se) ;  and  semis,  which  is  always  added  to  odier 
numerals  in  the  sense  of  '*  and  a  half,"  the  conjunction 
being  omitted,  e.  g.,  recipe  uncias  quinque  semis,  take  five 
ounces  and  a  half.  It  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
substantive  semis^  gen.  semissis.  PotiSf  or  pote,  is  obso- 
lete, and  occurs  only  in  poetry  in '  connexion  with  ess* 
(whence  arose  the  contracted  form  posse).  Damnas^ 
guilty,  is  used  only  as  a  legal  termj  in  connexion  with 
e^to  and  stmto. 


COMPARUMnf   OS*    A0IBCTIVES.  89 

t  Acyectcves  defeotiVa  in  mimber  aiepauGt  httdyleriqmef 
^licli,  in  ordinary  language,  have  no  singular.  The  di« 
minutive  ofjMucmy  however,  occurs  as  a  nevtterpaitsBillufn 
or  paztxillulttm^  though  rarely  in  other  genders.  The  sin- 
gular ^Zeru^^t^  is  obsolete^  and  ia  found  only  in  Sallust, 
who*  was  fond  of  old  iixwa  of  expression,  e.  g.,  plerofm 
juventus,  nobilitas  ;  plerumque  exerdtum  ;  but  the  neuter 
plervm^^  (the  greatest  part)  likewise  occurs,  though 
only  in  an  isolated  passchge  of  Livy*  It  is  usually  an  ad* 
yerb,  signifying  "  mostly,"  or,  "  for  the  most  part."  (See 
§266.) 

Of  adjectives  defective  in  case  there  are  several  of 
which  the  nominative  is  not  in  use,  or,  at  least,  cannot  be 
proved  to  have  been  used ;  e.  g.,  sons^  seminex  (or  9emu 
necis)^  and  a  few  similar  compounds.  We  farther  do  not 
find  ceterus  and  Judicrus  (or  eeter,  luddcer  ?J,  but  the  other 
genders  occur  in  the  nominative.  The  genitive  primoris 
has  neither  a  nominative  (primor  or  primorisj  nor  the 
neuter  forms.  '  Cicero  uses  the  word  only  in  the  phrase 
ptimorihus  lehris  (equivalent  to  pHmis);  others  frequently 
use  tiie  plural  in  tiie  sense  diprincipeSf  est  the  grandees  dF 
fixation.  !Parum;txHi  little,  is  the  neuter  of  die  obsolete 
partes,  connected  with  parvus,  and  is  used  as  a  substantive 
only  in  the  nom.  and  accusative.  Necesse  exists  only  as  a 
neuter  in  connexion  with  est,  erat,  &c.,  and  with  hahe&, 
kabeSf  &c. ;  niecsssum,  which  is  likewise  used  only»with 
est,  erat,  kt,,  very  rarely  occurs  except  in  old  Laitin,  the 
adjective  nccessarius,  a,  am,  being  used  in  its  steads  Vo- 
htpe  is  likewise  obsolete,  and  is  used  only  with  est,  erat, 
S^.  Of  nuictus,  a,  wn,  which  is  believed  to  be  a  con- 
traction of  magis  auctus,  we  have  only  macte  and  mactt 
with  the  imperative  of  the  verb  esse.  (Comp.  §  453.) 
The  genitive  o£ plerique  is  wanting;  hut plurimi,  which 
has  the  same  meaning,  supplies  the  deficiency. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

COMPARISON    'jF  adjectives. 


[§  104.]  I.  Adjectives  (also  the  present  and  past  par 
ticiples  when  used  as  adjectives)  may,  by  means  of  a 
change  in  their  terminationtJ>e  made  to  indicate  that  the 
quality  they  denote  belongs  to  a  subject  in  a  higher,  or  in 


98  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

the  highest  degree.  The  degrees  of  comparison  (gradtu 
comparationis),  as  this  change  is  called,  are,  the  compara 
tive,  when  a  comparison  is  made  between  two  (persons, 
things,  or  conditions),  and  the  superlative^  when  a  com- 
parison takes  place  among  three  -or  more.  The  funda- 
mental form  of  the  adjective  in  this  respect  is  called  the 
positive. 

Note. — An  object  may  be  compared  either  with  another,  or  with  itself 
at  different  timM*  or  one  of  its  qq^ities  maj  be  compared  with  another; 
e.  g.,  GaiuM  doctior  est  quam  MaraUy  or  Gahu  doctwr.ntutc  est  gtuun/uU,  or 
Oaius  docticT  est  quam  justior.  (Respecting  this  pneculiarity  of  the  Latin 
language,  see  ^  690.)  The  comparative,  however,  is  also  used,  in  an  ellip- 
tic mode  of  speaking,  instead  of  our  "  too**  {nimi*) ;  e.  g.,  si  tibi  quaedam 
videbtmtur  obscuriora ;  that  is,  too  obscure,  or  more  obscure  than  it  should 
be  {qufon  par  erat)j  or,  as  we  may  say,  '*  rather  obscure,"  in  which  sense 
panUo  is  sometimes  added,  as  mfMuIo  Uberius  loeutus  est^  he  spoke  rather 
freely.  In  like  manner,  the  superlative,  when  used  without  the  objects  of 
comparison  being  mentioned,  indicates  only  that  the  quality  exists  in  a 
high  degree,  which  we  express  by  the  adverb  v«ry,  e.  g.,  homo  doctissimus 
does  not  always  mean  "  the  most  learned."  but  very  often  "  a  very  learned 
man ;"  and  intemperantissime  visit ,  he  lived  very  intemperate!  y. 

2.  The  comparative  has  the  termination  lor  for  the 
masculine  and  feitiinine,  and  tus  for  the  neuter;  and 
these  terminations  are  added  to  the  stem  of  the  word 
such  as  it  appears  in  the  oblique  cases.  The  rule  may 
be  practically  expressed  thus:  to  form  the  comparative, 
add  or  or  t^  to  that  case  of  the  positive  which  ends  in  t, 
that  is,  in  words  of  the  second  declension  to  the  genitive, 
and  in  those  of  the  third  to  the  dative,  e.  g.,  doctus  (docHJ^ 
doctior ;  liher  fliberij,  liherior ;  pulcher  fptdchrij,  ptU- 
chrior  ;  levis,  levior  ;  a>cer  (acri)^  acrior  ;  prudens^  prU' 
dentior  ;  indtdgens,  indulgentior  ;  audax,  audacior  ;  dives, 
divitior;  velox,  veiocior.  Sinister  alone  makes  the  com- 
parative sinisterior  (which  has  the  same  meaning  as  the 
positive),  although  its  genitive  is  sinistri,  and  sinisteri* 

Note. — Some  comparatives,  also,  have  a  diminutive  form ;  as,  grandtuscu- 
lus,  majuscuitUf  longiusculus,  meliu»culuSf  minusculuSf  tardiusculuSf  pluseuhim. 
Their  signification  varies  between  a  diminution  of  the  comparative  and  of 
the  positive ;  e.  g.,  minusculus  may  mexa  rather  small,  or  rather  smaller. 

3,  The  superlative  ends  in  issimus,  a,  um,  and  is  form- 
ea  as  the  'comparative  by  adding  this  termination  to  the 

tem  of  the  positive,  such  as  it  presents  itself  in  the  gen- 

ive,  and  the  other  oblique  cases,  after  the  removal  of  the 

rminatlons,  e.  g.,  doct-issimus,  prudent4ssiinus,  atidac 

imtis  concord-issimus.     It  has  already  been  remarked 

that  this  termination  of  -the  superlative  was  original. 

y  Vritten  and  pronounced  umust  and  it  is  even  now  ra- 


1 


COMPARl90j<«    OF    APJECTiVES.  89 

tained  in  the  editions  of  some  ancient  autKars,  as  the 
comic  poets  and  Sallust. 

[§  105.J  4.  The  following  cases  must  be  noticed  as  ex- 
ceptions : 

faj  ^AU  adjectives  in  er  (those  in  e?^  a,  um;  as,  libef 
and  jpi^Zc&er,  as  well  as  those  in  er,  ia^  e;  as,  ooer,  celeber, 
and  those  of  one  termination ;  as,  pauper j  gen.  pauperis) 
make  the  superlative  in  errimus,  by  addmg  rimus  to  the 
nominative  of  the  masculine  gender ;  as,  pulcher-rimus, 
acer-rimuSf  celeber-rimtiSy  pauper-rimus.  Vetus  and  nupe^ 
rus,  too,  have  veterrimttSy  nuperrimus.  Maturus  has  both 
forms,  TruUurissimus  and  maturrimus,  though  the  lattei 
chiefly  in  the  adverb. 

fhj  Some  adjectives  in  iZi*,  yiz.^facilisy  difficUis^  simi- 
lis,  dissimilis,  gracilis,  and  humilis,  make  the  superlative, 
in  UlimuSy  by  adding  limtis  to  the  positive  afler  the  re 
moval  of  the  termination  is;  bs,  Jacil-limus,  humil-limus 
ImheciUus,  or  imhecUliSy  has  two  forms,  imhecUlissimus  and 
imbeciUimus;  agilis,  on  the  other  hand,  has  no  superla- 
tive. 

(c)  Adjectives  compounded  with  dtcus^ftcusy  and  volus 
(fixHn  the  verbs  dicereyfacerey  velle)  make  the  comparative 
in  entior  and  the  superlative  in  entissinCus,  from  me  unu- 
sual and  obsolete  forms  dicens,  volensyfaciens,  e.  g.,  male^ 
dicentior,  benevolentior,  muni/icentior,  mtmijccentissimus, 
magmficenti3simus. 

JVbfe.— 'Terence  (PAorm.,  ▼.,  6,  31)  makes  midfiassimuMf  from  mirijicus, 
but  this  and  similar  forms  are  considered  by  the  ancient  grammarians  as 
anomalies,  and  miriiiceraissinau  is  the  usnu  form.  Several  adjectives  ir 
^cuSf  and  most  of  those  injicuit  have  no  comparative  and  superlative,  at 
least  they  are  not  found  m  our  vrriters.  Adjectives  compounded  with 
loqmu  (fitHn  loqm)f  such  as  grandHoquusy  vanUoqmu,  are  said  to  form  their 
degrees  of  comparison  from  loguensj  but  no  instance  of  the  kind  occurs;  in 
Plautus,  however,  we  find  mmdaciloquius  and  conjidentiloqtdus. 


CHAPTER  XXVL 

COMPARISON  BY  ADVERBS  AND  INCREASED  COMPARISON. 

[§  106.]  1.  Instead  of  the  peculiar  forms  bf  the  com- 
paxative  and  superlative,  v^e  sometimes  find  a  circumlo- 
cution, magis  and  maxime,  or  adverbs  of  a  similar  mean- 
ing (as  summcjy  being  added  to  the  positive.  This  rarely 
occurs  in  the  case  of  adjectives  v^hich  form  their  degrees 
of  comparison  in  the  regftla  •  way,  and  foi  the  m(ist  part 

H  8 


90  LATIN   ORAMMAtt. 

only  in  poelry  (Horace,  e.  g.,  uses  magis  heattts  and  magh 
apttisj;  but  where  the  regular  or  grammatical  compari- 
son cannot  be  used,  its  place  is  supplied  by  circumlocu- 
tion.    (See  below,  §  114.) 

f§  107.]  2.  A  degree  is  also  ex{>ressed  by  the  advierbs 
admodum,  bene^  ajyprvme,  imprimis,  sane,  oppido,  vedde^ 
and  multum,  and  by  the  particle  pef,  which  is  united  with 
the  adjective  (or  adverb)  into  one  word,  as  in  perdifflcilis 
(though  per  is  sometimes  separated  by  some  intervening 
word,  e.  g.,  per  mihi  difficitis  locus),  and,  like  sane,  it  is 
made  still  more  emphc^c  by  the  addition  of  quam^  e.  g., 
locus  perquam  d/iffuaUis,  an  extremely  difficult  passage. 
Generally  speaking,  all  simple  adjectives,  provided  their 
meaning  admits  of  an  increase  or  decrease,  may  become 
strengthened  by  being  compounded  with  per.  Some  few 
(especially  in  late  writers)  are  increased  in  the  same  way 
by  being  compounded  ynxh.  prae,  e.  g.,  praedives,  praepin- 
guis,  pradongus.  Adjectives  to  which  per  or  prae  is  pre- 
fixed admit  of  no  farther  comparison ;  jn-aedarus  alone 
is  treated  like  a  simple  adjective. 

Note. — OpgridOf  for  the  etymology  of  which  we  must  refer  to  the  diction- 
ary, is  of  rare  occorrMice,  and  Monf*  to  the  more  ancient  languagis, 
though  it  is  now  and.  then  used  b^  Cieero,  e.  g.,  cjxpido  ridkuht*,  and  inr 
creased  by  auetm :  ojypido  quam  paucu  Mvitum,  also,  is  but  rarely  used  ill , 
this  way.  valdi  is  mdeed  frequent  in  Cicero ;  but  it  has  a  peculmr  and 
ethical  shade  of  meaning,  and  is  rarely  used  in  the  pcose  of  later  times. 

[§  108.]  3.  When  the  adverb  etiam  (still)  is  added  to 
the  comparative,  a;^  longe  or.  muUo  (fiar)  to  the  superla- 
tive, the  sense  of  the  degrees  is  enhanced.  Vel,  even,  and 
quam,  as  much  as  possibly,  likewise  serve  to  denote  an 
increase  of  the  meaning -expressed  by  the  superlative. 
Both  words  have  acquired  this  signification  by  ellipsis ; 
vel  by  the  ellipsis  of  die  positivot  e.  g.^  Cicero  vd  optimus 
oratorum  RomaTiorum  ;  i.  e.,  Cicero,  a  good,  or,  rather,  the 
very  best  of  Roman  orators  (so,  also,  vel,  with  a  compara- 
tive in  the  only  passage  of  Cicero  where  it  is  known  to 
occur,  De  Orat,  i.,  17:  ingenium  vel  majus) ;  quam,  by 
the  ellipsis  oi  posse,  which,  however,  is  £naquently  add^d 
to  it ;  e.  g.,  0iam  maanmum  potest  militum  numerum  colli" 
git ;  quam  maximas  possum  tibi  gratias  ago.  As  these 
words  increase  the  sense,  so  paulum  or  paulo,  paululum 
or  paululo,  on  the  other  hand,  diminish  it ;  as,  paulo  doC' 
tior,  only  a  little  more  learned.  Aliquanto  increases  the 
sense,  ami  has  an  affirmative  power;  it  may  be  expressed 
by  '•* considerably"'  or  "much.'*  '(See  Chap  LXXlV.,  \C.) 


IRREGULAR    AND   DEFfiCttt 6  '  COMPARISON.  9l 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

IRREGULAR   AND  DEFEGTIYE   COMPARISON, 

[^  i09.]  1.  SoBfB  adjectives  make  their  degrees  of 
comparison  from  obsolete  forms,  or  take  them  fix>m  other 
iTords  of  a  similar  signification. 

'Bontis^  melior^  optimtu, 

Malusj  jp^^»  pesnmus, 

Magnus,  major,  maximus, 

Multus^  plus,  {pl.pliO'ef,  phtrimus  (equivalent  m 

pluraj,  theplm:ulto/i^«rt^r«e/. 

Parvus^  mmor,  minimus, 

Nequam  \  See§  103.  (  nequier^  nequissimus, 

Frugi      i  'tT^echn,  {Jrugalior^  Jrugtdissimus. 

Egenus,  egentior,  egentissimus  (egens), 

Browdus^  promdmtior^  providentissimus  fpravi- 

dejis). 
NoU. — M%utw  and  pZun'mu*  as  numerals  are  used  only  in  the  plural.  In 
the  8mg*^iar  ntK2iii«  is  equivalent  to  **  manifold,^  or  *'  great  f  as,  multus  labgr, 
multa  cure,  and  sometimes  pltirimus  has  the  same  sense,  e.  g.,  plvrimam  aa» 
Intern  dico.  Poets,  however,  use  the  singular  muUut  and  plurimtu,  also,  in 
the  sense  of  the  pluraH  e.  g.,  multa  nod  plurkna  am,  i.  e.,  natltaet  pbtrimtu 
moea,  a  great  many  birds ;  nuUta  cants,  many  dogs.  Of  the  comparative  the 
neater  only  occurs  in  the  nom.  and  accus.  singular  (plus),  and  is  used  as  a 
substantive ;  in  the  genitive  pluHs  and  ablat.  plwre,  with  the  ellipsis  oi 
preiii  or  pretio,  it  is  used  with  verbs  of  value,  in  the  sense  of  **  for  more,** 
or  "  at  a  higher  price."  The  plural  is  complete,  gen.  plurium  (better  than 
plurum) ;  but  the  neuter  is  commonly /)2iira,  and  rarely  pluria.  (See  (j  65, 
o6.)  The  superlative  j^arique  is  denved  from  the  obsolete  plerusque  (see 
%  134),  and  has  no  genitive.  In  ordinary  language  plerique  onlv  means 
*'most  people,**  or  **tne  majority;**  but  plurhni  both  "  most  people"  and  "  a 
great  many.**  All  writers,  however,  do  not  observe  this  difference.  Ne- 
pos  often  xxBes  pUrimis  in  the  sense  of  "a  great  many,**  and  Tacitus  quit6 
reverse  the  significations ;  comp.  Hist.^  i.,  86,  and  iii.,  81,  where  plerique 
is  followed  by  p/itref ,  and  iv.^  84,  where  we  read»  Deum  ipsum  mulu  Aescw 
lapium,  quidam  Osirim,  pleripie  Jovem,  plvrimi  Ditem  patrem  conjectant.  The 
sense  of  plerique  is  sometimes  enhanced  by  the  addition  of  omnes ;  as, 
pieriqus  onmes,  by  far  the  greater  number. 

[§  110.]  2.  The  following  adjectives  have  a  double  ir- 
regular superlative : 

Exter  or  exterus,  a,  um,     exterior,    extremus  and  ex€imue> 
(Infer  or  inferusj,  a,.um,     irtferior,    inflmus  and  tmus, 
,  Super  or  superusj,  a,  um^  superior,  supremus    and    sum* 

mtts, 
(P?st€r  or posterus J,  a,  um,  posterior,  postremus  and  postu* 

mus, 

- —  ■  I        .  , 

♦  [Consult  the  treatise  of  Key,  "  On  the  Adjectives  <9fodd.  Better,  Bttl^ 
Bimus,3idiorpOptimus,'^  6ccy-Am,  Ed,  « 


P2  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

jVofe. — ^The  fo.ms  enclosed  in  brackets  are  either  not  found  at  a^;  m, 
poster^  posterns,  or  occur  only  in  obsolete  Latin,  which,  however,  does  not 
prevent  the  use  of  the  oblique  cases  and  of  the  other  genders.  Exter  sig* 
nifies  **  being  without,"  and  the  plural  exteri,  foreigners ;  infenu,  "  being 
below,'*  superuSf  "being  above,'*  e.  g.,  mare  nq>erum  and  inferwn.  the  two 
»eas  whicn  surround  Italy.  Postenu  (that  it  once  existed  is  clear  from 
nraepostenis)  signifies  that  which  succeeds  or  follows,  but  the  ^lui,  pptteri, 
descendants.  The  superlative  exthnus  is  much  less  common  than  extre 
musf  and  postumus  occurs  only  in  the  sense  of  a  last  or  posthumous  child. 

[§  111.]  3.  There  are  soiQe  forms  of  the  comparative 
and  superlative  which  have  no  adjective  for  their  posi 
tive,  but  an  adverb  which  is  derived  from  an  adjective, 
and  has  the  signification  of  a  preposition. 

feitra},  citerior^  cUimus, 

(uUra)^  fdterior^  tdtimus. 

(intra),  interior,  iniimus. 
(propejy  whence  pro- 

pin^utisjf  jyfopiar^  proocimus. 

The  following,  on  the  other  hand,  have  neither  an  ad 
]ective  nor  an  adverb  for  their  positive : 

,         deterioTf  deterripius, 

odor,  ocissimus. 

potior,  poiissimus. 

prior,  primus. 

Note, — Deterior  and  deterrimtu  may  be  compared,  but  not  confounded, 
with  tMr^or  toid  pessimus.  Prfor  generally  means  "worse  than  something 
which  IS  bad,**  and  is  therefore  used  as  comparative  of  tnaluSf  whereas 
deterior  means  something  which  is  inferior,  or  worse  than  something 
which  is  good,  so  that  it  is  a  descending,  just  as  melior  is  an  ascending 
comparative  of  bonus.  Potior  and  potissimus  are*  derived  from  the  obsolete 
positive  potis  (see  ^  103),  and  prior  may  be  traced  to  the  adverb  prae. 

.    [§  112.]  4.  The  following  adjectives  have  a  superlative, 
but.no  comparative : 

FalsuSfJalsissimus;  diversus,  diversissimtis ;  incUtus,  in* 
clitissimus ;  novtis,  novissimus ;  .sacer,  sacerrimus  ;  vetus 
(the  comparative  is  supplied  by  vetustiorj,  veterrimus  fve* 
tustissimusj ;  and  some  participles  which  ai*e  used  as  ad 
jectives ;  as,  meritus^  meritissimus, 

[§  113.]  5.  Most  adjectives  in  Uis  and  hUis,  derived  from 
verbs,  together  with  those  in  Uis,  derived  from  substan- 
tives (see  §  250),  have  no  superlative.  To  these  we  must 
add  the  following :  a^restis,  alacer,  ater,  caecus,  declivis, 
prochvis^  deses  (comparative  desidiorJ,jejunus^lo7iginquus, 
propinqutis,  protervus,  salutaris,,  satur,  surdus,  teres,  and 
vulgaris.  In  like  manner,  there  is  no  superlative  ofado' 
lescens,  juvenis  (comparati^^e  junior,  contracted  from  jure* 


IRREGULAR    AND   DEFECTIVE    COMPARISOlf.  9% 

mtorj,  and  senex  (comparatis^e  senior  J,  which  words  ai  3  re 
eraided  as  adjectives. 

NotL—The  verbal  adjectives  amabilisy  fertilise  nobilis,  ignobilit,  mobiJia, 
and  utiliSf  however,  have  their  degrees  of  comparison  complete. 

6.  The  two  adjectives,  antertor  and  sequior^  exist  only 
as  comparatives.  The  neuter  of  the  latter,  sequius,  and 
the  adverh  secius  (otherwise),  differ  only  in  their  orthog- 
laphy. 

[§  114.]  7.  Many  adjectives  have  no  it^grees  of  com 
parison  at  all,  because  their  signification  precludes  com- 
parison; such  are  those  which  denote  a  substaiibe,  origin, 
possession,  or  a  definito  time ;  e.  g.,  aureus^  adamantintts^ 
Graecus^  peregrinus,  equinusj  socialise  patcmus^  aestivus, 
hibemus^  vivua. 

Note. — Dexter  and  nnister  seem,  likewise,  to  belong  to  this  class ;  the 
comparatives  dexterior^  sinisterior,  and  the  irregular  superlative  dextimutf 
do  indeed  occur  {siniatimus  is  mentioned,  but  its  use  cannot  be  proved), 
Vat  without  differing  in  meaning  from  the  positive.  Dexter  also  signifies 
skilful,  and  in  this  sense  dexierior  is  used  as  a  real  comparative. 

Others  do  not  form  the  comparative  and  superlative  in 
the  usual  grammatical  manner  by  the  terminations  iot  and 
issimusj  but  by  the  adverbs  magis  and  maociTne,  which  are 
put  before  the  adjective,  and  by  the  particles  mentioned 
above.     Such  adjectives  are  : 

(aj  Those  in  which  the  termination  us  is  preceded  by 
a  vowel;  as,  idoneus^  dubitis^  necessarius^  noxius^' arduus, 
ingenuTis :  comparative  magis  necessdrius^  superlative 
maasifne  necessarius^  &c.  In  qu,  however,  the  u  is  not  re- 
garded fts  a  vowel  (see  above,  §  5) ;  hence  antiqum^  e.  g., 
has  its  regular  comparative,  aniiquiar,  and  superlative 
antiquissimus, 

rfoU,-^AM  this  rule  depends  entirely  upon  euphony,  respecting  which 
opinions  differ,  we  caunot  be  surprised  to  find  exceptions.  Adjectives  in 
uu9y  in  particular,  frequently  make  the  superlative  in  the  regular  gram- 
matical way.  Cicero  and  Suetonius  use  aeeiduisnmtu ;  Sallust,  stremUssi- 
nnu;  and  Ovid,  exigtdMahmu  and  vacvt««mt]i«,  while  the  comparative  of  these 
words  occurs  only  in  much  inferior  authorities.  Adjectives  in  iiu  are  found 
much  more  seldom  with  the  grammatical  degrees  of  comparison  than  those 
in  mu,  and  whenever  they  do  occur,  they  reject  one  i ;  as,  noxior,  in  Seneca, 
De  CUnUf  13;  mduetriory  in  the  Pseudo-Cicero,  De  DomOf  11 ;  egregms,  in 
Juvenal,  zi,  12.  The  onW  superlatives  that  occur  are  egregiiseimusj  in 
OelliuB,  and  ;mmmu»  very  frequently  in  the  Silver  Age  of  the  language,  in 
Curtius,  Seneca,  and  Tacitus,  though  Cicero  had*  censured  the  triumvii 
Antony  for  having  used  this  wholly  un*Latin  form.  (PAtVtp.^  xiii,  9.) 
The  forms  ipiens)  jnentee  and  pientUsimus  are  found  in  inscriptions  only. 
Among  the  adjectives  in  eue  there  are  no  exceptions,  and  it  is  only  the 
later  juiists  that  use  the  comparative  idoneor  for  the  inharmonious  (dmuior. 

(h)  Mfiny  R  Ijecfives  compounded  with  substantives  ap^ 


94  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

verbs,  o.  g.,  degener,  inopsy  magnanimus^  consonus^  Jhed^ 
frligus^  pestifer  ;  and  those  which  have  the  derivative  ter- 
minations xcibs^  tdtUf  uluSf  dlis,  ilis,  bundus^  e.  g.,  modicus 
credtdus^  trepidus^  rabidteSf  rubidtts^  garrtUus^  sedtdtM^  ex* 
itialis^  mortalis^  principaMs^  anilisy  hoatUis^  scurrilis^jMri* 
bundus,  '  '  * 

Note. — This  remark  cannot  form  a  rule,  for  there  are  a  great  many  com- 
pounded adjectives  and  derivatives  liiie  the  above,  which  have  their  de- 
grees of  comparison ;  for  example,  those  compounded  with  mens  and  cor 
omens,  demens^  caneau,  discorSf  vecors,  and  the  adiectives  ending  in  dieus, 
fictUf  and  volus,  whron  were  mentioned  above  ({  105,  c).  Although  it  is 
useful  to  classify  the  whole  mass  of  such  words  under  certain  divisions, 
still^the  dicdonary  can  never  be  dispensed  with. 

fcj  A  great  number  of  adjectives  which  cannot  be  said 
to  form  a  distinct  class;  their  want  of  the  degrees  of  com 
parison  is  surprising,  and  they  must  be  carefully  commit 
ted  to  memory :  albus,  almus,  caducus^calvus,  canus, cmuus, 
ferus,  gimrus,  lacer,  mutilTis,  lassus,  mediocris,  memory  me- 
nis^  mirus,  mutus,  navTis,  nefastusypary  panlis,  dispar,  prth 
pcrusj  rudisy  trux  (the  degrees  may  be  formed  from  trucu- 
lenttisjy  vagU8, 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

NUMERALS. CARDINAL    NUMERALS. 

[§  115J  Numerals  are  partly  adjectives  and  partly  ad- 
verbs. The  adjectives  are :  1.  Cardinaly  denoting  simply 
the  number  of  things;  as,  tres,  three ;  2.  Ordinal,  indica- 
tiYig  the  place  or  number  in  successicm ;  as,  tertms,  the 
third ;  3.  DistributivCy  denoting  how  many  eadh  time ; 
as,  temiy  each  time  three,  or  three  and  three  together ;  4. 
Multiplicative,  denoting  how  manifold ;  as,  triplex^  three* 
fold;  5.  Proportional,  denoting  how  many  times  moVe; 
as,  triplum,  three  times  as  much;  and,  6.  Adverbial  nur 
inerals,  denoting  how  many  times ;  as,  ter,  ihiice  or  three 
times. 

I.  cardinal  numerals: 

The  cardinal  numerals  form  the  roots  of  the  otLer  nu- 
merals. The  first  three,  umtSy  duo,  treis,  are  declined,  and 
have  forms  for  the  different  genders ;  the  rest,  as  far  as 
one  hundred,  are  indeclinable.*     The  hundreds;  as, 200, 

*  ["  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  first  four  numerals  in  Greek  and 
Sanscrit,  and  the  first  three  in  Latin,  are  declined,  while  all  the  others 
remain  without  inflection.  Thiere  must  be  some  reason  for  this.  Now 
«r«  know  that  the  ddest  Greek  year  was  divided  into  threo  seasons  ol 


I 


olio,  400,  &c.,  ara  deelinable^  and  have  different  tormina- 
tions  for  the  genders.  MUle,  a  thousand,  is  indeclinable, 
but  has  a  declinable  plural  for  the  series  of  numbers  which 
follows.  A  higher  unit,  such  as  a  million  or  billion,  does 
not  exist  in  Latin,  and  a  million  is  therefore  expressed 
by  the  form  of  multiplication :  decies  centena  milia^  i.  e., 
ten  times  a  himdred  thousand,  or  decies  alone,  with  the 
omission  oi  centena  milia,  at  least  when  testertium  (HS) 
is  added ;  and  in  like  manner,  vicies,  two  millions ;  octo- 
gies^  eight  millions ;  eenties.  ten  millions ;  mUlieSf  a  hun- 
dred millions  ;  bis  miilies,  two  hundred  millions. 
SiNOULAS.  Plural. 


Npm.  urnis,  tma^unum^  one. 
Gen.  uniua, 

Dat.  imi. 

Ace.  nnwrn,  unam,  unum, 

Voc  uncj  una^  unum. 

Abl.  uno^  itna,  uno. 


Nom.  uni^  unae^  una. 
Gen.   unorum^     unarum, 

unorum, 
Dat.    unis. 

Ace.   unos,  Unas,  una. 
Voc. , 


Abl.    unis. 

Nou. — ^The  genitive  singular  utd  and  the  dative  vno,  ttnae,  are  of  rare 
occurrence,  and  unclasvic^.  (Compare,  however,  %  49.)  The  plural  vni, 
unae,  ima,  occurs  as  a  numeral  onlv  in  connexion  with  plureUia  tarUum, 
i.  e.,  such  nouns  as  have  no  singular,  e.  g.,  unae  niwtiae,  one  wedding , 
una  eastroj  one  camp ;  unae  UUeraey  one  letter.  (See  Cha{).  XXX.)  Unu$ 
is  used  also  as  a  pure  adjective,  by  dropping  its' signification  of  a  numeral 
and  taking  that  of  "  alone,"  or  **  the  same,"  e.  g.,  Css.,  BeU,  Gall,  iv.,  16: 
tint  C/Sti  legatoa  miserant,  the  Xlbians  alone  had  sent  ambassadors ;  Cic, 
Pro  Ftacc.,  26.  Lacedctemanii  $eptingentoa  jam  anno$  unis  moritus  vivunt, 
with  the  same  manners. 

Duo  and  tres  are  naturally  plurals. 


Nom.  duo  J  duae^  duo. 

Gen.  duorum^  duarum,  duo- 
rum.        ♦ 
Dat»  duohus,duabuSfduobt£s. 
Acc^  duos  vadduOfduas,  duo, 
Abl.  duobus^duahtiSjduobus. 


"Nom.  tres  (mas.  and  fern.), 

tria. 
Gen.  trium. 

Dat.  tribus.  [trta. 

Ace.  tres  (mas.   and  rem.), 
Abl.  tribus. 


fuur  months  each ;  and  the  subdivision  of  the  fundamental  number  in 
the  state^ivision  into  the  factors  3  x  4,  of  which  the  4  was  the  basis, 
Dfeds  not  to  bo  insisted  on.  The  first  four  numerals,  therefore,  would  be 
mr.e  frequently  .used  as  adjectives  than  any  of  the  others,  and  for  this 
reason  would  have  inflections,  which  the  others,  whose  use  would  be  more 
adverbial,  might  want  without  so  much  inconvenience.  The  same  remark 
lilies  to  the  corresponding  fact  wita  regard  to  the  Roman  numerals. 
Their  fundamental  number  ^as  three ;  they  had  three  tribes,  just  as  the 
lonians  had  four.  Besides,  the  old  Etruscan  year,  wMch  was  the  basis 
of  their  civil  and  religious  arrangements,  consisted  of  ten  months,  not  of 
twelve,  nd  therefore  the  division  into  tetrads  wculdnot  hold  with  *b«^. 
{DmaU»on.  New  Cratylut,  p.  193,  teq.y^Am.  Ed. 


M 


LATIN   GRAMMAft. 


Nott — Ambot  aet  o,  both,  is  declined  like  dvo,  and  has  li'&ewiie  lw# 
fonns  for  the  accusat,  ambos  and  ambo,  which  have  entirely  the  same 
meaning.  In  connexion  with  pondo  (poiunds^  we  find  dtta  pondo^  and  tr9 
pondo,  for  duo  and  tria^  a  barbarism  noticed  oy  the  ancients  themselves. 
(QnintiL,  i,  5, 15.)  Duum,  a  second  form  of  the  genit.  of  duo,  is  the  regu- 
lar one  in  compounds ;  as,  duumvir,  but  is  frequently  used,  also,  in  con- 
nexion  with  nulium.  Thus,  Pliny  says  that  he  had  compiled  his  work  « 
Iwtume  volummvm  drcker  duum  miUum  ;  but  Csesar  end  Livy  likewise  use 
this  form. 


4.  IV.  qtULttuor,* 

5.  v.  quinque, 

6.  VI.  sex. 

7.  VII.  septem. 

8.   YUI,OCtO, 

9.  IX.  novem. 

10.  z.  decern, 

11.  xuundecim. 

12.  xu.  dtufdecim. 

13.  xni,  tredecinif  or  deceu  et 

tres. 

14.  XIV.  qteattuardecim 

15.  XV.  quindecim, 

16.  XVI.  sedeciniy  or  decern  et 

sex, 

17.  xvn.  decern  et  septem^  or 

septendecim, 

18.  xvin.  decern  et  octo,  or 

duodeviginti. 

19.  XIX.  decern  et  novem,  or 

undeoiginU, 

20.  XX.  vigmti, 

21.  XXI.  unus  et  viginti,  or 

viginti  unus. 

22.  XXII.  duo  et  viginti^  or 

viginti  duo. 

23.  XXIII.  tres  et  viginti,  or 

viginti  tres. 

28.  xxviu.  duodetriginta  or 

octo  e^  vigintL 

29.  XXIX.    undetrigintay    or 

n<n7em  e^  viginti. 


30.  XXX.  triginta. 
40.  XL.  quadraginta, 
50.  L.  quinqttaginta, 
*       60.  LX.  sexaginta. 
70.  Lxx.  septuaginta, 
80.  Lxxx.  octoginta. 
90.  xc.  nonaginta. ' 
100.  c.  centum. 
109.  cix.  centum  et  no 
vcm^  or  centum  no 
vem. 
200.  cc.  dticenti^  ae,  a. 
300.  ccc.  trecenti,  qe,  a. 
400.  cccc.  quadringentit 

ae^  a. 
500.  D.  or  10.  ^t£292^e»^, 

a^,  a. 
600.  DC.  sexcentiy  ae,  a, 
700.     IKJC.    septingenti, 

ae,  a. 
800.    Dccc.     oetmgenti, 
ae,  a. 

900.     DCCCC.      92011^691^1 

ae,  a. 
1000.  Bf.  or  CIO.  mi/Ze. 
2000.  ciocio.  or  mm.  <2t(o 

milia,  or  ^  mi^e. 
5000.  iDD.  quinque  milia. 
10,000.  ccioo.    decern    mi- 
lia, 
100,000.  ccciooo.  centum  mi' 
lia,    • 


*  ['*  We  cannot  find  any  precise  information  upon  the  time  of  the  com 
mencement  of  the  principle  of  local  value  which  prevails  to  a  certain 
extent  throughout  the  Roman  S3r8tem,  namely,  that  a  smaller  symbo. 
before  a  larger  one,  in  numbers  less  than  one  hundred,  denotes  a  subtrac- 
tion, after  it  an  addition      This  principle  doe*  no>  appear  in  the  PKod* 


CARDINAL    m7|i£RALil.  97 

iVbte  l.-^The  Roman  «ign«  lorimmbers  have  amen  fiom  simple  geo- 
metrical ^gures.  The  perpendicular  line  (I)  is  one ;  two  lines  crossing 
one  another  (X)  make  ten ;  half  this  figure  (V)  is  fivej  the  perpendlculat 
line  with  a  horizontal  one  at  the  ^dwer  end  {h)  ia  nfty»  and  if  another 
horizontal  line  is  added  at  the  apper  end  (T)  we  have  one  hundred* 
From  this  sign  arose  the  round  C,  wnicE  is  accidentally,  at  the  same  time, 
the  initial  oi  centum.  This  C  reversed  (O),  which  is  called  apostrophas, 
with  a  perpendicular  line  preceding  it  (10),  or  drawn  together  as  D>  aigni' 
lies  500.  In  every  multiplication  with  ten  a  fresh  apostrophus  is  added, 
thus,  100  =  5000, 1000  ?=  50,000.  When  a  number  is  to  be  doubled,  as 
many  C  are  put  before  the  horizontal  line  astherd  are  D  behind  it.  Thus, 
CIO  =  1000,  CCIOO«=  10,000,  &C.  ,  A  thousand  is  ezfiressed  in  MSS.  by 
(/>,  which  is  evidently  a  contraction  of  CIO.  M,  which  is  used  for  the 
same  number,  is  the  mitial  of  nuUe.* 

iVbte  2.~Wherever,  in  the  above  list,  two  numen^s  are  put  together, 
the  hrst  is  always  preferable.  Forms  like  octodedm.  and  novendecm,  which 
Are  not  mentioned  in  the  list,  arc  not  supported  by  any  authority ;  even 
tieptendecim^  according  to  Priscian  {De  Sign.  Nuin.f  4)j  is  not  so  good  as 
decern  tt  septem^  although  it  is  used  by  deem  (In  Verr.,  v.,  47 ;  De  Leg. 
Agr.,  iL,  17;  Philip.,  v.,  7),  and  also  by  Tacitus  (ilnna/.,  xiii.,  6).  Septem 
et  decern,  in  Cicero  {Cat.,  6),  and  ncto  et  decern,  in  PHny  (Epht.,  viii.,  18), 
are  isdated  peculiarities.  Instead  of  octoginta  we  sometimes  find  octua- 
gtnfa,  and,  corresponding  with  it,  octttagiei;  but  these  forms  cannot  be 
recommended. 

[§  116.]  The  intermediate  numbers  are  expressed  in 
the  following  manner :  from  twenty  to  a  hundred,  either 
the  smaller  number^  followed  by  et,  precedes,  or  the  great- 
er one  precedes  without  the  et ;  e.  g.,  qnattuor  et  sexagm- 
ta,  Kyr  sexaginta  quattwor.  For  18,^6,  38, 48,  &c.,  and  for 
19,  29, 39, 49,  etc.,  the  expressions  dtiodeviginti,  duodetri-. 
gijUa,  up  to  undecentum,  are  more  frequent  than  decern  et 
octo^  or  octo  et  viginti.  In  such  combinations  neither  dtio 
nor  un  (unus)  can  be  declined.  Above  100,  the  greater 
number  always  precedes,  either  with  or  without  et;  as, 
wille  unus,  mUle  duo,  mille  trecejUi,  or  mUle  et  unus,  mille 
et  duo,  mille  et  trecenti  sexaginta  sex^  The  et  is  never 
used  twice,  and  poets,  when  they  want  another  syllable, 
take  ac,  dtque,  or  que,  instead.  There  are,  indeed,  ex- 
ceptions to  this  rule ;  but,  being  less  common,  they  cannot 
be  taken  into  consideration,  and  some  of  them  are  mere 
mcorrect  readings.  (See  my  note  on  Cic,  in  Verrem,  iv. 
55.) 

The  thousands  are  generally  expressed  by  the  declina- 
ble substantive  milia  and  the  cardinal  numbers  ;  as,  duo 
milia,  tria  mdlia,  quatttior  milia,  decern  mUia^  unum  et  vi* 

nician  or  Palmyrene  notations,  which  otherwise  much  resemble  the  Ro- 
man in  their  principle  of  notation,  though  they  approximate  to  pure  vice- 
naiy  scales,  both  adopting  distinct  symbols  for  twenty."  {Penny  Cfchp.^ 
vol.  xvi.,  p.  367.)]— ^wi.  Ed. 

♦  [For  anotier  scheme  of  explanation,  consult  Penny  Cydop.,  vol 
^  367.1— itm..E(i 

1 


OH  .X'ATIN   GRAMMAft. 

gtnii  tnilia,  quadrtigmta  quinque  milia,  Thf)  4i9tTibutiya 
numerals  are  used  more  rarely ;  as,  hina  milia,  quina 
milidf  dena  milia^  quadragena  setia  milia.  The  pbjects 
counted  are  expressed  by  (he  genitive,  which  depends  on 
the  substantive  milia;  e.  g.,  Xerxes  Mardonium  in  Grae- 
cia  rdiquit  cum  trecentis  milibus  armatorum,  unless  a  low- 
er declined  numeral  is  added,  in  which  case  things  count- 
ed may  be  used  in  the  same  case  with  milia;  e.  g.,  kah- 
uit  tria  milia  trecentos  milites^  or  militea  tria  milia  trecen- 
tos  hahuit ;  but  even  then  the  genitive  may  be  used,  e-  g,, 
Jiahuit  militum  tria  milia  treceatos,'  or  hahuit  tria  milia 
miHtum  et  trecentos,  (See  the  commentators  on  Livy, 
^xix.,  7.)  It  is  only  the  poets  that  express  the  thousands 
by  the  indeclinable  adjective  mille,  preceded  by  an  ad- 
verbial numeral;  as,  his  mille  eqtd,  for  duo  milia  equorum i 
they  are,  in  general,  fond  of  expressing  a.  number  by  th^ 
form  of  multiplication ;  Ovid  (Trist.^  iv.,  10,  4),  for  ex- 
ample, says,  milia  decies  novem^  instead  of  nonaginta 
milia. 

Note. — ^With  regard  to  the  construction  of  the  word  mille  we  add  the  fol- 
lowing remarks.  Mille  is  originally  a  substantive,  which  is  indeclinable 
in  the  singular,  but  occurs  only  in  the  nom.  and  accus.  As  a  substantire 
it  governs  the  genitive,  like  the  Greek  x^^^^t  6*  S-t  C'ic,  Pro  Milan.,  20, 
quo  in /undo  propter  msanaa  illas  evbetruetionee  facile  ifttlle  hondnum  versabatm 
valentium ;  Phiup.,  vi,  5,  quit  L,  Antonio  mille  nummum  ferret  expensum 
and,  very  frequently,  miUe  paeetatm,  Livy  joins  mi2/e  as  a  collective  nour 
(see  ^  366)  to  the  plural  of  the  verb,  xxiii.,  44 ;  mUle  passuum  inter  urbem 
erarU  caatraque :  xzv.,  24,  jam  miUe  armatorum  ceperant  partem.  But  mille  is 
also  an  indeclinable  adjective,  and  as  such  is  most  frequently  used  in  all 
its  cases,  e.  g.,  equitee  mille  praemissi;  aenatue  mille  hominum  numero  consta 
bat;  da  mihi  basia  mille ;  rem  mille  madia  temjptavitf  &c.  With  this  adjec 
live  mille,  as  with  numerals  in  gtneral,  a  gemtivus  partitivus  may  be  used, 
according  to  ^  429,  and  thus  we  read  in  Livy,  xzi^  61,  cum  octo  milHnu 
peditum,  mille  equUvm,  where  the  genitive  stanas  for  the  ablative,  owing  to 
Its  close  connexion  with  the  word  pediiuth;  and  xxiii.,  46,  Komanonm 
miUa  interfecti. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

« 

II.     ORDINAL     NUMERALS. 

[§  117.]  The  ordinals  denote  the  place  in  the  seriei 
which  any  object  holds,  and  answer  to  the  question  quo* 
tus  ?  All  of  them  are  adjectives  of  three  torminatioiiai 
us,  a,  um. 


1.  primus, 

2.  secundus  (alter). 

3.  tertius. 


4.  quartos, 

5.  quintus. 

6.  sextus. 


OEDIMAL    NUMERALS 


^b 


7.  Septimus.' 

S*'Octavus. 

9.  niMUs. 
to.  decimus, 
LI.  wndecinms, 

12.  duodecimus. 

13.  tertius  decimus, 

14.  gt^/fi^  deidmus 

16.  sextus  decimus, 

17.  Septimus  decimus, 

IB.  octavus  decimus,  or  c2«i0« 

devicesiftms, 
19. 9»09»i^  decimus y  or  t^;2c2e- 

vicesimus. 

20.  vicesimus,  sometimes  trf- 

21.  t^%«»  e^  vicesimus,  vicest- 

mus  primifiS, 

22.  alter  et  vicesimus,  vicesi- 

mus sccundus. 
30.  ^rwrmmtw,  sometimes  ^n- 
gesimtts. 


40.  quadragestmus. 
50.  quinquagesimus. 
60.  sexagesimus. 
70.  septuagesimus 
80.  actogesimus. 
90.  nonagesimus. 
100.  ^evt^en'mt^. 
200.  ducentesimus. 
300.  trecentesiTitus. 
400.  quadringentesi' 

mus. 
500.  quingentesimMs 
600.  sexcentesimusr. 
700.  septingentesimus 
800.  octingentesimus. 
900.  nongentesimus 
1000.  millesimus, 
2000.  iw  millesimus. 
3000.  ter  millesimus. 
10,000.  decies  millesimus 
100,000.  centies millesimus. 
1,000,000.  ^mc«  centies  mil- 
lesimus. 


[§  118.]  In  expressing  the  intermediate  numbers,  the 
most  common  practice  is  to  place  the  smaller  number  be- 
fore the  greater  one  with  the  conjunction  e<,  or  to  make 
the  greater  number  precede  the  smaller  one  without  et ; 
as,  quartvs  et  vicesimus,  or  vicesimtbs  quartzes.  But  there 
are  mapy  instances  in  which  the  smaller  number  pre* 
cedes  without  et;  e.  g.,  quintus  tricesimus;  and  from  13 
to  19  this  is  the  ordinary  method,  though  we  also  find 
tertitcs  et  decimus,  decimus  tertius,  and  decimus  et  tertius. 
(See  Cic,  de  Invent.^\.,  53  and  54.)  Instead  oi primus  et 
nccsimus^  &c.,  we  find  still  more  frequently  unus  et  vice* 
nmus,  fem.  una  et  vieesima,  or  with  the  elision  of  the 
vowel,  unetvicesimay  with  the  genitive  unetvicesimae^  as 
m  Tacit.,  Annal.,  i.,  45.,  and  Hist,  i.,  67.  The  22d,  32d, 
dec,  is  more  frequently  and  better  expressed  by  alter  et 
otcesimusy  or  vicesimtis  et  alter^  than  by  secundus  et  vice- 
simus, &c.  Now  and  then  we  meet  with  duoetvicesimus, 
dMoettricesimuSy  in  which  case  the  word  duo  is  indeclina- 
ble. The  28th,  38th,  &c.,  are  expressed  also  by  duodetH- 
unmus,  duodequadragesimus,  and  the  29th  39th,  99th,  by 


481'76A. 


too  L17.N    GRAMMAR. 

undetncesimuSf  iindequadragesimus,  undecentesimust  the 
words  duo  and  imus  fun  J  being  indeclinable;  and  yoth 
forms  are  of  more  frequent  occurrence  than  octavus  and 
nonus  et  vicesimus,  or  vicesimus  octavus,  vicenmus  nonus, 
Thei*e  is  a  class  of  adjectives  in  antis  which  are  derived 
from  ordinal  numerals,  e.  g.,  primanus,  secundanus,  ter* 
tianus,  vicesimanus :  they  express  the  class  or  division  to 
which  a  person  belongs  ;  in  Roman  writers  they  chiefly 
denote  the  legion  of  the  soldiers,  whence  the  fuBt  word 
m  their  compounds  is  feminine,  e.  g^  tertiadedmani, 
quartadecimani,  tertia  ct  vicesimani;  that  is,  soldiers  of 
the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  twenty-third  legion.  In  T^i^ 
tus  we  'meet  with  the  forms  unetviccsvmani  and  duoetvtce- 
imani. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

III.    DISTRIBUTIVE    NUMERALS. 

[§  119l]  Distributive  numerals  denote  an  equal  num 
ber  distributed  among  several  objects  or  at  dififerent  times . 
and  answer  to  the  questions,  "  How  many  apiece  V*  and 
"  How  many  each  time  V*  fquoteni  ?J     They  are  always 
used  in  the  plural.    The  English  language  having  no  cor- 
responding numerals,  has  recourse  to  circumlocution. 

Examples. — Horat.,  Serm.i  u,  4,  86 ;  Saepe  tribus  Uctis  videat  coenare  qua 
temoSf  to  dine  four  on  each  couch :  Liv.,  xxz.,  30 ;  Scipio  et  Hannibal  cum 
nngvlia  interjn'etibus  congressi  sunt,  each  with  an  interpreter :  Cic,  m  Verr.^ 
ii.,  49 ;  puen  »enuin  septenwnve  denum  armontm  Menatorhtm  nomen  nundinatt 
9untf  bo^s  of  sixteen  or  Beventeen  years  each  purchased  the  title  of  sen- 
ator. Liy.,  v.,  30;  Senatus  constUtwn  factum  estj  ut  agri  Veienlani  septena 
jugera  plebi  dwiderentur,  each  plebeian  received  seven  jugera.  The  pas- 
sage in  Cicero  {ad  Att.^  xvi,  8),  Octavhu  veterama  quingenot  denarios  dot, 
has  the  same  meaning  «s  {ad  Fanuy  x,,  32)  Antonius  denariot  qmngenos 
ringidis  mUitilms  dot ;  that  is,  five  hundred  denarii  to  each  soldier.  When 
.ae  distributive  singtdi  is  expressly  added,  the  cardinal  numeral  is  some- 
times used ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Virrr.,  ii,  55 :  amgvlU  cetuoribnt  denarii  trecenti 
zd  atatuam  praetoris  imperati  8wU, 

Hence  the  distributives  are  applied  in  multiplication  (with  adveibial 
numerals),  the  same  number  being  taken  several  times ;  e.  g.,  rum  didicU 
his  bina  quot  essent ;  lunae  curriculum  conjicitur  integris  qua^  septenis  diebu* : 
Oellius,  XX.,  7 ;  Homerus  pueros  puellasque  Ntobae  bis  senos  dicitfuisset  JSu 
ripides  bis  septenoSj  Sappho  bis  novenos,  BacchyUdes  ft  Pindarus  bis  denos  ; 
quidam  alii  seriptores  tresfuisse  solos  dixerunt.  Poets  in  this  case  sometimes 
apply  the  cardmal  numerals ;  e.  g.,  Horace  has,  bis  quinqw.  viri^  i.  e.,  decem- 
viri ;  and  in  prose  we  find  dedes  {vicieSf  tricies)  centum  milia,  although  the 
form  decies  cetUena  milia^  mentioned  above  (6  115),  it»  much  more  conunon. 

Distributives  are  farther  used,  instead  of  cardinals,  with  words  which 
H  ve  no  singular ;  e.  g..  bini  codicilli,  bina  post  Romulum  spolia  rpima  (see 


DtSTSIBUTIVB  MUUEKA18. 


lOi 


'^M) ;  BOfi  with  those  substantives  the  plnral  of  which,  thcngh  it  has  a 
different  signification  from  the  singular,  yet  retains  the  meacing  oif  a  sin- 
guiar.  e.  g.,  aede$,  castra^  litterae,  ludi  (^  96).  It  must,  however,  be  observed 
that  in  this  case  the  Romans  commonly  used  unt  instead  of  «tn^u/i,  and 
trini  instead  of  term',  since  MtnguU  and  temi  retain  their  own  distributive  sig 
nification.  We  therefore  say,  for  example,  6ina  cdttrauno  die  cepit ;  trimu 
hodie  mmtiae  cdArantur;  quoUdie  qumas  aut  senas  litteras  aectph;  for  duo  c<u 
tra  would  mean  "  two  castles ;"  duae  aedes,  **  two  temples ;"  and  duae  Ittte 
rae^ "  two  letters  of  the  alphabet.**  This«  however,  is  not  the  case  with 
liberi  (children),  for  this  word  has  not  the  meaning  of  a  singular  {liberi  are 
children,  and  not  a  child),  and  we  accordingly-say  duo  liberi,  ju»  Hum  libe- 
runif  &c. 

Bim  is  used  for  Jt4o,  to  denote  things  which  exist  in  pairs ;  as,  bin»  boveh^ 
hinae  aures  ;  and  in  Virgil,  Aen,,  i.,  317,  bina  manu  crispane  kastilia.  No 
prose  writer  goes  beyond  this  in  the  use  of  the  distributives  instead  of  the 
cardinals  Xexcept  in  combination  with  milia,  see  ^116).  Poets  and  Pliny 
the  elder  use  tnese  numerals  in  the  singular  in  the  sense  of  multipUca* 
tives,  e.  g.,  Lucan,  viiL,  455 ;  aepteno  gvrgite,  with  a  sevenfold  whirl :  Plin., 
xvii,,  3 ;  eampus  fertUi*  eentenaquinquagenafruge,  with  one  hundred  and  fifty 
fold  com.  In  the  ordinary  language  they  occur  only  in  the  plural,  and  as 
adjectives  of  three  terminations,  i,  ae^a.         , 


1.  singuli, 

2.  Mni. 

3.  tem%  or  trini, 

4.  quatemi. 

5.  quinu 

6.  seni, 

7.  septeni. 

8.  octoni. 

9.  noveni. 
10.  deni, 
11  vndcni, 

12.  duodeni. 

13.  temi  dcni. 


14.  quaterni  deni. 

15.  quint  deni, 

16.  seni  deni, 

17.  septeni  deni, 
18..  octoni  deni, 

19.  noveni  deni,- 

20.  vicenii 

21.  viceni  singvli, 

22.  viceni  hini, 

23.  viceni   temi, 
30.  triceni.     [&a 
40.  quadrageni. 


60.  scxageni, 
70*  septtcdgenL, 
80.  octogeni, 
90.  nonageni. 
100.  centeni, 
200.  duceni, 
300.  treceni, 
400.  quadnngent 
500.  quingeni, 
600.  sexcent, 
700.  septingeni. 
800.  octingeni, 
900.  nongeni. 


50.  quinqzmgeni. 

A  longer  form  of  the  hundreds,  ducentem,  trecentem^ 
quad'cingentenif  &c.,  which  is  mentioned  by  Priscian,  can- 
not be  proved  to  exist.  Here,  too,  there  is  some  freedom 
in  the  combination  of  the  numerals ;  instead  of  viceni  qua- 
temiy  we  may  say  quaterni  et  vtceni,  or  quatemi  vtceni,  and 
forl&  and  19  we  have,  also,  the  forms  duodevicend  and  un- 
demceni.  The  genitive  of  these  numerals  is  commonly  ill 
um  instead  of  orum;  as,  hinum,  temum^  quatemvmy  qm- 
num,  &c.,  but  not  singulum  for  singulorum, 

"A  thousand  each  time"  might,  according  to  analogy,  be  expressed  oy 
millenif  and  then  continued  bis  millenif  ter  milleni,  &c. ;  but  this  torm  is  not 
in  use,  and  instead  of  it  we  say  singula  milia,  6ina,  tema,  quatema,  qiuna 
milia  :  e.  g.,  Sueten^  Octav.,  extr. ;  Legavit  Augustus  vraetorianis  militibu  i 
singula  miUa  nummunt  (that  is,  one  thousand  to  each),  conortibus  urbams  qum- 
tmsSf  legionariis  trecenos  nummos :  Livy :  in  singrulis  iegionibus  Romanis  quinm 
fsiiUa  peditum,  treceni  eijuites  erant,  Milia  alone  is  frequently  used  for  tingrtl^ 
milia^  if  its  distributive  meaning  is  indicated  by  some  other  word ;  e  g . 

T  2 


I'OS  LAllN  CftAMM^AR. 

• 

Lvrjt  xxxvii.,  45;  dMtis  milia  talentum  per  duodecim  annot,  te.,  oai  ihcm 
■and  talunto  eactv  year :  Gurtius,  ▼.,  ^^ » singulis  vestrum  milia  denarium  dan 
jvssi,  wiiere  mille  is  an  incorrect  reading ;  comp.  Liv.,  zzii.,  36.  I'bis  um 
of  the  plural,  which  occurs  in  other  words  also ;  as,  asses j  libra* ,  jugtra, 
with  the  ellipsis  of  singulis  ae,  a,  has  been  established  by  J.  Fr.  Gronovius 
•n  Livy,  iv.,  15,  and  xziz.,  15 ;  and  by  Bentley  on  Horace^  Serm.y  ii.,  3,  156. 

From  these  distributives  are  derived  adjectives  in  aritis, 
which  indicate  of  how  many  imits  or  equal  parts  a  thing 
consists,  whence  they,  are  termed  partiaria,  e.  g.,  nume- 
rus  binarms,  a  number  consisting  of  two  imits,  i.  e.,  two ; 
scrohes  temarii^  holes  of  three  feet  \  versus  senarius,  a  vers© 
of  six  feet ;  numtmis  denaritis^  a  coin  of  ten  units,  that  is, 
asses  ;  senex  octogenarius,  an  old  man  of  eighty ;  rosa  cen- 
tenaria,  a  rose  virith  one  hundred  leaves ;  cohors  quingena- 
ria,  of  500  men.  Th*>  word  numerus  is  most  frequently 
combined  with  these  adjectives,  to  supply  the  place  of  the 
substantives  unto,  binio,  temio,  whicn  axe  not  based  *on 
very  good  authority.  (See  §  75.)  Singtdaris  and  miilia' 
rius  are  more  commonly  used  instead  of  singularius^  miU 
Ifinarius, 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

IV.   MULTIPLICATIVE  NUMERALS. 

[§  120.]  MuLTiPLicATiVES  ans\Ver  to  the  question,  "Hon! 
many  fold  1"  (quotuplex  1)  They  are,  simplex,  duplex,  tri* 
plex^  quadruplex,  quincuplex,  septemplex^  decemplex^  centu 
plex.  These  are  the  only  ones  that  can  be  shown  to  have  been 
in  use.  Sixfold  does  not  occur  in  Latin ;  it  might  be  sexu- 
plex  or  seplex,  but  not  sextuplex^  as  some  grammarians  assert. 
Octuplex  is  attested  by  the  derivative  octuplicatus,  and  no- 
vemplex  by  the  analogy  of  septempleic,  (Modem  writers 
use,  also,  undecimplexj  dtwdecimplex,  sedecimplex^  vicecu' 
plexy  tricecuplex,  quadragecuplex,  quinquagecvpleXy  sex^ 
agecuplex,  septuagecuplex^  octogecuplex,  nonagecuplex,  du- 
centuplex,  trecentuplex,  quadrijigentuplex^  quingentuplex^ 
octtngerUuplex^  &c.,  and  mUlecuplex,)* 

It  will  not  be  out  of  place  here  to  add  the  Latin  ex 
prossions  for  fractions,  which  are  always  denoted  hy pars/ 

*  [Such  forms  as  undecimpleXf  duodseimplex,  &c.,  violate  analogy,  and 
though  employed  by  modem  writers,  as  the  text  states,  are  neverthelesy 
decidedly  objectionable.  Instead,  moreoTer,  of  vicect^><eir,  fnceeup/eor,  &c^ 
the  forms  vtcuplexf  tricuplexy  &c.,  would  have  the  advantage  of  bmg' 
analogous  with  those  of  the  same  class  known  to  exirt  {Jmxmal  vf  Edu 
€0tum.  vol.  1.,  p.  96  ]— ilm.  Ed 


PROPORTIONAL  NtJMERALB  — NUMERAL  ADVERBS.    108 

)  .'s  dimidia  pars^  \  tertia  pars,  }  qtuirta  pars,  quinta,  Jiea> 
ta,  septifna  pars^  &c.  In  cases  where  the'  number  of  the 
paits  into  which  a  thing  is  divided  exceeds  the  number 
of  parts  mentioned  only  by  one,  as  in  |,  f ,  |^,  the  fractions 
are  expressed  in  Latin  simply  by  duae^  tresy  quattuor 
jHzrteSj  that  is,  two  out  of  three,  three  out  of  four,  and 
four  out  of  five  parts :  |  may  be  expressed'by  octava  pars^ 
or  by  dimidia  quartd.  In  all  other  cases  firactions  are  ex- 
pressed as  in  English  :  ^,  duae  ieptimae  ;  ^,  tres  septimae, 
&c.,  or  the  fraction  is  broken  up  into  its  parts,  e.  g.,  f  by 
pars  dimidia  (J)  et  tertia  (f );  and  ^f  by  tertia  et  septima^ 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

V.   PftOPORTldNAL    NUMERALS. 

[§  121.]  Proportional  numerals  express  how  many 
times  more  one  thing  is  than  another,  but  they  cannot  be 
used  throughout.  They  answer  to  the  question  quotuplus  f 
They  are,  simplus,  a,  am ;  duphts^  triphis,  quadruplus, 
quinquiplus  (probably  sexuplusj^  septtq>lus,  oc^plus  (per- 
haps nonuplusjy  decuplus^centuplus;  and,  according  to  the 
Bcune  analogy,  we  might  form  dvce/Unpius^  and  so  on,  as  in 
the  miiltiplicatives  above.  But  they  are  almost  univer- 
sally found  only  in  the  neuter. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

VL     NUMERAL     ADVERBS. 

[§  122.]  1.  The  numeral  adverbs  answer  l;o  the  ques* 
tion,  "  How  many  times  1'*  fquoHens  ?J  to  which  totiens  is 
the  demonstrative  sndaliquotieTisthe  indefinite.  The  form 
in  »^  is  the  original,'  and  prevailed  in  tihe  best  periods  of 
die  lanraage;  subsequently  the  termination  es  was  pre* 
ferred  in  nuinerab,  but  ens  still  remained  in  the  wbrds 
iust  mendoned. 


1.  semel. 

2.  his, 
o.  ter» 

4.  quater, 

5,  quinquies. 
*6.  sexies. 


7.  septies. 

8.  octies. 

9.  noviis^ 

10.  decies. 

11.  undedes. 

12.  dttodedes 


104 


]:jltin  gbammae. 


13*  ierdedeSf  or  trededes. 
I4»  quaterdedeSf  or  qnuiUuor 

decies. 
15^  qvinquiesdecies^  or  quin* 

decies* 
16,  sexiesdecies,  or  sededes, 
17*  septiesdedes. 

18.  duodevicieSf  or  octiesdc' 

cies. 

19.  undemcieSf  or  noviesde- 
'SO.  vicies.  [des. 

21.  «e7ne/  e^  mdes. 

22.  &i«  6^  vides. 

23.  ^^  ^  vides,  &c. 
30.  trides, 

40.  quadragies. 


50.  quinquagim. 
60.  sexagies, 
70.  septuagies. 
80.  octogies, 
90.  nonagies. 
.100.  centies. 
200.  ducenties. 
300.  trecenties. 
400.  quadrifigenUtM. 
500.  quifigentie^,  &c» 
800.  octingentiei.  Sec* 
1,000.  millies, 
2,000.  &i9  mUlies. 
3^000.  ^  miUtes,  ^c. 
106,000.  centies  miUies. 


With  regard  to  the  iiitmmediate  numbers,  21,  22,  23, 
&c.,  the  method  above  adopted  is  the  usual  erne,  but  we 
may  also  say  t^tom  ^«ine2  and  t;icief  tf^  «eme^  though,  not 
»e9^  vides;  for  ^  t;»o»ef,  for  examjj^e,  would  mean  twice 
twenty,  i«  e.,  forty. 

[§  123.]  2.  The  numeral  adverbs  terminating  either  iu 
um  or  o,  and  derived  from  the  ordinals,  oi!;  rather,  the  or 
dinals  themselves  in  the  ace.  or  ablat.  six^lar  neuter  gen- 
der, are  used  in  answer  to  the  questicm  **^  of  what  num- 
ber ]"  or  "  what  in  number  ]"*  (the  Latin  quotum  ?  or 
quota  ?  cannot  be  proved  to  have  been  used  in  this  way) ; 
e.  g.,  primum  or  primo,  for  the  first  time,  or  first;  secun- 
dum or  secundo,  tertium  or  tertio^  &c.,  dedmum,  undedmum^ 
duodedmum^  tertium  dedmwn^  duodevicesimum.  The  an- 
cients themselves  were  in  doubt  as  to  whether  jJie  termi- 
nation wn  or  o  was  preferable  (see  GeUius,  x.,  1) ;  but, 
according  to  the  majority  of  the  paslsages  in  classical  wri- 
ters, we  must  prefer  um;  the  form  secundum  alone  }s  less 
common';  ahd  mstead  of  it  we  find  iterum^  a  second  time, 
and  secundo^,  secondly,  for  which,  however,  ddnde  is  more 
frequently  used.  The  diiference  between  primum  and 
nrimo  is  this,  that  the  signification  "  for  the  first  time'*  is 
cuc.mon  to  both,  but  that  of  ''first"  belongs  exclusively 
to  primumf  while  primo  has  the  additional  meaning  of  *'  at 
first.'' 

[^  124.]  JVoftf.— U  may  not  be  superfluous  to  notice  here  6om»  substan 
fives  compounded  with  numerals  *  thiis,  from  aimus  are  formed  V^'uuuf^ 


PSONOtNS    AND    PRONOMINAL    AUJECTIVES.  105 

triainiumf  quadrienniumt  sexetmiumf  aeptuemuum  (more  correct  thau  aepten 
niwn)t  decenmtan,  a  period  of  two,.three,  four,  six,  &c.,  years.  From  eUea 
we  have  bidmtm,  triduum^  quatriduum,  a  time  'of  two,  three,  four  days. 
From  viri  are  formed  duovirtf  tresviri,  quaitvarviri,  qtanqnemri^  ae-  or  sex-viri, 
septemviri,  decemviri,  quindecemviri,  all  of  which  com{)oands,  if  they  may  be 
so  called,  denote  a  conunission  consisting  of  a  certain  number  of  men,  ap- 
pointed for  certain  purposes.  A  member  of  such  a  commission  is  called 
duumoiTf  triumvir,  from  which  is  formed  the  plural  triumviri^  which,  properly 
speaking,  is  ungrammatical,  and,  in  fact,  still  wants  the  sanction  en  a  good 
authority.  In  inscriptions  iriunwiri  does  not  occur,  and  dmmviri  only  once 
(Gruter,  p.  43,  No.  5) :  the  ordinary  mode  of  writing  it  was  J  J  viri,  11  J 
wL  Printed  books,  without  the  authority  of  MSS.,  are  not  decisive. 
To  these  words  wq  may  add  the  three,  ftamiw,  trimua,  and  quadrhima ;  i  e., 
a  child  of  two,  three,  four  years. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

PRONOUNS   AND   PRONOMINAL    ADJECTIVES. 

[§125.]  1.  Pronouns  are  words  which  supply  the  place 
of  a  substantive ;  such  as,  I,  thou,  we,  and  in  Latin,  ego, 
tUf  noSf  Sec,  These  words  are  in  themselves  substan- 
tives^ and  require  nothing  to  conmlete  their* meaning; 
hence  tliey  are  called  pronouns  substantive  (pronomijia 
suhstantiva),  but  more  commonly  personal  pronouns,  ^o^ 
tiomma  personalia. 

Note. — StU-  is  a  pronoun  of  the  third  person,  but  not  in  the  same  way 
that  ego  and  i«  are  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons.  For  the 
thini  person  (he,  she,  it)  is  not  expressed  in  Latin  in  the  nominative,  and 
is' implied  in  the  third  person  of  the  verb ;  but  if  il  is  to  be  exprened,  a 
demonstrative  pronoun,  commonly  ttte,  is  used.  The  other  cases  of  the 
English  pronoun  of  the  third  person  are  expressed  by  the  oblique  cases  ot 
is,  eoj  id,  the  nominative  of  which  belongs  to  the  demonstrative  pronouns 
Thus  we  say,  pudeCme  met,  hti,  tju»:  lamdo  me,  te,  turn.  Sm,  aibi,  se,  is  the 
Monoun  of  the  third  persNon  in  a  refleotive  sense ;  as,  laudat  »e,  he  praises 
himself,  in  which  proposition  the  obj[ect  is  the  same  as  the  subject.  The 
use  (rf'this  reflective  pronoun  in  Latm  is  somewhat  more  extensive  than 
Wk  wn  laoiguage;  for  aui,  tiU,  te,  and  the  possessive  «ttu«,  nut,  swum,  are 
«ted  not  only  when  the  subject  to  which  they  refer  occurs  in  the  same 
sentence,  but  also  when  in  a  dependent  sentence  the  subject  of  the  prin- 
cipal or  governing  sentence  is  referred  to ;  e.  g.,  mitat  hoe  mbi  nocerei  he 
tmnks  that  this  injures  him  (inetead  of  himself).  The  beginner  must  ob- 
serve  that,  wherever  he  may  add  **  self"  to  the  pronoun  of  the  third  per« 
son,  he  has  to  use  the  reflective  pronouns  and  the  possessive  auus,  sua 
fvum  ;  e.  g.,  Oaius  eontemnsbat  dimtiaa,  auod  se  felieem  reddere  n9n  passent, 
because  they  could  not  make  him  (i.  e.,  nimself,  and  not  any  other  person) 
happy  ;  but  qttod  eum  felieem  reddere  non  possent  would  mean,  because  they 
couKl  not  make  him  (some  other  person,  e.  g.,  his  friend)  happy. 

[§  126.]  2.  Besides  these  there  is  a  number  of  words 
which  are  adjectives,  inasmuch  as  they  have  three  distinct 
(brms  for  the  three  genders,  and  their  meaning  is  not  com 
plote  without  a  substantive  ekher  expressed  or  unrfet 


«0G  LATIN   ORAMMAB. 

Stood.  But  tbeir  inflection  differs  so  widely  fix>m  what 
are  commonly  called  adjectives,  and  they  are  so  frequent- 
ly used  instead  of  a  substantive,  that  they  are  not  unjustly 
termed  pronoims.     They  are : 

1.  The  adjunctive :  ipse,  ipsa,  ipsum,  self. 

2.  The  demonstrative :  hie,  haec,  hoc  ;  tste,  ista,  istud , 
tile,  ilia,  Ulud  ;  is,  ea,  id,  and  the  compound  idem,  eadem, 
idem, 

3.  The  relative :  qui,  quae,  quod,  and  the  compounds 
quicunque  and  quisquu. 

4.  The  two  interrogatives :  viz.,  the  substantive  intei- 
rogative,  quis^  quid  ?  and  the  adjective  interrogative,  qui, 
qtiae,  quod  1 

5.  The  indefinite  pronouns :  dliquis,  aliqua,  aliquid  and 
aliquod;  quidam,  quaedam,  quiddoM  and  quoddam;  ali- 
quispiam,  or,  abridgod,  quispiam,  quaepiam,  quidpiam  and 
quodpiam  ;  quisquam,  neuter  quidquam  ;  quivis,  quilihety 
and  quisque;  and  all  the  compounds  of  qui  or  quis. 

E^spectlng  the  use  of  these  pronouns,  see  Chapter 
LXXXIV.,  C.  The  fc^lowing  observations  are  intended 
to  develop  only  the  fimdamental  principles. 

[6  127.]  Note  1. — Signification  of  the  Dbmonstratitb  ProNouns.- 
^Itie^  this,  is  used  of  objects  whicb  tfre  nearest  to  the  speaker,  wbereas 
more  distant  objects  are  referred  to  bv  ilU.  The  person  nearest  of  all  to 
the  speaker  is  the  speaker  himself,  whence  hk  homo  is  often  the  same  as 
ego  (see  some  passages  in  Heii^dorf  on  Horace,  Sat.,  L,  9,  47) ;  and  in  this 
respect  hie  is  called  the  pronoun  of  the  first  person.  late  pmnts  to  the. 
person  to  whom  I  am  speaking,  and  to  the  things  appertaining  to  him. 
Thus,  iste  liber,  ista  vestis,  wtud  negoimm,  are  equivalent  to  thy  book,  thy 
dress,  thy  business ;  and  iete  is,  for  this  reason,  called  the  pronoun  of  the 
second  person.*  lUe,  that,  is  the  pronoun  of  the  third  person ;  that  U,  it 
points  to  the  person  of  whom  I  am  speaking  to  .some  one,  henpe  Ule  liber 
means  the  book  of  which  we  are  speaking  (Compare,  on  these  points,  ^ 
201.)  la  is  used :  1.  To  point  to  something,  preceding,  and  is  somewhat 
Less  emphatic  than  "  the  person  mentioned  before  ;**  and,  2.  As  a  aort  ol 
logical  conjunction,  when  followed  by  qui,  ia  qui  answers  to  the  English 
"he  who."  Idem,  the  same,  expresses  the  unity  or  identity  of  a  subject 
with  two  predicates ;  e»  g.,  Cicero  xlid  this  thing,  and  he  did  that  also, 
would  be  expressed  in  Latin,  idem  illud  perfeoit,  hence  idem  may  sometimes 
answer  to  our -^^  also ;"  e.  g.,  Cicero  was  an  orator,  and  also  a  philosopher ; 
Cicero  orator  erat  idtmnta  {et  idem)  phiUaoj^aia, 

[^  128.1  Note  2.— The  Compounded  KBLATrvBS.— They  are  formed  b> 
means  of  the  suffix  cunque,  which,  however,  is  sometimes  separated  from 
its  pronoun  by  some  intervening  word.  It  arose  from  the  relative  adverb 
erMti  (also  spelled  quum)  and  the  suffix  que,  expressive  of  universality  (as  in 

*  [So  completely  was  this  the  meaning  of  the  pronoun  iste,  that  it  has 
descended  to  the  derivative  coati  in  the  modem  Italian ;  and  a  lawsuit  as 
to  the  place  where  a  bill  was  payable  once  turned  upon  the  meaning  of 
ihis  adverb.     Jmimal  of  Education,  vol.  i.,  p.  97.]— 4m.  Ed. 


pronoudTs  attd  pronominal  adjectives.       107 

fuispie,  ^  129 ;  and  in  adverbs,  ^  288).  Cunque^  therefore,  originall  jT  tigni 
$ed  "  whenever."  By  being  attached  to  a  relative  pronoun  or  adverb 
e^  g.,  quaUscua^,  quqtcunquCf  tibiamque,  utctmque,  quandoctmque,  it  renders 
the  relative  meaning  of  these  words  more  general,  and  produces  a  relativwn 
generaU ;  and  as  qui  signifies  "  who,"  qukxmqiu  becomes  "  whoever,**  oi 
**  every  one  who ;"  e.  g.,  quemcunque  librum  legeriSf  ejus  summam  paudt 
verbis  in  eommentaria  referto,  or  utcunque  se  res  habuitj  tisa  tamen  culpa  est.  It 
thus  always  occurs  in  connexion  with  a  verb,' as  the  subject  of  a  proposi- 
tion: The.  same-  signification  is  produced  by  doubling  the  relative ;  e.  g., 
ouotquot,  quaUsquaUs ;  and  in  the  case  of  adverbs,  vbaihiy  utut,  qtioquo,  &c. 
Thus  we  should  have  qtuqui,  quaequtUy  quodquod  =  qtuamqtte,  quaecunquef 
quodcmnque;  but  these  forms  are  not  used  in  the  nominative,  and  instead 
of  them  quisquis,  quidmidf  were  formed  from  the  substantive  interrogative 
quis  ?  quid  1  and  ihe  ocmbled  relative  qxdsquis  retained  its  substantive  sig> 
nification,  **  every  one  who,**  whereas  qvdcumiju/s  has  the  meaning  of  an  ad 
jective.  So,  at  least,  it  is  with  the  neuter  ouidquidf  whatever. .  The  mas- 
culine quisquiSf  hy  way  of  exception,  is  llKowise  used  as  a^  adjective  ,- 
e.  g.,  in  Horace :  quisquis  erit  vitae  color ;  and  Pliny :  qmsmds  erit  ventus 
(nay,  even  the  neuter  quidqtud  in  Virgil,  Aen.,  x.,  493,  and  Horace,  CarTn., 
li.,  13,  9,  which  is  a  complete  anomaly).  In  the  oblique  cases  the  sub- 
stantive  and  adjective  significations  comcide. 

[^  129.]  iVoteS.— Thr  Indefinite  Pronouns. — All  the  above-men 
tioned  words  are  originally  at  once  substantives  and  adjectives,  and  for 
this  reason  they  have  two  distinct  forms  for  the  neuter.  According  to  the 
ordinary  practice,  however,  quisquam  is  a  substantive  only,  and  is  oilen  ac- 
oompaiucMd  by  the  adjiective  uUusj  a^  urn.  Qwspiam,  too,  is  principally  used 
as  a  substantive;  but  aliquispiam^  m  the  few  passages  where  it  occurs  (it 
is  found  only  in  Gic,  Pro  Sewt.^  29»  oli^^mm':  and  TWcu/.,  iii..  9,  ah 
quodpiam  fntmbnan),  is  used  as  an  adjective ;  and  aliquis,  which  has  the 
same  meaning,  is  found  in  both  senses.  Quisquam^  with  the  supplement- 
ary nifaw,  has  a  negative  meaning;  e.  g.,  I  do  not  believe  that  any  one 
{qmmnuan)  has  done  this :  quispiam  and  aUouis  are  affirmative,  and  quidam 
may  be  translated  by  *'  a  certain.**  By  adoing  the  verbs  vis  aiu^  libet  to  the 
relative  we  obtain  quivis  and  quilAet,  any  one ;  and  by  adding  the  particle 
fue  We  obtain  qtdsquennd  the  compound  smusquisque.  All  of  these  words 
axpress  an.  indefinite  generality:  respecting  their  difference,-  compare 
Chap.  I^XXIV.,  C. 

[§  130,]  3.  The  possessive  pronouns  are  derived  from 
the  substantive  pronoutis;  {(nd  in  f(^tn  tliey  are  regular 
adjectives  of  three  terminations :  meuSf  tutcs,  suus^  noster 
vaster ;  to  which  we  must  add  the  relative  cuqub^  a,  um 
and  the  jproTwmina  gentilicia  (which  express  origin),  nos 
tras^  vestras^  and  cujds, 

4.  Lastly,  we  include  among  the  proiiouns,  also,  what 
are  called  jpronomt^ta^ea,  that  is,  adjectives  of  so  general 
a  meaning  that,  like  real  pronouns,  they  frequently  sup- 
ply the  place  of  a  noun  substantive.  Such  pronominalia 
are,  (a)  those  which  answer  to  the  question,  who?  and 
are  partly  single  words  and  partly  compounds :  alius^  ul* 
lus,  ntdlusj  nonnullus.  If  we  ask,  which  of  two  ?  it  is  pi^t 
pressed  by  uter  ?  and  the  answer  to  it  is  alt^^  one  of  tWQJ 
netUcr,  neither;  alteruter,  either  the  one  or  thp  other | 
utcrvis  and  uterlihet,  either  (tf  the  two.     Tbe  |elative  pro- 


ivs 


LATIN  GKAMMAft, 


noun  (w:ien  referring  to  two)  is  likewise  uUr^  and,  in  % 
more  genera .  sense,  utercunque,  (h)  Those  which  denote 
quality,  size,  or  number,  in  quite  a  general  way.  They 
stand  in  relation  to  one  another  (whence  they  are  called  cor 
relatives Jy  and  are  formed  according  to  a  iixed  rule.  The 
interroga^ve  beginning  with  qu  coincides  with  the  foim 
if  the  relative,  and,  according  to  the  theory  of  the  ancient 
grammarians,  they  differ  only  in  their  accent  (see  §  34) ; 
tne  indefinite  is  formez  by  prefixing  aU  ;  the  oemonstra- 
tive  begins  with  t,  and  its  power  is  sometimes  increased 
by  the  suffix  dem  (as  m  idem  J ;  the  relative  may  acquire 
a  more  general  meaning  by  being  doubled,  or  by  the  suf- 
fix cunque  (§  128) ;  the  indefinite  generality  is  expressed 
(according  to  §  129)  by  adding  the  words  lihet  or  vis  to 
the  (original)  interrogative  form.  In  this  manner  we  ob 
tain  the  following  pionominal  correlatives,  with  which  we 
have  to  compare  the  adverbial  correlatives  mentioned  in 
§288. 


Interrog.  Demonst. 
quaUtf      talis, 


Relat.      Relat  geyierale.   Indefin.      Indef.  goner 
qualia,      quaiiamudis,  ,        quaiuUbet. 

quaiiseunquef 


quanhu,  tanlus,tan'      quantuSf   quaniuaquaiUut,     aliquMntutf  quaniudib§t, 

tun^^nif  qtumtuteimquef  quaniunia, 

quot,        totf4otidemf      quoi,         quotquot,  quU-        aliquot,        qmtHbat. 

cunquef 
quotua,     totus,  quotut,     quotuacunquef         {aliqiioiu$)f  , 

To  these  we  must  add  the  duyinutives  quantulw,  quantuluscunque,  Itmim 
bu,  aliquanhilum. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 


DECLENSION  OF   PRONOUNS.  . 

[§  131.]  1.  Declension  of  the  personal  pronouns  ego, 

hiy  sui  : 

Singular.  • 

Tu,  thou. 
tuif  of  thee. 


Nom.  EgOf  I. 
Gen.  mei,  of  me. 


Dat.   mihi,  to  me. 
Ace.  me,  me. 
Voc  like  nom. 
Abl.  fiiCjfronfme. 


fihi,  to  thee. 
te,  thee, 
like  nom. 
te,  from  thee. 


sui,  of  himself,  her 

self,  itself. 
sihi,  to  himself,  &c. 
se,  himself,  &c 


se,  from  himself 
&c. 


DECLBirBIOK  OF   FBONOU^S. 


10& 


Nom. 
Gen* 

Dat. 
Ace 
Voc, 
Aba. 


iV5#,  we. 
nostril    nos- 

nobis^  to  us. 
Kos^  us. 
nos^  O  we. 
naibUf    from 

U8. 


Pluxal. 
T^,  you." 
vcstri^  vestrum,  of 

you. 
,vdbiSf  to  you. 
1709,  you. 
tw«,  O  you ! 
vobU,  from  yo:. 


m,  of  themselves 

sibif  to  themselves 
96,  themselves. 


sCf     from     thom« 
selves. 


Note. — ^The  suffix  nui  may  be  added  to  aL  the  cases  of  these  three  pro 
nouns  to  express  the  English  emphatic  self;  as,  egometf  mihimet,  temet, 
semetf  and  even  with  the  addition  of  ipse  af>er  it ;  as,  mihimet  ijtai,  temei 
mtum.  The  genit  plur.  and  the  nominat  tu  alone  do  not  admit  tms  suffix. 
instead  of  it  the  emphasis  is  given  to  tu  by  the  suffix  te;  as,  tute,  and  to 
tlus,  again,  by  the  addition  of  met ;  as,  tutemet.  The  accus.  and  ablat.  singu* 
lar  of  these  pronouns  admit  a  reduplication,  mem«,  tete,  sae;  of  sui  alone  it 
is  nsed  in  the  plural  also. 

The  contracted  form  of  the  dative,  mi  for  mihi  (like  nil  for  nihil),  is  fre- 
quently found  in  poetry,  but  rarely  in  prose.  The  genitives  mei,  tui,  sui, 
noHri,  vestri,  are  properly  genitives  of  the  possessive  pronouns  meum,  tuumf 
suum,  nostrum,  vestrum,  for  originally  the  neuters  meum,  tuum,  &c.,  were 
used  in  the  sense  of  **  my  being,"  or  of  "  as  regards  me.  thee,**  &c.  (th«i 
Greek  rh  kft6v),  instead  of  the  simple  I,  thou,  &c.  In  Uke  manner,  th<* 
genitives  nostrum,  vestrum,  are  properly  the  genitives  of  the  possessive^ 
nostri  and  vestri.  (See  ^  51.)  The  beginner  may  pass  over  the  origin  o^ 
these  forms,  since  they  are  used  as  the  real  gemtives  of  the  personal  pro- 
nouns; bat  he  must  bia  reminded  of  it  in  the  construction  of  the  gerund, 
^  660.  Respecting  the  difference  between  riostri,  vestri,  and  nostrum, 
vestrum,  see  ^  431. 

[§132.]  2.  Declension  of  the  demonstrative  pronouns 
and  ^e : 

Singular.  Plural. 


Nom.  andVoc.  hi,  hae^  haec^    . 

these. 
Gen.  horum,  harum,  homm. 

of  these. 
Dat.   his^  to  these. 
Ace.  ho9^  has^  Tiaec,  these 
Abl.  hU,  from  these. 


Nom.  and  Voc.  Hic^  haec^ 

hoc,,  this. 
Gen.  hnjus,  of  this. 

Dat.   hulc  (or  huicj,  to  this. 
Ace  hunc,  hanc,  hocy  this. 
Abl.   hoc,  hoc,  hoc,  from  this. 

Note.— The  ancient  form  of  this  pronoun  was  hice,  haece,  hoce,  in  which 
we  recognise  the  demonstrative  ce,  which,  when  a  word  by  itself,  appears 
in  the  form  eece.  •  The  cases  ending  in  e  arose  from  the  omission  of  the  e, 
which  is  still  found  in  old  Latin,  e.  g.,  hance  legem,  haee  l^e.  (This  ex- 
^ains  the  obsolete  form  haec,  for  hoe  or  haece,  iu  Terence.  See  Bentley  on 
Ter.,  Aiedr.,  i,  I,  99.)  In  ordinary  language  the  cases  in  s  alone  som& 
times  take  the  com^Uete  ce  to  render  the  demonstrative  power  more  em- 
phatic, e.  g„  fmjusce,  hosce.  By  adding" the  enclitic  interrogative  ne  to  c« 
ot  c.  we  obtain  the  interrogative  hicine,  haeeine,  hocine,  &,c 

The  pronouns  iste,  ista,  istud,  and  ille,  ilia,  illnd,  art 
diHslineo  alike,  anr  in  tlie  following  manner: 

K 


110  LATIN.  GRAMMAK. 

Singular.  Plural. 


Nora,  and  Voc.  illc^  illa^  U 

ludf  he  or  that. 
Ten.'  iZZtiM. 
Dat.  illi. 

Ace.  ilium f  illam,  illud. 
Abl.  illOi  illa^  illo. 


•Nom.  and  Voc.  UUf  iltaei 
Ula,  they  or  those. 
Gren.  iUcPrum^  illarum^  Ulo' 
Dat.   illis.         '  [rum. 

Ace  illos,  illas,  ilia, 
Abl.    illis. 


Note. — Besides  the  fonns  i«/e,  ista,  istud,  and  ille^  iUaf  itlud^  there  exist 
in  early  Latin  the  forms  istic,  istaec,  istoc  or  Utuc,  and  illiCf  tUaec^  Uloc  or 
Wmc,  wnich,  with  regard  to  inflection,  follow  hie,  haec.hoc,  but  occur  only  in 
the  cases  ending  in  c,  except  the  dative ;  that  is,  In  the  accus.  utunc,  istane, 
illunc^  illanc ;  ablat.  istoc,  istdc,  iUoc,  Hide  ;  neut.  plur.  istaec,  illaee.  (Istuc 
and  istaec  sometimes  occur  even  in  Cicero.)  Prisci^n  reeaixis  these  forms 
as  contn^ctions  from  iste  and  itle  with  hiCf  biit'it  pfobably  arose  from  the 
addition  of  the  demonstrative  ce,  according  to  the  analogy  of  hie,  for  ir 
early  Latin  we  find  alsb  istace,  istisce,  illaee,  illisce,  illosce,  illaece,  though 
very  rarely.*  By  means  of  the  connecting  vowel  >.  both  c  and  the  com- 
plete ce  may  be  united  with  the  interrogative  enclitic  ne,  e.  g.,  ktucine,' 
istodne,  illicine,  ilUmcine,'  istoscine. 

lUi  and  isti  are  obsolete  forms  of  the  genitive  for  i//tu«  and  i$tiua,  aiic 
the  dative  istae,  illae,  for  isti,  illi;  and  the  nom.  plur.  fem.  istaec,  illaee,  foi 
istae,  illae.    (See  Bentley  on  Terence,  Hec,  iv.,  2,  17.)     - 

Virgil  uses  olli  as  -a  dative  sing,  and  nom.  plur.,  and  Cicero,  in  an  an 
tique  formula  {De  Leg.,  ii.,  9),  the  plural  olla  and  olios,  from  an  ancient 
form  oUus. 

Ipse  (in  the  ancient  language  ipsusj,  ipsa,  ipsum,  is  de- 
clined like  ille,  except  that  the  neuter  is  ipsum,  and  not 
ipsud, 

Note.—This  pronoun  is  called  adjunctive  becau6e  it  is  usually  joined  to 
other  nouns  and  pronouns.  In  connexion  with  some  cases  of  is,  viz.,  eo, 
ea,  eum,  earn,  it  loses  the  i  in  earlv  Latin ;  thus  we  find  eavse  (nom.  and 
ablat.),  eopse,  eumpse,  eatnpse^  in  rlautus ;  and  in  Cicero  tne  compound 
reapse  =  re  ipsa,  or  re  ea  ipsa,  in  fact,  is  of  common  occurence.  The  sufKx 
pu  in  possessive  proaouas  is  of  a  mmilar  kind. 

Singular.  Plural, 


Nom.  is,  ea,  id,  he,  she,  it, 

or  that. 
Gen.  c;W. 
Dat.    ei. 

Ace.  eum,  eam^  id, 
Abl.   eo,  ea,  eo. 


Nom.  ii  feiji  eae,  ea^  they 

pr  those. 
Gen.  eorum,  caruvt,  roruTiu 
Dat.   iis  (eisj. 
Ace.   eos,  eas,  ea. 
Abl.   iis  feisj. 


By  the  >  addition  of  the  suffix  dem  we  form  from  tf-*- 
idem,  eadem,  idem  (as  it  Were  isdem,  eadem,  iddemj,  which 
is  declined  in  the  other  cases  exactly  like  the  simple  is, 

*  [This  latter  is  the  true  account,  namely,  that  the  demonstrative  ce  ii 
added.  Throwing  aside  the  aspirate  from  isthic,  we  may  safely  conclude 
that  istic  and  illic  were  formed,  not  from  hie,  but  by  the  addition  of  the 
same  emphatic  syllable  which  is  found  in  Me.  Independently,  too,  of  this, 
istd'hic  seems  impossible,  because  it  is  a  contradictory  combinatioa 
(Journal  qf  Education,  vol.  i.,  p.  97.)] — Am.  Ed. 


DECLENSION  OF  PRONOUNS.  Ill 

ssa,  id.  la  the  aceusative,  eundem  and  eandem  are  prefer 
able  to  eumdem,  eamdem^  and;  in  like  manner,  in  the  geni* 
tivo  plar.  eorundem^  earwndem. 

Note. — Eae  as  a  dative  singalar  feminine  for  et,  and  Unu  and  eahwt  for  ii>, 
are  obsolete  forms.  The  plural  ei  is  rare,  and  eidem  is  not  to  be  found  at 
all.  In  the  dative  and  ablative  plural,  too,  eis  and  eisdem  are  not  as  com- 
mon as  <t«,  iisdem.  It  must,  however,  be  observed  that  iidem  and  usdem 
were  always  pronounced  in  poetry,  and  therefore,  probably,  in  the  early 
prose  also,  as  if  they  had  only  one  t ;  but  whether  it  was  ever  written 
with  one  i  cannot  be  determined,  on  account  of  the  fluctuation  of  the 
MSS.  In  most  passages,  however,  only  one  i  is  written.  In  what  man- 
ner u  and  lis  were  dealt  with  cannot  be  ascertained  from  the  poets,  be- 
cause thfey  dislike  the  pronoun  is  in  general,  and  more  particularly  these 
cases  of  it,  for  which  they  use  the  corresponding  forms  of  Ate  (see  ^  702) ; 
but  Priscian  (p.  737,  and  Super  xii,  vers.,  p.  1268}  asserts  that  in  this  word, 
as  in  <2tt,  diis^  the  double  i  was  formerly  regarded  in  poetry  as  on'e^yllable, 
and  that  in  his  time  it  ^tiU  continued  to  be  thus  pronounced. 

By  composition  with  ecce  or  en  (behold!  the  French 
voilaj,  we  obtain  the  following  expressions,  which  were 
of  frequent  use  in  ordinary  life :  eccum^  eccam^  eccos^  eccas  ; 
ecciUum  or  dlum,  ellam,  ellos^  dlas  ;  eccistam, 

[§  133.]  3.  Declension  of  the  relative  pronoun,  qui^ 
quae,  quod: 

•      Singular.  Plural. 


Nom.  quij  quacy  quae^  who 

.  or  which. 
Gen.  quorum^  quarum,  quo 

rum. 
Dat.    qmfms. 

Ace.  qyjot^  quns^  quae, 

Abl.   quihus. 


Nom.  Qui,  quae,  quod,  who 

or  which. 
Gen.  cujus  (quojus,  obsol.), 

of  whom. 
Dat.  cm  or  cut  (quoi,o\3iio\.), 

to  whom. 
Ace.   quern,     quam,     quod^ 

whom.  [wnom. 

AbL    quo^  qua,   quo,   from 

Note. — ^An  ancient  ablative  singular  for  all  genders  was  qui  Cicero 
it  w^  cum  appended  to  it,  quicwn  for  quocum  (^  324),  when  an  indefinite 
person  is  meant,  and  when  he  does  not  refer  to  any  definite  person  men* 
tioned  before  (compare  the  examples  in  6  561  and  568).  Quicum,  for  qua- 
oon,  is  found  in  Virgil,  Aen.,  zi,  822.  Otherwise  the  form  qui,  for  quo,  oo> 
curs  in  good  prose  only  in  thd  sense  of  **  in  what  manner?"  or  **  how  ?"  as 
an  interrogative  or  relative,  e.  g.,  qui  fit?  how  does  it  happen  ?  ^  conve- 
nit  T  qui  seiAas  f  qui  hoc  probari  potest  euiquam  ?  qui  tibi  id  facers  hcuit  ?  qw 
istm  inteUecta  sint,  dsbeo  discere,  &c.,  and  in  the  peculiar  phrase  with  uti: 
habeo  qui  «tar,  est  qui  utamvr  (I  have  something  to  live  upon),  in  Cicero 
Instead  of  quiims^  in  the  relative  sense,  there  is  an  ancient  form  quis,  or 
qtuis  (pronounced  like  quis)^  which  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  late  prose 
Writers  also. 

r§  134.]  There  are  two  interrogative  pronoims,  quis^ 

quid  ?  and  qui,  quae,  quod  ?  the  latter  of  which  is  quite 

the  same  in  form  as  the  relative  pronoun,  and  thri  forme? 


112  LATIN  •  GRAMMAR. 

(lifTers  from  it  only  by  its  forms  quis  and  quid.  TliA  in* 
terrogatives  quisnanif  quidna?n?  and  quinarn,  quaenam, 
quodnam  ?  express  a  more  lively  or  emphatic  question 
than  the  simple  words,  and  the  Jia7n  answers  to  the  Eng- 
lish "  pray.'* 

NoU. — The  diflference  between  the  two  interrogative  pronouns,  as  ob 
served  in  good  prose,  is,  that  qui*  and  ^uid  are  used  as  substantives,  auu 
^ttt,  quae,  quod  as  adjectives,  and  this  is  the  invariable  rule  for  quid  and 
quod,  e.  g.,  quod  facmut  commisit  ?  what  crime  has  he  committed  ?  not 
qtad /acinus,  out  we  may  say  quidfacinoris  1  Quis  signifies  *'  what  man  "i** 
or  "  who?**  and  applies  to  botn  sexes ;  qui  signifies  "  which  man ?**  But 
in  dependant  interrogative  sentences  these  forms  are  often  confounded, 
quis  being  used  for  the  adjective  qui,  and  vice  versa,  qui  for  quis.  We  do  not. 
however,  consider  quis  to  be  used  for  qui  in  cases  where  quis  is  placed  in 
apposition  with  substantives  denoting  a  human  being,  as  in  quis  amicus, 
fUM  hospes,  quis  miles,  for  in  the  same  manner  quisquam  is  changed  into  aii 
adjective,  although  there  is  no  doubt  of  its  subst^tive  character,  e.  g^ 
Cic.,  tA  Verr,,  v.,  54 ;  quasi  enim  td.a  possit  esse  causa,  eur  hoc,  cwiuam  dm 
Romano  jure  accidat  (viz.,  ut  virgis  caedatur).  But  there  are  some  other 
passages  in  which  quis  is  used  for  qui,  not  only  in  poets,  such  as  Virgil, 
Georg.,  ii.,  178 ;  qitis  color,  but  in  prose  writers,  e.  g.,  Liv.,  v.,  40 ;  quisve 
locus :  Tacit.,  Annal..  i,  48 ;  quod  caedis  initium,  quis  finis.  In  Cicero,  now- 
over,  it  is  thus  used,  with  very  few  exceptions  (such  as.  Pro  Deiot.,  IS, 
quis  casus),  only  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel,  e.  g.,  quis  esset  tan- 
tusfructus,  quis  iste  tatUus  casus.  Qui,  on  the  pther  hand,  is  used  for  quis,. 
partly  for  the  same  reason  of  avoiding  a  disagreeable  sound,  when  the 
word  following  begins  with  «,a8  in  Cic,  Divin.,  Q,  nescimus  qui  sis:  c. 
13,  qui  sis  considera:  Ad  Att.,  iii.,  10,  non  possum  ti>livisci  qui  fuerim^nxm 
senttre  qui  sim :  but  partly  without  any  sucn  reason,  as  in  Cic,  in  Verr., 
v.,  64,  qui  esset  ignorabas  ?  •Pro  Rose.  Am.,  37  dubitare  qui  indicant :  in 
Verr.,  v.,  59,  nUerrogehur  Flavius,  qtunam  fusrit  L.  Herennius.  Cicero,  in 
Catil.,  ii.,  3,  video  qui  kabeat  Blruriam,  is  an  incorrect  reading,  and  in  Pro 
Rose.  Am.,  34,  qui  Pjy*"^'  Ameriam  nuntiat?  the  qui  must  probably  be 
changed  into  qius.  Thus  much  remains  certain^  that  the  role  respecting 
the  use  of  quis  and  qui  cannot  be  denied  even  in  mdirect  questions. 

[§  135.]  The  indefinite  pronoun  aliguis^  also,  has  ori- 
ginally two  different  forms :  aliquis,  neut.  aliquidj  which 
is  used  as  a  substantive,  and  aliqm,  aliqua,  cUiquad.  But 
aliqui  is  obsolete,  although  it  occurs  in  some  passages  of 
Cicero.,  e.  g.,  De  Off.,  iii.,  7,  aliqui  ccuus:  Tuscul,,  v.,  21^ 
terror .  aliqui  :  Acad.^  iv.,  2%,  anvJarius  aliqm:  De  Rt 
Puhl.y  L,  44,  aliqui  dux:  ibid.,  iii.,  16,  aliqui  scr-ujpttis  in 
animis  hoerct,  and  a  few  other  passages  which  fure  lesi 
certain.  In  ordinary  language  aliquis  alone  is  used,  both 
as  a  substantive  and  as  an  adjective ;  but  in  the  neutei 
the  two  forms  aliquid  and  aliquod  exist,  and  the  differ 
.,nce  between  them  must  be  observed.  The  femin.  sin- 
gular and  the  neut.  plural  are  both  aliqpa,  and  the  form 
aliquae  is  the  femin.  nom.  pltiral. 

[§  136.]  But  therbr  is  also  a  shorter  ferm  of  the  indeh 
nite  pron  Dun  without  the  characterifltic  >refix  ali.,  and  en 


DECLENBION    OF   PRONOUNS.  .  18 

acdy  like  tbo  interrogative  pronoun,  quis^  quid,  as  a  sub- 
stantive, and  qui,  quae,  qzcod,  as  an  adjective.  This  foVm 
IS  used  in  good  prose  only  after  the  conjunctions  si,  nisi, 
ne,  num,  ana  after  relatives,  such  as  quo,  quante,  and 
quum.  This  rule  is  commonly  expressed  thus :  the  prefix 
ali  in  aliquis,  and  its  derivatives  aliquo,  aliquando,  and 
alicuhi,  is  rejected  when  si,  nisi,  ne,  num,  quo,  quanta,  or 
quum  precede;  e.  g.,  Consul  videat,  ne  quid  rcspuhlica 
detrimenti  capiat;  qttaeritter,  nu^n  quod  officium  aliud  alio 
inajus  sit ;  sometimes  another  word  is  inserf ed  between ; 
e.  gv  Cic.,  De  Oral,,  ii.,  41 ;  fi  aurum  cui  commanstratum 
veHcm :  Pro  TulL,  §  17 ;  «  quis  quern  imprudcTis  Occide- 
nt :  Philip.,  i,,  7 ;  si  cui  quid  ille  prormsisset.  Some  eon 
siderthe  combination  of  this  indefinite  quis,  or  qui,  with 

"the  conjunctions  si,  ne,  num,  and  with  the  interrogative 
syllable  en  (€c),^b&  peculiar  and  distinct  words;  as,  siquis 
or  siqm,  numquis  or  numqui,  although,  properly  speaking, 

^ecquis  or  ecqui  alone  can  be  regarded  as  one  word,  for  en 
by  itself  has  no  meaning.  (See  §  351.)  For  the  partic- 
ulars respecting  the  use  of  this  abridged  form,  see  Chap. 
LXXXI V .,  C.  With  regard  to  the  declension  of  these  com- 
pounds, it  must  be  observed,  1,  that  in  the  nominatiye  the 
foniis  quts  and  qui  are  perfectly  equivalent,  which  is  ac- 
counted for  by  what  has  been  said  about  aliquis  ;  hence 
we  may  say  both  si  qui,  ecqui,  and  si  quis,  ecquis  ;  ^,  that 
in  the  femin.  singular  and  the  neut.  plural  die  form  qua 
m  used  along  with  quae,  likewise  according  to  the  analo- 
gy of  aliquis.  We  may,  therefore,  say,  siqua,  nequa,  num^ 
qua,  ee^ua,  but  also  si  quae,ne  quae,  num  quae,  ecquae. 

Nou. — ^Which  of  the  two  is  preferable  is  ^  disputed  point.  Priscian 
(v^  p.  565  and  568)  mentioos  only  mquoy  ntqva,  mmqum,  as  compoonds  of 
mUqua,  As  the  MSS.  of  prose  writers  varjr,  we  must  rely  on  the  authority 
of  the  poets,  who  are  decidedly  in  favour  of  the  forms  in  a,  with  a  few 
exceptions ;  such-as  m  oinm,  the  neut  plur.  in  Propert.^  L,  16,  45,  and  the 
femin.  sing.,  according  to  Bentley's  just  emendation,  in  Terent,  Heaut.^ 
ProL,  44,  and  Horat.,  Serm.t  ii.,  6, 10.  {Si  quae  tibi  eura,  in  Grid,  Trist^ 
i.,  1, 115,  must  be  changed  into  siqua  est.)-  Respecting  ecqua  and  ecqua§, 
—  my  note  on  Cic,  inVerr.,  iv.,  11. 


J§  137.]  The  compounds  of  qui  and  quis,  viz.,  quidam, 
qutspiam,  quilihet,  quivis,  quisque,  and  unusquisquc,  are 
declined  like  th6  relative,  but  have  a  double  foiin  in  the 
neuter  singular,  quiddam  and  quoddam,  unumquidque 
and  unumquodqtie,  according  as  they  aie  used  as  substan 
rives  or  as  adjectives.  (See  above,  §  129.)  Quisquam 
(with  a  few  exceptions  h  Plautus)  is  used  only  as  a  sub- 
*  K2 


114  .  LATIN   GRAMMAS. 

Btaiitive,  for  uUus  supplies  its  place  as  an  adjective,  anU 
the  regular  forai  of  the  neuter,  therefore,  is  quidquam 
(also  written  quicquamj.  It  has  neither  feminine  nor  plu- 
ral. Quicunqtte  is  declined  like  quif  quaCy  quod,  and  has 
only  the  form  qtiodcunque  for  the  neuter ;  quisquis,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  only  quidquid  (also  written  quicquidj,  be- 
ing generally  used  in  these  two  forms  only  as  a  substan- 
tive. The  other  forms  of  this  double  relative  are  not  so 
frequent  as  those  formed  by  the  suffix  cunque. 

Note. — In  Cicero,  Pro  Rose.  -Am.,  34,  and  in  Verr.^  v.,  41,  we  find  cta- 
tuimodi  instead  of  eujuscujusmodt^  of  what  kind  soever.  See  my  note  on 
the  latter  passage. 

[§  138.]  Each  of  the  two  words  of  which  unuaquisque 
is  composed  is  declined  separately;  as,  gemfmiusct^usque^ 
dat.  unicuiqtte,  ace.  unumqueTnque^  &c. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

DECLENSION    OF   THE   POSSESStVE   PRONOUNS  ANP  OF   PRO- 

NOMINALS. 

[§  139.]  1.  The  possessive  pronouns  meaSfmeaimesum^ 

uus,  ttia,  tuum;  suus,  sua^  suum;  noster,  nostra^  nostrum; 

tester f^estra^vestrum,  are  declined  entirely  like  adjectives 

of  three  terminations.     Metu  makes  thcf  vocative  of  the 

masculine  gender  mi;  as,  O  mi  pater!     It  is  only  in  late 

writers  that  mi  is  used  also  for  the  femiiune  and  neuter. 

Note. — The  ablative  singular  of  these  pronouns,  especially  the  forms 
<uo,  suttf  frequentW  takes  the  suffix  j9/«,  which  answers  to  our  word 
"  own  ;*'  e.  g.,  in  Cicero,  staple  numu,  9wmte  jxmdere ;  in  Plautus,  meopte 
and  tuopte  ingenio  ;  in  Thence,  nottrapu  cuijmi,  &c.  All  the  cases  of  tuiu 
may,  with  the  same  sense,  take  the  suffix  metf  which  is  usually  followed 
by  ipse  ;  e.  g.,  Liv^  vi.,  36,  intra  suamet  ipston  moenia  compulere :  v.,  38, 
terga  caesa  wpmet  ipsarum  certaming  impedientium/ufain :  xxvii.,  28,  Hamni- 
bal  suamet  ipse  frauds  capttu  abiit»  The  expressicm  of  Sallust,  Jug.,  85. 
wmanet  facta  diure^  stands  alone. 

2.  The  possessive  pronoun  cujus,  a,  um,  has,  besides 
the  nominative,  only  the  accusative  singular,  C9^um^  cujam^ 
cujum;  cuja,  the  ablative  singular  feminine,  and  cujae^ 
cujds,  the  nominative  and  accusative  plucal  feminine ;  but 
all.  these  fonns  occur  only  in  early  Latin  and  legal  phra* 
seology. 

3.  Nostras,  vestras,  and  cuja>s  (i.  e.,  belonging  to  our, 
your  nation,  family,  or  party),  are  regularly  declined  af* 
ter  tlie  tlird  declension  as  adjectives  of  one  termination? 


roSUBSSIVE   PRONOUNS    AND   PRONOMINAL^I.  115 

genitive  nostratis^  dative  nostrdti^  &c.,  plural  nostrates,  aiid 
neuter  nostratia;  e.  g.,  verba  nostratia^  in  Cic,  Ad  Fam„ 
ii.,  11. 

[§  140.]  4.  The  peculiar  declension  of  the  pronominal 
adjectives  titer ^  utra^  utmm;  alter j'aUera,  alterum;  alius 
(neut.  aliudjf  ulluSf  and  nuUus^  has  already  been  explain- 
ed in  §  49. 

Nom.  uter^  Gen.  utrius,  Dat.  utri. 

neuter^  neutrius^  netUri. 

alter,  alteritcs,  aJteri. 

aln(8  (neut.  aliud)^  aUus^  '  aRu 

ullue^  ulUus^  uHu 

nullus,  nulttuSf  nulli. 

Note.  —  In  early  Latin  there  occur  several  instances  of  the  regular 
formation  of  the  genit  t,  oe^'andof  the  dative  o,  at,  and  some  are  met  with 
even  in  the  brat  writers.  Cic.,  De  Dm.,  ii,  13,  aliag  pecudis ;  De  Nat. 
Dear.,  ii,  26,  aUerojfratri:  Nepoe.  £um.,  1,  alterae  alae:  Caea.^BeU.  OaU., 
v.,  27,  aUeraa  Ugwni:  Cic,  Pro  Ko9e.  Com.t  16,  muUi  eonnlu:  Caes.,  Bell. 
Oall.,  vi,  13,  nuUo  ooneUio:  Propert.,  i.,  20,  25,  muUaeairae:  ibid,  ill,  0, 
S7,  toto  orbi.  According  to  Priscian,  the  regular  form  of  tuuter  was  even 
more  conmion  than  the  other,  and  in  a  grammatical  sense  we  find,  for  in- 
stance, generis  neutri;  but  neutrms  is  nevertheless  preierable. 

The  compound  alteruter  is  either  declined  in  both 


words,  genitive  aUeriusutritu^  accusative  alterumutrum^  or 
only  in  the  latter ;  as;  altertetrij  alterutrum.  The  former 
method  seems  to  have  been  customary  chiefly  in  the  gen- 
itive, as  we  now  generally  read  in  Cicero,  for  the  other 
cases  easily  admitted  of  an  elision.  The  other  compounds 
with  uter^  viz.,  uterque,  uterlibet,  utervis^  and  utercunque, 
are  declined  entirely  like  ^uteTf  the  suffixes  being  added 
to  the  cases  without  any  cha^nge.  The  words  unus,  sdlus 
and  totus  are  declined  like  ullus. 

[^  141.]  NoU  1. — Alter  signifies  the  othert  that  is,  one  of  two;  alms, 
another,  that  is,  one  of  many.  But  it  must  be  observed  that  where  we 
use  mrkiftfter  to  escpress  geneml  relations,  the  Latins  use  alter;  e.  g.,  detro' 
here  aUeri  sui  conurtodi  couta  contra  naturam  estf  because,  in  reality,  only  two 
persons  are  here  considered  as  in  relation  to  each  other. 

NoU  2. — Uterfpis  signifies  both,  that  is,  each  of  two,  or  one  as  well  at 
the  i4her,  and  is  therefore  plural  in  its  meaning.  The  real  plural  utriaue 
is  used  only  when  each  of  two  parties  consists  of  several  individuals ; 
e.  g.,  Maeedines — Tjfrn,  uni-'-aUart,  and  both  t^^ther,  tttrique^  But  even, 
good  prose  writers  now  and  then  use  the  plural  ii(r»pM  in  speaking  of  only 
two  persons  or  things:  as,  Nepos,  TimoL,  2,  utrique  DUmysii:  Curtius, 
viL,  19  utraeque  odes:  Liv.,xlii.,  54,  utraaue  oppida:  sndxxx.,  8,  utraqvt 
tomua :  bat  this  is  altogether  opposed  to  the  practice  c  f  Cicero.  (See  mt 
AoCe  on  Cic.,  m  Verr.,  iii.,  60). 


116  LATIN  GRAMMAl. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

.     '  THE   VERB. 

I§  142.]  1.  The  verb  is  that  part  of  speech  by  whic^b 
It  IS  declared  that  the  subject  of  a  sentence  does  or  suffers 
something.  This  most  general  difference  between  doings 
which  originates  in  the  subject,  and  sufferings  which  pre- 
supposes the  doing  or  acting  of  another  person  or  thing, 
is  the  origin  of  the  two  main  forms  of  verbs,  viz.,  the  ac- 
tive and  passive  factivum  et  passivumj, 

2,  The  active  form  comprises  two  kinds  of  verbs:  trans- 
itive or  active,  properly,  so  called,  and  intransitive  or  neu- 
ter verbs.  The  difference  between  them  is  this :  an  in- 
transitive verb  expresses  a  condition  or  action  which  is 
not  communicated  &om  the  agent  to  any  other  object ; 
o.  g.,  I  walk,  I  stand,  I  sleep ;  whereas  the  transitive 
verb  expresses  an  action  which  affects  another  person  oi 
thing  (which  in  grammar  is  called  the  object,  and  is  com- 
monly expressed  by  the  accusative) ;  e.  g.,  I  love  thee,  1 
read  the  letter.  As  far  as  form  is  concerned  this  differ- 
ence is  important,  for  neuter  verbs  cannot  have  a  passive 
voice;  whereas  every  transitive  or  active  verb  (in  il8 
proper  sense)  must  have  a  passive  voice,  since  the  object 
of  the  action  is  the  subject  of  the  suffering ;  e.  g.,  I  love 
thpe — ^thou  art  loved;  I  read  the  letter — ^the  letter  is  read. 

[^  143.]  Note  1. — It  is  not  meant  that  every  transitive  verb  must  have 
an  object  or  accusative^  but  only  that  an  object  may  be  joined  with  it.  It 
is  obvious  that  in  certain  cases,  when  no  object  is  added,  transitive  verba 
take  the  sense  of  intransitive  ones.  Thus  editf  amat,  when  without  an  ac- 
cusative, may  be  considered  to  be  used  for  coenat  and  e»t  in  anwref  and 
with  regard  to  their  meaning  they  are  intransitiie,  tboogh  in  grammai 
they  remain  transitive,  since  aliqmd  may  be  understood.  In  some  casei 
the  difference  between  the  transitive  and  intransitive  meanmg  is  ez 
pressed,  even  in  the  formation  of  the  verbs  themselves,  as  rnjaahrefiacere, 
penderet  pendert ;  aJbare^  albert ;  fiigare,  fugere  ;  placare.  plaeere  ;  seaare^  m 
derej  and  some  others  of  the  same  kind.  Assxusco  and  amtuesco  (I  accus 
torn  mvsein  have  assumed  an  intransitive  meaning,  the  pronoun  being 
omitted,  and  the  new  forms  assuefado  and  contueftiao  were  aevised  for  the 
transitive  sense.  In  the  same  manner,  we  have  the  intransitive  caUre^  pa- 
ter«,  stupere,  and  the  transitive  calefacere^  pcAefncere^  and  ttupefaeere. 

[%  144.]  Note  2. — ^When  an  accusative  is  fouiid  with  a  neuter  verb,  the 
tieuter  verb  has  either  assumed  a  transitive  meaning,  and  then  has  also  a 
passive  voice,  or  the  accusative  is  used  in  the  sense  of  an  adverb,  and  it 
to  be  accounted  for  by  some  ellipsis,  or  by  a  license  .of  speech  (Concern* 
Ing  both,  see  ^  383.) 

Sometimes,  however,  a  passive  voice  is  formed  fiom  roM  neuter  verbn 


THE  VB&B.     .  117 

tot  on.y  in  the  infinitive  and  in  the  third  person  sinffular,  and  the  verb 
oecomes  impersonal,  L  e.,  it  is  without  any  distinct  subject :  for  instance, 
Btarijtd>et,  he  orders  (one)  to  stand ;  /ooe/ur  iibif  favour  is  shown  to  thee; 
via  atcessum  est,  (people)  went  opt  of  the  way  ;  verUum  est,  itum  est,  itta 
9atwr,  ibitttr.  Thus,  when  in  comedy  the  question  is  asked,  quid  agitwr  ' 
the  humorous  answer  is  statur,  or  inin/ur.  When  the  subject  is  to  be  added 
it  is  dme  by  means  of  a6,  as  in  Livy,  Romam  frequenter  migratum  est  aparen 
libus  raptarvm,  which  is  equivalent  to  parentes  migraverunt;  and  in  Cicero, 
tjuM  orationi  vehementer  ab  omnibus  reclamatum  est,  and  occurritur  autem  nobis  et 
ymdem  a  doctis  et  erudifis,  equivalent  to  omnes  reclamarunt  and  docti  occummt 
[^  145.]  Note  3. — With  transitive  verbs  the  subject  itself  may  become  the 
object,  e.  g.,  moveo,  I  move,  and  moveo^me,  I  move  myself.  It  often  occurs 
m  Latin  that  the  pronoun  is  omitted,*  and  the  transitive  is  thus  changed 
into  an  intransitive.  The  verb  absHneo  admits  of  all  three  constructions ; 
transitive,  as  in  manus  a^aliqua  re  abstineo,  1  keep  my  hands  from  a  thing; 
with  the  pronoun  of  the  same  person,  abstineo  me,  and  intransitive,  abstineo 
aUqua  re,  1  abstain  from  a  thing,  there  are  some  other  verbs  of  this  class, 
consisting  chiefly  of  such  as  demote  change;  e.  g.,  vertere  and  converters, 
mutare,  flectere  and  dejlectere,  inclinare;  hence  we  may  say,  for  instance, 
inclino  rem,  sal  se  dedtnat;  and  in  an  intransitive  sense,  ^s,  acies,  inclinat ; 
muwtus  tndmot  ad  pacemfadendam  ;  verto  rem,  verto  m<  ;  dttrimentum  in  bo- 
<tttm  vertit,  ira  in  rabiem  vertU  ;  forfuna  rei  pubUcae  mutavit ;  mores  populi  Ro- 
mani  magnopere  mutaverunt.  In  like  manner  the  following  verbs  are  used 
both  as  transitive  and  intransitive,  though  with  greatei  restrictions :  augere, 
abolers,  decoquere,  durare,  incipers,  continuare,  insinuare,  loxare,  remittere,  lavmne, 
movers  (chiefly  with  terra,  to  quake,  in  an  intransitive  sense,  though  now 
ind  then  in  other  connexions  also),  praecipitare,  ruere,  suppeditare,  turbare, 
jihrare.  The  compounds  of  vertere — devertere,  divsrtere  and  reverters-  are 
jsed  only  in  this  reflective  sense,  but  occur  also  in  the  passive  with  the 
«ame  meaning. 

J^  146.]  We  must  here  observe  that  the  passive  of  many  words  has  not 
y  a  properly  passive  meaning,  but  also  a  reflective  one,  as  in  crudor, 
I  torment  myself;  delector,  I  delight  xnyBeU ;  fallor,  I  deceive  myself ;/eror, 
t  throw  myself  (upon  something) ;  moveor  and  commoveor,  I  move  or  excite 
myself;  homines  effimduntur,  men  rush  f towards  a  place);  vehicula  fran- 
guntur,  the  vehicles  break;  lavor,  I  bathe  (myself);  incUnor,  I  incline: 
mutor,  I  alter  (myself) ;  vertor,  but  especially  de-  di-  and  re-vertor.  Many 
of  these  passive  verbs  are  classed  among  the  deponents,  the  active  from 
which  they  arei  formed  being  obsolete,  or  because  the  intransitive  meaning 
greatly  diners. 

[§  147.]  3.  It  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  Latin  language, 
that  it  has  a  class  of  verbs  of  a  passive  form,  but  of  an  ac- 
tive (either  transitive  or  inti*ansitive)  signification.  They 
are  called  deponents  flaying  aside,  as  it  were,  their  pass- 
ive signification),  e.  g.,  consoler^  I  console ;  imitor,  I  imi- 
tate ;  fateor,  I  confess ;  sequor,  I  follow ;  mentior,  I  lie ; 
morior,  I  die.  These  verbs,  even  when  they  have  a  trans- 
itive significationf  cannot  have  a  passive  voice,  because 
there  would  be  no  distinct  form  for  it. 

Nou. — Many  deponents  are,  m  fact,  only  passives,  either  of  obsolete 
actives,  or  of  such  as  are  still  in  use.  The  latter  can  be  regarded  as  de- 
ponents only  in  so  far  as  they  have  acquired  a*  peculiar  fdgnification : 
e. g., gravor  signifies,  originally,  " I  am  burdened ;"  \ence,  "I  do  a  thing 
mwiflingly,"  "I  dislike,"  "I  hesitate;"  vehor,  I  am  carried,  or  I  ride, 
•quo,  on  horseback,  'curru,  in  a  carriage.  Several  passives,  as  was  re- 
marked abov<>.  have  a^uired  the  power  of  deponents  frcm  their  re^ectirs 


"1!8  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

pignification ;  e.  g.,  paacor^  I  feed  myself;  aersof^  1  turn  myse/f,  ai  i  tUenoe 
1  hnd  myself,  or  1  am.  The  followmg  deponents  are  in  this  manner  de- 
rived from  obsolete  actives :  laetor,  I  rejoice ;  proficiscorf  I  get  myself  for- 
ivard,  I  travel ;  vescar,  I  feed  myself  I  ^eat  With  regard  to  the  greater 
number  of  deponents,  however,  we  are  obliged  to  believe  that  the  Latin 
language,  like  the  Greek,  with  its  verba  medtOf  in  forming  these  middle 
verbs,  followed  peculiar  laws  which  are  unknown  to  us.  It  roust  be 
especially  observed  that  many  deponents  of  the  first  conjugation  are  de- 
rived from  nouns,  and  that  they  express  being  that  which  the  noun  denotes ; 
e.  g.,  unciUor,  arehiteclor,  argtUmr,  aucvpoTy  augwror,  &c.,  as  may  be  seen  from 
he  list  in  ^  2U7. 

[§  148.]  4.  Before  proceeding,  we  must  notice  the  fol- 
lowing special  irregularities.  The  three  verbs  j€o,  I  be- 
come, or  am  made,  vajmloj  I  am  beaten,  and  veneo,  I  am 
sold,  or  for  sale,  have  a  passive  signification,  and  may  be 
used  as  the  passives  of  facto,  verbero,  and  vcndo;-  but,  like 
all  neuter  verbs,  they  have  the  active  form,  except  that^o 
makes  the  perfect  ten&efa/^Ms  swm,  so  that  form  and  mean- 
ing agree.  They  are  called  neutralia  passiva.  The  verba 
audeojjido^  gaudeo,  and  soleo  hav&  the  passive  form  with 
an  active  signification  in  the  participle  of  the  preterite, 
and  in  the  tenses  formed  from  it;  bs, atcstis^jfisils^ gavisus^ 
solitus  sum,  eram,  &c.  They  may,  therefore,  be  called 
semideponentia,  which  is  a  more  appropriate  name  than 
neutrO'pas^iva,  as  they  aie  usually  termed,  since  the  fact 
of  their  being  neuters  cannot  come  here  into  considera- 
tion. To  these  we  must  add,  but  merely  With  reference 
to  the  participle  of  the  preterite,  the  verbs  ^wrare,  coenare^ 
prandere,  ond  potarCj  of  which  the  partidlples^ra^zM,  coe 
natus,  pranstis,  and  pottis  have,  like  those  of  deponents, 
the  signification  :  one  that  has  sworn,  dined,  breakfasted, 
and  drunk.  The  same  is  the  case  with  some  other  in- 
transitive verbs,  which,  as  such,  ought  not  to  have  a  par- 
ticiple of  the  preterite  at  all ;  but  still  we  sometimes  find 
consjnrattis  and  coalitus^  and  firequently  adultus  and  obso 
letus  (grown  up  and  obsolete),  in  an  active,  but  inti*an^ 
tive  sense,  ana  the  poets  use  cretiis  (fi-om  cresco)  like 
natv>sJ^ 

*-  [**  No  allusion  is  made  in  this  chapter  to  the  more  philosophical  di 
vision  of  the  conjugations  adopted  in  all  Greek  grammal^s,  the  division, 
namely  into  contracted  and  uncontracted  v&rbs.  The  more  correct  name  foi 
the  same  division  would  be,  verbs  in  which  the  crude  form  (that  part  in- 
dependent of  inflection)  terminates  in  a  vowel,  and  those  in  which  it  ter 
minates  in  a  consonant ;  contraction  is  not  the  eriterion,  as  we  see  in  ths 
forms /«t,  vkiU.  We  believe  snch  a  division. is  preferable  even  for  a  be- 
ffinner.  One  great  advantage  of  a  natural  division  over  that  which  is  arti* 
ncial  consists  in  the  facility  the  former  affords  of  explaining,  on  solid 
piinciDles.  those  numerous  irregularities  which  appear  m  every  language. 


MOODQ.  —-TENSES.  1 1 9 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

MOODS. TENSES. 

[§  149.]  There  are  four  general  modes  (moooB,  modi  J 
in  which  an  action  or  condition  expressed  by  a  verb  mzj 

We  would  even  cany  the  division  first  alluded  to  somewhat  fieirther.  Sup 
pose,  then,  in  Latin  we  were  to  assign  one  conjugation  to  those  verbs  in 
which  a  consonant  is  the  characteristic,  viz.,  the  conjugation  usually  placed 
third  in  order,  and  five  others  to  the  resjiective  vowels :  1st,  a,  {amao)  umo  ,- 
2dl7,  «,  neo  ;  3d]y,  i,  audio ;  4thly.  o,  as  in  the  stem  no  or  gno^  whence  the 
peifects  fuMn,  and  eo-gruhvi;  and,  5thly,  v,  (stem  argu)^  as  in  arguo.  Le* 
us  press  this  system  a  little  fiirther  anid  judge  of  it  by  its  results.  If  th« 
perfe<^  of  these  verbs  are  uniform,  they  will  be  amavit  netrit  audtvi,  novt, 
arguvi.  The  first  four  are  the  common  forms ;  in  the  last,  as  the  repeti 
tion  of  the  same  vowel  was  unnecessary,  argui  became  the  form  in  com 
mon  use ;  but  the  perfect  was  still  distinguiuied  by  the  older  writers  from 
the  present  Thus,  we  have  a  line  of  £nnius  {Priscianj  z.,  2,  Krehtf  p. 
480),  as  follows :  *  AnnUit  sete  mecum  decemere  ferro.*  It  may  well  be 
doubted  whether,  even  in  the  age  of  Cicero,  the  present  arguit  was 
altogether  confounded  in  pronunciation  with  the  perfect  of  the  same  writ- 
ten form.  An  these  perfects,  too,  were  susceotible  of  contraction  in  some 
of  the  persons,  so  that  we.have  no  reason  to  be  surprised  at  monui,  habm. 
That  habevi  must  once  have  existed  is  sufficiently  proved  by  the  form  of 
habestU^  which  is  contracted  from  habtverit,  exactly  as  eantassit  from  canta- 
veriL  Contractions  are  always  more  likely  to  occur  in  long  than  short 
words.  Hence  neOffleo,  with  a  few  others,  retained  the  original  form, 
<vhile  the  longer  words  could  aflford  to  spare  one  of  theit  letters.  The 
examination  of  the  so-called  supines  would  again  confirm  the  simplicity 
of  the  system.  To  this  mode  of  viewing  the  verbs  it  has  been  objected 
that  if  amai  be  really  formed  from  omotf,  the  last  syllable  should  be  long. 
The  inference  is  legitimate,  and,  accordingly,  we  find  in  the  earliei 
writers  that  such  is  the  case.  At  the  beginning  of  the  De  Senectute  there 
occurs  the  line,  ' Qwb  nunc  te  coqtUt,  tt  versat  m  pectare  fiaea*  where,  in 
the  old  editions,  as  Graviu*  observes,  some  critic,  alarmed  for  the  metre, 
had  substituted  subpectore.  The  same  editor  gives  another  line,  quoted  bjp 
Priscian  from  Livius  Andronicus :  '  Cum  sodos  nostras  mandissit  impnu 
Cyclops,*  where  the  long  e  in  mandisset  corresponds  with  the  long  vowel 
in  -the  other  persons  of  the  same  tense.  4-  second  objection  to  the  pit>- 
poscd  division  may  be  founded  on  the  class  of  verbs  fugiOf  cupto,  fodio, 
&c.  This  dbjection,  it  might  be  replied,  is  equally  app&able  to  everj^ 
division.  The  true  explanation  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  many  of 
the  Latin  verbs  had  different  forms  at  different  periods  of  the  language,  or 
even  at  the  same  period  in  different  places.  Tnat  cupio  was  looked  upon 
by  many  as  of  the  fourth  conjugation,  we  have  the  express  authority  of 
Priscian ;  ciiptot  and  cupUum  are  formed  according  to  tne  analogy  of  that 
conjugation,  and  in  Plautus  and  Lucretius  we  find  cupis  and  cupiri.  St. 
Augustin  was  in  doubt  whether  to  write  yi^gtr*.  This  is  £eir  below  the  age 
?f  pure  Latinity.  On  the  other  hand,  in  ms  Marcian  prophecv,  given  by 
Livy,  it  has  been  long  perceived  that  the  verses  were  oiiginally  hexame 
tors.  The  word.^<  at  the  end  of  the  first  line  has  been  altered  by  some 
to  feuge,  to  complete  the  metre.  Perhaps  it  would  be  more  correct  to 
read,^^tio,  the  more  so  as.  the  imperative  in  -to,  from  its  more  solemn 
DOwer  (arising,  probably,  from  its  greater  fflitiquity),  is  better  suited  to  the 
aignified  language  of  prophecy.    Lastly,  many  of  the  verbs  of  this  term^ 


120  LATIN   JRAMMAR. 

be  represented :  1.  Simply  as  a  fact,  though  fhe  action  oj 
condition  may  differ  in  regard  to  its  relation  and  to  time  : 
this  is  the  Indicative;  2.  As  an  action  or  condition  which 
is  merely  conceived  by  the  mind,  though  with  the  same 
differences  as  the  indicative,  Conjunctive j  or  Suljunctive  ; 
3.  As  a  command,  Imperdtiie ;  4.  Indefinitely,  without 
defining  any  person  by  whom,  or  the  time  at  which,  the 
action  is  performed,  although  the  relation  of  the  action  is 
defined,  InJinitiveJ^ 

[§  150.]  To  these  moods  we  may  add  the  Participle^ 
which  is,  in  form,  an  adjective,  but  is  more  than  an  ad- 
jective by  expressing,  at  the  same  time,  the  different  rela- 
tions of  ihe  action  or  suffering,  that  is,  whether  it  is  still 
lasting  or  terminated.  A  third  participle,  that  of  the  fix- 
ture, expresses  an  action  which  is  going  to  be  performeil, 
or  a  condition  which  is  yet  to  come.  The  Gerund,  which 
is  in  form  like  the  neuter  of  the  participle  passive  in  dus, 
supplies  by  its  cases  the  place  of  the  infinitive  present  ac- 
jtive.  .  The  two  Supines  are  cases  of  verbal. substantives, 
and  likewise  serve  in  certain  connexions  (which  are  ex- 
plained in  the  syntax)  to  supply  the  cases  for  the  infini- 
tive.t 

When  an  action  or  condition  is  to  be  expressed  as  a 
definite  and  individual  fact,  either  in  the  indicative  or  sub' 
junctive,  we  must  know  whether  it  belongs  to  the  past, 
the  present,  or  the  future,  or,  in  one  word,  its  time,  and 
time  is  expressed  in  a  verb  by  its  Tenses.  We  must  far- 
ther know  its  position  in  the  series  of  actions  with  which 
it  is  connected,  that  is,  tlie  relation  of  the  action,  viz., 
whether  it  took  place  while  another  was  going  on,  or 
whether  it  was  terminated  before  another  began.     If  we 

nation ;  as,  morior,  oriorj/odioy  &c.,  are  generally  allowed  to  partake  of  botli 
conjugations."  {Journal  of  Education,  vol.  i.,  p.  99,'  tea.  Consult,  also, 
Allen*9  Analysis  of  Latin  Vsrbs,  London,  1836.)1— ilwi.  Ed, 

*  I**  The  Latin  language  has  tioo  active  innnitives :  the  one  termina- 
ting in  -re  or  -se  (dic-e-re,  dic-si'S'-se,  esse) ;  the  other  in  -twn  {iic'tum), 
which  in  the  modem  grammars  is  absurdly  enough  call^  the  supine  in 
um.  In  the  passive  voice  -cr  is  subjoined  to  the  former  infinitive ;  thus, 
from  videre  we  have  videri-er ;  this  full  form,  however,  is  generally  con- 
tracted by  the  omission  either  of  the  active  termination  -re,  as  in  dici-er, 
or  of  the  last  syllable  -er,  as  in  videri ;  or  of  both  at  once,  as  in  diet.  The 
latter  infinitive  iswritten  -tu  {dic-tu).  Modem  grammars  call  it  the  su- 
()iiie  in  -u.  The  Sanscrit  infinitive  is  perfectly  analogous  to  the  Latin  in- 
finitive in  -turn.  Thus,  the  root  pn<  (Greek  ic^v-),  *  to  hear,'  makes  ^rd-tum, 
*  to  hear,*  "  &c.     {Donaldson,  New  Cratyhis,  J3..492.)] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [Consult  previous  note,  as  regards  the  true  character  if  fhe  Latin 
fo-ralled  Supine.^ — Am.  Ed. 


NUMBERS. PERSONS.  12^1 

^connect  these  considerations,  we  shall  obtain  the  fbllow' 
ing  flix  tenses  of  the  verb : 

An  action  not  terminated  in  the  present  time ;  I  write,  icribo:  P-esent 

tense. 
An  action  not  terminated  in  the  past  ume;  I  wrote,  scribebam:  Imperfect 
tense.  ^ 

)  An  action  not  terminated  in  the  future ;  I  shall  write,  tcribam :  Future 
V     tense. 

An  action  terminated  in  the  present  time ;  I  have  written,  acnpsi:  Per* 

feet  tense.  ^ 

An  action  terminated  in  the  past  time ;  I  h&d  written,  scripseram:  Plu 

perfect  tense. 
An  action  terminated  in  the  future ;  I  shall  have  written,  teripuro :  Fu> 

tore  perfect  tense. 

The  same  number  of*  tenses  occurs  in  the  passive  voice, 
but  those  which  express  the  terminated  state  of  an  action, 
can  be  formed  only  by  circumlocution,  with  the  partici- 
ple and  the  auxiliary  verb  esse:  scribor,  scribebar,  scribar, 
acriptus  8um^  scriptus  eram,  scriptm  ero.  The  subjunctive 
has  no  futm-e  tenses:  respecting  the  manner  in  which 
their  place  is  supplied,  see  §  496.  The  infinitive  by  it- 
self d!oes  not  express  time,  but  only  the  relation  of  an 
action,  that  is,  whether  it  is  completed  or  not  completed. 
By  circumlocution  we  obtain,  also,  an  infinitive  for  an  action, 
or  a  suffering  which  is  yet  to  come. 


I 


f: 
1 


CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

NUMBERS . P  B  R  S  O  N  S . 

[^  151.]  The  Latin  verb  has  two  numbers,  singular  and 
plural,  and  in  each  number  three  persons.  These  three 
persons,  /,  the  one  speakuig,  thoUf  the  one  spoken  to,  and 
he  or  she,  the  one  spoken  of,  are  not  expressed  in  Latin 
by  special  words,  but  are  implied  in  the  forms  of  the  verb 
itself.  The  same  is  the  case  in  the  plural  with  we,  you, 
they,  and  these  perscmal  pronouns  are  added  to  the  verb 
only  when  the  person  is  to  be  indicated  in  an  emphatic 
manner. 

The  following  is^  a  genei'al  scheme  of  the  changes  iu 
termination,  according  to  the  persons,  both  in  the  mdica* 
Vive  and  subjunctive": 

In  the  Active, 
Person:     1.  2.  3. 

Sing.    —  8,  i. 

Plur.  muSf  tis,  n$, 

L 


iS2  LATIN   GEAMMAK. 

Tho  termination  of  the  first  person  singular  canaot  be 
stated  in  a  simple  or  general  way,  since  it  sometimes  ends 
in  o,  sometimes  in  m,  and  sometimes  in  i  (see  the  follow 
inff  chapter).  In  the  seconi  person  singular  the  perfect 
indicative  forms  an  exception,  for  it  ends  in  ti,  Respect- 
ing the  vowel  whtch  precedes  these  terminations,  nothing 
general  can  be  said,  except  that  it  is  a  in  the  imperfect 
and  pluperfect  indicative. 

In  the  Paanve. 

Perscwi:    L  2.  3. 

Sing.  r.  m,  tur. 

Plur.  mur,  mmi^  ntur. 

This,  however,  does  not  apply  to  those  tenses  of  the 
passive  which  are  formed  by  a  combination  of  the  parti- 
ciple with  a  tense  of  the  verb  esse. 

The  imperative  in  the  active  and  passive  has  two  forms, 
viz.,  for  that  which  is  to  be  done  at  once,  and  for  that 
which  is  to  be  done  in  future,  or  an  imperative  present 
and  an  imperative  future.  Neither  of  them  has  a  first 
person,  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  imperative.  The  im- 
perative present  has  only  a  second  person,  both  in  the 
singular  and  plural ;  the  maperative  ftiture  has  the  second 
and  the  third  persons,  but  in  the  singular  they  have  both  the 
same  form,  to  in  the  active,  and  tor  in  the  passive  voice. 
The  imperative  future  passive,  on  the  other  hand,  has  no 
second  person  plural,  which  is  supplied  by  the  future  ot 
the  indicative,  e.  g.,  laudahimini. 


CHAPTER  XL. 

FORMATION    OF   THE    TENSES. 

[§  152.]  1.  There  are  in  Latin  ioixx  eonjugntionsy  dis* 
linguished  by  the  infinitive  mood,  which  ends  thus : 

1.  are,  2.  ere»  3.  ere.  4.  tr(.» 

The  presents  indicative  of  these  conjugations  end  in, 

1.  0,  as.         2.  eo,  es,         3.  o,  1^.         4.  lOj  is. 

Note. — Attention  must  be  pidSto  the  difference  of  quantity  in  the  termi 
nation  of  the  second  person  in  the  third  and  fourth  conjugations,  in  order 
to  distinguish  the  presents  of  the  verbs  in  lo,  which  follow  the  third  con 
jugation,  e.  g.,  fodio^  fugiOf  capio  (see  Chap.  XLYI.)i  from  those  verbs' 
which  follow  the  fourth,  such  as  audioy  erudio.    This  difference  between 
the  long   nd  short  t  remains  also  in  the  other  persons  with  the  exceptior 


FORMATION  OF  THE  TENSES.  1 2d 

ci  the  ifiird  singular,  which  is  short  in  all  the  four  conjugations ;  e.  g., 
legimus,  legitis ;  avMmusy  atuRtis  ;  for  when  i  is  followed  by  another  vowel, 
it  is  short  according  to  the  general  rule  that  one  vowel  liefore  another  i* 
short.  The  long  a  was  mentioned  above  as  the  characteristic  of  the  first 
conjugation,  but  the  verb  dare  is  an  exception,  for  the  a  here  is  not  a  mer« 
part  <ff  the  termination,  as  in  laudire,  but  belongs  to  the  stem  of  the  wor^. 
The  syllable  da  in  this  verb  is  short  throughout,  damus,  ditis,  dibam,  &r.. 
with  uie  only  exception  of  the  monosyHabic  forms  das  and  da. 

[§  153.]  2.  In  order  tj  obtain  the  forms  of  the  othei 
reuses,  we  must  farther  know  the  perfect  and  the  supine  * 
for  the  three  tenses  of  the  completed  action  in  the  active 
are  derived  from  the  perfect ;  and  the  participle  perfect 
passive,  which  is  necessaty  for  the  formation  of  the  same 
tenses  in  the  passive,  is  derived  from  the  supine.  These 
four  principal  forms,  viz.,  Present,  Perfect,  Supine,  an^ 
Infinitive,  end  thus : 


Praes. 

Perf. 

Supine. 

Infini 

1.     0, 

avif 

atumt 

are. 

2.     eo. 

ttum, 

ere. 

3.    0, 

h 

tum^ 

ere. 

4.      M7, 

m, 

itumf 

ire. 

NMe. — We  have  here  followed  the  example  of  all  Latin  grammars  and 
of  the  Roman  grammarians  themselves,  in  regarding  the  supine  as  one  ol 
ti^  main  forms,  that  must  be  known  in  order  to  derive  others  from 
it:  But  the  beginner  must  beware  of  supposing  that  the  two  participles 
of  the  perfect  passive  and  the  future  active  are  derived  in  the  same  man 
ner  from  the  supine  as,  for  example,  the  pluperfect  is  from  the  perfect 
and  that  the  supme  exists  in  all  the  verbs  to  which  one  is  attributed  in  th€ 
dictionary  or  grammar.  The  whole  derivation  is  merely  formal ;  and  the 
supine,  in  fact,  occurs  very  rarely.  But  its  existence  is  presupoosed  on 
account  of  the  two  participles  which  do  occur,  in  order  to  rfiow  the 
changes  which  the  stem  of  the  verb  undergoes.  If  we  were  to^nention 
the  participle  of  the  perfect  pasuve  instead  of  the  supine,  we  should  d<i 
little  better,  since  it  is  wanting  in  all  intransitive  verbs,  though  they  may 
have  the  participle  future  actWe ;  and  again,  if  we  were  to  mention  ths 
fotare  pio-ticiple,  we  should  find  the  same  difficulty,  for  it  cannot  be 
proved  to  exist  in  all  verbs,  and,  in  addition  to  this,  we  ought  not  to  men 
tion  among  the  main  forms  of  the  verb  one  which  is  obviously  a  derivative 
form.  In  dictionaries  it  would  be  necessary  to  mention,  first,  the  partici 
pie  perfect,  or,  where  it  does  not  occur,  the  participle  future  active  ;'bui 
if,  as  is  the  case  in  a  grammar,  we  have  to  show  in  one  form  that  which 
is  the  basis  of  several  changes,  a  thhrd  form  is  necessary,  and  it  is  best  t^ 
acquiesce  in  the  supine.  In  making  use  of  the  list  which  will  be  givev 
hereafter,  the  beginner  must  always  bear  in  mind  that  the  supine  if 
scarcely  ever  mentioned  for  its  own  sake,  but  merely  to  enable  him  t< 
form  those  two  participles  correctly. 

3.  With  regard  to  the^rst,  second,  and  fouKh  conjuga- 
tions, no  particular  ml  As  needed  as  to  how  the  perfeci 
and  supine  are  formed.  According  to  the  above  schemt 
they  are : 

1.  laud-o^  *  laud-avif     lavd'Utum^     laud-are^ 

2.  mon-eOf    mon-ui,       mon-ttuvij      mon-ere. 
4.  aud-is,     aud-iviy       aud-ttum,       aud-tvp. 


124  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

[§  154.]  4.  But  in  the  third  conjugation  the  formation 
of  the  perfect  and  supine  presents  some  difficulty.  The 
following  general  rules,  therefore,  must  be  observed  (fox 
the  details,  see  the  list  of  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation). 
When  the  termination  of  the  infinitive  ere,  or  the  o  of  the 
present  tense,  is  preceded  "by  a  vov7el,  the  forms  of  the 
perfect  and  supine  are  simply  thgse  mentioned  above,  that 
18,  i  and  tiim  are  added  to  the  stem  of  the  verb,  or  to  that 
portion  of  the  verb  which  remains  after  the  removal  of 
the  termination,  e,  g.,  dcu-ere^  acu-o,  acu-i,  acu-tum.  The 
vowel  becomes  long  in  the  supine,  even  when  it  is  other- 
wise short.  So,  also,  in  mintio,  statuoj  tribtw,  and  solvo^ 
solutum,  for  v  before  a  consonant  is  a  vowel. 

But  when  the  o  of  the  present  is  preceded  by  a  conso- 
n'ant,  the  perfect  ends  in  si.  The  s  in  this  termination  is 
changed  mto  x  when  it  is  preceded  by  c,  g,  A,  or  qu 
(which  is  equal  to  cj  ;  when  it  is  preceded  by  b,  this  let- 
ter is  changed  into  p;  i£  d  precedes,  one  of  the  two  con- 
sonants must  give  way,  and  either  the  d  is  dropped,  which 
is  the  ordinary  practice,  or  the  s;  e.  g.,  duco,  duxi;  rego^ 
read;  tralio,  traxi;  coquo,  coxi ;  scribo,  scrijm;  claudo^ 
clausiy  but  defendo^  defendu  Verbs  in  po  present  no  difff- 
culty:  carpOy  carpd;  sctdpOj  sculpn.  That  lego  makes 
legi^  bibo^  bibi,  and  emo^  emi,  is  irregular  according  to 
what  was  remarked  above  ;  but  ^go,  fiod  ;  nubOf  nupsi  ; 
demo,  demsi  (or,  according  to  §  12,  dempsij,  are  perfectly 
in  accordance  with  the  rule. 

5.  The  supine  adds  turn  to  the  stem  of  the  verb,  vdth 
some  change  of  the  preceding  consonants  :  b  is  changed 
into^/  g,  A,  and  qu  into  c;  instead  of  dtum  in  the  verbs 
in  do  J  we  find  sum^  e,  g.,  scribo^  scriptum  ;  rego,  rectum  ; 
traho,  tractum ;  coqico,  coctum  (verbs  in  co  remain  un- 
changed; as,  dictum,  ductumj;  defendo,  defensum;  claudo^ 
alausum.  The  supine  in  xum  is  a  deviation  from  the  rule, 
as  mfigo,fixum,  and  so,  also,  the  throwing  out  of  the  n  of 
the  stem,  as  in  pingo,  pictum ;  stringo,  strictum ;  although 
this  is  not  done  without  reason ;  for  in  several  verbs  of 
the  third  conjugation  the  n  is  only  an  increase  to  strength- 
en the  form  of  the  present,  and  ches  not  originally  belong 
to  the  root ;  it  is,  therefore,  thrown  out,  both  in  the  perfect 
and  in  the  supine,  as  in  vinco,  fundo,  relinqtu) — vici,  vie- 
tu?n  ;  fudi,  Jusum  ;  rcliqui,  relictum  ;  •  or  in  tho  supine 
alone,  as  in  the  two  verbs  mentioned  before,  and  in  finf^^ 


FORMATION    OF   THE   TENSE».  I2b 

u^.Jictum,     Of  the  words  in  which  o  is  preceded  Vy  l^  m^ 
A,  r,  or  «,  only  a  few  in  mo  follow  the  ordinary  rule ;  e.  g^ 
comoy  demo ;  per£  compsi^  dempsi;  sup.  comptum,  demj» 
turn :  all  the  others  have  mixed  forms. 

6.  Twt)  irregularities  are  especially  common  in  the  for- 
mation of  the  perfect  of  the  third  conjugation.  The  first 
is  the  addition  of  a  syllable  at  the  beginning  of  thp  verb^ 
called  reduplication^  in  which  the  first  consonant  of  the 
verb  is  repeated  either  with  the  vowel  which  follows  it, 
or  with  an  e,  e.  g.,  tundo^  tutudi;  tendo,  tetendi  ;  cano^  ce- 
cini;  curro,  cucurri;  JaUoyfefeUi ;  parco,  peperci.  In  the 
compounds  of  such  words  the  reduplication  is  not  used, 
except  in  those  of  do^  sto^  disco^  posco,  and  in  some  of 
curro.  The  second  irregularity  is  that  many  verbs  of  the 
third  conjugation  form  their  perfect  like  those  of  the  sec- 
ond, just  as  many  verbs  of  the  second  make  that  tense 
like  those  of  the  third.  This  is  the  case  especially  with 
many  verbs  in  lo  and  mo;  os^-alo^  alui,  aUtum  faltumj; 
molo,  m^luif  moUtum  ;  gemo^  gemui,  gemxtum.  Concern- 
ing this  and  other  special  irregularities,  see  the  list  of 
verbs  in  Chap.  L.*  ' 

[§  155.]  7.  The  derivation  of  the  other  tenses  and  form-a 
of  a  verb  from  these  four  (present,  perfect,  supine,  and  in- 
finitive), which  are  supposed  to  be  known,  is  easy  an^ 
without  irregularity  in  the  detail. 

From  the  infinitive  active  are  formed : 

(a)  The  imperative  passive,  which  has  in  all  conjuga 
lions  the  same  foi-m  as  the  infinitive  active. 

(hj  The  imperative  active,  by  dropping  the  terminal 
thm  re.  It  thus  ends  in  conjugation»l,in  a;  2,  ey  3,  e;  4, 
t ;  as,  ama^  mone^  lege,  audi. 

(c)  The  imperfect  subjunctive  active,  by  the  addition 
of  m,  so  that  it  ends  in  the  four  conjugations  in  arem^ 
erem^ erem, irem,  e.  g., amarem,  monerem^legerem^ audirem 

(d)  The  imperfect  subjunctive  passive,  by  the  addition 
of  r  /  as  in  amardt,  monerer^  legerer,  avMrer. 

(e)  The  infinitive  present  passive,  by  changing  e  into  ?, 
e.  g.,  amari,  moneri,  audiri  ;  but  in  the  third  conjugation 
the  whole  termination  ere  is  changed  into  i,  as  in  legere^ 

From  the  present  indicative  active  are  derived : 
(a J  The  present  indicative  passive,  by  the  addition  ol 
r  ;  as,  amor,  mcneor^  l^gor^  audior. 

L2    . 


i*.j6  LATIN   GRAMWAld. 

(b)  The  present  subjunctive  active,  by  cLangiiig  tlie  ^ 
into  cm  in  flie  first  conjugation,  and  in  the  three  others 
into  am  ;  as,  ametn^  moneam^  legam^  emdiam, 

(c)  The  present  subjunctive  passive,  by  changing  the 
ta  of  the  present  subjunctive  active  into  r  ;  as,  inner ^  mo- 
near,  legar,  audtar. 

(d)  The  imperfect  indicative  active,  by  changing  o  into 
dbam  in  the  first  conjugation,  in  the  second  into  ham^  and 
in  the  third  and  fourth  into  ebam.  A  change  of  the  m  into 
r  makes  the  imperfect  indicative  passive,  e.  g.,  amaham, 
amahar ;  monebam^  monchar ; 'legeham^  legebar ;  audie- 
dam,  audiehar. 

(e)  The  first  future  active,  by  changing  o  into  abo  in 
the  first  conjugation,  in.the  second  into  bo,  and  in  the  third 
and  fourth  into  am.  From  this  is  formed  the  first  future 
passive  by  adding  r  in  the  first  and  second  conjugations, 
and  by  changing  m  into  r  in  the  third  and  fourth ;  e.  g., 
laudabo^  laudator  /  monebd^  monebor  ;  legam,  legar ;  au* 
diam,  audiar. 

(f)  The  partiqjple  present  active,  by  changing  d  in  the 
first  conjugations  into  ans,  in  the  second  into  hb^  and  in  the 
third  and  fourth  into  ens ;  e.  g.,  laudo,  laudans ;  moneo, 
monens  ;  lego,  legais;  audio,  audtem.  From  this  partici- 
ple is  derived  the  participle  future  passive,  by  changing 
ns  into  fidus  ;  e.  g.,  amandus^  monendus^  legendtes^  audien," 
dtis ;  and  the  gerund :  amandum,  rrwnendumy  legendum, 
audiendum. 

From  the  perfect  indicative  active  are  derived : 
(a J  The  pluperfect  indicative, by  changing*  into  eram  : 
laudaveram^  montieram,  legeram,  audiveram, 

(b)  The  future  perfect,  by  changing  t  into  ero:  laudo' 
vero,  monuero,  legero,  audivcro, 

(c)  The  perfect  subjunctive,*  by  changing  t  into  ertm^ 
laudavcrim,  momcerim,  legerim,  audiveriiti, 

(d)  The  pluperfect  subjunctive,  by  changing  t  into  m- 
$cm  (originally  esscmj :  laudavissem^  rt&nuissem^  legissem, 
audivissem. 

(e)  The  perfect  infinitive  active,  by  chan^ng  i  into 
isse  (originally  esse) :  laudavisse,  monuisse^  legisse,  audi' 
visse. 

*  We  use  this  i\^me  because  the  tense  is  most  commonly  used  m  the 
tftftnse  of  a  perfect  subjunctive,  aMiough  its  form  sh^ws  that  it  is  in  realitv 
the  subjunclivu  3f  the  future  perfect,  the  termination  ero  being  change) 
inU) 


THE  VfiftB    tdSB. 


121 


From  tbe  fiuplne  are  derived  : 

(a)  The  participle  perfect  passive,  by  changing  um 
Mito  uii  a,  um :  laudatus,  a,  um  ;  monitui^  a,  um  ;  lectus, 
a,  um;  auditus,  a^  um. 

(h)  The  participle  futui-e  active,  by  changing  um  into 
urus^  a,  um:  laudaturtis,  a,  um;  tnaniturus^  a,  um ;  Ice 
turns,  Uy  um  ;  auditurus,  a,  um. 

By  means  of  the  former  participle,  we  form  the  tenses 
of  the  passive,  which  express  a  completed  action ;  and  by 
means  of  the  participle  future  we  may  form  a  n^w  conju- 
gation expressing  actions  which  are  to  come.  See  Chap. 
XLIIL 


OHAPTER  XLI. 

THE    VERB    "esse." 

[§  156.]  The  verb  esse  (to  be)  is  called  an  auxiliary 
verb,  because  .it  is  necessary  for  the  formation  of  some 
tenses  of  the  passive  voice.  It  is  also  called  a  verb  sub- 
stantive, because  it  is  tbe  most  general  expression  of  ex- 
istence. Its  conjugation  is  very  irregular,  being  made  up 
of  parts  of  two  different  verbs,  the  Greek  eliit^  iaH,  eaofiai 
[fyom  which  sim  and  sum^  est,  ^o  or  ero,  were  easily  form- 
ed), and  the  obsolete  Juo,  the  Greek  (fovii.  The  supine 
Mid  gerund  are  wanting? but  the  inflection  in  the  persons 
is  regular. 


iNOICATtTB. 

V 

Sing.  Sum,  I  am. 

U,  thou  art. 

estf  he  is. 
Pint,  tumus,  we  are. 

estiSf  ye  are. 

suntf  they  are. 

Sing.  Eram,  I  was. 

em,  thou  watt 

€rai,  he  was. 
Plor.  eramug,  we  were. 

erStia,  ye  were. 

erant,  they  were. 

Bing.  En,  I  shall  be. 

erh,  thou  wilt  be. 

trit,  he  will  be. 
I^»r.  aimu,  we  shall  be 

mtU,  ye  will  be. 

^hmt.  they  will  be. 


SOBJUNOTIVI. 

PrettnL 

Sing.  Sim,  I  may  be. 

ns,  thou  mayest  be. 

»it,'he  may  be. 
Plur.  nmus,  we  may  be. 

ntis,  ye  may  be. 

tint,  they  may  be. 

Imperfect. 

Sing.  Eeeem,  t  might  be. 

esses,  thoQL  imghtst  be. 

esset,  he  might  be. 
Plur.  essemut,  we  might  be. 

esseth,  ye  might  be. 

essent,  they  might  be. 

FtUwre. 

I:  «tead  of  a  subjunctive,  the  particl< 
plefuturtis  is  used^Rrith  sim. 

Futums  Sim,  sis,  &c.,  I  may  bt 
about  to  be. 


128  LATIN   6JIAMMAR. 

Indicativb.  SuBJUhcny^ 

Perfect* 

Sing.  Fuiy  I  have  been.  Sing.  Ftiirim,  I  may  have  been. 

fuistit  thou  hast  been.  fueri*,  thou  mayest  have  been 

fuitf  he  has  been.  /um/,  he  may  have  been. 

Plur.  /uimuSf  we  have  been.  Plur.  fueihius,  we  may  have  beisn. 
fuistis,  ye  have  been.  fuaftis,  ye  may  have  been. 

/m^^'  I  ^^y  ***^®  *'®®'**  fuermtf  they  may  have  been 

Pluperfect 

Sing.  Ftteram,  I  had  been.  Sing.  Fuissem,  I  should,  or   would 

have  been. 

fuerae,  thou  hadst  been.  /vieseSf  thou  shouldst,  &c.  • 

ytt«ra/,  he  had  been.  fuissetf  he  should,  &c. 

P.ur.  fiterarmut  we  liad  been.  Plur.  fuieeimuSf  we  should,  &e. 

fueratiSf  ye  had  been.  fuusetisf  ye  should,  &c. 

fuerant,  they  had  been.  fuiesent,  they  should,  &c. 

JTti/ure  Perfect. 
Sing.  FuerOf  I  shall  have  been.  No  Subjunctive. 

fueris,  thou  wilt  have  been.  * 

fueritf  he  will  have  been. 
Plur.  fueAmua,  we  shall  have  been. 

fueiitis,  ye  will  have  been. 

fuerinif  they  will  have  been.  ^ 

Imperative 
Present,  Sing.  Esy  be  thou.  fPlur.  este^  be  ye. 

Future,  Sing.  Esto,  thou  shalt  be.    Plur.  eetote^  ye  shall  be. 
esto,  he  shall  be.  sunto,  they  shall  be. 

Infinitive; 
Present,  state  not  terminated,  esse,  to  be. 
Perfect,  terminated, yuist^,  to  have  been. 
Futigre, /u<ttnim  (am,  urn)  mm,  or /ore,  to  be  about  to  be. 

PABTIOIPIilft. 

Present,  not  terminated  («r»),  being. 

Future, /ttftZrttf,  a,  ton,  one  who  is  about  to  be. 

Note. — ^The  participle  011.9  is  only  used  as  a  substantive  mphilosophicau 
•acguage  (see  above,  ^  78,  in  fin.),  and  also  in  the  two  compounds,  at>sefu 
taiapraesens. 

The '  compounds  a&^ufti,  adsum,  desum,  insvm,  mterswm,  dbsumj  praenan^ 
tttbsumf  aupersvm,  have  the  same  conjugation  as  sum.  Prosum  inserts  a  d 
when  pro  is  followed  by  e  ;  e.  g.,  prodes,  prodest,  &c.t  Possum,  I  can  (from 
pot,  foTpotis,  and  sum),  has  an  irregular  conjugation.  (See  the  irregulai 
verbs,  ^  211.) 

The  t  in  simus  and  sitis  is  lonp^,  and  the  e  in  eram,  ero,  &c.,  is  short,  as  K 
indicated  above  in  the  conjugation  itself,  and  also  in  the  compounds ;  pro- 
shnus,  prodSram,  proderant,  proderit,  &c. 

Siem^  sies,  siet,  stent,  VLndfuam,  fads,  f not,  fuant  {from  the  obsolete/iio),^ 

*  [The  Perfect  has  often  the  force  of  an  aorist,  and  is  to  be  translated         • 
Accordingly.    In  some  grammars  the  perfect  and  aorist  are  given  separ. 
ately  in  inflection.    Compare  ^  500.] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [For  an  explanation  of  this  mode  of  translating  the  imperative,  consult 
the  author's  remarks,  ^  583.]— Am.  Ed. 

t  [This  "  insertion  of  d,"  as  it  is  commonly  called,  is  nothing  more  than 
the  brining  oack  of  the  full  form  oivro,  which  was  anciently  prod,  and 
with  which  we  may  compare  the  Greek  izpor-L  for  tcpo^,  it  being  now  ad- 
mitted that  TTpo  and  Trpoc  are,  in  fact,  one  and  the  same  word.] — Am.  Ed,  ^ 

%  [There  is  in  Sanscnt  the  verb  bhavami,  from  the  root  bhu^  allied  to  thf  ^ 


THE    FOUR   CONJUGATIONS.  12S 

are  antiquated  foims  for  the  corresponding  persons  of  sim,  and  occur  in 
the  comic  writers  and  in  Lucretius.  Instead  of  essem  we  have  another 
form  for  the  imperfect  subjunctivej/orem  (likewise  from/«o),  in  the  sin- 
gular and  the  third  person  plural.  The  infinitive /ore  belongs  to  the  same 
root.  Cicero  rarely  uses  the  form  forenif  but  Livy  frequently,  especiaHy 
in  the  sense  of* the  conditional  mood,  "I  should  be.^'  Other  writers, 
especially  the  poets  and  Tacitus,  use  it  in  all  respects  like  essem.  The 
perfect /fivt,  and  the  tenses  derived  from  it,  fiiwramyfQvisseTn,fiiverOf  are 
other  forms  of /ui,  6cc.,  and  occur  in  the  earnest  poets ;  and  in  like  man- 
Tier  we  find,  in  the  ancient  language,  eseU,  escunt,  for  erit  and  erunt. 


CHAPTER  XLII. 

THE   FOUR   CONJUGATIONS. 


[§  157.]  In  the  followifig  table  the  terminations  are 
separated  fix)m  the  root  of  ^e  vfti*b,  which  renders  it  easy 
to  conjugate  any  other  verb  according  to  these  models. 
The  verb  lego  (see  Chap.  XL.)  is  irregular  in  the  forma- 
tion of  ita  perfect,  but  it  has  been  retained  as  an  example 
of  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation,  because  the  very  ab- 
sence of  any  peculiar  termination  in  the  perfect  is  a  safe- 
gtfard  iigainst  misunderstandings  which  might  arise ;  for 
example,  -from  dtico,  dtixi ;  scriho^  soripsi ;  or  claudo^ 
olausi. 

I  ACTIVE   VOICE. 

First  Conjugation,  ♦ 

Indicatitb.  Subjunctitb. 

Present. 

Sing.  Am-o,  I  love.  Sing.  Am-em,  I  may  love. 

am-d$f  thou  lovest.  am-est  thou  mayest  lot e. 

am-att  he  loves.  am-etf  he  may  love. 

Plur.  am-amus,  we  love.  Plur.  am-emus^  we  mav  love. 

am-atiSf  ye  love.  am-etis^  ye  may  love. 

ofit-ant,  they  love.  am-ent,  they  may  love. 

In  perfect. 

Sing,  am-abam,  I  loved.  Sing,  am-arem,  I  might  love. 

am-abas.  am-ares. 

am-abat.  am-areL  

Plur.  am-abdmus.  PUir.  am-aremus.  -— — 

am-abatis.  ^  am-aretis. 

am-abarU.  am-arerU. 


old  Latin  verb  /w>,  and  in  the  sense  of  orirt,  nasd.  With  this  may  be 
compart  the  (^reek  ^u,  and  the  verb  to  be  in  English,  together  wilh  the 
Celtic  bydh,  the  Russian  hiduj  and  the  Persian  budemi.  The  Sanscri; 
lias  preserved  the  whole  of  bhavamif  whereas  the  cognate  verbs  are  d*' 
'ective  in  most  other  tongues.] — Am.  Ed. 


t^  LATIN   GRAMMAn. 

INDICAIIVB.  •  SWBJUNCTITB. 

Fttture, 

Sing,  am-abot  I  shall  love 

am-abis. 

am-abit. 
Plur.  am-abtmu*. 

am-cMtis. 

am-obunt. 

Perfect.* 
Sing,  am-dvi,  I  have  loved.  Sing,  am-averim,  1  may  have  lored. 

am-avistL  ^"^'^^^' 

tuti'tivit,                 *  <MW  awertf. 

Pin  •  «m-awmus.  Plan  am-aveihius. 

am-avistis.  am-aventts. 

am-averunt  (e).  tmrovenni. 

.Pluperfect. 

Sing.  am-ai»«ram,  1  had  loved.  Sing.  am-avUtemy  I  nrffeht  have  lovad. 

am-avera«.  -^     am-amstes, 

am-averai.          *  am-avisset. 

Plur.  am-moeramut,  *       Plur.  am-aw»«emi«. 

am-averatis.  can-avisketis. 

am-averant.  am-avissenl. 
Second  Futurty  or  Future  Perfect. 

Sing,  am-avero,  I  shall  have  lo\  5d. 

ttm-averis. 

am-averit. 
Plur.  am-at)tfr*mt«,  % 

am-averitis.  • 

om-avcrmf. 

iMrEEATIVE.f 

Present,  Sing,  am-d,  love  thou.  Plur.  am-dte,  love  ye. 

Feature,  Sing,  am-dto,  thou  shall  love.  Plur.  am-atote,  ye  shaU.  lovo. 
am-dtOj  he  shall  love.  am-anto^  they  shiU  love. 

^  Infinitive. 

Pres.  and  Imperf.  (or  of  au  action  still  going  on),  am-drey  to  love. 
Perf.  and  Pluperf.  (or  of  an  action  completed),  am'ovissr,  to  have  ..ored. 
Future,  am-aturum  ease,  to  be  about  to  love. 

Gerund. 
Qen  am-andi ;  Dat.  am-ando ;  Ace.  arn-andum. ;  AbL  am-ando, 

SOPINE. 
ecm-eUwn;  am-atu. 

Participles. 
Pres.  and  Imperf.  (of  an  action  still  going  on),  am-ans,  loving. 
Future,  am-aturu$,  about  to  love. 


Second  Xhnjugatian. 

Indicative.  Subjunctivi. 

Present. 

BJLig  Mon-eo,  I  advisp  Sing.  Moneam,  I  may  advise. 

fnon-es.  mon-eds. 

mon-et.  mon-eat. 


*  rVid.  note  on  page  128.]— Am.  EK. 

*  [Vid.  note  on  page  128.]— .Hw.  Ed. 


THE   FOUK   CONJUQATICNS.  IM 

Indicative.  Sudjonctivb. 

PJar.  monrhnus,  Plur.  nwH-edmus,      * 

mon-etis.  mon-eatis. 

tnon-etu.  mon-tant, 

fmpKfrct. 

Sing,  mon-eham,  I  Advised.  Sing.  t?ton-erem,  I  might  advifd. 

nton-^oas,  mon-eret. 

mon-ebat,  mon-eret, 

Plor.  mon-d)amuM.  Plur.  mon-erhnnu. 

mon-ebdtit,  mon-tntis. 

num-^Hmt,  mon-erent, 

Faiure, 
Sing.  num-Bo.  I  flihatl  &dyt^. 

fnon-dns,  » 

nion-e6tt. 
Plur.  inon*e6fmia. 
t         frnn-ebftis 
moti-cbwU, 

Pafed. 

Sing.  mon-Hi,  I  have  advised.  Sing,  num^uaim,  I  may  have  advised 

fnon-watL  tnon^uerts, 

mon^uiL  mori'UertL 

Plmr.  nuntFuimus,  Plur.  9?ioi»-iicHfmitf. 

fium-vistit,  moiwierlrit. 

mon-Kenmf  («).  mon-umn<. 

Phperfict. 

Sing.  moiMiSrom,  I  had  advised.  Sing,  num-uissem,  I  should  have  ad 

mon<teras.  mon-uisses,  [vised 

num-uerat,  mon^uiaset, 

Plur.  fnof^ueromtw.  Plur.  mon^uisaemua. 

monruaratis.  mon-waaetis. 

nunuuerant,  mon-waaent. 

Second  Future^  or  Future  Perfect, 

Sing,  mon-vtro,  I  shall  have  advised. 

moti'ttena. 

tnotifUent, 
Plur.  num-^uetimua. 

mon-tterUia, 

fnon-uertnt. 

Impbkativb. 
Present,  Sing,  mon-ey  advise  thon.  Plur.  man4te,  advise  ye. 

Future,  Sing,  mon-ito^  thou  shalt  ad-    Plur.  mon^§tliu,  ye  shall  adviM. 
vise. 
mon-efo,he  shall  advise.  tnon-anto,  they  shall  advise 

Infinitive. 

Pres.  and  Jmperf.,  mon^ere,  to  advise. 

Pert  and  Pluperf.,  num-viaae,  to  have  advised. 

Future,  num'iturum  eaaa,  to  be  about  to  advise. 

GIbund. 

Gkm.  moin»enA ,  Dat.  mon-tnio  ;  Aec.  mon-minm  ;  Abl.  mow  wiis 

Supine. 

inon-lAim;  fnon-tht. 

Pabticiplbs. 

F^es.  and  Import  mon-ena,  advising. 
Future,  fmm^tftcnu,  about  to  advise. 


I9i 


LATIN    GRAMMAR 


INDI3ATPC. 

tf  ing.  Xcy-0, 1  i«ad. 

riur.  leg'imu$. 
leg-iti$, 

Aing,  leg-ebam,  I  md. 

Plur.  leg-th&mua, 
leg-ebHU, 
Ug-ebanL 


Third  ConjtLgaMon. 

SOBJimCTlTB 

Present, 

Sing.  X^-om,  1  may  retd. 

Plur.  leg-amuM, 
leg-atu, 
leg-ant, 

ImpeftcL 

Sing,  kg-hem,  I  miglit  »e«c 

leg-^es, 

leg-eret, 
Plur.  Ug-erhnuM, 

leg'eretit, 

Ug-ereni. 

Future, 


Sing.  Ic^-om,  I  shall  read. 

leg-et, 

leg-eL 
Plur.  Ug'hma, 

leg-etia, 

leg'ent, 

Sing.  /e^-t»  I  have  read. 

Ug'Uti, 

leg-it,  ■ 
Plur.  Z^-imtw. 

l^-istis, 

l^-erunt  (e). 

Sing,  leg'h'om,  I  had  roail. 

Ifg-erac. 

/rg-erat. 
Plur.  leg-eramua, 

leg-eratis, 

leg-erant. 


Perfect, 

Sing,  leg-him,  I  may  hare  read 

/rg-em. 

leg-erit, 
Plur.  kg-er&ntw. 

Pluperfect, 

Sing,  leg-iaeem,  I  should  have 

{«g4fwf. 
Plur.  leg-itaenau, 
leg-iasitia, 
leg-isaent. 


Second  Putwre^  or  Future  Perfect. 

Sing,  leg'ifo,  I  shall  have  read. 

leg-trie, 

leg-erU. 
Plur.  leg-eihnuB* 

leg-erittB, 

leg-eritU, 

Im^bhatitm. 

Present,  Sing.  Ug^,  read  thou.  *  Plur.  leg-tte,  read  ye. 

Pttture,  Sing,  hg-ito^  thou  shalt  read.  Pluf .  leg-itote,  ye  shall  read. 
legJltOf  Le  shall  read.  leg-tmfo,  they  shall  ratti 

Infinitiyb. 

Pres.  and  ImpeiC  ^rgrSrr,  to  read. 
Perf.  and  Pluperf.  leg-isse,  to  have  read. 
Fiitnre,  lec'tuntm  eate,  to  oe  i^ut  to  read. 


THE   FOlIft   CQNJUGA7IONS. 

G  BRUNO. 

Ckn.  Ug-endi;  Dat.  Ug-endo;  Ace.  Itg-tndum;  Abl.  ! 

SUPINB. 
iec'tvm;  lec-tu, 

Pabticipi^bs. 

Pres.  and  Impert  ^-cvw,  reading. 
Future,  ko'twrus,  about  to  read. 


isa 


Jbiir^A  Ckmjugatwn. 


Ikdicativb. 
Sing.  Aud-io,  I  hear. 

Plur  «M{-tmii«. 

aud-hmt, 

* 

Sing,  aud-ieham,  I  heaid. 

Plur.  oiMi'irMmu*. 
aud'idt^it, 
aud-idnmi, 

Sing,  aud-ianif  I  shall  hear. 

aud'ies. 

aud-iet, 
PInr.  atK^>tmu«. 

aud-iUis, 

annd-urU. 

Sing,  otid-ivi,  I  have  heard. 

Plur.  aud-mnma, 
aud-ivistis, 
aud-iveruni  (e). 

Sing,  aud'iveram,  I  had  heard. 

aud-werds, 

aud-iverat. 
Plur.  aiM2>»wramtf«.        * 

aud4verati$, 

OMid'iverant, 


SuBJVlfCTITI. 
PrefMU. 

Siog.  Aud-iam,  I  may  hear. 

atfd-ta«. 

oud'tot* 
Plur.  oitJ-iamtw. 

Sing.  aiM2-irem,  I  might  heai. 

aud-ires, 

aud'iret, 
Plur.  otu2-KremiMi. 

audfretia. 

authirrtt. 

Future. 


Perfect, 

Sing.  aud-ivHrmif  I  may  have  heaid. 
aud4veria. 
aud-iverit. 
*Plur.  aud-iverhnu9, 
aud-iveiitis. 
oud'Hvtrtnt, 

Pluperfect, 

Sing,  aud'wistemf  I  might  liave  ] 

aud-tvisses, 

aud4visset. 
Plur.  aud-hriasemns 

aud-ivuaitis. 


aud-ivisteni. 
Second  FkUure,  or  Future  Perfect, 

Sing,  aud-who^  I  shall  hare  heard. 

axud'ioeru. 

aud-iverit, 
Plar.  oud-heAmug, 

aud-ivet^ia, 

aud-iverint, 

M 


134  LATIlir   GRAMMAtt. 

Imperative. 

Present,  Sing,  audty  hear  thou.  Plur.  aud-Ue,  hear  yt, 

Fature^  Sing.  aud-ttOf  thou  shalt  hear.    Plur.  aud-Hote,  ye  shall  hear 

aud-Uo,  he  shall  hear.  aud'iunto,  they  shall  heat 

Inpinitivb. 

•  Pres.  and  Imperf.,  aud-l*t,  to  hear. 

Pert  and  Plaperf.,  oui-iMMe,  to  have  heard. 
Future,  Mid-itwum  e«te,  to  be  aboot  to  hear. 

GsArxD. 

Gen.  aud-iendi ;  Dat.  aud-iendo  ;  Ace.  aud-iendum  ;  AbL  emd-iendm. 

SUPIHI. 
aud-\tuM;  aud-ttu» 

Participles. 
Pres.  and  Imperf.,  aud-iens,  hearing. 
Fotare,  emd-iutru8f  about  to  hear. 


K  168.]  II.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

FirH  Conjugation. 

Indicatitb.  Subjunctitb. 

Present. 

Sing.  Am-orf  I  am  loved.  Sing.  Am-erj  I  may  be  loved. 

am-aris  {e),  am-eria  (e). 

arn'Otwr,  am-etur. 

Plur.  am-amur.  •  Plur.  am-emtar, 

offt-iiTiiiftt.  am-enUfu. 

am-antur.  am-eniur. 

Imperftet, 

Sing,  am-abar,  I  was  loved.  Sing,  am-arer^  I  might  be  loved. 

ean-abaria  (e).  am-ariris  (e). 

amrobatur.  am-aretur, 

Plur.  am-abamur.  Plur.  omHiremur. 

ofn-oftammt.  am-<uremini, 

am-abantur,     ■  am-oren^ur. 

Fttfure. 
Sing.  am-aboTy  I  shall  be  loved. 

am-<d>eri8  (c).  • 

am-a6ttur. 
Plur.  am-idfimur, 

am-<tbimini, 

am-abunhtr, 

Petfect. 

Bing.  am-atus  (a,  urn)  sum,  I  have  Sing.  am*^Eftw(a,ttm}<Mi»IinayhavB 
been  loved.  bedt.  lovea. 

om-atut  et.  om-dAw  sis. 

am-atus  est.  am-itussU. 

Plur  am-ati  (oe,  a)  mmicf.  Plur.  am-ati  (oe,  a)  «tncM. 
am-a^i  estis.  am-SH  sUis. 

ant'Oti  sunt.  om-iti  tint. 

Pluperfect. 
hing.  am-atus  (Of  urn)  eramf  I  bad    Sing.  am-Stus  (a,  im)  euem,  I  BHigltf 
been  loved.  have  been  Icvod. 

am-dtus  eras.  am-atHS  esses, 

amdtus  erat.  am-atus  smsH. 


THE  rOUB  CONJUftATlONa..  ISfl 

Indicative.  SuDJurfct.fJB. 

Plur.  iin-dti  {a€i.a)  eramus.  Plur.  cun-ati  {ae,  a)  essemtu. 

om-oft  eratis.  am-iti  essetit. 

an^&i  erani.  am-dti  essent. 

* 

Second  Future^  or  Futttre  Perfect. 

Sing,  am-dtut  {a,  um).ero,  I  shall  hard  been  lored. 

ant'OHu  eria. 

am-dtus  erit. 
Plur.  am-dti  (oe,  a)  erimus. 

am-dti  eritis. 

am-dti  erunt. 

Imperative. 

Present,  Sing,  am-are^  be  thou  loyed.  Flue  am-amini,  be  yo  loved. 

Future,  Sing,  am-ator,  thou  shalt  be  loved.  Flur.  am-antor^  they  shall  b« 
am-€UOrf  he  shall  be  loved.  loved.* 

Infinitive.  ^ 

Pres.  and  Imperf.  (or  of  a  passive  state  still  going  on),  am-arif  to  be  loved 
Perf.  and  Fluperf.  (or  of  a  state  completed),  am-dtttm  {amf  tan)  esse^  to  hav 

been  loved. 
Future,  am-dtum  m,  to  be  about  to  be  loved. 

F'articiplbs. 

Perfect,  am-dttUf  a,  urn,  loved. 

In  dus  (commonly  called  Future,  or  Future  o£  Necessity),  omoTiiia,  a,\ 
deserving  or  requiring  tm  be  loved. 


Second  Conjugc^on. 

Indicative.  Subjunctive. 

Present. 

Sing.  Mon-eor,  I  am  advised.  Sing.  Mon-ear,  1  miy  be  advised, 

mon-ins  (c).  mon-edris  (c). 

mon-etur.  iHon-eatur. 

Plur.  mon-emur.  Flur.  mon-eamur, 

mon-emini.  mon-eamini. 

moia-tnttir.  mon-eatUur. 

Imperfect.  • 

Sing,  mon-ibar^  I  was  advised.  Sing,  mon-erer,  I  might  be  advised. 

mon-ebdris  (e).  mon-ereris  (e). 

mon-ebatur.  mpn-e^etur. 

Plur.  num-ebamur. .  Flur.  mon-eremur. 

man-dwnini.  mon-eremim. 

mon-ebantur.  mon-erentw.        ^ 

Future, 

Sing.  mon-eboTf  I  shal  s  be  advised. 

mon-eberis  (c). 

mon-ebitur, 
Plur.  »uwt-«6im«r. 

mon-Mmini. 

mon-ebuntur. 


*  TNo  second  person  plural  (amaminor)  of  the  imperative  future  paristvi 
•ccurs.  Its  place  is  supplied  by  the  future  indicative.  Vid.  ^  151  ^ 
^Am.  Ed. 


IdB  LATIN    6KAMMAK. 

Indicatiyi.  Scbjunctivi. 

Perfect, 

Sing,  mon-itus  (a,  wn)  »um^  I  have    Sing.  mon-Uus,  Ta,  urn)  sirny  I  may 
been  advised.  have  been  advised. 

monrltuM  68.  ,  fnon-ktw  ais, 

'  mon-ttus  est.  mon-Uus  nt. 

Plur.  mon-Ui  (oe,  a)  nemtu.  Plur.  mon^H  (oe,  a)  «niiti». 
mon-iti  estis.  mon-Ui  sitis, 

mon-lti  aunt.  mon-iti  aint. 

Pluperfect. 

Sing,  fiwn'itua  (a,  vm)  eram,  I  had    Sing,  mon-itua  (a,  urn)  eaaem,  I  snuuin 
been  advised.  have  been  advised. 

mon-ttua  eraa.  mon-Uua  eaaea. 

mon'Uua  erat.  *  '  mon-itua  easet. 

Plur.  mon-Ui  (oe,  a)  eramua.  *  Plur.  mon-iti  (ae,  a)  eaaemua, 

mon-Ui  eratia.  mon-iti  easetia. 

mon-iti  erarU  mxm-Ui  eaaent. 

Second  Future,  or  Future  Perfe'ct. 

Sing,  mon-itua  {a^um)  ero,  I  shall  have  been  advised. 

mon-itua  eria. 

mon-itua  erit. 
Plur.  mon-iti  (ae,  a)  erimua» 

mon-iti  eritia. 

num-iti  erunt. 

IXPSmiTIVB. 

Present,  Sing.  mon-erCf  be  thou  advised.  Plur.  mon-emini,  be  ye  adTie  4. 

Futiir%  Sing,  mon-itor,  thou  shalt  be  Plur.  mon-entor,  they  shall  b<>  aU 

advised.  vised. 

monetor,  he  shtf  be,  &c. 

Infinitive. 
Pres.  and  Imperf.,  rno»-«ri,  to  be  advised. 
Perf.  and  Pluperf.,  mon-Uum^  {am,  urn)  eaae^  to  have  been  adviaed 
Future,  mon-itum  iri,  to  be  about  to  be  advised. 

Participles. 
Perfect,  mon-itua,  advised. 

fn  dua  (commonly  called  Future,  or  Future  of  Necessity),  mon-endua,  &• 
servmg  or  requiring  to  be  advised. 


Third  Conjugation, 

Indicative 

SUBJUNCTITS. 

•       ' 

Preaent, 

Sing.  Leg-or,  I  am  read. 

leg-eria  (e). 

leg-itur. 
Plur.  leg-imur. 

leg-imini. 

leg-untur. 

Sing.  Leg-ar,  I  may  be  read. 

leg-aria  (e). 

leg-atur. 
Plur.  leg-amur. 

leg-aminL 

leg-antur. 

« 

Imperfect. 

Sing,  leg-ibar,  I  was  read.     * 
leg-ebSria  (e) 
Ug-dHOyr, 

Sing  leg-erer,  I  might  tie  read 
leg-ereria  (•). 
leg-eretur. 

TUE   FOUR   CONJUGATIONS.  i31 

Indicative,  SuBJUwcTiTit 

Plur.  leg-ebamur.  Flur.  leg-eremur. 
Ug-ebamini,  teg-ereminL 

Ug-ebanJtur,  leg-erentur. 

Future, 
Sing,  leg-ar,  I  sliall  be  read. 
Ug-irU  (e). 

Plur.  leg-emur, 
leg-emmL 
leg-erUtar. 

Ptrfect, 

Sing,  /ec-fia  (a, ion)  ram,  I  have  been    Sing.  Uc-tuM  (a,  urn)  nm,  1  MHf  lM?t 
read.  been  read. 

lec'tus  es.  lec-tus  sis,   ' 

lec-hts  est.  lec-tus  sit. 

Plar.  lec-ti  (a«,  a)  sumus.  Plur.  lec-ti  {ae,  a)  siwtus. 

lec-ti  estis,  lec-ti  sitis, 

lec'ti  sunt.  lecti-sint. 

Pluperfect, 

Sing,  kc-tiu  (a,  um)  eiam.  I  had    Sing,  lec-tus  (a,  urn) essem,*  "f  yaSd 

been  read.  have  been  read. 

lec-tus  eras.  lec-tus  esses. 

lec-tus  erat.  .                 lec-tus  esset. 

Plur.  Uc-ti  (aSf  a)  eranuut  Plur.  lec-ti  (oe,  a)  essemus. 

Uc-ti  eratis.  lec-ti  essetis. 

lec-ti  erant.  lect-ti  essent. 

Second  FuturCf  or  Future  Perfect, 

SiLg.  Uc-tu»  (/I,  urn)  ero,  I  shall  have  been  read. 

la:-tus  eris.  ^ 

lec-tus  erit.  • 

Plur.  lec-ti  erimus.^ 

lec-ti  eritis. 

lec-ti  erunt. 

iMPsfcTIVE. 

Present,  Sing,  leg-ere,  be  thoU  read.  Plur.  leg-imini,  be  ye  reM 

Future,  Sing,  leg-ttor^  thou  shalt  be  read.  Plur.  leg-untor,  they  shai    W 
leg-tior,  he  shall  be  read.  read. 

Infinitive. 
Pres.  and  Imperf.,  leg-i,  to  be  read. 
Perf.  and  Pluperf.,  lec-tum  {am,  um)  esse,  to  have  been  read. 
Future,  lec-tum  tri,  to  be  about  to  be  read. 

Participles. 
Perfect,  Uc-tus,  read. 

In  dus  (commonbj[  called  Future,  or  Future  of  Necessity),  leg-endi^    1^ 
sepring  or  requiring  to  be  read. 


Fourth  Conjugation, 

Indicative.  Subjunptivb. 

Present. 

Aud-ior,  I  am  heard.  Sing  Aud-iar,  I  may  be  lieafcl 

aud-tris  (e).  aud-iaris  («). 

aud-itur.  aud-iatur. 

M  2 


1 


tW  LATIN  GIAMMAR. 

iNDiCATns.  Subjunctive, 

^lui    aufl  iimtr,  Plur.  aud-iamur. 

aud'imini.  aud-iamini, 

aud-iuntur.  >  attd-iantur. 

Imperfect. 

Smg.  aud-iebafy  I  was  heard.  Sing,  aud-trer^  I  might  be  Loard.^ 

aud-iebdris  (e).  atid-ireris  («). 

aud-iebatur.  aud-iretur. 

Piur.  avd-iebamtar.  Plur.  aud-iremw. 

aud-iebaanim.  aud'iremini. 

aud'iebanttar,  atid-irentur, 

FtUtare. 
Sing,  attd'iar,  I  shall  be  heard. 

ttvd-UrU  (e).  . 

aud-iettur. 
Plur.  aud-iimur. 

aud-iemini. 

aud'ientur. 

Pcr/eci, 

Sipg.  aud-ittu  (a,  um^  «um,  I  ha^  e    Sing,  aud-itus  (a,  urn)  «im»  I  may  hav« 
been  heard.  oeen  heard. 

otoi-i/iM  e«.  €tttd'Utu  »u. 

aud-ittu  eat.  aud-ittu  sit. 

Plar.  atid-iti  {ae,  a)  atwitu.  Plcrr.  aud-iti  (ae,  a)  sirmu. 

aud-Ui  eatia.  aud-iti  aitis. 

aud-itt  aunt.  aud-iti  aint. 

Pluperfect, 

Sing,  atid-lfua  (a,  urn)  erantf  I  had    Sing,  aud-ittu  (a,um)  eaaem,  I  mi^fiA 
been  heard.  have  been  heard. 

aud-ittu  ercu.  Okd-itiu  eaaea. 

aud-ittu  erat.  atiH-ittu  eaaet, 

Plur.  aud-iti  (ae,  a)  aramtu.  Plur.  aud-iti  (oe,  aj  eaaemtu, 

aud-iti  eratia.  aud-iti  eaaetia, 

aud-iti  erant.  1^         aud-iti  easertt. 

Second  FiUure,  or  Futur^Perfect, 

Sing.  aud4tua  (a,  Mm)  ero,  I  shall  have  been  heard* 

aud-itua  eria. 

attd-itua  erit. 
Plur.  atid-iti  (ae,  a)  erimua. 

audnti  eritia 

aud-iti  erunt. 

*  IllPERATlVB* 

Present)  Sir.g.  aud-ire,  be  thou  heard.    Plur.  aud-inuta,  be  ye  heird. 
Pnture,    Sir\g.  aiid*tior,  thdu  shalt  be    Plur.  atui-ttmior.  they  shall   lie 

heard.  heard.  . 

aud-itorf  he  shall  be  heard. 

Inpinititi. 

P^cs.  and  Imperf.  atui-iri,  to  be  heard. 

Perf.  and  Pluperf.  aud-itum  {am^  vm\  eaae^  to  have  been  heard. 

Future,  attdriium  in,  to  be  about  to  be  heard. 

Participles. 
Perfect,  aud-itua,  heard. 

fn  dua  (commonljr  called  Future,  or  Future  of  Necessity),  end  imitu,  dt 
serving  or  requifBig  to  be  heard. 


l>E?0!f«NT». 


18» 


nr.  DEPONENTS. 
[§  159.]  With  regard  to  conjugation,  the  deponent  dif- 
fer«»  fi'om  the  passive  only  by  the  fact  that  it  has  both  the 
participles  of  the  active  and  of  the  passive  voice,  that  is, 
for  all  the  threa  states  of  an  action :  that  in  ns  for  an  ac- 
tion not  iorapleted ;  that  us^  a,  um  for  an  action  comple- 
ted ;  and  that  in  urus^  a,  um  for  one  about  to  take  place. 
The  fourth  participle  in  ndus^  with  a  passive  signification, 
is  an  irregularity,  and  is  used  only  in  those  d^ponenU 
which  have  a  transitive  signification;  e.  g.,  hortandus^  one 
who  should  be  exhorted.  Of  deponents  which  have  an 
intransitive  meaning,  e.  g.,  loqui,  this  participle  is  used 
cmly  sometimes,  chiefly  in  the  neuter  gender  (often,  but 
erroneously,  called  the  gerund),  and  in  a  somewhat  differ- 
ent sense,  e.  g.,  loquendum  est,  there  is  a  necessity  for 
speaking.  It  will  be  sufficient,  in  the  following  table,  to 
give  the  first  persons  of  each  tense,  for  thei  e  is  no  diffi 
culty,  except  that  these  verbs  with  a  passive  form  have  an 
active  meaning. 

A.  Indicative. 
2d  Conjug.  3d  Conjug.  4th  Conjug 

•    Present, 
ver-eoTf  I  fear.        sequ-or,  I  follow,     bland-tor,  I  flatter. 


Ist  Conjug. 


8.  kort'or,  I  ex 

hort. 
P.  hort-amnr. 


S.  hort'Obar. 
P.  hort-abamur. 


8.  hort'obor. 
P.  hart-abimur. 


ver-emitr. 

ver-ebar. 
ver-ebamur, 

ver-ebor* 
ver-ebimur. 


sequ-imur. 

Imperfect, 

sequ-ehar. 
sequ-ebamur. 

First  FtUttret 

sequ-ar. 
sequ-hmiT 

PerfecU 


bland- 


imur. 


blattd-iebar. 
bUmd-iebamw. 


bland-iar, 
oland'iemur. 


8.  hort'Otus     {a,  ver-UuM   {a,  um)  tecSi-tus  (a,  um)  bland-ttua   (a,   um) 

Hia^sMau  sum,                        sum.  sum 

P.  kort'oti  (^«  a)  ver-tti  (oe,  a)  «»•  secU-ti  (oe,  fi)  su-  bland-ili  (ae,  a)  su' 

aumtis.  mus.                         mvs,  mus. 

Pluperfect. 

S.  hort'Otus     (a,  v^-itus    (a,  um)  secu-tus  (a,  um)  blond-itits    (a,  um) 

um)  eram.  '    eram.                       eram.  eram. 

P.  hort-ati  (oe,  a)  ver-Ui  (oe,  a)  era-  secu-ti  (ae,  a)  era-  bland-ili  (a«,  a)  erof 

ertsmus,  mus,  ■                       rmu.  mtts. 

Future  Perfect. 

S.  hort'Otus     (<x,  ver-itus   (a,  um)  secthtus  {a,  um)  Uand-itus    (a,  mh) 

um)  ero.  era.                       ,   era,  era. 

P.  hort'ati{ae,  a)  ver-iti  {/>:,  a)  en-  secu-ti  (oe,  a)  eri-  bland-iti  {as,  a)  eri' 

erimus,  mus,                       mus,  mus^ 


140 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


1st  Conjag. 

S.  hort-er. 
P.  hort-emur 

S.  hort-arar, 
P.  hort-aremur. 

S.  hort-(Uu$  (a, 
um)  aim. 

P.  hort-ati  {ae,  a) 
simus, 

S.  hort-atua  (a, 
um)  Mcem. 

P.  Aoft-o/t  (oe,  a) 
es«eini». 


63.  2.  hort-are. 
P.  2.  hort-amini, 

S.2.  Aort-ofor. 

3.  hort-ator, 
P.  2.  (is  wanting, 

3.  hort-antor. 


kort-an. 

tim)  es«e. 

Aoft-oturum  (anif 
um)  esse. 


Gen.  hort-andt. 
Dat.  hort-ando. 
Ace.  hort-andum. 
Abl.  hort-ando. 


htiii-Qina, 
k^'x-abUt  a,  tim. 

A«r#-4iltiru«i  a,  iwi. 

hort'OU'lvSy  a,  um. 


B.  SCBJUNCTIVE. 
2d  Conjug.  3d  Conjag 

Present, 


1th  Con]Uf 


£*am2-iar. 
6'and-uimur 


bUmd-irer, 
bland-iremm. 


bland-ure. 
bland-inumL 

Hand-itar, 

Uand-Uor, 


ver-ear.  *  sequ-ar. 

ver-eamur.  sequ-amur. 

Imperfect. 

ver-trtr.  «  segu-lrer. 

ver-eremur.  sequ-eremur. 

Perfect. 

ver-itua  {a,  um)  secu-tua  (a,  um)  bland-itus  {a,  tim) 
stn.                         stm,  tun. 

ver-iti  (oe,  a)  si-  secu-ti  (jae,  a)  si-  hland-iti  {ae,  a)  «^ 
mus.                        mus.  mus. 

Pluperfect. 

ver-itus   (a,  um)  secu-tus  (a,  um)  bland-itus    (a,  mm) 

esaem.  essem.  essem. 

ver-iti  (oe,  a)  es-  secu-ti  (ae,  a)  e«-  62aiu{-><<  (oe,  a)  «^ 

«eintt5.  «emu«.  aemiM. 

C.  Impebatitb. 

Present. 

ver-ere.  sequ-ere. 

ver-emini.  sequ-imini. 

Future, 
ver-etar.  sequritor. 

ver-etor.  seqti-itor. 

but  is  supplied  by  the  Future  Indicative.) 
ver-entor.  sequ-untor.  bland-iuntor, 

D.  Infinitive.  * 
Present  and  Imperfect. 

ver-eri,  8equ4.  bland-irL 

Perfect  and  Pluperfect, 

r.er-kum{am^um)  securtum{amyum)  bland-itum {am, k9  ) 
esse.  esse.  esse. 

Future, 

ver-iturum     (am,    secu-turum    (am,    bland-iturum  {an 
um)  esse,  tun)  esse.  um)  esse 

E.  Gebund. 

ver-endi.  sequ-endi. 

ver-endo.  sequ-endo. 

ver-endum.  sequ-endum. 

ver-endo^  sequ-endo. 

F.  Participles. 

Present  and  Imperfect, 
ver-ens,  sequ-ens. 

Perfect  and  Pluperfect, 
ver-itus^  a,  um.        secU-tus,  a,  um. 

Future, 
tfer-iturus,  a,  um.    secu-turus,€i,  um.    bland-iiurua,mtW^ 

FuturCf  with  Passive  Stgnificaiion. 
ver-enduSf  a,  um.     sequ-endus,  a,  um.    bland-iendus  a. 


bland-iendi 
bland-ienda. 
bland'isndmi 
bland-isndo. 


bland-iens, 
bland-itus,  a. 


tEMARKS    ON    THE    CONJUGATIONS.  141 

b.  Supine. 

*  korPahtm  var-itum,  secU-tum.  bland-Uum. 

2,  hmri-atu.  ver-iiu.  secU-tu,  blanditu. 

Note. — Th4  irapine  sectUum  and  the  participle  seiutus  are  analogous  to 
tohttum  and  jtXuhu,  from  solvo^  in  pronunciation  and  orthography ;  for  the 
wonsonant  v,  x^hich  is  audible  in  the  present  aequor,  is  softened  into  the 
vowel  u,  and  lengthened  according  to  the  rule  mentioned  above,  ^  154.  In 
ceytnKwm,  as  some  persons  write,  the  additional  vowel «  cannot  be  explained 
tn  any  wpy.  The  same  is  the  case  with  locutum,  from  loquor.  (Compare 
^ve,  ^  5,  in  fir..)  * 


CHAPTER  XLIII. 

REMARKS    ON   THE.  CONJUGATIONS. 

[§  160.]  1.  In  the  terminations  avi^  m,  and  ivi  of  tbo 
tenses  expressing  a  completed  action,  viz.,  of  the  perfect 
and  pluperfect,  indicative  and  subjunctive,  and  of  the  fu- 
ture penect,  as  well  as  of  the  infinitive  perfect  active,  a 
syncopation  takes  place. 

faj  In  the  first  conjugation  the  v  is  dropped  and  the 
vowels  a-i  and  a-e  are  contracted  into  a  long  a.  This  is 
the  case  wherever  avi  is  followed  by  an  *,  or  ave  by  an  r; 
e.  g.y  amavisti,  amdsti ;  amavissem,  amdssem;  amavisse^ 
amdsse;  amaverunt,  am&runt;  amavcrifji,  amclrim;  ama- 
veram^  amdram;  amaveroy  amdro^  &c.  Both  forms,  the 
entire  and  the  contracted  one,  are,  on  the  whole,  of  the 
same  value,  but  the  latter  seems  to  be  chiefly  used  when 
the  contracted  vowel  is  followed  by  an  s ;  whereas  the 
entire  form  was  preferred  in  those  cases  where  an  r  fol- 
lows, although  even  in  this  case  Livy  is  rather  partial  to 
<he  contracted  form ;  e.  g.,  vindicarvnma,  oppttgnarimtcs, 
uecarimus,  niaturarim/us ;  in  Cicero,  too,  it  is  hot  uncom- 
mon. A  contracted  form  of  the  verb  juvare  (adjuvare) 
^•jccurs  only  in  the  more  ancient  language;  e.  g.,  adjuro 
/or  adjuvero  in  a  verse  of  Ennius  (ap.  Cic,  Cat.  Maj,,  1). 

fhj  The  termination  evi  in  the  second  and  third  conju- 
^l^tions  is  treated  in  the  same  manner ;  e.  g.,  neo,  1  spin, 
Hevi,  nistif  nistis^  nerunt.  Thus  we  often  find  complissem, 
delh-am^  and  in  the  third  coirjug|tion  consuerunt  for  con- 
ncevenmt,  quiessem^  decrcssem,  deer  esse  for  decrevisse;  siris^ 
•irit^  for  siveris  and  siverit.  The  termination  ovi^  howev- 
er, is  conti*acted  only  in  noviy  novisse^  with  its  compounds, 
tnd  in  the  compounds  ofmoveo^  movi;  e.  g.,  norunt^  nosse^ 
xign^am^  cogndro,  commdssem. 

(c)  In  the  fourth  conjugation  ivi  is  frequently  conti'act- 
%di  before  s;  lience,  instead  of  audivisse,  avdivisti^  avdivis 


142  LATIN    OftAMMAR. 

sem,  we  find  andlsse,  audisti^  at^isse^n,  and  in  tho  time  of 
Quintilian  the  latter  farms  must  have  been  more  comiiioji- 
ly  used  than  the  others.  But  there  is  another  form  of  the 
tenses  expressing  a  completed  action,  which  arises  from 
simply  throwing  out  the  v :  aucLii,  audiusem,  audieram>, 
audiero.  But  it  must  bo  observed  that  those  foilns  in 
which  two  i's  meet  are  not  used  at  all  in  good  prose  (as 
in  Cicero),  except  in  the  compound!  of  the  verb  ire  (so« 
§  205),  and  are  round  only  here  and  there  in  poetry,  as 
in  Virgil :  audiit,  mugiit^  muniit^  especially  when  the 
word  would  not  otherwise^  suit  the  dactylic  hexameter ; 
as,  for  example,  oppetiif.  imjpediit.  In  those  forms,  on  tho 
other  hand,  where  i  and  e  meet,  the  v  is  frequently  thrown 
out  even  in  good  prose ;  e.  g.,  audierunt,  desierunt,  definic 
ram,  quaesieram. 

Note. — A  contraction  occurs  in  the  perfect  of  the  first,  second,  and 
fourth  conjugations  when  atorm  follows ;  the  forms  of  the  perfect  then 
oecbme  externally  like  those  of  the  present  tense,  and  can  be  distin- 
guished only  in  some  cases  by  the  length  of  the  vowel.  Thi9  pontraction 
occurs  only  in  poetry,  but  not  very  commonly.  Some  grammarians  have 
denied  it  altogether,  and  have  endeavoured  to  explain  such  passages  by 
supposing  that  they  contain  «in  enalla^Ct  that  is,  an  interchange  of  tenses ; 
but  such  a  supposition  involves  still  greater  difficulties.  Priscian,  in 
several  passrages,  mentions  the  contracted  forms  fumat^  audita  cuplty  for 
fumavitf  audxvit^  cupivit,  as  of  common  occurrence,  which  at  least  supports, 
m  general,  the  view  of  the  ancient  grammarians,  although  it  does  not  ren- 
der an  examination  of  the  particular  passages  superfluous.  We  shall  pass 
over  the  less  decisive  passages ;  but  t7  for  iit  is  undeniable  in  petit  (in  Virg., 
Aetht  iz.,  9^ ;  desit  (in  Martial,  iii.,  75, 1 ;  and  x.,  86,  i)  f  obit,  obiif  and  perit 
(in  Juvenal,  vi.,  128,  559,  295, 563,  and  x.,  118).  We  accordingly  considej 
that  quum  edormitf  in  Horace  (Serm.f  ii.,  3,  61),  is  likewise  a  perfect.  In 
the  first  and  second  conjugaticMis  there  are  some  instances  which  oannot 
be  denied.  To  view  donat  in  Horace  (Serm-t  i-*  2,  56)  as  a  present  would 
be  exceedingljr  forced ;  but  if  we  consider  it  as  a  contracted  perfect,  it 
quite  agrees  with  the  construction.  Compare  Terent.,  Adelph.,  iii.,  3, 10: 
emnan  rem  modo  serU  quo  pacta  habere  enar  ramus  ordine ;  Pr(^ert.,  ii,  7, 2 . 
/I emus  uterque  diu  ne  nos  dividaret.  Lastly,  the  first  person  in  ii  is  found 
contracted  into  i:  Persius,  iii.,  97,  sepeli:  Seneca,  Here.  Oct.,  48,  redi, 
Ciaudian,  in  Rufin.,  ii.,  387,  unde  redi  needs. 

2,  Another  syncopation,  which  frequently  occurs  in 
early  Latin,  and  is  made  use  of  even  in  the  later  poetical 
language  of  Virgil  and  Horace,  consists  in  the  throwing 
out  of  the  syllable  is  in^idie*  perfect  and  pluperfect  of  the 
third  conjugation  after  an  s  or  an  x;  e.  g.,  evasti,  ibr  cva- 
sisti;  dixtij  for  dixisti;  divisse,  for  divisisse ,  admisse^  for 
admisisse  ;  iss,  too,  is  rejected  in  forms  Kke  surrexe^  for 
surrexisse;  cojisumpse,  for  consumpsisse  ;  bo,  nlao,  abstraxe, 
for  ahstraxisse ;  abscessem,  for  abscessissem ;  erepsemus, 
for  efepsissemtcs,  and  others. 

[§  161.]  3.  The  forms  of  tho  future  perfect  and  of  tho 


R£MAUKS%N    THK    CONJUGATIONS.  14 j 

perfect  subjunctive  in  the  first  conjugation  in  <zsso  and  iis- 
nm,  for  avero  and  averim;  in  the  second  in  esso  and  essim^ 
for  uero  and  uerim;  and  in  the  third  in  so  and  «^m,  for  ^'0 
and  arm,  are  obsolete.  Numerous  instances  of  these  oc« 
cur  in  ancient  forms  of  law  (and  in  later  imitations  of  sucli 
ibrms)*and  in  Plautus  and  Terence. 

Note. — ^In  this  manner  are  formed  cammonstrassOf  levatso,  peccassOf  creas 
mt,  coopUusit,  impertustt,  and  many  others  of  the  first  conjugation.    The 
foUowing  belong  to  the  second :  lictsaU,  coMbetsit^  prohibestig,  and  authiu 
Capso,   CttpsiSt  capsitf  capsimus,  accqosOf  rapsU,  surrepsit,  occisitf  inceimt, 
mdemp*it^  axim,  adaanntt  taxis,  objeximy  objexis,  and  others,  occur  in  the  thiro 
conjugation.    The  following  forms  deserve  especial  mention :  faxo,  famwit 
faxii,/aanmu9.    (Plant,  Trie.,  i,  1,  40),  faxitiSffaxint.    But  there  is  no  in 
stance  of  such  a  syncopation  in  the  fourth  •conjugation.    We  believe  that 
this  form  is  to  be  explamed  by  the  ancient  interchange  of  r  and  «  (compare 
i  7)  ^d  a  syncopation;  hence  the  transition  would  be  thb;  levavero- 
Uvaveso—Uvasso  ;  accepero — accepeso—accepso  ;  ademero—ademesQ—adempso; 
Occident — occidesit — occisit,  where  the  d  before  the  $  is  dropped,  as  in  inceit 
,  incennt.    The  few  words  of  the  second  conjugation  seem  to  have 
tibrmed  in  this  manner,  on  the  model  of  the  very  numerous  words  of 

le  third.  The  irregularity  in  forming  the  perfect  of  words  of  the  third 
conjugation  (capso,  accepso,faxo,  and  axim,  instead  offexo,  exim)  is  in  ac 
cordance  witn  the  ancient  iang|uage.;  thus,  taxis  is  derived  from  tago,  tango, 
and  ausim  from  the  perfect  ausi,  which  has  fallen  into  disuse.  The  form 
in  so  is  acknowledged  to  have  the  meaning  of  a  future  perfect ;  one  ex 
~        ~     ■  -----  ad 


future  mac(e  according  to  the  6reek  fashion :  levo,  tevasso,  like  yeXdo), 
yeXdau. 

A  few  remnants  only  of  this  Ibrmatiou  remained  in  use 
in  the  best  period  of  die  Latin  language ;  e.  g.,  jtcsso  for 
jusseroy  in  Virg.,  Aen.,  xi.,  467 ;  B,iid  Jaooo^  in  the  sense  of 
**I  will/*  or  "am  determined  to  do"  (nee  §  511),  in  po- 
etry, and  in  Livy,  vi.,  ^6,faxo  ne  juvet  vox  ista  Veto,  1 
will  take  care  that  this  wcnrd  V<^to*8hall  be  of  no  avail  to 
yow.     But  especially  the  subjunctive  faxit,  faxint,  ex- 
pressing a  solemn  wish,  as  Cicero  (in  Vtrr.j  iii.,  35)*  says 
in  a  prayer,  <i«i  imnwrtales  fhxint  /  and  Livy  (xxix.,  27) 
in  a  prayer  sa^s,  dii-^fsMcitis^-^aMxitis;  and  in  a  subordi 
nate  sentence  in  Horace,  Serm.,  ii.,  6,  15,  op0  uijaods ; 
and  in  Persius,  i.,  112,  veto  quisguamfi^t.    Lastly,  audm 
and  aunt^  as  i||pttbjunetiT«  expressive  of  doubt  or  hesita- 
tion, **  I  might  venture,"  occurs  in  Cicero,  Brut,,  5,  and 
frequently  in  Livy  and  Tadtus.     From  these  and  the  nu- 
merous passages  in  Plautus  and  Terence,  however,  it  is 
clear  that  this  subjunctive  in  sim  never  has  the  significa- 
tion of  a  perfect  subjunctive,  but,  in  accordance  with  its 
formation,  it  retains  the  meaning  of  a  future  subjunctive. 

Note. — In  the  ancient  Latin  language  we  find  a  passive  voice  of  this  form 


144  LATIN    GRAMMA 

Of  the  fulure ;  viz.,  twbassitvry  in  a  law  in  Cic,  de  Leg.,  m.,  4,  taiiXjnsftttt^ 
in  Cato,  de  Re  Rttst.,  14,  instead  of  turbatum  fuerit  and  jiusus  fuerit ;  and 
the  deponent  mercassitur  in  an  inscription  (Gruter,  p.  512,  line  20),  for 
merccOus  fuerit.  An  infinitive  also  with  the  signification  of  a  first  future 
active,  is  formed  from  it :  as  in  Plautus :  expugnassere,  impetraasere,  reconcil- 
iatsere;  and  in  Lucretius  (Fragm.  Non.y  ii.,  218):  depecmassere  eX  deargen- 
fassere  (consequently  only  in  verbs  of  the  first  conjugation) ;  for  |«rhicn,  in 
.ater  times,  the  circumlocution  expugnaturum  esse^  &c.,  was  used  exclu 
lively. 

[§  162.]  In  the  remains  of  the  early  Latin  language, 
and  sometimes  also  in  the  poetical  productions  of  the  best 
age,  the  infinitive  passive  is  lengthened  by  annexing  the 
syllable  er;*  e.g.,  amarier^  mercarier^labier,  legier, mittier; 
the  e  in  the  termination  of  the  imperfect  of  the  fourth  con- 
jugation is  thrown  out;  e.  g.,  nutriham^  leniham,  sciham^ 
largibar,  for  nutriebam,  leniebam,  sdebam,  largiebar,  and 
the  future  of  the  same  conjugation  is  formed  in  ibo  instead 
of  iam;  e.  g.,  scibo^  servibo^  for  sdarriy  serviam  (the  last 
two  peculiarities  are  retained  in  ordinary  language  onl)^ 
in  the  verb  ire)  ;  and,  lastly,  the  termination  m  is  used 
for  em  and  am  in  the  present  subjunctive  of  the  first  and 
third  conjugations,  but  only  in  a  few  verbs ;  e.  g.,  edim 
and  comedim  for  edam  and  comedam,  frequently  occur  in 
Plautus;  also  in  Cicero,  ad  Fam,^  ix.,  20,  in  fin.,  and 
Horace,  Epod,,  iii.,  3,  and  Serm,,  ii.,  8f  90.  Duim  for 
dem,  and  perduim  for  perdanit  from  dtu)  and  perduo,  an 
cient  forms  of  these  verbs,  are  found,  also,  in  prose  in 
forms  of  prayers  and  imprecations ;  e.  g.,  Oic,  m  CatU,, 
i.,  9,  pro  Deiot^  7.  The  same  form  has  been  preserved 
in  the  irregular  verb  volo,  with  its  compounds,  and  in 
sum  :  velim,  nolim^  maJim,  and  sim, 

[§  163.]  5.  For  th^  third  person  plural  of  the  pisrfect 
active  in  erunt  there  is  in  all  the  conjugations  another 
form,  ere^  whicb*  indeed,  does  not  occur  at  all  in  Nepos, 
and  in  the  prose  of  Cicero  very  rarely  (see  Cic,  Orat.^ 
47,  and  my  note  on  Cic,  in  Verr,,  L,  15),  but  is  very  fre- 
quently u»ed  by  Sallust  and  later  writers,  especially  by 
llie  historians  d^us  and  Tacitus.  In  the  contracted 
forms  of  the  perfect  this  termination  cani^  well  be  used, 
because  the  third  person  plural  of  the  perfect  would,  in 
most  cases,  become  the  same  as  the  infinitive ;  e.  g.,  if 
we  were  to  form  amaveruni^  amartmty  amare,  or  deleve- 
rwU^  dderwnty  delere. 

The  vowel  c,  in  the  imcontracted  termination  erunt ^  ia 
tametunes  shortened  by  poets,  as  in  Horace,  Epist,,  i.,  4, 

♦  fConsult  note  or  Dag«120.]— -Am.  Ed. 


REMARKS    ON    THE   CONJUGATIONS.  145 

7 ;  Di  tiii  divitias  dederunt  artemqueftuendi :  and  Virg,| 
Aevtiy  iL,  774y  obstujmi  stetenmtque  comde^  vox  Jaucibui 
\aesit. 

[§  164.]  6.  The  four  verbs  dicere,  ducere,  Jacere,  and 
ferre  usually  reject  the  e  in  the  imperative  (to  avoid  am- 
biguity); hence  we  say  dic^  ducyjac^jerf  and  so,  also,  in 
tbcir  compounds ;  asf  edtic,  ^er^  perfer^  calefac^  with  the 
exception  of  those  compounds  otfacere  which  change  a 
into  1/  e.  g.,  (xmficetperjlce,  Inger^  for  ingere,  is  rare  and 
antiquated. 

Of  scire  the  imperative  sci  is  not  in  use,  and  its  place 
is  supplied  by  the  imperative  future  scito,  Scitote  is  pre- 
ferreu  to  scite^  \n  order  to  avoid  the  possible  confusion 
with  9cite^  the  adverb,  which  signifies  **  skilfully." 

Note. — ^The  imperative  future  of  tbe  passive  voice,  but  more  especially 
of  deponents,  has  some  irregularities  in  the  early  language  and  later  imi- 
tations of  it :  (a)  The  active  form  is  used  instead,  of  the  passive  one ;  thus 
<ve  find  tarhitratOf  ampleteaiOt  utUo,  nitit§t  fcv  w^raior^  tunpUxatort  &c. ;  and 
ceruento  for  ceruenior ;  tUtmtOf  tueuto,  patiunto,  in  laws.  (See  Cic,  de  Leg., 
'oLf  3,  fol.)  (6)  In  the  second  and  third  persons  singular  we  not  uncom- 
mcmly  find  the  forms  kortamino^  veremmo,  and  others,  for  hortatory  veretor^ 
occ.  The  forms  onteUamno,  arbUrwuno,  prarfamino,  prqfitemino,  fruimino^ 
and  mrogredimino  occur  in  Cato,  Plautus,  and  in  laws ;  and  passages  of 
this  kind  have  given  rise  to  the  erroneous  opinion  that  there  is  a  second 
person  plural  in  minora  such  as  hortaminor. 

'  [§  165.]  7.  Respecting  the  quantity  of  the  i  in  the  ter- 
minations rimus  and  ritis,  in  the  future  perfect  and  the 
perfect  subjunctive,  the  statements  of  the  ancient  gram- 
marians.not  only  differ,  but  contradict  one  another.  The 
poets  use  it  long  or  short  according  as  the  verse  requires 
It,  though,  to  judge  from  the  analogy  of  erimus,  eritis,  it 
seems  to  be  naturally  short  In  connexion  with  tbis 
(comp.  §  29),  it  must  be  observed  that  the  termination  ris 
of  the  second  person  singular  is  used  by  poets  both  long 
and  short,  as  in  Horace,  Carm.f  III.,  23,  3,  and  IV.,  7,  20, 
and  21,  and  in  the  following  distich  of  Ovid,  Am,t  I.,  4, 31: 

'  Quae  tu  reddideils,  ego  )[)nikiU8  pocuta  sumam, 
£t  qua  tu  biberis,  hac  ego  parte  bibam : 

where,  however,  tiia  influence  of  Uie  caesura  may  of  it- 
self lengthen  the  syllable. 

[§  166.]  8.  Instead  of  the  termination  ris  in  the  second 
person  in  the  passive,  re  is  also  used,  and  with  Cicero 
this  is  the  commtm  termination  in  the  present  and  inrper- 
feet  subjimctive,  and  in  llie  imperfect  and  future  indica- 
tive, even  in  cases  where  the  repetition  of  the  syllable  re 
produces  a  disagreeable  sound,  as  in  vererere,  pro  QHiiU,t 

N 


146  LATIN    GRAMMAR 

16 ;  in  Verr,,  iii.,  18  :  mererere,  Vivin.,  18  ;  de  V*in.^  ii,,  36. 
In  the  present  indicative,  on  the  other  hand,  re  is  used  foi 
ris  only  in  the  following  passages :  Dlvin.,  12,  in  fin.,  and 
in  Verr,^  iii.,  80,  init.,  aroitrare;  pro  Bcdb,,  18,  delectare; 
Philij),,  iL,  43,  inatigurare;  ad  Fam.y  vi.,  2 1 , recwdare  ;  and 
v.,  13,  videre.  Such  forms  as  amere,  moneare,  loqtiare,  au 
diare,  amarei'ey  amahare^  amabere,  mhnereret  loquerere^  &c., 
are  of  common  occurrence  in  all  the  conjugations. 

S§  167.]  9.  The  participle  future  passive  of  the  third 
fourth  conjugations  (including  the  deponents)  is  form- 
ed in  undtis  instead  of  endusj  especially  when  i  precedes. 
In  the  verb  potior  potiundus  is  the  usual  form.  In  other 
verbs  it  seems  to  have  been  indifferent  which  of  thd  two 
forms  was  used,  though  in  some  phrases,  such  as  infini- 
bus  dividundis  or  regundis^  injure  dicundo,  there  seems  U 
have  been  something  conventional  in  the  use  of  theso 
forms.  We  must  leave  it  to  the  student's  own  observa- 
tion to  collect  other  peculiarities  of  this  kind.  Respect- 
ing the  verbal  adjectives  in  bundtis,  see  §  248. 

[§  168.]  10.  This  is  the  place  to  speak  of  what  is  calf- 
ed  the  conjugatio  periphrastica,  or  the  conjugation  by  cir- 
cimalocution.  This  name  is  applied  in  general  to  any  con- 
jugation formed  by  means  of  a  participle  and  the  auxili- 
ary verb  esse;  but  it  is  usually  limited  to  the  conjugation 
formed  by  means  of  the  two  participles  future  in  the  ac- 
tive and  passive,  and  of  the  verb  esse,  for  a  conjugation 
made  up  of  the  participle  present  and  esse  does  not  occui 
in  Latin  (e.  g.,  amans  sum  would  be  the  same  as  amoj^ 
and  the  combinations  of  the  participle  perfect  passive 
with  surriy  sim,  eram^  essem,  ero,  esse,  are  considered  as  a 
part  of  the  ordinary  conjugation  of  a  verb  in. the  passive 
voice ;  as,  for  example,  amatus  eram,  which  is  the  pluperfect 
passive  of  amo.  But  it  must  be  observed  that  in  the  con- 
jugation  of  the  passive  the  perfects  of  esse  are  sometimes 
used  instead  of  the  above-mentioned  forms  for  an  incom- 
plete action,  such  as  sum,  eram,  ero,  &c.  Amahim  juisse, 
therefore,  is  equal  to  amatum  esse  as  an  infinitive  perfect 
passive ;  amatus  Jkeram  is  equivalent  to  amatus  erain,  and 
amatus  fuero  to  amatus  ero,  Amatus  Juero,  in  particular, 
is  used  so  fi?equently  for  dmatus  ero  that  formerly  it  was 
looked  upon  as  the  ordinary  future  perfect  passive,  and 
was  marked  as  such  in  the  tables  of  the  four  conjuga- 
tions.*    But  when  the  participle  is  used  in  the  sense  of 

*  We  have  abandoned  the  common  practice,  partly  on  accotmt  of  th« 


REMARKS   ON    TUB    CONJUGATIONS.  i4? 

an  adjective,  and  expresses  a  permanent  state,  a  diifer' 
eiice  is  clearly  discernible ;  e.  g.,  epistola  scripta  est^  when 
it  is  in  a  perfect  tense,  signifies  the  letter  has  been  written; 
but  if  scripta  is  conceived  as  an  adjective  (in  contradis- 
tinction to  a  letter  not  vnitten),  the  meaning  is,  the  letter 
w  written,  and  epistola  scriptajuit^  in  this  case,  would  sig- 
nify the  letter  7i«/5  been  written  (has  been  a  written  one), 
or  has  existed  as  a  vmtten  one,  meaning  that  at  present  it 
no  longer  exists.  And  this  is  the  usual  sense  in  which^i 
is  used  with  the  participle  perfect ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxxviii.,  56, 
Litemi  monumentum  monumentoque  statua  supcrimposita 
Juit  (is  there  no  longer),  quam  tempestate  dfjectam  nvper 
vidimus  ipsi;  Martial,  i.,  44,  bis  tibi  tricenijuimus  vocati^ 
that  is, "  we  were  invited,  but  got  nothing  to  eat  ;^^iantum 
spectavimris  omnes.  The  passages,  therefore,  in  which  ama- 
tusfui  is  found  as  an  oMmary  perfect  in  the  sense  of  ama* 
tus  sum  may  be  doubted  in  good  authors. 

Note, — Justin  (i.,  19),  however,  writ6s :  Itaque  prave  helium  natum,  in  qw 
et  diu  et  varia  victoria  proeliatum  fmt  (passive)  :  Gellius  (v.,  10) ;  Sic  magi* 
ter  eloqueniiae  confittatus  est,  et  captionis  veraute  excogitatae  frutlratva  J'uu 
(paitoivo):  and  Plautus  several  times  in  deponents;  e.  g.,  obUtusfui  Poenul 
Prolog.,  40  ;  'miratu»fw\  ibid,  v.,  6,  10 ;  and  other  passages. 

[§  169.]  But  by  the  combination  of  the  participle  futur*. 
active  with  the  tenses  of  esse  a  really  new  conjugation  \s 
formed  denoting  an  intention  to  do  something.  This  in* 
tention  may  arise  either  from  the  person's  own  will,  or 
from  outward  circumstances,  so  that,  e.  g.,  scripturiis  sum 
may  either  mean  "I  have  a  mind  to  wiite,  or  I  am  to 
write,"  or  "  I  have  to  write."  The  former  sense  is  also 
expressed  by  "  I  am  on  the  point  of  writing,"  or  "  I  am 
about  to  write,"  and  this  signification  is  carried  through 
all  the  tenses  of  esse. 


Scripturus  sum,  I  am  about 

to  write. 
Scripturus  eram,  I  was  about 

to  write. 
Scripturus   ero,   I   shall  be 

about  to  write. 


ScripturtMjui,  I  was  or  have 
been  about  to  write. 

Scripturus  Jueram,  I  had 
been  about  to  write. 

Scripturus  JuerOfl  shall  have 
been  about  to  write. 


But  the  last  of  these  forms  was  very  seldom  used,  and 
occurs  only  in  one  passage  of  Seneca,  JEpist,,  ix.,  §  14, 
tapiens  nan  vivet  sifuerit  sine  homine  victurus,  that  is,  if  he 

•DAlogy,  and  partly  because  the  number  of  instances  in  which  the  regulai 
luture  perfect  with  ero  occurs  is  so  considerable  that  there  can  be  no  aoubl 
•bout  it.  We  do  not  quote  any  passages,  because  this  truth  is  now  uni 
vertally  recognised. 


14^  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

ebould  be   obliged  to  live  without  human  society.     The 
subjunctive  occurs  in  the  same  manner. 


Scripturus  sim. 
Scripturus  essem. 


Scripturus  Jucrim, 
Scripturtisjuis*em, 


Scripturus  sim  and  scripturus  essem  serve,  at  the  same 
time,  as  subjunctives  to  the  future  scribam;  hnt  scrijJturus 
fuerim  and  scripturus  fuissem  are  not  used  as  subjunctives 
to  the  future  perfect,  scripsero.  The  infinitive  scripturum 
fuisse  denotes  an  action  to'  which  a  person  was  formerly 
disposed,  and  answers  to  the  English  **  I  should  have  writ- 
ten,^' so  that  in  hypothetical  sentences  it  supplies  the  place 
of  an  infinitive  of  the  pluperfect  subjunctive ;  e.  g.,  in 
Sueton^  Caes.f  56 ;  Pollio  Asinius  Caesarem  eadstimat  suas 
rescripturum  et  correcturum  commentarios  fuisse^  that  js, 
that  he  would  have  re-written  and  corrected  if  he  had 
lived  longer.  The  infinitive  with  esse  likewise  first  de 
notes  an  intention  :  scripturum  esse,  to  intend  writing,  or 
to  be  on  the  point  of  writing ;  but  it  then  assumes,  in  or- 
dinaiy  language,  the  nature  of  a  simple  infinitive  future, 
for  which  reason  it  is  incorporated  in  the  table  of  conjuga- 
tions.   For  the  particulars,  see  the  Syntax,  Chap«  L  XXVI . 

Note. — In  the  passive  these  gerundive  tenses  {temftora  serandiva)^  as  they 
may  be  called,  are  expressed  by  longer  circumlocutions :  in  eo  est,  or  futu- 
rum  est  tU  epiatola  «cn6aAir,.the  letter  is  to  be  written,  or  about  to  be  writ- 
ten ;  in  eo  er(U,  or  futwrum  erat  tU  epistola  tqpberetur,  the  letter  was  to  be 
written,  or  about  to  be  written ;  in  eo  erit,  or  frUurum  erit  ut  epistola  $criba 
'  IMT,  it  will  t^en  be  necessary  for  the  letter  to  be  written. 

[§  170.]  The  participle  future  passive  expresses  (in  the 
nominative)  the  necessity  of  suffering  an  action,  and  in 
combination  with  the  tdnses  of  esse  it  likewise  forms  anew 
and  complete  conjugation  (temper a  necessitatis);  e.  g., 
amandus  sum,  I  must  be  loved;  amandu^s  eram,  it  was 
necessary  for  me  to  be  loved,  and  so  on  with  all  the  tenses 
of  esse.  Its  neuter,  combined  with  esse  and  the  dative  of  a 
person,  expresses  the  necessity  of  performing  the  action 
on  the  part  of  that  person,  and  may  likewise  be  carried 
through  all  the  tenses ;  as, 


nUhi  scribejtdum  est^  I  mUst 

write. 
mihi  scribendum  erat^  I  was 

obliged  to  write. 
miki  scribendum  erit,  I  shall 

be  obliged  to  write. 


mihi  scribendum  Juity  I  have 
been  obliged  to  write. 

mihi  scribendumjueratyl  had 
been  obliged  to  write* 

mihi  scribendum fuerit^  I  shall 
have  been  obliged  to  writa 


And  so,  also,  in  the  subjunctive  and  infinitive:  mihi  sort 
\endum  esse  ;  mihi  scribendum  fuisse. 


r(K9T   CONJUQATION.  149 


LIST  OP  VERBS 


WHICH  ABB 

OlRIGliLAR  IN  THE  FORMATION  OF  THEIR  PERFECT  AND  StPIM 


CHAPTER  XLIV. 

FIRST    CONJUGATION. 

[§  171.1  The  irregulkiity  of  the  verbs  of  this  conjuga- 
tiou  consists  chiefly  in  this,  that  they  take  ui  in  the  per* 
feet  and  Uum  in  die  supine,  like  verbs  of  the  second ; 
which  i,  however,  is  sometimes  thrown  out.  It  will  be 
seen  from  the  following  list*  that  some  verbs,  in  some  form 
or  other,  again  incline  towards  a  ragular  formation  of  their 
tenses. 
Crepo,  crepuif  crepttum,  make  a  noise,  tattle,  creak. 

Compounds :  concrepo,  make  an  intense  noise;  d^tcrijpOt  di£fer;  mcrepa, 
chide,  rattle. 

CubOy  cubui,  cubitum^  cuharey  lie. 

There  is  some  authority  lor  the  perfect  cubcndf  incHbuvi.  (See  Ouden 
dorp  on  Gaes.,  B.  Cw.f  m.,  63.)  Compounds :  <»ccHbo,  recline  at  table ; 
exchbOf  keep  watch ;  me«6o,  lie  upon ;  recubo,  lie  upon  the  back ;  mcu^o^ 
lie  apart,  and  some  others.  When  the  compounds  take  an  m  before  b, 
they  are  conjugated  after  tb^  third,  but  kieep  their  perfect  and  supine  in 
«t,  itum,    (See  Chap.  XLVllI.) 

Domo,  ui,  itwn^  tame,  subdue. 

Edamo  and  perdSmo  strengtben  the  meaning. 

SoHO,  ui^  itUTHj  resound.    (Participle  santUums.J 

Consono,  agree  in  sound ;  dis^Sno,  disagree  in  sound ;  peraSnOf  sounu 
through ;  retonOf  resound.    {R§sanavitf  Manil.,  t.,  566.) 

Tono,  ui  (itum)^  thunder.* 

Ationo  (active),  strike  with  astonishment  (participle  att(mtu*)\  mton^ 
commonly-  intransitive,  make  a  sound  (participle  intonatua) ;  circwntbnp. 

Veto,  uiy  ttum,  forbid.     (  Vetavit,,  only  in  P^isius,  V.,  90.) 
Mico,  ui  (without  supine),  dart  out,  glitter. 

EmXcOf  vif  atum^  dart  forth  rays ;  but  dimico,  fight,  makes  dimicavif  atttm. 
Ffico,  Jricui,  Jricatum^  Budjrictum,  rub. 

Defrico,  infrico,  perfrico,  refrico,  are  formed  in  the  same  way. 

*  It  has  not  been  the  object  to  include  in  this  list  every  irregular  verb, 
especially  compounds,  but  those  only  which  are  necessary  in  good  pio*i& 
^len  no  meaning  is  assigned  to  a  compound  verb,  it  is  because  the  8env« 
is  easily  discoverable  from  that  of  the  root  and  the  pt'eposition  vitk  vinHi 
it  is  compounded. 

N2 


FfO  LATIN   CRAMMAB. 

SecOy  ui,  sectum^  cut.     (Part,  sccaturtis,) 

DesecOf  resecUf  cut  off;  disseco^  cut  in  parts. 

Juvo;juvi,  support,  assist ;  the  supine  jutum  is  rare  {sea 
Tac,  Ann.,  xiv.,  4) ;  but  the  -p^ticiple  juvattirus  is  found 
in  Sallust,  Jug,y  47 ;  and  Plin.,  Epist,^  iv.,  15. 

So,  also,  the  compound  adjiivo,  adjUvi^  adjutvm^  in  the  participle  adju 
turns  (Li»'.,  xxxiv.,  37),  and  adjuvatuniSt  in  Petron.,  18.    Frequentative, 
rtfijUto  • 

Ldvo^  Idvi,  lavatum^  lautum^  lotum^  lavarcy  wash,  or  bathe, 

which  is  properly  lavari.  .     . 

The  infinitive  lavere,  whence  the  perfect  lavi  seems  to  come,  is  pre 
«Rrved  in  old  Latin,  and  is  found  in  poetry,  e.  g.,  Hon,  Carwi.,  iii.,  12, 
init.,  mala  vino  lavere.  .  * 

Neco,  kill,  is  regular ;  but  from  it  are  formed,  with  the 
same  meaning,  eneco^  atn^  atum,  and  enecuif  enectum^ 
both  of  which  forms  are  equally  well  established,  but 
the  participle  is  usually  enecttis;  intemeco  has  inter- 
necattis. 

From  PlicOy  fold,  are  formed  applicoy  avi^  atum^  and  ut^ 
Uum ;  so  explico,  avi,  atum,  unfold,  explain ;  implico^ 
implicate.  Cicero  regularly  uses  ajyplicavi  and  expli- 
cavi  ;  otherwise  usage,  on  the  whole,  decides  in  favour 
of  the  perfect  ui  and  the  supine  atum.  But  those  de- 
rived from  nouns  in  plex  form  the  perf.  and  sup.  regu- 
larly :  supplico,  duplico,  mnltiplico.  Of  replico,  whose 
perfect  replicavi  occurs  in  the  Vulgate,  replicatus  only 
is  in  use  (replictiis  is  an  isolated  form  in  Statins,  Silv.^ 
iv.,  9,  29). 

Poto,  drink,  is  regular,  except  that  the  supine  usually,  in 
stead  oi  potatum,  ia  potum^  whence  potus^  which  is  both 
active   and  passive,  having  been  drunk,  and  having 
drunk.     Compounds,  appotus,  active ;  and  epotus^  pass- 
ive. 

Doy  dedi^  datum^  ddre^  give. 

Cireumdoy  surround ;  pessundo,  ruin ;  aatiadoy  give  security ;  venundo^ 
sell,  are  formed  like  do.  The  other  compounds,  addo,  condot  reddOf  be> 
long  to  the  third  conjugation.  (See  Chap.  XLYII.)  From  a  second 
form  dttOf  we  find  in  early  Latin  the  subjunctive  Jvtm,  duis,  dtdtf  also  in 
the  compounds  credo  and  perdo — creduam  and  credwritf  perduim.  ■  Cic,  p. 
Reg,  Deiot.,  7 :  di  UperdvinU    See  ^162. 

«  Co,  steti,  stdtum,  stdre^  stand. 

The  compounds  have  iii  in  the  perfect ;  e.  g.,  consto,  to  conef^t  of;  ejf 
sto,  exist,  or  am  visible ;  instOy  insist ;  obstOy  hinder;  persto,  persevere; 
oroesto,  surpass ;  rtstOf  remain  over  and  above.  Only  those  compound 
k1  with  a  preposition  of  two  syllables  retain  eti  in  the  perfect,  viz.,  an 
*t»tn^  ^^cum*tOy  intert^Of  tuperato.  The  supine,  which  is  mentioned  espe 
riail*  'K  w  aint  of  the  participle  future,  does  not  exist  in  all  the  com- 
potli  >  V  »        .Mover  it  is  found  it  is  Ctum.     The  supine  praeatttum  ui 


SECOND   CONJUGATION.  151 

fraesto  is  certain  in  late  authors  only,  whereas  praestaturus  is  frequent 
Of  dUtOf  the  perfect  and  supine  are  wanting. 

The  active  Yevhsjuro  and  coeno  have  a  pardciplo  with 
a  passive  form,  but  an  active  signification :  juratus  (with 
the  compounds  canjuratus  ^.n^injurattis),  one  who  has 
sworn:  and  coenatus^  one  who  has  dined. .  From  tho  anal- 
ogy of  conjurattUf  the  same  active  signification  was  after- 
ward given  to  corispiratusj  one  who  has  formed  a  conspir- 
acy or  joined  a  conspiracy. 


CHAPTER  XLV. 

SECOND    CONJUGATION. 

[§  172.]  The  itregularity  of  verbs  of  the  second  conju 
gation  consists  partly  in  their  being  defective  in  their 
forms,  and  partly  in  their  forming  the  perfect  and  su- 
pine, or  one  of  diem,  like  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation, 
with  regard  to  the  first  irregularity,  there  are  a  great 
many  verbs  in  this  conjugation  which  have  no  supine, 
that  is,  which  not  only  have  no  participle  perfect  passive 
(which  cannot  be  a  matter  of  surprise,  since  their  mean- 
ing does  not  admit  of  it),  but  also  no  participle  future  ac- 
tive. (See  §  153.)  The  regular  form  of  the  perfect  is  ui, 
wid  of  the  supine  ttum  ;  but  it  must  be  observed,  at  the 
same  time,  that  some  verbs  throw  out  the  short  i  in  the  su- 
pine ;  and  all  verbs  which  in  the  present  have  a  v  before 
eo  undergo  a  sort  of  contraction,  since,  e.  g.,  we  find  cdvi, 
cautum^  mstedid  o£  cavui,  cavitum;  from  caveo;  but  this 
can  scarcely  be  considered  as  an  irregularity,' since  t^  and 
u  was  only  one  letter  with  the  Romans.  Respecting  the 
lengthening  of  the  vovrel  in  dissyllabic  perfects,  see  §  18. 

We  shall  subjoin  a  list  of  the  regular  verbs  of  this  con- 
jugation as  exercises  for  the  beginner,  confining  ourselves 
to  the  form  of  the  present.  •     . 


CaUOf  am  warm. 

Inchoat.  caietco. 
Careo,  am  without. 
Debeo,  owe.  ^ 

DoUot  feel  pain. 
£/a6eo,  have.  ^ 

Compounds :    adhtbeo^  eohibeo,  > 
&c.,  a  being  changed  into  t.    . 
piceOf  lie. 
Iacco^  am  to  be  sold. 

>  Not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
impersonal  /tee/,  it  is  permitted. 
See  Chop.  LX. 


Mh-eOf  merit. 
MSfuo,  admonish. 
Noceo,  injure. 
Pareot  owBy  (appear). 

Compound:  oppareo, appear 
PlaceOf  please. 
PraebeOf  offer,  afford. 
TSceot  am  silent. 

The  partic.  tacitua^  is  commonlf 
an  adjective. 
TerreOf  terrify. 
VdleOf  am  well 


152  L^TIN   6KAMMAS. 

To  these  i:^gular  verbs  we  may  first  add  those  o^  wliicb 
we  spoke  shortly  before,  viz. : 

[§  173.]  (a)  Those  which  make  the  Perfect  in  vi  instead 

of  vui.  • 

Caveo,  cavi^  cautum,  cavere,  take  care. 
PraecaveOf  take  precaution. 

Conniveoj  niviy  or  nion  (neither  very  common),  no  supine; 

close  the  eyes. 
FdveOffaviffautum^  am  favourable. 
FoveOyfdvi,fot9im^  cherish. 
Moveo,  mdvif  mbtum,  move. 

ConmSveo  and  permoveo  strengthen  the  meaning ;  amtte^  md  avhmm 
veOf  remoTe ;  admomt^  bring  to ;  promoveoy  bring  forward ;  rtmoive^  biiag 
back,  or  remove. 

Pdveo^  pdvi  (no  supine),  dread. 

Hence  the  compound  incboat.  expavetco,  eapam,  is  more  coaunonly 
used,  especially  in  the  perfect. 

Voveo,  vdvi,  vatum,  vow ;  devoveOf  devote  with  impreci^ 

tioD. 
Ferveoyfervi^  sndjerhui  (no  supine),  glow,  am  hot. 

Fermtffirvatjfervire,  after  the  third  (comp.  Virg.,  Oeorg.y  i,  455,  with 
QuintiL,  i.,  6, 7),  is  an  archaism.    The  incnoatiTes  of  the  third  conji^ 
gation,  effervneoy  r^erveacoj  have  the  perfect  in  vi  and  hm  (vi  is  more  ire 
quent  in  Cicero) ;  m  canferveacOf  bm  alone  is  known. 

[§  174.]  (h)  Those  which  make  the  Perfect  tn  evi  tii- 

stead  qfvLi, 

DdeOf  ddevij  ddetum,  extinguish,  destroy. 
Fleo^ifievijjletumy  weep. 
Neo^  nevi,  netttm,  spin. 

(From  Pleojf  comjneo,  complevi,  completum^  fill  up;  eaepleo^ 
impleo,  J 

From  oleOf  grow,  we  have  the  compounds,  ahcHeo,  abol 
ish ;  aholesco,  cease ;  adoleo^  addesco,  grow  up ;  exoleo 
or  eoBoiesco,  and  ohsoleo  or  obsoUsco^  grow  obsolete ;  all 
of  which  have  evi  in  the  perfect;  but  the  supine  of  a^ 
oleo  is  abditum,  of  adolesco^  adultwn^  and  the  rest  have 
etum  :  exolehim^  obsoLebwm,  Besides  ahoUtumy  howev- 
er, there  exist  only  the  adjectives  adtdtms,  exdletus,  6b* 
soietus,  ^ 

[§  175.]  fcj  Those  which  tkrow  out  the  short  i  in  the 

Supine* 

Doceo,  docutf  doctum^  teach. 

Compounds:  edouo  nnd' perdoceo,  strengthen  the  mnming :  cbtfi  •. 
teach  otherwise. 


riECOND   CONJUGATION.  159 

T%t€Ot  Unui  (tentum,  rare),  hold,  keep. 

Absttneoy  abstain ;  auineo,  keep  occupied  by  or  at  a  tiling ;  amtinf 
keep  together;  detineo,  lieep  back;  dittineOf  keep  asunder;  retineo,  re> 
tain ;  nutmeOf  keep  upright.  All  these  have  in  the  WQipme  Imimi,  Per^ 
tineoy  belong  to,  has  no  supine. 

Misceo^  miscui,  mixtum  or  mistunif  mix. 

Mixtum  is  better  attested  by  MSS.  than  mUtum,  Compounds  are,  m^ 
miaceOf  commisceOf  immi»ceo,  permuceo, 

Torreo,  torrui,  tostum,  roast. 

To  these  we  may  add, 

(Jenseo,  censui,  centum  (participle  abo  ctntUusJ,  estimate, 
believe.  .    * 

PercenMeo,  enumerate,  without  supine.    Of  aeeenaeo,  reckon  with,  wo 
find  accenaut ;  of  succaueo,  am  angry,  auccenntnu ;  and  recetueo,  examine,   * 
makes  both  recensum  and  neenntum,  the  latter  of  which  is,  perhaps,  bet^ 
ter  attested. 

[§  176.]  fdj  Those  which  make  the  Perfect  regyiarly 

in  ui,  hut  have  no  Supine, 

Arceo^  arcui,  arcere,  keep  off. 

But  the  compounds  coerceo,  coerce;  exereeOf  exercise,  have  a  supiat 
in  itum. 

Calleo,  have  a  hard  skin,  am  skilled  in  (callidusj. 

CandeOy  shine,  glow  (Candidas), 

EgeOf  want.    Compound,  indigeo. 

(From  mineojt  emmeo,  stand  forth. 

JFloreOy  flouri^. 

Frojideo^  have  foliage ;  effrondui. 

HorreOf  shudder,  am  horrified  (horridus). 

Compounds :  abhmreo,  and  a  number  of  inchoatiyes ;  as,  horruc0fpm 
horretco. 

Langueo,  am  languid  (languidtu). 

LateOf  am  concealed. 

Compounds :  mterUOaOf  ptrUuo,  miblatto, 

Madeo^  am  wet  (madidtis). 

Ntteo,  shine  (rdtidus). 

Compounds :  eniteoy  thUmiteo,  praemMt, 

OleOf  smell. 
«   Compounds :  oftdteo  and  redSleo,  have  the  smell  of;  tubctf  mdl  ft 
Uttle. 

PaUeo,  am  pale. 

Pateo^  am  open. 

RSgeOfBxn  stiff  (rigidua). 

Rubeo\  am  red  frubidusj, 

Sileo^  am  silent. 

Sorheo,  sorbui^  sip. 

Perf.  sorpsif  very  rare.    Compounds :  abam  mo  and  <r<orlsfc 


154  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

Sordeo,  am  dirty  (sordidus)» 

SplcTideo,  am  splendid  (splendidtts). 

Studeo,  endeavour,  study. 

Stupeo,  am  startled,  astonished  fstupidusj. 

Timeo,  fear,  (timidus), 

TorpcOj  am  torpid. 

TumeOf  swell,  am  swollen  (tumidus), 

VtgeOf  am  animated. 

VireOj  am  green,  or  flourish. 

Besides  these,  there  is  a  number  of  similar  verbs  which 
are  derived  ifroln  adjectives,  atnd  occur  more  rarely,  and 
chiefly  in  the  form  of  inchoatives,  for  the  Latin  language 
has  'gi'eat  freedom  in  the  formation  of  these  intransitive 
verbs,  and  in  that  of  inchoatives  either  with  or  without  a 
primary  form.     Compare  Chap.  LII. 

The  following  are  really  irregular  verbs,  and  follow  tha 
analogy  of  the  third  conjugation : 

[§177.]    1.   Verbs  wldch  make  the  'Perfect  in  si  and  tlit 

Supine  in  sum. 

ArdeOf  arsi,  arsum,  ardere,  bum. 
HaereOf  haesi,  haesum^  cleave. 

Compounds  :  adhaereo^  cokaereOy  mhaerto. 

fubeo,  jussiy  jussum,  command. 

ManeOj  mansij  mansum,  remain.     (But  mono,  tis,  flow.) 

Pertnaneo  {permanes),  wait ;  remaneOf  remain  behind. 

MulceOy  mulsi,  mtds^fm,  stroke,  caress. 

The  compounds  aemulceo  and  permuleeo  strengthen  the  meaning 
The  participle  permulsus  is  certain,  but  demulctui  and  permulitut  like 
wise  occur.  * 

MulgeOy  mulsiy  mtdsum^  milk. 

Participle  comp.  emulsus.  The  derivative  nouns  mulctuM,  Ha,  the  milk 
ing,  mulctra,  and  miUctraUy  show  that  formerly  mulctttm  also  existed. 

Rideo,  risij  risum,  laugh. 

Compounds:  arrideo  (arndes)^  smile  upon  or  please :  dendeo  ancl  <m- 
deOf  laugh  at,  scorn ;  avhrideo^  smile. 

Stuideo,  suasi^  siiasum,  advise. 

Dissttadeo,  dissuade ;  persuadeOf  persuade ;  but,  like  stiadeot  with  the 
dative. 

TergeOy  iersi^  tersum^  tergere,  wipe ;  is  used  also  as  a  verb 

of  the  third  conjugation :  tergOy  ter^iy  tersum,  ter^ere. 

Cicero  uses  Urgo  more  frequently  as  a  verb  of  the  third  conxugation. 
whereas  the  compounds  abstergeo^  detergeo^  extergeot  incline  more  towards 
the  second  {abaiergeboy  Cic,  ad  Q.  Frat.t  ii.,  10),  although  in  these  com 
pounds,  too,  the  forms  of  the  third  ai;^  not  uncommon. 

Of  denseo,  the  ancient  and  poetical  form  for  denso,  den 
tare  condense  (aoe  Bentley  on  Horace,  Carm.,  i.,  28, 19), 


SECOMiJ   CONJUGATION.  155 

the  perfect  densi  is  mentioned  by  the  grammarians,  and 
the  existence  of  a  supine  is  attested  by  the  adjective  den- 

9US,     ,. 

[§  178.]  2.   Verbs  which  make  the  Perfect  in  si,  but  have 

fU}  Supine, 

Algeq^  alsif  algere,  shiver  with  oold. 

-The  supine  is  wanting,  but  from  it  is  demed  the  adjective  tUntt, «, 
untf  cold. 

Fulgeo^ftdsi,ftilgere,  shine,  am  bright.    (FvUgere  is  poet- 
ical.) 
Tnrgeo,  turd  (rare),  swell. 
JJrgeo  or  urgueo^  ursi,  press. 

3.  yerbs  toith  the  Perfect  in  si  and  the  Supine  in  turn, 

Indtdgeo,  indtddt  indultum,  indulge. 

Torqueo,  torsi,  torium^  twist. 

Compounds:  corUorqueOf  twist  together;  distorqueo,  twist  &way;  extor* 
qtteo,  wrest  out  or  from. 

4.  Verbs  with  the  Perfect  in  xi  and  the  Supine  in  turn. 

AugeOf  'auQcif  auctum,  increase. 
LUceo^  luasiy  lucere^  shine ;  has  no  supine. 
Lugeo,  luxi^  lugere^  mourn ;  has*  no  supine. 
Frigeo^frixi^frigere^  am  cold ;  has  no  supine. 

[§  179.]-  5.   Verbs  with  the  Perfect  in  i  and  the  Supine  in 

sum. 

Prandeo,  prandi^  prdnsum^  dine.     The  participle  pransus 

has  an  active  signification :  one  who  has  dined. 
Sedeo^  sedi^  sessum,  sit. 

'  Asaiideo  (asstdeg)^  sit  by ;  detideOf  sit  down ;  eircumsedeo  or  eircumndea, 
surround;  nuideo,  sit  upon;  «i^9«r«edeo/do  without ;']Mw«uleo,  possess; 
disaideoj  dissent ;  praesideo,  preside ;  retidtt^,  settle  down.  The  la^t  three 
have  no  supine. 

VideOf  vidi,  visum,  see. 

Imrfdeo  (mi^Etfet),  euTy,  aUctd;  pmndeo,  see  through;  prmividto,  fore- 
see ;  provideo,  provide. 

StrideOf  stridi,  without  supine.    In  -poetry  stridere,  * 

6.   Verbs  with  a  Reduplication  in  the  Perfect* 

Mordeo,  momordi,  morsum,  bite. . 

Pendeo,  pependi,  pcTisum,  am  suspended. 

Deptndeo,  depend,  and  impeudeo,  soar  above,  am  impending,  lose  tbt 
reduplication. 

Spondeo,  spospondi,  sponsum,  vow. 

Dt$pondeOf  despondi,  nromise ;  respondeo,  retpondi,  answer,  tie  like 
wiae  without  the  reduplication. 


156  .     UiTIN   GRAMMAB. 

TondeOf  tdtondi,  tansum^  shear. 

The  compounds  lose  the  reduplication ;  as,  attimdeo,  itrtmim. 
[§  180.]  7.   Verbs  without  Perfect  and  Supme, 

AveOf  desire.     Compare  Chap.  LIX.,  9. 

Calveo^  am  bald  (ccuvus). 

CdneOf  am  gray  (carwi)^ 

Clueo  (also  in  the  passive  dueor^  and  afler  the  third  co» 
jugation,  cluOf  cluere)^  am  called,  is  obsolete. 

Fia/teo,  um-  yellow  fjlavusj, 

FoeteOf  stink  (ybetidtcsj, 

Hebeo^  am  dull,  stupid  (hebes), 

Humeo^  am  damp  (numidusj, 

Liveo,  am  pale  or  envious  (lividus). 

(Mmeo)  immineo,  to  be  imminent,  threatening.  Promt" 
ne(?,  am  prominent. 

MaereOf  mourn  fmaestusj, 

PoUeo,  am  strong. 

RemdeOf  shine,  smile. 

Scdteo,  gush  forth  (Scatere  in  Lucretius). 

SquaUo^  am  dirty  (sqtudidus). 

Vegeo^  am  gay  (vegetusj* 

Oieo^  ciere^  is  the  same  word  as  the  rare  and  obsolete  cto^ 

cire^  stir  up ;  both  make  the  perfect  citrt^  according  to 

the  fourth  conjugatiim ;  in  the  supine  they  differ  in 

quantity,  cieo  making  cttnenif  and  do,  cUum. 

Note. — ^In  the  compoonds,  too,  e.  g,,  condao,  eawtco,  the  foims  of  the  sec 
ond  and  fourth  conjugation  cannot  be  separated;  but  we  must  observe 
that,  in  the  signification  of  *'to  call,"  tibe  forma  of  the  fourth  are  preferred, 
e.  g.,  imperf.  dbam,  cirem ;  infinit  dri ;  the  participles  concfftw  and  eaecUu* 
signify  *'  excited ;"  wheieas  egcUua  means  '*  callea  out.**  Perdeo  and  iri' 
cieo  retain  the  signification  of  "  to  excite,**  hence  nercitue  and  mcitue;  but 
aedrft  to.  call,  towards,  summon  or  invite  (of  whicn  the  present  indicative 
does  not  occur),  has  only  acdtue.  Derived  from  citum  are :  ato,  quick ;  the 
frequentative  citare,  and  hence  cxdtto,  tnctto,  and  eusdlto. 

.  [§  181  ]  8.  SemideponeiUs.    (See  above,  §  148.) 

Audeo,  ausus  sum,  venture.     (Partic.  future  ausnrus.J 

The  ancient  iutnre  subjunctive  (see  ^  1^  mtmm,  4ntsi$,  eamt,  tnutnt, 
is  a  remnant  of  the  obsolete  perfect  oust.  The  participle  ausiu  and  it  a 
coihpounid  inautus  are  used  m  poetical  llhguage  with  a  passive  sign'U 
cation. 

Gaudeo,  gavisus  sum,  rejoice.    (Partic.  fut.  gavisurusj  » , 
SoleOf  soUtus  sumf  am  accustomed  (to  do  something). 
The  impersonal  compound  aewlet  signifies  **  it  usually  kappeni.* 


THIBD  CONJUGATION.  167 


CHAPTER  XLVL 

THIRD    CONJV^AT    ON. 

In  the  list  of  verbs  of  this  conjugation  it  seems  to  be 
still  more  necessary  than  in  the  preceding  one  to  include 
those  verbs  which,  according  to  Chs^ter  AL.,  form  their 
perfect  and  supine  regularly.  We  oivide  them  into  sev 
eral  classes  according  to  the  characteristic  letter  which 
precedes  tiie  o  in  the  present,  agreeably  to  tiie  metiiod 
which  nas  long  since  been  adopted  in  Grreek  grammars. 

f§  182.]  1.  Verbs  which  have  a  Vowel  hefhre  o,  including 

those  in  vo. 

The  following  have  tiie  Perfect  and  Supine  regular : 

Acuo,  acui,  acutumf  sharpen. 

Exacuo  and  peracuo,  strengtnen  the  meaning ;  praeaeuo,  sharpen  at  ttM 
end. 

Arguo,  accuse,  convict  of  (perf  passive  in  the  latter  sense 
usually  convictus,  from  convincerej.  ArgHtus,  as  an  ad- 
jective, signifies  "clear.'* 

Coarguo,  the  same ;  redargm,  refute  a  charg& 

ImbuOf  to  ^p,  imbue. 

InduOf  put  on ;  exHo,  strip  off. 

Into  (participle  luiturusj,  pay,  atone  for. 

Abbio  nnd  etuo.  wash  off;  jhmuo,  defile ;  dHuo,  refate,  are  derired  Aom 
anoUier  Zuo  Qavo),  and  all  make  the  sapine  in  latum, 

Minna^  lessen. 

Coiranimio,  deawiuOf  difnmuo,  hnmmuOf  strengthen  the  meaning. 

^Nuo,  nod,  does  not  occur ;  from  it  are  formed) 

Abnuo,  refuse  \  atmuot  assent ;  innuo,  allude,  or  refer  to ;  renmo,  de 
cline ;  all  of  which  haTe  no  supine ;  abnuo  alone  has  a  participle  iii* 
tare,  abmtUurus. 

Brno  (oE^iife  ruiimn^  ndiwus,  at  least  is  derived  from  it : 
rutum  occurs  only  in  coinpounds,  r^id  is  otherwise  ob- 
*     eolete),  fall. 

DirHo,  dtrUit  dirUtum,  destroy ;  obruo,  oyerwhelm ;  proryo,  rush  fcv 
ward.    Corruo,  fall  down ;  and  hrruo,  rush  on,  have  no  supine. 

8puo^  spit. 

C^HMpua,  «pit  on ;  despito^  reject  with  disgust 

Statuo,  establish. 

Conatituo  and  instUuot  institute;  resttuo,  re-establish  tubtUtm,  tf 
tablish  instead  of:  deHUuo,  abandon. 

o 


158  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

StemuOf  sneeze  (without  supine) ;  the  frequentative 

nuto  is  more  commonly  used. 
Suo^  sew. 

ConsttOf  sew  together ;  disruo  and  renuf,  unsew. 

TVibuo^  allot  to. 

AUrUntOf  the  same ;  dittribuot  divide ;  contribuo^  contribute 

Solvo,  solvit  solutum,  loosen. 

Abaolvo,  acquit ;  ditsolvo,  dissolve ;  exMolvo,  release ;  pertolvo,  pay 

Volvo,  roll  (firequentative  volutoj. 

volvo,  unroll ;  involvo,  roll  up ;  pervolvo,  read  through. 
The  following  are  without  a  Supine : 

Congrtto,  congrui,  agree,  and  ingruo,  penetrate.     The  sim- 
ple verb  (gruo  or  ruofj  does  not  exist 

metuOf  metui,  fear.  fTimeOy  likewise  without  supine.)    S<i 
Priscian.    But  metutum  occurs  in  Lucret.,  v.,  1139. 

Pltio,  pluvi,  usually  impersonal,'  it  rains.  Priscian  kno\ti 
only  the  perfect  ^Zt^i,  which  often  occurs  in  Livy.  Cha 
risius  mentions  pluxi,  Impluvi  or  implui  are  doubtful 
The  comp.  complito  ondperplzio  do  not  occur  in  the  i»er 
feet. 

The  following  are  irregular : 

[§  183.]   Capio,  cepi,  captum,  capers,  take  hold  o£ 

The  compounds  change  a  into  T,  and  in  tne  supine  a  into  e,  except  an 
teeapio.  AcdfjpiOf  receive ;  excipio^  receive  as  a  guest,  succ^d ;  recipio, 
recovier;  stucipiOf  underlie;  decipio,  deceive;  peneipiof  ccMnprehend* 
praecipio,  give  a  precept. 

Fdcio,  feci,  factum,  do,  make. 

AreJadOf  dry  up ;  asauefado  and  con$uefaeio,  accustom ;  cahfouna  and 
tepefado,  warm;  frtgefado,  cool;  labefftcio,  make  to  totter;  pattfaao, 
open ;  aatiafado,  satisfy.  These  have,  in  the  passive,  -Jto^  -foetus  nan^ 
•jieru  But  those  which  change  a  into  f  form  their  own  passive  in  'Jieior, 
and  make  the  supinejn  -fectum :  afffeio,  affect ;  con/Setb  and  perficio,  com- 
plete: 
.  ress; 
confierif 

person,  and  not  by  Cicero.  Defit,  it  is  wanting,  is  common  in  the  comic 
writers. 

Other  compounds  of  f ado  follow  the  first  conjugation  :*ampUficot  moc- 
rifico,  and  the  deponents  gratificoTf  lud\ficor»  -  .  - 

JdciOfjecifjactum,  throw. 

The  compounds  change  a  into  t,  and  in  the  supine  into  e,  excent  «m. 
perjadOf  of  which,  however,  tuperjectvm  also  is  found.  Ahjido,  tnrow 
away;  adjido,  add;  dejido,  throw  down ;  ejido^  throw  out ;  injido^  throw 
in;  objido,  throw  against;  rejido,  throw  back;  transjido  or  trajido, 
throw  or  carry  across. '  These  compounds  are  sometimes  found  with  i 
instead  afji:  abicere^  imcere^  rdcere  (in  the  last  d  is  a  diphthong  in  Virg., 
Ed.t  iii ,  Sio :  a  flumine  rdce  capellas) ;  and  this  pronunciation  was  with 
the  ancients  much  more  frequent,  or,  perhaps,  the  common  one,  for  in 
MSS.  it  is  written  so  almost  overvwhere:  and  Priscian  mentions  a  form 


THIRD   CONJUGATION.  150 

ic!o  as  synoDymous  with  jado.  No  certain  conclusion,  however,  can  be 
come  to,  as  the  most  ancient  MS^  such  as  the  Codex  Mediceut  of  Vir- 
gil, have  a  simple  t  where  the  length  of  the  preceding  syllable  showi 
the  existence  of  the  conscmant  j. 

[§  184.]  The  following  have  x  in  the  Perfect : 

(From  the  obsolete  lacio,  entice,  of  which  lacto  is  iho 
frequentative),  allicio^  exi,  ec^t^m,  allure ;  illido,  entico  in; 
pelliciOfledA  astray;  but  dido  makes  dicui, eUcitum^ dro^f 

Ottt. 

(From  spedo,  xi,  ctum,  see,  of  which  the  frequentative  is 
spectoj,  aspido,  exi,  ectum,  look  on;  conspido^  the  same; 
despido,  look  down,  despise ;  dispido  and  perspido,  un- 
derstand; inspido,  look  into;  respido,  look  back;  sus- 
pido,  look  up,  reverence. 

Fluo,^uxi,  flticium^  flow. 

Aj^wfj  flow  in ;  eonfiuo,  flow  together ;  effiuo^  flow  out ;  interflvo,  flov 
between. 

SimOy  siruxii  strudum^  build,  pile. 

Cmutruo  and  exMtruo,  build  up;  destruot  pull  down;  mstruo,  set  m 
order. 

Vwo,  vixi^  vidum,  live, 

[§  185.]  Other  Irregularities. 

Fddio,yodifJbssum^  dig. 

Effodio,  dig  out ;  confodio  and  perfodio,  dig,  pierce  through ;  Muffodf, 
undermine.    • 

Fugio,yugiifiigitum,  flee. 

Aufigio  and  effugiot  flee  away,  escape ;  confugio  and  perfugio,  take 
refuge. 

Oupio,  'tvi,  'Hum,  desire. 

DiscuDio;  yereiyw,  strengthen  the  meaning.  Coneuph  only  in  the 
participle  ctmcupuns^  otherwise  concupitco. 

RapiOf  rdpuif  raptum,  rob,  snatch. 

Arrtphf  arripuit  arrepttmif  seize ;  abripio  and  eripio^  snatch  away ; 
•daipiOf  plunder ;  turripu>,  steal  clandestinely. 

PSrio^  peperi^partum,  bring  forth.     (But  the  particip.  fut. 

act.  pariturusj     Lucretius  has  pariri. 
Qudtio  Cquassi  is  not  found^,  quassum,  shake. 

CcndUiOfiunfUMMmi  shake  violently:  discutio,  shake  asunder;  excutio, 
shf^ce  out,  off  (fig.  examine) ;  incutio,  drive  into ;  percutio,  strike ;  r^per-- 
cutiot  rebound. 

Sapio,  tvi  and  ui  (no  supine),  am  wisd. 

Denpio  (without  perfect),  am  foolish ;  retipio^  have  a  taste  (rf,  or  be> 
come  wise  again. 

(From  the  obsolete  present  coepioj,  coepi  and  coeptus  sums 
r^eptum  (coepeTe)y  have  begun.     See  §  221. 


160  LATIN   GRAMMAR 


CHAPTER  XL VII. 

[§  186.]  2.  VERBS  IN  "do"  anl  "to.** 

The  following  are  regular: 
ClaudOf  dausi,  clautum,  cUmdere^  close. 

C(mdiido,  shut  up,  conclude ;  excludo  and  tedudo,  shut  out ,  ti 
shut  in,  are  all  derived  from  a  form  dudo  which  is  still  in  use. 

JHvtdo,  divlsif  divlsum,  divide. 

Laedo,  injure. 

AUido,  strike  against ;  ilRdo,  strike  upon ;  colUdo,  strike  togetbrn  - 
elido,  strike  out.  .  ' 

Ludo,  sport. 

CoUOdOf  play  with ;  allildo,  play  upon ;  eludo,  dektdo,  and  illudo,  ridl 
cule. 

Plaudo^  si,  sum,  clap. 

Applaudo,  applaud.  The  other  compounds  (with  a  different  proiiun 
ciation)  have.-odo,  •d«t,  -d«itm  ;  as,  exjilodo,  explode ;  complodOf  clap  the 
hands ;  mpplodo,  stamp  with  the  feet. 

Rado,  shave,  scrape ;   so  in  ahrado,  circumrado,  derado^ 
.  erado;  corrado,  scrape  together. 
Rodo^  gnaw. 

Abrodo  and  derodOf  gnaw  off;  orrocio,  nibble;  eircumrodOf  nibble  all 
round ;  perrodo,  gnaw  through. 

Trudo,  thrust,  with  its  compounds;  detrudo,  thrust  down; 

extrudOf  thrust  out ;  protrado,  thrust  forward. 
Vado  (no  perfect  or  supine),  go. 

But  wadOf  evasi,  evasum,  escape ;  invado,  attack ;  pervadOf  go  throuj^ 

[§  187.]  The  following  are  irregular : 
CaJ   With  a  Reduplication  in  the  Perfe^. ' 
Cddo,  cecidi,  casum^  fall. 

Of  the  compounds,  these  have  a  supine :  incido,  incidi,  mcamm,  fall  in 
or  upon ;  ocadot  set ;  rectdo,  &11  back.  The  rest  have  none :  conddo, 
sink  together ;  deddo,  fall  down ;  exiOdo,  fall  out  of;  accidit,  it  happen* 
(used  most  commonly  of  a  misf<»tune). 

Caedo,  cecidi^  caesum,  cut. 

Ab$cido,  ab$cidif  tdudsunif  cut  off;  coruSdOf  cut  to  pieces ;  inddo,  cat 
into ;  ocddo,  kill ;  reddOf  cut  away.  So  decido,  ewUdo,  pratcldo,  wpd 
others. 

PedOf  pepedi  fpediiumj,  TrepdeoBcu. 
Pendoy  pependi^  pensum^  weigh. 

■  Appmdo,  appendif  appenntm,  weign  out  to ;  expendo,  spend,  also  coii> 
aider,  like  perpendo;  nuptndo,  hang  from;  dependo,  pay;  impe»d9,  «■§ 
ploy  upon  or  in  something.    See  ^  179. 

Tendo,  tetendi,  tens^um  <md  tentum,  stretch 


THIRD  uONJUGATiON.  IGl 

• 

JSxlmdo,  ottendOf  pntendOf  and  retendo  have  both  supiues ;  btit  ear-  and 
protentum  are  more  freqaent ;  but  ostensum.  Retentua  is  foand  only  in 
Ovid,  Metanu,  iii,  166,  retennu  only  in  Phaedrus,  iii.,  14, 5.  DeUndo  haa 
Heteiutu^  in  Caes.,  B.  C,  iii.,  85 :  this  participle  does  not  elsewhere  oc« 
cor.  The  other  compounds  have  only  turn  in  the  supine :.  attendo  (sc. 
animum),  attend;  contendo  (sc.  in«),  strive;  dUtendo,  separate,  or  enlarge 
by  stretching ;  tntendOf  strain ;  obtendo  aiui  praetendot  commoiUy  used  in 
the  figurative  sense  of  alleging ;  aubiendo,  stretch  beneath. 

Tundo^  tutudi^  iunsum  and  tuntm,  beat,  pound. 

1*he  compounds  have  only  t&sum  ;  contundo,  contHdif  contuswn,  poucd 
small ;  exHmdo  (figurative),  elaborate ;  obtundo  and  retundo,  blunt. 

Credo^  credidi^  crecUtum^  believe. 

Accredo,  aceredidi,  give  credit  to. 

The  compounds  ofdo^  except  those  mentioned  in  §  171 

Condo,  concSdif  candUvmt  build,  conceal ;  abdo,  obdRdi.  hide.  So  addo, 
add ;  dedo,  give  up ;  tdOf  give  out,  publish ;  perdo,  ruin,  lose ;  reddo,  give 
back,  render,  with  an  adjective  of  quality ;  trado,  deliver ;  vendoj  sell.  (The 
passive  vendi,  except  the  participles  venditut  a»d  vendendu$t  is  rare,  and 
occurs  only  in  late  writers ;  ventre  is  used  instead.  See  ^  215.  But  ab- 
ncondo  appears  in  the  perfect  more  frequently  without  the  reduplication, 
abecendi,  than  with  it,  obecondidL) 

[§  188.]  (TtJ  Making  di  in  the  Perfect^  and  sum  t»  ike 

Supine. 

Aoeendo,  incendo,  succendo^  -cendi^  -censum,  light,  kindle. 

Cudo,  forge. 

ExcOdo  anAprocUdOf  fashion,  hammer  out. 

DefendOf  defend,  ward  off. 
Edo,  eat.    See  §  212. 

dSxedb  and  comedOf  -hU,  -esum  (but  also  cameetusy,  consume.    Und. 

Mando  (perfect  very  rare),  chew. 
Offendo,  offend. 

Prehejtdo^  seize ;   in  early  times  frequently  con&actoJ 
into  prendo. 

Apprehendo,  comprehendo^  lay  hold  of  (figurative),  understand ;  depre 
hendo,  detect,  seize  in  the  fact ;  reprehendo,  blame. 

ScandOf  climb. 

Ascendo  and  eeeendo,  climb  up ;  descendOf  descend ;  eonscendo  and  m 
edendo,  mount,  embark. 

Strtdo  (also  strtdeoj,  strldi  (no  supine),  grate,  make  a 

harsh  noise. 

FwndOyfudi^fOsum,  pour. 

D^fmdo^  pour  out,  spread  abroad ;  effundo,  pour  over ;  profunda,  waste 
afftmdOf  antfund^f  effimdo,  injundo, 

[§  189.]  fcj  Other  Irregularities^  especially  that  of  a  doubU 

s  in  the  Supine, 

Cedo^  cesstf  cessum^  yield,  go. 

Abecedo,  go  away ;  accedOf  go  to ;  anteeedo,  surpass ;  eme»4o,  give  way 
deetdo,  go  away;  diecedo,  itparate  myself;  excedo  go  ouk,  iactio,muck 

02 


462  LATIN   GRAMMAS. 

mtarcedo,  come  b jtv  eeh,  interpose ;  recedo  retreat ;  tuceedOf  come  inte 
one's  place. 

V'indo^fidi^Jissum,  split. 
DiffindQt  diffidif  split  asunder. 

Scindo,  sctdif  scissum^  cut. 

ConscindOf  consctdit  consdssum,  tear  to  pieces ;  e.  g.,  vcstem,  epistolam , 
discindoy  mtersdndo  (e.  g.,  pontem),  perscindo,  and  prdscindo  have  similar 
meanings.  Rescindoj  annuL  .  Respecting. the  forms  ofabsdndo,  cut  o^ 
and  exscindo,  destroy,  there  is  considerable, doubt.  According  to  (vro- 
novius  on  Livy,  xliy.,  5,  and  Drakenborch  on  Silius  ItaL',  xt.,  473,  twci 
analogous  formations  are  now  generally  distinguished:  abtcindoyobtcidiy 
absciasumf  and  exscindOf  exscidt,  exsdstum  ;  and  abtcissum  and  excissum  are 
said  to  occur  where  the  present  is  abscindoj  exscindo  ;  but  abscisum  and 
excisum  where  absddo  and  exocio  are  derived  from  caedo.  But  this  sup- 
position is  contradicted  by  usage ;  for  we  find,  e.  g.,  urbes  exds<B,  although 
exsdndere  wbem  is  a  frequent  expression ;  and  sdl  the  MSS.  of  Horace, 
Serm.f  ii.,  3,  303,  have  caput  absdsum,  although  we  may  say  absdndere 
caput.  In  short,  our  opinion  is,  that  the  forms  absdsnm  and  exadssum 
do  not  exist  at  all,  because  in  pronunciation  they  are  the  same  as  ab- 
sdsum  and  Arctium,  from  absddere  and  exdderct  whose  signification  is  not 
very  diflferent ;  and,  moreover,  that  the  perfect  exsndi^  also,  is  j^t  founded 
on  any  authority,  since  the  »  by  which  it  is  distinguished  is  not  heard 
In  pronunciation,  and  is  better  not  introduced  m  writing.  Reacting 
the  pronunciation  and  orthography,  see  ^  6,  and  Chap.  L.XVI.'  Thua 
there  remain  only  absdndOf  abscidif  absdnd!eret  and  exdndo^  exdndere. 

Frendo  (the  perfect  does  not  occMr)^  Jressum  and  Jresum, 

gnash  with  the  teeth ;  QlaoJrendeo,Jrendere. 

MetOf  messui,  messum,  cut,  reap. 

DemetOy  cut  off.  The  perfects  messtd  and  demeasui  are  not  common 
in  the  sense  of  reaping,  messemfed  is  more  commonly  used. 

Miito,  misi,  missum^  send. 

AdmittOf  admit,  commit;  amitto,  lose;  committor  intrust,  commit  a 

fault ;  demitto  and  dimitto,  dismiss ;  emitto^  send  forth ;  immilto,  send  in, 

against ;  intermittOf  omit ;  omitto  and  praetermitto^  leave  out ;  permitto, 

permit ;  promitto,  promise ;  remitto,  send  back ;  submiito,  send  up,  send 

id. 

Pando,  pandiy  passum  (pansum  rare),  spread  abroad. 

Expando  has  expansum  ana  expassum  ;  dispimdo  only  dispansum. 

Veto,  pefivi  (in  poetry,  especially  in  compounds,  petiij, 
petUum^  ask,  seek. 

Appeto  and  expeto,  strive  for ;  oppeto^  encounter ;  repetOt  repeat,  feeek 
again ;  competo,  meet  together,  correspond.. 

Sido  (the  perfect  and  supine  usually  from  sedeoj,  sit  down 

The  compounds,  too,  usually  take  the  perfect  and  supine  from  aedeo. 

considOf  consedif  conseasum  ;  so  aaaido,  seat  myself  beside ;  aubaido^  sink ; 

inaidOf  sit  Upon ;  deaido  and  reaidoy  seat  myseif  down.    But  ihb  form  atdi 

cannot  be  entirely  denied^  either  in  the  simple  verb  or  its  compound*. 

SistOf  sfiti  (obsolete),  stdium,  stop  (whence  status  J,  but 

sistOy  in  a  neutral  sense,  makes  the  perfect  and  supina 

from  stare. 

The  compounds  are  all  intransitive,  and  have  srtfi,  atifum ;  aubaisto 
subailtij  aubstitum,  stand  stil  ;  absisto  (no  supine)  and  deaiato^  desist ;  aa 
nato,  place  myself  beside'    *'onshu,  halt,  consist;  existo,  come  fortk 


THIED  CONJUGATION.  169 

(pert  exist) ;  insisto,  tread  upoa ;  obsisto  and  resittti,  resist ,  persisto,  pet 
8i8t.    Those  compo  inded  with  dissyllabic  prepositions  may  make  the 
perfecl  in  sieti^  e.  g.,  circumsteti  in  Suet.,  Caes.^  82 ;  Tacit.,  Ann.,  xiii.,  52. 

Ste7'tOy  stertui  (no  supine),  snore ;  the  perf.  sterti  rests  on 
the  authority  of  the  old  reading  in  Ov.,  Her^  viii.,  21, 
VertOj  vertif  versum^  turn. 

'  Adverto  and  converto,  turn  towards  ;  animadverto  (aniinum  adverlo),  turn 
attention  to ;  overto,  turn  from ;  ever/o,  destroy ;  perverto  and  mbverto, 
overturn. 
^  DevertOy  turn  in  to  a  house  of  entertainment ;  praeverto,  anticipate 

and  reverto,  turn  back ;  are  used  in  the  present,  imperfect,  and  future 
as  deponents  more  commonly  than  as  actives. 

Ftdoj/Uus  9um,/idere,  trust. 

So  conf»do,  confide ;  diffido^  distrust ;  which  havd  rarely  confldi,  dijfi' 
Mt  in  the  perfect. 


f 


CHAPTER  XL  VIII. 

[§  190.]    3.   VERBS   IN   "  BO"    AND    "  PO." 

Regular  are : 

CUubo  (glupd)^  gluptum  (at  least,  dcgluptum  is  ibund)^ 

glubere,  peel. 
Niho,  cover,  am  married  (applied  only  to  the  female). 

participle  nupta,  one  who  is  married. 

ObnUboy  cover  over. 
Scribo^  write. 

Descnbo,  copy ;  adscribo,  inacribo,  praescribo,  &.C. 

CarpOf  pluck. 

Ccncarpo  and  discerpo,  tear  asunder ;  decerpo,  gather. 

Jflepo,  creep. 

Arr^,  creep  up  tp  ;  irrepo,  obrepo,  stdnrepo,  prorepo. 

ScalpOf  grave  with  a  pointed  tool,  or  scratch  with  the  fin- 
ger. 

Sculpo,  work  with  the  chisel. 
ExcidpOf  cut  out ;  insculpOf  engrave. 

SerpOy  creep.     The  supine  has  not  yet  been  found. 

InserpOi  proserpo. 

[§191.]  The  following  are  irregular : 

The  compounds  of  cvhare,  to  lie,  which  take  an  m  with  a 

change  of  meaning;  those  which  do  not  change  the 

simple  cuhare  denote  "  to  lie ;"  the  compounds  of  the  3d 

Conjugation  commonly  signify  "to  lay  one's  self  down." 
Aecumbfi,  -cubvi,  -cubitum,  recline  at  table :  incumbo^  lean  upon,  applj 
to  something ;  ptvcumbof  lie  down;  succumbo  fall  under :  occwnbo  (suppv 
m$rtem\  die. 


164  I.ATIN   GBAMMAR. 

BibOf  bthi,  hibttum,  drink. 
EUbo,  imb'lbo. 

LamhOf  lamhi  (lamhitum^  Priscian),  lamhere,  lick, 
Rumpo^  rupi,  ruptum^  break,  teai\ 

Abruff^i  break  off;  enmpo,  break  out;  corrwnpOf  destroy;  intemtmjt% 
interrupt ;  imtmpoj  break  in ;  permmpo,  break  through ;  prortmqto,  brenl 
.  forth. 

ScdhOf  scahif  scahere,  scratch  with  the  finger. 
StrepOf  strepui,  str^jHtutn,  make  a  noise. 


CHAPTER  XLIX. 

[§  192.]  4.  TERBS  WITH  A  PALATAL  LETTER,  *' O,  C,  CT 
Hy  aU,"  AND  '*GU"  (in  WHICH  "u"  IS  NOT  CONSIDER 
ED  AS  A  vowel),  BEFORE  "  O." 

Regular  are : 
(Jingo,  cinxi^  cinctum,  dngere^  gird,  surround. 

Accingo,  in  the  passive,  or  me,  has  the  same  meaning ;  discingo,  ungiru 
and  others. 

From  Jligo^  which  rarely  occurs,  are  formed : 

Afi^g^f  strike  to  the  ground ;  ctmfiigo^  fight ;  injUgo,  strike  upon.  Pn 
fiigo  belongs  to  the  first  conjugation. 

Fiigo   (supine  regular,  frictum^  rarely  frixwm)^  roast, 

parch. 

Jungo,  join. 

Adjungo  and  con/un^o,  join  to,  with;  disjungo  and  aejungOj  separate* 
stdtjungOf  annex. 

Lifigo,  lick.     (Hence  ligurio  or  ligurrio,) 
Mtmgo,  blow  the  nose  (rare) ;  emungo, 
Plango,  beat,  lament. 
iJ%o,  rule,  guide.  ' 

ArrigOj  arraei,  arrecttmif  and  erigo,  raise  on  high ;  corrigOt  amend;  ding{\ 
direct  ;porrigOf  stretch  out.  Pergo  (for  perrigoSf  perrexif  ptrrecttan,  go  on 
eurgo  (lor  8urrigo)f  surrexi,  surrectumf  rise ;  and  nence  a$8urg0f  eonsurge^ 
eanirgOf  insurgo, 

Sugo,  suck,  exugo. 
Tego^  cover. 

Contego  and  obtegOf  cover  up ;  detego  and  retego,  uncover ;  proUgo,  pio 
tect. 

Tingo  or  Hnguo,  dip,  dye. 
TTngo  or  unguo^  anoint. 

Perungo  strengthens  the  meaning  *  inungo,  anoint. 

SUngtw^  put  out  (has  no  perfect  or  supine,  and  is  of  ravs 
occurrence). 


THIRD   CONJUGATION.  105 

Con^oondfl :  extmguo  and  restmguo^  -inxi,  'inctwn  ;  so  dutingu»  aod 
tnstinguo,  though  from  a  different  root,  the  Greek  arlicj.    Only  the  par 
ticiple  instinctus  is  used  in  the  sense  of  "  spurred  on,  inspirea,"  ana  no 
other  tense  is  found  (otherwise  inatigare  is  used). 

VrahOf  draw. 

Perfro^ strengthens  the  meaning;  attraho,  contrahOf  detraho,  eaetraho^ 
protrahot  retraho ;  subtrahoj  Withdraw  secretly. 

Veko,  carry  (active) ;  frequent.,  vecto,  ^as, 

AdvehOf  carry  to ;  inveko,  carry  or  hring  in.  The  passive  of  this  verk 
vehor,  vectus  sum,  vehi,  is  best  rendered  by  a  neuter  verb  of  motion.  So 
drcumvehoTt  travel  round ;  praetervehor,  sail  past ;  titveAor,  inveigh  against. 
These  verbs,  therefore,  are  classed  among  the  deponents. 

Hyico^  say. 

AddicOf  adjudge ;  contradico,  edico,  indieo  ;  mterdioo,  forbid ;  praedico» 

Duco,  guide,  lead,  draw. 

AbdUco,  adducOf  circumduco  ;  condttcOf  hire ;  deduoo,  diducOf  edueo,  inducOf 
introduco,  obduco,  perduco,  produa>,  reduco ;  seduco,  lead  aside ;  subdtk:d 
traduco. 

Coquo^  coodf  coctum,  dress. 

Concoqtto,  digest ;  decoquo,  boil  down,  squander. 

|§  193.]    Irregular  in  the   Supine,  throwing  out  n,  or 

assuming  x. 

Fingo,Jlnad,  Return,  feign. 

Vonfingo,  the  same ;  affingo,  falsely  ascribe ;  effrngo,  imitate ;  r^ngo 
fashion  anew. 

Mingo  (a  more  common  £}rm  ot  the  present  is  meiojt 

minxiy  mictum,  make  water. 

Pingo^  2^nad,  pictum^  "p^int. 

J^ipingo,  represent  by  painting ;  appingOf  expingo. 

Sfringp,  strinxi,  strictum^  squeeze  together. 

AftringOt  draw  close ;  constrmgOf  draw  together ;  dfstringo,  draw  out  * 
distringo,  draw  asunder ;  obstringo,  bind  by  obligation ;  peratringo,  ridi- 
cule. 

Flgo^JixifJixum^  fasten. 

Affigo,  affix ;  transfigo,  pierce  through.  '    • 

Verbs  in  cto,  in  which  t  only  strengthens  the  form  of  the 

Present. 

Flecto,  flexi,  flexum^  hend.    Comp.  infecto. 

Necto,  next  and  nexui^  nexum,  bind. ' 

PectOf  pexi,  pexum,  comb. 

Plecto,  without  perfect  and  supine,  from  the  Greek  rcXiiaadi^ 
strike ;  usually  only  in  the  passive,  plector^  am  punish- 
ed, smart  for.  Another  plecto,  from  the  Greek  ttA^kw, 
twist,  is  obsolete  as  an  active,  but  forms  the  foundation 
of  the  deponents:  amplector,  complect4)r ;  participle  am«  . 
plexus  i  complexus. 


166  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

Of  ango,  anxiy  torment ;  and  ningo,  ninxi  snow,  nn  supin* 

IS  found. 
Of  clarigo^  ring  loudly,  neither  perfect  nor  supine ;  ac« 

co^rding  to  analogy,  the  former  would  be  clanxi. 

[§  194.]  The  following  are  irregular  in  the  formation  of 

the  Perfect : 

(a)  Taking  a  Reduplication. 

Parco,  peperci,  parsum,  spare ;  parsi  is  rare,  and  an  arch&> 
ism ;  parcitum  is  uncertain. 

The  distinction  is  commonly  made,  that,  in  the  sense  cf  sparing  life, 
health,  peperci,  parcitutHt  in  that  of  sparing  money,  parsif  parstan,  are 
used ;  but  the  distinction  cannot  be  carried  out,  for  the  sense  is,  in  fact 
the  same,  viz.,  to  consume  as  little  as  possible  of  anything.    Parc9  oi 

.  comparcOf  -parti  or  -versif  'parsttntf  to  accumulate  by  saving,  with  the  ac- 
cus.,  occurs,  indeed,  in  comedy ;  but  this  use  of  the  word  is  very  rare, 
and  does  not  seem  to  have  been  common  in  ordinary  life,  where  othei 
expressions  were  used,  such  as  pecuniam  facert^  or  injfutttros  usus  aUR- 
gare,  and  parco  retained  its  dative  and  its  ordinary  meaning. 

Pungo,  pupugi,  punctum^  pierce. 

The  compounds  have  in  the  perfect  punxi ;  as,  comptwgoy  di^mngOf  and 
interpungOf  distinguish  with  points. 

Tango,  tefigif  tactum^  touch. 

Attingo  and  contingOf  •/igt,  'tactunty  touch  ;  contingitt  conttgit ;  obtingtc, 
'   obtigit  (as  impersonals),  it  falls  to  the  lot ;  usually  in  a  good  sense. 

Pdngo^  in  the  sense  of  strike,  drive  in,  panxi,  (obsolete 
pegij^  paTictum  ;  in  the  sense  of  bargain,  pepigi^  pac- 
tum.   In  this  sense  paciscor  is  employed  in  the  present. 

The  compounds  havepe^'i pactum :  as,  compingo^  fasten  together ;  im 
pingo.  So,  also,  oppangOf  oppegi^  strike  upon.  Of  depango_  and  repango 
the  perfect  and  supme  are  found  in  the  classics. 

[§  195.]  (h)   Without  changing  the  Characteristic  Letter 

Ago,  egi,  actum,  agere,  drive. 

Cogo  {coago)i  cdegif  coactian^  drive  together,  force ;  perago^  cany 
through ;  oKjo,  drive  away  *  adigo^  ^go^  redigo^  tubigo^  transigo.  Pro- 
digo,  -egi  (wimout  supine),  squander ;  arningo^  am  irresolute,  doubt,  and 
satago  {satis  ago)t  am  busy,«re  both  without  perfect  and  supine. 

Dego,  dcgi  (rare),  no  supine,  spend  fvitam,  aetatemj. 
Frango,fregifractulijr,  break. 

Confringo  and  perfringo  strengthen  the  meaning ;  effringo  and  n/ringo 
break  open 

LegOf  legi,  ledum,  read.     (But  lego,  €u,  send  off.) 

So  perlegOf  praetego,  with  those  changing  c  into  t ;  as,  colRgOy  deligOf  eti 
gOt  and  seligoy  are  conjugated. '  But  diligo,  intelligo  (obsolete  intdtigo) 
and  rugUgo  (obsolete  negtigo);  have  -exi  in  the  peifect.  The  perfects  in 
tellegi  and  negUgi  are  uncertain  or  unclassical. 

.  too  or  ido,  id,  ictum,  strike,  in  connexion  with  jfbedus, 
Priscian  (p.  877  and  886)  mentions  both  fonns,  but 


THiftD  conju<;ation.  161 

Bothing  can  be  decided,  as  icit  only  occurs  in  the  pres 

ent,  and  iciunt  in  Tacitus  (Ann.,  xi.,  9)  is  only  a  wrong 

conjecture  for  fadunU    Otherwise  feiio  is  used  in  the 

present  instead. 

Vinco^  vtci,  victum,  conquer. 

Convincoj  persuade;  devincOf  overcome;  evmcOf  carry  a*pcinty  escab 
lish  by  argument. 

Linmeo,  liqui,  leave  (no  supine),  chiefly  used  ir  poetry. 

The  compounds  relinquOf  derelinquot  delinquOf  have  Uctum  in  the  supine 

[§  196.]  fcj  Perfect  si,  Supine  sum. 
Mergo,  mersi,  mersum,  dip. 

MmergOj  demergOt  and  immergOf  submergo. 

Spargo,  sparsi,  sparsum\  scatter. 

AspergOf  conspergo,  and  reapergo,  -ersi,  -ersunif  besprinkle ;  experg9^ 
sprmkle  abroad.   ' 

Tergo,  tersi^  tersum^  wipe*     (See  above,  §  177.) 
VergOf  vergere,  incline  towards,  without  perfect  and  su 
pine. 


CHAPTER  L. 

f§.197.]    5.   VERBS  WHICH  HAVE  "L,  M,  N,  r"  BEFORE  "O  •* 

■  i 

Regular  verbs  in  mo, 

Como,  compsif  comptumf  comere^  adorn. 

Demo,  take  away. 

Promo,  bring  out. 

DepromOi  exprdmo,  the  same  in  signification. 

Sum>o,  take. 

AbsQmo  and  consumOf  consume ;  asaumo,  desumo, 

TemnOf  temnere,  despise  (poetical). 

Contemno,  corUempsi,  contemptum,  the  same  mearing. 

Irregular. 

[§  198.]  faj  Conjugated  according  to  the  Analogs/  of  tht 

Second  Conjugation. 

AlOf  alui,  alitum  (or  altum),  alere^  nourish. 

AUu»  occurs  in  Cicero  and  Sallust;  afterward  alUus  becomes  th« 
common  form,  as  in  Livy  and  Val.  Maximus.  See  Garatoni  on  Cic,  p, 
Plane.,  33. 

Colo,  colui,  ctdtum,  till. 

Excdlo  and  percolo  strengthen  the  meaning ;  vncUlo,  inhabit  a  country. 

Consulo,  consului,  cofisultum,  ask  advice. 
Molo^  mciui,  moliium,  grind. 


168  i^aTIN  geammab. 

Oxulo^  occuluif  occtdtum^  conceaL 
FremOfJremuifJremiiumf  murmur. 

AdfrenWf  confremo. 

Gemo,  gemui^  gemitum,  groan. 

Congemo  {congemisco)^  ingema  (ingemisco),  w,  no  supine  lamoit. 

l^emo^  tremui  (no  supine),  tremble. 

Contremo  strengthens  the  meaning. 

Vonw^  vomuif  vomitumy  vomit. 

JSwmOf  revomo. 

Crigno,  beget,  has  (from  the  obsolete  genoj,  genui^  gtn> 

tum* 

IngignOf  implant ;  progignOf  bring  forth. 

Pono^postd  (posivi  ohs.)^  positumj  place. 

Antepono,  prefer;  aj^fxmo,  place  by;  comporw,  arrange;  depono^  lay 
down;  disponoy  set  out,  or  in  order;  exponoy  explain;  oppono,  oppose; 
postpono,  to  place  after ;  praepono,  prefer ;  tepono^  set  (m  one  side.  Re* 
specting  the  short  o  in  the  perfect  and  supine,  see  ^  18,  3. 

(From  the  obsolete  cello J^^ 

ArUecellot  exceUo^  praecello,  m  (without  supine),  surpass ;  but  percttlo 
percUli,  perctdstan,  strike  down. 

[§  199.]  f^J  Forming  the  Perfect  taith  Reduplication, 
Cano,  cecini,  cantum,  canere^  sing. 

Succino,  succtmUf  succentunii  sing  to ;  so  ocano  (or  occano)^  sing,  sound 
against ;  condnoy  im,  harmonize,  or,  in  an  active  sense,  begin  a  song, 
without  supine,  but  the  substantire  cvnoentua  is  derived  from  it.  •  Of 
accino,  itUercinOj  and  recino  {or  recano)  no  perfect  or  supine  is  found ;  but 
from  accino  we  have  the  suDstantive  accentus. 

Curro,  cticurri,  cursum^  run. 

The  compounds  cuxurro^  deaaro,  excwrot  incurro,  percitrrOf  praecurr^t 
and  others,  sometimes  retain,  but  more  frequently  drop  the  reduplica- 
tion in  the  perfect. 

Fallojjefellifjalsumy  cheat. 
ReJfellOf  refelli  (no  supine),  refute. 

Pello,  pepulif  jndsum,  drive  away. 

Appello^  apptUii  apptdsumt  come  to  land.  In  the  same  way  are  con 
jugated  compellOf  urge,  compel ;  depeUo^  propeUOf  repeUo,  dnve  away 
expeUo,  drive  out ;  impello  and  perpeuOf  urge  on. 

.  [§  200.]  fcj  Making  vi  in  the  Perfect. 

CemOf  crevi,  cretum,  separate,  see,  perceive.  In  the  sense 
of  seeing;  perceiving,  the  verb  has  neither  perfect  nor 
supine.  The  perfect  crevi  is  used  in  juristical  Ian* 
guage  in  the  sense  of  decrevi^  and  in  the  phrase  heredi* 
tatein  cemere^  for  hereditatem  adire. 

Compounds:  Decemo^  decrevif  decretuntf  decree;  so  diseemo,  eacenm, 
aecemot  separate,  distinguish. 

f,  Uvi  (or  livi)^  litum,  smear. 

Mfifno  i7/i>H>,  perlinot  obUno  (participle  obRtut,  not  to  be  coofowMWI 


Tll»l>   CUNiUGATION.  169 

with  obRtus,  from  o6l<vMcor),  perHno,  besmear.  There  is  alao  a  regulai 
yerb  of  the  fourth  conjugation  of  the  same  meaning,  from  which  the 
compounds  oZZmtb,  circuaUiniOf  iUiniOf  and  others  used  by  later  writers, 
are  aerived. 

Sino^  sivi,  fitum^  allow.  In  the  perfect  subjuijctive  we 
find  nrim,  siris,  sirit,  along  with  siverit.  (Sitiis,  situ- 
ated, is  perhaps  derived  from  this  yerb.) 

Detifno,  de»wi  and  dem  (at  least,  dent  for  deaiit  in  Martial,  see  ^  160. 
note,  for  desierunt  is  no  proof),  desttum,  cease.  Desittu  tMt  is  also  used 
as  a  perfect  with  the  innn.  passive,  like  coeptus  e$u    (Ses  ^  221.) 

SpemOf  sprevi^  spretum^  despise. 

Stemo^  stravif  stratum^  stretch  out  on  the  ground. 

Cotutemo,  irutemo,  spread  out  (bnt  constemn,  as,  frighten) ;  prottemo, 
throw  down ;  tubstemo,  spread  under. 

SerOf  in  the  sense  of  sowing,  has  sevi,  satum ;  in  that  of 

arranghig  and  connecting  together  it  is  said  to  have 

seruif  sertum^  but  these  forms  of  the  simple  verb  do  not 

occur,  though  serta^  garlands,  is  derivea  from  sertum. 

The  compounds  are  variously  conjugated  according  to  their  meaning. 
OmsSro  and  insero  make  -id,  -erhtm,  in  tne  sense  of  joining ;  -m,  4tum,  in 
the  sense  of  sowing.  The  following  compounds  are  used  only  in  the 
sense  of  joining :  2>e«ero,  dissero,  exserOf  and  accordingly  make  only 
send,  sertum.  That  the  verbs  serOf  sevi,  and  sero,  send^  are  roaliy  the 
same,  is  proved  by  the  interchange  of  mserere  and  oonserere  in  good 
authors,  of  which  any  dictionary  may  furnish  examples. 

TirOf  trivif  tritum^  rub. 

Cwtero,  rub  to  pieces ;  attiro,  rub  away,  injure  (i^rfect  also  (Menu) . 
extero,  remove  by  rubbing. 

[§  201.]  fdj  Other  Irregularities, 

VMo^  velh,  and  vtdsi  (but  more  frequently  velli)^  vulsum^ 

pluck  out. 

The  compounds  convellOf  revello,  and  divello  have  only  velU  in  the  per 
feet ;  but  aveUo  and  evello  have  also  avtdsi  and  evulsL 

PsaUo^  psalli,  psaUere,  play  on  a  stringed  instrument. 

Emo^  emi,  emptum,  buy.  . 
.   Coemo,  cojlect  by  purchase;  redimo, purchase  back.    The  signihc»* 
tion  *'take"  appears  in  the  compounds  adimo,  take  away;  dinmo,  di> 
vide ;  esimo,  take  out ;  interimo,  take  away,  kill ;  perma,  destroy. 

FrimOf  pressi,  pressum,  press. 

Cempiimo,  press  together;  deprime,  epprimo,  supprimo,  press  down; 
expnmOf  press  out 

Gero^  gtssif  gestum^  carry,  transact. 

CongerOf  brmg  together ;  cUgero,  arrange  ;  ingero,  introduce. 

l/ro,  tt8si*ustum^  bum. 

AduTOf  kindle ;  combHro,  consun"  e  by  fire ;  mOro,  bum  in,  brand ; 
burnout. 

VtrrOf  verri,  versum,  sweep  out. 
Qitaerif,  quaesipi,  quaesitum,  seek. 

P 


170  LATIN   GRAMMAR 

Auuther  pronunciation  of  the  same  word  is  quaeso.  (See  ^221.)  A» 
qmrOf  acquire ;  conquaro,  collect ;  anqtUrOf  exquirot  inquirOf  perqiuro,  ex- 
amine ;  requirOf  miss,  require. 

fFuroJfJurere,  rage  (without  perfect  or  supine);  insanivt 
is  used  as  a  perfect  instead.  Even  the  first  person 
present  is  not  found,  though  ^m  and^ri^  are  com- 
mon. 

FerOf  tidi,  latum,  ferrc^  is  irregular  in  several  points.  See 
below,  §  213. 


CHAPTER  LI. 

[§  202.]    6.   VERBS  IN  "  so "  AND  "  XO.** 

• 

DepsOf  depsuij  depsitumj  and  depstum,  knead. 
PinsOfpinsui  BJidjn7i8i,pinsitum  Biiidpistum  (alBojnnsum)^ 

pound,  grind. 
VUOf  visi,  visere^  visit.     The  supine  visum  belongs  to  ri- 

derCf  &om  which  visere  itself  is  derived. 
Texa^  texttif  textum^  weave. 

Compounds  frequently  with  a  figurative  signification:  atiexo^  add; 
eontexOf  put  together ;  obteso^  cover ;  pertexo^  carry  out ;  praetexOf  add  a 
hem ;  retexOf  to  undo  that  which  is  woven,  destroy. 

After  the  Analogy  jof  the  Fourth  Conjugation : 

ArcessOf  or  accerso^  -ivi,  -itum,  sununon. 
•     Both  modes  of  writing  this  word  are  found  in  good  MSS.  and  bit 
tions ;.  compare  Schneider's  ElementarUhre^  p.  257,  foil.,  and  the  quc^a- 
tions  in  Kritz  on  Sallust,  Catil.^  40.    The  infinitive  passive  arcessiri  or 
curs  sometimes,  as  in  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.y  v.,  11,  Oudendorp. 

CapessOf  undertake. 

FacessOi  give  trouble,  especially  with  negotium  and  peri" 

culmn,  also  equivalent  to  proficiscoT,  get  off  (facesserii^ 

in  Cic,  Div,j  in  Q.  Caec,^  14). 
fncesso,  attack ;  no  supine.     Perfect,  incessivi :  incean  is 

doubtful  (Tac.,  Hist,,  iii.,  77),  unless  we  refer  to  this 

root,  and  not  to  incedo^  the  frequently  occurring  phrase. 

curat  desperatiOf  &;c,  incessit  animos. 
Lacessoy  provoke. 

[§  203.]  7.   Verbs  in  sco,  either  not  Inchoatives,*  or  zf 
which  the  Simple  is  no  longer  found. , 

Cresco,  crevi,  cretum,  grow. 

*  [On  an  accurate  examination  of  their  meaning,  however,  such  verbs 
as  creMco^  noaeof  &c.,  will  be  found  to  be  actual  incnoatives,  and  might  «t 
well  have  been  arranged  prwier  the  succeeding  chapter.] — Am,  Ed, 


THIBD   CONJUGATION^.  171 

Sivalso,  eortr,  de-,  excretco,  and  without  a  supine,   atcretco,  mcriac 
grow  up,  and  sttccrescoy  grow  up  gradually. 

NoscOf  novi,  notum,  become  acquainted  with.     The  ori 

ginal  form  is  gnoscO  (Greek  yiyvG)aK(»)),  and  the  g  reap 

pears  in  the  compoimds,  if  possible. 

The  perfect  novi  takes  the  signification  of  the  present,  **  I  kf.\.vt 
i^  221) ;  the  supine  is  mentioned  only  on  account  of  the  compounds 
for  the  participle  notus  has  become  an  adjective,  and  the  participle  fu 
ture  does  not  occur.  The  comp.  agnoscoy  recognise,  cognosco  (perf.  cog 
novi,  I  know),  and  recognosco,  recognise,  have,  in  the  supine,  agmtum 
cogrAttan,  recogrAtum  ;  ignoscOf  pardon,  has  ignotum;  dignosco  and  inter 
nosco  have  no  supine. 

Pasco f  pavi^  pastum^  feed. 

Depascoi  feed  down.    The  deponent  pascor,  feed  or  eat. 

Quiesco^  qUievi^  quietum,  rest. 

AcquiescOf  repose  with  satisfaction ;  conquietco,  requiesco,  rest. 

Suesco,  suevi^  suetum^  mostly  intransitive,  grow  accustom- 
ed, or,  more  rarely,  accustom  another.     But  sttetus  sig 

nifies  *' accustomed." 

So,  also,  (usuetfio,  consuesco,  inmescOf  generally  accustom  one's  self 
desuesco,  disaccustom  one's  self.  Some  passages  where  they  occur  ii 
a  transitive  sense  (in  which  otherwise  toe  compounds  with  facio  an 
used,  see  ^  183)  are  referred  to  by  Bentley  on  H(Mrace,  Serm.,  i,  4,  lO** 

CompescOf  campescui  (no  supine),  restrain. 

THspesco,  dispescui  (no  supine),  divide. 

DiscOf  didici  (no  supine  :  disdturus  in  Appuleius),  leaiTi 
AddiscOf  addidki,  learn  in  addition ;  dedisco,  unlearn ;  edisco,  learn  b) 
heart. 

PostjOf  poposci  (no  supine),  demand. 

Deposco,  depoposci,  and  reposco,  dCToand  back ;  aepoaco,  expopoteif  ehal 
lenge: 

GliscOy  gliscere,  increase. 

HiscOf  hiscere,  open  the  mouth,  gape. 


CHAPTER  LII. 

INCHOATIVES. 


[§  204.]  The  inchoatives  (see  §  234)  in  sco  are  partly 
formed  from  verbs  (chiefly  of  the  second  conjugation*), 
and  pattly  from  nouns  (substantives  or  adjectives),  and 
are  accordingly  called  inchoativa  verhalia,  or  inchoativa 
nomtnalia,  that  is,  verbal  or  nominal  inchoatives.  The 
first  have  no  other  perfect  than  that  of  the  simple  verb ; 

♦  Accordmg  to  a  passage  in  Gellius,  vi.,  15,  they  were  probably  pro- 
Bounced  with  a  naturally  long  t ;  as,  calacoy  pallaco. 


A 


172  LATIN    GAAMMAn. 

the  others  either  have  none,  or  form  it  in  a  similar  ^ay  in 
ui.  Few  of  the  verbal  inchoatives  lia\  e  the  supine  of  the 
simple  verb. 

Only  those  which  are  of  most  frequent  occurrence  are 
given  in  the  following  list.  There  are  a  great  many 
more,  but  their  formation  is  easy  and  analogous.  Thi^ 
we  may  form  inchoatives  to  die  intransitive  verbs  in 
Chap.  XL  v.,  if  there  is  any  occasion  for  it,  and  we  may 
oe  assured  that  it  occurs  in  some  passage  or  other  of  the 
ancients. 

1.  Verbal  Inchoatives  with  the  Perfect  of  the  Simple  Verb, 

Acesco  (aceo)f  acui,  grow  sour ;  coacesca^  peracesco, 

Albesco  and  exalheaco  {alheo)^  exalbuif  grow  white. 

Aresco  (areo)^  artdf  grow  dry. 

Cdletco  {caleo)f  coita,  become  warm. 

Canesco  {carta)),  canuif  become  gray. 

Conticesco  {taceo),  conticiUf  am  reduced  to  silence. 

Contremisco  {tremo),  contremui,  tremble. 

Defervesco  (ferveo),  de/erbui,  gradually  lose  my  heat. 

DeUtesco  (lateo),  deUtuif  lurk. 

Efferveaco  {ferveo)^  efferbuif  grow  hot. 

Excandesco  (candeo),  excandtti,  grow  ot  a  white  heat;  figuratively,  mm 

enraged. 
Extimesco,  pertimesco  (timeo)^  extimuit  am  terrified. 
Floresco,  de-,  effloresco  (Jloreo),  efflorui,  bloom. 
Haeraco,  and  ad-,  inhaeresco  {haereo),  ad-,  inhaesi,  adhere  to. 
Horresco,  exhorresco,  perhorresco  {horreo),  exhorrui,  am  struck  with  hotior. 
Ingemisco  {gtmo\  ingemuif  groan. 
ItUumesco  {titmeo),  intumuif  swell  up. 
Imxudsco  {raucut)t  irrausif  become  koarse. 

Languescot  elanguetcOf  relanguesco  {langtieo)^  elangui,  become  feeble. 
lAquesco  CLiqueo)^  licuif  melt  away. 
Madesco  (madeo)^  nuuhiif  become  wet. 

Marcesco  (marceo),  comp.  commarcescOf  emarceaco,  emarcid,  fade. 
Occallesco  (calleo)^  occaUtti,  acquire  a  callous  surface. 
PaUeaco,  expaUesco  (jkUUo)^  paHuif  turn  pale. 
PtUresco  {mUreo)f  putndf  moulder. 
Resipiseo  (aapio),  resima  and  resipiviy  recover  wisdom. 
Rubesco,  eruoesco  (ruoeo),  grow  red«  blush. 
Seneseo,  consenesco  {seneoif  dmsemd,  grow  okL    The  participle  <imrtin, 

grown  old,  is  little  used. 
Stupesco  and  obatupesco  {stupeo),  obstupuif  am  struck. 
Tabesco  {tqbeol,  <a6ia,  pine,  waste  away. 
Tepesco  {tepeo\  tepm,  grow  lukewarm. 
VirescOf  comp.  convirescOf  evirescOf  revireseo  (yireo),  tnrui,  grow  green. 

2.  Verba,  Inchoatives  which  have  the  Sttpine  as  well  Oi 

Perfect  of  the  Simple  Verb. 

JAboleacOf  abolevi,  aboHtuntt  cease  am  annihilated. 
ExolescOf  exolevif  exoletum,  grow  useless  by  age.    So,  tlso,  oinUic^, 
AdoUsco,  adoUvit  aduUumf  grow  up.    See  ^  174,  Oleo. 
CodUaco  {aUre)f  coo/ta,  cooitfum,  grow  together. 
Cmieupiaco  ^ctmcre),  coneupivif  concujntum,  desire. 
OomHM9€9  (vMtre),  cmiwUm,  convmRtum,  recover  health 


FOURTH   CON  JUG  4  r  ION  11% 

Esarietco  (ardert)^  exarst,  exarsum^  am  infl&med. 

Indolesco  (dolere)^  indobti^  tlum,  feel  pain. 

Inveterasco  (inve/erore),  inveteravit  lUuniy  grow  old. 

Obdormisco  {dormire\  ivi,  ituntf  fall  asleep ;  edormisco,  sleep  out.  t 

Revivisco  (vivere\  revixif  revictwiif  recover  life. 

Scisco,  (scire) f  scivif  satum,  reserve,  decree.   Hence  pUhisatumy  pcphHtdUm 

[§  205.]  3.  Inchoatives  derived  from  Nm?, 
•   (a)  Without  a  Perfect. 

Atgresco  {aeger),  grow  sick. 

Ditesco  (dives)^  grow  rich. 

Dulceaco  (dulcis)^  grow  sweet. 

Grandesco  (grantUs),  grow  large. 

Chraveaco  and  ingravesco  (gravis\  grow  heavy. 

Incurvesco  (curvtu),  become  crooked. 

IrUegraaco  {integer),  become  renovated. 

Jteoenesco  {juvenia),  grow  young. 

Mitesco  {tmtis),  grow  mil<L 

MolUsco  {fnoliu\  grow  soft. 

Pinguesco  (pingtds),  grow  fat. 

Plutnesco  ipluma),  get  feathers. 

Ptterasco,  repuerascb  (puer),  become  a  child  (agair\ 

SteriUtco  {aterilis),  become  barren. 

Teneretco,  tenerasco  (tener),  become  tender. 

(bj  With  a  Perfect. 

CrebrescOf  increbrescOf  and  percrebresco  (crdter),  crehrtd,  grow  fireqtifS^c?  r%M, 

rent. 
DureacOf  ohdwreaco  {durus),  durui,  grow  hard. 
Evanesco  {yattua),  evamUf  disappear. 
IrmoUsco  (notus),  innotuif  become  known. 
Macresco  {macer),  macruif  grow  lean. 
Moffisuesco  (manstietus),  matuuevi,  grow  tame. 
Maturesco  {rmUurus),  matunUf  grow  ripe. 
Nigresco  (niger),  nigrui,  grow  black. 
CNmutesco  {nttUtu),  obmtUui,  become  dumb. 
Obsurdesco  (surdus),  obaurduiy  become  deaf. 
Recrudesce  {crttdus),  recrvdui,  to  open  again  (of  a  wound  that  iaa 

closed). 
Vileaco  and  evilesco  (vHis),  eviluif  become  cheap  or  worthless. 


CHAPTER  LIII. 

FOURTH    CONJUGATION. 

[§  206.]   The  desiderative  verb?  (see  §  232)  in  firw, 
e.  g^  coenaturio,  dormitwriOf  empturio,  have  neither  per 
feet  nor  supine,  with  the  exception  of  esurio,  desire  to  eat, 
perfect  esuriviy  participle  esuriturus ;  nupturio^  desire  U 
marry,  and  parturioy  am  in  labour,  have  only  perfects, 
nupturivi  and  parturivi^  but  no  supine. 

The  following  verbs  vary,  either  in  the  perfect  or  in 
the  supine,  or  in  both,  from  the  regular  form  (tvi^Uum) 

P2 


174  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Cio,  civit  eitum,  regular ;  but  see  §  180. 

En,  tcif  ttum,  with  its  compounds.     See  Defective  Veih^ 

§  215: 
Fardo^farai^fartum  (also  yrntX/Qnfarctum)jfarciTc^hl\JS, 

The  supineyar^ttm  is  more  rare,  and  not  as  good. 

Confercio  and  referciOy  first  ^  fertuni,  fill  up ;  efferciOf  mfercio,  are  C^Uja 
gated  like  the  simple  verb. 

FulciOfJulsiyJidtum^^iilcire,  prop. 

The  perfect  tuns  presents  no  external  difference  from  the  perfect  of 
'fulgeo. 

HduriOy  hausi,  haustum,  haurire,  draw. 

The  supine  ?iautum.  is  rare,  but  the  participle  hausunu  is  as  cominaa 
as  hauMttanu, 

QueOf  quivi  or  quii,  qmtum,  quire.     See  §  216. 

Raucio,  rausif  rausum,  raucire,  am  hoarse  (raucusj. 
The  compound  irrausentf  in  Cic,  de  Oral.,  L,  61.    See  ^  20i. 

SaepiOf  saepsi,  saeptum,  saepire  (some  write  sepioj,  hedge 
in. 

Sdlio,  aalui,  more  rarely  9alii  fsaltumj,  salire,  spring. 

In  the  comp.  denliOf  exiUot  insUioy  &c.,  the  perf.  -tUui  is  far  better  than 
the  forms  in  sUU  and  salivif  and  must  be  restored  in  the  authors  of  the 
^  best  age  from  the  MSS.  See  Drakenb.  on  Liv.,  ii.,  10,  and  Scfawurz  on 
Pliny,  Paneg,^  66.  The  supine  does  not  exist  either  in  the  simple  verb 
or  in  the  compounds,  thougn  the  derlTatives  aaUus,  1U,  dentkor,  tnsnltare, 
lead  us  to  a  form  saltum,  and  in  compounds  wultum,  Tb^  'r*»gr*h'  ""^b 
9a/tre,  salt»  must  not  be  confounded  with  saUre,  spring.  The  former  is 
synonymous  with  the  obsolete  salere  or  sallire,  from  which  salsus  is  de 
rived. 

Sancio,  sanxi,  sancitum  and  sanctum,  gandre,  decree,  sane 
tion.     Sanctus  is  found  as  a  participle,  though  it  is  com- 
monly an  adjective,  but  sancitus  is  more  common. 

Sarcio,  sarsi,  sartum,  sarcire,  patch. 

Resarcio,  repair. 

Sentio,  sensi,  sensum,  scntire,  feel,  think. 

ConsentiOf  agree ;  duaetUio,  disagree ;  praesentio,  perceive  beforehand. 
The  compound  assetuio  is  not  as  common  as  the  deponent  assentior,  but 
is  founded  on  good  authority,  e.  g.,  Cic.|  ad  Au.,  ix.,  0,  assentio :  ad 
Fam.t  v.,  2,  assensi ;  and  three  other  instances  of  the  perfect,  which 
are  quoted  by  Hiinemann  on  Lactanl.,  1, 15,  19. 

Sepdio,  'ivi,  sepultum,  sepdire,  bury. 

Venioj  vent,  ventum,  venire,  come. 

Advenio,  arrive ; 'eon»«mo,  meet;  o&oentb,  enconcX^i  M'varu),  leach; 
tnvtfnto,  find. 

Vtncio,  vinxif  vinctum,  vincire,  bind. 
DevinciOf  bind  closely,  bind  by  duty. 

imicio,  amictum,  amicire,  clothe.     (The  perfects  amisn 
and  amicui  are  attested  by  the  grammarian  Dioraedes. 
p.  364,  but  are  not  found  in  our  authors.     Aminvi  (am 
icissej,  on  the  othei  hand,  occurs  in  Fronln.) 


FOURTH   CONJUGATION.  lib 

Aperio^  v/,  rtum^  aperire^  open. 

So  operio  and  cooperioy  cover.  Bat  comperio  makes  comphif  compertum^ 
tompenre  (is  used  in  the  present  and  infinitive,  also  as  a  deponent,  torn' 
perim ,  compairi)^  experience,  and  reperiOf  rephi  (or  rtpperi),  repertum,  find. 

VeruH-ferirc^  strike.  (In  the  active  percusn  is  used  aa 
a  perfect,  and  in  the  passive  ictus  sum.) 

Ferodo-^erodrej  am  wild  or  insolent. 

Viaio — visire^  jSdco). 

Punioj  punish,  is  regular,  but  is  sometimes  used  by  Cic- 
ero as  a  deponent,  de  Cff^  i.,  25,  punitur  :  Tuscul»,  i^ 
44,  puniaiUur:  Philip,^  viii.,  3,  puniretur:  p.  MtUm^ 
13,  punitus  es:  de  Invent^  iL,  27,  punitus  sis. 


CHAPTER  LTV. 

UST  OF  DEPONENT  7ERBS.*t 

[§  207.]   PEPONBNT  VERBS  OF  THE  FIRST  GONJUOATIOli. 

Adminiculorf  aid.  Auxilior,  aid. 

^dverMT/oppose  mjrselC  Baechor,  rarel  as  a  BacchanaL 

AdHlor,  flatter.  Cahmador^  cavil. 

Aemidor^  rival.  CaviUor^  ridicule. 

^AittrcoTf  quarrel.  Cauponor,  deal,  retail. 

AludnoTf  (also  aUue.  and  halluc.),  Cau»or,  ahege. 

dote,  talk  idly.  Ckrador,  form  a  circle  around  xno. 

AmpUxarf  embrace.  Comistor,  feast. 

AnaUer,  am  a  handmaid.  Comiiorj  accompany  (come*,  actit* 
Apncor,  sun  myself.  only  m  the  poets). 

Aouor,  fetch  water ;  /irumentcr,  col-  Commentor,  reflect  upon,  dispute. 

lect  com ;  Kgnor,  collect  wood ;  Omtienor,  harangue. 

malenbr,fell  timber;  fMiMtforf forage.  *Con/Itcf or,  contend. 

ilWUlror,  think.  Conor,  attempt 

ArchUector,  build  {amarchitectiu).  Consilior,  advise. 

ArgumentoTt  prove.  CorupicoTf  behold. 

ArgiUor,  chatter,  am  argutus.  Cowtemplor,  contemplate. 

Aspemor,  despise.  Cotwictorf  revile. 

AssentoTf  agree,  flatter.  Convivor,  feast  (convha). 

Audionorf  sell  at  auction.  Cormcor,  chatter  as  a  Crow. 

AucApor,  catch  birds,  am  auceps,  Crimmor,  accuse. 

AvarsoTy  dislike,  avoid  with  horror.  Cunctor^  dday. 

Auguror  {augvr),     \  DepeefUor,  plunder. 

^Atujneor  (mupex),  I  practise  sooth-  Despieor,  despise ;  desptob.but  dewp* 
Hariohr  (kariohu),  (     saying.  *  catua  is  passive,  despised. 

Vatkinor  (votes),       )  Deversor,  lodge. 

*  The  words  to  which  an  asterisk  is  prefixed  are  used  also  as  actives, 
but  better  as  deponents.  Some  deponents  have  been  omitted  in  the  list 
which  are  either  of  vtir  rare  occurrence  or  more  commonly  used  as  ac> 
lives.    Respecting  the  latter,  see  the  note  at  the  end. 

t  [The  Latin  deponents  are  in  fact  middle  verbs,  the  active  voices  of 
which  have  pas|ed  out  of  use.  Many  of  these  old  actives  may  be  found 
ki  the  fragments  of  the  early  writers ;  as,  for  example,  Ennius.  What 
ire  called  common  verbs  are,  m  fact,  nothing  more  than  verbs  which  have 
the  middle  and  paseii^o  toice,  each  more  or  less  in  ise  but  have  lost  th< 
active.) — Am.  Etl 


176 


LATIN   GRAMMAS. 


Digladio7f  fight. 

DignoTj  think  worthy.    Cicero,  hoW- 

eyer,  sometimes  uses  it  in  a  pass* 

ive  sense,  **I  am  thought  wor 

thy." 
De^UgnoTf  disdain. 
Dominor^  rule  (dominusX 
Ehidibrorf  produce  by  aint  of  labouf. 
EpuloTf  feast. 
Execror,  execrate. 
*Fabricor,  fashion. 
FabidoK,  conftUmhTf  talk. 
Famulor,  serve  i^tmubu). 
FeneraTf  lend  at  interest  (the  active, 

**  to  restore  with  interest,"  occurs 

in  Terence ;  ia  later  writers  it  is 

the  same  as  the  deponent). 
FerioTf  keep  holyday. 
Frustror,  disappoint 
Furor  J  suffuror,  steal. 
GlortoTf  boast. 
GraecoTf  live  in  the  Greek  style,  that 

is,  luxuriously. 
GrassoTf  advance,  attack. 
Chatificorf  comply  with. 
Orator  and  grantlor,  give   thanks, 

present  congratulations. 
(Gravor,  think  heavy,  is  the  passive 

of  gravo.) 
HeUMOTf  gluttonize  {helluo), 
Hotior,  exhort;    adhortor,  exhortory 

dehortor. 
HospitoTf  am  a  guest  (Jiospes),  lodge. 
Imaginorf  imagine. 
Imitorf  imitate. 

Jndignor,  am  indignant,  spurn. 
InfitioTf  deny. 
Iruidior,  plot. 

Jnterpretorf  explain,  am  an  interpres. 
Jacmorj  throw,  dait. 
JocoTy  jest.  ' 
Laetor,  rejoice  (Jaetus). 
Lamentor^  lament. 
ZiOtrocinor,  rob,  am  a  latro. 
JLenocinor  (aUctd)t  flatter. 
LUndinor,  am  voluptuous. 
LicUort  bid  at  an  auction. 
£Atcror,  gain. 
Luctor,  strive,  wrestle  (obluctor  and 

relttctoTf  resist). 
*Ludificor,  ridicule. 
Machinor.  devise. 
Medicor,  heal. 
Meditorf  meditate. 
Mercor^  buy. 

*Meridior,  repose  at  noon. 
MetoTf  measure  out. 
Minor  and  mirutor,  threatez. 
Miror^  wonder;  demiro^,  tb3  same; 

ttdmirory  admire. 


Miseror,  commiseror,  pity. 

Moderor,  restrain,  temper. 

Modular,  modulate. 

Morigeror,  comply,  am  morigertts, 

Moror,  delay ;   trans,  and  intrtMU 
comp.  e^mmoror. 

*Munerorf  remuneror,  aliquem  aliqm 
re,  reward. 

Mutuor,  bcHrrow. 

Negotior,  canr  on  business. 

NidUhr,  build  a  nest. 

Nugor,  trifle. 

NrndmoTt  deal  in  buying  and  selliug 

Nutncor,  nouiish. 

Odoror,  smell  out. 

Ommor,  prophesy ;  dbonmm',  aboml 
nate. 

Operor,  bestow  labour  (m. 

dfinor,  thipk. 

(Mtuhr,  lend  help. 

*U8cUor,  yvNTk, 

Oscular,  kiss. 

Otior,  nave  leisure. 

*Palpor,  stroke,  flatter. 

Parasitor,  act  the  parasite  {paraniut^ 

Patrocinor,  patroiuse. 

Percontor,  inquire. 

P&egnnor,  dwell  as  a  stranger. 

PericRtor,  try,  in  later  writers,  am  in 
danger. 

Philosophor,  philosophize. 

*Pieneror,  take  a  pledge,  bind  by  n 
pledge. 

Pigror,  am  idle  (piger), 

Piscor,  fish. 

*Populor,  lay  waste. 

Praedor,  plunder. 

Praestohr,  wait  for,  with  the  dat.  a 
accus.  (the  quantity  of  the  o  is  un- 
certain, though  probably  short). 

Praevartcor,  walk  with  crooked  legs^ 
act  dishonestly,  as  a  praevarieeuar, 
that  is,  as  a  false  accuser. 

Precor,  pray ;  camprecor,  invoke ;  de^ 
precor,  deprecate ;  imprecor,  impre 
cate.  / 

Proelior,  fight  a  battle. 

Ratiocinor,  reason. 

RMordor,  remember. 

Refragor,  oppose. 

Rimor,  examine  minutely. 

Rixor,  wrangle. 

Rusticar,  live  in  the  countiy. 

Scitor  and  sdsdtor,  inquire. 

Scrutor,  perscrUtor,  search. 

Sector,  tne  frequentative  of  tcfiKv, 
fo^ow;  assector^-tonsector  inMe*  t 

Sermocinor,  hold  discourse 

Solar,  consdlor,  comfort 

Spatior,  eatj^ior^  walk. 


JUBPONENT    VBBB8.  IT) 

Bptcuior,  keep  a  look  ou^  VadoTj  summon  to  trial. 

SUipulor,  make  a  targain ;  adstiptdoTf  Vagor  and  palor,  wander. 

a^e.  VeUftcorf  ateer  towards  (figuratively, 
StamSckor^  am  indignant.  gain  a  purpose),  whence  it  is  con 

SuwBmr,  kiss.  strued  witn  the  dative ;  as,  honori 

Suffragor  (the  contrary  of  r^agor),       meo. 

assent  to.  Ve/t/or,  skirmish  with  light  troops. 

Suspicor,  suspect  Viwuror,  venerate. 

TergtvermfTf  shuffle*  Vtnor,  hunt. 

Testor  and  Ustificar^  bear  witness.  Vertcundor,  feel  shame  at  doing. 

TVicor,  make  unreasonable  difficul-  Fertor  Tproperly  the  passive  of  «<r<o), 

ties  (jtricas).  dwell,  am  occupiea  m ;  ao«r«or,*de- 

Tntioff  am  sad.  test ;  o6ofr«or,  ^oat  before. 

7Vu/fnor,  weigh.  VodfercTf  vociferate. 

7\imu2tuor,  make  uproar,  Unnor^  dip  under  water  (to  void 
Tutor,  defend.  urine  is  urinamfacwf  or  reddere). 

Note. — ^We  must  here  notice  some  verbs  wUch  are  commonly  used  at 
actives,  but  by  some  writers,  and  of  good  authority,  as  deponents  also 
Such  are :  eommunicor,  eommurmurw  (Cic.,  in  Pis.,  25),  JhtctuoTj  JhOioor 
(Gic.),  lacrimor,  hunrnqr^  nictor,  VelificoTf  in  the  figurative  sense  of  striving 
after,  is  used  by  Cicero  as  a  deponent,  but  in  the  primary  sense  of  **  sail* 
ing"  it  is  much  more  usually  active.  Adulor,  arbUror,  criminor,  and  more 
especially  dignor,  are  used  by  Cicero  as  passives,  as  well  as  deponents^ 
throughout,  and  not  merely  m  the  participle,  as  is  the  case  with  mani 
oCbers.    8ee  the  Chapter  on  the  Participle,  in  the  Syntax. 


CHAPTER  LV. 

[§  208.]    DEPONENTS   OP   THE   SECOND    CONJUGATION. 

Fateor^fdssus  sum^faterij  acknowledge. 

ConjUeor,  confesaua  aumy  the  same,  but  usually,  confess  a  crime ;  jir^ 
jUnr,  profess;  diffUwr  (no  participle),  deny. 

lAceoTj  lic^U9  sum,  with  the  accus.,  bid  at  an  auction. 

PoUiceor,  promise. 
Medeor,  tnthout  a  participle,  for  which  medicatus,  from 

meSicari,  is  commonly  used. 
*Mereor,  merittis  sum,  deserve.     The  active  is  used  in  the 

sense  of  serving  or  earning,  as  merere  stipendia  ;  but 

the  forms  are  not  kept  distinct. 

Commereor,  demereoT,promereor,  have  the  same  meaning. 

Miserear,  miserUus  or  misertus  sum^  pity. 

Re^>ecting  the  impersonal  verb  mUaei  or  mMerttw  me,  seo  ^  7St&, 

Reor,  ratus  sum,  reri,  think. 

THieor,  twtus  sum,  look  upon,  fig.  defend. 

Cmtueor,  mtueor,  look  upon.  There  was  an  old  form  twr,  after  tne 
third  conjugation,  of  which  examples  are  found  in  the  comic  wrTkers 
and  in  Lucretius;  and  in  Nep.,  Chabr.,  1,  3,  inttamtur  is  lound  fo  lh# 
common  huuentur.    The  adject,  tutus  is  derived  from  the  form  tuor 

Vereor^  verUus  sum,  fear. 

RevertoTf  reverencs  ;  subvereor^  slightly  fear. 


178  LATIN  GRAMMAB. 


CHAPTER  LVI. 

[§£09.]    DEPONENTS    OP    THE    THIRD    CONJUGATION. 

From  the  obsolete  wpucor^  aptus  sum^  apisciy  are  derivecl  i 

AdtpiscoTf  adeptut  turn,  and  indipiscor^  obtain. 

ExpergiscoTy  experrectus  sum,  expergisci^  awake. 

The  verb  ecepergefacere  signifies  to  awaken,  whence  expergefactuty  awa^ 
kened.    Expergo,  with  its  participle  expergUuSf  is  obsolete. 

FruoTy  Jructus  and  Jrmtus  sum,  Jrui,  enjoy.     (Fartacip 

JruiturusJ. 
PerfruoTt  perjrwtus  sum,  strengthens  the  meaning. 

FunsoTy  functus  sum^Jungi,  perform,  discharge. 

Defungor,  pafungor,  completely  discharge,  finish. 

Grctdior,  gressus  sum^  gradi,  proceed. 

Aggredior,  aggresstu  many  aggr^Sdi,  assail ;  congredtoTy  meet ;  digredu/ty 
depart ;  egrtdwTy  go  out  of;  ingrediory  enter  on ;  progredioTy  advance ;  re 
gredioTy  return. 

Irascor,  tr<MCt,  properly  an  inchoative,  grow  angry;  iratui 
sum  means  only,  I  am  angry.  I  have  been  or  was  an- 
gry may  be  expressed  by  succensui. 

LaboTy  lapsus  sum,  labi^  faU. 

CoUahoTy  sink  together;  dilaboTy  fall  in  pieces;  prolaboTy  fall  down, 
delaboTy  relabor. 

Loquor,  locutus  sum,  loqui^  speak. 

AltoquoTj  address ;  coUoquor,  speak  with ;  eloqttor,  interloquor ;  MoqutPf 
speak  agamst,  revile. 

(From  the  obsolete  miniscorjy 

Commmiscory  eommentu$  »um^  eammmiiciy  devise,  imagine  (the  participle 
commentus  usually  in  a  passive  sense,  feigned) ;  rcfnmawvr,  remmudy 
has  no  perfect ;  recordatus  stan  is  used  instead  ot  iL 

MorioTy  moHwus  sum  (participle  &tiu*e,  moriturusjy  moriy 
die  C^noriri  is  obsolete,  but  still  occurs  in  Ovid,  Metam,^ 
xiv.,  215). 

Emotiory  comnunioTy  demorior. 

ydndscoTy  nactus  sum,  nancisci,  obtain.  The  participle 
is  also  found  written  nanctus,  as  in  many  piussages  of 
Livy. 

Nascar,  natus  sum,  nasci  fnasciturus  only  in  late  writers), 
am  bom ;  passive  in  sense,  but  vrithout  an  active,  it 
was  originsdly  gnascor,  and  the  g  reappears  in  agnatusy 
cngtuUus. 

EtuucoTy  tmuiKOTy  mwtcoT, 

Nltor,  nisus  or  nixus  stim,  nUi,  lean  upon,  strive. 

AdfutoTy  strive  for;  conmtor  and  emtWy  exert  myself;  in  the  sense  of 
"bring  forth,"  or  "give  birth,"  enuea  est  is  preferable;  obnitor^  striva 
agains 


OKPONENT    VBBBS.  VJy 

OhHinsco?'^  ohlitus  sum,  ohlivisdy  forget. 
PaciscoTf  pactus  sum  (orpepigij^  make  a  bargain. 

Comp.  compaciscor^  depaciscor,  or  compeciscor  and  depeciscor,  eompactu» 
depactua  ium,  whence  the  adverb  compatlo  or  compecto  tor  exovde  cmmpcu> 
to,  according  to  contract. 

Pascor^  pasttis  sum,  feed ;  intxansitivq.  Properly  the  pass- 
ive ofpasco,  pavi^  pastum,  give  food ;  see  above,  Chap. 
LI. 

Fatior^  passus  sum,  pati,  suffer. 

P&tpaior,  perpesnu  suKiy  perpeti,  endure. 

yFioni  plecto,  twine), 

Amplecior  and  complector,  complemu  sum,  embrace. 

Profidscar^  profectas  sum^  prqficisci,  travel. 

Querof'^  qtiestus  sum,  queri^  complain. 
Conqueror,  lament. 

Ringor^  ringi,  grin,  show  the  teeth,  whence  rictus. 
Sequor^  secutus  sum^  sequi^  follow. 

Assequor  and  contequor,  overtake,  attain;  exequor,  execute;  insequm, 

follow ;  obteottor^  comply  with ;  persequor,  pursue ;  prosequor,  attend ; 

sttbtequor,  follow  close  after. 

Vehor,  see  §  192. 

Vescor,  vesci^  eat.     JSdi  is  used  as  the  perfect. 
Ulciscor^  ultus  sum,  ulcisd,  revenge,  punish. 
Utor^  usus  sum,  uti,  use. 

Abator,  abuse ;  deutor  only  in  Nepos,  Eum.,  11. 

Devertor^  praevertor,  and  revertor,  see  under  verto.     They 

take  their  perfects  fix)m  the  active  form :  reverti^  revet' 

teram,  revertissem  ;  only  the  participle  reversus  is  used 

in  an  active  sense,  one  who  has  returned. 

Reversus  sum  for  reverti  is  yexy  rare,  but  occurs  in  Nep.,  Them.,  5 ; 
Yell.,  ii.,  42 ;  QuintiL,  vii.,  8, 2 ;  xi.,  2, 17,  and  other  less  classic  authors, 
but  never  in  Cicera 


CHAPTER  TuYll. 

[f  210.]  DEPONKNT8  OF  THE  FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 

Assentior,  assensus  sum,  assentiri^  assent.  (As  an  activei 
assentiOi  assensi,  assensum,  assejUirCf  it  is  not  so  com- 
mon ;  see  above,  §  206.) 

Blandior,  hlanditus  sum^  olandiri^  flatter. 

Experior,  expertus  sum,  experiri,  experience,  try. 

Comperior,  am  informed,  is  used  only  in  the  present  tense,  along  witk 
tompeno;  the  perfect,  therefore,  is  comperi. 

Largior,  largUus  sum,  largiri^  give  money ;  dilargio^  dis- 
tribute money. 


180  LATIN  ORAMMAB* 

Mentior,  mentitus  sum^  memtiri^  lie ;  emeiUiar,  the  Bame» 

Metior,  mensua  sum,  metiri,  measure. 

Dimetior^  measure  out ;  emetioTf  measure  completely ;  permetior 

Mdlior,  molitus  sum^  moliriy  move  a  mass  (moles)  ;  plan. 
Amolior,  remove  from  the  way ;  demoUor,  demolish,  and  others. 

Opperior,  oppertus  Sum^  in  Terence,  and  opperitus  sum  iv 

Plautus,  opperiri,  wait  for. 

Ordior,  orsus  sum,  ardiri,  begin. 

Exordior,  the  same ;  redordior,  begin  over  again. 

Onor,  ortus  sum,  oriri  (partic.  oriturtisj,  rise.      (Tne 

panic,  fut.  pass,  oriundus  has  a  peculiar  signification 

"descended"  fi'om  a  place  or  person.)     The  present 

indicat.  follows  the   third  conjugation :   oreris,  oritur 

orimur.     In  the  imper£  subjunct.  both  forms  orerer  ana 

orirer  are  found.     See  Liv.,  xxiii.,  16 ;  Tac,  Ann,,  ii., 

47 ;  comp.  xi.,  23. 

So,  also,  the  compounds  coorior  and  exorior  (exoreretur  in  Lucretius,  ii., 
506) ;  but  of  adoriort  undertake,  the  forms  adoriria  and  adontur  are  cei 
tain,  whereas  adorhis  and  adontur  are  only  probable ;  adoreretur  is  com 
monly  edited  in  Sueton.,  Claud.,  12. 

Partior,  partitas  sum,  partiri,  divide  (rarely  active). 

DUpertior,  diapertitus  turn  (more  frequently  active),  distribnte ;  imper 
Hot  (also  impertio,  itnpartio,  impartior),  communicate. 

Potior,  potitus  sum,  potiri,  posses?  myself  of. 

It  is  not  uncommon^  especially  in  the  poets,  for  the  present  indicative 
and  the  imperfect  subjunctive  to  be  formed  after  the  tnird  conjngatioi 
potUur,  potbmar,  poteretur,  poUremur. 

Sortior,  sortitus  sum,  sortiri,  cast  lots. 
Punior,  for punio.    See  §  206,  in  fin. 


CHAPTER  LVIII. 

IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


[§211.]  The  term  Irregular  Verbs  is  here  applied  to 
those  which  depart  from  the  rule  not  only  in  the  K>rmation 
of  their  perfect  and  supine,  but  have  something  anomalous 
in  their  conjugation  itself.  They  are,  besides  sum  (treated 
of  before,  §  156),  possum,  edo,fero,  volo,  nolo,  maZo,  eot 
qv€o,  nequeo,fio, 

1.  Possum,  I  am  able. 

Possum  is  composed  of  potis  and  sum,  often  found 
separately  in  early  Latin ;  by  dropping  the  termination 
CJ  potis,  we  obtain  pots^im,  possum.     It  therefore  fo11<^wv 


UUl^GULAR  VSlmtf. 


i( 


the  conjugadon  of  sum  in  its  tenoinatioQS,  but  the  const 
nants  t,  s,  wadjl  produce  some  changes  when  they  coiv 

together 

Indicatitb.  Subjunctive. 

Present. 
Possunif  poteSf  potest,  possintf  poUiSf  potait, 

p&$wiimu$f  potestiif  pOMnmt.  posaimtu,  posmti9^  poasini. 

Imperfut,         ^ 

possemt  JWMM,  pofstt, 
possemus,  poasetiSf  posaent 

Future. 


potaronh  pn^tras,  ptOerat. 
poteramutf  -eratiM,  -eraiU. 


poUrOf  poteriSfpoterit. 
poterimua,  -aiWp  4nmt 


potui,  potuisti,  pottut. 
potunnus,  -istiSf  -enmi. 

potuSrmn,  •eras,  -erat. 
potueramus,  -eratiSf  -erant 


Perfect. 

potuerim,  -eris^  -trit, 
potusiimus,  -ws,  -mi. 

Ph^perfect, 

potuissem,  -isses,  'isael. 
potuissemus,  -issetiSf  •istintt 

Future  Perfect, 
potuero,  potueris,  potuerit, 
ootueAmuSf  potuerUis,  potuerini. 

(No  Impbratiti.) 

Infinitive.  Participli. 

Pros,  and  Imp.  posse.  Potens  (has  become  an  ad^tlve^ 

Perf.  and  Plup.  potuisse. 


2.  Edo^  I  eat. 

[§  212.]  The  verb  edo,  edi,  esum,  edere,  is  declined  regu- 
larly according  to  the  third  copjusation,  but  here  and 
there  it  has  syncopated  forms,  besides  its  regular  ones, 
similar  to  the  corresponding  tenses  of  sum,  except  that 
the  quantity  of  the  vowel  in  the  second  person  singular 
of  the  indie,  present  and  of  the  imperative  makes  a  dmer- 
ence,  the  e  m  es,  fro^l  edo,  being  long  by  nature.  The 
tenses  in  which  this  resemblance  occurs  are  seen  in  the 
following  table : 


Indioativk. 

Present. 

Sing.  EdOf  edis,  edit 
(or    eSf    est), 
Plnr.  edhnuSf  editis,  edunt, 
(istU,) 

iMPBRATtVB. 

Sing,  ede,  es. 
Plor.  editCj  este. 

9ing^  edite,  eslo. 
Plnr.  edits,  este,  edi'.oU,  istTte. 
edtmto. 


SUBJUNCTIVB. 

Impetfect. 

Sing,  ederem,  ederes,  ederet 
(or  issem,  esses,    esset). 

Plur.  ederemus,  ederetis,  edereni 
(or  essemus,  essetis,    irseiU), 

Infinitivb. 
edere  or  esse. 


Q 


In  the  Passive  only  editur,  estur  •  <# 
eretur,  essetur 


l!fi  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

In  the  same  way  the  compounds  ahedo,  amhedo,  comedo, 
9scedo,  and  peredo  are  conjugated. 


3.  FerOj  1  bear. 

[§  213.]  Fero  consists  of  very  dififerent  parts,  perfect 
tuli  (originally  tetuli,  which  is  still  found  in  Plautus  and 
Terence);  wv^me^ latum ;  infinitive, ycrre/  passive,^^m. 
But  with  the  exception  of  the  present  indicat.  and  the  im- 
perative, the  detail  is  regular. 

Active.  PoMstve, 

Indipatiyb.  Indicatiyb. 

Pre&  Sing.  Ferotfers^fert.  Pres.  Sing.  ferorfferris,fertur. 

Piur.  fenmuSf  fertis,  ferunt.  Plur.  ftninwrf  ferimini^  fentnim 

Impbeatiye.  Impbratiyb. 

Pres.  Sing.  /«•.        Plur.  ferte,  Pres.  Sing,  ferre.     Pint  fenauni. 

F'jt.    Sing,  ferto.     Piur.  fertote.         Fut.    Sing,  fertor,    Plur.  ferunior, 
ferto.  fenmto.  fexUrr, 

Note.— The  rest  is  regular;  imperfect, /erefcam;  future, /erom,  -es ;  fu 
ture  passiYe, /crar,/ererM  {ferere^feretvTy  &C. ;  present  subjunctive,/«ram, 
feras;  jtassivefferar,  ferariSf/kratur ;  imperfect  subjunctiYe, /errem ;  pass- 
ive,y«iT«r. 

The  compounds  of /ero—o^ero,  antefero,  circumfer^f  coi^ero,  defSro,  and 
others,  haYe  little  that  is  remarkable.  Aufhro  (originairy  abfero)  makes 
abstuU*  ablatunif  auferre.  Suffero  has  no  perfect  or  supine,  for  stutuU,  ntb- 
latum,  belong  to  toUo.  Cicero,  howcYer  {N.  D.,  iii.,  33),  has  poenas  statu- 
lit,  but  natimd  is  commonly  used  in  this  sense.  Differo  is  used  only  in  the 
present  tense,  and  those  derlYed  from  it  in  the  sense  of  '*  differ ;"  distuli 
and  dUatum  haYe  the  sense  of  *'  delay." 


4.   Fofe,  I  vnll.    5.  Nolo^  I  will  not.     6.  Malo^  I  will 

rather. 

[§  214.  Nolo  is  compounded  of  ne  (for  non)  and  volo. 
The  obsolete  ne  appears  in  three  persons  of  the  present 
in  the  usual  form  of  non ;  malo  is  compounded  of  mage 
(i.  e.,  magis)  and  volo^  properly  mavolo,  maveUem^  eon- 
tracted  malo^  maUem, 

Indicatiyb. 
Pruent. 

Sing.  rS2o.  Nolo.  Mah, 

vis,  non  vis,  mavis, 

vult.  non  vult.  mavuU, 

Plur.  volUmus.  nolUmus.  malUmus. 

vtUtis,  non  vultis,  mavultis, 

volunt,  nolunt,  nuUunt, 

*  [This  apparent  anomaly  may  easily  be  explained  by  supposing  the  am 
ip  aufero  to  nate  been  originally  ab,  and  to  haYe  been  sonencNd  down  in  pro 
nunciation  before  /.    This  would  be  the  more  easy,  since  ab  must  naYt 
had  a  sound  approximating  to  av  in  English.] — Am.  Ed. 


IRRE6ULAE   VERBS. 


183 


Indioatiyb. 

Imperfect. 

Sing  voZefrom,  &c. 

noleOam,  6lc. 

malebam,  &C. 

Plur.  volebamuSf  &c 

nolebaanu,  &C. 

malebamuSf  &c. 

Future. 

• 

Sing.  volaiHf  voles,  et. 

nolam,  noles,  et. 

maiam,  males,  et. 

Plur.  voUmu9,  elis,  ent. 

rwUnau,  etis,  ent. 
Perfect 

malsmus,  etts,  ent 

Sing,  inlvi. 

fwlui. 

mahd. 

voluistif  &c. 

noluistif  &c. 

maluisti,  &c. 

. 

Phpetfect. 

volueram^  &c. 

nolueram,  &c. 
Future  Perfect. 

maiueram,  &C. 

voluero,  w,  &c. 

noluerOf  is,  &c. 
SUBJUNCTIVK. 

Present. 

maluero,  is,  Jcc 

Sing,  v&im. 

noUtn. 

malim. 

veB*. 

noSs. 

rnnSs.                  \ 

veUt. 

nolit. 

malit. 

Plur.  veRmus. 

noRmus. 

malimus. 

veRtis. 

noHtis. 

maRtis. 

velint. 

noUnt. 

Imperfect, 

malint. 

Sing.  veUem,  &c. 

noUem,  &c. 

mallem^  &c. 

Plur.  «e/ttmtit,  &c. 

noUemus,  &c. 
Perfect. 

maUemus,  i£c. 

Sing,  volummt  &-C. 

noluerim,  &c. 

maluerim,  &c. 

Plur.  fxUue4mu0,  j^ 

noluetvnus,  &c. 
Pluperfect. 

malusrtmMs,  &r. 

Sing,  voluitaem,  &c. 

fuhdssem,  &c. 

maluissem,  6lc. 

Plur.  vo/uts«fmu«,  &c. 

nohussemus,  &c. 

maltUssemus,  6cc. 

'« 

Imperative. 

Prc»«»U. 

Future. 

Sing.  2d  Pers.  «o^    Plur.  no^tf a      Sing.  2d  Pers.  tiofito.    Plur.  ndUois. 

ft 

3d  Pers.  noUto,             nolmltn. 

Infinitive. 

pres.  wZier 

nolle. 

mails. 

Pierf.  totuuse. 

noltdsse. 
Participle. 

maluisss^ 

volens. 

nolens. 
Gerund. 

volendi. 

noleridi. 

voUndoi 

7.  Eo,  I  go. 

[§  215.]  The  verb  eo,  tt^t,  ttum,  ire,  is  for  the  most  part 
fnrmed  regularly,  according  to  the  fourth  conjugation; 
»oly .  the  present,  and  the  tenses  derived  firom  it,  are 
.rregular. 


184  LATIN   GAAMMAB 

Indicative.  Subjunctits. 

Present. 
Slug.  Eof  isy  it.  Sing,  tam^  eaSf  eeU. 

Plur.  %mu8y  iHSf  eunt.  Plur.  edmust  eatis,  eant. 

Imperfect. 
Sing.  Ibaniy  ibas,  ibat.  Sing,  irem,  iresy  tret. 

Plur.  ibamua,  ibatisy  ibarU.  Plur.  iremu$,  ireiu,  treni. 

Future.  Impbrativb. 

Sing,  iboy  Unsj  ibit.  Pres.  Sing.  2,  i.    Plur.  ite, 

Plur.  Unmus,  ibUis,  ibunt.  Fut.  2,  ito.  itote. 

3,  ito.  ewnto, 

iNFIKIXtTB. 

Pres.  ire. 

Perf.  ivisse  or  isse. 

Fut.    iturum  (-am,  -um)  esse. 

Gerund.  Supine. 

Gen.  eundi.    Dat.  eundoy  &c.  itum,  itu. 

Participles. 
Pres.  iensy  euntis.  Fut.  iturus,  'O,  -um. 

In  the  passive  voice  it  exists  only  as  an  impersonal,  itur 
itum  est  Some  compounds,  however,  acquire  a  transitive 
meaning ;  they  accordingly  have  an  accusative  in  the  ac 
tive,  and  may  also  have  a  complete  passive :  e.  gr.,  adeo^ 
1  approach ;  ineo,  I  enter  j  praetereo,  I  pass  by.  Thus 
the  present  indie,  pass,  adeor,  adiris,  aditur^  adhnur,  adi- 
miniy  adeuntur ;  subjunct.  adea/r ;  imperf.  adihar ;  subj. 
adirer ;  fut.  adihor,  adiheris  fej,  adibitur,  &c. ;  imperat. 
pres.  adire^  adimini ;  fut.  aditor^  adeuntor ;  participles, 
adittcs^  adeundus. 

These  and  all  other  compounds,  aheo^  coeo,  exeo^  intereo 
and  pereo  (perish J,  prodeo^  redeo^  have  usually  only  ii  in 
the  perfect:  peni,  redii.  Circumeo  and  circtieo,  I  go 
round  something,  differ  only  in  their  orthography,  for  m 
pronimciation  the  m  vraa  lost ;  in  the  derivatives,  circuitiM 
and  circuUio,  it  is,  therefore,  vnth  more  consistency,  not 
written.  Veneo,  I  am  sold,  a  neutral  passive  verb  with- 
out a  supine,  is  compounded  of  venum  and  eo,  and  is  ac- 
cordingly declined  like  ire;  whereas  amhio,  I  go  about, 
which  changes  the  vowel  even  in  the  present,  is  declined 
regularly  according  to  the  fourth  conjugation,  and  has  the 
participle  ambiens,  ambientis,  and  the  gerund  amhiendu 
The  part.  perf.  pass,  is  amhttus,  but  the  substantive  am- 
bitus  has  a  short  t.  See  the  Commentators  on  Ovid, 
Metam.,  i.,  37. 

Note. — A  second  form  of  the  future,  earn  instead  of  ibo.  ia  mentioi/ed  b> 
Priscian,  but  is  not  found  in  any  other  writer.  It  is  only  in  compounds 
though  chiefly  in  late  and  unclassical  authors,  that  we  find  -earn,  ies.  iet 
•ent,  along  with,  Un,  ibisy  &c.    See  BOnamann  on  Lactant.,  iv..  13    20 


IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


185 


l^'t'wet  in  Tibull.,  i.,  4,  27  is  surprising.*  Vensot  I  am  st  Id,  soinetimef 
abandons  the  conjugation  of  eo,  and  makes  the  imperfect  veni^am  instead 
of  venibamf  for  so,  at  least,  we  find  in  good  MSS.  of  Cicero,  Philip.,  ii.,  37 
and  in  Verr.,  III.,  4^.  Ambio  sometimes  follows  eo  ;  e.  g.,  ambibat  in  Ovid| 
Metam..  v.,  361  :  L*iv.,  xxvii.,  18 :  Plin.,  Epist.y  vi.,  33  :  Tac,  Ann.^  ii.. 
■.9 ;  ana  a$f*biBunt,  lor  tmbitru,  is  said  to  occur  in  Pliny  (if.  N.j  Tiii.,  35  ?). 


|§  2lf..l  8.  QueOt  I  can.     9.  Nequeo,  I  cannot. 

These  twv  verbs  are  both  conjugated  like  eo :  perfect, 
quivi^  ne^iv  ;  supine,  quUUn$,  nequitum.  Most  of  theii 
forms  occur ;  biU,  i^dth  t^e  exception  of  the  present,  they 
are  not  ve'ry  .frequent  in  prose,  and  some  auQiors,  such  as 
Nepos  and  Caesar,  never  use  this  verb  at  all.t  Instead 
ofneqtieo,  non  qtte^  also  was  used,  and  in  Cicero  the  lattei 
is  even  more  fre^u^r.  Quis  and  quit  are  found  only 
with  non. 


Sing.  Qtted,  qm$,  ^t. 
Phir.  juMitM,  ^pdUs,  queun 

Sing.  Qto^om,  quibatf  &c. 

Sing.  Quibo.    Plur.  qutbwu. 

SiDg.  Quivt,  quwit. 
Plur.  —    quiverunt. 


fDICATIYE. 

Present, 

Nequio,  non  quiSf  non  quit, 
neqmmut,  neqtdtUf  nepiieunS. 

Imfierfeet. 

neqmbem,  nequihatf  -unt. 

Sing  Plur.  nequUmiU, 

PerfMf. 

xjqitivi,  neqtdstif  nequitnt  (ik). 

-^— —    nequiverunt  or  fit 

quierunt  (e). 


Pluperfea . 

neqm  t  i/,  nequierant. 

SUBJUNCTIYl 

PreseTit. 
Sing.  Queamt  queaSy  queat.  nequea  %,  %squeaSf  nequeaS, 

Plur.  queamus,  queatiSf  queant.  nequeamt.\  nequeatitf  nequeant. 

Imperfect. 
Sing.  Q^irem^qu^ret.  nequhmi,nmquira. 

Plur. qwrent.  nequiremuSf  ne^'ent. 

Perfect. 

Sing.  -— —  quiverit  nequiverim,  nep .    it,  nequierini. 

Pluperfect. 

Shlg.  ■                                                      -  —  nequisset. 
Plur. quutsent.  nequissent. 


*  [We  ought  Tery  probably  to  read  trantiit  with  HeuMiu,  on  MS.  %u 
thority,  making,  at  the  same  time,^  a  change  in  the  punctuatku.    (Gi«  iult 
Zaehmannt  ad  Toe] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [Queo  is  much  weaker  than  possum^  and  appears  to  denoh     **^  »  »   i 
lility  under  existing  circumstances.    0)inpare  Doderlein,  L-     Ay, .      d. 

.,  p.  160.]— ilm.  Ed. 


I8B  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

Infinitive. 
iikiref  quittJie  {quitse).  nequiref  nequiviste  {nequisMt;. 

Pabticiplb. 
Quietis  (gen.  queuntis).  nequieru  (gen.  nefueuntu). 

There  is  also  a  passive  fonn  of  these  verbs ;  quUur,  nequitur,  quita  ettf 
quUum  est^  but  it  occurs  very  rarely,  and  is  used,  like  coepha  nan,  onljr 
when  an  infinitive  passive  follows :  e.  g.,  in  Terence ;  forma  in  tencbru 
moaci  rum  quita  est,  the  figure  could  not  be  recognised. 


[§  217.]  10.  Fio,  I  become,  or  am  made.* 

JFto  is  properly  an  intransitive  verb,  the  Greek  (jivcj^ 
without  a  supine.  But  owing  to  the  affinity  existing  be- 
tween the  ideas  of  becomiTig  and  being  made^  it  was  used 
also  as  a  passive  ofjucio^  from  which  it  took  the  perfect 
/actus  sum,  and  the  latter  then  received  the  meanmg  "  I 
have  become,"  along  with  that  of  **  I  have  beeti  mjSe." 
In  consequence  of  this  transition  into  the  passive,  the  in- 
finitive became  Jieri  instead  of  the  original  form  Jiere, 
Hence,  with  the  exception  of  the  supplementary  forms 
Gcom  Jacere  fJactus,JacienduSfJactus  sum,  eram,  &c.^  and 
the  passive  termination  of  the  infinitive,  there,  is  no  ir- 
regularity in  this  verb.  In  the  present,  imperfect,  and 
fixture  it  follows  the  third  conjugation ;  for  the  t  belongs 
to  tbe  root  of  the  word,  and  is  long,  except  in  Jii  and 
those  forms  in  which  an  r  occurs  in  the  inflection.     (See 

§  16.) 

Indicative.  Subjunctive. 

*    Present.  Present. 

Sing.  FiOffiSfft.  fiam,fias,Juit. 

Plur.  JimuSf  jius,  fiunt.  Jiamus,  fiims,  fianL 

Imperfect,  ImperfeU. 

Smg.fUhamy  as,  at.  iS^rem,  es,  et. 

Plur.  jiehamus,  atis  atU.  Jieremus,  etis,  ent. 

Future.  Imperative. 

Smg.Jiam,fiesjJiet.  Pres.  Sing.^.    Plur.^Ife. 

Plur.  fiemusy  fietis,  fiaa  (rare,  but  well  attested). 

Infinitive. 
fieri  {factum  esse,  factum,  iri).  Part.  Pres.  is  wanting. 

Note. — Among  the  compounds  the  following  must  be  noticed  as  defeo 
tires :  inUt,  which  is  used  only  in  this  third  person  sing.,  he  or  she  begins ; 
e.  g.,  't»MLi,  or  with  the  ellipsis  of  loqui;  and  defit,  d^fiat,  defiunt,  defiai 
wmch  does  not  occur  in  prose.    Respecting  eonjit,  see  above,  ^  183. 

*  [As  regards  the  old  forms,  and  the  quantity  of  fio^  crnsult  Antlion*t 
fM.  Pros.,  p.  16,  not.  {ed.  1843).]— -4m.  Ed. 


DEFBCt*IV«  VERBS.  t67 


CHAPTER  LIX. 

[§  218.]    DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 

The  term  Defective  Verbs  is  here  applied  to  tbose 
only  in  vrhich  the  defectiveness  is  striking,  and  which  are 
found  only  in  certain  forms  and  combinations,  for  there 
wee,  besides,  a  very  large  number  of  defective  verbs,  of 
which  certain  tenses  are  not  found  on  account  of  tlieir 
meaning,  or  cannot  be  shown  to  have  been  used  by  the 
writers  whose  works  have  come  down  to  us.  Many  of 
them  have  been  noticed  in  the  lists  of  verbs  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapters ;  with  regard  to  others,  it  must  be  left  to 
good  taste,  cultivated  by  reading  the  best  authors,  as  to 
whether  we  may  use,  e.  g.,  cupe,  from  cupio,  like  cape^  from 
capio^  and  Mrhether  w0  may  say  dor^  I  am  given,  like  pro- 
dof^  or  puUttui  sum,  like  hahitus  rum,  (Putatum  est  oc- 
cuis  in  Cicero,^.  Muren,^  17.)  We  shall  here  treat  of 
the  v^rbs  aio  and  inquani^  I  say ;  fari,  to  speak;  the  per- 
fects coepi,m€mim^  novi  and  odi;  the  imperatives  apage^ 
ave^  salve,  vale  ;  cedo  and  quaeso  ;  and,  lastly,  ofjbrem. 


1.  Aio, 

I 

8ay, 

say  yes. 

or  affirm.* 

Indicative. 

SOBJUNCTIVE. 

PraenL 

Present. 

tSmfi. 

Ahf  Sis,   ait. 

i 

Sing. - 

Plur. 

—  —  otim/. 

Plur.  - 

Imperfect.  (The  imperative  at  is  obsolete.  The 

Sing,  akbam,  m^baa,  aidxu.  participle  aiens  is  used  only  as  an  ad- 

Plur.  aiebamtu,  aiebaUs,  aiebant.  ject.  instead  of  affirmatimu.) 

Perfect.  All  the  rest  is  wanting,  or  uncloss- 

Sing. ^ ait  (like  the  present),  f      ical. 

Note. — In  prose,  as  well  as  in  poetry,  a»»'  7  do  you  think  so?  is  frequent- 
ly used  for  aiane,  just  as  we  ^na  viden*,  abin\  for  videsney  abisne.  See  ^  ^. 
The  comic  writers,  especially  Terence,  use  the  iaiperfect  aibam,  &c.,  as  a 
word  of  two  syllables. 


[§  219.]  2.  Liquam,  I  say.f 
This  verb  is  used  only  between  the  words  of  a  quota- 

*  [Ato  ia  evidently  connected  with  the  Sanscrit  aha  {"  dixiJ*  **inaiiiam"\ 
and  also  with  the  Greek  If-fil  for  ^ij-/il.  (Compare  Pott^  Etym.  Forsch^ 
toL  i.^.  28l.)y-Am.  Ed. 

t  [Tnis  third  person  of  the  perfect  is  very  doubtful.  (Compare  Struvt^ 
i&er  die  Lot.  Decl.  und  Conj.,  p.  213.)  Late  church  writers,  however,  ka^e 
msti,  aierunt,  &c.]— Am.  Ed. 

t  llnquam  and  sum  are  M\e  only  two  Latin  verbs  which  still  show  tiacet 


188  LATIN   GftAMMAl. 

tion,  while  ait^  aiunt^  are  found  most  frequently  in  the 

oratio  ohliqua. 

Indicative.  Subjunotivi. 

Pi  tseni.  Present. 

Sing.  Inquamf  tn^'v,  inqtdt.*  Sing. mquiaSf  mquiat, 

Plur.  inqmmus,  inqtdtiSf  inquiunt  Plur.  — '—  inquiatis,  inqmant 

Imperfect.  Future, 

Sing,  inqtuebam,  &c.  Sing. mquies,  inqtdet, 

Plur.  inquiebamut,  &c  Plur.  — ^   —     

.  Perfect.  Impbratitb. 

Sing.  — —  inquUtif  hiquU.  Sing,  mquet  inquito. 

Plur. inquittiM, ^.  Plur.  inqidte. 

iVbte.— The  first  person  of  the  perfect  (more  probably  inqui  than  tn^aoi 
is  not  found  ;t  the  present  inquam  is  used  instead,  and  inqtut  may,  there- 
fore, just  as  well  be  taken  for  the  present.    The  present  siibjunctire  has 
becni  here  given  according  to  Priscian,  p.  876,  but  has  not  yet  been  con 
finned  by  any  other  authority. 


[§  220.]  3.  Fori,  to  speak,  say4 

This  very  irregular  verb,  with  its  compounds  affari,  ef- 
fariy  prqfdri^  is,  generally  speaking,  more  used  in  poetry 
than  in  ordinary  prose.  The  third  persons  of  the  present, 
fcUMT^fantur,  the  imperativeybre,  and  the  participleybA^, 
a,  um  (effatum  is  used  also  in  a  passive  sense),  occui 
most  frequently.  The  ablative  of  the  gerund,  ya«<^,  is 
used  in  a  passive  sense  even  in  prose,  in  the  phraseya^uf^^ 
audtre^  to  know  by  hearsay. 

Compounds :  affamur,  Ovid ;  e^amim,  Curtius ;  affabar,  Virgil  ^  effabor 
and  effaberis,  also  occur  in  poetry.  The  first  person  for,  the  subjunctive 
ferf/ariSffetur,  &c.,  and  the  participle  fans  in  the  nominative,  do  not  oc- 
cur, though  the  other  cases  of  fans  are  found  in  poetry.  Fandus^  a,  um, 
ODly  in  the  combination /amium  et  nefandum ;  fanda,  nefanda,  yfthich.  are 
equivalent  to  fas  et  nefasj 


[§  221,]  4.  Coepi,       5.  Memmi,     6.  Novi,     7.  Odi, 
1  have  begun.  I  remember.    I  know.      I  hate. 

These  four  verbs   are  perfects  of  obsolete  presents 
which  have  gone  out  of  use,  with  the  exception  of  nosco^ 

of  the  m  termination  in  the  present  tense  and  the  ori^^al  forms  of  these 
verbs  virere  undoubtedly  inqiutmr  and  sumi.  This  endmg  in  -mt  connects 
them  at  once  with  the  Greek  verbs  in  -fii,  and  also  with  the  Sanscrit]— 
Atn.  Ed. 

*  [Compare  with  in-quit  the  English  quoth,  the  Anglo-Saxon  ^uMon 
and  the  Welsh  gwedyd,'\—ATn,  Ed, 

t  [Scaligcr,  however,  reads  inquii  in  Catullus  (x.,  27),  and  is  foilpwel 
by  Ddring  and  othera  The  metre  and  context  both  require  inquii,  whicic 
taimot,  therefore,  be  said  to  be  a  form  **  not  found."] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [Pott  a3mpares  Fa^  with  the  Sanscrit  hha-sh,  **  locui,"and  the  Greek 
4il'fi'1 — ^m.  Ed. 


D^JfiUmy/B    VERBS 


189 


and  coepto,  coepere.  They  consequently  have  those  tenses 
only  which  are  derived  from  the  perfect.  In  meaning, 
snemmif  novi,  and  odi  are  presents ;  novi,  I  know,  shows 
the  transition  most  clearly,  for  it  properly  means  "  I  have 
learned  to  know."  (See  §  203.)  Hence  the  pluperfoct  has 
the  meaning  of  an  imperfect :  memineram,  I  remember- 
ed '  noveram,  ^  knew ;  oderarrty  I  hated,  not  *'  1  had  ha- 
ted," and  the  future  perfect  has  the  signification  of  a  sim- 
ple iRiture,  e.  g.,  odero,  I  shall  hate ;  meminero,  I  shall  re 
member.     Otherwise  the  terminations  are  quite  regular 


coepisti, 

coepit, 

coepimu*. 

coepistis. 

coeperunt. 


toeperam,  &c. 


ctgpero,  &C. 


Indicative. 

• 

Perfect. 

Memini. 

Nam, 

Odu 

fMministi, 

novisti  {nosti). 

odiati. 

meminit. 

novit. 

odU, 

maninimus. 

novimus. 

odimus. 

meministis. 

novistis  {nosti$). 

odistis. 

meminerunt. 

noverutU  {norurU). 
Pluperfect, 

odenmt. 

memineramy 

&c.       noyeram,  &c. 

oderamy  &r 

cacpertm,  &c. 


n^pistem,  &c. 


Futupret 

memiiterOf  6(C.  noveeo. 

noveriSf  &c 
(noris.) 

Subjunctive. 

Perfect. 

meminerim^  &c.        noverimy  &c. 

(norim.) 

Pluperfect. 

meminissemt  &c.     novissenif  &C. 

(nossem.) . 

Imperative. 

only  the  sing,  me- 

merUo  and  plur. 
mementoti. 

Inpinitivb. 
memniue.  .novitte. 

Participlcs. 


oderOf  &c. 


odennif  &c. 
odtBsemi  &c* 


odisse. 


(^perosuSf  exoetu,  with 
an  active  meaning.) 
osttnu. 


eoepiste. 

Fdtt  pass,  coeptus 
(begun). 
Fat  ac%.coeptwiu, 

JV^4— Hdnce  coepiase  has  a  perfect  passive  coeptus  (a,  wm)  sum ;  e.  g., 
£av.,  zxx.,  30;  9111a  a  me  bellum  coeptwn  est:  xxviii.,  14;  mitan  a  neutris 
piugna  eoepta  esset  •  bnt  it  is  used  especially  in  connexion  with  an  infinitive 
passive,  as  in  pons  institui  coeptus  est ;  Tyrus  septimo  mense.quam  pppugnari 
eoepta  erat,  capta  est;  de  re  pvMica  consuU  coepti  sumus;  the  active  forms 
coeptf,  eoeperai,  however,  may  likewise  be  used  in  this  connexion.  Com- 
pare  desiius  est^  ^  200.  Compounds  are  occoepiy  which  is  not  unfrequently 
«Md  tSoug  with  the  'egular  occipio  (the  same  as  intipio)  and  commemm. 


190  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

f§  222.]  8.  Apdge,     9.  Ave,     10.  Scdve^     11.   Vale, 
be  gone.         hail.  hail.  farewell. 

NoU. — Apige  is  the  Greek  imperative  uiraye  of  &ird)w,  and  akin  W 
iUngo ;  apage  istaa  tonrea  !  away  with  them !  especially  apage  /«,  get  thy 
self  off,  or,  with  the  omission  of  the  pronoun,  apage,  begone.  Salveo  in 
Plautu^,  Tructd.t  ii.,  2, 4,  may  be  regarded  as  the  present  of  salve.  Comp. 
Probus,  Itutit.  Gram.j  p.  141 ,  ed.  Lindemann.  Vale  and  ave,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  regular  imperatives  of  voZeo,  I  am  well,  and  aveo.  I  desire ;  and 
thev  are  mentioned  here  only  on  occount  of  their  change  oi  meaning. 

Th^  plural  is,  av^e,  salvetCf  valete  ;  the  impemt.  fut.  oveto,  aalveto,  valeto. 
The  future^  salvebis,  mlebis,  is  likewise  used  m  the  sense  of  an  imperative, 
and  the  inhnitives  mostly  with^'ttZ>eo:  avere,  solvere,  vdlere. 


[§  223.]  12.  Cedo,  give,  tell. 

This  word  is  used  as  an  imperative  in  familiar  lait- 
guage,  for  da  and  die,  both  with  and  without  an  accusa- 
tive.   A  plural  cette  occurs  in  old  Latin. 

The  e  is  short  in  this  word,  which  thus  differs  from  the  complete  verb 
rido,  1  yield,  give  way. 


[§  224.]  13.  y^uaeso,  I  beseech. 

Quaeso  is  originally  the  same  as  qtcaero,  but  in  gooa 
prose  it  is  generally  inserted  in  another  sentence.    Be- 
sides this  tfst  person  singular,  we  find  only  the  first  per 
son  plural  quaesumtis, 

m 

14.  Forem^  I  should  be. 

This  imperfect  subjunctive,  which  is  conjugated  regu- 
larly, has  arisen  G^omjuerem,  of  the  obsolete  yerh Juo,  and 
belongs  to  sum,     (See  above,  §  156.) 


CHAPTER  LX. 

IMPERSONAL     VERBS. 


[§  225.]  1.  The  term  Impersonal  Verbs  strictly  applies 
-•nly  to  those  of  which  no  other  but  the  third  person  sin 
gular  is  used,  and  which  do  not  admit  a  personal  subjeci- 
(I,  thou,  he),  the  subject  being  a  proposition,  an  infinitive, 
or  a  neuter  noun  understood.  (See  §  441,  Sec:)  Verba 
of  this  kind  are: 

Miseret  (me),  I  pity,  perfect  misentum  est, 
Piget  (me),  I  regret,  piguU  or  pigitum  est, 
Poenitet  (me),  I  repent,  poenituit,  fut.  poenitebiU 


IMPERSONAL    VERBS.  J91 

Pudet  (me)y  I  am  ashamed,  puduit  or  puditum  est* 

Taedei  fmej,  I  am  disgusted  with,  (taeduit^  veiy  rare), 

pertaesum  est. 

.Oportet,  it  behooves,  oportmt^  fiiU  apartehit. 

Note. — Misenutf  the  regular  perfect  of  miseret,  occurs  so  seldcmi,  that  we 
have  not  here  noticed  it.  The  form  commonly  used  is  miaeritum  or  misertum 
e$t^  which  is  derived  from  the  impersonal  me  miser etur  tut,  which  is  not 
uncommon,  although  the  deponent  misereri  is  otherwise  used  only  as  a 
personal  verb,  misereor  tui.  Compare  the  passages,  Cic,  p.  lAgar.j  5 ;  cave 
tefratrumpro  salute  fratria  chsecrantium  misereatur:  in  Verr.,  i.,  30;  jam  me 
tvi  miserert  non  potest,  where  the  verb  is  likewise  impersonal. 

[§  226.]  2.  Besides  these  impersonals,  there  are  some 
others,  which  likewise  have  no  personal  subject,  but  yet 
are  used  in  the  third  person  plural,  and  may  have  a  nom- 
inative (at  least  a  neuter  pronoun)  as  their  subject.  Such 
verbs  are : 

lAhet  (mihij,  I  like,  choose  ;  perf.  liSui^y  or  lihitU7n  est. 

Licet  (mihi),  I  am  permitted;  perf.  licuit^  or  licitum  est. 

JDecet  (me)^  it  becomes  me,  and  d-edecet^  it  does  not  be 
come  me ;  perf.  decuit,  dedecuit. 

lAquet,  it  is  obvious ;  perf.  licuit. 

Note. — Libuit  has  been  mentioned  here  as  a  perfect  of  libet,  but  it  is  usu 
ally  found  only  as  a  present,  in  the  sense  of  khet. 

[§  227.]  3.  There  is  also  a  considerable  number  of 
verbs  which  are  used  impersonally  in  the  third  person, 
while  their  other  persons  occur  ,vnth  more  or  less  differ- 
ence in  meaning.  To  these  belong:  interest  and  refert 
in  the  sense  of  "  it  is  of  importance  to,"  v^th  which  no 
nominative  can  be  used  as  a  subject;  farther,  accidit,Jit^ 
evenit^  and  contingit,  it  happens ;  accedit,  it  is  added  to,  or 
in  addition  to ;  attinet  ana  pertinet  (ad  aliquid),  it  con 
cems ;  cond/udt,  it  is  conducive ;  convenit^  it  suits ;  con- 
stat^ it  is  known  or  established ;  eapedit^  it  is  expedient ; 
delectat  and  juvat,  it  delights,  pleases ;  fallit,  fugit^  and 
praeterit  me,  it  escapes  me,  I  do  not  know;  placet^  it 
pleases;  perf  placuit  and  pladtum  est ;  praestat^  it  is  bet 
ter;  restate  it  remains;  vcicat^  it  is  wanting;  est^  in  the 
sense  of  Uset^  it  is  permitted  or  possible,  e.  g.,  est  videre^ 
non  est  dicere  verum,  but  especially  in  poetry  and  late  prose 
writers. 

[§  228.]  4.  The  verbs  which  denote  the  changes  of  the 
weather ;  pluit,  it  rains ;  ningit^  it  snows ;  grandinat^  it 
hails ;  lapidat  (perf.  also  lapidatum  estj^  stones  fall  from 
heaven ;  Julgurat  eaidjtdminat,  it  lightens  (with  this  dif- 
^rencoy  matjulminat  is  used  of  a  flash  of  lightning  which 


192  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

«tiikes  an  object) ;  tonat^  it  thunders ;  lucescit  and  iUuces^ 
dt  (perf.  illuantj,  it  dawns ;  vesperascii  and  adveaperascil 
(peif.  advesperavitj,  the  evening  approaches :  in  all  these 
cases  the  subject  understood  is  supposed  to  be  deus  or 
coeluniy  whicb  are,  in  fact,  often  added  as  their  subjects. 

[§  229.]  5.  The  third  person  singular  passive  of  a  great 
many  words,  especially  of  those  denoting  movement  or 
sayin?,  is,  or  may  be  used  impersonally,  even  when  the 
verb  IS  neuter,  and  has  no  personal  passive,  e.  g.,  curritur^ 
they  or  people  run ;  itur^  ventum  est,  damatur^fietur^  scri' 
hitur^  bwitur,  &c. 

[§  230.]  6.  All  these  impersonal  verbs,  as  such,  have 
no  imperative,  the  place  of  which  is  supplied  by  the  pres 
ent  subjunctive,  e.  g.,  pudeat  te,  be  ashamed  of!  The 
participles,  also  (together  with  the  forms  derived  fix>m 
them,  the  gerund  'and  the  infinitive  future),  are  wanting, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  such  as  ItbcTu^  licens  and  lidtwus^ 
voenitens  and  poenitendtts^  pudendus.  * 


CHAPTER  LXI. 

ETYMOLOGY  OF  NOUNS  AND  VBRdS. 

[§  231.]  We  have  hitherto  treated  of  the  changes  which 
one  particular  form  of  nouns  and  verbs,  supposed  to  be 
known  (the  nominative  in  nouns,  and  the  mfinitive  in 
verbs),  may  undergo  in  forming  cases  and  numbers,  per- 
sons, tenses,  moods,  &c.  But  the  origin  of  that  form  it- 
self, which  is  taken  as  the  basis  in  inflection,  is  explained 
in  that  special  branch  of  the  study  of  language  which  is 
called  Etymology.  Its  object  is  to  trace  sdl  the  words  of 
the  language  to  their  roots,  and  it  must,  therefore, -soon 
lead  us  from  the  Latin  to  the  Greek  language,  since  both 
are  nearly  allied,  and  since  t&e  Greek  was  developed  at 
an  earlier  period  than  the  Latin.  Other  languages,  too, 
must  be  consulted,  in  order  to  discover  the  paginal  forms 
and  significations.  We  cannot,  however,  here  enter  into 
these  mvestigations,  and  must  content  ourselves  v^^ith  as- 
certaining, within  the  Latin  language  itself,  the  most 
prominent  laws  in  the  formation  of  new  words  from  other 
more  simple  ones ;  a  knowledge  of  these  laws  is  useful  to 
the  beginner,  since  it  facilitates  his  slcquiring  the  language. 
But  we  shall  here  confine  oiirselves  to  nouns  (substantive 


STYMOLOGY   OF   NQUNS    AlfD    VERBS.  198 

and  kdiective)  and  yerbsy  for  the  dentation  and  coii^osi- 
ribn  of  pronouns  and  nuuMWals  have  been  dbcussed  in  a 
former  part  of  this  wcnrk;  with  regard  to  the  (unchangea^ 
ble)  paitides,  on  thc^  other  hand,  etymology  is  necemary* 
as  it  suppHeB  the  place  of  inflection.^ 
.  The  fonnation  of  new  Mrords  from  others  previously 
existing  takes  place  either  by  Derivation^  or.  the  addition 
of  certain  terminations  ;  or  by  Chmposition.  In  regard 
to  derivation,  we  have  to  distinguish  primitive  and  d^riY- 
ative  words ;  and,  with  regard  *  to  composition,  siitiple 
and  compound  words.     We  shall  first  treat  of  derivation. 

•  '  •  '  • 

5  i.  Vbrbs. 

•    ■ 

Verbs  are  derived  either  from  other  Verbs  or  froni 
nouns. 

A.  With  regard  to  the  former,  we  distinguish  foui 
classes  .of  verbs :  1.  Freqtientative;  2,  Desiderative;  3. 
DimintUive:  dxid  i^.  Inchoative, 

1.  Frequentatives,  9(]l  of  which  follow,  the  first  coiyuga- 
tion,  denote  the  frequent  repetitionr,  or  an  increase  of  Sie 
action  expressed  by  th^  primitive  verb.  *  They  are  de- 
rived from  liie  supine  by  .^changing  the  regular  ^tum  in 
the.  first  conjugation  into  Sto^  itare;  other  verbs  of  the 
first  conjugation,  as  w^ll  as  of  die  pt]iers,  remain  un- 
changed, the  termix^tion  of  t^e  supine,  U7Hf  alone  being 
changed  into  a,  are.  Of  the  fopner  kind  are,  e.  g.,  ctamo^ 
clamito;  impero,  imperito;  rogito^  volito;^  oi,  the  latter, 
doTno,  domitum^  domito  ;.  adjuvo^  adjutum^  adjuto ;  and 
from  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation :  cwrro^  cursumy  curso  ; 
i;a7io,  cantumy  carUo  ;  dico^  dir^um,  dicio  ;  .  nosco,  notum^ 
noto  ; .  and  so,  also,  accepto,  pid^o,  defenso^  gesto,  quasso, 
fracto.  Some  of  these  latter  frequentatives,  derived  from, 
verbs  of  the  third  coiyugation,,  serve,  again,  as  primitives, 
from  which  new  frequentatives  are  formed;  9j&^  cursito, 
dictito,  defensito.  There  are  some  double  frequentatives 
of  this,  kind,  without  ijie  intermediate  form  of  the  simple 
frequentative  being  used  or, known;  such  as  actito  from 
ago  facto  J;  and  so,  also,  lectitb  from  legOy  scriptito  from 
scribo,  liaesito  froni  Jiaereo^  vi^to  from  video,  ventito  from 
venio,  advento. 

Some  few  frequentatives  with  the  termination  ito^  itare^ 
are  not  deiived  from  the  supine,  but  from  the  present  of 
he  primitivo  verb*     This  formation  is  necessary  when 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

the  jMrimidTO  verb  has  no  supine,  as  k  the  taae  witb  )^a9^ 
paveo-'4<Uito,  pavito.  But  the  following  are  forn^d  in 
this  manner  without  there  h&aag  such  a  reanon:  a-mto^ 
moscUOf  quaeritQ^  cogito^  Some  firequentadres  have  th« 
deponential  form ;.  as,  amplexar^  &om  amplector^  minitar 
fix>m  jfn^ior,  ^««lor  from  tuear,  scitor  and  sciscitor  from  Actieo, 
[§  232.]  2*  Detideratwes  end  in  uru»,  urtVe  (after  the 
fourth  conjugation),  and  express  a  desire  of  that  which  is 
ipiplied  in  the  primitive.  They  are  formed  from  the  si^- 
pin0  of  the  latter^  e*  g.,  esurioy  esurii^  I  want  to  eat,  from 
€do,eswm;  §o,9hH^,ceenatwrw&omcoenatmifdictm'w&€ak 
dictum,  empturio  from  emptum,  parturio  from  partum^  and 
in  this  manner  Cicero  fad  Att.^  ix.,  10)  jocosely  formed 
SuUaturit  et  proacripturit^  he  would  like  to  play  the  pait 
of  Sulla  and  to  proscribe. 

Note. — Some  verbs  in  vrio  after  the  fourth  conjagation,  such  «s  Ugwtre, 
$caturire,  prurire,  are  not  desideratives,  and  it  should  be  observed  that  the 
u  in  these  words  is  long. 

[§  233.]  3.  DimvMUives  have  the  termination  illo,  illarff 
which  is  added  to  the  dtem  of  the  primitive  verb  without 
any  farther  change,  and  they  describe  the  action  expressed 
as  something  trifling  or  insignificant ;  e.  g.,  canHllare^  frx>m 
eantare f  to  sing  in  an  under  voice, or  sing  with  a  shaking; 
con8cribiUare,  scribble ;  sorhillate^  fit>m  sarbere,  sip.  The 
number  of  these  verijs  is  not  great. 

[§  234.]  4.  Lu:hoative9  have  the  termination  ttco,  and 
follow  the  third  conjugation.  They  express  the  beginning 
of  the  act  or  condition  denoted  by  the  primitive ;  e.  g., 
caleo^  I  am  warm;  calesco^  I  am  getting  or  becoming 
warm;  ariso,  I  am  dry;  aresco^l  begin  to  be  diy ;  langueo, 
I  am  languid ;  languesco,  I  am  becoming  languid.  It  fre- 
quently happens  that  a  preposition  is*prefixed  to  an  in- 
choative^  as  in  timea^  pertimesco ;  taceo^  canticcsco.  The 
vowel  preceding  the  termination  aco,  scere,  is  either  a 
(asco),  e  (esco)^  or  %  (isco)^  according  as  the  inchoative  is 
derived  from  a  primitive  of  the  first,  second,  or  third  and 
Iburth  conjugation  (in  the  last  two  cases  it  is  iacc);  e*  g^ 

tabasco  froia  labare^  totter. 
pallesco  from  poller e,  be  pale. 
ingemisco  fix)m  geniere^  sigh. 
obdarmisco  from  domUre,  sleep. 

Manj^^  inchoatives,  however,  are  not  derived  from  verbs, 
out  fr-om  >sub8tantivos  and  adjectives,  o.  g.. 


V 

\ 


\ 


etvmology:  or  nouns  and  verbs.  IM 

jmertucOf  I  bocome  cbUdiah,  frotn^mer. 
maturesco,  I  become  ripe,  fi:Dm  maturusy  0,  um. 

All  inchoativus  take  their  perfect  and  the  teiises  deri- 
Ted  fiom  it  fi-om  the  primitiye  verb,  or  form  it  as  it  would 
be  in  the  primitiye.  (See  Chap.  LII.,  the  list  of  the  most 
important  inchoatives.)  It  must,  however,  he  observed 
that  not  all  verbs  ending  in  sco  are  inchoatives.  See  § 
203. 

.  [§  235.]  B.  In  regard  to  the  derivation  of  verbs  from 
nouns,  we  see  that  in  general  the  language  followed  the 
orinciple  of  giving  the  termination  of  the  second  conju- 
gation to  verbs  of  an  intransitive  signification,  and  that  of 
the  first  to  sach  as  have  a  transitive  signification.  Thutr 
we  have,  e.  g.,  . 

(a)  flotf  fiorUf  fiorerey  bloom.  and  from  adjectives : 
fr<MStfrondi9ffr<mdere,  have  fo-        aUnUy  aJUien,  be  white. 

Uage.  cabnUy  calvere,  be  bald. 

vis,  vires,  virere,  be  strong.  Jlavus,  fiavere.  be  yellow. 

Inx,  lucis,  lucere,  shine.  hebes,  hebere,  be  blunt  or  dull 

bat,  aWu»,  aibon,  whitewaaii. 

(b)  nunurut,  numeraref  count. .  •     aptug,  aptare,  fit. 

ngniim,  signage,  ms^rk.  liber,  a,  tun,  Uberare,  liberate.    ' 

frmtMifmdittfntudate,  deceive.        ceUber,  6rw,  bre,  ceUbrart,  make  fte ' 
nomen,  nominis,  nommarey  name.  ^ent,  or  celebrate. 

vulnus,  vtUneris,  vulnerare,  wound,     memorf  memorare,  mention. 
arma,  armare,  arm.  communis,  communicare,  commnni* 

cate. 
.  Both  kinds  are  found  compounded  with  prepositions,  without  the  sim- 
ple verbs  themselves  being  known  or  much  used ;  e.  g., 

Laqueus,  iUaqueare,  entwine ;  acervus,  coacervare,  accumulate ;  stirps,  rx- 
tvfre,  extirpate ;  hit9rim,^emkdmar$,  cheer. 

The  observation  of  §  147  must  be  repeated  here*  that 
many  deponents  c^  the  first  conjugation  (in  ari)  are  deri- 
ved from  substantives  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  '*  to 
hetJiat  which  the  substantive  indicates ;"  e.  g.*  among  tho 
first  Teii)s  in  the  list  there  given,  we  find  aemulari,  ancU- 
larif  ar^itedatiy  aucupari,  augurari;  and,  in  like  man- 
ner, cemes,  comitis,  comkdri;  doihifiM9^^dominari ;  fur 
furari.  See  §  237.  The  Latin  language  has  mii^  fiiioe- 
dotn  in  formations  of  this  kind,  and  we  may  even  now 
iarok  similar  words,  just  as  Persius  invented  (01^  was  the 
first,  as  far  as  we  know,  that  used)  cormcari^  chatter  lik# 
%  crow,  and  Horace  graecari,  live  luxunously,  like  a  Gra^ 


1^  LATIN   GRAMMAR* 

II.   ScrBSTANTITES. 

[§  236.]  Substantives  are  derived: 

A.  From  Verbs. 

1.  By  the  termination  or,  appended  in  place  of  the  um 
of  the  supine  in  transitive  verbs,  to  denbte  a  man  perform 
ing  the  action  implied  in  the  verb ;  e.  g., 

amator^  monitor^         lector^  auditor, 

adulator^        fautor,  conditor^         condltor^ 

adjutor^  censor,  petitor,  largttor, 

%nd  a  great  'many  others.  Those  which  end  in  tor  form 
feminines  in  irix  ;  Baffautrix^  ad^utrix^  mctrix  ;  and  if  in 
uome  cases  no  such  &minine  can  be  pointed  out  in  the 
writings  that  have  come  down  to  us,  it  does  not  follow, 
•lonsidering  the  facility  of' their  formation,  that  there  nev- 
er existed  one.  In  regard  to  the  masculines  in  sor,  the 
formation  of  feminines  is  more  difficult,  but  Umsor  makes 
tonstrix  ;  defensor,  defenstrix  ;  and  exptdsor,  throwing  out 
the  s,  malces  eocpultrix. 

Sjome  few  substantives  of  this  kind  ending  in  tor  are 
formed,  also,  from  nouns ;  as,  aleator,  gambler,  from  alea : 
janitor,  from  janua;  viator,  from  via. 

2.  The  same  termination  or,  when  added  to  the  unal- 
tered stem  of  a  word,  especially  of  intransitive  verbs,  ex- 
oi^esses  the  action  or  condition  denoted  by  the  verb  sub- 
etantively ;  e.  g.,  pavere,  pavor,  fear ;  furere,  fmror^  fury ; 
nitere,  niter,  shine  or  gloss.     So,  «l0o/  e^  g., 

clanHoT^^      alhor^       horror\     'fii/^or^         ardor, 
amor:,         rttbor^.      timor^        ma^ror,      splendor. 

[§  23t.]  3.  Two  terminations,  viz.,  «<?,  gen.  ^«mi^,iind  us, 
gen.  iw,  when  added  to  the  supine  after  throwing  off  the 
um^  express  the  adion  or  condition  denoted  by  die  Terb 
ab8trax!tedly.  Both  terminations  vre  ^vqaently  met  with 
in  substantives  derired  from  the  'ssme  verb,  v^il^oivt  any 
material  diffidence ;  as,  concursio  and  ^xmcursuf,  consensio 
and  consensus;  so,  also,  cohtemptie  and  contempi^eB^  digres- 
sio  and  digressue,  motio  and  m&tus,  potio  and  potus^  tracta 
tio  and  tractatM9,  and  otheni.  .  Sc^ne  verbs  in  are  which 
ha;ire  difier^it  forms  of  the  supine  (see  §  171),  make,  also, 
substantives  of  two  forms ;  thus  we  have  Jricatio  and^ic- 
tioj  lavatio  and  lotio,  potatio  and  potio,  and,  according  tc 
their  analc»gy,  also  cubatio  and  euhitio,  although  the  supin« 
of  cubare  is  cubitum  only. 


ETYMOLOGY   OF   N0U9iS   AMD   VERBS.  Wi 

la  this  maimer  are  formed  &om  aetivefv  and  deponents, 
for  example, 

(a)  sectio,  motto,  lectio,  auditio. 
^^ovnetatio.  cautio,  ultio,  sortUio, 
^acdamatuK  admonition    actio,  largitio*, 

(b)  crepitiis,        Jlcttcs,  cantus,  ambitus, 

sonittu.  visTis.  congressus,     attus. 

Note. — Strictly  speaking,  the  Latin  language  makes  this  difference,  tha 
the  veil)al  substantives  in  io  denote  the  action  or  condition  ao  actually  go 
ing  onv  taoA.  those  In  ««  as  being  and  existing ;  but  this  difference  is  vm- 
quenpy  neglected,  and  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  writers  of  the  silvei 
age  (especially  Tacitus)  prefer  the  forms  in  us  without  at  all  attending  to 
the  aiflerence.  A  third  tennitaation,  producing  pretty  noarly  the  same 
meaiun^,  is  tim;  as  in  jnocum,  painting;  conjectwruy  ccmjecture;  cukura, 
cultivation.  Sometimes  it  exists  along  with  the  other  two,  as  in  positio^ 
positus,  positttra  ;  censioy  censua^  cerisura.  Usually,  however,  one  oi  them 
18  preferred,  .in  practice,  >vith  a  definite  meaning.  Thus  we  nave  mercatut, 
tbe(/narket,  and  mtrcaturaf  commerce.  In  some  substantiiies  the  termi- 
nation jela  produces  the  same  meaning ;  as,  querela,  complaint ;  loquela^ 
^eech ;  corruptela,  corruption. 

^  [§  238.]  4.  Tbe  termination  men  exprejscs  either  the 
thin?  to  which  the  action  belongs,  both  in  an  active  ana 
passive  sense;  tub, J^dmen^  from ^Igerejlightnmg;  Jltimen, 
from  Jluere,  river ;  agmen,  from  agere,  troop  or  army  in 
its  march ;  examen,  from  eodgere^  a  swarm  oi  bees  driven 
out :  or,  the  means  of  attaining  what  the  verb  expresses ; 
e.  g.,  solameitf  a  means  of  consolation ;  nomen  a  means 
of  recognising,  that  is,  a  name.  The  same  thing  is  ex- 
pressed also  by  the  termination  mefUum,  which  sometimes 
occurs  along  with  men, ;  as,  tegm^n  and  tegumentum^  vela- 
m4m  and  velamentum,  but  much  more  frequently  a/*»ne,  as 
in  adjnMentum,  from  adjuvare,,  a  means  of  relief;  condi- 
mentumf  from  condire^  condiment,  i.  e.,  a  means  of  sea- 
soning; documentum,  a  document,  a  means  of  showing  or 
proving  a  thing.     Similar  words  are  t 

alhvamentmn.  monwnmium.  additamentwA  expei-imentum,, 
omameistum.  ^finnentim*      alimentwn,       Uandimentum 

Some  substantives  of  tkis  kind  are  denved  frt)m  nouns 
thus,  'frxHn  ater^  black,  we  have  atramicntum.  The  oon^ 
neoting  vowel  a  before  w.entum^  however,  may  show  that  a 
link  was  conceived  to  exist  between  the  primitive  ater  and 
the  derivative  atramentum^  such,  perhaps,  as  a  verb  atrare 
blacken.  In  like  manner,  we  have  calceamentum,  »  cov 
ering  for  the  feet  {  capillamentumj  a  headdress,  wig. 

[§  239.]  5.  The  terminations  bulnm  and  culum  (or  idum 
when  c  or  g  precedes)  denote  an  instrument  or  a  plaa 

R2 


Idd  LATIlf   GKASniAft 

8ei*ving  a  ceitain  purpose ;  e.  g.»  venahulum^  a  bonter'i 
Bpear;  vehLtdum^  a  vehicle ;  jactdum,  a  javelin;  cimgulum^ 
a  gird  e.     So,  also, 

umbracufunu     cuhicuhim,      ferctdumi       vinculum.^ 
poculum,  latibtdum.        $tahulum.      operculum. 

The  termination  culum  is  sometimes  contracted  into  clum^ 
as  m  vinclum ;  and  clum  is  changed  into  crum^  and  hu- 
lum  into  brum^  when  there  is  already  an  /  in  the  stem  of 
the  word ;  e.  g^^Julcrum^  support ;  lavacrumy  bath ;  tepul- 
crum^  sepulchre ;  Jlagrum,  scourge ;  ventdahrym.  A  simi- 
lar mesming  belongs  to  trum  in  aratrum^  plough;  claus-^ 
trum,  lock ;  rostrum,  beak.  Some  words  of  this  class^are* 
derived  from  substantives ;  as,  turibulum,  censer  ftus,  tu* 
risj;  acetabulum,  vinegar  cruet:  candelabrum,  c^ndelabre. 

6.  Other  and  less  productive  terminations  are  a  and  o, 
which,  when  appended  to  the  stem  of  the  word,  denote 
rhe  subject  of  die  action :  conviva,  guest ;  advena,  stran* 
ger;  scriba^  scvihe ; ^transfuga,  deserter;  erro,  vagrant; 
bibo,  drunkard ;  comedo ^  glutton.  By  means  of  the  termi- 
nation to  words  aie  derived  from  substantives,  denoting 
a  trade  to  which  a  person  belongs ;  as,  ludio^  the  same  as 
histrio,  an  actor ;  peUio,  furrier ;  restio,  rope-maker. 

-ium  expresses  the  effect  of  the  verb  and  the  place  of 
the  action  ;  e.  g.,  gaudium,  joy ;  odium,  hatred ;  collo* 
quium^  colloquy  ;  conjugium  and  comnubium^  man  iage ; 
aedificium,  building,  edifice ;  re-  and  amfugium,  place  of 
refuge ;  comitium^  place  of  assembly. 

tgo  expresses  a  state  or  condition ;  origo,  from  oriri^ 
origin ;  vertigo,  giddiness  ;  rubigo,  a  blight ;  .petigo  and 
impetigo,  scab ;  prurigo,  itch ;  and  hence,  porrigo,  scur£ 
A  similar  meaning  belongs  to  ido  in  cupido,,  libido^  formido* 

[§  240.]  6.  From  other  Substancires. 
1.  The  diminutives,  or,  as  QuintiHan,  i.,5, 46,  calls  them, 
vocahula  demiuMta,  are  mostly  formed  by  the  terminotioiis 
aius^  ida,  ulum,  or  cuius,  a,  um,  according  to  the  gender  of 
the  primitive  word :  ulus^  a,  um,  is  appended  to  the  stem 
afier  the«removal  of  the  termination  of  the  oblique  cases, 
e.  g.,  virga^  virgula  ;  servus^  servmlus,*  puer^  puerulus;  rex 
(regis J ^  regulus;  caput  (capitis J ^  capittdum}    So,  also, 

*  [The  student  ought  lo  have  been  informed  here  that  in  vmc-w/tim,  at 
in  jac-tUtant  the  c  belongs  to  tne  stem,  while  in  oper-culvm  it  belongs  to  the 
termination.]— Am.  Ed. 

t  [A  much  simpler  classiticatim  than  the  one  here  givpn  may  lie  fourid 
is  Priscian.  viz. : 


ETTMOLOCIT   OV   ItOUNB   AND   VBIBS.  IM 

pcrttla,      nummnlns,    rajmlum*       facula, 
iL^tsrula*    horiulus,        oppidulum,    adoUseemtului* 

XwutofxA  of  ulus^  a,  um^  we  find  olus^  a,  um,  when  the  ter 
mination  of  the  primitiye  substantive^  us,  a^  um,  is  prece* 
ded  by  n  vowel ;  e.  g., 

Jlliolus.  glariola,  ingeniolum. 

alveolus.  linecia,  horreolum. 

The  terminatioQ  ddus^  a^  mm^  is  sometimes  appended  to 
the  nominatiye  ¥rithout  any  diange,  viz.,  in  the, words  in 
I  and  r,  and  those  in  os  and  us  of  the  third  declension* 
which  take  an  r  in  the  genitive ;  e.  g., 

'corculunu       Jraterculus.     floscuius.      muHMSculum. 
tuberculum.     sororcula.         asculum,       carpusculum. 

And  so,  aiaOf  pulvisculus,  vasculum,  from  vas^  vasis;  arhus-^ 
cula,  from  the  form  arbos ;  and,  in  a  somewhat  different 
manner,  rumusculus,  from  rumor  ;  lintriculus  and  ventricu^ 
lus^  from  linter  and  venter.  Sometimes  the  s  of  the  nom* 
mative  terminations.t>  and  c«  is  dropped,  as  in 

igniculus.         aedicula,        nubecula.  dieculm. 

pisciculus.        pellicula.        tulpecula.         plcbecida. 

In  words  of  other  terminations  of  the  third  declension, 
and  in  those  of  the  fourth,  i  steps  in  83  a  connecting  vow- 
el between  the  stem  of  the  word  and  the  diminutive  ter^ 
mination  cuius  ;  e.  g., 

pomticulus.        denticulus^^       versiculus,         anicuia. 
partunda.  ossiculum.         articulus.  corAiculum.^ 

coticula.  reticulum.         sensiculus.        geniculum. 

The  teimination  dlus^  a,  um^  occurs  only  in  those  words 
of  the  first  and  second  declensions  which  have  /,  n,  or  r 
in  their  terminations^  Thus,  oculus  makes  ocellus;  tabula^ 
fahella;  asinus^  asdius;  liber ^  libeUus;  libra,  lihella  *  lu» 
crum,  lucellum.    So,  also,  popellus^JabeUa,  lametta^  patel- 

(A)  If  the  primitive  be  of  the  first  or  second  declension.  'mtu»,  •«,  -wm,  is 
a4€fM. ;  the  gender  depending  on  that  of  the  primitiTe. 

(B)  If  it  oe  of  the  third,  fourth,  or  fifth,  -cuhu,  -a,  -wn,  is  preferred. 

The  exceptions  arise  from  contraction,  or  euphonic  variety.  If  the 
item  of  the  first  or  second  declension  terminate  in  /,  n,  r,  a  cobtractioD 
generally  takes  place,  pro  lacing  the  temunation  -eUut^  -a,  -um,  or  -Ulug, 
-a,  "vm.  Thus,  besides  puendua,  we  have  jmellut ;  and  the  seciondary  form 
puellula.  If  it  end  in  t  or  e,  then  -olus  is  written  for  -tUus.  With  respect 
to  the  other  declensions,  if  the  stem  end  in  any  of  the  harsher  consonants 
•t  gt  ^  df  the  first  termination  without  the  guttural  is  naturally  preferred 
If  It  end  in  on^  then  -unculux  is  written  instead  of -ftncu/iM.  {Journal  mj 
KdicatioH,  vol  i.,  p.  \Qt.)]—Am.  Ed. 


lum.  CuteUa  is  the  same  as  cisttda^  and  thence  we  hava 
again  cisteUida,  just  as  pudlula  from  puella.  Catellm 
from  canU^  and  porcelltts  from  porous^  cannot  be  brought 
under  any  rule.  The  termination  illtis^  a,  uiUy  occurs 
more  rarely,  as  in  bacillum,  ngiUum,  tigillm/ii  piipittus, 
like  pupulii^,  from  the  obsolete  pupus;  villum  from vinum, 
'  So,  also,  coiicillt^f  lapillus,  anguilla.  The  termination 
imdfd'ttSy  fl,  urn:,  is  appended  chfeSy  tb  words  in'^,  g6ii.  onh 
**r  inis ;  as,  .     w       . 

scrmunculus,        ratiuncula.  ,    liomunculus, 

pugiunculus.    '     quaestiuncula,         .  virguncula, 

A  few  diminutives  of  this  sort  are  formed  also  frono 

words  of  other  terminations,  viz.,  avunculus  from  avu^ 

domunculg,  from  domus^  Jurunculus  fvom  Jur,  ranuncvhu 

from  rana.     The  diminutive  termination  leus  occurs  sel 

dom;  but  it  is  found  m  cquus^  equuleus ;  actcs^  eundcus 

Mnnus,  Mnnuletis, 

JVbtc— Only  a  few  diminutives  differ  in  gedder  from  their  primitive 
words ;  as,  aeuUuSf  from  €umSf  fern. ;  curriculumt  from  curruSf  masc. ;  and, 
also^  nmmculust  from  rana,  and  acmnilhu  (a  footstool),  from  tcommtm,  along 
witn  which,  however,  we  also  find  the  regular  dminutives  rantua  and 
Bcanui^vm.  Hence  there  are  instances  of  donUo  ^minuUves  in  ctsei 
where  the  primitives  have  donble  forms  (see  698) ;  e.  g.,  ca<i7/u«.and  catil- 
•lum  ;  piteolus  -and  pUeolum,  and  a  few  others.  The  diminutives  of  comtaion 
nonns  (^  40)  are  said  %6  have  regularly  tWafo  ms,  onein  u«  and  the  otb* 
cr  in  a,  to  designate  the  two  sexes ;  as,  infantvlus  and  ir^tmtvla^  <»runci4««, 
a,  fromin/an«  and  tiro. 

[§  241.]  2.  The  termination  ium  appended  to  the  radi- 
cal syllable  of  the  primitive  expresses  either  an  assem 
blage  of  things  or  persons,  or  their  relation  to  one  anoth- 
er; e.  g.,  codlega,  collegium^  an  assembly  of  men  who  are 
collegae  (colleagues)  of  one  another;  so  c<?w«wtt?w,  repast, 
or  assembjy  of  convivae ;  servitium,  the  domestics,  also 
servitude;  sdcerddtium,  the  office  of  priest;  minister  ^min* 
isteriunif  service ;  extdy  exilium^  exile ;  consvrs^  consorUum^ 
community.  When  this  termination  is  appended  to  ver* 
bal  substantives  in  or^  it  denotes  the  place  of  the  .action 
as  in  repositorium,  repository;  conditorium,  a  place  where 
a  thing  is  kept,  tomb ;  auditorium^  a  place  where  people 
assemble  for  the  purpose  of  listening  to  a  person. 

[§  242.]  3.  -arium  denotes  a  receptacle ;  e.  g.,  grana^ 
rium^  a  granary  or  place  where  grain  is  kept ;  armarium 
farmaj,  a  cupboard ;  armamentarium^  arsenal,  or  place 
where  the  armamcnta  arc  kept     Sc  also,  plantarium  'mi 


ETYMOL003f   OJF   HQU|I0    AND    VERBS.  t)^} 

$emi9uirium^  aerarmm,  cqluinbarU^mi  tahularmm^  valetudh 
Barium. 

[§  243.]  4.  'Uumf  appended  to  the  names  of  plants,  de- 
notes the  place  where  fliey  grow  in  great  number ;  e.  g., 
qtiercus,  quercetum,  a  plautatiou  of  oaks ;  so,  also,  viitetumf 
Umretum^  escvletum^  dumetum^  myrUtumf  olivetum  ;  and,' 
after  the  same  analogy,  saaxtum^  a  field  covered  with 
etones ;  and,  with  some  change,  salictum  (from  galixjt 
pasture,  instead  of  ^aUceimm;  virgtUtum  instead  of  vir-^ 
guletum  y  arbustumy  from  arbos  (for  arbor J^  instead  of  ar* 
boretum. 

[J  244.]  5.  -i/e,  appended  to  names  of  ani^ials,  indicates 
liho  place  in  which  diey  are  kept;  e.  g.,  bubUe  (rarely  bo^ 
ffilejf  stall  of  oxen ;  equile^  stable  (of  horses) ;  so,  also, 
eaprile^  hoedile,  ovile.  Some  which  are  formed  from  verbs 
indicate  the  place  of  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb;  as, 
cubill^^  gedUe.  All  these  words  are  properly  neuters  of 
adjectives,  but  their  other  genders  are  not  used.  .  Conv. 
pare  §  250. 

[§  245.]  6.  With  regai'd  to  patronymics,  or  names  of 
descent,  which  the  Latin  poetshave  adopted  from  the  po- 
etical language  of  the  Greeks,  the  student  must  be  refer 
red  to  the  Greek  Grammar,  The  most  common  termina- 
tion is  tdes;  as,  Priamus^JPriamidee;  CecropsyCecropides; 
names  in  eus  and  des  make  ides  (£t($^c)  l  6.  g.,  Attides,  Pe- 
Tides,  Heraclidae*  The  names  in  as  of  the  first  de.clen 
aion  make  their  patronymics  in  odes;  ^yAeneas^  Arcades. 
The  termination  iades  should  properly  occur  only  in  names 
ending  in  ius,  such  as  Thestius,  Thestiades ;  but  it  is 
used  also  in  other  names,  according  to  the  requirements 
itf  the  particular  verse;  as,  Laertes,  Xtaertiades ,'  Atlas^ 
Atlantiades ;  AbaSy  AbarUiades;  Tdanwn,  Telamaniades, 

The  feminine  patronymics  are  derived  from  the  mascu- 
lines,  tdes  being  dianged  into  is^  Ides  into  eis^  and  iades 
into  ias;  e.  g.,  T&ntalides^  Tantalis;  Ncr.^us  /NeridesJ^ 
jNereis;  Thestius  ( Thestiades J^  T^estias.  Aeneades  (firom 
Aeneas)  alone  makes  the  feminine  ^eneis,  because  the  regf 
nlar  feminine,  AenecLs,  would  bo  the  same  as  the  primitivo. 
In  some  instances  we  find  the  termination  inc  or  ione  /  as, 
Neptunine^  AcrisioTie. 

[§  246.]  C.  From  Adjectives. 

1.  The  termination.  2^a^  is  the  most  common  in  forming 
•ttbttantives  denotnig  the  quality  expressed  by  die^adjec 


902  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

tive  fts  an  abstract  notion,  and  is  equivalent  to  the  Biiglish 
ty  or  ity.  Tho  adjective  itself,  in  appending  tto*,  under- 
goes the  same  changes  as  in  its  obhque  cases,  especially 
in  the  one  which  ends  in  t.  Thus,  &om  atrox^  atroci,  we 
obtain  atrocitas;  from  ct^ndus^  cupidi,  cupiditas.  ^o, 
also,  capax^  cajnicitas;  celer^  cderitas ;  saluber^  salubri' 
t€u  ;  cruddis,  erudelUas  ;  Jacilisj  faciMta$  ;  clarus,  dart- 
las;  fecundtu^  focunditas;  verus,  Veritas.  lAbertas  is 
formed  without  a  connecting  vowel,  ^n^facultas  and  difi' 
cultas  with  a  change  of  the  vowel,  as  in  the  adverb  dijffi' 
culter. 

The  adjectives  in  iua  make  their  substantives  in  ietas  ; 
e.  g.,  anxietas,  ebrietas,  pietas^  varieUu ;  those  in  stu4 
make  them  in  stas :  hanestdsy  venustas^  vetustas;.  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner,  potestas  and  voluntas  are  formed  from  posse 
and  velle. 

2.  Another  very  common  termination  is  ta,  but  it  oc- 
curs only  in  substantives  derived  from  adjectives  of  one 
termination,  which  addta  to  the  crude  form  of  the  oblique 
cases.  From  audax,  dat.  audaci^  we  have  audacia,  and 
from  concors^  concordif  cokcordia.  So,  also,  clemens,  cle- 
merUia  ;  constans,  consiantia  ;  impudentia,  degantia  ;  ap- 
petentia  and  despicientia  occur  along  with  appetitio  and 
appetitus,  despectio  and  despectus.  Some  adjectives  in  us 
and  cr,  however,  likewise  form  their  substantives  in  ia  / 
e.  g.,  miser i  miseria  ;  angustus^  angustia ;  perfidies,  per* 
fidia;  and  several  verbal  adjectives  in  cundtts;  ^Mffaam- 
dusj  Jacundia ;  iracundus,  iracundia ;  verecundus,  tAsre* 
cundia, 

[§  247.]  S.  There  are  numerous  substantives  in  which 
tudo  is  appended  to  the  case  of  the  adjective  ending  in  it 
e.  g.,  ctcritudo^  aegrittido^  altiiudo^  crastitudOf  longituda, 
magnitudo,  Yortitudo,  siniiiitudo  ;  and  in  polysyllablefl  in 
tus,  tudo  du-ectly  grows  out  of  this  termination,  as  in 
consuetudOf  tnansuetudo,  inquietudo,  soUicitudo,  Valetudo 
stands  alone.  Some  of  these  substantives  exist  along  with 
other  forms ;  as,  heatUudo^  daritudo,  firmitudo^  lenitudat 
and  sanctitudoy  along  with  BecUitas,  darita^y  firmitas,  hcc. 
In  these  cases  the  words  in  udo  seem  to  denote  the  dura- 
tion and  peculiarity  of  the  quality  more  than  those  in  xtas^ 
To  these  we  must  add  the  termination  monia,  which  pro- 
duces the  same  signi  ^cation,  e.  g.,  sancdmoniaf  castinuh 
ma^  euyrimonia^  after  tho  analogy  of  whicl-*  parsimonin 


BTTMOLOaY   OF  NOUNS   AND   VERBS<  jM8 

■ml  ^tterimomia  (stronger  than  querda)  are  fo:*nied  from 
verbs. 

4.  Substanti\es  in  itia^  firom  adjectives  in  tis^  are  of 
more  rare  occurrence;  B&^justiHa,1aoTayu$t'iUfju9tu  -So, 
avaritia^  laetitia^  maesHtia^  pudiciUa;  but  also  trisiiiim 
from  tristis, 

5.  The  termination  edo  occurs  only  in  a  few  subataa 
tiyes ;  as,  albedo^  duleedo,  gravedo  (heaviness  or  cold  i«^ 
the  head),  p^iguedo  (along  vrilk  pia^piitudoj. 

III.  Adjectiteb.. 
Adjectives  are  derived : 

.A.  From  Verbs. 

[§  248.]  1.  With  the  termination  bundus^  chiefly  fixMO 
verbs  of  the  first  cotnugation,  e.  g.,  errabmndus,  firom  er- 
rare^  cogitahundus,  trora  cogitare^  grattelabundua,  fitnn 
gratulari,  pcpukUmndus,  £rom  popidari*  Their  signifi- 
cation is,  in  general,  that  of  a  participle  present,  with  the 
meaning  strengthened,  a  circumstance  which  we  must 
express  in  English  by  the  addition  of  other  words ;  e.  g., 
haesitabunduSf  full  of  hesitation ;  deliberabundus^  full  of 
deliberation ;  mirtibundus^  full  of  admiration ;  vener(ibu»- 
du9^  full  of  veneration;  lacrimabundus,  weeping  profusely. 
Thus  Gellius  explains  laetabundus  as  one  qui  tumnde  lae* 
tus  est.  There  are  but  few  adjectives  of  this  kind  derived 
from  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation :  fremehundus,  geme- 
bundusj  furibundus,  ludibuidus,  fMOrtbundus^  nitibundut 
There  is  only  one  fix)m  a  verb  of  the  second  conjugation, 
Yiz.f  pudibundus ;  and,  likewise,  only  one  from  a  verb  of 
the  fourth,  kudvibundus, 

JVbic. — ^These  yerbal  adjectives  in  6tmA<«,  however,  cannot  be  regarded 
as  mere  participles,  for  in  general  they  do  not  gpvem  any  case.  But  we 
find  in  Livy  the  expressions  vitabundua  emstra,  mirabundi  vanam  speciem.  A 
considerable  list  of  such  expressions  is  given  in  Ruddimannns,  Jnatit, 
Chramnfot^  Lot.,  torn,  i,  p.  300,  ed.  Lips. 

Some  verbal  adjectives  in  cmulua  are  of  a  similar  kind: 
Jiummdus,  eloquent ;  iractmduSf  irascible ;  ijerpcundus^  full 
of  bashfulness ;  rubicujulua^  the  same  as  rubens^  reddiish. 
[§  249.]  2.  The  ending  u2im,  chiefly  in  adjectives  formed 
fixnn  intransitive  verbs,  simply  denotes  the  quality  ex- 
pressed by  the  verb ; 

cdliduiy  from  edhre^  rubidts^  fW»n  rubere. 

algidus^  from  algere^         turgidus,  &om  turgere. 
vutdidus.  from  madere^     rafidut^  from  rapert,  . 


904  •   LATm  ORAHMAB. 

The  teiminofeicNi  toM  iaf  of  mote  rare  ocoonerse ;  «.  ^, 
congruus,  from  congruo,  agreeing;  assiduus,  nocuus  aad 
mrwcuus.  When  derived  fix>m  transitive  verbs,  it  gives  to 
the  adjective  a  passive  meaningr  as  in  irriguus^  well  wa> 
Ipred ;  conspicuus^winble ;  i7idividuu9^  indivisible. 

3.  The  terminations  ilis  and  bilis  denote  the  possibility 
of  a  thing  in  a  passive  sense ;  e.  g.,  amdbUU^  easy  to  love, 
hence  amiable  ;  placabUis,  easy  to*  be  conciliated ;  dele* 
hilis,  easy  to  be  destroyed;  vrndbiUs,  easy  to  be  coo- 
xjuered ;  fadlisy  easy  to  do ;  dociUs,  docile ;  fragilis,  fira- 
gile.  Some  of  these  adjectives,  however,  have  an  ac;|ive 
meaning:  Awn^iZw,  producing  horror,  horrible ;  terribilis, 
terrible,  that  is,.proauciBg  terror;  foitilis^  fertile. 

4.  '•aoi^  appended  to  the  stem  of  the  verb,  expvesses  a 
[HTopehsity,  and  generally,  a  &ulty  one;  * 

pugnctx,  '  fwrm^ 

edax  and  vwax,  uudax, 

loquax,  rapax," 

The  few  adjectives  in  itlus  have  a  similar  meaning;  hm 
eredulus,  credulous ;  bibulus^  fond  of  drittkitig ;  quertdus^ 
querulouis. 

[§  250.]  B.  Prom  Substantives,  viz. 

(a J  From  Appellatives : 

.1.  The  ending  ^t^  demotes  the  material,. and  sometimes 
similarity;  e.  g.,      ; 

'  Jerreus,        lignemt.        piumheu$»        virgmeut. 
amreua*         citreus.  cmereM,  igneiu, 

argcT^w*    hux6m*         oorporieui*        vitrem. 

Some  adjectives  of  this  kind  have  a  double  £)rm  in 
•%eus  and  -rat^/  as,  ehumeus  and  ebwmusy  Jiculneui  and 
ficuVnuB^  iligneus  and  Uigntis,  quemeiis  and  qtiemus,  sa- 
lignetM  and  8aligwus» 

2.  "tcus  expresses  belonging  or  relating  to  a  thing; 
e.  g.,  clasgicutj  &om  classis^:  civicus,  relating  to  a  citizen; 
dqminicu»,  belonging  to  a  tnaster;  rustieus,  rural;-  auHcus^ 
relating  to  a  court ;  bdHcus^  relating  to  war,  &c. 

3.  The  termination  Uis  (con^are  §  20)  has  the  s^me 
meaning,  but  assumes  also  a  moral  signilic^tion ;  eg., 
civilis  and  hostilis,  the  same  as  civicus  B.nd  hostityiM^,  bilt 
also  answering  to  iftac  civil  and  hostile*  So.  servilu^  seni^ 
lis  J  (tnUigt  ju9enilis,  puerUis,  virilis.  , 

4.  The  endings  aeeustaid  inius  sometimes  express  a  raa 


ETYMOLOGT   Or  NOUNS    AJiD    V  S»Iiq  905 

Mtal  and  8i>nietiined  tiie  mgin ;  e.  g.,  c^<zrteo<eir«,  .'^•**fi%.  r • 

hunidtia.  So,  also,  those  derived  from  parnciple^ :  coilc 
tieiM9^  arisen  &om  oontHbutions ;  coTm^mticiTis^  fictitious 
jtubditumSf  suppositkkms,  and  otbeiis. 

[§  251.]  6,  The  tennination  alis  (in  English  alj  is  ap* 
pended-  iiot-<»ily  ^  wcHrds  in  a,  but  also  to  subetantireA 
0f  other  tetiiMttaticHiSy  in  whieh^  ho^ev^*,  the  temunatiou 
m  appended  to  the  crude  form  of  the  oblique  cases ;  e<  g., 
ancora,  conviva,  letumr-^ancoralisy  convivalis^  letalis ;  but 
from  rea?,  regis^  we  have  regalis  ;  virgo,  virginalis  ;  sacer- 
doiy  sacerdotalis ;  caput y  capttalis;  corpus,  corporalis.  So, 
also,  atiguralisy  aditialis,  comitialis,  annalis,  fluvialiSf  viov' 
talis^  novalisj  socialis,  and  others.  Also  fit>m  proj^er 
names ;  as,  Augtistalu,  Cktudtali$,  Flcmalis^  Trajanalis^ 
to  denote  classes  of  priests  instituted  in  honour  of  those 
emperors.  The  endmg  aris  is  somewhat  more  seldom, 
and  principcdl J  ocscurs  in  such  words  -as  contain  an  I ; 
^ch  as  articukiru^  eonmlaru^  j^PP^^^y  pueUaris^  vuU 
garis,  ApoUvkaris. 

The  termination  a4/ilis  denotes  fitness  for  the  thing  ex- 
pressed by  the  root ;  "Sid,  aqtsatUu,  JlupiaHUs,  volatilig, 

6.  The  termination  ius  occur?  most  frequently  in  de*- 
rivatives  £:0m  personal  npuns  in  or  ;  c  g.,  accwatoritis, 
amatorvus^  aleaiorws,  censoriuf,  imperatoriuSf  praetorius, 
UQCortus*  It  Occujr»  more  rarely  in  substantives  of  other 
terminations,  though  we  have  regius,  patritts^  aqndlanius. 
From  substantives  m  or  which  do  not  denote  persons,  but 
abstract  notions,  adjectives  are  formed  by  simply  append- 
ing wy  as,  decor,  d^eorm;  and  so,  also,  canorusj  odorus, 
lumoftys  (less  frequently  used  than  honestuaj. 

[§  ^$2.]  7.  -mm  is  found  especially  in  derivations  from 
names  ot  animals  (especially  to  denote  their  flesh) ;  ©.  g., 

immnus*        feriMUs^  lutedinus,        anserinui, 

canmus,         eqmnus*  caballinus.      anatinus, 

tamdinMA,  tOMrinus.  arietintts*  vipermus. 
But  it  also  occurs  in  :adjeetiv6s  derived  from  names  of 
other  living  beings;  e.  g^  divinus,  libertinus,  inquilinui 
(firGfin  ineolajy  masculinus^  femimnua  (martmts^  living  in 
the  sea,  btatids  alone).  Medioma^  sutrina,  tonstrina,  pis* 
trinum^  textrinum,  are  to  be  explained  by  the  ellipsis  of  a 
•abstantive,  and  deti(^e  the  locality  in  which  the  art  or 
tnie- 19  csanied  on 

a 


$06  IMIIN  GRAMMAl. 

The  tennifiation  inuSf  on  the  other  hand,  occurs  ebiefljf 
in  derivations  from  names  of  plants  and  minerals,  to  de- 
note the  material  of  which  a  thine  is  made ;  e.  g.,  cedti 
nuSf  Jagmus,  adamanHnus,  crysUiumus,  and  the  ending 
^us  in  derivative  adjectives  denoting  time;  as,  cras^nus, 
ditUmu8,  homoHnus,  annodnus.     See  §  20. 

8.  The  termination  ariMs  expresses  a  general  reladon 
to  the  nonn  from  vrhich  the  adjective  is  formed,  but  Inore 
particiilarly  the  occupation  or  profession  of  a  person;  e.  g^ 

coriarius.      carhonarius,    scapharius.      ostiariut. 
statuarius,     aerarius,  navicularius.   connliarius. 

sicarius,        argentarius.    codicarius,       classiarius. 

9.  The  ending  osus  denotes  fulness  or  abundance;  as  in 

nerunmMMs,         aquatuM.  hdlicoius* 

animosus*  lapidostu.         cqliginosu9, 

artificiosus,  vinasus.  tenebricosus. 

The  ending  uasu*  occurs  excluuvely  in  derivations  from 
words  of  the  fourth  declension:  actuosus^portutmu^saU^ 
osus^  vultuasus  ;  but  also  monstruosus,  which  is  used  along 
with  mofutrdMua, 

10.  The  termination  laUu9  denotes  plenty,  and  is  com- 
monly preceded  by  the  vowel  u,  and  sometmies  by  o  .* 

JrauduUntMs.        vincHentus,  pulveruleiUus. 

turhvlentus,  opulentui.  vudentus. 

tsculentMM.  potuktUus.  sangumolejUus* 

11.  Less  productive  and  significant  terminations  are: 
'anuSf  which  denotes  belonging  to  a  thing ;  urhanus^moH' 
tanus^  humanus  (from  homo)  (respecting  the  adjectives 
formed  £rom  numerals  by  means  of  this  termination,  see 
§118.  Thus,  we  findyeim  tertiana,  quartana,  a  fever  re- 
turning every  third  or  fourth  day) ;  ivus  generally  denotes 
the  manner  or  nature  of  a  thing :  Jurtivus^  votivus^  aesti- 
vus^  tempesHvus ;  also  from  participles :  captivus^  naiivus^ 
sativus  ;  emUs  denotes  origin :  Jratemus,  matemMS^  pater^  • 
nui,  il^emus^  extemus.  The  same  termination  and  umu$ 
occur  in  adjectives  denoting  time :  vemut^  hikemuif  ku» 
temus^  aetemus  (fix)m  aevitemusj,  dtumms,  noctumus; 
litmus  occurs  in  Jinitinius,  legitimus^  maritimus.  The 
termination  ^steTf  in  the  adjectives  mentioned  in  §  100,  de- 
notes the  place  of  abode,  or  a  quality. 

S§  253.]  A  very  extensive  class  of  derivative  adjeodvei 
[  in  atui^  like  participles  perfect  passive  of  the  iiiil 


ETYMOLOGY   OF   NOUNS   AND   VEftBS.  9DT 

conjugation,  butt  they  are  deriyed  at  once  fixmi  substan- 
tives, without  its  being  possible  to  show  the  existence  of 
an  intermediate  ^erb.  Thus  we  have,  e.  g.,  aurum  and 
auratus,  gilt ;  but  a  verb  aurare  does  not  occur,  and  its 
existence  is  assumed  only  for  the  sake  of  derivation. 
Some  adjectives  of  this  kind  are  formed  from  substantives 
in  u  and  end  in  Uus;*  as,  imtUuSf  provided  with  ears;  jpe/- 
Ittus,'  covered  with  a  skin ;  turritmst  having  towers;  and 
so,  also,  mdlitua,  sweet  as  honey.  Some  few  are  formed 
oy  the  ending  utU9  from  substantives  in  U8,  gen.  us  ;  as, 
cotmUus^  OAtutMs  ;  and,  according  to  this  analogy,  nasutusy^ 
fit>m  nonet f  t.     Those  in  atut  are  very  numerous ;  e.  g., 

barhatus»  cdceatus,  aerdtus. 

togatus.  dipeatus,  dentatus, 

galeatug,  octdatui.  Jalcatus. 

• 

[§  254.]  fbj  From  Proper  Names. 

We  may  here  distinguish  four  classes:  1,  names  of 
men ;  2,  of  towns ;  B,  of  nations ;  4,  of  countries. 

1.  The  termination  ianus  is  the  most  common  in  form- 
ing adjectives  from  Roman  names  of  men,  not  only  from 
those  ending  in  ius^  such  as  TuUianuSf  Servilianus^  but 
also  from  those  in  us  and  other  endings ;  as,  CrassianuSy 
Marcdlianus,  Paidianus^  Caesarianus^  Catonianus^  Cicc- 
ranianus :  amis  occurs  only  in  names  in  a,  and  is  there- 
fore found  less  frequently;  as,  CinfianuSf  Svlla/nus;  still, 
on  the  other  hand,  we  find  septa  Agrippiana,  legio  Gal- 
biana,  Crracckus  is  the  only  name  in  us  that  commonly 
makes  Gracckanus/  'for  Augustanusj  Lepidanus^  and  Lu- 
cullanus  occur  along  With  Augustianus^  Lepidiaitus^  and 
Ltucullianus.  The  termination  inus  is  found  chiefly  in  de- 
rivatives from  names  of  families,  e.  g.,  Messdlinus,  Pau- 
Unus,  Rufinus,  Agrippma^  Plancina  ;  in  real  adjectives  it 
occurs  much  more  rarely,  but  it  is  well  established  in 
Jugurtka^  Jugurthinus  (for  which,  however,  Jugurihanus 
also  might  have  been  used) ;  Plautus,  Plautinus;  Verres, 
Verrinusy  Us  distinguish  them  from  Plautiusy  Plautianuss 
Verriusy  Verriawus.  In  Suetonius,  moreover,  we  find  hd* 
lun^  Viriathinumy  fossa  Drusina,  and  in  Cicero  oratio  3fe- 
■'  ■ — - — ——I ' — ' ' ■ 

*  [AMrituM^  ptlUUu^  &c.,  are  the  very  forms  Co  which  analogy  would  lead. 
CfmkxAt  Jwnud  of  Education,  vol.  i.,  p  105.)]— Am,  Ed. 

t  [JVknifiw  is  toot  a  Terr  irregular  form,  when  we  consider  the  conveiti- 
kiUly  of  the  vowels  S  and  H,  or  4  and  H ;  and  the  consequent  confusion  iu 
t  #  many  words  between  the  second  and  fourth  declensions.]— ^m  EfL 


Q08  I#A7IA   G&AM|IAR« 

teUina  (an  oratioii  delivered  against  Mele)lu6)i  aii  Att ,.  i  . 
13 ;  hdlum  AtUwckirmm^  Philip*^  xi.«  7 ;  and  partes  AjUik* 
cMnae^  ad  Fam.,  ix.,  8.    The  tenBin£^tioiv^«#  in  Coiisareus 
Ilerculeus,  Romuleus,  is  used  only  by  poets. 

There  are  two  terminations  for  forming  adjectives  froa 
Grcek> names  of  men,  eus  or  ius  (in  Greek  £to^,  see  §  2) 
BXkdtcuB.  Some  names  form  adjectives  in  both,  terminar 
tions  with  a  slight  difference  in  moaning,  e.  g.,  PhUippeus 
and  PhiUppicuif  Pythagoreus  and  Pythagoricua^  hocrate- 
UM  and  Iweraticus^  JS^merius  dJud^M^m^ricuA,  Of  others^, 
ono  form  only  is  used;  B^JDemaathfiHicMf  Platanicm,  So- 
craticus^  To  those  we  must  add  those  in  -i^cua,  formed, 
from  names  in  ias,  e.  g.,  Archiag,  On  the  other  hand,  we 
have  AMtiochiu$^  Aristotelius,  pr,  with  a  different  pronunci- 
ation, Achilleus^  Epicureuif  Mcracleus^  Scphocletis^  Tkeo' 
doreus,'  Sometimes  adje/ctives  in  hu  are  formed,  also, 
from  Latin  names,  though,  at  the  best  period  of  the  lan- 
guage, never  without  a  ddfinite  reason ;  e.  g.,  in  Cictjro^ 
in  Verr.f  iii.,  49,  MarceUeit  apd  Verrea,  Greek  festivals  iii 
honour  of  those  persons  ;  but  afterward  we  find,  without 
this  peculiar  meaning,  Augusteus,  Luctdleus  (in  Pliny  and' 
Suetonius)^  NeroTteus,  Roman  objects  being  thus  designa 
ted  by  words  with  a  Greek  termination. 

Note.— It  must,  however,  be  observed  that  the  Roman  gentile  names  in 
iiu  were  ohginauT  adjectives,  and  were  always  used  as  such.  We  thus 
read  lex  GonuUa,  JnUoj  TuUk^  vt*  Flftnmidf  Valeria,  ^pp*^  oput  J^<h  <^^ 
cut  FlaminiuSf  tktatrum  Pompeivm,  horrea  Stdpicia,  instead  of  the  adjeetives 
m  anus.  Nay,  the  Romans  made  this  very  pro]:^r.  distinction,  that  the  ad- 
jectives in  ius  denoted  everytHntg  which  originated  with  the  pejrson  in 
question,  ^nd  was  destined  for  pubuc  use,  white  those  inoniuiih^otedtha^ 
which  was  named  after  the  person  for  some  reisison  or  other ;  e.  g.,  2ar  Sut 
piciui  but  seditk)  Svlpidana;  aqua  Appia^  but  mola  Appiana;  ptnficus  Pont' 
peia,  but  dassis  Ponmeiana,  6cc.  Tne  fbarmer  meaning  is  also  expressed 
when  the  name  itself  is  used  adjectively ;  as,  aqua  Trajana,  partus  Tra^^ 
nusf  though  an  adjective  in  ianus  was  formed  even  from  names  ending  ii; 
anus  ;  as,  mahim  Sejanutnum,  SChan  &lamanunu  Acc(»ding  to  this  anal« 
ogy,  Augustus t  a,  wn,  was  Used  for  AugustianuSf  Augustanus,  or  Augustalis ; 
e.  g.,  dtmus  AugusUif  pax  Augusta,  scriptores  kistoriae  Augtutae.  The  poets 
went  atHl  farther,  and  Horace,  for  example  {Carm.,  iv.,  5, 1),  sayB,  K&mu* 
lae  gerUis  custos,  for  Rottudsae, 

[^255.]  2.  From  names  of  places,  and  diiefly  from 
those  of  towns,  adjectives  are  derived  ending  in  ensis^  wui^ 
as^  and  dniia. 

(a)  -ensis,  also  from  common  or  appellative  nouns,  e.  g., 
castrensis^  from  castra  ;  circejisis^  from  circus ;  and  froxc 
names  of  towns:  Cannae,  Cannensis;  Carina ^  CeUinensvtf 
Ariminum^  Ariminensis:  Cofrtum,  Comensis;  McdtblanvfUk 


ElYMOLQaV' OF    NOVJi9:AfiD    VERbd.  26U 

.  Meokdianemis  /  Suhtw,  Bulmim^nnB  /  fiorii  (Greek)  to wba 
in  ttf  (ea) :  JbUiockenais^  Antigonensis,  Aitalensis,  Nicom- 
edensiSf  buit  in  Heradiensis  the  i  is  preserved. 

(/3)  'im^,  &Gm  names  in  ia  and  ium  /  e.  g.,  Afj^rta, 
AmerinUg ;  Ariciat  Aricmus ;  Phreniiay  Florentinus; 
Ceeudium^  Caudinus^ ;  CUmum^  ClUHnn» ;  Ccamsmmf  CO)- 
nuamus,    Atid  so,  also,  froln  JLatnwt^  Latinus^  and  from 

{y)  *^  (^r  all  genders)  is  used  less  extensively,  «iid 
only  forms  adjectives  from  names  of  towns  in  20971,  thongh 
not  fixun  alL  It  occurs  in  Arpiwum^  Asrpineu;  Aquiftum, 
Aquino;  PriverHumy  Privern4i8/  Fermtinumy  Ferentma$ 
(agerj ;  CanUniem,  Codiiinas  (along  with  CasHinensis). 
But  Ravmi^a  also  makes  Ha/t^ennat;  Capena^  Gapertas  ^ 
Ardea,  Afd^a^f  Inieramna,  Interamnas  {ilm  ager};  Fm 
dno^  FnmnaSi  Antvum  makes  .il«^ia^,  but  we  find  also 
Aiifiense  templum  and  Antiatinue  sortes. 

{6)  -amiSy  from  names  of  towns  in  a  and  ae;  e.  g.,  Roma, 
Romanus.;  Alba,  AJhanus  ;^  Sparta,  Spurtanus ;  Cumae^ 
Oumanua;  Synccttiae,  Syraemanm^  Thebae,  Tkebanus/ 
also  from  some  in  t«m  andi;  Tiactduin,  Titiculanius ;  Fvm* 
di,  Fuftdanus. 

[§  256.]  Greek  adjectives,  however,  formed  from  nam«9 
of  to[wnS)  or  such  as  weve  introduced  into:  Latin  through 
the  literature  of  the  Greeks,  follow  difTerent  rules,  which 
must  be  learned  from  a  Gc^ek  Grammar.  We  will  h^e 
only  remark  that  the  most  frequent  ending  is  his,  by  means 
of  which,  adjective^  are  formed,  also,  from  Grreek  names 
of  countriea  and  islands ;  e..g*,  Aegyptua,  Aegyptiui;  Les* 
bos,  Ltesbius  I  Rkodus^  Rhodnts  ;  CorirUhus,  UorinChms  ; 
]^AesU9i  Mphesiw;,  /JMuSr  C^^  (instead  of  Chiius}; 
Jjdcedaemon,.  Laeeda^magiius  ;  Maratkoni  Marathfmius  / 
Salamisj  SalajniniuB ;  Etetria^  Eretrius*  Other  names 
in.  a  take  the  termination  amu  ;  as,  Smyrna^  Smymaeus  ; 
Tegea,  Tegta^m;  Larissa^Xjorissaeus;  Perga^  Fergaeus, 
and  so,  also,  Camae  (KviiTJ)  makes  the  Greek  adjective 
Oumaeus,  In  the  case  of  towns  not  in  Greece,  even  when 
they  are  of  Gb-eek  origin,  we  most  frequently  find  the  ter- 
mination mtis:  Tarentum,  Tarentiniis;  Agrigentum,  Agri- 
gentinus  ;  Centuripae^  Centuripintes ;  Metapontum,  Mtta* 
pontinus;  Rhegium,  RJieginv^  whereas  the  Latin  Regv 

*•  Albanu*  tf  fc^med  from  Alba  Jjungfi';  Albmsis  from  Alba,  un  Lake  Fu 
cm  IS.  ' 

82 


210  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

um  Lepidi  makes  the  adjective  Regietmsk  It  not  unite- 
quently  happened  that  the  Romans,  as  may  be  obsei*ved 
in  some  instances  ah^ady  mentioned,  formed  adjectives 
from  Greek  names  of  towns  iti  their  own  way,  and  with- 
out any  regard  to  the  Greek  forms ;  e.  g.,  Atkeniensis  in- 
step of  Athenaeus,  Thehantu  instead  of  Thebtieui  (^hile 
Thebaiciu  is  an  adjective  derived  from  the  Egyptian 
Thebes),  Eretriensis  along  with  Eretnus^  SyrttcusoMus 
along  with  Syraeuaius,  Eleusinua  more  frequently  than 
the  Greek  foirm  Eleusimui*  The  Gt^ek  eliding  ev^  was 
most  commonly  changed  into  emis;  sometimes,  however, 
it  was  retained  along  with  the  Latin  form ;  as,  Halicar- 
nasseus  and  Hcdicamassenns.  In  like  manner,  the  Greek 
irrig  was  sometimes  retained,  as  in  AbderUes;  and  some- 
times changed  ii^o  anus,  as  in  PanormiUpauSf  Jk/ndariUi' 
nus,  especially  in  all  the  Greek  names  of  towns  compound- 
ed with  polis ;  as,  NeapoUtanus,  Megalopolitantes.  The 
other  Greek  terminations  aie  usually  retained  in  Latin. 

[§  257.]  3.  From  names  which  ori^ally  belong  to  na- 
tions, adjectives  are  formed  in  icus  and  ius,  in  most  cases 
in  icus;  e.  g.,  from  Afer,  Britaamui^  GaUus,  Germanus,  Ita* 
ItiSf  Marsus^  Medits^  Cdta^  Peraa^  Scytha^  Arabs,  Aetkdops, 
we  have  the  adjectives  Africus,  Britannicus^  Celticus, 
Arabicus,  &c« ;  those  in  ims  are  formed  from  Some  Greek 
names;  as,  Syrusj  Syrius;  Cilixy  Cilicius;  Thrax,  'Vkrd' 
eiui.  Other  names  of  nations  ape  at  once  substantives  and 
adjectivea;  as,  Chraecus^  Etruscus^  Sardut,  or  adjectives 
and,  at  the  same  time,  substanttves}  as,  Romanui^  Latinusi 
Sabinus»  Other  substantive  names,  again,  serve,  indeed, 
as  adjectives^  but  still  form  a  distinct  adjective  in  icus  ; 
n&^  HispavMs^  Hispamcus  ;  Appulms^  Appulicus;  Samms^ 
Samniticus.  In  like  manner,  C^eres^  VeieMs,  Gamers^  Ti- 
bwrs  are  both  substantive^  and  adjectives,  but  still  form 
distinct  adjectives  acc<»:ding  to  the  analogy  of  names  of 
towns:  Caeretanus,  Veient€utms^  Camertinus,  Tiburtinus. 

Note. — U  must  be  remarked  that  poets  and  the  later  proser  writers,  in 
general,  use  the  substantive  form  also  as  an  adjective ;  e.  g.,  Murstu  aper, 
Colcha  venetuif  although  Colchicus  and  Maraicua  exist ;  Hqrat,  Carm,,  iv«^^ 
7,  Dardatuts  turret  quateret;  veis.  12,  m  pulvere  Teuero  ;'  vera.  18,  Aehivi* 
itammia  were^  instead  of  Achaieit.  And  this  is  not  only  the  case  with 
these  forms  of  the  second  declension  which  externally  resemble  adjec* 
tives«  but  Ovid  and  Juvenal  say  Numidae  leones^  Ntmudae  urai^  instead  of 
Numidici ;  and  Persius  says,  -Ugua  era  for  Uguatica.  The  Greek  femhiins 
fonns  of  names  *of  nations  are  likewise  used  as  adjectives ;  thus,  Virgil 
rays,  Creaaa  jJutretra  for  Cretiea,  Auaonia  9ra  for  Auaoma^fixnd  the  like,  lib* 
same  Uberty  is  taken  by  poets  with  the  names  of  rivers  in  ua.  Thus,  Hj 


ETYMOLOGY  OV  NOUNS  AND  VERBS.       211 

•e6i,  CcriK..  iv.f  it  38,  has.  MtUtmtai/Ummn;  de  Art  FoeL,  18,  ihmm 
Rhenum.  Even  prose  writers  sometimes  follow  their  example  in  tois  re- 
spect: Plin.,  Hist.f  Nat.,  iii.,  16,  ostium  Eridanvm;  Caes.,  B.  O.,  iii.,  7, 
and  Tacit.,  Arm.,  i.,  9,  Htst.,  iv.,  12,  mare  Oceamim. 

(f  268  J  4.  The  names  of  countries,  with  some  excep- 
tions, such  as  the  Latin  names  of  districts,  Latium  and 
Samndum,  and  those  horrowed  from  the  Greek  language, 
Aegyptus^  EpirU^^  Persii,  are  themselves  derived  fix^m  the 
names  of  ns^ons;  e.  g.,  Britannia^  Gallia^  Italia,  Syria ^ 
'PhroAMi^  sometimes  with  slight  changes,  as  in  Sardi,  Sar- 
dinia; and  Sicidi,  SicUia.  A/Hca  and  Corsica  are  real 
adjectives,  to  which  terra  is  understood.  From  some  of 
these  countries  adjectives  are  formed  with  the  termina- 
tions enM  and  amcs  ;  as,  Chaeeiensis,  Hispaniensis,  Sicili- 
enxi*  ;  Afiicanus^  GaUicanus^  Cf^rmanicianuSf  which  must 
be  caiefaUy  distinguished  from  the" adjectives  derived  from 
the  names  of  the  respective  nations.  Thus,  exerdtvA  His- 
paniejuii  signifies  an  army  stationed  in  Spain,  but  not  an 
army  consisting  of  Spaniards;  but  spartum  Hispanicum 
is  a  plant  indigenous  in  Spain.  The  following  are  some 
peculiar  adjectives  of  Greek  formation :  Aegyptiacus^ 
Syriacus.  Graecanicus  is  strangely  formed,  and  expresses 
^reek  origin  or  Greek  fashion. 

{§  259.]  C.  From  other  Adjectives. 

Diminutives  are  formed  from  some  adjectives  by  the 
terminations  tduSf  dw,  cuiusj  mdeUus,  according  to  the 
rules  which  were  given  above,  §  S40,  'with  regard  to 
diminutive  substantives*  Thus  we  have  parvulus,  hor- 
ridtiiKti  nasutuhts^  primuius ;  aureoltes;  pauperculu^^  le- 
tnculns,  tri^ictdus  ;  miseUus^  n&oellus^  puldhetlus,  tenellus. 
Double  diminiitives  are  formed  ftom  paucus  and  pau- 
lus ;  pamluhis  cfr  pauosillus,  B.nd.pauasillulus^  a,  um;  and 
from  bonus  (bmus)^  beUus  and  bdluhes.  Respecting  the 
diminutives  derived  from  comparatives,  comp.  §  104,  2. 
Note. 

The  termination  anevs^  appended  to  the  stem  of  an  ad- 
fective  (and  participle)  in  us,  expresses  a  resemblance  to 
^e  quality  denoted  by  the  primitive;  e.  g.,  supervacaneus, 
of  a  scrperfluous  nature ;  but  there  are  only  few  w6rds  of 
this  kind:  rejectaneus^  subitaneus,  oollectaneus^  and,  ac- 
cording to  their  analogy,  consentaneus,  praecidaneus^  sue* 
tidaneus. 

ff  2CfO '  Besides  derivation,  now  words  are  also  ffirme^ 


it\2  LATIV  GEABUIAB.      . 

by.comfositum.  In  examining  such  woi^,  we  may  coO' 
sider  either  the  i5rst  or  the  second  part  of  which  a  com- 
pound consists. 

The  first  word  is  either  a  nouxji,  a  verb,  qr  a  particle. 
The  second  remains  unchanged;  e.  g.^  b^^^ado^  bene- 
fidum,  maledico,  satago  /  a  contraction  takes  place  only 
in  nolo 9  front  ne  (for  non)  and  voh^  .and  in  mMt^,  from 
mage  (fpr  magisj  and  volo.  Prepositions  are  usfid  mora 
frequently  than  any  otiher  particles  in  forming  compound 
words.  Respecting  their  signification  and  t\ie .  changcss 
produced  in  pron^nciation  by  the  meeting  of  heterogene- 
ous consonants,  seQ  Chap.  LXVI,  , 

There  are  only  a  few  words  in  whicl^  verbs  form  the 
fii-st  part  of  a  compound,  and  wherever  this  is  the  .ca«e 
the  verb^acw?  forms  the  latter  part;  as  in  ar^aow^  cale 
fado^  madefaoio^  patefacio^  cpndoa^adQ^  commonefaciQ^ 
assuefadOf  and  cinmiefado-  The  only,  change  in  the  first 
verbs  (which  belong  to  the  second  cpnjugation)  is,  that 
they  throw  pfF  the  o  of  the  present. 

When  the  first  word  is  a  noun  (substantive  or  adjective)t 
it  regularly  ends  in  a  short  f, 

patridda.      armiger,        particeps,         a^quiparo. 

artifex.  aquilifer,        ignivomus,       amplifico, 

tubicen.  capripes,        w/isencors.       hrevUoquefu. 

cauddicm.  cai-nivorus.  nqficapra,  '  oM^ig^m* 
.  aedaficQ.  ielliget:a^  stiUiddium.  viUptrndo, 
tk),  also,  Ucepa^  trtg^minifr^res^  amt^oUa  rosa,  cemtifnamn 
Gyges^  fs:Qimcentv>m^  wberens  otherwise  the  compofikicmB 
with  numerals  are  different;  as,  qtrndrupe^^.^j^iii  -without 
any  change :  qumquer^mis*  A  contraction  takes  place  in 
tiMcenfy:  tibiicm^  ^CHoa  tihm  aadje^mi?,. whereas. in Ywfitbm 
nxid^Jidicen  the  connecting  vowel  is  short^aceordiBg  to-dn 
rule,  there  being  no  i  in  die  words  ^ea^  dtadjidet*  When 
the  second  word  begins  with  a  vowel « the  connectii^  t  k 
thrown  out,  as  in  magnanimus,  unanimis^  with  which  we 
may  compare  tmiinan%a  ^d  vnifomm* 

Those  words  the  par^^  of  wluchcw^  declined  wjparatelx, 
may  likewise  be  regarded  as  compoimds,  although  they 
fi:>rm  one  word  only  in  so  far  as  they  are  commonly  writ:* 
ten  as  such ;  as,  respublica^jti^randum,  rmmarinus^  tres* 
virL  So,  also,  those  of  which  the  first  word  is  a  geiiilave; 
as,  senatusconstdtum^  plebisdtum^  duumvir^  triumvir^  that 
I9y  one  of  the  duoairi  ov  tresvirji. 


ETYMOLOaV   OF   NOUNS   AKD    VEBBB.  *^lH 

jS«t0.r-^The  Greek  laogrtsg.)  regiiluijr  msket  \he  fint  pttrt*  of  «  com 
found,  when  it  is  a  noun,  end*  in  q;  e.  g.,  ^Xcao<^oc,  loyoyp6<t>oc 
^Qfiaro^'Ka^t  '^vpotpolvi^.  As  many  such  Greek  compounds  passed  ovei 
into  the  Latin  language,  such  as  fhHofopkua^  fhilol^w^  fraecottasi*,  Goth- 
graedt  we  may  fonn  similar  compounds  in  modern  l^atin,  but  only  in  the 
case  of  proper  names;  as,  Francogalli,  Graeco-Latinus.  There  is  no  gcod 
feason  for  rejecting  them,  if  they  really  denote  one  thing  which  is  formed 
bv  the  combination  of  two  elements. 

[§261.]  The  latter  wor^  in  the  composition  determines 
to  what  part  of  speech  the  whole  belongs.  In  cempo- 
.  sitions  with  particles,  the  second  word  either  remains  un- 
changed, dr  undergoes  only  a  slight  variation  in  its  Vbwel. 
This  variation  must  be  here  considered,  especially  with 
i*egard  to  the  radical  vowel  of  the  vefb ;  for  the  vowels 
>,  o,  u^  a  and  e  remain  unchanged,  as  in  ascnhOy  commmor, 
appano,  excolo,  adduco,  illibor,  subrepo  ;  l)ut  a  and  e,  and 
the  dij^thong  ae,  frequently  undergo  a  change :  1.  a  re- 
mains otAy  in  the  compounds^ -of  cat;e^,  maneOf  and  traho; 
but  in  most  other  oases  it  is  changed  into  i,  e.  g.,  constituo 
nam  ttatuoy  accipio  from  capio,  abjicio  from  jacio^  arripio 
from  rapio^  incido  from  cada,  adtgo  iroTn  ago ;  so,  also, 
nUingo  from  tango^  confringo  fromjrango  ;  it  is  changed 
into  e  in  ascendo,  aspergo^  confercio,  refello,  impertio  (along 
with  impartio),  2.  e  sometimes  remains  unchanged ;  as 
in  appetOj  cantego,  contera^  congero,  but  sometimes  it  is 
changed  into  t:  aisidco  from  sedeOf  ahstineo  from  tcneo^ 
arrigo  from  rego^  aspicio  from  specie.  Both  forms  occur 
in  the  compounds  oilegere  ;  e.  g.,  jferii^go^  read  through ; 
vUdligo^  understand,  but  irUellego^  too,  was  used  in  early 
times*  3.  The  diphthong  a6  remains  unchanged  only  in 
the  compounds  of  haereo  ;  as,  adhaero  ;  it  is  changedHnto 
i  in  the  compounds  of  caedo^  laedo,  quaere  ;  e.  g.,  incido, 
iUUdo,  inqulro.  Othei*  particulars  may  be  gathered  from 
die  lists  of  irregular  verbs.  .  • 

In  the  composition  of  nouriS  with  verbs,  the  second 
word  undorgods  more  violent  changes,  and  the  niles 
irfaready  given  respecting  derivation  must  be  taken  into 
account  here.  But  notms  are  also  formed  in  composition 
widi  verbs  by  the  mere  abbr%iation  of  the  ending,  and 
without  any  characteristic  syllable  of  derivation.  Thus 
W€)  have  from  cano,  tubicen;  firom  geroydavigevy  afmiger; 
irorafero^  dstifer^  ngnifer  ;  from,  facto,  arttfex,  pofdtfex; 
frt>m  capiOf  princeps,  mwiiceps,  particepi,  OompoundeJ 
adjectives  are  derived  from  Verbs  by  the  termination  us^ 
which  is  appended  ':o  the  verbal  stem  i  tnorti/erus,  igni- 


'^14  LATIN    GRAMMi^lt. 

vomus,  dulcuoKus^  like  consonus^  camivorts,  -Musidicut/ 

and  from  substantives  with  a  Veiy  slight  or  no  change  at 

all ;  e.  g.,  ccntinumus^  capripes,  misericorSf  unifarmis. 

Note. — When  the  parts  of  a  compound  word  are  sepirited  by  the  inset 
tion  of  one  or  two  unaccented  woras,  it  is  called,  by  a  grammatical  term, 
a  tmesis.  Such  a  tmesis,  however,  occurs  in  prose  only  m  the  case  of  rela- 
tive pronouns  compounded  with  cunque,  more  rarely  in  those  with  lU>et  and 
in  adjectives  or  adverbs  compounded  with  per,  so  that  we  may  say,  e.  g., 
qtiod  enim  cunque  judicium  subierat  vicit  ;*  qua  re  amque  potero  tlbi  serviam, 
quale  id  eunque  est ;  per  mihi  gratumfeceris  ;  per  nUM,  inquoMf  gratum,fecer* 


CHAPTER  LXII. 

ETYMOLOGY  OF  PARTICLES. 
ADVERBS. 

[§  2G2.]  1.  As  the  adjective  qualifies  a  suhstantive^sothe 

adverb  qualifies  a  verb,  an  adjective  (consequently  a  p«> 

ticiple  also),  and  even   another  adverb;   e.  g.,  pruaena 

homo  prudenter  agit ;  filix  h'Omo  felieiter  vMt ;  atimi^ 

doctus  ;  domus  celeriter  extructa  ;  satis  bene  scripsit, 

iVol«.*-There  are  only  certain  cases  in  which  an  adverb  can  be  joined 
with  a  substantive,  viz. :  when  the  substantive  is  used  as  an. adjective  or 
participle,  and  accordingly  denotes  a  quality;  aSfVopulus  late  rex  fpr  latt 
regnanSf  ruling  far  and  wide ;  admodum  puer  erat^  he  was  very  young,  or 
very  much  like  a  boy ;  or  when  a  participle  is  understood  to  the  adverb, 
e.  g.,  Tacit,  Ann.,  il.,  20,  granibus  superne  ictibus  conjUctabwUur ;  that  is, 
supeme  accidentibuSf  coming  from  above:  ibid.,  12,  61,  nullis  extrinsecu* 
mdjumentis  vdaunt ;  that  is,  extrinsecus  ductis  or  assumptis^  by  outward  or  ex 
temal  reasons.  In  this -manner  L}yy  frequently  uses  the  adrerb  wca  is 
the  sense  of  neighbouring;  e.  g.,  i.^  17,  miUtarum  drca  dvitatum.  irritatis 
animis.  An  adveit)  may  be  joined  with  pronominal  adjectives,  when  their 
adjective  character  predominates ;  as  in  homo  plane  noster,  entirely  ours, 
that  is,  devoted  to  us. 

2.  Adverbs  belong  to  those  parts  of  speech  which  are 
incapable  of  inflexion,  for  they  have  neither  cases  nor 
any  other  foiins  to  denote  the  difference  of  pereons, 
tenses,  or  moods.  3tit  an  adverb  approaches  nearest  the 
declinable  parts  of  speech,  inasmuch  as  adverbs  derived 
from  adjectives  or  participles  take  the  same  degrees  of 
comparison  as  the  latter«  We  have  tfierefore,  in  the 
first  place,  to  consider  onljpthe  etymology  of  adverbs,  and 
t.nen  their  degrees  of  comparison. 

With  regard  tg  their  etymology,  adverbs  are  either 
simple  or  primitive  (primitiva)  or  derived  (derivataj^ 
We  shall  first  treat  of  derivative  adverbs  ;  their  numbei 
is  great,  and  certain  laws  are  followed  in  their  formatioa 

|§  263.]  3.  By  far  the  greater  number  of  derivative  ai 


ADVEIfia.  21tl 

Verbs  end  in  e  and  ier,  and  are  derived  fijm  adjectiyet 
and  participles  (present  active  and  perfect  passive). 

Adjectives  and  participles  in  us^  a,  um^  and  adjectives 
m  er,  a,  um  (that  is,  those  which  follow  the  second  <1<*- 
clension),  make 

*  Adverbs  with  the  terminatum  e. 

Thus,  aUu8,  longus^  molestus,  doctus,  emendatus^  omatwt^ 
make  the  adverbs  alte^  longe,  moleate^  docte^  emendate,  oT" 
nate^  With  regard  to  adjectives  in  er,  a,  um^  the  forma- 
tion of  adverbs  varies  acco^^ding  as  they  throw  ont  the  t 
in  the  oblique  cases  or  retain  it  (see  §  48  and  51),  for  the 
adverbs  follow  the  oblique  cases.  Thus,  liher  and  miser 
make  lihere  and  misere ;  but  aeger  (aegri)  and  pulcher 
(pulchri)  make  <ugre  and  ptdchre,  Bantu  makes  the  ad- 
verb hene^  from  an  ancient  form  henns.  Bene  and  maU  are 
the  only  adverbs  of  this  class  that  end  in  a  short  e. 

Note  1. — InfemBj  below,  and  tnffme,  within,  although  derired  from  adjeo 
lives  in  fw,  are  used  with  a  short  t,  the  former  bT  Lucretius  and  thelattai 
bv  Ausonius,  the  only  writers  in  which  these  adverbs  req)ectively  occur 
To  these  we  must  add  mperni,  above,  in  Lucretius  and  Horace,  Cartn.f  ii., 
20,  ll^^thoagh  in  the  latter  the  quantity  of  the  e  is  a  disputed  point  h 
cannot  be  ascertained  whether  the  poets  made  the  e  in  these  words  short 
by  a  poetical  license,  or  whether  these  adverbs  have  anything  particular. 

Note  2. — Some  adverbs  in  e  differ  in  their  meaning  from  their  respective 
adjectives,  but  they  must  nevertheless  be  regarded  as  derived  from  them. 
Thus,  Miie  (feom  Momu,  sound,  well),  signifies  **  certainly  ;**  vMe  (from  va- 
UdnSf  strong,  contracted  from  vaZtde,  which  furnishes  the  degrees  of  com- 
parison)  si^ufies  **  very ;"  and  plane  signifies  "  plainly,''  like  fianuet  but  also 
takes  the  meaning  of  **  entirely,**  or  **  thoroughly.*^ 

^  264.]  4.  All  other  adjectives  and  the  participles  in 
ns  (consequently  all  adjectives  which  follow  the  thud  de- 
clension) form  their 

Adverbs  in  ter,* 

and  retain  the  changes  which  occur  in  the  genitive.    The 

genitive  is  is  changed  into  iter^  except  the  genitive  in  ntis 

(&om  the  nom.  in  nsj^  which  meikes  the  adverb  in  nter ; 

e.  g»t  elegans,  eleganter  ;  amans^  amanter;  conveniens^  con^ 

venienter  ;  hut  par ^  pariter  ;  utilis,  utUiter  ;  tenuis^  tenui- 

ter ;  celery  eris,  celeriter;  saluber,  salubriter^  and  so,  also, 

ferociteTf  simpliciter^  dupJiciter,  cancorditer^  audaciter  (or 

more  frequently  contracted  into  audacterj. 

Note  I. — The  termination  ter  serves,  also,  to  form  the  adverbs  aUtetj  oth- 
erwise, and  propter^  beside ;  the  former  from  the  original  form  alts,  neuter 

*  [Pott  re|;ards  the  suffix  ter  as  originally  iderjtified  with  the  other  ad- 
vobial  one  m  tut,  and  he  compares  both  «nth  the  Sans<:rit  ending  fan 
(J^ymoZ.  Fortch.,  vol  i,  p.  91.)]~ilm.  Ed, 


816.  LATIN   GSAMMAE. 

• 

olid,  and  Um  latsr  frum  prope  being  abiidged  for  prater,    (See  ^.  7 
note  1.)     FeAeinen/er  is  derived  from  veAemen«,  but  takes  the  significatioc 
of  ''yery,'  like  valde ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,<|6  O^.,  ji.^21,  vekementer  it  modcraham 
praebuit.    The  indeclinable  nequam  has  the  aaverb  nequUer, 

Note  2.— The  adjectives  mentioned  in  ^  101,  which  have  double  tenni 
nations,  tUf  a,  wn,  and  is,  e,  ou^ht  to  have  also  a  double  form  of  their  ad- 
verbs, but  this  is  the  case  only  m  hilare  and  hilariter ;  wHh  regard  to  ioAe* 
cillus,  it  remains  uncertaiiv  as  the  positive  of  the  adverb  does  not  occur ; 
and  in  the  case  of  the  other  adjectives  of  this  kind,  the  adVerb  is  wanting 
altogether.  There  are,  on  the  other  hand,  some  adjectives  in  us,  a,  um,  ^ 
which  the  adverbs  have  two  forms  {abundantia)  ;  as,  dure^  duriter;  fovicj 
firmiter;  nave^  naviter  ;  humanty  inhumane — kumanitery  inhumaniter  ;  larger 
targiter;  /utuZetUe,  lue%dmtter ;  ttahuUnte,  turbuienteK;  ind  in  the  early  lan- 
guage many  more,  which  are  mentioned  by  Prisciem,  xv.,  3.  Of  vto/en/iM, 
fraudidenht$t  and  temiUentusy  adverbs  in  Ur  only  exist :  wolenUryfraudvUn- 
ter,  temulenter. 

[§  265.]  5,  Although  in  grammar  an  adverb  is  assign- 
ed to  every  adjective,  yet  the  dictionary  must  frequently 
be  consulted,  for  there  are  some  ^djeqtives  whose  very 
signification  does  not  admit  the  formation  of  an  adverb; 
as,  for  example,  those  which  denote  a  material  or  colour ; 
while,  with  respect  to  others,  we  can  say  no  more  than 
ihat  no  adverb  of  them  is  found  in  the  writers  whose 
works  have  come  down  to  us,  as  of  the  adjectives  amens^ 
dvruSy  discorsy  gnarus,  rudis,  trux,  imbeUis^  immohilii^  in- 
Jlexibilis,  and  others  compounded  in  the  same  manner. 
O^vctus  the  adverbs  are  vesmste  ^nd  antique,  and  offidus, 
fideliter,  derived  from  other  adjectives  of  the  same  mean- 
ing. It  frequently  happens  that  adverbs  exist  in  the  de- 
grees of  comparison,  without  their  form  of  the  positive 
being  fi>und ;  e.  g.,  trutiter  and  socorditer  are  not  to  be 
found,  and  instead  of  uberiier,  uhertim  is  used ;  but  the 
comparatives*  tristiics,  socordius,  uhcrius,  and  the  superla? 
tives  are  in  common  use.  The  adverb  magne  does  not 
occur,  but  its  irregular  comparative  magis  and  the  super- 
lative maxime  are  of  very  common  occurrence.  Mtdtumy 
plus^plurimum  have  no  adverbs,  but  these  neuters  in  some 
nases  serve  themselves  as  adverbs. 

[§  266.]  6.  Sometimes  particular  cases  of  adjectives 
supply  the  place  of  the  regularly  formed  adverbs  in  e : 
(a)  of  some  adjectives  in  us,  a^  um,  and  er,  «,  «m,  the  ab- 
lative singular  in  o  is  used  as  an  adverb;  e.  g.,  arcaiu)  and 
secreto,  secretly ;  cito,  quickly ;  continuo,  immediately ; 
erehro,  frequently;  fatso,  Avrongly;  gratuito^  gratis;  liqui- 
<^,  clearly;  manifesto,  laBXAie^uj ;  mutno,  as  a  loan,  hence 
QQutually ,  neccssario,  necessarily ;  pcrpetuo^  perpetually ; 
preeario^  by  entreaf  ies  ;  ra^o^  rarely  ;  scdtdo,  sedulously ; 


ADVERBS.  21^ 

serto^  seriously ;  subitOy  suc'denly ;  tiUo^  safely.  To  these 
must  be  added  some  adverbs  foimed  from  participles : 
ausjncatOf  composito^  constHto,  dirccto^  festinato^  nee-  or  in- 
opmato^improvisOy  iterator  merito^  ojptato^  praeparato,  sof- 
tito.  Along  with  several  of  these  ablative  adverbs,  the 
forms  in  e  also  are  occasionally  used ;  but  apart  from  the 
ori^n,  the  forms  in  o  do  not  differ  either  in  meaning  or  in 
their  degrees  of  comparison  from  those  in  e» 

Note  1. — Vere  and  veigp  have  a  somewhat  different  sense :  the  regular 
adverb' of  verus,  true,  is  vere;  but  vera  is  used  in  answers  in  the  sense  of 
**  in  truth/'  or  **  certainly,"  but  it  is  more  commonly  applied  as  a  conjunc- 
tion in  the  sense  of  "  but,"  or  "  however."  We  will  explain  its  use  m  an- 
swers by  an  example.  When  I  am  asked,  adfuistine  heri  in  convivio  ?  1  an- 
swer,  ego  vero  adfui;  or,  without  a  verb,  ego  verOf  minime  vero;  egid  vero  thus 
being  merely  indicative  of  a  reply^  will  often  be  untranslatable  into  Eng- 
lish. The  case  of  certe  and  certo  is  generally  different  from  that  of  vere 
vod  vero :  the  adverb  which  usuall^r  takes  the  meaning  of  its  adjective  is 
c«rto, while  certe  takes  the  sig^iification'of  " at  least,"  to  limit  an  assertion; 
e.g.,  victi  eumuSf  auf,  sidigriiias  vinci ndn potest, jra'cti  certe.  Certe,  howev- 
er, is  frequently  used,  also,  in  the  sense  of  our  **  certainly,"  especially  in 
the  phri^se  certe*  sdo,  which,  in  Cicero,  is  even  more  frequent  than  certo 
Kio.    See  piv^  note  on  Cic,  lib.  i.,  in  Verr.,  1. 

Note2.-^Oinnino,  from  omnis,  altogether,  or  in  general,  may  also  be 
reckoned  in  this  class  of  adverbs.  The  etymology  of  oppido,  very,  is  very 
doubtful.*  Prq/<toto,:  trulv,  also  belongs  to  this  class,  it  it  be  derived  from 
profectus  a,  umj.  bul  if  it  be  the  same  &s  pro  facto,  which  is  more  probable, 
it  belongs  to  those  which  wo  shall  mention  under  No.  10. 

[§  267.]  7.  fij  In  some  adjectives  of  the  third  declen- 
sion the  neuter  singular  supplies  the- place  of  the  adverb ; 
as,  facile,  difficile^  recens,  sublime,  impune,  and  abunde, 
virhich,  however,  is  not  derived  from  an  adjective  abundis^ 
but  from  abundus.  To  these  we  must  add  some  belong- 
ing to  adjectives  of  the  second  declension :  ccterum,  pie- 
rumque,  plurimum,  potissimum  more  frequent  thejipotissime^ 
muUum,  and  paulum  (for  which,  however,  in  combination 
with  comparatives,  the  ablatives  multo  and  paulo  are  more 
commonly  used),  nimium  (the  same  as  nimis),  parum,  and, 
lastly,  the  numeral  adverbs  primum,  iterum,  tertium,  guar 
tum^  &c.,  which  have  also  the  termination  o  (see  §-123), 
tthd  postfemum  fo)^  and  ultifnum  (o),  which  are  formed 
according  to  the  analogy  of  the  numeral  adverbs.  Poets 
in  particular,  and  Tacitus,  who  follows  their  example,  are 
accustomed  to  use  the  neuter  of  adjectives,  of  the  second 
as  well  as  of  the  third  declension,  as  adverbs ;  e.  g.,  muh 

*  (Probably  to  be  traced  to  the  Sanscrit  root  pai,  '*  to  go,"  and  hence 
the  primitive  meaning  would  be,  perhaps,  *'in  circuit,"  "from  on  9II  sides,"* 
L  e.,  "  very,"  &c.  (Po«,  Etymot.  F'ortch.,  vol.  i,  p.  246.)  Donaldson, 
However,  connects  it  with  the  Greek  Miredov,  and  raak^  it  synonymous 
wifhp/oM     (Varroniamis,p.G2.)] — Am.  Ed. 

T 


t)18  LATIN   GEAMMAR 

turn  siimliSf  acutum  cemere,  mite,  dtdce,  crassum,  2*erfidum 
riderCf  indoctum  canere^  cerium  and  incertum  vigilare  triste 
and  torvum  clamare,  immite  sibilare,  aetemum  discordare, 
and  in  the  plural,  mtdta  gemere,  tristia  ululare,  crehra  'fe 
fire. 

Note  1. — ^We  have  every  reason  to  coi^sider  the  adverb  prope,  which  haa 
become  a  preposition,  as  the  neuter  of  an  obsolete  adjective,  propis  ;  for 


nropteff  which,  as  an  adverb,  has  the  same  meaning,  is  evidently  the  regu- 
lar adverb,  being  contracted  from  proptfer,  and  the  comparative  propiorai(\ 
the  adverb  prophu  must  likewise  be  traced  to  propis.  Saepe  is,  perhaps,  a 
word  of  the  same  kindj  but  the  degrees  of  the  adjective,  saepior  and  toe- 
pissimuSf  are  no  longer  m  use. 

Note  2. — ^Instead  of  difficile^  however,  the  regular  adverbial  forms  diffidh- 
Jer  and  difficuUer are  stilimore  common.    FacUiter is unclassical. 

[§  268.]  8.  A  considerable  number  of  adverbs  have  the 
termination  im,  and  are  for  the  most  part  derived  frotn 
participles ;  e.  g.,  caesim,  punctm,;  conjwnctim,  mixthn^ 
contemptim^  cursim^  citatim,  gravatim  (the  same  as  ^a- 
vate)^  nominatim,  passim  (from  pander ejlpraesertim  (frotn 
prae  and  seroj,  privatim,  pedetentim,  raptim,  sensim^  carp- 
tim,  separatim^  statim^  strictim,  tractim.  Adverbs  of  this 
kind,  however,  are  formed  also  from  other  parts  of  speech, 
but  they  generally  take  the  participial  termination  fttim, 
even  when  they  are  not  derived  from  nouns  of  the  fir»t  de- 
clension :  catervatiikf  cuneatim,  gregatim^  turmiatim,  curia- 
tim,  gradatim,  ostiatim^  oppidatim^  provinciatim,  vicatim^ 
paulatim,  singulatim^  generatim,  summatim,  minutatim. 
Also,  c(mfestim  (connected  yf\Xhfestinare),furtim,  singula 
tim,  tributim,  uhertim,  viriiim,  vicissim,  Affatim  «8  of 
doubtful  etymology  ;  interim  is  derived  from  inter  ;  ohm 
from  the  obsolete  ollm,  which  is  the  same  as  ille. 

[§  269.]  9.  A  smaller  class  of  adverbs  is  formed  fix)m 
nouns  by  the  termination  ttus,  generally  to  denote  origin 
from  that  which  is  expressed  by  the  primitive ;  as,  coeH- 
tus,  from  heaven ;  fundittis,  from  the  foundation,  radical- 
ly ;  medtdlitus^penitus,primitus  the  same  asprimum^  radi- 
citus,  stirpitus.  Some  are  derived  from  adjectives ;  as, 
antiquitus,  divinitus,  and  humamttu. 

Among  the  same  class  we  reckon  those  adverbs  which 
end  in  us  or  ittis,  and  are  not  derived  frx)m  nouns,  but  from 
otlier  parts  of  speech.  That  they  are  derivatives  is  obvi- 
ous, but  their  signification  is  variously  changed.  Such 
are  cominus,  from  a  near  point ;  eminus,  from  afar ;  intus, 
from  within  ;  suhtus,  from  below ;  extrinsecus  and  iaUrtn* 
tecus%  from  without  and  within :  mordicus  (from  mo»derej 


AD\  ERB&  '^lU 

e«  g.y  fiwrdicus  tenere;  versus,  towards  (fi^^m  vertere),  wliicli 
IS  commonly  used  as  a  preposition. 

[§  270.]  10.  A  large  number  of  adverbs,  lastly,  arises 
from  the  adverbial  use  of  different  cases  of  substantives, 
an4  from  the  composition  of  different  parts  of  speech.  In 
this  manner  arose  the  adverbs  of  time:  nociu,  vesperi^ 
mane^  tempore  or  tempori,  simul  (from  similisj,  diu  and 
quamdiuj  tamdiu,  aliquamdiu^  irUerdiu,  hodie  (though 
contracted  from  hoc  diej^  qtwtidie^  quotannis,  postridie^ 
perendiey  pridie^  nudites  tertius  (from  nunc  dies  tertius,  the 
day  before  yesterday,  or  the  third  day  frt>m  the  presenfi, 
nuditis  quartus,  ntidius  quinttiSj  nudius  tertitisdecimus,  pfo- 
pediem,  initio,  principio^  repente  and  derepente  (ablative  of 
repensj,  imprimis  and  cmnprimis,  protenus  and  protmus 
(from  ^7*0  and  the  preposition  tofms),  alias,  actutum, .com- 
modum  (ji}st  or  direcdy,  while  the  regular  adverb  com- 
mode retains  the  meaning  ''conveniently'*),  modo,  post- 
modo,  altemis,  irUerdum,  cummaxime,  tmnmaxime,  nunc 
ipsum  and  tum  ipsum,  denuo  (i.  e.,  de  novo),  ilicet  (ire 
licet),  illico  (properly  in  loco),  and  extemplo  ;  interea  and 
praeterea  lengthen  the  a,  so  that  it  is  not  quite  certain 
whether  they  may  be  ccwisidered  as  compounds  of  inter, 
praeter,  and  ea,  the  neuter  plural.*  So,  iso,  the  adverbs 
of  place :  foris,foras,  insuper,  ohviam,  obiter  (from  ob  and 
iter),  peregre,  praesto,  recta  (scil.  via),  una.  In  hacterms, 
eatenus,  quatenus,  aliquatenus,  the  ablative  is  governed  by 
the  preposition  tenus.  The  signification  of  these  adverbs 
is  originally  that  of  locality,  but  they  are  frequently  used, 
also,  in  a  figurative  sense. 

[§  271.]  The  mode  or  manner  of  an  action,  in  answer 
io  the  question  qui  (an  ancient  ablative  of  quid),  how  1  is 
expressed  by  adverbs  of  the  same  class ;  as,  sponte,  an  old 
ablative ;  forte,  an  ablative  o^fors ;  fortuito  (u),  forsit, 
farsitan  (fors  sit  an),  forsan  and  jots  have  the  same 
nieaning  Bsforta^se  RXii  Jbrtassis  (in  -prose  Jbrtasse  and 
foTsitan  alone  are  used) ;  nimirum,  scilicet,  videlicet,  utpott 
(frtnn  ut  and ^o^e, properly  "  as  possible,"  hence  "namely,*' 
or  **afl'*),  dumtaxat,  praeterquam,  quomodo,  quemadmo^ 
dian,  admodum,  quamobrem,  quare,  quapropter,  quarUopere, 
tantopere,  maximopere  and  summopere^or,  separately,  qteanto 

*  Prof  Key,  The  Alphabet,  p.  77,  foU.,  accounts  for  the  length  of  the  s 
by  the  trery  probable  supposition  that  the  original  forms  were  posteam, 
intfream,  praeteream^  on  the  analogy  of  the  existing  words  poit^fuam,  antu* 
qmm,  pr<uterquam,  6iC. — Tra^sl. 


tg2Q  tATIN   OBAMMAB. 

opere,  tanto  opere,  &c ;  qwantumvis  or  quamvisy  aUoqui  ot 
aHoquiiif  ceteroqui  or  cAeroquin^  frustra^  to  be  explained 
by  the  ellipsis  of  t»a,  and  to  be  derived  iromfrausyfraMdo  ; 
tnca^sumtnequicquantfSummum  (not  ad  summumjftantum, 
9olum^  and  tantwmmodo^  solummodoy  gratis  (jBrom  grat^is^ 
vrhence  ingratiisj^  vtdgo,  bifarianiy  trifariam,  multifaria^n 
and  amnifariam^  with  which  parCem  must  be  understood. 
Lastly,  partim^  which  was  originally  the  same  as 
partem^  as  in  Liv.,  xxvi.,  46,  partim  copiarum  ad  twrnu- 
lum  exptignandum  mittitj  partim  ipse  ad  arcem  dMcit,  but 
it  is  more  commonly  used,  either  with  a  gemtive  or  tho 
preposition  ea?,  in  the  sense  oialii-'^alii;  e.  g.,  Cic,  PhU.^ 
viii.,'  \ly  quum  partim  e  nobis  ita  timidi  sint,  ut  omnetn 
poptdi  Romani  beneficiarum  memoriam  ab^ecerintf  partim. 
ita  a  repnhlica  aversi,  ut  hi^  se  Jiostijavere  prae  seferant ; 
and  in  the  sense  ofalia — atia,  as  in  Cic,  JDe  Off"i  ii^  21, 
eorum  autem  benefidorum  partim  ejusm-odi  sunt,  ut  ad  uni 
versos  dves  pertineant^  partim  singuLos  ut  attingant* 

1^  272.]  Note. — On  the  signification  ofeome  of  the  eAove-menUoned  adverbs 
The  adverbs  continuo^protinusjetatim,  confestimt  subito,  repente  and  derepente, 
acnauntf  UKcOf  ilicet^  extemplo^  signify  in  general  "directly"  or  **iinme 
diately,"  but,  strictly  speaking,  continuo  means  immediately  after ;  sttuim, 
without  dela]r;  confestintt  directly;  aubitOf  suddenly,  unexpectedly;  pro 
tinuSf  fieui;her,  i.  e.,  in  the  same  direction  in  which  the  beginnmg  was  made ; 
hence,  without  interruption ;  repente j  &nd  derepentej  which  strengthens  tho 
meaning,  signifies  **  at  once,"  and  is  opposed  to  «m«tm,  graduiaily ;  e.  g., 
Cic,  de  Off.fi.f  33,  anUcitiaSf  quae  minus  delectent  et  mintu  probentur,  maps 
decere  censent  sapientes-  sensim  diaauere^  quam  repente  praecidere;  actutum  is  m 
stantaneously,  eodem  actu;  ilicet  occurs  more  rarely  than  illico,  but  has 
almost  the  same  meaning,  "  forthwith,"  or  **  the  instant ;"  e.  g.,  Sallust, 
Jug.  J  45y  vbi  formido  ilia  mentibus  decessit^  ilicet  lascivia  atque  superbia  inces- 
Mere;   Cic,  p.  Mureti.,  10^  simtUatque  increpuit  suspicio  tumultuSf  artes  Ulico 
nostras  conticescunt.    Extemploj  which  is  similar  in  its  derivation  (for  tern- 
pUtm  is  a  locus  religiosus)^  is  similar  also  in  meaning ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  zh.,  1,  aUi 
gerendum  belbtm  extemploy  antequam  contrahere  copies  hostes  possentj  alii  con- 
eulendum  prius  seneUum  censebaia. 

[§  273.f  PraesertimfpraecimUj  imprimis,  cumprimist  and  apprimey  are  gener- 
ally translated  by  "  pnncipaily ;"  but  they  have  not  all  the  same  meaning. 
Praesertipi  is  our  "  particularly,"  and  sets  forth  a  particular  circumstance 
with  emphasis ;  praecnme  retains  the  meaning  of  its  adjective,  praeciptau 
being  the  opposite  of  communis ;  jus  praecipuum,-  therefore,  is  a  privilege, 
and  opposed  to _/u«  commune,  so  that praecirme  answers  to  our  "especially." 
The  sense  of  imprimis  and  cumprimis  is  clear  from  their  composition— be 
fore  or  in  preference. to  many  others,  principally;  apprime,  lastly,  occurs 
more  rarely,  and  qualifies  and  strengthens  only  a<^ectives ;  as,  apprinu 
doctus,  apprims  utUis.  Admodum,  also,  strengthens  tne  meaning;  it  prop- 
erly signifies  "  according  to  measure,"  that  is,  in  as  great  a  measure  as 
can  be,  e.  g.,  admodum  gratun^  mikifeceris  ;  Utterae  tuae  me  adnwdum  deUeta- 
runt.  In  c<»nbination  with  lumerals  it  denotes  approximation,  and  oe* 
curs  frequently  in  Livy  and  Cnrtius ;  in  Cicero  we  find  only  nihUadmoduntt 
that  is,  *'  in  reality  nothing  a:  all." 

{^274.]  It  is  difficult  to  ietennine  the  difference  among  the  words 
which  we  generally  transUte  by  "  only,"  viz. :  modo,  dvmtmafot,  MJftm,  tmt 


FRIMITIVE   APVERB8.  22 


^  iohmmodot  tantummodo.  The  common  eqaivaleni  for  **  orlj"  is 
•olum  (alone)  is  "merely,"  and  points  to  something  higbsr  ot  greater j 
tarUum  is  only  or  merely,  but  intimates  that  something  ebia  -wta  expectec^ 
e.  g^^ixiitantum,  nonprobavit.  These  significations  are  itrr^gthened  b) 
composition:  tantummodo  and  solummodof  the  latter  of  which,  however, 
occurs  only  in  late  writers.  Dumtaxat*  is  not  joined  v/ith  verbs,  and 
seems  to  answer  to  our  **  solely  ;*"  e.  g.,  Caes.,  Betl  Cm,  iii.,  40,  pedUatu 
^buHiasatproculadqteciemutitwr,  solely  from  afar :  Cart.,  viil,  4,  (1),  quo  (car- 
mine) sigtdficabatur  male  instituisse  GraecoSf  quod  tropaeit  regum  dumtaxat 
nomina  intaiberentur  ;  ibid.,  iz.,  36^  (9),  aettu*  totos  circa  flumen  campos  tnun- 
daveratf  ium&U$  dumiaxtU  tminmtibus^  yehtt  innUu  panria.  In  another  signi- 
iicatioo  this  word  is  the  same  as  cefu^  at  least  (see  ^  266),  and  denotes  a 
limitation  to  a  parti(fQlar  point ;  as  in  Cicero,  nos  animo  dumtaxeu  vigemug^ 
re/amiHari  commitatii  noimv,  in  courage,  at  least,  I  am  not  wanting ;  valdt 
me  Athenae  dtlectanmt,  wrba  dumtaxat  et  urfrur.  omamunta  H  komimtm  bonivo- 
lentia,  SdUemy  also,  signifies  *'  at  least,"  but  denotes  the  reduction  of  a  de- 
mand to  a  minimum ;  e.  g.,  when  I  say,  rtdde  mihi  UbroSf  si  non  omneSf 
saltern  tres,  or,  as  Cicero  says,  eripe  mtfts  hunc  dalortmf  anU  mumm  saltan ; 
finge  saltern  aliquid  commode. 

[^  275.]  Frustra  conveys  the  idea  of  a  disappointed  expectation,  as  in 
firtutra  susdpere  labores  ;  nequicquam  that  of  the  absence  of  success,  as  in 
HoraL,  Carm.,  i,  3,21,  n^mcquamr  deus  absadit  Ocemno  terras,  si  tamen 
impiae  rates  transiliunt  vada.  Incassum  is  leds  commonly  used ;  it  is  com- 
posed  of  m  and  cassvmy  hollow,  empty,  and  therefore  proi>erly  signifies 
**  into  the  air,"  or  "  to  no  purpose ;"  as,  tela  ineassum  jaetarr, 

AMas  and  alioqui  both  mean  *Volsewhere,"  but  alias  signifies  "  at  another 
time,"  or  **  in  another  place,"  whereas  ahoqui  (like  cetfroqui  and  ceterum) 
means  *'  in  other  respects ;"  as  in  Livy,  trintMihatum  de  Tihvrtibut,  alio- 
quin  mitis  victoria Juit,  or  "or  else"  (In  case  ot  a  thing  mentioned  before 
not- taking  place),  like  alitsr;  as  in  Tacitus,  dedit  tibi  Augustus  pecuniam 
non  ea  l^e,  tU  semper  daretur :  languescet  alioqui  industria.  No  difference  in 
the  use  of  alioqui  and  aUoquin  has  yet  been  discovered.  The  addition  ot 
omission  of  the  n,  at  least,  does  not  appear  to  depend  upon  the  letter  ^ 
the  beginning  of  the  word  following. 


CHAPTER  LXIII. 

PRIMITIYE    ADVERBS. 


[§  276.]  1.  The  Simple  or  Primitive  Adverbs  are  few  ni 
number  wben  compared  with  the  derivatives,  especially 
with  those  derived  from  adjectives,  and  ending,  m  e  and 
ter.  The  signification  pf  the  latter  depends  upon  that  oi 
their  adjective,  and  has  generally  .a  very  definite  extent  j 
but  th3  primitive  adverbs  express  the  most  general  cir 
cumstances  that  ai:e  to  be  considered  in  connexion  with 
a  fact,  and  are  indicated  by  the  questions  how  1  when  1 
where  1  whether  1  an4  the  general  answers  to  them )  but 

*  [Donaldson  derives  this  adverb  from  tax*  -are,  **  to  estimate  *  and  he 
makes  the  primitive  meaning  .of  the  adverb  to  be,  "provided  one  esti- 
mate it,"'"  estimating  it  accurately,"  i  e.,  ••  only,"  "  at  least,"  "  so  far  as 
that  goes."  {Varroniamuy  p.  181.)  The. derivation  given  by  Groteftmd  is 
for  inferior :  "  duntaxat  aus  dum  taceo  (cetera),  sat  f est  hoc)."  Donaldsoi 
pnnounces  it  absurd. ]~ilm.  Ed.' 

T2 


222  LATIN   GfiAMMAl* 

they  aie  for  this  reason  deserving  of  particular  atlentioo 
together  with  their  compounds  and  derivatives.* 

2i  To  this  class  belong  the  negative  particles:  non 
haud,  and  tjc,  together  with  immo  ;  the  affirmatives  :  nae, 
quidem,  and  uttque,  certainly  (frOm  which  word- the  negar 
live  adverb  neutiquam,  by  no  means,  is  formed),  nempe^ 
namely,  surely ;  vel^  in  the  sense  of  "  even"  (see  §  108) ; 
and  the  interrogative  ear,  why^  (probably  formed  from 
quare  or  cui  rev) :  the  words  which  express,  in  a  general 
way,  {tie. mode  of  an  action,  viz. :  paenS^/ere^  nndjerme, 
nearly,  almost ;  temerg,  at  random ;  rite^  duly,  accor3ing 
to  custom ;  vix,  scarcely ;  nimis  (and  nimium^  see  §  267), 
too  much ;  satis  or  sat^  enough,  sufficiently ;  saltern,  at 
least ;  sic  and  itd^  so,  thus ;  and  item  and  iddem  (which 
are  derived  from  ita),  just  so,  and  the  double  form  iden* 
tidem^  which,  however,  has  assumed  the  meaning  of'  a 
particle  of  time,  "constantly,"  "one  time  like  the  other;" 
ut  or  uti,  as,  and  hence  sicut  or  sicuti  /  quam,  how  much ; 
tarn,  so  much ;  tamquam,  like ;  perinde  and  proinde  (de- 
rived from  indej,  as  though,  like ;  sectM,  otherwise,  differ- 
ently ;  the  adverbs  of  place :  uspiam  and  usquam,  some- 
where; nusquam,  nowhere;  proeuly  far;  prope,  near  (§  267, 
note);  t^i,  where]  t^t,  there;  tt»^e,  whence  1  enc^,  hence, 
together  with  their  numerous  compounds  and  correlatives, 
of  which  we  shall  speak  presently ;  the  adverbs  of  time  : 
qtuindo ^yfhen'i  with  its  compounds  aZ^aa^^o, once;  quan^ 
doqtce,  at  some  time ;  quandocunque^  whenever ;  qrumdam, 
formerly  (contains  the  original  relative  quum,  which  has 
become  a  conjunction) ;  nunc,  now ;  tunc  and  tum,  then ; 
wwg'wam,  ever;  «ww2'Maw,n ever ;^am, already;  etiam  (frx^m 
et  and ^'am^^ and  quoque,  also;  etiamnunc  and  etiamium^ 
still,  yet ;  semel,  once ;  bis^  twice  (the  other  adverbial  nu- 
merals; see  Chap.  XXXIII.) ;  saepe,  often ;  usque^  ever  • 
7ieri  or  here,  yesterday ;  crasy  to-morrow ;  olim^  formerly 
moZy  soon  after ;  dudum,  previously ;  pridem,  long  since; 
tandem,  at  last  or  length ;   demum,  not  until ;   from  inde 

are  derived  deinde  and  exinde,  or  abridged  dein  ar  d  eocin, 

— — —  t ' '  « "    ' 

*  WHh  regard  to  the  following  list^of  particles,  which,  from  their  great 
importance  towards  understanding  the  ancient' writers,  has  been  diawn  up 
with  care,  we  must  observe  that  by  the  term  primitive  adverbs  we  do  not 
understand  those  of  which  no  root  is  to  be  found,  bijt  those  which  cannot 
in  any  useful  or  practical  way  be  included  among  the  cla&ses  of  derivative 
adverbs  mentioned  before.  A  more  deep  etymological  investigation  woulc' 
lead  us  into  too  slippery  groundj  on  which  we  could  eipect  but  littk 
dianks  either  from  tei^cbers  or  pupils. 


PSiklTIVE   ADVESBS.  223 

thereupon,  aA:erwaxd ;  Minde,*  immediately  after,  or  re- 
peatedly; deificeps,  in  succession;  denique,  lastly;  further, 
the  adverbs  with  the  suffix  per :  semper^  always ;  nuper 
lately ;  parumper  and  patdisper,  for  a  short  time  ;  tantis 
per.  for  so  long,  commonly  to  indicate  a  short  time,  **  for 
so  short  a  time." 

Most  of  the  prepositions  are  originally  adverbs,  but  as 
they  usually  take  the  case  of  a  substantive  after  them,  they 
are  regarded  as  a  distinct  class  of  the  parts  of  speech. 
But  they  must  still  be  looked  upon  as  adverbs  when  they 
are  joined  with  a  verb  without  a  .case ;  as  in  Virgil,  Pone 
suhit  conjunx,  "  behind  there  follows  my  wife."  Hence 
it  happens  that  c^m,  secretly,  and  coram^  in. the  presence 
of,  are  generally  reckoned  among  the  prepositions,  where- 
as palam  (propalam)^  publicly,  is  imiversally  called  an 
adverb,  though  it  is  formed  precisely  in  the  same  manner. 
Ante  and  post^  when  used  as  adverbs,  generally  have  the 
lengthened  forms  antea  and  posted  (also  antehac  and  post- 
\acj,  but  occur  as  adverbs,  also,  without  any  change  of 
ibrm. 

Note  1. — ^We  must  not  pass  over  unnoticed  the  transition  of  particles  of 
place  into  particles  of  time,  which  occurs  in  other  languages  also.  This 
accounts  for  the  use  of  Ate,  ibi,  ubif  where  we  should  use  an  adverb  ex- 
pressive of  time.  Nor  can  we  wonder  at  several  of  these  adverbs  appear- 
ing frequently  as  conjunctions  (in  which  character  they  will  have  to  be 
tientioned  again  in  Chap.  LX  VII.),  for  whenever  they  serve  to  connect  sen- 
tences, they  become,  grammatically  speaking,  conjunctions ;  but  when 
within  a  sentence  they  denote  a  circumstance  connected  with  a  verb,  thev 
Are  real  adverbs.    Some  of  them  are  used  in  both  characters. 

[^  277.]  Note  2.— The  Signification  of  the  above  Primitive  Adverbs. 

The  ordinary  negation  is  non ;  hand  adds  to  the  negation  a  special  sub 
jective  colourmg,  with  very  different  *meaning8— ^ither  '*  not  at  all,"  oi 
**  not  exactly.**  The  comic  writers  use  this  negation  frequently,  and  in  all 
kinds  of  combinations ;  but  the  authors  of  the  best  age  limit  its  use  more 
especially  to  its  combination  with  adjectives  and  adverbs  denoting  a  meas- 
are ;  e.  g.,  haud  mtUturn,  htatd  magnum,  hand  parmUf  haud  medioeriSf  hand 
pauh,  haud  proculj  haud  longe^  especially  haud  sane,  in  connexion  with  oth- 
er words ;  as,  haud  sane  facile,  res  haud  sane  diffictlis,  haud  sans  intelli^o , 
alto,  haud  qtusquam,  haud  unquam,  Jiaud  quaquam,  by  which  combination 
something  more  is  expressed  than  by  the  simple  negation.  In  connexion 
with  verbs,  haud  appears  much  less  frequently,  and,  on  the  whole,  only  in 
the  favourite  phrase  ?iaud  scio  an,  which  is  the  same  as  nesdo  an,  until  la 
ter  writers,  such  as  Livy  and  Tacitus,  again  make  unlimited  application 
of  it. 

Ne  does  not  belong  to  this  place  as  a  conjunction  in  the  sense  of  "  in 
order  that  not,"  but  only  in  so  far  as  it  is  usea  for  non  in  the  connexion  of 
ne-quidem,  not  even,  and  with  imperatives ;  e.  g..  Tune  cede  malis,  sed  con' 
tra  audentior  ito,  do  not  yield  to  misfortunes.  Hence  nee  (neque),  also,  must 
be  mentioned  here,  because  it  is  used  instead  of  ne-qmdem,  seldom  witk 

.1  _  . ■_      ■  - 

*  The  accent  on  the  antepcnultima  for  the  compounds  of  inds  it  nece* 
•ary,accoiiiag  to  Priscian  p  1008,  (618  Kr.) 


224  LATIN   GILA^MAU. 

Cicero,  but  more  frequently  with  Quiutilian;  e.  g.,  ii.,  13^.7;  lufio^'     c 
Bcribirem;  ▼.,  10, 119,  alioqm  nee  tradidUsem  ;  1.,  Y.,  18,  extra  cmrmen  non  <fe 
prehendaSf  sed-pec  in  carmine  vitia  ducenda  stmt. 

Immo  signifies  "no,"  but  with  this  peculiarity  that,  at  the  same  time, 
something  stronger  is  put  in  the  place  of  the  preceding  statement  which 
is  denied ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  ad  A(f.,  ix.,  7,  causa  igiiur  non  bona  est  ?  Immo  opti 
ma,  sed  agitur  foedxssime  ;  ds  Off.,  iii.|  23,  si  patriam  prodere  conabitur, pater, 
sitebitne  filius  ?  Immo  vero  obsecrabit  patrem,  ne  id  jaciat.  This  increase 
may  be  sometimes  expressed  m  English  by  "  nay,**  or  "  nay  even."  But 
this  does  not  justify^  tnp  assertion  that  immo  is  an  afSrmative  adverb. 

.  [^  278.1  Quidem  is  commonly  used  to  connect  sentences,  and  must  thev 
be  looked  upon  as  a  conjunction ;  but  it  is  employed  also  as  an  adverb  to 
set  frarth  a  word  or  an  idea  with^articulat  emphasis,  and  then  answers  to 
our  "  certainly"  or  *'  indeed."  Very  frequeMly,  however,  especially  with 
pronouns,  it  only  increases  their  force  by  the  emphasis;  f.  g.,  optare  hoc 
quidem  est,  nan  d4)cere,  this  1  call  wish,  but  hot  teach  ;  praecipitare  istnd  qui- 
dem est,  non  dsscendere.  Hence  it  also  happens  that,  on  the  other  hand, 
when  auid^m  is  necessary  to  connect  sentences,  a  pronoun  is  added,  for 
the  sake  of  quidem.  Which  might  otherwise  be  dispensed  with.  Cicero, 
e.  g.,  says :  Uratorias  exercitatumes  non  tu  quidem,  ut  spero,  reliqtusti,  sed  certs 
philosovhiam'  Hits  anteposuisti.  From  quidem  arose  equidem,  which  is  coo* 
siderect  to  be  a  compound  of  ego  and  quidem,  and  is  used  exclusively  in 
this  sense  by  Cicero,  Virgil,  ana  Horace ;  but  in  others,  and  more  particu- 
larly in  later  authors,  it  occurs  precisely  in  the  same  sense  as  qmdem ;  e. 
g.,  Sallust.,  Cat.,  52, 16,  ^[uare  vanum  equidem  hoc  consilium  est;  Curt., v., 
35,  certiora  deinde  cognoscit  ex  Bagistane  Babylonia,  non  equidem  vinctwn  r»> 
gem,  sed  m  perieulo  esse,  out  mortis  out  vtneu/orum. 

Nempe  answers  pretty  nearly  to  our  **  surely,"  and  frequently  assuniea 
a  sarcastic  meaning,  when  we  refute  a  person  by  concessions  which  he  is 
obliged  to  make,  or  by  deductions.  It  is  never  used  for  the  merely  ex- 
planatory "  namely."  or  "  that  is,"  which,  in  the  case  Of  simple  ideas,  is 
either  not  expressed  at  all,  or  by  the  forms  is  {ea,  id)  est,  qtU  est,  dico,  or  in- 
telligi  voh,  or  by  the  adverbs  scilicet  and  videlicet.  Respecting  the  maimer 
in  which  it  is  expressed  in  the  connexion  of  propositions,  see  ^  345. 

[^  279.]  The  adverbs  ^^oene, /ere,  and /erme,  to  which  we  may  add  prop<^ 
on  account  of  its  meaning  (from  ^  267,  note),  all  serve  to  limit  a  statement, 
but  there  are  certain  diJSerences  m  their  application.  Paene  and  prove  ap- 
proach each  other  nearest :  paene  being  almost  and  prope  nearly ;  ana  thus 
we  say  in  Latin  paene  dixerim  and  prope  dixerim  in  quite  the  same  sense,  I 
might  almost  say.  As  prope  contams  the  idea  of  approximation,  so  paens 
denotes  a  degree.  Thus  we  say :  hi  vhi  prope  aeqtuues  svnt,  are  nearly  of 
the  same  age ;  and  Caesar,  on  the  other  hand,  says,  non  solum  in  omnibus 
(Galliae)  civitatibus,  sed  paene  stiam  in  singulis  domibus  factiones  sunt,  "  but 
almost  m  every  family,"  which  is  more  than  the  factions  in  the  towns. 
Propemodum,  in  a  certain  degree,  in  formed  from  prope.  Fere  audferme  dif- 
fer from  the  other  primitive  adveibs,  in  regard  to  their  long  e,  for  the  oth 
ers  end  in  a  short  t.  They,  therefore,  seem  to  be  derived  from  adjectives, 
but  the  derivation  from  ferus  leads  to  no  results.  The  two  words  differ 
only  in  form,  and  are  used  in  inaccurate  and  indefinite  statements,  espe* 
cially  with  round  numbers  and  such  notions  as  may  be  reduced  to  a  num- 
ber. We  say  centum  fere  homines  aderant  to  express  our  **  somewhere  about 
one  hundred ;"  tniene:  or  prope  centum,  nearly  a  hundred,  implying  therd^y 
that  there  should  have  been  exactly  one  hundred.  And  so,  also,/er«  om 
nes,fere  semper ;  and  with  a  verb,  sic  fere  fieri  solet,  so  it  mostly  or  gener- 
ally happens,  the  same  as/ere  semper  Jit.  Hence  it  is  frequently  us^  as  a 
mere  form  of  politeness,  when  there  can  be  na  doubt  about  tne  correct* 
ness  of  a  statement ;  as  in  quoniamfere  consiat,  as  it  is  a  fact,  I  presume. 

[$  280.]  Temere,  at  random,  is  opposed  to  a  ihing  which  is  done  consult; 
or  deliberately ;  hence  the  expressions  inconsuUe  ac  temere,  temere  et  impr» 
denter,  temsre  et  mtllo  conxtUo.    Combinai  with  non,  temere  acquires  (but  net 


PRIMITITE   ADTSRBS.  fS^ 


la  CiedEo)  a  peculiat  sigmfication  ;  it  becomes  t]  -  ^**  «#  m»j>»^Uf  and 
■oftens  an  assertion ;  for  instance,  in  Horace :  wtto  avmrua  nom  ttmne  est 
animus,  a  poet  is  not  easity  avaricious ;  or,  non  temere  quis  tarn  invki»  omni- 
6t(5  ad  prtnctpo/um  qccessit  quam  Titus.  Rite  wems  to  be  an  ancient  abla- 
tive like  ritu;  itd  meaning  accords  with  the  supposition,  but  the  form  (ris, 
ritis)  is  uncertain. 

[^  281.]  The  words  sie,  ita,  tarn,  answer  to  the  English  **  so ;"  and  to 
them  we  may  add  tantopere^  from  ^  271,  and  qdeo^  ivom  %  289.  With  regard 
to  their  difference,  we  remark  that  sic  is  more  particularly  thedemonstra 
live  "  so**  or  "  thus,"  as  in  sic  sum,  sic  vita  kominum  est,  sic  se  rss  haket ;  ita 
defines  more  accurately,  or  limits,  and  is  our  "in  such  a  manner,"  or  ''  in 
so  far';  *  e.  g.,  Ua  senectus  hanesta  est,  si  suumjus  retinet ;  ita  defendito^  vi  ne- 
minem  laedas.  Very  freciuently,  however,  ita  assumes  the  signification  of 
sic,  but  not  sie  the  limiting  sense  of  ita,  reacting  which  we  shall  have 
occasion  to  speak  in  anoAer  place  (^  726).  Tarn,  so  much,  increases  the 
degree,  and  has  its  natural  place  before  the  adjectives  and  adverb»,  bui 
rarely  before  verbs  where  taniopere  is  us^  instead.  Adso,  to  that  degree 
or  point,  increases  the  expression  to  a  certain  end  or  result ;  e.  g.,  adeone 
ho^»es  es  in  hoc  urbe,  vt  haec  nesdas  7  Hence  in  the  connexion  of  propo&i 
tions,  it  forms  the  transition  to  the  conclusion  x>f  an  argument,  or  to  the 
essential  part  of  a  thing.  Cicero,  when  he  has  related  a  thing,  and  then 
chooses  to  introduce  the  witnesses  or  documents  themselves,  frequentl) 
says,  id  adeo  ex  ipso  senatusconsulto  cognoscite  ;  id  adeo  sciri  facilUme  potest 
ex  Utteris  publicis  dmtatum  {in  Verr.,iv.,  Q4 ;  iii.,  51),  and  puts  the  adeo  al- 
ways  after  a  pronoun.    (Comp.  Spalding  on  Quintil.,  ii.,  16, 18.) 

[^  282.]  Ut,  as,  must  be  mentioned  here  as  a  relative  adverb  expressive 
of  similaritjr.  From  it  is  formed  utique  by  means  of  the  suffix  qua,  which 
will  be  considered  in  ^  288.  It  signifies  '*  however  it.may  be,"  and  hence 
"  certainly."  Curt,  iv.,  44,  nihil  quidem  habeo  venale,  sed  fortunam  meam 
utimte  non  vendo» 

The  compounds  sicut,  velut,  tamauam,  to  which  we  must  add  quasi,  when 
used  without  a  verb  and  as  an  adverb,  signify  "  as"  or  "  like."  The  dif- 
ference in  their  application  seems  to  be,  that  tamquam  and  quasi  express  a 
merely  conceived  or  imaginary  similarity,  whereas  sicut  denotes  a  real  one. 
Hence  Cicero  says,  tamquam  serpens  e  latibulis  intuUsti  te ;  gloria  virtutem 
tamqitam  umbra  sequitur;  philosophia  omnium  artium  quasi  parens  est,  where 
the  similarity  mentioneid  is  a  mere  conception  or  supposition ;  but  it  ap- 
proaches nearer  to  reality  in  me  sicut  aUerum  parentem  dUigit ;  defendo  te 
sicut  caput  meum.  Velut  is  used  by  late  authors  in  the  same  sense  as  quasi ; 
bu^  in  Cicero  it  has  not  yet  acquired  this  signification,  but  has  the  pecu- 
liar meaning  of  our  "  for  example ;"  as,  bestiae,  qttac  gigmmtur  e  terra,  velut 
crocodili  ;  non  dogia  monumentorum  hoc  significant,  velut  hoc  ad  portam  ?  and 
other  passages.  All  these  adverbs  occur,  also,  as  conjunctions ;  in  Cicero, 
however,  only  tamquam  (besides  quasi),  with  and  without  the  addition 
of  sL 

Perinde  and  proinde  have  the  same  meaning,  and  are  adverbs  of  similar- 
ity ;  but  perinde  is  much  more  frequently  found  in  prose  writers.  The 
reading  is  often  uncertain ;  and  as  proinde  is  well  established  as  a  con* 
junction  in  the  sense  of  "  therefore"  (see  ^  344),  manv  philologers  have 
been  of  opinion  that  proinde,  wherever  the  sense  is  **  like,"  is  only  a  cor- 
ruption of  perindsi  But  this  supposition  is  contradicted  by  the  authority 
of  the  poets,  who  use  proinde  as  a  word  of  two  syllables.  (Comp.  Ruhn 
ken  on  Rutil,  JiUpus,  p.  31.)  We  most  frequently  find  the  comoinations 
Dcrinde  ac,  perinde  ac  si,  as  if,  as  though ;  perinde  ut,  in  proportion  as^  tc 
connect  sentences.  (See  ^  340.)  But  without  any  such  additions,  Cice- 
ro, for  example,  de  Fin.,  i.,  21,  says,  vivendi  artem  tantam  tamqui  operosam 
§t  perinde  fntctuosam  Tana  as  fruitful)  rdinquat  Eptcurus  ? 

[i^  283.]  SScus  has  been  classed  among  the  primitives,  because  its  deriva 
lion  is  uncertain.  We  believe  that  it  is  derived  from  sequor ;  and  we  might 
therefore,  have  included  it,  like  mordicus,  among  those  adverbs  mentiuuoil 


22B  LATIN   GRAMMAll. 

in  ^  S69.'  We  aoki  that  its  primary  signification  is  **  in  {mrsuane^^**  **  aT 
ter,"  "beside,''  which  still  appears  in  the  compounds  intrinsecus  and  e» 
triruMu,  (^  289.)  Hence  it  comes  to  signify  "  less,"  or  **  otherwise,"  vix., 
"  thau  It  should  be."  Thus  we  say,  mihi  aliter  videtuTf  reete  seeusne^  nUuk 
ad  tCf  justly  or  less  justly,  where  we  might  also  say  an  minus ;  si  res  secut 
eecideritf  if  the  thing  should  turn  out  differently,  that  is,  less  well.  A  com- 
parative secius  (also  spelled  seqtaus)  occurs  ver^  rarely,  because  secus  itseli 
Uas  the  signification  of  a  comparative ;  it  is  joined  with  an  ablative,  nihita 
secats^  not  otherwise,  nevertheless ;  qua  secius  the  same  as  quo  minus,  in  or- 
der that  noC 

[^  284.]  To  tmquam,  ever,  and  usquamy  somewhere,  we  must  apply  that 
wmch  has  already  been  said  of  quisquam,  ^  129 :  they  require  a  negation 
in  the  sentence;  and  although  this  negation  may  be  connected  with 
another  word;  unquam  and  tu^uam  become  the  same  as  nunqtuan  and  nus" 
quam ;  e.  g.,  neque  te  usquam  vidij  the  same  as  te.nusquam  vitU.  The  place 
of  a  negative  proposidon  may,  however,  be  taken  by  a  negative  question ; 
as,  wum  tu  eum  unquam  vidisti  ?  \ifisi  thou  ever  seen  him  f  But  ttspiam  is 
not  negative  any  more  than  the  pronoun  quispiam ;  but  it  is  the  same  as 
alicubit  except  that  its  meaning  is  strengthened,  just  as  quispiam  is  the 
same  as  aliquis.  In  the  writings  of  modem  Latinists  and  grammarians  we 
find  the  form  ttiutptam,  which  is  said  to  be  the  same  as  nusquam.  But  nus- 
viam  does  not  exist  at  all,  and  its  formation  is  contrary  to  analogy. 

[^  285.}  It  is  difficult  to  define  the  difference  between  turn  and  tunc,  because 
the  editions  of  our  authors  themselves  are  not  everywhere  correct.  But 
in  general  the  difference  may  be  stated  thus :  tunc  is  **  then,"  **  at  that  time," 
in  opposition  to  nunc ;  turn  is  **  then,"  as  the  correlative  of  the  relative 
quum  ;  e.  g.,  quvm  omnes  adessent,  turn  iUe  exorsus  est  dicere,  when  all  were 
present,  tlien  ne  began  to  speak.  Without  a  relative  sentence,  tumia  used 
m  the  sense  of  our  "  hereupon,"  "  thereupon ;"  but  we  may  always  sup- 
ply sbch  a  sentence  as  "  when  this  or  that  had  taken  place."  The  samp 
difference  exists  between  etiamnunc  and  etiamium,  which  we  translate  by 
"still"  or  "yet,"  and  between  nunc  i^swn  and  turn ipsum^  quummazime  and 
'  tummaximct  just  or  even  then ;  for  etiamnunc,  nunc  tpsum,  and  quummaxime 
refer  to  the  present ;  but  etiamtumf  turn  ipsum,  and  tummaxime  to  the  past : 
e.  g.)  etiamnunc  puer  est,  and  etiamtum  puer  erat ;  adest  quummaxime  /rater 
meus,  and  aderat  tummaxime  f rater,  my  brother  was  just  then  present 
Compare  %  732. 

[^  286.]  Jam,  combined  with  a  negative  word,  answers  to  our  "  longer ;" 
e.  g.,  nihUjam  spero,  I  no  longer  hope  for  anything ;  Brutus  Mutinae  vixjam 
sustinebat,  could  scarcely  maintain  himself  any  longer.  It  is  also  used  for 
the  purpose  of  cormecting  sentences,  and  then  answers  to  our  "further' 
or  "  now." 

Usque,  ever  and  anon,  does  not  occur  very  frequently  in  this  sense ; 
e.  g„  in  Horace,  Epist.,  i.,  10,  24,  natwram  expellas  fwrca,  tamen  usque  re- 
curret.  It  is  commonly  accompanied  by  a  preposition,  viz.,  ad  ana  in,  or 
ab  and  ex,  and  denotes  time  ana  place ;  e.  g.,  usque  ad  pcrtam,  usque  a  prima 
aetate.    See  Chap.  LXV.,  4. 

[^  287.]  NUper,  lately,  is  used  in  a  very  relative  sense,  and  its  meaning 
depends  upon  the  period  which  is  spoken  of;  for  Cicero  {de  Nat,  Deor., 
ii.,  50)  says  of  certain  medical  observations,  that  they  were  nuper,  id  est 
IMxucis  ante  saeculis  reperto,- thinking  at  the  time  of  the  whole  long  perir^l 
lu  which  men  had  made  observations.  In  like  manner,  the  length  of  time 
expressed  by  modo  (see  ^  270)  and  mox  is  indefinite.  The  latter  word,  as 
was  observed  above,  onginally  signified  '*soon  after,"  but  is  very  often 
used  simply  in  the  sense  of  "  afterward."  Dudum  is  probably  formed  from 
diu  (est)  dum,  and  answers  to  the  English  "  previously "  or  *'  before,"  in 
relation  to  a  time  which  has  just  passed  away ;  whence  it  may  often  be 
translated  by  "  shortly  before ;"  e.  g.,  Cic,  ad  Att.,  xi.,  24,  ouae  dudum  ad 
ne  et  quae  etiam  ante  ad  TuUiam  scripsisti,  ea  sentio  esse  vera.  But  the  length 
)f  time  is  set  foith  more  strongly  ih  jamdudum,  long  before,  or  long  i«*nce 


PRIMITIVE    ADVERBS.  22*7 

.This  wcid,  with  poets,  contains  the  idea  of  impatience,  and  iignifiea 
** without  delay/'  "forthwith,"  as  in  the  line  of  Virgil,  Aen.,  ii,  103,  jam- 
dudtun  sumUe  poenas.  The  same  strengthening  of  the  meaning  appears  in 
jampridem,  long  since,  a  long  time  ago.  Tandem^  at  length,  likewise 
tferres  to  express  the  impatience  with  which  a  question  is  put,  and  even 
more  strongly  than  nam  0  134) ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  PhUip.j  i.,  9,  haec  utrum  tandem 
kso  est  an  legum  omnkan  dumlutio  ? 

[§  288.]  3.  The  Adverbs  of  Place,  mentioned  above, 
No.  2,  ubi^  where  1  and  uTide^  whence  1  together  with  the 
adverbs  derived  from  the  relative  pronoun,  viz.,  quo^ 
whither  ]  and  qtia^  in  what  way  ]  are  in  relation  to  other 
adverbs,  demonstratives,  relatives,  and  indefinites,  which 
are  formed  in  the  same  manner.  All  together  form  a  sys- 
tem of  adverbial  correlatives  similar  to  that  of  the  pro 
nominal  adjectives.  (See  above,  §  130.)  We  shall  be- 
gin with  the  interrogative  form,  which  is  the  simplest 
[ts  form  (as  in  English)  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  relative 
and  differs  from  it  only  by  its  accent.  The  relative  ac- 
quires a  more  general  meaning,  either  by  being  doubled, 
or  by  the  suffix  cunque,  which  is  expressed  in  English  by 
•'  ever,"  as  in  "  wherever."  Without*  any  relative  mean- 
ing, the  simple  form  acquires  a  more  general  signification 
by  the  suffix  que,  or  by  the  addition  of  the  particular  words 
vis  and  libet.  (We  call  it  an  adverhium  loci  generdU.) 
The  fact  of  the  suffix  que  not  occurring  with  qtu)  and  qua 
is  easily  accounted  for  by  the  possibility  of  confounding 
them  with  the  adverb  quoqvs  and  the  ablative  quiujue ; 
but  still,  in  some  passages  at  least,  quaque  is  found  as  an 
adverb,  and  so  also  the  compound  usqueqtmquey  in  any 
way  whatever.  The  demonstrative  is  formed  from  the 
pronoun  is,  and  its  meaning  is  strengthened  by  the  suffix 
dem.  The  indefinite  is  derived  from  the  pronoun  cdiquis^ 
or  by  compositions  with  it.  We  thus  obtain  the  follow- 
ing correlative  adverbs : 

*  We  say  without  in  regard* to  the  general  analogy.    There  are,  how. 

ever,  passages  in  which  the  suffix  que  forms  a  generalizing  relative,  and  in 

which,  e.  g.,  qwmdoque  is  used  for  quand/H^tmaue,  as  in  Horat.,'  Are  Poet.^ 

959,  qt-mioque  bonue  dormitat  Homerus,  and  tfequently  in  Tacitus.    Se# 

he  comn  entators  on  Livy,  L,  24, 3. 


228 


LATIN   GRAMMAK. 


Interrog. 


Relative. 


tJbi,  where  ? 
UndCf  whence  ? 
Quo,  whithe*? 


Qua,  ic  what 
direction?  in 
what  way  ? 


ubi,  where. 

ubiubi. 

ubicunqve. 

undCf  whence 

undeunde. 

undectmque. 

quot  whither. 

quoquo. 

quosun^ue. 

qua,    in     the 

way  in  which. 

quaqutt. 
quacunque. 


Deraonstr. 


ibif  there. 
ibidem 

inde,  thence. 
iiuRdem. 

eot  thither. 
eodem. 


eUf     m 
way. 

e&dcn. 


that 


Indefinite.' 


aHcttbiy  some- 
where. 

alicunde,  from 
some  place. 

aliquOftaaome 
place. 

aiiqua,iniom» 
way. 


Uaivena. 


ubiqutf 

ubivis, 

vUnlibetf 

undiquef 

undevitf 

imdelibet, 

qumnSf 

quolibit, 

• 

quotnty 
quaJibet, 


f  erery- 
^  where. 

ifrom 
every- 
where. 

I     ^ 
>  every 

place. 

in 

every 

way. 


! 


[§  289.]  To  these  we  must  add  those  which  arfe  formed 
oy  composition  with  alitis,  nulhis^  uter^  and  answer  to  the 
question  where  1  a^t^\  elsewhere;  wt^Wiii,  nowhere  (which, 
however,  is  based  only  on  one  passage  of  Vitruvius,  viL, 
1,  its  place  being  supplied  by  misquam)  ;  utruhi  or  utrobi^ 
in  which  of  two  places  1  with  the  answer  utrohiqTie^  in  each 
of  the  two  places.  Inihi  is  a  strengthening  f6!rm  of  ibiy 
and  signifies  **in  the  place  itself."  To  the  question 
whence  1  answer  aliunde,  from  another  place ;  utrimque:^ 
from  both  sides,  which  formation  we  find  again  in  tTUrin- 
seais,  &om  within,  and  eoatriTisecus,  from  without.  To  the 
question  whither  1  answer  alio,  to  another  place ;  to  utro, 
10  which  of  jtwo  sides  1  answer  tUroque^  to  both  sides,  and 
netUro,  to  neither.  The  following  axe  formed  with  the 
same  termination,  and  have  the  same  meaning :  quopiam 
and  qrwquam,  to  some  place  (the  former  in  an  affirmative, 
and  the  latter  in  a  negative  sentence,  like  quisquamj ; 
intra,  into ;  retro,  back ;  ultro,  beyond ;  citro,  this  side, 
chiefly  used  in  the  combination  of  mtro  et  citro,  ultro  citro* 
que  (towards  that  and  this  side),  but  ultro  also  signifies  "in 
addition  to,"  and  "  voluntarily."  Porro  ifl  formed  firom^o, 
and  signifies  "onward"  or  "farther,"  e.  g,y porro pergere. 
In  the  latter  sense  it  is  used  also  as  a  conjimction  to  con- 
nect sentences.  Compounds  of  €&  are :  adeo,  up  to  that 
degree  or  pouit^  so  much ;  eousqtie,  so  long,  so  far ;  ana 
if  quo:  quomque  and  quoad,  how  long]  We  have  farthei 
JO  notice  the  adverbs  vnth  the  feminine  termination  of  the 
ablative  5  (which  is  probably  to  be  explained  by  supply- 
ing vidj^  which  have  become  prepositions;  viz.:  citra^ 
emtra,  extra,  intra,  »ipra,  derived  from  the  original  forms, 
*«#,  con,  ex,  in,  super;  also,  infra,  below;  and  ultra,  beyond 
^fi:om  the  adjectives  infer  and  ulter,  which,  however,  du 
not  occur) ;  drca,  arounc' ;  and  juxt^^  by  the  side  or  it 


PRIMITIVE    ADVBRBS.  229 

like  maiinei'.  The  derivation  of  the  last  two  is  doubt^l, 
but  they  belong  to  the  adverbs  of  place.  In  this  way 
arose,  also,  nequaquam  and  haudquaquam^  in  no  way; 
usqtiequaque^  in  all  points,  in  all  ways,  composed  of  the 
above-mentioned  qtcaque  and  usqtie. 

[§290.]  We  here  add  the  correlatives  to  the  question 
whither]  quorstim  or  qtcorsus?  (contracted -from  quover- 
sum  or  quoversus).  The  answers  to  them  likewise  end 
in  U8  aiid  um  (but  sometimes  the  one  and  sometimes  the 
other  is  more  commonly  used) :  Tiorsum,  hither ;  aHqieo- 
versum,  towards  some  place ;  aliorsum,  towards  another 
place  ;  qtioquoveraua,  towards  every  side ;  ntroqiceversum, 
introrsum,  prarsum^  forward  (prorsus  is  better  knovm  in 
the  derivative  sense  of"  entirely") ;  rurmm^  or  more  fre 
quently  retrorsum,  backward  (rurmta  remained  in  use  in 
the  sense  of"  again") ;  ««r««w,  heavenward  (also,  «i^r«t^» 
verstbs,  a  double  compound) ;  dearsumi  downward ;  dex- 
trof'sum,  to  the  right;  sinistrarsttmf  to  the  lefl;  adversus  ol 
adversum,  towards  or  opposite,  usually  a  preposition; 
seorsus  or  seorsum^  separately. 

[§  291.]  4.  The  above-mentioned  demonstratives,  ibi, 
there;  inde^  hen<?e,  and  eo,  thither,  are  used  only  with 
reference  to  relative  sentences  which  precede ;  e.  g.,  uhi 
te  heri  vidi;  ihi  nolim  te  iterum  amspicerCf  where  I.  saw 
thee  yesterday,  there  I  do  not  wish  to  see  thee  again ; 
unde  vmeratf  eq  rediit,  he  returned  thither,  whence  he  had 
come.  More  definite  demonstratives,  therefore,  are  requi- 
site, and  they  are  formed  in  Latin  from  the  thr^e  demon- 
strative pronoims  by  means  of  special  terminations. 

The  place  where  ?       hic^      utic,      illic^       (there). 

whither  ]     httCf      istuc,    •  i^«^,      (thither). 

whence  1  hinc^  istinc,  illinc,  (thence). 
Instead  of  istuc  and  illtec,  the  forms  isto  and  illo  also  are 
in  use.  .These  adverbs  are  employed  with  the  same  dif- 
ference which' we  pointed  out  above  (§  127)  as  existing 
between  the  pronouns  hdc^  iste,  and  Ule,  so  that  hie,  hue, 
and  hine  point  to  the  place  where  I,  the  speaker,  am ; 
istic^  istuCy  and  isiitie,  to  the  place  of  the  second  person,  to 
whom  I  speak ;  and  illic^  Uluc,  and  UUnc  to  the  place  of 
the  third  person  or  persons,  who  are  spoken  oi.  .  The  fol- 
lowing ai'e  compounds  oihtee  and  hine:  ac^Amr, until  now ; 
hucusquCj  as  far  as  this  place ;  ahhinc  and  dehincy  from  this 
iQ^ment  (counting  backward).     To  the  question  qva  ?  ir 


230  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

wbat  wayl  \^o  answer  by  the  demonstiativei^^«r;,  istac^ 
iliac,  which  are  properly  ablatives,  the  word  via  being 
understood. 

Nou  1. — Cicero  thus  writes  to  Atticus,  who  was  staying  h\  Rome,  wfailo 
ne  himself  lived  in  exile  at  Thessalonica,  in  Macedonia  (ill,  12) :  Xicef 
tibi  aignificarim,  ut  ad  me  vemreSf  id  omktam  tamen  ;  intelligo  te  re  istic  pro 
desse,  hie  ne  verbo  qyidem  levare  me  posse.  IstiCf  where  you  are,  that  is,  at 
Rome,  you  can  be  really  useful  to  me ;  hie,  here  where  I  live,  that  is,  at 
Theseaionica,  you  would  not  even  be  able  to  comfort  me  with  a  word^  In 
this  manner  the  Romans,  in  their  letters,  briefly  and  distinctly  express  the 
localities  of  the  writer  and  the  person  addressed,  as  well  as  of  the  persons 
written  about. 

[^  292.]  Note  2. — Adhuc  expresses  the  duration  of  time  down  to  the  pres 
eat  moment,  and  therefore  answers  to.  our  **  still,"  when  it  signifies  "  un 
til  now"  (we  also  find  usqfte  adkuc) ;  and^  strictly  speaking,  it  should  not 
be  confounded  either  with  etiamnunc,  which  does  not  contain  the  idea  of 
duration  of  time,  and  answers  to  the  question  when  ?  or  with  usque  e 
and  etiamtum,  which  are  the  corresponding  expressions  of  the  past  time 
But  even  good  authors  apply  the  peculiar  meaning  of  the  word  to  the  pres 
ent,  and  use  adkuc,  also,  of  the  relative  duration  of  the  time  past ;  e.  g. 
Liv.,  xxi.,  48,  Scipio  Cfuamquam  gravis  adkuc  vtUnere  erat,  tamen— profectus  est ; 
Curt.,  vii.,  19,  praecipitatus  ex  equo  barbartis  adhuc  tamert  rqpugiuUMt.  "  fid 
yet"  is  expressed  by  nondum,  even  in  speaking  of  the  present,  more  rare 
iv  by  »dhuc  non. 


CHAPTER  LXIV. 

COMPARISON   OF   ADVERBS. 

[§  293.]  1.  The  Comparison  of  Adverbs  irf  thiough'out 
dependant  upon  the  compaiison  of  adjectives,  for  those 
adverbs  only  have  degrees  of  comparison  which  are  de- 
rived from  adjectives  or  participles  by  the  termination  e 
(o)  or  ter;  and  wherever  the  comparison  of  adjectivei^  is 
wanting  altogether  or  partly,  the  same  deficiency  occurs 
in  their  adverbs. 

2.  The  comparative  of  adverbs  is  the  same  as  the  neu- 
ter of  the  comparative  of  adjectives  (majus  only  has  the 
adverb  magis,  §  265),  and  the  superlative  is  derived  from 
the  superlative  of  the  adjectives  by  changing  the  termina- 
tion us  into  e  ;  e.  g.,  doctior,  doctius ;  elegantior,  elegdnti' 
us ;  emendatior,  emendatius;  superlative,  doctissimus^  doC' 
tissime;  elegantissime,  emendatissime ;  summus,  summe* 
The  positives  ino  (e.  g.,  cito^  raro)  also  make  the  supe'la- 
tive  m  t;  meritissimo  and  tutissimo,  however,  are  more 
commonly,  used  than  meritissime  and  tutissime. 

Note. — Thus  the  positive  (see  ^111)  is  wanting  of  deterius,  deterrime; 
potius,  potissime  (we  more  frequently  find  potissimum) ;  vrius,  primum,  Of 
prtmo  (for  prime  is  not  used,  but  apprime,  principallv) ;  tne  positive  ociter 
to  which  ocius  and  ocissime  belong,  occurs  very  rarefy  since  the  compare 


PREPOSITIONS.  231 

live  ochts  has,  at  the  same  time,  the  meaning  of  a  positive.  OtvaUU,  very 
^contracted  from  vaUde,  6  263),  the  de^ees  vaUdhu  and  validisthne  do  not, 
mdeed,  occur  in  Cicero,  but  ar  i  used  m  the  silver  age  of  the  language. 

[§  294.]  3.  The  primitive  adverbs,  and  those  derived 
from  other  words  by  the  terminations  im  and  tus,  together 
with  the  various  adverbs  enumerated  in  §  270,  foil.,  that 
is,  in  general  all  adverbs  which  are  not  deiived  from  ad- 
jectives and  participles  by  the  endings  e  (or  o  instead  of 
It)  arid  ter,  do  not  admit  the  degrees  of  comparison.  The 
only  exceptions  are  diu  and  saepe :  diutitcs,  ditUissime  ; 
saepiuSf  saepissime.  Nuper  has  a  superlative  nuperrime; 
but  no  comparative,  and  iotia  and  temperi  have  the  com- 
^paratives  satius  (also  used  as  a  neuter  adjective)  and^^m- 
perius  (in  Cicero).  Respecting  secius,  the  comparative  ot 
secuSf  see  4  283. 

Note. — There  are  a  few  diminutive  adverbs:  elanculum  from  elam,primu 
lum  from  primum^  celervuaculey  taemtuade^  from  the  comparatives  celeriu 
and  saephu,    BelUy  prettily,  is  a  ain'-inutive  of  6ene,  and  from  belle  are  de 
rived  belliu  and  beUissmus,  without  a  comparative,  and  hence  the  adverb 
hellistime. 


CHAPTER  LXV. 

PREPOSITIONS.* 

[§  295.]  1.  Prepositions  are  indeclinable  words,  or, 
to  use  the  grammatical  term,  particles,  which  express  the 
relations  of  nouns  to  one  another,  or  to  verbs ;  e.  g.,  a 
town  in  Italy ;  a  journey  through  Italy ;  my  lovej^  you; 
the  first  century  (ifter  Christ ;  he  came  out  of  Bis  house ; 
he  lives  near  Berlin ;  on  the  Rhine,  &c.     They  govern  in 

*  ["  Prepositions  are  pronouns  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word.  They 
express  relations  of  place,  and  in  their  ordinary  use  are  employed  to  de« 
note  the  relative  positions  of  visible  objects.  Grammarians  teU  us  that 
they  govern  cases,  and  it  is  the  prevailing  practice  to  arrange  them  accord- 
ing  to  the  cases  which  they  are  said  to  govern.  But  this  is  palpably  false ; 
for,  in  all  languages  which  have  any  inflections,  a  case  may  express  by  it- 
self  any  relation  which  the  addition  of  a  preposition  could  give  to  it,  and, 
m  languages  which,  like  the  Sanscrit,  have  a  complete  assortment  of  ca- 
ses, many  relations  of  plac6  are  invariably  expressed  by  the  cases  without 
any  particle  prefixed.  Such  would  have  been  the  fact  in  the  Greek  and 
Latin  languages  too,  but  the  rules  of  euphony,  convenience,  the  influence 
of  writing,  and  a  multitude  of  other  causes,  have  contributed  to  mutilate 
the  terminations  of  the  nouns,  as  well  as  of  the  verb*,  and  thus  preposi 
tions,  the  force  of  which  was  originally  included  ir  the  case  endings, 
have  come  to  be  prefixed  for  the  sake  of  greater  distinctness,  just  as  in 
Greek  the  particular  noun  is  placed  after  the  pronoun,  called  the  article 
ki  lepetitions,  and  just  as  the  nominative  case  is  prefixed  to  the  voih/ 
lJhnatd8on*t  Nrw  Cratyhts,  p.  212.)]— -Am.  Ed, 


^$32  LATIN    QRAMMAR^ 

Latin  either  the  accusative  or  ablatlTO,  and  seme  (though 
mostly  in  a  different  sense)  both  cases.  Their  Latin  name 
is  derived  from  the  fact  of  their  beiijg  placed,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  before  their  noun.  Wo  have  already  observ 
ed  (Chap.  LXII.)  that  a  considerable  number  of  these 
particles  are  properly  adverbs,  but  are  justly  reckoned 
among  the  prepositions,  as  they  more  or  less  frequently 
govern  a  case.  Apart  from  their  etymplogy,  and  consid- 
ering only  their  practical  application  in  the  language,  we 
have  the  following  classes  of  prepositions  : 

1.  Prepositions  with  the  Accusative. 
Ad^  to. 

Aptedf  with,  near. 

Ante,  before  (in  regard  to  both  time  and  plp,ce)» 
'  Adversus  and  adversum,  against. 
Ois,  citra,  on  this  side. 
Circa  and  circum,  around,  abOut. 
Circiter,  about  (indefinite  time  or  number).. 
Contra^  against.  ^ 

Erga,  towards. 
Extra,  without. 

Infra,  beneath,  below  (the  contrary  of  supra)* 
Inter,  among,  between. 
Intra,  within  (the  contrary  of  extra): 
Juxta,  near,  beside. 
Ob,  on  account  o£ 
Penes,  in  the  power  of. 
Per,  through. 
P/mc,  behind. 

Post,  after  (both  of  time  and  space). 
Praeter,  beside. 
Prope,  near. 

Propter,  near,  on  account  of. 
Secundum,  after  (in  time  or  succession),  in  accordanev 

with ;  as,  secundum  naturam  vivere. 
Supra,  above. 
2Va«^,  on  the  other  side. 
Versus  (is  put  after  its  noun),  towards  a  vlace ;  e.  g.,  w 

Galliam  versus^  Massiliam  versus, 
intra,  beyond.  • 

2.  Prepositions  toith  the  Ablative. 
A,  ab,  abs  (a  before  consonants ;  ab  before  vowels  vat 


pnEPOsiTioNa,  239 

dome  consonants ;  and  ahs  only  in  the  combination  of 
ahs  te,  for  which,  however,  a  te,  also,  is  used),  from,  by. 

Absque,  without  (obsolete). 

Coram,  before,  or  in  the  presence  Df. 

Cum,  with; 

De,  down  from,  concerning. 

E  and  ex  (e  before  consonants  only,  ex  before  both  voweli 
and  consonantA],  out  of,  from. 

PraCy  before,  owing  to. 

Pro,  before,  for. 

Stne^  without. 

Tenus  (is'  put  after  its  noun),  as  far  as,  up  to. 

3.  Prepositions  with  the  Accusative  and  Ablative, 

In^  with  the  accus. — 1,  in,  on,  to,  to  the  question  Whith- 
er 1 — ^2j.againj*t.  With  the  ablat.,  in,  on,  to  the  ques- 
tion Where  1 

Sub,  with  the  accus. — 1,  under,  to  the  question  Whither  t 
2,  about  or  towards,  in  an  indefinite  statement  of  time; 
as,  svh  vesperam^  towards  evening.  With  the  ablat., 
imder,  to  tibe  question  Where  1  Desub  is  also  used  in 
this  sense. 

Super,  with  the  accus.,  above,  over;  with  the  ablat.,  upon, 
concerning,  like  de, 

*Switer,  imder,  beneath,  is  used  with  the  accusative,  wheth- 
er it  expresses  being  in  or  motion  to  a  place ;  it  rarely 
occurs  with  the  ablative,  and  is  in  general  little  used. 

Remarks  upon  the  Signification  of  the  Prepositions, 

[^  296.]  1.  PrepotitioM  wth  the  Accusative. 

Ad  denotes  in  general  an  aim  or  object  both  in  regard  to  time  and  place, 
and  answers  to  the  questions  Whither  ?  and  Till  when  ?  e.  g.,  venio,  pro 
ficiscor  ad  te ;  Sophocles  ad  summam  senectutem  tragoedias  fedt.  Hence  it 
also  denotes  a  fixed  time ;  as,  ad  hotam,  at  the  hour ;  ad  dienif  on  the  day 
fixed  upon ;  ad  tempusfac&e  aliquid,  to  do  a  thing  at  the  right  time/  In 
•  other  cases  ad  tempus  signifies  "  for  a  time ;"  e.  g.,  pertvrbatio  animi  pie* 
rumqus  brevis  est  et  ad  tempus.  Sometimes,  also,  it  denotes  the  approach 
of  time ;  as,  ad  lucerne  ad  vesperam,  ad  extremum,  towards  daybreak,  evening, 
towards  the  end ;  and  the  actual  arrival  of  a  certain  time,  as  in  Livy,  a4 
frima  signa  veris  profectus,  at  the  first  sign  of  spring. 

Ad,  in  a  local  sense,  signifies  "  near  a  place,"  to  the  question  Where  ? 
as,  ad  urbem  mm,  to  be  near  the  town ;  aaportas  urbis  ;  cruentissima  pugna 
ad  lacum  Trasimenum ;  pugna  navdlis  ad  Tenedum  ;  urhs  sita  est  ad  mare  ; 
it  is  apparently  the  same  as  in.  in  such  phrases  as  ad  aedem  Bellome;  or 
with  the  omission  of  the  word  aedem:  ad  Opts;  ad  omnia  deorvm  templa^ 
gratulationemfedmus  ;  negotium  habere  ad  portum  ;  ad  forum ;  but  in  all  these* 
cases  there  is  an  allusion  to  buildings  or  spaces  connected  with  the  places 
named.  With  numerals  ad  is  equivalent  to  our  "to  the  amount  of"  oi 
**  nearly ;"  e  g.,  ad  ducentost  to  the  amou  tt  of  two  hundred,  or  nearly  t«vo 

U2 


234  IJITIN   GRAMMAS. 

Aundred,  and  withon  any  case  it  is  an  adveib  like  cim/er/aa  in 
occuit  ad  hominum  mil  but  qtuUuoTf  reliqui-in  ofpidum  rpecH  aunt ;  Liv.,  viii^ 
ISfOd  vigirUi  matronit  per  viatorent  accUh  (abiat.  absoL) ;  iv.,  59,  quorum  ad 
duo  milia  et  quingenti  capiuntur.  The  phrase  omnes  ad  vnum,  ad  unum  omnet 
f/erierurdf  means,  "  even  to  the  very  last  man,"  including  the  last  himself. 

Ad,  denoting  an  object  or  purpose,  is  of  very  common  occurrence,  and 
.hence  arises  its  signification  of  *'in  respect  of;"  e.  g.,  vidi  forum  comiti" 
umque  adomatum,  ad  speciem  magnifico  omalUf  ad  sentum  eogitationemqm 
acerbo  «t  lugubri ;  or  fadmu  ad  manwriam  posterUatit  tnaignM  ;  homo  ad  laborea 
belli  impiger,  ad  utum  et  disdplinam  peritus  ;  ad  coruiUa  prudens,  6iC.  But 
this  preposition  is  used  also  in  figurative  relations  to  express  a  model, 
standara,  and  object  of  comparison,  where  we  say  **aceonung  to^"  or  "  in 
comparison  with ;"  as,  €ul  modumf  ad  effigiem,  ad  simUitmUtum,  ad  epodem 
tUicujua  reif  ad  normamj  ad  exemplum,  ad  arbitnum  et  nutum^  ad  volurUatem 
ttlicujua  facere  aUquid  ;  pertuadeni  mathematicif  terram  ad  wdnereum  coeli  eam^' 
plexum  quasi  puncti  inetar  obtinere.  Particular  phrases  are,  ad  verbum^  woid 
for  word ;  nihil  ad  hanc  rem,  ad  hunc  hominem,  nothing  in  comparison  with 
this  thing  or  this  man. 

[6  297.]  Apud,  **  with,"  both  in  its  proper  and  figurative  sense ;  e.  g. 
witn  me  the  opinion  of  the  multitude  has  no  weight,  apud  me  nihil  valet 
hominum  opinio.  In  connexion  with  names  of  places.it  signifies  '*  near," 
like  od  ;  e.  g.,  Epaminondae  Lacedaemonioa  vicit  apUd  Mantmeam  ;  male  pug 
natum  e»t  apud  Caudium,  apud  Anienem  (the  name  of  a  river).  It  must, 
however,  be  observed  that  the  early  writers  sometimes  (see  my  note  on 
Cic,  m  Verr.,  iv.,  22),  and  Tacitus  and  later  authors  frequently,  use  apud 
for  tn,  and  not  merely  for  ad ;  as,  A^uxttu  apud  urbem  Nolam  extinctus  est ; 
statuarapud  theatrum  Pompeii  loeatur  ;  apud  Syriam  morbo  absun^tus  est ;  apvd 
senatum  dixit,  and  in  many  other  passages,  in  which  the  context  leaves 
no  doubt.  In  apud  praetorem  and  apud  judices  the  preposition  must  like- 
wise  be  taken  to  denote  the  place  of  the  judicial  transactions ;  we  use  iu 
this  case  '*  before,"  which,  however,  cannot  be  rendered  in  Latin  by  otue. 

Apud  is  used,  also,  with  the  names  of  authors,  instead  of  m  with  the 
name  of  their  works ;  as,  apud  Xenophontem,  apud  Terentium,  apud  Cice- 
onem  legitur,  dec,  but  not  in  Xenophonte,  because  in  Latin  the  name  of  an 
luthor  is  not  used  for  that  of  his  works,  as  in  our  language. 

Ante,  "  before,"  denotes  also  a  preference ;  as,  ante  omnia  hoc  mihi  maxims 
placet,  above  all  other  things ;  hie  erat  gloria  militari  ante  omnes,  he  excell^ 
tlL 

^6298.]  Cis  and  citra  are  commonly  used  in  reference  to  place ;  e.  g., 
^s  Taurum  montem,  and  are  the  contrary  of  trans ;  dtra  Rtdnconem,  on  this 
side  of  the  Rubicon.  But  in  later,  though  good  prose  writers  (QuintiUan, 
Pliny),  it  frequently  occurs  for  sine,  "without,"  as  in  citra  invidiam  nomi- 
nare ;  dtra  musicen  grammatics  non  potest  esseperfecta  nee  did  dtra  sdentiam 
musices  potest.  . 

Circum  is  the  more  ancient,  and  drca  the  later  form ;  Cicero  uses  them 
both  in  the  sense  of  "around"  (a  place);  and  ciratm,  with  the  strength^ 
ened  meaning,  "  all  around ;"  e.  g.,  urbes  quae  circum  Capuam  sunt,  and  ' 
urbes  circa  Capuam  ;  homines  circum  and  circa  se  habere  ;  terra  circum  axem  se 
eonvertit;  homo'  ^aetorem  dreum  omnia  fora  sectatur.  The  phrases  circum 
amicos,  drcum  vidnos^  circum  villas,  drcum  insulas  mittere,  signify  to  send 
around  to  one's  friends,  &c.  Circa  is  used,  besides,  of  time  also,  in  the 
sense  of  sub  (but  not  by  Cicero) ;  Livy  and  Curtius,  e.  g.,  say,  drca  luds 
ortum,  drca  eandem  horam,  drca  Idus.  Circa  in  the  sense  of  concerning, 
like  de,  erga,  and  adversus,  the  Greek  Kara,  occurs  only  in  the  silver  ago 
of  the  linguage,  in  Quintilian,  Pliny,  and  Tacitus ;  e.  g.,  varia  circum  haec 
opinio  ;  drca  deos  et  reUgiones  n^gligentior  ;  publica  circa  bonas  artes  socordia. 

Cirdter  is  used,  it  is  true,  with  an  accusative,  as  in  drdter  meridiem, 
about  noon ;  cirdter  Catendas,  cirdter  Idus  Martins,  cirdter  actavam  horem\ 
but  it  is  more  frequently  an  adverb. 

l^  299."!  Adversus  ana  contra  originally  sifnify  "  opposite  *^;"  but  thei 


PREP08IT1  >NS.  235 

•tpteM  ftteo  the  direction  of  an  action  towards  an  obiect,  with  this  dif 
ferenc^,  tha:  contia  alwayt^  denotes  hostility,  like  our* ^'against"  (while 
erga  denotes  a  friendly  disposition,  *'  towards"),  whereas  adveraua  is  used 
in  either  sense.  I'hus  Cicero  says,  praesidia  t<to,  quae  pro  templis  omnibus 
cemitis,  contra  mm  collocata  sunt;  and  frequently  contra  naturam^  contra 
kges  ;  but  meus  erga  te  amoTf  patemus  cmxmus^  benivoletUiOj  and  similar  ex 
pressions.  We  say  adversus  aliqaem  impetum  facere  tiS  well  as  fitode«<um, 
putum  esse^  and  reveretuiani  odMhere  adversus  aliquem.  But  erga  also  occurs 
now  and  then  in  a  hostile  sense,  not,  indeed,  in  Cicero,  but  in  Nepos  and 
Tacitus  ;  e.  g.,  Nep.,  Datam.,  10,  odio  comnwnif  quod  erga  regem  susceperant. 

[•5  300.]  Extra,  "  without,"  "  outside  of,"  occurs  also  in  the  sense  ot 
fneter,  excepting,  apart ;  as,  extra  jocum. 

Infra,  e.  g.,  infra  lunam  nihil  est  nisi  mortale  et  caducum.  It  also  implies 
A  iow  estimaticm ;  as  in  infra  se  omnia  humana  ducere,  judicare,  or  infra  se 
i9Sita;  and  '*  below **  or  ** under"  in  regard  to  measure  or  size :  uristmt 
HOgnitudine  patdo  infra  elephantos. 

Inter  denotes  also  duration  of  time,  like  our  **  during ;"  as,  inter  tot 
tnnos,  inter  coenam,  inter  epulas.  With  regard  to  its  ordinary  signification 
*  among,"  we  must  observe  that  inter  se  is  our  "  one  another ;"  e.  g.,  amant 
inter  stpueri,  obtrectant  inter  se,furtim  inter  se  aspiciebant,  where,  in  reality, 
another  pronoun  is  omitted. 

Intra,  "within,"  to  both  questions  Where?  and  Whither?  intra  hostium 
praesidia  esse  and  venire  ;  nuliam  intra  Oceanum  praedonum  navem  esse  audi 
tia  ;  majores  nostri  Antioehum  intra  montem  Taurum  re^are  jusserunt.  It  also 
denotes  time,  both  in  its  duration  and  a  period  which  has  not  come  to  its 
close,  e.  g.,  omnia  commemorabo  quae  intra  decern  dnnos  nefarie  facta  sunt,  du 
ring  the  last  ten  years ;  intra  nonrnn  diem  opera  absduta  sunt,  intra  decimum 
diem  urbem  cepit,  that  is,  before  nine  or  ten  days  had  elapsed. 

Juxta,  "beside,"  e.  g.,juxta  murum,Juxta  urbem,  sometimes  also  "  next  to" 
in  rank  and  estimation,  as  in  Livy :  fides  humana  colitur  apud  eos  juxta  di- 
trinas  reUgiones.  But  it  is  only  unclassical  authors  that  use  juxta  in  the 
sense  of  secundum,  or  according  to. 

Ob,*  "  cm  account  of,"  implies  a  reason  or  occasion,  e.  g.,  o6  egregiam 
mrtvtem  donatus  ;  ob  delictum ;  ob  eam  rem,  for  this  reason  ;  quam<Arem  or 
quamiobcausam,  for  which  reason ;  ob  hoe  ipsum,  for  this  very  reason.  In  the 
sense  of  ante,  its  use  is  more  limited,  as  in  o6  oculos  versari. 

Penes  rarely  occurs  as  a  preposition  of  place  in  the  sense  of  apud,  and 
is  more  commonly  used  as  denoting  in  the  possession  or  power  of;  e.  g., 
penes  regem  omnis  potestas  est ;  penes  me  arbitrium  est  hujus  rei. 

[^  301.]  Per,  denoting  i)lace,  signifies  "  through,"  and  occurs  very  fre- 
onentiy ;  but  it  also  signifies  "in"  in  the  sense  of  "  throughout ;"  e.  g., 
Vaesar  eonjurationis  socios  in  vinculis  habendos  per  municipia  censuit,  that  is, 
m  ail  the  municipia ;  per  domos  hosjntalUer  invttantur  ;  niditesfuga  per  prox- 
imas  eivitates  dissipati  sunt.  When  it  denotes  time,  it  signifies  during  :  per 
modem  eemuntur  sidera  ;  per  hosce  dies,  during  these  days ;  per  idem  tempus^ 
during  the  same  time ;  per  triennium,  per  secessionem  plebis,  dui;^ig  the  se- 
cession of  the  plebs. 

Per,  with  the  accusative  of  persons,  is  "  through,"  "by  the  instrumental- 
ky  of,"  e.  g.,  perte  salvits  sum.  Per,  in  many  cases,  expresses  the  manner 
m  which  a  thing  is  done ;  as,  per  Utteras,  by  letter ;  per  injuriam,  per  scelus 
et  latrodnium,  per  potestatem  auferre,  eripere,  with  injustice,  crimmally,  by 
authority ;  pet  ludum  ac  jocum  fortunis  onmibus  evertit,  by  play  and  joke  he 
drove  him  out  of  his  property ;  per  iram,  from  or  in  anger ;  per  simvlationem 

• 

*  [The  Latin  ob  and  the  Greek  kiti  appear  to  have  had  one  and  the  sarec 
origin,  and  are  both  connected  with  the  Sanscrit  abhi  and  api.  In  Ennius, 
#6  is  a  preposition  signifying  merely  motion  to  a  place ;  thus,  in  Festus, 
"  06  Romam  noctu  legiones  ducere  coepit,"  and  so,  also,  in  the  fragment  of  the 
Telamon,  quoted  by  Cicero  ( Tusc.  Disp.,  iii.,  18).  Compare  obeo,  "  to  go 
to,"  "  to  visit."    New  Cratylus,  p.  219.]— Am.  Ed. 


286  LA^N   6BAMMAX. 

amickiafi  me  prodiderunt ;  per  speciem  honoris  ot  cnueiiu  /r  ifikii,  &C.,  jmt 
<am,  under  the  pretext ;  ji&r  occa^ionem,  cm  the  occasioD ;  pfr  ridtcuhtmi  n 
a  ridjciilous  manner.    In  many  cases  a  simple  ablative  might  be  used  m- 
stead  of  per  with  the  accus.,  but  per  expresses,  in  reality,  only  an  accident 
al  mode  of  doing  .a  thing,  and  not  the  real  means  or  instrument 

Pert  in  the  sense  of  "on  account  of," occurs  only  in  a  few  phrases :  ptr 
aetatem,  on  account  of  his  age ;  per  vaietudinem,  on  account  of  illness ;  per 
me  licetf  it  is  allowed,  as  far  as  1  am  concerned.  In  supplication  or  swear- 
ing it  IS  the  English  "  by ;"  as,  furore  per  aUquidt  aliqtum  orare  per  «liqmi; 
and  so,  also,  in  exclamations :  per  deos  immortalu^  per  Joventy  &c. 

[^  302.]  Pone,  "behind,"  is  not  frequently  used  either  as  an  adverb  or  a 
preposition,  and  is  almost  obsolete.  Tacitus,  e.  g.,  says,  mamm  pone  ter^ 
gum  vinctaef  for  poet  tergym, 

Praeter.  From  the  meaning  "  beside,"  or  **  along"  (implying  motion  or 
passing  by),  as  in  Cicero :  Servi  praeter  ocuZm  LolU  pocula  ferebtmt,  there 
arises  the  signification  of  "  excepting ;"  e.  g.,  in  Livy :  In  hoc  legato  veetn 
nee  hominie  quidquam  est  praeter  Jigurtan  et  epeciemf  ne^ue  Homani  cwispratiet' 
habitum  eteonum  Latinae  linguae;  and  m  Cicero,  Amtcum  tUn  ex  eonendaribua 
neminem  esse  video  praeter  lAiCuUvmf  except,  or  besides  LlfcuUus.  It  also 
signifies  "besides^'when  something  is  added  to  what  has  been  already 
said,  and  it  is  then  fgllowed  by  etiam  ;  e.  g.,  praeter  auctoriteUem  ^iam  tfiree 
ad  coercendum  habet,  praeter  ingentem  populationem  agrorum — pugnahan  etiam 
egregie  est,  and  may  often  be  translated  by  "  independent  of,"  or  "  aot  to 
mention." 

Proe^also  indicates  a  distinction,  as  m  praeter  ceteroe,  praeter  elioe,  prae 
ter  omnes  exceUere  or  facere  aUquid. 

The  signification  of  "against,"  or  "contrary  to,"  is  connected  with  that 
of  beside ;  e.  g.,  praeter  consu^tudinemj  praeter  optntonem,.  esepectatiotum,  voUm' 
totem  alicujus  ;  praeter  modum,  immoderately ;  praeter  naturam,  coBtrary  to 
nature. 

Propter f  for  prope^  near,  is  not  uncommon,  e.  g.,  propter  SicUiam  ineulae 
Vidcaniae  sunt ;  duo  JUii  jpropter  patrem  cubantee,  &c.  It  has  already  be^A 
remarked  (^  264)  that  it  is  a  contraction  of  propiter. 

But  it  most  frequently  signifies  "  on  account  of,"  implying  the  moving 
cause,  as  in  ego  te  propter  humanitaiem  et  modestiam  tuam  diligo.    It  is  more 
rarely  used  in  the  sense  of  per  with  persons,  as  mj»ropter  te  liber  turn,  prep-    . 
ter  ouos  vimt^  through  whose  aid  he  lives. 

U  303.^  Secundum  is  derived  from  sequor^  secundvs,  and  therefore'  prop- 
erly signifies  "  next,"  "  in  the  s^uel,"  "  in  succession ;"  e.  g.,  eeamdum 
comitiaf  immediately  after  the  comitia;  livy,  Hannibal  secundum  tarn  pro^- 
peram  ad  Cannae  pugnam  victorie  magie  qturni  bellum  gerentie  euris  intentus  eraL 
Also  "  next  in  rank ;"  as  in  Cicero,  secundum  deum  homines  homnukue  maeh 
ime  utiles  esse  possunt ;  secundum  frairem  tibi  plurimum  tribuo  ;  secundum  te 
nihil  est  mihi  amicius  solitudine  ;  Livy  says  that  the  Roman  domini(m  was 
fiuxximum  secundum  deorum  opes  imperium.  The  signification  "  along"  is 
still  more  closely  connected  with  its  original  meaning,  as  in  secundum  mart 
iterfacere,  secundum  flumen  paucae  stationes  equitum  videbantur. 

In  a  figurative  sense  secundum  is  the  c^posite  of  contra :  consequently, 
1,  "in  accordance  with;"  as,  secundum  naturam  vivere,  secundum  arbitrium 
alicujus  facere  aUquid  ;  2,  "in  favour  of,"  as  in  secundum  praesentem  judica- 
vitf  secundum  te  decrevit,  secundum  causam  nostram  disputavit.  So,  also,  is 
the  .legal  expression  vindicias  secundum  libertatem  dare,  postuiaref  for  a  per- 
son's  fiberty. 

Supra  is  the  opposite  of  infra,  and  is  used  to  both  questioijs.  Where  ? 
and  whither  ?  In  English  it  is  "  above,"  implying  both  space  and  meas*  . 
ure,  e.  g.,  supra  vires ,  supra  consuetudinem^  supra  numerum  ;  and  with  nu 
merals,  supra  d-uos  menses,  seniores  supra  sexaginta  annos.  It  is  more  rarely 
used  in  the  sense  of  praeter,  beside  ;  in  Livy,  supra  belli  Latira  metum  m 
ipfjoque  accesserat ;  and  in  tha  of  ante,  before,  aF  in  Caesar,  jmumo  susrtiham 
memoriam  a  little  before  the  present  time. 


puftfosiTioiiB.  237 

Vertus  is  jouLfti  a .80  (though  rarely)  to  the prepositioni  ad  or  in:  ad 
OcBOHum  versus  projlciaci,  in  Italiam  versus  namgare. 

Ultra  not  unfrequently  occurs  as  denoting  measure ;  e.  g.,  ultjafeminam 
molUe,  ultra  fnfem  temerarius,  more  than  a  woman,  and  moie  then  a  brave 
man  usually  is. 

2.  Prepositions  with  the  Ablative, 

[^  304.]  Ab  (this  is  the  original  form,  in  Greek  hiro)^  from,  in  regard  tu 
both  place  and  time  {a  eujus  morte,  ab  iUo  tempors  tricesimus  annus  est),  and 
also  to  denote  a  living  being  as  the  author  or  an  action,  as  in  anuari,  diligi 
a6  aliquo,  discere  ab  aliquoj  and  with  2euter  verbs  which  have  the  meaning 
of  a  passive ;  e.  g.,  interire  ab  aHquo,  Which  is  the  same  as  ocddi  oA  aliquo. 
The  following  particulars,  however,  must  be  observed : 

(a)  With  regard  to  its  denoting  time,  we  say  a  prima  aetate^  ab  inetmte 
metate,  a  prima  tempore  or  primis  temporibus  aetvtis^  ab  initio  aetatis  and  a6  tn- 
fantia,  a  pueritiay  ab  adolescentia,  as  well  as  in  connexion  vdth  concrete 
nouns :  a  pueroj  a  pmeria,  ab  adoUsceahdo,  ab  infante^  all  of  which  ezpres- 
sions  sigmfy  **  from  zn  early  age.'*  The  expressions  a  parvisj  a  parmdo, 
a  tenerOf  a  teneris  tmguiadis.hre  less  common,  and  of  Oreek  origin.  A  puere 
is  used  in  speaking  of  one  person,  and  a  pueris  in  speaking  of  several ;  e. 
g.,  Diodorum  Stoicwn  apuero  audivif  or  Socrates  docuit  fieri  nutto  modo  posse, 
ul  a  pueris  tot  rerum  insitas  in  aninas  notUmes  haberemuSf  nisi  animus j  antequam 
corpus  intrassetf  m  rerum  cogmtione  viguisset. 

Ab  initio  and  a  principio^  a  prima  properly  denote  the  space  of  time  from 
the  beginning  down  to  a  certain  point.  Tacitus,  e.  g.,  says,  urbem  Romam 
•a  prntdpio  reges  habuere^  that  is,  for  a  certain  period  after  its  foundation. 
Frequently,  however,  this  idea  disappears,  and  ab  initiOf  &c.,  become  the 
tame  as  mitto,  in  the  beginning ;  e.  g.,  ConsuU  non  animus  ab  initio,  non  fides 
odeaBtremum  defrnt,  he  was  neither  wanting  in  (fourage  at  ii(st,  nor  in  faith 
fulness  at  the  last ;  ab  initio  hujus  defensionis  dixt,  at  the  beginning  of  my 
defence.   . 

^b)  When  ab  denotes  place,  it  frequently  expresses  the  side  on  which  a 
thmg  happens,  or,  rather,  whence  it  proceeds';  as,  afronu,  a  tergo,  ab  occasu 
et  ortu  (soUs)  ;  Alexander  a  fronts  et  a  tergo  hostem  habebat ;  Horatius  Codes  a 
tergo  ponieni  interseindi  jubebat ;  Caesar  a  dextro  comu  proeliutn  commisit. 
Hmice  a  reo  die^re,  to  speak  on  behalf  of  the  defendant,  and  with  the  verb 
stare  ;  as,  a  senatu  stare,  to  stsmd  on  the  side  of  the  senate,  or  to  be  of  the 
party  of  the  senate ;  a  bonorum  causa  stare,  to  be  on  the  side  of  the  patriots, 
or  without  the  verb  stare,  in  the  same  sense :  hoe  est  a  me,  this  is  for  me, 
in  my  favcrar,  supports  my  assertion ;  haecfacitis  a  nobis  contra  vosmet  ipsos, 
to  oar,  advantage,  or  facers  in  an  intransitive  sense :  hoc  nihilo  magis  cb  ad- 
versarOs,  quam  a  nobis Jacit,  this  is  no  less  advantageous  to  our  opponents 
than  to  ourselves.  So,  also,  the  adherents  or  followers  of  a  school  are 
called  a  Plaione,  ab  Aristotele,  a  Critolao,  although  in  these  cases  we  may 
supply  profeeti,  that  is,  persons  who  went  forth  from  such  a  school.  Some- 
timqs,  tnough  chiefly  in  the  comic  writers,  ab  is  used  instead  of  a  genitive 
andUa  ab  Andria,  fores  and  ostium  ah  alitjw)  concrepuU.   • 

[^  305.]  In  a  figurative  sense  it  signifies  **  with  regaid  to  ;*'  e.  g.,  Anto- 

nius  ab  equitatufirmus  esse  dicd>atmr  ;  imparati  sumus  quam  a  milUibus,  htm  a 

pecunia;  meeUocriter  a  doctrind  instructus ;  inops  ab  amicis ;  felix  ab  omm 

^  laude ;  Horace,  Nihil  est  ab  omni  parte  beatum.    In  the  sense  of  "  on  the 

'  aide  of,"  it  also  denotes  r^ationship ;  as  in  Augustus  a  matre  Magnum  Pon* 

peium  artissimocontingebat  gradu,  on  his  mother's  side. 

Ab  denotes  that  which  is  to  be  removed,  and  thus  answers  to  our 
'*from,"  or  "  against ;"  e.  g.,  forum  defenders  a  Clodio,  custodirs  templum  al 
Hannibale,  munirevasa  a  frigore  et  tempestatibus,  that  is,  contra  frigus.  So, 
also,  tutus  a  periculo,  secure  from  danger,  and  timere  a  suis,  to  be  afraid  of 
one's  own  friends. 

Stattm,  cmfestimf  recens  ab  aliqua  re, "  immediately  alcr/'  have  oilffinall) 
raference  t3  place,  but  pass  from  their  meaning  of  pltf  ;e  mto  thst  of  time 


238  LATIN   GKAMMAR. 

• 

e.  ^.«  Scipio  confestim  ap  oelia-^^  navea  rediitj  immcdit.  ely  aAerth«  battlt 
Scipio  returned  to  the  fleet ;  hostea  a  prospera  pttgna  castra  oppugnaveruni, 
lAv. ;  ab  itinerefacere  aHquid^  to  do  a  thing  while  on  a  journey. 

Ab,  further,  often  describes  a  circumstance  as  the  cause  of  a  thing,  and 
may  be  translated  by  "in  consequence  of,"  "from,"  or  "out  of;**  as  in 
LiYV,  dicebantttr  ab  eodem  animo  ingenioqiDej  a  quo  gesta  suntj  in  consequence 
of  the  same  sentiment ;  ab  eodem  fiduda  animif  ab  tra,  a  spe.  Legati  Car- 
thaginienses  aliquanto  minore  cum  miaerieordia  ab  reeenti  memoria  perfidiae 
auditi  eunti  in  consequence  of  the  yet  fresh  recollection ;  Curtius,  Alex- 
ander votes  qtioqtte  adhibere  coepit  a  mperstitione  ontmt,  from  superstitious 
prejudices. 

Abf  used  to  denote  an  official  function,  is  quite  a  peculiarity  of  the  Latin 
language  ;  e.  g.,  alicujus  or  alicui  ease  (scil.  servvm  or  Ubertum)  a  pedibus^  to 
be  a  person^s  lackey,  ab  epistoUs  (secretary),  a  rotionibua  (keeper  of  ac- 
counts), a  studii$t  a  voluptatibus. 

[^  306.]  Absque  is  found  only  in  the  comic  writers,  and  modem  Latinists 
should  not  introduce  such  antiquated  words  into  their  writings.  See 
Burmann  on  Cic,  de  Invent.f  i.,  36 ;  Ruhnken,  Diet  Terent.,  p.  228,  ed. 
Schopen.  There  is  only  one  -passage  in  Cicpro,  ad  Att.,  i.,  19,  tmllam  a 
me  epistolam  ad  te  sino  absque  argumento  perveniref  in  which  the  writer  seems 
to  have  intentionally  used  absquej  because  he  could  not  well  have  written 
the  proper  word  stn^,  on  account  of  the  proximity  of  sino. 

[^  307.]  Cum,  "with,"  not  only  expresses  "in  the  company  of  persons," 
as,  cum  aUquo  ease,  cum  aliquo  ire,  venirey  proJicisci,Jfacere  aliquid  (also  secum, 
that  is,  with  one's  self),  but  also  accompanying  circumstances ;  as,  Verres 
Jjdmpsacum  venit  cum  magna  calamitate  et  prope  pemicie  dvitaiis  ;  hostes  cum- 
detrimento  sunt  depulsif  and  numerous  other  instances ;  also  equivalent  to 
our  "  in,"  in  the  sense  of  "  dressed  in ;"  as  in  hoc  officina  Praetor  (Verres) 
majorem  partem  diei  cum  timicapulla  sedere  solebat  et  pallio.  When  combined 
with  verbs  denoting  hostility,  cwn,  like  our  "  with,"  has  the  meaning  of 
"  against ;"  cum  aliquo  bellum  gerere,  to  be  at  war  with  somebody ;  thus,  cum 
aliquo  queri,  to  complain  of  or  against  a  person; 

[^  308.]  De  is  most  commonly  *'*  concerning,"  "  about,"  or  "  on,"  as  ii 
multa  de  te  audivi,  Uber  de  contemnenda  morte,  scil.  scriptus ;  Regulus  de  cap- 
tivis  commutamUs  Romam  miaaua  eat.  Also  in  the  phrases  de  te  cogito,  \  think 
of  thee ;  actum  eat  de  me,  I  am  undone.  Consequently,  traditur  de  Homero 
is  something  very  dififerent  from  traditur  ab  Homero  ;  in  the  former  sen 
tence  Homer  is  the  object,  and  in  the  latter  the  subject.  In  the  episto- 
lary style,  when  a  new  subject  is  touched  upon,  de  is  used  in  the  sense 
of  quad  attinet  ad  aliquid  ;  as  in  Cicero,  de  fraire,  confido  ita  eaae,  ut  aemper 
volui  ;  de  me  outem,  suacipe  patdiaper  meaa  partea,  et  eum  te  eaae  finge,  qui  aum 
ego  ;  de  rationibua  referendia,  non  erat  incommodumy  &c.  But  very  frequently 
it  has  the  signification  of  "  down  from,**  or  "  from  a  higher  point  ;'*  as, 
deacendere  de  roatria,  de  coelo ;  Verrea  palam  de  aella  ac  tribunali  pronuntiat ; 
further,  it  denotes  the  origin  from  a  place ;  as,  homo  de  achola,  dedarnator  de 
ludoy  neacio  qui  de  circo  maximo,  Cic,  pro  Mdon.,  24 ;  or  "  of,*'  in  a  partitive 
sense ;  as,  homo  de  plebe,  unua  de'populo,  unua  de  multis,  one  of  the  many ; 
unus  de  septem,  one  of  the  seven  wise  men ;  C.  Gracchum  de  auperioribus 

faene  solum  lego;  versus  de  Phoenissis,  verses  from  the  tragedy  of  the 
^hoenissae ;  partem  de  istius  impudentia  reticebo^  and  m  the  phrases  de  meo, 
tuoy  s%u>,  &C.,  de  alienOf  de  publico. 

De  also  denotes  time,  which  arises  from  its  })artitive  sigi?ification. 
Cicero 'says,  Milo  in  comitium  de  fiocte  ventf,'that  is,  even  by  night,  or 
spending  a  part  of  the  night  in  coming  to  the  comitium ;  vigilare  de  nocte^ 
Alexanc^  de  die  inU)at  convtviOf  even  in  the  daytime  ;  hence  multa  de  noctv^ 
media  de  nocte,  that  is,  "  in  the  depth  of  night,*'  "  in  the  middle  of  the 
night,**  the  signification  of  the  point  of  beginning  being  lost  in  that  of  thtt 
time  in  general.  Foe,  si  me  amas,  ut  considerate  diligenterque  namgea  di 
mense  Decembri,  i  e.,  take  care,  as  you  are  sailing  in  (a  part  of)  th»  :jioQtk 
of  December. 


pR£ro5riioN9.  238 

In  other  cases, also,  de  is  not  nnfrequently  used  for  ab  or  ex;  thus,  Cice 
10  says,  audivi  hoc  de  parente  meo  puetf  and  with  a  somewhat  far-fetched  dis 
dnction  between  what  is  accidental  and  what  is  intentional ;  in  Verr.t  iiLj 
57,  N6n  hoc  nunc  primum  audit  prwahu  de  mimicOf  reus  ab  acctualore  ;  effu 
gere  de  mdnibus  ;  Dumyeme  nieneae  argenteas  de  omnibue  delubris  jussit  aufer 
ri ;  especially  in  ccmnezion  with  emere,  mercari,  conduure  de  aiiquo.  Glori 
mm,  vktoriam  parfrtf  parare,  de  aUqwo  or  ex  aUquo;  triumphvm  agere  de  GaUiSf  • 
AUobrogibus,  Aetolie,  or  ex  OalHs,  ^.,  are  used  indiscriminately. 

In  some  combinations  de  has  the  signification  of  **  in  accordance  with," 
or  "  after,"  like  secundum :  de  consilio  meo,  de  amicorum  sententia,  de  consilit 
sententia,  according  to  the  resolution  of  the  cpuncii ;  de  communi  sententia , 
de  mare.  In  Other  cases  de,  with  a  noun  following,  denotes  the  manner  or 
cause  of  an  action:  denuo,  de  integro,  afresh;  deimproviso,  unexpectedly; 
de  industria,  purposely ;  de  facie  novi  aliquem,  I  know  a  person  by  his  ap< 
pearance.  In  combination  with  res  and  causa :  qua  de  re,  qua  de  causa,  qui 
Ints  de  causis,  for  which  reasons. 

[^  90d.]  Ex*  (for  this  is  the  original  form ;  it  was  changed'into  e  wher 
consonants  followed,  whence  a  certain  custom  was  easily  formed),  "  from,' 
"  out  of,"  is  auite  common  to  denote  a  place,  as  an  answer  to  the  questioi 
whence  ?  and  in  some  peculiar  phrases,  such  as  ex  equo  pugnare;  ex  equi 
coUoqui,  to  converse  while  riding  on  horseback ;  ex  muro  passis  manibus  pa 
cem  peter  e  ;  ex  arbore  pendere  ;  ex  loco  superiors  dtcere;  ex  itinere  scribere  ;  con 
spicari  atiquid  ex  propinquo,  e  longinquo  videre  aliquid,  ex  transversa  impetum 
facere;  ex  adverso,  and  e  regions  (not  ex),  opposite ;  ex  omni  parte,  in  or  from 
all  parts.    Ex  aUquo  audire,  accipere,  cognoscere,  scire,  and  the  like,  to  hear 
from  a  person's  own  mouth ;  victoriam  reportare  ex  aliquo  populo,  where  ex  is 
the  same  as  de.    Ex  vino,  ex  aqua  coquere;  bibere,  where  we  say,  "  with 
wine,"  6ic.,  are  common  medical  expressions. 

Ex,  when  a  particle  of  time,  denotes  the  point  from  which ;  ex  illo  die, 
from  that  day ;  ex  hoc  tempore,  ex  quo  (not  e),  smce  ;  ex  consulatu,  ex  praetura, 
ex  dictatura,  afler  the  consulship,  &c. ;  diem  ex  die  expectare,  to  wait  one 
day  after  another,  or  day  after  day. 

Ex,  *'  from,"  denoting  cause ;  as  in  ea;  aUquo  or  a/ibua  re  dolere,  laborare  ex 
pedibus,  e  renUnts,  ex  oc^is,  ex  capite  ;  perire  ex  vulnerwus  ;  ex  quodam  rumor  e 
rws  te  hie  ad  meruem  Januarium  expectabamus  ;  ex  lassitudine  artius  dormire, 
after  a  fatigue,  or  on  account  of  tatigue ;  quum  e  via  languerem,  from  or  af- 
ter the  journey ;  ex  quo  vereor,  whence  I  fear,  and  still  more  frequently  ex 
quo,  whence,  or  for  which  reason.  Hence  it  has  also  the  signification  of 
**  in  consequence  of,"  or  "  in  accordance  with,"  and  that  in  a  great  many 
expressions ;  such  as  ex  lege,  ex  decreto,  ex  testamento,  ex  Senatusconsulto 
ex  Senatus  auctoritate,'ex  sententia  equivalent  to  de  sententia,  ex  consuetudine 
e  more. 

With  this  we  must  connect  the  cases  in  which  ex  denotes  the  mannet 
of  an  action  ;  as  in  ex  animo  laudare,  to  praise  heartily;  ex  sententia  and  ex 
voluntate,  according  to  one's  wish ;  e  natura  vivere,  in  accordance  with  na 
ture  ;  ex  improviso,  ex  in^inato,  excomposito,  ex  praeparato,  ex  aequo,  &c. 

Ex  denoting  a  change  of  a  previous  state :  e  servo  te  libertum  meumfeci , 
nihil  est  tarn  miserMe  quam  ex  beato  miser;  repente  Verres  ex  homine  tamquam 
epoto  pocuio  Circaeo  foetus  est  verres. 

In  a  partitive  sense,  ex  denotes  the  whole  from  which  something  is  ta- 
ken, and  is  of  frequent  occurrence :  thus,  vnus  e  plebe,  unus  e  multis,  is  the 
same  as  ynus  de  plebe  and  de  multis.  Connected  with  this  are  the  phrases 
aliquid  esters  mea,  something  is  to  my  advantage;  e  republica  (not  ej;),for 
the  good  of  the  state. 

,  ^  ■  —  ■ '      ■■■I 

•  [Various  conjectures  have  been  made  with  renpeci  to  the  origin  of 
this  little  word.  Pott  supposes  that  it  is  connected  with  the  Sanscrit 
vahis  (extra) ;  that  the  -his  is  represented  by  the  G:ieek  -f,  and  that  a  di^ 
gamma  has  fallen  out  in  the  Greek  word.  {Etymdl  Forsch.,  vol.  il,  p.  183.^ 
Hartung  looks  upon  the  Greek  Ik  as  a  subsidiary  form  of  oIk.  (ParHk 
ii.,  81.^1r-^m.  Ed. 


240  l.AT  N    GSRAMMAR. 

[^  310.  j  Prae,  *'  before,"  si^ifies  place  only  in  combii^tion  with  aga4 
ferre^  or  other  verbs  expressing  motion,  and  with  pronouns^  prae  me  fero^ 
yrae  »e  fertf  ptae  iK^it  mistis^  which  denote  the  open  display  of  a  thing  on 
of  a  sentiment. 

Prae  is  commonly  used  in  comparisons ;  as  in  Cicero,  prae  se  dmnea  cv?k« 
temnit :  vt  ipse  Cormd  in  hoe  caitua  prae  me  minus  etiam  qmm  prinatus  esse 
videatttTf  in  comparison  with  me  ;  Konutm  prae  sua  Capua  imdebunt ;  omni- 
um minas  cUque  omnia  pericula  prae  salute  sua  /ma  duaeerunt. 

It  is  frequently  used,  also,  m  the  sense  ol  *'  on  account  of,"  implying  an 
obstacle ;  e.  g.,  solem  prae  sagittarum  multitudine  non  meMntis ;  non  medius 
fidius  prae  lacrimis  possum  reUqua  nee  cogitarenec  scribere  ;  non  possum  prae 
fletu  et  dolore  diutius  in  hoc  loco  eommorariy  and  so  always  with  a  negative 
particle,  which,  however,  is  sometimes  implied  in  the  negative  significa- 
tion of  the  verb ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  vi.,  40,  quum  prae  indighitatererum  sti^tor  silen- 
tiumque  ceteros  patrum  defutisset ;  xzxviii.,  33,  siUrUium  prae  metu  uteronan 
fuit,  .  . 

[^  31 1.]  Prot  in  regard" to  place  "  before,**  or  *•  in  front  of  a  thing ;"  e.  g., 
pro  vallo,  pro  castris  aciem  instruere^  that  is,  in  the  frcMlt  of,  close  by,  or  un- 
der the  wall ;  copias  pro  oppido  cottocare  ;  pro  tempUs  onmibus  praesidia  collo' 
cata  sunt ;  hasta  posita  est  pro  aede  Jams  Statoris  ;  Antonius  sedens  pro  aede 
Castoris  in  foro.  It  also  signifies,  "  at  the  extreme  point  of  a  thing,"  so 
that  the  person  spoken  of  is  in  or  upon  the  thing,  e.  g.,pro  suggestu  aUquid 
pronuniiaref  pro  tribunali  edicere,  pro  rostris  laudare.  Hence,  also,  pro  testi- 
numio  dicere^  to  declare  as  a  witness,  and  other  expressions  denoting  place, 
where  pro  is  the  same  as  in ;  e.  g.,  Tacit.,  Ann.^  i.,  44,  stabant  pro  contione^ 
the  same  as  in  contione ;  ibid,  ii.,  81,  pro  muris  vocanst  on  the  edge  of  the 
wall. 

The  signification  of  something  standing  "before"  a  thing  is  the  origin 
of  that  of  •*  for,**  both  in  the  sense  of  "  instead,"  and  that  of  protection 
Unus  Cato  est  pro  centum  milibus  ;  Mdrcelli  statua  pro  patibuh  fuit ;  homo  jam 
pro  damnato  est ;  se  gerere  or  esse  pro  cive  ;  habere  pro  hostibns^  pro  socHs ;  ha- 
here  pro  certo  ;  aliquid  pro  merc^e,  pro  praemio  est ;  aiiquid  pro  nihUo  estimare, 
habere^  putare ;  also  "Tor**  in  speaking  of  payment,  pro  vectura  solvere,  to 
pay  for  freight ;  dixit  se  dimidiunif  quod  pactus  esset,  pro  illo  carmine  daturumj 
praemia  mihi  data  swit  pro  hoc  industria  maxima.  **  For,*'  the  opposite  ot 
"  against,*'  hoc  pro  me  est^  or  valere  debet;  Cicero  pro  Murena  orationem  htAuitf 
and  in  numerous  other  instances. 

[^  312.]  Pro,  "in  accordance  with,"  or  "m  proportion  to,"  occurs  very 
frequently ;  e.  g.,  civitatibus  pro  numero  militum  pecuniarum  summas  deseri 
here,  according  to  the  number  of  soldiers  furnished  by  them ;  egbvos  pre 
mea  summa  et  vobis  cognita  in  rempublicam  diligentia  moneo,  pro  auctoriteUe  con 
sulari  hortor,  pro  magnitudine  perictdi  obtestor,  ut  pad  constUatis.  Hence,  in 
many  particular  phrases ;  as,  pro  tempore  or  pro  temwnibus,  in  accordance 
with  the  circumstances  of  the  time,  that  is,  pro  conditions  temporum,  but  by 
no  means  "  for  the  time  being,"  or  "  for  a  time ;"  pro  re  or  pro  re  nata,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances  or  emergencies  -,  pro  meo  jure,  according  to  my 
right ;  pro  eo  ut,  pro  eo  ac,  according  as ;  e.  ^.,  Di  gratiam  mihi  referent  pro  eo 
ac  mereor,  i.  e.,  pro  eo  quod,  quantum,  accordmg  to  my  merits ;  especially  to 
denote  divisions  or  share  ;  pro  parte,  or  pro  mea,  tua,  sua,  parti  for  my  part, 
as  far  as  lies  in  me ;  pro  viriU  parte,  according  to  the  capacity  of  an  indi- , 
vidual ;  as  in,  pro  vinli  parte  rempuhlicaim  defendere ;  pro  portione,  in  propor- 
tion ;  pro  rata  portione,  or  pro  rata  parte,  in  a  correct  proportiop.  In  the 
phrase  pro  se  quisque,  every  one  for  his  part,  the  three  words  have  almost 
grown  mto  one ;  e.  g.,  pro  se  quisque  aurum,  argentum  tt  aes  m  piAUcum  emir 
ferunt,  every  one,  though  vrith  a  somewhat  strengthened  meaning,  "  every 
one  without  exception."  Quam  pro  after  comparatives  deserves  especial 
notice ;  e.  g.,  major  quam  pro  numero  hominum  pugfta  editur;  sedes  excelsier 
jmm  pro  Imbitu  corporis. 

[^  313.]  Tenus  18  used  to  denote  limitation ;  e.  g.,  Antiochus  Tauro  temts 
regnare  jussus  est,  rs  far  as  Mount  Taurus,  espfecially  in  \he  combinntida 


PRflPOSiTIONS.  1^1 

of  verbo  and  nomme  terms,  as  far  as  the  word  or  the  name  goes.  So,  also, 
ore  tfnus  sapieruia  exercitatus  in  Tacitus,  that  is,  that  he  could  speak  wisely, 
but  not  act  wisely.  It  is  only  in  poetry  that  this  preposition  is  connected 
with  a  i^enitive,  and  chiefly  with  a  genitive  plural ;  e.  g.^labrorum  tenusj  up 
to  the  hp ;  crurum  tenus,  laterum  tenus  ;  hut  in  Livy,  xxvi,  24,  too,  we  find 
Corcyrtu  tenus.    The  accusative  is  still  more  rare. 

3.  Prepositions  with  the  Accusative  and  Ablative. 

[^  314.]  In  with  the  accusative  expresses  the  point  in  space  towards 
w  hich  a  movement  is  directed,  like  our  *'  to,"  or  "  into :"  in  aedem  ire^  in 
ptMicum  prodirey  in  Graeciam  proficisci,  in  dvitatem  recipere  ;  also  the  direc- 
tion in  which  a  thing  extends,  e.  g.,  decern  pedes  in  lat\tudinem,  in  longi- 
tudirum,  in  altitudinem,  in  breadth,  length,  height ;  further,  independent  of 
locality,  it  denotes  the  object  towards  which  an  action  is  directed,  either 
with  a  friendly  or  hostile  intention :  amor  in  patriam,  odium,  in  malos  civeSf 
in  duces  vehemens,  in  milites  liberaliSf  dicere  in  ali<iuem,  and  so,  also,  oratio  in 
aliquenif  a  speech  against  some  one. 

it  also  denotes  an  object  or  purpose :  haec  commutari  ex  veris  in  falsa  non 
possunt ;  in  majus  celeLraref  for  something  greater,  so  that  it  becomes  some- 
thing greater.;  t^  imperator  inpoenam  exercitus.fxpetitus  esse  videtur  ;  pecunia 
data  est  in  refnndlitarem ;  paucos  in  spedem captivos  ducebant,  for  the  sake  of 
^ppe&rance;.  in  conttaneliamperfugae  appellabantuTf  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
gracing them ;  cum  in  earn  sententiam  rmUta  dixisset,  in  support  of  this 
opinion ;  in  haw  formtdamf  in  has  leges,  in  haec  verba,  &,c.,  scribere,  foedus 
facere, 

[^  315.]  When  joined  with  words  denoting  time,  it  expresses  a  prede 
ermination  of  that  time  like  the  English  *'  for ;"  e.  g.,  invitare  aliquem  in 
posterum  diemt  for  the  following  day  ;  praedicere  in  rnxdtos  annos,  in  paucos 
dies,  in  mtdtof  menses  subsidia  vitae  habere,  in  hodiemum  diem,  for  this  present 
day ;  and  so  in  many  phrases ;  as,  in  diem  vivere,  to  live  only  for  the  day ; 
m/uturum,  in  posterum,  in  reliquum,  for  the  future ;  in  aetemum,  in  perpetuum, 
for  ever  ;  in  praesens,  for  the  present ;  in  all  these  cases  the  woxdtempus 
rnay  be  added.  Without  denoting  time,  m  is  used  also  with  the  accusa- 
tive of  other,  words  to  express  the  future ;  e.  g.,  Patres  in  incertum  cpmi- 
tiorum  eventum  auctores Jiunt,  give  their  sanction  to  the  yet  uncertain  reso- 
lutions of  the  comitia. 

When  joined  with  the  numeral  singuli,  or  when  this  word  is  to  be  un 
derstood,  in  expresses  a  distribution,  like  the  English  *^  on,"  ''  for,"  or 
"  over ;"  e.  g.,  in  singulas  civitates  binos  censores  describere  ;  queritur  Sicilia 
tota,  Verrem  ab  aratoribus  profrumento  in  modios  singidos  duodenos  seslertios 
exegisse  ;  so,  also,  prelium  in  capita  staluere  ;  i.  e.,  in  singula  capita  ;  terms 
nummis  in  pedem  tecum  transegit,  i.  e.,  in  singtUos  pedes.  We  must  here  no- 
tice sdso  the  expression  in  singulos  dies,  or  in  c^ie«  alone,  *'  from  day  to  day," 
with  c(Hnparatives  and  verbs  containing  the  idea  of  a  comparative,  such  as 
crescere,  augere. 

It,  laistly,  denotes,  in  some  phrases,  the  manner  of  an  action ;  servilem, 
hostilem,  miserandum  in  modum  ;  mxrum,  mirabilem,  mirandum  in  modum  ;  in 
umverwum,  in  general ;  in  commune,  in  common ;  in  vicem,  alternately,  or  , 
mstead  of;  in  Bmti  locum  constdatum  peters,  in  the  place  or  instead  of. 

[^  316.]  In  with  the  ablative,  when  it  denotes  place,  most  commonly 
expresses  '*  being  in  a  place  or  in  a  thing,"  while  with  the  accusative  it 
moicates  a  movement  or  direction  towards  it.  It  may  sometimes  be 
translated  by  "on,"  or  "upon,"  but  always  answers  to  the  question 
Where  ?  e.  g.,  coronam  in  collo  habere;  aliquid  in  humeris  ferre ;  in  ripa  flu- 
minis  ;  in  litore  maris  urbs  condlta  est ;  pons  influmine  est.  When  a  number 
or  quantity  is  indicated  it  answers  to  "  among ;"  e.  g.,  esse,  haberi,  pom, 
mtmerari  in  borus  civibus  ;  in  magnis  viris,  in  mediocribus  orqtoribus,  in  septem 
vagantibus,  among  the  seven  planets,  so  that  in  is  equal'to  inter.  A  par- 
ticular phrase  is  aliquid  in  manibus  ^t,  a  thing  is  in  hand,  or  iTas  been 
commenced;  as  in  Livy,  haec  contentio  rrinime  idoneo  tempore,  quum  tataum 

\ 


242  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

belli  in  manJnis  essety  occuparat  cogitationes  hominum.  In  manibus  haheref  i 
be  engaged  upon  a  thing ;  as  in  Cicero,  Quam  spent  nunc  habecu  in  manib  ■ 
et  quid  moliatur,  breviter  jam  exponam.  Aliqvid  in  oculia  eat^  a  thing  is  tv 
vious. 

New  and  then  we  find,  in  good  authors,  in  with  the  accusative,  whecv 
the  grammatical  rule  requires  the  ablative.  See  the  commentators  on 
Livy,  ii.,  14 ;  but  this  is  limited  to  a  very  few  political  and  legal  expres- 
sions, such  as  in  potestatem^  in  amicitiam  dicionemque  este^  manere  (Cic, 
Divin.  in  Q.  Caecil.f  20 ;  in  Verr.f  v.,  38),  in  vadimonium,  in  moram  esse,  a:jd 
even  these  cases  must  be  considered  only  as  exceptions.  In  the  comic 
writers,  however,  we  not  unfrequently  find  ndhi  in  mentem  est.  See  Beat- 
ley  on  Terent,  HeaiU.t  v.,  2,  33. 

[^  317.]  The  general  signification  of  in  with  the  ablative  is  •*  in,'*  m 
**  with,"  and  without  reference  to  locality  it  denotes  a  coincidence  of  cer> 
feSin  circumstances  and  attributes ;  e.  g.,  m  hoe  homines  in  hoc  re,  hoc  ad- 
miroTf  hoc  lavdoy  hoc  displicet,  in  this  man ;  a  phrase  of  this  kind  is  quantum 
in  eo  or  in  me,  fe,  &,c.f  fuit,  as  much  as  was  in  my  power.  In  the  following 
sentences  it  is  our  "  with,**  or  "  notwithstanding :"  in  summa  copia  orato- 
rum,  nemo  tamen  Ciceronis  laudem  aequavit;  in  summis  tuts  occupatiombuSf 
with  all  thy  very  important  engagements ;  eUter,  uti  dixit  Isocrates  in 
Ephoro  et-  Theopompo,  frenis  egit,  alter  calcaribtis,  as  Isocrates  said  when 
speaking  of  Ephorus  and  Theopompus. 

[^  318.]  When  real  expressions  of  time,  such  as  saecuhtm,  annus,  mensis, 
dies,  nox,  vesper,  are  employed,  the  simple  ablative  denotes  the  time  at 
which  (see  ^  475) ;  but  in  is  used  with  substantives,  which  by  themselves 
do  not  denote  time,  but  acquire  that  meaning  by  being  connected  with 
in  ;  as,  in  considatu,  in  praetura,  in  meo  reditu,  in  prima  conspectu,  in  principio, 
in  bello,  although  in  these  cases,  too,  the  simple  ablative  is  sometimes  used  ; 
out  in  appears  more  especially  in  connexion  with  a  gerund ;  as,  in  legends 
and  in  tegendis  libris,  in  urbe  oppugnanda,  in  itinere  faciendo,  all  these  ex- 
pressions in  the  first  instance  denoting  time,  but  passing  into  kindred 
meanings.  In  praesenti  or  praesentia  signifies  "  at  the  present  moment,'* 
or  "  for  the  present.**  The  phrase,  est  in  eo,  ut  aliquidfiat,  signifies  som<» 
thing  is  on  the  point  of  happening.  • 

[^19.]  Sub,*  e.  g.,  Romani  subjugum  missi  sunt;  se  conjicere  sub  scalas, 
to  throw  one's  self  under  the  stairs ;  alicui  scamnum  sub  pedem  dare,  and 
figuratively,  sub  imperium  tuum  redeo,  and  so,  lUso,  (Uiquid  caait  sub  aspectum, 
"  a  thing  falls  within  the  horizon,''  as  well  as  cadit  sub  judicium  et  delectum 
tapientis,  sub  inteUigentiam,  it  belongs  to  the  philosopher,  is  left  to  him. 
When  it  denotes  time,  it  signifies,  1,  "about,**  that  is,  shortly  before ;  as, 
stib  ortum  solis,  shortly  before  sunrise ;  sub  noetem,  sub  vesperam ;  2,  more 
rarely,  "  immediately  afte^  ;'*  e.  g.,  sub  eas  litteras  statim  redtatae  sunt  tuae, 
Cic,  ad  Fam.,  x.,  16 ;  statim  sub  mentionem,  Coelius  in  Cic,  ad  Fam.,  viii., 
4  ;  Africo  hello,  quofi  fuit  sub  recentem  Romarfam  pacem,  Liv.,  xxi.,  11 ;  and 
«ti6  haec  dicta,  sub  hanc  vocem,  are  used  by  the  same  writer.  The  phrase 
nd)  idem  tempus  contains  only  an  approximate  definition  of  time,  and  signi 
fies  "  about  the  same  time." 

Sub,  with  the  ablative,  is  always  **  under  ;'*  firat,  with  regard  to  things 
ihat  strike  our  senses ;  and,  secondly,  to  denote  inferiority  in  rank :  suh 
divo,  or  sub  did,  under  the  sky, in  the  open  air;  suboculis,  under, Le., before 
our  eyes ;  «u6  regibus  esse,  sub  imperio,  sub  hoc  scuramento  miUtari,  sub  magis' 
tro  esse :  it  rarely  denotes  a  condition,  and  only  in  late  writers ;  e.  g.,suk 
lege,  std>  poena.  Sub  specie,  '<  under  the  appearance,"  and  sub  obtentu,  **  un- 
der the  pretext,"  are  little  used.  Sometimes  sub  is  found  with  the  abin 
tive  to  denote  time,  but  only  where  contemporaneity  is  to  be  indicated 
e.  g.,  Ovid.,  Fast.,  v.,  491,  Haec  tria  sunt  sub  eodem  tempore  festa ;  Caes., 
BeU.  Cit.,  i.,  27, .ne  sub  ipsa  profectione  milites  oppidum  irrumperent ;  and  Hi 

*  [iS  446  %nd  i)-'!T6  are  manifestly  celated  to  each  other,  and  to  the  Sao 
■crit  «  par     So  again,  su-per,  if-irep^  and  w-pari.] — Am.  JEd, 


ctd 


PREPOSITIONS.  248 

Uke  maimer  we  may  say  sub  adventuy  e.  g.,  Roma  lorum,  wbii9  they  were 
arriving.  Compare  Drakenborch  on  Lif.,  ii.,  55 ;  who,  however,  gives  tn 
thib  tub  too  great  an  extent. 

[^  320.]  Super  has,  in  prose,  the  ablative  only  when  used  in  the  sense 
of  de,  *.*  concerning,"  or  "  inr  respect  of ;"  as  in  supOr  aliqua  re  ad  aliquem 
scrihere^  but  chiefly  in  writers  of  the  silver  age  of  the  language. 

With  the  accusative  it  signifies  "  over,"  "  above,"  and  answers  to  both 
questions  Whither  ?  and  Where  ?  super  aliquem  sedere,  accumbere^  eittu  est 
Aeneas  super  Numidwrn  flumerif  Aeneas  was  buried  above  the  river ;  that  is, 
on  its  banks,  but  on  an  eminence  of  the  bank.  The  phrase  super  coenam 
signifies  *'. during  dinner."  With  numerals  it  is  "above,"  or  ^*more  tluin ;" 
e.  g.,  Annulorum  tantus  acervuxfuUf  ut  metientibus  dimidium  super  tree  modios 
explesse  sint  quidcSfn,  auctoreSf  one  half  more  than  three  modii,  cr  three  roodii 
and  a  half;  and  in  other  expressions;  as,  res  super  votafimmi,  more  than 
was  wished.  In  these  two  significations  of  "  above"  (in  its  sense  of  place 
as  well  as  that  of  "  more  than"),  super  is  the  same  as  supra ;  but  it  is  used 
more  frequently  than  the  latter  in  the  sense  of  *'  besides,"  or  **  in  addition 
to:"  super  beUum  annona premit ;  super  morbum  etiam* fames  affecit  eaercitum^ 
super  cetera  ;  80,  also,  in  the  phrase  alius  super  aliumf  one  after  the  other. 

Subter  is  rarely  used  with  the  ablative,  and  only  in  poetry ;  Cicero  uses 
the  accusative  in  the  expressicm  Plato  iram  in  pectore,  cupiditatem  svbter 
praecordia  locavit.  Otherwise  it  frequently  occurs  .as  an  adverb,  in  the 
«ense  of  our  "  below." 

§  321.]  2.  The  adverbs  clanij*  palam,  simul,  and  pro- 
are  sometimes  connected  by  poets  and  late  prose 
writers  with  an  ablative,  and  must  then  be  regarded  as 
prepositions :  clam  and  its  diminutive  clanculum^  "  with 
out  a  person's  knowledge ;"  e.  g.,  clam  uxore  mea  etjilioj 
are  frequently  found  as  prepositions  in  the  comic  writera, 
but  are  joined  also  with  the  accusative :  palam  is  the  op- 
posite of  clam,  and  the  same  as  coram  ;  e.  g.,  palam  pop- 
uloj  in  the  presence  of  the  people;  simul  is  used  by 
poets,  without  the  preposition  cum,  in  the  seilse  of  "with;" 
e.  g.,  Sil.  Ital.,  v.,  418,  avulsa  estprotimis  Jwsti  ore  simul 
cervix^  the  neck  together  with  the  face:  Horace  uses 
simul  his  J  together  with  these,  and  Tacitus  frequently ; 
e.  g.,  Annal.,  iii.,  64,  Septemviris  simul ;  proady  with  the 
omission  of  ah^  is  frequent  in  Livy  and  Tacitus,  and  sig- 
nifies, "  far  from ;"  e.  g.,  procui  urhe,  mari,  voluptatihus, 
and  in  the  phrase  procui  duhio  or  duhio  procui^  instead  of 
sine  dubio. 

[§  322.]  Respecting  usqtie  as  an  adverb,  see  abovej  § 
286.     It  is  commonly  accompanied  by  a  preposition  ab 

*  [*'  Clam  and  palam  are  locatives  of  the  same  natur^as  partim,  Tlie 
former,  which  was  also  written  calim  {Fest.,  p.  47),  contains  the  root,  of 
cehf  KXeiTTQ,  ica^i^Trrcj,  &c.  Palam  is  the  same  case  of  an  adjective,  con* 
nected  with  palatum^  irHTin,  &c.  That  it  is  a  noun,  appears  farther  from 
the  fact,  that  it  is  used  also  with  the  preposition  in  (in  palam^  i.  e.,  aperte 
Gloss.  Isid.)t  like  in-cassum.  {Compare pro-palam.)  The  same  is  the  case 
with  coram  =  co'oram  (kut'  bfifia)-,  with  which  we  may  compare  co'mivuM 
t^minus  {kK  X^f'P^)- — {DonaldsorCs  Varronianus,  p.  2i3).}^Am.  Ed, 


244  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

and  eXf  or  ad,  in  and  sub,  and  expresseis  the  idea  of  con 
tinuity  from  one  point  to  another ;  e.  g.,  vctus  opinio  est, 
usque  ah  heroicis  ducta  temporibus  ;  usque  ex  ultima  Syria 
atque  Aegypto  navigare;  similis  plausus  me  usque  ad  Capl- 
tolium  celebravit ;  usque  in  Pampkyliam  legatos  mittere  ; 
usque  sub  cxtremum  brumae  imbrem^  where  u^que  is  our 
•*  until."  It  is  only  in  poetry  and  late  prose  writers,  that 
usque  alone  is  used  for  usque  ad ;  e  g.,  Curtius,  viii.,  31, 
says  of  the  Indians,  corpora  usqUe  pedes  carbaso  velant. 
This  is  independent  of  the  names  of  towns,  where  the 
prepositions  ad  and  ah  are  generally  omitted. 

[§  323.]  3.  But  many  of  the  above-memicmed  prepo 
sitions  ai'e  used  as  adverbs,  that  is,  without  a  noim  de 
pending  on  them.     This  is  chiefly  the  case  with  those 
which  denote  place :  ante  and  post^  adverstmi  and  eooad 
versum  (opposite),  circa  (around),  circumcirca  (all  around), 
contra  (opposite),  coram  (in  the  presence  of),  extra,  infra^ 
iuxta^prope  snd  propter  {rieB,T),pone  (behind),  supra,  ultra, 
super  and  suhter,    Circiter,  also,  and  sometimes  ad  (§  296), 
are  used  in  the  adverbial  sense  of  "  about,"  or  "  nearly," 
with  numbers,  which  are  indefinitely  stated.    Contra,  when 
used  without  a  case  and  for  the  purpose  of  connecting 
sentences,  is  a  conjunction,  like  our  "but,"  or  "however. 

Note. — Instead  of  ante  and  post  as  adverbs,  we  have,  also,  the  special 
forms  anted,  and  posted  (consequently  the  conjunctions  antedquam!,  posted- 
qiiam) :  see  ^  276.  Ante,  however,  is  preferred  as  an  adverb  in  eombmatioD 
with  participles ;  e.  g.,  ante  dictaf  vita  ante  acta ;  and.  post  is  frequently  used 
to  connect  sentences. 

Contra,  as  an  adverb,  occurs  in  the  phrase  of  Plautus,  auro  contra,  or 
contra  auro;  that  is,  gold  being  placed  on  the  other  side;  so  that  ovro is no*^ 

dative,  but  an  ablative ;  for  which  other  authors,  however,  use  the  prep 
ssition  contra  aurum,  for  gold,  when  a  price  is  indicated. 

Juxta,  as  an  adverb,  commonljr  signiiSes  "  equaHy,"  or  "in  like  manner, 
and  is  the  same  as  aequt ;  e.  g.,  in  Livy,  aliaque  castella  (dedita  sunt)  juxta 
ignobUia  ;  8allust,  eorum  ego  vitam  mortemque  juxta  aestimo,  I  deem  oi  equal 
importance ;  margaritae  afeminis  juxta  virisque  gestantur,  by  women  as  well 
as  hy  men.    It  is  frequently  followed  by  ac  or  atque,  in  the  sense  of  <*  as.'* 

Praeter  is  used  as  an  adverb  for  praeterquam ;  tnat  is,  not  with  the  accu- 
sative, but  with  the  case  required  by  the  verb  preceding,  as  in  Sallust : 
ceterae  muUitudim  diem  statuit,  ante  quam  situ  Jraude  (without  punishment) 
liceret  ab  armis  discedere,  praeter  rerum  capitaluan  condenmatis.  We  thift 
might  say,  hoc  nemini,  praeter  tibi,  videtur  ;  out  it  is  better  to  say  praeter  te, 
or  praeterquam  {nisi)  tibi. 

Prope  and  propter  are  very  frequently  used  as  adverbs ;  propcy  however, 
is  sometimes  accompanied  by  the  preposition  ao,  as  in  tarn  prope  a  Sicilia 
helium  gestum  est,  sO  near  Sicily ;  prope  a  meis  aedibus  aedebas,  near  my  house. 

Ultra,  as  an  adverb,  and  accompanied  by  a  negative  particle,  signifies 
*'  no  longer,"  hand  ultra  pati  possum ;  bellum  Latinum  non  ultra  dUatum  est 
When  it  denotes  place  or  measure  it  signifies  "  farther,"  or  "  beyond." 

f§  324.]    4     It  was  remarked  above  that  the  prepe 


PBEPOSITIONS.  34d 

■itions  versus  and  temis  are  placed  afier  theii  case.   Some 
other  prepositions,  also,  may  take  the  same  place,  but  not 
indiscriminately.    Thus,  the  four  prepositions  ante^  contra, 
inter,  and  j^opter  are  sometimes  placed  after  the  relative 
pronoun  (occasionally  after  the  demonstrative  hie  also); 
e.  g.,  diem  statmmt^  qnam  amte  ab  armis  discederely  qtiem 
contra  venii,  quos  inter,  quern  propter :  other  prepositions 
of  two  or  more  syllables;  BS^drca^circum, penes,  tdtra,  and 
adeersus,  are  more*  rarely  used  in  this  way ;  the  monosyl- 
labic prepositions  ^»^,  ^er,  ad,  and  de  are  thus  used  only 
in  isolated  cases  or  phrases,  and  de  scsuxjely  in  any  othei 
than  legal  formulae ;  e.  g.,  quo  de  agitur,  res  qua  dejudi- 
catum  est.     Farther,  those  same  four  dissyllabic  prepo- 
sitions, ante,  contra,  ifUer,  and  propter,  together  with  the 
motiosyllabic  oh,  post,  de,  ex  and  in,  when  they  govern  a 
Bubstantiye  accompanied  by  an  adjective  or  pronoun,  are  . 
frequently  placed  between  the  adjective  and  substantive ; 
e.  g.,  medios  inter  hastes,  certis  de  causis,  magna  ex  parte, 
aliquot  post  menses,  and  still  more  frequently  between  the 
relative  pronoun  and  the  substantive ;  e.  g.,  quod  propter 
studium,  qua  in  re,  quam  oh  rem,  quam  oh  causam.     Per, 
ah,  and  ad  are  but  rarely  placed  in  this  way.     The  prep- 
osition cum  is  always  placed  after,  or,  rather,  appended 
to  the  ablative  of  the  personal  pronouns  me,  te,  se,  nohis 
and  vobis.     The  same  is  commonly  the  case  with  the  ab- 
latives of  the  relative  pronoun,  quo,  qua,  and  quihus,  but 
we  may-  also  say  cum  qtto,  cum   qua,  and  cum  quihus. 
This  preposition  also  prefers  the  middle  place  between  the 
adjective  or  pronoun  and  the  substantive.     (See  §  472.) 
What  has  been  said  here  applies  to  ordinary  prose ;  and 
the  practice  of  those  prose  writers  who  place  the  above- 
mentioned  prepositions  and  others  even  after  substantives 
must  be  regarded  as  a  peculiarity.     In  Tacitus,  for  ex- 
ample, we  often  find  such  arrangements   as,  Misenum 
apud,  viam  propter,  Scythas  inter,  Kuphratem  ultra,  cu- 
hicidum  Caesaris  juxta,  litora  Calahriae  contra,  ripam  ad 
Araxis,  verhera  inter  ac  coniumelias,  and  the  like.     The 
place  of  coram  after  its  noun  seems,  comparatively  speak- 
ing, to  be  established  by  better  authority  than  that  of  any 
other.     Poets  go  still  farther,  and  separate  a  preposition 
entirely  from  the  case  belonging  to  it ;   b.  g.,  in  Horace, 
Serm,,  i ,  3,  70,  Amicus  dulcis  cum  mea  compenset  vitiit 
bona. 

X2 


M6  LATIN   GRAMMAK. 


CHAPTER  LXVL 

PREPOSITIONS  IN  COMPOSITION. 

[§  325.]  The  majority  of  the  prepositions  txe  used  also 
to  form  compound  words,  especially  verbs,  modifying, 
naturally,  by  their  own  meaning  that  of  the  words  to 
which  they  are  joined.  The  prepositions  themselves 
often  undergo  a  change  in  their  pronunciation  and  or- 
thography, on  account  of  the  initisd  letter  of  the  verb  to 
which  they  are  prefixed.  But  the  opinions  of  ancient  as 
well  as  modem  grammarians  differ  on  no  point  so  much 
as  upon  the  detail  of  these  changes,  some  taking  into  ac- 
count the  facility  of  pronunciation,  and  assimilating  the 
concurrent  letters  of  the  prepositions  and  the  simple  verb 
accordingly,  others  preferring  to  leave  the  prepositions 
unchanged,  at  least  in  writing,  because  the  former  method 
admits  of  much  that  is  arbitrary.  Even  in  old  MSS.  and 
in  the  inscribed  monuments  of  antiquity  the  greatest  in- 
consistency prevails,  and  we  find,  e.  g.,  existere  along  with 
exsistere^  collega  along  with  conlega^  and  imperium  along 
with  inperium,  in  the  same  book.  In  the  following  re- 
marks, therefore,  as  we  must  have  something  certain  and 
lasting,  we  can  decide  only  according  to  prevalent  usage, 
but  there  are  some  points  which  we  must  determine  foi 
ourselves  as  well  as  we  can. 

Ad  remains  unchanged  before  vowels,  and  before  the 
consonants  d^j,  v,  m;  before  other  consonants  it  under- 
goes an  assimilation,  that  is,  the  d  is  changed  into  the  let- 
ter which  follows  it,  and  before  qu  into  the  kindred  c,  as 
in  acquirOy  acquiesco.  Before  gn  the  d  is  dropped,  as  in 
agnatus^  agnosco.  But  grammarians  are  not  agreed  as  to 
whether  the  d  is  to  be  retained  before  Z,  n,  r,  *,  and  still 
less  as  to  whether  it  may  stand  before yi  Even  the  most 
ancient  MSS.  are  not  consistent,  and  we  find  in  them,  e.  g., 
adloquor^  adfecto,  adspiro,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  allicio, 
affligOy  assuetus^  aspecttis^  ascendo.  Our  own  opinion  is  in 
favour  oi'  the  assimilation,  and  we  make  an  exception  only 
in  t)ie  case  of  adscrihoy  on  account  of  the  agreement  of 
the  MSS.  on  this  point.  The  signification  of  ad  remains 
the  same  as  usual,  as  in  adjungOy  assumo,  afero,  appono, 
alloquor.     In  approbo  and  affirmo  it  either'  expresses  a  di 


PEBP0SITI0N8.  247 

rection  towards,  or  merely  strengthens  tlie  meaning  of  the 
simple  verb. 

Ante  remains  unchanged ;  in  antidpare  and  antistare 
alone  the  e  is  changed  into  «\  though  antesto  also  is  ap- 
proved o£  Its  meaning  is  '*  before,"  as  in  antepbno,  an- 
teftro^ 

Circum  remains  unchanged,  and  retains,  in  writing,  its 
m  even  before  vowels,  although  in  pronunciation  (but 
without  the  elision  of  the  vowel  preceding)  it  was  lost 
Only  in  circumeo  and  its  derivatives  the  m  is  often  drop- 
ped ;  as,  drcueo.  Its  meaning  is  '*  aroimd,"  "  about,"  as  in 
circumago,  drcumdo,  circumfero. 

Inter  remains  unchanged,  except  in  the  word  intelligo. 
Its  meaning  is  ''  between"  or  "  among,"  as  in  interpono. 

Ob  remains  generally  unchanged,  and  undergoes  the 
assimilation  only  before  c,J\  g,  andp.  In  obsolesco,  firom 
the  simple  verb  oleo,  and  in  ostendo^  &om  tendo,  we  must 
recognise  an  ancient  form  ohs^  like  abs  for  ab.  f  ts  mean- 
ing of  "  against"  oi  "  before!'  appears  in  oppimoy  offero^ 
occurrOf  oggannio, 

[§  326.]  Per  remains  imchanged  even  before  Z,  though 
some  think  otherwise ;  in  pellicioy  however,  it  is  universal 
ly  assimilated.  The  r  is  dropped  only  in  the  word  pejero, 
I  commit  a  perjurium.  Its  meaning  is  **  through,"  as  in 
perlegOf  perluceo^  P^ogq,.  When  added  to  ac^ectives  it 
strengthens  their  meaning  (§  107),  but  in  perfidus  and 
perjurus  it  has  the  power  of  a  negative  particle. 

Post  remains  unchanged,  except  in  pomoerium  and  po- 
meridianusy  in  which  st  is  dropped ;  its  meaning  is  "after," 
as  in  postpono, 

Praeter  remains  unchanged,  and  signifies  "passing by," 
as  ill  praetereo,  praetermitto. 

Trans  remains  unchanged  before  Vowels,  and  for. the 
most  part  also  before  consonants.  In  the  following  words 
the  ns  is  dropped :  trado,  traduco^  trajido^  trano,  which 
forms  are  more  frequent  than  transdo,  transduce,  transjido, 
transno,  though  the  latter  are  not  to  be  rejected.  When . 
the  verb  berais  with  s,  the  *  at  the  end  of  trans  is  better 
omitted,  and  wp  should  write  traTtscribo,  transUio,  Its 
meaning,  "through,"  "over^"  or  "across,"  appears  in 
transeOy  trajido^  and  transmittOy  I  cross  (a  river) ;  trado^ 
surrender. 

r§  31 7,]  A^  abf  abs,  viz. :  a  before  m  and  v  ;  ah  before 


345  LATIN  ORAMMAU. 

vowels  and  most  consonants,  even  before  ^,  though  afitk 
exists  along  with  abfui  ;  in  anfero  (to  distinguish  it  fronj 
affero)  and  aujugio^  ah  is  changed  into  av  or  au ;  abs  oc- 
curs only  before  c  and  t^  but  appears  mutilated  in  asporto 
and  aspemor.  Its  meaning  is  "  fh>m,"  or  "  away,"  as  id 
amittOy  avehoTt  abeOy  dbjicio^  ahrado^  attfero,  ahscando^  abs^ 
tineo. 

De^  "  down,"  or  "  away  from,"  as  in  dejicio,  descendo^  de- 
trahoj  deterOf  rub  off;  despicio^  look  down  upon,  despise. 
In  some  compounds,  especially  adjectives,  it  has  a  nega- 
tive power,  as  in  decolor^  dmrrnis^  demensy  desvpio^  dC' 
spero  ;  in  demiror,  deamo^  and  dejero^  on  the  other  hand,  it 
seems  to  strengthen  the  meaning. 

E  and  ex,  viz. :  ex  before  vowels,  and  before  consonants 
sometimes  e  and  sometimes  ex:  ex  before  c, p^  q,  s,  t,  ex 
cept  in  escendo  and  epoto  ;  before  y*  it  assimilates  to  it ;  « 
is  used  before  all  the  other  consonants,  except  in  exlex. 
We,  therefore,  should  vmte  exspecto^  exsiliwny  exstinguo, 
Dut  the  ancient  grammarians,  as  Quintilian  and  Priscian, 
are  for  throwing  out  the  s,  and  in  MSS.  we  usually  find 
extingiw,  extrttxi^  exeqtior,  and  expecto^  extd,  exUinm,  not- 
withstanding the  ambiguity  which  sometimes  may  arise. 
Its  meaning  "out  of,"  or  "from,"  appears  in  ejiciOf  emineo, 
enStOy  eripio,  efftro  (extuti)^  exceUo^  expono^  exqwiro^  ex- 
trahoy  exatidioy  exigOj  exulcero,  &c.  The  idea  of  coHiple- 
tion  is  implied  in  several  of  these  compounds,  as  in  effidoy 
enarrOy  exoro. 

[§  328.]  In  is  changed  into  im  before  b  and  p  and  an- 
other rriy  and  it  is  assimilated  to  I  and  r.     Its  meaning  is 
"in"  or  "into,"  as  in  incurro,  impono,  iUidoy  irrumpo* 
When  prefixed  to  adjectives  and  participles,  which  have 
the  signification  of  adjectives,  it  has  a  negative  power, 
and  does  not  appear  to  be  the  preposition  in^  but  equiva 
lent  to  and  identical  wich  our  in  or  un;  e.  g.,  indoctus,  in 
cantuSf  inepttis  (from  aptusj,  inMpiens^  improvidus^  imprih 
dens  J  imparattiSy  the  negative  ofparaius^  because  there  is 
no  verb  imparo.    Some  other  compounds  of  this  kind  havo 
a  double  meaning,  since  they  may  be  either  negative  ad 
jectives,  or  participles  of  a  compound  verb;  e.  g.,  indictus, 
unsaid,  or  announced;  tw/z-oc^iw,  unbroken, or  broken  into; 
invocaiiiSj  uninvited,  or  accosted,  called  in.     The  partici- 
ple perf.  passive,  when  compounded  with  in,  often  ac 
quires  the  signification  of  impossibility ;  e.  g.,  invdctua,  un 


PEEPOSITIONS.  i49 

conquered  and  unconquerable ;  ind^esstis,  indefatigable  ,* 
tnfinitris,  immeasurable. 

Prae  remains  unchanged,  but  is  shortened  when  a  vow- 
el follows.  (See  above,  §  15.)  Its  meaning  is  "before/* 
as  in  jrraefero,  praecijpio,  j?raeripio.  When  prefixed  to  ad- 
jectives, it  strengthens  their  meaning,     (See  §  107.) 

Pro  remains  unchanged,  but  in  many  words  it  is  short- 
ened even  before  consonants.  (See  above,  §  22.)  Foi 
the  purpose  of  avoiding  hiatus,  a  e?  is  inserted  in  prodeo, 
prodigOy  and  in  those  forms  of  the  verb  prosum  in  which 
the  initial  e  would  cause  hiatus  ;  as,  prodes,  prodest^  pro- 
deram.  (See  above,  §  156.]  Its  meaning,  **  forth,"  or 
**  forward,"  appears  in  proferoy  procurrOy  prodeo,  prqjicioy 
prospicio. 

[§329;]  Suh  remains  unchanged  before  vowels  (but 
sumo  seems  to  be  formed  from  subimoy  as  demo  BXid.proma 
are  formed  from  the  same  root),  but  undergoes  assimila 
tion  before  Cyfy  gy  m^  p;  not  always  before  /•,  for  we  have 
iurripioy  and  yet  svhridcOy  where,  however,  the  difference 
in  meaning  is  to  be  taken  into  account.  In  suscipio,  sus- 
citOy  suspendo,  sustineoy  and  the  perfect  s-ustuliy  an  ^  is  in- 
serted instead  of  the  by  whence  an  ancient  form  subs  is 
supposed  to  have  existed  analogous  to  abs  and  obs.  The 
b  IS  dropped  before  sp^  but  before  sc  and  st  it  is  retained. 
Its  meaning  is  "under,"  as  m  summittOy  suppono,  susttneo; 
or  "from  under,"  as  in  subdtcco,  summoveoy  surripio ;  an 
approach  from  belpw  is  expressed  in  subeo,  sticcedo,  sus- 
pido,  look  up  to,  esteem ;  and  to  do  a  thing  instead  of 
another  person,  in  subsortiov.  It  weakens  the  meaning  in 
such  verbs  as  mbndeoy  subvereory  and  in  adjectives,  such 
as  subabsurdtiSf  subtristis,  subrttsticusy  stibobscurus. 

Supevy  "  above,"  as  in  superimponOy  superstOy  supersedeoy 
set  myself  above,  or  omit. 

Suiter y  "from  under,"  as  in  subterfugio. 

Corny  for  cum,  appears  in  this  fomi  only  before  by  py  m  ; 
before  l,  «,  r,  the  nnal  m  is  assimilated  to  these  letters, 
and  before  all  other  consonants  it  is  changed  into  n.  Be- 
fore vowels  the  m  is  dropped,  e.  g.,  co'eo,  cohaereoy  and  in 
addition  to  this  a  contraction  takes  place  in  cogo  and  ^ogi- 
to  (from  coagOy  coagito.)  The  m  is  retained  only  in  a  few 
words ;  as,  comeSy  cotnitiumy  coniitoTy  comedo.  It  signifies 
"with,"  or  "together,"  as  in  conjungo,  conserOy  compono^ 
eollidoy  colli  go  ^  corradoy  co'eo^  coalesce  cohaerco.     fn  some 


it60  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

▼erbs  and  participles  it  merely  strengthens  the  meanbig^ « 
as,  corrum])o^  concei'po,  confriTtgo^  conscelerattts^ 

[^  390.]  Note. — ^We  must  not  leave  unnoticed  here  what  ar^  called  tbtf 
insioparable  prepositions  (among  which  eon  is  reckoned,  although  it  is  only 
a  difierent  pronunciation  for  cum) ;  that  is,  some  little  words,  which  are 
never  used  oy  themselves,  but  occur  only  in  compound  verbs  and  adjec 
lives,  where  they  modify  the  meaning  in  the  same  way  as  the  above-men 
ioned  separable  prepositions.    The  following  is  a  list  of  them : 

Amh  (from  the  Greek Itfi^C),  "around,"  ** about,'*  as  in  ambw^  ambUro  {am 
bu8tua\  ambirOf  ambiguut.    In  ampleotoTf  ampiUo,  the  b  is  dropped  on  account 
of  the  p  ,*  before  palatals  amb  is  changed  into  an  ;  e.  g.,  anupt,  anquuro,  and 
tlso  before/,  in  the  word  anfractus. 

Dim  or  di,  denoting  separation,,  as  in  digerOf  diritno,  dijttdicOf  disponOf  dis 
terOf  dutinguoy  dmkto  (to  be  distinguish^  from  demiuo).  It  strengthens 
the  meaning  in  disciipio.  Before  c,  p,  9,  f,  <2»9  is  retained  entire ;  befoie  J, 
H'e  sometimes  have  dis,  as  in  dujido,  ditjungo ;  and  sometimes  di,  as  id 
dijudico.  Before  «,  with  a  consonant  after  it,  di  is  used,  and  dis  when  the  « 
after  it  is  followed  by  a  vowel :  di-sperrOf  di-sto,  diM-aodo,  dit'suadeo ;  diser 
tus,  however,  is  formed  from  dissero.  Before/,  di»  is  changed  into  dif,  ai* 
in  differo.    Di  is  used  before  all  other  consonants. 

Re  signifies  "  back,"  remiuo,  rejicio,  revertor.  Before  a  vowel  or  an  A  fa 
d  is  inserted,  redeo,  redigo,  redhibeo ;  this  is  neglected  only  in  compounds 
formed  by  late  and  unclassical  writers ;  e.  g.,  reaedifico,  reagens.  The  d  in 
reddo,  I  give  back,  is  of  a  different  kind.  Re  denotes  separation  in  resolw*. 
reveUa,  retego,  recingo,  recludo,  refringo,  reseco  ;  and  in  rdego,  rebibo,  and  Oth- 
ers,  it  denotes  repetition. 

£'0,." aside,"  "on  one  side," seduco,  sevoeo,  secttbo,  sepono,  sejtmgo.    In  ad 
jectives  it  signifies  **  without,"  securus,  sobrtus  for  sebrius  {non  «6mw),  aoc^t » 
for  secors.    Seoreum  is  contracted  from  sevorsum,  aside.    A  d  is  inserted  in 
seditio,  separation,  sedition,  from  se  and  itio. 

The  prefixes  ne  and  ve  are  of  somewhat  different  nature ;  ne  has  nega- 
tive power,  as  in  ne/as,  nemo  (ne  hemo,  obsolete  for  homo),  neacio.  Ve  it 
likewise  negative,  but  occurs  in  a  much  smaller  number  of  words,  viz., 
in  vesantu  and  vecore  (vecordia),  senseless.  In  vegrandie  and  vepalUduM  it 
iieems  to  denote  ugliness. 


CHAPTER  LXVII 

'  CONJUNCT  IONS.* 

[§  331.]  1.  Conjunctions  are  those  indeclinable  parts 

of  speech  which  express  the  relations  in  which  sentences 

stand  to  one  another.     They  therefore  are,  as  it  were,  the 

links  of  propositions,  whence  their  name  conjunctions. 

Note  1. — Some  conjunctions,  and  more  particularly  all  those  which  fonn 
the  first  class  in  our  aivision,  connect  not  only  sentences,  but  single  words. 
This,  however,  is  in  reality  the  case  only  when  two  propositions  are  con- 
tracted  into  one,  or  when  one  is  omitted,  as  in  Mare  sive  Mavare  beliieprae* 
eidet ;  here  ttve  Mavore  is  to  be  explained  by  the  omission  of  eive  is  Mavors 
mppellandus  est,  which  phrase  is,  in  fact,  not  unfrequently  used.  The  prop- 
ositions vive  diu  ac  felidter  and  ratio  et  oratio  homines  cotijungit,  again,  may 
be  divided  each  into  two  propositions,  joined  by  the  conjunctions  vive  dui 

•  rQoiipare  dombif^a  Gymnasium,  vol.  i.,  p.  xlv.  feq."] — Am.  Ed. 


OONJUNCTIONS.  251 

f(  vhe  feUtiter  and  ratio  conjimgit  homines  tt  oratio  amjtmgit  konunea.  Th6 
practice  of  language,  however,  did  not  stop  short  in  this  contraction,  but 
as  we  may  say  ratio  et  oratio  coniungunt  haminea^  and  as  we  must  say  fatei 
etfiUus  dormiuntf  the  language,  By  the  plural  of  the  predicate,  clearly  indi 
cates  that  the  two  nouns  are  united.  Hence  we  may  say  that  the  (copu 
lative)  conjunctions  «t,  que,  ac,  and  attpi^  join  single  words  also.  With  re- 
gard to  the  other,  especially  the  disjunctive  conjunctions  (for  there  can  be 
no  doubt  about  the  conjunction  *'  also"),  we  must  have  recourse  to  the 
above  explanation,  that  two  propositions  are  contracted  in  to  one,  for  in  t^o 
out  tu  vincamus  necesse  est,  the  nos,  which  comprehends  the  two  persons  is 
the  subject  of  vincamuSf  and  not  ego  aut  tu. 

Note  2. — Many  of  the  conjunctions  to  be  mentioned  presently  originally 
belonged  to  other  parts  of  speech ;  but  they  have  lost  their  real  significa- 
tion, and  as  they  serve  to  join  propositions,  they  may  at  once  be  looked 
upon  as  conjunctions ;  e.  g.,  ceterum,  vervm,  vero,  licet,  quamvis,  and  such 
compounds  as  quare,  iddrco,  quamobrem.  But  there  ard  also  mansr  adverbs 
denoting  time  and  phcSf  respecting  which  it  is  doubtful  whether,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  mode  of  their  application  in  language,  they  should  not  be 
classed  among  conjunctions.  Those  denoting  time  (e.  g.,  deinde,  deniqtte, 
postremwn)  retain,  indeed,  their  original  signification,  but  when  they  are 
doubled ;  as,  turn — turn,  nunc — nunc,  modo — modo,  they  evidently  serve  only 
to  connect  propositions ;  the  adverbs  of  place,  on  the  other  hand,  are  just- 
ly classed  amcHig  the  conjunctions  when  they  drop  their  meaning  of  place 
and  express  a  connexion  of  propositions  in  respect  of  time,  or  the  relation 
of  cause  and  effect,  as  is  the  case  with  vbi,  tot,  and  inde,  and  with  eo  and 
quando. 

2,  In  regai'd  ^o  their  form  (figura),  they  are  either  sim- 
ple or  compound.  Of  the  former  kind  are,  e.  g.,  et,  ac,  cU, 
sedf  nam  ;  and  of  the  latter  atque^  itaque,  attamen,  siqm- 
dem,  enimverOy  verum-enimvero,  . 

3.  In  reference  to  their  signification,  they  may  be  divi- 
ded into  the  following  classes.     They  denote  : 

[§  332.]  1.  A  unionCconjuTictiones  copidativaej  ;  as,  cr, 
ac,  atque,  and  the  enclitic  que^  combined  with  the  nega- 
tion belonging  to  the  verb,  neque  or  nee,  or  doubled  so  aa 
to  become  an  affirmative,  nee  (neque)  non,  equivalent  to  et. 
Etiam  and  quoque  also  belong  to  this  class,  together  with 
the  adverbial  item  and  itidem.  As  these  particles  unite 
things  which  are  of  a  kind,  so  the  disjunctive  conjunc- 
tions, signifying  "  or,"  connect  things  which  are  distinct 
from  each  other.  They  are  aut,  vel,  the  suffix  ve,  and  sivt 
or  seu. 

Note, — Ac*  is  never  used  before  vowels  (which,  however,  do  not  include 
j)  or  before  an  h ;  atque  occurs  most  frequently  before  vowels,  but  before 
consonants  also.  Hence  the  two  forms  in  the  same  sentence  of  Cicero, 
p.  Balb.,  3,  non  contra  ac  liceret,  sed  contra  atque  oporteret,  and  it  is  probable 
that  in  prose  as  well  as  in  poetry  the  hiatus  was  avoided  by  elision.  The 
rule  here  given  is  not  invalidated  by  the  fact  of  ac  being  found  here  and 
there  before  vowels  in  editions  of  Latin  authors,  as  is  the  case,  for  ex- 
ample, in  two  passages  of  Ernesti's  edition  of  Cicero,  ad  Qtiint.  Frat.^  ii.,  6, 
ana  ad  Ait.,  xiii.,  48.    For  as  this  difference  in  the  use  of  ac  and  atque  w^s 

*  [Compare  Rei^i^s  Vorlesungen,  ed.  Haase,  p.  414.] — Am.  Fd. 


252  LATIN    GRAMxMAJl. 

not  noticed  till  recently*  (in  the  schools  of  the  Dntch  philologers,  Bu§^ 
raann  and  Drakenborch),  and  as  the  MSS.  have  not  yetbeen  collated  in 
nil  cases  of  this  kind,  such  isolated  remnants  of  former  carelessness  can- 
not be  taken  into  account.  Drakenborch  (on  Liv.,  x.,  36,  in  fin.)  ol»ervet 
Ihat  wherever,  before  his  time,  ae  was  found  in  Livy  before  vowels,  the 
MSS.  give  either  atque,  autjat,  or  something  else,  and  that  even  those  pas- 
sages in  which  he  retained  it,  such  as  iii.,  1 6,  ac  emergentilms  malis^  should 
be  corrected.  We  cannot,  however,  enter  into  the  question  why  ac  was 
not  used  before  a  vowel,  while  nee  and  nequ^  are  used  indiscriminately  both 
before  vowels  and  consonants.  One  language  avoids  a  sound  as  displeas- 
ing which  in  another  produces  no  such  effect ;  suffice  it  to  say,  that  the  fact 
itself  is  beyond  all  doubt.  Another  remark,  however,  which  is  made  by 
many  grammarians,  that  ac  is  not  used  by  good  writera  befoits  c  md  9,  is 
nnfounded,  at  least  ac  before  con  is  frequent  m  Cicoro,  and  other  authom 
do  not  even  scruple  to  use  ac  before  ea,  which  is  otherwise,  and  with  jus- 
tice considered  not  euphonious. 

[^  333.]  The  difference  between  et  and  que  is  correctly  described  by 
Hermann  in  Elmsley's  ed.  of  the  Medea,  p.  331,  ed.  Lins.,  in  these  words 
*^  et  {koI)  is  a  copulative  particle,  and  que  (re)  is  an  aajunctive  one."  In 
otner  words,  et  connects  things  which  are  conceived  as  different,  and  ^ue 
adds  what  belongs  to  or  naturally  flows  from  things.  In  an  enumeration 
of  words,  therefore,  que  frequently  forms  the  conclusion  of  the  series ; 
e.  g.,  Cicero  says '  'At,  out  solis  et  lunae  reliqnorumque  eiderum  ortua^  obitus 
motusque  cognorunt ;  and  by  means  of  que  he  extends  the  preceding  Idea, 
without  connecting  with  it  anything  which  is  generally  different ;  as  in 
de  ilia  civitate  totaque  provincia  optirkt  meritus  ;  Dotabella  quique  ejus  faanoris 
ministri  fuerunt ;  jus  potestatemque  habere  ;  Pompeius  pr§  peUris  majorumqtte 
suorum  animo  studioque  m  rempublicamsiutque pristina'virtiUefesit.  In  con> 
necting  propositions  with  one  another,  it  denotes  a  consequence  or  result, 
and  is  equivalent  to  "  and  therefore,"  which  explains  its  peculiarly  fre- 
qi^nt  application  in  senatusconsidta  (which  are  undoubtedly  the  most  valid 
documents  in  determining  the  genuine  usage  of  the  Latin  language) 
framed  as  they  were  to  prevent  different  points  being  mixed  up  in  one 
enactment ;  e.  g.,  in  Cic,  Philip.^  ix.,  7,  Quum  JSer.  Sidpicius  salutem  reip 
vitae  suae  praeposueritj  contraque  vim  gravitatemque.  morbi  contenderitf  ut — per 
reniretf  isque  vitam  amiserit^  ejusque  mors  consentanea  vitae fuerU  ;  qtatm  talis 
vir  mortem  obieritf  senatui  placeref  Ser.  Svlptch  statuam  aeneam — siatui^  or- 
cumque  earn  locum  Uberos  posterosque  ejus — habere^  eamque  causam  in  basi  in- 
scribif  utique  Coss. — locent,  quantique  locaverintf  fantam  pectMiam — attribuen- 
dam  solvendamque  curent. 

Atque  is  formed  from  ad  and  que,  and  therefore  properly  signifies  "  and 
in  addition,"  **  and  also,"  thus  putting  things  on  an  equality,  but  at  the 
same  time  laying  stress  upon  the  connexion.  We  express  this  by  pro- 
nouncing "and"  more  emphatically  than  usual.  For  example,  socii  et 
exterae  nationes  simply  indicates  the  combination  of  two  things  independent 
of  each  other ;  but  in  soctt  atque  exterae  nationes  the  latter  part  is  more  em- 
phatic, "  and  also  the  foreign,"  &c.  In  the  beginning  of  a  proposition 
which  farther  explains  that  which  precedes,  and  where  the  simple  con 
nexion  is  insufficient,  the  particles  atque  and  ac  introduce  a  thing  with 
great  weight,  and  may  be  rendered  in  English  by  "  now ;"  e.  g.,  atqe  haee 
qwdem  mea  sententia  est ;   atque — de  ipsis  Syracusanis  cognoscite ;   sdso  in 

*  Or,  we  should  rather  say,  vfos  not  noticed  xxgain^  for  the  observation  was 
first  made  in  a  brief  but  unequivocal  manner  by  Gabriel  Faemus,  in  his 
note  on  Cic,  pro  Place ,  3,  in  fin.,  «d.  Rom.,  1563 ;  but  it  was  disregarded 
ft  is  still  more  remarkable,  that  none  of  the  ancient  grammarians,  though 
they  carefully  notice  other  phenomena  of  a  similar  kind,  have  thought  it 
necessary  to  draw  attention  to  this  circumstance,  which  is  by  p«  means 
unimportant.  The  passages  in  Emesti's  editior  of  Cicero,  abo*'  "referret? 
10,  have  been  corrected  in  Orelli      '^vtion. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  25d 

^lOMW&Bf  cognosHne  koa  veratu?  Ac  mtmonter.  Num.  hu  duae  Btizchidep 
habitant?  Atque  ambae  tororesy  i.  e.,  yes,  and  that,  &c.  Ac  is  ihi  same  as 
€a^ief  but  being  an  abridged  fonn,  it  loses  somewhat  of  its  power  in  con 
necting  single  words ;  but  it  retains  that  power  which  puts  the  things 
connected  by  it  on  an  equality,  and  its  use  alternates  with  that  of  et ;  it  ii> 
preferred  in  subdivisions,  whereas  the  main  propositions  are  connected  b) 
et ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  m  Verr.f  v.,  15,  Cur  tibi  fasces  ac  secures,  et  tantam  vim  imperii 
tantaque  omamenta  data  censes  1  Divin.^  12,  Diffijdle  est  tantam  cattsam  et 
diiigentia  amaequiy  et  memarm  con^lecti,  et  oratione  expromeref  et  voce  ac  virUms 
sustinere. 

[^  334.]  Neque  is  formed  from  the  ancient  negative  particle  and  que^  and 
H  used  for  et  ntm.  Et  non  itself  is  used  when  the  whole  proposition  is 
affirmative,  and  only  one  idea  or  one  word  in  it  is  to  be  negatived ;  e.  g., 
Cic,  Brut.f  91,  Athenis  apvd  Demetrium  Syrumi  veterem  et  non  ignobilem  di- 
cendi  magistrumt  exerceri  solebam;  in  Verr.^  l.,  X^patior  et  non  molestefero;  de 
Qro/:,  iii.,  36,  videris  mihi  aliud  qudddam  et  non  id  quod  suscepisti  disputasse^ 
and  when  our  **  and  not"  is  used  for  "  and  not  rather,"  to  correct  an  im- 
proper supposition.;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Verr.,  i.,  31,  si  quam  Rtdnrius  injuriam  suo 
nomine  ac  nonimpulsu  tuofecisset.  See  ^  781.  Ht  non  is,  besides,  found  in 
the  second  part  of  a  proposition  when  et  precedes,  but  neque  may  be  and 
frequently  is  used  for  et  non  in  this  case ;  d.  g.,  Cic,  ad  Fam.,  ziii.,  23, 
ManUus  et  semper  me  coluit,  et  a  studiis  nostris  non  abhorret ;  ad  Att.,  ii.,  4, 
id  et  nobis  erit  perjucundwnf  et  tibi  non  sane  detnum.  Nee  {neque)  non  is  not 
used  in  classical  prose  in  quite  the  same  way  as  et  to  connect  nouns,  but 
only  to  join  propositions  together  (see  Ruhnken  on  Veil.  Pat,  ii.,  95),  and 
the  two  words  are  separated ;  e.  g.,  Nepos,  Att.,  13,  Nemo  Attico  minus 
fyat  aedificatory  neque  tamen  non  imprimis  bene  habitavit.  Cicero  several 
times  uses  nee  vera  nouy  and  the  like ;  but  in  Yarro  and  later  writers,  such 
as  Quintilian,  nee  non  are  not  separated,  and  are  in  all  essential  points 
equivalent  to  et. 

[<f  335.]  Etiam  and  quoque  are  in  so  far  different  in  their  meaning,  that 
etiam,  in  the  first  place,  has  a  wider  extent  than  quoque^  for  it  contains 
-also  the  idea  of  our  "  even ;"  and,  secondly,  etiam  adds  a  new  circum- 
stance, whereas  quoque  demotes  the  addition  of  a  thing  of  a  similar  kind. 
Hence  etiam  is  properly  used  to  connect  propositions.  This  difference 
seems  to  be  correctly  expressed  iti  stating  that  etiam  is  "  and  farther,'*  and 
quooue  **  and  so,  also."  As  in  this  manner  quoque  refe.rs  to  a  single  word, 
It  always  follows  that  word  etiam^  in  similar  cases,  is  usually  placed  be- 
fore it,  out  when  it  connects  prqsoeitions  its  place  is  arbitrary.  Et,  too, 
is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  "  aIso,"*in  classical  prose ;  e.  g..  Curt., 
iii.,  31,  non  errasti,  mater,  nam  et  hie  Alexander  est;  Cic,  de  Jjegg.,  ii.,  16, 
quod  et  nunc  multis  in  fanis  Jit,  for  nunc  quoque;  in  Verr.,  iv.,  61,  simul  ft 
verebar  ;  and  v.,  1,  simul  et  de  Ulo  vulnere — mtdta  dixit ;  and  often  non  modo— 
sed  et;  e.  g.,  Cic,  tn  Verr.,  1, 1,  non  modo  JRomae,  sed  et  apud  exteras  naiiones; 
Nepos,  Thrasyb.,  1,  non  solum  princeps,  sed  et  solus  bellum  indixit.  (See 
Bremi'a  remark  on  this  passage,  who  states  that  sed  et  is  not  merely  **  but 
also,"  b«t  always  "  but  even.")  ^ut  passages  of  this  kind  are  not  very 
numerous,  and  not  always  certain,  for  the  MSS.  usually  have  etiam,  so 
thafthis  use  of  et  in  prose  (for  poets  cannot  be  taken  into  account)  must 
at  least  be  very  much  limited,  and  it  should  not  be  used  to  that  extent  in 
which  modem  Latinists  apply  it. 

r^  336.]  The  disjunctive  conjunctions  differ  'fius  far,  that  aU  indicates 
a  aiflFerence  of  the  object,  and  vel  a  difference  ot  expression.  Vel*  is  con- 
nected with  the  yerb  velle  {vel — vel,  will  you  thus, or  will  you  thus?), and  the 
tingle  ftel  is  used  by  Cicero  only  to  correct  a  preceding  expre.ssioi,  com- 
mcnly  combined  with  dicam,  or  potius,  or  etiam;  e.  g.,  j^trrcs  I'.'l  potiui 
rogares;  stuporem  hominis  vel  dicam pecudis  videte  {Philip  ,  ii,  l'^>'  tui'^ionda 
est  vel  etiam  amanda  {p.  Planc.y  9) ;  it  very  rare.y  occurs  /  jf^     .'  a»     f  a» 

~ ' — -^ — -—      —    ^ 

•  rCorapare  Crombie's.Gifmna.tium  vol.  J  ,  p,  iUl.^-    *       Jtid. 

V 


254  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

addition,  but  even  then  its  meaning  is  corrective ;  e.  g.,  Tusc.,  iL,  20, 
mum  bomtm  a  virtute  profectum,  vel  (or  rather)  in  ipsa  virttUe  positum  ;  de  Nmt, 
Deor.f  ii.,  15,  in  ardore  coelestiy  qui  aether  vel  coelum  nomineUur,  where  it  like* 
wise  denotes  not  so  much  the  equivalence  of  the  terms,  as  the  preference 
which  is  to  be  given  to  the  Latin  word.  (Concerning  the  use  of  «e/  to  da 
note  an  increase,  see  6  108  and  ^  734,  where,  also,  its  signification  of  **  for 
example,"  ve/ti/,  is  explained.  Both  these  significations  are  derivable  from 
what  has  here  been  said.)  From  this  in  later,  though  still  good  prose, 
arose  the  use  of  vel  in  the  sense  of  "  or,"  that  is,  that  in  point  of  &ct  one 
thing  is  e^ual  to  another,  a  meaning  which  ve,  in  connecting  single  words, 
has  even  in  Cicero;  e.  g.,  Philip,t  v.  19,  ConsiUet  aUer  amhovefaciait^'%\xaX 
is,  in  point  of  fact,  it  is  the  same  whether  both  consuls  or  only  one  of  them 
do  a  thing ;  Top.^  5^  Esst  ea  dicot  quae  cerni  tangivt  possunl,  that  is,  either 
of  the  two  is  sufficient.  Sive  either  retains  the  meaning  of  the  conjunc- 
tion ai  (which  is  commonly  the  case),  and  is  then  the  same  as  vel  «t,  or  it 
*x>8es  it  by  an  ellipsis  (pernaps  of  diasre  mavis) ^  and  is  then  the  same  as  «e/, 
dsnoting  a  difference  of  name,  as  in  Quintiiian,  vocabuium  sive  appelUuio ; 
Cic,  regie  seu  potiue  tyrannice.  The  form  #eu  is  used  by  Cicero  very  rarely, 
and  almost  exclusively  in  the  combination  seu  potius ;  but  in  poetry  and 
later  prose  it  occurs  frequently. 

[^  337.]  The  disjunctive  conjunctions  aut  and  ve  serve  to  continue  the 
negation  in  negative  sentences,  where  we  use  '*nor;"  e.  g.,  Verres  rum 
Honori  aut  Virtuti  vota  debebat,  sed  Veneri  et  Cupidim ;  and  we  may  say, 
also,  non  Honori  neque  Virtuti,  and  in  other  cases  we  might  use  ve,  analo- 
gous to  the  affirmative  que.  See  Ruhnken  on  VelL  Pat.,  iL,  45,  and  the 
commentators  on  Tacit.,  Ann.,  i.,  32^  in  fin.  Examples :  Cic,  p.  Flaccj 
5,  Itaque  non  optimus  qtusque  nee  gravissimuSf  sed  impudentissimus  loquacissi- 
tnusque  deligitur ;  Horat.,  Serm.,  i.,  9,  31,  Hunc  nee  hosticus  auferet  ensis,  nee 
laterum  dolor  aut  Ulrda  podagra  ;  ibid.,  i.,  4,  73,  Nee  recito  cuiqucan  nisi  amicis^ 
non  ubivis  coramve  quibuslibet;  Cic,  ad  Fam.f  v.,  13,  NtUlum  membrum  reip, 
reveries,  quod  nonfractum  debilitatumve  sit;  and  in  negative  questions,  Cic, 
Philip.,  v.,  5,  Num  leges  nostras  moresve  novit?  m  Yerr.,  v.,  13,  Quid  m« 
attirut  dicere  aut  conjungere  eum  istius  flagitio  cujusquam  praeterea  dedecus  ?  or 
after  comparatives,  Cic,  p.  Mur.,  29,  Accessit  istue  doctrina  non  moderata  ruu 
mitis,  sedpatUo  asperior  et  durior^  quam  Veritas  aut  natura  jpatiatur.  It  is  only 
in  those  cases  in  which  both  words  are  to  be  united  mto  one  idea  that  a 
copulative  conjunction  is  used ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Verr.,  iii,  86,  nummos  non 
erarat  arator,  non  aratro  ae  numu  quaerit,  Comp.  the  longer  passage  in  Cic. 
De  Nat.  Deor.,  ii.,  62,  in  fin. 

[^  338.]  The  Latin  language  is  fond  of  doubling  the  conjunctions  of  this 
kind,  whereby  words  and  propo'sitious  are  more  emphatically  brought  un 
der  one  general  idea.    The  English  "  as  well  as"  is  expressed  by 

et—et,  which  is  of  very  common  occurrence ; 

et—que  occurs  not  uiifrequently  in  late  writers,  in  Cicero  by  way  «»< 
exception  only ; 

que — et  connects  single  words,  buf  not  in  Cicero ; 

que — que  is  found  only  in  poetry.  , 

The  only  prose  writer  who  uses  it  is  Sallust,  Cat.,  9,  seque  renique  publicam 
eurabant ;  Jug.,  10,  meque  regnumque  mtiim  gloria  honoravisti;  but  it  is  not 
uncommon  in  the  case  of  the  conjunction  oeing  appended  to  the  relative 
pronoun ;  e.  g.,  quique  exissent,  quique  U>i  mansissent;  captivi,  quique  CampO' 
norum,  quique  Hannibalis  militum  erant,  in  Livy ;  or  junctis  exercittbus,  qui<pu 
nd)  Caesare  fuerant^  quique  ad  eum  venerant,  in  Velleius.  The  latest  critics 
have  removetl  similar  passages  from  the  works  of  Cicero ;  see  the  com* 
tnent.  on  de  Orat.,  i.,  26,  and  de  Fin.,  v.,  21 ;  nocteaque  diesque,  in  de  Fin.,  i, 
16,  is  an  allusion  to  a  passage  in  a  poem.  Negative  propositions  are  con 
kected  in  English  by  "  neither — nor,"  and  in  Latin  by 

neque — ntique,  or  nee — nee  ; 

neqtte — nee,  which  is  not  unfrequent,  and  by 

We — neque^  which  seldom  occurs. 


CQNIUNCTIOXS.  2541 

impositions,  one  of  which  is  negative  and  the  other  affirmative,  *on  the 
ofie  hand,  but  not  on  the  other,"  or  "  not  on  the  one  hand,  but  on  th 
other,"  are  connected  by 

.et—neque  {nee)  Jboth.of  very  frequent  occurrence. 

neque  {nec)—et )  , 

nee  {neque) — 9u«,  occurs  occasionally. 
[^  339.]  Our  "either — or,"  is  expressed  by  avt — oitf,  denoting  an  oppo 
sition  between  two  things,  one  of  which  excludes  the  other,  orhyvel — vet 
denoting  that  the  opposition  between  two  things  is  immaterial  in  respect 
of  the  result,  so  that  the  one  need  not  exclude  the  other.  E.  g.,  Catiline, 
in  Sallust,  says  to  his  comrades^  vel  imperatore  vel  mUUe  me  uttTnini^  that  is. 
it  is  indifferent  to  me  in  which  capacity  you  may  make  use  of  me,  only 
do  make  use  of  me.  A  similar  idea  is  described  more  in  detail  by  Ter- 
ence, Eun.fii.y3t  28,  Hanc  tu  mihi  vel  vt,  vel  clam^  wl  jn'ecario  Jfac  tradas. 
mea  nihil  refert^  dum  potior  modo ;  i.  e.,  you  may  efiect  it  even  in  a  fourth 
way,  if  you  like.  Sive — «re  is  the  same  as  vel  si — vel  si,  and  therefore 
transfers  the  meaning  of  vel — vel  to  the  cases  in  which  it  is  applied ;  e.  g.. 
Cic,  Hlo  loco  Hbentissime  soleo  uti,  five  qtud  tnecum  cogito^  sive  illiquid  scrtbt 
out  lego.  If  there  is  no  verb,  and  nouns  only  are  mentioned  in  opposition. 
to  each  other,  an  uncertainty  is  expressed  as  to  how  a  thing  is  to  be 
called ,  e.  g.,  Cic,  Tusc,  ii.,  14,  Cretum  leges,  quas  sive  Juppiter  sive  Mino* 
sanxit,  labmibus  erudiunt  juventutenif  i  e.,  I  do  not  know  whether  I  am  tc- 
say  Juppiter  or  Minos;  ad  Quints' Frat.,  i,  2,  His  in  rdms  si  apud  te  pliu 
auctoritas  mea,  quam  tua  sive  natura  paulo  acrioTt  sive  quaedam  dtdcedo  ira 
cundiae,  sive  dicendi  sal  facetiaeque  valuissentf  nihil  sane  essety  quod  nos  poe- 
niieret. 

[§  340.]  2.  The  following  express  a  comparison,  "  as,** 
"like,"  "than  as  ir*  (conjunctiones  comparativae) ;  ut  oi 
utif  sicutf  veltUy  protU,  praeut^  the  poetical  cew,  quam^  tarn- 
quam  (with  and  without  si),  quasif  ut  sty  ac  si,  togethei 
with  ac  and  atque,  when  they  signify  "as." 

Note. — Ac  and  atque  are  used  in  the  sense  of  "  as,"  or  "  than,"  after  th^ 
adverbs  and  adjectives  which  denote  similarity  or  dissimilarity:  aeaue. 
juxtaf  par  and  pariterf  perinde  ^d  proinde,  pro  eo,  similis,  dissimilis  and  si 
militer,  talis,  totidem,  alius  and  alitery  contra,  secus,  contrarius  ;  e.  g.,  non  alita 
scribo  ae  sentio  ;  aliud  mihi  ac  tU)i  videtur  ;  saepe  aliud  Jit  atque  existimamus  ; 
simile  fecit  atque  alii ;  cum  totidem  navibufi  rediit  atque  erat  profectus.  Quam 
after  these  words  (as  in  Tacit.,  Ann.,  vi.,  30,  perinde  se  quam  Tiberium 
falU  potuisse)  is  not  often  used,  except  in  the  case  of  a  negative  parti 
cle  being  joined  with  alius ;  o.  g.,  Cicero,  virtus  nihil  aliud  est,  quam  m  « 
perfecta  et  ad  summum  perducta  natura,  where  nisi  might  be  used  instead  ot 
quam.  Respecting  proinde  ac,  instead  of  the  more  frequent  perinde  ac,  see 
above,  ^  282.  Et  and  que  do  not  oc«J4r  in  this  connexion  like  ac  and  atque ; 
and  wherever  this  might  appear  to  be  the'  case,  from  the  position  of  the 
words,  as  in  Sallust,  iuxta  bonos  et  malos  interficere  ;  suae  hostiumque  vitat 
juxta  pepercerant  ;  and  in  Cicero,  nisi  aeque  amicos  et  nosmetipsos  diligimus, 
the  el  and  que  retain  their  original  signification  "  and ;"  but  where  the 
words  compared  are  separated,  as  in  reip.  juxta  ac  sibi  constduerunt ;  or 
where  propositions  are  compared,  as  in  Cic,  de  Fin.,  iv.,  12,  similem  habeat 
vtdtum  ac  si  ampuUam  perdidisset,  the  ac  or  ut  has  justly  been  restored  in 
the  passages  in  which  formerly  et  was  read. 

Ac  is  used  for  quam,  after  comparatives  in  poetry,  in  Horace  generally, 
and  in  a  few  passages,  also,  of  late  prose  writers ;  but  never  in  Cicero ;  e 
g.,  Herat.,  Epod.,  xv.,  5,  artius  atque  hedera;  Serm.  i.,  2, 22,  ut  non  st'pejiu 
eruciaverit  atque  hie  ;  i.,  10,  34.,  In  silvam  non  lignaferas  ihsanius  ac  jri,  &c.  • 

[§  341.]  3.  The  following  express  a  concession  witb 
tlie  fijoneral  sij^nification  "although"  'conjunctiones ronces 


I 


256  LATIN   GAAkMAR. 

sivaej ;  etsiy  etiamsi^  tame,  si  (or  tamenetsijy  quamquam 
quamvisj  quantumvvt,  qtiamlibei^  licet,  together  with  ut  in 
the  sense  of  "even  if"  or  "although,"  and  quum,  when  ic 
signifies  "although,"  which  is  not  unfrequently  the  case. 

Note. — Those  particles  which  signify  *'yet,"  especially  tamen,  form  the 
correlatives  of  the  concessive  CMijanctions ;  e.  g.,  ut  desint  virea,  tamen  ent 
laudanda  volunUu.  Tametsi  is  a  combination  of  tljie  two  correlatives ;  and 
in  its  application  we  not  unfrequently  meet  with  a  repetition  of  the  same 
particle ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  tametn  wdt—  debeo,  tamen  de  meajtire  decedam;  tamelsi 
enrm  veriasimum  €899  mt9Uig^amf  tamen  eredUulefore  non  arbitrahar.  The  ad- 
verb qwdem  also  belongs  to  this  class  of  conjunctions  when  it  is  used  to 
connect  propositions,  and  is  followed  by  ted.    See  ^  278. 

A  difference  in  the  use  d*  these  conjunctions  might  be  observed :  some 
might  be  used  td  denote  real  concessions,  and  others  to  denote  such  as  are 
merely  conceived  or  imagined  ;  and  this  would,  at  the  same  time,  detei 
mine  their  construction,  either  the  indicative  or  the  subjunctive.  But  such 
a  difference  is  clearly  perceptible  only  between  quamquam  and  quamvis. 
(See  ^  574.)  We  shall  here  add  only  the  remark,  that  quamquam  has  a 
peculiar  place  in  absolute  sentences,  referring  to  something  preceding,  but 
limiting  and  partly  nullifying  it ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Cat.,  i.,  9,  Quamquam.  quid 
loquor  ?    Yet  why  do  i  speak '{  p.  Murert,  38,  in  iin-,  quamquam  hujusce  rei 

rttestaa  omnia  in  vobia  aita  eat^  judicea  ;  that  is,  and  yet,  judges,  why  should 
say  more  ?  for  surely  you  have  the  decision  entirely  m  your  own  hands. 

[§  342.]  4.  The  following  express  a  condition,  the  fun- 
damental signification  being  "  if"  (conjunctiones  condicuh 
nalesj;  si^  sin^  nisi  or  wz,  simodoy  dummodOf  if  only,  if  but 
(for  which  dum  and  modo  are  also  used  alone),  dummodo 
ne,  or  simply  modo  ne  or  dumne. 

Note. — In  order  to  indicate  the  connexion  with  a  preceding  proposition 
the  relative  pronoun  quod  (which,  however,  loses  its  signification  as  a  pro 
noun)  is  frequently  put  before  «(,  and  sometimes,  also,  before  niai  and  e<.n, 
so  that  ^uodai  majr  be  regarded  as  one  word.    Comp.  ^  806. 

Sin  signifies  "  if  however."  and  therefore  stands  for  ai  autem  or  «  vero ; 
not  unfrequently,  however,  autem  is  added,  and  sometimes  vera  {ain  veto  in 
Columella,  viL,  3,  and  Justin). 

[6  343.]  Ni  and  niai  have  the  same  iheaning,  except  that  ni  is  especially 
applied  in  judicial  sponsitmes ;  e.  g.,  centum  dare  apondeo^  ni  dixiali,  &c. 
Instead  of  niai^  we  sometimes  find  the  form  niai  ai.  Both  particles  limit  a 
statement  by  introducing  an  exception,  and  thus  differ  from  ai  non^  which 
introduces  a  negative  case,  for  «t  alone  has  the  character  of  a  conjunction, 
and  noHf  the  negative  particle,  belongs  to  the  verb  or  some  other  word  of 
the  proposition.  It  is  ofLen  immaterial  whether  niai  or  ainon  is  used;  e.  g., 
Nep.  Con.f  2,  fuit  apertum,  ai  Conon  nonfuiaaH^  Ageailaum  Aaiam  Tauro  tenua 
regi  fuxaae  eteptumm  ;  and  the  same  author,  Agea.,  6,  says,  tedem  at  unpera- 
torem  praebuit^  ut  omnibua  apparuerit  niai  ille  fuiaaet,  Spartam  futuram  non 
fuiaae.  And  thus  Cicero,  Cat.,  Maj.,  6,  might  have  said,  memoria  minuitur, 
ai  earn  non  exerceaaj  instead  of  niai  earn  exereeaa  ;  and  niai,  on  the  other  hand, 
might  have  been  used  instead  of  ai  non,  in  Cic,  in  Verr.,  iii,  18,  glebam 
commoaaet  in  a^o  decumano  Siciliae  nemo,  ai  Metellua  hanc  epistolam  non  miaia 
eat.  But  the  difference  is  nevertheless  essential ;  e.  g.,  if  I  say  vnpune  erit, 
ai  pecwiiam  promiaaam  nott  dederitia^  I  mean  to  express  that,  in  this  case,  tfaa 
ordinary  punishment  will  not  be  inflicted ;  but  if  I  say,  impune  erit,  niai  pe 
tuniam  dederitia,  the  meaning  is,  '*it  shall  remain  unpunished,  except  in  the 
case  of  your  naving  paid  t.ie  money ;"  ^vhich  implies,  ♦•  but  you  shall  he 
punished  if  you  have  paid  the  money.*  Si  now,  therefore,  can  be  ised 
mly  when  one  of  the  sentences  is  nof  t  )mplete ;  as  in  Horace  Quo  mih 


CON  JL  NOTIONS.  251 

Jkrtunamf  si  rum.  conceditur  uti  f  What  is  the  good  of  having  pioperty,  if  ] 
•in  not  allowed  to  make  use  of  it?  If  we  e^cpress  the  former  sentence 
by  nullius  pretii  fortunae  aunty  we  may  continue  in  the  form  of  an  exception, 
ni$i  concedaiw  iia  tUif  or  in  the  form  of  a  negative  case,  «i  mn  concedcUttr  uti. 
iii  non  is  iarth'T  nsed  only  when  single  words  are  opposed  to  one  another, 
as  is  particular!*  frequent  in  such  expressions  as  doloreniy  n  non  poterofran- 
gere,  occultabo  ;  desidemtm  amicorum,  si  non  aequo  animOf  at  forti  feras  ;  cum 
MpCf  si  mm  optima,  at  aUqua  tamen  vivere.  In  this  case  si  minus  may  be  used 
instead  of  si  nen  ;  e.  g  ,  Tu  si  minus  ad  nos,  nos  accurremus  ad  te.  If  after 
Hti  affirmative  proposition  its  negative  opposite  is  added  without  a  verb, 
our  *^  iMifc  if  not'*  is  commonly  expressed  (in  prose)  by  si  (or  sin)  minus,  sin 
uliter  ;  e.  g.,  Clc,  m  Cai»,  i.,  5,  educ  tecum  etiam  omnes  tuos  ;  si  rmnMs,  quam 
plutimos  ;  de  OraL,  ii.,'75,  omnis  cura  mea  solet  in  hoc  versari  semper,  si  pos 
sim,  ut  boni  aliquid  efficiam  ;  sin  id*)ninus,  ut  certe  ncqtdd  mali ;  but  rarely  bj 
«iiMm,  which  occurs  in  Cicero  only  once  {ad  Font.,  vii.,  3,  in  tin.)* 

[§  344.]  5.  The  following  express  a  conclusion  or  in- 
ference with  the  general  signification  of  "  therefore ;" 
consequently  fconjunctiones  conclustvaej ;  ergo,  igitur, 
itaqtie^  eoj  tdeo,  icdrco,  proinde,  prapterca,  and  the  rela- 
tive conjunctions,  signifying  '*  wherefore  j"  quapropter^ 
quare^  quafnobrem,  quocirca^  unde. 

Note.— Ergo  and  igitur  denote  a  logical  inference,  like  "therefore*' 
Itaque  expresses  the  relation  of  cause  in  fatts ;  it  properly  signifies  "  anJ 
thus,"  in  which  sense  it  not  unfrequently  occurs;  e.  g.,  itaque  fecit.  Re 
specting  its  accent,  see  ^  32.  Idea,  icdrco,  and  propterea  express  the  agrea 
nient  between  iiltention  and  actign,  and  may  be  rendered  by  *'  on  this  ac 
count."  Eo  is  more  frequently  an  adverb  of  place,  "thither;"  but  it  is 
found  in  several  passages  of  Cicero  in  the  sense  of  "  on  this  account,"  or 
**  for  this  purpose ;"  e.  g.,  in  Verr.,  i.  14,  ut  hoc  pacta  rationem  referre  liceret, 
eo  Sulianus  repents  foetus  est ;  Liv.,  ii.,  48,  muris  se  tenebant,  eo  nulla  pugna 
memorabilisfuit.  Proinde,  in  the  sense  of  "  consequently,"  is  not  to  be 
confounded  with  jjerjndc;  both  words,  however,  are  used  in  the  sense  of 
•*  like,"  so  that  we  cannot  venture  to  adopt  the  one  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
other.  (See  ^  282.)  But  as  we  are  speaking  here  of  conclusive  conjunc- 
tions, we  have  to  consider  only  proinde,  which  implies  an  exhortation ; 
e.  g.,  Cicero,  Proinde,  si  sapis,  vide  quid  tibi faciendum  sit ;  and  so,  also,  in 
other  writers ;  as,  proinde  fac  magna  ammo  sis,  "  consequently,  be  of  good 
courage !"  Unde  is  properly  an  adverb,  "  whence,"  but  is  used  also  as  a 
conjunction  in  a  similar  sense,  alluding^  to  a  starting  point.  Hinc  and  inde 
cannot  properly  be  considered  as  conjunctions,  as  they  retain  their  real 
flignitication  of  "  hence."  But  adeo  may  be  classed  among  the  conjunc 
tions,  since  the  authors  of  the  silver  age  use  it- as  denoting  a  general  in> 
ference  from  what  precedes,  like  our  *'  so  that,"  or  simply  "  so ;"  e.  g., 
QuintiL,  i.,  12,  7,  Adeofacilius  est  muUafdtere  quam  diu. 

[§  345.1  6.  The  following  express  a  cause,  or  reason, 

with  the  demonstrative  meaning  of  "  for,"  and  the  relative 

of  "  because "    fconjunctiones  causalesj :    nam^  namque, 

emm,  etenim,  quia,  quod,  quomam,  quippe,  quum,  qtuindo, 

quandoquidem,  siquidem.     The  adverbs  mmirum,  nempe, . 

idlicet,  and  videlicet  are  likewise  used  to  c  onnect  propo* 

oitions. 

Note. — Between  nam  and  enin  there  is  thispractict^  difference,  that 
nam  is  used  at  tho  beginning  of  a  proposition,  and  enim  after  the  first  oi 
second  word  of  a  proposition.    The  dilference  in  meaning  seems  to  cqq 

Y2 


258  LATlft  GRAMMAK. 

sist  in  this,  tnat  nam  introduces  a  conclnsiye  reason^  and  entm  jAeielj  a 
confirming  circumstt^ce,  the  consideration  of  which  depends  upon  the 
inclination  of  the  speaker.  iVam,  therefore,  denotes  an  objective  reason, 
and  enim  merely  a  subjective  one.  Ncanque  and  eteninty  in  respect  of  their 
signification,  do  not  essentially  differ  from  nam  and  enim,  for  the  copula- 
tive c(Mijunction,  at  least  as  far  as  we  can  judge,  is  as  superfluous  as  in 
neque  mtm,  respcHCting  whiih,  see  ^  808.  But,  at  the  same  time,  they  indi- 
cate a  closer  connexion  with  the  sentence  preceding;  and  the  proper  place 
for  etenim,  therefore,  is  in  an  explanatory  parenthesis.  Namqtit,  in  Cicero 
and  Nepos,  occurs  only  at  the  beginning  of  a  proposition,  aikl  usually  (in 
Nepos  almost  exclusively)  before  vowels ;  but  even  as  early  as  the  time 
of  LivYy  we  find  it  after  the  beginning  of  a  proposition  just  as  frequently 
as  at  the  beginning  itself.  We  may  add  the  remark,  that  enim  is  some* 
times  put  at  the  beginning  by  comic  writers  in  the  sense  of  oX  enim  or  sea 
enim.  Drakenborch  on  Livy,  xxxiv'.,  32,  %  13,  denies,  that  Livy  ever  used 
it  in  this  way. 

Nam,  eninij  and  etenim  are  often  used  in  Latin  in  the  sense  of  our 
"  namely,'*  to  introduce  an  explanation  which  was  announced ;  e.  g.,  Cic, 
PartU.,  11,  Rerum  bonanun  etnudarum  tria  sunt  genera:  nam  out  in  animis, 
aid  in  corporibus,  atU  extra  esse  oossunt.  Nimirumf  videlicet,  and  scilicet  like- 
wise answer  to  our  "  namely,"  or  "  viz."  Nimirum  is  originally  an  adverb 
signifying  "  undoubtedly,"  or  "  surely ;"  o.  g.,  Cic,  p,  Mur.,  15,  Si  diligen- 
ter  tpud  Mithridates  potiterit^onsideraris,  omnUms  regibus — hunc  regem  nimi- 
rum antepones.  As  a  conjunction  it  introduces  the  reason  of  an  assertion, 
suggesting  that  it  was  looked  for  vnth  some  impatience ;  e.  g.,  Cic.  m 
Verr.,  ii.,  63,  is  est  nimirum  soter,  qui  saltUem  dedit^  Videlicet  and  scilicet  in- 
troduce an  explanation,  and  generally  in  such  a  manner  that  videlicet  indi 
cates  the  true,  and  scilicet  a  wrong  explanation,  the  latter  being  introduced 
only  for  the  purpose  of  deriving  a  refu^tion  from  it ;  e.'  g.,  Cic,  p.  Mil^ 
21,  Cur  i^tur  eos  manumisit  f  Metuebat  scilicet,  ne  indicarent,  but  he  was  not 
afraid  of  it,  as  is  shown  afterward.  However,  the  words  nam,  enim,  etenim 
nimirum,  videlicet  are  sometimes  used  in  an  ironical  sense,  and  scilicet 
(though  rarely  in  classical  prose)  sometimes  introduces  a  true  reason 
without  any  irony.  Nempe  signifies  "namely"  only  when  another  per- 
son's concession  is  taken  forgranted'and  emphatically  dwelt  upon;  it  may 
then  be  rendered  by  **  surely."    Comp.  above,  ^  278. 

[6  346.]  Quia  and  quod  dmer  from  qwnuam  (properly  quumjam)  in  this 
the  former  indicate  a  definite  and  conclusive  reason,  and  the  latter  a  mo- 
tive :  the  same  difference  is  observed  in  the  French  parceque  and  puisaue. 
Ideo,  iccirco,  propterea  quod,  and  quia  are  used  without  any  essential  diner 
ence,  except  that  quia  introduces  a  more  strict  and  logical  reason,  whereas 
quoniam  introduces  circumstances  which  are  of  importance,  and  pn^erly 
signifies  "  now  as."  Quando,  quandoquidem,  and  siquidem  approach  nearer 
to  qufniam  than  to  quia,  inasmuch  as  they  introduce  onlj  subjective  rea- 
sons. Quandoquidem  denotes  a  reason  implied  fai  a  circumstance  pre- 
viously mentioned,  and  siquidem  a  reason  implied  in  a  concession  whicn 
has  been  made.  Siquidem  is  cbmposed  of  si  and  quidem,  but  must  be  re- 
garded as  one  word,  as  it  has  lost  its  original  meaning,  and  as  si  has  be- 
come short.  Cic,  j7.  Mur.,  11,  Summa  etiam  utilitas  est  in  iis,  qui  militari 
laude  antecellunt,  siquidem  eorum  consiUo  et  periculo  quum  re  publica  turn  etiam 
nostris  rebus  perfrui  possumus  ;  Tusc,  i.,  1,  antiquissimum  e  doctis  genus  est 
voetorum,  siqiddem  (since  it  is  admitted,  for  no  doubt  is  to  be  expressed 
aere)  Homerus  fuit  et  Hesiodus  ante  Romam  conditam.  Sometimes,  how 
ever,  it  is  still  used  in  the  sense  of  "  if  indeed ;"  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Fin.,  ii.,  34, 
Nos  vera,  si  qtUdem  in  voluptate  sunt  omnia  (if,  indeed,  all  happiness  consists 
in  enjoyment),  longe  multumque  superamur  a  bestiis ;  in  Cat.,  ii.,  4,  ofortu 
^atam  remp.,  si  quidem  hanc  sentinam  ejecerit.  In  th?8(  cases  si  and  quidem 
ihould  be  written  as  two  separate  words. 

Qm>pe,  when  combined  with  the  relative  pronoun  or  quum,  is  used  to 
i^iroduce  a  subjix^tive  reason    W  hrn  it  occurs  in  an  elliptical  way,  with- 


CONJUNCTIONa  250 

«it  I  verb,  it  is  equivalent  to  " forsooth,"  or  "indeed;*'  e.  g., Cic,  dt  Fht,, 
t,  6,  to/  Democrito  magnus  videtuTf  qvdp^  homini  erudito ;  scnnetimes  it  is 
followed  by  a  sentence  with  enim^  as  m  Cic,  de  Fin.,  iv.,  3,  a  te  qtudem 
mpte  et  rotunde  (dicta  sunt) ;  qmppe ;  habes  emm  a  rhetoribus.  And  in  this 
ivay  qwjtpe  gradually  acquires  the  signification  of  nam. 

[§  347.]  7.  The  following  express  a  puzpose  or  object, 

with  the  signification  of  "in  order  that,"  or,  "in  order  that 

DCt"  fconjunctionesjinales);  ut  or  uH^  qm^  ne  or  ut  nc^  neve 

or  netL,  qmn,,  quotmnus. 

Note. —  Utf  as  a  conjunction,  indicates  both  a  result  and  a  purpose,  "  so 
that,"  and  "in  order  that;']  when. a  negative  is  added  to  it,  m  the  fonner 
sense,  it  becomes  utnon  ;  in  the  latter  ne  or  ut  ne.  Ut  non  is  very  rarely 
used  for  ne;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  20,  ut  non  conferam  vitam  neque  existi- 
maiionem  tuam  cum  illius — hoc  ipsum  conferam^  quo  tu  te  superioretn  fingis  ;  p. 
JLeg.f  Manil.,  15,  Itaque  tU  plura  non  dicam  neque  aliorum  exemplis  confirmem, 
&c.,  instead  of  ne  j)lura  dicanij  neve  confirmem.  For  neve,  which  is  formed 
from  vel  ne,  is  "  or  in  order  that  not,"  and  frequently,  also,  "  and  in  order 
that  not."  See  (f  535.  27/  ne  is  a  pleonasm,  not  differing  perceptibly  from 
n£,  except  that  it  chiefly  occurs  in  solemn  discourse,  and  hence  especially 
in  laws.  The  two  particles  occur  together  as  well  as  separately,  e.  g.,  op- 
eram  dant,  ut  judicia  ne  jiant ;  and  still  more  separated  in  Cic,  de  Nat. 
Dtor.f  L,  17,  Sed  ut  hiCf  qui  intervenitf  me  intuens,  ne  ignoret  quae  res  agatur  ; 
de  natura  agebamus  deorum;  Div.  in  Q.  Caec,  4,  qui  praesentes  vo3  orant,  ut 
in  actore  causae  suae  deligendo  vestrum  judicium  ab  sitojudicio  ne  discrepet.  It 
must,  however,  be  observed  that  ut  ne  is  very  frequently  used  by  Cicero, 
but  rarely  by  other  and  later  writers ;  in  Livy  it  occurs  only  in  two  pas- 
sages, and  in  Valerius  Maximus  and  Tacitus  never.  See  Drakenborch  on 
Li  v.,  X.,  27.  The  pleonasm  quo  ne,  for  ne,  occurs  in  a  single  passage  of 
Horace,  Serm.,  ii.,  1,  37. 

[§  348.]  8.  The  following  express  an  opposition,  with 

the  signification  of  "  but"  f conjunction es  adversativae)  ; 

sed^  autem^  verum,  verOj  at  (poetical  ast),  at  eniniy  atquiy 

tamen^  attamen^  sedtamen,  veruntamen,  at  vero  (cnimvero)^ 

verumenim^  vero^  ceterum. 

Note. — Sed  denotes  a  direct  opposition ;  autem  marks  a  transition  in  a 
larrative  or  argument,  and  denotes  at  once  a  connexion  and  an  opposition, 
whereas  sed  interrupts  the  narrative  or  argument.  The  adverb  porro, 
farther,  is  likewise  used  to  express  such  a  progression  and  transiticm,  hu! 
does  not  denote  opposition,  except  in  later  authors,  such  as  Quintiliaa 
See  Spalding  on  Quintilian,  ii.,  3,  5.  Verum  and  vero  stand  in  a  similar 
relation  to  each  other.  Verumj  with  its  primary  meaning  "  in  truth,"  de- 
notes an  opposition,  which  at  the  same  time  contains  an  explanation,  and 
thus  brings  a  thing  nearer  its  decision,  as  our  "but  rather."  Noh  e^o^  sed 
tu^  ia  a  strong,  but  simple  opposition ;  but  non  ego,  verum  tu^  contains  an 
assurance  and  explanation.  Cic,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  10,  says  that  the  inhabi- 
tan%8  of  Messana  had  formerly  acted  as  enemies  to  every  kind  of  injustice, 
but  that  they  favoured  Verres ;  and  he  then  continues :  Verum  haec  ciyitas 
zsti  praedoni  ae  piratae  Siciliae  Phaselis  (receptaculum  furtorum)  fuit^  i.  e., 
3ut  I  will  explam'  the  matter  to  you,  for  the  fact  is,  that  this  town  was  the 
epository  ot  his  plunder,  and  snar^  in  it.  Vero  bears  to  verum  the  same 
.elation  as  au/em  to  sed :  it  connects  things  which  are  diiferent,  but  denotes 
the  point  in  favour  of  which  the  decision  should  be;  c.  g ,  Cic^  p.  Arch.,  8, 
Homerum  Colophonii  civem  esse  dicunt  suum,  Chii  suum  vindicant,  Salaminit 
repetimtf  Smymaei  vero  suum  esse  c^nfirmani;  in  Verr.,  iii,  4,  Odisti§  hominum 
funnnmn  industriam,  despicitis  eorum  frvgalitatem,  pudorem  eontemnitiSf  ingeiu 


SCO  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

tun  vero  et  virtutem,  depressam  extinctamaue  cupttia.  It  thus  formB  the  t'^ 
tion  to  something  more  important  ana  significant  in  the  phrase,  lUvd  ver 
plane  turn,  est  ferendumy  i.  e.,  that  which  I  am  now  going  to  mention.  Ra 
specting  the  use  of  vero  in  answers,  in  the  sense  of  "  yes,"  see  ^  716. 
Enimvero  is  only  confirming,  *'  yes,  truly^,"  "  in  truth,"  and  aoes  not  denote 
opposition.  See  the  whole  passage  m  Cic,  in  Verr.,  i,  26,  enimvero  hoc 
ferendum  non  est;  and  Terent.,  Andr.f  i,  3,  init,  Enimvero^  Dave^ nil  laciest 
segnitiae  nefue  socordiaet  L  e.,  now  trul)r,  Z>ami«,  there  is  no  time  for  delay 
here.  Comp.  Gronovius  on  Livy,  jxvii.,  30.  EnimverOf  further,  forms  the 
transition  to  that  which  is  most  important,  like  tfero ;  as  in  Tac,  Ann., 
xii.,  64,  Enimvero  certamen  acerrimttmt  amila  poihu  an  mater  apnd  Neronem 
praevaleretf  which  is  the  same  as  acerrimum  vero  certamen.  The  compound 
verum  erumvero  denotes  an  emphatic  opposition  which,  as  it  were,  surpass 
es  everything  else  in  importance,  as  in  Cic,  in  Verr.^  iii.,  84,  Si  tUlo  in  loco 
ejus  proviiuiue  frumentum  tanti  fuit.  qiumti  iste  aestimavit^  hoc  crimen  in  istum 
ream  valere  oportere  non  arbitror.  Verum  enimvero  cum  esset  HS.  binis  avi 
etiam  temis  quibusvis  in  locls  provinciaef  duodenos  sestertios  exeeisti. 

[^  349.]  At  denotes  an  opposition  as  equivalent  to  that  which  precedes ; 
c.  g.,  non  egOf  at  tu  vidistiil  have  not  seen  it,  but  you  have,  ^d  that  is  just 
as  good  ;  homo  etsi  non  sapientissimusj  at  amicissimvs ;  and  so  we  freauentl> 
find  it  after  si  in  the  sense  of  "yet,"  or  "  at  least,"  and  denoting  a  limita- 
tion with  which,  for  the  time,  we  «ure  satisfied ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  p.  Quint.,  31, 
QuinUus  Naevium  obsecravit,  vt  aliquamf  si  w>n  propinqiiitatis,  at  aetatis  suae 
si  non  hominis,  at  humanitatis  rationem  haberet.    Hence  it  is  especially  used 
to  denote  objections,  even  such  as  the  speaker  makes  himself  for  thepur- 
pose  of  upsetting  or  weakening  that  which  was  said  before;  Cic,  p.  Ftac, 
14,  At  enim  negas,  &c. ;  p.  Mur.^  17,  At  enim  in  oraeturae  petitione  prior  re- 
nuntiatus  est  Servius.    By  atqui  we  admit  that  wnich  precedes,  but  oppose 
something  else  to  it,  as  by  tne  English  "  but  still,"  "out  yet,"  or  "  never 
theless ;"  e.  g.,  in  Terent.,  Phorm.,  i.,  4,  26,  Non  sum  apud  me.    Atquf  op» 
est  nunc  cum  maxime  ut  sis  ;  Herat.,  Serm.,  i.,  9, 52,  Magnum  narras,  vix  cred 
ibile.    Atqui  sic  habet ;  Cic,  ad  Att.^  viii,  3,  O  rem  dijfficilem,  inquis,  et  inexpli 
cabilem.    Atqui  explicanda  est.    And  so,  also,  in  the  connexion  of  sentences, 
when  that  which  is  admitted  is  made  use  of  to  prove  the  contrary,  as  il 
Cic,  Cat.  Maj.y  22 f  Videtis  nihil  esse  morti  tam  simile  qtutm  somnum.    Atqui 
dormientium  animi  maxime  declarant  divinitatem  auam,  and  yet  the  souls  of 
sleeping  persons  show  their  divine  nature.    Atqui  is  used,  lastly,  in  syllo- 
gisms, when  a  thing  is  assumed  which  had  before  been  left  undecided,  as 
in  Cic,  Parad.f  iiL,  1,  Quodsi  virtutes  sunt  pares  inter  se,  paria  etiam  vitia  esse 
necesse  est.    Atqui  pares  esse  virlutee  facile  potest  perspici.    Atqtti  thus  ire 
quently  occurs  as  a  syllogistic  particlo  in  replies  in  disputations,  but  ii 
does  not  denote  a  direct  opposition  of  facts.    Ceterum  properly  signifies 
"  as  for  .the  rest,"  but  is  often  used,  especially  by  Curtius,  in  the  same 
sense  as  sed.    Contra  ea,  in  the  sense  of  **  on  the  other  hand,"  may  bo 
classed  amcmg  the  conjunctions,  as  in  Livy,  Superbe  a  Sammtibus  legatt 
prohibiti  commerdo  suntf  contra  ea  benigne  ab  Sicidorum  tyrannis  adjutu     So 
n\so,adeOy  in  as  much  as  this  adverb  is  used  in  a  peculiar  way  to  form  a:  tran- 
sition to  something  essential,  on  which  particular  attention  is  to  be  1)6-  - 
stowed ;  e.  g.,  when  Cicero,  in  Vtrr.,  iv.,  64.  has  told  us  that  he  prefeis 
introducing  the  witnesses  and  documents  themselves,  he  terms  the  transi- 
tion. Id  adeo  ex  ipso  SenatusconsvJio  cognoscite;-  and  so,  frequently,  ibid,  iv.. 
63,  id  adeo  ut  mihi  ex  illis  demonstratum  est^  sic  vos  ex  me  cognoscite;  p.  Cac 
3,  id  adeo  J  si  placet^  considerate.    The  pronoun  always  accompanies  it.    An* 
f  em  may  be  used  in  its  place ;  in  English  it  maybe  rendered  by  "and," 
but  the  pronoun  must  be  pronounced  with  emphasis. 

•  [§  350.]  9.  Time  is  expressed  by  the  conjwictumes  tern- 
porales  :  quuiriy  quum  primum,  ut,  ut  primum,  uhi^  post 
quam^  antequam  and  priugqvum^  quando^simulac  or  simul 
atque,  or  simul  alone,  dufn.^  usque  dum,  donee,  quoat?- 


coNjuvcTiova.  201 

• 

Sote. —  Ul,  as  a  paiticle  of  liinc,  signiiies  "  ulim."  Ub\  prr  pcrly  an  ad 
verb  of  place,  is  used  in  the  same  sense.  Slhtdit (UP  aiis\v-«is  id  our  *as 
ooon  as,"  in  \thich  sense  sinml  alone  is  also  i.sed  Quuhiin  insiehd  ot 
quum  is  rarP,  as  in  Cic,  in  Rull^  ii.,  16,  auctoritatfnn  Snuttns  r.rtnrt:  hrredita- 
tis  aditae  sentio^  turn,  qnando,  rege  Aegyptio  tnortuu,  le^rnlos  'Vyrvm  misimus. 
The  woxds  dum^  donee  {donicvm  is  obsolete),  and  quoad  have  the  double 
meaning  of  "  as  long  as,"  and  "  until ;"  e.  g.,  donee  ens  felix^  muUos  nume- 
rabis  ami:fjs,  "  as  long  as  you  aro  in  good  circumstances ;"  and  forU  expec 
tavity  donee  or  dum.  exiity  "  until  be  came  out."  Donee  never  occurs  in  Cao 
ear,  and  in  Cicero  only  once,  in  Verr.,  i.,  6,  usque  co  timuiy  ne  quis  de  meajide 
dubitarct,  donee  ad  rejieiendos  judices  venimusy  but  it  is  frequently  used  in 
poetry  and  in  Livy.  The  conjunction  dum  often  precedes  the  adverb  fw- 
terea  (or  interim)^  and  the  two  conjunctions  dum  and  donee  are  often  prece- 
ded by  the  adverbs  usauty  usque  eo,  tisque  adeo,  the  conjunction  either  fol- 
lowing immediately  after  the  adverb,  or  being  separated  from  it  by  some 
words,  as  in  Cicero,  mihi  usque  eurae  erity  quid  agasy  dum  quid  egeris  scieto. 

[§  351.]  10.  The  folio  wine  interrogative  particles*  like 
wise  .belong  to  the  conjunctions  ;  num^  utrum,  arty  and  the 
euffix  nCy  which  is  attached  also  to  the  three  preceding 
particles,  without  altering  their  meaning,  ntmme^  utrumne, 
anne^  and  which  forms  with  nan  a*  special  interrogative 
paiticle  nonne ;  also  ec  and  ew,  as  they  appear  in  ecquisy 
ecquando  and  cnumquamy  and  numquid^  ecquid,  when  used 
a.3  pure  interrogative  particles. 

Note. — The  interrogative  particles  here  mentioned  must  not  be  con- 
loanded  with  the  interrogative  adjective^  and  adverbs,  suchas  quis?  uteri 
ubi  ?  The  latter,  by  reason  of  their  signification,  may  likewise  connect 
ff^itences,  in  what  are  called  indirect  questions.  (See  %  552.)  The  in 
terrogative  particles  have  no  distinct  meaning  by  themselves,  but  serve 
only  to  give  to  a  proposition  the  form  of  a  question.  This  interrogative 
meaning  ma^,  in  direct  speech,  be  given  to  a  proposition  by  the  mere  mode 
of  accentuating  it,  viz.,  when  a  question  at  the  same  time  conveys  the  idea 
of  surprise  or  astonishment ;  but  in  indirect  questions  those  interrogative 
particles  are  absolutely  necessary  (the  only  exception  occurs  in  the  case 
of  a  double  question,  see  %  554).  Numquid  and  ecquid  can  be  reckoned 
among  them  only  in  so  far  as  they  are  sometimes  mere  signs  of  a  question, 
like  num^  iptid  in  this  case  having  no  meaning  at  all ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Leg.y  ii., 
2,  Numqmd  tfoa  duos habetis patriasy  an  est  ilia  unapatria  eommunis  ?  have  you, 
perhaps,  two  native  countnes,  or,  &c. ;  ecquid  (whether)  m  Italiam  venturi 
fitis  hoc  hieme,fae  plcne  sciam.  This  is  very  different  from  another  passage 
in  the  same  writer:  t^uid  in  tuam  statuam  oontulit?  has  he  contributed' 
anything  T  rogavit  mey  numquid  vellemy  he  asked  me  whether  I  wanted  any- 
thing :  in  these  latter  sentences  the  pronoun  quid  retains  its  signification. 
For  en  or  (when  followvH.1  by  a  q)  cc  is  (like  num,  ne  and  an)  a  purely  inter- 
rogatire  particle,  probab))'  formed  in  imitation  of  the  natural  mterrogative 
sound,  and  must  be  distin^iiished  from  m,  **  behold !"  See  ^  132.  It  nev. 
er  appears  alone,  but  is  always  prefixed  to  some  other  interrogative  word. 
Enumquam  is  the  only  word  in  which  the  m  is  used  differently,  e.  g.,  enum- 
9uam  audisti  ?  didst  thon  ever  hear  ?  enumf^wim  futurum  est  f  will  it  evei 
happen? 

But  there  are  differences  in  the  use  of  these  particles  themselves.  Nvm 
f together  with  tmrnne,  numnamy  numquidy  numquidnam)  and  ee  {en)  in  its 
eompounds,.  give  a  negative  meaning  to  direct  questions,  that  is,  they  are 
tied  in  the  supposition  t^at  the  andwer  will  be  **no ;"  e.  g.,  num  puias  mt 


[Consult  Philological Museumy'So.  v.,  p  "^7,  seq.y-Am.  Ed 


^2  LATIN    GRAMMAK. 

tarn  dementem ftds»e  7  you  surely  do  not  believe  that,  &e.  Ecquid  a.on«<r 
aometimes  used  also  in  an  affirmative  sense,  that  is,  in  the  expectation  of 
an  affirmative  answer ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  ad  Att.^  ii.,  2,  »ed  heua  tu^  ecquid  vides  ca 
lendas  venire  ?  in  Catil.y  i.,  8,  ecquid  eUtendiSf  ecquid  animadvertia  horum  sUen- 
Hum  ?  do  you  not  observe  their  silence  ?  It  must,  however,  be  borne  in 
mind,  that  in  general  the  negative  sense  of  these  particles  appears  only  in 
direct,  and  not  in  indirect  questions,  for  in  the  latter  num.  ana  ec  are  simply 
interrogative  particles  without  implying  negation;  e.  g.,  quaesivi ex eo,  num 
in  senatum  exset  venturust  whether  he  would  come  to  the  senate,  or  ecqttu 
esset  venturus^  whether  any  body  would  come. 

[^  352.]  Net  which  is  always  appended  to  some  other  i^ord,  properly 
denotes  simply  a  question ;  e.  ^.j  putasne  me  istud  facere  potuisse  ?  Do  you 
Velieve  that,  &c.  Dut  the  Latm  writers  use  such  questions  indicated  by 
te  also  in  a  more  definite  sense,  so  that  they  are  sometimes  affirmative 
and  sometimes  negative  interrogations.  (Respecting  the  former,  see  Heu- 
singer  on  Cic,  de  Of.,  iii.,  17.)  The  negative  sense  is  produced  by  the 
accent  when  ne  is  attached  to  another  word,  and  not  to  the  principal  verb  ; 
e.  g.,  mene  istud  potuisse  facere  puteu  ?  Do  you  believe  that  I  would  have 
done  that  ?  or,  hocine credibile  est?  Is  that  credible?  The  answer  e^bcted 
in  these  cases  is  **  no."  So,  also,  in  a  question  referring  to  the  past  ;e.g., 
Cic,  m  Verr.f  i.,  18,  Apollinemne tu  Delium  spoUare  t/Usus  est  where  the  an> 
swer  is,  "that  is  impossible."  But  when  attached  to  the  principal  verb, 
ne  very  often  gives  the  affirmative  meaning  to  the  question,  so  that  we  ex- 
pect Ine  answer  "yes,"  e.  g.,  Cic,  Acad.^  ii.,  18,  videsne,  vt  in proverbio  sU 
ovorum  inter  se  similitudo  ?  Do  you  not  see  that  the  resemblance  among 
eggs  has  become  proverbial  ?  Cat.  Maj.  10,  videtisnCf  ut  apud  Homerwn 
aaepissime  Nestor  de  virtutibns  suis  praedicet  ?  Do  you  not  see,  &c.  In  the 
same  sense  we  might  also  say,  nonne  videtis  ?  for  nonne  is  the  sign  of  an 
affirmative  interrogation ;  e.  g^  Nonne  poetae  post  mortem  nobilitari  volunt  ? 
Cants  nonne  lupo  similis  est  ?  Utrum,  m  accordance  with  4ts  derivation 
(from  ii<er,  which  of  two),  is  used  only  in  double  questions,  and  it  is  imma- 
terial whether  there  are  two  or  three ;  c.  g.,  Cic,  Cat.  Maj.,  10,  Utrum 
has  (Milonis)  corporis, an  Pythagoraetibi  mails  vires  ingenii  darif  <id  Att.,  ix., 
2,  Utrum  hoc  tu  parum  commeministi,  an  ego  non  satis  intellexi,  an  ntutitsti  sen 
tentiam ?  Senec,  Ep.,  56,  Sisitis  (if  you  are  thirsty),  nihil  interest,  utrum 
aqua  sit,  an  vinum;  nee  re/ert,  utrum  sit  aureum  poculumf  an  vitreum,  an  manus 
concava.  Utrum  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  the  intenogative  particle 
ne,  which,  however,  is  usually  separated  from  it  by  one  or  more  other 
words ;  e.  g.,  Terent.,  Eun.,  iv.,  4,  54,  Utrum  taceamne  an  praedicem  ?  Cic, 
de  Nat.  J  Deor.y  ii.,  34,  Videamus  virum  ea  fortuitane  sint,  an  eo  statu,  &,c.  • 
Nep.,  Iph.,  3,  quum  interrogaretur  utrum  pluris  patrem  matremne  faceret»  U 
later  writers,  however,  we  find  utrumne  united  as  one  word.  JVe  is  rarely 
appended  to  adjective  interrogatives,  though  instances  are  found  in  poe* 
try,  as  in  Herat,  Sat.,  ii.,  2, 107,  uteme;  ii.,  3,  295,  quone  malo;  and  317, 
quantane.  It  is  still  more  surprising  to  find  it  attached  to  the  relative  pro* 
•  noun,  merely  to  form  an  interrogation.  Ibid.,  L,  10, 2 ;  Terent.,  Adelph., 
ii.,  3,  9. 

[^  353.]  An,  as  a  sign  of  an  indirect  interrogation,  occurs  <Hily  in  the 
writers  of  the  silver  age  (beginning  with  Curtius).  It  then  answers  to 
"  whether ;"  e.  g.,  consuUt  deinde  (Alexander),  an  totitts  orbis  imperiumfaiis 
sibi  dsjtinaret  pater.  In  its  proper  sense  it  is  used  only,  and  by  Cicero  ex> 
clusively,*  in  a  second  or  opposite  question,  where  we  use  "or,"  as  in  thb 

♦  The  passages  which  foiroerly'occurred  here  and  there  in  Cicero,  with 
en  in  the  sense  of  "  whether"  in  simple  indirect  questions,  are  corrected 
in  the  latest  editions.  See  p.  Cluent.,  19,  ^  52;  in  Catil,  ii.,  6,  ^  13;  in 
Verr.,  iv.,  12,  ^  27.  There  remains  only  quaesivi  an  misisset  in  the  last 
passage,  of  which  no  certain  correction  is  fountl  in  MSS.,  although  the 
tault  Itself  is  obvious,  and  Topic,  21,  ^  81,  where  quum  an  sit,  out  gutd  git 
out  quale  sU  quaeritur,  must  be  corrected  according  to  MSS.  into  out  mint 
etut  q%tid  sit,  &c. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  863* 

« 

passage  of  Seneca  quoted  above.  A  sentence  like  gttaero  an  argtntum  di 
dederU  cannot,  therefore,  be  unconditionally  recommended  as  gucd  Latin 
(though  it  is  frequently  done),  and,  accordmg  to  Cicero,  who  must  be  re 
garded  as  our  model  in  all  matters  of  grammar,  we  ought  to  say  ntan  pv 
euniam  ei  dederu,  or  dederisne  ei  pecuniam.  In  direct  interrogations,  when 
no  interrogative  sen  jence  precedes,  an,  annCf  an  vero  can  likewise  be  used 
only  in  the  sense  of  our  "  or,"  that  is,  in  such  a  manner  that  a  preceding 
interrogation  is  supplied  by  the  mind.  *  £.  g.,  when  we  say,  "  I  did  not 
intentionally  oflfend  you,  or  do  you  believe  that  I  take  pleasure  in  hurting 
a  person?"  we  supply  before  ** or"  the  sentence,  "  Do  you  believe  this  ?" 
and  connect  with  it  another  question  which  contains  that  which  ought  to 
be  Lhe  case  if  the  assertion  were  not  true.  The  Latin  is,  invitus  te  ^endi, 
OK  pvUu  me  deUctarilaedendU  hominibus  f  Examples  are  numerous.  Cic, 
Philip.,  i  6,  Q^odsi  scisset,  quam  aententiam  dictunu  esaem,  remisisset  aliquid 
p'«j^ea9  de  aeveriUUjB  corendi  {in  senatum).  An  me  censetis  decretitntm/uisse, 
Z^&c.  tLat  13,  ho  would  certainly  not  have  obliged  me  to  go  to  the  senate, 
or  Qo^  you  heUeve  that  I  should  have  voted  for  him?  p.  Mil,  23,  Causa 
MiUnnf  rtmper  a  senaht  probata  est ;  videbant  enim  sapientissimi  homines  factt 
rationsm,  praeseK  ticm  animi,  defensionis  constantiam.  An  vero  obliti  estis,  &LC.  ,* 
de  FiH.f  h,  6,  jVm2  ad  haec,  nisi  molestum  est,  habeo  quae  velim.  An  me, 
inqua>n,  n'si  te  au.^ire  \-ellem,  censes  haec  dicturumfuisse  ?  In  this  sentence 
we  have  to  f)uppl>  U'fore  an,  dicesne  ?  An,  after  a  preceding  question,  is 
rendered  by  <*uct\*'  anl  it  then  indicates  that  the  answer  cannot  be 
doubtful;  e.  g.,  CL3.,  ^  Verr.,v.,2,  Quiddicis?  Anbellofugitivorum  Siciliam 
virtute  tualiberatmi  f  Doycunot  say  that  Sicily,  &c.  (In  Latin  we  must 
evidently  supply  utnim  aliud  ?)  So,  also.  Cat.  Maj.,  6,  A  rebus  gerendis 
sauctus  abstrahit.  Quw'6u  t  T  An  his,  quae  eerunturjuventute  ac  viribus  ?  Sup-* 
ply  Aliisne?  de  0^.,L,  15,  Q}udnam  beneficio  provocati  facere  debemus?  An 
imitari  agrosfertiles,  qui  ikulo  -^Itu  efferunt  quam  acceperunt  ?  Must  we  not 
imitate?  llence  such  que&'ions  may  also  be  introduced  by  nonne,  but 
without  allusion  to  an  opposiisqMestion  which  is  implied  in  an. 

{^  354.]  There  is,  however,  ono  great  exception  to  the  rule  that  an  ir 
used  only  to  indicate  a  secono  oi  opposite  question,  for  an  is  employed 
after  the  expressions  dubito,  du^-iu.'i  est,  incertum  est,  and  several  similar 
ones ;  such  as  deUbero,  haesito,  and  iLoro  especially  after  nescio  or  haxidseio, 
all  of  which  denote  uncertainty,  but  wi^h  an  inclination  in  favour  of  the 
affirmative.  Examples  are  numerous,  ^t^.,  Thrasyb.,  \,  Si  per  se  virius 
sine  fortuna ponderanda  sit,  dubito  an  hwv:  nnmum  omnium  ponam,  if  virtue  is 
to  be  estimated  without  any  regard  as  tt  its  success,  I  am  not  certain 
whether  1  should  not  prefer  this  man  toalKth^^rs.  Compare  Heusinger's 
note  on  that  passage.  Curt.,  iv.,  59,  Dicilu."  a.'mace  stricto  Dareus  dubitasse, 
xn  fugae  dedecus  fumesta  morte  vitaret,  that  is,  he  was  considering  as  to 
whether  he  should  not  make  away  with  hin.se.\f.  It  is  not  Latin  to  say 
Dubito  annon  for  dubito  an,  for  the  passage  of  Cict  -o,  de  Off.,  iiL,  12,  dubitat 
an  harpe  non  sit,  signifies,  he  is  inclined  to  believe  <hk:t  it  is  not  bad,  putat 
non  turpe  esse,  sed  honestum.  Respecting  incertum  es».  see  Cic,  Cat.  Maj., 
20,  Moriendum  enim  eerie  est,  et  id  incertum,  an  eo  ipso  dis,  hMd.  this  is  uncer* 
tain,  as  to  whether  we  are  not  to  die  on  this  very  day.  Acscto  an,  or  baud 
sdo  an,  are  therefore  used  quite  in  the  sense  of  "  perhaps,**  so  that  they 
are  followed  by  the  negatives  nullus,  nemo,  nunquam,  insted  of  which  we 
might  be  inclined  to  use  idlus,  quisquam,  unquaAi,  if  we  tran^'^a&e  nescio  an 
by  "  I  do  not  know  whether."  See  ^721.  The  inclination  I'^wards  the 
affirmative  in  these  expressions  is  so  universal,  that  such  excep«.'oi.s  as  in 
Cnrtius,  ix.,  7,  et  interdum  dubitabat,  an  Macedones — per  tot  natturae  x'hsUmtes 
HfficuUates  secuturi  essent,  even  in  later  writers,  although  in  other  ccnn.?x 
i(Hi8  they  use  an  in  the  sense  of  *'  whether,"  must  be  looked  upon  as  rar^ 
peculisnties.  We  must  farther  observe,  that  when  the  principal  verb  it 
omitted,  an  is  often  used  in  precisely  the  same  sense  as  aut;  tnis  is  vcr) 
frequently  the  case  in  Tacitus,  but  occurs  also  in  Cicero,  deFin.,}i.,  32 
Tf^mtiocles,  quum  et  Simonides,  an  quis  alius,  artem  memmiae  polUceretm 


2G4  LATIN   GKAMMAB. 

6lC. ;  atd  Att.f  l.,  2,  nos  hie  te  ad  mensem  Januarium  exj^ectamus,  cs  qvodeom 
rumore,  an  ex  litteris  tuii  ad  alios  missis.  ^  There  can  be  no  doi  bt  t^olt 
the  expression  ijuertum  est  ia  understood  in  such  cases ;  in  Tacims  ft  ia 
often  added.  Compare  Cic,  ad  Fam.^  vii.,  9 ;  ad  Att.f  ii.  7,  3 ;  Brut.,  23, 
89.  Cicero,  however,  could  not  go  as  far  as  Tacitus,  who  connects  ccr 
with  a  verb  in  the  indicative;  ifnn.,  zi v.,  7,  Igitur  longxan  tUriusque  st 
ttntitmif  ne  irriti  dissuadarent,  an  eo  descensum  credebanty  instead  of  incertum 
estfactumne  sit  earn  ob  causam^  ne  irrm  aissuacterent,  an  qtuacredebant. 

The  •coniunction  <t  is  sometimes  used  in  indirect  interrogations  instead  of 
fuim,  liJie  the  Greek  el ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxziz.^  50,  nihil  aliud  (Philopoemenem) 
lociOum/enmtfquam  quaesisse^si  incotumis  Lycortas  evasisset.  After  the  verb 
tsperior,  I  try,  it  is  used  also  by  Cicero,  Philip.^  ix.,  1,  non  recusavitf  quo- 
mmus  vel  extremo  spiritu^  si  quam  opem  reip.  fare  posset ^  experiretur.  Respect- 
ing expectare  sij  see  Schneider  on  Caes.,  Bell.  GalL^  iL,  9. 

[§  355.]  11.  Most  conjunctions  are  placed  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  proposition  which  they  introduce ;  only  these 
few,  enim^  autem,  vero^  are  placed  after  the  first  word  of 
a  proposition,  or  after  the  second,  when  the  first  two  be- 
long together,  or  when  one  of  them  is  the  auxiliary  verb 
esse,  as  in  Cicero  fde  Orat,,  i.,  44),  incredibile  est  enim, 
quam  sit  omne  jus  civile,  praeter  hoc  nostrum,  inconditum 
ac  patne  ridiculum  ;  but  rarely  after  several  words,  as  in 
Cic,  jp,  Cluent.,  60,  Per  quern  porro  datum  vene7iU7n? 
unde  sumptum  ?  quae  deinde  interceptio pocidi  ?  cur  non  de. 
integro  autem  datv/m,  7  Compare  Ellendt  on  Cic,  BruL, 
49.  Quidem  and  quoque,  when  belonging  to  single  words, 
may  take  any  place  in  a  proposition,  but  they  are  always 
placed  after  the  word  which  has  the  emphasis!  Itaque 
and  igitur  are  used  by  Cicero  with  this  distinction,  that 
itaque,  according  to  its  compusition,  stands  first,  while 
igitur  is  placed  after  the  first,  and  sometimes  even  after 
several  words  of  a  proposition;  e.  g.,  in  Verr,,  i.,  32, 
Huic  homini  parcetis  igitur,  judice^  ?  de  Nat,  Deor.,  iii., 
17,  Ne  Orcus  quidem  deus  igitur?  But  other  authors, 
especially  later  ones,  place  both  indiscriminately  either 
at  the  beginning  of  a  proposition,  or  aft;er  it.  In  like 
manner,  tamen  is  put  either  at  the  beginning  of  a  propo- 
sition, or  after  the  first  word. 

[^  356.]  Note. — All  the  other  conjunctions  stand  at  the  beginning;  with 
flome  this  is  the  case  exclusively;  viz.,  with  e<,  etenimt  ac,  at,  atque,  at^i^ 
neque,  neci  out,  Vfl,  sive,  «m,  sed^  nam,  vertan,  and  the  relatives  quare,  (pu> 
area,  quamobrem ;  others  are  generally  placed  at  the  beginning,  but  when  a 
particular  word  is  to  be  pronounc^  with  peculiar  emphasi?,  this  word 
(and  all  that  belcmgs  to  it)  stands  first,  and  the  conjunction  follows  it„  as 
in  Cicero,  Tantum  moneo,  hoc  tempus  si  amiseris^  te  esse  nullum  unquam 
.  magia  idoneum  repertvrum ;  valere  ut  malts,  quam  dives  esse  ;  nullum  injustitia 
partum.  praemium  tantum  est,  semper  ut  timeas,  semper  ut  adesse,  semj.er  ut  im 
pendere  aliquam  poenam  putes.  The  same  is  not  unfrequently  the  case  IE 
combinations  ofconjunctions  with  pronouns,  especially  with  the  relativ* 
pronoun;  e.  g.,  Hoc  quum  dicit,  illud  vtU    intelligi ;  qui  quoniam  quid 


f  ON  JUNCTIONS.  .  265 

tHielligt  nolua,  omiUamus^  Cic.  It  must  be  observed,  as  a  peculiarity,  iFiat 
wl,  even  without  there  being  any  particular  emphasis,  is  commonly  placed 
after  the  words  vir,  paene^  and  prope^  and  also  after  the  negatives  wdlust 
nemOf  nihilt  and  the  word  tantwn;  e.  g.,  vw  ut  arma  retinere  possei ;  nihil  mi 
de  eommodia  nd$  cogUarent,  The  conjunctions  ou«,  ve^  and  ne  are  appended 
to  other  words,  and  stand  with  them  at  the  oe^nning  of  a  proposition ; 
but  when  a  monosyllabic  preposition  stands  at  the  beginning  they  often 
attach  themselves  to  the  case  governed  by  those  prepositions ;  e.  g.,  Ro- 
mamCato  (Tusculo)  demigravitf  in/oroque  esse  coepit ;  legatum  misenmS,  ui  is 
^^pudeum  causam  artUorum  ageret^  ab  eoque  peteret ;  and  SO,  also,  adpopulum 
tut  lAebemve  fare  ;  in  nostrane  potestate  est  quid  meminerinws  ?  We  never 
fina  adqw  od^tte,  atme;  whereas  proque  summa  benevolentia,  and  the  like, 
are  us^  exclusively ;  and  in  other  combinations  either  method  may  be 
adopted :  ettmque  his  eopiis  and  cum  jurmisque  praesidiis ;  esque  his  and  e» 
iisque  ;  equs  republica.  deque  univsrsa  rep,  and  de  provineiaque  decessU,  Amid 
quosque,  m  Cic,  de  Off.y  i.,  35,  is  an  excusable  peculiarity,  because  (^[maqus 
quos  would  be  against  all  euphony. 

[^  357.]  What  was  said  above  concerning  the  different  positions  of 
uaque  and  igitvr  in  Cicero  is  well  known,  and  generally  correct ;  but  it  is 
not  so  well  knowrt  that  igitur  is,  nevertheless,  placed  by  that  author  now 
and  then  atthe  beginning  of  a  proposition,  and  tmi  not  only  in  philosophic 
reasonings,  as  Bremi  states  on  Cic,  de  Fim.,  i.,  18;  and  as  we  find  it  in  de 
Fin,,  iv.,  19,  si  illudi  hoc :  non  autem  hoc,  isitur  ne  illud  quidem ;  but  in  the 
ordinary  connexion  of  sentences;  in  RidL,  it,  27,  igthir  pecuniam  omnem 
Decemviri  teneinmt ;  de  Prov.  Cons.,  4,  igitur  m  Syria  nihil  aliud  actum  est , 
Lael.,  11,  igitur  ni  suspicari  quidem  poisumus ;  Phitip.,  ii.,  16,  in  fh^.^  igttur 
fratrem  exheredans  te  faeiebat  heredem;  Philip,  X.,  Q,  igitur. iUi  certissum 
Caesaris  actorum  patroni  pro  D.  Bruti  salute  hdlum  gerunt;  de  Leg.,  i.,  C, 
IgUur  doctissimis  tiris  profidsci  placuit  a  lege;  ad  AtL,  vL,  L,  22,  Igitur  tu 
juoque  salutem  utique  adscribito,  8allust  too  frequently  places  igitur  at  the 
beginning.  But  ita^  m  the  second  place  does  not  occur  in  Cicero,,  for 
in  Philip.,  vii.,  3,  we  must  read,  according  to  the  best  MS.,  igitur,  iAstead 
of  itaque,  in  the  sentence,  ego  Uaque  pads,  ut  ita  dicam,  alumnus,  and  in 
Partit,  Orat.,  7,  quidem  is  more  correct.  In  Curtius,  (tdqus  Vippesta  in  the 
second  place  only  once  (viL,  39).  In  like  manner,  the  rule  cannot  be 
upset  by  the  few  passages  in  which  Cicero  places  vera,  in  answers,  at  the 
beginning  (just  as  enim  is  used  by  the  comic  writers).  See  de  Republ,  i., 
37,  ^  43 ;  de  Leg-,  U  24 ;  in  RuU.,Ti.,  25 ;  p.  Mur.,  31,  ^  65. 

[^.358.]  All  tins  applies  only  to  the  practice  of  prose  writers.  Poeta, 
according  to  the  necessity  of  the  verse,  place  even  the  prepositive  con- 

{' unctions  after  one  or  more  words  of  a  proposition ;  e.  ^Horat,  Epod., 
7,  45',  et  tu,  potes  nam,  solve  nu  dementiae;  Serm.,  i.,  5,  a6,  quattuor  hinc 
rapimur  viginti  et  milia  rhedis  ;  ibid.,  i.,  10,  71,  vivos  et  roderet'w^ues.  They 
separate  et  from  the  word  belongiiup^o  it ;  as,  Horat.,  Carm.,  iii.,  4, 6,  amitn 
et  videor  pios  errors  per  lucos  ;  Serm!^\\.,  6.  3,  Auctius  atque  dii  melius  feeere  ; 
and  they  append  que  and  ve  neither  to  tne  first  word  of  a  proposition,  nor 
to  their  proper  words  in  other  connexions ;  e.  g.,  Tibull.,  i.,  3,  55, 

Hicjacet  immiti  consumptus  morte  TibuUuf, 
messalUim  terra  dum  sequiturque  man,       * 

histead  of  the  prose  form  terra  marique  ;  and  in  Horat.,  Serm.,  ii.,  3,  ISO, 

Non  Pyladenferro  violare  aususve  sororem. 

But  it  is  to  be  observed  that  those  conjunctions  in  such  arbitrary  positlona 
are  joined  only  to  verbs.  Isolated  exceptions,  such  as  in  Horat.,  C*rm., 
ii,  19,  28,  pads  eras  mediusque  belli.;  and  iii,  1,  12,  Moribus  hie  meUorqus 
fcuna  eontendat ;  Ovid.,  Met.,  ii,  89,  dum  resqus  dnit ;  and  Pedo  Albtn., 
•I  Jfon«  Drun,  20,  cannot  be  taken  into  acco  ant. 

z 


LATIN  ORAMMAE  * 


CHAPTER  LXVni 

INTERJECTIONS. 

[§  359.]  1  Interjections  are  soun<^s  uttered  undei 
the  influence  of  strong  emotions.  They  are  indeclinable^ 
and  stand  in  no  close  connexion  with  tbe  rest  of  the  sen- 
tence ;  for  the  datiye  and  accusative,  which  are  joined 
with  some  of  them,  are  easily  explained  by  an  ellipsis. 
See  §  402  and  403.  ' 

2.  The  number  of  inteijeetimis  in  any  language  cannot 
be  fixed.  Those  which  occur  most  frequently  in  Latir- 
authors  are  the  following : 

faj  Of  joy:  id,  iu^ha^  ke^  hahdhey  euoe,  euax* 

(h)  Of  grief:  vae^  heu^  eheu^  ohe^  ecu,  hei,  pro. 

(c)  Of  astonishment  i  o,en  ov  ecce^  hui,  hem^  eJiem^  dha^ 
utat^  papacy  vah  ;  and  of  disgust :  pntU,  'apage,  (See  § 
222.) 

fdj  Of  calling :  heus^  o,  ehp,  ehodum  ;  of  attestation : 
prOf  also  written  proh. 

Ye  J  Of  praise  or  flattery :  eia,  euge,    • 

[§  360.]  3.  Other  parts  of  speech,  especially  nouns, 
substantiye  and  adjective^  adyerbs  and  verbs,  and  even 
complex  expressions,  such  as  oaths  and  invocations,  must 
in  particular  connexions  h%  regarded  as  inteijecticms. 
Such  nouns  are:  pax  •(he  still !),  nullum^  indignum^  ne- 
fandum,  rwenm,  miserabile^o  express  astonishment 
and  indignation ;  macUf  and  virith  a  plural  macH^  is  ex- 
pressive of  approbation.  (See  §  103.)  Adverbs :  noe, 
prqfecto^  dto^  bene,  heUe  /  ^^Verbs*  used  as  inteijections 
are :  quaeto^  preeor^  oro,  ohsecro,  amaho  (to  all  of  which 
tt  or  VM  may  be  added),  used  in  imploring  and  request- 
ing. So,  also,  age^  CLgiu^  cedo^  sedes  (^  si  audeijy,mf 
MwlUs  (for  81  viSf  si  vvltis)^  and  agesis^  agedum,  agitedum, 

Nuej—NoM  in  the  best  writers  is  joined  only  with  pronouns :  nae  eg9, 
mae  UU  v^ementer  errcnl,  nae  itta  glonota  sapientia  turn  magni  aesHnumda  ec4 
Pynhus,  after  the  battle  of  Heraclea,  said,  Nae  ego,  ti  tUnm  eodem  mode 
viceto,  eine  uUo  nUUu  m  Mpirum  reverter,  Oros.,  iv^  1. 

[§  361.]  4.  Among  the  invocations  of  the  gods,  the  fol- 
lowing are  particularly  frequent:  mehercule^  meherde^ 
hercule,  hercle,  or  mehercules,  herctdes,  medius  fidius^  mt- 
castor,  ecastor,  pol,  edepol,per  deum,per  deum  immortalem^ 
per  deos,per  Jovem^pro  {or  proh)  juppiter^pro  sancte  fsu 


SYNTAX.  2#7 

preme)  Juppiter^  pro  dii  ifnmortales  pro  deum  fidem^  pro 
deum  atque  h^munmmfidem.pro  deum  or  pro  deum  imtMr- 
uUium  (^\[.Jidem)^  and  several  otheis  of  this  kind. 

Note. — Me  before  the  names  of  gods  must  be  explained  by  an  ellipsii . 
the  complete  expression  was,  Ua  me  (e.  g.,  Herculet)  juvet;  or  with  the 
vodative,  ita  me  Hercule  juvet.  The  interjection  mediusfidiua  arose,  in  all 
probability,  from  me  dius  (Aloe)  fidnu^  which  is  archaic  ioijUhu,  and  it 
thas  equivalent  to  meherculee,  for  Hercnlee  is  the  son  of  that  god*  Meker 
euh  is  the  form  which  Cicero  {Orat.f  47)  approves,  and  whicl^  along  with 
herculet  occurs  most  frequently  in  his  writmgs.  See  my  note  on  in  Verr., 
iii.,  62.  The  oath  by  roUux  (pol)  is  a  very  light  one,  and  heace  it  is 
given  especially  to  women  in  the  comic  writers,  in  edtpol  and  edecaeUtr  the 
e  is  either  the  same  as  me,  or  it  is  a  mere  sound  of  interjection ;  de  is  deue,* 


=xaa 


SYNTAX. 


L  CONNEXION  OF  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE.t 

CHAPTER  LXIX. 

[§  362.]  1.  The  subject  of  a  proposition  is  that  concern- 
ing which  anything  is  declared,  and  the  predicate  that 
which  is  declared  concerning  the  subject.  The  subject 
appearis  either  in  the  form  of  a  substantive,  or  in  that  oi 
an  adjective  or  pronoun,  supplying  the  place  of  a  substan- 
tive. Whenever  there  is  no  such  grammatical  subject, 
the  indeclinable  pait  of  speech  or  preposition  which  takes 
its  place  is  treated  as  a  substantive  of  the  neuter  gender. 
(Compare  §  43.) 

[^  363.]  Note  1. — The  manner  in  which  a  pronoun  supplies  the  placet  of 
'a  substantive  requires  no  explanation.  An  adjectiye  can  be  used  as  a 
substantive  only  when  a  real  substantive  is  understood.^  The  substan- 
tive most  frequently  and  easily  understood  is  homoy  and  many  Latin  words 
which  are  properly  adjectives  nave  thus  acquired  the  meaning  of  snbstan 
\j?$eB ;  e.  g.,  omiaiit,  famUians,  aequmlie,  vtemust  &c.  (see  ^  410,  foil.),  ami 
others,  such  as  eodue^  eermu,  Wteriinus,  retu,  catididatusj  although  most  fre 
quently  used  as  substantives,  nevertheless  occur  also  as  adjectives.  Bu' 
jpon  tmt  pcMnt  the  Dictionary  must  be  coiMulted,  and  we  only  remark  thtf 

*  [The  more  common^  and  very  probably  the  more  correct  opinion 
makes  edepol  and  edeeaatot  to  be  for  Mr  adem  Ptihtak^  and  fwr  mdem  Caa 
torit.i.  e.,  *'by  the  temple  of  Pollux,^  &c.  These  forms  are  stih  farther 
shortened  into  Epol,  Ecastor.  The  dental  D  appears  to  have  been  dropped 
in  the  forms  of  tne  old  Latin  language  when  preceded  and  followed  by  s 
vowel,  just  as  we  find  it  to  be  frequently  the  case  in  the  French  forms  of 
l4itin  words.    {DonaldamCe  Varroiwrntu^  p.  272,  note.)"] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [For  a  more  extended  view  of  this  subject,  consult  Weissenbom 
(lot  Sehculgramm.^  p.  184,  ae<jq.y[—Am.  Ed. 

X  [Writers  on  general  grammar  make  the  i^Kctive  ns  truly  a  noun,  ot 
tiie  name  of  a  thmg,  as  a  substantive.  (Consulfi^ona/eii  t  >i*«  Aew  Crat^ua 
^375,  seqq.)] — Am.  Ld. 


S68  LATIN    GRA%tMAR« 

ordinary  aujectives  are  used  as  ifubstantives  with  the  elfipsis  of  &om»y.a0 
bonusy  nocens,  innocena.    But  ati  adjective  in  the  singular  is  not  commonly 
used  in  this  way,  and  we  scarcely  ever  find  such  a  phrase  %%pr^u9  nerm 
nan  laedU^  instead  of  homo  probus  neminem  laedit.    Sapiens j  a  sage,  or  a  phi 
losopher,  and  libera  a  free  man,  alone  are  used  as  substanlivea  in  the  sin 

fular.  In  the  plural,  however,  the  omission  '  f  the  substantive  hon^new, 
enoting  general  classes  of  men,  is  much  more  frec^uent,  and  we  find, 
e.  g.,  paupereSf  divites^  6ont,  improbi^  docti^  and  indocti,  just  as  we  say  the 
rich,  the  poor,  &c.  It  must,  nowever,  be  observed  tKat  very  few  adjec- 
tives, when  used  as  substantives,  can  be  accompanied  by  other  adjectives, 
and  we  cannot  8ay,'a  g.,  muUi  docH  for  muUi  hammeg  (viri)  docU.*  .The 
neuters  of  adjectives  of  the  second  dedension,  however,  are  used  very 
frequently  as  substantives,  both  in  the  singular  and  pluraL  Thus  we  read 
bonwn,  a  fi^ood  thing ;  contmriwn,  the  contrary ;  verum,  that  which  is  true ; 
ffui/um,  evil ;  honestum  in  the  sense  of  virtus,  and  boruif  mala,  contrariu,  &c 
In  the  plural  neuteb  adjectives  of  the  third  declension  are  used  in  the 
same  way ;  as,  turpiay  lema,  coeUatia,  But  the  Latins,4n  general,  preferred 
adding  the  substantive  res  to  an  adjective,  to  using  the  neuter  of  it  as  a 
substantive ;  as,  res  contrariae,  res  multaSf  res  leviores,  just  as  we  do  in 
English.  .  . 

[5  364.]  JVtf/c  2.— It  is  worth  noticing  that  the  word  miles  is  frequently 
used  in  Latin  in  the  singular  where  we  should  have  ezpfected  the  plural ; 
e.  g.,  in  Curtius,  iii.,  init..  Alexander  ad  eonducendmm  ear  Peloponneso  milium 
CUandrum  cum  peeunia  mittk;  Tac,  ^nn.,  ii.,  31,  cingebatur  interim' milite - 
domus,  strepebant  etiam  in  vestibulo.  Similar  words,  such  as  eques, pedes,  are 
used  in  the  same  way,  and  the  instances  are  very  numerous.!  jRomanus, 
Poerms,  and  others  are  likewise  .used  for  Romam  and  Poem  in  the  sense  of 
Roman,  Punian  soldiers, 

[§  365.]  2.  The  predicate  appears  either  in  the  form  of 
t  Yorb)  or  of  the  auxiliary  combined  with  a  noun. 

The  predicate  accommodates  itself  as  much  as  possiUe 
CO  its  subject.  When  the  predicate  is  a  verb,  it  must  be 
Sn  the  sasne  number  as  the  subject ;  e.  g.,  arbor  viret^  the 
tree  is  green;  arhores  virerU,  the  trees  are  green;  deus  est, 
•God  is ;  dii  sunt,  the  gods  are  or  exiiA.  When  the  pred- 
icate is  an  adjective,  participle,  or  adjective  pronoun, 
combined  with  the  auxiliary  esse,  it  takes  the  number  and 
gender  of  the  subject ;  e.  g.,  puer  est  modestus,  libri  sunt 
met,  prata  sunt  secta.  When  the  predicate  is  a  substan- 
tive with  the  auxiliary  esse,  it  is  independent  of  the  sub- 
ject both  in  regard  to  number  and  gender ;  e.  g.,  captivi 
militum  praeda  fu^ant ;  amicitia  vinculum  quoddam  est 
kominum  inter  se,  ^ut  when  a  substantive  has  two  forms, 
one  masculine  and  the  other  feminine;  as,  rex,  regvna; 
magister^  magistra ;  inventor^  inventrix;  indagator^  in^ 
dagatrix;  cormptor^  corruptrix;  praeceptor,  praeceptrix^ 

*  [But  we  can  say  midta  bona,  plurimi  improbi,  &c.  Consult  Billroth, 
tat.  Gr.,  p.  204,  ed.  Ellendt.y^Am.  JBd. 

t  [In  all  these  cases  we  are  to  regard  miles,  eaues,  &c.,  as  OoUectf-fe 
nouns.  A  much  rarenlsago  is  the  following,  rex  /or  reges  (Ci'c,  Deiot.,  f 
20) ;  amicus  for  amicomm  genus,  (Cic ,    Lael.^  16,  65.)]— Am,  Ed. 


eiYNTAX.  269 

tfiai.predicata  muftt  appear  in  the  same  gender  as  the  sub- 
ject %  e.  g.,  li.'cniia  corruptriz  est  marum ;  stUtu  optimus 
est  dicendi  effector  et  magister.  When  the  subject  is  a 
neuter  the  predicate  takes  the  masculine  form^  the  latter 
being  more  nearly  alHed  to  the  neuter  than  the  feminine; 
e.  g^  tempus  vitae  magister  est.  When  the  subject  is  a 
'houn  ^icene  (see  §  4^),  the  predicate  follows  its  gram- 
matical gender  j  as,  aquila  volucrum  regina^Jida  minigtra 
Jbvis,  though  it  would  not  be  wrong  to  say  aquila  rex  vo- 
lucrum. 

It  is  only  by  way  of  exception  that  esse  is  sometimes 
coimected  with  adverbs  of  place ;  such  as  dliquis  or  all 
quid  prope^  propter^  longe^  procul  est,  or  when  esse  signi- 
fiea  **to  be  in  a  conditicMi;"  e.  g,,  Cic,  ad  Fam,  ix.,  9, 
praeterea  rectissime  sunt  apud  te  omnia i  everything  vnth 
you  is  in  a  very  good  state  or  condition;  de  Leg,,  i.,  17, 
quod  est  Umge  aUter;  Liv.,  viii.,  19  (dicebant),  se  sub  im- 
perio  populi  Rqmani  fideliter  atque  obedienter  futuros, 
Sallust  and  Tacitus  coimect  esse^  also,  with  the  adverbs 
ahunde,  impune,  sndjrustra,  and*  use  them  as  indeclinable 
adjectives ;  e.  g.,  omnia  mala  ahtmde  eraht ;  ea  resfrustra 
fuit ;  dicta  impune  eranL* 

[6  366.1  N(At  I. -^Collective  nouns,  that  is,  such  as  denote  a  multitude 
of  rndfyidual  persons  or  things ;  e.  g.,  nadtUudot  turba,  vis,  exercituw,  juven- 
hu,  nobilUas,  gins,  plebs,  vulgus,  frequently  occur  in  poetry  with  a  plural 
verb  for  their  predicate ;  e.  g.,  Ovid.,  Metam.,  xii.,  53,  Atria  turba  tenent, 
ve^unt  lege  vul^us  euntque  ;  Fast.,  ii.,  507,  Ttarafefant  placeni^tte  novum  pia 
turba  Quirinum,  As  for  the  practice  of  prose  writers,  there  is  no  passage 
in  Cicero  to  prove  that  jfe  used  this  construction  (see  my  note  on  Cic,  in 
Verr.j  i,  31,  80),  and  in  Caesar  and  Sallust  it  occurs  either  in  some  soli 
tary*  instance,  as  Caes.,  BelL  OalL,  ii.,  6,  quum  tanta  mtUtitudo  lamides  ae 
tela  eanjicerent,  or  the  passages  are  not  critically  certain.  (See  Oudendorp 
on  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  iii.,  17,  and  Corte  on  Sallust,  Jugvrtk.,  28.)  But 
Livy  takes  greater  liberty,  and  connects  collective  substantives  with 
the  plural,  as  ii.,  5,  Desectam  segetem  magna  vis  hominum  immissa  corbUnts 
fudere  in  Tiberim;  xxiv.,  3,  Locros  omnis  mullUudo  abeunt;  Xxzii.,  12,  Cetera 
omnis  mtUtitudo,  veltU  signum  aliquod  secuta,  in  unum  quum  con%)enisset,fre-    . 

Cti  agmme  petuni  T%essaliam.  (Compare  Drakenborch  on  zzzv.,  26.) 
even  expresses  the  plurality  of  a  collective  noun  by  using  the  noun  « 
standing  by  its  side  in  the  plural ;  as  in  zzvi.,  35,  Haecnon  in  oeculto,  sed 
propalam  in  faro  atque  oculis  ipsorum  Ctmsuhan  ingens  turba  ciroumjusifrem*' 
hant ;  zzr.,  34,  Cttnetts  is  hostmnt,  qui  in  confertos  cirta  ducem  impetum/ecerat, 
ut  exanvmem  Utbentem  ex  equo  Sctpitnum  vidit,  alacres  gaudio  cum  clamore  per 
totam  acierh  nunliantes  discurrunt ;  xzvii.,  51,'  turn  emmvers  omnis  aetas  eurnre 
obtfii;  so,  also,  in  i.,  41,  clamor  inde  concurvusque  populi,  miraiUiwn  quid  ret 
esset.  But  such  instances  are,  after  all,  rare  and  surprising.  The  case  is 
different  when  the  notion  of  a  plurality  is  derived  from  a  collective  noun 
of  a  preceding  proposition,  and  made  the  subject  of  a  proposition  whici 
foUows.    Instances  of  this  kind  occur  now  and  then  m  Cicero;  ds  Nat 

*  'ConiuU  Weitsenbon,  Lot.  Sclmlgr..  p.  ISA,  S  155,  Anm.  3.] — A-m.  Kd. 

Z2 


itO  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 


Deor.t  ii.,  6,'t/f  Kk  idem  generi  humano  evenerit,  quod  in  terra  eoUoeati  sint,  !)• 
caiis9ihey  (viz.,  homines)  live  on  earth ;  p.  Arck.^  12,  qui  est  ex  eo  numtrv, 
qtd  semper  apud  omnessancti  sunt  habiti ;  and  with  the  same  collecti've  noun, 
p.  Marc,  i  ;  p.  Quint.,  23.  They  are  still  more  frequent  in  Livy ;  iv.,  56 
Ita  omnium  populorum  juventus  Antium  contractu :  ibi  castris  positis  hostem 
opperiebantur  ;  vi.,  17,  Jam  ne  nocte  quidem  turba  ex'eo  loco  dilabebatur,  refrac' 
turosque  carcerem.  mintU)antttr,  See  the  passages  in  Drakenborch  on  xii., 
7,7. 

[^  367.]  A  plural  Terb  is  sometimes  used  by  classical  prose  writera 
(though  not  by  Cicero)  sfler  uterque,  quisqtte  (especially  pro  te  quisque),  pars 
— jtars  (for  alii-^aUi),  cUius — alium,  and  alter — aUerum  (one  another  or  each 
otner),  for  these  partitive  expressions  contain  the  idea  of  plurality  ;  e.  g.» 
Caes.,  Bell.,  Civ.,  iii.,  30,  Eodem  die  uierque  eorum  ex  castris  stativis  exerci- 
tum  educunt ;  Liv.,  ii.,  15,  missi  honoratissimus  quisque  ex  patribus  ;  ii,  59, 
cetera  multitudo^  decimus  quisque  ad  suppHcium  lecti.  Sometimes  the  plural 
of  a  participle  is  added ;  as  Curt.,  in.,  6,  jnv  se  quisque  dextram  ejus  amptexi 
grates  habebant  velut  praesenti  deo  ;  Liv.,  ix.*,  14,  Pro  se  quisqtte  nofl  haec  Fur- 
ados,  nee  Caudium,  wee  saltus  invios  esse  memorantes,  caedunt  pariter  resisten- 
tes  fusosque ;  Tacit,  .Ann.,  ii.,  24,  pars  navium  haustae  sunt,  plures  Rectos 
(instead  oi  pars— pars,  the  place  of  one  of  them  being  frequently  suppHed  by 
patfct,  wmnuUi,  pleriqw  or  plures,  as  in  our  case) ;  Liv.,  ii,  lOi,  dum  eUius  alium 
ut  proeUum  inc^imu,  circumspectant.  Expressions  like  these  may  derive  their 
explanation  from  propositions,  in  whicn  the  comprehensive  plnnd  is  used 
in  the  first  part,  and  afterward  the  partitive  singnhir ;  e.  g.,  Salbdt,  Jug., 
58,  At  nostri  repentino  metu  perculsi,  sibi  quisque  pro  moribus  consulunt :  ^it 
fugere,  alii  arma  capere,  magna  pars  vulnerati  ant  occisi;  and  in  Livy,  Cetert 
^uo  quisque  tempore  aderunt,  or  Decemviri  perlurbati  alius  in  aliam  partem  cos 
trorum  cUscumkU. 

[^  368.]  Note  2,--The  natural  rule,  according  to  which  the  adjective 
parts  of  speech  take  the  gender  of  the  substantives  to  which  they  belong, 
seems  to  be  sometimes  neglected,  inasmuch  as  we  find  neuter  adjectives 
joined  with  substantives  of  other  genders :  Triste  lupus  stabulis  ;  varivm 
et  mut(d>ile  semper  femina  in  Virgil,  and  Omnium,  return  mors  est  extremum, 
«ven  in  Cicero.  But  in  these  cases  the  adjective  is  used  as  a  substantive, 
and  triste,  for  example,  is  the  same  as  ''something  sad,"  or  **  a  sad  thing," 
and  we  noight  use  res  tristis  instead ;  as,  Livy,  ii.,  3,  says,  leges  rem  surdam^ 
inexorabilem  esse.  A  real  exception  occurs  in  what  is  called  etmstructio  ad 
synesim,  that  is,  when  substantives,  which  only  ii^their  figurative  sense 
denote  human  beings,  have  a  predicate  in  the  tru^gender  of  the  person 
spoken  of,  without  regard  to  the  grammatical'  gender ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  x.,  1,  egp- 
ita  conjurationis  ejus,  quaestione  ab  Consulibus  ex  seriatiisconstdto  habita,  virgis 
caesi  ac  securi  percussi  sunt.  So,  also,  auxiUa  (auxiliary  troops)  irati,  Liv., 
xxix.,  12,  where  6ronovius*8  note  must  be  consulted.  The  relative  pro- 
noun (see  6  371),  when  referring  to  such  substantives,  fre<iuently  takes  the 
gender  of  tne  persons  understood  ^y  them.  Thus,  manc^ium,  animal,  furia, 
scelus,  monstrum,  prodigium,  may  be  followed  by  the  relative  qui  or  quae,  ac- 
cording  as  either  a  man  or  a  woman  is  meant ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  32, 
.  Quod  unquam  hujusmodi  monstrum  aut  jprodigiwn.  avdivimus  out  vidimus,  qui 
cum  reo  transigat,  post  cum  accusatore  dectdat  ?  ad  Pom.,  i.,  9,  Primum  ilia  furia 
muliebrium  rdigionum  (Clodius),  qm  nonpluris  fecerai  Bonam  Deam  qudm  tree 
scrores,  impunitatemest  assecutus.  See  Drakenborch  on  Liv.,  xxix.,  12,  Af- 
ter milia  the  predicate  sometimes  takes  the  gender  of  the  persons,  whose 
number  is  denoted  by  milia ;  e.  g.,  Curt.,iv.,  19,  dua  miUa  Tyriorum,  crucibus 
affixi,  per  ingens  litoris  spatium  pependerunt ;  Liv.,  xl.,  41,  ad  septem  milia 
hominum  in  naves  impositos  praeter  oram  Etrusd  maris  Neapolim  transmisit. 
Uaually,  however,  the  neuter  is  used.  •  See  the  collection  of  examples  Id 
Drakenborch  on  Liv.,  xxxvii.,  39,  in  fin.  As  to  other  cases  of  constrttetit 
ad  synesim,  which  do  not  belong  to  grammar,  but  are  irregularities  of  ey 
pression,  sec  Corte  ou  Sallust,  Cat.,  18. 

r^  369.]  Note  3. — When  the  substantive  forming  the  sub'ect  has  a  dif 


SUBJECT   AND  PEBDICATB.  271 

%cibiit  number  from  that  which  is  its  predicate,  the  verb  e»M  (and  all  other 
veijis  of  existence)  follows  the  subject,  as  in  the  above  quoted  passage  of 
Liry,  xzi.,  15^  Qudunquam  capUm  mdiium  praeiU  fuerant.  So,  aka^  Gic^  d$. 
Fm,f  Y^  10,  quM (omnia) «tn«. dtUfw vitatMuni  evenio ;  Ovid,  Mei.^  viii,  636, 
fota  donuu  duo  sunt  l  Tac.  ^fw.,  iy.,  5,  praedpuum'robur  Rhmum  juxta  octo  /e- 
xioiuM  erant,  for  hgumet  is  the  subject ;  Pun.,  Hist  Nai.,  iv.,  5,  angustias, 
mdc  procedit  Petop&nausus,  Jstkma§  app^kminr.  .  But  we  slso  find«  and  par- 
haps  even  more  frequency,  that  the  verb  takes  the  number  of  the  sub- 
atanthre  which  is  properlr  the  predicate ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  m  Pit.,  4,  orndt  fnme, 
o  Jsana^  ds  tuo  c&tuulatu  dkere,  eujus  fnut  imtium  bidi  Cou^itatkii ;  Sallust, 
Jiigi,  d,  ponedkn  sa  kem^  giis«  prfixmna  C^rtkagmem  Nwmidim  appeOaiur  ; 
Terent,  Andr,t  iii,  2, 23,  aananlUwn  irae  mmoris  int^atw  est ;  liv.^  l,  34,  cm 
Tarquinu  matema  tantum  patria  esset;  ii.,  54,  Memiio  VsientMs  nnvhiciofetemt ; 
zIt.,  39,  pars  non  minima  triumpM  est  mettmae  pnteedentes,  in  propositions 
like  that  of  Seneca,  J^pwt,  4,  Magnae  divitias  sunt  le^  naturae  eomposita 
paupertas;  and  Cicero,  Paraa.,  in  fin.,  Cantentum  «er»  mm  rebus  esse  magmas 
su$a  eenissimae^uM  divitiae^^.  plnial  is  less  surpiiainff.  But  it  is  clear 
that,  where  the  subject  and  predicato  may  be  exchanged  or  transposed,  the 
verb  takes  the  number  of  the  substantito  nearest  to  it.  When  the  predi 
cate  is  a  participle  combined  with  esse  or-  mderi,  the  participle  takes  the 
gender  of  the  substantive  which  ia  nearest  to  it,  according  to  the  rile  ex 
l^ained  in  ^  376.  Thus  we  find  in  Cic^ro^  <2«  IHvin,,  ii,  43,  non  omnis  error 
stuUitia  mt  dicemda ;  d^Idg-t  l^'J9'Wtde  etiam  umversus  hie  mundus  una  dvitas 
tommums  deoeum  atque  homnum  exietimanda  (est) ;  Terent.,  Phorm,,  i,  2«44, 
paaipertas  puH  emus  msum  est  tniserum  et  ^ave.  If  we  transpose  non  est  om 
nis  stultkiu  error  ^dicendusy  wad  uisa  mHu  semper  est  jpaupertas  fprave  onus  et 
.missruufi^i]»  propositions  are  just  as  conect  But  m  Justin,  L,  2,  Semira 
mis,  seaum  mentUa,  puer  esss  credita  est,  the  feminine  would  be  necessary 
for  the  sake  of  clearness,  even  if  there  were  no  verb  «••«. ' 

[§  370,]  3.  When  nouns  are  combined  with  one  anoth- 
^,  without  being  connected  by  the  verb  esse,  or  by  a  rel- 
ative pronoun  and  eM«,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  only 
(me  idea,  as  in  **  a  good  man,"  the  adjective,  participle, 
G^  prcmouB  follows  the  substantive  in  gender,  number,  and 
case ;  e.  g.,  huic  modesto  puera  credOf  heme  modestam  vir- 
gmem  dUigo. 

When  two  substantives  are  united  with  each  other  in  this 
way,  they  are  said,  in  grammadcal  language,  to  stand  in 
appotidom  to  each  odier,  and  the  one  substantive  explains 
and  defines  the  other ;  e.  g.,  oppidum  Faestum^  arbor  lau- 
rus,  Taurus  mons^  lupus  piscis^  Socrates  vir  sapientissimus. 
The  explanatory  substantive  fsubstaniivum  apposiiumj 
takes  the  same  case  as'the  one  which  is  explained ;  e.  gt 
Socratemy  sapientissimum  virum^  Athenienses  interfecerunt 
(an  reception  occurs  in  names  of  towns,  see  §  399).  They 
may  differ  in  number  and  gender;  as,  urhs  Athenae^  pisces 
sigmum;  Virg.,  Edog^  ii.,  1,  Formosum  palter  Cwrydon 
ardebtU  Alexin,  delidas  domini;  but  when  the  substan- 
tive in  apposition  has  two  genders;  it  takes  the  one  which 
answers  to  that  o(  the  other  substantive.  (Comp.  above, . 
§  365.)     The  predicate  likewise  follows  the  suWantive 


272  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

which  ui  to  be  explained,  83  in  Cicero,  TuUiola^  ddtcwimm 
nostrae,  tuum  munusculum  Jlagitat ;  Quum  duo  JtUmvMi 
'  nostri  imperii  subiio  in  Hispania^  Cm.  et  P:  Scipiones,  eap- 
tincti  occidisscntf  for  the  words  dvojulmina^  though  placed 
first,  are  only  in  apposition*  When  plural  names  Of  pla- 
ces are  explained  oy  the  aj^MMsition  urha,  oppiduaiy  dvUoM^ 
the  predicate  generally  agrees  with  the  apposition ;  e.  ^  • 
Pliny,  VoUimif  oppidum  Tuworum  oputentiinvMim^cox* 
crematum  estjhlniine,  .       . 

O  vitae  pMUmopMa  dux  (magistra),  t;ir^««^  indoffdtrix  ^ 

ptdttix&ue  vitiorum  /  Cic,  !Z\wc.,  v.,  2  :  Pythagoras  ve* 

lut  genitricem  virtutumjrvgalitatem  omntBus  ingerebai 

(conunendabat),  Justin.,  xx.,  4.- 

Note. — Occasionally,  howorer,  the  predicate  follows  the  subMantlTe  in 
apposition ;  e.  g.,  SaUust,  Hist.,  i.,  Orat.  Pkil,  Qjd  videmim  inUrUa  miUii, 
qu(ui  fulmenf  optare  te  quisque  ne  attingat,'  aUhongh*thd  oonstractioD  iB» 
optare  ne  mala  se  attingant.  It  arises  from  the  position  of  the  -WOtds,  the 
verb  accommodating  itself  to  the  subject  whicn  is  nearest '  Hence  it  not 
unfrequently  happens,  1,  that  the  verb,  contrary  to  the  grainmatical  mle^ 
agrees  with  the  nearest  nonn  of  a  subordinate  sentence ;  as  in  SaHnst, 
Cat.,  25,  Sed  ei  earicra  semper  omnia,  quam  deem  atquepudicitia/idt;  €ic., 
PML,  ir.,  4,  Qutff  igiiur  ilium  eonstdem^  nin  latrones,  putawt  T  and,  2,  that  the 
adjecthre  parts  of  speech  take  the  gender  and  number  of  the  noon  in  ap< 
position  or  of  the  subordinate  sentence ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  jx.  Leg,  Man,,  5,  Co-, 
rinthumpatne  veatri,  totiua  Graedae  .lumin,  extineium  etie  vohtemni;  Iv'ep^ 
'IViem.,  1,  Ularum  ui^em  yt  propugnaadum  oppoeitym  ene  ftariarii. 

J[§  371.]  4.  When  a  relative  or  demonstrative  prcmoun 
ers  to  a  noun  in  another  sentence,  the  pronoun  agrees 
with  it  in  gender  and  number;  e.  g.,  tarn  modestus  iHe 
puer  est^  qucm  vidisti,  de  quo  audivtsti^  ctijus  tutor  es^  ut 
amnes  eumdiligant.  When  the  verb  itself  or  a  whlole  prop 
osition  is  referred  to,  it  is  treated  as  a  neuter  substantive, 
and  in  this  case  id  guod  is  generally  used  instead  of  quod; 
e.  g.,  Nep.,  TimoL,  1,  Timol€on,id  quod  difficUius  putatur^ 
fMdto  iapientius  tulit  secundam^  quam  adversamjbriuauim, 

[f  372,]  iVof  ev-^JBzceptlon  to  this  rule :  when  a  word  of  a  preceding  prop- 
ontioa,  ot  this  proposition  itself*  is  explained  by  a  svbstantlre  witn  th* 
verbs  ease,  dieere,  voeare,  appeUare,  nominare,  halm-e;  pmtare^  Ace,  or  their 
passives,  the  relative  pronoun  usually  takes  the  gender  and  number  of 
the  explanatory  substantive  which  follows ;  e.  g.f  Liv.,  zlii.,  44,  Tkehae 
ipeae,  quod  Boeottae  caput  estj  in  mcigno  twmdiu  erant.  (A  great  many  in 
stances  of  the  same  kmd  are  collected  by  Drakenborch  on  Liv.,  xxxii.,  30.* 
Caes.,  Bell.  Civl,  iii.,  80,  Caesar  Chmphoe  pervemt^  qudd  est  oppidum  7%u* 
saliae;  Cic,  Brui.t  33,  extat  ejus  peroratiOf  qui  epilogue  diciiur;  de  Leg.^  i.,  7, 


Indt  haee  civitas  innocentiae  ;  Liv.,  i.,  45,  Romaefanwn  Dianas  popuU  lja*ird 
cttm  populo  Romano  fecerunt:  ea  etateonfissio^  caput  rSrwnRomam  esse;  CUi^ 
de  O/f.,  iii.«  10,  i!^t  omnia  facienda  sunt,  quae  amid  velinttnon  amicitiae  r«i»a, 


SUBJECT    AND   PREDICATE.  91H 

m4 mmmmtionfM  tmtmd^  sunt;  I e;,  such  things  or  connexions  caniioi  be 
lopkflcCu^n  Miricndships,  but  are  conspiracies.  So,  also,  iata  mddem  vis, 
surely  this  is  force ;  haeefuga  est,  non  profectio  ;  ea  ipsa  catua  beUifmt^  fot 
tdipaum^  ^Lc.  This  explains  the  frequent  forms  of  such  explanatory  sen- 
t€lice»  as  ^  iuus  gft  amor  erxa  me;  ^uae  tua  est  hutnanitas,  for  with  the 
dfimoDstrative  pronoun  it  would  likewise  be  ea  tua  hwnanUas  est,  this  oi 
such  is  thy  kindness. 

Levis  est  animi  hscem  spiendoremqusfugieniis,  justan^  glsruufff  ^i  tstfnt^tm 
■  utas  virtuim  hmustissiamSf  ttpmiiiare,  Oic»,  in  Pi^.,  2i., 
Omnium  atr^mny  quas  ad  redafs  vivsHtU  viam  pertiiierU,  ratio  (Bt  disapiina  studis 

sapisHtiaSf  tpuepkUosopikia  dieitur,  eentinetmr,  Cic.,  Tmsc,  i.  1. 
fietn  uefle  ef  tdem  tt«£fe,  «a  dsnmmjvma  amieitim  <ff»  Sallust,.  VaL,  ^. 

It  must,  however,  be  obs^red  that  when  a  nsim  is  to  be  szplained  aoa, 
to  be  distinguished  from  another  of  the  same  kind,  the  relative  pronoun 
fbtiows  the  general  rule,  agreeing  in  gender  and  nuoiber  with  the  sabstan^ 
tive  to  be  explained ;  e.  g..  Cast.,  BeU,  Gdtl.,  ▼.,  ll«)liMwn,  ^tod  oppeUaha 
Tamesis,  i.  e.,  that  particular  river:  Nep.,  Pans.,  3,  genus  est  quoddam 
haminum,  quod  Ilotaeyocatur ;  especially  ymen  a  demonstrative  pronoun  is 
added,  as  m  Curt.,  iii,  20,  Daretutad  sum  looumffusm  Amamtaspylas  voeant, 
ptrvenU.  But  when  the  noun  followina' is  a  foreign  word,  the  pronoun 
agrees  with  Che  preceding  one ;  as  in  l^c,  ds  Off.,  ii,  5,  eohibere  motus 
eutimi  turbatos,  quos  Crraeei  iraBri  nomhumt;  Quinti].,  viii,  3, 16,  quum  idem 
Jrequsmtissime  plura  verba  stgnificera,  quod  awitw/da  vacatur.  Compare, 
Gronov.  on  Senec,  Consol.  ad  Marc,  19,  and  l>rakenborch  on  Livy,  il,  38, 
with  the  commentators  there  mentioned. 

[§  373.]  5.  When  the  subject  consbts  of  several  nouns 

in  the  singular,  the  predicate  is  generally  in  the  plural, 

if  either  all  or  some  of  those  nouns  denote  persons;  but 

if  they  denote  things,  either  the  singular  or  plural  may 

be  used.    If,  however,  one  of  the  nouns  is  in  the  plural, 

the  predicate  must  likewise  be  in  the  plural,  unless  it 

attach  itself  more  especially  to  the  nearest  substantive  in 

the  singular. 

4^j[nid  Regilhtm  hello  Latmorum  in  nostra  acie  Castor  ci 

Pollux  ex  equispugnare  visi  sunt,  Cic,  De  Nat,  Deor., 

ii.,  2« 

Cum^  tempus  neeessiiasque  postulate  deceriandum  tnanu  est^ 

•    et  mors  servituH  turpi^tdimque  antepojtenda,  Cic,  De 

Of.,  i.,  23. 
Beneficimn  et  gratia  homines  inter  se  conjungunt, 

Viia,  mors^  dimtiae,.  paupertafomnes  homing  vehement 
tissime  permovent^  Cic,  2>e  Of.,  ii,  10. 

-  iVbte  1.— When  the  subject  consists  of  two  nouns  denoting  things  in  the 
singular,  the  predicate  varies  between  the  singular  and  plural,  according 
as  the  two  nouns  constitute,  as  it  were,  onlv  one  idea,  or  two  different  oi 
opposite  ones.  It  mav  be  remarked  here  that  the  subject  Senatus  popu 
tusque  Rsmanus  (but  also  Syrmcusaams,  Cic,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  21;  CerUur^nus, 
Ibia.,  hi.,  45,  Sagvntinus,  Liv.,  xxviii.,  39)  is  always  followed  by  the  pred- 
icate in  the  singular.  A  relative  pronoun,  referring  to  two  singular  nouns, 
is  always  in  the  plural,  unless  it  be  intended  to  refer  only  to  the  last. 

Even  when  the^bject  consists  of  the  ii.)ines  of  two  or  more  persona, 
the  predicate  is  not  uiifreqiit>nt!y  fuunJ  in  ilu-  sin^u^ai  and  th*  t  vot  (mb1| 


294  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

Id  cases  where  it  may  seem  that  the  writer  at  first  thoight  oniy  of  one 
person  and  afterward  the  oth  it,  an  in  Cic,  Orat^  12,  nam  quum  eoneinu  e$ 
IVifamfmachut  minvtis  nunteris  videretar  et  Gorgias  ;  or  7Wc.,  i,  l,$iqukUm 
Homenu/wt  €t  Hesiodus  ante  Romam  cmiditam ;  comp.  Brut.^  11,  init. ;  ba* 
also  without  this  excuse,  as  Cic,  Brut.^  8,  Sed  ^U  intelUctum  est,  ^tumtam 
vhn  haber€t  accurata  et  facta  quodammodo  oratio^  turn  etiam  meunstn  dicendi 
mtdU  mhito  extitenmt.  Nam  Leontimu  Crorgiat^  Thratymackua  UfudcedoniuSf 
Protagwaa  Ahderittt^  ProdicuB  Cetu,  Hipjaiaa  Eletu  in  fumore  magnofuit, 
tJiique  m»dti  temporihta  iudem;  de  C^ol.,  li,  12,  QuaUa  apud  Graecos  Pher- 
fe^fdeSf  Hdkmiauj  Acu$ila9  fuit  aiUqm  pemadti,  talis  no$Ur  Cato  et  Pictor  et 
Piso  ;  de  Divin.,  l.,  38,  hao  ratisne  et  Chry^ppus  et  Diogenea  et  Antipater  uti- 
tur;  de  Fat.,  17,  in  qua  aenterUia  Demoeritu»f  Heradituey  Emvedoclee,  Aristotf' 
lee  fuit ;  in  Verr.,  i,  30,  eottdemnmtur  enim  pnpmnda  sentemOs  Phihdamua  di 
ejusJUiua  ;  ibid^  vr^  43,  dixit  hoc  apuidvoa  Zoeipput  et  Ismenias,  homines  no 
bilienmi;  de  Orat.y  L,  62,  haec  qwim  Antoniiu  dueiaeetf  tone  dvbitare  visus  ksi 
Sulpkdu* H Catta;  Cam.,  BeU,  Civ,,  h,  2,  interudit  M.AntoniuSf  Q.  Cassiva, 
trUnuii  plefne,*  it  is  unnecessary  to  aod  passages  from  the  poets,  who,  es- 
pecially Horace,  frequently  use  the  predicate  in  the  singular,  when  the  sub- 
ject consists  of  several  noons 49noting  persons;  e.  g.,  Herat.,  Carm..  ii., 
13,  in  fin.,  Quin  et  Prometheua  et  Pelapia  parent  dtdci  laborum  decipitur  sono. 
Comp.  Bektlev  on  Carm,,  i,  24,  8.  The  plural,  however,  must  be  consid- 
ered as  the  rule  in  prose.  Only  the  words  tmus  et  alter  have  invariably  the 
predicate  in  the  singular.  When  the  subject  consists  of  nouns  denoting 
persons  and  things,  the  plural  of  the  predicate  is  preferable  to  the  singu 
iar;  e.  g.,  Cic,  ad  Att,  iv.,  15,  coitio  conaulum  et  Pompeitts  obaunt*;  Liv., 
xxviii.,  18,  nee  dvbitare  (pan  Syphax  regnumqtte  ejtujam  in  ^omanorum  etsent 
potestate,  and  so  in  XZXIX^  51,  Pnuiam  nupectum  Komanu  et  receptus  Han 
fiibal  et  belban  (xdversus  jitanenem  motum  faciebant,  is  more  prolMd^e  thar* 
faciebat.  * 

.  [<$  374.]  NoU  2.— When  the  subject  consists  of  nouns  connected  by  the 
disjunctive  conjunction  out,  the  predicate  is  found  in  the  plural  as  well  as 
in  the  singular,  though  it  would  be  more  in  accordance  with  our  ^ling  to 
use  the  singular;!  e.  g.,  Cic,  Twe.,  v.,  19,  Si  Soeratea  out  Antiatkenea  die*- 
ret;  de  Off.^  i.,  28,  ai  Aeacua  aut  Minoa  diceret ;  but  de  Of.,  i.,  41.  nee  qtiem- 
quam  hoc  errore  dud  oportet,  u/,  ai  quid  Soeratea  atU  Ariatijppua  contra  more/n 
consuetudinemque  civitem  fecerint  loattive  aint,  idem  aibi  arburetur  lieere ;  Liv., 
v.,  8,  tc<  quoaque  atudium  privatim  aut  gratia  occupaverunt.  In  Cicero,  de  OraL, 
ii.,  4,  the  reading  is  uncertain :  ne  Svl^dua  aut  Cotta  plua  quam  ego  apud 
te  valere  videantur,  Emesti,  who  approves  of  videatur  exclusively,  was  not 
struck  by  the  same  pecniiarity  in  the  preceding  passage.  With  out— out 
the  singular  is  unquestionably  preferred,  as  in  Cic,  i^(p.,  xi.,  11, 'nee  enim 
nunc  primum  aut  JBrutua  aut  Caasiua  aalutem  libertatemqw  pitnae  legem  aanc 
tiasimam  et  marem  optimmm  judieavit ;  with  n«c— nee  we  likewise  prefer  the 
singular,  with  Bentley  un  Horace,  Carm.,  i.,  13, 6,  but  the  plural  occurs 
m  Pliny,  Panegyr.,  75,  erant  enim  (acclamationes)  quibua  nee  aenatua  gtoriart 
iiec  princepa  poaaent,  where  poaaet  would  certainly  be  just  as  good.  Comp. 
Liv.,  XXVI.,  5,  in  fin.  The  plural  seems  to  be  necessary  only  when  the 
subject  does  not  consist  of  twA  nouns  of  the  third  person,  but  contains  a 
first  or  second  person,  as  in  Terence,  Adalph,,  i,  2, 23,  haec  st  t^que  ego 
neque  tu  fedmua  ;  D.  Brutus  in  Cic»  oci  Foiti^  xi,  20,  quod  in  Decemviris 
naque  ego  neque  Caaaar  heddti  eaaemua.  With  aeu — aeu  and  tamr'^quam  the 
predicate  is  m  the  plural :  FrOntin.,  de  Aquaed.,  Prael  and  ^  128  («<  pro- 
prium  jua  tarn  tea  puUiea  quam  pnwUa  habermt), 

*  [In  these  and  similar  passages  it  will  always,  we  think,  appear,  on  close 
examination,  that  some  ^eater  degree  of  activity,  or  some  particular  im* 
portance,  or  superiority,  is  to  be  connected  with  the  subject  to  which  tbs 
verb  immediately  refers  in  number.!— -4m.  Ed. 

t  [In  these  constructions  the  predicate  refers  bo  aU^e  subjects  equally 
at  the  saim*  ri  ne,  and  in  the  same  manner,  and  there^re  the  plural  ne» 
ployed      (Kuhi:.r,  G    .7..  vol.  ii..  p.  47,  8,  «/  Jrlf.)^—Ayn.  Rtl. 


SUBJECl*   AND    PREDICATE.  27S 

£6  375.1  Note  3. — ^When  the  mibject  is  a  singular  noun  joined  to  anothei 
(either  plural  or  singular)  by  the  preposition  cvm,  the  grammaticail  coii 
Kti^ction  demandfi  that  the  j)redioate  shouid  i>o  in.  the  singular,  at  in  Cic, 
ad  Attym.,  14,  lit  I/Me  ewn  Sexto  scire  veiim  fuidcogUee  ;  md  Quint  Fral., 
lit,  2,  Domitiue  cum  Messala  certtis  esse  videbatur ;  Ovid,  Faet.^  i,  12,  tu  quoqut 
cum  Druso  praemia  fralre  feree.  But  the  plural  is  more  frequent,  the  sub- 
ject being  conceived  to  consist  of  qio^  than  one  person ;  Liv.,  zxi,  60, 
ipse  dux  cum  aliquot  frincipibus  caoiwUur ;  Sallust,  Col.,  43,  LeiUulue  cum 
ceteris — eonstituerani  ;  Jug..,  101,  Bacchus  cum  peditibus — invadusU  ;  Nep., 
Phoc.,  2,  ejus  consilio  Demosthenes  cum  ceteris,  qui  bene  derep.  mereri  existima- 
bantuTf  populisdto  in  exiUitm  erant  expulsi;  and  to  judge  from  Uiese  and  otb* 
er  instances  quoted  by  Corte  on  the  passages  of  Sallust,it  seems  that  tlm 
plural  is  preferred,  when  the  main  subject  is  separated  from  tfa«  predicate 
by  intermediate  sentences,  so  that  the  plurality  spoken  of  is  more  strong- 
ly impressed  on  the  writer's  mind  than  the  grammatical  subject  Even 
in  reference  to  gender  (of  which  We  shall  speak  herei^Tter),  nouns  connect- 
ed with  each  other  b^  ctan  kre  treated  as  if  they  were  connected  by  et. 
Ovid.  Fast.f  iv.,  55,  lUa  cum  Lauso  de  Numtore  soli;  Liv.,  xlv.,  2S,Aliam 
cumjUio  accitos  ;  Justin,  xiv.,  16,^'ttm  Alexandri  cum  maire  in  areem  Amphi- 
palitanam  custodiendos  mittit. 

[f  376.]  6.  With  regard  to  the  gender,  which  the  pred- 
icate (an  adjective,  participle,  or  pronoun)  takes  when  it 
belongs  to  several  nouns,. uie  following  rules  must  be  ob- 
served: 

faj  When  the  pouns-  ar^  of  one  gender,  the  predicate 
(adjective,  participle,  or  pronoun)  taJces  the  same. 

/bj  When  they  are  of  different  genders,  the  masculine 
(in  ca^e  of  their  oenoting  living  beings)  is  preferred  to  the 
feminine,  and  the  predicate  accordingly  tokea  the  mascu- 
line. When  the  nouns  denote  things,  me  predicate  takes 
the  neuter,  and  when  they  denotiB  both  livmg  beings  and 
&ings  mixed  together,  it  takes  either'  the  gender  of  the 
living  beings  or  the  neuter. 

lam  pridem  jpater  mihi  et  mater  mortui  wnt^  Ter. 

Labor  voluptasque,  dissimUia  naturd,  societate  quadam  in* 

ter  se  naturalijuneta  sunt^  Liv*,  v.,  4* 
Jane^fac  aetemos  pacem  pacisque  ministros  !  Ovid,  FaH, 
Romawif  it  me  scdtufratris^  te  9en^/:tus  absumpserit,  regem 

regnumque  Macedonian  tuajutwra  sciunt^  LfV.,  xL,  10. 

Or  the  predicate  (adjective,  participle,  or  pronoun) 
igrees  only  with  one, of  the  nouns,  and  is  supq»lied  by  the 
mind  for  the  others ;  this  is  the  case,  especi^y^  when  the 
subject  consists  of  nouns  denoting  living  beings  and  things. 

TAr€uybulua  contemptut  eat  prima  a  iyramma  atque  ejus  4(qff 

itudo^  Nep*.,  Thra^,^  2. 
L.  Brutus  exidem  et  regem  ipsum,  et  liberoK  ^u»j  ef  gf^j^f^j^ 

Tarquiniorum  essejussit^  Cic.,  J)e  I^e  PuU.^  li. 
Baminis  utUitati  agri  omnea  et  marip^  J^T^U  Qif  • 


276  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Nunc  emergit  amor,  nunc  desiderium^erre  non  pouum,  nun 

mihi  nihil  lihri^  nihil  litterae,  nihil  doctrina^rodest :  it^ 

dies  et  nodes  tamquam  avis  illaf  mart  prospector  evolan 

cupio,  Cic,  ad  AU,^  ix.,  10,  2 

[^  377.1  Note. — We  have  not  mentionec  the  case  of  a  subject  consisting 
uf  living  oeings  of  the  feminine  and  neuter  genders ;  e.  g.,  soror  tua  et  ejm 
mancipium.  No  instance  of  such  a  combination  occurs,  but  we  shouldbe 
^Uiged  to  make  the  predicate ;  e.  g.,  invetUae  or  inventi  mitf,  according  as 
wumdpium  may  denote  a  male  or  female  slave.  The  grammatical  prefer- 
ence  of  the  masculine  gender  to  the  feminine  is  clear,  also,  from  the  fact 
1^  the  mascuL  words  jli/u,  fratret^  toceri,  regeSf  comprising  persons  of  botlr 
•exes ;  as  in  Livy,  kgati  missi  sunt  ad  Ptolemaeum  Cl^patramque  reges 
Tac.j  AtuUf  zii.,  i^fratrum  incostoiUtum  amorem,  in  speaking  of  a  brother  aw. 
his  sister.  The  following  examples  of  the  predicate  bemg  in  the  neuter 
gender,  when  the  subject  consists  of  nouns  denoting  things,  jnay  be  add- 
ed  to  those  already  quoted*  Sallust,  divUiact  decusj  gloria  in  octUu  sita  sunt ; 
Livy,  Fonniis  portam  murutnque  de  coda  tacta  esse;  Memco  tarbs  et  agertntSi* 
eilia  jtissa  dati ;  and  so,  also,  with  the  leUtive  pronoun ;  S^Uust,  otmm  htqus 
dhi^iae,  ^tia«  prima  mortales  putant.  The  neuter  is  farther  not  unfriequentl} 
used  when  tne  two  nouns  of  the  subject  (denoting  things)  are  of  the  sam6 
gender;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  Xxxvii.,  32,  postquam  wa  et  avariHa  imperio  poteniior^ 
erant ;  Cic,  de  N(U,  Dear.,  ilL,  24, /ortuttam  nemo  ab  inconstarUM£ttemerUat4 
sejtmret,  quae  digna  certe  non  sunt  deo.  Those  passages,  on  the  other  hand, 
in  which  the  subject  consists  of  names  of  thmgs  of  different  gender,  and 
the  predicate  agrees  in  gender  with  a  more  distant  masc.  or  femin.,  must 
be  considered  as  exceptions ;  but  in  such  cases  the  noun  with  whicli  th6 
predicate  agrees  is  usually  the  more  prominent,  the  otiier  or  others  being 
considered  as  dependant  or  subordinate ;  e.  g.,  Phiacus  in  Cic,  ad  Fam,^ 
x.,24,  Amor,  tuut  ae  judicium  4e  me  utrum  mifUplus  dignitatis  an  vc^^tatis  sU 
aUaturuSf  non  facile  dixerim ;  i.  e.,  thy  love,  and  thv  favoiirable  opinion  ot 
me,  which  is  the  result  of  it ;  Cic,  de  Leg.,  i,  1,  Lueus  illeet  haec  Ar^nna- 
fium  querous  ij^nosdturf  taepe  a  me  lectua  in  MariOi  the  oak  ]feix^  only  a  pvt 
of  the  grove.  See.  the  commentators  (Wesenberg)  on  Cic,  p.  Sext.,  53, 
and  on  Suet.,  Com.,  75. 

[§  378.1  7.  When  the  personal  pronouns  ego,  tu,  nos, 
vos,  combined  with  one  or  more  other  nouns,  form  the  sub- 
ject of  a  proposition,  the  predicate  follows  the  first  per- 
son in  preference  to  the  second  and  third,  and  the  second 
in  preference  to  the  third. 
Si  tu  et  Tullia,  lux  nostra,  valetis,  ego  et  suavissimus  Cioo- 

ro  talemtts,  Cic.,  ad  Fam,,  xiv.,  5. 
Quid  est  quod  tu  aut  Ula  cum  Fortuna  hoc  nomdne  quen 

possitiSf  Sulpic.  in  Cic,  ad  Fam*,  iv.,  6. 

Abfe.— So,  also,  Cic,  m  Yetr.,  i,  45,  h)c  jure  et  majares  nostri  et  nos  sem 
neruii  sumus  ;  m  KulL,  i,  7,  Srrastis,  Rulle,  vehem^nter  et  tuet  nounulli  co^ 
tegae  tui.  But  in  this  case,  also,  the  predicate  frequently  agrees  with  one 
of  the  subjects,  and  is  supplied  by  the  mind  for  the  othiers ;  e.  g..  Cicero. 
Vos  ipsi  et  senahufrequens  restitit ;  et  ego  et  Cicero  meus  fittgUaJbii.  With  re* 
jfard  to  the  relative  pronodn,  the  above  rule  remairjs  inforce,  atd  we  wxm 
•eixndiiigly  ^,  tUet  pater,  qui  in  cmrnvio  eratis ;  eg^ettu,  qui  enrnrntt 


HOMINATIVE  CASE.  /#t 


a  ON  THE  USE  OF  CASES 

CHAPTER  LXX. 

* 

NOMINATIVE    CASE. 

[I  379.]  1.  The  stdnect  of  a  prc^Kxsition  is  in  dm  com* 
inatiye  (see  §  362),  ana  the  noun  of  the  predicate  only 
when  it  is  connected  with  the  subject  by  the  verb  ease  and 
similar  verbs  :  apparere,  appear ;  existere^  fiprii  evddere, 
come  into  existence, become;  videri,  seem,  appear;  mu" 
nere^  remain ;  or  the  passives  of  the  actives  mentioned  in 
§  394,  viz.,  dicif  appellari^  existimari,  haheri,  &c. ;  e.  g., 
Justus  videhatur,  he  appeared  just ;  rex  ajppellahatur^  he 
was  called  king.  The  personsd  pronouns  cgo^  tu,  iUe,  nos, 
vaSf  and  ilU  are  implied  in  the  terminations  of  the  verb, 
and  are  expressed  only  when  they  denote  emphasis  or  op- 
position. 

(In)  rehtcs  angustis  animostes  atqvefortis  appare,  Horau, 

Coarm^  ii.,  10,  21,         , 
Appws  adeo  novum  sibi  tngenium  indueraty  ul  pleHcola  re- 

pente  omnisque  awrae  papillaris  captatdr  evaderet^  Liv., 

iiL,  33. 
Ego  reges  e^eci^  vos  tyrannos  introducitis;  ego  liherUUefu^ 

quae  nan  erat,  peperi^  vos  partam  servare  non  vultis,  says 

L.  Brutus  in  the  Auct.,  ad  Herenn.^  iv.,  53. 

NqU  l.^The  coostroction  of  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  is  the 
only  case  in  which  the  subject  is  not  in  the  notainative,  but  in  the  accu- 
•ative.  (See  ^  599.)  In  this  case  the  predicate,  with  the  above-mention- 
ed  verbs,  is  likewise  in  the  accusative. 

[^  38(X]  Note  2. — Videri  is  used  throughout  as  a  personal  verb,  as  (ego) 
wiatBor^  (tu)  videris,  &C.,  vir  bomt$  mm  ;  videnmrf  mdemmi  wri  btnU  «Me,  or 
koeficwe.  The  impeijsonal  construction  is  sometimes  found,  as  in  Cic, 
TusCf  v.,  5,  Ncn  mihividehiri  ad  beate  viv€$idvm  mii»po09M  virhUmo»(cotnpsire 
Da  f  is's  remark),  but  much  more  rarely  than  the  personal  one  *  When  con- 
nected  nitn  the  dative  of  a  person,  it  is  equivalent  to  the  £nglish  **  to 
think  or  fancy ;".  e.  g.,  omeiw  mihi  fm»9e  vid§or ;  forhmahu  sUn  Da$noclet 
viddiatur  (esse) ;  <i  hoc  tiln  intellex'ase  viderU^  or  even  in  connexion  with 
mdere:  e.  g.,  videor  mihi  videre  immmenteg  reipubUcae  tempettatett  6lc,  It 
.  should,  however,  be  observed  that  the  dative  of  the  first  person  is  some- 
times omitted  ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Nat.  Deor.^  ii,  61,  «a/w  docuiste  videor  •  ibid., 
t,  21,  saepe  de  L.  Craseo  videor  audiese;  de  /^.,  ii.,  5,  aim  Gratce^  %a  videor^ 
iuctdenter  xctom,  i.  e.,  as  it  seems  to  me,  or  as  I  think. 

[||681.]  2.  The  nominative  is  sometimes  npt  expressed 

*^— —— —  ■     ■         ■!     ■  II  ■  ■.■■»■  -  I  ■!    ■  I  -         ■        M  ■  .1  1^    ■     ■  I      ■     -  ■  I        ■       I  ■  ■  I  ■  ■■  ■  III  , 

*  [The  so-called  impersonal  construction  of  itideor  will  be  found,  oo 
closer  inspection,  to  be  merely  the  verb  joined  to  a  subject-nominative  ai 
rltuse  taken  as  a  nominative.] — Am.  Ed, 


278  LATIN  GBAMMAR. 

in  Latin.  Thus  the  word  hcmines  is  understood  with  a 
verb  in  the  third  person  plural  active,  in  such  phrasds  as 
laudant  hunc  regem^  they,  or  people  praise*  this  king ; 
dicuntf  traduntf/erunt  hunc  regen\  essejustum,  people  say 
that  this  king  is  just 


CHAPTER  LXXI. 

ACCUSATtYB   CASE. 

[§  382.]  1.  The  accusative  denotes  the  object  of  an 
action,  and  is  therefore  joined  to  all  transitive  verbs, 
whether  active  or  deponent,  to  express  the  person  or 
thing  affected  by  the  action  implied  m  such  verbs ;  e,  g., 
pater  amat  (ttietrarjjiliunu  when  the  verb  is' active,  the 
same  proposition  may  be  expressed  without  change  of 
meaning  m  the  passive  voice,  the  object  or  ^.ccusative  be- 
coming the  subject  or  nominative ;  thus,  instead  oi pater 
amatfilium^  we  may  s^j  films  amatur  apatre. 

The  transitive  or  intransitive  nature  of  a  verb  depends 
entirely  upon  its  meaning  (see  §  142),  which  must  be 
learned  from  the  Dictionary.  It  must,  however,  be  6b-. 
served  that  many  Latin  verbs  may  acquire  a  transitive 
meaning,  besides  the  original  intransitive  one,  and,  ac- 
cordingly, govern  the  accusative. 

[^  383.]  Note  1. — Some  Verbs  are  called  transitive  and  others  intransi- 
tive, according  as  they  occur  more  frequently  in  the  one  sense  or  the 
other.  All  particulars  must  be  learned  from  the  Dictionary.  Lndert,  to 
play,  for  example,  js  naturally  an  intransitive,  but  has  a  transitive  mean- 
mg  in  the  sense  of  **  play  the  part  of  j"  e.  g.,  htdit  homan  chem;  he  plajrs 
the  good  citizen,  affects  to  be  a  good  citizen.**  Horrare  properly  signifies 
"to  feel  a  shudder,"  Hndfutidirt  **to  be  disgiistki  vvith,"  but  both  are 
frequently  used  as  transitives ;  horrere  ddtoremtfastidireprecet  of  morei  aft* 
cujuSf  to  aread  pain,  to  reject  a  person-s  petition,  to  be  disgusted  with  his 
manners.  There  are  several  other  such  verbs ;  as,  dolere,  gemere^  lamtmiari^ 
lugere^maereret  lacrimare^  phmre  :  e.  g.,  castan  hme*  Fettmare  and  propenn, 
moreover,  signify  not  omy^^  to  nasten,""  but  **  to  accelerate ;"  e.  z-imorteik 
$uam;  monere,  not  only  "to  wait,'*  but  "to  expect;''  e.  g.,  hog^nim'ad- 
ventvan;  rideref  to  laugh  and  to  ridicule  (like  irridere).  Such  examples  be- 
in^  sanctioned  by  usage,  the  Ijatin  writers,  in  some  cases,  extended  the 
pnnciple  still  farther,  and  Cicero  (de  Fin.,  ii.,  34)  has  the  bold,  but  beau- 
tiful and  expressive  phrase,  Quum  Xerxes,  aelletponto  juncto,  AAone  per- 
foeso,  mare  ambulavissetf  terram  navigasset,  instead  of  the  ordinary  expres* 
sion  in  tnari  ambulavissetf  in  terra  namgaeset.  In  such  phrases  as  dorvm 
totam  hiemem,  tertiam  aetatem  vivo,  nodes  vigilo,  the  accusative  might  seem 
to  express  only  duration  of  time  (^  395) ;  but  as  the  passive  forms  also  oc- 


*  [That  is,  the  state  in  which  a  person  is  represented  by  an  intrrantiva 
rerb  may  be  conceived  of  as  directed  towards  an  object,  and  thus  have  • 
partly  transitive  force.] — Am.  Ed. 


ACCUSATIVE   CASE.  S79 

«JI,  M»  mihi  dormitur  hkms,  jam  tartia  vwitur  aetas,  noctes  %igilantur  amwrat 
it  will  be  more  judicioas  to  consider  the  verbs  domire^  vivere,  xigUart^  ir 
tliose  cases  «s  transitives,  equivalent  to  '*  spend  in  sleeping,  living, 
'waking." 

The  words  which  denote  **  to  smell"  or  **  taste  of  anything/'  viz.,  oUr^^ 
redoUref  tapertf  resiperty  are  in  the  same  manner  used  as  transitive  verbs, 
and  joined  with  an  accusative  (instead  of  the  ablative,  which  they  w^ould 
require  as  intransitive  verbs).  Their  meaning  in  this  case  is  <*  to  give  back 
the  smell  or  taste  of  anything  ;**  e.  g.,  oUtvnguenta ;  piscis  tpsum  mare  »ajnt ; 
m^utnia  gratiora  turUf  quae  terramj  quam  quae  crocum  sapiatU  ;  uva  picem  rt- 
sipiens ;  and  in  a  figurative  sense,  olet  perrgrinum^  redolet  antiquitatem  ;  to- 
gether with  such  expressions  as,  anhelat  crudditatemf  pingue  quiddam  d 
pereyrinum  sonat,  sanguinem  iMM^rum  sitiebat.  The  poets  go  stiU  farther, 
and  use,  e.  g.^pallere^  pavere,  tremere,  trepidare,  aliquid,  instead  of  ftm«rr; 
ardere^  calere,  tepere^  perire^  deperire  muUerem,  instead  of  amare  mulierem. 
Such  expressions  should  Aot  ne  imitated  in  prose,  any  more  than  the  use 
-of  a  neuter  adjective  instead  of  an  adverb ;  as  in  torvum  clamare,  tremendum 
tonare,  lucidum  fulgent  ocuti^  concerning  which,  see  ^  266.  Tacitus,  how- 
ever, says,  ilnn.,  iv.,  60,  Tiberius  falman  renidetu  vuUu  ;  and,  vL,  37,  Euphra' 
teh  nulla  imbrium  vi  spante  et  immeHeum  aitolli. 

[%  384.]  We  must  here  mention  a  peculiar  mode  of  joining  an  accusa- 
tive with  intransitive  verbs,  which  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  Greek,* 
aftd  also  in  English.  It  consists  of  a  substantive  of  the  same  root  as  the 
verb,  or,  at  least,  one  of  the  same  meaning,  being  added  in  the  accusative ; 
but  this  substantive  is  usually  qualified  by  an  adjective;  e.  g.,  vUamju^ 
cundam  vivere  ;  hngam  viam  tre,  hoc  b^um  bellare^  gravem  pugnam  {furoelhun) 
pugnare^  aUeriue  gaudium  gaudere,  bonaa  precea  precari,  risun  Sardonium 
ridertt  ootuimilem  htdum  ludere,  servUutem  servire  durissimam,  somnium  som- 
mare.     . 

(Odi)  q[m  Curw9  mmvlant  et  BaeekantUia  vhmnt, — Juven.,  iL,  3. 

[^  385.]  But  even  without  any  change  or  modification  of  meaning,  i»> 
transitive  verbs  may  have  the  accusative  of  pronouns  and  adjective  pro- 
nouns in  the  neuter  gender,  in  order  to  express,  in  a  general  way,  the  di- 
rection in  which  a  feeling  or  condition  is  manifested ;  if  this  tendency 
were  expressed  more  definitely  by  a  substantive,  the  accusative  could  not 
be  used.  We  thus  frequently  find  such  phrases  as,  hoc  laetor^  I  rejoice  at 
this ;  hoc  rum  dttbito,  I  do  not  doubt  this ;  hoc  laboro^  illud  tibi  non  atsentkry 
aliquid  tibi,,fU£censeOj  non  possum,  idem  gloriari,  unum  omnea  student j  where 
the  accusative  of  a  definite  substantive,  such  as  hone  unam  rem  omnes  stu' 
dent,  could  not  have  been  used.  So  Terence  says,  id  operam  do,  I  stri^ 
after  this ;  Cicero,  ad  Fam.,  vi,  8,  consilium  petis,  quid  tibi  sim  auctor ;  and 
Livy  often  uses  the  phrase  quod  quidam  auctores  sunt,  which  is  attested  by 
some  authors. 

JMorea  auiem  fmnquam  tantam  vim  habent,  vt  non  plus  habeat  sapiens  quod 

gmtdeat  muMi  qwd  angatur,  Cic,  de  Fin,,  i.,  14 
Utrmmqus  laetar,  et  mm  dslsre  corporis  te  fuisse  et  animo  valuisse,  Cic.  ad 

Fam,,  vii.,  1. 

'  Note  2. — ^The  rule  that  in  the  change  of  a  proposition  from  the  active 
into  the  passive  form  the  accusative  of  the  object  becomes  the  nominative 
df  the  subject,  remains  in  force  even  when  after  the  verba  denoting  *'  to 
lUjf**  or  *<  command"  the  accusative  does  not  depend  upon  these  verbs,  but 
belongs  to  the  construction  of  thenccusative  with  an  infinitive ;  e.  g.,  dies 
'ftgem  esse  justvmi,  jubeo  te  redire  (see  ^  607) ;  in  the  passive,  rex  dtcittir  Justus 
tsse,  juberis  redire,  as  though  dwo  regem  or  jul^o  te  belonged  to  oach  other. 

♦  [In  Greek,  many  verbs  which  are  not,  in  good  writers,  followed  by 
Ibedr  cognate  substantives,  are  in  later  writers  f<>und  with  them.  {Likstki 
Parol,  609.)''— Afw.  Ed. 


280  LATIN   aBAMMAR. 

[§  386.]  2.  Intransitiye  verbs  which  imply  notiac;  a^,« 
i>e?,  vadere^  volare,  and  some,  also,  which  imply  "  being  in  • 
a  place;"  aSfjaccrCf  stare  and  sedere,  acquire  a  transitiro 
meaning  by  bemg  compomided  with  a  preposidoii,  and  ac- 
coidingly  govern  the  accusative.     This,  however,  is  gen-^^ 
erally  the  case  only  in  verbs  compounded  with  the  prep  . 
ositious  circum,  j?er,  praeter^  trans,  and  super,  and  in  tbose^ 
compound  verbs  which  have  acquired  a  figurative  mean- 
ing.    Such  verbs  become  perfect  transitives,  and  the  ae- 
cusative  which  they  take  in  the  active  form  of  a  proposi^ 
tion  as  their  object,  becomes  the  nominative  of  the  sub- 
ject, when  the  proposition  is  changed  into  the  passive- 
form;  e.  g,,Jlumen  transifur,  societas  initur,  mors  pro  rC' 
pnhlica  ohitur.     With  other  compounds  the  accusative  is 
only  tolerated,  for  generally  the  preposition  is  repeated, 
or  the  dative  is  used  instead  of  the  preposition  with  its, 
case  (§  415). 

Amicitia  nonmtnquam  praecurrii  judicium f  Cic,  Lad,,  17.' 

Nihil  est  turpius  guam  cognitioni  et  praeceptioni  tus&miom" 

em  praecurrere^  Cic,  Acad.,  i.,  12. 

Note.^-The  rule  here  given  appiiea  to  a  great  number  of  verba,  for  there 
ue  many  which  imply  motion ;  as,  uv»  omWorCi  cedfre^  atrrtre,  equUare, 
fiaeret  gradX,  labi^  narCf  and  9uif ar«,  repere,  salire^  scandere,  vadere^  vehi,  iwlore, 
and  perhaps,  also,  veniref  and  their  campounos  are  very  numerous.  The 
foUowing  IS  a  list  of  them :  ocbVe,  accedere^  adequitaref  adnaret  aggredi,  attabi^ 
mMcendtre,  asailire  and  assulUure,  advenire  and  adverUare,  advefd^  advoUtre,  ad-' 
iwltit,  anteiret  atU^eedere,  antecunare^  anUgredi,  anteyenire,  eircwmfiuere,  drcum' 
ire,  drcumvenire,  circumwdare,  coire^  convemre,  egredi,  elabij  erunuoere,  evadere^ 
e^eedtrff  eaeire^  mire,  iwedere,  incurrere  and  incursaref  ingredi,  iUalLinnare  and 
hauUare,  infUire,  ituultare,  invehi,,interjluere,  intervenire,  invadereXiTumpere), 
threper^  obombtdarey  obeqwtare,  obire,  peramhulare,  percurrere,  permeare,  pena^ 
dtre,  pervagari,  perwdare,  praecedere,  praecurrere,  praefluere,  praegredif  praeve^ 
nire,  praeUrire,  praeterfluere,  praetergredi,  praelervefUf  praetervolaref  rubire,  sue* 
cedere,  stdnrtperej  aupergredi,  supervadere,  supervenire,  iransirej  transnare,  tran,' 
siliret  transvolare.  To  these  we  must  add  some  compound  verbs  which  do 
not  imply  motion,  bat  in  general  "being  in  a  plaeer  >>*  mdjmeSret  aemdir^ 
accwnbere  and  accttbare,  adstare,  antestaret  c^vumndere,  cireumettare,  wad  cit' 
cumsisterey  incubaref  msideref  tnetare,  interf&chre,  obtiderej  vraeeidtre,  praejo' 
cerej  praeetare^  superstore.  ^11  these  veit)s  mayH>e  joinsa  wkh  an  aocosa* 
tive  of  the  place  to  which  the  action imnlied  m  the  verb  refers;  in  poeti 
cal  language  many  more  verbs  are  joinea  with  an  accusative,  partly  froQ. 
a  resemblsjice  with  those  mentioned  idiove,  and  partiy  because  a  transi- 
tive moaniqg  and  construction  are,  in  general,  weU  suited  to  a  livc^ly  Aq- 
senption.  Tacitus,  HiH.^  iii.,  29,  for  example,  says,  baluta  obruit  quos  m- 
ciderai,  where  emit  is  not  governed  by  the  preposition  in  (for  he  uses  thi 
accus.  also  with  prepositions  which  otherwise  require  the  ablative :  prae* 
sid^at  exercUum,  pra^aeet  castra,  elapsus  est  vincula)t  but  is  the  real  accusat. 
of  the  object.*  We  must  not,  however,  forget  that,  with  the  exception 
of  verbs  compounded  with  the  prepositions  circum^  per^  praeter^  trans,  and 
m^er,  we  are  speaking  only  of  what  may  be,  and  wnat  frequei  tly  occurs 

♦  I  Compare  Botticher,  Lex.  Tacit,,  p.  15  ^^Am.  Ed.  "^ 


ACCITcSATIVE   CASE.  .  281 

If itaoaem  L^tin  prost^ ;  for  the  ancient  Romans  seldom  used  tli^  scciiM 
tiw  with  such  verb^;  they  preferred  them  in  their  intransitive  sense  ei* 
ther  with  a  preposition  or  the  dative.  The  verbs  compounded  with  antt 
alone  are  construed  indifferently  either  with  the  accusative  or  the  dative, 
and  antfegredi  occurs  only  with  the  accusative.  Cicero,  in  the  case  or 
v^rbs  compounded  with  ex,  repeats  the  preposition  exor  ab;  Salliist  and 
Lfvy  use  the  ablative  alone,  which  is  governed  by  the  preposition  under* 
stdod.  It  is  not  tili  the  time  of  Tacitu^  that  we  Und  these  verbs  coi*8tni6d 
witii  thb  aecoaativte  ;*"e.  g.,  evado  omnem,  n/vos;  smtentUts  judkutn. 

[i  3871]  We  nnjst  especially  notice  thos»  verbs  which  acquire  a  transi* 
tive  meaning  "by  a  moaificatidn  of  their  original  significatidn,  i.  e.,  bjr  be 
ing\)s6d  in  aligUTatit^  sense.  Snch  ferbH  either  Toee  their  intransitive 
meaning  altogether,' or  rtttin  it  along  with'  the  transitive  one,  and  aceoid- 
inj^ly  S[ovem  the  accusative  either  exclusivelr,  or  only  in  their  particular 
transitive  meaning.  Of  thia  kind  are  adeo  and  eomerU&itk  the  sense  of  **  I 
etep  np'td  a  person  for  the  purpose  of  speaking  to  him;*  aggrediw  (and 
adanot),  iwoado  and  ineedo,  I  attack,  where  especially  the  perfect  mcestit 
atSquem,  e.  g.,  cupido',  curaf  meCus^  must  be  obseVved ;  a/?iM>,  wash,  in  speak- 
ing of  the  sea  or  a  river ;  antetOf  ai^aio,  anteviniOf  praecedo,  praegredmrt 
prtevernhftAl  in  the  sense  of  **  I  excel"  fthe  principle  of  which  n  fculowed 
also  by  pmemhuOf  praest^f  dntecetlOf  exceao,  and  praeeelh) ;  eo^o^  I  conclnde, 
e.  g.,  an  alliance ;  excedo  and  egredtoTf  I  transgress,  e.  g.,  the  bounds;  mcv 
and  mgredioTy  I  begin  a  thmg ;  o6eo,  I  v»it,  undertake ;  ocetnubo  (meriem, 
wtech  is  much  more  frequent  than  morti  or  morre),  t  suffer  death,  or  die ; 
obndeo  and  dreurimdeo,  f  besiege ;  vufteo,  I  undertake.  But  even  among 
these  verbs  ^ere  are  some,  sueh  as  inctden  and  mvadere,  which  are  prefer* 
red  in  the  more  ancient  prose  with  a  prej^osition  or  with  the  dative.  Livy, 
for  example,  frequently  says,  ins^m  incessU  cura,  and  Sallust  uses  metus  m- 
vatit  popuiare» ;  but  CicOro,  Antdnhta  mvasit  in  OeUliamj  or  thn&r  mwuk  tm- 
j^tobis;  Terence^  ^uae  nova  nligio  lamt  in  te  tncetni;  Caesar,  dokr  imtuit 
mqjrbbis.  Antare  is  the  only  one  among  the  verbs  sigmfym^  **  to  excel"  that 
is  nsed  by  Cicero  with  the  accusative,  though  not  exclusively,  and  anseet- 
der^f  pratstaref  anfKMire^  and  eacelUre  are  used  by  himonly  with  the  dative ; 
the  cmiers  do  not  occur  in  his  works  in  this  sense. 

-There  are,  on  the  other  hand,  some  verbs  which,  according  to  the  above 
rule,  might  be  joined  with  the  accusative,  but  never  are  so,  »nd  take  either 
the  dative  Or  a  yreposition,  viz.  r  ampne,  obnpere,  inoumbere  (^  416).  Lastly,  . 
▼drbs  compounded  with  the  prepositions  ab,  de,  and  «a»,  which  imply  mo 
tion,  are  construed  with  the  ablative,  the  idea  of  separation  being-  pre 
dMUinant ;  the  few  verf)8  mentioned  above  only  form  an  exoeption  to  the 
rule.  • 

^d  388.]  3.  The  verbs  deficio,  Juvo,  aj^uvo^  defugiOf 

efitgiOi  pr^itgiOf  refitgio,  and  suhierfiigio,  and  the  depo* 

lients  ifnitor^  seqt£or,  and  sector,  govern  the  accusative. 

They  are  real  transitives,  and  have  a  personal  passive 

ForUsJbrtuna  adjuvat^  Ter.,  Phorm.^  i.,  4,  26. 
Ifemo  mortem  effugeire  potest,  Cic,  Philip.,  viii.,  10. 
Qloria  virtutem  tanquam  umhra  sequitur,  Cic,  JWc. 

.  Note  1. — ^The  compounds  of  sequor  and  sector :  asseqyor^  assectorc,  conte 
qvor,  consector^  insequor,  insedor^  perseatior^  prosequor^  likewise  govern  the 
aeDU8^.ive ;  obsequor,  I  comply  with,  alone  governs  the  dative.    Comitor,  1 
•ccx>mpany,  may  be  classed  with  sequor,  for  it  usually  goveins  the  accu' 
sitive ;  bnt  Cicero  in  some  passages  {de  Re  Publ,  ii.^  24,  Titsc,  v.,  24  and 

""*  [But  evado  is  found  thus  construed  more  than  once  in  Livy,  naniSly, 
it, 65;  vii.,36;  xxi.,32;  xxviii  ,2;  xlv.,4L  Consult  Drakenbt»rh,ad  Liw^ 
ii.,  G5,  3«  and  Botticher,  Lex.  Tacit.,  p.  16.]— Am.  Ed. 

A  a2 


283  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

35),  uses  It  with  the  dative,  in  accordance  with  its  original  meaning  **  to 
be  a  companion  to  a  person**  (^  235).  The  few  passages  in  which  d^ki^ 
occurs  with  the  dative  cannot  affect  the  rule ;  thus  we  read,  vire*,  t^ 
fiostros  defecerwU  ;  tempiu  me  deficit ;  and  in  the  passive,  quutk  miles  a  viri' 
bus  deficeretur;  aqtta  ciboque  de/ectus.  The  freauentative  adj&to  is  used 
with  the  dative  only  by  unclassical  writers ;  otherwise  it  has  the  accusa- 
tive iilLo'^ttvo.  The  passive  forms  of  defugio,  re/u^,  and  effiigio  aro  iar«y- 
but  always  in  accoraance  with  the  rule ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Tuse.,  i.,  36,  hmee  m- 
eommoda  morte  effwiuntur ;  jt.  Plane.,  32,  nuUas  sibi  dimietUiones  pro  me  de* 
fupendas  pvtavit ;  Quintil.,  iv.,  5,  Interim  refugienda  eet  ^UsUttcUo  mmestionum^ 
Ofthe  other  con4)Ounds  the  passive  cannot  be  proved  to  have  been  used. 
[^  389.]  Note  2. — ^The  verb  aeqwwe  and  its  compounds  have  likewise 
their  object  in  the  accusative.  Aefmn  properlr  ^igmfies  ^*  to  make^eqoal," 
rem  cmm  re  <Mr  rem  rei,  one  thing  to  another ;  6.  g..  wbem  solo  ooquare^  tumm 
moenUms ;  and  without  a  dative,  "  to  attain  f  e.  g.,  gloriam  aUai^ws^smrions 
reges,  eursum  equormm.  The  accusative  of  the  person  may  be  joined,  witlf 
oat  any  difference  in  raesming,  by  the  ablative  of  the  thing  in  which  L 
equal  any  one ;  e.  g.,  Gurt,  ix.,  26,  Nondum  feminam  aequavimme  glmrid,  et 
jam  noe  hudis  saetietas  cepu  ?  The  same  is  the  case  ¥nth  the  compound 
adaequare;  and  the  dative  with  this  verb,  in  the  sense  of  "attain"  or 
**  equal,"  is  doubtful  or  unclassical.  (See  Oaes.,  BelL  Oall.,  viii^  41.). 
E»asfuare  commonly  signifies  "to  make  equal,"  or  "equalize;"  and 
aemuparare  "  to  attain ;"  and  both  govern  the  accusative. . 

I^oti  3. — Aemvlari,  emulate,  commonly  takes  the  accusative  of  the  thmg 
in  which,  and  the  cUtive  of  the  person  whom  we  emulate ;  aemtdormr 
detUiam,  virtutes  majorum,  and  aemidor  aUcm  Aomm^  although  some  authors 
use  it  in  both  connexions  with  tne  accusative,  like  imiiaru  Adulari* 
properly  used  of  dogs,  signifies  **to  creep"  or  "saeakup  to  «  persoOf" 
and  figuratively,  like  the  Greek  npocKweiv,  the  servile  veneration  paid 
to  Asiatic  kings,  and  hence,  in  general,  to  "  flatter.**  In  its  proper  sense  it 
occurs  only  with  the  accusative ;  a  g*,  Colum.,  vii,  12,  Canes  wuHsmmt 
furem  quoque  adulawtur  ;  in  its  figurative  sense,  also,  it  is  found  only  with 
the  accusative :  Valer.  Maxim.,  vi,  3.,  extr.,  Athenienses  Timagoram  intet 
officium  salutationis  Darium  regem  mere  geniis  UUus  cduiatun^  capitali  suppKdo 
^ecerunt.  In  its  most  common  sense  of  "  servile  flattery,**  it  is  used  by 
Cicero,  likewise,  with  the  accusative,  in  Pis.,  41,  adulans  omnes ;  by  Nepos 
with  the  dative ;  Attic.,  8,  neque  eo  magis  potenti  adukOus  est  Antomo ;  b^ 
,  Livy  with  both  cases,  see  xxxvi.,  7,  nm.  xlv.,  31  (for  in  x^^iii,  4,  there  is 
no  reason  for  giving  up  the  old  reading  plebem  cfian),  and  Quintilian  (ix.;  3) 
states  that  in  his  time  the  dative  was  commonly  used.  Tacitus  and  other 
late  writers,  however,  returned  to  the  ancient  practice  and  used  the  acea- 
sativo.  It  should  be  remarked  that  the  active  form  advlo  was  not  uncom 
mon ;  as  in  Valer.  Maxim.,  iv.,  3,  in  fin.,  Cvm  olera  lanmnti  (Diogeni)  Aris- 
tippus  dixisset,  si  Dionysium  adtdare  veUes,  ita  non  esses  ;  Immo,  inquit,  si  In 
ita  esse  vdles,  non  aduhres  Dionysium,  Compare  the  commentators  <m 
Cic,  Tusc.,  ii.,  10,  ^  24. 

[§  390 J  4.  Five  impersonal  verbs  (§  22^),  which  ex- 
press certain  feelings,  viz.:  jngei,  (I  am)  vexed;  pudet, 
(I.  am)  ashamed ;  poenitet^  (I)  repent ;  taedet^  (I  am)  dis- 
gusted, and  miseret,  (I)  pity,  take  an  accusative  of  the 
person  affected.  As  to  the  case  by  which  the  thing  ex- 
citing'such  a  feeling  is  expressed,  see  §  441. 

— M*^^— ^*— ■^■■^    III!  ■■     mi^mm^^-^    ■■■■iii  ii        ■■■■m.  i   m  ■■■■    m.    ■■■■■»■  i    i      ^  immim.     ■■^i^— ^fa— ^^^^^ 

*  [Ddderlein  traces  this  verb  to  aulari,  and  connects  it  with  the  move- 
ments of  the  dog  in  tue  courtyard  on  the  approach  of  his  master.  Con^ 
pare  Horace's  '*  Janitor  aulte,"  and  Ovid,  Met,  xiv.,  45.  {DodeHoMf  Jm 
Sjfn",  vol.  ii.,  p.  Vtt^'l — -4m.  Ed. 


ACCUSATIVE  CASE.  S8 

JVbCf.— On  the  principle  ofpudUum  ett,  Cicero  (dt  Fm.,  ii,  U)  uses  tmi 
turn  Mt  as  an  impersonal  verb  with  the  accusative  of  the  penon,  Cyrmaid^ 
fUO$  non  est  veritum  in  voluptate  summum  bomtm  ponere. 

Decet,  it  is  becoming,  and  its  compounds  condecet^  de 
decet^  and  indecet,  likewise  govern  the  accusative  of  the 
person,  but  they  differ  fromtiie  above-m^ntionod  imper« 
sonal  verbs,  inasmuch  as  they  may  have  a  nomivative  as 
their  subject,  though  not  a  personal  one. 

Candida  pax  homines^  trux  deed  irafsra^^  Ovid,  A.  A* 

ffou. — In  the  early  langnage  (especially  in  Plautus)  deeet  is  feund,  also, 
with  the  dative.  We  may  here  notice  some  other  verhs  which,  when 
used  as  impersonals,  govern  the  accusative,  this  case  being  suited  to  their 
original  meaning ;  yuMtf  and  <2«^fa<  me,  I  am  rejoiced  \fatUt^fugU,praetenf 
me,  \^  escapes  me,  that  is,  I  have  forgotten,  or  do  not  know.  Xoief  m« 
oecnni  more  &sqaently  thisn  ki»^  miki,  but  the  impersonal  character  of 
this  verb  is  not  founded  on  good  authority,  for  the  passage  of  Cicero,  in 
Cat.^  i,  &  is  corrupt.  Cicero  uses  thid  verb  without  any  case ;  Uttw,  I  am 
concealed  or  keep  out  of  sight. 

•[§  391.]  5.  The  verbs  dvcere  (teach),  With  its  compounds 
edocere  and  dedocere^  and  telare  (conceal),  have  two  accu- 
sative of  the  object;  one  of  the  thing,  and  another  of  the 
person,  as  in  Nepos,  Eum,,  8,  Antigonus  iter,  quod  hahe- 
bat^  adversus  Eumenem,  amnts  ceUU. 

Fortwia  belli  artem  victos  quofue  docet^  Curt,  vii.,  30,  (7). 
CatUuui  juveniulem^  quam  Ulmrat,  tdultis  modis  malafa^ 
cinora  edocebat,  Sailust,  Cat,  16. 

Note  1. — ^When  such  a  proposition  takes  the  passive  form,  the  accuse* 
tive  of  the  person  becomes  the  nominative;  as,  omneM  dlabantur  ab  Antigo- 
n§  ;  but  the  thing  may  remain  in  the  accusative,  e.  g.,  Liv.,  vi.,  32,  Latinae 
Uponu  Un^a  aoeutttU  mUitiam  Romanam  odoctme,  and  omnes  belli  artes  edoc 
Cue.  But  it  rarely  occurs  with  dodm  and  edocdrx,  and  with  celtai  scarcely 
ever,  ezcq>t  when  the  thing  is  expressed  by  the  neuter  of  a  pronoun,  e.  g., 
Am  or  mI  eelabar,  I  was  kept  in  ignorance  or  it;  for  celare^  aud especially  its 
passive,  generaUy  has  the  preposition  <ie,  as  in  Cic.,  non  est  pro/ecto  de  ill§ 
veneno  edata  mater  ;  debes  existunare  le  maatinus  de  rebus  afratre  esse  celat-um. 
The  coD^itrttotion  ali^  res  mi/U  celatur  in  Nep.,  Alcib.,  5,  is  verjr  singular. 
Docere  an  I  edocere,  with  their  passive  forms,  are  Hkewise  used  with  de,  but 
only  in  the  sense  of  **  to  inform,**  as  in  Cicero,  jwikes  de'injwriis  alicujus 
docere;  SiuUu  de  his  rebus  dooetur;  Sallust,  de  itinere  hostiwo  senatmn  edocet. 

It  must,  however,  be  observed,  that  although  any  word  expressing  an 
art  tnay  be  joined  to  doceo  and  doceor  {doeeo  te  €trtem,  doceor  te  Latine  loqui, 
doeeo^  artem^  ddeeor  (commonly  dioeo)  ucUine  h^m),  the  instrument  on  which 
the  art  is  practised  is  expreued  by  the  ablative ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  ad  Fam.,  ix., 
22,  Socrdtemfidibus  docuit  nobilissimus ^^dicen  ;  Liv.,  xxix.,  1,  quern  docendum 
cures  equo  armisque,  and  in  a  passive  signification,  Cic,  Cat.  Maj.,  8,  dteee- 
hanifidikua  untijpd, ,  Litterae  may  be  used  either  in  the  accus.  or  ablat.,  Cic, 
m  lUs,,  30,  X^uid  nunc  te,  asine,  Utteras  doceam ;  Brut,,  45,  doctus  Cfraeds  lit- 
teris,  doetua  et  Oraeds  litteris  et  Latinis. 

[^  302.]  Note  2. — The  verbs  compounded  with  trans :  transduce,  trans- 
ficiOf  transporto,  take  a  double  at^cusative,  on  account  of  the  omission  of 
the  prejKMition,  which,  however,  is  often  added,  e.  g.,  Agesilaus  BdUe 
IMftfum  oepiae  trajeeit ;   Hannibal  nonaf^a  mHia  peditum,  duodecim  mafie 
«gittlttiii  Iberutn  transdiixit ;  Caesar  exer -itum  Rhenum  traiuportamt^  ^ ' — '~ 


284  LATIN  GRAMMAS. 

trmt§dM€iii,  bql,  alao,  mMkit^dinem  hominum  trans  Rhinum  in  ^oliom  inyy 
ducere.  Ib  the  passive  construction  the  accusative  dependant  upon  inuki 
is  retained ;  as  in  Caesar,  ne  major  multUudo  Gtrmanorum  Rhenum  trans' 
dueatur;  Belgas  Rheman  antiquitus  transductL  Transjicere  and  transmittars 
are  also  used  intransitively,  the  pronouns  me,  te,  se,  &c.,  bc&ig^  under- 
stood. The-  participles  traiujectua  and  transmitsus  may  be  used  both  of 
that  whi(^h  crosses  a  river  and  of  the  river  which  is  crossed,  amnis  tra- 
jectiUf  transmissuMf  and  clatsi$  transmUsa^  Mariut  in'Afrieam  trdjectuSf  and 
the  name  of  the  water  may  be  added  in  the  ablative,  num,/reto, 

[§393.]  6.  The  reThBposeo,reposco,JlagitOfl  demand; 
aro,  rogo^  I  entreat ;  interrogo  and  percontar^  I  s^sk  or  in- 
qmre,  also  admit  a  double  aecuaativo,  one  of  tbe  pezson, 
arid  anotjier  of  the  thing,  but  the  Verbs  which  denote  de* 
manding  or  entreaity  also  take.tljie  ablative  of  thq  peloson 
with  the  preposition  ab^  and- those  denoting  inquiring  may 
tajke  the  ablative  of  the  thing  with  de.  Peto^  postulo,  and  ' 
qwaero  are  never  used  with  a  double  aecusative^but  the  first  , 
two  have  always  the  ablative  of  the  person  with  ab^  anfl 
quaero  with  ab,  de  and  ex. 

Nulla  salus  bdlo,  pacem  te  poscimus  amniss,  Yitg.,  Acft.^ 

xi.,  362. 
Legati  Hennenses  ad  Verrem  adeunt  enmque  sifMtlacrwm 

Cereris  et  Victoriae  reposcunt,  Cic,  in  Verr.f  iv.,  51. 
Pusionem  guendam  ^Socrates  apud  PlaUmem  iMUrrog€U 

quaedam  Geometrica^  Cic,  Tusc.,  i.;  24. 

Note  1. — A  double  accusative  is  used  most  commonly  when  the  thing' 
is  expressed  indefinite  by  tlw  nevter  of  a  pronoun  or  an  adjective ;  e.  g., 
hoc  te  tfehementer  rogo  ;  Mhd  te  et  ora  et  hortor;  mne  te  kee  emimemt  let  me  en 
treat  this  of  vou;  nihU  aUud  voe  orat  eOque  obeecrat;  k»c  qmdte  nOerroge 
respomde.  The  accusat.  with  the  passive  is  rare,  but  in  acecmlaDce  with 
the  rule ;  thus  we  say,  fogatua  eetntetuiam,  asked  ios  Itts  opimon  (fot  roga 
may  mean  the  same  as  irUerrogo\  interrogahte  teatimonhan. 

Note  2.— Respecting  what  is  called  the  Greek  aeauativtf  whieh  only  sup- 
plies the  place  of  the  Latin  ablative,  see  ^  456. 

[§  394,]  7.  The  follovnng  verbs  (which  in  the  passive 
voice  hare  two  nominatives)  have  in  the  active  two  accu* 
satives,  one  of  the  object  and  the  other  of  the  predicate, 
ddcere,  vocare^  appeUare,  nominare^  nuncupare,  abo  9cribert 
wad  inseribere  ;  d^dere,  habere^  jMieare^  exUtimare^nmne* 
rare,  putare  (arbitrari)^  also  intelligere,  agnoseere^  repe* 
rire^invenvre^faetre  (pass.  Jierij^  redderCf  inHituere^  cansii" 
tuere,  creare^  deligere^  designare,  deelatare,  remmtiare^  end 
others;  se praebere, ae praestare*  .  Thus  we  say  in  tlie  ac- 
tive, Chceronem  univerms  papulus  advertus  Catilinam.con- 
tuleni  declaravit  (Cic,  in  Pis.^  1),  and  in  the  passive,  CHo 
era  ah  universo  popylo  cofuul  dedaratm  est^ . 

tLi>mulu9  urbem,  quam  cnndidit^  R^mutm  '^*^avit. 


ACCUSATIVE    CASE.  285 

Socrates  toUus  mundi  se  incolam  et  civem  arhUrahatur^ 

Cic,  Tusc,  v.,  37. 
Bene  de  me  meritis  gratum  me  praeheo^  Cic,  p.  Planc,^  3& 
Scytharum  gens  antiquissima  semper  habita  est. 

Note  1. — Hence  we  say,  /ooo  te  certiorem^  I  inform  thee,  with  the  gem 
tiTe ;  e.  g.,  consUii  meij  or  with  the  preposition  de:  de  oaruilidrrteo;  and  in 
the  passive  voice,  certior /actus  »um.  With  other  adjectives  reddere  is  pref 
erable  to  faeere;  e.  g.,  reddere  aUquem  vheidum  et  moUem,  meliorem,  mitum, 
&c.  J  hominee  caecos  reddit  cupiditae  ;  loca  tuta  ah  hostibua  reddebat.  In  the 
passive  we  rarely  find  reddi  for  fieri. 

-  Ui&r,  in  a  similar  sense,  is  ined  with  a  doable  ablative :  utvr  aUoato  ma 
gietrot  I  have  a  person  for  my  teacher ;  utor  aUquo  aequo,  benigno,  i  find  a 
person  jnst,  kina  towards  myself.    Terent.,  Heaut.,  ii.,  1, 5,  Mihi «t  unquam 
fUhu  eritf  nae  iUefaeiU  me  uteturpatfe,  he  shall  have  in  me  an  indoigent 
father. 

Note  2. — With  regard  to  the  participle  passive,  the  rule  respecting  the 
agreement  of  the  predicate  with  the  cases  of  the  snbjec^  nmly  applies  to 
any  other  cases  than  the  nominative  and  aconsative,  at  least  in  ord^ary 
language.  There  are,  however,  a  few  instances  of  the  ablative  in  the 
construction  of  the  ablative  absolnCb;  Nep.,  Hann.,  3,  Hasdrubale  impera 
tore  suffnto  ;  Liv.,  iv.,  46,  mapstro  e^uUum  creato  JUh  mto  jtrofeohu  est  ad 
helium;  ibid.,  xlv.,  21,  Conaulibua  certtorUnu  factis ;  Flor.,  iii.,  21,  e»  eena- 
tusconsulio  advereariis  hostibua  judiceuis.  There  are  no  instances  of  other 
oblique  cases.  It  is  not,  however,  improbable  that  a  Roman  might  have 
aaid,  Dareus  Scytharum  genti,jiuamquam  iustissimae  habttae^  betlum  tn^dit. 

Note  3.— 'The  verbs  jmtari,  ducere^  anci  habere  may  have  the  preposition 
fro  instead  of  the  accusative  of  the  predicate,  but  not  quite  in  the  same 
sense,  ;»ro  impressing  rather  an  approximation;  e.  g.,  habere  pro  hoste,  to 
deem  a  person  equal  to  an  enemy ;  aliquidpro  non  dkto  habere,  to  consider 
a  thing  as  though  it  had  not  been  said ;  altqidd  pro  eerto  puiare,  to  regard  a 
thmg  as  though  it  were  certain ;  pro  nihilo,  as  though  it  were  nothing. 
We  may  here  notice,  also,  the  phrases  oliquem  in  numero ;  e.  g.,  impera- 
torum,  sapientiumf  and  ^iquem  m  loco  parentis  ducere  or  habere, 

[§  395.]  8.  The  accusatiye  is  used  with  verbs  and  ad- 
jectives to  express  the  extent  of  time  and  space,  in 
answer  to  the  questions,  how  far?  how  long?  how 
broad  ]  how  deep  ]  how  thick  ]  e.  g,,  nunquam  pedem  a 
me  discessitt  he  never  moved  one  step  from  me ;  a  recta 
,canscientia  nan  transversmn  unguem  (or  digitumj  oportet 
discedere,  not  one  finger's  breadth; /oMa  duos  pedes  lata 
>r  longa  ;  cogitationem  sohrii  hominis  punctum ,  tempo?  is 
nucipe^  take,  for  one  moment,  the  thought  of  a  rational 
man;  so,  also,  Mithridates  annum  jam  tertium  et  vicesi' 
mum  regnat;  tres  annos  mecum  habitavitf  or  per  tres  annos^ 
which,  however,  implies  that  the  period  was  a  long  one. 

Campvs  Marathon  ah  Athenis  circiter  miliapassuum  decern 

ahest^  Nep.,  MUt.,  4. 
Quaedam^estiolae  unum  tantum  diem  vivunt^  Cic 
Decern  quondam  annos  urhs  oppugnata  est  oh  unam  muh- 

erem  ab  universa  Graecia,  Liv.,  v.,  4. 


886  LATIN    GRAMMAR.  * 

Lacnmani  in  carcere  mater  nodes  diesque  asiidehat,  Cw^ 
in  Verr.^  v.,  43. 

[^  396.]  Note  1. — ^The  ablatire  is  rarely  used  by  Cicero  to  express  tlko 
duration  of  time;*  e.  g.,  d€  Off.,  m.,  2,  Scfhtwn  eat  a  Pondonio  trigmtm 
mwia  vixuae  Pmnaethtm,  jtotteaquam  libroM  deomt^  adidisset ;  but  it  is  more 
frequent  in  the  authors  of  the  silver  age ;  Tac^  Ann.,  t,  53,  quattuordeeim 
mrnis  eariUum  toleiwak  ;  Suet.»  Ctdig.,  59,  vueit  aumit  undetriginta.  The  aUa- 
\ive  of  distance  must,  in  general,  be  regarded  as  an  exception,  although  il 
occurs  not  only  in  late/  writers,  but  in  Caesar  and  Livy,  abestf  dtstat  qmH- 
mu  milUnu  ]MS9uum,  or  tpatio  aliquot  ptiiium  ;  Tac.,  Amh.,  zii.,  17,  jBaMrafus 
Romanua  truhti  itmere  aJytut  ab  amnu  Tanai;  but  Cicero  and  others,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  rule,  say  iter  quinque,  deeem  dierum,  or  bidman,  triduum, 
or  btekii,  tridui  (scil.,  spatiMm)  abe»t  ab  aliqm  loco.  If^  however,  not  the  dis- 
tance is  to  be  eJiprMsedy  but  only  a  place  to  be  desigaated  by  the  circam- 
stance  of  its  distance  from  another,  the  ablative  ^ould  be  used^  though 
the  accusative  sometimes  occurs ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxvii,  41,  mille/ere  et  qmn- 
gtntosfatmu  uuira  ab  hoMtelooat;  xxv.,  13,  triapatsvum  mi/ia  a6  ipta  urbe 
loco  edtto  caatrapondt,  and  in  other  passages.  Spatio  and  int^rveUo  are  the 
only  words  in  which  the  ablative  is  used  exclusively ;  .e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxv.,  9, 
OMtndectm/amw  milium  spatio  eastrm  ab  Tarento  poauit,  but  tiie  ablative  i» 
round,  also,  in  many  other  cases,  agreeably  to  the  rule;  e.  g.,  Caes.,  Bell 
Oall.,  i.,  48,  Eodem  die  oaatra  promowt  et  miUbua  vaseuum  oex  a  Caesaria  oma 
trie  9ub  momte  cmsediL  When  the  place  from  wnich  the  distance  is  calcn* 
lated  is  not  mentioned,  but  understood  from  what  nrecedes,  ab  is  placed 
at  the  beginning,  as  if  the  ablative  of  the  distance  depended  on  it ;  e.  g., 
Caes.,  Bell.  GM.,  ii,  7,  a  miiibue  passuum^duobua  caetra  poauerunt,  i.  e.,  at 
i  distance  of  2000  paces  from  the  spot,  or  2000  paces  off,  duo  inda  milia 
(for  more  instances  from  Caesar,  see  Schneider  on  Caes.,  L  c.) ;  Liv.,  xxhr., 
46,  a  fuii^entia  fere  paaaibua  eaatra  poavU  ;  Flor.,  ii.,  6.  56,  mm  jam  a  tertio 
lapide  (i.  e.,  at  a  distance  of  three  miles),  aed  ipaaa  Carthaginia  portaa  obaidi- 
on»  quatiebat.    (Compare  Matthiae,  Greek  Grammar^  ^573,  p.  994,  5th  ed.) 

[(  397.]  Note  2. — Old,  in  reference  to  the  years  which  a  person  haa  lined, 
is  expressed  in  Latin  by  nattu,  with  an  accusative  of  the  time ;  e.  g^  De- 
ceaait  Alexander  menaem  unvm,  annoa  tree  et  tnginta  natua  (Justin,  xii.,  16). 
Alexander,  therefore,  died  quarto  et  trixeaimo  anno,  or  aetatia  omtow  A  per- 
son's age,  however,  nlay  l>e  expressed  without  natua,  by  the  genitive,  if 
his  name  is  closely  joined  to  tiie  words  denotin|f  the  time  (see  ^  426) ; 
e.  g.,  Alexander  annonan  trium  et  triginta  dtseaait,  L  e.,  as  a  man  of  thirty- 
three  years.  The  expressions  **ouler"  or  **  younger,  thah  thirty-three 
years,"  are  accordingly  rendered  in  Latin  hyplua  or  minua(8ee  ^  485)  trea 
et  triginta  annoa  natua ;  but,  fdso,  by  major  or  minor,  either  without  quitm, 
as,  mt^or  (minor)  annoa  trea  et  triginta  natita,  and  major  (mwoi*)  annorum  trhm 
et  trigtnta ;  or  with  quam :  major  {minor)  quam  annoa  trea  at  tripMa  natua, 
and  major  {ndtwr)  quam  annorum  trium  et  triginta,  Natu  may  be  joined  to 
annarum,  as  anru>  is  to  aetatia  in  the  case  of  ordinal  numerals.  Lastly,  the 
ablative  is  made  to  depend  upon  the-  comparative;  mmot  i'^nor)  tnlma  el 
triginta  annia;  and  in  the  Roman  laws  we  frequently  nnd  the  expression 
minor  viginti  quinque  annia.  ' 

[§  398.]  9.  The  names  of  towns,  and  not  un&equently 
of  small  islands,  are  put  in  the  accudative  with  vierbs  im- 
plying motion,  wit}iout  the  preposition  in  of  ad^  which 
are  required  with  the  names  of  countries:  e..g.,  Jnvenei 
Rotnani  Atkenai  studiorum  catua  prqficisci  s^^ant.    Wo 

♦  [The  strict  distinction  appears  to  oe  this :  with  the  ablative  we  <i8k, 
in  what  time ;  but  vnth  the  accusalive,  throughout  what  time.  Compaif 
BOlroth,  L.  O.,  ^  206.]— itm.  Ed. 


ACCUSATJVE   CASE.  287 

may  here  mention  at  once  all  the  rules  relating  to  the 
construction  of  the  names  of  towns.  If  they  denote*  the 
place  whence^  they  are  in  the  ablative;  if  the  place  where  f 
singular  nouns  of  the  first  and  second  declensions  are  pu* 
in  me  genitive,  all  plurals  and  noims  of  the  third  declen- 
si  >n  in  the  ablative.*  When  we  have  to  expren  "through 
a  town,"  the  preposition  per  is  required. 

Demaratus  quidarh^  Tarqmnii  regis  pater ^  tyrannum  Cyp- 
selum  quod f err t  rum  poterat^  Tarquinios  Coriniho fugit^ 
et  ibi  suasjorttmas  canstittdt^  Cic,  Tusc.^  v.,  37. 

JHonysms^  tyranntu  Syracusis  expuhus   Corintki  puero$. 
docebat^  Cic,  TWc,  iii.,  12. 

Momae  Consudes^  Athenia  Archantes,  Cartkaginei  Suffetes 

live  judices^  quotannis  ereckbantur^  Nep.,  Hann. 

Note  1. — The  use  of  names  of  countries  without  a  preposition,  like  the 
names  of  towns,  and  of  names  of  towns  with  tfa«  prepositions  m,  ab,  ear,  is 
an  irregularity  which  should  not  be  imitated.  Of  these  prepositions  ab 
is  found  most  frequently,  especially  in  Liyy,  though  sometimes,  ftlso,  in 
Cicero :  ab  Epidauro  Piraeeum  adveettUf  ab  JSphea^  m  Syriam  prqfechu.  o 
Brundish  nuila  adhue  fama  veturai;  and  cases  may  occur  in  which  the 
preposition  is  absolutely  necdbsary ;  as  in  Cic.,  m  yerr.t  iv.,  33,  Segesta  eat 
vmXdtim  m  Sicitia,  quod  ab  Aenea^fi^ente  a  TVma,  camUtum  esse demonsirani. 
Ad  is  joined  with  names  of  towns  when  only  the  direcUon  towards  a  pkci 
is  to  be  expressed,  and  not  the  pl^ce  itself;  e.  g.,  in  Cicero,  iter  dirigen  ai 
Mutinam^  tres  viae  sunt  ad  MutinatHy  farther,  when  the  vicinity  of  a  place 
is  to*  be  denoted  (^  296);  in  this  sense,  the  elder  Cato  says,  in  Cic^ 
Cat,  — a;*,,  5,  adolescentulus  miles  profectus  sum  ad  Capuam,  quinteque  antu 

*  T^  rule,  -varying  as  it  does  with  the  number  and  declension  of  s 
name  of  a  town,  is  obviously  quite  arbitrary,  and  not  traceable  to  any 
principle.  The  first  (at  least  in  England)  proper  explanation  of  this 
apparent  peculiarity  of  the  Latin  language  is  given  by  a  writer  in  the 
Journal  of  E^jtcation  (vol.  i.,  p.  107),  from  which  we  extract  the  following 
passage :  *'  we  are  usually  directed  to  translate  at  Roam  by  the  genitive, 
at  Amens  bv  the  ablative,  &c.,  giving  different  rules  according  as  the 
number  or  the  gender  diners,  while,  m  fact,  they  are  all  datives.  With 
Romae,  Athenis,  there  is  no  difficulty.  As  to  Beneventi,  domi,  &c.,  an  ear- 
lier form  of  the  dative  of  the  second  declension  was  oi  {oIkoi),  whence 
arose  the  double  ^orm  nullo  and  nui/t.  In  the  plural  the  two  languages 
exhibit  the  same  analogy;  dov^^i,  <5o^fXo<f,  in.Greek,  and  in  Latin  Dum, 
puens.  In  the  third  declension  a  common  occurrence  hsm  taken  pLsce.** 
T^  explanation  is  copfirmed  by  the  fact  that  in  most  cases  we  find  Car- 
ihagini,Anxurij  7\'6itri,  and  also  Lacedamoni^  when  the  place  where?  is  to 
be  expressed.    See  above,  ^  ^,  in  fin.— Transl. 

t  The  writer  abo^e  quoted  justly  remarks :  **  Our  editions  often  present 
CmrtkagiHe,'ZMeed<Btnonef  where  the  MSS.  have  the  correct  dative.  It  is 
true  that  authority  exists  for  the  other  form;  but  the  change  of  Carthagim 
into  Carthagine  is  precisely  similar  to  the  change  of  heri  into  here^  jnctal 
into  pktas,  9ud  not  mdike  the  absorption  of  the  t  in  the  datives  of  so  many 
declensionSy  Greek  and  Latin :  gradm  gradu,^fideijide.  In  the  third  de« 
clension,  the  preceding  consonant  saved  it  from  total  extinction.  Ths 
eommoneet  effect  of  time  upon  language  is  to  soften  away  the  final  letters. 
Hence  mirariSf  mhrare ;  agier^  agi ;  ipsus,  ipse ;  quis,  qui;  fuerimtf  fwno 
k$mo,  homo;  iyuv,  kyu;  ego,  egi,**  ^c— Transl. 


^_J 


SB8  LATIN   GEAMMAA 

fo$l  «a  x'ariutum  Ouaetlor^  that  is,  in  castra,  ad  Cmpuanu  od  Tanaimm.  Cr 
«<f  is  also  used  to  denote  tne  approach  of  a  fleet  to  a  maritimo  town;  e.  g., 
Caes.,  Bell.  Ctv.,  iii,  100,  LaeUus  cum  daaae  ad  Brundiaivm  venit. 

What  has  been  said  abore  in  reference  to  islands  applies  not  ooly  to 
those  which  have  towns  of  the  same  namCi  such  as  jbelos,  Rhadus,  Sa- 
mos,  Corcyrat  but  to  others,  also,  as  in  Cicero:  Ilhacae  vivere  ctiote;  in 
. Nepos,  Canon pUtrimum  CyprivixiU  IphicreUes  in  Thracia,  Timotktus  Leah; 
Pausaniam  cum  daase  Cyprum  atque  JJeUupontmm  misenaU;  so,  also,  Chn- 
•onesum  colonoM  tnitUrA,  Chersonesi  habUare ;  but  Cicero,  de  Divin.,  i.,  25, 
says,  in  Cyprum  recUre.  The  larger  islands;  as,  SardiniOf  Britannia,  Oreta^ 
EubaeOf  t^iliOf  are  subject  to  the  same  rules  as  names  of  countries ;  and 
<he  few  exceptions  which  occur  cannot  be  taken  into  account ;  e.  g.,  Cic , 
p.  Iteg,  Man.,  12,  inde  Sardiniam  cum  claue  venit ;  Liv.,  xzzii.,  16,  Buboeam 
iraieaarunt ;  Flor^  iii.,  10,  Britanniam  trantH  ;  and  some  others. 

Names  of  countries,  siso,  are  not  unfre^uently  used  in  the  accusative 
without  the  preposition  m  when  motion  is  expressed.  This  is  most  fre- 
quentlv  the  case  with  Aeeyptus  (once  even  in  Cic,  de  Nat.  Deer.,  Hi,.  22), 
and  other  Greek  names  of  countries  in  us;  .as,  Esfnfs,  Pfloponnesugp  Chet' 
•pnetta,  Botporuty  perhaps  owing  to  their  resemblance  to  names  of  towns 
but  also  with  others;  e.  g.,  Caes,,  BdL  Gall,  iil,  7,  jUyriciim  profeehu, 
BeU.  Civ.,  iii.,  41,  Macedoniam  pervenit;  Liv.,  x.,  37,  Etruriam  transdacto 
gaeercitu;  zxx.,  2i,.Africam  traruitunis.  All  these  expressions,  however, 
Ke  only  exceptions,  rarely  used  by  the  earlier  writers,  and  somewhat 
more  frequently  by  the  later  ones.  Even  names  of  nations,  when  used 
br  those  of  countries,  are  construed  in  this  way  by  Tacitus,  ^nn.,  xii, 
32,  ductus  inde  Cangoe  exerdtus  ;  xii.,  15,  Ipse  praeceps  Iberos  ad  patthan 
rsgmum  pervadii.  The  genitive  of  n^mes  of  countries  in  answer  to  the 
Question  takers  ?  is  much  more^  rare,  and4s  confined  to  Aegyptim  Caesar, 
BslL  Civ.,  vL,  106 ;  Ch'ersonesi  in  Nep.,  Mitt.,  1 ;  Florus,  i.,  18,  IrfSises  Jju- 
canias  in  the  same  way ;  in  Sallust  the  combination  Ro^ae  Numidiaeque  is 
easily  accounted  for.* 

•  The  grammatical  explanation  of  this  genitive,  however,  is  connected 
with  difficulties..  Formerly  grammarians  accounted  for  it  b^the  ellipsis 
in  loco;  modem  comparative  philology  has  called  in  the  aid  of  the  locative 
«M^^ar  in  t  of  the  Sanscrit  language,  which  is  akin  to' the  Latin.  (See 
Bopp,  Vergleich.  Grammatik,  p.  229.)  This  would  account  for  the  ae  in  the 
first  declension,  the  ancient  form  being  ai  (see  ^  45),  and  for  the  t  in  some 
nouns  of  the  third  declension ;  e.  g.,  TVnui,  Carthagini,  rwi.  (See  f  62, 
foil)  The  use  of  the  accusative  to  denote  *'  motion  to,**  and  of  the  ab- 
lative to  denote  the  place  where  or  whence,  is  perfectly  in  accordance 
with  the  syntactical  system  of  the  Latin  language ;  and  this  accounts  for 
the  fact  or  later  writers,  especiallv  Justin,  frequently  putting  names  of 
towns  of  the  second  declension  in  the  ablative  to  denote  the  place  where; 
e.  g.,  Abydo,  Corintho,  iiiv.,  v.,  52,  m  monts  AUtano  Lavinioque,  for  <t  La- 
pmu.j 

[^  399.]  Nou  2.— With  regard  to  adjectives  and  nouns  of  app^itioa 
joined  with  names  ef  towns,  the  following  rules  must  be  observed.  When 
a  name  of  a  town  is  qiialified  by  an  adjective,  the  answer  to  the  question 
where?  is  not  expressed  by  the  genitive,  but  by  the  preposition  in  witfi  the 
ablative;  e.  g.,  Cic.,ad  4tt.,  xi.,  16,  in  ipsa  Alexandria;  PUn..  Hist.  Nat., 
siv.,  3,  m  Narbonensis  provincias  AV^  H^via  ;  and,  consequently,  not  Albas 
Longae,  but  rather  the  simple  ablative  Alba  Langi^;  as  in  VirgU»  Aen.,  vi, 
766.  In  Cicero,  however,  we  find  Teani  ApuU  {p.  Clusnt.,  9),  in  the  Apu 
lian  Teanum.    When  a  name  of  a  town  answers  to  the  question  where  f 

*  Acceding  to  the  remark  msde  above,  Aegypti^  Chsrsonesi,  fcucfww, 
Sec,  are^ll  datives,  answering  to  the  Sanscrit  locative,  and  no;,  ^fenitives. 
-Tkansl. 

t  According  to  what  was  said  above,  these  are  not  exceptioiK  ibyi§^ 
Corintko,  being  datives,  and  not  ablatives. — ^Tsamal. 


*At?Ce8ATIV?  CASE. 

til  the  abintiTe,  the  acklltioii  of  in  adjccttve  produces  no  ciasgo;  e.  g.» 
ClCy  ad  Au.,  ^vi.,  6,  Mtdo  vel  cum  ttmort  domi  eue^  iptam  niu  Umare  Athmut 
hda;  lAv.,  i.,  18,  Numa  Pompitius  Curibut  Sabims  halntabdi ;  ibid.,xxviii^ 
17,  Ctarlhagiru  nova  reUqwt;  and  hence  the  reading  in  the  epitome  of  the 
eame  boo£  should  be  Cartkagmi  hmns,  and  not  novae.  In  answer  to  the 
questions  whither?  and  whence?  the  accu's.  and  ablat  are  used  botii  with 
and  without  prepositions;  e.  g.,  Ovid,  Heroid.,  ii.,  83,  AliquU  doetaa  jam 
Hieno  Ml,  inqnitj  AthenM ;  Cic.,  tn  Viir.f  i,  19,  quae  ipea  Soma  etMah  sunt : 
but  Property  iii,  20,  mapmm  iter  ad  doctas  prqfictta  cogar  Athenae  ;'aiKi 
IfTartial,  xiiL,  107,  devitiferavenisse  Vienna. 

When  the  words  tarhs^  cpmdum,  Utcua^  &c.,  follow  the  names  of  towns 
as  iq>jositions»  they  generally  take  a  preposition ;  e  g.,  ZTmuiraiiM  Oeni^ 
thius  $e  cotUulit  Targumioe,  in  urbem  Etrurioe  jlorentietimam  ;.  Cic^  in  Verr., 
▼.,  51,  Cleomenee  dieit^  seee  in  terram  esse  egressumf  ut  Pachyno^  e  terrestri 
praesidio,  militet  cdUigeret,  In  answer  to  the  question  where  ?  however,' the 
simple  ablative  may  be  used,  but  never  the  genitive ;  e.  g.,  (^ic;,  p.  Arch,^ 
3,  ArcJuas  Antiochiae  natue  est,  celelni  auondamvrbe  tt  copiosa  ;p.  Rob.  Poet., 
!0,  DeUciarum  cauea  et  voluptatit  civee  Romanoe  Neapoli,  m  cetelkrrdno  opptdo, 
cum  mitfUa  eaepe  vidinois,  .  When  these  words,  with  their  pi:epodtions,  pr^« 
cede  the  names  of  towns,  the  latter  are  invariabW  put  in  the  same  case ; 
e.  g.,ad  urbem  Ancyramt  ex  urbe  Roma^  ex  oppido  Tnermis^  in  oppido  Athenie ; 
Nep.,  Cim,,  3,  in  oppido  Cilia ;  Tac,  Ann.y  zl.,-2] ,  in  opjMo  Aarumeto,  Et- 
cepUons  are  rare ;  Vitruv.,  Praef»,  lib.  z.,  nobili  Oraeconun  et  ampla  dvitate 
Epheii;  and  in  Cic,  etd  Att.^  v.,  18,  Caasiue  in  oppido  Antiochiae  cum  omm 
exercitu  eetf  where  Antiochiae  depends  upon  oppido^  jUst  as  We  say  **  in  the 
town  of  Antioch.** 

[^  iOp.]  Nou  3. — ^The  words  domue  and  rus  are  treated  like  the  names 
of  towns,  consequently  domum  (also  domoe  in  the  plur.)  and  rut,  home, 
into  the  country;  demo  and  rure,  from  home,  from  the  country ;  ddmt,  run 
(more  frequent  than  rure)^  at  home,  in  the  country.  But  althous^  the 
rule  requires,  e.  g.,  domo  abeeee,  to  be  absent  from  home,  Livy  uses  eeee  ah 
domo ;  and  besides  domi  ee  tenerf,  to  keep  at  h<mie,  we  also  find  damo  ee 
tenere.*  (See  the  comment,  on  riep.,  Bvam^t  10.)  Domi  also  takes  the 
genitives  meae,  tuact  noetrae,  veetrae,  and  aiienae;  but  if  any  other  adjective 
is  joined  with  it,  a  preposition  must  be  used ;  e.  g.,  in  tUa  domo,  in.  domo 
pwlicay  in  privata  domo.  When  the  name  of  the  possessor  is  added  in  the 
genitive,  tioth  forms,  domi  and  in  domo,  are  used ;  e.  g.,-  domi  or  m  domo 
iaeearie  or  ipeiue.  In  the  case  of  domum  ilnd  domo,  the  role  .is,  on  the 
whole,  the  same ;  we  say,  e.  g.,  domum  meam  venii^  mhd  domum  suaminhi- 
lit,  domoe  euae  inbitant,  damo  sua  egredi;  but  in  domum  merelriciqm  indud; 
in  domum  veterem  remigtare  »  nova  ^  LiVy,  in  domtUm'  Maelii  tela  inferuhiur; 
picero^  e  dom/o  Caeearie  multa  ad  te  deUUa  eunt ;  ,  Cicero,  however,  very 
commonly  says,  domum  alicujue  venire,  convenire,  domoe  omnium  concureare. 

Humue,  beUum,  and  nuUtia  are,  to  some  extent,  construed  in  ia  similar 
way,  their  genitives!  being  used  to  denote  the  place  where?  .kumi,  on  the 
ground  (but  not  humum,  f  ithrow)  upon  the  ground,  and  rareljr  humo,  from 
the  ground,  prepositions  oeing  required  to  express  these  relations ;  hence 
humo  is  often  used  as  an  ablative  of  place  lor  Aumi);  belli  and  militiae, 
always  in  combination,  with,  or  in'oppoeitiori  to,  domi:  belli  domique,  or 
domi  belUque,  domi  militiaeque,  at  home  and  in  the  camp ;  nee  dueem  beUi,  nee 
pnnc^p«m  domi  deeideramus;  nikit  dtmii,  nihU  niUitiae  geetum.    But  we  also 
find  m  beUo,  in  war.    Viciniae  for  tn  vict'nt^,  occurs  in  Terence  in  such  con-    ' 
neiiorVft  as,  kio,  hue,  vidmae,  wheiVf  however,  the  genitiva  riii^t.be  re- 
garded  as  dJependant  upon  the  adverb  (see  ^  434),  but  Plautus  (Bocc^,  ii. 
2,  27)  uses  it  without  the  adverb;  proximae  viciniae  hatniat.    Forae  (out 
throtogli  the  door)  and  forie  (out  at  the  dodr)  have  become  advdibs,  bat* 
the  one  is  l^roperiy  anr  aecusat.,  «nd  the  other  ah  ablat  ' 

»  I  .  ■  Til, 

*  FThese  are  all  locative  cases.    Consult  iMte  on  page  287  ) — Am.  Ed. 
f  fOr,  more  correctly,  locatives.] — Am.  Ed. 


JWQ  LATIN   GBAMMAK.- 

[§  401.]  The  poets  maj  express  by  tlie  accusative  atjjr 
locality  answering  to  the  question  whither  ?  as  in  Virgily 
lUdiamfaiQ  profkgua  Lavinaque  venit  litora;  Spehmcas^ 
Dido  dux  et  Trojanus  eandem  devenitmt;  Ovid,  VeHns 
rtfers  aures  nan  pervenientia  nostras, 

[I  402.1  10.  In  exclamations  the  accusative  of  the  per- 
son or  thing  wondered  at  is  used,  ei^er  with  the  inter-, 
jactions  o^  heu,  theu^  or  without  them.  The  accusative 
may  be  explained  W  suj^lying  some  verb  of  emotioD  or 
declar^ou;  e.  g.,  Heu  me  miserum  f  O  wretched  hian 
that  I  am !  heu  dementiam  existimeuUium  I  O  the  folly  of 
those  who  believe,  &c. !  or  without  heu  :  me  miserum  ! 
Beatos  quondam  duces  Romanos  /  exclaims  Corbolo  in 
Tacit.,  Asm,,  xi.,  20 ;  Cie.,  in  Verr.,  v.  25,  Huneine  homi- 
nemi  hancineimpudentiam^judices/  hanc  audaciamf  and 
in  an  ironical  sense,  p.  CoeL,  26,  In  balneis  deUtueruntz 
testes  egregios  !  de  Orat.,  iii.,  2,  O/alkusem'  hominum  spem 
fragilemquefortunam  et  inanes  nostras  contentiones  / 

[^  403.]  JVbf«  I. — With  these  as  with  all  other  interjections  the  vocatirtf 
also  is  used,  when  the  person  or  thing  itself  is  invoked ;  e.  g.,  Cic^  PkiUp., 
ziii,  17,  o  minff  9irt<m  re,  fiim  hoe  ipto  quod  non  sentUf  quam  miser  sit  I  Vao 
and  hti  are  Qsaally  joined  with  the  dative ;  as,  mm  murero  mihi!  vaevktkl 
hn  mikii  qtuUia  erai  I 

Nou  2. — Eeee  and  en  {Greek  ^,  ^vO  &re  preferred  with  the  nominative ; 
as,  Beee  tuae  liiUrae!    Bcee  notw  turba  atjue  rixa  I    En  ere  f  '  JBn  memoria^ 
morhd  eodatie  !  en  metue  viverum  esietimttumie  I    Bcee  With  the  accusative 
occurs  only  in  comedy,  in  the  expression  eceo  me  I  and  in  the  contracted 
forms  eecum^  eeeoe,  eeeiUum,  eceiUmn,  eceiatam. 

[$  404.]  11.  The  Allowing  prepositions  govern  the  ac' 
cusative  :  ad,  apud,  ante,  adversus  and  adversum,  cis  and 
citra,  circa  and  circum,  circiter,  contra,  erga,  extra,  infra, 
inter ^  intra,  juxta^  ob^  penes,  per,  pone,  post,  praeter,  prope. 
propter,  secundum,  supra,  tram,  versus^  ultra,  and  in  and 
sub  when  joined  with  verbs  of  motion.  Respecung  supe» 
and  subter,  see  $  ^20. 


CHAPTER  LXXII. 

DATIVE   CASK. 

[i  405.]|  1.  The  dative  is  the  case  o£  reference,  or,  if.#M# 
compare  it  with  the  accusative,  the  case  denoting  f  ^c  rC' 
moter  object ;  -for  as  the  accusative  serves  to  denote  ijhe 
effect  or  that  which  is  acted  upon,  in  contrast  to  che  ager  4 
or  active  subject,  so  ^e  dative  denotes  diat  vrlth  refei  • 
ence  to  which  the  subject  acts,  or  in  referen^r  to  whid' 


BATIVB    CASC*  291 

It  poBseisses  this  or  liiat  qa&Hty^  e.  g.,  serido  vo6u  k«nc 
lihrum,  I  write  this  book  (the  agent  and  effect,  or  cause 
and  ^fect),  for  you  (with  reference  to  you,  for  your  ad-- 
noitage) ;  prosum  tibi,  I  am  useful  to  you  (in  reference  to 
you).*     Hence  the  dative  is  used. 

(a)  With  all  transitive  verbs,  besides  the  accusative, 
eitlier  expressed  or  understood,  to  denote  the  person  in^ 
reference  to  whom  or  for  whom  a  thing  is  d6ne ;  e.  g., 
date  panem  pauperibu*,  cammendo  tihi  Itberoi  meos,  rmtto 
Sibi  librum,  rex  mUii  domum  aedificavit;  in  the  following 
sentences  the  accusative  is  understood,  or  its  |)lace  is  sup- 
plied by  the  sentences  which  follow :  suadeo  tibi,  jiersua- 
deo  tibi^  nuntiavit  imperatori,  promisit  militibus.  This 
rule  implies  that  the  person  for  whose  benefit  or  losa 
anything  is  done  is  expressed  by  the  dative  (dntiv^8  com^ 
modi  et  mcommodi)  ;  e.  g.,  Pisistratus  sibi,  nen  patriae, 
Megarensea  vicit,  Justin ;  Nan  schclac^  sed  vitae  discimus^ 
Senec,  Epist,,  106. 

[§  406.]  fbj  With  intransitive  verbs,  which,  though 
they  usually  do  not  govern  any  case,  may  yet  express 
that  the  action  is  done  with  reference  to  something  or 
somebody.  We  mention  here,  especially,  vacare,  nubere^ 
and  supplicare,  Vaco  signifies  "  I  am  free,"  hence,  vaca 
alicui  rei^  I  have  leisure  for  a  thing,  or  occupy  myself 
with  it;  as,  vaco philosophiae.  Niibo  originally  signifies 
*' I  cover;"  and  as, .according  to  an  ancient  custoni,  the 
bride  on  her  wedding-day  covered  her  face,  she  was  said 
nubere  alicui  viro,  "  to  cover  herself  for  a  man,"  that  is, 
**to  marry."  (In.  the  passive,  however,  we  find  nupta 
cum  viro,)  Supplico  signifies  "I  am  a  suppliant"  fsup' 
pUx)  ;  hence,  mpplico  alicui,  I  implore  a  person.  Homo 
nai^  nbi  se  soli  natum  meminerit,  sed  patriae^  sed  suisy  Cic.| 
De  Fin.^  ii.,  14. 

Civiias  Romana  inter  beUorum  strepitum  partem  olim  va- 
cabat  liberalibus  dtscijdima.    Sueton.,  De  Grammat, 

Plwres  in  Asia  mfulieres  singulis  viris  solent  nubere,  Cic. 

Neque  Caesari  sotum^  sed  etiam  amieis  ejus  omnibus  pro  ie, 
sieut  adJmcfe^i  libewtissime  mipplicabQ*  tCid^  Ad  Fam,, 
▼i./ 14. 

,[^  407.]  N0te  1. — Suadeo  tiln  kanc  rem,  has  noting  Ui^t  is  ftraoge  to  us 
M  we  use  the  same  construction  in  English.    Persuadeo  denotes  the  com- 

*  [S(Mne  grammarians  have  called  the  dative  the  Mquisitiw  case,  tu 
being  used  after  any  verb,  denoting  that  anything  is  done  to,  or  icr  jj/ 
person*    {Cromtue^t  Qymnaaium,  vol.  i.,  p.    O.)]—  dm.  Ed. 


39S  LATIN    GgAMMAK. 

pteftiofi.  of  MisrfM,  and  must  be  noticodhere  beemnse  its  construetioii  4ifiiiif - 
rirom  that  of  our  verb  **  to  persuade."  We  use  the  passive  form  **  I  am  per* 
goaded,"  but  in  Latin  we  hiust  say  hoc  (or  any  other  neuter  pronoun)  mih 
pertuadetur,  as  t)\e  construction  is  managed  in  such  a  way  as  to  make^tfae 
clause  which  fo  lows  the  subject ;  j>€r9uadeher  mihi^persuoMum  mihi  eH,  nuiu 

e^emiMum  habeo  (this  occurs  only  in  Caes.,  Bell.  Gail.^  iii.,  2)  ease  aliqidd, 
ut  also  de  aliqua  re.  Persuadeo  te  has  been  found  in  a  fVagment  of  Cicero, 
p.  TuU.t  ^  39,  ed.  Peyron,  but  is  otherwise  altogether  unclassical ;  it  ex- 
plains, however,  the  personal  participle  pemuuut  which  occurs  n(»vv  and 
then.*  . 

Mihi  outdem  nunquam  persuaderi  potuit^  anmtM,  durn  in  corporibus  entfU  mor- 
talmuy  viveref  quum  exisaent  ex  Am,  emori^  Cic,  Cat.  Maj.^  22. 

[^  408.]  Note  2.— The  free  application  of  the  dati?e,  or  what  is  termed 
the  datiitus  commodi  et  incommodif  enabled  the  Romans  to  speak  with  great 
nicety  and  conciseness.  Compare,  for  example,  the  following  passages, 
whose  number  might  be  greatly  increased :  Cic,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  8  ( Verres) 
4tmc  hominem  Veneri  absolvit,  <i6i  condemnatf  to  the  loss  of  Venus  ^whose 
temple  was  to  have  received  a  bequest)  he  acquits  him,  but  for  his  own 
benefit  he  condemns  him ;  Terent.,  Adelph.^  i.,  2,  35,  quod  peccat,  Dtmea, 
mihi  peccat.  In  Plautus  (Copt.,  iv.,  2,  80),  a  person  answers  to  the  jmper 
tinent  remark  esurire  miid  videris  :  mihi  quidem  estaiOf  non  tibi ;  i.  e.^  it  aoes 
not  concern  you.  The  dative  of  personal  pronouns  is  very  often  used 
where  it  is  superfluous  as  far  as  the  meaning  is  concerned,  but  it  always 
conveys  the  expression  of  a  lively  feeling,  and  is  therefore  termed  dativua 
ttkicus  ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  Praef.,  Ad  ilia  mihi  mro  se  qvieqwB  acriter  interidat  ani- 
mMm;  Herat.,  Epist.,  i.,  3,  15,  Quid  mthi  Celsus  agit?  What  is  my  old 
friend  Celsus  doing  ?  Jn  some  cases  the  pronoun  gives  to  the  expression 
an  almost  personal  shade  of  meaning ;  SalLust,  Cat.^  52,  hie  mihi  quiequam 
misericordiam  nominal !  Let  no  one  talk  to  me  of  mercy !  CiC,  Philip., 
*iiL,  4,  hie  mihi  etiam  Q.  Fufius  pacie  commoda  commemordt !  The  following 
phrases,  also,  should  be  observed :  quid  tibi  vis?  what  do  yon  want?  qw'd 
sibi  iste  v%Ut  ?  what  does  he  want  ?  quid  vult  sibi  haec  oratio  ?  what  does  this 
speech  mean  ?  quid  haec  sibi  dona  volant  ?  what  Is  the  meaning  of  these 
presents?  or  what  is  their  object? 

[§  409.]  2.  The  dative  is  joined  with  all  adjectives 
(and  adverbs)  whose  meaning  is  incomplete,  unless  a 
person  or  an  object  is  mentioned  for  or  against  whom,  for 
whose  benefit  or  loss  the  quality  exists.  Of  this  kind  mre 
those  which  express  utUity  or  injury ,  pleasantness  or  un 
pleasantness^  incHnatian  or  disindination,  ease  or  difficulty^ 
suitableness  or  unsuitableness,  similarity  or  dissimilarity^ 
equality  or  inequality. 

Adjectives  expressing  a  friendly  or  hostile  dispositicHi 
lowards  a  person,  may  take  the  prepositions  t»,  er^a^  ad- 
versuSf  instead  of  ike  dative ;  and  uUlisy  tnutilis^  apius^ 
iiteptus  generally  take  the  preposition  ^c^  to  express  tbo 
thing  for  whicfi  anything  is  useful  or  fit ;  e.  g.,  homo  ad 
nullam  rem  utilis  ;  locus  aptus  ad  insidias ;  but  the  per- 
son to  or  for  whom  a  thing  is  useful  or  fit,  is  always  ex- 
pressed by  the  dative.  v    . 

*  [  Opinio  mali,  quo  visot  et  persuasOj  aegritudo  imsequitur  nscessario.  (Cut»f 
T'oc.,  3,  29.) — Cnm  animus  audiloris  persuasus  ^tidHur  esse  nb  Ht,  qm  ants 
tontra  dixetunt.  .  (Auct-  ad  Heren.^  1,  6.)]— ^m.  Ed. 


OATJVB   CABM,  SMI 

GakU  nmtne  nmUis  Impo  f  atque^  ut  Ennues, ''  nmia  qmrn 
mmilis^  turpissima  hestia^  nobis  /**   Cic,  De  Nat,  Deor.,. 
L,35. 

Fidelissimi  ante  omnia  homini  canis  el  eqmu,  Plin. 

Invia  virtuti  nulla  est  via^  Ovid,  Met,,  xiv.,  113. 

Cun)f^  esto  henigf^us,  nulH  blandus^  paacis  fitmiliaris^ 
ofhnibus  aequus^  Senecd. 

{^410.]  Nn^e  1.— ilmicitf,  inmictu,  familiaris,  ate  property  adjectivei, 
and  as  such  have  tbeir  degrees  of  comparison,  and  are  joined  with  the  da- 
live  ;  as  in  Nepos,  MUtiades  amicior  omnium  libertati,  qttam  suaefuit  domif 
natimu  ;  and  homo  mihi  amicisshnus^  mihi  famiUariasimuSf  are  very  common 
expressions.  When  used  as  substantives,  they  are  joined  with  a  genitive 
or  an  adjective ;  as,  amicutpatm  met,  eanicuameus ;  and  it  is  owing  to  their 
character  of  substantives  that  even  in  the  superlative  we  find  amici$simus, 
famiUaris$imu9f  intmidssimus  (and  on  the  same  principle  iniquissimus)  meuM 
Cicero,  in  Verr,,  t,  26,  uses  the  genitive,  a$mci»simuM  noitrorum  homitutm 
Invidus,  envious,  and  iiUhnxu,  intimate,  when  used  as  adjectives,  take  the 
dative ;  as  m  Cicero,  intimu*  erat  Clodio ;  but  as  substantives  they  take  the 
genitive  or  a  possessive  pronoun ;  e.g.,  ab  invidis  tuia,  ex  intimvt  tmeis,  m- 
viduM  laudis,  Hoaii*^  on  the  other  hand,  though  a  real  substantive,  some 
times  takes  a  dative  according  to  the  analogy  of  immicus;  e.  g.,  dis  hommi- 
lu*<tue  hostut. 

[\  411.]  Ab^e2.^The  dative  is  also  joined  with  adjectives  and  adverbs 
denotinjp^  affinity  and  provinquiti/ ;  as,  conterminus,  propinquust  vicinuSffiniti' 
wtus,  affinis.  As  prope,  the  preposition,  governs  the  accusative,  its  degrees 
of  comparison  (^  266)  propkr  ioApropnu,  proximua  and  froxime,  take  both 
the  dative  and  accusative ;  e.  g.,  Curt.,iz.,  12,  propius  tntunal  aecedere,  and 
m  Sallust,  Libyea  propius  mare  Africum  agitabaiU,  proxime  Hitpaniam  Mauri 
«vn/.  (Compare  Gronovius  on  Livy,  xzii.,  40.)  Ajfmis,  in  the  sense  of 
**  partaking,"  sometimes  takes  the  genitive ;  as  in  Cicero,  affinU  hujua 
tiutpicionis  ;  affinis  ret  capitalia,  together  with  ajfmia  kuic  tceleri,  ei  turpitudinL 
Vicinus  and  vtcina  are  Doth  adjectives  and  substantives,  and  in  the  latter 
tense  they  take  the  genitive. 

The  following  adjectives  govern  both  the  dative  and  the  genitive: 
aequatisy  cognominut^  contrariue,  communis^  peculiaris^  proprius^  tuperstes.  Hfee 
genitive  is  very  frequent  with  propriua ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Imprimis  hominis  est 
proprim  veri  invtstigaiio  ;  Alias  nationes  servihaem  paii  possunt,  populi  Momani 
est  propria  libertas,  especially  when  the  neuter  in'oipmim  is  used  as  a  sub- 
stantive in  the  sense  of  •*  property,'*  or  •*  peculiarity  ;**  e.  g.,  Propnum  ett 
srauntis  ornate  diesrs.  The  same  is  the  case  with  communis  t  as  in  Cic, 
de  Fin:^  v.,  23,  Hate  jfusUtias  ita  propria  sunt,  tit  sint  reliquarum  virtutum  com- 
munia.  Hence  a  possessive  pronoun  is  frequently  joined  to  prtprius ;  as, 
adsmit  nobis  omnia,  quas  nostra  erant  proprim ;  both  coDBtmctiona  are  com 
bined  in  Cic.,  o.  SuUa,  3,  Nulla  est  snim  in  re  publioa  causa  msa  propria 
tsmpus  agendifuit  magis  mihimoprvum,  quam  ceteris,  AequaHs  governs  the 
genitive  only  m  the  sense  of  **  contemporary,**  in  which  it  occurs  also  as  a 
subsUmtive,  whence  mtus  asmtaUs  ;  but  the  dative  if  not  imuaual  in  this 
tense.  SupersUs  occurs  in  Plautut  and  Terence  with  the  dative,,  but  in 
later  writers  the  genitive  is  more  prevalent.  Even  Cicero  (ad  Quint.  Frat., 
i,  3)  savs,  Utinam  te  non  solum  vitas,  sed  etiam  dignitatis  supersOtem  reUquis- 
•em, and  Tacitus  often  uses  the  genitive;  e.  g.,  Agr.,  3,|Mti<;»,  ut  ita  dixerim, 
mm  modo  aliorum  sed  etiam  nostri  superstites  sumus. 

The  adjectives  similis,  assimilis,  consimilis,  disshmlis,  par  and  dispar,  take 
the  genitive,  when  an  internal  resemblance,  or  a  resemblance  ^n  character 
and  disposition,  is  to  be  expressed.  Thus  we  always  find  mei,  tut,  mm, 
nostri^  vtstri  stmiUs ;  Liv.,  i.,  20,  qiuain  ctntate  betlicosa  plures  ^i'tmuli,  qumm 
Numae  similes  reges  putabatfore  ;  iii.,  64,  CMtklatis  Cfns^ibi .  qaod  p»n» 

Bb2 


M4  LATIN   GRAMMAB. 


MMBmnc  ad  vUimum  dfwmikt  dtce$nvurontni  use  ;  Ci;.,  Co/.  Jtti^t  -^^  ^EJ^, 

iile  Oraeeiae  nusquam  cptalf  ut  Ajacis  si?niles  habeal  decern^  at  ut  Nettorim^ 
And  Cicero  may  therefore  say  both  mars  somni  and  somno  similis.  Pw  and 
ii*par  are  joined  with  the  genitives  of  pronouns,  like  similis ;  e.  g.»  Gic. 
in  Pi«^  4,  Q.  MeteUum^  cujus  paucos  pares  haec  civitas  ttdit ;  Cat.  Maj.f  21« 
Simplex  animi  natura  est^  neqtte  /ud>et  in  se  qmcquam  admixtum  dispar  sui  atqmt 
disstmile. 

[$  412.]  3.  Hence  the  dative  is  joined  widi  those  in* 
transitive  verbs  which  express  the  same  ideas  as  the  ad- 
jectives mentioned  in  §  409,  and  also  with  those  denoting 
to  command,  serve^  trusty  mistrttst^  approdck,  threaten^  ana 
to  he  angry.  They  are  comprised  m  the  following  list : 
prosum,  auxilior,  ddminiculor^  opitulor,  patrociJtar^  sub- 
venio,  tuccurro,  medeor;  noceo,  obsum,  desum,  officio^  ifk- 
commodo,  inmlto,  insidior ;  faveo^  placeo,  gratificor,  mdul- 
geOf  igTiosco,  studcOf  pareo,  adulor,  blandior,  lenocinor^  paU 
por^  assetUioTf  OMentor^  re^pondeo ;  adversary  refragw^ 
obstOf  renitoTf  repugno,  resisto,  invideo,  aemulort  obtrectOj 
ronvicior,  maledico;  placeo,  arrideo-^^ispHceo ;  impero. 
(may  be  used,  also,  as  a  transitive),  ^arc<?,  cedo^  auscidto, 
obediOf  obseqtwr,  obtempero,  morigeror  (morem  gero),  alicui 
dicta  audieru  sum,  servio^  insermo,  miniatro,fam%dor,  ancU- 
lor^  praestolor  ;  credo  (is  used,  also,  in  a  transitive  sense), 
Jido,  cojifido^  diffldo;  imminco^jfropinquo^  appropinquo,  im- 
pendeo,  oecurro;  minor ^  commtnor  (both  are  used,  also,  in  a 
transitive  sense),  irascor,  stomachor^  succenseo.  To  these 
must  be  added  the  impersonals  convenit,  it  siuts ;  condudt 
and  expedite  it  is  conducive,  expedient;  dolet^  it  grieves. 
The  beginner  niust  take  especial  care  not  to  use  the  passive 
of  these  verbs  personally,  to  which  he  might  easily  bo 
tempted  by  the  English  equivalents ;  e.  g.,  I  am  envied^ 
t  am  molested,  I  am  scolded^  I  am  spared,  and  the  like* 
In  Latin  the  passive  is  impersonal:  mihi  invidetur^  obtrec* 
tatur,  incommodatur,  mihi  maledicitur,  pardtnr,  Jubeo^ 
I  command,  forms  an  exception,  requiring  the  accusative 
with  the  infinitive.* 

Probus  invidet  nemini,  Cic,  TiTnaeus^  3. 

Ejffieit  hoc  philosophia:  medetur  animis,  inanes  sollict" 

tudines  detrahit,  cupiditatibus  liberate  pellit  timores^ 

Cic,  Tuse,^  ii.,  4. 
Antiochus  se  nee  impensac^  nee  labori,  nee  periculo  parsu' 

rum  poUicebatur,  donee  liberam  vere  Graeciam  atque  in 

ea  principes  Aetolos  fecisset,  Liv.,  xxxv.,  44. 

*  [Consult,  on  the  construction  of  jube^^  the  remnrks  of  Cronibii 
Bymnas.,  vol  i  p.  r23.  se^.)*]— ''^'^  ^d. 


'}ema»thenes  ^tu  ipBiu$  artU^  cm  Uudebat^  primmm  hUtrmm 
nim  poterat  di:ere,  Cic,  i>e  OraL^  i.,  61. 

^413.]  iVtfic  L^Medicor^  like  m<«2e<r,  takeb  the  dathre,  bat  also  the 
accusative.  Jdtdico,  in  the  sense  of  **  to  mix  sobstances  in  an  artificial 
manner,*'  governs  the  aocnaative. .  Benadieoi  like  mmkdko  (I  sjieak  well  or 
ill  of  a  person,  and  hence,  i  praise  or  blame),  governs  tne  dative:  but 
UasrfftcOfin  this  aense,  ia  very.rave :  in  t)ie  aense  of  ^'blesMng,'?  with  the 
accusative,  it  occurs  onl;r  m  the  ecclesiastical  writers.  OUrwetari  dlieiu, 
and  atkui  re^  to  detract,  is  sometimes  joined  with  the  accusative;  bat  not 
in  Cicero ;  as,  «^lracfer«  fwaMM  daonop, /•MJbtm.  /ttvidM  is  commonly  used 
intransitively  with  que  dative,, either  of  the  person  or  the  thing;  but  some 
dMes  the  acctisative  of  th^  ^ng  is  addiea  to  the  dative  ortbe  person ; 
e.  g.,  Cic^  Tute.,  iii,  2,  mvitUnt  mom»  ppHmam  nuagutrmm  (naturaiQ) ;  Herat, . 
iSarm.,  i,  6,  50,  honorem  ntihi  mpidet, .  Quintilian  (iz.,  3),  however,  observes 
that  ms  contemporaries  used  the  ablative  instead  of  Uxe  accusative  of  the 
earlier  writers,  but  only' when  imviderg  is  equivaleilt  to  ^rnMiv;' this 'Con- 
struction first  occurs  in  Livy»  ii.,  4P,  mm  inmUUmnt  ImuU  §Ha  fHulitribu$ 
Romanx  (according  to  the  best  MSS.);  very  freq^uently  in  the  younger 
Pliny,  and  sometimes  in  Tacitus ;  e.  g.,  Plin.,  Eput.^  ii.,  10,  Quoutque  a 
tibi  tt  nobis  hnidebi$tiiki  mwnma  lsude,nobu  volupUteT  {Siee  Corte  on 
.BpiMt.,  i,  10.)  Tac,  Ann,,  i,  22,  ne  hostet  quidem  aemdtwd  invideni^  sc^. 
occin* ;  German.^  33,  ne  apectacuh  quidem  proeUi  mvtoere,  scil.  fuibis.  The 
|(enitire  instead  of  this  ablatite  or  ancient  accnsative,  in  Horacej  jS«rm., 
ii,  6, 84,  fM^ve  iiU  »epo»iti  ckm  luc  kngM  invidii  mmuu,  is  ameTQ  Giieclsm  ;* 
and  the  personal  passive  in  the  same  poet  (ilr«  Poet.,  56^,  cur  ego  invideor, 
is  a  grammatical  innovation,  which  the  poet  tried  intentionally;  and  as  an 
example.  Refpecting  mdOlcr  and  tumulm'  with  the  dative  and  accosative, 
see  ^388.  Pr«Mto^,  I  wait  upon  a  person,  and  oKMtt/to,  I  listen  or, obey,, 
are  used  by  equally  good  authorities  both  with  a  dative  and  accusative, 
though  Cicero  prefers  the  datiYe.  Dcmhi&r,  I  rule,  is  joined  with  a 
dative  or  genitive  only  in  the  latest  Latip  writers;  in. the  classical  leu* 
gua^e  it  does  not  govern  any  case*  but  according  to  its  proper  meaning, 
** I  am  master,"  is  joined  with  in  olUjuemf  or  in  alicua  re;  e.  g.,  dominatiir  ti| 
cetera  mmmaUa,  -or  m  dvitaU*  t^ida  and  cottifido  take  the  dative ;  e.  g.,  mm- 
fdio  wahit  covMc  meae,  virtuti  cancUuUiaeouc^  militum  ;  the  thing  which  pro* 
duces  the  conodence  is  put  in  the  ablative  {ablativuc  caiuaef  see  4  452) ; 
e.  g.,  eenjiio  arte,  natura  hci,  eeleritate  tunmim,  jnrophtqmtttte  eaeirorum,  and 
this  ak^ative  occura^  on  the  wholes  more  freqnenlly  than  the  dativeu  The 
adjective/reftw,  which  has  the  same  meaiung,  occurs  with  the  dative  only 
in  Livy,  iv.,  37,fortunaefretus  ;  vi,  13,  niUH  rei;  Vi,  31,  discordiae  hoctium, 
and  nsnally  has  the  ablAtive.  Cedo,  I  yield,  give  np,  when  used  transi- 
tivelv,  takea  a  dative  of  the  person  and  an  accusative  of  the  thing ;  ceda 
tibi  tocum^  repntm,  mulierem;  sometimes,  however,  the  thing  is  expressed 
by  the  ablative;  as,  cede  tibi  hartmrum  poacecnonc  So,  also,  coiKcdo:  ccn^ 
t»rf9  <t6i  JogKsi,  jiraoug»  iiberttUem,  eg  ccnoedm  tibi  toes,  dc  mctcria,  Csmimd 
aliquid  nuM,  something  suits  me ;  cmncenii  mUu  tecum,  is  used  impersonally 
in  the  sense  of "  we  agree/'  and  equivalent  to  ccnvemmus  dc  utiqua  re.1 
The  veiiw  denoting  simihmty  or  dissimilarity  should  be  constraed  with 
the  datvire,  like  the  adjectives  dmilis  and  dicmmUc,  birt  in  prose  they  are 
eoqraaoniy  joined  with  the  prepositions  eum  and  ob;  e.  g.,  ccngruo,  cm- 
nHtioi„abMorreo,dis$idec*    Gonip.  ^  468,  foil 

[^  414.]  Able  2. — Several  verbs  have  a  di£ferent  meaning  aceordiqg  as 
Ihsy  ^e  the  accua  or  dat 
Uetuc  and  timeo  tc,  I  fear  thee ;  tibi,  I  am  alarmed  on  thy  account,  which 

is  also  expressed  by  tuS  eausd. 

III.         I  I  ■  ..1.  ,1  ■  ■> 

*  [The  regular  construction  occurs;  in  the  same  poet,  at  Serm.,  i.  6,  SQ 
Md  Spit.,  1, 14, 41.>-ilm.  Ed, 
f  (dompare  Crombie,  Qymna$,.  vol.  i,  p.  UO.]-*il}ii.  Ed, 


tM  LATUt  OBAIUMkR. 

# 

CSMMfi^  M,  I  coBtiih  tbM ;  aa^  I  provide  luci.tfaymtenfft& 

Proapicio  and  prwideo  te,  I  aee  thee  at  a  distance ;  f*6i,  1  provide  for  tttf 
interests. 

Ctneo,  withotitany  case,  **  I  am  on  my  ^pauid^  « te,  sgainst  4bee,  aid  ii 
a  legal  sense,  **  1  make  tkee  give  security  to  me  for  sometliing,''  tU  aWfMi 
r#.  Cmieo  fe,  I  avoid  thee ;  canto  iUd,  I  provide  or  am  eoncenied  ier  thiy; 
safety,  and  hence  in  a  legal  sense  '^  1  give  thee  security" 

Ttmpero  and  mfoderw  aliquid,  I  rsvulate  or. arrange  a  tmng;  mifciV hhmh^ 
irai,  Uerimia  (sciU  incm),  1  set  boands  to,  or  check.  Tmaero  mAi  «* 
aliqua  re,  I  abstain  from  a  thing,  and  tempera  (scil.  mihi)  tibi,  I  am  sparing 
in  regard  to  thee,  or  I  spare  thee,  equivalent  to  psTM  i>M. 

[§  415.]  4.  Verbs  compounded  with  the  prepositions 
adf  ante,  con^  in^  ifUer,  oh^  post,  prae^  suh,  and  super,  re- 
taining, as  compounds,  the  meaning  of  the  prepositions^ 
may  be.  joined  with  a  dative  instead  of  repeating  the 
preposition  or  an  eqmvalettt  one  with  the  case  it  requires. 
They  are  either  transitives,  and  as  s&ch  have  an  accusa- 
tive besides,  or  intransitives  without  an  accusative  of  the 
object. 

The  following  are  the  most  important  transitive  verbs 
of  this  kind :  addOf  afferOi  off^go,  adhibea^  adjicio^  adjungo, 
admoveo,  alUgo,  applied ;  circumjicio;  comparo^  campono, 
coHfero,  conjwngo ;  immisceo,  impono,  imprimo^  tnddo^  in' 
cludo,  infero^  ingero,  injicio,  insiro,  inttrd  ;  intefjicio,  inier- 
ponoi  qhjicio,  offundo,  oppono  ;  pasthabeo,  postpono  ;  prae- 
feroy  praeflcio,  praep<yi^  ;  subjicio,  Buppono,  subsUmo, 

The  following  are  intransitive :  acccdo^  acquiescd,  ad- 
Aaereo,  alludo,  annuo^  arrepo,  assideo,  tupiro;  unteceUo ; 
cohaereo,  coUudo,  congnto,  consentio,  conkono  p.  exceUo ;  in- 
cido^  incuho  and  ijtcumbo^  indormio,  inhaereo,  tnhio,  immo- 
rior,  immoror,  innascor,  insisto ;  inteiyaceo,  intcrvenio  / 
ohrepo,  ohstr^o,  ohtersor  ;  praemin^o^  praesidl^^  praeva- 
leo;  succuwhoy  supersto^  supervivo,  Bni  the  compounds  oi 
esse :  adsum,  insum^  interswm,  praesum^  suhsum,  supersutn. 

Note. — We  mnst  pay  particular  attention  to  the  difierence  between  the 
dative  jdned  with  these  verbs,  and  the  dative  gonpemed  by  those  mentioned 
in  ^  412.  With  the  latter  it  is  necessary,  anodependant  upon  theeignifi- 
cation  of  the.  yerbs;  b«t  witl\ those }Bst  enumerated  it  is  te  be  lepuded 
as  a  short  mode  of  speaking,  in  which  the  dative  supplies  the  place  of  a 
preposition  with  its  case ;  e.  g.,  Ugee  oaAeu  ivfww  tnetMe,  and  Ugea  ta  Ms 
meieae^  ot  SenflSuaoonemltam.  m  acre  vMman,  The  beginner  most  -farther 
observe  that  we  are  speaking  of  those  cooipounded  verba  only  in  whidi 
the  prepositions  retain  their  meaning  of  place,  for  in  some  compounded 
wiCh  ad  and  eum  this  is  not  the  case ;  e.  g.,  confagert^  to  Ipke  refir^ie;  ean* 
•ottake  either  the  preposition  <mm  or  a  dative,  the  meaning  of  the  prepo- 
sition con  being  lost  minis  compound.  This  is  stiU  more  apparent  m  c»»« 
fru^ere,  corrumpere,  where  con  (jewn)  only  strengthens  the  sense  of  the 
simple  verb.  Affitmart  and  apprvUre  may  indeed  be  joined  with  a  dative, 
but  onl]r  because  they  are  transitive  verbs,  and  not  on  account  of  the 
oreposition  tber  contain.     We  have  not  been  able  above  to  mentioa 


ftATIVE   CASB.  909 

•n  thoie  ^ompjQBd  Terbs  in  which  the  prepoutio.!  rotaint  its  ilie«ti> 
iof^;  mnd  whic^  instead  of  repeating  the  prepo8ition»  take  the  dative^  isn 
their  number^  especially  that  of  transitives,  is  unlimited ;  we  have  given 
tiiONiK  only  with  which,  compaiatiYeiy  spednihg,  the  dative  occurs  most 
frfiquently..  There  are  some  whh  which  the  dative  is  used  exclusively. 
ana  Uie  repetition  of  the  preposiiion  would  be  oifcnaive,  the  reason  being 
the ' signincation  of  the  verbs  themselves:  prarfido  aod. praepmo,  e.  g> 
mieflit  have  been  mentioned  among  the  rerbs  tn .{  412,  being  joined  exclq- 
•ively  with  the  dative.  But  there  can  be  no  fear  ol  loistakes  in  these  Mr^rda. 

[$  416.]  It  muat  be  remarked,  in  ^neral,  that  in  the 
early  and  unpc^hed  prose,  the  preposition,  or  one  equjTa- 
ient  to  it,  is  usually  repeated,  more  especially  in  verbs 
compounded  witk  ad,  can,  ana  in :  e.  g.,  adhibeo^  confero, 
coniungo,  communico,  comparo^  imprtmo,  inscribo,  insum, 
ana  also  interest,  in  the  sense  of  '^  there  is  a  di£ference  ;** 
e.  g.^  Cicero,  studium  adhihere  ad  disciplinas ;  confert^ 
(comparate^  contenditej  hone  pacem  cum  illo  bello ;  hos- 
pitio  et  amicitia  mecum  conjunxi,  or,  cum  aliquo  canjunctus 
sum  /  consiiia  sua  mecum  qammunicatnt ;  in  omnium  ani' 
mis  dei  notianem  impressit  ipsa  natura  ;  in  hac  vita  nihil 
inest  nisi  miseria.  The  dative,  however,  is  not  to  be  re- 
jected, being  used  sometimes  by  Cicero  and  more  fro 
quently  by  later  writers,  lllacrimare^  to  weep  over; 
e.  g.,  morti  Socratis,  is  generally  used  with  the  dative 
only;  the  preposition,  at  least,  is  never  rep«»ated. 

The  following  verbs  require  some  farther  expliination. 
Ikcumbo,  I  lean  or  press  upon,  and  figuratively,  "  I  apply 
to  or  study  a  thing;''  in  the  former  sense  alope  it  i» 
joined  with  the  dative,  though  scxnetimes,  also,  with  the 
preposition  super ;  in  its  figurative  sense  it  is  constnie<* 
m  prose  with  ad,  and  still  more  frequently  with  in  witb 
the  accussfive.  The  verbs  assuescere^  consuescere,  and  in- 
suescerCf  to  accustom  a  person  or  one's  self  {se,  however 
is  omitted)  to  a  thing,  are  sometimes  construed  with  the 
dative  ^ai^d  soipetimes  with  th^  ablative  ;  ac^uiescere,  to 
acquiesce^  likewise  takes  either  the  dative  or. ablative; 
e.  g.,  Cic,  pro  Mil.,  37,  Qui  maxime  P.  Clodii  morte  ac* 
quieruntt  but  more  frequently  in  with  the  ablative^  in  the 
flaose  of  <'  to  find  peace  or  satisfaction ;''  e*  g.,  tn  tuis  lit^ 
teris^  injuvenum  carifate.  Supersedere  likewise  takes  the 
ablative,  and,  indeed,  more  frequently  than  the  dative, 
probably  because  its  sense  is  equivalent  to  ahstinere;  e. 
g.,  supersedere  lahore  itineris. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  determme  which  prepositions  maj^ 
be  used  for  others,  in  case  of  r<»petition  being  necessary. 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

fbr  it  always  depends  upon  the  sense :  in  is  used  fin*  nJ'; 
e.  g.,  accedere  in  oppidum,  aspirare  in  curiam;  ah  for  ex; 
e.  g.,  enpere  ex  miseriiSf  and  a  miseria  ;  ad  for  in  ;  e.  g^^ 
incumhere  ad  studia;  in^  ad^  ante^  and  contra  for  oh;  o.  g., 
liquid  obrepit  in  animum,  ohrepere  ad  honored^  obverMtrt 
ante  oculos,  vallum  ohjieere  contra  impetum  hostiwn  /  ttd 
and  <inte  for  pro  ;  e.  g.,  procumhere  ante  pedes ,  ad  gemuc. 

[§  417.}  Tke  compoimds  of  verbs  of  niotion  are  con- 
strued wi^'bot^  cases,  either  the  dative  <jt  the  accusative, 
mid  some  compounds  ^  jacerei  stare  and  sedere,  follow 
their  amJogy.  (See  §  386.)  Hence  the  verbs  of  esBcdlin^y 
if  their  simple  v^rbs  denote  motion,  are  construed  chiefly 
with  the  accusative,  and  anteodlo,praeeello  Budpraemineo, 
which  at  least  admit  the  accusative,  follow  their  example. 
(See  §  386.)  The  following  Miust  be  noticed  separately 
on  account  of  their  twofold  constrtustion :  allatro^  I  bai^ 
at,  address  in  a  coarse  manner  j  attends,  I  attend  to  (die 
same  as  ammum  attendo  ad  aliquid  or  ad  aMquem)  / 
obumBrOf  I  ovetshadoW^-^all  th^e  occur  most  frequently 
with  the  accusative,  whence  they  have  a  personal  passive; 
but  iUtido^  I  ridicule,  is  found  with  the  dative  as  often  ae 
with  the  accusative;  e.  g.,  illudo  fnomoriae,  existimationi 
alicuju8,signis  et  aquUis  Romanis^  B,nd  praeeeptu  rhetorum, 
corpus  Pari ^  Despero,  I  de^air  of  a*  thing,  is  used  a^  an 
intransitive  verb  widi  de  or  with  the  dative;  e.  g.,desperat 
de  ^e  puhUcttf  sibi^  Jbrtunis  suis  ;  as  a  transitave  Verb 
(I  give  up)  it  takes  the  accusative ;  e.  g.,  despero  rem 
publicam,  pacem, 

Praevertoi  in  the  transitive  sense  of  ^*  I  prefer^"  tak^s 
an  accusative  of  the  object  and  a  dative,  insteaa  of  which, 
however,  the  preposition  prae  may  be  repeated;  e.  g., 
uxorem  praeoerto  prae  repuMica  or  reipuhlicae;  in  the  in- 
transitive sense  of  "  I  go  before,"  "  precede,"  -or  *^  antici- 
pate," it  may  take  either  the  ^accusative  or  dative,  prae- 
verto  te,  fata,  piefas  pra^vertit  ambri  /in  a  reflective 
sense,  praevertOy  scil.  me,  or  praevertor,  it  takes  ei^er 
the  preposition  ad  or  tiie  dative,  praeverto  dd  interna, 
praeverto  rei  mandatae.  The  depon^it  again  takes  the 
meaning  of  *^  I  pref^,"  cdiquam  rem  alicui  rei,  Li  v.,  viii. 
13,  consules  coacti  omnibus  ea/m  rem  pra^verti, 

[§  418.]  5.  The  verbs  aspergo  and  inspergo^  circumdo 
and  circumfundo,  dono  and  impertio,  exuo  and  induo  are 
used,  like  the  above-mentioned  transitives,  with  an  accus; 


AATiVB   OASB.  -fM 

«f  the  thing  and  a  dative  of  the  penon,  or  witli  an  accas. 
of  tho  person  and  an  ablat.  of  the  thing ;  e.  g.,  drcumdo 
aiicui  cmtodiat^  or  circitmdo  aliquem  cuatodiU^  and,  conse- 
quently, in  the  passive  voice  custodiae  tibi  drcumdoMtur  or 
(tu) circumdani custodiis,*  So^ also, macukudspergo vitae 
tMae,  or  maculis  vitam  tuam  a^j^go  ;  dono  tUn  pecumam^ 
oi  pecunia  te  dono;  impertio  tibi  laudes^  or  laudihus  te 
imperUo,  &c,  .  We  find  exuo  Ubi  dipewn^  mdmt  Mi  tor- 
jptepif^  or  stiU  xsore  frequently  csmo  and  ituhto  veUem^  the 
dative  ezpresi^ng  my  own  person  being  omitted.  E$duo 
te  aUqua  re  occurs  only  in  tne  figurative  sense  of  "  I  rob 
thee  of  a  thin^."  InduOf  I  betake  myself  into  some  place, 
is  commonly  joined  with  the  preposition  m  or  with  a  da- 
tive. Jnterdudo,  I  cut  off,  aticui  illiquid;  e«  g^  hostibus 
Jiigamtt  or  as  a  verb  implying  distance,  aliquem  aliqua  rt 
and  aZ>  aliqua  re;  e*  g«,  miHiee  Uin^r^,  or  ab  egaereitu. 
JbUerdicQ  iSn  mliquid,  I  IMiid  thee  aomethiilg ;  the  con 
struction  interdico  t^  uliqua  re  does  not  oc.cur,  but  a  mix- 
ture of  both  interdico  Obi  i  aliqua  re  (e.  g««  in  the  Roman 
form  of  outlawry  aqua  et  igmj^  I  forbid  tibee  the  use  of  a 
thing.  The  double  construction  of  fi^flctare  does  not  be- 
long to  this  place,  as  it  arises  from  two  different  mean- 
ings of  the  wordi  the  original  on,e ''  to  honour,^'  requires  the 
accusative  and  ablative ;  e>.g.,  Cic,  in  Vatin,,  Q^puerorum 
exUs  deo8  manes  mactare  soles;  the  derivative  meanmg 
^  to  slaughter''  is  the  ordinary  one,  victimoM  diis  mactare. 
.[§.  419*}  6.  With  pasMve  verbs  the  dative  is  sometimes 
tised  alone,  instead  of  ab  with  the  ablative. 

Quidquid  in  hoc  eauia  mihi  suseeptmn  est,  Ouirites^  id 
omne  me  rei  publicae  causa  suscepisse  oofifirmo^  Cic, 
pu  L^*  Man.,  24. 

Barbarus  hie  ego  sum,  quia  non  intdligor  fi^«,  Ovid,  Trist. 

Note,^li  is  a  rale  of  the  Latin  language  to  join  the  dative  inekeed  of  ah 
wit^  the  ablative  to  the  participle  future  p^stive ;  e.  g.,  manmdtm  mihi  est 
See  ^  649.  If  this  were  not  the  case,  we  should  consider  the  diUve  with 
passive  verbs  as  a  Grecism,  for  it  rarely  occivs  in  the  earlier  bi^  prose 
(especially  in  Cicero  aDd%Caaaar)>  and  with  the  esception  of  «  few  in- 
stances,  is  confined  to  the  participle  perfect  passive  and  the  tenses  formed 
from  it.    In  poetry  and  the  later  prose  writers  instances  like  the  above 

Jiuotatien  from  Uvid  are  extremely  numeyoiii«  as  poete  in  general  were 
ond  of  irtroducing  Greek  constractions.  The  following  passagea  are  the 
<«ly  oneb  \a  which  Cicero  adopted  the  practice^  d$  Inpent.,  if  46,  Uia  no6u 
s/m  tempore  exptteabwUur  ;  in  Verr.t  iii.,  16,  ffli  em%$ulatu$  quaerebatur ;  de  Nat. 
Ikar.,  n,,4B,sic dttmutftSMS  bettioHa  commnmitee  dbiu  fuuritur ;  daQf^m^ 
i,  hoiieeta  tenia  viris,  nan  oecuUa  qmeruntvr;f  Cat.  Aif;.,  11,  semper  m  his 

•  rCompare  Crombie,  Gymnas,^  vol.  il,  p.  211.]— ilm.  JK. 
f   Compare  Heusinger^  (^  loe.l—Am.  Ed. 


309  L  ATiN  OilAMIf )MU 


\%  in  ed  praesertim  epustola^  qttam  nolo  alUt  t^,  probably  for  fUt  cZo»^  ,  | 
doubt  whether  there  are  an^  other  paieages  in  Cicero,  for  the  phraiie  mSi 
yrcbaUtr  18  of  a  4i£Fei«iit  kmd,  ^ince  pnbo  tiki  is  of  quite  conooD  eoowr- 
ftijce  in  the  sense  of  **  I  make  a  thing  plansfble  to  thee." 

[§  420.]  7.  fU»e  with  t)ie  dadve  of  a  person  expresaat 
Jie  Englisli  "  tp  have ;"  e« g^miU  miki  muUi  l^bri^X  h»if# 
maoy  books,  the.  AAio^  aa  Aa^,m«^^of  ^i^0«.   .         '^  «. 

Ilommi  cum  dcQ  timUitudo  est,  Cic^  de  Leg.f  i.,  8. 

Jm  nesdSflengaa  iegibui  ^ts^moMtu?  OM,  HJmnd*^  17.' 

Aolf^— We  must  here  notiee  a  Gr«eiam  wjuch-oeoort  in  SalhiatttA 
Tmcitos:  alupud  mihi  volenti  ecf,  I  like  a  thii)g.  Sallust, /iy^  84».{f«4M 
neque  pUbi  mtUHa  volenti  (esse)  putabatur  ;  T^it.,  Agr»t  Id,  fuibut  bellum  vo- 
lentUma  erat ;  Ann,^  1,  59,  tU  qu^nuque  6eU«m  invitis  out  eupient^uM^'iratf  aa 
in  Greek  tqpt6  4191  0QvXofUyfi>  iariv^  Comp,  Tac^  Hist^  iii^  43;  Ajm^ . 
XT.,  36.  Abest  and  deeet  mihi^  as  opposed  to  est  miki,  therefore  mean 
**  1  hare  not ;"  as  in  Cic,  Brut.^  80,  Hoc  mum  Oti;  si  hihU  vtiHiatis  kabebat^ . 
al^ml,  si  opus  erat,  defuit ;  de  Leg.^  i.,  2,  4^1  nam  kistoria  litteris  nostris^ 

[$  421.]  Hence  f»t^  est  nomem  or  cogmmten  (also  cogno' 
memium,  and  in  Tacitus  roeaMum)  signifies  '*  I  hare*  a 
name/'  that  is,  "  my  name  k,'*  or  **I  am  called.**  The 
name  itself  is  put  either  in  die  nominative  or  l^edadve^ 
being  attraetea  by  the  dative  of  the  pereon. 

Syracusis  est  Jans  etquae  dulcis,  cui  nomen  Arethusa  est^ 
Cic,  t«  Fc/T*.,  iv.,  53.  ' 

Constdes  leges  decemvirales,  quibus  tahtdis  dttodecim  est  no^ 

men^  in  aes  incistts,  in  publito  proposuertmt^  Liv.,  iii.,  57. 

•  Note.— 'The  same  is  the  case  with  the  (passive)  expressions  datum,  in>- 
dit%tm,faeMi^  est  itomen  ;  e.  g.,  Tarqwnius,  eui  cognomen  Superbo  ex  moribus 
datum.  The  nto^  itself  is  commooly  put  in  the  dative*  also,  with  the 
active  verbs  dare,  addere^  indere,  dioere,  ponere,  imponere,  tribuere  aiicui 
nomen  ;  e.  g.,  dare  'aiicui  cognomen  tarda  ac  pingui  ;  des^piunt  omnes  aeque  at 
tu,  qui  tibi  nomen  insano  posuere,  Horat ;  bat  it  mar  also  be  put  in  the  safloe 
case  as  twmen,  that  is^  in  the  accusative ;  as  in  Livy,  stirps  virilis^  cui  As- 
coantM  parentes  dia/ere  nomen,  atul  in  the  edict  of  the  tiefisors  in  Suetonius, 
die  Clar.  Rhet.  I,  eos  sibi  nomen  imposuisss  Latinos  rke$ofes.  The  soQUnalive 
in  Ovid,  Met,  i-j^  169,  (via)  lactea  nomen  habei^  fuad  xv.,  96,  (aetas).  ei^eei 
m'us  aiarsa  nimefi,  is  a  purely  poetical  license,  where  the  namies  are  talken, 
ungraiBiBaticaUy,  as  mere  sounds. 

The  nanse  may  be  expressed,  also,  by  the  genitive,  aecordm^  to.^w^en 
eral  rule,  that  of  two  substantives  joined  to  eiiich  other,  one  is  put  in  the 
gemtif«7ag;,Plaat.^'iliiit»IWtr.  Prol.,  l^fMrnen  MereurirMt-ifahi;  in  prose 
VelL.  Pl^  i^  llrQ'  MeteOus  praetor,  cui  er  vistuisMacedomei  Hosim  tndtti* 
erat;  and  ii.,  11,  Q.  MeteUo  meritum  virtuts  cognomen  Ifumidid  indihaw  est 
Bu«  this  is  iiot  the  ordinanr  practice  in  the  case  of  real  proper  names,  an^ 
the  daitive.  must  be  regmed  as  the  ptoper  Latin  case.  See  Ruthtften  oi. 
VelL  Pat,  ii.,  11.  jC  ' 

S$  422,]  8*  With  the  verbs  esse^  dare^^nittere  and  ti^.Ar^; 
L  others  of  the  same  meaning,  besides  the  dativi*  A.  i^^ 
person,  another  is  used  to  express  the  puipose,  inr«  A'uCki, 
and  destinat'on. 


Bb^ %«ld6g»  tomxb  dttdd  bDeh inits seme  ol ^^to grre** 
mad  Ita  that-  of  '*  to  put  to  one's  aecoonc"  The  blowing 
ymhs  luKve  a  similai*  meaning:  ap^oei/ere,  ducere,  habere, 
iriifttere,  and  vertere.  Esee\  in  iMs  r^ect,  is  equivalent 
t^Hie^Eiiglish  *'to  do,"  in  **it  does  him  honour,"  and  the 
]MMC^ve8^^!rr,'  dari^  duet;  haberi,  tribni^  verti,  have  a  simi* 
lar  meaning.  IVo^^tm  i»  sometfanes  construed  like  ve* 
mre,        •  '  .>   *  •         t.     ^    . 

Tirtutes  h&minibiis  decofi  giarkieqwR  sunt,  Setii€fca. 
AUdlue,  Aiiae  rex^  regnUm  suttni  R&manu  dono  dedit. 
MUh  Ptataecnses  Atheniehnbus  adversus  Persas  auxilto 

venerukL  ^  ... 

Quid  in  Graeco  sermone  tarn  tritum  atque  cdehratum  est, 

quatn  si  quis  despicattd  ducitw,  Ut  Mfsorum  ulHmus^ 

enedieatur^  Cic.,;p.  Fkicc.<i  27 i 
iyble.-- Tfadra  is  jfi  great  variety  of  tlatites  of  ^is  kind ;  ^.  %.,  dttno  dliptut 

or  da^ur  miki  vi^,  crimini,  odh,  probro,  ttpproArio,  laud*,  taluti,  utUitaH,  emolu- 
mento,&c.    The  phrase  cm  bono  f  tit  t  signifies  *'to  whom  was  it  an  ad- 
vantage \"    We  must  especially  notice  sueh  ^totires  as  um,  %na,  puMitui, 
dtriam,  cordi,  curat  aUqnid  ett,  aad  also  eanen  rttephti,  to  souacl  a.retreat ; . 
doti  du»,  I  set  aside  as  a  dowry;  appono  pignori,l  pawn.    Instead  of  hoc 
argumaUo  eat,  we  may  also  say  hoc  argwnentum,  docununium,  indiemm  e$t , 
MM  with  dare  and  similar  verbs  we  may  also  nse  the  acovsative  in  mo 
Bttion  ;  e.  g.,  Lit.,  it,  22,  Latitu  eoronam  awream  Jovi  doman  m  CafitoUttm 
mittwHt.    Sometimeak  also,  the  prepositions  m  or  ad  may  be  used ;  e.  g. 
Sti  estreitwn  ad  jKfoeudimiu  ghriam  mihi  in  mmett  vtr^. 


CHAPTER  LXXIIL 

GENITIVE  CASE. 

[I  423. J  1.  When  two  substantives  are  united  vm> 
each  other  so  as  to  form  the  expression  of  one  idea,  one 
of  them  is  in  the  genitive;  but  if  one  of  tha  substantives 
serves  to  explain  or  define  the  other,  they  are  said  to  be 
in  apposition  to  eaeh  other,  and  both  are  in  the  same 
ca$e.  This  gehitive,  dependant  upon  a  substantive,  is  in 
Latin  of  a  double  kind,  according  as  it  expresses  either 
die  subject  or  the  object.  The  genitive  is  subjective  when 
it  4euQtes  that  which  does  something  or  to  which  a  thing 
belcmgs;  e.  g.,  hominum  facta^  liber  pueri:  it  is  objective 
when  it  denotes  that  which  is  allbcted  by  the  action  or 
feeHng  spoken  of. 

This  objective  genitive  is  used  very  extensively  in 
Latin.  f'T  it  is  not  only  joined  with  those  substantives 

Cc 


aOll  LATIN   QRAHHAU* 

which  an'  derived  from  verbs  ^ove^mg  the  accusn^v*^ 
e*  g,,  exjougnatio  urbis^  the  taking,  of  the  town  ;  indagaim 
veri^  the  investigation  of  truth ;  tcieniia  linguae^  the 
knowledge  of  a  language ;  amor  patriae,  the  love  of 
one's  country;  cttptdUas pecuniae,  desire  for  money;  pura 
remm  aUenarum,  care  of  other,  menu's  aHkirs ;  odium 
hcmimim^  hatred  agunst  men-^but  with  those,  also,  the 
corresponding  verb  of  which  requires  either  a  different 
case,  or  a  preposition  \  e»  g^  taedium  lahorii,  disgust  fox 
work;  Jiducia  virium  ittarum,  confidence  in  his  own 
strength;  conteniio  honortim,  a  contest  for  honours;  in- 
citamentum  periculorum,  cognitio  arhu  terrarum  omnium^ 
quegaUium,  &c. 
Nuper  Crn.  Domitium  scitnus  M*  SUano^  consulaH  hommt, 

diem  dixisse  propter  t0iiu^  hominU,  Aegritomari,  patemt 
'   amid  atque  ko^ntis,  injuriag^  Cic.,  Divin.,  20. 
Est  aiitem  amicitia  nihil  aliud,  nisi  omnium  divinarum  ku*- 

manarumque  remm  cum  henivolentia  et  caritate  swnma 

consensioy  Cic,  LaeL,  6. 
Initium  et  causa  belli  (civilis)  inexplehilis  hoTtorum  Mari\ 

fames,  Flor.,  iii,,  21. 

Nou  l.-^SomethiDg  analogous  to  tbe  Latin  subjective  and  objectivis 
genitive  occurs  in  English  in  such  expressions  as  **  God's  love,"  that  is. 
the  love  which  God  shows  to  men ;  and  the  **  kyve  of  God,"  timt  is,  ikm 
love  which  men  bear  to  God.  The  Latin  language  having  no  sueh  meana 
of  distinguishing,  is  frequently  ambiguous ;  e.  g.,  fuga  hominum  may'  be 
either  "  the  escape  from  men,"  or,  "  the  flight"  or  "  escape  of  men,  and 
in  all  such  combinations  as  metus  hostiumj  injuria  muHerum^  judicium  Verrit, 
triutnpkus  Boionan^  opinio  deorum,  the  genitive  may  be  either  subjective  (ac- 
tive) or  objective  (passive),  but  the  context  generally  shows  what  is  meant, 
as  in  sine  metu  hostium  CMe,  magnus  inceuerat  timor  tagittarum^  ex  injuria  mu^ 
Uenun  Saimuman  bellum  orlum  est ;  Empedocles  in  deorum  ophuone  turpissiwu 
labitur,  Cici  de  Nat.  Deor.,  1. 12.  But  in  case  of  any  real  ambiguity,  a 
preposition  may  be  used  in  Latin  instep  of  the  genitive';'  e.  g:,  ex  injuria 
in  or  adversus  muUereSf  in  opinione  de  diis.  This  is  the  case  espeeiiiUv' witir 
substantives  denpting  a  disposition,  either  friendly  or  hostile  t<^waraft  any- 
thing ;  e.  g.,  amor  {animus)  jneus  erga  fe,  odium  (tra)  adversus  CarthaginUnsea^ 
bellum  in  KomanoSf  eonspiratio  contra  digrdteuem  tuam;  triumphtis  de  GaBts^ 
judicium  de  ie  m^wih,  itMr  de j/ihtUsophia,  m  Ubro  quinto  dfnatunt  deonum'  In 
general,  hpwever,  a  preposition  is  much  more  rarely  used  in  ioinihg  two 
substaiA^ives,  and  it  is  a  part  of  the  conciseness  of  the  Latin  langu&ge  to 
express  the  relation  of  the  genitives,  if  possible,  by  the  g^Cive  itself 
This,  however,  is  impossible,  for  instance,  when  a  place  whence?  A 
orhithert  is  mentioned;  e.  g.,  fransmissus  (the  passage)  ex  Galliti  m  Bri' 
tanniamtTedUus  in  coelum^  iter  ex  ItaUm  in  Macedoniam.  Sometimes  the  two 
kinds  of  construction  are  combineii :  Cic,  de  Off.^  L,  28,  Adhibmdm  est  %t  - 
tur  quaedam  re^terentia  adverstis  homines  et  opiimi  cujuaaue  et  reliquorum»  (^e 
tfurnote  on  this  passage.)  Sometimes  even  a  subjective  and  an  objec* 
tive  genitive  are  found  by  the  side  of  each  other,*  as  in  Cic,  de  C^,  i.< 

*  [Compaie  ^^^hser^born,  Lot.  Schulgr.t  ^  216,  A*tm.  3,  where  other  ex 
tmples  aie  also  t^iven.l — Am.  Ed 


GENITIVE   CASE.  9W 

Jk^  L.  SvMaie  et  C,  CatMoria  peeuniamm  tnmala^  a  ju$tis  dommU  md  mKmm 
mtn^tket  liber  alts  vidtri ;  ad  r'am.^  X.,  3,  prbitaa  reipublkae  taUum  wntvmi  m 
Verr^  v.,  50,  nihil  est  ouod  muUorum  naufragia  /cwtunae  colli  fas  ;  Caes.,  BeU. 
QaU.i  L,  30,  pro  veterans  Helvetiorum  injuriis  pomUi  Romam  ;  L  e.,  which  the 
Helvetiims  had  done  to  the  Rosiaii  people.    Comp.  S^nt,  omat..,  ^  791. 

[^  424.]  Note  2.~-A8  a  personal  pronoun  suppliet  the  place  of  aaubvCan* 
ttve,  its  genitive  generally  with  an  objective  meaning  may  be  joined  with 
•'substantive ;  e.  ^^  vestri  emuam  gero,  1  take  care  m  you  ;  misericordiam 
matri  ^sie,,haYe  puy  UfMxi  us,  especially  with  verbal  substantives  eiidiii| 
in  or,  tTy  and  io  ;e.  g.,  Cicero,  muitfilium  wm  sohim  sui  deprecatoran^  sed  #<»- 
«m  aceusatorem  nui;  nimia  a^stimatio  sui;  valet  ad  commendationem  tui;  ti^' 
tas  ad  dediiiaium  ami  inekare ;  raiismm  et  svi  et  aUsrum  kabers.  The  place  ol 
•.he  subjective  genitive  of  personal  pronouns  is  supplied  by  the  possessive 

Kronouns,  whence  we  do  not  say  liber  mei^  but  tioer  mens.  Sometimes, 
owever,  the  genitive  of  personal  pronouns  has  a  subjective  meaning,  as 
in  Curtius,  iv.,  45,  ad  Cyrum,  fu^ilissimum  regem  originerA  sui  re/erenSf  and 
vi,  32,  conspectus  vestri  venerabilis  (see  the  comment  on  Caes.,  Bell,  Qall.^ 
L,  4) ;  and  sometimes,  on  the  other  hand,  a  possessive  pronoun  not  unfre- 
quently  takes  the  place  of  an  objective  genitive,  and  tnat  not  only  when 
joined  with  verbal  substantives  in  or  and  ix,  e.  g.,  ipse  suus  ftdt  accusator, 
terra  aUriat  nostra,  but  in  other  cases,  also ;  as,  invtdia  lua,  envy  of  thee ;  Jidu- 
da  tuOf  confidence  in  thee :  famiUaritas  tua,  friendship  for  thee ;  spes  mea, 
the  hope  placed  in  me  (Tac,  Ann.,  ii,  71) ;  amori  nostra  plusctdum  largiare, 
from  love  towards  us ;  noltdt  rationan  habere  suam,  that  notice  was  taken 
of  hhn ;  non  sua  solum  ratio  kabenda  est,  sed  etiam  aJiorvm,  Gic,  de  Of^i., 
39.  This  is  especially  frequent  in  connexion  with  the  substantive  injuriae, 
e.  g.,  iniurias  tneas,  tuas,  persequor,  vldscoTf  that  is,  the  wrong  done  to  me, 
thee.  The  peculiar  expressions  mea,  tud,  sua,  nostra,  vestrd,  causa,  for  ^y, 
thy,  his,  &c.,  sake,  must  be  especially  noticed,  for  the  genitives  md,  tui, 
m*,  nostri,  vestri,  are  never  used  m  this  connexion  with  causa*  Sometimes* 
the  genitive  of  the  person  implied  in  such  an  adjective  pronoun  is  added, 
aa,  in  tmtm  homims  dmpUds  pectus  vidimus :  juravi  rempublicam  mea  unius  • 
opfra  esse  salvam  ;  tot  homines  mea  solius  solUciti  sunt  causa  ;  ad  tuam  ipsius 
mmidtiam  aditum  habuit ;  vestra  ipsorum  causa  hoc  feci  The  genitive  of  a 
participle  in  this  connexion  occurs  only  in  poetry,*  as  in  Horat.,  Serm.,  L, 
4,(23,  quum  mea  nemo  scripta  legat,  vulgo  recitare  timentis.  See  Heindorf  *8 , 
note  on  this  passage. 

[^  425.]  iVot«j3.-rThe  immediate  connexion  between  two  substantives, 
which  is  expressed  by  the  genitive  of  the  substantive  dependant  upon  the 
other,  is  entirely  different  from  the  juxtaposition  of  two  substantives  in 
apposition  to  each  other.  But  there  are  cases  where  the  construction  of 
the  genitive  is  preferred,  although  the  substantives  are,  in  reality*  in  ap-  * 
position.  This  is  the  case  especially  with  vox,  nomen,  verbum,  and  similar 
words,  to  which  the  name  itselif  is  jomed  in  the  genitive ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de 
Fin.,  ii,  2,  Epicurus  non  intelligit,  quid  qonet  haec  vos  vduptatis,  that  iS,  this 
wcNrd  pleajmre  ;  ii.,  24>  e»  amore  nomen.  amicitiae  duetwn  est,  L  e,,  the  word 
smidtia;  Sueton.,  Jlu^., 53,  domini  appetl'Uionem  semper  exhorruit.  This  is 
regularly  done  when  the  genus  is  defined  by  the  species,  as  in  arbor  fid, 
a  Sg-'tree ;  fios  vidae,  a  violet ;  virtus  amtinentiae,  the  virtue  of  abstinence ; 
dtium  ignorantiae,  the  defect  called  ignorance ;  familia  Scipionum,  the  fam- 
ily of  ttu)  Scipios ;  and  also  in  geographical  names ;  as,  oppidumArUiochiae, 
prmtiontorium  Jdiseni,  in  which  case,  however,  it  is  more  usual  to  put  the 
name  in  apposition  in  the  same  case  as  the  generic  term.  There  are 
some  other  cases  in  which  one  substantive  intended  as  an  explanation  of 
il^her  is  put  in  ttt9  genjtive,  instead  of  the  case  of  the  word  to  be  ex- 
plained igenitivus  epexegeticus)  \  e.  g.,  Curt.,  viii.,  35,  Noctumum  frigus  ve- 
kementius  quam  al^  horrore  corpora  affecit,  opportunumqtie  remedium  ^nit 
.  ■  ■  '  ■ 

*  [It  occurs  thus  only  before  the  time  of  the  elder  Pliny ;  after  that  p» 
itod  It  appears  also  in  prose.    {Orelli,  ad  Herat.,  I.  c.)\^Am.  Ed. 


M4  LATIN   GtAHnfAS. 

4Uaium  eit,  i  e.,  ti  convenient  remedy,  viz.,  fire.  Cice>^  lieqiiently  it  # 
gtnu$  tttid  caun  in  the  same  wav ;  e.  g.,  in  Cat,  iL»  8,  wium  genuM  est  ^'  *  ; 
de  Jje^.  Agr.f  ii.,  14,  Duae  ntnt  hujus  obscuritatis  cautaef  una  midorit,  Ju*^ 
tceieritf  the  one  is  shime  and  the  other  malice ;  Philip. ^  i.,  11,  nee  efitjrus- 
Uor  in  senatum  non  veniendi  causa  morbid  quam  mortis  ;  in  Verr.,  iv.,  51 ,  orm-Ja 
propter  earn  causam  sceteris  istius  evenire  videnttir,  for  this  ^'^ason,  via.,  his 
crime.  Comp.  de.Off.,  ii.,  5,  eollectis  eausis  eluvionis,  pestkmtiaet  &c.,  the 
other  causes,  mundation,  phi8:ae,  &c.  The  j^nitive  of  gerunds  is  used  in 
the  same  way  as  that  of  substantives ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Tusc^  i:,36,'TnsU  «tf 
nomen  ipnan  earendif  the  very  word  to  want  is  sad ;  Senec;,  ad  Pofyb,,  29^ 
£st  magna  felidtas  in  ipsa  feUdtate  moriendi.  In  such  cases  the  constoQC- 
lion  of  apposition  is  very  unusual  in  Latin ;  see,  however,  ^  508. 

Q.  Metellus  Macedonicus,  quum  seat  liberos  relinqueret,  undecim  nepotes  reliquit^ 
nurus  vero  generosque  et  omnes,  qui  se  patris  tqapellatione  salutarent,  vigints 
septem,  PUn.,  Hist.  AV.,  vii.,  11. 

[$  426.]  2.  The  genitive  in  the  immediate  connexion 
of  two  substantives  also  expresses  tlie  external  condition 
or  the  internal  nature  of  a  ming ;  and  if  any  of  the  tenses 
of  esse,  Jieri^  haheri,  appears  in  such  a  combination,  the 
genitive  is  not  dependant  upon  these  verbs^but  must  leath- 
er be  explained  by  the  omission  of  a  substantive ;  as,  homo 
and  res.  This,  at  the  same  time,  constitutes  the  differ- 
ence between  the  genitive  of  quality  (genitivus  qualiUUUj 
and  the  ablative  df  quality  with  the  verb  esse.  But  as 
there  is  a  special  part  of  speech  to  express  qualities,  viz;^ 
the  adjective,  the  quality  can  be  expressed  by  a  substan- 
tive only  when  this  substantive  itself  is  qualified  by  an  ad- 
jective. We  cannot  say,  for  example,  homo  ingenii,  a  man 
of  talent  (which  is  expressed  by  lunno  ingeniosusj,  but  wo 
may  say  homo  magni,  summit  exceUentis  ingenii.  Again, 
we  cannot  si^  homa  annorum^  but  we  may  say  homo  vu 
ginti  or  quadraginta  annorum^  We  must  notice,  also,  the 
genitive  modi^  which,  joined  with  a  pronoun,  supplies  the 
place  of  a  pronoun  of  quality;  e.  g.,  cujusmodi  lihri^  the 
same  as  quales  /a^rt,  what  kind  of  books;  hujt^smodi  lihri^ 
that  is,  tales  /i^*,«uch  books.  The  genitive  generis,  which 
is  used  in  the  same  sense,  is  less  frequent. 

Athenienset  belli  duos  duces  deligvnt,  Peridem,  spectatat 

virtuiis  virum,  et  Soph-odcm,  scriptorem  tragoediarum^ 

Justin,  iii.,  6. 
Titus Jacilitatis  taktaefuit  et  liber alitxitis^  uf  ntmini  quii- 

quam  negaret,  Eutrop.,  vii.,  21. 
Hamilcar  secum  in  Htspaniam  duxitjiliwm  Hannihalem 

annorum  novem^  Nep.,  Ham.,  3. 
Spes  unica  populi  Romani,  L.  Quinctius,  trans  THberim 

quaUuor  jugerum  colebat  agrum,  Lir.,  iii.>  26. 

"  ■     ■  ■  .     "    >  "    .,    -  ^ 

»  fConanU  Cmmhie.  «7y?nna*.,  v:'.  \,y   151,  162]— .4  m.  Ed 


,  £4.^.}..^(f.— The  gepitivc  thus  serves  iq  express  ali  t^e  attributes  of 
t  person  or  thing,  relating  to  its  extent,  number,  weight,  darat]  on,  age, 
iiid  the  lik'e,  provided  such  attributes  are  expressed  by  the  ia-.mediatA 
connexion  of  substantives^  -Thus  we  say,  eolo$nu  cenhtmvigmti  pedum ,  a 
coloffsus  of  120  feet  in  height;  fossa  quindecim  pedvm^  a  ditch  of  13  fee. 
(in  length  or  breadth);  corona pArvi ponderiSf  a  ciown  of  little  weight 
ArutideM  exilia  decern  atutorum  tMMatut  est ;  /hanenham  dunm  iriginta  in  vrs^ 
erat^  classis  centum  naviumf  ot  with  esss,  which,  howeve;-,  has  no  inf^u 
ebce"  hpbn  the  construction,  although  we  sometimes  translate  it  bj 
'^ consist  of;"  e.  g.,  cUtssis  Persarum  milte  et  ducentarwn  nairium  longarun 
fyif^  consisted  of  1900  shq^s  of  war.  With  the  geoidve  of  extent  or  meas 
ore  we  may  conn^t  the  ablatives,  which  we  express  in  EInglish  bf 
''with  regard  to;**  as,  longitudine^  tatitudine,  crassitudinSf  altUu^ne,  or  m 
httgitudinetHf  &c. ;    e.   g.,  duo   actus  jugerum  eficiwU  longitudine  patuim 
CCXJLj  latitudine  pedum  CXX;  Inter  Mosam  Khenumqus  trhtm  ac  vigmf 
mHhtm  spdtio/ossam  perduxit,  Tac,  Ann.,  xi,  20;  but  the  genitive  does  not 
depend  upoB.tbese  words. 

The  fact  of  this  genitive  of  condition  or  quality  being  limited  to  the  im 
fnodiate  connexion  of  two  substantives,  must  be  strongly  impressed  upon 
tlHs-iABid  of  the  begiBtteft^iD  order  that  he  mfcy  distinguish  from  it  the  ac- 
cuptive  denoting  extent  of  space  and  time,  which  is  joined  to  verbs  had 
adjectives,  and  tne  ablative  of  quality,  which  is  governed  by  esse,  or  prae- 
dihu,  instructus,  omatus.  For,  without  the  mfloence  of  any  other  part  of 
speech,  we  nj^fosm  quirndttim  ptdum  *  bat  when  the  adjective  Umgus  or 
lotus  is  added,  we  must  shy,  fossa  quindecim  pedes  lata:  in, like  manner, 
puer  decem  annorum,  but  puer  decem  annos  natus  (^  ^5,  foil.).  When  the 
ablativa  of  quality  is  closely  jomed  with  another  substantive,  praeditus  or 
the  participle  of  esse  bemg  undenrtood,  as  in  emmia  forma  pueri,  this  ex- 
pression is  quite  the  same  as  pueri  earimiaeformae  in  meaning,  but  by  no 
■Mans  In  remenee  to  tbe  grammatical  construction  of  the  words. 

£4^861]  Lastly,  we  must  notice  some- peculiar  es^ressions.  in  whick 
the  accusative  is  nsed  adverbially  instead  of  the  genitive  of  quality :  Secus 
(see  above,  ^  84  and  89),  Joined  to  virile  or  mulkbre,  signifi^  **  of  the  male 
or  **  female  sex,"  and  is  equivalent  to  seaeAs  xmlis;  e.  ^.,  Liv.,  xxvi.,  47 
Uberorum  eapitum  mrils  seeus  ad  X  tmlia  capta.  Genus,  joined  with  a  pro 
noun,  as  hoc,  id,  illud,  quod,  or  with  omne,  is  used  for  /mjus,  ejus,  omn9 

feneria ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  ziii.,  12,  srqlfofte>  omI  tdiqtdd  id  gatus  scribera 
lorat.,  Serm.,  ii.,  6,  44,  <oneredere  nugas  hoe  gmus  ;  it  is  more  cnrious  in 
connexion  with  other  cases;  as,  Varro,  de  jL.  L,,  x.,  in  fin.,  in  verbie  id 
genua,  quae  mm  dicUtumtur;  de  R.  R.,  iii,  6,poftieus  ambus  omne  genus  ap- 
fiUkie;  Sueton.,  TH.,  7,««w  iIm  qumque  mlia  omne  ^enusferarum  dedit^  iot 
ferarum  omnis  generis,  Pomdo  (see  ^  87),  joined  quite  as  an  indeclinabla 
woidto  the  accusatives  Ubram  toidlibras,  instead  of  the  genitive,  occurs 
frequently  in  Lity^  e.  g.,  iv.,  90,  Dietaior  coronam  aute&m  lUtram  pondo  m 
CapMio  Jam  dammi  posuit;  and  in  the  plural,  xxvi.,  47,  Paterae  aureus 
fuerwtt  CCLXXVL,  librae  ferme  omnes  pondo. 

[§  429.]  3.  The  genitive  is  used  to  express  tbe  whole 
of  which  anything  is  a  part,  or  to  which  it  belongs  as  a 
part  This  is  the  case,  (a)  with  subst^ntiyes  denoting  a 
certain  measure  of  things  of  the  same  kind ;  e^  g.,  modius, 
medimmum  triticifUhra  Jarris,  magna  vis  auri,jt(gerufn 
a^,  ala  ejuiium.  This  genitive  may  be  termed  geniti- 
vus  generis,  fhj  With  all  words  which  denote  a  part  at 
a  whole  (genitivus  partitivus),  where  we  <^n  use  the 
preposition  **  or'  or  ^*  among."  All  comparatives  and 
superlatives  belong  to  this   class ;    e.  g.,  doctior  htrum 

Cc  2 


400  LATIN   OBAMMAR. 

^duarumj  juv&ium  ;  doctissimus  omnium  ;  doquentusiiMu 
RomanorufJi^  Jerociisimi  ez?dum,  and  also  all  :w:ord9  im* 
plying  a  number,  whether  they  are  real  numerakor  pro- 
nouns and  adjectives ;  os,  quis^  aliquis,  quidam^  uter^aiter^ 
neuter,  aU^^'uter^  uterque,  uiervis,  aliquot,  solus,  nuUus, 
nonnulli,  mufti,  pauei ;  or  substantives ;  as,  Tiefno^  J^^^rSt 
numerus.  The  genitive  belonging,  to  the  superlative  of 
adjectives  is  retained,  also,  with  superlatives  as  adverbs. 
Thus  we  say  optimus  omnium  est,  and  also  optime  omnium 
vixit, 

Graecorum  oratorum  praestantissimi  sunt  ii,  qui  fuerunt 

Athenis,  eorum  autem  princeps  facile  Demosthenes^  Oic, 

de  Opt,  Gen.  Orat,  4. 
Populus  Rofmanus  legem  dedit,  ut  consulum  utiqus  alter  ex 

plebe  crearetur,  Liv,,  vi.,  35. 
Jhio  sunt  aditus  in  Ciliciafn  ex  Syria^  quorum  uterque 

parvis  praesidiis  proptfir  angustias  interdudi  ^>ate4€, 

Cic.y  ad  Fam.f  xv*,  4. 

[^  430.]  Nou  l.—Tbe  jpo^ts  use  the  g«i)itive»al80,  with  other  adje^tivea 
in  the  positive),  but  this  seldoi)i  occurs  in  prose.  Livy  frequently  has 
the  expressions  deUcti  equitumt  exiatditi  militum;  in  Sallust  {Cat.,  53)  we 
lind  effoeta  pfirmtum,  and  in  Yell.  Pat.,  iL,  S,  veteret  Romanorum  dicum, 
(See  the  remariis  of  Corte  and  Ruhnken  on  these  passages)  Th«  geni- 
tive, however,  always  denotes  the  whole,  from  wnich  a  part  Is  taken. 
When,  therefore,  the  above-mentioned  adjectives  are  ^ised  in  the  same 
number  and  case  as  the  aubstantive  denoting  the  whole,  the  case  is  differ 
ent,  although  the  di^erence  in  meaning  is  sometimes  very  slight ;  e.  g., 
midtif  aliquot,  pauci  militiun  and  nalitea  ;  Varro  docUsuivms  fuU  RomoMorum 
and  doctusimuM  Ronumus  ;  alter  consulwn  and  alter  consul,  UterquA^  how- 
ever, cannot,  like  the  English  "  both,"  be  joined  to  a  pronoun  in  the  same 
case,  except  when  a  substantive  is  added;  thus,  "both  these"  or  "these 
two"  cannot  be  translated  into  iiatin  by  hie  (or  UU,  qui)  ntergtUj  but  we 
must  say  honim,  illorum,  quorum  vterque,  whereas  vterque  /rater  and  quod  ■ 
utrumque  exemplum  are  quite  common  expression^.* 

The  genitive,  however,  cannot  be  used  when  the  numeral  containa  the 
same  number  of  things  as  that  of  which  the  whole  consists,  that  is,  when 
there  is  no  relation  cm  a  part  to  a  whole.  We  m;ake  this  remark  only  be- 
cause we  use  the  preposition  "  of"  (the  equivalent  to  the  genitive),  when 
we  are  not  speaking  of  a  greater  whole,  but  of  an  equal  one.  We  say,  for 
example,  "the  people  who  served  under  Frederic  the  Great,  and  of 
whom  few  are  surviving,"  but  in  Latin  we  cannot  say  quorum  admodum 
pauci  ntpvtitnt,  but  qni  paufd  auoerawit,  for  ^hese  few  are  all.  Cic,  Philip,, 
li.,  6,  Veniamue  ad  vivost  qui  duo  de  coneularium  numero  supersunt ;  Liv.,  i.,  55, 
Tarqmniut  gaeella  exaugurare  etatuUj  quae  aliquot  ibi  a  Tatio  rege  eonseerata 
fuerant ;  QuintiL,  ▼.,  10, 63,  (Quaeritur),  quot  eint  speciea  rerum puUiearum: 
quae  tree  occcptmitf,  quae  populi,  quae  paucorum,  quae  uniue  potentate  regerentur 

Instead  of  tne  genitive  we  may  also  use  the  prepositions  ear  and  inter ^  anU 
sometimes  de,  but  never  ab.  (Compare  the  passages  quoted  in  Chap.  LX  V.) 

*  [The  reason  of  all  this  simply  ia,  that  uterque  never  has  the  force  of 
>ur  English  "  6o/A,"  bu*  nlways  denotes  each  oftwo  taken  individually  .]r 
Am.  Edm 


OXlf  11398   CABS.  MM 

• 

14  43Li  AbfiB  2.^Thn  words  uttr,  «&<r,  neuter,  differ  fron  fiiw  tiM»§^  mi^ 
lk«,  by  their  referring  to  a  whole  consisting  of  only  twa  (See  ^  141.) 
The  difference  between  no»tri^  ve$tri,  and  nostrvm,  vetfrion,  is  this :  tbs. 
forms  ending  bi  kjn  are  need  as  partitive  ganitiveB ;  e.  g.,  uterqw  nogtrum, 
tmttnm  cuju$qu»  m(«;  nemo  veatmm  ignorat;  imperium  tttmmum  Romae  hm* 
hebit ;  qui  vestnimprimut  oaculum  matri  tuUrit;  but  nostri  tnehorpeu-s  animma  est, 
miaero'e  noetri^  immemor  nostri,  amor  nostri,  odium  vestri,  vestri  similes.  Vestrum, 
however,  oecaTSt  cl^o,  withoat  any  partitive  meaning ;  e.  g.ifrequentia  ves 
trum,  inere4ibiU9r  Cic,  m  RulL,  u.,  21,  and  PhiUjK,iv.,  I ;  compare  p.  Plane., 
6 ;  quis  erit  tam  ewpidus  vestnim,  Gic,  m  Verr.,  in.,  96 ;  vestrum  quoque  non 
sum  setkrus,  Liv;,  zzxiz..  16.  The  forms  nostrum,  vestrum,  moreover,  in 
always  used  when  joined  with  onmium,  evan  when  the  genitive  is  a  sub- 
jective one;  e,  g.,  Cic,  de  Oral.,  in.,  55,  Voluntati  vestrum  omnium  parui; 
in  Cat.,  L,  7,  patria  quae  communis  est  omnium  nostrum  parens. 

[§  432.]  4.  The  neuters  of  pronouns  and  of  some  ad- 
iecUTes  usfed  as  pronouns,  are  joined  witJi  a  genitive  for 
two  reasons :  first,  because  in  meaning  they  have  become 
substantives;  and,  secondly,  because  they  express  a  part 
of  a  whole.  Such  neuters  are :  koc,  id,  illudj  istud,  idem, 
quid  and  quod  with  their  compounds  faliqmd,  quidquid, 
quippiam^  qmdquam,  qteodcunquej,  aUud;  tantum,  quan- 
tum^ aliqvuntum^  mtdtum,  plus,  plurifnum,  minus ^  mini- 
fnum,  paulum  and  nimium,  with  their  diminutives  and 
compounds ;  thntuLum^  tantundem^  quanttdum^  quarUu- 
lumcunque^  &c.  To  these  we  must  add  nihil^  nothing, 
which  18  always  used  as  a  substantive ;  and  the  adv6rbs 
saiis,  enough;  parum^  too  little;  ahunde^  affatim^  and 
sometimes  largiter^  abundantly — when  they  are  used  as 
8ubsta9tives. 

It  is,  however,  to  be  observed  that  these  neuters  are 
used  as  substantives  only  in  the  nominative  and  accusa- 
tive, and  tha,t  they  must  not  be  dependant  upon  prepo- 
sitions. 
Quantum  incrementi  Nilus  capita  tantum  spH  in  annum  est, 

Senec,  Nat.  Quaest,,  iv.,  6. 
Potest  quidquam  esse  absurdius,  quam^  quo  minus  viae  res^ 

tat,  tanto  plus  viatici  quaerere,  Cic,  Cat.  Maj.^  18. 
Procellae  quanto  plus  habent  virium,  tanto  minus  temporis^ 

Senec,  iVa^.  Quaest^  viL,  9. 
Pythctgora^^  quum  in  geom£tria  quiddam  novi  invenisset, 

Musis  bovem  immolasse  dicitur,  C'c,  de  Nat,  Veor,, 

iiL,  36: 
htstitia  nihil  expetit  praemii,  nihil  pretii,  Cic,  de  Leg., 

L,  18. 
Satis  eloquentiae,  sapienttae  parufn  (in  Catillna  fuit),  Sal- 
lust. 

K  433.]  Note  I.— The  genitive  joined  with  these  neuters  is  oftea  not  a 


908  LATIN   GBAMlfAm. 

• 

raal  «ubctaiiti?e^  b«t  Ute  nemter  of  an-Bdje^ve,  wMch  Isns^  as' s 
Btontive,  as  above,  fUMMom  itovi.  It  miMt  be  observed  here  that  oai^ 
idjecUTet  of  tbe  aacond  deelenakm  (m  um)  can  be  treated  as  sobstantiTet, 
anid  Dol  those  of  thetbud  in  cyuor  the  comparative  in  as.  We  may  diete 
fore  say  mli^uid  novum  raid  aliquid  novi,  but  only  mfiquid  wtemorabiU,  mad  grit' 
vM  aliptid.  Atijmd  memombilU  cannot  be  •^sed,  except,  perhaps,  in  con* 
notion  with  neuters  of  the  second  declension ;  e:  g.,  ampdd  nmti  ac  me- 
morabUU  tibi  nanai»  (as  in  Liv]r,'v.,  3^  «  fuMfHam-ta  inibtt  non-dk^  ehiSie 
ted  kmnaiu  ^saei) ;  but  even  in  tms  ca«e  it  is  preferable  to  say  aiiquid  mcvum 
ac  mtmorabilt ;  as  in  Seneca,  vid4  ne  lata  lectut  miUtorum  auctormn  habeai  oB- 
quid  vagum  H  instabik.  It  mast  Airther  be  remarked  that,  when  there  im 
any  case  dependant  upon  the  neuter  adjective,- the  latter  can  acarc^y  he 
put  in  the  genitive^  and  we  must  say  nihil  txpectatione  veitn  digrntm  dictf^ 
aa  Cicero  {,de  Orat^  l,  31)  does. 

[$  434,]  N0U  2.— The  adverbs  of  place,  vbi,  viiyue,  vbicunquf,  usquam, 
nusquam  {longe),  tmde,  hie,  Aitc,  eo,  eoaem^  quo.  quocuutjue,  piomto,  aUquo  are 
joined  with  ue  ge^tives  gentium,  terrantm,  loci,  locorum,  and  by  the  addi- 
tion of  surh  a  genitive  their  meaning  is  strengthened ;  e.  g^  Mbinam.geHiium 
sumvs  ?  out  Umge  gentium ;  cUiquo  terrarum  migm7%dum  eet;  %dn  terranan  e»? 
The  expressions  hoc  loci,  quo  loci  ium,  ret  eodem  est  loci,  qtto  tu  reliqtdsti,  in 
Cicero  and  other  writers  are  eqoivalent  to  quo,  eodem  loco^  and  the  eUatives 
quo,  eodem,  are  used  as  if  loco  were  to  follow.  The  adverbs  huo,  eo,  ono, 
when  used  figuratively  to  express  a  degree,  are  joined  also  with  other 
genitives ;  e.  g.,  hue  arrogantiaevenerat,  to  this  d^n^ee  or  pitch  of  arrogance; 
eo  uuoUniiaefuroriaque  ptocetsit ;  scirt  videmini  qno  omtntiae  progntsi  siti*. 
In  the  phrase  tninime  gentium^  by  no  means,  the  genitive  merely  strength' 
ens  the  meaning  of  minime. 

In  the  following  expressions  denoting  time  the  geAftive  appears  to  be 
luite  superfluous :  postea  loci,  afterward;  ad  id  locorum,  up  to  this  point  ( 
tn  Sallust  and  Livy,  interea  loci^  in  the  mean  time ;  and  adhue  locoman^  until 
iow,*in  the  comic  writers ;  ttan  temporis,  at  that  time,  occurs  in  late  wri 
tersy  and  should  not  be  imitated,  in  the  phrase  quantum  or  quoad  ejuo  /o- 
cere  possum,  or  in  the  passive  form,  fieri  potest,  the  ejus  refers  to  the  prece- 
ding sentence,  '*  as  moch  of  it,**  or  "  as  far  as  this  is  possible." 

[§  435.]  5.  Poets  and  prose  writers  later  than  Cicero 
♦ise  the  neuters  of  adjectives  in  general,  both  in  the  sin- 
gular and  plural,  as  substantives,  and  join  them  ydth  a 
genitive  ;  6.  g.,  Curtius,  reliquum  noctis  acquievit^  he  slept 
the  remainder  of  the  night ;  Livy,  exiguum  campi  ante 
nostra  erat,  for  which  Cicero  would  have  said  exiguus  cank^ 
pus  ;  in  tdtima  Celtiheriae  penetrdre  ;  summa  tectorum  ob* 
tinere,  instead  of  in  ultimam  Celtiheriam  penetrare,  and 
humma  tecta  ohtincre, 

JVbfe.— So,  also,  ultimum  inopiae  is  e<|uivalent  to  ultima  inepid ;  medium 
or  extremum  anni,  aetatis,  for  which  medut.  Oetas  is  the  Ordlnaiy  expression  ,* 
oatrtmaAigmmiM,  ii^tn*  cfttw  ;  saeva  venlorum,  Mpportmnm  loeorumt  avia  if  rnvratn, 
tacita  su^pieionum ;  and  with  a  prei>osition,  in  immensum  altitudinit  deiedt, 
tor  in  immensam  aUitudinem ';  dd  tUtimum  vitae  perseverare,  in  ultima  Oruntitr 
reUgare,  cum  pretiosisaimis  rerum/ugere,  where  the  ablat.  must  nDt  be  taken 
for  a  ^minine,  although  (he  expression  is  used  fox  cum  pn^ioaisaiwua  rehtok 
Ad  muUum  diet  or  noctia  is  a  peculiar  phrase  of  the  same  kind,  for  a  neutet 
like  multum  may,  indeed,  be  joined  with  a  genitive,  but  not  with  a  prepo* 
sition ;  hence  the  ordinary  construction  isinmuUamnoctamacribara.  Very 
fie^uently  there  is  a  peculiar  meaning  in  such  a  neuter  plural :  inccrfo, 
attbua  belli ;  i.  e.,  the  uncertaia,  sudden  occurrences  in  war,  or  aubitae  occtk 
MH;  quaaeata  mwri,  the  shake i  parts  of  the  wall  t  infhquenlbaitut 


GClflSiVB   CABS.  MO 


11%  Uve.mcotiimuhabited  part  of.  the  town ;  pitno'WbU  TUbtm , 
99t,   lary  has  many  expresaioDs  of  this  kind  <  Drakenborcfa  on  Liv.,  rixvii., 
JS8),  mkl  in  Tacitua  they  are  innumerable.    Respeeting  the  analogy  with 
the  Groek  hinguage,  see  Yechner,  HdlmoUa,  i.,  ^  9»  P-  202,  foU^  and  Hein 
^C  on  Hoiat,  £•&>  ii.»  2,  25. 

[§  43^.1  6,  Many  adjectives  denoting  a  relation  to  a 
tUiig  (a^ectiva  rdatwa)^  especially  those  i^Hiich  express 
partaking  J  desiring^  Julness^  experience^  capacity,  or  re- 
tnembering,  and  their  contraries,  are  joined  with  the  geni- 
tive of  a  substantive  or  pronoun.  Thus  we  say  menwr 
promissi,  remembering  a  promise ;  compos  mentis^  in  pos- 
session of  his  mind ;  ignarus  sermonis  Latini,  ignorant  of 
the  Latin  language.  Such  relations  are  expressed  in  Eng- 
lish by  prepositions. 

The  folk)wing,  in  particular,  are  construed  in  this  way . 
particeps,  qfflnis{e.  g.,  alicujus  culpae,  stLspicionis:  see,  how- 
ever, §  411),  expers,  inops,  cottsors,  exsors;  cupidus,  studi- 
osuSf  avidus,  avarus  ;  plenus,  inanis,  capax,  insatiahilis^fe- 
cundm^  fertilise  ferax,  sterilis  ;  pentm^  imperUus,  conscius., 
inscius,  netdus,  praesciuSi  gnarus,  ignarus,  rudis,  insolens 
and  insolitus,  or  insuetus,prud€ns^  providtiSf  compos,  impos^ 
potens.  and  impotens  ;  memor,  imm^mar,  tenax,  curiosus,  in^ 
curiosKs, 

Pythagoras  sapientiae  studiosos  appeUavit  philosopTios,  Oi« 

cero,  Tusc,  v.,  3. 
Themistocles  peritissimos  belli  navalis  fecit  Athenienses 

Nep.,  Them,,  2. 
Venturae  memoresjam  nunc  estate  senectae,  Ovid. 
Conscia  mens  recti  fomiae  mendacia  ridet,  ,Ovid,  Fast, 
Nescia'^mens  hominumjati  sortisquefiUurae,  Virgil. 

[^  437.]  Note  1. — The  poets  and  those  prose  writers  who^ deviating  from 
the  ordinary  mode  of  speaking,  use  poetical  constructions,  to  give  anima- 
tion to  their  style  (especially  Tacitus),  extend  the  rale  of  joining  a  geni- 
tive with  adjectives  ver^  far.  They  constrae,  in  particular^  all  adjectives 
expressing  mental  emotion  with  the  genitive  of  the  thing  to  which  it  is  di- 
rected ;  e.  g.,  ambigiau  cbnsilii ;  anxiusfuturi,  teturitatis ;  benigntu  vim;  cer- 
tus  aederU  ;  dbulHuis  woe  ;  imjHgtr  mUitiae  ;  mitrriiiu  UH  ,*  mcmmttu/tUuri  ;  in- 
ter fua  eentenfiae  ;  laetua  laboris;  modiau  voluptatum  ;  pervicax  irae,  recti  ;  piger 
peneuii  ;  tegnig  occariottum  ;  eocortfuturi  ;  aecurutjuturi  ;  timidtu  lucis ;  for' 
midohauM  hittium  ;  cblaiM  occoBumie  propera  ;  feroac  Mekmm  iSejamu  ;  a/roar 
•dH  Agnpphiia,"'y9h.en  in  oidinarjr  prose  the  prepositions  lit,  Inoroci,  would 
be  re«iuured,  and  where  we  use  "  in  respect  of  or  **  in  regard  to.''  In  some 
casee  the  genitive  is  used,  in  imitation  of  the  Greek,  instead  of  the  Latin 
ablative ;  e.  g.,  iftteger  vitae,  for  integer  vita  ;  dhermu  mormm  ;  kueua  marig, 
rnarum,  mUitiae  ;  vetut  cperig  ae  laboris  ;  emcerdot  edentiae  cerimoniantm^ 
9etu».  In  some  cases,  however,  the  adjective  is  only  a  bold  expreasioB,  and 
used  in  the  same  sense  as  one  of  these  mentioned  above ;  e.  g.,  vehiaifjterie, 
equivalent  to  peritue  operis.  In  the  case  of  siperlatives  the  genitive  ia  te 
be  ezpiaiaed  m  a  different  way ;  as.  Tacit  A\n  ,  vi.,  6,  praestantifimiM  mn 


2110  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

jritntint,  Un  §ajd«ntum ;  i,  46>  priaeep*  $eiHritmtia  tt  mnufiettume  Mummtue^  ftfe 
omnium  qui  et  tevsri  et  wmmfiei  ami,  Comp.  ^  470.  We  muM  notice  eq»e- 
cially  the  use  of  the  genitiYe  animi  (inetead  of  the  ablative),  which  occurs 
to  frequently  in  late  prose  writers,  and  is  joined  with  all  a^eetives.  (See 
Ruhnlien  on  VeU.  Pat^  ii.,  93.)  We  thus  find  aeger,  atumu,  air^,  ^mmvms 
caeeus,  captu$,  confidetUy  confuaua,  %ncertu$*  terrUus,  valifbUf  emguus^  ingetut, 
modicust  immodicus,  and  nimhu  animi ;  ana,  owin^  to  this  frequent  u^  of 
the  genitive  with  adjectives,  it  is  foond  also  with  verbs  denoting  anxie- 
ty i  9*  g-j  abswde/ads,  qui  te  angaa  animi ;  ditorudor  animi,  and  even  in  Cic- 
ero we  find  more  than  once  e^  quidem  vehementer  animi  pendeo  ;  it  occura 
more  rarely  with  verbs  denotmg  joy ;  as,  recrtahar  animi. 

Note  2.-~Tho  adjectives  plenuB  and  tnom*  (full,  empty),  as  well  msferiSh 
and  dives,  may  be  constru^  also  with  the  ablative  (^  457,  foil.),  and  with 
rrfertus  (the  participle  of  a  verb  denoting  "  to  fill**)  t'he  ablative  Ss  com- 
nkonly  used ;  pUmu  in  the  early  proae  is  rarely  joined  with  the  feblatlve, 
but  in  later  times  frequently :  Cicero,  e.  g.,  Philip.,  il,  27,  says,  domus 
( Antonii)  er<U  aleatoritnu  referta,  plena  ebriorum.  We  may  use  either  case  in 
juriaperilua  and  jureperitut,  juriMconsulitu  and  jureeonndtvs  (abridged  iCtns). 
Compos  and  dep^s  are  but  rarely  found  with  the  ablative  instead  of  the 
genit. ;  as,  Liv.,  ill.,  71 ,  praeda  ingenti  compotem  exercitvm  reducunt ;  SaLlust, 
Cat.,  3i3,  omnesfama  at^ue  fortunis  expertes  sumus.  Immunis  {not  partaking) 
is  commonlv  joined  with  the  gemtive,  but  when  need  in  the  sense  of  *' free 
from,'*  it  takes  either  ab  or  the  simple  ablat.    (See  ^  468.) 

Conscius  is  construed  with  a  genitive  and  a  dative  of  the  thing ;  e.  g., 
Sallust,  Cat.,  25,  oa^is  oonscia  fuerat;  Cic.,  p.  CoeU,  21,  kuic  fadnori  tanto 
mens  tua  conscia  esse  n<m  debuit.  The  person  who  is  comckins  of  a  thing 
is  always  expressed  by  the  dative ;  as,  sibi  consdum  esse  aUcujus  rd, 

[§  438.]  7.  The  participles  present  active  are  joined 
with  a  genitive  when  they  do  not  express  a  simple  act  or 
a  momentary  condition,  but,  like  adjectives,  a  permanent 
quality  or  condition ;  hence  most  of  them  have  degrees 
of  comparison  like  real  adjectives.     The  following  list 
contains  those  most  in  use :  amans,  appetens,  colens^  fu 
giensj  inteUigens,  metuens,  negligens,  ohservans,  retincTis 
tolerans^  pattens,  impatiens^  tempcrans,  intemperans  /  e.  g. 
amans  patriae,  Gracchi  amantissimi  plebis  Romanae,  ap- 
vetens  laudis,  ^ancti  et  religionum  colentes,fugiens  lahoris^ 
imminentitem  (fiituri)  intelligens,  officii  negligens,  tntles  pa* 
ticTis  or  impatiens  soUs,  ptdveris,  tempestatum, 

JBlpaminondas  adeojuit  veritatis  dUigens,  ut  nejoco  quidem 

mentiretur,  Nep.,  JEpam,,  3, 
fiomani  semper  appetentes  gloriole  praeter  ceteras  gentes  at 

que  avidi  laudis  fuerunt,  Cic,  p.  Leg,  Maii^  3. 

Note. — ^The  passage  from  Nepos  shows  that  the  participles  admitting 
this  construction  «re  not  Hmiteid  to  such  as  have  the  meaning  of  the  ad- 
ectives  mentioned  above  (^  436),  but  they  are  used  in  ttus  way  thlough* 
>ut,  provided  they  express  a  permanent  qiudity ;  miles  patiensfrigus,  iofteH' 
ampte,  is  a  soldier  who  at  a  particular  time  bears  the  cold,  but  miles  patitm 
frigoris  is  one  who  bears  cold  well  atttll  times.  Hence  m^fdms,  ^Ukiens,  ss 
fmns,  sdens,  siiiens,  timms,  and  a  considerable  number  of  others^  are  joined 
with  a  g^iitive.  • '  Some  participles  perfect  passive  have  been  menti<nied 
in  4  ^^  **  ^^>^  number:  is  vety  hmited ;  «nd  tomphtus,  esperius,  inexpef> 
nw,  kmetus,  and  consuUus  mav.be  classed  with  the  abov«H3aentioned  tA 


/ 


QENITIVE    GAȣ.  911 

jtothev.    lAin  poetical  language,  we  find  any  ether  perfect  pErtkipIet 
joined  with  a  genitive,  we  must  regard  them  as  adjectives. 

[§  439*]  8.  With  Verbs  \ii  reminding,  remembering,  ana 
JorgeUing  (admoneo,  commoneo,  crnnmonefacio  aliquem; 
memzHif  reminiscor^  recorder^  also  in  mentem  mihi  venit; 
obliviscoTfJ  the  person  or  the  thing  of  which  any  one  re- 
minds another  or  himself,  or  which  he  forgets,  is  express- 
ed by  the  genitive ;  but  there  are  many  instances,  also,  in 
which  the  thing  is  expressed  by  the  accusative. 

Medictis^ut  jprimum  mentis  compotem  esseregem  tensity  mo- 
do  matris  sororumque^  modo  tantae  victoriae  appropin' 
quantis  admon^re  nan  destitit.  Curt.,  iii.j  16. 

Hannibal  miUtes  adhortaius  est,  ut  remimsoereniur  pristu 
nae  virtutis  suae,  neve  mulierum  liberumque  (for  et  libe- 
rorum)  obliviscerentur. 

Tu^  C  Caesar,  oblivisd  nihil  soles ^  ni§i  injurias^  Cic,  p 
Leg.,  12. 

Non  omnes  (senes)  posswnt  esse  Scipiones  aut  Maximi^  ut 
urbium  expugnationes,  ut  pedestres  Ttdvalesque  pugna^s^' 
ut  beUa  a  se  gesta  triumphosque  recordentur^  Cic,  CkU. 
Mc0.,  5. 

[^  440.]  Note. — With  regard  to  the  accusative  of  the  thing,  it  must  be 
observed  that  the  neuters  of  pronouns,  and  the  neuter  adjectives  used  as 
substantives,  are  joined  to  the  above-mentioned  verbs  only  in  the  accusa- 
tive ;  for  their  genitive  would  present  no  difference  from  the  masc.  gender. 
Hen^e  Cicero  XdM  Off.,  ii.,  8)  is  obliged  to  say,  Externa  libentiua  in  tali  re 
qwtm  dome^ica  recordar ;  and  the  verbs  of  remindinr  are  thus  joined  with 
two  accusatives,  one  ojf  the  person  and  the  other  of  the  thing ;  e.  g.,  illud 
mepraeclare  admone$i  unum  te  admoneo.  ^Comp.  ^  393.)  An  accusative  of 
the  thing,  expressed  by  a  real  substantive,  occurs  only  with  verbs  of  re 
niembering  ana  forgetting  ;e.  g.,  memtnt  or  oblittu  sum  mandatOt  beneficia,  dicta 
faetaqniB  tnd ;  pueritiae  memoriam  recordari  uilwumi.  An  accusMiVe  of  the 
person  is  very  rarely  used  with  these  verbs  i  but  memini,  in  the  sense  of 
**  I  remember  a  person  who  lived  in  my  time,**  is  invariably  joined  with  an 
accusative  of  the  person ;  e.  g,,  Cic,  Philip*,  v.,  6,  quod  rutpu  regeefecenmt, 
neque  ii,  qui  r^Unu  tkactia  regnium  (x^aqfore  w^ueruni :  Cirmam  memini,  vidi 
Smkan,.fnodp  Cot$9Tem,  &c. ;  de  Orat.,  iii.,  60,  AntijMter  iUe  Sidoniua,  quem 
tu  probe  memtnifH. , '  Sometimes  verbs  of  reminding  and  remerrAering  take  the 
prepOiiti(m'<le  ;  mtmini  takes  de  more  especially  when  ft  sigmfies  meniimem 
faictn,  but  thegenitiTe  also  may  be  used,  with  vemi  mihi  in  mentem,  tht 
person  or  thing  may  be  piit  in  the  ndminat.,  so  as  to  become*the  subject ; 
e.  g.,  aUquid,  haec,  omnia  mihi  in  mentem  venerunt, 

[§  441.]  9.  The  vm^persondlyeTha  pudet,piget,j?oenit€t^ 
taedet^  and  mtseret  rec^oxre  the  person  in  whom  the  feel- 
ing exists  to  be  in  the  accusative,  and  the  thing  which 
produces  the  feeling  in  the  genitive.  The  thing  produ- 
cing the  feeling  may  also  be  expressed  by  the  infinitive, 
or  by  a  sentence  with  quod  or  with  an  interrogative  par* 
tide,  e.  g.,  pudet  me  hocJecisse,poenitef  me  quod  te  qfendi^ 


H\2  LATIN  <imAMBf AK. 

ton  poenitct  m  ?  (I  am  not  dissatidfied)  qnanium  frofecenm, 

A.8  to  tho  forms  of  these  verbs,  see  §  225. 

MalOf  mejbrtunaepoeniteat^  quam  victoriae  pudeat,  Coit^ 

IV.,  47. 
Eorumnos  magis  miseret,  qui  nostram  muerkardiam  nam 

requirurU^  quam  qui  illam  cffiagitant,  Cic,  ^.  J(lt/.,  34. 
Non  poenitet  me  vixisse,  quoniam  ita  vixi^  ut  nonfnistra 

me  natum  existimem,  Cic,  Cat,  Maj,,  in  fin. 
Quern  pocnifet  peccasse^  paene  est  innocens,  Senec,  Agatn  , 

243. 

[^  442.]  Note  1. — ^The  personal  verbs  misereor  and  miserescOf  "  I  pity,"  are 
foined  with  a  genitive,  like  the  impersoaal  verbs  mueret  (and  miaeretyr) : 
wmteremmi  soownmi,  mntrhia.tttnU  viri,  generis  miaereape  tui;  but  we  also  find 
miaeretcU  me  tui,  impersoDally,  in  Terence  {Heaut.,  v.,  4,  3),  inopi*  te  nutu 
miterescat  meL    Miaerari  and  eommiserari  (to  pity),  on  the  other  ha^d,  re 
quire  the  accusative.    The  above-meutionea  impersonal  verbs  are  very 
rarely  used  personally ;  as  in  Terence,  Addph.^  iv.,  5, 36,  non  te  haee  pudaiu. 
In  the  passage  of  Cicer6  (7iwc.,  v.,  18},  aequitur  ut  nihU  (aaj^ientem)  poena 
teatt  the  wora  nihU  must  not  be  taken  for  a  nominative :  it  is  the  accusa- 
tive, for  both  this  particular  word  and  the  neuters  of  pronouns  are  that 
.  usra  in  the  accusative  (see  ^  385) ;  whereas  real  substantives  would  ne 
ceasarily  be  in  a  different  case.    So,  also,  in  Cic,  de  Invent.^  ii,  13,  quaeri 
vportet,  utrtun  id  faeinua  ait^  quod  poenitere  fuerit  neeeaae,  for  cujua  raL    The 
participle  pertaeaua  (belonging  to  taedet)  governs  the  accusative,  contrary 
to  the  rule  by  which  participles  are  joined  with  the  same  case  as  the  verM 
from  which  they  are  formea ;  e.  g.,  Sueton.,  /u/.,  7,  auaai  pertaeaua  ignemam 
auam  ;  but  it  is  also  used  with  a  genitive,  as  in  Tacitus,  Ann.,  xv.,  51,  paa 
tremo  lentitudinia  eontm  pertaeaa, 

[^  443.1  Note  2. — Pudet  requires  a  genit ,  also,  in  the  sense  of  **  behig 
restrained  by  shame  or  respect  for  a  person ;"  e.  g.,  Terent.,  Adelph.,  iv.,  5, 
49,  et  me  tui  pudet;  Cic,  m  Clod.,  Nonne  te  Au^im  tempU,  non  wrbia,nonwitme, 
non  hieia  pudet  /  It  is  found  more  frequently  without  an  accusat.,  as  in 
Livy,  iii,  19,  pudet  deorum  hominwnque ;  Cic,  Phiiip.,  xii.,  3,  pudet  kujua  ia- 
gionia,  pudet  quartae,  pudet  optimi  axerdhta. 


[f  444.]  10.  The  verbs  of  estimattng  or  vahtrng  ami 
their  passives  (acstimare^  ducere^facere^fieri^  habere^  pen- 
dere,  putm-e,  taxare,  and  esse)  are  joined  with  the  genitive 
when  the  value  is  expressed  generally  by  an  defective, 
.>ut  with  the  ablative  when  it  is  e^mressed  by  a  substan- 
tive. (Comp.  §  456.)  Genitives  of  this  kind  are :  mttg" 
ni,  permagni^pluriSf  plurimi,  maximi^parvi,  minoris  fining 
imi^  tanti^  quanti,  and  tho  compounds  tanddem^  quatUivii, 
quanticunque ;  but  never  (or  very  rarely)  mulii  «mkI  ma- 
^oris.  The  substantive  ti>  be  understood  with  these  gez*. 
itives  is  pretiif  which  is  sometimes  expressed  (with  euej. 

Si  prata  et  hortidos  tanti  ae^timamus^  quanti  est  aesiimmn^ 

da  virtus  ?  Cic,  Parad.,  6. 
Unum  Hephce%tiimem  Alexander  plurimi  fecerat^  Ne|W| 

Eum.^% 


OKNITIVE   CASE.  XI 3 

Bgv  a  meis  me  amari  et  magni  pendt  pastulo^  Teretnt^ 

Adelph.f  v.,  4,  25. 
Mea  mihi  conacientia  plmris  est,  qttckm  ormdum  aermo^  Cic, 

ad  Att.^  xiL,  28. 

Note."^  Tanti  est^  **  it  is  wonh  so  much,"  signifies,  also,  absolutely,  "  it  u 
worth  while ;"  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Cat,  i,  9,  Vidto  quanta  tempestas  invidiae  nobis 
impendeat.  Sed  est  mihi  tanti :  dummodo  ista  privata  sit  calamitas.  Il  addi 
tion  to  the  above  genitives  we  must  mention  assis,flocci,  nauci,pensi^  pili 
habere^  or  commonly  non  kabtre,  ducere.  oestimarM ;  farther,  the  comic  phrase 
hujus  non  facia,  "  I  do  not  care  that  for  it,"  and  nihili.  But  we  fina,  also. 
pro  nihUo  habere,  putare,  and  ducere  ;  e.  g.,  omnto,  ifuae  cadere  inc  hominem  pos 
sint,  despieere  et  pro  nihUo  putare.  The  phrase  aequi  boni,  or  aeqid  bonique 
fado,  consulo,  and  boni  consuh,  I  consider  a.  thing  to  be  right,  am  satisfied 
with  it,  must  lij^ewise  be  classed  with  these  genitives.  A  genitive  ex 
pressing  i:^'ce  is  |Dined,  alsoj  to  such  ¥K>rd8  as  eoeno,  habitoi  doceo;  e.  g., 
quanti  habUas ?  what  price'  do  you  pay  for  your  houae  or  lodging?,  qtumti 
docet  ?  what  are  his  terms  in  teaching  ? 

.  [§  445.]  The  same  rule  applies  to  general  statements 

of  price  with  the  verbs  of  buying^  adling^t  lending^  and 

hirmg  (em^e,  vendere,  the  passive  venire,  canducere,  2o 

care,  and  as  passives  in  sense,  stare  and  conkUire^  proatart 

and  licere,  to  be  exposed  for  sale).    But  the  ablatives 

rtiogno^permagno^plurimOfparvo,  minimo,  nihUo,  are  used 

very  frequently  instead  of  the  genitive. 

Mercatares  non  tantidem  vendunty  quanti  emcrunt,  Cic. 

Nulla  peUis  hwnunno  generi  phiris  stetit,  quam  ira,  Senec. 

Non  potest  parpo  res  magna  constare,  Senec,  Epist,,  19. 

NoU. — With  verbs  of  buying,  therefore,  the  genitive  and  ablative  alter* 
t*^e  according  to  the  particular  words  that  are  used.  Cic,  ad  Fam,,  vii., 
2,  vmtes,  Parum  aciUe  ei  tnandasti  potissimum,  cui  expediret  illud  venire  quam 
piarimo :  $ed  eo  vidisti  nadtum,  tpwd  praefinisti,  quo  ne  pluria  emerem — nmc, 
quoniam  tuum  mretium  novi,  Uliatatorem,  potias  pcnam,  quam  Ulud  minoris  ve- 
neat ;  Plant.,  Epid.,  ii.,  2,  112,  Quanti  emere  possum  mtnimo?  What  is  the 
lowest' ^rice  I  can  buy  alt  Aestimars  is  aonetimes  joined  with  |he  abla- 
tives magna,  permagno,  nowuhilo,  instead  of  the  regular  genitives.  The  ad- 
verbs care,  bene,  male,  sometimes  take  the  place  of  the  ablative  with  the 
verbs  of  buying,  though  not  very  frequently.  Instead  of  nihila  constat,  it 
eosta  me  nothing,  we  indin  Cicero  gratia  constat, 

[^  446.]  11.  The  genitive  is  used  to  denote  the  crime 
or  offence,  with  the  verbs  accuso,  incuso,  arguo,  interrogo, 
insimnhf  mcrepo,  infamo  ;  convince,  coarguo  ;  judico,  dam* 
no,  eondemno  ;  ahsolva,  Uberjo,  purgo  ;  arceiso,  citq,^  defero, 
postido,  reumjadoy  alioui  diem  dico,  cum  aliquo  ago.  The 
genitive  joined  to  these  verbs  depends  upon  the  substan- 
nve  crimine  or  nomine,  which  is  understood,  but  some-^ 
limes  also  expressed. 

Genitives  of  this  kind  are,  peccati,  mateficH,  sceteris,  caedis,  veneficU,  paf 
rtridii,  f%wti,  repetundamm,  vectuatus,falsit  injuriarum,  rd  capitali8,prod^omi 
majestatis  ;  probri,  sttdtitiai,  avaritiae,  audaciae,  vonitalir,  levitatis,  tsmerkaiit 
tgnaviae ,  tirwris,  impietatist  tnd  others. 

Dd 


814  LATIN   GkAMMAE. 

MUtiades  proditionis  est  accusaius,  quod,  quutn  Patum 

pugnare  posset,  epugna  discessisset^  Nep.^  Milt, 
Thrasyhulus  legem  tulit^  ne  quis  ante  actarum  rerum  aty 
'  cusaretur  neve  multaretur,  Nep.,  Thras,,  3. 

Note  1. — To  these  verbs  we  must  a()d  a  few. adjectives,  which  are  used 
mstead  of  their  participles :  rnUf  compertuB,  no»m$,  innoaeiiut  iruona,  tiumi- 
fettus.  Sometimes  the  pr^[>osition  dt  is  used,  with  the  veriss  of  accusing 
and  condemning,  instead  of  the  genitive ;  e.  g.,  de  «t  condetnnatus  est,  nm- 
men  tdicujut  de  parriddio  deferre, 

[^  447.]  Note  2. — The  punishment,  with  the  verbs  of  condemning,  i« 
commonly  expressed  by  tne  g^ntive ;  e.  g..  cajntU,  mortit,  mtdUu,  pecmuae 
^uadruplif  octupU,  and  less  frequently  bv  the  ablative,  capUt,  mmrte,  mtdta^ 
pecunia.  The  ablative,  however,  is  used  invariably  when  a  definite,  sum  is 
mentioned ;  e.  g.,  decern,  qumdeam  miUInu  aeris.  Sometimes  we  find  the 
preposition  ad  or  in:  tul  poenaaif  ad  bettiat,  ad  metaliaf  in  metallunif  m  ex- 
pensasj  and  Tacitus  uses,  also,  ad  nutrtem.  The  meaning  of  capitis  aceu- 
sore,  arceeaere,  abeolvere,  and  of  capitia  or  ea^e  danmare,  c^ndemnarep  must  be 
explained  by  the  signification  of  what  the  Romans  called  a  causa  capitis.*- 
Voti  or  votorum  damnari,  to  be  condemned  to  fulfil  one's  vow,  is  thus 
equivalent  to  **  to  obtain  what  one  wishes." 

[§  448.]  12.  The  genitive  is  used  with  the  verbs  esse 
and^m,  in  the  sense  of  *'  it  is  a  person's  business,  office, 
lot,  or  property,'*  the  substantives  res  or  negotium  being 
understood;  e.  g.,  hoc  est praeccptoris^  this  is  the  business 
of  the  teacher ;  rum  est  mearum  virium^  it  is  beyond  my 
strength;  Asia  Rotnanorum  facta  est,  Asia  became  the 
property  of  the  Romans.  The  same  genitive  is  fouhd, 
also,  with  some  6f  the  verbs  mentioned  in  §  394,  esse  be 
ing  understood. 

But  instead  of  the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronouns  met, 
tui^  sui,  nostril  vestri,  the  neuters  of  the  possessives^  meum, 
tuum,  suum,  nostrum^  vestrum  est,  erat^  &c.,  are  used. 

Cufusvis  haminis  est  errare,  nullius  nisi  insipientis  in  errore 

perseverare,  Cic,  Phil.^  xii.,  2. 
Sapientis  judids  est,  semper  non  quid  ipse  velit,  sed  quid 

lex  et  rdigio  coga^^  eogitare,  Gic,  p»^  Cluent.,  58. 
Bello   Gallico  praeter  CapUoUum  omnia  kastium  ereuUf 

Liv.,  vi.,  40. 
Tuum  est,  M.  Cato,  qui  non  mihi,  non  tibi,  sed  patriae 

natus  es,  videre  quid  agatur,  Cic,  p,  Muren.^  38. 

Note  1.— We  have  here  followed  Peiizonius  (on  Sanctius,  Minth}a,  io 
many  passages)  in  explaining  the  genitive  by  the  ellipsis  of  negotiumA 
This  opinion  is  confirmed  by  a  passage  in  Cicero,  ad  Fam.,  iii.,  12,  non  ho 
rum  temporum,  non  horum  komimtm  et  morvm  negotium  est ;  but  we  ought 
not  to  have  recourse  to  such  an  ellipsis,  except  for  the  purpose  of  UIus 
trating  the  idiom  of  a  language,  and  we  should  not  apply  it  to  every  par 

ticular  case ;  for,  in  most  instances,  it  would  be  better  and  more  consist 

* 

♦  rConsult  Diet.  Antiq.,  p.  212,  Harpers'  ed,]-~Am.  Ed. 

t  [Compare  Palairet,  EUips.  Lat,  s.  v.  Negotium  ]^Ani.  Ed,  •" 


I 


GENITIVfl   CAAE.  UiS 

mi  mth  Ce,6  Latin  idiom»  to  suppiv  proprius,  as  an  adjective  ana  psprtum 
as  a  substantive.  (Comp.  ^  411.)  In  the  following  sentences  from  Cicero. 
vroprmm  est  animi  bene  constUuti  laetari  bonis  rebusy  and  sapientis  €st  pro- 
prtwn,  fiihil  quod  poemtere  possit  facerey  we  might  omit  proprnan  and  use  the 
genitive  alone.  In  the  following  sentences  the  words  munus  and  oMcium 
might  be  omitted :  Cic,  p.  Mil,  S,  principum  munus  est  resistere  Jevitati 
ntMtwdinisy  and  Terent.,  Andr.,  ii.,  1, 30,  neuiiqmafn  officimn  Uberi  esse  ho- 
vimts  puto,  qieum  is  nil  mereat,  postidkre  id  gratiae  apponi  sibi ;  and  hence  we 
tiay  also  assume  the  ellipsis  of  munus  and  cfficium,  for  ths  purpose  of  il 
lustrating  the  Latin  idiom. 

Esse  is  joined  with  a  genitive  expressing  quality,  est  stultitiaa,  est  lemta- 
^,  est  hoc  GalUcae  eonsttetudiniSf  especially  maris  est,  for  >which,  without 
difiference  in  meaning,  we  may  say  stuUitia  est,  levitas  est,  haec  cwmietudo 
est  CkUlorum,  mos  est ;  e.  g.,  Cic  ,  in  Verr.,  i.,  26,  negavit  maris  esse  Chrae 
c9nan,  vt  in  convivio  virorum  aceumberent  muUeres,  the  same  as  moTem.-esse 
Graecorum. 

Note  2. — As  it  is  the  rule  to  use  the  neuter  of  the  possessive  pronouns, 
instead  of  the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronouns,  so  in  (rth^  cases,  instead 
of  a  genitive  of  a  substantive,  an  adjective  derived  from  the  substantive 
may  be  used ;  e.  g.,  kumaman  est,  imperatorium  est,  regium  est ;  etfacere  et 
patifortia  Romanvm  est,  lAv.,  ii.,  12. 

[§  449.]  13.  A  similar  ellipsis  takes  place  with  the  im 
personal  verbs  interest  and  rdfert,  it  is  of  interest  €»*  impor 
lance  (to  me),  the  person  to  whom  anything  is  of  im- 
^>ortance  being  expressed  by  the  genitive ;  but  instead  of 
the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronouns,  the  possessives 
mea,  tua,  sua^  nostra,  vestra,  are  used.  These  possessives 
are  commonly  considered  to  be  accusatives  neuter  plu- 
ral, commoda  being  understood ;  but  from  some  verses  in 
Terence,  especially  Pkarm.,  iv.,  5,  11,  and  v.,  8,  47,  we 
are  obliged  to  consider  them  with  Priscian  (p.  1077)  a» 
ablatives  feminine  singular,  and  it  is  not  impossible  that . 
catisd  may  be  understood.*  The  thing  which  is  of  inter- 
est or  importance  is  not  expressed  by  a  substantive,  but 
sometimes  by  the  neuter  of  a  protioun ;  e.  g.,  hoc  mea  t»- 
tere^i,  and  usually  by  an  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  or 
by  ut  and  the  interrogative  particles  with  the  subjunctive ; 
e.  g.,  multum  mea  interest ^  te  esse  diligentenij  or  ut  dili^ 
gens  sis,  (utnlm).  diUgens  sis  nee  ne. 

Semper  Milo,  qziantum  interesset  P.  Clodii,  se  pcrire,  cogi' 

tabat,  Cic.,^.  MiZ.,  21. 
Caesar  dicere  solehat,  non  tarn  sua^  quam  revpvhlicae  inter' 

esse^  uti  salvus  esset,  Suet.,  Caes,,  86. 
Inventae  sunt  epistolae^  ut  certiares  Jaceremus  ahsentes,  at 

I  -  1  I  I  M 

♦  This  explanation  solves  only  half  the  difficalty,  but  both  the  use  of 
Ihe  genitive  and  the  length  of  re  in  rtfert  are  suflSciently  accounted  for  hy 
what  has  been  said  in  a  note  at  the  foot  of  p.  19.  We  should  add  her« 
t:hat  mea,  ttia,  sua,  &c.,  are  accusatives  for  meam,  tuait,  srutm,  ^  c.  Comp 
KeY y  The  AlpJ^H,  y  7?.— Transl 


^ 


816  LATIN    GRAMMAR' 

quid  esset,  quos  cos  scire  aut  nostra  aut  ipsorum  tntet  cs$eii 
Cic,  ad  Fam,,  ii.,  4. 
Quid  refert,  utrum  voluerimjicri^  an  factum  gaudea?n  ?  Cic. 
Philip,^  ii.,  12. 

Note  1. — ^When  an  infinitive  alone  is  jQined  to  mUrette,  the  preceding 
subject  is  understood,  e.  g.,  omnium  interest  rectefacere,  soil.  se.  The  noni* 
inative  of  the  subject  in  Cicero^  ad  Au.,  iii.,  19,  non  quo  mea  interesset  loci 
natura,  is  very  singular.  It  has  been  asserted  that  rtfert  is  not  joined  with 
the  genitiTe  of  the  person ;  in  Cicero,  it  is  true,  it  does  not  occur,  for  ho 
genermlly  uses  it  with  the  pronouns  mea,  ttta,  ma,  &c. ;  but  other  authors 
use  the  genitive;  e.  g.,  Sallust,  Jug.,  119,  faciendum  aiiquid,  quod  iUorum 
magie,  qmam  ma  rettulisse  videretur^  and  Liv.,  zxxiv.,  27,  ^orum  referre,  &c. 
Most  froquently,  however,  r^ert  is  used  without  either  a  genitive  or  any 
of  the  pronouns  mea,  tua,  &c. :  r^ert,  quid  refert  ?  magni,  parvi,  magnopert 
efert.  The  dative  of  the  person  in  Horace,  Serm.,  i.,  1,50,  vel  die  quid  tv- 
/erat  intra  naturae  foue  viventi,  jugera  centum  an  mille  aret,  is  a  singular  pe« 
culiarity. 

[^  450.1  Note  2. — The  degree  of  importance  is  expressed  by  adverbs  or 
oe-uter  adjectives,  or  by  their  genitives,  magu,  magnopere,  vehementer,  parum, 
mhume,  tarn,  tantopere;  mtdtiim,  plus,  plurimum,  permtdtian,  injiinituafn,  mirum 
quantum,  minus,  mhU,  aiiquid,  qtuddam,  tantum,  quantum  ;  tents,  quemti,  magnif 
permagni,  parvi.  The  object  lor  which  a  thing  is  of  importance  is  express* 
ed  by  the  prepnosition  <ui,  as  in  Cicero,  m/ogni  interest  ad  honorem  nostrum  ; 
t  dative  used  in  the  same  sense  occurs  in  Tacitus,  Ann.,  xv.,  65,  non  rs> 
»'?r-e  dedecoru 


CHAPTER  LXXIV. 

ABLATIVE   CASE. 


[§  451.]  1.  The  Ablative  serves  to  denote  ceitain  re- 
lations of  substantives,  which  are  expressed  in  most  other 
'-anguages  by  prepositions. 

iVote.— This  is  an  important  difference  between  the  ablative  and  the 
»ther  oblique  cases  ;  for  the  latter,  expressing  necessary  relations  between 
toun?.  occur  in  all  languages  which  possess  eases  ot  inflection,  and  do 
loi,  like  the  French  or  English,  express  those  relations  by  prepositions. 
3ut  Ibe  ablative  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  Latin  language,  which  might  in- 
I'eed  be  dispensed  with,  but  which  contributes  greatly  to  its  expressive 
conciseness. 

The  ablative  is  used  iirst  with  passive  ^verbs  to .  denote 
the  thing  by  which  anything  is  eiFected  (dblativus  efftcien- 
tisj,  and  which  in  the  active  construction  is  expressed  by 
the  nominative ;  e.  g.,  sol  mundum  illttstrat^Kaa  sole  mun- 
dus  Ulustratur  ;  Jecunditas  arborum  me  delectat,  Qjidjecun- 
ditate  arbofum  detector.  If  that  by  which  anything  is  ef- 
fected is  2l  person^  the  preposition  ab  is  required  with  the 
ablative  (see  §  382)  with  the  sole  exception  of  the  par- 
ticiples of  the  verbs  denoting  "  to  be  bom"  (nattts,  genitus^ 
ortits,  and  in  poetry,  also,  creiusj  editus,  aatus),  to  which  the 
naxne  of  the  father  or  familv  is  generally  joined  m  tne  ab 


\ 


ABLATIVE   CASE.  817 

Iktno  mthout  a  prepcNsition.  Ah  cannct  be  used  with  the 
ablsttive  of  a  thiitg  by  which  anything  is  effected,  unlea.<; 
the  thing  be  personified. 

Dei  providentia  mundus  administratuTf  Cic. 

Non  est  consentaneum^  qui  metu  nonfrangatur^  ewmfrangi 

cupiditate  ;  nee  qtd  invictum  se  a  labare  jrraeatiterit^  vin- 

ci  a  voluptate,  Cic,  De  Off,^  i.,  20. 

Note. — The  words  denoting  "bom"  usnallT  have  the  preposition  ev or  d« 
joined  to  the  name  of  the  mother,  but  the  ablative  alone  is  also  found,  and 
there  are  a  few  passages  in  which  ex  ox-ab  \s  joined  to  the  name  of  thfi 
father ;  e.  g^  Te/ent.,  Adelph.,  i.,  1, 15,  Atqiie  ex  me  hie  noHts  non  est,  sedea 
fraJtre  ;  Caes.,  BeU,  GalL,  vi.,  18,  prognati  ah  Dite  patre,  Ortus  ab  aliquo  is 
frequently  used  in  speaking  of  a  person's  ancestors ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  p.  Muren.^ 
21,  qui  ab  iUo  ortus  es  ;  Caes.,  Bell.  GalLf  iL,  4,  plerosque  Belgas  esse  ortos  a 
Gennanis  (the  same  as  oriundos). 

[§  452.]  2.  An  ablative  expressing  the  catue  (ablativus 
qausae)  is  joined  with  adjectives,  which,  if  changed  into  a 
verb,  would  require  a  passive  construction  ;  e.  g.,  fossus, 
aegcTy  saucitis  (equivalent  to  quifatigatus,  morbo  affectus^ 
vulnerattis  est);  and  with  intransitive  v^rbs,  for  which  w? 
may  generally  substitute  some  passive  V3rb  of  at  least  a 
similar  meaning;  as,  interiit  Jamef  cojisumptus  estjame; 
expectatio  rumor e  crevit^  expectatio  aucta  est  rumor e;  gau- 
deo  Tumore  tiw,  detector  honore  tuo.  Thus,  verbs  express- 
ing feeling  or  emotion  are  constru  3d  with  the  ablative  of 
the  thing  which  is  the  ^ause  of  the  feeling  or  emotion ;  as, 
doleo,  gaudeo,  laetor ;  exilio,  exulto,  triumphoy  lacrinw^ 
paene  desipio  gaudio,  ardeo  cupiditate,  desiderio.  S^ome- 
times  the  prepositions  propter  and  per  are  used  instead  of 
such  an  ablative ;  and  when  a  person  is  described  as  the 
cause  of  an  emotion,  they  are  just  as  necessary  as  ab  is 
with  passive  verbs. 

We  must  notice  in  particular  the.  construction  of  the  fol- 
lowing verbs :  Glorior^  I  boast,  is  joined  with  an  ablative 
denoting  the  cause ;  e.  g.,  victoria  med^  but  is  also  con- 
strued, with  de,  and  in  the  sense  of  "glory  in  a  thing," 
with  in  ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Nat,  Deor,^  iii.,  36,  propter  virtu- 
tcm  recte  laudamur,  et  in  virttUc  recte  gloriamur,  JLaboro, 
I  suffer  from  ;  e.  -g.,  morbo,  inopia,  odio,  is  frequently  join 
ed,  also,  with  ex,  especially  when  the  part  of  the  body 
which  is  the  seat  of  the  pain  is  mentioned ;  e.  g.,  ex  pedi- 
bus,  ex  intestinis,  Nitor  and  innitor  aliqtta  re,  I  lean  upon, 
is  used,  in  a  figurative  sense,  also,  with  in  ;  e.  g.,  Cicero, 
in  vita  Pompeii  nitebatur  salus  civitatis  (in  the  sense  of 
"strive  after,"  with  ad  or  in  with  th(j  a<;cus.;  as,  nitimu* 

D  D? 


318  LATIN    GRAMMAS. 

in  vctttum).  Sto  (diqua  re,  I  depend  upon  a  thing;  as^ 
judicio  fneOf  auctore  aJiqtio ,  also  in  the  sense  of  '*  I  per- 
•overe  in  or  adhere  to  a  thing  ;*'  os,  ybedere^  jure^anda, 
condidonibus,  promUsU  ;  it  rarely  ta]ke8  in^  as  in  Cicero, 
Mtare  opartet  in  eo^  quod  sit  judicatum,  (Respecting  acqui 
esco  with  the  ablate  see  §  416.)  Fido  and  can/tdo,  "  1 
tru3t  in  a  thing,"  and  the  adjective  Zre^tM  are  joined  with 
the  ablat.  of  die  thing  tiiisted  in,  but  Inay  also  be  used 
with  the  dative  of  the  person  or  thing  trusted  in.  (See  § 
4i3.)  The  verbs  cojistare,  contineri,  to  consist  of,  are  con- 
Btiiied  with  the  ablat.  to  denote  that  of  which  a  thing  con- 
sists ;  e.  g.,  damns  amoenitas  non  aedificio,  sed  silva  ean- 
tttabaC;  tota  -hanestas  quattuor  virtutibus  cantinetur ;  but 
consiare  is  joined  more  frequently  with  ex  or  ««,  and  con- 
Cinerif  in  the  sense  of  "to  be  contained  in  a  thing,"  is  gen- 
erally used  with  in,  but  even  then  not  unfrequently  with 
the  ablative  alone.  (Consistere,  in  the  sense  of  "  exist," 
is  construed,  like  positum  esse,  only  with  in,J 

Concordia  res  parvae  vrescunt,  discordid  maximae  dilabttn^ 

tur,  Sallust,  Jug.,  10. 
Est  adolescentis  majores  natu  vereri  exque  his  deligere  op' 

timos  ft  probatissimos,  qtiorum  consilio  atquc  auctoritate 

nitatw^,  Cic,  de  Off,,  i.,  34. 
Vtrtute  dectt,  non  sanguine  niti,  Claud.,  Cons,  Hon,,  iv.,  219. 
Diversis  duobus  vttiis,  avaritia  et  luxuria,  civitas  Romana 

lahorabat,  Liv.,  xxxiv.,  4. 
Delicto  dolere,  correctionc  gaudere  nos  oportet,  Cic. 

[6  453.]  Note  1. — We  must  here  mention,  also,  the  ablat.  tnWute, 'joined 
witn  the  defective  adjective  macte  and  mac/i,  which,  either  with  the  im- 
perative of  etM  (esto,  este,  estote)^  or  without  it,  is  used  as  an  ezciamation 
of  encouragement  or  approbation. 

The  use  of  the  accusative  vicem  (with  a  genitive  or  possessive  pronoun), 
instead  of  the  ablative  vice  (in  accordance  with  the  nbove  rule)  in  con< 
nezion  with  intransitive  verbs  and  adjectives  denoting  feelings,  especially 
those  of  care^  grief,  and  sorrow,  is  a  peculiaritv  which  does  not  occui 
when  vicem  is  used  in  its  ordinary  sense  of  "  change**  or  "  turn**  (as  in 
Phaedr.,  v.,  1,  6,  tadte  gementea  trietem  fortunae  vicetf^,  but  only  when  it  is 
equivalent  to  the  English  "for;"  e.  g.,  Liv.,  ii.,  31,  apparvit  cau$a  plebt^ 
suam  vicem  indi^nantem  magietratu  abisse ;  i.  e.,  that  for  their  sake  he  had 
indignantly  resigned  his  office ;  x^iv.,  32,  Renuuhmu  hoc  HU,  ne  nostram 
mcem  hraecaria,  that  you  may  not  be  angry  on  our  account ;  zl.,  23,  Smpli- 
citatem  juvenia  incauH  asaentando  indigrumdocite  et  ipae  vicem  ejita  captabat^  by 
showing  indignation  on  his  account.  In  like  manner,  we  must  explain 
Cic,  ad  Fam.f  xii.,  23,  Tuam  vicem  saepe  doleo^  quod  nvUam partem  vet  aeUk 
tern  aanae  et  aalvae  rei  publicae  gvatare  potuieti,  and  in  Verr.,  i.,  44,  si  alienam 
vicem  pro  nostra  injuria  doleremus,  if  we  grieved  for  other  pedple,  as  though 
«  wrong  had  been  done  to  ourselves.  Henco  we  shoiiM  rp.id.  wfth  Bent 
««]r.  in  Hot iiCe,  Epod.f  xvii.,  42,  infands  Helenac  Castor  ofvnatis  ticem   ('as 


ABLATIVE   CASC.  819 

« 

lor  ofleEded  on  account  of  his  iil-fomed^dster.*  where  B&atlef  quotes  the 
following  instances  of  this  use  of  vicem  with  aqjectives,  Liv. :  rM.^  35,  tuam 
mcem  magis  ananoty  quam  ^piit  cui  auxiUum  ab  m  pet^atur  ;  zxviii,  43,  ui 
MeoM  quoqui,  non  $mtm  ret  pMicae  et  §aoercUuM  \ncam  vidaretw  9oUicUu$  ; 
Curt.,  vii.,  6.  mae$tu»  non  9uaim.  vicem,  eed  propter  ipevm  pericUtantium  fra' 
trum,  not  sad  on  his  own  account,  but  (m  account  of  his  orothers  who  ran 
into  danger  fcT  his  sake.  The  ablative  in  this  sense  occurs  only  in  lat» 
writers ;  e.  g.,  QuintiL,  vi.,  2, 36,  and  zi,  1,  42.  But  it  is  difficult  to  Oe 
cide  whether  the  accusative  vkem  may  be  used  also  in  the  sense  of  '*  like, ' 
nore  mtddfue,  instead  of  vtce,  as  it  commonly  read  in  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  z.,  8 
Sardanapati  mcem  in  im  UOulo  mori,  or  whether  we  should  correct  vicem 
into  tdff,  as  in  Tacitus^  Ann,,  vi,  21,  quae  diserat  oracuU  vice  acdpien*. 
The  difficult  passage  in  Horace,  Ej»di,  t.,  87,  Venena  magnum  fas  ne- 
fasque  non  valent  eonvertere  humanam  vicem,  must  undoubtedly  be  explained 
m  the  same  manner,  whether  we  retain  the  accusative  or  read  kumana 
vice ;  the  meaning  is,  "  Poison  cannot  upset  the  eternal  laws  like  things 
human." 

[^  454.]  Note  2. — ^With  transitive  verbs,  also,  the  cause  or  the  thing  in 
consequence  of  which  anything  is  done  is  expressed  by  the  ablative,  but 
this  is  the  regular  practice  only  with  substantives  ending  in  the  ablat  in  u 
(^  90),  which  have  no  other  cases ;  e.  g.,  jussu,  rogatu,  admomtu  tuo  veni, 
fecir  miei  or  miasue  nan.  With  other  substantives  it  is  more  rare ;  e.  g., 
Cic,  s.  Rose.  Am,,  32,  vt  omnee  tntelUgant  me  non  etudio  accueare,  eed  officio 
defendere  ;  de  Fin.,  ii,  26,  n  frvctihue  et  emolumentii  et  uttUtatUme  amicitiae 
colemue  ;  de  Off.,  L,  9,  Svmt  etumt,  qui  out  studio  reifamHiaris  tuendae  out  odio 
quodam  hominum  suum  *e  n^efium  ogere  dieani ;  Sallust,  Cat.,  23,  ino^  mi' 
nus  largiri  ptOerat ;  Cic.,  Jhvin,  in  Caec.,  3,  judiciorumdesiderio  tribumciapo' 
testes  eMagiiata  ^est,  judidorum  levitate  ordo  alius  poshUatur,  &c. ;  de  Ju^., 
iii.,  7,  Regale  ciuitatis  genus  non  tarn  regni,  qurnn  r^is  vitOs  repudiatum  est 
The  preposition  Drop<er,  or  a  circumlocution  with  causa,  however,  is  gener* 
ally  used  insteaa  ot  the  ablative ;  e.  g.,  instead  of  joco  dicere,  joco  Tnentiri, 
we  find  jod  causa;  hoe  onus  suscepi  tua  causa  ;  honoris  tui  causa, propter €tmr 
icitiam  nostram.  When  tt^  cause  is  a  state  of  feeling,  the  best  Latin  wri- 
ters prefer  a  circumlocution  with  the  perfect  participle  of  some  verb  de- 
noting  **  to  induce  ;**  e.  g.,  to  do  a  thing  from  some  desire,  etqridiiate  due 
tus,  inductus,  incitatus,  incensus,  inflammatus,  impulsus,*'motus,  captms,  &c. 
Livy  is  fond  of  using  the  preposition  ab  in  this  sense ;  as,  a6  ira,  a  spe,  oA 
odio,  from  anger,  hope,  hatred.    See  ^  305,  and  Hand,  TurselUn.,  i.,  p.  33. 

[§  455.]  3.  An  ablative  is  joined  with  verbs  of  every 
kind  to  express  the  means  or  instrument  by  v^hich  a  thing 
\a  done  {ahlativus  instrumejUt).  Thus  we  say  manu  diicere 
oliquem,  to  lead  a  person  by  the  hand ;  equo^  currUf  nave 
vehi,  the  horse,  carriage,  and  ships  being  the  means  of 
moving. 

BenivolerUiam  civium  hlafulitiis  colligere  turpe  est,  Cic. 
Comihus  tauri,  apri  dentibus,  morsu  leaner,  aliaefaga  se, 

aliae  occtdtatione  tutantur,  Cic,  De  Nat,  Deor,^  ii.,  50. 
Naturam  expelUis  furca^  tamen  ufque  recurret,  Herat.} 

Epist.,  i.,  10,  24. 
Male  quaeritur  Jierbis  ;  moribtis  et  forma  conciliandus  amof , 

Ovid,  Heroid.,  vi.,  93. 

♦  ^Compare  the  remarks  of  Orelli,  ad  he.  So  in  Greek,  *Av^p  d*  /Jrof 
id?'  yra  Ovfiijdeiv  6oKy  /car*  oIkov  y  fteov  fiolpav  ij  avdpioirov  x^^"^  ^^^ 
,6'     9tud.,  Amorg    7   103,  ed.  Schnridew)]—.\m.  Ed. 


^0  LATIN    GRAMMAR 

N^lt.—  When  a  K:.an  is  the  mstrament  by  which  ar.fvhing  is  eflectM^ 
the  ablative  is  rarely  used,  but  generally  the*  preposition  j>er,*  or  the  cir 
cumlocutioA  with  opera  ^lUamUi  which  is  so'  frequent,  em>ecially  with  po» 
tessive  pronouns,  tnat  f?tea,  fua,  nuit  &c.,  opera  ure  exactly  the  saBie  aa  pet 
mtf  per  te,  per  se,  &c.,  and  are  used  to  denote  both  good  and  bad  servicee ; 
e.  g.,  Cic,  Cat.  Maj.j  4,  mea  opera  Tarenitan  recepieti;  Nep.,  JLys.j  1,  Xjf- 
eander  aie  eibi  induUitf  tU  ejus  opera  in  maximum,  odium  Chraedae  Laeedme- 
monii  pervenerint ;  that  is,  ejus  €ndpat  through  his  faulL  Benefieio  is  uaed 
in  the  more  limited  sense  of  good  results ;  as,  benefido  tuo  ealvus,  ineoluma 
mm,  where  it  is  the  same  as  per  te.  Per  is  sometimes  used  to  ef^press  a 
fneanSf  but  onl^  when  we  are  speaking  of  extenfal  concurringr  circura 
stances,  rather  than  of  that  which  is  really  done  to  attain  a  certsdn  ebject. 
We  id  ways  say,  e.  g.,  vi  oppidum  cepitt  but  per  vim  ei  bona  enpuit..  Sec 
%  301.  The  material  instrument  is  always  expressed  by  the  ablative  alone, 
and  never  with  a  preposition,  such  as  cvm, ;  hence  conjicert  cervum  »agiuis, 
gladio  aUquem  vulnerare  ;  compare  ^  473* 

[§  456.]  4.  Hence  with  verbs  of  buying  SLudselh-tg^  of 
estimation,  value^  and  the  like  (§  444),  die  price  or  value 
of  a  thing  is  expressed  by  the  ablative,  provided  ir  is  in- 
dicated by  a  definite  sum  or  a  substantive*  (Respecting 
the  genitive  in  general  expressions^  see  §  444,  where  it  is 
observed  that,  contrary  to  the  general  rule,  the  ablatives 
niagno,  permdgno,  pliirimo,  parvo^  minimo^  are  commonly 
joined  to  verbs  denoting  **  to  buy"  and  "  sell.**) 

Sgo  spem  pretio  non  emo,  Terent.,  Adelpk,^  ii.,  2,  11. 

Si  quia  aurum  vendens  putet  se  orichalcum  vendere^  indt- 

cahitne  ei  vir  honua  aurum  illud  esse,  an  emet  denario^ 

quod  sit  mUle  denarium  ?  Cic,  De  Offly  m,,  23. 
Viginti  talentis  unam  orationem  Isocrates  vendidit,  Plin., 

Hist  Nat,  vii.,  31. 
Denis  in  diem  assihus  anima  et  corpus  (militum)  aestimai^ 

tury  Tacit.,  Ann,,  i.,  17. 

Quod  non  opus  est,  asse  carum  est,  Senec,  JSpist,  94. 

Note. — To  the  verbs  of  buying  and  selling  we  must  add  many  others 
which  express  an  act  or  an  enjoyment,  for  which  a  certain  price  is  paid ; 
e.  g.,  lavor  quadrante^  halnto  triginta  milibus  HSj  doceo  tedentOf  parvo  aert 
mereo.  Ease  in  the  sense  of  *'  to  be  worth''  is  therefore  joinea  with  the 
ablative  of  the  definite  price  ;  e.  g.,  Modius  frumenti  in  Sicilia  binia  setter- 
tiis,  ad  eummum  temie  erat ;  sextante  sal  in  Italia  erat.  We  make  this  Ob- 
servation chiefly  to  direct  attention  to  the  difference  between  this  ablative 
and  the  genitive  of  quality  which  occurs  in  the  passage  of  Cicero  quoted 
above.  JEst  mUle  denarium  there  means,  it  is  a  thing  of  one  thdusand  de 
narii  (in  value),  and  may  be  bought  for  that  sum. 

•  Mutare  and  its  compounfls,  comrmUate  and pemmtare,  are  commonly  con- 
strued in  the  same  way  as  the  verbs  of  selhng ;  e.  g.^Jidem  stum,  et  religi- 
onempecunid,  studxum  belli  gerendi  agricidturdfpeUittm  tegmina  vestibuSf  monu* 
ae  sUvas  vrlnbust  and  in  Virg.,  Q  iorg.f  i.,  8,  Chcumiam  glandem pingvi  vutto* 
vit  caisUit  alluding  to  the  first  husbandman,  who  exchanged  com  foi 
acorns.  But  prose  writers  as  veil  as  poets  reverse  the  expression,  by 
putting  that  which  we  receive  in  the  accusal.,  and  that  which  we  give  fen 

^i^i»*.^—      I  ■^— — — — ^.^^n^— ^^  ■    i  .    ^      II  ■■  ■■     ■  I  .^iM^W^—^^^—  mt  III  nil        ■  I  — ^M^^^— ^^^— ^M^^il^^l^i^.— i^l^MI^ 

♦  [v  oinparo  Hand^  Tursell.^  i.,  p.  31  ;  Reisig,  Vorles.^  p.  704.]— ^m.  EJ 


A8LATIVB    CASE.  321 

it  in.  the  ablat.,  either  alone  or  with  the  preposition  cum ;  e.  ».,  Horat^ 
Carm.f  iii.,  1,  47,  cur  voile  permutem  Sabina  dtvitias  operostores^  why  should 
I  exchange  my  Sabine  vaUey  for  more  wearisome  nches  ?  Epod.,  ix.,  27, 
Tena  marique  victu8  hoatia  Pttnico  Ittgubre  mtUavU  aagtan ;  Curt.,  iii,  1*», 
gariUum  patria  aede  mutaverat ;  Ovid,  Met.j  vii.,  60,  Qiwnque  ego  cum  rehu, 
quaa  totua  jtoaaidet  orbiaj  Aeaorndf^m  mutaaae  veUm  ;  Curt.,  iv.,  4,  HaUktua  hie 
cum  iato  aqualore  permtUandua  tibi  eat ;  Sulpicins  in  Clc,  ad  Fam.^  iv.,  5, 
hiaca  temporibua  nonpeaaime  cumiia  eaae  acfwit,  quihua  aine'dolore  Ucitum  eat 
mertim  cum  vita  commutare.  Livy,  too,  uses  both  constructions,  but  the 
ablatiTO  alone  is  better  attested.    See  Drakenborch  on  v.,  20. 

[§  457.]  5.  The  ablative  is  joined  with  nouns  (both 
suostantive  and  adjective)  and  verbs  to  express  a  partic- 
ular circumstance  or  limifation,  where  in  English  tne  ex- 
pressions "with  regard  to/'  "as  to,"  or  "in"  are  used; 
e.  g..  Nemo  Romanorum  Ciceroni  par  Juit,  or  Ciceronetn 
aequavit  eloquentiaf  in  eloquence,  or  with  regard  to  elo- 
q^epce.  Hence  a  great  number  of  expressions  by  which 
a  statement  is  modified  or  lingjted  ;  as,  med  sententid,  mea 
opinione,  meojudicio,  frequently  with  the  addition  of  qui 
dem;  natione  Syrtis,  a  Syrian  by  birth;  gencre facile pri 
mus  ;  HamUcar  cognomine  Barcas,  Sec, 

Agesilaus  claudusfuit  (claudicabat)  altero  pede,  Nepos 
Sunt  quidam  homines^  nan  re,  sed  nomine^  Cicero. 

[^  458.]  Note  l.~The  Latin  poets,  and  those  prose  writers  who  are  fond 
of  poetical  expressions,  sometime^  use  the  accusative  instead  of  this  ab- 
lative, in  imitation  of  the  Greeks ;  hence  the  accusative  is  termed  accuaa- 
tivua  Graecua.  It  occurs  most  fr^uently  with  passive  verbs,  especially 
with  perfect  participles,  to  determine  the  part  of  the  body  to  which  a 
statement  applies  or  is  limited ;  e.  g.,  vite  caput  tegitur,  he  is  covered  Tor 
covers  himself)  with  a  vine  branch,  but  the  covering  is  limited  to  toe 
head:  **his  head  is  covered  with,"  &c.;  ihemJ(fra  aub  arbuto  atratua,  lying 
with  his  limbs  stretched  out ;  redimitua  tempera  lauro,  his  temples  sur- 
rounded with  a  laurel  wreath ;  rntbe  candentea  humtros  amietua ;  kumeroa 
iUeo  perfuaua :  mUeafradua  membra  labore.  Such  expressions  are  pleasing, 
especially  when  an  ablative  is  joined,  to  the  participle ;  as  in  livy,  xxi,  7, 
adveraum  femur  tragula  graviter  ictua  ;  Sueton.,  Oc/av.,» 20,  dexterum  genu 
lapide  ictua ;  Ovid,  Met.,  xii,  269,  Chryneua  endtur  octUoa,  appears  rather 
harsher  Gryneo  eruuniw  oculi.  This  use  of  the  accusative  may  be  com« 
pared  with  that  explsdned  in  ^  393,  edoctua  artea  and  irUerrogatua  aenteatiam ; 
tor  an  active  verb  may  be  joined  with  a  twofold  accusative,  either  of  the 
person  or  of  a  part  of  the  person ;  as,  redimio  te  vietorem^  or  redimio  tempora, 
erinta  ;  sjod  when  such  a  sentence  takes  the  passive  form,  the  accusative 
of  the  person  becomes  the  nominaUve,  but  that  of  the  part  remains. 
(Comp.  Buttmann's  Greek  Grammar,  ^131.) 

But  the  poets  go  still  farther,  and  use  this  accusative  of  the  part  alsa 
with  neuter  ve^bs  and  adjectives ;  e.  g.,  Virg.,  Oeorg.,  iii.,  84,  tremit  artua , 
Aen.f  i.,  589,  oa  humeroaque  deo  aifnilia:  Tacit.,  Oerm.y  17 ffeminae  Oerma 
norum  nudae  brachia  et  lacertoat  and  in  t^xe  same  writer  we  find  clari  genua, 
for  the  usual  clari  genercy  where  ^enua  ^  not  an  accusative  of  the  part,  but 
is  completely  a  Greek  construction. 

The  accusative  expressing  the  articles  of  dross,  used  m  poetical  language 
with  the  passive  verbs  induor^  amicior,  cingor^  accingor^  exuar^  diacingor^ 
18  of  a  different  kind;  but  it  may  be  competed  to  the  accusative  of  the 
part.    The  active  admits  two  constmctions  :  tnduo  me  vintte  and  induo  miht 


822  LATIN   GRAMMAft. 

mttem  (flM  above,  ^  418),  and  in  the  passive  the  two  construdiont  are  coi.^ 
bincd  into  one ;  and  int  tead  of  saying  induor  vested  the  poets  and  il  ose  who 
imitate  them  say  induor  vesi'em.  Instances  of  this  occur  in  all  the  poeta, 
but  they  are  extremely  frequent  in  Ovid ;  e.  g.,  protmua  indvitur  faaem 
euUumque  Dianae  ;  indmturque  awes  Unte  gradientit  aseUi  ;  Virg.,  Axh.,  ii., 
MO,  imUilefeman  cmgitur.  To  this  accusative  the  Latin  ablative  is  some* 
times  added,  to  denc^  the  part  of  the  body  which  is  dressed  or  ador;ted, 
e.  g.,  Ovid,  Afet.,  vii,  161,  inductaque  cortubus  {ntmm  Victima  vota  cadit,  and 
z.,  271,  pandia  inductae  eomibtu  aurum  juvencae.  The  accusative  in  Horace^ 
Semuj  i.,  6,  7if  pueri  laevo  nupenti  loculot  tabulamque  lacertOy  is  curious,  but 
aiupeim  is  here  used  accordmg  to  tlie  analogy  of  accinctij  like  the  Greek 
i^npTtj/iivoi  T^v  rrlvaKa.  . 

[^  459.]  Nate  2. — Something  of  this  Greek  construction  was  adopted  by 
the  Romans  even  in  their  ordinary  laa^uage,  and  there  are  some  cases 
wheie  the  accusative  is  used  in  prose  mstead  of  the  ablative.  Magnam 
and  maximam  partem  are  thus  used  adverbially  fox  fere  or  magna  {maxima) 
ex  parte  ;  e.  g.,  Uic,  Orat,,  56,  moMnam  partem  ex  iambie  nostra  constat  oratio, 
consists  to  a  great  extent  of  iambics ;  de  Off.^  i,  7,  maximam  partem  ad  in- 
juriamfaciendamaggredkmiurfUtaiSlipttcantMrea,q  (Comp. 

partim,  ^  271.)  In  the  same  manner,  cetera  and  reiiqua  are  joined  to  adjec- 
tives in  the  sen^e  of  ceteris  ;  i.  e.,  "  for  the  rest,"  or  "  in  other  respects  ;*• 
e.  g.,  Liv.,  i,  32,  Proximum  regnum,  cetera  egregium,  ab  una  parte  hmtd  satU 
,  prosperwn  Jwtf  and  in  many  oth/^  passages,  cetera  eimiUs,  cetera  laehu, 
^Vetera  bonus.  Farther,  id  temporia  or  id  {hoe^  idem)  aetatis,  for  eo  tempore^  ea 
metate ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  i.,  50,  purgavit  sef^uod  id  temporis  venisset ;  x\.,  9,  Quid 
hoc  noctia  vents  ?  Cic,  p,  Cluent.,  51 ,  non  potuit  honeate  scribere  in  balneis  se 
cum  id  aetatis  fiUq  fuisse  ;  Tacit.,  Ann,,  xiii.,  16,  cum  ceteris  idem  aetatis  no- 
bilibus ;  i  e.,  cum  ceteris  ejusdem  aetatii-  nobUibus.  On  the  same  principla 
Tacitus,  Ann.j  xii.,  18,  says,  Romanorwfi  nemo  id  auctoritatis  aderat,  for  ea 
.fuctoritate, 

^',  [§  460,]  6.  The  ablative  \i  used  with  verbs  denoting 
flenty  or  want,  aad  with  the  correi^ondiQg  transitives  of 
fiiUng,  endowing,'  depriving,  (Abtativu^  copiae  aut  ino- 
p^ae,J  Verbs  of  this  kind  are  :  1*  ahundare,  redundare, 
a^uere,  circumflttere,  scatere,  florere^  pollere,  valere^  vigere 
(in  the  figurative  ^nse  of  **  being  rieh  or  strong  in  any- 
thing'*) ;  carere,  egere,  indigere,  vacare  ;  2.  complere^  ea> 
f^lere,  implere,  opphre,  cumtdare^  refercirej  ohruere^  im- 
uere,  satiare,  exatid^e,  saturare,  stipare,  constipare  /  (if- 
'ficere,  donare,  refdunerari^  lacupleiarey,  amare^  (mgere; 
privarel,  spoliare^  orhare,  fraudare^  d^raudwre,  mudare, 
exuere,  and  many  others  of  a  similar  meaning,  The  ad- 
jective  prcteditui  .Xxlke%  the  place  of  a  perfect  participle 
(in  the  sense  of  "  endowe^'*)^  and  is  likewise  jomed  with 
an  ablative.  ; 

Germania  rivisjluminibus^tie  abundat,  Seneca. 

Quam  Diantfsio  erat  miserum,  carere  ^consueiudine  amico- 

rum,  sodetate  victus,  sermone  omnino  familiari  !   Cic, 

2We.,  v.,  22.  [ 

Arcesiku  pkilosophus  quwm  acumine  ingenii  floruit,  turn 

admirabUi  quodam  lepo'te  dicendi  Cic,  Acad.^  iv.,  6. 


ABLATIVE    CASE.  ^1^ 

CmMilio  et  auctoritate  non  modo  non  orhari,  sed  eham  oi^ 

geri  senectus  solet,  Cic,  Cat.  Maj,,  6. 
M^s  est  praedita  motu  sempitemo,  Cic,  !ZWc.,  i.,  27, 

[^461.]  Note  1. — Afficere  properly  signifies  to  "endow  with,"  but  it  if 
uued  in  a  great  many  expressions,  and  may  sometimes  be  translated  by 
"to  do  something  to  a  person ;"  afficere  aliquem  honored  ben^icio,  laetttiOf 
praemioj  ignominia,  iruuria^  poenOf  morte^  sepuUura.  Remunerari  (the  simple 
munerare  ot  muneran  is  not  often  used),  properly  **  to  make  a  present  in 
letam/'  hence  "  to  remunerate.'*  Respecting  the  diflerent  construction 
of  the  verbs  donare^  exuere,  and  others  with  the  accusative  of  the  thing 
and  the  dative  of  the  person,  see  ^418. 

[^  462.}  Note  2. — The  adjectives  denoting /iJ<  and  empty  are  sometimes 
lomed  with  the  ablative,  although  as  adjectiva  releuiva  they  take  a  genitive 
(see  ^  436).  RefertuSf  filled,  as  a  participle  of  the  veii>  refercio,  has  regu- 
larly the  ablative,  and  it  is  only  by  way  of  exception  that,  accofding  to  the 
analogy  of  plenus,  it  takes  the  genitive;  e.  g.,  Cic,  p.  Font.,  1,  referta  GaUia 
negoiiatorum  est,  plena  civium  Romanorum.  Orbus,  destitute ;  creber  and  den- 
SU8  in  the  sense  of  "  thickly  covered  with,"  are  found  only  with  the  ablat. 
Vacuus,  libcTy  immunis,  and  purus  are  joined  with  the  ablative  or  the  prep- 
osition ab.    See  ^  468. 

[^  463.]  Note  3. — A  genitive  is  sometimes  joined  with  egeoj  and  frequent- 
ly with  indigeo  ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  hoc  bellvm  tndiget  celeritatis  ;  and  following  the 
analogy  ofplenus,  the  verbs  complere  and  implere  are  joined  with  a  genitive 
not  only  by  the  poets,  but  by  good  prose  writers;  e.  g.,  Cic, in  Verr,, ^.,57, 
qtaan  complehu  jam  mercatorum  career  esset ;  Cat.  Maj.,  14,  convimim,  •icino' 
ntm  quottdie  compUo  ;  dd  Fam.,  ix.,  18,  oUam  denariorum  implere,  and  in  Livy, 
tpei  animorumque  implere,  temeritatia  implere. 

It  is  obvious  that  with  many  of  these  verbs  the  ablative  may  justly  be 
regarded  as  an  ablatimu  instrumenti.  The  verbs  valere,  in  the  sense  of  "be- 
ing health]r  or  well,"  takes  the  ablative  of  the  part ;  as,  corpore,  pedibtu, 
stomacho  ;  in  the  sense  of  "  being  strong,"  the  ablat  joined  to  itls  gener 
ally  an  Mat,  instrumenti  ;  e.  g.,  vo/eo  auctoritate,  gratia,  pecunia,  armis  ;  but 
injnany  cases  it  may  be  regarded  also  as  an  ablative  of  plenty,  as  in  va- 
lere  eloquentia,  equitatu  valere, 

[§  464.]  7.  Opus  est,  there  is  need,  is  used  either  as  an 
imperscmal  verb,  in, which  case  it  takes,  like  the  Verbs  de- 
QOting  want,  an  ablative ;  e.  g.,  dtice  (exemplis)  nobis  optis 
est^  or  personally,  in  which  case  the  thing  needed  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  nominative  (just  as  aliquid  mihi  necessari' 
um  est  J  ;  e.  g.,  dux  nobis  optis  est,  exempla  nobis  opus  sunt. 
The  latter  eonstraction  is  most  frequent  with  the  neuters 
cf  pronoims  and  adjectives. 

Athenienses  PhUippidem  cursarem  Lacedaemanem  miserunt^ 
ut  nuntiaret,  quam  celeri  opus  esse$  auxilioy  Nep.,  MUL,  4. 

Themtstocles  celeriter  quae  opus  erant  reperiebat^  Nep.« 
Tkem.y  1. 

Note  1. — The  genitive  oi  the  thing  needed  in  Livy,  xxii.,  51,  temporis 
flttia  esse,  and  xxiii»  21,  qwmti  argenti  opusfuit,  is  doubtful.  But  when  the 
tning  cannot  be  expressed  by  a  substantive,  we  find  either  the  accusative 
with  the  infinitive,  or  the  infinitive  alone,  the  preceding  subject  being  un* 
derstood ;  e.  g.,  si  quid  erit,  qued  te  scire  opus  sit,  scribam,  or  ^tad  opus  est 
^am  voids  affi^mare,  scil.  te :  or  the  ablat.  of  the  perfect  partici[ile  is  ua.^ii 


824  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

With  or  without  i:  tubstantive  ;*  e.  g.,  Taeiio  fimm  opuf  eti;  damoMi  Llq^ 
Mofurato  opux  ft,  quidquid  atatuere  ^^acet ;  Cic,  ad  Att.,  z.,  4,  ted  opu»Jm$ 
Hirtio  convento  ,  Liv.,  vii.,  5,  opus  «t6t  ease  domino  ejus  eonverUo.  The  ablat 
of  the  supine  (in  u)  is  less  frequent.  Priuaquam  tnopuw,  cnnatdto,  et,  lii 
oonauitieria,  mature  facto  opua  eat,  Sallnst,  Cat.^  1. 

Note  2.—  Uaua  est^  in  the  sense  of  opua  est,  is  likewise  used  impersonal- 
ly, as  in  Livy,  ut  reduceret  navea,  qvibua  conauU  uaua  non  eaaet,  of  which  th€ 
consul  was  not  in  want. 

[§  465.]  8.  The  ablative  is  joined  with  the  deponent 
verbs  utor^fnwr^fungory  potior^  and  vescor^  and  their  com- 
pounds abator,  perfruorj  defungor,  and  perfungor. 
Hannibal  quum  victoria  posset  uti^fmi  rnahdty  Floras. 
Qui  adipisci  veram  gloriam  volet,  jtistitiaejungatur  offictis^ 

Cic,  de  Off.,  ii.,  13. 
Numidae  plerumque  lacte  etferina  came  vescebantur,  Sal- 
lust,  Jug..,  89. 

[^  46G.]  Note. — In  early  Latin  these  verbs  were  frequently  joined  with 
the  accusative,  but  in  the  best  period  of  the  language  it  seldom  occurs, 
and  only  in  less  correct  writers.f  (In  Nepos,  Datam,,  I,  miUtare  mmua 
fytngena  is  well  established,  but  Eumeiu,  3,  aummam  imperii  potiri  is  doubt- 
ful, and  so  are  the  passages  quoted  from  Cicero  with  the  accusat.  See 
my  note  on  de  Of.,  u.,  23.)  This,  howeyer,  is  the  reason  why  eveb  class- 
ical writers  use  the  construction  with  the  participle  future  passive,  where 
otherwise  the  gerund  only  could  have  been  used.  (See  {  657.)  Potior 
occurs  (in  classical  writers)  also  with  the  genitive ;  e.  g.,  regni,  imperii^ 
but  more  especially  in  the  phrase  rerum  potiri,  to  assume  the  supremac^r. 
Apiacor  and  adipiacor  are  used  by  Tacitus  in  the  same  sense  with  a  geni- 
tive (rerjan,  domnationia),  and  Horace  goes  so  far  as  to  join  regnare  (which 
is  otherwise  an  intransitive  verb)  vnth  a  genitive,  Carm.,  iii,  30, 12,  agrea- 
tium  populontm.  Utor  often  signifies  "  I  have,"  especially  when  the  object 
(the  ablat.)  is  accompanied  bv  another  noun  (substant.  or  adject.)  in  appo 
sition ;  e.  g.,  utor  te  amico,  I  have  you  as  a  friend ;  Nep.,  Hating  SoaiU 
Lacedaemonio  Utterarum  Oraecarum  uaua  eat  doctore  ;  Cic,  vide  quam  me  ai» 
uaurua  aequo,  how  fair  I  shall  be  towards  thee. 

[§  467.]  9.  The  adjectives  dignus^indigntis,  and  conten- 
tus  are  joined  with  die  ablative  of  the  thing  of  which  we 
are  worthy,  unworthy,  and  with  which  we  are  satisfied. 
Dignari,  to  be  deemed  worthy,  or,  as  a  deponent,  to  deem 
worthy,  is  construed  like  dignus. 

Si  vere  aestimare  Macedonas,  qui  tuncjuerunt,  volumus^ 
fatebvmur,  et  regem  talihus  ministris,  et  illos  tanto  regt 
Juisse  digndssimos.  Curt.,  iv.,  in  fin. 

ajjuum  midti  luce  indigni  sunt,  et  tamen  dies  oritur/   Senec. 

Note. — Dignari  is  used  by  Cicero  only  as  the  passive  of  the  obsolete  ac 
tive  dignare,  and  that  not  only  in  the  participle,  but  in  the  various  tenses. 
The  writers  of  the  silver  age  use  it  as  a  deponent ;  e.  g.,  Sueton.,  Fe«pa*., 
2,  gratiaa  egit  ei,  quod  ae  honore  coenae  dignatua  eaaet,  that  bo  liad  thought  bin 
worthy.    When  joined  with  an  infinitive,  dignor  with  those  writers  signi- 

•  [Consult  Reiaig,  Vorlea.,  p.  704.]— Am.  Ed. 

t  [Consalt  SaneL  Minerv.,  iil,  S.-^Ruddiman,  iL,  p.  196.— /Jmm  %d  H0»9^ 
Vorlea.,  p.  681.}~Afii.  Ed. 


ABLATIVE  CASE.  825 

lies  "  I  think  proper  to  do  a  thing."  IHgmta,  m  poetry  aiui  nnclasaica. 
proee  writers,  is  sometimes  joined  with  a  genitite^  .iice  the  Greek  a^to^. 
When  it  is  followed  by  a  verb,  the  La  .in  language  generally  requires  a 
distinct  sentence  beginning  with  a  relative  pronoun,  the  verb  being  put  in 
the  subjunctive ;  sometimes,  however,  the  infinitive  is  used,  as  in  English. 
(See  %  566.)  Contenhu  is  likewise  joined  with  the  infinitive  of  a  verb  (See 
\  SOa.)  The  ablat.  with  this  adjective  arises  from  the  meaning  of  the  verb 
tfpntmm,  of  which  it  is,  properly  speaking,  the  participle  passive ;  henc« 
in  a  reflective  sense  it  signifies  **  confining  one's  self  to,"  or  '*  satisfying 
one's  self  with  a  thing."  • 

[§  468.1  10.  The  verbs  of  removing^  preventing,  deliV' 
ering^  ana  others  which  denote  separation,  are  construed 
with  the  ablative  of  the  thing,  without  any  of  the  prepo- 
sitions ah^  de,  or  ex  ;  but  when  separation  from  aperson  is 
expressed  the  preposition  ab  is  always  used.  The  prin- 
cipal verbs  of  this  class  are :  arcere,  pellere,  depellere,  ex- 
peUere^  deturhare^  dejicere,  ejicere,  absterrere,  deterrere^  mo- 
verey  amovere,  demovere^  removere^  prohibere^  exdudere  ; 
abire,  exire,  cedere^  decedere,  discedere,  desutcre,  evadere,  ab 
itinere;  liberare,  expedite,  Icucare^  solvere,  together  with  the 
adjectives  liber,  immunis,  purusy  vactms,  and  aZtent^,  which 
maybe  used  either  with  the  preposition  ab  or  the  ablative 
alone ;  e.  g.,  liber  a  ddictis  and  liber  omni  metu,  hut,  the 
verbs  exolvere,  eoumerare,  and  levare,  although  implying  lib- 
eration,  are  always  construed  with  the  ablative  alone. 

The  verbs  which  denote  "  to  distmguish "  and  **  to  differ,**  viz.,  disUn 
guere,  discemare,  teumere^  differrtj  discrepare^  diasidere^  dUtare^  abhinrere, 
together  with  aUenare  and  abaUenare^  are  generally  joined  only  with  the 
preposition  ab,  and  the  ablative  alone  is  rare  ana  poetical ;  e.  g.,  Tacit., 
^Ann.,  i,  55,  neque  ipse  abhorrebeU  taUbus  atudiis  ;  Ovid,  Met.y  iii.,  145,  sol  ear 
aequo  metd  distabat  utraque.  The  verbs  denoting  **  to  differ"  are  construed 
also  with  the  dative,  and  not  only  in  poetry,  but  some^mes  even  in  prose; 
e.  g.,  Herat.,  Epist.,  i,,  18,  4,  dUtat  infido  scurrae  amicus;  ibid.,  ii.,  2, 193. 
sitniUat  kUarisque  nepoti  discrejMt;  Quintil.,  xii.,  10,  Cfnucis  Tuscanicae 
sUOuae  differunt.  The  same  principle  is  followed  by  the  adjective  diversus ; 
as  in  Qumtil.,  /.  c,  Nihil  tarn  est  jjysiae  diversum  quamlsocrates ;  Horat.. 
Serm.f  i.,  4,  48,  (Comoedia)  nisi  quodpede  certo  Differt  sermonii  sermo  menu 

It.  Brutus  civitatem   dominatu  regio  liberavit,  Cic,  p. 

Plane,  25. 
Te  a  quartana  liberatum  gaudeo,  Cic,  ad  Att.,  x.,  15. 
Esse  pro  cive,  qui  civis  non  sit,  rectum  est  nan  licere,  wsn 

vero  urbis  prohibere  peregrinos  sane  inhumanum   est, 

Cic,  de  Off.,  iii.,  11.  • 

Apud  veteres  Germanos  quemcunque  mortalium  arcere  tecto 

nefas  habebatur,  Tacit,  Germ,,  21. 
Tu,  Juppiter,  htmc  a  tuis  aris,  a  tectis  urbis,  a  mocnibus,  a 

vitajhrtunisque  civium  arcebis,  Ci(i ,  in  Cat,,  i.,  in  fin. 

£^  469.]  Note  1.— The  veib  separare  itself  is  commonly  construed  witV 
t^rbot  the  ablative  a*one  is  also  admissil/le ;  e.  g.,  Ovid,  TVwf.,  i.»  IIX  29 

E  E 


8U6  LAl'IN   GBAMMAB. 

999ton  Ahydena  aeparmi  urbt/rttum.  Eoadin  it  ioitied  by  Cic«0  iritli  »• 
imd  abf  but  Lhry  and  Sallait  use  it  with  the  ablative  alone ;  it  may  ta4« 
the  accusative,  according  to  ^  386 ;  e.  g.,  evadere  amnemyfiammam^  huidimM, 
nlvoM,  but  this  occurs  only  in  the  silver  age.  Prohibere^  to  keep  at  a  dis- 
tance, prevent,  admits  of  a  double  construction ;  the  most  common  is  ta 
put  the  hostile  thing  or  person  in  the  accusative ;  as,  hoMtet  prohibere  popt^- 
intionibus  or  ah  opmdi*  ;  Cic,  p.  Leg.  Man.,  7,  a  i^  periado  prohibete  rem- 
publieam,  and  in  tne  same  chapter,  erit  hunumitatis  vesfr<u,  ntagnum  hormm 
etvttfm  numerwn  calamitatt  prohibere.  In  like  mmmer.  defendere  is  joined  will 
the  accusative  of  the  thing  to  be  warded  off,  or  ot  the  thing  or  person  to 
be  defended.  In  the  former  sense  defendere  is  commonly  used  with  the 
accusative  alone ;  as,  defendere  mtmos  ardores  aoUtt  but  ab  ali^uo  may  also 
be  added :  in  the  latter  sense  ab  is  very  frequently  joined  to  it ;  as,  a  peri- 
eulo,  a  VI,  a6  injuria.  After  the  analogy  of  prohibere^  the  verb  miermcert 
•Had  is  used  almost  more  frequently  with  Uie  ablative,  aU^  re,  than 
with  the  accusative  aliquid;  e.  g.,  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  i,  46,  Anwittus  omni 
OaUia  interdixit  Romanis;  Quintil.,  vi,  3, 79,  quod  ei  domo  eua  interdixiseet, 
and  hence  the  well-known  formula,  alicui  aqua  et  igni  interdicere.  See  the 
excellent  disquisition  of  Perizonius  on  Sanctius,  Minerv.,  p.  345,  foil,  ed. 
sexta;  compare  ^  418. 

The  dative,  with  verbs  denoting  "  to  differ,*'  is  attested  by  a  sufficient 
number  of  passages ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  what  was  the  po- 
lice with  the  verbs  denoting  **  to  distinguish,**  for  there  are  no  decisive 
passages.  Horace  says,  vero  distinguere  falnun,  turpi  eeeemere  hanetium, 
eecemere  privatis  vublica,  but  it  is  uncertain  whether  vero,  turpi,  and  privatis^ 
are  datives  or  ablatives.  The  poets  now  and  then  use  the  dative  instead 
of  a6  with  the  ablative,  with  verbs  denoting  separation ;  e.  g.,  Virg.,  Eclo^.^ 
vii,  47,  Mt^Btitium  peeori  defendite;  Oeorg.,  iii,  155,  oeatrum  ear€»^  gramda 
pecori ;  Horat.,  Carm.,  i.,  9,  17,  dimec  virenti  canities  obeM  ;  for  otherwise 
abesse  is  always  joined  with  ab.  (Compare,  however,  ^  420.)  Dissentire, 
dissidere,  and  diecrepare  are  consUued,  also,  with  cum,  and  d^tcordare  cum 
aliquo  is  more  frequent  than  ab  aliquo.  The  genitive,  which  is  sometimes 
ioinod  by  poets  to  verbs  of  separation,  is  entirely  Greek;  e.  g..  Plant, 
Kud,  i.,  4, 27,  me  omnium  jam  laborum  levae ;  HoraU,  Carm.,  ii.,  9, 17,  desine 
mMiumtandem querelarum ;  ibid., iii, 27, 69, abetineto irarum eaUdaeque rixaa , 
ibid.,  iii,  17,  in  fin.^  cumfamiulia  operum  eolutis;  Serm.,  ii,  3,  36,  morbi  put' 
^atuM ;  and,  according  to  this  analogy,  the  genitive  is  used,  also,  with  ad- 
jectives of  the  same  meaning ;  Horat.,  Serm.,  ii,  2, 119,  operum  vacuus ;  d§ 
Art,  Poet.,  212,  libtr  laborum  ;  Carm,,  i,  22,  purus  sceleris.  So  Tacitus, 
Annal.,  i.,  49,  uses  dioersus  with  the  genitive,  mstead  of  ab  aliqua  re, 

[^  470.]  Note  2.— The  adjective  alienus  (strange),  in  the  sense  of  "unfit** 
or  '*unsuited,'*  is  joined  either  with  the  ablative  alone  or  with  ab;  e.  g., 
Cic,  de  Off.f  i.,  13,  fraus  quasi  vulpeculae,  vis  leonis  videtur,  uirumque  homiru 
alienissimum  est ;  non  alienum  putant  dignitate,  majestate  sua,  institutis  suisj 
but  Cicero  just  as  often  uses  the  preposition  ab.  In  the  sense  of  **  dtsaf 
fected'*  or  "hostile**  alienus  always  takes  ab;  e.  g.,  homo  alienus  a  Uueria, 
animum  alienum  a  causa  nobilitatis  habere.  In  the  former  sense  of  "  unsuited,** 
being  the  opposite  of  proprius  (^  411),  it  may  also  be  joined  with  the  geni- 
tive ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  l.,  4,  quis  aUenum  putet  ejus  esse  digmtatis,  and  in 
the  latter  (after  the  analogy  oiinimicus)  with  the  dative ;  as,  Cic,  p.  Case, 
9,  id  dicit  quod  illi  causae  maxime  est  alienum.  Alius,  too,  is  sometimes  found 
with  the  ablative,  which  iflay  be  regarded  as  an  ablative  of  separation 
e.  g.,  Horat.,  EpUt.,  i,  16,  20,  none  putes  aiium  sapiente  bonoaue  heatumj 
Epist.,  ii.,  1,  239,  alius  Lysippo  ;  Phaedr.,  Prologs,  lib.  iii.,  41^  cuius  Sejano , 
Varro ,  de  R.  R.,  iii.,  16,  quod  est  aliudmelle;  Cic,  ad  Fam.,  xi.,  2,  in  speak 
ing  of  Brutus  and  Cassias,  says,  nee  qtddquam  aliud  libertate  eommumi  quae' 
tisse.  But  this  ablative  may  also  be  compared  with  the  ablative  joined  tt 
comparatives. 

[§471.]  11.  The  ablative  is  used  with  esse  (eithei  ex 


AQXiATIVE   CASE.  327 

pressed  or  auderstood)  to  denote  a  quality  of  a  person  ox 
a  thing  (ahlativus  qualitatis).  But  the  ablative  is  used 
oaly  when  the  substantive  denoting  .the  quality  does  not 
stand  alone  ^as  in  the  case  of  the  genitive,  see  §  426),  but 
is  joined  with  an  adjective  or  pronoun-adjective.  Hence 
we  cannot  say,  e.  g.,  Caesar  fuit  ingenio^  or  homo  ingenio, 
a  man  of  talent  (which  would  be  expressed  by  an  adjec- 
tive), but  we  say  Caesar  magno,  summo,  or  excellenti  in- 
genio,  or  homo  summo  ingenio. 

.AgesUatis  stattura  fuit  humUi  et  corpore  exiguo^  Nepos. 
Omnes  habentut  et  dicuntur  tyratmi,  qui  potestate  sunt  per* 

petua  in,  ea  civitate^  quae  libertate  usa  est,  Nej).,  M*lt. 
L.  Catilina,  nobili  genere  natus^fuit  magna  vi  et  animi  e( 

corporis,  sed  ingenio  malo  pravoque,  Sallust,  Cat.,  5. 
Prope  (Hennam)  est  spelunca  quaedam,  infinita  altitudine, 

qua  Ditem  patremferurU  repente  cum  curru  extitisse,  Cic, 

in  Verr.,  iv.,  48. 

Note. — ^The  explanation  of  the  ablative  of  quality  by  the  ellipsis  ofprae- 
ditus  is  only  intended  to  suggest  some  mode  of  accounting  for  the  fact  of 
a  substantive  being  joined  with  an  ablative.  With  the  same  object  in 
view,  we  prefer  eonnecting  the  ablative  with  €S9»  or  its  participle  etu  (though 
it  does  not  occur);  in  the  absence  of  which  a  substantive  enters  into  an 
immediate  connexion  with  an  ablative,  without  being  grammatically  de- 
pendaiit  upon  it :  elaria  natai^nts  ett,  he  is  of  noble  birth ;  vtr  clmis  ruUati- 
bttSf  homo  antiquaviitute  etjidt.  With  regard  to  the  difference  between  the 
ablative  and  the  genitive  of  quality,  the  genitive  is  more  comprehensive, 
all  ideas  of  measure  being  expressed  by  this  case  alone ;  but  in  other  re 
spects  the.  distinction  is  not  very  clear. ,  In  general,  however,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  genitive  is  used  more  particularly  to  express  inherent  quali- 
ties, and  the  ablative  both  inherent  and  accidental  qualities.  Thus,  in 
speaking  of  transitory  qualities  or  conditions,  the  ablative  is  always  used ; 
as,  bono  aniTno  sum,  maximo  dolore  eram,  and  Cicero,  ad  Au.,  xii.,  52,  by  using 
the  genitive  securi  animi  es,  suggests  tJiat  he  is  speaking  of  something  per 
manent,  not  merely  transitory.  See  Krager'x  Orammat:,  p.  532.  The  gen- 
itive of  plural  substantives  is  rare.  Sometimes  the  two  constructions, 
with  the  ablative  and  the  genitive,  are  found  combined ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  ad 
Fam.,  iv.,  8,  neque  monere  te  audeOj  praeatanti  prudentia  virumj  nee  conjurmare 
inaximi  animi  hominem  ;  ibid.,  i.,  7,  Lenlulum  eximia  ape,  aummae  virtutia  ado- 
teacentem  ;  Nep.,  Datam.,  3,  Thyum,  hominem  maximi  corporia  terrUtiUque  facte 

optima  veste  texit. 

.  [§  472,]  12.  The  ablative  with  the  preposition  cum  is 
used  to  express  the  manner  in  which  anything  is  done 
(usually  indicated  by  adverbs),  provided  the  manner  is  ex- 
pressed by  a  substantive;  e.  g.,  cam  fide  amicitiam  colerc; 
Utterae  cum  cura  diligentiaque  scriptae;  cum  voluptate 
audire  ;  cum  dignitate  potitts  cadcre,  quam  cum  ignominia 
9emire,  are  equivalent  to  fidelitercolere,  dUigenter  scriptae^ 
lihenter  audire,  &c.  If  an  adjective  is  joined  with  the 
lubstantive,  the  ablative  alono  (ahlativus  modi)  is  ^onor 


328  LATIN   tAAMM^k* 

ally  used,  and  the  preposition  cum  is  joined  t .  It  only  wiHsu 
an  additional  circumstance .  smd  not  an  essential  charac- 
teristic of  the  action,  is  to  he  expressed.     The  suhstaa 
laves  implying  manner;  as^  m*pdus^  ratio,  mos^  and  others., 
never  taJce  the  preposition  cufa. 

Thus  we  always  read,  hoc  modj  scripsi ;  non  una  modo  rem  tractavi  ;  onuo  ' 
modo  egi  cum.  regt ;  tUiqua  rtUione  tollere  te  voktnt ;  constittierunt  qua  ratunu 
ageretur,  and  the  like ;  in  the  same  way,  humano  modo  et  usitato  more  pec' 
tare^  more  bestiarum  va^ariy  latronum  ritu  vivere^  more  institutoque  omniimi  de 
fendere,  the  genitive  m  these  cases  supplying  the  place  ot  an  adjective. 
We  farther  say,  aequo  animofero  ;  maximdfide  amicittas  coluit ;  summa  aeqm- 
tate  res  constituitf  and  very  frequently  viam  incredibili  celeritate  confecit ;  K- 
brum  magna  cura  diligentiaque  acripsit,  the  action  of  the  verb  being  in  intimate 
connexion  with  the  adverbial  circumstanco.  But  when  the  action  and  the 
circumstance  are  considered  separately,  tho  preposition  cum  is  used ;  e.  g^ 
majore  cum  fide  auditur ;  conclamant  cum  mdecora  exvltatione  (in  Quintil.) ; 
tanta  multitudo  cum  tanto  studio  adest  (Cic,  p.  Leg.  jlfan.,  24) ;  Verres  Lamp- 
sacum  venit  cum  magna  caUtmitate  civitaiis  (Cic,  in  Verr.,  i.,  24),  the  calamUeu 
being  only  the  consequence  of  his  presence.  Hence  cum  is  also  used  when 
the  connexion  between  the  subject  jmd  the  noun  denoting  the  attribute  is 
otily  external ;  e.  %.,procedere  cum  fotste  purpurea  ;  heus  tu  qui  cum  hirquinn 
ttstas  barba  (Plaut.,  Pseud.,  iv.,  2, 12);  wheteo^  procedere  coma  madenti,  nudia 
vdibus  incedere,  aperto  capite  sedere,  express  Circumstances  or  attributes  in- 
separable from  the  subject. 

Quid  est  aliud  gigantum  m4>do  hdUi/re  cum  diis,  nisi  natu- 
rae repugnare  ?  Cic,  CaU  Maj»,  S^. 

Legiones  nostrae  in  eum  saej^e  Iocutsi^  prqfectae  sunt  alacrt 
animo  et  ereA^to^  unde  se  nu^quam  n:dituras  arbitrarentur^ 
Cic,  Cat,  Maj.,  20. 

Epaminondas  a  jvdicio  capitis  maxima  discessit  gloria^ 
Nep.,  Epam.j  8. 

Romani  ovantes  ac  grattdantas  Horatium  cu^cipiunt,  eo  ma- 
j&re  cum  gaudi  ?,  quo  prope  metum  resjuerat,  Liv.,  i.,  25. 

Miltiades  (cum  Parum  expugnare  non  potuisset)  Athe- 
na^ magna  cum  qffensione  CAvium  stiorum  rediit,  Nep^ 
Milt.,  7.  * 

Note  1. — The  difiference  observed  betvveen  tha  ablativua  modi  and  cttm,  in 
t  he  case  of  substantives  joined  with  ad^tives,  js  a  nicety  of  the  Latin 
language  which  it  is  difficult  to  explain  by  a  rule,  although  it  is  based  on 
sound  principles.  Cicero,  de  Orat.,  i.,  13,  in  speaking  of  the  peculiar  dif 
ference  between  the  oratorical  and  philosophical  style,  combmes  the  two  , 
constructions :  iUi  (the  philosophers)  tenui  quodam  exanguique  aermcne  die- ' 
putant,  hie  (the  orator)  cum  omni  gravitate  et  juctmdUate  eacpliaU :  by  eum 
Cicero  here  denotes  the  additional  things  which  the  orator  employs.  If 
he  had  alluded  only  to  the  mode  of  speaking,  he  would  have  said  ma^ 
gravitate  rem  expUcat.  But  there  are,  nevertheless,  some  passages  in  which 
no  difference  is  apparent ;  as,  Cic,  de  Invent.,  i.,  30,  Quod  enim  eartiua  legig 
aeriptor  testimonium  voluntatif  suae  relinquere  pottdt,  quam  quod  ipse  magna  cum 
cura  atque  diligentia  scripsit  ?  deNat.  Deor.,  ii,  38,  impTtia  roeli  cum  admira 
bUi  celeritate  movetur.  Thi  begmner  must  observe  t^"*^  V^^  eblativus  mod; 
is  more  frequent  thar.  the  i-e  of  cum,  which,  vte  hrv»  r»  «-'^*»'*ine«'  ia  » 
intelligible  manner 


ABLATIVE    CASE.  939 


The  ablattvus  modi  uceurs  also  in  the  words  cendkia  or  leg,\n  the 

af  "  condition,"  or  "  term,"  and  in  pmcu/um,  danger,  ri&k ;  e.  g.,  taUla  am' 

itdone  (like  nuUo  pacta)  fieri  potest ;  quavie  condicione  pacem  /acere  ;  aequa 

cmmdieionefdueeptare;  hac^  ea  condicione  or  lege  ut  or  ne  (^  319) ;  meo^  tuo, 

v€stro^  alicujue  pericula  facere  aUquid  (but  when  the  substantive  stands 

alone,  we  say^  cum  periadOf  that  is,  periciUose) ;  awtpiciof  aiupieiiSf  ductu  tm 

^erioque  aUcujua  rem  gerere  or  militare.    Some  cases  in  which  the  ablative 

18  used,  and  which  are  commonly  considered  as  abiativi  modi,  are  in  re- 

ality  ot  a  different  kind ;  hoc  mente,  hoc  consilio  feci,  for.  example,  should 

rather  be  called  abiativi  causae ;  navi  vehi,  pedibua  ire,  pervenire  aliquo, 

eapite  oneraferre,  vi  urbee  expugnare,  on  the  Other  hind,  are  abiativi  instru- 

menti,  but  they  acquire  the  nature  of  an  ablativus  modi  if  the  substantive 

is  joined  with  an  adjective ;  as,  ma^na  vi  tmure^  mag^a  vi  defehdere  cdiquem, 

or  they  become  ablatives  absolute,  unplying  a  description ;  e.  g.,  nudi*  pedi- 

Inu  ambidare,  processit  madenti  <yma,  composito  capillo,  gravUnu  oculiMfJluenti' 

ms  bucciSf  pressa  voce  et  temulenta,    (rseud.  Cic,  post  Red,  in  Sen.t  6.) 

See  ^  645.    The  ablative  in  Cic,  LaeL,  15,  miror  (de  Tarquinio)  ida  su- 

perbia  et  importunitate  si  quemmiam  amicum  habere  p<auit,  must  likewise  be 

regarded  as  an  ablative  absolute,  being  the  same  as  quum  tanta  ejjus  su- 

perhia  et  importunitasfuerit.    As  the  preposition  cum  cannot  be  used  in  anv 

of  these  cases,  we  may  consider  it  as  a  practical  rule  that*  the  manner  in 

which  a  thing  is  done  is  expressed  by  the  ablativus  modi 

in  some  expressions  the  ablative  of  substantives  alone  is  found  without 
cum.  Thus  we  say  silentio  praeterire^  ox  facere  oliqmd  (but  also  cum  sdentio 
audire),  lege  agere;  jure  and  inmria  facere;  magistratus  vitio  creatus  is  a  com- 
mon expression,  indicating  that  an  election  had  not  taken  place  in  due 
form.  Cicero  uses  aliquid  rede  et  ordme,  modo  et  rationCf  rations  et  ordinefit, 
via  et  rations  disputare,  and  frequently,  also,  rations  alone ;  e.  g.,  rations  facer  * 
ratione  volupteUem  sequi  {ds  Fin.,  L,  10),  with  reason,  i.  e.,  in  a  rational  wav 
sometimes,  also,  voluntats  facere  in  the  sense  of  sponte,  voluntarily. 

[^  473.]  Note  2.  If  we  compare  the  above  rules  with  those  given  undei 
Nos.  1  and  2,  the  ablative  expressing  company  alone  is  excluded,  for  com- 
nany  is  expressed  by  cum,  evep  in  such  cases  as  servi  cttm  tdis  comprehensi 
sunt,  cum/erro  in  aliquem  invaders,  when  we  are  speaking  of  instruments 
which  a  person  has  (if  he  uses  them,  it  becomes  an  ablativus  instrumenti) ; 
ferther,  Komamvenicumfebri;  cum  nuntio  exire,  as  soon  as  the  news  ar- 
rived ;  cum  occasu  snlis  capias  educere,  as  soon  as  the  sun  set.  It  must  be 
observed,  as  an  exception,  that  the  ancient  writers,  especially  Caesar  and 
LiTy,  in  speaking  of  military  movements,  frequently  omit  the  preposition 
cum,  and  use  the  ablative  alone ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  viL,  9,  Dictator  ingenti  exerdtu 
ab  vrbsprofectus;  xxx.,  11,  exerdtu  haud  minore,  qtum  quern  prius  habuerat, 
irs  ad  hostes  pergit ;  xli.,  1,  eodem  decern  navibus  C.  Furius  duumvir  navalis 
vsnit ;  i.,  14,  egressus  omnibus  copiis,  where  Drakenborch  gives  a  long  list 
of  similar  expressions  in  Livy,  with  which  we  may  compare  the  commen- 
tators referred  to  by  him  and  Oudendorp  on  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  ii.,  7.  This 
omission  of  the  preposition  occurs,  also,  when  accompanjring  circumstances 
are  mentioned,  and  not  persons  ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  vii.,  20,  ouum  poptdatione  psra- 
grati  fines  essetU;  v.,  45,  castra  clamore  invadunt.  Tne  Greeks,  especially 
.Xenophon,  use  the  dative  in  the  same  way;  compare  Matthiae,  Cfreek 
Cfram.,  ^  405,  and  also  Livy,  x.,  25,  majori  mlhi  curae  est,  ut  omnes  tocupletes 
reducam,  quam  ut  mtdtis  rem  geram  mUitibus,  which  is  an  ablativus  instru- 
menti, unless  it  ^e  explained  by  the  analogy  of  the  expressions  mentioned 
above. 

[^  474.]  We  may  add  here  the  remark  tl  \i  the  participles  junctus  and 
otmjunctus  are  joined  by  Cicero  with  the  ablative  alone,  instead  of  tbe  da- 
tive (according  to  ^  412  and  415),  or  the  preposition  cum ;  e.  g.,  ad  Ati., 
ix.,  10,  infinititm  bellum  junctum  miserrimafuga;  p.  Cluent.,  6,  repents  est  ex- 
erts mulieris  importunu  nefaria  libido,  non  solum  dedecore,  verum  etiam  scelers 
yonjuncta  ;  de  Orat.,  i.,  67,  dicendi  vis  egregia,  summa  festivitate  et  venustats 
jmiuncta^    See  Garatoni*8  note  on  Philip.,  v.,  7,  hyus  mendititns  awdii^s 

BSbS 


33li  LATIN   GRAMMAE. 

tonjun€U  inf^irhmat  nottrar  imminebat.  See,  also,  p.  PUmc.,  10 ;  PAii^^  UL 
14 ;  Brtu,t  44.  This  construction  is  also  found  with  impUccUus  in  Cic, 
Phil.^  ii.,  32,  and  with  admixtus  in  de  Nat.  Deor.y  il,  10.  Compare  the  coii' 
^ruction  of  »muZ  in  ^  321. 

[§  475.]  13.  (a)  The  ablative,  without  a  preposition, 
is  used  to  express* the  point  of  time  at  which  anything 
happens.  (Duration  of  time  is  expressed  by  the  accusa- 
tiye,  see  §  395.) 

Qua  node  natus  Alexander  est,  eddem  Dianas  Ephestat 

templum  deflagravit,  Cic,  De  Nat,  Deon^  ii.,  27. 
Pyrrhi  temporihua  jam  Apollo  versus Jacire  desierat,  Cic, 

De  Dlvin.,  iu,  56.* 
Pompeius  extrema  puerUia  miles  Jkit  sunvmi  imperatoria^ 

ineunte  adolescentia  maximi  ipse  exercitus  imperator, 

Qic.,p,  Leg,  Man.,  10. 

Nott. — Our  expressions  "  by  day"  and  •*  by  night"  are  rendered  in  L&tin 
by  the  special  words  interdiu  and  noctu^  but  the  ordinary  ablatives  die  and 
nocte  also  occur  not  unfrequently,  as  in  the  combination,  die  ac  node,  die 
noctuquef  nocte  et  interdiu.    Vespere  or  vesperi  is  **  in  the  evening,"  see  ^^  98 
and  d3.    Ludis  is  also  used  to  denote  time,  in  the  sense  of  tempore  ludorum^ 
and  on  the  same  principle  we  find  SatumaUbus^  Latinis,  gladiatoribus,  for 
ludis  gladiatoriU.    See  Drakenborch  on  Livy,  ii.,  36.    Other  substantives 
which,  properly  speaking,  do  not  express  time,  are  used  in  that  sense  either 
with  the  preposition  in  (compare  4  318),  or  without  it ;  e.  g.,  initio  and 
priTicipiOf  adventit  and  discessu  alicujusy  comitiis,  tumuftUf  and  bello ;  but  of 
oello  tne  ablative  alone  is  more  common,  if  it  is  joined  with  an  adjective 
or  genitive ;  as,  beUo  Latinonan,  Veienti  beUo,  hello  Punico  secundo^  and  after 
this  analogy,  also,  pugna  Cannensi,  for  in  pugna  Cannensi.    Thus,  also, 
we  say,  inpueritia;  but  when  an  adjective  denoting  time  is  joined  to^ 
tritia,  the  aolative  alone  is  used.  It  is,  in  general,  very  rare  and  unclassical 
to  use  in  with  substantives  expressing  a  certain  space  of  time ;  as,  hora, 
diest  annuSf  &c.,  for  the  purpose  of  denoting  the  time  when  anything  hap 
pens;  for  in  tempore  is  used  only  when  tempua  signifies  "mstress"  Or 
"misery"  (as  it  sometimes  does  in  Cicero:  in  iUo  tempore,  hoc  quidem  in 
tempore,  and  in  Livy.  in  taU  tempore,  where  we  should  say  **  under  such 
circumstances"),  ana  "in  time,'^"at  the  right  time;"  but  in  both  cases 
the  ablative  alone  also  occurs,  and  fmpore  in  the  sense  of," early"  has 
even  become  an  adverb.  An  earlier  form  of  this  adverb  is  tempori  or  tern- 
veri,  of  which  a  comparative  temperrus  is  formed.    Livy  (i.,  18  and  57), 
nowever,  has  the  expression  m  ilta  aetate,  at  that  period,  for  which  Ctcero 
would  have  used  the  ablative  alone. 

[§  476,]  fbj  The  ablative  is  also  used  to  express  the 
time  before  and  the  time  qfier  a  thing  happened,  and  otU^ 
and  post  are  in  this  case  placed  after  the  ablative.  The 
meaning,  however,  is  the  same  as  when  ante  and  post  are 
»oined  with  the  accusative  in  the  usual  order,  just  as  we 
may  sometimes  say,  in  the  same  sense,  "three  years  after,*' 
and  "  after  three  years,"  post  tres  an7ws  decessit,  and  tii* 
bus  annis  poft  decessit.  In  this  connexion  the  ordinal  nu- 
merals may  be  employed,  as  vyell  as  the  cardinal  ones: 
post  ttHium  annum,  and  tertio  anno  post,  are  the  same  a^ 


AISLATIVB  CASE.  831 

trtifus  dnnis  post ;  for  by  this,  as  by  the  former  expres* 
sious,  the  Romans  did  not  imply  that  a  period  of  three  full 
years  had  intervened,  but  they  included  in  the  calculation 
.the  beginning  and  the  end  (the  terminus  a  quo  and  the 
ierndima  ad,  quern).  If  we  add  the  not  unusual  position 
of  the  preposition  between  the  adjective  and  the  substan- 
tive (noticed  above,  §  324),  we  obtain  eight  difierent 
modes  of  expression,  all  of  which  hs-ve  the  same  value. 

(oMte)  post  tres  annos^  tribus  annis  post, 

post  tertium  annum^  tertio  a^no  post. 

*  tres  post  annos^  triims  post  amnis. 

teftmm  post  annutn^  tertio  post  anno. 

When  ante  or  post  stands  last  (as  in  tribus  annis  post  or 
tertio  anno  post),  it  may  be- joined  with  an  accusative  fol« 
lowing  it  to  denote  the  time  before  and  afl^r  which  any- 
thing took  place.    . 

TViemistocles  fecit  idem^  quod  viginti  annis  ante  apud  nos 
fecerat  Coriolanus  (ut  in  .exilium  proficisceretur,  B.C. 
471),  Cic.,  Lael,,  12. 

Tj,  Sextius  primus  de  plehe  consul  fadtus  est  annis  post  Ro- 
mam  conditam  trecentis  dtiodenonaginta, 

[^  477.]  Note.— Post  and  ante  sometimes  precede  the  ablatives :  ante  an- 
nis octOfpost  paucis  diebus  (Liv.,  xL,  57,  and  elsewhere),  and  also  before 
such  ablatives  as  are  used  adverbiajly ;  post  aliquanto^  post  non  mtdto^  post 
pattlo  {ante  aliqiumto,  Cic,  in  Vfrr.,  ii.,  18 ;  ante  paulo,  de  Re  Pvbl.,  ii.,  4) ; 
out  the  usual  place  of  these  prepositions  is  that  mentioned  above  in  the 
rule.  Diupost  must  be  avoiaed,  for  it  is  only  the  ablatives  in  o«that  are 
used  in  this  way. 

When  ante  and  post  are  joined  with  avam  and  a  verb,  the  expression  ad- 
mits of  great  variety :  we  may  say,  triims  annis  postqiiam  venerat,  post  tret 
tnnos  ^[uam  venerate  tertio  anno  postquam  venerat^  post  annum  tertium  quanx 
veneratt  or  post  may  be  omittea  and  the  ablative  used  alone ;  tertio  anm 
quam  venerat;  and  all  these  expressions  have  the  same  meaning,  viz*., 
"  three  years  after  he  had  come." 

[5  478.]  fc)  The  length  of  time  before  the  present  mo- 
ment is  expressed  by  abJiinc,  generally  with  the  accusa- 
tive, but  also  with  the  ablative ;  e.  g.,  Demosthenes  abhine 
•  annosprope  trecentos  fuit,  and  abhine  annis  quattuor.  The 
same  is  also  expressed  by  ante  with  the  pronoun  hie,  as 
in  Phaedrus :  ante  has  sex  menses  maledixisti  mihi, 

Demosthenes^  qui  abhine  annosprope  trecentos  fuit,  jam  turn 

tpiXiTml^eiv  Pythiam  dicebat,  id  est  quasi  cum  Fhilippo 

Jacere,  Cic,  De  Divin,,  ii.,  57. 

Note, — Ahhinc,  without  reference  to  the  present  moment,  in  the  sense  of 
mae  in  general,  occurs  only  in  Cic,  in  Verr.y  ii,  52;  ante,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  used  more  frec^uently  instead  of  abhine;  Cic,  Leg,  A^.,ii.,  18 


382  LATIK    GRAMMAS 

90$  wuhi  pi  utori  biennio  ante  pertonam  hone  impotulvHa «  CCmpare  Tuac,,  i^ 
5«  9.  Hand  (.Tursellin.,  i.,  p.  03)  observes  that  no  ancient  writer  ever  usee 
an  ordinal  numeral  with  abhincy  and  Pliny  {Hist.  Nat.,  xiv.,  4)  alone  M-ys, 
teptimo  hinc  anno.  Sometimes  the  length^/ time  before  is  expressed  by  the 
ablative  alone  joined  with  fuc  or  illej  a8,paucis  fUa  diebus,  ot  paucis  iliia 
diebtUt  a  few  days  ago.  Respecting  the  differerxe  between  these  pi  o- 
nouns,  in  reference  to  the  present  or  past  time,  eee  ^703 ;  compare  Cic, 
m  Verr.,  iv.,  18,  ^  39,  and  c.  63,  init. 

[§  479.1  fdj  The  length  of  time  mthin  which  a  thing 
happens  is  expressed  by  the  ablative  alone  as  well  as  by 
in  with  the  ablative.  Cicero  uses  the  ablative  alone,  and 
introduces  in  ^nly  in  connexion  with  numerals  (in  an- 
swer to  the  question,  "  how  often  during  a  certain  time  V); 
e.  g.,  bi*  in  die  saturum  Jieriy  vix  ter  in  anno  ^untium  au 
dirCy  sol  hincLs  in  singulis  annis  conversiones  facit^  but  noi 
exclusively  so.  Other  good  authors  use  in  when  they  vnsh 
to  express  more  decidedly  the  idea  of  within,  which  is  gen- 
erally expressed  by  intra,     (See  §  300.) 

Agamemnon  cum  vniversa  Graecia  viz  decern  annis  unam 

cepit  urbem,  Nep.,  Epam.,  5. 
Senatus  decrevit,  ut  legati  Jugurthae,  nisi  regnum  ipsum" 

que  deditum  venissent,  in  diebus  proximis  decern  Italia 

decederent,  Sallust.,  Jug*,  28. 

[^  480.]  Note. — The  ablative  ezptessing  "  within  a  time"  often  acquit es 
Ihe  signification  of  **  after"  a  time,  inasmuch  as  the  period  within  which 
a  thinp^  is  to  happen  is  passed  away.  Thus,  Tarraconan  paucia  diebuaper- 
venitt  in  Caesar  {Bell.  Civ.,  ii.,  21),  sl^ifies  "  after  a  few  days,"  and  Sal- 
lust  {Jug.y  39,  4)  follows  the  same  prmciple  in  saying,  paucia  diebua  inAf- 
ricam  proficiadtur  and  (ibid.,  13)  paucia  diebua  Komam  legatoa  nuttit^  for 
paucia  Stiebua  poat.  ^See  Kritz  on  Sallust,  Jt^.,  11.)  Suetonius  (iVier.,  3  ,* 
Tib.,  69)  in  tne  sam^  nense  says,  in  paucia  diebua.  This  use  of  the  ablat. 
occurs  m  Cicero  (and  Other  good  authors),  inasmuch  as  the  ablative  of 
time,  when  followed  by  a  preposition  with  a  relative  pronoun,  signifies 
*'  later  than ;"  e.  g.,  Plancius  in  Cic,  ad  Fam.,  z.,  18,  ipae  octo  ^ebua,  qm- 
hua  haa  litteraa  dabam,  cum  Lepidi  copiia  me  conjungam,  >-hat  is,  eight  days 
after  the  date  of  this  letter ;  p,  Roac.  Am.,  36,  Mora  Sex,  RoacU  quatriduof 
quo  ia  occiaua  eat,  Chryaogono  nuntiatur,  four  days  after  he  had  been  killed; 
Oaes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  i.,  48,  acddit  repeniinum  mcommodum  biduo,  quo  haee  geata 
'  aunt,  two  days  after  this  had  happened ;  v.,  26,  diebua  circiter  xv.,  miibua 
in  hWema  ventum  est,  dejfectio  orta  eat ;  also  with  qvum  instead  of  a  relative 
pronoun,  Plancius  in  Cicero,  ad  Fam.,  x.,  23,  quern  triduo,  qvum  haa  dabam 
Utteraa,  expectabam,  three  days  later  than  the  date  of  this  letter.  Somet 
times  in  is  joined  with  the  ablative ;  Terent.,  Andr.,  i.,  1, 77,  in  difbw 
paucia,  quibua  haec  acta  aunt,  moritur. 

[§  481.]  14.  The  ablative  without  a  preposition  is  used 
s  to  denote  the  place  where  1  in  some  particular  combina- 

tions ;  as,  terra  marique,  by  la'ud  and  by  sea.  The  names 
of  towns  follow  their  own  rul^s  (§  398).  The  preposition 
is  omitted  with  the  word  loc(^  <and  locisj,  when  it  ie  join* 
ed  with  an  adjective,  and  ha-'  (he  derivali^'e  meaning  of 


AULATIVC   CASK.  333 

**  oo'f^msioii ;"  e.  g ,  hoc  loco^  mtdtis  locis,  aliqftot  locia,  certo 
locOf  secundo  locOf  mdiore  loco  res  nostrae  sunt;  but  this  la 
done  more  rarely  when  locus  has  its  proper  meaning  of 
"  spot"  or  "place.  *  In  loco,  or  simply  loco,  is  equal  to  suo 
loco^  in  its  right  p.  ace ;  when  joined  with  a  genitive,  loco 
signifies  "instead/'  and  in  this  sense  in  loco  is  used  as 
"well  as  loco  (also  numeroj  alicujus  essCj  ducer.e,  habere. 
Z#i^ro,  joined  with  an  adjective  or  pronoim ;  as,  hoc,  primo, 
tertio,  is  used  without  in,  when  the  whole  book  is  meant, 
and  with  in  when  merely  a  portion  or  passage  is  meant. 

The  poets  know  of  no  limits  in  the  use  of  the  ablative 
without  in  to  denote  a  place  where  ]  e.  g.,  Ovid,  Met,  vii., 
547,  silvisque  agrisque  viisque  corpora  Jbrda  jacent,  any 
more  than  in  the  use  of  the  accusative  to  denote  the  place 
whither]  (See  §  401.)  They  farther  use  the  ablative 
without  ex  or  dh^  to  indicate  the  place  whence  ]  without 
limiting  themselves  to  the  verbs  of  separation  (§  468);  e. 
g.,  cadere  nuhihus,  descender c  coeh^lahi  eqtw,  ctirrtis  career 
ibus  missi. 

[^  482.]  Note.— The  writers  of  the  silver  age  imitated  the  poets,  and  be- 
gan more  and  more  to  use  the  ablative  without  a  preposition  to  designate 
the  place  where  1  Livy,  for  example,  says,  aequo  dimicatur  campoy  medio 
aheo  amcurstan  e$t,  medio  Etruriae  agro  praedattim  profectuSf  ad  secundum 
Japidem  Gabma  via  cotuidere  jubet  (ii,  11),  ad  moenia  ipsa  Romae  regionepoT' 
tae  EsquiUnae  accessere ;  in  the  sijecial  signification  of  repo,  a  division  of 
the  city,  Suetonius  always  uses  it  without  in ;  e.  g.,  regume  campi  Martiiy 
and  others  go  still  farther.  The  ablative  denoting  tne  place  whence  ?  like- 
wise appears  in  the  prose  of  that  time ;  e.  g.,  Tacit.,  Ann.,  zii.,  38,  m  dto 
frids  etcasUlUs  proadmis  subventum  foret,  for  e  vicis.  With  regard  to  ordi- 
nary  prose,  it  only  remains  to  observe  that  the  ablative,  joined  with  the 
adjective  Mo  or  toto,  is  generally  used  without  in;  e.  g.,  Cic,  p.  Rose,  Am., 
9,  urbe  Ma  gemitusfU  ;  in  Verr.,  t>,  35,  concwrsabat  tola  wbe  maxima  multitti- 
do;  p.  Leg,  Man.,  11,  and  very  often  Mo  mari;  Philip.^  xi.,  2,  tota  Asia 
itagatur  ;  p.  Leg.  Man.,  3,  tola  Asia,  tot  in  civitatihis  ;  in  Verr.,  ii.,  49,  tota 
Smlia  per  triennium  nemo  uUa  m  dvitate  senator  foetus  est  gratis  ;  in  Verr., 
iv.,  19,  con^uiri  hominem  tota  provinda  jubet :  sometimes,  however,  we  find 
in  tota  promncia,  and  in  toto  orbe  terrarum;  Caes.,  JE^.  Civ.,  i,  6|  tota  Italia 
itUctus  habentwr ;  Livy  frequently  uses  toto  campo  aiapersi,  and  Curtius,  ig 
net  qiu  totis  campis  ooUucere  coeperunt,  cadavera  totis  campis  jaceniia. 

[§  483.1  15.  The  ablative  is  used  vTith  adjectives  in  the 
comparative  degree,  instead  of  quam  with  the  nominative, 
or  in  the  construction  of  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive, 
instead  of  quam  with  the  accusative  of  the  subject;  e.  g.. 
Nemo Romanorum  Juit  eloqtientior  Cicerone;  neminem  Ro' 
manorum  eloquentiorem  Juisse  veteres  judicarunt  Cicerone. 
'  The  ablative  instead  of  quam^  vdth  the  accusative  of  tha 
object,  occurs  more  rarely,  but  when  the  object  is  a  rola 
rive  pronoun  the  ablative  is  generally  used 


834  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

Vilius  argentum  est  auro^  virtutihus  aurum^  Horat,  Epis$ 

Sapidns  humana  omnia  inferior  a  virtute  duett,  Cic,  7Wc« 

Phidiae  simrdctcris,  quibtcs  nihil  in  illo  genere  perfectins  w- 

demuSy  cogitare  tamen  po^sumus  ptdchriorayCic,  Orat,,  2. 

[^  484.]  Note  1. — The  ablative,  instead  of  quanta  with  the  accusative  of 
the  objecti  is  found  very  frequently  in  poetry ;  e.  g.,  Horat,  Carm.,  L,  8, 9, 
Cur  oUvwn  »anguine  viperhio  cauUua  vitat  ?  i,  12, 13,  Qmd  priua  dicam  soUtu 
parentis  laudiinis  ?  i.,  18, 1,  NvUam^  VarCt  sacra  vite  prius  severis  arboreniy  6cc, 
In  prose  it  is  much  more  uncommon,  though  well  established  ;  e.  g.,  Cic, 
di  lie  Pttbl.,  i.,  10,  Q^enl  auctorem  de  Socrate  locupletiorem  Platone  Icatdare 
vossvmus  ?  p.  Rab.t  1,  JEst  boni  consults  suam  salutem  posteriorem  saltUi  com- 
muni  ducere  ;  Caes.,  BeU.  Gall..,  vii,  19,  nisi  eonun  vttam  sua  salute  habeai 
eariorem ;  Val.  Maxim.,  v.,  3,  ext.  2,  Neminem  Ljfcur^o  out  maiorent  autvtu 
iorem  vhrum  Lacedaemon  eenuit.    This  construction  is  more  frequent  with 
pronouns ;  and  Cicero  often  uses  such  phrases  as  hoc  ndhi  gratius  nihil  fa- 
cere  jyotes  ;  but  it  is  necessary  in  the  connexion  of  a  comparative  with  a 
relative  pronoun ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxxviiL,  53,  Sc^o  Africanus  Punici  beUi  per- 
petratif  mu>  nullum  neque  majus  ueque  perictdosms  JComani  gessere^  units  prae 
dpuam  gloriam  tulit ;  Uurt.,  vi.,  34,  Hie  Attalo,  quo  graviorem  tniirucum  non 
habuit  sororem  suam  in  matrimoniwn  dedit.     But  the  ablat.  instead  of  quam 
with  any  other  case  was  never  used  by  a  ^man.    Q^amf  with  the  nomin. 
or  accusat.,  on  the  other  hand^  frequently  occurs  where  the  ablative  might 
have  been  employed  j  e.  g.,  Livy,  melior  tutiorqtte  est  certa  pax,  quam  sperata 
victoria,  which  in  the  infinitive  would  be  melwrem  esse  certam  pacem  putabat 
mam  speratam  victoriam.    If  the  verb  cannot  bd  supplied  from  the  prece 
ding  sentence,  as  in  the  passages  just  quoted  (where  est  and  esse  are  thus 
supplied),  quam, — est  or  quam— fuit  must  be  expressly  added;  e.  g.,Gellius, 
X.,  1,  Hcuc  verba  sunt  M.  Varronis,  quam  fwt  Claudius,  doctioris  ;  Cic,  in 
Verr.,  iv.,  20,  Argentum  reddidisti  L.  Curidio,  komini  yum  gratiosiori,  quam 
Cn,  Calidius  est ;  Senec,  ConsoL  ad  Polyb.,  34,  JDrusum  Germanicum  mmO' 
rem  natu,  quam  ipse  erat,fratrem  amisit.    But  when  an  accusative  precedes,' 
quam  may  follow  with  the  same  case,  just  as  if  esse  preceded ;  Terent., 
IPhorm.,  iv.,  2,  t,  Ego  hominem  calUdiorem  vidi  neminem  quam  Phormionem, 
instead  of  quam  Phormio  est.    Cicero  (ad  Fam.,  v.,  7)  combine8't>oth  con« 
structions,  lit  tibi  nadto  mu^mi  quamAfrktmMS  fiat  (he  could  ticft  have  said 
quam  Africano)  me  non  multo  minorem  (ptam  Ijaelium  (he  might  have  said 
quamfuit  JLaelius)  et  in  repubtica  et  in  anucitia  adjuncttan  esse  pdtiare.    Comp. 
p.  Plane.,  12,  30.    Hence,  instead  of  the  ablative  in  the  sentence  quoted 
above,  neminem  Lucurgo  majorem  Lacedaemon  genuit,  we  may  say  ^ijMim  X^ 
eurgum  or  quam  Ijycurgue  fitit,  the  latter  of  which  constructions  is  more 
frequent. 

The  ablatives  opinione,  spe,  aequo,  justo,  solito,  dicto,  are  of  a  ])eculiar  kind, 
and  must  be  explained  J}y  quam  est  or  erat ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Brut.,  init,  opmione 
omnium  majorem  ammo  eepi  dolorem,  greater  than  the  opinion  Of  all  men  was* 
that  it  would  be ;  Virgil,  dicta  dtius  tumida  aequora  jv&icaf,  quicker  than  tha 
word  was  spoken.  Quam  pro,  joined  to  a  comparative,  signifies  **  than  in 
proportion  to ;"  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxi.,  29,  proelium  atrocius  quam  pro  numero  pug* 
nanthtm  iditur. 

in  poetry,  alius,  another,  is  sometimes  treated  hke  a  comparative,  and 
construed  with  the  ablative,  instead  of  atque  with  the  nominative  or  ac 
cusative.  See  ^  470.  The  poets,  farther,  sometimes  use  atque  instead  <A' 
quam.    See  ^  340. 

[^  485.]  Note  2. — Minus,  plus,  and  amplius  (or  non  minus,  haud  minus,  &c.), 
when  joined  to  numerals  and  some  other  words  denoting  a  certain  meas^ 
ure  or  portion  of  a  thing,  are  used  with  and  without  quam,  generally  as 
Indeclinable  words,  and  without  influence  upon  the  construction,  tut  mere- 
ly to  modify  the  number ;  e.  g^  Liv.,  xxxix.,  31,  won o^w*  quam  quattuormilia 
tifugerunt,  not  effugit;  Nep.,  Thras.,  2,  non  plus  hamtit  ftcum  guam  ttivinls 


ABLAIIVB    CASK.  33fi 

* 

dB  9*09  {j^wes  would  rarely  be  used  in  such  a  case) ;  Cic.«  BnA.,  .8,  jm^ 
tores  anhqui  nan  mmt  un  phts  quam  ouaUuor  eohribuSf  not  plta^Unu  ;  Liv., 
zxriL,  25,  negabant  unam  eeUam.  anmtiua  qtuan  tmt  deo  tits  dsdiean.  ^tam 
is  omitted  vdry  frequently,  and  wito  all  cases ;  e.  g.,'  Liv.,  zxiv.,  16,  mi:tu» 
duo  tnilia  hontmum  ex  tanto  exercUu  effugerunt ;  zzzvi.,  40,  plvM  vara  dimidia 
ex  quinquaginta  miWms  homiman  eaesa  8vnt ;  Cic,  ad  Att.f  v.,  1 ,  quo  magi* 
erit  tibi  videndttm,  ut  hoe  nostrum  deeiderium  ne  plus  sit  anmtum;  TtMC.,  ii.,  16 
milites  Romani  saepe  phta  dtmidkai  mensis  ctbaria  ferebant ;  TeTeni.,Adelph.t 
ii.,  1,  45,  plus  qumgentos  colapihos  infregit  mihi;  Liv.,  iii.,  64,  si  vos  mviua 
hodie  decern  tribunos  plebis  fecesUis  ;  xl.,  2,  mtum  phts  onnum  aeger  fuisset ; 
xxz.,  27,  sedecim  non  ampUus  eo  anno  legionums  deftnsmn  imperium  est ;  Cic, 
in  Verr.f  ii.,  57,  minus  triginta  diebus  Metellus  totam  triennii  praeturam  tuam 
rescidit.  These  examples  prove  the  omission  of  quam  in  connexion  with 
the  other  cases.  Its  omission  with  the  dative  is  attested  by  Propertius, 
ii,  19,  18,  (iii.,  19, 32),  et  se  plus  uni  si  qtta  parare  potest ;  i  e.,  for  more  than 
for  one ;  and  why  should  we  not  say  mille  anqtUus  honwvbus  quotidie  panem 
dedit  ?  It  must  be  observed  that  these  comparatives  are  sometimes  insert- 
ed between  the  words  which  they  modify ;  e.  g..  Tacit.  Kist.^  iv.,  52,  decern 
hand  ampllius  dierum  frumentum  in  horreis  fuit ;  Liv.,  i.,  18,  centum  ampUtu 
post  annas  ;  and  sometimes,  when  joined  with  a  negative,  they  follow  the 
words  they  modify  as  a  sort  of  apposition ;  Liv..  xl.,  31,  quxnque  milium  or- 
matorum,  non  etmpliuSy  relictum  erat  vraesidxumj  a  garrison  of  5000  soldiers, 
not  more.  Sometimes,  however,  tne  ablative  is  used  with  these  compar- 
atives as  with  others,  instead  of  quam  with  the  nomin.  or  accus. ;  e.  g., 
Liv.,  xxiv.,  17,  eo  die  caesi  suntRomanis  minus  quadringentis ;  Cic,  m  Verr., 
iii.,  48,  nemo  minus  tribus  medimnis  in  jugerum  dedit ;  p.  Rose.  Com.,  3, 
quamobrem  hoc  nomen  triennio  amplius  in  adversariis  relinqttebas,  instead  of 
the  more  common  amplius  triettnivmt  3S  above.  Comp.,  also,  in  Verr.f  iv.,  43, 
hora  amplius  moliebantur.  Longius  is  used  in  th%  same  way ;  see  Caes., 
BeU.  Gall.t  v.,  53,  Gallorum  copias  non  longius  milia  passtmm  octo  ab  hibemia 
mis  qfuisse;  but,  vii.,  9,  ne  longiua  triduo  ab  castris  absit ;  iv.,  1,  ajmd  Suevos 
non  longius  anno  remanere  uno  in  loco  incolendi  causa  licet. 

[^  486.]  Note  3.— -The  English  word  "  still,"  joined  with  comparatives, 
is  expressed  by  adhuc  only  in  the  later  prose  writers ;  as,  Senec,  £pist.f  49, 
'  Punctum  est  quod  vivimus  et  adhuc  puncto  minus.    In  the  classical  language 
etiam^  and  sometimes  velj  are  equivalent  to  the  English  *'  still." 

^§  487.]  16.  The  ablative  is  used  to  express  the  meas* 
ure  or  amount  by  which  one  thing  surpasses  anodier,  or  is 
surpassed  by  it.  Paulo,  multo,  quo,  eo,  quanta,  tanto,  tofi" 
tulo,  aliquanto,  hoc,  are  to  be  considered  as  ablatives  of 
this  kind.  Altero  tanto  signifies  "  twice  as  much  ;"  mtdtU 
partibtts  is  the  same  as  multo. 

Ilibernia  dimidio  minor  est  quam  Britannia,  Caes. 
Homines  quo  jplura  hahent^  eo  cupiunt  ampliora.  Just. 
Diogejies  disputare  solehat,  qtuinto  regem  Persarum  vita 
fortwnaque  superaret,  Cic,  Tusc,  v.,  32. 

\%  488.]  Note  1. — We  thus  perceive  that  these  ablatives  are  joined  not 
mly  with  comparatives,  but  with  verbs  which  contain  the  idea  of  a  com 
panson  with  other  things  ;  as,  maUe^  praestare^  superare^  excelleref  antecel- 
lere  antecedere,  and  others  compounded  with  ante^  Also,  with  ante  and  pest^ 
their  meaning  being  "  earlier"  and  "later."  Hence  muUo  ante,  much  ear- 
lier ;  non  multo  post,  not  much  later,  or  not  long  after.  As  to  multo  with  a 
superlative,  see  ^  108.  In  the  case  of  plus  there  may  be  some  ambiguity. 
The  words  in  Cicero  {de  Nat.  Dear.,  i.,  35),  uno  digito  plus  habere,  might 
neap.  **  tc  have  more  than  one  finger,"  and,  Liv.,  ii  7,  uno  pi  u  E(r«.«<onap 


9M  *      I.ATIN    rSRAMMAV 

• 

eeeidU,  mor6  than  one  man  fell  on  the  part  of  the  £tru8cau».  But  liuft  10 
Uie  reason  why,  in  this  sense  (according  to  ^  485),  we  usually  say  piuM 
unum  digUum  habere^  plus  imtu  Etrutcorum  ;  and  with  the  ablat.  the  rriean* 
ing  is,  **  to  have  one  finger  more,"  viz.,  than  we  have,  that  is,  six ;  and, 

on  the  part  of  the  Etruscans  one  man  more,"  viz.,  than  on  the  part  of 
their  enemies.  But  still  it  would  be  cleaibr  to  say  uno  plures  digitos  habere* 
uno  phtret  Etruac.  cecidenmt,  as  in  Liv.,  v.,  30,  una  plttres  tribus  antiquanau. 
Respecting  the  difference  between  aliquanto  and  paulOf  see  ^  108 ;  alu(ttanio 
has  an  affirmative  power,  *'  considerably  nvore,"  nearly  the  same  as  '*  much 
more ;"  pou/o,  like  jMwct,  is  of  a  negative  nature,  **  a  little  more,*'  where  the 
"  little"  may  imply  a  great  deal,jand  the  word  pavlo  may  have  been  chosen 
with  a  view  to  represent  it  as  little.  An  excellent  passage  to  prove  this 
is  Cic.fp.  Quint.y  12,  iS^t  debtdsset^  Sexte^  petisaes  statim  ;  si  non  statinit  paulo 
qttidem.  post ;  si  non  paulo,  at  aliqtumto  ;  sea  qvidqfi  iUis  mensibtts  projecto  ; 
anno  vero  vertente  sine  controversia. 

Note  2. — Mvltum,*tantu7n,  quarUum,  and  cdiquantum  are  sometimes  usea 
adverbially  with  a  comparative,  instead  of  the  ablat  mvUo,  tantOy  quanta, 
and  aliquanto ;  e.  g.,  Terent.,  Eunuch.,  i.,2,  51,  ejtisfrater  aliquantum,  adren 
ist  author  ;  Yal.  Maxim.,  iv.,  1,  1,  qiumtwn  domo  inferior,  tantum  gloria  su 
perior  evasit.  Sometimes  they  are  used  only  to  avoid  ambiguity ;  Liv.,  iii., 
15,  quantum  juniores  patrum  plebi  se  magis  insinuabant,  eo  acrius  contra  tribuni 
tendebant ;  Juven.,  x.,  197,  multum  hie  robustior  illo.  Cicero  uses  tantum 
and  quantum  in  this  way  only  in  connexion  with  antecedere,  excell^e,  and 
yraestare  ;  e.  g.,  de  Off.,  l.,  30 ;  Orat.,  2,  ^  6 ;  o.  Leg.  Man.,  13 ;  de  Re  Publ., 
u.,  2,  but  both  multum  and  muUo  praestare.  The  adverb  tarn — quam  with  a 
comparative,  instead  of  tanto^quanto,  is  rare  and  poetical.  Longe  (far) 
alone  is  frequently  used  for  mtdto,  in  prose  as  well  as  in  poetry. 

[§  489.]  17.-  Thd  ablative  is  governed  by  the  preposi- 
dons  ah  (a^  ahsj^  absque^  clam,  coram^  cum,  de,  ex  (e), 
prae,  pro,  sine,  tentis  (is  placed  after  its  case) ;  by  in  and 
sub  when  they  answer  to  the  question  where  ?  and  by  su- 
'per  in  the  gfense  of  de,  "  concerning,"  or  "  with  regard  to." 
Subter  is  joined  indifferently  either  with  the  ablative  or 
the  accusative,  though  more  frequently  with  the  latter. 

The  preposition  in  is  generally  joined  with  the  ablative, 
even  after  the  verbs  of  placing  (pono,  loco,  colloco,  statuo, 
constituo,  and  considoj^  although,  strictly  speaking,  they  ex- 
press motion:  on  the  other  hand,  in  is  commonly  used 
with  the  accusative  after  the  verbs  advenire,  adventare, 
:onvenire,  commeare,  although  we  say,  **  to. arrive  at,*'  or 
*  in  a  place,"  and  not  "  into."  When  the  place  at  which 
1  person  arrives  is  expressed  by  the  name  of  a  town,  the 
accusative  alone  is  used,  and  when  by  an  adverb,  we  must 
use  hue,  quo,  and  not  hie,  ubi,  &c. ;  e.  g.,  advenit  in  Ital 
iam,  in  provindam,  advenit •Rffmam,  Delphos,  adventun 
hue  tuus. 

In  is  used  with  either  case  after  the  verbs  of  assembling 
(congregare,  cogere.  constiparc,  and  others^,  concealing  (qh* 
dere,  condere,  ahscondere,  abstrudere),  and  including  fi%- 
cludere^  concluderej.     It  must,  howe  rp.r.  be  obse^  ved.thsl 


VOCATIVE-  OASI*.  3)17 

tue  accusative  is  prefen*ed  wheu  an  action  is  indicated, 
and  the  ablative  when  a  state  or  condition  (in  the  parti- 
ciple perfect  passive).  Sometimes  these  verbs  take  an  ab^ 
lativus  instrwmenti^  e.  g.,  dbdcre  se  litteris,  indudere  car- 
5/?rc,  verba  coT^cludere  versu,  which  is  the  case  most  fre* 
quently  with  implicare. 

A.egyptii  ac  Babylanii  omnem  curam  in  nderum  cognitionr 

posuerunt^  Cic,  de  Divin,,  i.,  42. 
Hercidem  Tiominum  fama,  beneficiorum  memor^  in  concilia 

coeleslium  collocavit^  Cic,  de  Off*^  iii.9  5. 

\^  490.]  Nott. — The  compounds  of  ^pono  sometimes  have  in  with  the 
ablative  and  sometimes  with  the  accusative,  but  more  frequently  the  for- 
mer ;  e.  g.,  aliquem  in  numero  deonan,^  8]^em  in  feiicitate  repanere.    Imponer* 
takes  in  with  the  accusative  (unless  it  is  joined  wtth  the  dative,  according 
10  ^  415) ;  e.  g.,  mUites  in  naves^  corpus  inplaastrum ;  sometimes,  however 
it  has,  Uke  pono,  in  with  the  ablative ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Nat.  Deor,^  t,  20,  im- 
posuiftis  in  cervidbus  nostris  sempitemum  aominum.    In  like  manner,  defi- 
gere^  inaculpere,  inactibere,  and  inserere  (unless  they  are  joined  with  tne 
dative)  are  usually  construed  with  m  with  the  ablative ;  e.  g.,  natura  in- 
sculpsit  in  mejitibus  nottris ;  nomen  svum  inscribunt  in  ban  ;  legati  in  vultu 
regis  defixerunt  oados.    This  and  similar  things  arise  from  a  mixture  of 
two  ideas,  that  of  the  action  implied  in  the  verb,  and  that  of  the  result 
and  hence  in  with  the  ablative  is  preferable  after  the  preterites  of  doubt- 
ful verbs.    In,  with  the  accusative,  after  esse  and  habei^  occurs  only  in  ob- 
solete formulae ;  as,  esse  {habere)  in  potestatem^  and^hers.     See  ^316. 
In  custodiam  haberi  and  in  carcerem  asservari  in  Livy,  viii.,  20,  and  xzii., 
25,  are  irregularities. 

[$491.J  "To  do  anything  with  a  person,"  is  expressed  in  Latin  by 
fttcere  with  de,  and  niore  frequently  with  the  simple  ablative  or  dative; 
fmdfada*  hoa  homines  or  hide  konrnd  T  and  in  the  passive  voice  quid  de  tne 
fiet  f  what  will  become  of  me  7  quidpeamiaejiet  ?  what  will  become  of  the 
money  T  Cicero,  quid  iUo  myoparone  factum  sit.  It  is  never  expressed  by 
evm,  tor  facere  cum  aUquo  signifies  **  to  be  of  a  person's  party." 


CHAPTER  LXXV. 

VOCATIVE    CASE, 

[§  492.]  Tbe  vocative  is  not  in  immediate  connexion 

mth  either  nouns  or  verbs,  but  is  inserted  to  express  the 

object  to  which  our  words  are  addressed. 

Note, — H  only  remains  to  observe  that  the  vocative  is  usually  nlaced 
after  one  or  two  words  of  a  sentence ;  at  least,  it  is  not  placed  at  tno  be- 
ginning without  some  special  reason,  and  the  interjection  0  is  used  only 
When  We  are  speaking  with  great  animation  or  emotion.  The  poets  not 
ancommonly  aaojpt  the  Attic  practice  of  using  the  nominative  instead  of 
Ihe  vocative ;  e.  g.,  Terence,  0  vir  fortis  atque  amicus  I  Herat.,  de  Art. 
Poet.,  292,  Vos  o  Pommlius  sanguis  !  In  some  instances  the  same  practice 
occurs  in  prose ;  as,  Liv.,  i,  24,  audi  tu,  populus  Romanus  I  viii.,  9,  e^edium 
pmtifex  piMicus  popidi  Rcmani,  praei  verba,  quUms  me  pro  UgionUms  dcwveam. 
The  nominative,  in  apposition  to  the  vocative,  occurs  in  Juvenal,  iv.,  24| 
tu.  succinctus  patria  quondam,  Crispme,  papyro ;  other  poets,  on  the  con 

F  P 


988  LATIN    uJiAMMAB 

• 

f  nury,by  a  mizlure  of  two  constructions-,  use  tne  vocative  of  words  wnic^ 
belonging  to  the  verb,  ought  to  be  in  the  .nominative ;  e.  g.,  Virg.,  Aen.,  uug 
283,  qu^buSf  Hector y  a6  one  expecUUe  venis  ?  ix.,  485,  heu  !  caroms  date-' 
jaces;  Pers.,  i.,  123,  Quicurimie  affiaU  Cratino-^-aspice.  Compare  iii.,  281 
The  passage  of  Pliny  {Hist.  Nat.^  vii.,  31),  in  which  Cicero  is  addressed, 
salve  primus  omnium  parens  patriae  appellate j  primus  in  to^a  triumphum  /{>»> 
guaeque  lauream  tnerite  I  is  of  a  different  kind,/>nmu«  signifying  **  oeing  the 
first.' 


III.  USE  OF  THE  TENSES. 

CHAPTER  LXXVI. 


[§  493.]  1.  The  tenses  of  the  Latin  verb  are  used,  on 
the  whole,  in  the  l^me  way  as  those  of  the  English  verb, 
with  the  exception  of  one  great  peculiarity,  which  is  ex- 
plained in  §  498.  (Compare  §  150.)  The  only  general 
rule  that  can  be  laid  down  is  this :  we  must  first  deter- 
mine whether  the  action  or  condition  to  be  expressed 
falls  in  the  present,  the  past,  or  the  future,  and  in  what 
relation  it  stands  to  other  actions  or  conditions  with 
which  it  is  connected.  For  example,  /  was  writing,  and 
I  had  written,^e  both  actions  belonging  to  the  past;  buv 
in  regard  to  their  relation  they  differ,  for  in  the  sentence, 
•*  I  was  toriting  when  the  shot  wa^  heard,^*  the  act  of 
writing  was  not  completed  when  the  shot  was  heard; 
whereas,  in  the  sentence,  *'  I  had  written,  when  my  fi-iend 
arrived,"  the  act  of  writing  was  completed  when  the 
other  ^tne  arrival  of  my  friend)  occurred.  The  same 
difference  exists  'between  I  shall  torite  to-morrow  and  / 
shall  have  written  to-morrow  ;  between  I  am  writing  to- 
day, i.  e.;  I  am  engaged  in  an  act  not  yet  terminated, 
and  I  have  written  to-day,  which  expresses  an  act  already 
termiqated.  This  last  is  the  proper  signification  of  the 
Latin  perfect ;  as,  advenit  pater,  the  father  has  arrived, 
that  is,  he  is  here  now.  Horace,  at  the  close  of  a  work, 
says,  escegi  monumentum  acre  perenwius  ;  and  Os\di,.jarnyue 
opus  exegi.  An  orator,  at  the  conclusion  of  his  speech, 
says,  dixi,  that  is,  "  I  have  done,"  and  Virgil  (Aen.,  ii., 
325),  with  great  emphasis,  ^27712^  Troes,Juit  Ilium,  i.  e., 
we  are  no  longer  Trojans,  Ilium  is  no  more. 

iVbte.^— Other  grammarians  distinguish  three  relations  ot  an  action :  ). 
an  action  is  lastingj  that  is,  incomplete ;  2.  it  is  completed  ;  and,  3.  not  yet 
commenced.  But  the  distinction  between  a  completed  and  a  nDt  completed 
action  excludes  everything  else,  for  an  action  either  is  taking  place  or  has 
taken  place ;  a  third  is  impossible,  and  an  action  not  yet  confimenced  does 
aot  exist  as  an  action,  except  in  the  imagination.    The  teises.  for  thf 


USB  uF  THZ  TENerca  '    838 

MLke  01  which  other  gramraarians  haTo  recourse  to  a  <hird  rt-taJon  («cn/». 
turns  sunu  aram^  ero^fui,fueramfjuero)^  form,  in  ouY  opinion,  a  distinct  con 
jugation,  in  >vhich  the  action  is  described  as  intended  (I  am,  was,  have 
been,  &c.,  intending  to  write).    Compare  ^  169. 

[§  494.]  2.  The  Latin  language,  tlierofore,  has  two 
censes  foi*  each  of  the  three  great  divisions  of  time— past, 
present,  and  future ;  one  expressing  a  complete  and  the 
other  an  incomplete  action.  And  the  six  tenses  of  the 
Latin  verh  are  thus  the  result  of  a  combination  of  time 
and  relation. 

<  scriboy  I  write,  or  am  writing— present  time,  and  action  going  on. 
\  scripsiy  1  have  written — present  time,  and  action  terminated. 

]  acmebam,  I  wrote,  or  was  writing — ^past  time,  and  action  going  on. 

<  scrhseranif  I  had  written-  -  past  time,  and  action  terminated. 

C  scnbam^  V  shall  write,  or  be  writing— future  time,  and  action  not  coii* 

<  pleted. 

(  scripserOf  I  shall  have  written— future  time,  and  action  completed. 

Nou. — It  is  not  difficult  to  see  why,  in  the  conjugation  of  verbs,  we  pro 
ferred  that  order  of  the  tenses  which  is  based  upon  the  relation  which  thej 
bear  to  one  another.  (Compare  ^  150.)  But  in  syntax,  the  above  ar 
rangement  and  division  ift  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  presenting  a  cleai 
view  of  the  kindred  nature  of  the  present  and  perfect  (for  both  are  presents, 
as  far  as  time  is  concerned),  and  of  the  use  of  the  two  futures. 

3.    The  passive  has  the  same  tenses  with  the  same 

meaning;  but  with  this  difference,  that  tney  do  not  ex 

press  an  action,  but  a  condition  orsufiering,  as  we  may 

call  it. 

i  laudoTf  I  am  praised — present  time,  and  condition  still  going  on. 
•}  laudatus  fUTTt,  1  have  been  praised— present  time,  and  condition  terml 
(         nated. 

( laudaboTf  I  was  praised— past  time — and  condition  going  on. 
{ laudatiu  eram^  I  had  been  praised— past  time,  and  condition  terminated. 

Jlaudabor,  I  shall  be  praiseo— future  time,  and  condition  not  completed. 
laudatiu  ero,  I  shall  nave  been  praised — ^future  time,  and  condition  com- 
pleted. 

[$  495.]  Note. — ^The  participle  perfect  passive,  however,  is  also  used  ia 
the  sense  of  an  adjective  to  express  a  lasting  condition ;  e.  g.,  scripta  epis* 
toUf  a  written  letter,  and  in  this  sense  the  participle  may  be  joined»witb 
all  the  six  tenses  of  esse  ;  as,  epistola  scripta  est,  erat,  erityfuit^pteratyfueriL 
All  this  may  be  said  in  L^tin ;  but  the  question  here  is  only  as  to  how  the 
tenses  of  the  passive  voice  are  formed  by  the.combination  of  the  participle 
perfect  passive  with  ncm,  eramf  and  ero.  We  here  repeat  (see  ^  168)  that 
laudatm  fueram  and  laudatus  fuero  are  sometimes  used  as  passive  tenses  for 
laudatus  eram  and  laudatus  eroj  which  arose  from  a  desire  to  express  by  the 
auxiliary  verb  esse  the  terminated  condition  already  implied  m  the  parti- 
ciple perfect  passive.  Thus.  Livy  (xxiv.,  30}  says,  cetenan  Leontinorum 
nemo—vioUOusfueratf  nobody  nad  been  injured  *,  Pompey,  in  Cic,  ad  Att^ 
viii.,  12  (C),  si  copias  m  tmum  loeum/uennt  coactae,  when  they  shall  have 
been  collected.  In  like  manner,  the  subjunctive,  laudatus  Jkdssem,  is  equiva 
tent  to  laudatus  essem  ;  e.  g.,  Ovid,  Metam.,  vi.,  156,  si  rum  sibi  visaftusset  • 
Heroid.,  vii.,  140,  si  Punica  non  Teuaris  pressa  Jtdsset  humus ;  and  laudatus 
fuerim  to  laudatus  sim.  In  the  infinitive,  laudatum  fuisse,  the  participle  i» 
fenerally  to  be  considered  as  an  adjective. 

[f  496.]  4,  The  tenses  of  the .  present  and  past  time« 


840  I.ATIN    GftAMMAE. 

chat  is,  the  present,  peiiect,  imperfect,  and  plapeifect,  tiave 
also  a  subjunctive  mood ;  as,  scribam,  scripserim^  scribe^ 
barif  scripsissem,  and  in  the  passive,  scribar^  scriptus  sifn, 
%criberei\  scriptus  essem.  For  the  relations  in  wliici  the 
subjunctive  is  required,  see  Chapter  LXXVIlx.  As 
tenses,  these  subjunctives  do  not  diner  from  the  significa- 
tion of  the  indicative. 

5.  Neither  the  active  nor  the  passive  voice  ha8  a  sub 
junctive  of  the  future,  and  the  deficiency  is  supplied  by  oth 
er  means.  When  the  idea  of  futurity  is  already  implied 
in  another  part  of  the  proposition,  the  other  tenses  of  the 
subjunctive  supply  the  place  of  the  future,  viz.,  the  pres- 
ent and  imperfect  supply  the  place  of  the  future  subjunct-  * 
ive,  and  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  that  of  the  future  per- 
fect. The  cnoice  of  one  or  other  of  these  four  subjunct- 
ives is  to  be  determined  by  the  time  expressed  by  the 
leading  verb  of  the  proposition,  and  by  the  relation  of  the 
action  being  either  completed  or  not  completed;  e.  g., 
Affirmo  tibi^  si  hoc  beneficium  mihi  tribuas,  me  magnopere 
gavisurum,  an<^  affirmabam  tibi,  si  illud  beneficium  miht 
tribueres,  magnopere  me  gavisurum.  It  is  clear  that  tribur 
as  and  tribueres  here  supply  the  place  of  the  future  sub- 
junctive, for  in  the  indicative  we  say  si  mihi  tribues^-^mag- 
\opere  gaudebo.  Again,  Affirmo  tibi,  si  hoc  beneficium  mihi 
tribueriSf  me  quamcunque  possim  gratiam  tibi  rdaturumj 
and  qffirmabat  mihi,  si  iUud  beneficium  ipsi  tribuissem,  se 
quam^cunque  posset  gratiam  mihi  relaturum,  where  tribue- 
ris  and  tribuissem  supply  the  place  of  the  future  perfect, 
for  in  the  indicative  we  should  say  si  Jwc  beneficium  mihi 
iribueris  (fix»m  tribueroj,  quamcunque  potero  gratiam  tibt 
referam,  when  you  shall  have  shown  me  this  kindness. 
The  same  is  the  case  in  the  passive  voice :  affirmo  tibi^  si 
hoc  beneficium  mihi  tribuatur,  me  magnopere  gavisurum  ; 
affirmabam  tibi,  si  illild  beneficium  mihi  tribueretur,  mag- 
nopere me  gavisurum;  affimu>  tibi,  me,  si  hoc  beneficium 
mihi  tributum  sit  {or  Juerit J,  quamcunque  possim  gratiam 
tibi  relaturum ;  affirmabam  tibi,  si  Ulud  beneficium  miht 
tributum  esset  [or  Juisset J,  quamcunque  possem  gratiam  me 
tibi  relaturum. 

Note. — This  rule  is  not  affected  by  the  supposition  (which  was  a  subject 
of  dispute  OTon  in  ancient  times ;  see  Gellius,  xviii.,  2;  Perizon.  on  Sanct, 
Minerv.^  i.,  13,  note  6)  that  tribnerim,  which  we  called  above  a  perfect  sab 
ninctive,  is  in  these  cases  the  subjunctive  of  the  future  perfect.  It  is  quite 
certain  that  this  form  is  used  wherever  the  subjunctive  of  the  future  pei 


USE    OF   rh£   TENSES.  9«) 

foct  if  wanted ;  e.  gr,  Plaut.,  Pseud.,  i.,  1, 89,  Quis  mi  tgitu  •  drMcJuKsm  nd 
detfSi  dederim  tihi?  Cic,  ad  Fam.,  i.,  7,  9,  liaec  profecto  videa  quanta  ta 
pre»siora,  quantoqtie  iUustriorafutura  aint^  qttum  alimiantum  ex  provincia  atqw 
ex  impeno  loudis  accesserit ;  de  Leg.  Agr.,  ii.,  20,  Futantf  si  qtutm  spem  e» 
ercitiu  habeatf  hanc  rum  habiturum.,  quum  viderit.  That  it  is  a  perfect  may  bt 
inferred  even  from  the  manner  in  which  the  pluperfect  of  the  subiunctiTe 
is  used  instead  of  the  subjunctive  of  the  future  perfect,  and  in  which  tb<» 
passive  of  this  tense  is  expressed.  As  the  question  is  beyond  all  doubt, 
wc  shall  quote,  in  confirmation,  only  classical  passages :  Cic,  p.  Rose 
ArrUf  38,  oatendit,  ai  aubUUa  sit  vejiditio  bononan,  iUum  peeuniam  grandem  amis- 
tunem  esse  ;  Horat.,  Semu,  i.,  1,  32,  Hoc  ments  laborem  seseferre,  senea  ut  m 
otia  tuta  recedant,  aiuntf  quum  aibi  sint  congesta  cUtaria  ;  Tacit.,  HisLf  iv.,  57, 
moan  apoliati  fuerint  quieturoa.  But  Madvig  (in  the  dissertation  above  re- 
ferred to,  p.  174)  has  proved  that  the  form  tribuerim  is  at  the  same  tim*; 
the  subjunctive  of  the  future  perfect,  and  other  applications  of  this  form 
thus  receive  their  correct  explanation.  We  retain  the  designation  of  per- 
fect subjunctive  merely  for  the  sake  of  convenience. 

[§  497.]  If  no  future  has  gone  before,  and  the  construc- 
tion of  the  sentence  requires  the  subjunctive,  the  parti- 
ciple future  active  is  employed  for  this  purpose,  with  the 
appropriate  tense  of  the  verb  esse.     The  paraphrased  con- 
jugation (conjugatio  periphrasticaj,  as  it  is  called,  prop- 
erly expresses  an  intended  action  (see  §  498) ;  but  the  sub- 
junctives vnth  sim  and  essem  are  used,  also,  as  regular  sub 
junctives  of  the  future,  the  idea  of  intention  passing  ovei 
into  that  of  futurity ;  e.  g.,  Non  duhito  quin  reditnru^  sit^ 
I  do  not  doubt  that  he  will  return ;  non  dubitaham  quin 
rediturus  essetf  I  did  not  doubt  that  he  would  return.     The 
perfects  rediturus fuerim  and  reditums  fuissem  retain  their 
original  meaning,  implying  intention ;  e.  g.,  non  duhito 
quin  rediturus  fuerit,  I  do  not  doubt  that  he  has  had  the 
intention  to  return.     (It  is  only  in  hypothetical  sentences 
that  this  meaning  passes  over  into  that  of  the  pluperfect 
subjunctive,  of  which  we  shall  speak  hereafter.)     If  we 
want  simply  to  express  futurity,  we  must  use  the  circum- 
locution vfixh.  futurum  sit  zndjuturum  esset;  e.  g.,  nescio 
numjkturum  sit,  ut  eras  hoc  ipso  tempore  jam  redierit,  and 
ncsdeham  num  JiUurum  esset,  ut  postridie  eo  ipso  tempore 
jam  redisset.     This  same  circumlocution  must  l?e  employ- 
ed in  the  passive  of  which  the  participle  future  implies 
necessity,  and  cannot  be  used  in  the  sense  of  a  simple  fu- 
ture; e.  g.,  non  dubito,  quin  Juturum  sit,  ut  laudetur,  1 
do  not  doubt  that  he  vnW  be  praised ;  multi  non  dumtahant, 
quin  Juturum  esset,  ut  Caesar  •a  Pompeio  vinccretuf,  thfil 
Caesar  would  be  conquered  by  Pompey. 

[§  498.]  6.  The  conjugatio  periplirastica,  which  is  formed 
by  means  of  the  pnrticiple  future  active  and  the  anxili*^ 

Fp2 


1 


342  LATIlf    GRAMMAR. 

ry  verb  eae,  is  peculiar  to  the  Latin  language,  and  is  usnJ 
to  express  an  intended  action,  or,  in  the  case  of  intransitive 
verbs,  a  state  or  condition  which  is  to  come  to  pass  (the 
Greek  fiiX^Xeiv),     It  has  its  six  tenses  like  the  ordinary 
conjugation.     The  realization  depends  either  on  the  will 
of  the  subject  or  on  that  of  others,  or  upon  circumstances. 
In  the  first  case,  we  say  in  Bnglish,  "  I  intend,"  or  **  am 
on  the  point  of,"  and  in  the  others, ''  I  am  to'*  (be,  or  do  a 
tiling),  1.  e.,  others  wish  that  I  should  do  it ;  e.  g.,  Sallust, 
Tug.,  5,  Bdlum  scripturus  sum^  .quod  poptdus  Roinamu 
cum  Jugurtha  gessit,  I  am  on  the  point  of  writing,  or  in- 
tend to  write;  Varro,  De  Re  Riist,  iii.,  16,  Qwum  apes 
jam  evoliturae  sunt,  consonant  vehefnenter^  when  they  are 
on  the  point  of  flying  out ;  Cic,  De  Fin.,  ii.,  26,  Me  tpsum 
igittir  ames  oportet,  non  mea,  si  veri  amici/uturi  sumus^  if 
we  are  to  be  friends ;    CkU.  Maj.^  22,  Quare  si  haec  ita 
sunt,  sic  me  colitote^  ut  deum :  sin  una* est  interUurus  ani- 
mus cum  corpore^  vbs  tamen  merAoriaTn  nostram  pie  serva- 
bitis^  which  is  not  equivalent  to  interibit^  as   interiturus 
est  intimates  that  it  is  the  opinion  of  others ;  Tacit.,  Agr.^ 
46,  Quidquid  ex  Agricola  amavinms,  manet  mansurumque 
est  in  animis  'hominum,  i.  e.,  is  to  remain.     Imperfect : 
Liv.,  xxviii.,  28,  Bli  sictU  Mamertini^  in  Sidlia  Messanam^ 
sic  Rhcgium  habituri  perpetuam  sedem  erant,  they  intended 
to  keep  Rhegium.     Future:  Cic,  De  Invent.,  i.,  16,  *^4^r 
tcntos faciemus  auditores,  si  demonstrabimus^  ea,  quae  dic^ 
turi  erimus,  magna,  nova,  incredibilia  esse ;  De  Orat.t  iL, 
24,  hoe  el  primum  praecipiemus^  quascunque  causas  erit 
acturus^  ut  eas  diligenter  penitusqtie  cognoscat;   i.,  52, 
(orator)  eorum^  apud  quos  aliquid  dget  aut  erit  acturus^ 
mentes  sensusque  degttstet  oportet.     The  future  perfect  oc* 
curs  only  in  one  passage  of  Seneca,  JSpist.^  ix.,  14,  Sapi' 
ens  tamen  non  vivet,  si  fuerit  sine  homine  victurus^  if  he 
should  be  under  the  necessity  of  living. 

The  perfect  and  pluperfect  likewise  occur  in  their 
prpper  signification ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  p.  Lig.,  8,  Quidfacturi 
Juistis?  1  ask„  what  did  you  intend  doing  there  1  Liv,» 
xxviii.,  28,  Vos  cum  Mandonio  consUia  communicastis  et 
arma  consociaturi  fuistis,  you  have  had  the  intention  of 
uniting  your  arms  with  theirs ;  Justin,  xiii.,  5,  .Alexander 
exearsurus  fuerat  cum  valida  manu  ad  Athenas  delendas, 
had  had  the  intention  of  marching,  &c  Scripturus  Jui, 
Sowever,  most  frequently  acquires  thesignificati'in  of  a 


VSK   OP  THE  TENSES.  343 

pluperfect  subjuncdvo  whep  it  occurs  in  a  sentence  con 
taining  the  result  c>f,  or  inference  fix)m  an  hypothetical 
sentence  (which  is  either  untrue  or  impossible),  according 
to  the  rule  explained  in  §  518,  that  the  Latins  comihonly 
use  the  indicative  of  a  preterite  with  verbs  implying  ^/oa- 
^ibilityy  viz.,  that  in  the. time  past  something  might  have 
happened ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  ii.,  1,  Quid  enim  JtUurum  fuit^  ^i 
Hid  plehs  agUdri  coepta  essei  tribuniciis  proceUis  ?  Can., 
iv.,  38,  Mazaeus^  si  transeuntHms  Jiumem  supervemssct, 
hand  dubie  oppressurusjiiit  incompontos^  equivalent  to  ac- 
'ddisiet  and  oppressisset. 

The  subjunctive^  of  these  tenses  are  used  in  the  same 
way  as  the  corresponding  tenses  of  the  indicative,  if  the 
construction  of  a  sentence  requires  the  subjunctive.  Hence 
teripturusjuerimf  in  hypothetical  sentences,  takes  the  place 
of  a  pluperfect  subjunctive,  and  that  not  only  after  a  pres- 
ent tetise;  as,  Liv.,  xxxL,  7,  Quu  enim  dubitat^  quin^  si 
Saguntinis  impigre  Udissemtis  opem^  totum  in  Hispaniam 
aversuri  helium  fuerimus ;  but  also  a^r  preterites;  as, 
Liv.,  iv.,  38,  nee  duhium  erat,  qu\n^  si  tarn  pauci  simul 
obire  omnia  possent,  terga  daturi  hostesfuerirU ;  xxii.,  32, 
adeo  est  inopia  coactus  (Hannibal),  ut^  nisi  tumfugae  spe- 
ciem  aheundo  timuisset^  Gallium  rcpctiturus  Jucrit ;  Cic, 
Ad  Att,^  ii.,  16,  (Pompeius  iofxpi^ero)  quidjuturumjueritf 
si  Bibulus  turn  in  Jorum  descendisset,  se  divinare  non^potu* 
isse.  The  pluperfect  subjunctive  itself,  however,  occurs 
in  Livy,  xxviii.,  24,  2,  and  xxxviii.,  46,  6. 
,  [§  499.]  7.  The  participle  future  passive  in  ndus,  or 
the  participle  of  necessity  fparticipium  necessitatis  J  ^  in 
combination  with  the  tenses  of  the  verb  esse^  forms  another 
distinct  conjugation  denotingyk^t^re  necessity,  and  not  future 
suffering;  K>r  epistola  scribenda  est,  for  example,  doe's  not 
signify  **  the  letter  is  about  to  be  written,"  which  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  simple  future  epistola  scribetur^  but  "  the 
letter  must  be  written,"  there  being  either  an  internal  or 
external  necessity  for  its  being  vmtten,  either  of  which  is 
expressed  in  English  by  "  the  letter  is  to  be  written." 
This  conjugation  may  accordingly  be  regarded  as  the 
passive  of  the  conjugatio  periphrastica.  The  tenses  are 
the  same  as  those  of  the  auxiliary  verb  esse,  and  in  so  far 
do  not  differ  from  the  general  rule ;  e.  g.,  the  future, 
TibuU.,  iv.,  5,  init.,  Qui  mihi  tc,  Cerinthe,  dies  dcdit,  Jm 
mihi  sanctus  atque  inter  festos  semper  habendus  erit;  futurs 


344  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

perfect,  in  Qumtil.,  xi.,  2,  27,-  Si  longtor  complectenda  m* 
moridjuerit  aratio,  proderit  per  partei  ediscere.  But  it  h 
lo  b§  observed  with  regard  to  the3e  tenses  of  necessity, 
that,  as  in  the  active  conjugatio  periphrastica,  the  tensea 
of  the  past  (imperfect,  pluperfect,  and  the  historical  per- 
fect) are  used  at  the  same  time,  in  hypothetical  sentences, 
as  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive  of  the  verb 
deheo^  I  must ;  e.  g.,  Sulpicius  in  Cic,  Ad  Fam,^  iv.,  5, 
Quae  si  hoc  tempore  non  suum  diem  ohisset,  paucis  post 
annis  tamen  ei  moriendumjmt^  i.  e.,  she  would  have  been 
obliged  to  die.  .  ^    * 

[§  500.1  8.  The  perfect  indicative^  both  active  and  pass- 
ive, has  m  Latin,  besides  its  signification,  of  an  action 
terminated  at  the  present  time,  tnat  of  an  aorist^  that  is, 
jt  is  used  to  relate  events  of  the  past,  which  are  simply 
conceived  as  facts,  without  any  regard  to  their  being  ter- 
minated or  not  terminated,  in  respect  to  each  other;  e.  g., 
Itaque  Caesar  armis  rem  gerere  constituity  exercitumfimSus 
Italiae  admovit^  Ruhiconem  trdnsiit^  Romam  et  aerarium 
occupavitf  Pompeium  cedentem  persecutes  est,  eumqne  in 
campis  Pharsalicis  deviciL  In  English  the  imperfect  is 
used  to  relate  events  of  the  past,  and  hence'  we  translate 
the  above  passage:  Caesar  resolved  to  use  armed  force; 
he  advanced  with  his  army  to  the  frontiers  of  Italy,  passed 
the  Rubicon,  took  possession  of  Rome  and  the  treasury, 
pursued  Pompey,  and  defeated  him  in  the  plain  of  Phar- 
salus.  But  the  Latin  imperf<^t  is  never  used  in  this 
sense ;  it  always  expresses  an  incomplete  or  continuing 
action  or  condition  of  the  past  time,  the  ancient  correct 
rule  \>em^  pcTfecto  procedit,  imperfecto  insistit  oratio, 

Nou  1. — Bi(t  even  in  historical  narrative  actions  (mt  conditions  may  \m 
represented  as  continuing,  and  we  may  introduce,  e.  g.,  into  the  above 
narrative  things  which  are  conceived  as  continuing,  and  ere  accordingly 
expressed  by  the  imperfect ;  Caesar  armis  rem,  gerere  eonstihdt :  videhat  enim 
minucorvm  in  dies  majorem  fieri  eaerdtta^  ttutrum  ahimoe  dthUHari,  rejiuUimt' 
que  avprcpinquare  himum ;  itaque  exerdtum  admovit^  &c.  Compare  the  ex- 
amples in  ^  599.  The  Latin  language  observes  this  difference  between 
the  perfect  and  imperfect  indicative  so  strictly,  that  even  the  worst  writers 
do  not  violate  the  rule.  An  Englishman,  therefore,  must  be  very  cautious 
not  to  transfer  rtie  aoristic  meaning  of  the  English  imperfect  to  the  Latin 
language.  In  Latin  the  perfect  and  im])erfect  are  sometimes  very  signifi- 
cantly put  in  juxtaposition ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  ii.,  48,  Aeqid  »•  in  oppida  recepenmtt 
murisque  se  tenebant  {recepmint  describing  the  momentary  act  or  simple 
fact,  and  tenebant  the  continued  action) ;  Cic,  TtteCf  i,  30,  Jta  emmcent*- 


batt  itaoue  disseruit  (the  last  word  introducing  the  soeech  delivered  ujKm  a 
"  ;ur  ar  occasion).     The  followinjr  passage  ol  Cic 

1  mum  »cripiit  Moeleniitmi 
for  the  imperfect  makej  us  think  of  the  time  during  which  he  spoke 


particurar  occasion).     The  following  passage  ol  Cicero  {Omt.,  36)  it 
striking,  but  most  stnct*"  correct :  IHeebat  meliue 


ITSB   OF   TUB   TBNSES.  345 

wtkweas  the  perfect  expresses  simply  an  opiiiion  as  a  sort  of  nrumi. 
Compare  de  Divin.^  il,  37,  ^  78.  It  only  remains  here  to  mention  the  U6« 
of  the  imperfect  in  historical  narrative,  amon^  perfects,  to  denote  actions 
which  remmned  incomplete.  The  explanation  is  implied  in  the  foregoing 
remarks.  In  Tacitus,  e.  g.,  we  read,  Ann.,  il,  34,  Inter  qua  L.  Piso  am' 
biitan  fori^  corrupta  judiaa — incrrpane,  abire  se  ei  cedere  urbe  testabatuTf  et 
nmul  curiam  reUnqvdHU.  Commotua  est  Tiberiux,  et  quamquam  JPiaanetm 
mitibua  verbis penmdsisset,mropinquos  quoque  ejus  intpidit,  vt abeuntem  auctori' 
tote  vd  precibus  tenerent.  The  imperfect  reUnquebai  is  used  here  to  indicate 
that  hie  intention  of  leaving  the  caria  was  not  carried  into  e^t,  for  he 
was  repeated  ly^stopped,  ana  at  last  he  remained.  This  is  quite  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  signification  of  the  imperfect  (see  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat , 
Praef.,  lib.  i.,  ^  26,  where  he  speaks  of  the  signature  of  week  artist,^ 
iiroiet),  and  also  occurs  elsewhere,  even  in  Cicero  (compare  Div.  in  Coec, 
17,  ^  55),  although  otherwise  he  expresses  the  same  meaning  by  a  circum- 
locution with  a)q>it. 

CotUicuere  emnes,  intentique  ora  tenebant : 

Inde  toro  pater  Aeneas  sic  orsus  ab  alto  (est),  Yirg.,  Aen.,  ii.,  init. 

[^  501.]  Note.  2. — In  Latin,  as  in  many  modem  languages,  the  joreseni 
tense  is  often  used  instead  of  the  aorist  of  the  past,  when  the  wnter  of 
speaker  in  his  imagination  transfers  himself  to  the  past,  which  thus  be 
comes  to  him  present,  as  it  were.  Narrators  by  this  figure  frequently 
render  their  descriptions  very  animated ;  but  in  regard  to  dependant 
sentences,  they  often  regard  such  a  present  as  a  regular  perfect,  and, 
accordingly,  use  the  imperfect  or  pluperfect  in  the  dependant  sentence 
which  follows.  E..g.,  Cic,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  18,  Quod  vbi  Verres  avdivity  sic  c» 
piditate  injlammatus  est  non  solum  inspictendiy  verum  etiam  auferendi,  vt  Dio- 
dortan  ad  se  vocaret  ae  posceret  (pocula).  /Ue,  qui  Ula  non  invUus  haberet, 
respondet  se  lalybad  non  habere :  Melitae  apud  queyidam  propinquum  suum 
reliquisse.  Turn  iste  (Verres)  continuo  mittit  homines  certos  Melitam  ;  scribit 
ad  quosdam  MelitenseSj  ut  ea  vasa* perquirant :  rogat  Diodorum,  tU  ad  Ulvm 
suum  propinquum  det  Utteras :  nihil  ei  longms  videbcOWf  quaim  dvm  illud  vide 
ret  argentum.  Diodorus,  homojrugi  ac  dUigenSy  qui  sum  servare  vellet,  adpro' 
pinquum  suum  scribit,  vt  iis,  qui  aVerre  vemssent,  responderet,  illud  argentum 
se  pauds  illis  diebus  misisse  Lilybaeum.  We  here  see  how  the*  historical 
present  is  followed  both  by  the  present  and  the  imperfect  subjunctive,  and, 
on  the  whole,  the  impenect  is  perhaps  the  more  frequent  of  the  two. 
Cic,  in  Cat.,  iii.,6,  Deinde  L.  Flaccus  et  C.  Pomptinus,  praetores,  quod  eorum 
opera  forti  usus  essem,  laudantur. 

[§602.]  9.  The  peculiar  character  of  the  Latin  imper- 
fect, therefore,  is  to  express  a  repeated  action,  manners 
customs,  and  instituticms,  which  are  described  as  continu- 
ing at  some  given  period  of  the  past*time,  and  is  invari- 
ably used  where  in  English  the  compound  tense,  "  I  waa 
writing,*'  "  he  was  waiting,"  is  employed. 

Socrates  dicere  solehat  (or  dicehatj,  orrmea  in  eo,  guod  sd 

reTUf  satis  esse  eloquentes,  Cic,  De  Orat,^  i.,  14. 
Anseres  Romae  puhlice  alehantur  in  Capitolio, 

Note  1. — An  action  often  repeated,  however,  may  also  be  conceived  as  ^ 
simple  historical  fact,  and  accordingly  be  expressed  by  the  perfect.  Hence 
we  may  say,  Socrates  solitus  est  dicere,  just  as  well  as  solebat ;  but  the  idcv 
is  different-  Solebat  reminds  us  of  the  whole  period  of  his  life ;  wherea<« 
toUluM  est  describes  the  habit  of  Sosrates  simply  as  an  historical  fact. 

[V  503.]  Note  2.— It  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  epistolary  style  in  Latin  thai 
tke  writer  transfer?  himself  to  the  time  at  which  the  letter  fs  read  by  tb< 


846  LATIN    GRAMMAm. 

oerson  <o  whom  it  is  addressed ;  and  hence  the  writer  speaks  of  uMcaa 
and  conditions  in  the  same  terms  as  he  would  use  if  he  were  present  Bt 
the  moment  the  letter  is  received.  In  cimsequence  oi  this  h»  ufHiuest^v 
uses  the  imperfect  and  perfect,  where  in  English  we  should  use  the  pr«a 
ent ;  e.  g.,  Haee  seribebam  medui  node,  I  write  this  at  midnight  (or  •ctpsi 
haec  med^  noeUi  when  the  action  is  to  be  described  as  a  completed  one*  and 
not  as  going  on  at  the  time) ;  N&vi  nikU  nuno  trot  apud  not,  ngvidem.  €erta 
tibi  afftrri  t)i«,  there  are  no  news  here ;  Quae  ad  earn  diem,  quum  haee  scribe' 
bam^  audiveramu»,  manis  rumor  indtbeOwr.  Dicebani  tamen,  &C.,  what  we 
have  heard  till  the  moment  I  write  this,  6ic. ;  but  people  sav,  &c.  As 
these  preterites  are  only  formal,  thej  may  be  joined  with  the  adverbs  «mii^ 
etiamnunc ;  instead  of  which  real  preterites  would  require  tune  and  ttiam' 
hun,  Comp.  Cic,  ad  Att.,  v.,  16,  4 ;  xvL,  3,  6;  od  Qutn/.  Frat.,  iii,  1,2 
But  this  peculiarity  is  very  frequently  not  observed. 

[§  504.]  10.  The  perfect  subjunctive  baa  not  this  mesm- 
in^  of  an  aorist,  but  is  always  used  to  express  a  termina- 
tea  action  with  reference  to  the  present  time,  and  thua 
completely  answers  to  the  perfect  in  English.  The  im- 
perfect subjunctive,  6n  the  other  hand,  in  historical  narra- 
tives, has  the  aorist  sense  of  the  perfect  indicative,  when 
past  events  are  mentioned  (with  the  conjunction  utj,  with- 
out reference  to  the  action  or  condition  being  completed 
or  not 

This  difference  is  easily  perceived ;  e.  g.,  puer  de  tecto 
(lecidit,  ut  crusfregerit^  "the  boy  has  fallen  from  the  roo^ 
so  that  he  has  broken  his  leg,'*. is  not  a  narrative,  but  the 
Btatement  of  an  event  completed  at  the  present  time ;  but 
jnier  de  tecto  decidit,  ut  cms  frangeret^  "  the  boy  fell  from 
the  roof,  so' that  he  broke  his  leg,''  is  a  real  historical  nar 
rative,  for  the  perfect  decidit  is  here  used  in  its  aorist  sense, 
and  the  impeifect  subjunctive  supplies  its  place  in  the 
dependent  sentence. 

A  comparison  with  the  English  language  thus  leads  to 
this  conclusion,  that  the  perfect  and  imperfect  subjunctive 
are  used  in  Latin  in  the  same  sense  as  iii  English;  but 
the  perfect  indicative  in  Latin,  as  an  historical  tense,  an- 
swers to  the  English  imperfect,  and  the  Latin  imperfect 
indicative  to  the  English  paraphrased  tense  vrith  "  I  wa«" 
and  a  participle. 

Note.— The  principle  of  the  Latin  language  relative  to  the  use  of  tlie 
perfect  indicative  and  the  imperfect  subjunctive  in  historical  narratives  ia 
attested  by  so  many  passages  that  it  is  unnecessary  here  to  mention  any 
m  confirmation  of  it.  But  we  must  observe  that  Latin  writers,  neverthe* 
less,  sometimes  use  the  perfect  subjunctive  in  the  historical  sense*  whid) 

firoperly  belongs  only  to  the  indicative  of  this  tense.  This  may  have  arisen 
rom  a  feeling  that  there  ought  to  be  a  tense  to  express  actions  in  thiii 
progress  in  a  dependent  sentence  (in^e  subionctive),  since  the  imperfisci 
originally  and  properly  expressed  a  continued  and  incomplete  action ,  3u6 
in  this  manne*  we  account  for  the  perfect  subjanctive  which  now  and  ihei 


U9E  OF  THE  .TENSES.  347 

#Aeitkt  u  Cie«ro  after  the  lustorical  forms  invetuui  et*  or  /tul;  e.  g^  ^ 
Muren.f  11,  mventus  est  tcriba  qiudam,  Cht,  Flavmt,  qui  camicum  oculos  con 
fixerit  €t  singuUa  diebus  editcendos  fastoa  popuh  proposueritf  &c. ;  m  Verr.^ 
IT.,  26,  NuUa  domua  in  SicUia  Itct^es  fuit,  vbi  iUe  mm  Uxtrinvm  intiif^erit ; 
Ufr,  after  all,  if  the  construction  is  altered  so  as  to  make  the  dependent 
sentence  independent,  wo  are  obliged  to  use  the  historical  tense ;  i.  e.,  the 
perfect  mdicatiTe.  But  the  prevailing  custom  was  to  assign  to  the  imper* 
foot  subjunctive  the  sense  of  an  aorist ;  and  the  perfect  subjunctive  in  an 
historical  narrative  can  only  be  regarded  as  an  exception  ^om  the  rule, 
however  frequently  it  mav  occur.  Nepos  uses  the  perfect  subjunctive  in 
UiM  sense  more  freqiien^y  than  other  writers ;  and  he  thereby  shows  his 
fiesire,  in  his  short  h.^toriicai  sketches,  to  put  the  facts  one  by  the  side  of 
the  other,  rather  than  to  give  a  progressive  historical  narrative.  For  ex> 
ample,  in  his  life  of  Hannibal,  where  he  says,  Hie  mUem  lubtt  henditaie  re> 
lic^an  odiMtm  patermtm  erga  Romanos  sic  anuervavU,  vt  prnu  animam,  ipuun 
id,  deposuerit — Antiochvm  tatUa  cupiditate  incendit  bellandit  vt  wque  a  rubro 
mari  arma  cotuUua  »it  inferre  Italiaey  we  at  once  perceive  this  character  oi 
his  style ;  though  in  other  passages  he  uses  the  imperfect  subjunctive,  and 
gives  to  his  narrative  a  real  historical  character.  In  Livy,  too,  the  per 
feet  subjunctive  is  found  in  this  sense,  but  only  now  and  then,  and  more 
for  the  sake  of  variety  than  on  any  definite  principle ;  hence,  when  in  i.,  3, 
he  says,  Tantum  tamen  opes  creverant,  at  movers  anna  nee  Mezentius  nee  idh 
alii  accolae  oust  sint,  instead  of  the  more  usual  awierent,  it  cannot  affect  the 
general  rule  concerning  the  consecutio  tempontm, 

[§  505.]  11.  The  duratioti  and  completion  of  an  action 
in  reference  to  another  are  expressed  in  Latin  more  accu- 
rately than  in  English,  by  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect. 
Wlien  one  action  must  be  completed  before  another  can 
t>egin,  the  former  is  invariably  expressed  by  the  pluperf ; 
'^  g.,  quum  domum  intrasset^  quum  in  Jorum  venisset^  ani- 
madvertit ;  quum  amicum  conspexisset^  dixit,  &c.,  ''  when 
te  had  entered  the  house,  he  perceived."  We  are  less 
accurate  in  saying  "when  I  entered  the  house,  I  per- 
ceived," or  "  I  entered  the  house,  and  perceived."  But 
this  cannot  be  done  in  Latin,  and  the  pluperfect  is  used 
wherever  the  relation  of  the  actions  permits  it  Exam- 
ples are  extremely  numerous.- 

Tjysaiider  quum  per  speculatores  comperisset^  vulgum  Athe 

memium  in  terram  exisse  navesque  paene  incmes  rdictas. 

tempus  rei  gerendae  non  dimisit,  Nep.,  Aldb,^  8. 

Note, — Considering  this  general  accuracy  of  the  Latin  language  in  ex- 
pressing the  natural  succession  of  actions,  which  is  evident,  also,  in  the 
application  of  the  participle  perfect  (see  ^  635),  it  is  the  more  surprising 
that,  ni  interrogative  expressions,  the  imperfect  subjunctive  is  used  so  fre- 
quently wh^  we  should  have  expected  the  pluperfect ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  TWc., 
v«,  37,  Socratss  quam  n^aretier  (for  rogaius  ssset)  cujatem  se  esse  dicer U, 
Mmubmumf  inquii, 

[§  506.]  It  must  be  obseiVed  here  (1)  that  the  conjnnc* 
lion  dum  (while,  as)  is  generally  joined  with  the  present 
indicative,  even-  when  events  of  the  past  time  are  spoken 
^f,  and  when  we  should  consequontiy  expect  either  tjie 


348  LATLV  OlAMMAK. 

imperflsct  or  porfoct ;  e.  g.,  dum  paucas  res  teHiiere  noio 
omnei  fortanoi  perdidi,  Cicero,  Divin.^  17  ;  dum  egcpecUu 
quidnam  sihi  certi  afferatur^  ante  noctem  non  discesni  ;  dum 
ego  in  Sicilia  sum,  nulla  statua  dejecta  est^  in  Verr,,  ii..  66. 
(2)  That  in  hiatorical  narratives  the  conjunctions ^hm^sms/ti 
(or  posteaquamjf  ubi,  ubi  primum,  ut^  ut  primum,  quum 
primumy  simtd  ut,  simid  ac^  simul  atque  (or  iimul  alone), 
all  of  which  are  equivalent  to  the  English  ''  as  soon  as,'' 
are  generally  joined  with  the  historical  perfect,  and  not 
with  the  pluperfect,  as  might  be  expected  from  the  8u^«- 
cession  of  the  actions  indicated  by  these  conjunctions. 
Hence  we  say,  ubi  illud  audivit^  nuntium  ad  regem  misit; 
ut  Lacedaemonem  venit^  adire  ad  magittratus  noluit ;  kimuL" 
atque  provincia  ei  obvenit,  statim  quaerere  coepit,  &c. 

Dum  ea  Ratnani  parant  consultantque,  jam  Sagumum 
summa  vi  oppugnabatur^  Liv.,  xxi.,  7. 

Unus  ex  captivis  domum  abiit^  quod  JaUaci  reditu  in  castra 
jurejurando  se  dxsolvisset,  ,Quod  ubi  innotuit  relatumqtu 
ad  senatum  est^  omn^  ceniuerunt  comprehendendum  el 
cuitodibi^  publice  datis  deducendum  ad  Hdnnibalem 
esse,  Liv.,  xxii.,  61. 

[^  507.  a.]  Note  l.^^Dum  (wkile),  with  the  preeent,  oeeura  very  tro 
quentl^ ;  but  it  is  very  surprising  to  find  it  sometimes  used  by  Livy  in 
transitions  from  one  event  to  another ;  for  example,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  36th  book,  Dum  in  Asia  bellum  geritWt  ne  m  Aetolit  quiSem  irmetae  m 
fuertmt.  Compare-  Dralienborch  on  Livy,  t,  40 ;  Heinrich  on  Uic.,  Part, 
ined.,  p.  75 ;  Heindorf  on  Horace,  Sat.,  i.,  5,  72.  However,  that  the  pros* 
ent  is  not  absolutely  necessary,  is  proved  by  snch  passages  as  Cic,  p. 
Rote,  Jm.,  32,  Iham  SvUa  in  aUU  r^kua  trot  ocaipahUt  eroM  mlereo,  qm  mda 
wlnerilms  tnedereniur  ;  Liv.,  x.,  36,  dumha^  in  Apulia  g«rAantWf  Samnitea 
— non  tenuerunt ;  Nep.,  Hann.f  2>  Quae  divina  res  dum  conficithaturj  quaesivii 
a  me.  The  perfect,  also,  is  sometimes  joined  with  dum  ;  as,  de  Fin.,  ii,  13, 
dum  vduerunt — tustulertmt.  Dum  in  toe  Bfose  of  aumuUu  (as  long  as), 
however,  when  referring  to  the  past  time,  is  regularly  joined  with  the  im- 
perfect. 

[^  507.  fr.]  With  rcis^rd  to  our  rule  lespecting  the  conjunctkms  which 
signify  *'as  soon  as,"  it  is  a  remarkable  point  that  the  Latins,  contrary  to 
their  usilal  practice,  here  neglect  to  express  that  one  action  was  com- 
pleted before  the  second  be|^.  The  petfsct  it  less  necessary,  for  its 
place  is  supplied  not  only  by  the  historical  present  (which  is  easily  ex- 
plained from  ^  501),  but  fretquently  by  the  imperfect,  at  least  in  connexion 
with  the  principal  conjunction,  ^wft^uom  ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  i.,  54,  Ita^fpoetiquam 
satis  wrium  coUectum  videbat,  s  stds  umtm  Romam  ad  patrem  mtttil;  iii^  4^ 
postquam-^^nemo  adibai,  domum  se  recepit;  and  so  in  many  ether  passages 
of  Livy.  But  the  surprising  point  is,  that  the  )>luperfect  is  not  used,  even 
whe^e  the  completion  of  the  action  introduced  by  those  conjunctions  ii 
manifest ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  p.  Rose.  Afn.,  6,  posteaquam  victoria  (nobilitatis)  com- 
sdtuta  est  ab  armisque  recessimus — erat  tile  Rmmaefiequens*  There  are  ooty 
few  exceptions  in  which  the  pluperfect  is  used ;  as  Cic.,  m  Vsnr^  iv.,  24, 
mosteaquam  tantam  multitudinem  coU^ereU  embl^matitm — instituit  offietnam 
^yracusts ;  and  hence  the  ordinary  mode  of  expU ining  an  ablative  abs^ 


^Sm   OF    TUB   TEN8SS.  MS 

i«ti9  byfo^ifMom  vvUli  the  pluperfect  cannot  be  approved  (A.  It  ig  only  ii 
descnptiOBs  of  repeated  conditions  in  the  past  time  that  the  pluperfect  i« 
indispensable;  as,  Nep.,  Alcib.,  1,  Idem  shrndac  sb  rtrmterat  netjue  causa 
mteMtf ,  ^iwire  ammi  loWem  perjferret,  bunarioaus  reperUbaimr,  Postquam  is 
farther  joined  with  the  pluperfect  when  a  long  or  a  definite  space  of  time 
intervenes  between  a  preceding  and  a  subsequent  event,  so  that  there  is 
no  connexion  between  them ;  e.  g.,  Nep.,  Htmn.,  8,  Hanmbai  anno  tertio 
fOMtmum  dtma  prqftig§rat.  atm  ^mnqm  navibtu  Afrwam  accttnt.  It  is  re- 
markable to  find,  also,  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive  joined 
with  pottquam  ;  as  in  Cic,  p.  jLeg.  Man.,  4,  qm  posteaguam  maxmuu  aedi- 
Jicmaaet  onuuaOfut  cku9e$ — legate  me  littenaa  muit;  nnap,  Cbimt.t  64,  181 
^  Faii.*u.f  19.  They  may.  However,  be  explained  from  ^  570.  J'be  pas- 
sage p.  lUg.  DeioLt  13, 36,  is  doubtful. 

£6  508.]  Note  2. — The  pluperfect  is  sometimes  used  by  historians  instead 
of  the  historical  tense  merely  to  express  the  rapidity  with  which  actiorwi 
succeed  one  another,  one  being  described  as  already  completed  before  anv 
thing  else  could  begin ;  e.  g.,  Curt.,  x.,  17,  Nee  muria  vrUa  luctus  confine 
iMhtr,  Med  procrimam  regionem  ah  ea,  deinde  ntagnam  partem  Asiae  eh  2C\^ 
phraUn  tajUi  maU  fama pervaaerat.  Here  the  pluperfect  is  used  without 
reference  to  a  subsequent  action,  and  is  equivalent  to  the  English,  "  th  > 
veport  immediately  spread,"  iS^. 

[§  509.]  12.  In  the  use  of  the  twofiUures  the  Latin  Ian 
guage  is  likewise  moiie  accurate  than  the  English^  Foi 
when  a  future  action  is  spoken  of,  either  in  the  future  oi  . 
in  the  imperative  (or  in  the  subjunctive  used  impera- 
tively)^ ana  another  is  joined  wit£  it,  which  has  not  yel 
come  to  pass,  the  latter,  also,  is  put  in  the  future,  if  the 
actions  are  conceived  as  continuing  together,  and  in  the 
future  perfect,  if  the  one  must  be  completed  before  the 
other  can  begin.  This  is  perfectly  in  accordance  with 
the  ideas  expressed  by  these  tenses ;  but  it  must  be 
specially  mentioned,  because  in  English  we  oflen  use 
the  present  instead  of  the  future,  especially  in  the  case  of 
the  verbs  "I  can**  and  "I  will;"  e.  g,,Jaciam  sipotero, 
I  shall  do  it,  if  I  can ;  facito  hoc^  uhi  voles ,  do  it  when  you 
Tjfill ;  because,  owing  to  the  awkwardness  of  the  future 
j>erfect,  we  frequently  supply  its  place  either  by  the  sim- 
ple fiiture  or  by  the  present ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  De  Orat.^  ii.,  65, 
ut  sementemjeceris,  ita  metes,  as  you  sow,  so  will  you  reap. 
We  must  here  draw  particular  attention  td  the  aj^lication 
of  tho  future  perfect  m  hypodietical  sentences,  where  the 
conclusion  depends  upon  the  fulfilment  of  the  preceding 
condition ;  e.  g.,  si  invenero^  tecum  communicaho,  for  which 
we  very  inaccurately  say,  "  when  1  find  it,"  or  "  when  J 
haye  found  it." 

Nuttiram  si  sequemur  ducefi,  numqndm  aherrabimtis,  Cic, 

.    De  Of.,  i.,  28. 

Adolescentes  quum  rdaxart  animos  et  dare  sejucw^litaii 


150  LATIN   OftAMMAR. 

voleiti,  cavean*  iniemperanHam,  memmerint  verecundiam^ 

Cic,  De  Off.,  i..  34. 
De  CarOiagint  vet  en  non  cmte  desmami  quam  illam  cxe^ 

sam  esse  cognovero,  Cic,  Cat.  Maj.,  6. 
Mcdevolentiae  homifium  in  me,  si  poteris,  occurrcs,  si  nam 

potueriSf  hoc  cwuolaherey  quod  me  de  stutu  meo  nMllis  com* 

tumeliis  deterrere  posswU,  Cic.»  ad  Fam.,  xL,  11. 

[^  510.]  Note. — ^When  the  leading  sentence  contains  the  present  impem 
ave,  n  is  often  joined  with  the  present ;  as,  defende  n  potet  (Cic,  PkH^.,  iu^ 
44) ;  perfice  si  pates  (Cic,  Tusc.^  i.,  8) ;  expone  nisi  molestum  est  (ibid.,  i.,  J  2) 
and  nardly  ever  with  the  future.    (See  Chap.  LXXIX.)    The  present 
with  si,  instead  of  the  future,  is  sometimes  found  also  in  otner  connexions; 
e.  g.,  Cic,  in  'Verr.,  i.,  2,  Si  reus  eondemnatur,  desment  homines  dicere,  his 
judiciis  pecuniam  plurimum  posse,  sin  ahwlvitur,  desinemus  nos  de  judiciis 
transferendis  recusare  ;  and  very  frequently  in  the  comic  poets.    The  rule, 
however,  is  that  the  future  should  be  used.  Attention  was  above  directed 
to  the  practice  of  using  the  future  of  the  verbs  |n»m  and  veils  with  the  con 
junction  si,  and  with  the  same  accuracy  these  verbs  are  used  in  the  future 
perfect,  when  the  possibility  or  the  intention  of  doing  a  thing  must  be 
proved  before  the  action  relating  to  it  can  take  place.    Hence  we  say,  «a 
voluero,  sipotuero,  si  Ucuent,  si  placuerit,  si  otium  habuero,  instead  of  wnich 
we  shoula  use  either  the  present  or  future  ;'e.  g.,  Cic,  Tusc,  i.,  43,  Fe- 

•  runtamen^  Crito,  si  me  asseqiU  potueris,  sepelito  ;  de  Re  PvU.,  i.,  43,  Turn  JU 
illud,  quod  apud  Platonem  est  lucuknts  dictum,  si  modo  id  expritmers  XMtms 
votuero  ;  de  L^.,  ii.,  18,  Plato,  si  modo  rnterpretari  potuero,  his  fere  verins 
utitur,  for  he  must  have  made  the  attempt  to  translate  Plato  before  he  can 

'  make  him  speak.    See  Heinrich  on  Cic,  de  JU  PtM,,  p.  48,  folL  • 

[^  511.]  We  a4d  the  following  remarks  on  the  farther  use  of  the  future 
perfect.  As  this  tense  expresses  a  future  action  as  completed,  it  acquires 
be  meaning  of  the  simple  future,  implying,  however,  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  action  will  be  completed.  This  occurs,  in  the  first  place,  when 
mother  future  perfect,  or  any  other  tense  supplying  its  place,  is  contained 
m  the  leading  sentence,  so  that  the  two  actions  are  oantempoianeons ; 
e.  g.,  Cic.  J  ad  Pom.,  z.,  13,  ^d  M.  AnUtnixtm  onpressirii,  is  hdhan  atr^ecerit ; 
in  Verr.,  u.,  62,  Da mUii  Aoc  (i  e., sihocmihi  dederis),jam  tiU  manmam  p» 
tern  defensionis  praecideris  ;  Liv.,  xxii.,  54,  wtn  aggreaiar  narrare,  quae  edis- 
sertando  (i  e.,  si  edissertavero)  minora  veto  fecero  ;  Cic,  ad  Att.,  v.,  1,  Tu 
invUa  mxdieres,  ego  acduero  pueros.  But  the  future  perfect  has  the  meaning 
of  a  quickly  completed  future  action,  also,  without  any  such  express  rela« 
tion  to  another  action ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  p.  Plane.,  33,  sed  medhts' fidius,  muAb 
titius  meam  saltUem  pro  te  eijecero,  quam  On.  PlancH  sahOem  tradidsro ;  ad 
Att.,  iiL,  19,  Nusquamfaeilius  hone  miserrimam  viUtm,  v^  sustentabo,  «cj,  quod 
est  melius,  aijecero  ;  ix.,  7,  De  triuinypho  tibi  assentior  :  quern  quidem  totumjadls 
et  libenter  abjwero  ;  de  Re  PtM.,  i,  13,  Nihil  est  adhuc  disputatum,  et  quomam 
est  integrwn,  Ubenter\ibi,  Laeli,  vide  so  disaerm,  eqtddsm  ooneassenk  This  is 
particu^rly  frequent  with  the  future  perfect  videro,  because  the  act  of  see 
mg  is  most  easuy  accomplished ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  viii.,  33,  Videro  eessurusnt  pro- 
AHKotiMi  sis,  cui  rex  RtAnanus  TuUus  HostUius  cessit,  which  ia  not  irrocoii> 
cila^  with  the  expressions  moa,  post,  alias,  alio  loeo  videro,  for  m  rapid 
completion  can  only  be  spoJLen  of  at  tne  moment  when  the  action  is  W 
ginning ;  o.  g.,  Cic,  de  Fin.,  i.,  10,  35,  quaefuerit  causa,  mox  videro  ;  deR* 
rtdU.,  ii,  9,  kabuit  plebem  in  cUentelas  principum  descriptam,  quod  qmmUat 
faurit  utiUtati,  post  videro;  Acad.,  ii.,  44,  recte  secusne,  alias  viderimus, 
{fence  this  mode  of  speaking  generally  implies,  that  for  the  moment  a 
thing  is  to  be  dismissed  from  our  thoughts,  and  can  scarcely  be  taken  into 
■erious  consideration.  In  the  comic  write rs  the  future  perfect  is  stil 
vote  frequently  used  instead  of  the  simple  fiHuie. 


US£   OF   TUB    TENSCS.  35l 

[§  512.]  13.  The  tenses  of  the  indicative  may  be  coi» 
tiected  in  any  way  which  the  ^intention  of  the  spoakez 
may  require ;  e.  g.,  I  am  writing  now,  but  this  time  yes* 
terday  I  took  a  walk ;  1  know  the  person  whom  you  will 
see  to-morrow.  But  in  dependent  sentences,  that  is,  in 
the  subjunctive,  similar  tenses  alone  can  be  connected 
with  one  another,  that  is,  the  tenses  of  the  present  (pres- 
ent smd  perfect)  and  the  tenses  of  the  past  (imperfect  and 
pluperfect).  In  the  rules  respecting  what  is  usually  called 
the  succession  of  tenses,  but,  more  correctly,  the  dependence 
of  sentences  upon  one  another,  everything  depends  upoi> 
the  time,  for  the  present  time  is  suited  only  to  the  present, 
and  the  past  to  the  pastf  the  relation  of  an  action  depend 
ing'only  upon  itself  is  never  doubtful.  Hence  we  have 
only  to  remember  that  the  perfect  naturally,  and  in  the 
subjunctive  always,  expresses  the  present  time,  and  that, 
consequently. 

The  Present  and  Perfect  are  followed  by  a  Present 
•  and  Perfect)  and 

The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  by  an  Imperfect  and 

Pluperfect ; 

E.  g.,  sew  quid  agas  and  sdo  quid  egeris;   audivi  quid 

agas  and  audivi  quid  egeris ;   but  sciehane  quid  ageres 

and  scieham   quid  egisses ;    audiveram  quid  ageres  and 

andiveram  quid  egisses. 

Note, — ^The  Latin  lane^ge,  however,  is  not  so  constrained  as  not  to 
be  able,  in  cases  where  the  sense  requires  it,  to  make  presents  dependent 
upon  preterites,  and  preterites  upon  presents.  It  is  sometimes  necessary 
that  a  preterite  should  be  followed  by  a  present,  viz.,  when  the  result  of  a 
past  action  extends  to  the  present  time ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Brvt.t  88,  Ardebat  autem 
norteimu$  cupiditaU  dicendi  «tc,  ut  in  nuUo  unquam  flagrantiMS  9tudmm.  vidf- 
cm,  that  is,  that  up  to  this  time  I  have  never  seen ;  Nep.,  Ariatid.,  1, 
'Qitamqumn  adeo  exceUebat  Aristides  abstinentiot  tU  unut  po»t  horiunttm  memo- 
*iam  eognomine  Juatut  ntappeUtOuM:  tamena  Themistocie  coUabefachu  teattda 
ilia  nUio  d§eem  annonan  nmlUUu$  est.  Here,  too,  the  perfect  subjunctive 
makes  the  dependent  sentence  proceed  from  the  past,  or  the  time  to  which 
t^  action  of  the  leading  verb  belongs ;  and  the  result,  combined  with  the 
author's  opinion,  is  extended  to  the  present  time :  *'  he  was  the  only  one  in 
the  whole  range  of  history,  down  to  the  present  time,  that  was  sumamed 
the  Just"  Such  variations  mu^t  be  admissible,  although  no  special  rule 
is  given  on  their  account,  for  they  do  not  often  occur.  (Comp.  my  note  on 
Cic,  m  Verr,,  v.,  10,  in  fin.^  and  Cic,  de  Fin.,  ii.,  20,  init)  A  preterite*  on 
the  other  hand,  might  follow  a  present,  when  the  dependent  sentence  is  to 
express  a  continuing  action  in  the  past,  as  in* Cic,  in  Verr.,  v.,  11,  Scitote 
iifpidmn  ene  in  SHeHia  nuUum  ex  He  opptdis^  in  quibus  eoneittere  praetorea  et 
eenveniwn  agere  eoleant,  quo  in  oppido  non  iHi  deleeta  muUer  ad  UbCdinem  eeaet 
[eieet  here  alludes  to  the  whole  period  of  the  praetorship),  but  such  sen- 
tences can  only  bo  considered  as  exceptions,  and  yu«ni  would  be  more  reg- 
nlar.  .  There  are  also  passages  in  ancient  writers  which  cannot  be  ex* 
plained,  and  must  l^e  considered  as  irregularities :  seo  ray  note  on  Cir  ,•• 


353  LATIS   GRAMMAR. 

Vgrr,,  L,  30,  75 ;  and  thus  we  sometimes  find,  especially  ut  Caesai,  aa  ir 
regular  tmnsition  from  the  preterite  of  the  leading  verb  to  the  present  of 
the  dependent  one.  We  cannot  tieie  enter  upon  the  detail  of  sucn  mat 
ters,  and  we  shall  only  add  the  remark  that,  when  the  hypothetical  imper- 
fect subjunctive  is  followed  by  a  present  or  perfect  subjunctive,  the  above 
rule  is  not  violated,  because  the  imperfect  of  the  subjunctive  refers  to  the 
present  time ;  e.  g.,  Sallust,  Cat.t  7,  ^demorare  passem  (differs  from  memo' 
rare  possum  only  by  the  hypothetical  form  of  the  expression),  q%ubus  in  lads 
maximas  hostium  copias  p<ypulus  Romanus  parva  marm  fuderitt  quae  tirbes,  na-^ 
tura  munitaSfjmgnando  ceperitt  m  ea  res  lon^ns  nos  ab  incepto  trakeret.  (jpw- 
disset  would  nave  continued  the  hypothetical  expression,  but  actual  facta 
are  here  meant.)  But  even  in  cases  like  this  the  imperfect  is  generally 
used  in  the  dependent  sentence  for  the  sake  of  the  succession  of  tenses ; 
as,  Cic,  de  Fin.,  i.,  8,  Quid  enim  me  prohiberet  Eptcureum  esse,  si  proharem 
quae  iUe  diceret^  quum  praesertitn  iUa  perdiscere  Indus  esset^  where  we  should 
have  expected  dicit  and  sit ;  ad  Fam.,  xiiL,  66,  A.  Caecinam  non  commenda- 
rem  tibiy  quum  scirem^  qua  fide  in  tuos  soleres  esse,  nisi  me  patris  ejus  memoria 
mnveret,  where  we  might  say  sdam  and  soleas.  Similar  expressicms  occur 
frequently ;  comp.  Cic,  PhUip.,  v.,  18,  in  fin. ;  de  Off.,  ii.,  14,  in  fin. ;  Tusc., 
i.,  21,  init. 

[§  513.]  The  simple  rule  respecting  the  succession  of 
tenses  becomes  somewhat  difficult  through  the  double  sig- 
nification of  the  perfect  indicative.  In  the  ateve  rule  it 
was  treated  only  as  the  present  of  a  completed  action  (in 
which  sense  it  is  equivalent  to  the  English  perfect) ;  but 
as  it  is  at  the  same  time  an  aorist  of  the  past  (see  §  500), 
it  is  also  connected  with  the  tenses  of  the  past  time,  viz., 
with  the  impQrfect  and  pluperfect.  In  this  sense  the  Lat 
in  perfect  is  transljited  by  the  English  imperfect.  The 
above  rule,  therefore,  will  be  completed  by  the  following 
addition : 

The  historical  perfect  is  followed  by  the  imperfect  and 
pluperfect. 

E.  g.,  Audivi  quid  ageres  and  audivi  quid  egisses.  TKo 
two  meanings  of  the  perfect  and  their  influence  upon  the 
tense  of  the  dependent  verb  may  be- seen  in  the  following 
sentences : 

Verres  SicUiam  per  trienniumita  vexavit  ac  perdidit^  ut  ea 
restitui  in  antiquum  statHm  nullo  modo  possit^  says  Cic- 
ero (in  Verr.,  iv.,  init.)  with  reference  to  the  actual  state 
of  Sicily-. 
Conon  quum  patriam  ohsideri  audisset,  non  quaesivit^  uht 
ipse  tuto  viveret,  sed  unde  praesidio  posset  esse  civibus 
suisj  says  Nepos  (Con.,  2),  in  speaking  of  past  events. 

[^  514.]  NoU  1. — We  may  in  general  be  guided  by  the  English  languagi^ 
as  we  translate  the  Latin  historical  perfect  by  our  imper^ct.  It  must 
however,  be  observed  that  the  Latins,  owing  to  the  very  frequent  use  oi 
the  perfect  as  an  aorist  of  the  past  or  an  historical  tense,  became  so  ac* 
customed  to  its  connexion  with  the  imperfect,  that  in  many  cases  the^ 
iised  this  tense  even  where  the  Latin  perfect  is  equivalent  to  the  EuglisK 


nSB  OP   THE    TENSES.  SU^ 

perfect ;  bat  this  occurs  obly  when  there  is  a  possibility  of  conceiving  the 
action  m  its  progress,  and  not  merely  its  conclusion  or  result.  Thus  Cic 
oro  (in  Yerr.f  i.,  1)  says,  adduxi  enim  hominemy  in  quo  $atisfacere  exteris  net 
tionitms  posaetiSf  in  whom  you  may  satisfy,  &c.  in  the  same  manner,  Q. 
Cicero  says  at  the  close  of  an  explanation  {de  Petit.  Cona.,  4),  qwniam  qua* 
mbsidia  novitatis  hahereSf  et  habere  posses^  exposui,  nunc  de  magnitudine  jteti- 
tionis  dicam.  In  these  sentences  we  should  require  additai  hominem^  in  qm 
satisfacere  possitisj  and  quoniam  exposui,  quae  subsidia  habeas  et  habere  potsis, 
which  would  not  be  wrong  by  any  means,  but  it  would  be  against  the  usage 
of  the  Latin  language ;  for  the  Latins  conceived  the  action  in  its  duration, 
while  we  describe  it,  together  with  its  result,  by  the  perfect,  and  this  is  the 
case  more  especially  when  the  acting  person  had  an  intention  accompany- 
iag  him  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  action.  We  say,  for  exam- 
ple, **  I  have  done  this  that  you  may  see,"  and  the  Latin  fed  hoc,  vt  intelli- 
^a«,^ould  not  be  wrong ;  but  as  it  was  my  intention  from  the  beginning,  it 
IS  preferable  to  say /cciAoc,  vt  intelligeres,  although  I  am  not  relating  events, 
but  speaking  with  reference  to  the  present  time.  (Comp.  Cic,  Philip.,  ix., 
2,  4  5>  where  reataret  is  quite  correct.)  Hence  such  sentences  as,  diu  du- 
bitavi  man  melius  sit,  saepe  mecum  cogitavi  quidnam  causae  sit,  would  sound 
strange  to  a  Latin  ear ;  and  the  more  correct  mode  of  speaking  is,  diu  dw 
bitavi  num  melius  esset  and  saepe  cogitavi  qxddnam  causae  esset,  and  the  words 
dm  and  saepe  indicate  that  the  perfects  dubitavi  and  cogitavi  are  conceived, 
as  it  were,  as  an  aggregate  oi  single  doubts  and  thoughts,  which  them- 
selves belong  to  the  past  time,  while  the  copclusion  extends  to  the  present. 
But  the  rule  is  not  upset  by  this  remark,  for  when  the  sentence  following 
does  not  refer  to  the  separate  parts  of  the  action,  but  exclusively  to  the  re 
suit,  the  perfect  is  followed  by  the  present ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  ad  Fam.,  v.,  6,  JE^o 
rneis  rtkus  gestis  hoc  sum  assecutus,  'ut  Mteum  nomen  existimer  ;  Eutrop.,  viii., 
2,  Trajar^us  rempvblicam  ita  administravit,  vt  omnibus  principibus  merito  prae- 
feratur.  These  are  the  results  of  completed  actions,*and  not  intentions 
continuing  along  with  the  actions.  *  The  present  may  be  used  in  subordi- 
nate and  dependent  sentences,  even  after  an  historical  perfect,  if  that 
which  is  to  be  expressed  is  universal,  and  nut  valid  for  that  time  only 
which  is  indicated  by  the  leading  verb ;  e.  g.,  Justin,  xxx!.,  8,  Antiocho  pa- 
cent  petenti  ad  priores  condiciones  nihil  additum,  Africano  praedicante,  neque 
JUmaniSf  si  vincantUTf  animos  rninuif  neque,  si  vincant,  secvmdis  rebus  insoUs' 
cere.  Here  the  presents  express  the  fact  of  the  Romans  not  losing  their 
courage  in  misfortune,  and  of  their  Yiot  being  insolent  in  ]^i?sperity,  as  pe- 
culiar characteristics  of  the  Romans,  and  as  true  at  all  tmies ;  if  the  mi- 
perfect  had  been  used,  it  would  not,<indeed,  have  been  implied  that  at  any 
other  time  the  statement  was  not  true,  but  the  universality  would  not  have 
been  so  clearly  expressed. 

[^  515.]  Note  2. — The  remaining  question  now  is  this :  when  the  lead- 
ing verb  IS  a  present,  or  (according  to  ^  516)  a  future,  and  the  infinitive  of 
a  completed  action  is  dependent/)n  it,  is  it  necessary  to  put  the  verbs  de- 
pendent upon  this  infimtive  in  the  present  or  the  preterite,  that  is,  the 
imperfect  or  pluperfect  subjunctive  ?  The  answer  to  this  question  depends 
upon  another,  viz.,  as  to  whether,  on  changing  the  infinitive  into  the  per- 
fect indicative,  tiiis  tense  is  the  real  perfect  or  the  aorist  ?  When  this  is 
ascertained,  the  decision  is  easy,  according  to  the  two  preceding  para- 
graphs, and  we  may  say,  e.  g.,  satis  mihi  myltas  causas  attulisse  videor, 
quamobrem  tibi  in  Itciiamproficiscendum  sit,  I  think  I  have  mentioned  to  you 
sufficient  reasons  why  you  should  go  to  Italy ;  and  in  this  manner  Cicero 
(p.  Ciuent,,  24)  says,  nisi  docet,  ita  ss  pcssedisss  (that  he  has  taken  posses- 
sum),  vt  nee  vi  nee  dam.  nee  precario  postederit.  But  the  usage  of  the  Latin 
language  is  nevertheless  different,  tne  perfect  infinitive  being  like  the  per- 
fect indicative  (^  614),  usually  followed  either  by  the  imperf.  or  plupcrf. 
subjunctive.  Hence  the  above  s€ntence  should  be  quamobrem  in  Jtalimm 
tAi  proficiscendum  esset ;  compare  Cic,  p.  Leg.  Man.,  10,  satis  mihi  mult» 
itsrbajecisse  videor,  quart  tssst  hoc  bellum  genere  ipso  necessarium,  magnitu4in» 

•    Gg  2 


854  LATIN  GEAMMAE. 

perictdosmnt  although  reference  is  here  made  to  the  present  time,, 
although  we  should  say,  *'  why  this  war  is  necessary ;"  tn  Verr.f  i,  12,  hoe 
me  projUeor  gtucepisse  magnum  fortaaae  onus  et  mihi  periculosumt  vervnUeantm 
dignvmt  in  quo  omnes  nervoa  aetatis  indu$triaeque  meat  oontenderem.  Both 
tenses  are  found  combined  in  Cic,  p.  Caec,  13,  Quid  profides,  quum  iUi  ho, 
^espondebunt  tibi  quod  tu  nunc  fhihi :  armatoa  tibi  obstUiuet  ne  in  aedes  acce» 
deret,  dejici  porrj  nuUo  modo  potuiaact  qui  non  aecetaerU. 

[§  516.1  The  futures  are  similar  to  the  tenses  of  the 
present,  K>r  only  that  which  is  past  stands  apart  and  by 
Itself.     Hence,  a  future  is  followed  by  a  present  or  a  per- 
fect ;  e.  g.y  mox  inteUigamy  quantum  me  ames  or  amaveris^ 
but  not  quan^m  me  amares  or  amasses.    The  same  is  the 
case  with  the  future  perfect :  si  cognovero,  quemadmodum 
te  geras  or  te  gesseris.     But  as  the  four  subjunctives  of  the 
conjugatio  periphrastica  (formed  by  the  future  participle 
and  esse)  are  regarded  as  subjunctives  of  the  futures,  we 
must  add  that  these  paraphrased  tenses  may  be  depend- 
ent upon  preterites  (see  the  exaihples  in  §  497),  and  that 
a  mutual  dependence  exists  between  the  presents  and 
futures,  but  only  a  partial  one  between  the  preterites  and 
futures,  since  the  futures  only  may  depend  upon  preter- 
ites, but  not  vice  versa ;  et  g.,  ignorc3>am  quid  dicturus 
esset,  but  not  discam  quid  herifaceres^  for  discam  quid  heri 
feceris. 

The  complete  rule  respecting  the  succession  of  tenses, 
therefore,  is  this :  the  tenses  of  the  present  and  future, 
L  e.,  the  present,  perfect  (in  its  proper  sense),  and  the 
two  futures  are  followed  by  die  tenses  of  the  present, 
i.  e.,  by  the  present  and  the  perfect  subjunctive ;  and  the 
tenses  of  the  past,  i.  e.,  the  imperfect,  pluperfect,  and  the 
historical  perfect,  are  foUowea  by  the  tenses  of  the  past, 
'.  e.,  by  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive. 


IV.  OF  THE  MOODS. 

CHAPTER  LXXVI. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

[§  517.]  1.  The  indicative  is  used  in  every  pioposition 
the  substance  of  which  is  expressed  absolutely  and  as  a 
(act ;  e.  g.,  I  go,  thou  verotest,  he  believed. 

Hence  the  mdicative  is  used  even  in  the  expression  of 
conditions  and  suppositions  with  the  particles  si^  nisi,  etsi, 
and  etiamsif  if  without  that  expression  an  event  is  sup* 
posed  actually  tc  take  olace  or  (with  nisi)  not  to  take 
place.  '  ^ 


INOfCATIVE    MOOD.  85& 

Blors  attt  plane  negligenda  est,  si  omnino  extmguit  anitnwn^ 

aut  etiam  optanda^  si  aliqtio  eum  dediicit,  ubi  siijuturuf 

aetemnst  Cic,  CaL  Maj.^  19. 
Si  Jeceris  id^  quod  ostendis^  magnam  habeho  gratiam^  st 

non/eceriSf  tgnoscam,  Cic,  ad  Fam.^  v.,  19. 
4.<2^«fc  eerte^  nisi  ego  insanto,  sttdie  omnia  et  incatUeJitmt^ 

Oic,  ad  AtL,  vii.y  10. 
lata  Veritas  J  etiamsi  jucunda  rum  est,  TAihi  tamen  grata  est, 

Cic,  ad-  Att^  iii.,  24,  in  fin. 

Note, — The  conjunctions  n  and  niti  e^^press  nothing  else  but  a  ralaUon 
of  one  sentence  to  another ;  that  is,  the  relation  of  condition  or  exception : 
one  thing  is  on  condition  that  another  is ,  and  one  thing  is,  except  in  the 
case  of  another  being,  &e.  Sentences  which  stand  in  thlis  relation  to  each 
other  are  expressed  by  the  indicative ;  L  e.,  objectively  or  in  the  form  of 
reatity.  All  expression  of  oar  own^  opinion  is  avoided,  for  Uiis  vrould  be 
expressed  by  the  subjunctive.  In  unng  the  indicative,  I  do  not  exprete 
any  opinion  as  to  the  possilnlity  or  impossibility  of  a  thing ;  but,  without 
any  ccHnment,  I  suppose  a  thing  as  actual,  or  (with  nisi)  I  make  an  excep- 
tion, which  may  be  or  may  not  be,  but  which  I  take  as  actual  for  the  sake 
of  the  inference. 

[§  518.]  2.  The  following  peculiaiities  deserve  to  be 
noticed  as  differing  from  tfaie  English : 

The  verbs  oportet,  necesse  est,  debeo,  convenity  possum, 
licet  QXid  par,  Jas,  aequum,justum,  consentaneum  est,  or  ae^ 
quiusy  melius,  utilius,  optabUitcs  est,  ore  put  in  the  indica- 
tive of  a  preterite  (imperf.,  pluperf.,  and  the  historical  per- 
fect), where  we  should  have  expected  the  imperfect  or 
pluperfect  subjunctive.  The  imperfect  indicative  in  this 
case  expresses  things  which  are  not,  but  the  time  for  which 
Is  not  yet  passed ;  and  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  indica- 
tive things  which  have  not  been,  but  the  time  for  which  is 
passed ;  e.  g.,  Cic,,in  Cat.,  i.,  1,  Ad  mortem  tc  ducijampridcfn 
oportebat,  i.  e.,  thy  execution  was  necessary  and  is  still  so; 
hence  it  ought  to  take  place.  In  going  back  to  the  begin- 
ning, however,  the  speaker  might  have  used  the  pluper- 
fect with  this  meaning :  *•  thy  execution  ought  to  have  ta- 
ken place  long  ago."  Cic,  de  Fin.,  iii.,  10,  perturhationes 
animorum  poteram  ego  morhos  appellare,  sed  non  convent? ei 
ad  omnia,  I  might  have  called  them,  and  might  do  so  still ; 
Gic.,  ad  Att.,  ii.,  1,  si  mihi  omnes,  ut  erat  aequumyjaverent, 
k  was  fair,  and  is  still  fair,  but  it  does  not  happen  to  be  the 
case.  The  perfect  and  pluperfect,  on  the  other  hand, 
clearly  express  that  all  is  over;  e.  g.,  Cic,  cut  Fam,,  iv,;  16, 
V<!^umnia  dehuit  in  te  offtdosior  esse,  et  id  ipsum,  quodje- 
dt,  potuitjacere  diiigentius  ;  p.  Muren.,  25,  Catilina  erupii 
$  tematu  triumphans  gaudio,  quern  omnino  vivuyi  Ulinc  exin 


856  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

fum  oportuerat ;  Curt,  iii.,  9,  lange  util  m  fmt  an^^ustua 
aditus  occupare^  it  would  have  been  mucb  better  to  occupy 
the  pass.  In  the  paraphrased  conjugation  with  the  parti- 
ciple future  active  ana  passive,  too,  the  preterites  of  the 
indicative  veiy  frequently  have  the  meaning  of  a  subjimct^ 
ive ;  e.  g.,  Ovid,  Htr.y  xvi.,  152,  tarn  bona  constanter  praeda 
tenenda  fuit,  ought  to  have  been  kept.  This  is  the  case 
more  especially  in  hypothetical  sentences.  (§  519.)  The 
subjunctive  in  independent  sentences  is  much  less  frequent* 
than  the  indicative;  e.  g.,  Nep.,  Epam,,  4,  Plurima  quidem 
'prqferre  possemuSf  sed  modus  adhibendus  est, 

Chaldaei  oculorum  fall(icissvmo  senstt  jUdicant  ea,  quae  ra 
tione  atque  animo  videre  debebant,  Cic,  de  Divin,,  ii.,  43. 

Aut  nan  suscipi  bellwni  oportuitf  aut  geri  pro  dignitate  pop^     . 
uli  Romani,  Liv.,  v.,  4. 

Is  (Tib.  Gracchus)  Jugiens  decurrensque  clivo  Capitnlino^ 
fragminc  subsellii  ictus ,  vitam,  quam  gloriosissime  degere 
potucrat,  immatura  mortejlnimt,  Veil.  Pat.,  ii.,  3. 

[^  519.  a.]  Note  1. — This  indicative  supplying  the  place  of  the  subjunct 
ive  is  frequently  retained  even  when  an  hypothetical  sentence  with  the 
imperfect  or  pluperfect  subjunctive  is  added ;  and  it  is  here  in  parti^rilax 
.that  the  indicative  of  the  preterites  of  the  paraphrased  conjugation  is  em* 
ployed ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Philip.,  ii.,  38,  Omnibua  eum  contumelus  oneraati,  quern 
pairis  locoy  si  tUla  in  te  pietas  taaet,  colore  d^baa  ;  Sallust,  Jt^.,  85,  quae  » 
dubia  atUvroctd  essent,  tamen  omnes  bonos  rei  publicae  jconstdere  daxbeU  ;  Liv.^ 
xlit.,  34,  Quodai  mihi  nee  omnia  atipendia  ementa  easent,  necdum  aetaa  vacatio- 
nem  daret,  tamen  aequum  erat  nut  dimitti  ;  Cic,  p.  Leg,  Man.^  17,  Quodai  Cn. 
Pompeiua  privatua  eaaet  hoe  tempore^  tamen  erat  mittendita.  With  the  perfect, 
Liv.,  xxxii.,  12.  deleri  totua  exercitua  potuit,  ai  fu^ientea  peraecuti  victorea  ea- 
aent ;  Cic,cfe  RePvbl.y  i.,  6,  Conatd  eaae  qmpotm,  niai  eum  vitae  curaum  ten 
tUaaem  ;  in  Vatin,,  1,  Etenim  ddnuati,  Vatini%  etiamai  Jalao  veniaaea  tn  «u«p 
cionem  P.  Sextio,  tamen  mihi  ignoacere  ;  in  Verr.,  iii.,  61,  Quern  hominem,  « 
out  pudor  in  te,  atque,  adeo  ai  qui  metua  fuiaaety  aine  aupplido  dimittere  non  de 
buiatij  hune  aba  te  aine  oraemio  diacedere  nokdati  ;  p,  Muon,,  11,  quodai  ita  pit 
taaaetf  certe  optabiUua  Miloni  fuit  dare  mgulum  ;  ibid.,  22,  quoa  nisi  manumi 
aiaaetf  tormentia  etiam dedendifuerunt ;  Petron.,  94,  Si  tC'non  inveniaaemj  peri- 
turua  per  praecipitia  fui.  See,  also,  ^  498  and  499.  But  the  subjunctive 
IS  also  acmiissiole,  as  in  Cic,  m  CaL,  iil,  7,  in  fin.,  dedendi  fidaaent ;  and 
p,  lag.,  7,  in  fin.,  periturua  fuiaaem  (according  to  the  common  reading) ;  di 
Vioin.,  ii.,  8,  \  21. 

Rea  publica  poterat  eaae  perpitua,  aipatriia  viveretur  inatitutia  et  moribua,  Cic. 

de  Re  PtAL,  iii.,  29. 
NinfeUcitaa  m  aocordMon  vertiaaet,  exuere  jugum  potuerunt.  Tacit.,  Agr.i  31. 

[^  519. 6.]  Independent  of  this  use  of  the  indicative,  instead  of  tiie  n^ 
)unctive,  to  express  that  which  might  or  ahauld  have  taken  place,  the  bis 
torians  use  the  indicative  of  a  preterite  instead  of  the  plupenect  subjunct* 
ive  to  express  that  which  would  actually  have  taken  place,  in  sentencM 
containing  the  inference  from  an  hypothetical  sentence,  althoujghvthi  ' 

premises  are  not  true.    This  figure  (i.  e.,  a  mode  of  expression  "differing  j 

from  the  ordinary  one),  which  is  only  intended  to  render  a  description  more  j 

•iiimatod,  is  used  in  the  first  place  when  a  part  of  the  infe^-ence  has  wl  I 


INUfCATlVE   Mooy.  35? 

ready  come  to  paas,  and  would  have  been  completely  realizeil  if  same 
thing  else  had  occurred,  or,  more  frequently,  if  some  obstacle  had  not  been 
thrown  in  the  way,  whence  the  adrerb  ^am  is  frequently  added ;  e.  g.,  Liv., 
!▼.,  62,  jam  fames  quam  pestilentia  tristior  eral^  ni  annonae  foret  ifvM)entum 
Tacit.,  Hist,  iii.,  46,  jamque  castra  legionum  excindere  parabant^  vi  Mucianus 
sextant  legionem  opposvisset ;  the  same  is  also  expressed  bjr  coepisse,  in  such 
passages  as  Tacit.,  Agr.^  37,  Britanni  dfgredi  paulatim  et  circitmire  terci  '■ 
vincentium  coeperant:  ni  id  ipsum  veritus  Agricola  quattuor  equitum  ohs  vr.ui' 
entihus  opposuisset.  Without  the  adverb  jam ;  e.  g.,  Tacit.,  Ann.,  i.,  35, 
Germanicus  ferrum  a  latere  deripuif,  clutumque  deferebat  in  pectus  (thus  inucli 
he  actually  did  do.  and  he  would  have  accomplished  bis  design),  m  prox- 
imiprensam  dextram  vi  aitinmssent ;  Tacit.,  Ann.,  iii.,  14,  effigies  Pisonis  trax' 
erant  in  Gemonias  ac  divellebant  (and  would  have  entirely  destroyed  them) 
ni  jitssu  principis  protectae  forent.  The  perfect  and  pluperfect  are  likewise 
used  in  this  sense,  and  a  thing  which  was  never  accomplished  is  tbus,  in 
a  lively  manner,  described  as  completed :  Sueton.,  Cues.,  5^,  et  eadem  nave 
paene' Aethiopia  tenus  Aegyptum  penetravit,  nisi  exerdtus  seqtU  recusasset ; 
'  Tgaene  ox  prope  is  frequently  added  in  such  cases  f even  without  an  hypo- 
*  thetical  sentence ;  as,  prope  oblitus  sum,  I  had  nearly  forgotten) ;  Flor.,  iv. 
1.  et  peractian  erat  bdltan  sine  sanguine^  si  Pompeium  opprimere  Brundisit 
(Caesar)  pottdsset ;  Plin.,  Paneg.,  8,  temerejfecerat  JNervOf  si  adoptasset  alium 
(non  Trajanum).  In  Cicero,  however,  this  use  of  the  indicative  occurs 
jnly  in  a  few  passages ;  as  in  Verr.,  v.,  49,  si  per  Metellum  licitum  esset, 
natrea  ilUman  miserorum  sororesquejoenidiant ;  de  Leg.,  i.,  19,  labebar  longius, 
nisi  me  retinnissem  ;  ad  Fam,,  xii.,  10,  Praeclare  viceramust  nisi  spoliatum',  iner- 
memyfugientem  Hepidus  recepisset  Antonium,  The  imperfect  indicative  is 
sometimes,  though  rarely,  used  also  for  the  imperfect  subjunctive  vfhen 
whe  hypothetical  part  of  the  sentence  does  not  contain  a  piupecfect,  but  an 
ttuperfect  subjunctive ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Off.,  ii.,  19,  Admmebat,me  res,  ut  hot 
pnoque  loco  intermissionem  eloquentiae* ne  dicam  interittan,  deplorarem,  nt 
vererer,  ne  de  me  ipso  aUqmd  vidirer  qtteri  ;  Quintil.,  ii.,  8,  8,  nam  et  omninc 
ttqftervacua  erat  doiptrina,  si  natitra  sufficeret ;  iv.,  1,  11,  stuUuan  erat  monere 
nisijieret. 
Pons  sublicius  iter  paene  hostibus  dedit,  ni  unus  vir  fuisset,  Horatius  Codes 

qui,  &c.,  Liv.,.ii.,  10. 
Actum  erat  de  pulcherrimo  imperio,  nisi  ilia  conjuraiio  (Catilinae)  in  Ciceronem 
constdem  incidisset,  Flor.,  iv.,  1. 

[^  520.]  Note  2. — When  we  in  English  use  the  expressions  "I  ought'* 
or  "  1  should,"  without  implying  impossibility,,  the  Latins  express  tne 
same  meaning  by  the  present  indicative ;  e.  g.,  debes  esse  diligentior  or  dUi 
^enHqtrem  te  esse  oportet,  you  ought  to  be  more  diligent.  The  subjunctive 
m  this  case  would  be  quite  foreign  to  the  Latin  idiom.  In  the  same  man 
ner,  the  present  indicative  posium  is  frequently  used  for  possem ;  e.  g.,  Cic. 
in  Verr.f  i,,  47,  Possum  sexcenia  decreta proferre  ;  and  it  is  the  common  cus 
torn  to  say  difficile  est,  longum  est,  infinitum  est ;  e.  g.,  narrare,  for  which  we 
should  say  " it  would  be  difficult,"  "it  would  lead  too  far,"  "  there  would 
ne  no  end,"  &c.    See  Ruhnken  on  Veil.  Fat,  ii.,  42. 

[521.]  3.  The  Latins  commonly  use  the  indicative  after 
many  general  and  relative  expressions,  some  fact  being 
implied.  This  is  the  case  after  the  pronouns  and  relative 
adverbs,  which  are  either  doubled  or  have  tl;ie  su^ix  ctmquc : 
quisquiSf  qtiotquot  quicunque,  qttanturscunqne^  httantul^tS" 
cunquey  utut^  utcunque^  and  the  others  mentioned  in  §  130 
and  288;  e.  g.,  Utcur^que  sese  res  hahet,  ttea  est  culpa,  \t,W' 
over  this  may  be,  the  fault  is  thine ;  quicunque  is  estf  who- 
ever he  may  be. 


HS8  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Qutdquid  id  est,  timeo  Danaos  et  donafinrenteSf  Virg.,  Aem^ 
ii.,  49.  . 

Quern  sors  dierum  cunque  dahit^  lucro  appane^  Horat^ 
CiiiTm,f  1.,  9,  14. 

Note. — Other  examples  are,  Cic,  p-  lag.,  7,  sed  qwxjuo  modo  aese  iRud 
hd)et ;  kaee  qtterela  vetfm,  TSibtrOy  quia  valet  T  Parad,,  2,  qaocunque  adapexUti. 
utfuriae,  sic  tuae  tUn  occumuU  injuriae^  and  in  the  same  manner  we  must 
read  in  p.  MUon.,  init.,  tamen  kaec  novi  judicii  nova  forma  terret  ocvloa,  qui, 
quoounque  inddenent,  veterem  eonauetudxnem  fori  reqtunaU,  where  Emesti, 
mistakmg  the  usage  of  the  Latin  language,  edited  inciderint.  See  Heusin- 
ger,  Proe/l  ad  Cic.,  de  Off.,  p.  Iv.  (xl.).  In  de  Orat.,  iii.,  50,  also,  we  now 
read  vereua  debilitatvr,  in  quacttnque  eat  parte  titvbahjon,  where  formerly  sU 
was  read.  Later  writers,  however,  join  these  general  relatives,  and 
aioe — aive  (of  which  we  shall  speak  presently)  with  the  subjunctive  • 

[§  522.1  ^'  ^^  ^^  same  way,  sentences  connected  by ' 
sive — sive  commonly  have   the   verb  in   the  indicative 
(unless  there  is  d  special  reason  for  using  the  subjunct* 
ive) ;  e.  g.,  sive  taccbis,  sive  loqtiere^  mthi  perinde  est ;  sivt 
verum  est,  sivefalsum,  mihi  quidem  ita  renuntiatum  est. 

Nam  illo  loco  libentissime  uti  soleo,  sive  quid  mecum  ipse 
<ogito,  sive  quid  aut  scribe,  aut  lego,  Cic,  De  heg,^  ii.,  1. 


CHAPTER  LXXVIII. 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD. 

(§  523.]  1.  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  general,  when 

a  proposition  is  stated,  not  as  a  fact,  but  as  a  conception 

of  the  mind. 

Note. — ^The  subjunctive  is  only  a  form  which  is  given  to  a  proposition 
Its  substance  doea  not  come  into  consideration.    Hence  **  I  believe,**  **  I 
suspect,**  are  expressed  by  the  indicative,  although  these  words  incticatfr 
only  certain 'conceptions,  but  my  l;elief  and  suspicion  are  stated  as  real 
facts.    When,  on  the  other  hand,  I  say  "  I  should  believe,**  '*  I  should 
think,"  the  acts  of  believing  and  thinking  are  represented  as  mere  con 
ceptions,  which,  perhaps,  do  not  exist  at  all,  or  even  cannot  exis^  Hence 
the  Latins  always  use  the  subjunctive  when  a  sentence  is  to  express- an 
mtention  either  that  something  is  to  be  eflfected  or  prevented,  for  thv 
nctions  here  exist  only  as  concei^ions  \  e.  g.,  peamiani  komini  do.  ut  me  da* 
fendat,  ne  me  accuaet.    The  English  language,  which  has  no  suDJunctive, 
avails  itself  of  a  Variety  of  other  verbs  to  express  the  nature  of  the  sub 
lunctive ;  as,  may,  vdgkt,  cofdd,  ahmdd,  would. 

[§  524.]  2.  We  must  here  first  notice  the  diffbrence 
between  the  four  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  in  hypothetical 
or  conditional  sentences,  both  in  that  part  of  the  sentence 

containing  the  condition  (beginning  with  the  conjunctions 

I  ■  II        I         I         I  ■  ■  I        ' 

*  [For  some  excellem  remarks  explanatory  of  the  subjunctive  raood« 
ronsult  Crombie'e  Oynmaaium,  vol.  i.,  p.  27 ;  vol.  ii.,  p.  307,  seqq.l^Am.  Ed 


subjunctive:  mood.*  85)1 

n^  mmf  etsi,  etiamsi,  tametsi)^  and  in  t]ie  one  containing 
che  inference  or  conclusion.  The  present  and  perfect 
Buhjunctive  are  used  when  a  conception  is  to  bo  ex- 
pressed together  with  the  suggestion  that  it  does  exist  ot 
may  exist ;  but  the  imperfect* and  pluperfect  subjunctive 
are  used  when  a  conception  is  expressed  together  vdth 
the  suggestion  that  it  did  not  or  could  not  exist ;  and  the 
imperfect  in  this  case  implies  present  time,  as  in  English; 
e.  g., d  velit^  "if  he  wishes,"  or  "should  wish,"  implying 
that  he  either  actually  wishes,  or,  at  least,  may  wish :  in 
tke  consequent  member  of  the  proposition  ^the  apodosis), 
the  present  or  perfect  subjunctive  or  indicative  may  stand ;, 
but  si  veUet,  "  if  he  wished,"  implies  that  he  does  not  or 
cannot  wish,  and  here  the  consequent  member  of  the 
proposition  requires  the  imperfect  or  pluperfect  subjunct- 
ive. The  subjunctive  without  si  has  the  same  meaning  as 
facer em^  "  I  should  do,"  implying  that  I  do  not  or  cannot 
do ;  vdLem,  *'  I  should  wish,"  implying  that  I  might  have 
a  wish,  but  that  in  fact  I  do  not  wish,  seeing  that  it  would 
be  of  no  avail.  Velim  and  aipiam  thus  do  not  much  dif- 
fer from  volo  and  cupio. 

The  imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive,  therefore, 
ai'e  necessary  in  hypothetical  sentences  ;  but  the  present 
and  perfect  subjunctive  differ  only  slightly  from  the  indic- 
ative, and  their  use  cannot  be  fixed  by  grammatical  rules. 
The  indicative  gives  to  a  sentence  the  form  of  reality, 
whereas  the  subjunctive  represents  it  as  an  arbitrary  con- 
ception, which,  however,  may  at  the  same  time  be  a  real- 
ity;  e.  g.,  etiamsi  te  non  laudo  or  lauddbo,  tamen^  &c.,  even 
if  I  do  not  or*  shall  not  praise  thee — the  reality  is  admit- 
ted ;  etiamsi  te  non  laudem  or  laudaverim^  if  (perhaps)  ] 
should  not  praise  thee,  or  should  not  have  praised  thee— 
the  possibility  is  conceived.  The  use  of  the  present  and 
perfect  subjunctive  in  these  cases  arises,  in  some  nieasure, 
from  the  circumstance  that  an  indefinite  person  is  address 
ed  in  Latin  by  the  second  person  singular,  but  only  in  the 
subjunctjwre ;  hence  the  subjunctive  is  used  in  such  cases 
even  where  the  indicative  would  be  used  if  a  definite  per 
son  were  addressed.  It  must  farther  be  observed  cha> 
these  two  subjunctives  supply  the  place  of  the  subjunctivf 
of  the  two  futures.    Comp.  §  496. 

The  difference  between  the  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  ir« 
bypothe^ral  sentences  is  observed,  also,  in  indirect  speech 


MU  '    JL.ATIN    GRAMMAft. 

(oratio  obliquaj,  when  the  leading  verb  is  a  present  or  a 
future;  but  when  it  is  a  preterite  or  the  historical  perfect, 
the  rule  respecting  the  succession  of  tenses  must  be  ob- 
served (§  512),  and  the  difference  between  possibility  and 
impossibility  is  not  expressed ;  e.  g.,  we  may  say  Gains 
dicit  ae  Latine  loqui  pQsse,  si  pater  juheat  (or  jmseritj, 
which  may  possibly  happen  ;  and  si  pater  juberet  (or  jus- 
sissetjy  whiclj,  however,  is  not  the  ease.  But  we  can  say 
only  Gqius  dicebat  se  Latine  loqui  posse^  ai  pater  juberet  or 
jussisset. 

Si  Neptunus,  qtiad  Theaco  promiserat^TumfecUset,  Tkesems 
.    jilio  Hippolyto  non  easet  orbatua,  Cic,  De  Off.,  L,  10. 
Diea  deficiat,  ai  veUm  numerarCy  quibua  bonia  rnale  evenerit^ 

nee  Tuinua  ai  commemorem^  quibua  improbia  optime,  Cict, 

De  Nat.  Dear.,  iii.,  32. 
Si  gladium  quia  apud  te  aana  mente  depoauerit,  repetat  t»- 

aaniena :  reddere  peccatum  ait,  officium  non  reddere,  Cic , 

De  Of.,  ill.,  25.  ^ 

Aequabilitatem  vitas  aervare  non  poaaia,  ai  aliorum  virtutem 

imitana  omittaa  tuam,  Cic,  De  Off.,  i.,  31. 
Memoria  minuitur,  niai  earn  exerceaa,  aut.ai  aia  wUura  tftr- 

dior,  Cic,  Cat.  Maj.,  7. 

Note  1. — It  cannot  be  sufficiently  impressed  upon  the  mind  of  the  begin 
ner,  that  in  hypothetical  sentences,  and  when  used  alone/ the  imperfect 
and  pkiper£ect  snbjunctira  are  of  a  totally  different  natiire  from  the  pres 
ent  and  perfect,  and  that  the  two  latter,  which  e2q)ress  -a  conceived  reality, 
approach  very  near  the  actual  reality  expressed  by  the  indicative.  (See  % 
523,  note.)  *  Ifence  the  future  indicative  is  often  used  in  the  apodosis, 
when  in  the  conditional  member  or  the  protasis  of  a  sentence  n  is  joined 
with  the  present  subjunctive ;  e.  g.,  Cic^  Tusc,  v.,  35,  Dies  deficiet,  ai  ve 
Urn  paupertatis  causam  defendere  ;  com^.  Cic,  de  Nat.  Dear.,  iii.,  32.  quoted 
above.  Possible  cases  which  are  devised  to  serve  as  examples,  either  for 
the  purpose  of  judging  of  other  analogous  cases  or  of  drawing  conclusions 
from  them,  are  expressed  by  si  with  the  subjunctive,  as  in  the  passage  of 
Cic,  de  Off.,  iii.,  $5,  which  was  quoted  above.  Compare  de  Off.,  i.,  10,  Vt 
$i  constituent  (supposing  you  had  agreed)  te  cuipiam  advocatum  m  rem  jme' 
serUem  esse  ventunun,  atque  interim  graviter  aegrotare  jUivs  coeperit:  non  sit 
contra  officium,  non  faoere  quod  dixais.  The  perfect  subjunctive  is  at  the 
same  time  the  subjunctive  of  the  fixture  perfect,  for  in  speaking  of  an  ac- 
tual c&se  we  may  use  the  perfect  indicative  as  well  as  the  future  perfect ; 
e.  g., si  tibipromisi  me  affuturum  nee  veni,  contraofficium  tM/ecissefateor, and 
si  tibi  promuero  nee  venero,  contra  officium.  me  fecisse  fatebor.  In  4be  mibjunct" 
ive  both  tenses  are  alike,  and  ias,  in  the  passage  just  quoted,  we  recognise 
the  perfect  subjunctive,  so  we  look  upon  rogaverit,  scripserit,  andidixeritt  in 
the  following  passage,  as  future  perfects:  Cic,  de  Fin.,  ii.,  18,  site  amicus 
tmu  morisns  rogaverit,  ut  hertrditatem  reddas  suaefiUae,  nee  utquam  id  seripate' 
rit,nec  cuiquam  dixerit :  quid  fades?  For  practical  purposes,  the  distinction 
IS  not  necessary;  but  the  subjunctive  is  essential,  since  the  case  was  to  be 
expressed  merely  as  a  conception.  This  signification  of  the  Latin  sub- 
jfonctive  is  clear,  especiall/  in  its  frequent  occurrence  when  the  snbjoetit 


SUDJUNCTIVF    MOOD.  301 

ail  indeiinite  pt  son  (51  quis),  and  in  the  seconc*  person  singular,  which  im- 
plies an  inaefinite  person  (equivalent  to  the  /rench  on  and  the  German 
man). 

"With  regard  to  the  expression  of  possibility  (by  the  present  subjunct- 
ive) or  impossibility  (by  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive),  it  must 
not  be  overlooked  that  it  depends  upon  the  speaker  as  to  now  he  intends  to 
represent  a  thing.  For  we  are  not  speaking  here  of  objective  truth,  but 
of  stibjeotire  conceptions.  Cicero  {Divin.in  Caec,  5)  says,  Si  univeraa 
j)romncia  loquiposMet,  hoc  voce  uteretWy  implying  that  it  cannot  speak.  But 
in  another  passage  (m  C<U.,  i,  8)  he  says,  iiaec  si  tecum  patria  loquahwy  nonne 
impetrare  da>eat  ?  personifying  nis  cduntry,  and  endowing  it  with  speech. 
Tniet  msw  serve  to  explain  several  other  passages  of  the  same  kind.  Comp. 
Cic,  p.  Milon.f  29,  Ejus  igitur  mortis  sedetis  vJiores^  cujus  vitam  sipiUctis  per 
rvs  restitid  posse,  noUtis,  where,  without  his  rhetorical  object,  he  would 
have  said,  s%  putaretis — neiUetis, 

[^  525.]  JNote  2. — We  must  notice  a  peculiarity  of  the  Latin  language  in 
liypothetical  sentences,  which  appears  strange  to  us  (though  not  to  the 
(Greeks),  for  completed  actions  of  the  past  time  are  often  transferred,  at 
least  partly,  to  the  present,  b;^  usmg  the  imperfect  instead  of  the  pluper- 
fect, either  in  the  protasis  or  in  the  apodosis ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Brut.,  67,  Hujus 
si  vita,  si  moresy  si  vxdttts  denique  non  omnem  commeridationem  ingenU  everterety 
*naju8  nomen  in  patronis  fuisset ;  in  Verr.,  v.,  51,  quod  carte  non  fecissetj  si 
suum.  numerum  (nautarum)  naves  haberent ;  XoeZ.,  4,  Mortuis  tarn  religiosa 
jura  (maiores  nostri)  trihu&runtf  quod  nonfecissent  profectOy  sinihil  ad  eos  per- 
tinere  arhitrarentur ;  Liv.,  xxxix.,  42,  Longe  gravissima  (M.  Catonis)  in  L. 
Qumditun  oratio  est,  qua  si  accusator  ante  notam  ustu  esset,  retinere  Quinctium 
in  senatu  ne  frater  quidem  T,  Q^inctius,  si  turn  censor  es^et,  potuisset.    Nu- 
merous other  examples  from  Cicero,  Sallust,  and  Livy  are  quoted  by  Gar 
atoni  on  Cic,  in  Verr.,  it,  1,  in  fin. ;  p.Milon.,  17,  init. ;  o.  Sext.,  67,  in  fin. 
In  the  following  passages,  on  the  other  hand,  the  imperfect  is  used  for  the 
pluperfect  in  the  apodosis.     Cic,  in  Verr,^  i.,  31,  Nam  si  quam  Rvbrius  in- 
juriam  suo  nomine  ac  non  impulsu  tuo  et  tua  cupiditate  fecisset :  de  tui  comitis 
mmria  quesium  ad  te  potius,  quam  te  oppugnatum  itenirent,  instead  of  venissent ; 
Philip>,  iii.,  5,  esset  enim  ipsi  (Antonio)  certe  statim  serviendum,  si  Caesar  ab 
90  regni  insigne  accipere  voluisset,  where  Emesti  remarks  that  the  ordinary 
usage  of  the  Latin  language  requires  fuisset  for  esset ;  Flor.,  iii.,  3,  13, 
Cimbri  si  statim  infesto  agmine  urbem  petissenty  grande  discrim^n  esset ;  sed  in 
Venetia,  quo  fere  tractu  Italia  moUissima  est,  ipsa  solis  coelique  clementia  robur 
tlanguit.    For  other  passages,  see  fientley  on  Horace,  Strm.y  ii.,  3,  94. 
Sometimes  the  imperfect  subjunctive,  instead  of  the  pluperfect,  appears 
both  in  the  protasis  and  apodosis,  although  the  actions  spoken  of  are  com- 
pleted and  do  not  belong  to  the  present  time ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Philip.y  viii.,  4, 
rfum  tu  igitur  eum^  si  turn  esses,  temerarium  civem  avf  crudeiem  putares  ?  in- 
stead otfuisses  and  muasses.     See  Goerenz.  on  Cic,  de  Leg.,  iii.,  13,  30, 
and  de  Pin.,  v.,  3, 8.    It  is  true  that  all  this  arises  from  a  lively  and  rhetor- 
ical mode  of  speaking,  the  pait  time  being  represented  as  present ;  but  it 
must  be  observed  that  it  is  more  freauent  in  Latin,  and  especially  in  Greek, 
than  in  modern  languages.    Those  nypothetical  sentences,  in  which  either 
a  case  or  a  conclusion  from  it  is  represented  as  continuing  to  the  present 
time,  afiford  no  matter  for  special  remark/ for  there  the  imperfect  is  in  its 
proper  place.    Compare  the  learned  and  profound  dissertation  of  Fred. 
Ellendti  De  fornUs  enunciatorum  conditionalium  linguae  Latinae,  Regim 
Pruss.,  1827. 

[^  526.]  Note  3. — JVwi,  nisi  vero,  and  nisi  forte  are  joined  with  the  indie 
ative  when  they  introduce  a  correction  of  the  sentence  preceding.  Ni&i^ 
m  this  case,  signifies  "  except ;"  e.  g.,  Cic,  p.  Rose.  Am.y  35,  nescio :  nisi 
hoc  video.  Nisi  vero,  nisi  forte  (unless  perhaps),  introduce  a  case  as  an  ex- 
2eptiou,  and  describe  it  at  the  same  time  as  improbable;  e.  g.,  Cic,  p. 
SuU.,  9,  Plenum  forum  est  eorum  hominum—nisi  vero  paucos  fuisse  arbttramt' 
Hi ;  p.  Muren.,  6.  Nemo  fere  sallat  sohriusy  nisi  forte  insanit ;  ad  Att.,  ii,  14, 

H  H 


S62  LATIN    GRAMMAH. 

erat  miitn  nihil  nom,  quod  out  acriberenit  out  ex  te  quaererem,  nin  fmtt  hoe  md 
te  putas  pertinerty  &c.  Nisi  forte  is  thus  chiefly  used  in  an  ironical  sense. 
**  unless  YOU  suppose,"  introaucing  a  case  which  is  in  fact  inadmissible,  but 
is  intended  to, suggest  to  another  person  that  he  cannot  differ  from  our 
opinion  without  admitting  as  true  a  thing  which  is  improbable  and  ab- 
surd. 

[§  527.]  3.  Hence  the  present  subjunctive  is  used,  also, 
in  mdependeiit  propositions  to  soften  an  assertion  or  state 
ment,  and  without  any  essential  difference  from  the  pres- 
ent indicative  or  the  future.  "We  generally  express  the 
same  by  "I  may"  or  "I  might"  (the  subjunctive  as  a^- 
tential  mood)  ;  e.  g.,  Forsitan  quaeratis ;  nerno  istud  tib% 
concept;  quisdubitet?  velim  (nolim^malimj  sic  escistimes. 
Theperfect  subjunctive  may  likewise  be  used  in  the  sense 
of  a  softened  perfect  indicative;  e.  g.fjbrsitan  temerefe- 
cerim^  I  may  perhaps  have  acted  mconsidersXely  ;.Jbrtassc 
trrore  effectum  sit,  it  may  perhaps  have  been  done  by  mis- 
take; but  this  occurs  very  rarely,  and  the  perfect  sub- 
junctive, when  used  independently,  usually  has  the  mean- 
mg  of  a  softened  future,  and  in  so  far  is  equivalent  to  the 
present,  without  regard  to  the  completion  of  the  action. 
Hence  Q,uintilian,(x.,  1,  10*1)  combines  the  two  tenses: 
At -non  historia  cesserim  Graecis,  nee  opptmere  Thttcydidt 
Sallustium  verear. 
Quid  videatur  ei  magnum  in  rebus  hum^nis,  cui  aetemitas 

omnis  totiusque  mundi  nota  sit  Tnagnitudo  ?  Cic,  Tusc^ 

iv.,  17. 
Hoc  sine  ulla  dubitatione  ccmfirmaverim,  eloquentiam  rem 

esse,  omnium  difflcillimam,  Cic,  Brut.,  6. 
Tu  vero  JPIatonerrt  nee  nimis  yalde  unquamy  nee  nimis  saept 

lauddveris,  Cic,  De  Leg,,  iii.,  1. 

Nil  ego  contulerinkjucundo  santcs  amico,  Herat.,  Serm, 

[^  628.J  Note  l.^If  the  form  which  .we  usually  call  the  perfect  sub 
junctive  is  only  theferfect  subjunctive,  it  is  (Jifficult  to  derive  this  potentia. 
signification,  which  belongs  to  the  future,  from  the  idea  of  an  action  com- 
pleted at  the  present  time.  And  it  can  only  be  done  in  tlie  manner  de> 
scribed  above,  ^  51t ,  where  we  have  seen  that  the  future  perfect  acquires 
the  meaning  of  a  simple  future,  and  by  a  certain  liveliness  of  expression 
lepresents  an  incomplete  action  as  completed.  But  it  is  preferable  to  sup 
DOse  (see  ^  496  and  524,  note)  that  the  form  which,  from  its  most  usual 
meaning  in  dependant  sentences,  is  called  the  perfect  subjuncttve  active, 
is,  at  the  same  time,  the  subjunctive  of  the  future  perfect  (»crip»«rw»,  the 
subjunct.  of  ecripsi  and  ecripsero),  which  future  perfect  frequently  acquirei 
the  meaning  of  a  simple  future.  Hence  the  perfect  subjunctive,  in  a  po> 
tential  sense,  is  generally  used  only  in  the  active  voice,  and  very  rarely  in 
the  paBsive ;  as  in  Yell.  Pat.,  i.,  18,  non  ego  hoc  magis  miratua  aim;  and  Livy, 
xzii.,  59,  ne  HU  quidem  se  nobis  merito  praetiderint  ^loriatiqtte  sint ;  xzx.,  14. 
nmUa  virtus  est,  qua  ego  aeque  atqus  temperantia  gloriatus  fuerim.  After  it  had 
once  become  custonary  to  use  the  perfect  subjunctive  in  the  potential 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD.  <f6&: 

iisnae  of  the  present  aubjuntftive,  the  fonner  was  sometimes  ilsc  einplc^ 
ed  in  dependent  sentences  (after  vt  and  ne)  instead  of  the  present.     I7t  sie 
dixerim  occurs  in  Quintilian,  Tacitus  {de  Orat,,  34,  40),  and  the  classical 
jurists ;  ne'Umgius  abierim  (for  abeam)  is  used  by  Tacitus  (Ann.f  vi.,  22),  and 
nequis  sit  adnmratm,  for  nequis  admiretur,  by  Cicero  {de  Off.,  ii.,  10). 

It  must;  however,  be  observed  that,  on  the  whole,  the  subjunctive  it 
sparingly  used  by  the  earlier  writers  in  theBense  of  a  potential  mood ;  but 
later  writers,  such  as  Quintilian,  do  not  keep  within  tne  same  limits. 

Note  2. — The  first  person  of  the  imperfect  subjunctive  is  used  moro 
rarely  without  implying  the  falsity  or  impossibility  'of  a  condition ;  but 
tfeUem,  nollem,  and  maUem  are  used  to  express  a  wish,  the  non-reality  and 
impossibility  of  which  we  Xnow,  whence  velUm  becomes  equivalent  to  "  1 
should  have  wished."  But  in  the  second  person,  when  it  implies  an  in- 
definite person,  and  in  the  third,  when  the  subject  is  an  indefinite  person, 
the  imperfect  subjunctive  is  used  in  independent  propositions  to  express 
things  which  might  have  happened,  that  is,  in  the  sense  of  the  pluperfect, 
and  we  can  easily  supply  the  supposed  condition,  **  if  you  had  been  pres- 
ent." This  is  the  case  especially  with  the  verbs  dicere\  piUare,  credere ; 
e.  g.,  Liv.,  ii.,  43,  maestique  {crederes  victos)  redeunt  in  castra,  one  might 
have  believed  that  they  were  defeated ;  ii.,  35,  qutdquid  erat  'Patrum,  reos 
dicerts  ;  Cic,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  13,  quo  postquam  venerunt,  mirandum  in  moditm 
{eanea  venaticos  dieeres)  ita  odortuM^tur  omnia  et  pervestigabant,  ut,  ubi  quidqut 
essetf  aliqua  ratione  invenirent ;  Curt.,  vi.,  6,  discttrrunt  mHites  et  itineri  ear- 
cinas  aptant:  signum  datum  credere8,ut  vasa  colli^erent,  Videre,  cemere,  and 
discemere  are  used  in  the  same  way ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  40,  Vix  hoe 
erat  plane  imperatum,  qtaan  Uhan  tpoUatum  stipatumque  lictoribus  cemeres,  one 
might  have  seen  him,  soil,  if  one  had  been  preeent;  Sallust,  Cot.,  25,^* 
amiae  anfamae  minus  parceret,  hand  facile  diacemeres.  The  third  person  is 
more  rarely  used  in  this  way,  although  it  occurs  in  Cic,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  23, 
qui  videret  equum  Trojanum  introductum,  vrbem  captam  diceret ;  but  frequently 
with -the  interrogative  quia  ;  as,  Cic,  m  Verr ,  i.,  41,  quia  unquam  crederet  ? 

5.  JLeg,  Man.,  1 1 ,  quia  unqiuxm  crbitraretur  ?  p.  Flacc.,  40,  quia  putartl  ^ 
uven.,  vii.,  212,  Cm  non  tunc  elicvrtt  risum  citfutroedi  cauda  magistri  ? 

[§  529. j  4.  The  subjurctive  is  farther  used  in  inde- 
pendent sentences  to  express  a  wish  or  desire  (optative). 
In  the  second  and  third  persons  of  the  present  (to  some 
extent,  also,  of  the  perfect)  it  snpplies  the  place  of  the  im 
perative ;  e.  g.,  dicas  equivalent  to  die,  loquare  to  loqucr^, 
especially  when  the  person  is  indefinite  ;•  farther,  dicat, 
fadat^  loqtcatur.  The  present  subjunctive  is  iised  in  the 
first  person  to  express  an  assurance;  e.  g.,  moriar,  intere- 
amtjpeream;  and  in  the  plural  a  reqiiest^  which  may  be 
addressed  to  ourselves  as  well  as  others;  e  g.,  eamus, 
moriamur^  nunc  revertamur  ad  propositum  /  let  us  go !  let 
us  die !  let  us  return ! '  The  imperfect  and  pluperfect  are 
used  to  express  wishes  belonging  to  the  past  time,  when 
a  thing  ought  to  have  been,  or  to  have  been  done ;  e.  g,, 
diceret,  dixisset]  he  should  have  said. 

Connected  with  this  is  the  use  of  the  subjunctive  (called 
in  this  case  concessivusj,  to  express  a  concession  or  admia. 
sion,  both  with  and  vdthout  the  conjunctions  ut  and  licft  •• 
«.  g.,  dicat,  he  may  say ;  diceret ,  he  might  saj  :  dixerit^  ba 


^ 


)I04  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 


may  have  said,  and  so  on  through  all  the  tenser.  Th^ 
negative  with  these  subjunctives  (optative  and  concessive} 
is  usually  not  noHf  but  ne  ;  e.  g.,  ne  dicas,  nc  dicat^  ne  dix' 
tris  (this  negative  way  is  the  most  common  case  of  the 
•perfect  subjunctive,  being  used  in  the  sense  of  the  pres- 
ent) ;  farther,  ne  vivam^  ne  desperemus^  ne  Juerit,  equiva- 
lent to  licet  non  Juerit, 

Meminerimus,  etiam  adversus  itifimos  jttstitiam  esse  scrvan 

dam,  Cic,  De  Off:,  L,  13. 
NiJiil  incommodo  valetudinis  tuae  Jeceris,  Cic,  ad  Au,^ 

vii.,  8. 
EmaSf  non  quod  opus  est,  sed  quod  necesse  est,  Seneca. 
Oonis  impii  ne  placare  audeant  deos  ;  Platonem  audiant^ 

qui  vetat  dubitare,  qua  sit  mentc  Juturus  deus,  cum  vir 

nemo  bonus  ah  improho  se  donari  velit,  Cic,  de  Leg. 
Naturam   expeUas  fUrca^  iamen  usque  recurret,  Bforaf,. 

Epist,  i.,  10,  24. 
Ne  sit  summum  malum  dolor,  malum  certe  est,  Cicero. 

Note, — We  are  of  opinion  that  the  subjunctive  which  expresses  a  wisn^ 
and  is  spparently  not  dependent  upon  any  other  sentence,  may  be  gram- 
matically explained  by  supplying  the  verb  volot  according  to  ^  624.    With 
regard  to  the  use  of  the  subjunctive  instead  of  the  imperative,  we  may 
observe,  that  it  occurs  principally  in  the  third  person  (tnis  person  of  the 
imperative  being  usually  avoided  in  ordinary  language)  and  in  the  second 
with  a  negation,  and  in  the  latter  case  the  perfect  regularly  takes  the 
place  of  the  present  (in  deponent  as  well  as  active  verbs ;  e,^.,ne  sis  as- 
perruUus,  Cicero,  ad^  Qtdnt,  FraLt  ii.,  12) ;  hence  we  usually  say,  ne  dixeris 
and  dicat  or  ne  dic^t  but  rarely  ne  dixerit ;  e.  g.,  Tacit.,  Ann.t  iv.,  32,  nemo 
contendmt.    Beginners  must  be  especially  cautioned  not  to  prefer  the 
(Present  subjunctive  (dicas)  to  the  imperative  (die)  on  the  ground  of  its 
neing  more  polite.    The  imperative  die  expresses  a  wish  as  well  as  a 
command,  and  it  may  be  still  more  softened  by  adding  such  a  word  as 
wrOf  quaesot  dum,  sis.    Dicas,  for  <2tc,  occurs  in  Cicero,  when  it  is  addcessed 
10  an  indefinite  person ;  e.  g.,  Tusc.,  v.,  41,  sie  injurias  fortunae,  quae  Jem 
nequeas,  defugiendo  reKnquas  j  Cat,  Maj,,  10,  Denique  isto  bono  (corporis 
roDore)  utare  dum  adsit,  quum  absit  ne  reqtdras.    But  when  addressmg  a 
definite  person  he  very  rarely  uses  dieas  and  ne  dicas. for  die  and  noU  dicere 
(ad  Att.,  z.,  15,  in  fin. ;  ziv.,  1,  2).    But  the  poets  and  later  prose  writers 
Jeven  Livy)  frequently  employ  the  second  person  of  the  present  subjunct- 
ive in  addressing-  definite  persons ;  e.  g.,  Liv.;  vi,  12,  Tu^  Qm'Tifi,  equitem 
intentus — teneas,  &c. ;  xxii.,  53,  Si  sdens  faUo,  turn,  me  Juppiter  Opt.  Max. 
vessimo  leto  afidas ;  zzvi,  50,  amicus  j^oj^iuiA  Romano  sis,  et  si  me  virwn 
bonwn  credis  ssse,  scias  muUoa  nostri  similes  in  civitate  Romana  ess^,  are 
words  addressed  by  Scipio  to  Masinissa.    The  third  person  of  the  presen 
subjunctive,  however,  is  used  quite  commonly  to  express  a  precept ;  as  in 
Cicero  (de  Off,,  i.,  37),  where  tne  following  precepts  are  given  respecting 
conversational  style :  Sit  igitur  sermo  lenis  minimeque  pertinax ;  insit  in  eo 
<epos  ;  nee  vero,  tcrniquam  in  possessionem  venerit,  exehtdat  tifio«,  sed  qtatm  in 
reliqttis  rebus,  turn  in  sermane  communi',  vicissitudinem  non  tniqtiampiitet,  ac 
videat  imprimis,  quibus  de  rebus  loquatw,  si  seriis,  severitatem  adhibeat,  si  jo- 
90SIS,  leporem ;  imprimisque  provideat,  &e.    In  this  manner  the  present  and 
l>erfect  subjunctive  ar«  rse^  f or  tb^  imperative;  but  the  imperfect  ar.^ 


SUBJUNCT1V£  MOOD.  3G^ 

plii^«rfect,4i]so,  are  employed  to  express  a  precept,  relening  to  tho  pa^ 
time,  when  a  thing  should  have  been  done ;  e.  g.,  Terent.,  Heaut.y  i,  2,28 
pater  ejusfortasae  aUquanto  vniqidor  erat :  paUretWj  he  should  have  borne  it 
Cic,  p.  SaeLt  20 fforsitan  non  nemo  vir  fortis  dixeritt  resHtissee^  mortem  pug 
9t*ms  oppHU»e»y  you  should  have  resisted ;  ad  Att.,  ii.,  1,  3,  Mittam  tibi  ora 
tiones  imae^  ex  qvibus  perspicies  et  quae  gesserim  et  quae  dixerim :  out  ne  po 
poscisees,  ego  enhn  me  tibi  non  offerebam,  or  you  should  not  have  asked  foi 
them. 

The  corueeeive  mood  must  be  supposed  to  exist  wherever  we  may  para 
phrase  the  subjunctive  by  Ucet.  In  English,  its  place  is  usually  supplied 
by  the  expressions  "  suppose,*'  or  "  supposing,"  and  the  like,  which  are 
equivalent  to  the  Latin  eeto  ut,  Comp.  Cic,  de  Leg.  Agr.^  ii.,  23,  GZ^parU 
sit  pecuniaf  &c.  The  perfect  retains  the  signification  which  it  has  in  ths 
indicative ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Verr,,  i,  41,  Maine  cine  Cn.  Carbo  fvit,  Fueni 
sliis :  tibi  quando  esee  coepit  ?  he  may  have  been  so  to  Others.  The  imper- 
fect in  this  sense  is  based  only  on  the  authority  of  the  MS.  reading  in 
Tacit.,  Ann.,  iii.,  II,  oc  premeret  ia^  where  Walther's  note  should  be  con* 
suited.  There  is  another  independent  subjunctive  which  expresses  sup- 
positions as  merely  conceived,  and  which  may  be  called  the  hypothetical 
subjunctive  ;  e.  g.,  rogee  me,  if  you  ask  me,  or  supposing  you  ask  me ;  dares 
iUi  aliquidt  if  yott  gave,  or  supposing  you  gave  him  anything ;  but  we  pre- 
fer classing  this  subjunctive  with  that  of  hypothetical  sentences,  and  ex- 
plain it  by  supplying  the  conjunction  ei,  for  the  indicative,  too,  is  thus  used. 
See  ^  780. 

Non  is  sometimes  joined  with  the  subjunctive  expressing  a  prohibition 
or  request ;  as,  Horat.,  Serm,,  ii.,  5, 91 ;  J^ist.,  i.,  18, 72;  Quintil.,  vii.,  1, 5G, 
non  deeperemue  ;  i.,  1, 15,  non  assuescat  vitioee  hqui;  ii.,  16,  6,  nonfabricetur 
militi  gladhts.  In  the  same  manner,  nequs  is  used  for  neve  in  connexion 
with  such  subjunctives,  and  that  not  only  by  the  poets  and  Quintilian  (ii., 
1,  5,  rhetorice  oMcia  sua  non  detraetet  nee  occupari  gaudeat)^  but  even  by  Cic 
pro  {de  Re  Pvbl.,  i.,  2 ;  p,  Planc^  6,  ^  15). 

[§  530.]  5.  Lastly,  the  subjunctive  is  used,  in  all  itB 
tenses,  in  independent  sentences  to  express  a  doubtful 
question  containing  a  negative  senpe  (conjunctivus  dubi- 
tativus)  ;  e.  g.,  quo  earn  ?  whither  shall  I  go  1  quo  trem  ? 
w^hither  should  I  go]  quo  eas?  whither  wilt  thou  go]  quo 
ires  ?  whither  wouldst  thou  go  ]  quo  tverim  ?  whither  was 
I  to  have  gone  ]  quo  ivisseml  whither  should  I  have  gone] 
The  answer  implied  in  all  these  cases  is  "  nowhere,"  and 
this  is  the  negative  sense  of  such  questions ;  for  in  quesr 
tions  to  which  we  expect  an  affirmative  answer  the  indic- 
ative is  used. 
Cum  iempestate  pugnem  perictdose  potius,  quain  illi  ohtem-' 

pereni  et  paream  ?  Cic,  Pro  Plane.,  39. 
Valerius  quotidie  cantahat :  erat  eHim  scenicus :  quid  fa 

ccret  aliud  ?  Cic,  De  Orat,,  iii.,  23. 
Apud  exercitum  mihi  fueris,  inquitj  tot  aimos  ?  Jorum  jwn 

attigeris  ?  ahfueris  tamdiu  ?  ut,  quum  longo  intervaJlo 

veneris,  cum  iis,  qui  inforo  hahitarint,  de  dignitate  con* 

tcndas  ?  Cic,  Pro  Muren,,  9. 

/Vote. — For  the  purpose  of  a  gramma  tic  tl  explanation  of  -his  8uSi\t«ic» 

Hh8 


3M  LATIN  GRAMMAK. 

ive,  we  supply  the  question  "should  you,  perhaps,  like  that,"  &c.,  wbick 
implies  the  contrary  of  wbst  the  question  asits,  and  is  equivAlenl  tc 
*•  surely  you  will  not,"  or  **  v<'(m\d  not  that,"  &c.  Hence  when  I  ask  quid 
doceam  ?  the  negative  answer  *'  nothing"  is  presupposed ;  and  when  i  put 
the  negative  question  quid  non  doceam  f  1  suggest  th&  affinjoative  answer 
**  anything;"  hoc  non  nocecuf  do  you  mean  to  say  that  this  does  not  injure  ? 
(i.  e.,  it  certainly  does  injure).  There  is  nothmg  to  be  said  against  this 
ellipsis  in  the  hrst  and  third  persons ;  with  regaid  to  the  secor^  we  can 
only  say  that  it  is  an  imitation  of  the  t-vo  others.  •  But  that  Uiere  actaaily 
is  at!  ellipsis,  is  clear  from  the  indignant  interrogation  with  itf  (^  609).  Aa 
to  the  use  of  the  imperfect,  compare,  also,  Caes.,  BeU.  Civ.,  i.,  72,  (Jaestu 
in  earn  s^em  venerat,  se  sine  pugna  et  sine  tndfiere  suorum  rem  conficere  posse, 
fuod  re  Jrumentaria  adversaries  inierclusisset :  cur  etiam  secundo  proeUo  tuiquos 
ex  suis  amitteret  ?  cur  vulnerari  pateretur  optima  de  se  meritos  miUtes  T  cur  dc 
nique  fortunam  periclitaretur  ?  i.  e..  Why  should  he  lose  any  more  ?  Why 
should  he  allow  them  to  be  wounded  ?  Why  should  he  tempt  fortune  ? 
The  imperf(pct,  therefore,  can  occur  only  in  narratives. 

[§  531.]  6.  Dependent  sentences  in  which  an  intention 
or  purpose,  or  a  direction  towards  the  future  is  expressed, 
take  the  subjunctive.  The  conjunctions  uti  ne,  quo^  qmn, 
quomiTiMs  serve  to  connect  such  sentences  with  othei*Sy  and 
consequently  govern  the  subjunctive,  the  tenses  6f  which 
must  be  chosen  as  required  by  that  of  the  leading  verb  of 
the  sentence.     (See  above,  §  512,  foil.) 

(a)  Ut  or  uti  (that,  or  in  order  that)  refers  either  to 
something  future  which  is  the  intention,  object,  result,  or 
effect  of  another  action  (which  is  often  expressed  in  Eng 
lish  by  "in  order  to,"  or  simply  "to"  with  the  infinitive), 
or,  when  used  -after  the  words  sie,  ita,  tarn,  talis,  tantus, 
ejusmodi,  &cc.f  it  expresses  a  quality  or  the  nature  of  a 
thing  in  the  form  of  a  result.  The  English  conjunction 
"  that,"  which  introduces  sentences  supplying  the  place 
either  of  a  nominative  or  accusative,  cannot  be  rendered 
by  tU,  as  "it  is  a  consolation  for  the  subjects  that  the  king 
is  a  just  man,"  equivalent  to  "the  king's  justice  Is  a  con- 
solation, '  &c. ;  or  "  I  know  that  the  king  is  just,"  equiv 
alent  to  *'  I  know  the  king's  justice." 

Esse  oporict  ut  vivas,  non  vivere  ut  edas,  Auct.  ad  Heren^ 

iv.,  28. 
Pylades  Orestem  se  esse  dixit,  ut  pro  illo  necaretur^  Cic,i  ^ 

Laci.,  7.  . 

Nemo  tarn  maltts  est,  ut  videri  velit,  Q,uintil.,  iii.,  8,  44. 

Sol  ejficit  ut  omnia  floreant,  Cic,  jDe  Nat.  Deqr.,i\,^  15. 

Note. —  Ut  is  originally  an  adverb  denoting  manner,  and  as  a  relative  ad- 
verb it  corresponds  with  the  demonstrative  ita.  As  an  adverb  it  proper!) 
governs  nothmg,  and  is  joined,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  sentence, 
either  with  the  indicative  or  the  subjunctive.  As  a  particle  of  time  in  the 
sense  of  "  as"  or  **  as  scK)n  as"  it  is  likewise  joined  with  the  indicative  (if 
ther^  are  no  additional  reasons  requiring  the  subjunctive),  ard  nsaally 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD,  367 

.«rkh  the  perf<v;t  kidicative.  See  above,  ^  500.  It  rciquires  tha  Bubjunc# 
tre  only  wbea  it  expresses  a  relation  to  a  future  time  conceived  by  the 
mind*  and  a  purpose  or  a  result  which  is  yet  to  come. .  It  has  already  been 
observed  (^  286),  that  ita  ut,  tanius  u£,  &c.,  only  indicate  more  definitely  a 
fiiture  result,  and  may  have  both  an  increasing  and  a  limiting  power.  The 
adverbs  ita,  sic,  tarn,  however,  are  often  omitted  with  verbs  and  adjectives, 
and  ta  alone  is  equivalent  to  ita  {sic,  tarn) — ut,  e.  g.,  Nepos,  EpaminondM 
/uit  etiam  disertus,  ut  nemo  Thebanus  ei  par  esset  elomientiaf  instead  of  tarn 
diserius,  Respecting  •«/,  in  the  sense  of  **  would  tnat"  and  *'  supposing 
chat,**  with  the  subjunctive,  see  below,  ^^  571  and  573. 

[§  532.]  fhj  Ne  (in  order  that  not,  or,  lest)  is  used  only 
to  express  a  negative  intention  or  intended  effect ;  e.  g., 
cura  ne  denito  in  Tnorhnm  incidas,  or  kaec  vitae  ratio  effedt, 
ne  deniLo  in  morhum  inciderem.  Ut  non  is  used,  on  the  oth- 
er hand,  when  an  effect  is -to  be  expressed  without  an  in- 
tention, that  is,  a  simple  result  or  consequence,  and  when 
a  quality  is  to  be  determined,  in  which  case  the  adverbs 
ita^ sic,  tarn  are  either  expressed  or  understood;  e.  g.ytum 
forte  aegrotaham,  ut  ad  nuptias  ttias  venire  non  possem ; 
i.  e.,  in  consequence  of  my  illness,  but  no  intention  is  ex- 
pressed. Compare,  however,  §  347.  Ut  non  is  farther 
used  when  the  negation  does  not  refer  to  the  whole  sen- 
tence, but  only  to  a  part  of  it  or  to  a  particular  word,  just 
as  in  a  ^similar  case  si  non  must  be  used,  and  not  nisi. 

Confer  te  ad  Manlium,  ut  a  me  non  pectus  ad  alienosy  sed 
invitattis  ad  tuos  isse  videaris,  Cic*.  in  Cat.,  i.,  9. 

Nemo  prudens  punit,  ut  ait  Plato,  quia  peccatum  est,  sed  ne 
peccetur,  Seneca,  De  Ira,  i.,  16,  21. 

NihU  agitis,  inquit  Arria,  potestis  enim  ejfficere,  ut  male  mo 
riar;  ne  moriar,  non  potestis,  Plin.,  JSpist.,  iii.,  16. 

[§  533.]  We  have  here  to  notice  a  peculiarity  of  the 
Latin  language,  according  to  which  the  verbs  mettto,  timco, 
vereor  are  treated  as  implying  an  intention.  They  are, 
therefore,  followed  by  ne  when  anything  is  to  be  prevent- 
ed, or  when  it  is  wished  that  something  should  not  hap- 
pen ;  e.  g.,  metuo,  nejrustra  labor  em  smceperis;  and  by  ui 
when  it  is  wished  that  something  should  take  place;  e.  g., 
vereor,  ut  mature  venias.  These  same  verbs  are  followed 
by  the  infinitive  when  they  express  only  a  state  of  mind, 
without  implying  any  wish  either  the  one  way  or  the  oth- 
er; e.  g,,metu^  manus  admovere,  vereor  dicere;  but  vereor 
4t  apte  dicam. 

Vereor,  ne^  dwn  minuere  velim  lahorem,  augeam,  Cicero. 
Adtdatores,  si  quern  laudant,  vereri  se  dicunt,  ut  illiusjactn 
.    verbis  consequi  possint,  Auct.  ad  He  'en,,  iii.,  6, 


868  LATIN    GBAMMAK. 

[^  634.]  Note  ]. — To  the  Terbs  denoting /ear  we  mast  add  the  nil 
tives  expressing  fear,  apprehension,  of  danger,  as  well  as  the  vertM  temrt^ 
conterreret  deterrere,  and  also  cav&e,  which  in  ita  usual  sense  of  *'  to  be  on 
one's  guard,"  is  rarely  joined  with  the  infinitive,  but  is  usually  foUowedby 
ne ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Off.^  i, 26,  cavendutn ett^ne  astenttUoribut  patefaeiamus-  mirei 
neu  adtdari  noB  ttnamua,  {Caveret  howeyer,  sometimes  also  signiSes  **t* 
take  care  of  a  thing,"  in  which  case  it  is  followed  by  n^  ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de-f^, 
ii.,  31 ,  Epicurus  testamento  eowt,  ttf  dies  natalis  smts  ageretur.)  FarvheTj  %riden 
and  observare  in  requests  {iride,  videte^  videndum  esl)^  in  the  sense  of  *^  to 
consider,"  are  followed  either  by  tit  or  ne,  just  as  the  wetha  denoting  feaor ;  - 
e.  g.,  vide  nekoe  tibi  obsit,  consider  whether  this  is  not  mjurious  to  you, 
that  is,  I  am  afraid  it  will  injure  you.  See  Heusinger  on  Oieero,  de  Of.^ 
i.,  9.    For  tfidere,  in  the  sense  of  raiwv,  aee  ^  91i. 

It  rarely  happens  that  Hmere  is  followed  by  the  accusative  with  the  in- 
finitive, instead  of  ne  with  the  subjunctive,  as  in  Cic,  de  Leg.,  ii.,22f  Quod 
Sulla)  timens  sua  corporiwsse  accidere,  igrit  moluH  eremarii  de  Ona.,  ii,  72, 
quum  subest  Ule  HmoTf  ne  digniutem  cmUkm  posse  retmeri,  instead  of  ne  iJMi 
digrUtMs  retineri  turn  possit.    Comp.  Liv.,  ii.,  7,  5 ;  iii.,  22, 2. 

[^  535.]  Note  2.— iVeve  is  used  in  negative  sentences  to  eontiitae  that 
which  is  introduced  by  vt  and  ne  (see  (f  347).  It  is  properly  equivalent  to 
out  rUf  and  therefore  only  intended  to  contmue  a  preceding  ne,  but  it  is 
also  used  for  et  ne  after  a  preceding  v/,  a9,  on  the  other  hand,  etneis  used 
after  a  negation  instead  of  ottf  ne.  Hence  we  find,  e.  g.,  Liv.,  zxiiL,  34, 
mandahmt  ut  in  onrnee  naves  l^atos  sepanttim  cusiodiendos  dimdaaret,  dmreiqm 
operam,  ne  quod  He  coUo^um  inter  se,  neve  quae  communicatio  consilii  esset ; 
^ep.,  Throe.,  3,  legem  tuUt,ne  quis  ante  actarum  rerum  accusaretur,  neve  mui 
taretur  ;  Caes.,  BM,  Gall.,  ii,  21,  Caesar  natites  non  longiore  oratiene  esAtrOa* 
ttu,qugmuHsuaejfristiiumvirtu^mem/>riamretineren^imtperturba^ 
imo—^proeUi  eommUtendi  signum  dedit,  Neque  should  properly  not  come  into 
consideration  here,  as  it  is  equivalent  to  et  non,  but  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  even  Cicero  sometimes  usee  it  for  et  ne  after  «tf ;  a  g.«  tn  Fvrr^iii,y48, 
ut  ea  praetermittaniy  neque  eos  apj^Uem  ;  de  Orat.,  i.,  5,  horteimirque  ptims  lAe- 
ros  nostros,  vt  animo  rei  magnUudinem  eompUctantwr,  neque — confidant.  It 
occurs  very  rarely,  and  is  not  quite  certain  after  ne,  as  would  be  Ike  ease 
in  Nepos,  Paus.,  4,  orare  eoepit,  ne  emmdaret  nee  se  nuritum.  de  iUomptime 
vroderet,  u  we  ought  not  to  correct  nee  into  neu.  See  my  note  on  C^.,  m 
Vcrr.,  iii,  6, 14.  In  Livy,  however,  there  are  many  pi^ges  in  which 
neque  (nee)  occurs  after  ne,  as  well  as  after  vt;  e.  g.,  ii,  32,  conaptrae«k 
(membra)  ne  numus  ad  os  cibumferrent,  nee  os  acciperet  datum  nee  denies,  quat 
eonjicerenl;  Vt.,  4,  cur  non  sancUis  ne  vicimu  pamcio  sit  plebeius  nee  eadem 
itinere  eat ;  v.,  3,  interdicitis  patribus  commrcio  pUbis,  ne  nos  oemitutt  pmvoce- 
mus  pUbeaij  nee  plebs  nobis  dicto  audiens  sit. 

Respectmg  vt  ne,  for  ne,  see  above,  ^  347;  but  it  does  not  occur  with  the 
verbs  denoting  fear.  Thev  are,  however,  sometimes  followed  by  ne  non, 
which  is  equivalent  to  id, the  two  negations  neutralizing  each  other;  e.  a., 
timeo  ne  non  rmpetrem,  I  fear  I  shall  not  obtain  it  (i  e.,  though  I  wish  it) : 
Cic,  ad  Font.,  ii.,  5,  non  quo  verear,  ne  tua  virtus  opimoni  hominum  non  re 
spondeat ;  or  non  belongs  to  the  verb  alone ;  as,  Cic,,  ad  Att.,  v.,  18,  Unum 
vereor,  ne  eenatus  Pompeium  nolit  dimittere,  I  fear  the  senate  will  not  let 
Pompey  go  (viz.,  though  1  wish  it  may  do  so). 

[§  536.]  (c)  Quo  is  properly  the  ablative  of  the  rela- 
tive pronoun,  and  staiids  for  ut  eo  (§  567),  "in  ordet  that," 
or  "  that  by  this  means."  But  it  is  commonly  joined  only 
with  comparatives.  Non  quo  answers  to  the  English,  "not 
as  if*  (instead  of  which,  however,  we  may  also  say  non 
quod),  and  non  quin,  **  not  as  if  not."  The  apoddsis  fol- 
lowing after  such  a  sentence  beqriu?  with  sed  quod  or  si^ 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOly.  tOO 

fuea  with  tho  indicative  (sometinies,  also,  with  sed  &!oiie), 
or  with  ut. 

Ager  non  semel  aratur,  sed  novatur  et  iteratur^  quo  meliorei 

fetus  pomt  et  grandiorvs  edere,  Cic,  de  Orat,,  ii.,  30. 
"Legem  brevem  esse  oportet^  quofaciliufi  ah  imperitU  tenea^ 

tur,  Senec,  Epist,  94. 
Ad  te  litteras  dedi,  nan  quo  haberem  magnopere^  quod  scri 

bcrem^  sed  ut  loquerer  tecum  absens,  Cic,  ad  Att,,  vii.,  15 

Note  ] . — Quo  is  also  used  for  et  eo,  and  when  joined  with  comparatives 
it  corresponds  with  a  snbeequenC  eo  or  Aoc,  in  the  sense  of  the  more— the 
more.  In  both  cases  it  is  no  more  than  an  ofdinar^  relatiye,  and  is  joined 
with  the  indicative,  for  the  subjunctive  afler  9110  is  used  only,  as  m  the 
above  examples,  when  it  expresses  an  mtention  or  purpose. 

[^  537.]  JVote  2. — ^The  above-mentioned  use  of  non  quo  was  fomierty  >er7 
much  disputed,  and  critics  wanted  everywhere  to  substitute  for  it  non  ouod^ 
and  to  confine  non  quo  to  those  passages  in  which  a  presumed  intenti'Dn  is 
denied.  But  this  would  require  an  alteraticm  in  too  many  passages.  See 
my  note  on  Cic,  in  Verr.t  li.,  35,  in  fin.  It  cannot,  however,  be  denie** 
that,  on  the  whole,  it  is  more  safe  to  say  non  quod,  also  non  eo  quod  or  n^ 
ideoquod(wnd  in  later  proae  writers  non  qtda),  all  of  which  are  joined  Wi<h 
the  subjunctive.  Examples  are  numerous :  non  quin  ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  ad  Att., 
vii.,  26,  Ego  VM  dueem.  in  etvili  bello  negavi  eise.,  non  quin  rectum  esset,  sed 
quioj  quod muUo  rectiuofiutf  idndhifraudem  adit ;  in  like  manner,  non  quin 
conjuierem  diligentiae  tuae^  not  as  if  I  had  not  confidence  in  your  diligence ; 
non  quin  hre%nter  responaum  reddi  potueritf  not  as  if  a  short  answer  could  not 
have  been  given.  But  in  the  same  sense  we  may  also  separate  the  nega- 
tion, and  say  non  quo  non,  non  quod  non  or  non  quia  non  ;  as,  Cic,  Ti»c.,  i., 
1,  non  quia  pfuloaophia  Graeds  et  litteris  et  doctoribus  pere^  non  posset ^  and 
p.  Milmt.f  22,  Majores  nostri  in  donunum  de  servo  quaeri  nolueruntf  non  quia 
non  posset  verum  tnventn,  sed  quia  videbatur  indignum  esse.  Hence  Ernest) 
should  not  have  been  surprised  at  finding  this  expression  in  Tacitus,  Hist.i 
i.,  15.  But  non  quia  in  the  protasis,  with  the  indicative  (in  Liv.,  xxxiii.,  27 
non  quia  satis  dignos  eos  credAatt  and  Tacit.,  Hist.^  iii.,  4,  non  quia  industria 
flamani  egebant,  sed  itf,  &c.>-;-and  sed  quod  in  the  apodosis  with  the  sub 
junctive'H(in  Cic,  ad  Fam.,  iv.,  7,  consHiimt  tuum  reprehendere  non  audeo, 
non  quin  06  eo  ipse  dissentiamt  sed  quod  ea  te  se^ientia  esse  judicentf  ut  meum 
eonsuium.  non  anteponam  tuo) — seem  both  to  be  contrary  to  usage. 

[§  538.]  fdj  Quin  is  used  after  negative  sentences  and 
doubtful  questions  with  quis  and  quidy  which  differ  only  in 
the  form  of  expression  from  affirmative  propositions  'with 
nemo  and  nihU^  first,  for  ^i  non,  quae  Tum,  quod  non,  and. 
secondly,  for  ut  non  ("  that  not'*  or  "  without"  when  fol- 
lowed by  a  paiticiple).  Quin,  equivalent  to  a  relative 
pronoun  with  non,  is  used  especially  after  thq  expressions 
nemo,  nullus^  nihily  vix,  aegre — est,  reperitur,  invenitur ; 
e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Verr,,  ii.,  36,  repertus  est  nemo  quin  mori  di^ 
ceret  satius  esse  ;  the  use  of  quvn  for  ut  non  cannot  be  lim- 
ited to  particular  expressions,  but  we  must  especially  ob- 
serve the  phrase^/oc^re  non  possum  quin,  and  in  the  passive! 
voice, ^eri  non  potest  quin,  where  the  double  negation  rmi 


370  LATIN*  GBAMMAE. 

ders  the  afRrmative'  meaning  more  emphatic.    S(k  9kt& 

nuUa  causa  est.  quid  causae  est  ?  nihil  causae  est^^^uin  km 

^    •* 
jaciam, 

Quis  est  quin  ccrTtat^  quanta  vis  sit  in  sefisibus  ?  Cicero. 
Nihil  tarn  difficile  esty  quin  quaercndo  investigari  possit 

Terent.,  Heaut.,  iv.,  2,  8. 
Nunqiiam  tarn  male  est  Siculis,  quin  aliquid  Jacete  et  com^ 

mods  dicantj  Cic,  in  Verr,^  iv.,  43. 
Facere  non  potui^  quin  tihi  et  sententiam  et  voluntatem  de- 

clararem  meam^  Cic.  ad  Fa?n,^  vi.,  13. 

[^  539.]  Note  1. — We  said  above  that  quinvr&s  used  only  for  the  nomina 
live  qui^  quae,  quod  with  non,  and  this  must,  indeed,  be  considered  as  tb 
general  rule,  although  mtin  is  sometimes  found  in  prose  instead  of  the  ac 
cisative  quod  non,  whicn  may  be  partly  owing  to  the  identity  of  the  nom 
and  ace.  in  the  neuter  gender,  and  instead  of  the  ablat.  quo  non  (after  dies) 
e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  1,  nego'in  Sicilia  <pddqumn  ftds»e,qyin  conqvisierit , 
SuetonM  NtTO,  45»  nihil  contumeliarum  defuU  qum  subiret ;  CiC,  ad  Att.,  i.,  1 
dies  fere  nuUus  est  qtun'f^ic  Satrius  domum  meam  ventitet ;  Brut,,  88,  nuUum 
patiebatur  esse  (ftem  (Hortensius)  qvxn  out  in  foro  diceret  out  meditaretur  extra 
forum.    Here,  too,  the  fact  of  qui  being  equivalent  to  quo  may  have  had 
some  influence.    Other  passages  may  be  explained  by  vi  non.    It  has  al 
ready  been  remarked  that  qui  non,  &c.,  may  be  used  for  quin,  und  this  oc- 
curs very  frequently ;  e»  g.,  Cir  ,  p.  Flacc,,  25,  qyis  enim  erat  qui  non  sciret. 
&c.    It  must  be  observed  that  when  quin  stands  for  qui  non  or  quod  non 
the  pronoun  is,  id,  although  superfluous,  is  sometimes  added  for  the  sake 
of  greater  emphasis ;  as,  Cic,  tn  Vert.,  i.,  59,  Quis  in  circum  maximum  venit, 
quin  is  unoquoque  gradu  de  avaritia  tua  commoneretur  ?  de  Nat.  Dear.,  ii.,  9, 
CUanlhes  negat  uUum  cibum  esse  tarn  gravem,  quin  is  die  et  node  concoquatur  , 
ibid,  iii.,  13,  nihil  est  quod  sensum  habeat,  quin  id  intereat ;  Sallust,  Jug.,  63, 
novus  nemo  tarn  clarus  erat  ouin  is  indignus  eo  honore  habereticr. 

The  place  of  quin  is,  fartner,  not  unfrequently  supplied  by  ui  non.  Thus 
we  reaa,  on  the  one  hand,  quin  in  Terence,  MSin.,  iv.,  7,  21,  Nunquam  ac- 
cedo,  quiA  abs  te  abeam  doctior,  I  never  visit  you  without  leaving  wiser  (than 
when  I  came) ;  and  in  Nepos,  Timol.,  1,  Mater  vera  post  id  factum  (necem 
fratris)  neque  domum  filittm  ad  se  admisit  neque  adspextt,  quin  eum  fratricidam 
impiumque  detestans  compellaret,  without  calling  nim  a  fratricide ;  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  ut  non  in  precisely  the  same  sense,  as  in  Cicero,  p.  Leg. 
Man.,  7,  ruere  iUa  non  postunt,  ut  haec  non  eodem  loJ>efacta  motu  concidant ; 
Sueton.,  Octav.,  56,  Augttstus  nunquam  fUios  suospopiuo  commendavit,  ut  non 
adjiceret  (without  adding)  si  merebuntur.  It  also  occurs  aher  facere  non  pos- 
turn,  find  fieri  non  potest;  e.  g.,  Cic^  ad  Att,,  xi,  21,  Tu  etsi'nonpotuistiulio 
modo  facere,  ut  mini  illam  epistolamnon  mitteres :'  tamen  mallem  non  esse  mis- 
sam  ;  in  Verr^  ii.,  T7,  fieri  non  potest,  ut  eum  tu  in  tua  provincia  non  eognoris. 

It  is  obvious  that  both  9111  non  and  ut  non  must  be  used,  and  not  ^ut'ii, 
when  no  negation  precedes,  or  when  non  belongs  to  a  particular  word  of 
a  sentence,  and  not  to  the  leading  verb.  Accordingly,  we  cannot  say  non 
^*deo  imperUus  mm  quin  sciam,  but  ut  nesciam,  since  non  negatives  only  the 
^ord  adeo. 

[§  540.]  From  this  we  must  distinguish  the  use  of  qniM 
after  n(m  dvhito,  non  est  d^ium,  non  ambigo  (I  doubt  nut), 
and  many  other  expressions  containing  a  negation ;  as, 
non  ahest;  nihil,  paulum^  non  proctdf  haud  multum  abest; 
mon,  nix,  ae^re  abstineo  ;  tenere  me,  or  temper ari  mi  hi  non 


M 

ii 


9U3i.UNCTIVB  MOOD.  371 

^^«(p»9Uvn ;  non  impedio^  nan  recuto^  niikil  praetcrmitto,  and 
Mu  like.  For  in  these  cases  tho  negation  contained  in 
quin  is  superfluous,  and  is  only  a  sort  of  continuation  of 
the  preceding  non  (as  the  Greek  ftij  ov  before  an  infini- 
tive) ;  hence  it  is  generally  not  expressed  in  English,  quin 
being  rendered  by  "  that,"  or  by  '*  to  "  with  an  infinitive. 
£•  g.,  non  dubito  quin  domi  sit,  I  have  no  doubt  (that)  he 
:s  at  home ;  non  mtdtum  ahest  quin  miserrimus  sim,  not 
much  is  wanting  to  make  me  the  most  wretched  of  men  ; 
nulla  mora /kit  ^  qum  dccemerent  icZ/i^m,  they,  did  not  hes- 
itate to  decree  war.  Hence,  as  quin  in  this  case  is  only  a 
form  of  expression,  non  is  superadded,  if  the  dependent 
sentence  is  to  have  a  really  negative  meaning.  Thus  we 
find  not  unfrequently,  at  least,  non  dubito  qmn  non^  which 
is  easily  explained  by  trunslating  non  dubito  quin  by  "  1 
believe/'  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Verr.,  i.,  40,  in  quibus  non  dubito 
quin  offensionem  negligentiae  vitare  atque  effugere  non  pas- 
sim^ I  believe  that  I  cannot  escape  the  charge  of  negli- 
gence ;  comp.  ad  Att.^  v.,  11,  in  fin. ;  de  Off,^  iii.,  3,  Dur- 
hitandum  non  est,  quin  nunquam  possit  utilitas  cum  Tiones- 
tate  contendere,  we  must  believe,  or  be  convinced  that  util- 
ity can  never  be  opposed  to  virtue.  It  should,  however, 
be  observed  that  expressions  implying  an  obstacle  are 
properly  followed,  according  to  §  543,  by  quo  minus  in- 
stead of  quin. 

Dux  iUe  Crraeciae  nusquam  optat^  ut  Ajdds  similes  habeat 

deccMy  sed  ut  Nestoris;  quod  si  accident j  non  dubitat  quin 

brevi  Trqja  sit  peritura,  Cic,  Cat.  Maj,,  10. 
Num  dubitas  quin  specimen  naturae  capi  deceat  ex  optima 

quaque  natura  f  Cic,  Ttuic.,  i.,  14. 
.  Quis  igitur  dubitet,  quin  in  virtute  divitiae  sint  ?  Cicero. 
Ego  nihil  praetermisi,  qtuintum  facere  potui,  quin  Pompe* 

zum  a  Caesaris  conjunctione  avocarem,  Cic,  Philip, 
Jnfesta  contio  vix  irihiberi  potuit,  quin  protinus  sico  morf. 

saxa  in  Tolemanem  jaceret,  Curt,  vii.,  6  (2).^ 
THberium  non  Jbrtuna,  non  solitudines  protegebanty  quin 

tormenta  pectoris  suasque  ipse  poenas  Jateretur,  Tacit.| 

Ann.,  vi«,  6. 

[^  541.]  Note2. — If  we  are  to  take  the  language  of  CicefO  as  our  guide, 
U  18  less  correct  to  use  the  accusatiye  with  the  infinitive  after  non.  dubito, 
in  the  sense  of  *'I  do  not  doubt,**  instead  of  qmn;  but  it  gden  occurs  Uk 
Curtius  and  Livy  (see  Drakenborch  on  Liv.,  Jjxiu,  55,  and  xxxvi.  41),  and 
in  Nepos  exclusively,  which  may  be  considered  as  a  peculiarity  f  £  this  au 
iltor ;  in  later  writers  it  is  found  frfquantly.    But  the  only  passage  in  t^i^ 


37d  LATIN   ORAMMAB. 

BID  w/iich  if  alleged  as  an  example  of  non  dubitOf  fcllowed  bv  the  acciu« 
tive  with  the  infinitive,  viz.,  ad  Att.t  vii.,  1,  has  hitherto  Lad  a  wrooj 
Dunctuation,and,  according  to  Breini  (on  Nep.,  Praefat.)^  we  must  read.  Mi 
•utem  uterque  numerat  stutmt  nisi  forte  sitmUat  alter ;  nam  Pom^mu  non  datbi- 
tat,  Vere  enim  judicdt,  ea,  qtiae  de  republica  nitnc  sentiat.  mihi  valde  probar*,. 
The  partiality  for  the  corjitruction  with  mtin  is  attested  by  some  passages, 
m  which  this  coniunction  is  used  instead  of  the  accusal,  with  the  infim 
tive,  because  the  leading  sentence  may  be  conceived  to  contain  the  sanne 
idea  as  non  dubito  ;  as,  Cic.|  p.  Flacc.f  27,  Q^i8  ignorat  quin  trig,  Graecorum 
ganerd  sint ;  comp.  Quintil.,  xii.,  7,  8,  quis  ignorat  quin  id  longe  sit  honestis- 
imum;  Cic,  Thuc,  v.,  7,  tUqtti  alterwn  diet  (i.  e.,  in  dubiwn  vocari)  non  po- 
est  quin  iij  qui  nihil  metuantf  oeati  sint. 

But  when  dubito  and  non  dubito  signify  "  I  scruple*  or  **  hesitate,"  and 
the  sentence  following  contains  the  same  subject,  they  are  generally  fol 
lowed  by  the  infinitive ;  e.  g.,  non  dubito  respondere  ;  Cicero  non  duintabat 
conjuratos  supplicio  afficefe ;  though  Cicero  often  uses  qidn  even  in  these 
caises,  as  in  Verr.f  ii.,  13,  nemo  dubitmntf  quin  volutUatem  spectaret  e^,  quern 
statitn  de  capite  stioinUaret  judicattunan  ;  p.  Flacc,  17,  dubitatiSy  judiceSf  quin 
ab  hoc  ignotissimo  Phrygf.  nobiUssimvm  ctvem  vindicetis  f  (a  negative  ques- 
tion, the  meaning  of  which  is,  **  you  mtist  not  hesitate.")  Comp.  p.  Leg. 
Man.,  16,  in  fin.,  and  23 :  p.  M'lUm.y  23,  ^  63 ;  c2e  fjeg.  Agt.,  ii.,  26,  ^  00. 
Schneider  on  Caesar,  Betl.  OaU.,  ii.,  2. 

We  here  add  the  remark  that  "  I  doubt  whether*'  is  expressed  in  Latin 
by  dubito  sitne,  dubito  utrum — an,  dubito  sitne — an,  or  dubito  ntdit,  numquid , 
for  dubito  an  and  dubium  est  an  are  used,  like  nescio  <M,  by  the  b^  writers, 
with  an  affirmative  meaning.    See  ^  354. 

[^  542.]  Note  3. — Quin  is  used  in  another  sense  with  the  indicatroe,  im- 
plying a  question  or  an  exhortation ;  this  is  in  accordance  with  its  origi- 
nal elements,  being  compounded  of  ne  (i.  e.,  non)  and  the  ancient  ablative 
oui  of  the  interrogative  pronoun  quid ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  quin  consceadimus  equos  f 
Why  do  we  not  mount  our  horses  ?  Cic,  p.  Rabir.^  6,  Quin  continetis  vocem 
ituUcem  stuUitiae  vestrae  ?  Curt.,  v.,  22,  Quinigitur  uldscimur  Graedam^  et 
urbi  faces  tubdimus  ?  and  so  in  many  other  passages.  As  such  questions 
are  equivalent  to  exhortations  (and  different  from  questions  with  cur  non, 
which  always  require  an  answer),  quin  in  this  sense  is  also  joined  with  Uie 
imperative ;  e.  g.,  quin  die  staHm,  well,  tell  me !  quin  sic  attendite  judices, 
pray,  pay  attention !  or  with  the  first  person  plural  of  the  subjunctive ;  as, 
quin  experiamur,  why  do  we  not  try,  or  let  us  try !  Hence  quin,  without 
being  connected  with  any  verb,  signifies  "  even"  or  "  rather,"  just  as  quin 
etiam,  quin  potius,  quin  immo  ;  as  in  Cicero,  credUnle  non  est,  quaiUitni  seri- 
bam  die,  qtun  etiam  noctibus. 

[§  543.]  fej  Quomlnm  (for  fit  eo  mimUy  in  order  that  not) 
is  mostly  used  after  verbs  expres.«»ing  ahinderance,  where 
also  ne^  and  if  a  negative  precedes,  quin  may  be  used. 
The  principal  verbs  of  this  kind  are :  deterrere,  impedirc. 
•  interccderCy  ohsisterCy  ohstarcy  qfficere,  prohibere,  recusarcy 
repugnare;  but  there  are  several  other  expressions  which 
'.,onv^  tlie  same  meaning;  e.  g.,  stat  or  Jit  per  mcy  I  am 
the  cause  ;  non  pugnoy  nihil  morovy  non  contineo  me,  &c. 

Cimon  nunqttam  in  hortis  custodem  imposuity  ne  quis  impc' 
diretur,  quominus  ejUs  rehtis,  quihus  quisque  velletyjruere' 
tur,  Nep.,  Oim.y  4. 

Parmenio,  quum  audissety  vencnum  a  Thilippo  medico  regi 
rarari,  det.errere  eum  v^Juit  epistola  acripia,  quominui 


\  8UBJUNCT.IVB   MOOD.  873 

medicamentum  hiheret,  quod  medicus  dare  eon$iitueret. 
Curt.,  vi.,  40  (10.) 

[^  544 J  Note. — Impedire,  deterrere^  and  recusare,  however,  are  sometimes 
and  prohibere  frequently  (^  607)  followed  by  the  infinitive ;  e.  g.,  Caes.. 
'  Bell,  GaU.y  ui.f  22,  ne^  adhuc  repertua  est  quis^iiamt  qui  mori  recusaret 
Cic,  de  Off.f  ii.,  2,  mud  est  igitur,  qitod  me  imvedwtt  ea,  ^uoe  mihi  probabilh 
videantur,  sequi  ?  in  Verr.f  i.,  5,  nefarias  ejus  Iwidines  commemorare  pudore  de- 
terreor  ;  in  Verr^  T.,  45,  profubenturparentes  ttdire  adfUos,  prohibentur  Wteris 
suis  cibum  vestitumque  Jferre  ;  de  Q^,  iii.,  1 1,  male,  qui  peregrinos  tarbibns  uti 
prohibent.  In  one  passage  of  Cicero  (p.  Rose  Am.,  52)  prohibere  is  fbUowr 
ed  by  i«f ;  Di  prohtbeanti  jtidices,  ut  hoc^  quod  majores  amsiUum  puUicvm  vo- 
cari  voluerunt,  praesidium  sectorum  existimetur.  This,  however,  should  not 
be  imitated.  Instead  of  quominus  we  sometimes  find  quo  seciua  (see  ^  283), 
especially  in  the  work  aaHerenniunu 

[§  645.]  7.  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  propositions 
which  are  introduced  into  others,  after  relative  pronouns 
and  coDJunctions,  when  those  propositions  express  the 
thoughts  or  words  of  another  person.  (In  many  cases 
they  are  the  thoughts  or  wOrds  of  the  speaker  himself,  but 
he  then  speaks  of  himself  as  of  a  third  person.)  To  make 
this  general  rule  more  clear,  we  shall  distinguish  the  va- 
rious cases  in  which  such  clauses  are  inserted. 

fa  J  Clauses  inserted  in  the  construction  of  the  accusa- 
tive with  the  infinitive,  when  they,  are  to  express  the 
thoughts  or  words  of  the  person  spoken  of,  or  when  they 
form  an  easential  part  of  the  statement  implied  in  the  ac 
cusative  with  the  mfinitive. 

Socrates. dicer e  sohhat,omnes  in  eo^  qtiod  scirenty  satis  esse 

eloquentes,  Cic,  de  Orat.j  i.,  14. 
Mos  est  Athenis  laudari  in  contione  eos,  qui  sint  in  jprodiis 

interfectiy  Cic,  Orat.,  44. 
Quid  potest  esse  tain  apertum,  tumque  perspieuum,  quum 
.  coeUttn  suspeximus^coelestiaque  coktemplati  sumus^ quam 

esse  aliquod-numen  praestantissimae  mentis^  quo  haec  re» 

gantWy^  Cic,  de  NaL  Deor.y  ii.,  2. 

Note. — ^If  we  take  tiie  first  of  thfiM  examples,  the  words  which  Socrates 
Aid  are,  onmea  in  eo,  quod  sciunt,  satis  sunt  eloquentes,  and  the  clause  m  t't 
fuod  sciunt  is  a  part  of  his  statement ;  hence  it  is  ei  pressed  by  the  snb< 
fnnctive  if  the  leading  Terb  is  changed  into  the  infinitive.  In  the  last  ex- 
Ample,  the  belief  is,  est  deits  ab  eoque  hie  mundus  r^tur,  and  not  merely  deut 
est ;  hence  regitur,  which  is  an  essential  part  of  it,  is  ezpreBsed  by  the 
subjnnctive.  The  tense  of  such  an  inserted  clause  depeQais  upon  that  of 
the  leading  verb,  on  which,  in  fact,  the  whole  sentence  is  dependent.  The 
inserted  clause  has  the  indicative  when  it  contains  a  remark  of  the  speak- 
er (or  writer)  himself,  and  not  a  thought  or  words  of  the  person  spokcii  ot 
(the  subject  of  the  leading  pioposition).  Let  us  examine  the  sen*:ftnca 
0MM  ffieeris  amieos  tibi  esse  cave  eredas,  do  not  believe  that  those  whom  )rou 
nav«*  conquered  are  your  friends.  Here  the  other  person  whoee  opinioii 
bi  refuted  thinks  thai  those  whom  he  has  conquered  are  Ms  friends     If 

I  I 


3^4  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

^e  use  the  indicativo  cave  tSn  amicos  (hos)  e»se  eredaSf  quM  wdaH,  the 
two  words  are  merely  an  addition  of  the  speaker,  by  which  he  describeff 
those  people,  the  person  to  whom  the  advice  is  given  not.being  suppoiied 
to  have  expressed  that  thought.  Hence  the  subjunctive  has  its  pecuUmr 
place  in  general  sentences,  in  which  a  class  of  thmgs  is  mentioned,  which 
exists  only  as  a  conception  or  idea,  while  the  individual  thing  has  a  rea. 
existence ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Off,,  i.,  il.  Est  enim  tUciseendi  et  pwuendi  modus, 
%tque  haud  scio  an  satis  sit  sum  qui  lacessierit  injuriae  sitae  poenitere;  i.  e.,  each 
individual  offender.  This  is  commonly  called  an  indefinite  expression ;  bat 
we  should  rather  call  it  tL  general  or  universal  one. 

[^  546.]  Explanatory  clauses,  especially  circumlocutions,  introduced  by 
&  relative  pronoun,  are  sometimes  found  with  the  indicative,  because  such 
an  explanation  may  be  regarded  as  standing  by  itself,  and  therefore  need 
Dot  shaite  in  the  relation  ofdependence  in  which  the  other  sentence  stands ; 
e.  g.,  Cic,  p.  Arch.f  9,  Itaque  Ule  Marius  item  eximie  L,Plotium,  dilexit^  cujus 
ingenio  jmtabat  ea,  quae  gesserat,  posse  celebrari.  Ea^  quae  gessissei  would 
not  be  incorrect ;  but  ea  quae  gesserat  is  a  circumlocution  for  res  a  <e  gestas^ 
his  deeds.  Comp.  Goerenz  on  Cic,  de  Leg.^  iii.,  5,  nam  sic  habetotCf  magis' 
tratibus  iisque  qui  praesunt  rempublicam  contineri,  where  the  common  read* 
ing  is  praesint,  Li  v.,  iii.,  71,  Jbi  infit;  annum  se  tertium  et  octogesimmn 
agere,  etineo  agro,  de  quo  agitur^  miluasse  ;  that  is,  the  field  in  question,. c£f 
quo  agitur  standing  by  itself  and  indepei)dent.  But  the  use  of  the  indica- 
tive in  such  cases  must  not  be  extenaed  too  fiar ;  the  subjunctive  is  so  uni- 
versally employed  in  clauses  inserted  in  the  construction  of  the  accnisative 
with  the  infinitive,  when  they  really  contain  the  thoughts  or  words  of  an- 
other person,  that  exceptions  even  in  classical  prose  writers,  as  Caesar  and 
Livy,  are  only  isolated  peculiarities,  and  ought  not  to  tempt  us  to  neglect 
the  rule.  The  following  passages  of  Livy,  for  example,  can  only  be  re- 
garded as  careless  expressions,  iii.,  13,  se  haud  rmdto  post,  quam  pestUentia 
in  urhefueratf  in  juveniiUemgrassantem  in  Subura  indmsse  ;  and  iii.,  2,  lega 
tos  nuntiare  jussit,  Q.  Fabium  eonsulem  Aeqtns  beUwn  afferre  eadem  dextra  ar^ 
mata^  quampacatam  iUis  antea  dederat — instead  of  fuisset  and  dedisset.  But 
in  Caesar,  nell.  OalL,  iii., 2,  per  exploratores  certior foetus  est,  ex  eapartevia, 
quam  Gallis  concesserat,  omnes  noctu  discessisse,  we  are  reminded  by  the  in- 
dicative that  the  addition  qtuan  Oallis  concesserat  is  tQ  be  regmrded  as  an 
explanatory  remark  of  Caesar,  and  not  as  words  of  the  exphratoret,  wh<r 
would  probably  have  expressed  themselves  otherwise. 

[§  547.]  fbj  Clauses  introduced  into  a  proposition  whicli 
\s  expressed  by  the  subjunctive  are  likewise  in  the  sub- 
junctive when  they  are  to  be  considered  as  an  essential 
part  of  the  leading  proposition,  being  included  in  the  pur* 

fjose,  request,  precept,  or  command  of  another  person,  or 
with  si  J  in  the  supposed  ciftsumstanees ;  e.  g.,  Rex  im- 
peravity  ut^  quae  hdlo  opus  essentf  pararentur, 

Eo  sirrms  animoy  vt  nihil  in  malis  ducamus  quod  sit  vd  a 
deo  immortali,  vel  a  naturd  constitutum,  Cic,  Tuse^  i,, 
in  fin. 

.  Memoria  erat  tanta  (Hortensius)  quantam  in  nullo  cogno- 
visse  me  arhitror^  ut,  quae  secum  cammentatus  esset,  ca 
sine  scripto  verbis  eisdem  redderet^  quihus  cogitavisse, . 
Cic,  Brut,  88. 

Note. — In  the  first  of  t.ietp  examples  the  couvwliOD  required  is  this: 
•tl-'Y  in  maJis  duco^  qutul  %  dyj  *</  conttihOvm.  and  not  *iper«Iv  nihil  in  malit 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MCOD.  37& 

• 

The  clause  beginning  with  qtwdy  therefore,  is  a  part  of  the  convic- 
lioM,  and  is,  therefore,  expressed  by  the  subjunctive,  like  the  other.  But 
here  we  must  observe,  1,  that  not  ail  propositions  with  a  subjunctive  express 
a  purpose  or  object,  but  some  of  them  merely  a  quality  (when  t<a,  tarn,  talis 
&c.,  precede),  \i\  whichcase  the  inserted  clause  has  the  indicative ;  as  ■ 
Cic,  p.  Leg,  ifan,f  6,  Asia  vero  tarn  opima  est  et  fertilise  vt — mtUtitudine  ea 
rum  rerunif  quae  exportantuTj,  facile  omnibus  terris  antecellat ;  2,  that  the  indie* 
ative  is  used  in  circumlocutions,  just  as  in  similar  clauses  inserted  in  the 
construction  of  the  accusat  with  the  infinit. ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  deNat.  Deor.^  ii., 
59,  JSloquendi  vis  efficit,  ut  eo,  quae  ignoramus^  discere^  et  ea.  quae  scimus,  alios 
docere  possimus  ;  in  Verr.,  iv.,  7,  verumtamen  a  vobis  ita  aroitror  spectari  opor- 
iere,  quanti  haec  eorum  judicio,  qui  studiosi  sunt  harum  rerum,  aestimentwr , 
BruL,  49,  efficuUitr  autem  ab  oratore,  necne^  ut  ii  ^ut  audiunt  ita  efficiantWf  ui 
9ratarvelittVulgi  assensu  et  populari  approbatione  jvdicari  solet^  where  Ernesti 
made  the  arbitrary  emendation  audiant.  The  same  is  the  case  in  defini- 
tions; as,  Cic.,  de  Invent. ^  ii.,  12,  Videre  igitur  oportetf  quae  sint  convenientia 
cum  ipso  negotiOf  hoc  est^  quae  ab  re  separari  non  possunt, 

[^  548.]  -There  are  other  cases,  also,  in  which  clauses  thus  inserted  are 
treated  as  remarks  of  t^e  speaker  (or  writer),  and  expressed  by  the  indic- 
ative, although  they  ought  to  have  been  treated  as  parts  of  the  dependent 
proposition,  and  accordfingly  exipressed  by  the  subjunctive ;  e.  g.,  Nep., 
SaU.f  3,  J^tiades  hortatus  est  pontis  custodes^  n/  a  Jortuna  datam  occasionem 
Ukerandae  Cfraecuie  dimitterenL  Nam  si  cum  his  copOSf  quas  secum  transpoT' 
taverat^  interisset  Darius,  wm  soltmrMuropamfore  tutam,  &c. ;  Them,,  5,  nam 
Themtstodes  verens,  ne  (rex)  beUare  perseverarett,certiorem  eum  fecit ,  id  agi,  ut 
ponSf  quem  iUe  in  Hellespontofecerat,  dissolperetur.  Here  the  writer  is  speak- 
ing to  his  reader,  as  is  shown  in  the  last  passage  by  the  pronoun  ille ;  but 
this  is  not  common,  and  in  the  first  passage  the  indicative  is  very  singu 
lar,  and  at  least  contrary  to  the  practice  oT  Cicero.  So,  also,  in  Uurtius, 
X.,  26,  tibi  ille  esset,  cuius  imperitan^  cujus  auspidum  secuti  erant,  requirebantj 
where  secuti  essent  should  have  been  used,  as  the  clause  is  part  of  the 
words  of  the  Macedonians ;  and  it  is  strange  to  see  the  writer  add  it  as 
His  own  remark.  * 

[§  549.]  fcj  Lastly,  when  a  proposition,  containing  the 
BteU:ement  of  a  fact,  and  therefore  expressed  hy  the  indie- 
•,  ative,  has  another  dependent  upon  it  or  added  to  it  (by 
a  conjunction  or  a  relative  pronoun),  the  dependent  clause 
is  expressed  by  the  subjunctive,  provided  the  substance  of 
it  is  alleged  as  the  sentiment  or  the  vrords  of  the  person 
Bpoken  of,  and  not  of  the  speaker  himself.  Thus  the  prop- 
osition, Noctu  amhulabat  in  publico  TkemistocleSf  qtiod 
somnum  capere  mm  posset  (Cic,  Tusc,,  iv.,  19),  suggests 
that  Themistocles  himself  gave  thi^  reason  for  his  walk- 
ing at  night.  But  I,  the  writer  of  the  proposition,  may 
express  the  reason  as  my  own  remark,  and  in  this  case 
the  indicative  poterat  is  required  as  well  as  ambtdahat. 

Bene  majores  nostri  accubitionem  epularem  amicommy  quia 
vitae  conjunctionem  haberety  convivium  nominarunt^  Cic, 
Cat,  Maj.,  13. 

Socrates  accusaiu^  est,  quod  corrumperef  juvcntutcm  et  novat 
Mtiperstiliones  induceret,  Quintil.,  iv.,  4. 


376  LATIN    SBfAMMAB. 

Aristides  nonnc  oh  cam  causam  expulsus  est  pairia,  ^mad 
praeter  modum  jv^ttis  esset?  Cic,  Tusc,  v.,  36, 

The  clause  beginning  with  qteod  in  the  second  of  these 
examples  contains  the  reasons  alleged  by  the  accusers  of 
Socrates;  and  the  subjunctive  in  the  last  example  indi- 
cates that  the  reason  there  stated  was  alleged  by  the 
Athenians  themselves,  according  to  the  well-known  stttry, 
and  it  remains  uncertain  whether  Aristides  was  really  so 
just',  but  this  uncertainty  would  not  exist  if  the  indica- 
tive had  been  used. 

[^  550.]  Note  1. — When  a  clause  thus  appended  or  inserted  contains  ttie 
sentiment  of  the  subject  of  the  leading  senteBee,  or  his  own  words,  all 
references  to  him  are  expressed  by  the  reflective  pronoun  mu,  nUt  ««,  and 
by  the  possessive  suus  (see  above,  ^  125) ;  e.  g.,  Cic  ,  ad  Fam.^  ix.,  15,  nam 
mihi  8Ctto  jam  a  regibus  ultimi$  aUatoB  esse  IHtertUy  quUms  miki  gratias  iigant, 
auod  se  mea  sententia  reges  appellaverim  ;  aAd  we  might  add/  ftiod  se  tuosqve 
lU)eros  ob  sua  merita  in  popuhan  Romanmn  regis  a/ppellaioejimj  &c  ;  Nep., 
Them.^  8,  hac  necessitate  eoactus  domino  navis  qui  sit  apentf  nwtta  poUieens,  m 
se  conservasset.    It  is  most  frequently  the  case,  when  the  conjunctions  ex 
press  an  intention,  for  an  intention  most  commonly  originates  in  the  sub- 
ject ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Divtn.,  i.,  27,  turn  ei  dormienti  idem  tile  visus  est  regare, 
u/,  qtwniam  sibi  vivo  non  subvenissett  mortem  suam  ne  invitam  esse  pateretttr. 
It  is  of  no  consequence  whether  the  person  to  whom  the  prononn  refers 
is  expressed  (in  the  nominal.)  as  the  grammatical  subject  of  the  proposi^ 
tiqn  or  not  j  and  it  is  sufficient  if  it  can  be  conceived  as  such,  that  is,  if 
it  is  the  logical  subject ;  e.  g.,  Nep.,  Paus.,  4,  quum  ei  in  suspicionem  venimsH, 
aliquid  in  epistola  de  se  esse  scriptum^  for  the  words  ipaan  ei  m  suspidenem 
venisset  are  equivalent  to  quum  suspicaretur ;  Cic,  ad  Att;^  ii.,  18,  A  Caesars 
voids  liberaliter  invitor  (i.  e.,  Caesar  me  invitat)t  sAi  ut  sim  legaiuSt  whereas 
in  another  place  {ad  Att.j  x.,  4,  7),  Cicero  writes,  a  Curume  mihi  nuntiahim 
est,  sum  ad  me  venir^,  because  this  is  not  equivalent  to  Curio  mihi  maUiat, 
but  to  nuiUius  e  domo  Curioms  veniL 

But  it  not  unfrequentlv  occurs  that  a  septiment  which  should  have  beei 
expressed  in  the  form  of  dependence,  being  the  sentiment  of  the  sul^t^ 
is  expreraed  by  the  writer  as  if  it  were  a  remark  of  his  own ;  e.  g.,  CiCt 
in  Verr.,  ii.,  34,  ferebat  Sthenius,  ut  poterat ;  tangebatur  tamen  animi  dolon 
necessariOf  quod  domum  ejus  exomatam  atque  instructam  fere  jam  iste  reddiderai 
nudam  atque  inanem :  the  more  usual  mode  of  ^peaking  w(nild  have  bem 
quod  domum  suam  iste  reddidisset.    Such  sentences  should  be  our  guide  in 
recognising  and  explaining  the  irregularity  of  those  in  which  the  pronoun 
is  is  added,  nbtwithstandmg  the  subjunctive ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  i.,  45,  j^.  7W« 
quinius  e  suis  unum  sdscitdlwn  Romam  ad  patrem  mittit,  quidnam  se  faeen 
veUetj  quandoquidem,  ut  omnia  unus  Gahiis  posset,  ei  dei  dedissent.    The  or> 
dinary  practice  requires  sibi;  but  other  examples  of  a  similar  kind  in  which 
the  renective  pronoun  is  neglected  are  found  here  and  there,  in  clauses 
expressing  an  intention  after  ut  and  ne,  and  in  clauses  dependent  upon  the 
construction  of  the  accus.  with  the  infinitive ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Orat.,  i.,  54, 
6  232 ;  and  rather  frequently  in  Cftesar.    {BeU,  Gall.,  i..  5,  4 ;  i-'U,  3 ;  i., 
14,  4.)    It  occurs  more  especially  when  the  dependent  clause  has  its  own 
subject,  for  then  .the  pronoun  se  or  sibi  might  be  referred  to  the  subject  ot 
the  dependent  clause :  hence  the  cases  of  is  or  ills  are  used  instead ;  as, 
Cic,  p.  Arch.,  10,  Sulla  nuUo  poetae,  quod  epigramma  in  eum  fecisset  tantum- 
modo  eUtetnis  versibus  longiusculis,  statim  praemium  tribui  jussit — for  in  tt 
might  be  referred  to  the  poet  himself;  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  i ,  C,  Hehetusen 
AUohrogea  vi  roacturos  exittimabant,  ut  p^  r-ws  fines  eos  i>e  paterenttar  *  siai 


8UBJUKCTIVE    MOOD.  S77 

•VHtV  Ju^.i  96,  (SalU)  nutgis  id  laborartt  vi  HH  {SuUae)  fuam  phmm  deb» 
rent ;  Cic,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  39,  Audistis  nuper  dicere  legatos  TyndaritanoSf  Mer- 
curitan^qui  sacris  anTiiversariis  apud  eos  coleretur,Verris  imperio  esse  sublatvm. 
Sometimes,  however,  sach  ambiguity  is  less  carefully  avoided,  and  Nepoi 
{Harm,,  12),  in  one  dependent  clause,  even  uses  two  reflective  pronouni 
referring  to  different  persons,  Patres  consaipti  legato*  in  Bithyniam  miserunt, 
uui  ab  re^e  peterent,  ne  inimicissimvm  stmm  secum  haberet  sibique  dederet ; 
Oort.,  Tlii.,  1,  Scythae  p€t€bant^  nt  regis  sui  filiam  matrimonio  sibi  jungeret, 
for  which  regis  ipsontm  fliain  micht  have  ^een  used,  if  it  had  been  neces- 
sary. See  ^  702.  The  case  is  also  reversed,  and  good  writers  sometimes 
use  «{&i  instead  of  ei  or  ipsi ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  m  Verr.,  v.,  49,  Dexo  hie  non  quae 
mrivatim  sibi  eriptdstiy  sed  uniawi  abs  te  fXiumJlagitat ;  ccMnp.  p.  Ros<f.  Am., 
^,  ^  6{  De'Divin.t  i.,  54,  init. ;  Caes.,  "BeU.  Uall.,  vi.,  9.  Sometimes  swia 
seems  to  stand  for  ejus  or  ipsius,  as  it  refers  only  to  a  subject  mentioned 
in  the  proposition,  without  the  clause  itself  being  the  sentiment  of  the 
leading  subject ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Philip. ^  iv.,  2,  Quod  erat  prfti^dium  libertatia 
veatrae,  nisi  C.  Caesarisfortissimorum  sui  patris  miliHan  ecf.tcitus  nonfuisset  T 
Nep.  Ctm.,  3,  incidit  in  eandem  invidiamt  quam  pater  svt »  rAXerique  Athtniensi- 
um  prineipesj  &c ;  but  it  has  been  observed  before  (\  125)  that  nms  also 
signifies  **  his  own,"  as  opposed  to  alienuSf  whence  ikhe  plnr.  siyi  signifies 
••  his  people,"  or  •*  those  belonging  to  him.'* 

[^  551. J  Note  2. — We  may  here  notice  a  pecuHinty  which  is  in  itself 
faulty,  but  of  which  many  examples  occur  in  Cicero,  viz.,  clauses  liks 
**  because  he  said,*'  or  ** because  he  believed,"  are  expressed  by  the  sub- 
junctive, although^,  properly  speaking,  not  these  terbs  themselves,  but  the 
clauses  dependent  on  them  should  be  in  the  sabjunctive.  See  Cic,  d% 
Off.^  i.,  13-,  Qtojon  enim  Hannibalis  permissit  exisset  de  castris^  redUt  paulopost^ 
auod  se  oblitum  nescio  quid  diceret :  according  to  grammatical  rules  it  should 
be  quod  nescio  quid  obiUus  esset^  or  quod  se  oblitum  esse  nescio  quid  dicebat. 
These  two  constructions  are  combined  in  such  a  maimer,  that  dicebat  as- 
suY^ses  the  form  of  dependence  expressed  bv  the  subjunctive.  The  same 
cNsenrs  in  de  Off.,  iii.,  31,  cm'  (Pomponio  trib.  pleb.)  quum  esset  nuntiatum, 
quod  ilium  iratum  allaiurum  ad  se  aUqtad  contra  patrem  arbitraretw^  surrexit  < 
tecttdo;  Sulpicius  in  Cic,  ad  Fam.,  iv.,  12,  Ab  Atheniensibus^  locum,  semd 
tune  intra  urbem  ui  darent,  impetrare  nffnpoiui,  quod  religione  se  impediri  dict» 
rent.  Comp.  in  Pison.,  36,  m  fin. ;  m  Verr.,  i.,  38,  in  fin. ;  ii.,  14,  in  fin 
and  ii.,  46*  ^  113,  with  my  note ;  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  vii.,  75,  BtlUnBad  rysKs* 
mmiurum.  non  eontulerunt,  quod  se  suo  nomine  atque  arbitrio  cum  Romanis  ges' 
twos  beUum  dicerent.  In  like  manner,  the  subjunctive  dicerent  occurs  in 
Sallust  {Cat.^  40)  with  the  relative  pronoun,  Sed  ubi  eonstdem  ad  tantumfa' 
cithts  tmpellere  nequeunt,  ipsi  singUlatim  circumeundo  atque  enuntiundo,  quae  se 
ex  Volturcio  out  Allobrombus  at^Usse  dicerent,  magnam  itti  invidiam  conflaver- 
ant;  and  in  Cicero,  m  Verr.,  v.,  7,  ^  17 ;  PhiUp.,  ii.,  4,  init 

[§  552,]  8.  All  sentences  which  contain  an  indiret  ^ues* 
tion^  that  is,  which  state  the  subject  of  a  direct  question 
in  a  manner  which  makes  theirf  dependent  upon  some 
other  verb,,  have  the  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood.  An 
indirect  question,  not  to  mention  the  verb  "to  ask"  itself, 
generally  depends  upon  those  verbs  and  expressions  which 
usually  govern  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive. 

All  the  words  which  are  used  in  direct  questions  are 
also  used  in  introducing  indirect  or  dependent  questions 
viz.,  quis,  quid;  qui,  quae,  quod;  quot,  qualis,  quantum 
qtiam,  ubi,  unde,  quare,  cur,  uter,  quo  (whither  ?),  qvoma 
do,  ulrum,  an,  ne  (the  suffix),  num, 

Ti2 


in  PI 


S78  LATIN   GBAMMAK. 

ScLepe  ne  utile  quidem  est  scire^  quidJiUurum  lU,  Cicenx, 
Qualis  sit  animus^  ipse  animus  nescit,  Cic,  Tusc,  i^  22. 
Inccrtum  est^  quo.te  loco  mors  expcctet^  Senec,  Epist.^  26^ 
Permtdtum  interest,  utrum  perturhatione  aliqua  aiUfmi^  an 

consultojiat  injuria^  Cic,  dc  0^»,  i.,  8. 
Tarquiniv^  Superbus  Prisci  Tarquinii  regis  filius  nepastu 

Jueritf  parum  liquet^  Liv.,  i.,  46. 

[6  553.]  Note  1. — The  indicative  in  dependent  questions  is  often  found 
I  Plautus  and  Terence ;  e.  g.,  Terent.,  Adelph.,  v.,  9,  39,  Tihi  pater  par; 
nUtimus :  plus  scis  quid  opus  facto  est ;  Hecyr.,  iii.,  5,  21,  si  nuAc  m^fnoran 
\ic  velim,  quant  fideU  anxmo  et  benigno  in  iUam  et  elenunti  fui,  vert  posnum.; 
and  in  the  later  poets,  too,  it  occurs  now  and  then ;  but  in  the  best  prose 
the  subjunctive  is  used  so  universally,  that  the  few  cases  in  which  the 
common  practice  is  abandoned  cannot  affect  the  rule ;  for  these  few  ca- 
ses  derive  their  explanation  from  the  fact  that  sometimes  a  direct  qaes- 
tion  is  u^ed  where  an  indirect  one  might  stand.    After  the  imperative  die 
and  vide,  in  particular,  a  question  is  sometimes  pu(  in  a  direct  and  some- 
times in  an  indirect  form ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Tuk.,  i,  5,  dic,quaeso,  man  te  iila 
terrent  ?  ad  AU.,  viii.,  13,  vide,quam  eonversa  res  est  /  Liv.,  ix.,  33,  die,  age- 
iimi,  quidruan  acturus  fueris.     So  in  Cic,  ad  Att.,  vii.,  12,  sin  tiiscedit :  quo, 
tut  qua,  out  quid  nobis  agendum  est,  nescio,  the  question  does  not  depend 
upon  nescio,  but  must  be  conceived  as  independent :  ^*  whither,  how,  or 
what  shall  I  do  ?  I  do  not  know."    In  the  passage  {Lad.,  25),  meministis—' 
quam  pooularis  lex  de  sacerdotOs  C,  LidnH  Crassi  viddtatur,  the  indicative 
shows  tnat  the  sentence  quam—videbaturia  to  be  taken  by  itself:  **how 
popular  did  that  law  appear  ?  you  surely  remember  it."    In  other  cases,  a 
careful  examination  shows  that  the  sentence  is  not  a  question,  but  a  clause 
commencing  with  a  relative  pronoun,  and  the  beginner  must  pay  the  great- 
Br  attention  to  the  meaning,  as  the  interrogative  adverbs  and  pronouns  are 
in  form  the  same  as  the  relatives.    There  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  this 
kind  in  Quintilian,  iv.,  5,  26,  Non  enim  quid  dicamus,  sed  de  quo  diciuri  su- 
mus,  ostendanus,  which  Spalding  has  correctly  explained :  in  the  division 
of  the  speech  we  do  not  indicate,  quede  idsitde  quo  cumnUunme  dicimus^ 
but  we  indicate  beforehand  that  of  which  we  are  going  to  speak.    In  like 
manner,  in  Cic,  p.  Rose.  Am,,  30,  quaeramus  ubi  mtUeficium  est,  the  est  is  not 
used  for  sit,  but  tne  sentence  is  to  oe  translated,  **let  us  seek  there,  where 
the  crime  actually  is,"  and  ubi,  therefore,  is  a  relative  adverb.    Cic,  CaL 
Maj.,  A,'nmdUiin eo  viro  (Q.  Maximo) praeclara cognovi,  sedniful est  admira^ 
bilius,  quam  quonwdo  iUe  mortem  jUii  tulit ;  L  e.,  than  the  manner  in  which 
he  bore  it.    Lastly;  there  are,  even  at  the  present  time,  some  faults  in  the 
editions,  as  the  dinereace  between  the  subjunctive  and  indicative  oil^ 
consists  only  in  a  single  letter  or  an  abridged  final  syllable.    See  my  note 
on  Cic,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  53.    It  must  farther  be  observed,  that  neseio  qms  and 
nesdo  quid  have  by  practice  become  one  word,  equivalent  to  aUrnds,  qui- 
dam,  and  that,  consequently,  the  indefinite  pronoun  in  this  case  does  not 
govern  any  particular  mood  of  the  verb ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  ad  Fam.,  ▼.,  15,  i^ 
taau  nescio  quo  in  ea  tempora  aetas  nostra  tncuUt ;  if  ne:cio  here  wer6  the 
leading  verb,  he  would  have  said,  nescio  quo  casu  incident,    Cic,  PhUip.,  ii , 
14,  Nescio  quid  turbatus  mihi  esse  videris  ;  i.  e.,  you  seem  to  me  to  be  8ome« 
what  perplexed.    In  like  manner,  nescio  quamodo  is  used  in  the  sense  c^ 
"  somehow"  or  '*  in  some  way ;"  as,  Cic,  Tusc,  i.,  15,  Sed,  nescio  quonw  • 
dc,  inhaeret  in  mentibus  quasi  auguriujn.     Mirum  quam,  mirum  quantum,  mnur 
um  quantum,  and  some  similar  expressions,  when  united  to  express  only 
cHie  idea,  do  not  affect  the  mood  of  the  verb ;  e.  g.,  Cfc,  Orat.,  2G,  Sales  in 
iicendo  nimium  ouantum  valent ;  ad  Att.,  xiii.,  40,  mirum  quam  inimicus  ibat ; 
Liv.,  ii.,  1,  id  mirum  quantum  pfofuit  ad  concordiam  civitatis  ;  but  the  samt 
writer  (i.,  16)  bays,  mirum  quantum  UU  viro  mmtiarM  haec  fidei  fuerit. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MoaD.  879 

r^  554.]  Note  2.r--With  regard  to  disjunctive  queeticns,  both  direct  and 
iTiilirect,  expressed  by  "  whether— or,"  it  must  be  observed  that  the  Eng- 
hsh  •*  or  "  is  never  translated  by  aw/,  but  by  arit  or  by  the  suffix  ne.  _  Th« 
tirat  question  is  introduced  hytUrunif  or  likewise  by  ne,  or  has  no  interrog- 
ative particle  at  all.    Hence  there  are  four  forms  of  such  double  questions . 

1.  utnim  (utnimne),  — an. 

2.  ,  — an^anne). 

3.  the  suffix  ne,  '    — an, 

4.  — — ,  — the  suffix  ne. 

Utrum,  (whether)  is  not  used  In  a  simple  question ;  hence  we  cannot  say 
fuaerebam  utrum  pectmiam  haberetj  unless  another  question  is  added.  The 
interrogative  particle  utntniy  however,  must  be  distmguished  from  the  neu- 
ter of  the  pronoun  ii£er,  as  in  qttaerebam,  utrum  vellei^  I  asked  which  of  the 
two  he  wished.  Respecting  tUrumne  (commonly  separated)  in  the  first 
|>art  of  a  disjunctive  question,  and  anne  in  the  second,  as  in  C3icero  {Acad., 
IL,  29),  quum  interrogetur  tria  pauca  sirUf  anne  multa^  see  above,  ^  351.  Num 
—tm  (always  in  direct  questions)  denotes  a  double  question  only  in  form, 
for  the  first  part  already  implies  the  negative  answer  (see  ^  351),  so  that 
only  the  second  part  remains  as  a  question ;  e.  g.,  Herat.,  Serm.,  ii.,  5,  48, 
Numfuritt  an  prudens  ludia  me?  Comp.  Cic,  de  Orat.f  i.,  58,  ^  249,  and 
4e  Leg.f  ii,  2,  numqmd — an,  above,  ^  351.  The  English  "  or  not,"  in  the 
secoiM  part,  which  is  used  without  a  verb,  unless  the  one  preceding  is  un-. 
derstooa,  is  expressed  in  Latin  by  annoh  or  necne,  and  likewise  either  with 
or  without  a  verb ;  but  necne  occurs  only  in  indirect  questions ;  o.  g.,  Cic, 
de  Nat.  -Dear.,  iii.,  7,  Du  utrum  sint  necne  sint  quaeritur  ;  p.  Muren.,  11,  poe- 
get  lege  agi  necnepaud  quondam  adebant ;  ibid.,  ^Zy  factum  sit  necne  vehement- 
ter  quaeritur.  (Tne  only  instance  in  which  it  occurs  in  Cicero  in  a  direct 
question  is,  Tusc,  Hi.,  18,  Sunt  haec  tua  verba  necne  ?)  Ne — ne,  an — an,  oi 
num — num,  are  exceptions  which  occur  only  in  poetical  or  unclassical  Ian 
guage.  (But  Caesar,  BeU.  Gall.,  vii.,  14,  says,  neque  intereese  ipsosne  inter 
ficiant  impedimentiene  exuant,  quibus  amisfiie  helium  geri  non  possit.)  Of  a 
different  kind  are  repeated  questions ;  i.  e.,  those  which  go  parallel  with 
one  an(Aher;  as,  Cic,  v.  Rose.  Am.,  11,  Quod  auxilium  petam?  Deorumne 
immortalium  ?  ptmtdine  Komani  ?  vestramne^  qui  summam  potestatem  habetis, 
fidem  ?  or  of  which  the  first  is  corrected  by  the  second ;  as,  Cic,  Philip., 
iL,  37,  Num.  me  igittur  fefellit,  aut  num  diutiue  sui  potuit  esse  dissimilis  7 

[§  KiKiKi^  9.  Relative  pronouns  and  relative  adverbs  re- 
quire the  subjunctive  (besides  tHe  cases  already  mention- 
ed in  §  549)  when  the  connexion  of  the  propositions  is 
based  upon  a  conception ;  that  is,  when  the  sentence  in- 
troduced by  the  relative  does  not  merely  contain  some 
additional  characteristic,,  but  is  connected  with  the  prece- 
ding sentence  in  such  a  manner  that  it  expresses  either  a 
consequence,  an  innate  quality,  or  a  cause,  a  motive  and 
purpose. 

E.  g.,  Miles,  quern  metus  mortis  non  perturbaret,  a  soldier  whom  fear  at 
death  could  not  disturb.  Here  the  sentence  introduced  by  the  relative 
pronoun  contains  an  innate  quality  of  the  ini7e«,  which  may,  at  the  same 
time,  be  expressed  as  a  consequence :  of  such  a  character  that  death  could 
not  frighten  him.  Let  us  take  another  case :  O  miserum  senem,  qui  mortem 
contemnendam  esse  in  tarn  longa  aetate  non  videvit inhere  the  sentence  qvi-^ 
tiderit  does  not  contain  a  mere  additional  characteristic  or  quality,  but 
lather  the  cause,  why  I  called  him  wretched. 

S'ibjunctives  of  this  kind  are  expressed  in  English  l| 


880  LATIN   GEAMMAR. 

means  of  some  other  part  of  speech ;  as,  ^*  a  soloier  not  to 
be  didturhed  by  the  fear  of  death,"  *^  O  wretched  old  man, 
not  to  have  learned,"  &c.  The  particular  cases  in  w^hich 
a  relative  introduces  sentences  with  the  subjunctive  are: 
[§  556.]  faj  VThen  one  of  the  demonstratives,  m,  hie,  tile, 
UdiSf  tantus^  eiusTnodi  hujusmodi,  or  tam^  with  an  adjective, 
precedes,  and  is  modified  or  qualified  by  a  sentence  which 
follows.  Here  the  relative  pronoun  may  be  resolved  by 
«/,  so  that  cujus  is  equivalent  to  tU  mei^  tui^  sui,  illius,  ^W,* 
cut  to  tU  mihif  tibi,  ei^  nbiy  and  so  on  through  all  the  casen 
of  the  singular  and  plural. 

Qui  potest  temperantiam  laudare  is  (Epicurus),  c[ui  suttI' 

mum  honum  in  voluptate  ponat !  Cic,  de  Off.,  lii.,  33. 
Non  sumus  u,  qwhus  nihil  verum  esse  videatuvy  sed  ii,  qui 

omnihus  veris falsa  quaedam^  adjuncta  esse  dicamuf,  Cic, 

de  Nat.  Deor,  i.,  5. 
Nulla  gens  tamfera^  nemo  omnium,  tarn  immanis  est^  cupts 

mentem  non  imbuerit  deorum  opinio,  Cic,  Tusc. 

[%  557.]  Note. — The  person  of  the  verb  to  be  used  with  qm  is  always 
clear  from  the  preceding  sentence ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  m  Rtdl.,  ii,  5,  Non  sum  ego 
is  Consul^  quif  utpUri^,  nefas  esse  oHfUrer  Gracchos  laudare ;  Ser.  Snlpi- 
cius  in  Cic,  ad  Fam.,  iv.,  5,  Denique  te  noh  oblivisci  Ciceronem  esse,  et  enm, 
qui  aliis  consueris  praecipere,  where  the  second  person  is  detennin^  by  the 
preceding  pronoun  te, 

[§  558.]  The  relative  pronoun  is  sometimes  used  with 
the  subjunctive,  without  a  demonstrative  preceding  it, 
provided,  however,  the  latter  is  imderstood. 
Nunc  dicis  aliquid,  quod  ad  rem  perttneat,  Cic,  p.  Rose. 

Am.,  18. 
Nonne  satius  est  mutum  esse,  quam  quod  nemo  inteUigdt  di 

cere  ?  Cic,  Philip.j  iii.,  9. 
Homines  non  inerant  in  urhe,  qui  malis  contionihus,  turhu^ 

lentis  senatus  consultis^  iniqids  imperiis  rempuhlicam  mis 

cerent  et  rerum  novarum  catisam  aliquam  quaererent^ 

Cic,  de  Leg.  Agr.^  iL,  33. 
M^d  quidem  senientia  pad;  quae  niJiil  hahitura  iit  ijisidia- 

rum^  semper  est  consulendum,  Cic,  de  Off.,  i.,  11. 

aVote.?— The  following  sentences,  also,  may  be  compared :  Liv.,  zzziy. 
I.  Inter  bettorum  magnorum  euros  mtercessU  res  parva  dictu,  sed  quae  studiia 
in  magnum  certamen  excesserit ;  i.  e.,  but  still  of  such  a  kind,  that  through 
the  spirit  of  the  parties  it  ended  in  a  great  contest ;  zxt.,  14,  muUi  wime' 
rati,  etiam  quos  vires  sanguisque  desererent,  ut  intra  vallum  hostium  eadereol 
niteb  intur ;  i.  e.,  even  such  as  had  already  lost  their  strength ;  zziv.,  5,  Sy- 
racucanit  qui  per  tot  annos  Hieronem  ^iumque  ejus  Gelonem  nee  vestis  habit% 
nee  alio  tUlo  insigni  differentes  a  ceteris  dvibus  vidissent,  conspexere  purpuran 
rHieronymi)  eu:  satelutes  armatos ;  i  e.,  the  Syracusans,  who  up  to  iha 


JVt/BJUNUTlVE   MOOD.  881 

dme  nad  not  seen — is  a  conpezion  or  combination  of  facts  in  the  narra 
tive,  which,  at  the  same  time,  implies  tae  internal  reason  for  the  state  of 
mind  of  the  Syrac.asans. 

[^  559.].  We  must  here  mention  those  expressions  in  which  the  relative 
pronoun,  joined  with  the  subjunctive,  implies  a  restriction :  quod  sctanif  as 
nr  as  I  know  ;  quod  meminentn^  as  far  as  I  recollect ;  quod  ^go  intelligamf 
fnocl  {facile)  irUelligi  possit,  quod  conjectura  provideri  possitt  quod  talva  fide 
posshny  quod  commodo  tuofiat^  quod  sine  eUterius  injuria  fiat  or  fieret^  &c. ;  e. 
g.,  Cic,  in  Verr.f  iv.,  16,  omne  argentum  ablatum  ex  Sicilia  esty  nihil  cuiquamy 
auod  ntam  did  vdUe<,  reUchan,  nobody  had  anything  left,  which  he  would 
nave  liked  to  call  his  own.  Attention  must,  also,  bepaid  to  quidem,  which 
is  added  in  sudh  restrictive  sentences ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Brut.f  17,  Refertae  awu 
Vatoms  orationea  amplhu  centum  quinquagintaj  quas  quidem  out  invenerim  aiu 
iegerim,  et  verbis  et  rebus  illustribus  ;  de  Off.,  iii.,  7,  neque  quid^uam  est  de  hoc 
re  post  Panaetium  expltcatum,  quod  quidem  rmhi  probaretur,  de  iis,  quae  in  ma- 
nus  meas  venerint.  In  the  phrases  quantum  possum,  quantum  ego  perspicio,  on 
he  other  hand,  the  indicative  is  used. 

[§  560.]  In  like  maimer,  the  subjmictive  is  used  with 
ccnnparatives  after  quam  qui  (through  all  its  cases),  for 
bore,  too,  the  degree  is  defined  and  modified  by  a  sen- 
tence implying  an  innate  quality  and  a  consequence,  so 
that  quam  qui  is  equivalent  to  quam  ut,  which,  in  fact, 
sometimes  occurs. 

Major  sum  quam  cui  posdtfortuna  nocere,  says  Niobo  in 

her  folly,  Ovid,  Met.,  vi.,  195. 

Pamae  acjidei  damna  majora  sunt,  quam  quae  aestimarx 

possint,  Liv.,  iii.,  72.. 

If(*e. — ^This  accounts  for  the  subjunctive  being  sometimes  used  after 
quam,  even  without  a  relative  pronoun ;  as,  Cic,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  34,  postea  quid- 
quid  erat  oruris  in  nautis  remigibusque  exigendis,  infirumento  imperando,  Seges- 
tanis  praeter  ceteros  imponebat,  aUqtCarUo  ampUus  quamferre  possent ;  ad  Quint., 
Frat.,  i.,  1,  ^  12,  in  his  litteris  longior  fui,  quam  out  veUem,  aut  quam  me  pu- 
tavifore.  Ai.  1,  in  like  manner,  frequently  in  the  case  of  the  verbs  velle  and 
posse, 

[§  561.] .  f'bj  "With  indefinite  and  general  expressions 
(both  affinuative  and  negative)  the  relative  with  the  sub- 
junctive inuroduces  the  sentence  containing  the  circum- 
stances which  characterize  the  class  indefinitely  referred 
to.  Such  expressions  are  est,  sunt,  reperiuntur,  inveniun- 
tur  y€xisiunt,  ex(niuntur  (acih  homines  J;  the  general  nega- 
tives, nemo,  nuUus^  nihU  est ;  the  negative  indefinite  ques- 
tions, mds  est  ?  quid  est  ?  qui,  quae,  quod  (as  interrogative 
adjectives),  quoius  quisque,  quantum  est  ?  &c.  In  all  these 
cases  a  demonstrative  may  be  understood  before  the  rela- 
tive. 
Sunt  qui  censeant,  una  animum  et  corpus  occidere,  animum 

que  in  corpore  extingtd,  Cic,  Tusc.,  i.,  9. 
tiihil  est,  quod  tarn  miseros  faciat,  quam  impietas  el  tceUu 

Cic,  de  Fin.,  iy.,  24. 


882  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

Quotus  enim  quisque  est,  cui  sapientia  omnibus  omnium 

mtiis  praeponmda  videatur  ? 
Quae  latchra  est,  in  quam  non  intret  metus  mortis  f  Senec. 
Quid  dulcius  quam  habere,  quicum  omnia  audeas  sie  loqw 

ut  tecum  ?  Cic,  Lael,^  6. 

Observe  that  Cicero  here  uses  qmcum  of  an  indefinite  person,  whereas 
quocum  would  refer  to  some  definite  person  mentioned  before.  (See  ^133; 
note.) 

[^  562.]  Note  1.— This  is  the  case,  also,  with  the  phrases  eat  quod,  or  rum 
tst  quod^  nihil  est  qvod  (or  quare^  cur),  there  is  no  reason  for  doing  a  thing, 
or  why  a  thing  should  happen  or  be  done ;  e.  g.,  in  viam  quod  te  des  hoc  Urn- 
pore,  mhil  est,  there  is  no  reason  for  setting  out,  &c. ;  and  wiUi  quid  est  quod, 
eur,  qiiamobrem,  what  reason  is  there  for  ?  &c. ;  e.  g.,  quid  tandem  est,  cur 
festines  ?  Quid  est  quamobrem  fiaec  cuiquam  vita  videatur  ?  Causa  or  causae 
(with  quid  and  nihil)  is  sometimes  added,  as  in  Cicero,  non  fuit  causa  cur 
postulares-;  quid  erat  causae  cur  metueret  1  We  must  here  notice,  also,  e»t  ut 
(for  xa  is  originally  a  relative  adverb,  see  ^  531),  when  used  in  the  sense 
of  est  cur,;  as,  Cic,  p.  CoeL,  6,  magis  est  ut  ipse  molests  ferat  errasse  se,  quam 
ut  istius  amicitiae  crimen  reformidet ;  p.  Milan.,  13,  iUe  erat  ut  odissd  dejenso 
rem  salulis  meat ;  i.  e.,  he  hod  reason  to  hate ;  de  Divin.,  i.,  56J  non  est  igi- 
tur  ut  mirandum  sit,  there  is  no  occasion  for  wondering.  We  must  farthei 
notice  habeo,  or  non  habeo,  quod;  e.  g.,  non  habeo  quod  dicam,  I  have  nothing 
to  say  (sometimes  they  have  the  infinitive,  as  habeo  dicere)  ;  non  habeo  qm 
(ablat.)  u^or,  1  have  nothing  to  live  upon  ;  non  habebam  quod  scriberem,  I  h&d 
nothing  to  write  (we  less  frequentlv  find  nihil  habebam  scribere  ;  as  in  Cic- 
ero, ad  Att.,  iL,  22).  Of  a  difierent  kind  are  the  expressions  non  habeo  quid 
dicam,  I  do  not  know  what  to  say ;  quidfaceret  non  habebat,  he  did  not  know 
what  to  do — for  these  are  dependent  or  indirect  questions.    See  ^  530. 

iVbn  est  quod  invideas  istis,  quos  magnos  felicesque  poptdus  vocat,  Senec. 

Epist,,  94,  59. 
Quid  est,  quod  tanto  opere  te  commoveat  tuus  dolor  intestinus  ?    Sulpicius  ir. 

Cic,  ad  Fam.,  iv.,  5. 

[^  563.]  Note  2. — But  the  cas6  is  different  when  the  subject  is  ezpressl; 
added  to  svnJt  quL  The  subjunctive  may  even  then,  indeed,  be  used,  if  the 
subject  is  a  general  and  indefinite  one,  which  requires  a  qualification ;  but 
when  a  distinct  individual  or  thing  is  mentioned^  the  indicative  is  employ- 
ed ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Of.,  i.,  2,  sed  aunt  nonnuUae  disdpUnae  (philosopnical 
schools),  quae  propositis  bommim  et  maionan  fimbus  opCdum  omne  pervertunt ; 
de  Pin.,  v.,  14,  sunt  autem  bestiae  quaedam,  in  qwbus  tnest  aliqyid  simite  virtu- 
tis.  In  Cicero,  ad  Fam.,  iz.,  14,  and  ad  Att.,  xiv.,  17,  we  meet  in  the  same 
letter  first,  sunt  enim  penmdti  optimi  viri  qui  valeiudinis  causa  in  haec  loca 
veniant ;  and  afterward,  sunt  enim  permulti  optimi  viri,  qui  valeiudinis  causa 
in  his  locis  comveniunt,  and  it  cannot  he  decided  which  or  the  two  is  the  cor* 
rect  mode  of  speaking.  But  when  the  subject  is  not  expressly  mention- 
ed with  e9t  and  sunt  qm,  the  subjunctive  is  iar  more  frequent,  and  the  in 
dicative  is  justly  looked  upon  as  aGrecism,  which  often  occurs  in  poetry; 
in  Horace,  for  example,  almost  constantly,  though  it  is  found,  also,  in  Sal- 
lust  (e.  g.,  Cat.,  19, 4),  and  in  later  prose  writers.  In  Cicero,  de  Of.,  i,  24. 
Sunt  enim,  qui,  quod  sentiunt,  etsi  optimum  sit,  tamen  invidiae  metu  non  azuUni 
dicere,  the  indicative  has  without  cause  given  offence  to  critics. 

[§  664.]  fcj  When  the  eentence  introduced  by  the  rela- 
tive contains  the  reason  of  what  precedes,  the  verb  is  put 
in  the  subjunctive.  The  connexion  between  such  sen- 
tences may  also  be  expressed  by  "  because,"  oi  "  since,' 
instead  of  the  relative  : 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD.  388  . 

/Ueannder,  quum  in  Sigeo  ad  AcJiillis  tumidum  adistitisset^ 
O  fortunate,  inquit^  adolescens,  qui  tuae  virtutis  Homer* 
um  praeconem  inveneris  /  Cic.,^.  Arch,,  10. 

(Janinius  Juit  mirifica  vigilantia,  qui  mo  toto  conpdatu 
somnum  non  viderit,  Cic,  ad  Fam.,  vii.,  30. 

Quern  ardorem  studii  censetisjuisse  in  Archimede,  qui^  dum 
in  jndvere  quaedam  describit  attentius,  ne  patriam  qui' 
dem  captam  esse  senserit!  Cic,  de  Fin.,  v.,  19. 

[^  565.]  Note  1. — What  is  expressed  in  these  and  similar  cases  by  qm 
alone  is  expressed  in  others  more  emphatically  by  qmppe  qtti,  tUpote  ^ut  and 
ut  fui  (which  is  not  used  by  Cicero,  though  frequently  by  Livy  and  later 
wnters)  through  all  the  cases  of  qui ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  p.  Rose.  Am.^  18,  convivia 
cum  poire  non  inibatf  qtappe  qui  ne  in  oppidum  qtadem  nisi  perraro  veniret ; 
Nep.,  Dion^  2,  (Plato)  qman  a  Dionysio  tyranno  crudeliter  vioUUus  essetf  qvxppe 
quem  venundari  jtusistet.  The  indicative  in  these  expressions  occurs  in 
SaUust  and  Livy,  but  Cicero  has  only  in  one  passage  {ad  Att.,  ii.,  24), 
utpote  qui  with  the  indicative,  ea  nos,  utpote  qui  nihil  contemntre  solemus,  non 
pertimescdtOTnus. 

[^  666.]  Note  2. — Attention  must  be  paid  to  the  person  of  the  verb  witk 
the  relative,  as  it  depends  upon  the  noun  to  which  the  relative  refers 
Hence,  in  the  first  of  the  above  ^passages,  the  second  is  used,  becausi 
Achilles  is  addressed ;  but  the  first  is  used  in  sentences  like  the  follow 
ing :  Me  infelicem,  qm  per  tot  annos  te  videre  non  potuerim  ! 

[§  567.]  (d)  When  the  sentence  introduced  by  the  rela- 
tive  expresses  the  intention  and  object  of  the  action  of  th^ 
preceding  sentence,  the  relative  is  followed  by  the  sub 
junctive*     The  relative  in  this  case  is  equivalent  to  ut. 

Sunt  autem  mtdtif  qui  eripiunt  aliis,  quod  aliis  largiantur, 

Cic,  de  Of. J  i.,  14. 
Pojndus  Rojnanus  sibi  tribunes  creavit,  per  quos  contra  SC" 

natum  et  consules  tutus  esse  possety  Eutrop. 
Super  tabemaculum  regis,  unde-ab  omnibus  conspici  posset^ 

imago  solis  crystallo  inxilusd ftdgebat.  Curt.,  iii.,  7. 

[§  568.]  (e)  After  tho  adjectives  dignus,  indignus,  aptus, 
and  idoneusy  the  relatives  axe  commonly  used  with  the 
subjunctive ;  as,  dignus  est^  indigims  est,  qui  laudetur. 

Voluptas  non  est  digna^  ad  quam  sapient  rcspiciat,  Senec. 
RusUci  nostri  quum  Jidem  alicujus  bonitatemque  laudant, 

dignum  esse  dicunt,  quicum  in  tenebris  mices,  Cic.;  de 

Oj:,  iii.,  19.     . 

Note. — ^Th'e  infinitive  with  these  adjectives  is  rare  in  prose,  but  frequent 
in  poetry ;  e.  g.,  Quintil.,  x.,  1, 96,  Lyricorum  Horatius  fere  solus  Ugi  dignus . 
Plui.,  Pofu^.,  7,  uterque  (princeps)  optimus  erat,  dignusqiye  alter  eligi^  altet. 
eligere.  Ut,  also,  may  be  used ;  aB,  JLiv.,  xxii.,  59,  quvm  indigni,  ut  a  vobis 
fedimerenAirt  visi  simus ;  in  xxiii.,  42,  both  constructions  are  combined,  st 
tnodOf  quos  ut  socios  haJberes  dignos  duxisti,  hand  indifpios  judkas,  quos  in  fidem 
feeeptos  tuearis^  because  it  was  necessary  to  avoid  the  repetition  of  tbo 
Mine  pronoun. 


3P4  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

[§  569.]  (f)  Lastly,  we  must  here  notice  the  circum- 
stance that  in  a  narrative  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect 
subjunctive  are  sometimes  used  after  relative  pronouns 
and  adverbs  when  actions  of  repeated  occurrence   arc 
spoken  of  (in  which  case  the  Greek  language  requires 
*the relative  with  the  optative  mood:  sec  Buttmann's  Greek 
Gram,,  §  139,  note  6) ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  iii.,  11,  quemcunqite  lie- 
tor  jussu  consulis  prekcndisset,  tribuntis  mitti  jubebat ;  iiL, 
19,  consilium  et  modum  adhibendo,  ubi  res  posceret,  jniores 
erant ;  xxxiv.,  38,  tU  quisqiie  maxime  laboraret  locus,  atU 
ipse  .occurrebat,  aut  aliquos  mittebat;  TQ.c\l,,AnH.,  vi.,  21^ 
quotiens  super  tali  negotio  consultaret,  edita  domus  parte  etc 
liberti  unius  conscientia  AUebatur ;  Nep.,  Eum,^  3,  Mace- 
dones  vero  milites  ea  tunc  erant  Jama,  qua  nunc  Romani 
Jeruntur :  etenim  semper  habiti  sunt  fortissiini,  qui  sum- 
mam  imperii  potirentur ;  Justin,  xxv.,  4,  ncc  quisquam 
Pyrrhum,  qua  ttdisset  impetum,  stestinere  valuit.     In  the 
same  manner,  Cicero  {de  OrcU,^  iii.,  16),  SocrcUcs^  quam  se 
cunque  in  partem  dedisset,  omnium  facile  fuit  prinoeps,  is 
to  be  explained.    As  in  this  way  the  action  is  not  referred 
to  a  distmct  individual  case,  the  subjiuictive  is  generally 
called  the  indefinite,  but  it  should  more  properly  be  called 
the  subjunctive  of  generality.     The  indicative,  however, 
is  likewise  used  in  tnese  cases,  and  even  more  frequently 

than  the  subjunctive. 

[^  570.]  Note, — As  in  the  above  quoted  passages  the  subjunctive  is  used 
after  relatives,  so  it  is  sometimes,  also,  iound  after  those  conjunctions 
which  are  originally  relative  adverbs  (see  ^331,  note  2) ;  e.  g.,  after  iiyxam ; 
as,  Liv.,  ii.,  27,  deaperato  enim  consuhim  senatusque  munUo,  ^fwtm  in  jus  dua 
debUorem  vidissent,  undique  convolabant  (comp.,  also,  Cic,  m  Verr.^  iv.,  20, 
a)  ;  after  ubi  and  ut ;  as,  Liv.,  f.,  32,  t<2  ubi  dixissel,  hastam  in  fines  eorum 
tmiuebat ;  even  after  m  (but  only  when  used  in  the  sense  of  ^tiMm),  in  Sal- 
lust,  Jt^.,  58,  Sin  Numtdae  propius  accessisserUj  ibi  vero  virtiUem  ostendere  et 
COS  maxima  vi  caedere.    To  the  same  practice  we  refer  the  circumstance 
that  such  relatives  are  also  followed  by  the  present  subjunctive,  when  used 
in  an  aorist  sense,  to  express  things  which  have  happened  repeatedly,  and 
still  happen ;  as  in  Sallust,  Cat.,  3,  ubi  dc  magna  virtute  et  gloria  bonorum 
memares,  quae  s^i  quisque  faeiUa  factu  putat,  aequo  Onimo  accipit,  supra  ea, 
9ehUificta  profaltis  ducit. 

{$  571.]  10.  It  has  already  been  remarked  that  all  con 
junctions,  and  more  especially  the  causal  conjunctions, 
ft'^uire  the  subjunctive  when  they  introduce  sentences 
containing  the  thoughts  or  words  of  another  person.  Re 
•spucting  the  subjunctive  wth  si  and  its  compounds,  see  § 
524.  It  now  remains  to  speak  of  those  conjunctions  which 
remiire  the  subjunctive  on  account  of  their  peculiar  r  ature 
and  signification. 


I 


SUBJUNCilVE    MOOD.  365 

The  particles  expressing  a  wish,  utinam,  or,  mor  3  rare 
ly,  ut,  and  the  poetical  o  dy  govern  the  subjunctive,  be- 
cause the  wish  exists  only  as  a  conception  of  the  mind ; 
but  theie  is  this  difference  in  regard  to  the  tenses,  that 
the  present  and  perfect  are  used  of  wishes  which  are  con- 
ceived as  possible,  and  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  of 
those  which  are  to  be  described  as  not  in  accordance  with 
reality.  (See  above,  §  524.)  The  English,  "  Oh,  would 
that  not,*'  should  properly  be  expressed  in  Latin  only  by 
utinam  ne^  but  ^tinam  non,  is  frequently  used  instead  of  it ; 
see  Cic,  ad  Fam*^  v.,  17,  illTid  utinam  ne  vere  scriherem  I 
ad  Att.y  xi.,  9,  in  fin.,  Haea  ad  te  die  natali  meo  scripsi^  qtto 
utinam  susceptus  non  essem,  atU  ne  quid  ex  eadem  matrc 
postea  natum  cssetl  plura  scribere  fletu  prohiheor.  Some- 
times the  particle  utin/im  is  omitted ;  e.  g.,  CatulL,  ii.,  9, 
tecum  ludere  sicut  ipsa  possem. 

[§  572.]  Quasi  faeque^  perinde,  non  secusj,  ac  si,  tam- 
quam  si^  velut  si,  or  tamquam  and  vdvt  alone  (sometimes 
also  siciU  and  the  poetical  ceu),  all  of  which  signify  "  as 
if,"  "  as  though,'*  always  introduce  a  sentence  which  con- 
tains only  a  conception  of  the  mind,  and  are,  consequent- 
ly, used  with  the  subjunctive.  (Compare  §  282.)  The 
tense  of  the  subjunctive  with  these  conjunctions  depends 
upon  that  of  the  leading  verb ;  e.  g.,  Senec,  Epist.,  83  : 
Sic  cogitandum  est,  tamquam  aliquis  in  pecitis  intimum  in- 
spicere  possit ;  Cic,  Divin,,  4,  Scd  quid  ego  Ids  testibus 
utoTf  quasi  res  dubia  aut  obscura  sit  ?  Brut,,  1,  angimur, 
tamquam  illi  ipsi  acerbitatis  aliquid  acciderit.  Wo  must 
notice,  especially,  the  ironical  qtuisi  and  qtiasi  vero,  which 
are  joined  with  the  present  subjunctive  to  denote  a  continu- 
ing action,  and*  with  the  perfect  subjunctive  to  express  a 
completed  one,  when  the  speaker  himself  belongs  to  the 
time  present ;  e.  g.,  quasi  me  pudeat,  as  if  I  were  ashamed  ! 
qua^i  paulum  differat !  quasi  vero  ego  ad  ilium  venire  de- 
buerim  !  as  if  I  had  been  obliged  to  go  to  him  !  Cic,  p, 
Muren,y  17,  popidus  nonnunquam  aliquid  factum  esse  (m 
comitiis)  admiratur,  quasi  vero  non  ipse  fecerit.  The  im- 
perfect subjunctive,  however,  is  also  used  after  a  pres- 
ent when  we  mean  to  express  that  in  reality  the  thing  is 
not  so,  in  which  case  we  must  always  supply  a  hypotheti- 
cal imperfect ;  o.  g.,  Cic.^  ad  Fam.,  xiii.,  42,  Egnatii  rem 
ut  tueare  aequo  a  te  peto,  ac  si  mea  negotia  assent,  i.  e,,  ac 
pete?  em,  si  mea  negotia  essent,  as  I  would  pray,  if,  &c.;  ad 

Kk 


386  LATIN    GRAMM4R. 

Attt  iii  J 13,  Qua  de  re  quoniam  nihil  ad  me  scribis^  ptoindt 
hahebo  ac  si  acripsissei  nihil  esse^  i.  e.,  atque  haberem  si 
scripsisses. 

The  Bubjunctiye,  with  nan  quo,  Tum  quody  non  eo  quod^ 
nan  ideo  quod,,  non  quia^  arises  from  the  same  c&«se,  and 
is  of  the  same  kind.  These  expressions,  which  have  al- 
ready been  discussed  in  §  537,  are  usually  followed  by 
sed  quod  or  sed  quia  with  the  indicative,  because  the  sen- 
tence introduced  by  them  states  the  real  reason.  Cic.» 
Tusc,  ii.,  23,  Pugiles  vero,  etiam  quumferiunt  adversari- 
nm,  in  jactandis  caestibus  ingemiscunt^  non  quod  doleant 
animove  succumbant,  sed  quia  prqfundenda  voce  omne  cor- 
pus intenditur^  venitque  plaga  vehementior. 

Dummodo  (if  only,  if  but),  for  which  dttm  and  modo  are 
also  used  alone,  governs  the  subjunctive  because  it  ex- 
presses an  intention  or  a  purpose  conceived  by  the  mind. 
Therefore,  when  joined  with  a  negation,  it  becomes  dum- 
modo  ne,  dum  ne,  modo  ne;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Off.,  iii.,  21, 
(miilti)  omnia  recta  et  honesta  negligtmt^  dummodo  poten- 
tiam  consequantur ;  ad  Quint,  Frair,,  i.,  1,  Quare  sit 
summa  in  jure  dicundo  severitas,  dummodo  ea  ne  varietur 
gratia,  sed  conservetur  aeqtuibilis, 

[§  573.]   Ut,  in  the  sense  of  "even  if,"  or  "  although' 
(see  §  341),  expresses  a  supposition  merely  as  a  concep- 
tion, and  accordingly  governs  the  subjunctive.     It  takes 
the  negative  Tion  ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Philip,^  xii.,  3,  Exercitus  st 
pads,  id  esty  timoris  nostril  nomen  audierit,  ut  non  r^erat 
pedem  (even  if  it  does  not  withdraw),  insistet  certe.     The 
same,  however,  may  be  expressed  by  ne  with  the  conces* 
sive  subjunctive.     (See  §  529.) 
Ut  desint  vires,  tamcn  est  laudan  la  voluntas,  Ovid. 
Ut  rationem  Plato  nuLlam  afferret,  vide  quid  homini  tribu- 

am,  ipsa  atcctoritate  mejrangeret^  Cic,  Thtsc,  i.,  21. 

The  conjunction  nedum,  i.  e.,  **not  to  mention  that,"  re- 
ceives its  meaning  from  the  negative  ne,  and  accordingly 
governs  the  subjunctive.  Ne  is  sometimes  used  in  the 
sense  oi  nedum  ;  e.  g.,  Sallust.,  Cat*,  11,  Igitur  hi  milites^ 
postqyxim  victoriam  adepti  sunt,  nihil  reliqui  victis  frcere, 
Quippe  secundae  res  sapientium  animosfatigant;  ne  Uli  cor- 
ruptis  m^bus  victoriae  tcmperarcnt,  i.  e.,  not  to  mention 
that  they  were  moderate,  &c. ;  .Liv.,  iii.,  52,  Novam  earn 
potestatem  (tribunorum  plebis)  eripuere  patribus  nostris,  m 
nunc  dulccdine  semel  capti  fcrant  desi^erium,  where  Gn^ 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD.  ^iT 

a<»Yfus  gives  tt  full  eltplansUiion  if  this  aso  of  «e/  Cic.,^ 
Cltient.,  35,  Optirms  temporibus  clarissimi  atque  amplissi- 
mi  viri  vim  tribuniciam  tustinere  non  potuenmt:  nedum  ku 
temporibua  sine  jttdieiorum  remediia  saivi  esse  possi/mus.  If 
nedum  has  no  verb,  it  ^acquires,  like  ne  dicam,  the  mean- 
ing of  an  adverb,  and  is  commonly  preceded  by  a  nega- 
tive ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  vi.,  7,  Aegre  inermis  tcmta  muUitudo,  ne- 
dum armata,  sustmeri  potest,  (Even  ne  is  thus  used  onco 
iiX  Cicero,  ad  JFam.,  ix.,  26,  Me  vero  nihil  istorum^  ne  ju- 
renem  quidem  movit  unquam,  ne  nunc  scnem.)  Hence  we 
find  n^dum  ut  in  Livy  (iii.,  14)  and  later  writers  in  the 
sense  of  a  conjunction  ''  not  to  mention  that." 

[§  574.].  Quamvis,  as  distinct  from  qiidmquam,  is  oflen 
used  in  die  sense  of  quantumvis  and  quamlihetj  i.  e.,  '* how- 
ever much,"  with  the  subjunctive ;  for  this  is  its  real 
meaning,  and  hence  the  subjunctive  is  also  used  when  its 
parts  are  separated;  as,  quam  volent  in  canvimis  Jaceti 
tint ;  quam  volent  impudenter  mentiantur.  Licet  (although) , 
properly  a  verb  whifch  has  become  a  conjunction,  has  the 
same  meaning  and  construction  as  quamvis. 

Licet  strenuum  metum  putes  essc^  velocior  tamen  spes  est^ 
Curt.,  vii.,  16-  (4). 

Note. — In  later  prose  writers  ^uamms  and  quamquam  have  changed  their 
signification,  quamquam  being  joined  with  the  subjunctive,  and  quamvU 
with  the  indicative.  Tacitus  uses  both  conjunctions  mostly  with  the  sub- 
junctive. Quamquam  with  the  subjunctive  occurs  even  in  some  passages 
of  Cicero,  though  they  are  comparatively  very  few ;  ad  Fam.^  iv.,  4,  quam- 
quam videam  ;  p.  Muren,,  9,  (pucmquam  praesente  Jjuctdlo  loquar  ;  de  Fin.,  iii., 
21,  quamquam  in  amicitia  aUi  dicant,  aeque  coram  esse  sapienti  rationem  amici 
ac  suam^  tamen,  &c. ;  Tusc,  v.,  30,  quammiam  enim  sint  in  quibnsdam  malis, 
tamen  hoc  nomen  beati  longe  et  lide  patet;  de  Off.t  i.,  2,  quae  quamquam  ita  sint 
in  promptu ;  and  with  the  subjunctive  videatur  in  Orat.,  55, 183 ;  Top.,  8, 34. 
Quamvts  with  the  indicative  occurs,  p.  Rab.  Post.,  2,  quamvis  pattern  svum 
nunquam  viderat.  But  it  must  be  observed  that  quamms  is  used  also  as  an 
adverb  in  the  sense  of  "  however  much,"  and  as  such  governs  no  particu 
lar  mood  ;  as  in  Cicero,  quamvis  mtdtos  prqferre  possum  ;  quamvis  parvis  late' 
bris  contentus  essem,  I  should  be  satisfied  with  ever  so  small  a  comer.  In 
this  sense  it  is  joined  with  lieet  to  enhance  the  meaning  of  this  conjunc- 
tion ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  JUeg.,  iii.,  10,  quamvis  enumeres  mtUtos  licet,  you  may 
enumerate  as  many  as  ever  you  can ;  de  Nat,  Deor.,  iii.,  36,  quamvis  licet 
Menti  delubra  ccnsecremus  ;  Tusc.,  iv.,  24,  quamvis  licet  insectemuristos. 

[§  575.]  The.  particles  of  time,  dum,  donee,  and  qr^cad, 
have  the  indicative  when  they  are  used  in  the  sense  of 
qtiamdiu,  or  "  as  long  as  ;'*  in  the  sense  of  "  until,"  they 
may  have  either  mood ;  the  indicative,  if  a  thing  is  ex- 
pressed as  a  fact,  and  the  subjunctive,  if  it  is  merely  con- 
ceived as  a  thing  which  may  possibly  be  realized,  or  if,  ai 
the  same  time,  a  purpose  is  expressed  in  the  sentence. 


888  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Respecting  the  presont  indicative  with  dum,  see  §  50S, 
foil. ;  and  it  must  be  observed  that  the  indicative  with  thia 
conjunction  is  often  retained  even  in  the  oratio  obliqtm^ 
which  otherwise  requires  the  subjunctive,  as  in  Tacit., 
Ann,^  ii.;  81.     But' such  cases  are  only  exceptions* 

Lacedaemaniorum  gens  jvrtis  fuit,  dum  Lycurgi  leges  v^igc- 
bant,  Cic,  Tusc,  i.,  42. 

Epaminondas  quum  animadverteret,  martiferum  se  tmlnu^ 
accepissef  simulque,  sijerrum,  qttod  ex  hastili  in  corpore 
remanserat,  ^xtraxisset,  animam  statim  emissurum : 
usque  eo  retinuitf  quoad  renuntiatum  est,  vicisse  Boeo- 
tiosy  Nep.,  Epam.j  9. 

Quoad  perventum  sit  eo,  qtto  sumpta  navis  est,  non  domini 
est  navis f  sed  navigantium,  Cic,  de  Off.,  iii.,  23. 

Tratis  aut  suhtraJtendi  sunt  ii,  in  qu^s  impetum  conantur 
facere,  dum  se  ipsi  colligant,  aut  rogandi  orandique  sunt, 
ut,  si  quam  habent  ulciscendi  vim,  differantin  temptis  ali- 
ud,  dum,  defervescat  ira,  Cic,  Tusc.y  iv.,  35. 

Note. — Tacitus  neglects  this  distinction;  and  uses  the  subjunctive  with 
ianecy  though  a  simple  fact  is  expressed;  e.  g.,  Hiat.,  iv.,  35,  Pugnatum 
longo  agmine  et  incerto  MartCf  donee  proelium  noae  dirimeret ;  and  he  is  so  par- 
tial to  this  construction,  that  the  perfect  indicative  must  be  noticed  as  o 
rare  occurrence  with  him.  Respecting  the  few  passages  in  which  donee  is 
used  by  Cicero  and  Caesar,  see  ^  350. 

[§  576.]  Antequam  sxid  priusquam  are  commonly  used 
in  a  narrative  with  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunct- 
ive, if  there  is  some  connexion  between  the  preceding 
and  the  subsequent  action ;  but  if  the  simple  priority  of 
one  action  to  another  is  expressed,  the  indicative  is  usedj 
e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  66,  haec  omnia  antejacta  sunt,  quam 
Verres  Italiam  attigit.  The  present  indicative  is  used 
when  the  action  is  described  as  certain  and  near  at  hand, 
or  as  being  qjready  begun ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  ad  Fam.,  vii.,  14, 
dabo  operam,  ut  istuc  veniam,  atUequam  plane  ex  animo  tuo 
effluo  ;  ad  Att,,  x.,  15,  «i  quemquam  nactuseris  quiperferat 
litteras,des  antequam  discedimus;  p.Muren,,  1,  Antequam 
pro  h,  Murena  dicere  instituo,  pauca  pro  me  ipso  dicam; 
Philip.,  ii.,  2,  Gui  priv^quam  de  cetetis  rebus  respondeo,  de 
amicitia,  quam  a  me  violatam  esse  criminatus  est,  pauca 
dicam.  The  subjunctive  must  be  used  when  the  thing  it 
still  doubtful ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Leg.  Agr.,  ii.,  27,  Hac  lege 
ante  omnia  veneunt,  quam  gleba  una  ematur;  Parad.,  6, 1, 
nunquum  eris  dives  antequam  tibi  ex  tuis  jfossessionihus  tan- 
tum  reficiatur,  ut  eo  tueri  legionem  j^ssis ;  and  in  generaJ 


BUBJumrrivE  mood.  HH9 

propositions ;  as,  Senec,  J^^^.,  103,  tempestas  mknatur  an 
tequam  surgat ;  Quaest,  JSat,  ii.,  12,  Ante  videmus  fulgU' 
ratUmemy  quam  sanum  audianms.  But  the  subjunctive  is 
used  also  in  other  cases  to  denote  actions  about  to  take 
place,  and  without  any  difference  in  meaning  from  the  in- 
dicative ;  as,  Cic,  JPhUip,,  i^  1,  Anteqnam  de  repuhlica  di- 
cam  ea^  quae  dicenda  hoc  tempore  arbitrar,  exponam  hrevi- 
ter  consilium  profectioni^  meae. 

[§  577.]  11.  With  regard  to  quum,  there  is  this  differ- 
ence, that  quum  coMsale  governs  the  subjunctive,  and  quum 
temporale  by  itself  requirjss  the  indicative,  and  in  narra- 
tives only  it  is  joined  vnth  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect 
subjunctive. 

The  following  remarks,  however,  may  serve  to  explain 
and  modify  this  general  rule.  Quum  is  properly  a  rela- 
tive adverb  of  time,  corresponding  to  the  demonstrative 
aaverb  tum^  as  in  turn — quum,  then — when.  If,  therefore, 
nothing  farther  is  to  be  expressed,  it  is  joined  with  the  in- 
dicative. But  quum  is  also  employed  to  express  the  re- 
lation of  cause  and  effect,  and  in  this  sense  it  governs  the 
subjunctive ;  e.  g.,  quum  sciam,  quum  scirem,  quum  intel- 
fexerim,  quum  intellexissem ;  i.  e.,  as  I  know,  as  I  knew, 
as  I  have  learned,  as  I  had  learned — I  \vill  do  this  or  that. 
When  it  has  the  meaning  of  "though"  or  "  althoughj"  the 
sentence  introduced  by  it  does  not,  indeed,  express  the 
cause  of  what  is  contained  in  the  preceding  sentence,  but 
still  indicates  some  internal  or  logical  connexion  between 
the  two  sentences,  and  it  is,  therefore,  joined  only  with  the 
subjunctive ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Invent,,  i.,  4,  homines ^  quum 
multis  rebus  infirmiores  sinf,  hoc  re  maxime  hestiis  prae- 
stantf  quod  loqui  possunt;  Nep.,  PJioc,  1,  Phocionfuit per- 
'petuo  pauper y  quum  ditissinius  esse  posset, 

[§  578.]  In  a  narrative,  however,  quum  temporale  is 
joined  vdth  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive,  be» 
cause,  in  a  continuous  narrative,  a  preceding  event  is  al 
ways  conceived  and  represented  as  the  cause  of  a  subse- 
quent one ;  e.  g.,  Caesar,  quum  Pompeium  apud  Pharsa* 
Wfn  vicissetf  in  Asiam  trajecit :  here  we  perceive  a  com- 
bination of  time  and  cause,  which  is  expressed  by  the  sub- 
junctive. It  only  remains  to  be  observed  that  this  is  al- 
ways the  case  in  an  historical  nari'ative,  although,  if  we 
consider  only  the  relation  of  time  or  priority,  we  mighi 

Kr  2 


5190  LATIN   oaAMMAB. 

believe  the  indicative  also  to  be  correct.    Examples  art 
extremely  numerous.     See  §  505. 

[§  579.]  But  when  quum  is  a  pure  particle  of  time,  that 
is.  when  it  does  not  occur  in  a  narrative,  and  when  no  re- 
lation of  cause  and  effect  is  to  be  expressed^  it  may  be 
joined  with  all  the  tenses  of  the  indicative,  even  with  the 
impeiiect  and  pluperfect,  in  the  sense  oieo  tempore  quum, 
->r  turn  quum^  which  expressions,  in  &ct,  dfben  occur. 

Qui  nan  defendit  injtiriam,  neque  propuhat  a  auisy  qttum 

potest,  injustefacity  Cic,  de  Off,^  iii.,  18. 
Sed  da  operam^  ut  valeas,  et^  si  tjalehis,  quum  recte  navi* 

garipoterit^  turn  naviges,  Cic,  ad  Tir.  Ep,,  12. 
Credo  tum^  quum  Sicilia  florehat  opihus  et  copiis^  magna 

artifida  (studios  of  artists)  fuissc  in  ea  insula,  Cic,  in 

Verr,,  iv.,  21. 
O  acerham  mihi  memoriam  temporis  iUiua  et  loci^  quum  hie 

in  me  incidit,  quum  complexus  est,  canspcrsitque  lacrimis^ 

nee  loquiprae  maerore  potuit !  Cic,  ^.  Plane,,  41. 

In  like  manner,  quum  is  joined  with  the  pluperfect  in 
dicative,  when  it  expresses  an  action  frequently  repeated ; 
in  this  case  the  apodosis  contains  the  imperfect.     (See  § 
569,  foil.) 

Quum  autem  vcr  esse  coeperat,  cujtis  initium  iste  nan  a  Fa^ 
vonio,  neque  ah  aliquo  astro  notahat^  sed  quum  rosam 
viderat,  tum  incipere  ver  arbitrahatur  :  dabat  se  lahi>rt 
•*  atque  itineribus,  Cic,  in  Verr,,  v.,  10. 

Sic  (Verres)  confecto  itinere,  quum  ad  aliquod  ojypidum 
venerat,  eadem  lectica  usque  in  cubiculum  dcferebatur^ 
Cic,  in  Verr^  v.,  11. 

iVbto.~The  following  passage  of  Cicero  (p.  Plane.,  26)  is  particalariy 
instructive  :  At  ego^  quum  casu  diebua  iia^  itineria  faciendi  causa,  decedens  a 
provincia  PvteoloM  forte  venissem,  qvum  pltpritni  et  lautieswd  eolent  eeae  in  tic 
loeis,  concidi  paene,  quum  ex  me  qtddam  quaeeieeet,  Stc.    In  this  passage  quum 
— veniesemiB  the  nistorical  protasis  to  concuti ;  but  quum — eolent  merely 
explains  the  time  implied  in  its  diebus ;  the  former  quum  may  be  translated 
by  "  as,**  bat  the  latter  is  "  when.**    Among  the  numerous  passages  in 
which  quum  is  used,  there  are,  it  is  true,  some  which  seem  to  contradict, 
or  actually  do  contradict  the  rule  given  above,  for  the  Latin  language  has 
a  sort  of  partiality  (or  quum  with  the  subjunctive,  especially  with  the  im 
perfect  subjunctive.    Thus  we  find  in  Cicero,  PhUip.,  iii,  2   C.  Caesar 
adolescens  tum,  quum  maxime  furor  arderet  Antonii,  patmque  ejus  a  Brundisie 
reditvs  timeretwr^  firmissimum  exercitum  ex  invicto  genere  veteranorum  milituni 
tomparavit :  here  the  idea  of  time  is  combined  with  that  implied  in  "  al 
though  ;'*  Cic,  in  Pis.,  13,  An  tum  eratis  consuUs^  quum  ctttictus  ordo  re'.lfxma- 
""ii^,  quum  —  eupere  vos  diceretis :  here  auum  at  first  sim|)ly  indicates  time, 
but  then  the  passage  assumes  the  cnaracter  of  an  historical  narrative    * 
The  DTesoU  subjunctive  is  used  more  rarely  in  cases  whic**  t»roperly  rt 


snBJUNCTiVB   MQ0I».  Ml 

qjSiU^  the  indicative ;  as,  Cic,  p.  Muren.,  3,  nunc  quum  omneM  mg  emuae  a4 
misericordiam  voceni^  where  nunc  qwan  is  equivalent  to  '*  now  as ;"  in  the 
fiante  chapiter  we  find,  Neque  enim  si  tUn  ttan  qvum  conaidatum  peteret,  /bvt, 
ificirco  nunc  qman  Mwrenam  ipsum  petas^  adjtUor  eodem  pacto  esse  00600^- wnero 
peteres  is  excusable,  but  petas  must  be  corrected  frdm  MSS.  into  petis.  In 
Other  passages  there  are  other  reasons  for  using  the  subjunctive ;  e.  g.,  p. 
Mttren*f  38,  910  iocus  e«l,  ^uod  tempus,  qtd  dies,  quae  now,  quwn  ego  non  em  is- 
torum  insidiis  dUnno  auxiUo  eripiar — here  the  subjunctive  arises  from  the  in- 
definite or  general  question ;  Cic,  in  Verr., !.,  10,  Haec'neque  ^uum  ego  dice' 
rem,  neque  qman  tu  negarest  magni  momenti  nostra  esset  oratio.  Quo  tempore 
igitur  mares  judex  erigeret  ammimu^  atUnderet  1  QuumDio  ^pte  proMret, 
quum  ceteri,  qui  turn  in  SicHia  negotiis  Dionis  interfuissent :  quvm  tabulae  viro* 
rum  bonorum  proferrentuTt  dec,  &c,  Opinor,  quum  Kaecfierentf  turn  vos  audi' 
fetiSf  turn  causa  vere  agi  videretur:  here  the  subjunctive  with  ouiim  arises 
from  the  hypothetical  construction  of  the  whole  sentence.  In  tne  peculiar 
passage,  m  Leg.  Agr.,  ii.,  24,  64,  unum  hoc  certe  videor  mihi  verissime  posse 
dicere,  turn  quum  haberet  resfiubUca  Lusdnos — et  turn  quum  erant  Catones — ta- 
men  kupucemodi  res  commusa  nemini  est — commentators  justly  ezplam  as 
an  anacoluthon,  for  the  sentence  begins  in  a  direct  way,  and  alterwaid 
becomes  an  indirect  speech.  Whatever,  therefore^  may  be  the  explanation 
in  each  particular  passage,  the  statement  of  some  cntics  that  quum  tern' 
porale  is  used  indiscriminately  with  the  indicative  or  subjunctive,  must  be 
rejected  from  grammar.  If  we  take  into  consideration  the  deviations  from 
ttte  rale  mentioned  in  this  note  and  what  was  said  in  ^  570,  the  beginner 
may,  perhaps,  take  the  following  as  his  general  guide :  quum  may  alu)ays 
be  joined  with  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive;  the  other  tenses  are 
in  the  indicative  with  quum  temporale,  and  in  the  subjunctive  with  q^tum 
eausaU, 

[§  580.]  12.  The  fallowing  must  be  observed  as  peca- 
liarities  in  the  use  oiquUm  tempprale :  1.  Quum  is  joined 
with  the  perfect  or  imperfect  indicative  to  expresa  simul- 
taneous occurrences  which  are  indicated  in  English  by 
''while."  This  simultaneousness  is  marked  more  em- 
phatically by  adding  interea  or  interim.  The  perfect,  in 
this  case,  is  used  in  historical  narratives,  and  the  imper- 
fect in  descriptions.  2.  Quum  is  joined  with  all  tenses  o£ 
the  indicative,  and  more  especially  with  the  present  to  ex 
press  the  decided  beginning  of  an  action,  m  which  case 
It  does  not  introduce  a  protasis,  but  rather  an  apodosis. 
It  is  commonly  preceded  by  adverbs ;  as,  jam,  rumdum^ 
vix,  aegrCf  or  quum  itself  is  joined  with  repente  and  subito, 

Catulu^^  quum  ex  vohis  quaereret,  si  in  uno  On.  Pompeio 
omnia  poneretis^  si  quid  eo  factum  esset,  in  quo  spem  es- 
setis  ?iahituri :  cepit  magnum  suae  virtutis  fructum  ac 
dignitatis,  quum  omnesprope  una  voce,  in  eo  ipso  vos  spem 
habituros^esse,  dixistis,  Cic.,^.  Leg.  Man.y  20. 

fyaedehatur  virgis  in  Tnedioforo  Messanae  civis  Romanus, 
judices,  quum  interea  nullus  gemitus,  nulla  vox  alia  istius 
miseri  inter  dolorem  crepitumque  plagarum  audiehatur 
misi  hacc  •  civis  Romantis  sum,  Cic,  in  Verr.,  v.,  62 


393  LATIN    ORAMHtAK. 

Evolarat  jam  e  conspectu  fere  fagiens  ^uadrirefnU,  quum 
etiamtum  ccterae  naves  uno  in  loco  moliehantur,  Cic,  m 
Verr.f  v.,  34. 

Jam  in  conspectu,  sed  extra  teli  jactum  utraque  acies  crat^ 
quum  prior es  Persae  inconditum  et  trucem  susttdete  cla* 
moremy  Curt,  iiL,  25  (10). 

Jamque^  qui  Dareum  vehebant  equi,  <xmfossi  Iiastis  H  dolore 
efferati^  jugum  quatere  et  regem  curru  excutere  coeyerant^ 
quum  illCf  verittis  ne  invus  veniret  in  hostium  potcstatem, 
desUit  et  in  equum,  qui  ad  hoc  sequsbatur^  imponitur^ 
Curt,  iii.,  27  (11),  and  in  innumerable  other  passages 
of  this  writer. 

N(m  dubitahat  Minucius^  qui  SopcUrum  d^endebat,  qmn 
iste  ( Verres),  quoniam  consilium  dimisisset,  illo  die  rem 
illa7n  quaesiturtis  non  esset,  quum  repente  jubetur  dicere^ 
Cic,  in  Verr.f  ii.,  29. 

[^  581.]  Note  1. — In  farther  confirmation  of  our  first  remark,  that  ^ukiii, 
in  the  sense  of  "  while,"  js  construed  with  the  perfect  indicative,  we  add, 
Cic,  o.  Idgar.,  1,  Bellum  (inter  Caes.  et  Pomp.)  siihito  exarsitfquodf  mtierani 
in  AjricOj  ante  audierunt  gerij  quam  pararu  (^^o  atiditOf  partim  cupintaU  in 
considerata,  partim  caeco  quoaam  timore^  primo  aalutisy  post  etiam  atudii  bum 
quaerebant  auquem  ducem :  quum  lagarius  domum  emectans  et  ad  suos  redire 
cupiens  nuUo  »e  impUcari  negotio  passus  eat :  quum  here  properly  introdvces 
the  principal  action,  "  white  Ligarius  would  not  allow  nimself  to  be  impli- 
cated," although,  at  the  same  time,  it  expresses  simultaneousness.  Gomp., 
also,  Cic,  m  Pis.,  34,  qman  quidem  tiU  etiam  accessiofiut ;  PhiUp.,  iz.,  4, 9, 
quum  quidem  iUe  poUicitua  eat;  for  these  passages  must  be  read  m  their  ccm- 
nexion,  in  order  to  see  the  difference  between  the  indicative  which  ex 
presses  the  actual  beginning  of  the  actions,  and  the  imperfect  subjunctive. 
The  addition  of  quidem^  too,  must  be  observed,  as  well  as  interim  in  Floms, 
iiL,  17,  in  fin.,  Sed  pretium  rogationia  atathn  aoeii  flagitare  (Perfect) :  quum 
interim  imparem  Drusum  aegrumque  rerum  tenure  motarum  matura  (ut  in  tah 
diaerimine)  mora  abatuUt. 

[^  582.]  Note  2.^-Quum,  in  both  cases,  is  used  by  historians  (Liyy,  Taci- 
tus) also  with  what  is  called  the  historical  infinitive  {infinitimia  hiatoricua). 
Instances  of  quum,  in  the  sense  of  "  while,**  are  Tacit.,  Ann.^  ii,  31 ,  Cingehw- 
tur  interim  nuUte  domxut  atrepebant  etiam.  in  veatibtdo^  vt  audtrit  at  aspici  poa- 
aent :  quum  lAbOt  ipaia^  qvaa  in  noviasimam^  voluptatem  adhibuerat^  Epulis  ex' 
eruciatuat  voeare  percusaorem^  prendere  aervorum  dextraa,  inaerere  glacUumt 
Liv.,  ii.,  27,  victor  tot  intra  paucoa  diea  bdUa  Romanua  jpromiaaa  conaiuia  fdamr 
que  aenatua  expectabat :  quum  Appiua  quam  asperrime  poterat  jua  de  creditia 
pecuniia  tUcere,    The  following  is  an  instance  otquum  expressing 4'he  actu 
al  beginning  of  an  action :  Tacit.,  Ann.,  xiv.,  5,  nee  muitum  erqt  progreaa^ 
navia,  ouum  data  aigno  mere  tectum  loci.    Cicero  does  not  use  sucn  expret 
sions,  out  as  the  infinitive  is  a  real  substitute  for  the  present  ib  lively  di 
•criptions,  there  is  nothing  to  be  said  against  it 


iMfBRATIVE   MOOD.  dM 

« 

CHAPTER  LXXIX. 

IMPERATITE    MOOD. 

[§  583.]  1.  The  imperative,  both  in  ilie  active  and  pass- 
ive, has  two  forms :  the  imperative  present  and  the  im- 
perative future.  (See  §  151.)  Both  express,  a  command, 
but  also  a  wish,  an  advice  or  exhortation.  The  difference 
in  the  meaning  of  the  two  imperatives  is  this :  thfe  imper- 
ative present  expresses  that  something  is  to  be  done  di- 
rectly or  at  once ;  as,  lege,  read !  7narere,  die  !  or  that  a 
thing  which  exists  at  present  is  to  continue  to  exist ;  as, 
vive  fclix.  The  imperative  future  puts  the  command  in 
connexion  with  some  other  action,  and  expresses  that 
something  is  to  be  done  in  future,  when,  or  as  soon  as, 
something  else  has  taken  place.  It  is,  however,  not  ne- 
cessary that  the  other  action  should  be  expressed  in 
words,  but  in  many  cases  it  is  supplied  by  the  mind ;  o. 
g.,  Cic,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  1,  Rem  vobis  proponam;  vos  earn 
STWy  non  naminis  jxmdere  penditote^  i.  e.,  weigh  it,  viz., 
quum  proposuero. 

Quum  valetudini  tuae  constdueris,  turn  consulUo  naviga^' 

iioniy  Cic,  ad  Fam,,  xvi.,  4. 
Quodquum  hujtis  vobis  ctdolescentiain  proposueritis^  cansti- 

tuitote  vobis  ante  ocrdos  etiam  hujus  miseri  senectutem, 

Cic,  p.  Cod,,  in  fin. 
Pritis  audits  pawns;  quod  cufn  dixero,  si  plactierit,  fad' 

tote,  Terent.,  Eun.,  v.,  11,  19. 

Note. — This  is  the  view  of  the  ancient  grammarians  respecting  the  dif 
ference  between  the  two  tenses  of  the  imperative.    Vossius  and  rerizoni* 
us  (on  Sanct.,  Minerv.,  i.,  13,  no.  6),  and  after  them  the  modem  gramma 
rians,  have,  without  cause,  abandoned  that  view,  and  substituted  a  ground* 
less  theory  about  a  milder  and  a  stronger  expression  of  a  command. 
Comp.  Nic.  By^om  Krarup's  dissertation  de  ruUura  et  urn  imperativiy  Hav- 
niae,  1825  (repnnted  in  Fnedemann  and  Seebode's  Miacellanea  Critical  vol. 
il,  p.  728,  folL).    There  are  some  exceptions  in  which  the  imperative  pres* 
ent  is  used  for  the  imperative  future ;  but  a  poet  has  a  right  to  represer.t 
things  as  taking  place  at  once,  which  in  reality  can  occur  (Nily  at  a 
subsequent  time.    (So,  also,  in  Livy,  vi.,  12,  7V,  T,  Quinti,  equUem  iraew 
tus  ad  primum  initium  moti  certcmdrds  teneas  :  ubi  haerere  Jam  aciem  coUato 
pede  viaerit,  turn  terrorem  equestrem  occupatia  aliopavore  infer  ^  invechisque  or 
dines  jmgnantium  dissipa.)    Respectuig  scito  ana  scitoUt  mstead  of  the  im* 
perative  present,  which  is  wanting,  see  ^  164.    Otherwise  our  rule  is  only 
confirmed  by  passages  in  which  the  two  imperatives  occur,  as  that  oi 
Terence  quoted  above,  or  Cic,  Philip.^  vi.,  6,  17 ;  ad  Fam.,  xvi.„  6  j  and 
alao  by  those  in  which  the  preceding  action  is  not  expressed,  but  may  bt 
oiiderstood ;  e.  g.,  in  the  Rhet-.,  ad  Herenn.,  iv.,  51,  where  the  conduct  nf 
a  koaster  i?  descHbod.  Ttane  ?  inqult :  eamus  kospitex,  (inter  venit  ex  Fai^ 


894  LATIN   OEAMMAK. 

no ;  c^o  idi  civiam  pcgam ;  vot  hue  decuma  venitoU ;  i.  e.,  retarn  toward 
the  evening,  after  you  oave  gone  away,  and  atteu'ied  to  your  other  busi 
aess.  It  snpuld  also  be  observed  that  the  imperative  present  has  no  thir^ 
person,  because  a  person  not  present  cannot  obey  at  the  moment. 

[§  584.]  2.  Hence  the  imperatiye  future  is  properl]f 
used  in  cojUracts  (comp.  Liv.,  xxxviii.,  38),  laws,  and  ttnUs^ 
inasmuch  as  it  is  stipulated  in  them  that  things  are  to  be 
ione  afler  a  certain  time ;  farther,  in  precepts  and  rulet 
of  conduct,  that  is,  to  express  actions  which  are  to  be  re 
peated  as  often  as  the  occasion  occurs. 

Regio  imperio  duo  sunto,  iique  cajuides  appdlantoTy  mUp- 
tiae  mmmum  jus  hahento^  nemini  parento^  illis  solus  pop 
uli  suprema  lex  ejto,  Cic,  de  Leg.,  iii.,  3. 

Causam  igitur  investigato  in  re  nova  atque  admirabUi,  si 
poteris.  Si  nuUam  reperies,  iUud  tamen  exploratum  ha- 
heto^  nihU  fieri  potuisse  sine  causa,  eumque  terrorem, 
queni  tibi  rei  navitas  atttderit,  naturae  ratione  depellito, 
Cic,  de.Divin,y  ii.,  28. 

74on  satis  est  pidchra  esse  poemata^  dtdcia  sunto, 

Et  quocunque  volenti  animum  auditoris  agunto. 

Herat.,  de  Art.  Poet.,  99. 

[gnoscito  saepe  alteri,  nunquam  tibi,  Syrus,  Sent.j  143. 

[§  585.]  3.  With  the  imperative  the  English  "not*' 
must  be  rendered  by  ne,  and  "  nor"  by  neve,  but  not  by 
non  or  neque.  The  imperative  Yath.  ne,  however,  is  pecu- 
liar only  to  the  early  language,  and  at  all  times  in  legdl 
phraseology. 

Hominem  mortuttm  (iriquit  lex  in  duodecim  tabulisj  in  urhe 
ne  sepelito  neve  urito,  Cic,  de^  JLeg^  ii.,  23. 

Nou. — Non  and  neque  with  the  imperative  are  rare.  Ovid,  Jfet,  iii.,  117, 
ne  cape-^mec  te  civiUbus  insere  bellis  ;  viii.,  433,  Pone,  age,  nee  Htulot  iniereipi^ 
femina  nostroa;  de  Art.  Am.,  iii.,  129,  Voa  quoque  non  carie  axtree  oneraU  Jw 
piUis,  nee  prodite  graves  inatUo  veetilnu  auro.  But  when  the  subjunctive  is 
used  for  tne  imperative,  non,  and  especially  neque,  are  found  more  fre> 
quently.    See  <^  529. 

The  imperative  with  ne  is  of  quite  commo%oceurfence  in  conversation* 
al  language  in  Plautus  and  Terence,  and  along  with  it  we  find  ne  with  the 
present  subjunctive  without  any  difference,  ne  clama,  ne  crueia  te,  ne  obse- 
era;  ne  credaa,  ne  erree,  ne  metuas.  Later  poets  chiefly  use  ne  with  the 
present  subjunct,  and  ne  with  the  imiierative  only  when  they  apeak  em- 
phatically. Servius,  on  Virg.,  Aen.,  vi.,  544,  expressly  remarks,  ne  «aert 
antique  dictum  est.  Nam  nunc  ne  aaeviaa  didmus,  nee  imperativum  pmgimu* 
aduerbio  imperantis.  In  saying  that  ne  saevias  was  used  m  his  time,  he  w«a 
probably  thmking  more  especially  of  poets.  It  is  not  used  in  the  ciassi 
cal  prose  writers,  who  always  prefer  the  paraphrased  imperative  noli  sae 
frire  (^  586). 

[§  586.]  4.  The  following  forms  are  used  instend  ol 
b<»rh  tenses  of  the  imperative  ; 


IMFXAATtYE  VQOP.  JKJtft 

a)  The  future,  which,  however,  takes  the  negati^e  non 
-  U*  &nytlung  is  forbidden ;  e.  g,,  Jades,  or,  non  Jades  hoc , 
Cic,  ad  Fam.,  vii.,  20,  Scd  valcbis,  meaque  negotia  vide- 
his,  meque  diis  juvantibus  arUe  brumam  expectabis^  instead 
of  vale,  vide,  expecta  ;  Liv.,  vii.,  35,  Vbi  sententiam  meam 
*>ebis  peregero^  turn  qu4bus  eadem  placebunt,  in  dextram 
vartem  tadti  Uransibitis^  instead  of  transitote. 

(h)  The  third  person  of  the  present  subjunctive,  both 
m  an  affirmative  imd  negative  conunand,  is  even  more  fre- 
'}ueatly  used  than  the  imperative,,  unless  a  writer  intep- 
uonally  uses  the  legal  phraseology. 

(c)  The  second  person  of  the  perfect  subjunctive,  with 
che  negative  ne ;  as,  Cic,  Acad.,  ii.,  40,  Tu  veto  i^ta  ne 
fisciveris  nevefueris  commentidis  rebus  (tsse/isus  ;  ad  f^am.^ 
rii.,  25,  Secreto  hoc  audi,  tecum  habeto,  ne  Apellae  quidem, 
viberto  tuo,  dixeris.  Respecting  the  subjunctive  used  for 
ihe  Imperative,  see  §  529. 

The,  aiHrmative  imperative  is  paraphrase<l  by  cur  a  (or 
surcUoJ  ut,Jae  ut,  or Jac  alone  with  the  subjunctive;  e.  g., 
curd  tit  qudni  priinum  venias,  Jadte  ut  recordeminiy  fa>c 
animo  fortv  .magnoque  sis..  The  negative  imperative  is 
paraphrased '  by  ^c  ne,  cave  ne,  or  commonly  by  ca2;« 
alone  (without  nej^  with  the  present  or  perfect  subjunct- 
ive, cave  putes,  cave  cUxeris ;  but  especially  by  noli  with 
the  infinitive,  nc^i  putarcy  nolite  (nolitote)  eocistimare, 

Tu  nihi7y  invita  dices  Jaeiesve  Minerva,  Herat.,  Ars  Poet.^ 

385.     -  ;  . 

Qui  adipisd  veram  glariam  volet,  justitiaejufigatur  qffidis^ 

die,  de  Off,,  ii.,  13. 
V  .  Quod  dubitas  nefeceris,  Plin.,  Epist.^  i.,  18. 
^NihU  ignoveris,  nihil  omnmo  gratiae  concesseris,  misericor- 

dia  commotus  ne  sis  !  Cic,  p,  Muren.,  31. 
Magnum  Jac  animum  habeas  et  spem  bonam^  Cic,  ad 

Quint  FraU,  ft^  in  An. 
Nolite  id  v^e  quod  Jieri  non  potest,  et  cavete  ne  spe  prae- 

setUis  pack  perpetuam  pacem  amitUUis,  Cic,  Philip^ 

vii.,  8. 

[^  587.1  Nau, — We  also  find  an  imperative  of  the  perfect  passivp,  but 
feiy  rarely ;  Ovki,  TrisL,  !▼.,  8^  51,  At  vo9  admoniti  nostria  gvoyuc  catUma 
uu  ;  and  the  fanijua  exclamation  of  Caesar  before  passing  the  Rubicon^ 
k  Sneton.,  Com.,  32,  Jaeta  aUa  €sto  /  &vef>^l^o  Kiufioc*  The  subjunctive 
is  mofft  commonly  used  instead  of  it ;  fa»j(tota  ^Umal 


Md  LATIK  GlAMMAll* 


CHAPTER  LXXX. 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 

[§  688.]  1.  Tub  infinitive  expresses  the  action  or  coii- 
dition  implied  in  the  verb  in  the  form  of  an  abstract  gen- 
erality, without  specifying  either  person,  number,  or  time ; 
it  merely  indicates  the  relations  of  an  action,  that  is,  v^hetii- 
er  it  is  in  progress  or  completed.  Scribere,  to  vmte,  ex- 
presses the  action  as  in  progress;  scripsisse,  to  have  vndt 
ten,  as  completed.  To  what  time  the  action  thus  descri- 
bed belongs  is  determined  by  the  verb  on  which  the  in- 
finitive depends. 

• 

Note  1 . — The  one  of  these  infinitives  is  called  the  present  and  the  other 
the  pei^fect  infinitive.  The  former  name  is  incorrect*  for  it  is  not  the  pres- 
ent time  that  is  ezpreslted  by  scribercy  since,  besides  volo  acribere,  we  may 
say  {heri)  voUbam  scribere^  volueram  scribere,  and  (^cras)  volam  acribere ;  bu « 
the  action  is  described  only  as  in  progress.  The  infinitives  should,  there- 
fore, rather  be  c^led  infinitivtis  rei  infectae  and  infinitivus  ret  peifectae.  If, 
however,  we  compare  the  two  infinitives  with  the  tenses  of  the  verb,  we 
are  naturally  struck  by  the  resemblance  between  scr^ere  and  scribo,  and 
between  scripsisae  and  scripsi ;  although,  with  regard  to  the  relation  of  the 
action,  the  imperfect  scribebam  and  the  pluperfect  «cnp«eram  have  the  same 
claim  as  scribo  and  scripsi.  Hence  the  first  infinitive  is  also  called  injini 
tivus'praesentis  et  imperfecti,  and  the  other  infinitivus  perfecti  et  plusqtumpet 
fecti.;  but  neither  of  th^e  designations  comprises  tne  whole  of  their  sig- 
nification. 

[^  589.]  Note  2. — Meminif  in  a  narrative  of  events  at  which  the  speaker 
himself  has  been  present,  is  joined  with  the  present  infinitive,  although 
the  action  may  be  completed ;  and  the  speaker  thus  transfers  himself  to 
the  past,  and  describes  ttie  action  as  if  it  was  in  progress  before  his  eyes ; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  m  Verr.,  ii.,4,  memini  Ihimphylum  mihi  narrare;  Jjoel.,  3,  memini 
Catonem  mecum  et  cum  Sdpione  disserere  ;  p.  Sext.,  35,  meministis  tum,  jvdi' 
ces,  corporibus  civium.  Tiberim  compleri,  cloacas  referciriy  e  foro  spongiis  ejffingi 
sanguinem.  So,  also,  memoria  tenm,  Q.  Scaevolam  beUo  marsico,  fpmm  essH 
summa  seneeiute^  quotidiefacere  vmnibus  amoeniendi  suipotestatem^  in  Cicero, 
PAi/rp.,  viii.,  10;  and  even  scribit  is  construed  like  meminit;  as,  Cic,  <2e 
Off.,  iil,  2,  in  fin.  *  And  after  the  analogy  oi  memini,  Cicero  {de  Off.,  i.,  30), 
veithout  speaking  of  things  he  has  witnessed  himself,  and  merely  iot  tlui 
sake  of  vivid  expression,  says,  M.  Maximum  accaamms  fadU  celare,  tacere, 
dissimvlare,  insidiari,  prgtecipere  hostium  consUia.  out  when  the  sentence  ig 
not  a  narrative,  but  only  a  statement  of  a  result,  memini  is  also  joined 
with  the  infinitive  of  the  completed  action ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  p.  Rose.  Am.,  42,  ms- 
ministis  me  ita  distribuisse  initio  causam,  where  the  judges  are  requested  tu 
remember  the  division  he  had  made  ;  Cic,  p.  Milan.,  35^  meminit  etiam,  sibt 
vocem  praeoonis  modo  dejuisse,  quum  miriime  desiderarit,  popuH  veto  cuncti* 
suffiragtis,  quod  unum  cupierit,  se  consulem  dedaratum  ;  Liv.,  xzxvi.,  34,  quam* 
guam  merito  iratus  erat  Aetolis,  quod  sohs  obtrectasse  glorias  suae  memineroL 

[^  590.]  Note  3.— The  infinitive  perfect  is  sometimes  used  io  Latin  in- 
otead  of  the  infinitive  present,  to  express  the  result  of  an  action  rather 
ihan  its  progress  ;  e.  g.,  juvat  me,  pudet  me  hoc  fecisse.  This  is  the  ca8<» 
-T-hiefly  after  the  expressions  satii  mihi  est,  satis  habeo,  conientus  sum,  which 
%7'*  Usually  joined  with  the  infinitive  perfect  in  the  prose  of  tho  silver  a|fo 


\ 


INFINITIVE  MOOD.  397 

<%.  Cf  ,  QuintiL,  iL,  1,  2,  Chammatki  non  aatU  credtaU  excepiiu,  quae  a  rhetori 
bus  relicta  erant ;  Veil.  Pat.,  ii.,  103,  contenti  simus  id  lumm  dixisse ;  ana 
many  other  instances.    In  like  manner,  the  infinitive  perfect  is  joined  v«ith 
melius  erit ;  as,  Terent.,  Adelpfut  ii.,  1,  26,  ante  aedes  non  feciaae  convichtm  ; 
Ltiv.,  iii.,  4i9,  quieaseerit  melius  ;  iii.,  41,  vocem  non  misUae,    In  ancient  iawi 
forbidding  anything,  velle  is  joined,  in  like  manner,  with  the  infinitive  per- 
fect ;  e.  g.,  in  the  senatusconsultum  de  Bacchanalibus,  Ne  Bacchanal  ha- 
bidsse  velit,  Baoohtu  n«  quia  atUase  velit ;  and  this  mode  of  speaking  is  often 
imitated  by  later  writers ;  as,  Horat.,  Sernu,  ii.,  3, 187,  ne  quia  humasse  velit 
Ajacemf  Atrida,  vetas  cur?  Ovid,  Am.y  i,  4,  38,  Oscida  praecipue  nulla  de- 
disse  velia;  ana  is  farther  extended  to  mere  negative  sentences-,  e.  g., 
Herat.,  iSerm.,  L,  2,  28,  aunt  qui  noUwt  tetigiaae ;  Liv.,  xxii,  59,  Aoud  equide/i> 
premendo  alium  me  exttdiaae  wlim,  Plin.,  Mist.  NeU.t  z.*  30^  quum  illam  (ci 
contam)  nemo  velit  attigisse.    Also,  with  a  verb  equivalent  in.  meaning  to  n: 
velit ;  as,  Horat.,  de  Art.  Poet.,  168,  commauw  eavet^  quod  moai  mutare  labo- 
ret ;  or  with  the  positive  velim  and  similar  verbs ;  as^  Liv.,  xzz.,  14,  Uanc 
te  quoque  ad  ceteraa  tuas  eximias  virtutea,  Masiniaaaj  adjecisse  velim  ;  Herat., 
Carm.,  iii.,  4,  52,  tend^iUea  Pdion  impoatdaae  Olympo.    The  poets  go  stil.' 
farther,  and  use  the  infinitive  perfect,  without  an^  reference  to  a  comple- 
ted  action,  in  the  sense  of  the  Greek  aorist  infinitive,  where  in  ordinary 
language  we  should  expect  the  infinitive  present ;  e.  g.,  Virg^ilen.,vi.,  78, 
Bacchahir  vatea^  magnwm  ai  pectore  poaait  excuaaiaae  demn  ;  Ovid,  Ara  Am., 
ii.,  583,  mm  vuUua  texiaae  suoa  poaaunt, 

[§  591.]  2.  In  the  passive  voice  there  are,  i^o,  two  in- 
finitives, the  one  to  express  the  progress  of  a  state  of  suf- 
fering, and  the  other  the  completed  state  of  suffering. 
The  one  is  called  the  infinitive  present,  and  the  other  the 
infinitive  perfect;  the  forfaer  is  simple,  laudari,  to  be 
praised ;  the  second  is  formed  by  a  combination  of  the 
participle  perfect  with  the  verb  esse  ;  as,  laudcUus  esse^  or, 
in  the  accusative,  Za2^a^2^m  ewe,  to  have  been  praiaed;  the 
participle,  of  course,  takes  the  number  and  gender  of  the 
object  to  which  it  refers. 

[^  592.]  Note. — In  the  absence  of  a  special  infinitive  to  express  the  com 
pleted  state  of  suffering,  custom  has  assigned  to  the  combination  ci  tho 
participle  perfect  with  eaae  the  signification  of  such  an  infinitive ;  and  cast 
thus  loses  its  own  signification  of  a  continued  state;  if,  however,  the  latter 
must  be  expressed,  another  infinitive  must  be  chosen ;  e.  g.,  ado  urbem  ob^ 
seaaam  tenerif  I  know  that  the  town  is  besieged,  for  ado  urbem  obaeaaam  ess» 
would  not  express  the  continuance  of  the  state,  but  its  completion.  Thus 
we  read  in  Cicero,  in  Cat.f  i.,1,  conatrictam  jam  hortrni  consdentia  tenericon- 
juratioTiem  tuam  nonvidea  ?  Where,  however,  the  context  is  so  clear  thai 
DO  ambiguity  can  arise,  the  participle  with  esse  (e.  g.,  obsessam  esse)  may 
be  used,  and  esse  retain  its  original  meaning.  Thus,  Cic.  {de  Of.,  i.,  19) 
sayst  Apud  Platonem  eat,  omnem  morem  Lacedaemoniorum  inftammatum  east 
aqnditate  vincendi.  Bat  fuiaae  is  used -with  the  participle  perfect,  in  its  pe- 
culiar sense  of  a  doubly  completed  state ;  i.  e.,  a  state  completed  previous 
to  a  certain  past  time,  and  there  can  be  no  ambiguity;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Verr., 
iv.,  36,  certiorem  te  fadunt,  dnndacrum  Dianae  ajntd  Segeaianos  P,  Afrieam 
nomine  poaitum  ac  dedicatum  fuiase;  Li  v.,  i.,  A\yhd)et  bono  ammo  ease ;  sopi- 
tumfittsse  regent  subUo  ictu  ;  Tacit.,  Ann.,  iv.,  23,  tradidere  qiiidam,  Maeroni 
fraeacriptum  ftds^e,  d  arma  ab  Sejano  moverentur,  jvnenem  dmctm  poj.rdo  im 
^Hett. 

f§  593.]  3.  Bolides  these  infinitives  exprossing  an  Skc- 


809  LATIN  €RAIUf  AH. 

tion  or  a  state  in  progress  and  completed,  theie  is,  both  is- 
the  active  and  passive,  an  infinitive  of  future  time  (infin- 
itivusfuturij^  which  denotes  an  action  or  condition  as  con- 
tinued. It  is  formed  in  the  active  by  a  combination  of 
the  participle  future  active  with  esse  ;  as,  laudaturum  esse/ 
and  in  the  passive  by  a  combination  of  the  supine  with  iri  ; 
as,  laudatum  iri.  The  former,  owing  to  its  participle,  may 
take  different  genders  and  numbers ;  the  latter  admits  of 
no  such  change ;  e.  g.,  Quintil.,  ix.,  2,  88,  Reus  videbatut 
damnatum  iri ;  Cic,  in  Verr,^  v.,  29,  Sdehat  sibi  crimini 
datum  iri  pecuniam  accepisse ;  de  Off,,  i.,  14,^  arbitrantur 
se  beneficos  visum  iri. 

Note, — The  future  participle  in  urus  properly  expresses  an  intention  or 
desire ;  and  in  this  sense  it  takes  the  infinitives  use  %nd  JuitM ;  as»  Itmda- 
turum  esse,  to  intend  praising;  laudaturum /vi9$e,  to  have  intended  praising; 
scio  u  acripturum  fuiage,  I  know  that  yon  have  had  the  intention  to  wnte. 
Nay,  even  fore  is  found  with  the  part.  fut.  in  two  passages  pointed  oat  by 
Vossius  (de  Analog.^  iii.,  16),  viz.,  Cic,  ad  Att,  v.,  21,  demde  adtUs,  m  qtUs 
secuSf  te  ad  me  fore  venturtan,  where  Em^sti  thinks /ore  corrupt;  and  Liv., 
vi.,  in  fin.,  qtevm  senahu  ceneeret  deortan  immortalium  cauaa-Ubenter  facturoe 
fore.  But  this  is  a  pleonasm ;  for,  according  to  common  usage,  vetUurum 
esse  and/ac(umr  esse  would  be  sufficient.  The  infinitive  of  an  action  that 
had  once  been  intended  (scriptvrumfuisse)  is  farther  iised,  especially  in  the 
apodocis  of  b3rpotheticai  sentences  belonging  to  the  past,  wi^re  in  direct 
-  speech  the  pluperfect  subjunctive  would  be  used;  as,  Cic.,  deIHvin„  ii,  8, 
etiamsi  obtemperasset  auspictiSf  idem  eveniurum  fuisse  puto ;  TWc,  i.,  2,  An 
cenaemusy  si  Pabio  laudi  datum  esset  quod  pingeret,  ifon  mxdtos  etiam  oftud  nos 
futwros  Folyclitos  fuisse?  and  in  like  manner,  the  infinitive  future  with 
esse  is  used  in  the  apodosis  of .  hypothetical  sentences,  instead  of  the  im- 
perfect subjunctive ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  m  Verr.,  i,  47,  libertust  nisi  jurassetf  scelus 
se  facturum  (esse)  arbitrabatur.  The  infinit.  perfect  potuiose  ocpors  in  Cic, 
de  Off.f  i.»  1,  Equidem  Platonem  existimo,  si  ^enusforense  dicend^  tractare  vo 
Uiissetf  gravissime  et  copiosissime  potuisse  dicere,  m  the  sense  of  '*  that  he 
ivould  have  been  able  to  speak,"  and  is  to  be  explained  by  what  has  been 
<aid  in  ^  518. 

[§  594.]  4.  Besides  this,  a  circumlocution  may  be  em- 
ployed for  the  infinitive  of  future  time,  by  means  oijktu- 
rum  esse  or  fore^  followed  by  ut  and  the  subjunctive. 
Heie,  too,  the  difference  between  an  action  continued 
and  an  action  completed  in  future  time  may  be  express- 
ed, the  former  by  the  present  and  imperfect,  and  the  lat- 
ter by  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  of  the  subjunctive.  The 
choice  of  one  of  these  four  subjunctive  tenses  depends 
upon  that  of  the  leading  verb ;  e.  g.,  credo  fore  ut  episto* 
lam  scribal,  and  credebamfore  ut  epistola^n,  scriberesy  both 
expressing  a  continued  action  in  future  tim^ ;  but  credo 
fore  ut  epistolam  scripseris,  and  credebamfore  ut  epistolam 
scripsisses,  expressing  a  completed  action  in  future  time» 
And  so,  also,  in  the  passive,  credo  fore  ut  episUda.  scribe 


INFINniVB   MOOD,  3U9 

iur,  and  credebanijore  ut  epistola  scriberetvr,  both  express- 
ing a  continued  state  of  future  suffering ;  but  in  order  to 
express  a  completed  state  in  future  time,  we  avail  our- 
selves in  the  passive  of  the  participle  perfect  scripttts^ 
which  was  wanting  in  the  active ;  hence  credo  and  crede- 
ham  epistolam  scriptam  forCj  for  thus  we  read ;  e.  g.,  in 
Cic.,  ad  Fam.j  xi.,  l^a  te  ja/m  expectare  liiierat  debemus^ 
quid  ipse  agds^  quid  noster  Hirtius,  quid  Caesar  meus,  qttos 
sperd  brevi  tempore  societate  victoriae  tecum-  cojmlatosjbre  ; 
and  in  Liv.,  xxiii.,  13,  rebantur  deheUatum  moxfore^  si  an- 
niti  paidulum  voluissent.  The  circumlocution,  by  means 
ofjuturum  esse  or  Jbre  ut,  is  necessary  when  the  verb  has 
no  supine  or  participle  future  active,  which  is  the  case 
vrith  many  intransitives.  Hence  we  cannot  say  otherwise, 
for  example,  than  spero  Juturum  esse  (fore)  ut  sapias,  tU 
te  hujus  ret  poeniteat,  ut  brevi  omnibus  his  incommodis  me- 
deare.  But  it  is  also  used  in  many  other  cases,  and  in  the 
passive  this  form  occurs  almost  more  frequently  than  the 
infinitive,  formed  by  the  supine  vvith  m. 

Video  te  vdle  in  caelum  migrare,  et  spero  fore  ut  contingat 

id  nobiSf  Gic,  TWc,  i.,  34. 
Non  eram  nesciusyjore  ut  hie  noster  labor  in  varias  repre^ 

hemiones  incurreret,  Gic,  de  Fin,,  init. 
Ptolemaeus  mathematicus  Othoni  persuaseratyjbre  ut  in  im- 

ferium  ascisceretur^  Tacit,  Hist,,  i.,  22. 

[^595.]  Note  I. — The  passive  fonn  corresponding  to  the  active  infinitive 
ftdgte,  with  the  participle  future  act.,  in  a  nypothetical  sense,  is  the  cir- 
cumlocution by  me^ns  otfuHarumfuisse  ut  with  the  imperfect  subjunctive ; 
e.  g.f  rex  ignorabaiffutta-umfuitse  ut  ojmidum  ipsi  dederetuTt  -si  unum  diem  ex- 
pectasaett  the  kine  did  not  know  that  the  town  would  have  been  surrender- 
ed to  him,  if  ho  had  waited  one  day  longer.  Comp.  Caes.,  Bell.  Civ.^  iii., 
101,  nisi  eo  ipso  tempore  nnntii  de  Caesaris  victoria  essent  odlati,  existimabam 
plenqueJiUurumfuisse  ut  oppidum  amitteretur;  and  Cic,  Tusc^  iii.,  28,  Theo- 
phrastua  autem  morieiis  accusasse  naiuram  dicitur^  quod  cervis  et  comicibus 
vUant  diutumamt  quorum  id  nihil  interesset  ;  hominibuSj  quorum  maxime  inter- 
fuissety  tarn  exiguam  vitamdedisset :  quorum  si  aetas  potuisset  esse  hnginqiuort 
futurttm  ftdsse  u/,  omnUms  perfectis  artibuSf  omni  doctrina  kominum  vita  erur 
diretur. 

[^  596.]  Note  2. — What  is  called  the  participle  future  passive  can  never 
be  used  to  form  a  paraphrased  infinitive  future  passive,  for  this  participle 
has  the^. exclusive  meaning  of  necessity,  and  as  such  it  has  its  three'  regu- 
lar infinitives  :  laudandtim  esse^  laudandumfuisse  (equivalent  to  necesse  fuisse 
«tf  laudaretwr)r  and  laudandttm  fore  ;  e.  g.,  Liv„  xxzvii.,  39,  Instare  hiemem, 
out  sub  peUUms  habendos  milites  fore^  aut  differendum  esse  in  aestatem  b^llum ; 
and  the  correct  reading  in  Curtius,  ill.,  21,  probably  is,  laetus,  quod  omniex' 
peiirat  voto,  in  ilUs  potissimum  angustOs  decemendum  fore. 

[§  597.]  5.  The  infinidve  may  bo  regarded  as  a  verbal 
nuMtantive  of  the  neuter  gender,  with  two  cases,  the  nom- 


400  LATIN   GBAMMAR. 

inative  and  accusative ;  differing  from  other  sub&tantivei 
of  the  same  kind  in  this  respect,  that  it  governs  the  case 
which  it  requires  as  a  real  verb,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
expresses  the  complete  or  incomplete  state  of  an  action. 
The  infinitive  must  be  considered  as  the  nominative  when 
it  is  the  subject  of  a  sentence,  that  is,  when  anything-  id 
declared  of  it ;  e.  g.,  invidere  nan  cadit  in  sapientem,  where 
invidere  is  equivalent  to  invidia  ;  virtus  est  vitium  fugere^ 
i.  e,ifuga  vitii;  est  ars  difflcilis  recte  rempuhlicam  tegere^ 
i.  e.,  recta  gitbematio  reijmblicae;  ignoscere  amico  humtMM- 
um  est ;  laudari  jucundum  estjjuvat,  delectat;  peccare  ne- 
mini  licet.     The  infinitive  must  be  considered  as  the  ac- 
cusative when  it  is  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  ;  e.  g., 
volo^  cupio,  audeo,  conor  Jacere,  or  dicere  aliquid,  just  as 
we  say  cupio  aliguam  rem,  nescio  mentiri^  dtdici  vera  di- 
cere.    The  infinitive  is  very  rarely  dependent  upon  prepo- 
sitions which  govern  the  accusative ;  as  in  Cic,  de  Fin,^ 
ii.,  13,  Aristo  et  'Pyrrho  inter  optime  valere  et  gravissijne 
aegrotare  ni/iil  prarsns  dicehani  interesse;  Ovid,  Heroid^ 
vii.,  164,  Quod  crimen  dicis  practer  amasse  meum  ? 

Majus  dcdictis  est  parta  amittere  quam  ommno  nan  parct- 

visse,  Sallust,  Jug,,  31. 
Didicisse  Jideliter  artes  emollit  mares  nee  sinit  esse  feros^ 

Ovid,  ex  Pantf  ii.,  9,  48. 
VtTicere  scis,  Hannibal,  victoria  uti  nescisy  Liv.,  xxii.,  51, 

[%  598.]  Note. — As  the  infinitive  expresses  the  action,  state,  or  suffering 
implied  in  the  verb,  in  the  form  of  abstract  generality,  it  approaches  to  the 
nature  of  a  substantive  (comp.  ^  237  and  681),  which  is  indicated  most 
clearly  in  Greek',  where  the  infinitive  may  be  preceded  by  the  article.  But 
It  retains  its  character  of  a  verb  by  its  objective  case,  and  still  more  by  the 
expressed  or  understood  accusative  of  the  subject.  The  substantive  tin. 
ture  of  the  infinitive  is  also  visibly  indicated  by  its  being  joined  with  the 
adjective  pronoun  ipsum ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  ad  Att.,  xiii.,  29,  cum  mvere  ipstan  turp% 
sit  nobis  ;  Parad.,  3,  init.,  ipsum  quidem  peccare^  quoquh  te  veneris^  unum  est ; 
de  Orat.,  ii.,  6,  me  hoc  ipsum  rUhit  agere  delectat.  Other  adjective  pronouns 
are  rarely  joined  with  it ;  as,  Petron.,  52,  meum  inieUigere  nulla  pecunii  * 
vendo. 

But  we  cannot  assign  to  the  infinitive  more  than  two  cases,  although 
there  are  some  pa8sag:es  in  which  the  infinitive  appears  in  such  connex- 
ions that,  if  a  substantive  were  substituted  for  it,  we  should  be  (^lig^  to 
use  the  genitive,  dative,  or  ablative.  But  some  of  these  passages  admit 
of  ample  explanation,  for  a  certain  phrase  may  have  the  meaning  and  con- 
struction of  a  simple  verb ;  e.  g.,  when  Cicero  siys,  paratus  sumjhmenittm 
dare,  in  the  sense  of  volo  dare ;  and  when  consilium  mihi  est^  consilium  cafi» 
are  used  in  the  sense  of  constituo  with  the  infinitive ;  e.  g.,  praeterire^  in 
Sallust,  Cat.^  53,  and  hominis  propirujyi  fortunas  evertere^  in  Cic,  p.  Quint. 
16.  On  the  same  principle  we  may  explain  Nepos,  Lys.,  3,  iniit  consiU* 
r^[es  Lacedaenwmorum  tollere ;  Sallust,  Cat.j  17,  quibus  in  otto  vivere  copta 
trot :  i.  e.,  qu^milicebat  vivere  •  ^at.,  30,  quibus  omnia  i-cnderf  mot  srat:  i.  •,, 


fNFlNITlVE    MOOD.  40l 

qui  aolehant  vendere ;  Curt.,  iv.,  33»  cupido  incesserat  non  w'eriora  modo  At- 
gSpti  sed  etiam  Aethiopiam  invisere  ;  i.  e.,  cupiverat.  See  Drakenborch  on 
Liv.,  iii.,  4, 9.  Some,  nowever,  are  real  exceptions  from  the  ordinary  prac- 
tice ;  e.  g.,  the  relative  adjectives  which  are  joined  by  the  poets  with  the 
infinitive,  instead  of  the  genitive  of  the  gerund ;  as,  cedere  nesciuSf  avidua 
committere  pvgnamf  cupidua  attingere,  cantare  peritus.  The  infinitive,  instead 
of  the  dative,  is  sometimes  joined  with  the  adjectives  tailisy  aptusy  idoneus, 
natus  ;  e.  g ,  Horat.,  Epist.^  l.,  2,  27,  N09  ntimerus  sumus  tt  fruges  cansumere 
ntUi  ;  Ovid,  Heroid.j  i.,  109,  nee  mihi  sunt  vires  inimicos  pellere'tectis,  instead 
of  pdUn  lis  inimicis  or  ad  peUendos  inimicos.  But  this,  too,  is  of  rare  bcrur- 
rence,  and  an  imitation  of  the  Greek.  The  place  of  the  ablative  is  sup- 
plied by  the  infinitive,  if  we  may  say  so,  with  the  adjectives  dignus  and 
cGoUentusy  which  we  have  already  explained  in  ^  568  and  590.  In  classical 
prose,  therefore,  we  cannot  consider  the  infinitive  in  any  other  light  than 
as  a  verbal  substantive  with  two  equal  cases. 

[§  599.]    6.  When  the  infinitive  has  its  own  subject 
joined  to  it,  it  is  put  in  the  accusative. 

iVo/e.^— An  exception  here  presents  itself  at  once  in  the  historical  infin- 
itive hnfinititms  1astoricus\  to  which  the  subject  is  joined  in  the  npminativa 
The  nistorical  infinitive  is  a  peculiar  mode  of  using  the  present  infinitive 
(or  the  injinit.  ret  infeciae,  according  to  ^  588)  in  a  narrative,  instead  of  the 
imperfect  indicative,  when  actions  or  conditions  are  to  be  described  in  a 
lively  and  animated  manner  as  continuing  :  in  this  case  the  infinitive  rep- 
resents the  idea  implied  in  the  verb  as  a  noun,  and  independent  of  all  the 
additional  meanings  conveyed  by  the  tenses.  The  imperfect,  therefore, 
maintains  its  place  along  with  the  historical  infinitive,  and  re-enters  when 
an  explanatory  clause  is  inserted  in  the  description ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Verr., 
iv.,  18,  Quod  vbi  iste  audivit,  usque  eo  est  commotus,  *U  sine  ulla  dubitatione  in- 
sanire  omnibus  acfurere  videretvr.  Quia  non  potuerat  argentum  eripere,  ipse  a 
Diodoro  erepta  sibi  vasa  optime  facta  dicebat :.  minitari  cS>senti  DiodorOf  vocife- 
raripalam,  lacrimas  interdum  vix  tenere  ;  lav.,  xxxi.,  AltPhilippus  inopinanti 
bus  advenit.  Quern  quum  adesse  refugientes  ex  agris  quidam  pavidi  nuntiasseni, 
trepidare  Damocritus  ceterique  duces  :  et  erat  forte  meridianum  tempuSf  q%to  pie- 
rique  graves  cibo  sopiti  jacebant :  excitare  igitur  alii  alios^  jubere  arma  capere, 
alios  dimittere  ad  revocandos^  qui  palati  per  a^os  praedabantvr.  Such  histori- 
cal infinitives  thus  have  their  subject  joined  to  them  in  the  nominative, 
whether  it  be  a  substantive  or  a  pronoun ;  as,  Terent,  Andr,,  i^  1 ,  120,  Ego  illud 
sedvlo  negare  factum :  ille  instat  factum  (esse).  We  shall  add  only  one  more 
instance  from  the  writer,  who  is  particularly  fond  of  describing  things  by 
the  historical  infinitive,  Sallust,  (7a/.,  6,  Igitur  reges  populique  finiiimi  belio 
temptarSj  pauci  ex  amicis  auxilip  esse:  rmm  ceteri  metu  perculsi  a  periculis  abe- 
rant:  at  Komanif  domi  militia&jue  intenti,  festinarCf  parare,  aUus  alium  hortarif 
hostU>us  obviam  ire,  libertatentf  patriam  parentesque  armis  tegere.  Post,  ubi  peri' 
cida  virttUe  proptUerant,  sociis  atque  amicis  auxiUa  portabant.  Respecting  the 
mode  of  introducing  such  infinitives  by  means  of  quum,  see  ^  582.  Their 
introduction  by  ut,  ubi,  postquam,  in  the  protasis  occurs  only  in  Tacitus ; 
e.  g.,  Ann.,  xii,  51,  ubi  queUi  uterus,  et  viscera  vibrantur;  ii.,  6,  postquam  exM 
aequtUitas,  et  ambitio  incedebat ;  comp.  i.,  20. 

[§  600.]  This  is  the  construction  of  the  accusative  ^vith 
the  infinitive,  which,  like  the  infinitive  alone,  is  used  in 
two  ways,  either  as  the  suhject  or  as  the  object  of  a  prop- 
osition. The  accusative  with  the  infinitive  is  the  subject, 
wherever,  if  we  would  or  could  use  a  substantive  in  its 
place,  it  would  be  in  the  nominative.  So  it  is  especially 
when  a  substantive  or  adjective  is  added  as  predicate  hy 

Ii  L  9 


i02  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

■ 

means  of  est,  erat,^fmtj  &c.;  na^justum^  aequwn^ 
He,  consentaneum,  apertum  est,  necesse  est  and  opus  est,  oi 
an  impersonal  verb;  as,  apparet,  coTtstat,  convemt,  decet^ 
licet,  oportet,  or  the  third  person  singular  of  the  passive  ; 
as,  intdligitur,  perspicitur,  and  the  like ;  e.  g.,  Vtctorem 
parcere  victis  aequum  est,  it  is  fair  that  the  conqueror  should 
spare  the  conquered,  i.  e.,  the  clemency  of  the  conqueror 
towards  the  conquered  is  fair. 

Accusatores  mrdtos  esse  in  civitate  utile  est,  ut  metu  conline- 

atur,  audacia,  Cic,  p.  Rose.  Am.,  20. 
Hoc  quidem  apparet,  nos  ad  agendum  esse  natos,  Cic,  de 

Fin,,  v.,  21. 
Constat  pr  fecto  ad  salutem  civium  inventas  esse  leges,  Cic, 

de  Leg.,  ii.,  5. 
Legem  brevem  esse  oportet,  quo  facilius  ah  imperitis  tenea* 

tur,  Senec,  Epist.,  94. 
Nof^  sine  causa  dictum  est,  nihil  facilius  quam  lacnmas  in- 

arescere,  Quintil.,  vi.„  1,  27. 

Note  1. — Soinetimes  a  circumlocution,  by  means  of  gvod,  |>ropeily  id  quod 
(the  fact  that),  is  used  for  the  accusative  with  the  innuitive ;  urther,  after 
several  adjective  ezpressioas,  even  after  some  of  those  mentioned  above, 
ut  with  the  subjunctive  is  used  for  the  infinitive ;  in  which  case,  however, 
the  meaning  is  somewhat  altered.    We  shall  return  to  these  points  here- 
after, ^  686  and  623,  in  order  not  to  interrupt  onr  present  disoussion  bj 
exceptions.    We  shall  add  only  the  remark,  which  is  of  importance  to  the 
beginner,  that  it  is,  properly  speaking,  inaccurate  to  say  that  the  accusat. 
with  the  infinit.  is  governed  by  uiUe  e«t,  corutat,  or  oporttt,  for  the  infinitive 
is  here  the  nominative ;  and  we  mi^ht  say,  e.  g.,  accuMotomm  mvUUudo  utUU 
f»tf  or  legum  hrevitas  Heceaaaria  est.    We  have  not  noticed  above  the  fact  that 
(he  infinit.  and  the  accns.,  with  the  infinit,  may  also  be  the  nominative  oi 
the  predicate ;  for  as  two  substantives  may  be  placed  in  such  a  relation  to 
each  other  that  the  one  is  the  subject  and  the  other  the  predicate,  so,  also, 
mav  two  infinitive 'sentences  stand  to  each  other  in  the  relation  of  subject 
and  predicate ;  e.  g.,  Sallust.,  Jug.,  Impune  quaelibetfaeen  id  est  regem  esse. 
Id  might  here  be  omitted,  and  only  lepresent^  the  infinitive  expression  as 
a  substantive :  /acere  (see  ^  608)  is  the  subject,  and  regem  esse  the  predi 
cate. 

[^  601.]  Note  2. — Lhei  may  be  joined  with  the  accus.  with  the  infinit., 
or  we  may  say  licet  mihi  with  the  infinit  alone ;  e.  g.,  scribere.  The  latter 
is  more  fre(|uent ;  and  when  tho  infinitive  esse  (or  others  of  a  similar,  noean- 
ing ;  as,  fien,  vivere,  vitam  degere,  abire)  is  accompanied  by  a  noun.  as  a  pred- 
icate, the  latter,  too,  is  put  in  the  dative;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Tusc.,  L,  15,  licui* 
enim  esse  otioso  Themislodi;  ad  Ait.,  i.,  17,  quoin  genere  mihi  negligenti  esse 
non  licet ;  p.  Flacc.^  29,  cur  his  esse  2t6m*  non  licet  ?  Liv.,  iii.,  50^  sibi  vitam 
filias  sua  carioremfuisse,  si  lAerae  acpwUcae  vivere  licitumfuisset  (ei) ;  zxvi., 
41,  Hannibal  precatur  deos,  ut  incolumi  cedere  atque  abire  ex  hostium  terra  liceaL 
But  the  accusat.,  too,  is  frequent  en&iieh ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  m  Verr.^  v.,  32,  A'y. 
racusanum  in  insula  habitare  non  licet ;  ibia.,  59,  non  licet  me  isto  tanto  bono  uti. 
See  my  note  on  Cic,  in  Verr.^  v.,  18,  45.  The  same  is  the  case  with  tho 
infinitive  of  the  passive  ;  as,  3ic.,  ad  Fam.,  iii.,  10,  ne  cooptari  quidem  sacer* 
dotem  licebat.  See  Heusinger  on  Cic,  de  0/f.,  i.,  7.  It  is  surprising  to  find 
aotb  rases  in  the  same  sentence,  as  in  Cic,  p.  IkUb.,  12,  si  cioi  Romans  he4 


rKFIN!TI:\£   MQ0I».  .409 

tsst  ifaditamimf  sine  e4iUiOi  twe  fXfstlalnmOf  site  rejeetione  hujus  citUatiM  ;  and 
in  Caes.,  Bell.  Civ.f  iii.,  1,  is  enim  erat  anniM,  quo  per  leges  ei  <^nsulem  fiert 
(ieeret.  We  also  find  ndhi  necesse  est  dicere;  and,  in  connexion  with  licetf  we 
find  mihi  necesse  est  esse  with  the  predicate  in  the  dative,  Liv.,  xxi,  44,  Uli. 
timidis  et  ignavis  licet  esse^  vobis  necesse  estfortibus  viris  esse.  It  must,  how* 
ever,  be  observed  that  Ucet^  oportet,  and  necesse  est  are  also  joined  with  the 
subjunctive ;  e.  g.,  fremant  omnes  Ucet^  sequarOur  Hermagoram  licebit,  which 
accounts  for  the  construction  of  Ucet^  when  it  is  used  as  a  conjunction  in 
the  sense  of  quamvia.    See  above,  ^  574  and  ^  625. 

[f  602.]  7.  The  accusative  with  the  infinitive  is  the  ob- 
ject after  verbs  which  have  a  sentence  for  their  direct  ob- 
ject, i.  e.,  after  those  which  denote  an  action  of  our  ex 
temal  or  internal  faculties,  or  a  declaration  f  verba  scntien- 
di  et  d^larandi).  The  principal  verbs  of  this  kind  are, 
audioy  videOf  sentio^  animadverto^  cognoscOy  intelligOy  per- 
cipiOy  disco,  scioy  credo^  arbitror^  puto^  opinor,  dttco,  statuo,, 
meminiy  recordor,  obliviscor  ;  dico,  trado,  prodo^  scribo,  re- 
JerOy  nuntia,  confirmo,  nego^  ostendo,  demonstro,  perTiibeo, 
promiUo,  polliceor,  spondeo,  and  several  others,  denoting 
feeling,  ImowiTig^  thinking,  or  sayiing.  These  and  other 
verbs  of  the  saine  kind,  instead  of  being  followed  by  a 
dependent  sentence  with  a  conjunction  (that,  qtwd),  re- 
quire the  infinitive,  and  the  subject  of  the  dependent  sen- 
tence is  put  in  the  accusative  (In  English,  the  two  sen- 
tences are  sometimes  put  in  juxtaposition  without  any 
sign  of  dependence  or  connexion ;  e.  g.,  he  feels  that  he 
is  unhappy,  or,  he  feels  he  is  unhappy.) 

Sentit  animus,  se  sua  vi,  non  aliena,  movein,  Cicero. 

Ego  ne  tUUem  quidem  arbitror  esse  nobis  futurarum  rerum 
scientiam,  Cic,  de  Divin,,  ii^  9. 

Pompeios,  celebrem  Campaniac  urbem,  desedisse  terrae  motu 
audivtmns,  Senec,  Nat.  Quaeat,,  vi.,  init. 

Clodius  adkuc  mihi  denuntiat  periculum :  Pompeius  affir^ 
mat  non  esse  periculum,  adjurat,  addit  etiam  se  prius  oc- 
cisum  iri  ab  -eo,  quam  me  violatwm  iri^  Cic,  ad  Att,,  ii., 
20.  (He  might  have  said  prius  futurum  esse,  fyrforc,  ut 
ab  eo  occidatur,  quam  ego  violer,) 

[^603.]  Note  1.— The  propositions  which  are  indirect  dependence  upon 
the  above-mentioned  verbs  are  put  in  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  • 
the  clauses  inserted  in  such  a  proposition  are,  according  to  circumstances, 
either  in  the  iiKlicative  or  the  subjunctive,  and  in  the  latter  more  especial 
Iv  when  they  are  inseparably  connected  with  the  proposition  expressed  by 
the  accus.  with  the  infinitive,  containing  either  the  words  or  sentiments 
of  the  person  spoken  of.  (See  ^  545.)  Respecting  such  inserted  clauses 
we  must  add  the  fr  Uowing  remarks : 

(«)  When  a  relative  clause  has  the  same  verb  as  the  proposition  with 
Che  infinitive  b*  t  witi  out  its  being  repeated,  the  noun  which  is  the  8ub« 


404.  LATIN   GRAMMAR 

fcct  of  the  relative  clause  is  put  in  the  accusative ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Tugs.,  i. 
]7,  Platonem  ferunt  primum  de  animorum  aetemiteUe  sensisve  idenif  quodJPyA 
a^oram  ;  Cat,  Maj.y  i.,  Te  suspicor  eisdem  rebus,  quibus  me  ipsvm,  commoveri 
it,  however,  the  verb  of  the  relative  clause  is  expressed,  we  must  say  idem 
quod  Pythagoras  sensit,  and  iisdem  quibtis  (<g!v)  ipse  commoveor.  For  mon 
exampfes,  see  ^  774. 

(6)  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  particle  quam  aller  a  comparative 
We  say,  e.  g.,  Terentium  censeo  elegantiorem  fuisse  poetam,  quam  JPlautum 
mstead  of  quam  PUnUus  fuit;  as  in  Cicero,  de  Fin.,  iii.,  19,  daxt  cariorcm 
esse  patriam  nobis,  quam  nosmet  ipsos  ;  i.  e.,  quam  nosmet  ipsi  nobis  sumua 
Sometimes,  however,  it  happens  that  the  clause  with  quarri,  even  when  ii 
has  a  verb  of  its  own,  attaches  itself  so  closely  to  the  preceding  constmc' 
tion,  as  to  accompany  it  in  the  accusat.  with  the  infinit. ;  as,  Cic,  ad  Fam^ 
i\.,  16,  Nonne  tibi  affirmavi,  quidvis  me  potius  perpessurum,  qwun  ex  lUzUa  ad 
bellum  civile  me  exitwrum,  instead  of  the  more  regular  quaan  exirem,  or  quam 
ut  extrem  ;  as  in  Livy,  zl.,  4,  Mulier  ausa  est  dicere,  se  sua  manu  potius  omnes 
(libcroB  suos)  interfecturam,  quam  in  potestatem  Philippi  venirent ;  and  xixv.^ 
31,  (testatus  est)  Magnetos  in  corpora  sua  citius  tpevituros,  quam  ut  Rouutnam 
amidtiam  molareot, 

(c)  When  long  speeches  of  other  persons  are  given  in  the  historical  form 
(which  is  called  oratio  obUqua  in  a  narrower  sense),  even  cdmplete  relative 
clauses  (i.  e.,  such  as  have  a  verb  of  their  own),  which  properly  should  be 
in  the  subjunctive,  are  put  in  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  if  the  rel- 
ative clause  is  not  subordinate  to  or  dependent  upon  the  one  with  the  in 
finitive,  governed  by  a  verbum  sentiendi  et  declarandt^  but  rather  co-ordinat* 
or  running  parallel  with  it,  in  which  case  the  relative  pronoun  is  equiva 
lent  to  the  demonstrative  with  et,  and  only  a  grammatical  form  to  connec 
two  sentences.    Thus,  for  example,  Cic,  in  Verr.,  v.,  62,  Res  ad  eum  de 
fertur :  esse  civem  Romanum,  qui  se  Syracusis  in  lauhaniis  fuisse  quereretur  ; 
quern  jam  ingredientem  navem  et  Verri  mmis  atrodter  minitmtem,  a  se  retrac- 
tum  esse  et  asservatvm,  ut  ipse  in  cum  statueret,  ouod  videretur,  for  eumque  a 
»c  retractum  esse;  Nep.,  Them.,  7,  nam  illorum  tavern  (Atheni^s)  utpropugna 
ctdum  oppositum  esse  barbaris,  ccpud  quam  jam  bis  classes  region  fecisse  naufra- 
gium,  for  et  apud  earn  jam  bis  classes  regias  fecisse  naufragium.    (See  the  note 
jf  J.  M.  Heusinger  on  this  passage.)    In  Livy  and  Tacitus  there  are  some 
passages  in  which  the  accus.  With  the  intin.  is  used  in  the  oratio  obliqua 
mstead  of  the  subjunctive,  even  after  conjunctions,  as  after  quum  in  Liv.. 
iv.,  51,  (plebs  aegre  ferebat)  jacer«  tam  diu  irritas  actiones,  quae  de  suis  cont 
modis  ferrentwr,  quum  interim  de  sanguine  ac  supplicio  sua  latam  legem  corses- 
tim  exerceri,  where  et  would  have  been  sufficient,  and  quum  is  used  to  ex* 
press  simultaneity  (^  580) ;  but  the  infinitive  is  rather  an  anomaly ;  aftei 
qvamquam,  in  Tacit.,  Ann.,  xii.,  65,  quamquam  ne  impudicitiam  quidem  nunt 
abesse,  is  justified  by  the  absolute  signification  of  quamquam  (^  341) ;  adet 
quia^  in  Liv.,  xxvi.,  27,  Flaccus  ideo  se  moembiis  inclusos  tenere  eos  (dicebat): 
quia,  si  qui  evasissent  aliquo,  velut  ferasT  bestias  vagari,  is  much  more  surpri 
fcing,  and  too  great  a  license. 

The  leading  propositions  in  the  oratio  obliqua  (which  in  the  oratio  recta 
would  be  in  the  indicative)  are  thus  put  in  the  accus.  with  the  infinitive ; 
and  all  other  clauses,  the  tenses  of  which  depend  upon  that  of  the  leading 
verbum  sentiendi  et  declarandi,  are  put  in  the  subjunctive.    We  add  the 
remark,  that  the  imperatives  of  the  direct  speech  became  subjunctives  in 
the  oratio  obliqua ;  e.  g.,  hoc  mihi  dicite,  but  in  the  oratio  obliqua,  hoe  sUfi 
dicant,  or  hoc  sibi  dicerent^  according  as  the  leading  verb  expresses  eithei 
present  or  past  time.    Direct  questions,  which  in  direct  speech  are  in  Ibo 
mdicative,  are  expressed  in  the  oratio  obliqua  by  the  accusative  with  th« 
infinitive,  except  questions  addressed  to  the  second  person,  which,  like  tho 
imperatives,  become  subjunctives ;  e.  g.,  when  in  direct  speech  we  say 
etiamsi  veteris  contumeliae  oblivisci  velim,  num  possum  etiam  recentium  injuria 
rum  memoriam  deponere  ?  the  oratio  obLMjua  will  be  (Caes.,  Bell,  GaXL,  i 
14),  Caesar  resvondit  (histor.  perf.)— si  veteris  contumeliae  oblivitci  vellet.mm 


INFINITIVE   MOOD.  40#5 

§i  tfKenttum  injurianan,  quod  eo  invUo  (should  be  se  inuitOf  out  see  '^  550) 
it*  ^«r  provinciam  per  vim  temptassenty  memoriam  deponere  pos.se  1  Again,  in 
dii  H  speech,  we  say,  Hocine  patiendum  fuit,  si  ad  nutum  dictatoris  nan  re- 
apotMdt  ?  Fingite  mentitum  esse :  cui  servo  unquam.  mendacii  poena  vinculafue- 
nau  /  but  in  tae  oratio  obliqua  (Liv.,  vi.,  17),  (Indignabantur)  Hocine  patien- 
dum. fuisscy  si  ad  nutum  dictatoris  non  responderit  vir  consularis  1  Fingerent 
mentitum  ante^  atque  ideo  non  habuisse  quod  turn  responderet :  cui  servo  unquam 
vundacii  poenam  vincula  fidsse  ?  But  questions  addressed  to  the  second 
person  are  expressed  in  the  oratio  obliqua  by  the  subjunctive ;  e.  g.,  Liv., 
vi.,  37,  (affirmabant)  An  jam  memoria  exisse  (direct  an  exiit?)  XLIV  annia 
neminem  ex  plebe  tribunum  militum  creatum  esse  1  Qui  crederent  (direct  Qui 
creditis  ?  how  do  you  think  ?)  duobus  nunc  in  loois  impartituros  plebi  honorem, 
qui  octona  loca  tritnmis  militum  creandis  occupare  soliti  sint.  For  other  exam- 
ples of  questions  which  are  expressed  in  the  oratio  obliqua^  either  by  the 
accus.  with  the  infinitive,  or  by  the  subjunctive,  see  Liv.,  iii.,  72 ;  vii.,  4 ; 
viii.,  33.*  The  accusative  with  the  infinitive  is  rarely  found  in  a  question 
of  the  second  person ;  ah  in  Liv.,  vi.,  17,  where,  however,  it  is  combined 
with  one  of  the  third  person,  seUbrisne  f arris  gratiam  scrvatori  patriae  rela- 
tarn  ?  et^  quern  cognomine  Capitolino  prope  Jovi  parem  fecerinty  pati  (for  pater- 
entur)  vincium  tit  careers  ?  The  subjunctive  in  questions  of  the  third  person 
is  less  uncommon  in  Caesar;  e.  g..  Bell.  Gall.y  i.,  43,  Quis  pati  posset  ?  for 
quern  pati  possi  ?  v.,  29,  qms  hoc  sibi  persuaderet  ?  for  quern  sibi  persuasurum  f 
Uottae  consilium  quem  haberet  exitum  ?  for  quern  habiturum  esse  exitum  ? 

[^604.]  iVbte  2.— It  must  be  particularly  observed  that  the  personal  pro 
noons,  which  are  expressed  in  the  other  moods  only  in  case  of  their  hav- 
ing the  emphasis,  are  always  expressed  with  the  infinitive.  The  beginner 
must  here  pay  especial  attention  to  tbe  use  of  the  reflective  pronoun  «e, 
which,  as  well  as  the  possessive  nciw,  is  employed  with  o^her  oblique  ca- 
ses, when  reference  is  made  in  the  dependent  sentence  to  the  subject  of 
the  leading  one ;  and  in  explanatory,  clauses,  when  anything  is  stated  as 
the  sentiment  of  the  subject ;  see  above,  ^^  125  and  550.  We  say,  e.  g., 
Caesar  se  non  eui  commodi  causa  arma  cepisse  dicebaty  but  an  explanatory 
clause  cannot  always  take  these  pronouns ;  as,  Caesar,  quitm  eum  nonnvUt 
injnstitiae  accusarerU,  or,  CaesoTy  quod  ejus  causa  a  plerisque  damnabatuTy  se 
non  sui  commodi  causa  arma  cepisse  dicebat ;  but  when  the  explanatory  clause 
contains  the  Mntiment  of  tne  subject,  we  use  se  and  auus ;  e.  g.,  Caesary 
quod  surnn  jus  a  senatu  laesum  essety  or  postquam  nihil  sibi  ac  suis  postulatis 
tributum  essety  se  non  sua  sed  ipsiua  reipubUcae  causa  arma  cepisse  dicebat. 

[^  605.  j  This  rale  that  the  personal  {)ronouns  must  be  expressed  (in  the 
accus.)  with  the  infinitive  must  be  particularly  attended  to  with  regard  to 
the  verbs  "  to  promise"  and  "  to  hope,"  since  in  English  they  are  usuaUy 
joined  wit^  the  infinitive  present  without  any  pronoun.  In  Latin  the  pro- 
.nouns  are  not  only  expressed,  but  the  infinitive  which  follows  is  that  of 
the  future ;  e.  g.,  promisit  se  venturumy  daturum  esse,  spero  hoc  me  assecutu- 
rum  (with  the  omission  oi  ««mi  as  is  veiy  frequently  the  case  with  this  in- 
finitive and  that  of  the  perfect  passive^.  There  are,  it  is  true,  many  in- 
stances, both  of  the  infinitive  present  instead  of  that  of  the  future  (for 
which  see  the  commentators  on  Caes.,  Bell.  Oall.y  iv.,  21 ,  pollicentur  ob- 
sides  darsy  aad  Oudendorp  on  ii.,  32),  and  of  the  accusative  or  the  pronoun 
being  omitted ;  but  such  exceptions  can  never  affect  a  rule  which  is  so 
frequently  followed,  and  thcv  occur  much  more  rarely  in  Cicero  than  in 
Curtius  and  Livy.  In  the  following  passages  of  Cicero,  de  Nat.  Deof.y  i,, 
89,  puderet  me  dicere  non  intdleansae  ;  in  Q.  Caec.y  18,  quod  dicturum  te  esst 
gudio  quaestorem  ilUua  fuisse  ;  Hn  RvU.^  ii.,  36,  haec  ego  vos  sperasse  me  con- 
tule  aaseaui  posse  cirauror— the  omission  of  m«,  le,  and  vosy  is  excused  by  the 
fact  of  there  being  two  constructions  of  the  accus.  with  the  infinit.  witl 
the  same  subject.  The  following  passages  are  less  excusable  ;  Cic,  j. 
Rose.  Am.,  22,  confitere  hue  ea  spe  venisse ;  p.  SulL,  23,  agrariae  legx  mterces- 
torem  fore  prof essus  est ;  p.  Muren.,  3,  qui  gravissime  et  acerbissime  ferre  dixit. 
But  such  passages,  as  was  said  al>ove,  are  comparatively  rare ;  and  the 


406  LATIN   .GRAMMAR. 

Mniasion  of  se  as  the  accusat.  of  the  subject  (wbkh  would  be  tgo  in 
speech)  is  frequent  only  in  a  long  oratio  obliqua  in  historians. 

[^  606.]  Note  3. — When  the  use  of  an  infinitive  active  would  bringr  twc 
accusatives  together,  one  of  the  subject  and  the  other  of  the  object,  and 
an  ambiguity  would  be  likely  to  arise,  it  is  the  rule  to  prefer  the  pasave 
construction,  by  which  the  accusative  of  the  object  becomes  the  subject, 
and  the  other  is  avoided  or  explained  by  the  preposition  ab  or  per. 

At  vero  tie  fando  quidem  auditum  esty  crocodilian  out  Utim  atU  felem  violatum 

(esse)  ab  AegyptiOf  Cic,  de  Nat.  Deor.,  i.,  29. 
If  we  were  to  say  crocodilum  violasse  Aegyptium^  there  would  certainly  be 
a  great  ambiguity ;  but  where  no  such  ambiguity  is  to  be  appreheikded, 
even  the  best  authors  use  two  accusatives  by  the  side  of  each  other. 

[§  607.]    8.  The  accusative  of  the  subject  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  after  the 
verbs  denoting  waying^  showings  and  believing  (dicere,  ne- 
gare,  tradere^Jerre,  fnemorare,  narrare,  nuntiare^  perhihere^ 
prodere^  scrihere  ;  demtmstrare^  ostendere^  argzier^,  credere, 
putare,  existimare,  and  some  othera  of  the  same  meaning^^, 
is  regarded,  also,  as  an  accusative  of  the  object,  governed 
by  those  verbs,  and  hence  the  passive  construction,  also»  is 
admissible  (according  to  §  382),  by  which  the  accusative 
becomes  the  nominative.     This  is  the  case,  especially, 
when  the  subject  of  those  verbs  is  indefinite ;  as,  dicurU 
(they,  or  people  say)  me  virum  prohum  esse,  or  dicor  vvr 
probu8  esse,  and  so  through  all  persons  and  tenses,  diceris, 
didtur  vir  prohus  esse;  dicimur,  dicimini,  dicuntur  vtri  pro- 
hi  esse  or  Jecisse,     The  same  is  fiequently  the  case  with 
the  verbs  jubere,  vetare,  and  prohibere  (comp.  §  617),  so 
that  the  passives  of  these  verbs  are  used  personally ;  as, 
vctamur^  prohibemur  hoc  facere,  abire  jusstis  sum,  constdes 
jubentur  exerdtum  scribere,  and  sometimes  even  an  infinit. 
passive  is  added;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Philip,,  ii.,  32,jzisst£s  es  re- 
nuntiari  consul.     Farther,  instead  of  the  impersonal  vide- 
tur  (it  appears)  with  the  accusat.  with  the  infinit,  it  is 
quite  common  to  say  pensonallyr  videor,  videris,  videtur 
videmur,  videmini,  videntur  with  the  infinitive ;  as,  videof 
errasse,  it  appears  that  I  have  erred ;  videor  deceptus  esse^ 
it  appears  ibat  I  have  been  deceived.     See  abave,  §  380« 

Xanthippe,  Socratis  philosophi  ttxor,  morosa  admoiAimfu' 

hsefertur  et  jurgiosa,  Gellius,  i.,  17. 
Regnante  Tarquinio  Superbo  Syiarim  et  Crotoncm  P^ 

thagoras  venisse  reperttur^  Cic,  de  Re  PvM.,  ii.,  15» 

Athenis  actor  movere  affectus  vetabatur,  Quintil.,  ii.,  16. 

Note. — ^The  accus.  with  the  infinit.  after  the  passives  didtur ^  traiitur,ftr 
tur,7iarraturf  exuaimatuTf  &c.,  that  is,  the  impersonal  use  of  these  passives, 
is,  inieed,  admissible,  but  occurs  more  rarely  than  the  personal  construe 
lioa.    (See  Duker  on  Florus,  ii.,  6,  <^  45;  Drakenborch  on  Livy,  i.,  31> 


INFINITIVB   MOOD.  407 

Hence  we  must  regard  it  as  an  ezcep>tion  when  wc  read  in  Nepos,  Paua^ 
5,  dicitUT  eo  tempore  tnatrem  Pausaniae  vixisse  ;  Liv., '«'.,  33,  earn  gentem  tradi- 
tur/ama,  dvdeeiwie  fnijgwn  maximeque  vtm  captam  Aipes  tranaUse  ;  zl.,  20,  cte» 
ditur  Pythagcrae  aud^orem  fuu9e  Nvmcan.  It  is  more  fre<iuently  the  case 
with  nunHatuTy  nuniiabatur ;  as  in  Gaes.,  Bdl.  Ch,,  i.,  51 ;  Cic.,p.  MiUm,^  18  * 
but  it  is  very  common  with  the  compound  tenses  {traditum  eat,  proditum  est, 
creditum  eat)  and  with  the  participle  future  passive  (credentfttm  eat,  nUelli' 
gendum  eat,  exiatimanduin  eat);  e.  g.,  Cic,  da  JVat.  Deor»,  ii.,  63,  Fidea  et  tibi 
tts  eorum  cauaafactaa  dicendum  eat,  qui  UUa  uti  poaaunt ;  and  ibid.,  66,  qtufrum 
n^ninem  niai  juvante  deo  talem{tamjortem  ac  reip.  vtilem)fuia8e  credendum  eat^ 

[§  608.]  9.  The  subject  cannot  be  expressed  with  the 
infinitive  when  it  is  an  indefinite  person,  for  the  Romans 
had  no  word  to  express  the  English  "  one"  (French  onj^ 
and  hence  we  say  ignoscere  amico  humanum  est,  to  forgive 
a  friend  is  humane,  or,  it  is  humane  that  one  (or  we)  should 
forgive  a  friend ;  fadnus  est  vimnre  civem  Romanum. 

But  even  in  this  case  the  verb  esse,  and  those  denoting 
"  to  appear,"  "  to  be  considered,"  or  **  called"  (§  394),  re- 
quire the  predicate,  if  it  be  declinable,  to  agree  with  tho 
non-expressed  subject  in  the  accusative ;  e.  g.,  ignoscere 
amico  humanum  est,  recordantem  heneficiorum  ah  eo  accept 
Unurn,  it  is  humane  that  one  should  forgive  a  friend,  re- 
membering the  benefit  received  of  him.' 

Chntentum  suis  rebus  esse  maximae  sunt  certissimaeque  di' 

vitiae,  Cic,  Parad,,  6. 
lAcet  opera  prodesse  multis,  henefida  petentem,  commendan* 

tern  magistratibus,  vigilantem  pro  re  alterius^  Cic,  de 

Of ^'ii„  19. 
Atticus  maximum  existimavit  quaestum,  memarem  gra- 

tumque  cognosci,  Nep.,  Att,,  9. 
Magnis  in  laudibus  totd  fere  fuit  Graecid  victorem  Olyn^ 

viae  citari,  Nep.,  Praef, 

Note. — The  indefinite  pronoun,  which  may  be  supplied  in  these  cases,  is 
ttliquem,  and  when  the  accus.  plur.  is  used,  dUquoa.  The  same  indefinite* 
ness,  however,  may  be  expressed  by  te  or  noa,  or  what  is  to  be  especially 
obsenred,  by  the  infinitive  passive.  Hence  the  sentences  ignoacere  amico 
kumanum'M  and  facinua  eat  vmcire  civem  Romanum,  may  also  be  expressed 
by  ignoad  amico  laanaman  eat^faanua  eat  vinciri  civem  Romanum  ;  e.  ^.,  Nep. 
Mili.,  4,  qiman  vidererU  de  eorum  virtute  non  deaperari,  et  koatea  eadem  re  fore 
tewdiorea,  ai  ammadverterent  auderi  adveraua  ae  tarn  exiguia  copiia  dimicare. 
This  is  to  be  observed  especially  on  accbunt  of  the  impersonal  verbs  licet, 
decet,  oportet,  opua  eaty  necease  eat,  which,  if  there  is  no  definite  subject,  are 
join^  with  the  infinitive  active  alone ;  e.  g.,  licet  kocfacere,  decet  apedmttn 
eapere  ex  hoc  re,  ex  maUa  etigere  minima  oportet,  or  with  a  complete  accusal, 
with  the  infinit.  in  the  passive  construction ;  as,  licet  hoc  fieri,  decet  speci- 
men capi,  ex  malia  eUgi  minirna  oportet,  . 

[§  609.]  10.  The  accusative  with  the  infinitive  some- 
times stands  apparently  quite  independent,  but  is  to  be 
explained  by  an  ellipsis  of  a'edibile  est  1  verumne  est  1 


408  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

This  is  the  case  in  exc.amations,  and,  \vhen  the  interrog»> 
live  particle  is  aiii^exed,  in  interrogations  expressive  of 
indignation;  e.  g,  Cic,  in  Verr.,  v,  44,  lllafn  clementiam 
mansuetudinemque  nostri  imperii  in  tantam  crudelitatem  in- 
humanitatemque  esse  conversam  !  ad  Fam,,  xiv.,  2,  Hem^ 
mea  lux,  te  nunc,  mea  Terentia,  sic  vexari,  sicjacere  in  la- 
(frimis  et  sordibus  /  idque  fieri  mea  culpa,  &c. ;  Virg.,  Aen^ 
iV37,  Mene  incepto  desistere  victam.  Nee  posse  Italia  Teu- 
crorum  avertere  regem  !  Terent.,  Andr.,  i.,  5,  10,  Adcone 
esse  hominem  invfelicem  quemquam,  ut  ego  sum  I  Cic,  p. 
Rose,  Am,,  34,  Tene^  quum  ceteri  socii  tui  fugerent  ac  se 
occultarent,  tibi  potissimum  istas  partes  depoposcisse,  ut  in 
judicio  versarere  et  sederes  cum  accicsatore!  in  Verr,,  v.,  6 
O  praeclarum  imperatorem  I  tantumne  vidisse  (eum)  in 
metu  perictdoque  provindae  !  But  it  must  be  observed 
that  a  sentence  with  ut  may  also  be  used,  both  wdth  and 
without  an  interrogative  particle,  to  express  a  question 
with  indignation ;  e.  g.,  Terent.,  Andr,^  \,,  5,  28,  Jiline  (pa- 
tri)  ego  ut  adverser  1  Liv.,  iv.,  2,  Uline  ut  impune  hella 
concitent  ?  v.,  24^  victamne  ut  quisquam  victrici  ptUriae 
praeferret  ?  Cic,  in  Cat,,  i,,  9,  Tu  ut  unquam  te  corrigasl 
in  Verr,,  iii.,  10,  judicio  ut  arator  decumanum  persequa^ur? 
where  we  may  supply ^m  potest  ? 

[§610.]  11.  The  verbs,  I  can,  s7iall,  hasten,  venture,  am 
accustomed,  and  others-  of  the  same  kind,  are  followed  in 
Latin,  as  in  English,  by  the  mere  infinitive,  and  Hot  by  a 
proposition.  When  they  are  joined  with  esse,  haheri,  ju- 
dicari,  videri,  &c,  the  predicate  is  put  in  the  nominative; 
e.  g.,  solet  tristis  videri,  aude  sapiens  esse,  propcrat  ahire, 
coepit  mihi  m^lesttts  esse,  debes  esse  diligens,  potest  liher  esse, 
and  so,  also,  meretur,  scit,  didicit  liber  esse.  But  the  verba 
volo,  nolo,  malo;  cupio,  opto,  st'udeo,  admit  of  a  twofold 
construction :  the  mere  infinitive  is  used  after  them  when 
the  subject  remains  the  same,  and  when  they  are  ibllowed 
by  esse,  or  any  of  the  above-mentioned  verbs,  the  predi- 
cate is  in  the  nominative ;  but  the  acfcus.  with  the  infinit. 
is  used  when  the  subject  is  changed,  or  when  the  pro- 
noun of  the  same  person  is  repeated.  On  the  one  hand, 
therefore,  we  say  volo  eruditus  fieri,  and  on  the  other  volo 
te  eruditum  fieri,  and  volo  me  eruditum  fieri.  Hence  it  is 
indiffbrent  whether  I  ^ay  discipulum  me  haberi  volo,  non 
doctorem,  or  d.iscipulus  haberi  volOy  non  doctor ;  principem 
se  esse  maluit  quam  rideri,  or  princeps  esse  maluit  quam 
videri. 


INFINITIVE    MOOD.  409 

Volo  is  essSy  quern  tu  me  esse  voluisti,  Gic,  ad  Fam*,  L,  7. 
Cupio  me  esse  clementem^  cupio  in  tantis  rei  publicae  peri- 

cidis  me  non  dissoltUum  videri  (or  cupio  esse  clemens  nee 

dissoltUus  viderijf  Cic,  in  Cdty  i.,  2. 
Omnis  homines,  qui  sese  student  praestare  ceteris  animdH" 

bus,  summa  ape  niti  decet,  ne  vitam  silentio  transeaaU^ 

Sallust,  Cat.^  init. 

[%  611.]  Note  1. — Particular  attention  is  to  be  paid  to  the  infinitive  pass* 
ive  with  velle ;  e.  g.^me  amari  voldf  I  wish  to  be  beloved ;  hoc  vdim  intetUgif 
I  wish  this  to  be  understood.  The  infinitive  perfect. passive  is  joined  with 
it,  originally  to  eipress  the  zeal  and  rapidity  with  wmch  a  thing  was  done ; 
e.  g.,  Cic,  ^.  Leg.  Jjfan.f  5,  Legati  quod  erant  appeuxti  superbiuSf  Corinthum 
patres  vettn,'totius  Gratciae  lumen,  esHnotum  esae^uerunt ;  in  Q.  Caec,  6, 
<pubu$  maxime  lex  consuUvm  esse  vult ;  p.  X^.;  5,  aaltUi  civie  calamitosi  con- 
gvltum  esse  volumus ;  but  it  occurs  stiU  more  frequently  with  the  omission 
of  esse  (or,  as  it  may  be  expressed,  vgith  the  participle  perf.  pass.) ;  e.  g., 
Cicero, Aoc neawa praemribit,ut  homo  hormni  consvUum  veut ;  Au  (minibus me 
vehanenter  excusaium  volo  ;  hoc  factum  volo  ;  nunc  iUos  commonitos  vdim  ;  pa- 
tres  ordinem  pttblicanorum  offensum  nolebant;  aliis  hanc  Uxudempraereptam  nolo ; 
patriam  extinctam  eupit,  &c. 

[^  6i2.}  Nots  2. — But  the  nominative  with  the  infinitive  after  the  other 
above-mentioned  verba  sentipndi  et  dedarandi  occurs  very  rareljr  even  in  noe 
try,  and  is  to  be  explained  only  as  an  imitation  of  the  Greek,  in  which  Ian- 
guageit  is  the  rule  to  use  the  nominat.  with  the  infinitive,  when  the  same 
subject  remains.  Thus  we  find  in  Catullus,  iv.,  Phaselus  Ule,  quern  videtis 
hospites,  ait  fuisse  naviitm  celerrimus ;  in  Horace,  Epist.,  i,  7,  22,  vir  bonus 
ei  sapiens  dignis  ait  esse  paratus  ;  Ovid,  Met,  xiii.,  141^owa  rettulit  Ajaa  esse 
Jovis  pronMos,  instead  of  seesse  Jovis.  pronepotem  ;  Trist»,  ii.,  10,  acceptum 
refero  versious  esse  nocens,  and  Propert.,  iii,  6  (4),  40,  combines  both  con* 
structions :  me  qvoque  consimili  impositum  torquerier  igrnijurabo,  et  bis  sex  in- 
teger  esse  dies.  But  there  are  no  otner  instances  of  this  kind  in  these  classi 
eai  poets ;  for  in  Horace,  Carm,,  iii.,  27,  73,  uxor  invicti  Jovis  esse  nescis  is 
a  sea  for  non  vales,  or  non  audes  esse  uxor,  rather  than  for  te  esse  uxorem. 
And  in  likS  manner,  we  may,  in  other  passages,  explain'the  nominat.  with 
the  infinit.  as  a  mere  poetical  license  in  the  choice  of  the  expression ;  as 
in  Ovid,  Ars  Am,,  i.,  345,  gaudent  tamen  esse  rogatae,  where  gaudent  is  equiv- 
alent to  volunt.  There  is  only  one  more  passage  (V^irg.,  Aen.,  ii.,  377)  in 
which  the  poet  uses  the  participte  in  this  way,  sensit  medics  delapsus  m 
hoatesj  in  imitation  of  the  Gre^k  yadero  ifiirea^v,  instead  of  the  Latin  se 
delapsvm  esse. 

[§  613.]  12.  There  are  many  Latin  verbs  which,  accord- 
Big  to  our  notions,  seem  to  require  a  proposition  for  their 
direct  object,  that  is,  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  but 
which,  nevertheless,  are  followed  in  Latin  by  ui  with  the 
subjunctive,  either  «3:clusively,  or  admit  the  construction 
of  die  accusat-vfith  the  infinit.  besides.  This  arises  from 
the  circumstance  that  such  propositions  may  be,  or»  more 
properly,  must  be  conceived  as  expressing  a  design,  pur^ 
pose,  ^ect%  or  restUt  of  the  leading  proposition,  which  is 
indicated  by  ut  (or  nej. 

(a)  The  verbs  patior  and  sino  are  generally  followed 
by  the  infinitive^  and  more  rarely  by  ut;  the  verbs  optOf 

Mm 


410  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

concede,  permitto,  which  have  ft  more  foicible  meaiung 
may  have  either  the  infinitive  or  ut;  posco,  voMttdo^flctffi' 
io,  and  cogo  have  more  frequently  tU  than  the  infinitive. 

Consuetudo  lahorum  perpessianem  dolorum  efftcitfadliorem 
Itaque  tilt,  qui  Graedae  forrnam  rerum  puhlicarum  de- 
derunt,  corpora  juvenum  firmari  lahore  voluenint,  Oic, 
Tusc,  ii.,  15. 

Phaethon  optavit  ut  in  currum  patris  toll^erctur  (instead  of 
(Mi  or  »e  tollij,  Cic,  de  Off,,  iii.,  25. 

lllud  natura  turn  patitur,  ut  aliorum  spoliis  nostras  Jacml 
tateSf  capias,  opes  augeamus^  Oic,  de  Off^  iii.,-5. 

AugustMs  dominum  se  dppeUari  ne  a  liheris  quidem  aut  ne- 

potibus  suis  passus  est^  Sueton.,  Aug,,  53. 

Note. — Volo  vt  is  more  rare,  but  is  used  to  express  a  strong  emphasis , 
e.  g.,  Cic,  m  Vatin.,  7,  has  several  times  volo  vti  mihi  reapondeas.    IfoU  til 
does  not  occur.    MaUe  is  used  by  Cicero,  ad  Att.,  viii.,  9,  in  both  construc- 
tions :  BaUnu  minor  akbat,  nihil  maUe  Caeaarenij  quam  ut  Pompeium  asseque- 
retur,    BaUm^  quidem  nutjor  ad  me  scrilnt,  nihil  malU  Caetarem  qwmt  prir^ 
Pompao  tine  metu  vioere,    Pdatulare,  too,  is  found  with  different  construc- 
tions ;  Curt.t  vi.,  43,  Non  hominea  solum,  sed  etiam  deoe  deevicU  pu  postulat 
deua  eredi  ;  Cic,  m  Verr.,  iii,  60,  Hie  postulat  ee  Romae  abeohn,  qut  m  ma 
provineia  judicarit  te-abeolnimdlo  modo  posse.    Ut  is  of  quite  common  occur 
rence  yfithpostulo  ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  iii.,  19,  Tribuni  plebis  postulant,  ut  sacrosanct* 
habeantar.    Cicero  uses  optare  ut  exclusively ;  but  m  other  ^ood  autbors 
the  infinitive  is  found  frequently.    Recusare  is  used  indiscriminately  ei 
ther  with  the  infinitive  or  with  ne. 

[§  614.J  (hj  The  verbs  of  resolving  and  endeavouring 
to  do  or  prevent  a  thing  are  followed  by  ut  and  ne,  when 
the  dependent.clanse  has  a  subject  of  its  own ;  but  when 
the  same  subject  remains  they  are  generally  followed  by 
the  infinitive  (i.  e.,  the  nominat.  wim  the  infinit.),  though 
ut  is  found  in  this  case  also.  Verbs  of  this  kind  are,  sta- 
tuo,  constituo,  decemo^  tempto  (also  spelled  tentoj,  paro^ 
tneditor^  curo^  nitdr,  contendo^  and  the  phrases  consilium 
capio,  in  animum  induce,  or  animum  induce.  Hence  we 
may  say  constitui  domimanere,  as  well  b3, constituo  ut  Jomt 
manerem;  but  we  can  say  only  constitui  ut  filiMs  mcus  te^ 
cum  Jiahiiaret,  Ut  is  used  almost  exclusively  after  the  ex* 
pressions  operam  do,  I  exert  myself;  id  (hoc^  illud)  dg9, 
1  endeavour  or  exert  myself  (see  §  748) ;  nihil  antiquiut 
lutheo,  or  duco,  quam^  nothing  is  of  more  importance  to 
me ;  and  videre  in  the  sense  of  curare. 

Qui  sapientes  appeUari  volunt^  inducamt  animum  diwtian^ 
Tumor es^  opes  contemner e^  eaque^  quae  his  contra  ria  sunt, 
pro  nihilo  ducere,  C»c.,  Tusc,  v.,  10. 

Srat  certi  accusatoris  officium,  qui  tanti  "Scelerts  argueret^ 


mriNlTiVt:    MCX»D.  41a 

r 

eoppticare  omnia  vitiaJlHi,  quibus  incensus  parent  potue- 

rit  animum  inducere,  ut  naturam  ipsam  vmceret^  ut  amo* 

.  rem  ilium  penitus  insitum  ejiceret  ex  animo,  ut  denique 

patrem  esse  sese  ohlivisceretur^  Cic,  p.  Rose,  Am,^  19. 

.C?m7ie  animal  se  ipsum  dUigit,  ac  simul  ut  orturA  eat  id 

agitt  ut  se  conservet^  Cic,  de  Fin.,  v.,  9. 
Vtdendum  est  igitur^  ut  ea  liheralitate  utamur,  quae  prosit 
amicisy  noceat  nemini,  Cic,  de  Off'.,  i.,  14. 

[§  615.]  fcj  Tho  verbs  rogo,  orb^  precor^  peto,  mtmeo^ 
adraaneo,  commonecff  hortor,  adhortor^  cohortor^  exhortor^ 
suadeo,  persuadeo,  instituo  (I  instruct),  impeUo,  perpello, 
exdtOj  incitOf  impero,  and  some  others,  are  followed  by  ui 
and  ne  in  both  cases,  when  the  subject  remains  the  same, 
and  when  it  ii  chtoged,  and  by  the  infinitive  only  by  way 
of  exception,  and  by  a  license  in  speaking.  The  com- 
plete accusat.  with  the  infinit.  occurs  with,  some  of  them 
only  when  their  meaning  is  different,  as  with  moneo  and 
admonco  in  tlie  sense  of  "I  remind"  a  person  that  a  thing 
is,  not  is  to  be ;  with  persuadeo  in  the  sense  of  ^^  I  con- 
vince." But,  on  the  other  hand,  even  such  v^^rbs  as  nun- 
tid,  dico,  scribo,  are  followed  by  ut,  when  the  meaning  ia 
"  I  announce,  say,  or  write,  with  the  intention  that,"  &c. 

Jllud  te  oro  et  h&rfor,  ut  in  extrema  parte  muneris  tui  dili- 

gentissimus  sis,  Cic,  ad  Quint,  Frat,,  i.,  1. 
Moneo  obtestorque,  ut  hos,  qui  tibi  ^encre  propinqui  sunt, 

naros  habeas,  neu  malis  alienos  adjungere^  qtiam  sanguine 

conjunctos  retinere,  Sallust,  Jug,,  10. 
ThfCmistocles  persuasit  poptdo,  ut  pecunia  publica,  quae  ex 

metallis  rediret,  classis  centum  navium  acdificaretur^  Nep., 

Thcm.^  2. 
Tibi  persuade,  praeter  cuLpam  etpeccatum  homim  accidere 

nihilposse,  quod  sit  horribile  aut  perdmescendum,  Cic, 

ad  JFam,,  v.,  21. 
Parmenio  litteras  aperit,  in  quis  erat  scriptum,  ut  mature 

Alexander  aliquem  ex  ducibus  suis  mitterct  Curt.,  iii., 

33  (13).  ^ 

Y%  616.]  Note  1. — ^We  bavA  above  described  the  infinitiyu  <ii  of  rare  oc 
currence,  that  is,  in  comparison  with  the  much  more  frequent  use  of  vt  ii 
the  pTOse  of  the  best  period  of  Roman  literature.  It  must,  however,  be 
obserred  that  the  poets  and  later  proae  writers,  in  imitation  of  the  Greeka, 
are  partial  to  the  infinitive  with  these  verbs,  and  use  it,  instead  of  vi  with 
the  subjunctive,  without  any  difference ;  Tacitus,  in  particular,  almost  in- 
variably  prefers  the  infinitive,  being  more  concise  than  tlie  construction 
«iih^.*  Some  few  instances  of  the  same  kind  occur  even  in  Cicero ;  e.  g^ 


n 


413  LAliN    GEAMMAE. 

V 

p.  Seje*,t  3,  MihianU  oculos  obvertatur  reipvbUcae  dignitas,  qtme  me  ad  <mi  • 
pit,  kaec  minora  relinqttere  hortatur  ;  de  Fin.,  i.,  20,  Cum  vita  sine  amicis  in 
sidiartan  et  metue  plena  sit,  ratio  ipsa  monet  amicitiae  comparare  ;  and  in  N« 
po8,  Dion^  3,  Plato  oufem  tantum  apud  Dionvnum  auctoritate  pottdt  vahutqui 
eUxjuentiat  vt  ei  persuaserii  tyrannidis  facerennem  libertatemque  reddere  Syra- 
eusanis ;  comp.  Nep.,  PAoe.,  J .  Bat  this  snould  not  be  imitated,  and  mitst 
be  remenibered  only  because  it  often  occurs  in  the  poets  and  later  prose 
writers.  The  poets  go  even  farther,  and  use  thR  infinitive  to  express  a  de- 
sign or  parpobe,  for  wtiich  vt  ought  to  be  employed;  e.  g.,  Horat.,  Carm.. 
i.,  2,  7,  jProfeux  pecus  egit  edtos  visere  montee. 

[^  617.]  Note  2. — ^The  verbs  of  commanding ;  as,  trnpercwet  mandare,  p§  ae- 
tcrt6ere,  edicere  (to  issue  a  command),  legem  dare^  decernere,  are  followed  bj 
ut,  according  to  the  above  rule.    Jubere  and  vetare  alone  form  an  excep* 
tion,  being  construed  with  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  but  attention 
must  be  paid  as  to  whether  the  infinitive  active  or  passive  is  to  be  used ; 
e.  g.,  miUtem  ocddi  juesit^  he  ordered  the  soldier  to  be«pnt  to  death ;  eum 
abirejusnt,  he  ordered  him  to  depart ;  vetuit  caetra  vallo  mumri,  and  vetuit 
legatos  ab  opere  diacedere.    Exceptions  from  this  regular  construction  are 
rare,  but  sometimes  the  subject  is  omitted,  when  it  is  indefinite  or  one 
which  is  always  understood  with  certain  actions ;  as  ifa  Cicero,  latrtcte 
facen  jitbet,  vetat  deUnquiere,  viz.,  homines  ;  Caes.,  BeU,  GaJL^  v.,  34,  duces 
eorum  tota  ade  pronuntiare  jusserunt,  viz.,  praecones  ;  iL,  5,  castra  munireju' 
betf  viz.,  milites;  Liv.,  iii.,  22,  signvm  obearvare  jussit ;  xliii,  3,  tribuni  milif 
turn  pabuLtam  Ugnaqm  projicere  jvbent ;  xxix.,  7,  receptm  canere  cum,  jussisset, 
viz.,  tubidnes;  xxv.,  10,  Hanmbal  Tarentinos  sine  armis  convocare  fiibet,Yiz.f 
sunif  qui  eonvocandi  potestatem  habebat.    Nor  is  there  any  objection  to  the 
subject  being  omitted,  if  it  is  mentioned  shortly  before.    The  poets,  how- 
ever, sometimes  go  too  far,  and  the  infinitive  active  then  seems  to  be 
used  for  the  passive ;  their  example  is  followed  by  some  prose  writers. 
See  Horat.,  Carm,,  il,  3, 14 ;  ii.,  15,  m  fin. ;  iii.,  21, 7 ;  and  Emesti  on  Tacit, 
HisLt  L,  38;  Jubeo  tibi  vt  hoc  /ados,  or  with  the  omission  of  'Vt :  jvbeo  tibt 
hoc  facias  is  likewise  rare,  but  is  found  in  Tacit,  Ann.^  xiii.,  15  and  40. 
But  the  expression  jubeo  tihi  /acere  must  be  reject!^,  for  it  is  only  based 
ipon  two  doubtful  passages  m  Cicero,  ad  Att.,  ix.,  13,  2,  and  Curt,  v.,  2C 
6,  8).    Compare  the  commentators  on  Liv.,  zxvii.,  24.    But  jvbeo  vt  hoc 
facias,  without  a  dative  of  the  person,  may  be  used,  just  as  veto  ne  hoc  fa 
iuw,»and  is  in  accordance  with  the  general  rule ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Verr.,  iv., 
12,  Ate  tibi  in  mentem  non  venit  jubere,  vt  haec  quoque  rejerret  ?    Jvssi  venires, 
for  vt  venires,  occurs  in  Ovid,  Met.,  iv/.  111.    Imperare,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  sometimes  used,  like  jvbere,  with  the  accusat  with  the  infinit.  (pass.)  * 
e.  g.,  Cic,  m  Verr,,  v.,  27,  eodem  ceteros  piratas  condi  imperarat ;  ibid.,  56 
ipsM  in  knttumias  Mud  in^erabat ;  but  it  IS  more  frequently  construed  with 
ut.    Censeo,  ux),  in  the  sense  of  *'  1  give  my  opinion  to  the  effect  that,"  is 
construed  like  jubeo,  and  takes  the  accusat.  with  the  infinit.  pass,  instead 
of  tU  ;  as,  Liv.,  ii.,  5,  de  bonis  regis,  quae  reddi  ante  eensuerant,  res  integra  re 
fertur  ad  vatres,  where  Drakenfc^rch  adduces  several  other  passages.    It  is 
construea  very  frequently  with  esse  and  the  participle  of  necessity,  or  with 
thi(  participle  alone,  esse  being  understood ;  e.  g.,  Carthaginem  deUndan* 
tenseo.    Censeo  does  not  occur  in  prose  with  the  infinitive  active,  instead 
of  which  vt  or  the  subjunctive  without  vt  is  used,  according  to  ^  624. 

[§  61 8. J  fdj  The  verbs  of  effecting,  viz.,  facto,  effkio^ 
perficio,  epinco^  pervinco^  impetro,  assequor,  and  consequor^ 
are  never  construed  with  the  infinitive,  or  the  accusajtivo . 
with  the  infinitive,  but  with  ut  and  ne^  since  the  relation 
of  dependence  upon  these  verbs  is  regarded  in  Latin  aa 
that  of  an  intended  result.  Hence  arises  a  frequent  cir- 
cumlocution by  means  oi  f acere  ut  tp  express  a  rea!  factj 


ENFIN1TIV£   MOO0.  419 

aiid  instead  of  dimisit  milites^  we  accoidingly  ^nd  JecU  ui 
dvmitteret  milites, 

Epaminondas  perfecit^  ut  auxilio  sociorum  Lacedaemonit 

privarefUur,  Nep.,  JEpam.,  6. 
2\c  quidquid  indagaris  de  re  fuhlicayfadto  ut  sciam,  Cic, 

ad  AU,^  ii«,  4.  ^ 

Note  1. — Fete  frequently  has  the  sense  of  "  suppose"  or  "  granting,"  ano 
13  then  construed  as  a  verbum  sentiendi  with  the  accus.  with  the  infinitive 
as  in  Cicero,  ykc  animoa  interire  ut  corpttSffac  animoa  mm  retnanere  post  mor 
tem,  fac  qui  ^o  mm  ease  te.    In  like  manner,  efficere  in  the  sense  of  "  to  in- 
fer by  lo^cal  reasoning,"  is  treated  as  a  verbwm  deeimaudi^  and  takes  the 
accus.  with  the  infinit. ;  as,  Cic,  Tucc,  i.,  31,  Dicaearehma  trea  libroa  acrip 
aity  in  qiiilma  vtdt  efficere  animoa  eaae  nwrtalea.    But  effintu  ,  in  the  sense  of 
*'  it  is  inferred,"  or  "it  follows,"  is  also  followed  by  tu,  as,  Cic,  de  Off. 
ii.,  3,  ear  fuo  affiatur^  tUy  quidqttid  honeatum  ait^  idem  ait  uft7e,  whereas  in  m. 
5,  we  read,  ex  quo  effidtur  hominem  naturae  obaiientem  homxm  nocere  non  poaae. 
Confieitxir  in  this  sense  is  found  only  with  u/,  but  occurs,  on  the  whole,  rare- 
ly; Cic,  de  Invent.^  ii.,  49  and  56 

Facere,  used  of  writers  in  the  sense  of  **  to  introduce,"  or  **  represent' 
{like^ngeref  inducere)^  is  ^ined  with  the  present  or  perfect  participle ;  as 
in  Cicero,  de  Nat.  Deor.^  l.,  12,  Xenophon  facit  in  iiay  quae  a  Socrate  dicta 
rettulit  (i.  e.,in  Memorabilibus),'  Socratem  disputantemjfonnam  dei  quaerinon 
oportere;  7t»c.,  1.,  40,  oro/to,  qua  Plato  Socratem  uaumfacit ;  in  the  passive, 
However,  we  also  find  the  accus.  witn  the  infinitive,  there  being  no  parti- 
ciple present;  e.  g.,  Cic,  da  Opt,  Gen.^  6,  laocratem  Plato admirabiliter  lau 
dari  facit  a  Socrate  ;  de  Nat.  Jjeor.t  i.,  8,  quibua  enim  oculia  emimi  intueri  po- 
tuit  veater  Plato  fcdnicam  illam  tdnti  operia,  qua  conatrui  a  deo  atque  aedifican 
mundum  facit.  •  • 

[^  619.]  Note  2.— The  fact. of /ocere,  in  the  sense  of  "to  effect,"  being 
ioined  with  ut  cannot  be  surprising  (it  is  much  more  surprising  to  find  in 
Cicero,  BrtU.j  38,  (actio)  ttUea  oratorea  videri  facity  qucUea  ipsi  ae  videri  volunt) ; 
but  especial  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  periphrasis  jrocto  ut  to  express  a 
thir.g  which  really  takes  plage,  as  some  other  peculiarities  of  the  Latin 
syntax  are  connected  with  it,  of  which  we  shall  speak  in  6  623.  Thus 
we  read  in  Cicero,  Cat.  Maj.^  12,  invitua  mUdem  feci,  ut  L.  Fhmimnum  « 
aenatu  ejicerem,  instead  of  invitua  ejfci;  in  Vatin.,  9,  invitua  facio,  ut  recorder 
ruinaa  ret  publicae  ;  p.  Plane.,  30,  At  etiam  gregarii  militea  faciunt  inviti,  «l 
cnronam  dent  civicam,  et  a€  ah  aliquo  aervatoa  eaae  fateantur  ;  ad  Fam.,  i.,  7, 
Facto  iibenter  ut  per  litteras  tecum  colloquar  ;  in  Verr.,  v.,  63,  et  Glabrionem, 
ta  quod  aapientiasime  fecit,  facere  laetatua  aum,  ui  repente  teatem  dvmitteret,  in* 
stead  of  laetatua  aum,  quod — dimisit ;  in  Verr.,  ii.,  4,  fecerunt  etiam,  ut  me 
prope  de  vit'*^  meae  statu  dolore  ac  lacrimia  suia  deducerent,  instead  of  deduxe- 
runt ;  p*  Cluent.,  40,  facile  enim,  ut  non  aolwn  morea  ejua  et  arrogantiam,  aed 
etiam  vultum  atque  amicttimt  at^ue  iUam  uaque  ad  taloa  demisaam  purpuram  re- 
cordemini,  insinad  of  recordamini  ;  ad  Fam.,  iii.,  S,  faciendum  mihi  putavi,  ut 
tuts  litteris  bremter  responderem,  instead  of  respondendum  mihi  esse  putavi  ; 
in  Cat.,  iii.,  3,  negavi  me  esse  facturum,  ut  de  periculn  publico  non  ad  consilium 
publicum  rem  vttegram  deferrem  ;  \.  e.,  negavi  me  rem  non  integram  delaturwn, 
or  dixi  me  rem  integram  delaturum. 

[§  620,]  13,  Hence  it  not  unfrequently  happens  in  nai 
rdtives  lUat  the  verbs  of  begging,  commanding,  admonish 
ing^  &.C  ,  are  first  followed  by  ut  or  ne  and  the  subjunct 
ive,  and  afterward  by  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive 
only  the  words  or  sentiments  of  the  subject  of  the  narra 
tivc  being  recorded.     For  the  purpose  of  explanation.  W4 

M  M  2 


414  LATIN    CRAMMAK.      ^ 

• 

supply  ^m  the  preceding  yarb  the  general  idea,  of  tAimk> 
tng  or  saying f  which  is  always  implied  in  the  leading  verb ; 
e.  g.,  Caes.,  Be//.  Ciy.,  iii.,  89,  Simtd  tertiae  acid  totique 
exercitvi  imperavit,  ne  injussu  suo  concurreret:  se,  quum  id 
Jicri  vellctf  vKciUo  signum  daturum. 

His  (colonis  Athen.)  consulentibtis  nominatim  Pythia  prae* 
cepit^  ut  Miltiadem  sibi  imperatorem  sumerent :  id  sij'o 
cissent,  incepta  prosperajutura^  Nep.,  Milt,^  1. 

[§  621.]  14.  Lasdy,  ut  is  used,  and  not  the  accusative 
with  the  infinitive  (which  would, here  be  the  Accusative  of 
the  subject) : 

fa)  After  the  expressions  denoting  "  it  happens,"  Jit 
f fieri  non  potest),  aecidit,  iricidit,  contingit  (chiefly  of  desi- 
rable things),  evenit,  usu  venit,  occurrit,  and  est  (it  is  the 
case,  or  happens,  and  hence,  also,  after  e^to,  be  it  that). 

fb)  After  the  words  denoting  **  it  remains,"  or  "  it  fol- 
\owQ^**  futururrif  extremum;  propc,  pranmtem,  and  reliqHum 
est,  rdinquitur,  sequitur,  restat,  and  superest;  sometimes, 
also,  accedit  ut  ("  to  this  must  be  added  that,"  where,  how- 
evtr;  quod  is  more  common). 

Fiei'i  autem  potest,  ut  recte  quis  sentiat,  et  id,  quod  sentii^ 

jfoUte  eloqui  non  possit,  Cic,  IStsc,  i.,  3. 
Pcrsaepe  evenit,  ut  utilitas'cum  honestate  certet,  Cicero, 
Amicis  quoniam  satisfeei,  reliquum  est,  ut  egomet  mihi  con' 

suLam,  Nep.,  Alt,,  21. 

(^  622.]  iVb/e  I.— Contingit  mihi  is  not  unfrequently  joined  with  the  m 
finitive  ;  e«  g.,  antecellere  omnibus^  in  Cic,  p.  ilrcA.,  3,  and  non  cmvis  homim 
contiiygU^  adire  Corinthum^  in  Horat.,  Epist.^  i.,  17,  36.  The  predicate  is 
also  found  in  the  dative  (as  in  the  case  of  /zcef) Jwith  esse  and  other  verbs 
of  similar  meaaing;  e.  g..  Veil.  Pat.,  ii.,  124,  mild  fratrique  meo  destinari 
praetoribus  co7Uigit.  Sequitur,  which^  in  the  sense  of  "it  follows,**  shoold 
take  the  accusat.  with  the  infinit.,is  frequently  followed  hytU;  e.  g.  Cic., 
ft  hoc  verum  non  est,  sequitvr  tUfalstan  sit.  The  same  is  the  case  with  nas- 
tdtur,  "  the  result  is,**  and  sometimes  with  efficitur  (which  has  the  same 
meaning),  though  it  appears  more  frequently  to  take  the  accusat.  with  the 
infinit.  Respecting  axxedit  ut,  see  the  passages  of  Cicero,  p.  Rose.  Am , 
31,  ^  86;  in  Wrr.,  ii.,  12,  ^  31 ;  Cat.  Maj.,  G;  ad  Ap.  Claudii  senectutem  ac- 
^debat  etiam^  lU  caecus  esset ;  p.  Reg.  Deiot^l, accedit  ttt  accttsa£orum  alterius 
crudelitatSt  alterius  indignitate  conturber  ;  TWc,  i.,  19,  accedit^  ut  eo  faeUius 
animus  evadat  ex  hoc  aere^  quod  (because)  Tuhil  est  animo  velocius.  The  same 
principle  appears  to  be  followed  in  Cic,  p.  Leg.  Man.,  17,  nuru:  quum  haec 
quoqu^  opportunitas  adjungahtXy  ut  in  his  ipsis  locis  adsit^  ut  hdbeat  exercitum^ 
&c.,  quid  expectamus  f  and  Liv.,  ii.,  27,  qui  ad  id,  quod  de  credita  pecitnia  jfts 
non  dixisset,  adjiceret,  vi  ne  delectum  quidem  ex  SCto  haberet. 

After  consuetudo  and  mos  or  maris  est,  ut  is  frequently  used  instead  of  the 
infinitive,  the  fundamental  idea  being  'Mt  usually  ha^peis  that;**  e.  g., 
Cic,  Brut.,  21 ,  sed  est  mos  hominum,  ut  nolint  eundem  pluribtis  rebus  excellere; 
in  Verr.,  i.,  26,  tiegavit  moris  esse  Graecorum,  ut  in  convivio  virorum  accumh§» 
rent  vndieres.    For  the  same  reason  the  expressions  nolura  or  ccmaurliidi 


INFINITIVE  MOOD.  416 

S9tf  ate  followed  byut;  e.  g.,  Cic,  p.  Jfuren.,  2,  naturafert,  ut  us/aveamtu, 
pti  eadem  pericida,  quibus  nos  perfuncti  sumusj  in§;rediantur. 

[^  623.]  Note  2. — Whiit  has  become  the  ordinary  practice  with  the  ei- 
t>ilBSsioDs  "  it  happens"  and  *'  it  remains/*  may  at  least  serve  to  explain 
why  ut  is  used,  by  way  of  exception,  after  several  other  expressions  with 
an  adjective  conveying  the  idea  of  happeruTiey  instead  of  the  accusat.  (rf 
the  subject)  with  the  infinitive ;  for  the>  Latin  language  expresses  hnp' 
pening,  as  a  result  or  effect,  by  u/,  and  is  fond  of  paraphrasing  even  tne 
expression  of  a  simple  act  by  means  Qtfaciout:  see  ^619.  Hen  e  many 
such  phrases  as  nomun  eti.,  rarum^  noHiralet  necesse,  witattan^  miruniy  singu 
tare  est^  dec.,  are  construed  with  lUf  because  all  of  them  imply  the  idea  of 
happenings  and,  accordingly,  novum  est  ut,  in  Cic,  m  Verr.y  v.,  6,  is  eqiiiva* 
lent  to  nova  ratione  fit ;  and  rarum  esi  in  Quintil..  vi.,  3,  38,  and  x.,  7,  24, 
equivalent  to  raro  fit,  &c.  Emesti,  therefore,  oughl  not  to  have  doutited  the 
correctness  of  the  expression  in  Cic,  TWc,  v.,  21,  Ataue  ei  (Dionysio)  ne 
integrum  qvidem  erat,  ut  ad  jtutitiam  remigraretj  civUnts  Iwertatem  et  jura  red- 
deret;  and  the  same  expression  occurs,  p.  Mvren..,  4,  neque  est  integruiUf  ut 
meum  laborem  hominum  periculis  ntblevanais  nan  impertiam,  for-we  may  easily 
complete  the  expression  tntegrum  ei  erat  ut  by  that  common  periphrasis  in- 
tegrum  ei  eratfactu  ut.  Non  verisimile  est  ut  occurs  in  Cicero  fout  times,  p. 
Rose.  Am.,  41,  ^  121 ;  in  Verr.,  iv.,  6,^11;  p.  SuU.,  20,  ^  57 ;  p.  Sext.,  3ti 
^  78,  and  in  aU  of  them  it  has  the  meaning  of  the  periphrasis  Tumyidetur 
re  vera  factum  esse  ut.  In  the  same  manner,  we  must  explain  verum  est  ut, 
in  Nepos  {Hann.,  i),  which  is  otherwise  very  singular:  si  verum  est,  auod 
nemo  duhitat,  ut  populus  Romanus  omnes  gmtes  virtute  superarit.  Comp.  Cic. , 
LaeL,  4,  ^14,  ana  in  the  same  manner, /o/sum  esse  ut  is  used  by  Cicero,  df 
Divin.,  iu,  31.  • 

The  transition  being  thps  formed,  we  may  add,  lastly,  that  ut  is  some 
times  used  after  adjectives  implying  an  abstract  relation ;  fts,  aeijuum,  rec- 
tum, utile  est,  although  the  infinitive  is  commonly  employed  after  them,  as 
after  similar  expressions  with  verbs ;  ^.  g.,  Cict,  de  CHf.,  li.,  22,  qaam  autem 
habetaequitatem,  ut  agrum  nwltis  annis  out  ttiam  saecuus  ante  possessmn,  qui 
nullum  habntit,  habeat,  qui  sutem  habuit,  amittat ;  L  e.,  quam  aequefit  ut  /  and 
in  Cicero  (de  Fin.,  ii,  33,  aqd  Tusc,  m.,  3)  we  twice  meet  with  qtUprobari 
potest  ut  in  the  sense  of  qui  potest  cuiquam  verisimile  factu  esse.  But  the  be- 
ginner should  not  forget  that  we  are  here  speaking  only  of  peculiarities, 
which  are,  indeed,  based  upon  the  analogy  of  other  grammatical  rules,  and 
supported  by  the  authority  of  classical  writers,  but  which  we  are  not  bound 
to  imitate.  . 

[§  624.]  15.*  The  verbs' denoting  wiMingness  andpermis- 
sion^  which  may  take  e^^  instead  of  the  accusative  with  the 
infinitive  (volo^  nolo,  malo,  sino,  permitto,  and  licet  J,  those 
which  denote  asking>  advising,  reminding  (especially  ^*- 
tulo,p€tOf  rogOf  oroi  quaeso^precor,  hottor,  sttadeo,  censeo,mo' 
neoi  admoneoj,  which  are  generally  qonstnied  only  with  uf, 
and  some  others  of  a  similar  kind ;  as,  curo^  decemo,  mando, . 
juheo,  msj  also  be  followed  by  the  subjunctive  alone  with- 
out ut,-  To  these  we  must  add  the  two  imperatives, ^ac 
(in  its  periphrastic  sense  "  take  care  that"),  which  usually 
takes  ut,  and  cave,  which  usually  takes  ne;  for  they,  too, 
are  frequently  joined  with  the  subjunctive  alone. 

•  Vellem  equidem  aut  ipse  (Epicurus)  doctrinis  Juisset  instruct 
tior,  aut  ne  deterruisset  alios  a  studiis^  Cic,  de  Fin,,  i.,  7. 

Malo  te  sapiens  hostis  meti<at,  quam  stulti  cives  landfmt^ 
Liv.,  xxii.,  39. 


k 


410  LATIN   OSAMMAR. 

Summa  mUttum  alacntate,jtidentium  q^ocunque  veUei  d^ 

ceret,  oratio  excepta  est,  Curt.,  vi.,  10  (4). 
Baque,  quod  plerumque  in  atroci  negotio  solet,  seneUus  de- 

crevit,  darent  operam  consules,  ne  quid  resptcblica  detri- 

menti  caperet^  Sallu&t,  *(Jat„,  29. 

[^  625.]  Note. — Oportet  and  necetse  est  may  likewise  be  followed  eithei 
by  the  accusative  with  the  infinitiYe,  or  by  the  subjunctive  alone ;  e.  g^ 
Uget  oportet  breves  sint ;  Seneca,  phUosophiae  servias  oportety  vt  tibi  contingai 
vera  lutertas  ;  Cicero,  virtus  necesse  est  vititan  dspemetur  atque  oderii.  Opua 
est  generally  takes  tne  infinitive ;  tt<,  however,  occurs,  though  rarely,  with 
opus  estf  as  well  as  with  necesse  e<f,*but  never  vrith  oportet. 

The  subjunctive  alone  after  the  verbs  of  etftreating  is  rare  in  Cicero,  but 
it  occurs  ad  Fam.,  v.,  18,  tamtn  ie  magno.operenon  kortor  sohan,  sed  etiam 
pro  amort  nostro  rogo  atque  oro  te  colUgas  virumque  praebeas. 

[§  626.]  16.  The  infinitive  and  the  accusative  with  the 
infinitive,  according  to  §§  588  and  697,  setve  to  express  a 
proposition  as  a  thought,  so  that  it  resembles  an  aDstracl 
noun.     Quod^  v^ith  a  tense  of  the  indicative  or  subjunct- 
ive, on  the  other  hand,  represents  a  proposition  simply  as 
a  fact.     This  is  obviously*  the  case ;  e.  g.,  when,  in  reply- 
ing to  a  person,  we  take  up  and  repeat  a  previous  remark 
of  his.     It  is  frequently  indifierent  whether  we'expre^/s  a 
proposition'  by  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  or  by 
quod;  as,  for  example,  in  those  cases  where  the  predicate 
'*  it  is  agreeable,"  or  •*  dissCgreeable,"  "  it  is  pleasant," 'or 
"unpleasant,"  follows  the  proposition.     But  the  infinitive 
is  always  more  properly  made  the  subject  when  the  pred- 
icate expresses  an  abstract  idea;  but  when  it  implies  a 
fact,  the  proposition  is  more  properly  introduced  by  quod, 
to  which  is  frequently  joined  a  demonstrative  pronoun 
lioc,  idf  iUud,  in  order  to  mark  its  character  as  a  fact  still 
more  emphatically. 

Quod  cmtem  me  Agamemnonem  aemulari  putas,  JaUeris, 
Natnque  ille  vix  decern  annis  unam  cepit  urhem  :  ego 
contra  ea,  una  urhe  nostra^  dieque  uno,  totam  Graeciam 
Lacedaemoniis  Jugatis  liber^vi,  Nep.,  jErpaw.,  5,  where 
Epaminpndas  makes  this  answer  to  an  opponent. 
Inter  catisas  malorum  nostrorum  est,  quod  vivimu-t  ad  exem 

pla^  Senec,  Epist,,  123.  • 
Supra  belli  Latini  metum  id  quoque  accesserat,  quod  tri- 
gintajam  cqnjurasse  popuhs  satis  constahat,  Liv.,  ii.,  18, 
Ex  tola  laude  Reguli  illud  est  admiratione  dignum^  quod 
captivos  (Poenorum)  retinendos  rensuit,  Cic,  de  Offl, 
iii.,  31. 

Note  1.— It  is  unouestionably  a  great  nicetjr  of  the  Latin  language  to  be 
able,  by  means  of  the  accusative  with  the  'nfinitivo,  ta  *netamorpl)09e.  ai 


INFINITIVE   MOOD.  417 

it  were,  a  proposition  into  a  single  abstract  though  end,  at  tne  sitine  time 
»o  express  it  in  its  natural  delation  by  meaas  of  the  conjunction  quod.  In 
EngUsh  these  two  constructions  likewise  exist,  as,  *'  I  Know  him  to  be  a 
good  man,"  and  "  I  know  that  he  is  a  good  man  ;'*  but  the  former  is  net 
used  as  extensively  as  in  Latin,  and  the  distinction  between  them  is  not 
observed  with  the  same  accuracy  as  in  Latin :  in  Greek,  too,  the  distinc- 
tion  is  not  adhered  to  with  the  same  accuracy.  Let  us  explain  the  prac- 
tice  of  the  Latin  language  by  an  example.  Take  the  proposition  vktot 
pepercit  victis  ;  if  we  make  it  the  subject  or  object  of  another  proposition, 
we  may  say  either  quod  victor  pepercit  victis^  or  victorem  pepercisse  victis. 
The  first  is  used  when  the  proposition  is  to  be  left  in  its  natirral  relation ; 
e.  g.,  quod  victor  victis  pepercit^  magnum  est^  sed  majus  etiam^  quod  eos  in  nu- 
menon  suorum  recepit ;  i.  e.,  the  fact  that  he  spared  them  and,  &c. ;  quod 
rex  victis  pepercit^  tpsi  causa  tnuUorum  malorum  fiut.  The  infinitive,  on  tho 
other  hand,  chang^es  the  proposition  into  aji  aostract  noun,  victorem  victis 
pepercisse;  and  this  mode  of  speaking  is  generally  adopted  when  the  pred- 
icate  also  c<mtains  some  i^tract  notion ;  e.  g.,  regem  victis  pepercisse  jus- 
turn  est  J  ma^um  est,  or  magnum  videhatur;  and  especially  when,  by  the  use 
of  the  infinitive  present,  the  sentence  acquires  the  character  of  generality, 
and  is  no  longer  limited  to  a  particular  case;  e.  g.,  vktorem  victis  pdrcere 
fustum,  magnum  est,  magnum  videtur,  &c.    See  ^  599. 

It  is  clear  tnat  in  a  great  many  cases,  and  with  many  predicates,  the 
choice  Between  the  two  constructions  must  be  left  to  discretion.  We  find 
in  Cic,  ad  Att,  xv.,  1,  S^ad  hose  omnia  una  consolatio  est,  quod  ea  condici' « 
one  nati  sumus,  ut  nihil,  quod  homini  accidere  possit,  recusare  debeamus,  where, 
with  the  same  justice,  the  accusat.  with  the  infinit.  might  have  been  used, 
ta  eondidone  nos  esse  natos,  Cicero,  ad  Quint.  Frat.,  ii.,  13,  says,  Te  hilan 
mumo  esse  valde  mejuvat ;  and  Pliny,  Epist.,  i.,  13,  juvat  me  quod  vigent  s/u- 
dia  ;  Liv.,  iii.,  9,  tnvidiosum  vobis  est,  desertam  rem  publicam  invacU  ;  Cic,  m 
Cat.,  ii.,  7,  Timeo  ne  mihi  sit  invidiosuTn,  quod  ilium  emiserim  pothis,  quam 
quod  ejecerim.  Compare  the  examples  in  the  treatise  of  Fickenscher,  Com- 
mentat.  de  conjunctione  quod,  Norimberg,  1826.  But  the  great  differvsnce 
pointed  out  above  must  oe  observed,  and  we  must  add  that  quod  generally 
refers  to  past  time ;  for  which  reason  it  is  preferable  to  say,  e.  g.,  gradssu- 
mum  mihi  est,  quad  ad  me  tua  manu  scripsisti,  and  gratissimum  mihi  est  te  bene 
valere.  Wherever  a  Roman  thought  it  necessary  to  express  the  individual 
fact  more  emphatically,  he  added  to  quod  a  demonstrative  pronoun,  which 
has  no  influence  whatever  upon  the  construction ;  and  hence  (to  take  up 
again  the  above  sentence)  we  might  say,  illud  ipsum,  quod  rex  victis  peper- 
cit, causa  ei  mtdtorum  maiorumfuit ;  magman  est  hoc,  quod  victor  victis  veper- 
eitf  &c.  Comp.  Cic,  de  Off.,  li.,  20,  Videndumque  iUud  est,  quod,  si  opulentum 
fortunaiumque  defenderis,  in  uno  illo  manet  gratia  ;  sin  autem^  inopem,  probvm 
tamtn  et  modestum,  omnes  non  improbi  humues  presidium  sibi  paratum  mdent.  • 

[^  627.]  NoU  2.— The  use  qf  quod  in  repeating  a  previous  expression  or 
proposition  of  a  person  for  the  purpose  of  answering  it  occurs  most  fre- 
quently in  letters ;  and  quod,  in  this  case,  may  be  rendered  in  English  by 
••  with  regard  to,"  or  "  as  regards ;"  e.  g.,  Cic,  ad  Fam.,  i.,  7,  Quod  mihi 
de  nostro  statu  gratularis,  nanime  miramur  te  tuo  opere  laetari.  Quod  scribis  ts 
veUe  scire,  ^'  sit  rei  pubUcae  status :  summa  dissensio  est.  Quod  mihi  de  fUa 
et  de  Crassipede  (to  whom  she  was  betrothed)  gratularis :  agnosco  humanita- 
tern  tuam.  Farther,  Cicero  writes  to  Terenti&,.Quod scribis,  te,  si  velim, ad 
ms  venturam :  ego  vero  te  istic  esse  volo.  ^aod  ad  me,  mea  Terentia,  scribis, 
te  "vicum  vendituram :  quid,  obsecro  te,  miid  futurum  est  ?  Such  sentences 
therefore,  are  not  in  any  grammatical  connexion  with  the  verb  that  fol 
tows  after  them. 

Nisi  quod  and  pnteterquam  quod,  exeopt  the  fact  that,  or  except  that,  ata 
of  a  difierent  kind  (see  ^  735) ;  e,  g.,  Cic,  ad  Fam.^  xiii.,  1,  Cunt  Patrons 
Epicwreo  mihi  omnia  comammia  sunt :  nisi  quod  in  philosophia  vehementer  ab  es 
dissentio ;  but  this,  too,  is  simply  an  external  addition  of  a  proposition  ft  a 
liaf  »<act. 


418  LATIN   GRAMMAS. 

[§  628. J  17.  A  purely  objective  proposition  is 
ed  by  quod  only  when  it  depends  upon  the  very  "genwiij 
transitive  verbs  adder e  (mostly  in  the  imperative  adde  q\ 
adjice,  adde  hue  quod)  ^ndifafcre^  joined  with  an  adverb  ; 
as,  bene  facts  quod  me  mones.  Otherwise  thQ  infinitive  is 
employed  exclusively  in  propositions  of  this  kind,  for  a 
proposition,  when  represented  as  the  object  of  a  verb,  is 
already  cbnverted  into  a  single  thought. 

Fecit  humaniter  LicinitiSf  quod  ad  me,  muso  senatu,  vesperi 

venitj  Cic,  ad  Quint,  Frat,,  ii.,  1. 
Hippocrates,  clarus  arte  medicinal,  videtur  JtonesHsaime 

Jccisse^  quod  quosdam  evrores  suos^  ne  posteri  errarent, 

confessus  est,  Quintil.,  iii.,  6\  64.     (He  might  also  have 

said  ut — confiteretur,  according  to  §  619.) 

[§  629.]  But  it  must  be  observed  that  after  the  ve^b^ 
denoting  a  feeling  of  pain  or  joy,  and  the  outward  ex- 
pression of  those  feelings,  viz.,  gaudto,  ddectOTi  angor,  do- 
Leo,  graviterjero^  succenseo,  poenitetj  miror,  admiror,  glori- 
or,  gratulor,  gratias  ago^  queror,  indignor^  and  others  of  a 
similar  meaning,  we  may  either  use  quod  in  the  sense  of 
** because,"  or  "of,"' or  "at  the  fact  that,"  or  the  accusa- 
tive with  the'  infinitive,  in  the  same  way  thai  we  say  eithei 
ilia  re  gaudeo  or  illud  gaudeo.  Whether  quad  is  to  be 
joined  with  the  indicative  or  subjunctive  must  be  deter- 
mined by  the  general  rules  Concerning  these  moods :  dio 
indicative  expresses  a  fact,  and  the  subjunctive  a  concep- 
tion. 

Gaudeo,  quod  te  interpellavi,  Cic,  de  JLeg,^  iii.,  1. 

Meum  factum  prohari  abs  te  triumpko  gaudio,  Caesar,  in 

Cic,  ad  AtU^  ix.,  16. 
Quod  spiratis,  qttod  vocem  mittitisr  quod  formas  hominum 

habetu,  indignantur,  Liv.,  iv.,  3. 
Vettis  illud  Catonis  admodum  scitum  est,  qui  mirari  s^  aie- 

haty  quod  non  rideret  haruspex,  haruspicem  cum  vidisset, 

Cic,  de  Divm.,  ii.,  24.  . 

Scipio  sa^e  querebatur,  qttod  omnibus  in  rebus  homines  dil- 

igentiores  essent,  uf,  capras  et  oves  quot  quisque  haberet 

dicere  posset,  amicos  quot  haberet,  non  posset  diccre,  et  in 

illis  quidem  parandis  adhjpere  curam,  in  amicis  eUgendii 

negl^entes  esse,  Cic,  Lad,^  17. 

Note.— We  should  carefully  mark  the  distinction  between  real  objectiw 
Ivfopositions  of  the  accus.  with  the  infinit.  (^  602),  and  those  in  which  the 
v^'Ms.  with  the  infinit.  may  be  used  alongr  with  the  constructioa  of  qmd. 


INPINITIVB   rfOOD.  410 

TIm  use  of  quod  to  express  a  purely  objective  proposition  wculd  be  cod 
tui/y  to  the  pure  Latin  idiom  (the  instances  adduced  from  Cicero  belong  to 
^  628,  and  those  from  Livy,  iii.,  52,  2,  and  xlv.,  41,  have  been  corrected), 
and  is  found  only  in  the  earliest  Latin  (see  Forcellini,  Lezic,  t.  v.  quod), 
and  in  the  unclassical  author  of  the  work  de  Bell.  Hispan.,  36,  legati  remm- 
tiarunt  qnod  Pompeium  in  potestate  haberent.  In  the  silver  a^e,  beginning 
with  Gelsus,  again,  some  few  instances  occur ;  e.  g.,  Celsus,  l,  3.,  p.  25,  ot 
p.  30,  ed.  Bip.,  ilhtd  qvoque  nosse  (scire)  oportet,  quodf  &c. ;  Martial,  xi.,  65, 
hoe  oeh  quod  ocribit  taiila  pueUa  tibi,  where  the  fronoun  forms  the  transiti<ni ; 
Sneton.,  Tit.,  8,  reeordahu  quondam  tuper  coenam^  quod  nihil  cuiquam  toto  die 
praoatkitta.  This  use  of  quod  afterward  increased,  and,  through  the  Vul- 
gate, it  became  with  Chnstisn  writers  the  ordinary  mode  of  speaking. 
See  M advig,  Opuoe.  Aead^  ii.,  p.  232,  foil  But  after  the  verbs  enumera- 
ted above,  tiotn  constructions  are,  on  the  whole,  equally  in  use,  because 
they  may  be  looj^ed  at  from  two  points  of  view :  tne  dependent  clause  may 
be  regarded  either  as  a  kind  of  object  (such  as  we  frequently  find  with  in 
t  ransitive  verbs),  or  as  an  explanatory  sentence  answering  to  the  ablative 
of  a  noon.  We  may,  indeed,  notice  this  farther  difiference,  that  the  verbs 
expVessing  a  feeling  (gemdeot  doleo,  miror)  are  more  commonly  followed 
by  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  and  those  denoting  the  outward 
expression  of  feeling  {Utudoj  reprehendOf  .accuso,  consolor,  misereor,  gratiaa* 
ago,  grahdoTt  dec.)  are  more  commonly  construed  with  quod.  Put  there 
are  passages  in  which  this  distinction  is  reversed  ;  e.  g.,  gratiao  agere  is 
joined  by  Cicero  with  quodt  and  by  Tacitus  with  the  accusat.  with  the  in 
finitive ;  Hist ,  iv.,  64,  Redtsse  voo  in  corpuo  nomenque  Gemtoniao  communibuo 
deis  et  praectpuo  deorvm  Marti  grates  agimusj  vobiaque  gratulamur  quod  tandem 
liberi  inter  tiberoa  eritis.  CrraHilor,  when  joined  to  a  noun,  takes  the  prepo 
sition  de  or  the  ablative  alone ;  as,  Cia,  ad  Fam.,  viii.,  13,  gratuhr  tibi  affini- 
ta$e  viri  qptimi ,  sometimes,  also,  the  accusative ;  as,  Cic,  ad  Att^  v.,  20, 
miJu  p'otmatut  et  ittiua  diei  celebriiaUm,  qua  nihil  me  unqtuan  delectavU  magie, 
or  with  the  addition  of  a  participle ;  Cic.,  Philip.,  ii.,  21,  Brutus  Cicerotu 
neuperatam  vietoriam  est  gratulatus  ;  Liv.,  i,  28j  Mettus  TuUo  devictos  hastes 
frahiiatur ;  but  when  a  proposition  is  dependent  upon  gratulor,  it  most 
commonly  takes  the  conjunction  quod  (answering  to  the  preposition  de), 
bat  the  accus.  with  the  infinit.  is  also  used. 

» 

[§  630.]  19.  Quod  18  used  exclusively  in  explanatory  or 
periphrastic  propositions,  which  refer  to  a  preceding  de- 
monstrative pronoun  (hoc,  id,  iUud,  istudj,  unless  this  pro- 
noun be  added  in  the  nominative  or  accusative,  as  a  pleo- 
nasm  to  verbs  goveming  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive. 
Hefice  this  rule  finds  its  certain  application  only  when 
the  demonstrative  pronoun  is  in  some  other  case,  or  de- 
pendent upon  a  preposition. 

Mihi  quidem  videntur  hoTnines  hoc  re  maxime  helluis  praes- 

tare^  quod  loqui  possunt,  Cic,  de  Invent,,  i.,  4. 
Socrates  apud  Platonem  hoc  Periclem-  ceteris  praestitisse 

oratorihtis  dicit^  quod  is'AnaxagoraeJuerit  auditor,  Cic, 

Orat,,  5, 
IMlmnos  (militum)  omnes  patricios  creavit  populus,  content^ 

U8  to,  quod  ratio  plebeiorum  habila  esset,  Livy. 
Quam  te  velim  cautum  esse  in  scrihendo,  ex  hoc  (or.  himc) 

eonjicito,  quod  eg  J  ad  te  ne  haec  quidem  scribo,  quae  pa^ 


480  la'An  grammar. 

^m  in  re  publica  turhantur^  ne  cujusguam  amtnum  nuae 

litterae  interceptae  offendant,  Cic»,  ad  Quint,  FraL,  iii.y9. 

Note, — ^^fhe  pleonastic  use  of  the  accusative  of  demon tt  rati ve  pronounf 
with  the  verba  sentieruU  et  declarcmdi^  and  with  the  verbs  of  effecting,  astL- 
ing,  and  others,  which  require  vt  for  the  purpose  of  directing  attention  to 
what  foUows,  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  this  necessary  use  of 
(hose  pronouns.  The  pleonastic  use  of  this  pronoun,  of  whidi  we  shal 
speak  in  %  748,  has  no  influelice  whatever  upon  the  construction.  We  rof 
marked  above  that  the  nominat.  of  the  demonstrative  pronoun  is  likewise 
used  pleonastically,  and  serves,  in  conjunction  with  fwtd  f(dlowing»to  ex 

{tress  more  distinctly  that  the  proposition  contains  a  real  fact ;  but  we  are 
lere  speaking  of  the  obHque  cases,  especially  the  ablative,  both  with  and 
without  a  prepDsition.  • 


CHAPTER  LXXXI. 

USE   OP    THE    PARTICIPLES. 

• 

[§  631.]  1.  The  participle  expresses  the  action  or  condi- 
tion of  the  .verb  in  the  form  of  an  adjective,  governing  the 
case  of  the  verb,  and  at  the  same  time  marking  the  com- 
plete or  incomplete  state  of  the  action  or  condition.     In 
Latin,  as  in  English,  this  form  of  the  verb  is  very  defect- 
ive, for  it  has  in  the  active  one  participle  to  express  an 
action  still  going  on;  as,  scribens,  writing;  and  in  the  pass- 
ive, one  to  express  the  completed  state  of  sufiering ;  as, 
scripttis,  written ;  consequently  there  is  no  participle  of  a 
completed  action  (for  which  we  say  having  written),  nor 
of  a  state  of  suffering  still"  going  on.     The  Greek  lan- 
guage has  participles  for  all  these  cases.     The  Latin  de 
ponent  is  the  only  kind  of  verb  which  has  the  partici- 
ples complete,  its  passive  form  having  an  active  meaning: 
imitanSf  imitating,  and  imitatus^  one  who  has  imitated. 

To  these,  however,  we  must  add  two  participles,  one 
in  the  active  and  the  other  in  the  passive,  which  express 
the  action  or  suffering  as  not  yet  begun,  that  is,  as  some- 
thing which  is  to  take  place  in  future,  whence  they  are 
called  participles  of  the  future.  The  participle  future 
active  properly  expresses  the  intention  or  obligation  to 
perform  an  action ;  as,  scripturut;  one  who  intends  or  has 
to  write,  but  has  also  the  signification  of  simple  futurity, 
"  one  who  is  about  to  write."  The  participle  future  pass- 
ive expresses  in  the  nominative  the  necessity  that  some* 
thing  should  be  done  or  suffered  ;  as,  epiatola  scrih&ida^ 
a  letter  which  must  be  written,  and  not  one  that  will  b* 
written.    In  the  other  cases  it  serves  to  supply  the  vei-j 


USE    OF   THE   PARTICIPLES.  42V 

sr^nsible  want  of  a  participle. present  passive,  expressing  « 
state  of  suffering  going  on.  But  of  this  hereafter,  §  652 
following.  , 

Note  l.^-The  4>articiple  coDtains,  .1  ilself,  no  specificatiun  of  time. 
When  we  say  toritten^  we  suppose,  indt^sd,  the  act  of  writing  to  have  takLr4 
place  at  some  period  of  the  past  time ;  but  the  state  expressed  in  vxrititn 
may  exist  in  thei>reaett  as  weU  as  in  the  past  or  future  time;  for  we  may 
say,  a  thing  is  now  written,  was  written  three  years  agO)  and  will  be  writ* 
ten  many  years  hence :  the  participle  written  expressing  in  all  these  cases 
only  the  completion  of  a  passive  state. 

[^  632.]  Note  2.— The  want  of  the  participle  of  a  completed  action  in 
the  active  is  often  felt  very  sensibly,  for  neither  circumlocution  nor  the 
change  into  the  passive  form  (e.  g.,  victorid  partdf  after  he  had  gained  the 
-victory)  always  conveys  exactly  what  is  meant  But  the  perfect  paitici* 
pies  of  deponents  are  a  very  convenient  means  of  supplying  this  want,  as 
their,  number  is  not  small,  and  it  is  always  easy  to  find  some  deponent 
which  is  synonymous  with  an  active ;  in  the  case  just  mentioned  we  may 
say  victoriam  adqptua^  as^ecutust  ox' amsecutue. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Latin  writers  use  many  perfect  participles  of  de- 
ponents in  a  passive  sefise,  along  with  the  proper  active  one ;  but  the  fol- 
lowing only  are  attested  by  the  authority  of  correct  writers :  adeptuSf  com- 
itatusy  commentatusy  compleauSf  confessuSf  demensus  and  emenauSf  tffatuSf  emeft' 
iitus,  emerihisy  expertus  (especially  tnarperfiM),  execraiua,  mterpretattts^  m^i- 
tattUt  metatuSy  moderatusy  opinaius,  pactus,  partitus,  perftmctusy  periclitatusy 
poptdatiUy  dqpopulattiSy  atiptuattiSy  testatusy  and  its  compounds  contestatus  BnO 
detestattu.  A  pretty  complete  Ust  of  them  is  given  in  Job.  Conr.  Schwarz, 
Qrammat.  Lot.,  p.  382,  foil.  The  perfect  tenses  of  these  deponents  thus 
scnnetimes  acquire  a  passive  signification,  and  some  participles  are  also 
usea  in  a  passive  sense  in  the  construction  of  the  ablative  absolute ;  parti 
tu8  is  frequently  usedso  by  Caesar,  partitia  copiisy  Bell.  Gall.y  vi,  6 ;  partita 
eeeerdhiy  ibid.,  vi.,  33,  and  Liv.,  xxviii.,  19 ;  partita  classey  Liv.,  xxvii.,  8; 
and  depopuUUo  agroy  in  Liv.,  ix.,  36 ;  adepta  Ubertate,  in  Sallust,  Cat.y  7.  But 
such  things  must  be  looked  upon  us  exceptions,  though  there  may  be  k;ss 
objection  to  such  an  expression  as  adepta  Ubertate  uti  needs. 

[^  633.]  There  are,  however,  some  active  verbs  which  have  a  participle 
perfect  with  a  passive  form.  (See  6  148.)  Such  participles  are,  jurattUy 
pranstuy  coetuOus  (which,  however,  has  also  a  passive  meaning),  potue ; 
ausuMy  gamstUy  9olUus,fim8y  confisiu  ;  farther,  exosusyperosusy  and  pertaeausy 
which  belong  to  odMxe  and  the  impersonal  taedet.  The  pacticiples  assuetut 
and  desuetusnsye  a  reflective  meaning  besides  the  passive  one,  and  signify 
one  who  has  accustomed  or  disaccustomed  himsell. 

[^  634.]  NoU  3.— The  periphrasis  o{  habere  with  a  participle  perfect  pass- 
ive, which  in  English  forms  the  perfect  passive,  occurs  also  in  Latin,  but 
almost  exclusively  in  those  expressions  which  denote  hiowing  and  deter' 
mining.  Hence  we  say,  oognittan,  perspectumy  perceptmriy  comprekensvmy  ex- 
phratum,  statuttany  constittUttm,  deliberatumy  persuasum  miJii  habeoy  equivalen*. 
to  cognoviy  perspexiy  percepiy  &c. ;  e.  g.,  hoc  cognitum  habeo  comprehensttmque 
anhno  /  qui  homines  amicitiam  nee  uau  nee  rations  habent  cognitam  ;  oipnes  ha- 
boo  cogniios  sensus  adoUscentis.  Persuasum  mihi  habeo  and  persuasissimum 
habeo  can  only  be  used  in  the  neuter  gender,  and  with  an  accusative  with 
the  infinitive,  in  the  sense  of  vdhi  persuasi  or  persuasum  mihi  est.  In  ')thei 
cases,  where  this  periphrasis  occurs,  it  differs  in  meaning  from  the  ordi- 
nary perfect  active ;  ijichoatum  and  institutum  habeo  omts  express  more  than 
inchoaviy.  institidy  and  absolutum  habeo  is  more  than  aosolvi.  Quint.  Cic,  in 
Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  iii,  in  fin.,  quod  me  hortaris  ut  absolvam :  habeo  dfsoltUum  suaw 
epos  ad  Caesarem;  i.  e.,  I  have  it  ready ;  in  Verr.y  iii.,  14,  lU  decwfinas  aa 
aquas  deportatas  hcAerent.  It  has  a  strengthening  power  in  Cic,  in  RtUl.y  li.. 
fi  non  enim  natura  bellum  nescio  quod  habet  susceptum  consulatua  cum  if  tbvtim 

N  N 


422  t«ATlN  GRAMMAR. 

* 

V  ;  m  Vnr.t  ▼.,  ia  fin.*  Vtrrea  deantm  tempHs  ei  rdighmlmt  UDum  •eMpte 
habuii  indicHan  ;  ibid.,  iL,  ZZ,Jidem  ei  religumem  tuamjam,  alteri  addictampm 
curUd  accmta  habuisti  ;  ad  Att.f  xvi.,  16,  quod  n  feeeru,  me  nuuimo  henefcM 
devmctvmhabthia^  which  is  stronger  than  demnaeria ;  but  a<iil/f.,TL,2,  iSm> 
2tum  inchuum  in  curia  habuerunt,  must  be  understood  in  its  literal  sense 
Ihpy  kept  the  senate  imprisoned^  i.  e.,  indusum  temiermnt,  an  expiesBioo 
«vhich  trequently  occurs. 

[§  635.1  2.  PBTticiples  are  employed  in  Latin  more  fre- 
quently >tnan  in  English,  not.  only  to  express  tbe  verb  in 
explanatory  clauses,  connected,  by  means  of.  a  relative 
pronoun,  with  a  noim  of  the  leading  sentence,  but  clauses 
which  are  introduced  by  means  of  particles  of  time  (e.  g., 
aSy  tohen^  although,  gineej,  may  be  expressed  by  partici- 
ples, provided  their  subject  occurs  in  the  leading  sen- 
tence. 

Est  enim  lex  nihil  aliud,  nisi  recta  et  a  numine  deofut/i 

tracta  ratio ^  imperans  honesta,  prohibens  contraria,  Cic, 

Philip.,  xL,  12,  ^ 

Curio^  ad  Jbcum  sedenti,  magnum  auri  pondus  Samnitet 

quum  attulissent,  repudiati  ah  eo  sunt,  Cic,  Cat,  Maj, 
THonysius  tyraimus^  Syracusis  expulsus,  Connthi  pueros  do- 

cehat,  Cic,  Tusc,  iii.,  12. 
Dianysius,  adtros  metuens  tonsorios,  candenti  carbane  sibi 

adurebat  capUlum,  Cic,  de  Off.,  iL,  7.- 
fUstu  interdum  ita  repente  erumpit,  ut  eum  cupientes  tenere 

negueamus,  Cic,  de  Orat^  ii,,  58. 

NoU  1.— It  must  be  observed,  as  one  of  the  most  frequent  occurrences, 
that  clauses  denoting  time  are  connected,  by  means  or  a  participle,  with 
a  noun  of  the  leading  prop0|8ition ;.  e.  g.,  regem  forte  inambuUnaem  kmiM 
adtiit ;  1  e.,  while  he  was  taking  a  walk ;  domum  revetsus  Utteras  tuaa  in- 
t^eni,  when  I  returned  home.  One  of  two  verbs  connected  in  English  bjr 
'*  and*'  may  be  Expressed  by  the  present  participle,  in  Latin,  when  the  ac* 
tions  expressed  by  them  are  regarded  as  simultaneous ;  e.  g.,  he  came  to 
m&atid  cried  out  (or  crying  out),  venit  ad  me  clamitans.  The  perfect  parti- 
eiple,  both  of  passive  and  deponent  verbs,  however,  must  be  used  when- 
ever one  of  the  actions  precedes  the  other,  although  in  English  they  are 
sometimes  connected  by  ''and,**  and  described  as  simultaneous;  e.  g., 
Caesar  hoetes  aggressus  jugavit,  Caesar  attacked  the  enemy  and  defeated 
them ;  Caesar  hostes  injugam  conjectos  persecuius  est^  Caesar  put  the  eunej 
to  flight  and  pursued  them.  Examples  of  this  kind  occur  in  great  num 
bers.  Sentences  which  we  connect  by  "  although"  must  be  more  especial 
ly  attended  to,  as  the  Latin  language  here  differs  more  widely  from  ours ; 
e*.  g.,  in  the  last  passage  above  quoted  (Cic,  de  Orat.,  ii.,  58),  and  m  oik 
er  passages  of  Cicero ;  as,  Misericordia  occfarrere  solet  sutmUcibus  et  calami, 
tosis,  nuUius  oratione  evocata.  Such  a  participle  is  oflen  lollowed  by  tamen : 
e.  g.,  Cicero,  Scripta  tua  jam  diu  expectans  rum  avdeo  tamen  flagitare  ;  quis 
hoc  non  inteUigit,  utum  absohUum  tameti  e  manibus  populi  Romani  eripi  nwOm 
modo  posse  ?  Later  writers  join  the  particles  quamquam,  qwnnsis,  etiam, 
and  vet,  with  the  participle  itself;  e.  g.,  Sueton.,  Caesarem  milites  quanwia 
tecusantem  uUro  in  Afiicam  sunt  secuti.  Conditional  clauses,  also,  implyitig 
an  unreal  hypothesis,  which  should  be  expressed  bv  the  subjanctiTe,  ai« 


USE   OF   TI^B    PARTICIPLES.  423 

Qitt  unfrequently  pat  in  the  participle.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  must  be 
obsftrved,  that  a  general  protasis  describing  an  object  only  as  conceived  tc 
uo  endowed  with  certain  qualities ;  e.  g.,  he  who  does  or  thinks  this,  are 
generally  not  expressed  by  a  participle,  but  as  in  English,  b]r  is  quiy  or,  with 
the  omission  of  is,  by  qui  alone,  or  by  «t  quis,  since  a  participle  cannot  ap' 
pear  in  the  independent  character  of  a  substantive  any  more  than  an  ad- 
jectiTe.  (See  ^  363.)  It  is  only  in  later  Latin  that  participles  are  used 
more  frequently  in  this  sense ;  e.  g.,  adstantesy  audienies,  instead  of  it  qm 
adatabantf  audieJHint.     (Comp.  ^  714.) 

[^  636.1  Note2.—A  participle  is  used  with  the  verbs  denoting  "to  repre- 
weni"  and  '•  perceive,"  especially  with  those  denoting  "  to  see"  or  **  hear," 
when  a  thing  is  described  or  perceived  in  a  particular  state ;  as  in  Pliny, 
ApeUe*  pinxit  Aleatandrum  Magnum  ftdmen  teneiUem,  In  English  we  fre- 
quently join  the  infinitive  with  such  verbs ;  e.  g.,  audivi  te  canentem,  I  heard 
you  sing :  vidi  te  ambulanteniy  I  saw  you  take  a  walk  ;  but  audivi  te  cdnere^ 
m  Latin^  either  means,  *^  I  heard  (from  somebody)  that  you  sang,"  or,  ] 
heard  that  you  sang  a  song  (e.  %.,  carmen.  CatulU,  Trojae  ejccidium),  so  that 
the  object  of  my  perception  was  hot  the  person  in  the  act  of  singing,  bu 
the  action  of  the  person.  Audivi  te  quum  caneres  (see  ^  749)  would  refei 
to  a  portion  of  his  song. 

TSmoleon^  quum  aetate  jam  jfrovectus  essetj  lumina  oculo- 
rum  amisity  quam  calamitatem  ita  moderale  tulit;  ut. 
neque  eum  querentem  quisquam  audierit,  neque  eo  minus 
privatii  jmhlicisque  rebus  interfuerit,  Nep.,  TimoL,  4, 

^  [§  637.]  3.  Substantives  expressing  the  action  of  the 
verb ;  e.  g.,  the  building,  instituting,  writing,  hearing,  are 
expressed  by  tke  participles  perfect  and  future  passive, 
the  Latin  language  not  always  having  substantives  of  this 
kind  (at  least  they  are  not  in  common  use).  There  is,  of 
course,  this  difference,'  that  the  perfect  participle  is  em- 
ployed when  the  action  is  to  be  represented  as  comple- 
ted, and  the  future  participle  when  it  is  conceived  as  still 
incomplete.  (The  participle  future  passive,  however,  only 
in  its  oblique  cases,  as  the  nominative  has  the  signification 
of  necessity,  see  §  .649.)  This  is  done  in  all  the  cases  of 
such  participles,  tind  even  when  thev  are  governed  by  the 
prepositions  ad^  ante^  db^  post^  propter ^  ah,  and  ex  ;  e.  g., 
Lir.,  xxvii.,  29,  hae  litterae  recitatae  magnum  luctumfece- 
runt^  the  reading  of  this  letter ;  Tacit.,  Ann,^  i.,  8,  Occisus 
Caesar  aliis  pessimtmi,  aliis  pulcherrimum  Jacinus  videha- 
tur^  the  murder  of  Caesar,  &c. ;  Tarentum  captum^  the 
taking  of  Tarentum ;  receptus  Hannibal,  the  reception  of 
Hannibal ;  ob  receptum  Hannibalem,  on  account  of  the  re- 
ception of  Hannibal;  Curt.,  iv.,  58,  sibi  quisque  caesi  regis 
expetebat  decus,  the  glory  of  having  killed,  or  of  killing  the 
king  (for  both  expressions  are  here  equivalent).  It  must, 
nowever,  be  observed  that  the  nominative  is  not  thus  used 
by  Cicero,  but  is  peculiar  t-i  tl  e  silver  age  of  the  Ian 
triage. 


424  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

P,  Scipio  propter  Africam  domiiam  AfricanfUs  appellatUM 
est,  Eutrop^  iv.,  4.  • 

Thebae  et  ante  Epaminondam  natum  et  post  ejus  inteHtum, 
perpetuo  alieno  paruemnt  imperio,  Nep.,  Epam,j  10.  (So, 
also,  post  Christum  natum^  ab  urbc  condita^  &c.) 

Note  I. — It  deserves  to  be  especially  noticed,  that  Livy  uses  the  neutei 
of  the  participle  perfect  passive,  without  a  noun,  as  a  verbal  subject  of  a 
proposition ;  e.  g.,  vii,  22,  Tentatwn  domi  per  dictatoretn,  ut  ambo  patricu 
cotutdes  crearenturt  rent  ad  interregnum  perduxit ;  i.  e.,  the  attempt,  or,  prop- 
erly, the  fact  of  the  attempt  being  made  by  the  dictator ;  zzviil,  26,  Hcaui 
procul  ab  ttrbe  aberantf  qiatm  ex  (wviis  auditum* postero  die  omnem  exercitum 
proficiscij  omni  metu  eot  liberavit^  the  news  freed  them  from  all  fear.  Comp. 
I.,  53,  init. ;  iv.,  16;  iv.,  59 ;  and  in  many  other  passages.  With  this  we 
must  compare  the  use  of  the  neuter  of  the  same  participle  in  the  ablative. 
See  ^  647. 

[^  638.]  Note  2.— The  English  "  without"  with  a  verbal  substantive  is 
not  expressed  in  Latin  by  siney  but  a  negative  particle  is  used  instead ; 
e.  g.,  Caesar  exercitum  nunquam  per  insidiosa  itinera  dvxit,  nisi  perspectdatus 
locorum  situs^  without  having  examined  the  localities :  especially  with  the 
ablative  absolute;  as,  Athenienaes  non  expectato  atueilio  adversua  ingenUm 
Persarum  exercitum  in  proelium  egrediuntur^  without  expecting  assistance ; 
natura  dedit  usuram  vitae,  tamqvum  pecuniae^  ntdla  praestituta  die,  without 
fixing  any  time  ;  ntdla  valetudinis  haiita  rations  celeriter  profectus  sum,  with- 
out paying  any  regard  to  my  health  ;  Virgilii  Aeneidem  noli  legere,  nisi  lectis 
Homeri  carminibas,  without  having  read  the  Homeric  poems.  '« 

[§  639.]  4.  The  participle  future  active  is  used,  espe- 
cially with  verbs  of  motion  (such  as  go,  send,  &c.),  to  ex- 
press a  purpose,  which  we  indicate  in  English  by  the  par- 
ticle "  to ;"  the  conjunction  ut,  or  a  relative  pronoun  with 
the  subjunctive,  however,  is  very  commonly  used  in  Latin 
instead  of  the  participle. 

Hannibal  in  Etruriam  ducit^  earn  quoque  gentem  aut  vi  aui 
voluntate  adjuncturus^  Liv.,  xxi.,  58. 

Note. — This  participle  is  also  used  to  supply  the  place  of  the  ccmjunc^ 
tions  *•  since,"  **  when,"  "  although"  {%  635) ;  e.  g.,  pjLura  locutttros  abirt ««« 
jussit;  i.  e.,  when  or  although  we  intended  to  say  more;  Sueton.,  TVft., 
J  8,  Tiheriva  trajecturus  Rhenvm  commeaium  omnem  non  ante  transmisit,  q%utm 
&c.,  when  he  wanted  to  cross;  Tacit.,  Germ..  3,  Herculem  Gernumi,  ituri . 
in  proeUttm  canunt,  when  they  intend  to  go  to  battle ;  Phaedr.,  lit,  2,  Alii 
onerant  saxis,  qtUdam  contra  miseriti  jncturae  quijme,  qtiamvis  nemo  lasderet^ 
misere  panem,  since  the  animal  was  to  die  after  all.    (Notice  here  the  ad- 
dition of  quippe  and  tUpote  in  this  sense.)    Hence  this  participle  is  also  used 
as  apodosis  to  express  the  inference  from  an  hypothetical  proposition , 
Liv.,  iii.,  30,  egreditur  caatns  Romanus,  vaUum  i»vaaurut^  %i  copia  pmgfim 
fiertt ;  Tacit.,  Ann.,  i.,  36,  augebat  metwn  gnartm  ^mo^m*  seduioms  etj  m 
omitteretur  rip^  invasurus  hostis ;  and  with  the  repetition  of  the  preceding 
verb,  Plin.,  Epist.,  iii.,  13,  libmm  misi  exigenti  fibi ;  misstarusy  etsi  non  exegia 
sea  ;  iii.,  21,  dedit  mihi  quantum  maxims  potuity  dtOurus  amplntSt  sipohiisatt; 
i.  e.,  ac  dedisset  ampUus.    Comp.  Nep.,  Them.,  2,  aiiter  illos  nunmuan  in  pai> 
triam  recepturi,  for  alitsr  here  is  equivalent  to  nisi  idfecissent.    But  it  musi 
oe  observex]  that  thi»  concise  mode  of  using  the  participle  future  active  it 
^reign  to  the  language  of  Cicero :  it  belongs  to  the  sMrer  age,  in  which 
aowever,  the  language  was  still  in  it*  orogress  of  development 


USE   OF   TI1£   lARTICIPLES.  425 

It  must  farthei  be  remarked,  that  the  genitive  plural  of  this  participle, 
urit^  the  exception  of  futurorum  &nd  futurarum^  is  of  extren.ely  lare  occur 
rence,  probably  on  account  of  its  unpleasant  sound.  The  only  instance! 
that  are  known  are  venturorum,  Ovid,  Met.^  xv.,  835 ;  eanturarum  and  transi- 
iurarumi  Senec,  Epist,,  98  and  95 ;  peritwroruniy  Senec,  de  Tranquil.^  xiv., 
i,  and  Petron.,  123 ;  moriturorum  in  St.  Augustin. 

[§  640.]  5.  In  the  cases  hitherto  considered,  the  parti- 
ciple supplies  the  place  of  an  inserted  clause,  the  subject 
of  which  is  a  noun  contained  in  t^e  leading  proposition. 
I^  however,  a  new  subject  is  introduced,  it  is  put  with  the 
participle  in  the  ablative,  independent  of  the  leading  prop- 
osition. (Ahlativtis  absolutus  or  consequentiae*)  A  sim- 
ilar construction  is  sometimes  used  in  English ;  as,  *'  hd 
could  not  live  in  his  own  country  any  longer,  his  influence 
being  too  great  for  the  republic ;"  but  it  is  more  common 
to  express  such  sentences  by  the  conjunctions  "as," 
"when,"  or  by  a  verbal  substantive  with  a, preposition; 
e.  g.,  Cyro  regnante^  in  the  reign  of  Cyrus ;  Cyro  mortuo  or 
occiso,  after  the  death  or  fall  of  Cyrus,  or  after  Cyrus  had 
been  killed.  In  the  passiye  construction,  a  special  refer 
ence  to  the  subject  of  the  leading  sentence  is  generally 
not  needed,  but  is  understood ;  e.  g.,  7iis  diesis  abiit,  or 
his  ille  dictis  abiit j  and  not  his  ah  eo  dictis  abiit.  See  § 
766. 

Pytliagoras  quuin  Tarquinio  Superbo  regnante  in  Italiam 
venissetf  magna?n  illam  Graedam  quum  honore  disdjpli 
nae,  turn  etiam  auctoritate  tenuit,  Cic,  Thisc,  i.,  16. 

L.  Valerii  virtute^  regibus  exterminatis,  libertas  in  re  pub 
lied  constituta  est,  Cic,,p,  L,  Flaccy  11. 

[^  641.]  Note. — Beginners  must  be  particularly  attentive  to  the  various 
modes  in  which  we  render  the  Latin  ablative  absolute ;  e.  g.,  te  ddjuvantty 
with  thy  assistance ;  non — nisi  te  adjuvante,  only  with  thy  assistance ;  te 
non.  adjuvante,  without  thy  assistance.  (See  ^  638.)  They  must  also  be 
cautioned  not  to  put  together  two  participles  in  the  ablative,  one  of  which 
stands  in  apposition  to  the  other ;  e.  g.,  it  is  correct  to  say,  qtam  Cn.  Pom 
peku  StrabOf  de  coeilo  tactuSy  mortmu  esset ;  but  if  mortuus  esset  is  changed 
into  a  participle,  we  cannot  say,  Pompeio  de  coelo  tacto  mortuo.  Again,  we 
may  say,  Portia  saepe  maritum  cogitantem  inveneratf  but  not  marito  cogitante 
tmoento.    (Comp.  (j  394,  note  2.) 

The  ablative  absolute  is  rarely  used,  when  its  subject  is  contained  ii 
the  leading  proposition,  still  instances  sometimes  do  occur ;  as,  Cic, 
PhiUp,^  zi.,  10,  nema  erit  qui  credat,  te  invito^  provindam  tUn  eaae-decretam, 
instead  of  tibi  invito;  ad  Attt  x.,  4,  me  libentet  eripies  mihi  hun<  errorem, 
Liv.,  xxxviii.,  54,  M.  Porcius  Cato,  vivo  quoque  Scipione,  allatrate  ejus  mag- 
nitudinem  solitus  erat. 

[§-642,J  6.  Ar.  ablative  absolute  may  also  be  used  in- 
Btea  1  df  tlie  other  particles  "when,"  *'  since/'  "while, ' 
'*  although,"  which  W3re  mentir>ned  in  5  635.     And  ih« 

Nn2  ' 


426  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

ivritere  ailei  Cicero  even  retain  the  conjunctions  qnatt^ 
([uaM  and  quamvis  with  the  ablative  absolute. 

ReluctanU  natura,  irritnu  labor  est,  Senec,  de  Tranquil,^  6. 
Eclipses  non  ubique  cemwUur^  aliquando  propter  wubiioj 

saepius  globo  terrae  obstante,  Plin.,  Hist.  Nat,,  ii.,  13. 
ffaua  scio  an,  pieUite  adversus  decs  suMata,  fides  etiam  d. 

societas  generis  humani  et  una  eoscdlentissima  virtus  Jus' 

tUia  toUatur,  Cic,  de  Nat.  Deor.^  i.«  2. 
Lucius  solus  in  eastra  Porsenae  venit,  eumque  interjicere, 

proposita  sibi  morte,  conatus  cst^  Cic,  p.  SexL,  21. 

P^  643.]  Note. — ^The  ablative  absolute  with  the  participles  future  active 
and  passive  occurs  less  ireqtiently,  especially  with  the  latter,  tlKnigh  it  is 
attested  by  sufficient  authority ;  Plin.,  Hist,  Nat.,  zi.,  16,  rex  t^nun  nisi  mi- 
p-atttro  asinine  foras  nonpiocedit ;  Tacit.,  /Hs/.,  ii.,  32,  quoniam  (Vitelliani) 
deaerere  Rheni  ripam^  irrupturie  tarn  infestis  nationihus^  non  atideoni ;  Liv., 
xxxvi,  41,  AntwchuM  securue  admodum  de  bello  Romano  erat,  tamquam  non 
transituris  in  Asiam  Romania ;  Curt.,  iv..  15,  Tyrii  aurea  catena  devinxen 
simulacrum  (ApoUinis),  araeque  Herciuia,  cujua  numini  urbem  dicaverantj  in- 
aeruere'vincuhmiy  quaai  Ulo  deo  ApoUinem  tetenturo  ;  v.,  29,  eeterum  propalam 
wmprehendi  Dareus  non  poteratt  ^^  Peraarum  miUbua  latvria  opem  ;  Cic,  ad 
Att.,  iv.,  1,  quum  contio  plausumj  meo  nomine  recitando^  dedisset^  when  my 
name  v^as  pronounced  (respecting  this*  meaningr  of  the  part,  fut  pass,  in 
its  oblique  cases,  we  shall  speaH  hereafter) ;  Orat.,  22,  ouum  immolanda 
Iphigenia  triatis  Cahhaa  eaaet,  maestior  Ulixes^  maereret  Menelaua^  &c. ;  in 
Cat.yAw.,  6,  tdrdiaaime  autem  Itentulua  vemtj  credo  quod  litteria  dandia  praeter 
conauetudinem  proaeima  nocte  vigilarat;  de  Off.,  i.,  5,  ^uis  eat  enim,  qui,  mdUa 
officii  praeceptis  tradendis,  philosopftuni  ae  audeat  dtcere  ?  Comp.  Cic,  p. 
Muren.,  8,  init.,  which  is  correctly  explained  by  Emesti,  and  Wunder  on 
Cic,  p.  Plane.,  6,  ^  15.  It  occuDf,  also,  in  Livy,  v.,  43,  quum  dOa  komini 
buaque  accuaandig  aeneaceret ;  xxi.,  2,  ita  ae  Africa  hello,  ita  in  Hispania,  an 
genao  Puntco  imperio,  gessit ;  xxxiii.,  3,  exercendo  cotidie  milite  hostem  oppe 
riebatur. 

[§  64 4. J  7.  Instead  of  a  participle,  certain  substantives, 
also,  may  be  used,  vsrhich  express  the  action  of  a  verb ;  as, 
dux^  comes,  adjutor  and  adjutrix,  auctor,  testis,  judex,  in^ 
terpres,  magister^  praeceptor,  and  magistra,  praeceptrix  ,■ 
e,  g,,  duce  natura  in  the  sense  of  ducente  napura,  under  th<> 
guidance  of* nature;  comite  fortuna,  i.  e.,  comitante  fortu* 
na  ;  judice  Polybio,  according  to  the  judgment  of  f  olyb- 
ius.  So,  also,  official  titles ;  as,  consul,  praetor,  impera^ 
tor,  fix,  generally  only  to  denote  time ;  as,  Cicerone  con- 
9ule,  m  che  consulship  r^f  Cicero. 

Ma^is  auctoribus  (on  the  advice  of  the  Magi)  Xerxes  in- 
ftammasse  templa  Chraeciae  dicitur,  Cic,  de  Leg,,  ii.,  10. 

f^.'xpieiitia  eniiJi  est  una,  quae  jnqestitiam  pellat  ex  ammis, 
Quae  nos  exht/rre^cere  metu  non  sinat:  qua  praeceptrice  in 
iranguUlitate  vivi  potest,  omni  cupiditatum  ariore  rrs- 
Uncio,  l>ir:  .  de  Fin,,  i..  1 


o 


USE   OP   THB   PARTICIPLES.  427 

O  fuam  faciie  ertU  orbit  imperium  6ccwpare^  aut  miki^Ro- 

mtmis  militibtts,  aut,  me  rege,  Romanis/  Flor.,  i,  18. 

[§  6*ir,  J  As  the  Latins  have  no  participle  of  esse  in  cur- 
rent Vine,  an  adjective  alone  must  sometimes  supply  tne 
place  oi  a  participle ;  e.  g.,  deo  propUio,  when  God  is  gra- 
cdous ;  iiivita  Minerva,  sereno  coelo^  aspera  hieme,  m^  ig-na* 
ro,  Ulis  iOnsciis, 

Romantf  Hannihale  vivo,  nunquam  se  sine  insidiis  futuros 

arhitrahantury  Nep.,  Hann,,  12. 
Obviusjit  Miioni  Clodius  cxpeditus,  ntdla  rhedd,  nullis  im- 

pedivnentis^  nullis  Crraecis  comitibus^  Cic,  p.  Milon,^  10. 

£^  646.]  Note. — Owing  to  the  want  of  a  participle  of  eaae,  an  adjective  ii 
used  alone  in  descriptions  of  the  weather,  the  substantive  being  under- 
stood ;  tl^us  we  frequently  find  sereno,  scil.  coelo,  the  heaven  being  bright ; 
trattfuiUo^  scil.  man,  the  sea  being  tranquil;  PHil,  Hist.  iVa/.,xi.,  28,iidem 
sereno  texunt,  nubilo  textmt.  Substantives  whea  used  thus  absolutely  must 
be  considered  as  ablatives  of  time ;  as,  comitiisy  huiis,  circensibus  ;  but  it  is 
surprising  to  find,  e.  g.,  Sueton.,  Caes..  1 1,  qui  proscr^tume pecunias  ex  aera- 
rio  aecq>erant,  Mvhere  we  have  to  supply  <ibtrante,  during  the  proscription  . 
Tacit,,  Ann.f  iiL,  28,  dedit  jwra^  quis  pace  et  Principe  tUeremur  ;  i.  e.,  undei 
a  Princeps,  or  there  being  a  Princeps ;  zvi.,  ],  multis  palam  et  plurUnts  oc 
efUtis,  many  bein^  present,  ooenly  and  still  more  secretly.  Sometimes  it 
is  difficult  to  distinguish  suqn  an  ablative  absolute  from  an  ablativusmodi; 
as  in  Liv.,  zxxiv.,  47,  oeout*  viribus,  pari  spe  pugnatum  est,  where  we  prefer 
regarding  the  ablat.  as  ablativi  moat;  but  in  iJ\6.,  Acad.,  ii.,  21,  Siquis  ex 
hoc  loco  profUiscatur  Pvteolos^  stadia  triginta,  probo  navigio,  bono  gubematore, 
hoc  tranqtmlitate,  probabUe  videatur  se  uluc  venturum  esse  salvum,  we  regard 
them  as  real  ablatives  absolute.    Comp.  ^  472. 

[§647.]  8.  The  simple  ablative  of  the  paiticiple  perfect 
passive  sometimes  supplies  the  place  of  the  whole  construc- 
tion of  the  ablative  absolute,  the  proposition  following  be- 
ing considered  aj  a  noun  of  the  neuter  gender,  and  as  the 
subject  of  the  participle ;  e.  g.,  Hannibal,  cognito  insidias 
sibi  par  art,  fuga  salutem  quacsivit,  equivalent  to  cognitis 
insidiis  sibi  paratis.  This  use,  however,  is  confined  to  a 
Tew  participles ;  as,  audita,  cognito,  comperto  (in  a  passive 
^ense),  explorato,  desperate,  nuntiato,  edicto, 

Alexander,  audita  Dareu7n  appropinquare  cum  excrcitu,  ob^ 

viam  ire  constituit.  Curt.,  v.,  35,  (l3). 
Excepto  quod  non  simul  esses,  cetera  laetus,  Horat.,  Ep, 

[4  648.]  Note. — ^The  place  of  such  an  ablative  is  sometimes  supplied  by 
11  adjective  ;  as,  Liv.,  xxviii.,  35,  muhv adnantes  navibiut,  incerto  prae  tetu 
irris  quid  petereni  out  vitarent,  foede'  interierttnt ;  i.  e ,  quum  incertum  esset 
which  would  be  much  more  in  accordance  witli  the  ordinary  practice , 
Tacit.,  Ann.,  i.,  6,  jvxta  periculoso,  ficta  seu  vera  promeret ;  iii.,  60,  ipsorvmque 
mtminum  religiones  introspexit,  libero,  vt  quondam,  quid  firmaret  mutarttve. 
Sometimes,  though  very  rarely,  a  participle  is  found  in  the  ablative  abso* 
ute  «o  independently,  that  thr  proposition  followijQg  cannot  even  be  con- 
'^*vi?d  as  its  subject ;  as  in  Lii.,  xzii.,  55,  qwum,  nondum  palam  factk^  vim 


4BS&  LATIN  OKAMMAB. 

moriuique  mromUeue  compUranntur ;  Tacit,  Ann.,  zU  10,  m  cujua  umm^ troni 
gresau  muUutn  certata,  pervicit  Bardanes  ;  aad  Terent.,  Hccyr.f  v.,  1, 10,  Nam 
jam  aetate  ea  5um,  lU  non  siet^  peccato^  mi  ignosa  aequum;  i.  e.,  si  pecaUum 
fuerit.  In  a  similar  passage  in  Cicero,  de  Leg.  igr,,  ii.,  2,  in  fin.,  we  must 
re^d,  according  to  the  majority  of  MSS.,  cujus  trrato,  instead  of  eta,  errato. 
Some  of  these  ^latives  absolute,  as  auspicat),  have  by  long  usage  be- 
come adverbs :  see  ^  266. 

[§  649.]  9.  The  participle  future  passive  has  in  the 
nominative  (and  in  the  construction  of  the  accusative  with 
the  infinitive,  in  the  accusative  also)  the  signification  of 
necessity/,  and  less  frequently  that  of  possibility  :  laudan- 
dtcs,  one  who  must  be  praised,  or  ought  to  be  praised. 
The  person  by  whom  a  thing  must  be  done  is  expressed 
with  this  participle  by  the  dativej  and  not  by  the  preposi- 
tion ah. 

The  neuter  of  this  participle,  joined  with  a  tense  of 
esse,  retains  the  signification  of  necessity ;  as,  audendum 
est,  moriendum  est,  omnibus  Aominibus  7noriendum  est,  we 
must  venture,  we  must  die,  &c.  An  accusative  of  the  ob- 
ject, if  the  verb  is  transitive,  is  joined  with  this  neuter  only 
in  the  early  and  unclassical  writers,  as  Plautus,  Lucretius, 
and  Varro,  and  sometimes  also  by  the  poets  who  are  fond 
of  ancient  expressions*  (as  Silius  Ital.,  viii.,  36 ;  xi.,  562 ; 
and  XV.,  105,  on  which  passages  see  the  notes  of  Draken- 
borch).  Such  an  accusative  is  generally  changed  into  the 
nominative,  and  the  participle  is  made  to  agree  with  it  in 
gender  and  number;  e.  g.,  virtus  laudanda  est,  virtue  mus*. 
be  praised,  or,  we  must  praise  virtue ;  omnes  captivi  occi- 
dendi  sunt,  all  the  prisoners  must  be  put  to  death,  or,  we 
must  put  to  death,  &;c. ;  haec  via  tibi  iv^unda  (ingredien- 
da)  est,  you  must  take  this  road,  or,  this  road  must  be  ta- 
ken by  you. 

Hence  it  is  better  to  say,  quoniam  aeternae  poenae  in 
morte  timendae  sunt,  than  aetemas  quoniam  poenae  in  morte 
timendum  est,  as  we  read  in  Lucretius,  i.,  112.  The  only 
passages  in  which  Cicero  joins  an  accusative  of  the  object 
with  such  a  participle,  are  the  following :  Cat,  Maj,,  2, 
Volumtis  sane,  nisi  molestum  est,  Cato,.  tamquam  longam 
aliquam  vium  cortfeceris,  quam  nobis  quoque  ingrediendum 
sit,  isttu,  qtw  pervenisti,  videre  qtiale  sit ;  and  Fragm.,  j^* 
Scaur,,  13,  Obliviscendum  nobis  putatis  matmm  in  liber  as 
virorum  in  uxores  scelera  ?  Comp.  Quintil.,  iv.,  5, 17,  Quod 
tafnen  ne^no  sic  accipiet,  t.t  omnia  credat  audendum,    . 

Quum  suo  cmque  judicix:  sit  utendum,  difficile  factu  est^  7itfi 


tJSE  OP  THE  PARTICIPLES.  429 

'  td  sentire  semper,  quod  tu  velis,  Cic,  de  Nat.  Dear.. 

111.,  !• 
Dil^entia  in  OT/mibus  rebus plurimum  valet:  haec  praeci- 

pue  colenda  est  nobis,  haec  semper  adhibenda,  Cic,  de 

Orat.j  ii.y  35. 

[^  650.]  Note  1. — The  participle  in  dus  never  has  the  signification  or  poa- 
gibUUyin  classical  prose,  for  although  we  frequently  read  in  Cicero's  work 
de  Omciis,  intettigenditm  eai,  in  the  sense  of  inuUigUvr  orfaeile  potest  trUel' 
Ugij  still  it  implies,  at  the  same  time,  that  it  is  proper  or  becoming  to  see 
or  understand.  In  like  manner,  a  kind  of  moral  obligation  is  expressed ; 
in  Fierr.,  iv.,  59, hiqmhospiu*  ad  ea  quae  trieenda  aunt  ducere  aoleatf  the  things 
to  be  seen,  the  curiosities  Of  towns ;  and  iv.,  60,  longvm  est  commemorare, 
quae  apud  ^uosque  vieenda  nmt  tota  Asia  et  Graeda,  A  similar  obligation  is 
expressed  m  the  following  passages ;  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i,  31,  si  Circe  et  Cdlyp 
n  maUeree  appeUandae  sunt;  de  jPin^  iiL,  2,  quasi  heluari  lUnriSf  si  hoc  verbo 
m  tarn  praecura  re  utendum  est ;  Tusc.,  i.,  1 ,  jam  illoy  quaf  naturOf  non  litteris 
assecuti  sunt  (Romani),  neque  cum  Graeda^  neque  uUa  -cum  gente  sunt  confe- 
renda  ;  i  e.,  conferri  debent.  In  classical  prose  it  si^ifies  possibility  only 
when  joincNl  with  the  particle  «»  (compare  Bremi  on  Nep.,  Att.,  18) ;  e. 
g.,  Cic,  de  Orat.,i.t  21>  ^  optandum  nobis  videbatur;  Caes.,  BeU.  Gail.f  v., 
28,  via  erat  credendum^  equivalent  to  via;  credi  poterat.  Writers  of  the  sub- 
sequent period  use  it  in  this  sense  with  negative  particles,  and  this  use 
was  extended  by  still  later  writers,  who  employ  the  participle  fut.  pass,  in 
the  sense  Of  possibility  as  well  as  in  that  or  necessity. 

[^651.]  Note  2, — ^A6with  the  ablative  is  sometimes  found  in  Cicero  with 
the  participle  future  pass,  instead  of  the  dative.  In  some  cases  he  adopts 
.  this  construction  for  particular  reasons ;  as,  p.  Le^,  Man.,  2,  aguntur  bona 
multorum  avium,  mubus  est  a  vobis  et  ipsorum  et  ret  pubUcae  causa  consulen- 
ium,  for  the  two  datives  quibus  vobis  might,  for  a  moment,  prevent  our  un- 
derstanding the  passage,  p.  Muren.^  26,  ^  54;  and  p.  Plane..  3,  ^  8,  on  ac- 
count of  the  parallel  ab  which  precedes ;  and  p.  Milon,,  in  nn.,fortem  et  a  . 
vobis  conservandum  vtrum,  since  the  dative  vobis  might  be  taken  as  a  dati 
vus  commodi  (comp.,  also,  p.  Sext.t  18,  ^  41).  Sometimes,  however,  od  is 
used  without  any  special  reason ;  as,  odFam.,  xiii,  16,  eos  a  se  observandos 
et  eoUndos  putabat ;  ad  Att.,  x.,  4,  pctris  lenitas  amanda  potius  ab  iUo  quam 
torn  crudeliter  negUgenda  ;  p.  Rab.,  2*  sic  emm  existimare  debetiSf  rem  nuUam 
majorem,  magis  periculosam,  maris  ab  omnUms  vobis  providendamf  adpopulum 
RoTiumum  esse  delatam  ;  tn  Ruu,^  ii.,  35,  non  eos  in  deorum  vmniortatium  nu- 
rnero  venerandos  a  vobis  et  cciendos  putatis  ?  p.  Leg^Man-t  12,  aU^  haec  a  me 
in  dicendo  praetereunda  mm  sunt.  Hence  we  are  inclined  to  think  that  no 
alteration  is  nedded  in  the  passage  of  the  same  oration :  ne  forte  a  vobis, 
quae  diUgentissime  provtdenda  'Sunt,  contemnenda  esse  videantur.  But  these 
are  aU  the  passages  of  Cicero,  and  their  number  is  very  small  in  compar- 
isoa  with  the  very  numerous  instances  in  which  the  rule  is  observed,  we 
mention  this  to  prevent  beginnorsfrom  believing  that  these  exceptions  are 
frequent,  because  three  happen  u>  occur  in  one  oration. 

[§  652.]  10.  In  the  rematning  cases  l&is  participle  has, 
likewise,  occasionally  the  signification  of  necessity  (e.  g., 
Cic,  PhUip.,  iii.)  4,  a  L,  Bruto,principe  hujus  maooime  con- 
servandi  generis  et  nominisj;  but  it  much  more  frequently 
im)plies  the  place,  of  the  participle  present  passive,  that 
^it  hatf  the  meaning  of  a  continued  passive  state;  e.  g^ 
9ccupatus  sum  in  litteris  scribendis,  in  letters  which  are  be- 
ing written ;  peritus  rei  puhlicae  regendae.    A  roferenca 


490  LATIN   OR  A  MM  At. 

to  future  thnc,  also,  may  be  implied,  but  this  arises  from 
the  connexion,  and  not  from  the  participle  itself;  e.  g^ 
consilium  libertatis  recuperandae ;  missus  erat  ad  naves 
coniparandas.  For  the  rest,  see  the  chapter  on  the  ge- 
rund. 

[^  653.]  iVb/e.^With  the  rerbs  date  and  tradere,  tmtteret  eoncedere^  and 
vemdttere^  acciperef  and  susdperej  locan  and  ccnducertf  and  others  of  a  simi- 
lar meaning,  the  parpose  for  which  anjrthing  is  given,  sent,  &c.,  is  express- 
ed passively  by  toe  future  participle ;  e.  g.,  rex  Harpago  Cymm  in/aniem 
oecidendvm  tradiditf  to  be  killed ;  Cicero,  Ulodme  uberrunas  provincias  vex- 
andas  diripiendaaqtte  constdilnu  permisit ;  demut  no$  phUoeophiae  excolendoa ; 
Lentulua  attribtdt  not  truddandos  Cethego^  ceteros  cives  interfidendoe  Oabinto, 
itrbem  inflammahdam  Cassiot  totam  Itediaam^vaatandttm  diripiendamqm  Caiik- 
nae ;  quattuor  c(dumna$  locamt  dealbandasy  ceteros  aedificandas ;  eondiueerai 
eoltmnaa  fadendas  ;  Horace,  haee  pords  comedenda  relinques.    But  the  same 
may  be  expressed  actively  by  means  of  ad  with  the  gerund ;  e.  g.,  Soaevola 
nemini  te  eld  doeendiak  dabat;  Caesar  oppidum  ad  dirioiendum.  m^itibus  con* 
cessit ;  auctorea  nobis  propositi  swU  ad  imUandmn.    (The  poets  use  the  infin- 
itive active ;  as,  Horat.,  Cohti.,  i.,  26,  Tristitiam  et  mehts  tradam  protervis  in 
mare  Caspitan  portare  ventis ;  in  prose  it  is  a  fare  excepticn;^  and  occurs  only 
in  the  phrase  bibere  darst  in  Cic.»  TWc,  i,  26 ;  or,  mtmslrare,  in  Terent^ 
Andr.f  iii.,  2,  A.)    The  construction  of  curare  with  the  same  participle  also 
deserves  to  be  noticed ;  e.  g.,  Conon  mivros  dirutos  m  Lysandro  refidendos  cu- 
ravitf  he  ordered  them  to  be  restored,  or  had  them  restored ;  AbridMu  per- 
fugam  reducendttm  curavit  ad  Pyrrkum^  he  ordered  him  to  be  taken  back ; 
funus  d  satis  amphan  fadendvm  cttravi,  I  had  himHionourably  buried.    In 
the  silver  age  we  also  nnd  the  expression 'Ao^/aciembun,  I  have  to  do, or. 
must  do ;  e.  g.,  Plin.,  Hist.  Nat.^  Praef.,  htUc  epiatelae  snbjtuud,  quid  singulis 
contineatur  Utnis^ne  perlegendos  eos  haberes ;  Tacit.,  Ann..,  xiv.,  44,  si  mtnc 
primum  sttUuetidian  naberemus.    Habeo  facere,  I  can  do.  Occurs  in  Cicero. 
See  ^  562,  • 

[§  654.]  11.  Tliis  participle  should  properly  be  formed 
only  &om  active  transitive  Verbs,  but  it  is  formed  also  from 
deponents  which  have  a  transitive  meaning ;  e.  g.,  in  inU^ 
tundo  lioc  scriptore^  i.  e.,  if  this  writer  is  imitated.  Of  in- 
transitive verbs,  however,  only  the  neuter  of  this  participis^ 
is  used  with  est^  erat,  &c. ;  e.  g.,  quicscendum  est,  dofini' 
endum,  eundum  est 


CHAPTER  LXXXII. 

USE     OF    THE    GERUND* 


3  655.]  1.  Toe  gerund  is  in  form  nothing  else  than  the 
foiir  oblique  cases  of  the  neuter  of  the  participle  future 
passive.  It  govetnS  the  case  of  its  verb,  and  with  regard 
to  its  signification  it  supplies  thq  place  of  a  declinable  ini 
finitive  present  active,  and  is  a  verbal  substantive,  just  ^ 
in  Enghsh  the  present  participle  is  used  as  a  verbal  sul> 
uUntive.     Thus  we  find  the  dative  in  Quintilian,  xi.,  2, 36 


USE    Vf    THE   GHRU.VD.  481 

iHud  edMcendo  scribendoque  commune  est,  this  is  couhbod 
to  learning  by  heart  and  writing;  tlie  ablative  in  Cicero, 
Tiisc.^  iii.,  7,  discrepat  a  timendo  confidere;  LaeL^  27,  am'- 
icitia  dicta  est  ah  amando.  Examples  of  the  genitive  are 
qivcm  above,  §  425.  The  accusative  presents  a  difference 
from  the  infinitive,  for  the  latter,  which  is  also  uaeii  hs  on 
accusative  (§  597).  has  the  power  of  an  abstract  noun» 
whereas  the  gerund  expresses  a  real  action ;  e.  g.,  Senec, 
de  Benef.,  v.,  1 0,  multum  interest  inter  dare  et  accipere  ;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  Cic,  de  Fin,,  iii.,  20,  Non  solwm  ad  dis 
cendum  vropensi  sumus,  xed  etiam  ad  docendum, 

r§  656.]  2.  The  relation  of  the  gerund  to  the  real  par- 
ticiple future  passive  is  this :  as  the  gerund  has  an  active 
meaning,  e.  g.,  consilium  scribeudi,  the'  design  of  writing 
or  to  write,  it  may  have  an  accusative  as  its  obiect ;  as, 
cofmlium  scribeJi  eputolam,  and  this  construction  may, 
without  any  change  of  meaning,  be  changed  into  the  pass- 
ive :  consilium  scribendae  epistolae,  the  design  of  a  lettei 
to  be  vnrttten,  or,  that  a  letter  should  be  vmtten.  The  ac- 
cusative is  thus  always  changed  into  the  case  in  which 
the  gerund  stood.  This  change  into  the  passive  may  take 
place  wherever  no  ambiguity  is  likely  to  arise;  i.  e.,  wher- 
ever the  gender  is  distinguishable;  hence  it  generally  does 
not  take  place  when  the  accusative,  dependent  upon  the 
gerunS,  is  the  neuter  of  a  pironoun  or  adjective;  e.  g., 
studium  iUud  effidendi,  cupido  plura  cognoscendi,  not  illiu^ 
effidendif  or  plurium  cognoscendorum^  because  it  would  be 
impossible  to  se6  whether  the  genitives  illius  and  plurium 
are  masculine  or  neuter.  Hence  it  is  better  to  BSjlex  ap^ 
pellata  est  a  swum  cuique  tribuendo,  than  a  suo  cuique  tri- 
btiendo.  But,  independently  of  this  reas<»i,  the  change  oi 
the  active  construction  into  the  passive,  with  the  participle 
future  (which  modem  graimmarians  call  gerundivum,  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  gerund),  is  less  frequent  in  some 
writers,  Livy  and  Curtius  for  example,  than  in  others. 

[^657.]  Nott  1. — ^The  passive  construction  is  also  found  with  tUor,frturr 
fimgOTf  and  potior,  because  these  verbs  were  original!  j[  joined  with  an  ac 
cQsative,  and  sometimes  are  still  so  used  in  our  writers.  (See  ^  465.) 
Hen<»  we  read  in  Cicero,  de  Fm.,  L,  3,  safientia  non  paranda  nobix  solum, 
§ed  tiimn  Jruenda  ett;  de  Off.,  ii.,  12,  juetitiae  fruendae  causa  videntur  olim 
bene  morati  reges  constituH ;  de  Off,^  i.,  8,  ewpetuatur  autem  divUiae  qmem  ad 
Hsus  tntcut  necessarioSf  tuni  ad  perfhtendas  volupUUes ;  Tusc,  iii.,  7,  ocubu 
probe  effectua  ad  swan  munus  fvngmdvm  ;  in  Verr.,  ii.,  18,  omnia  bona  ei  uten- 
da  ac  possidenda  tradiderat ;  Caes.,  BeU.  Gall.,  iii.,  6,  hastes  in  spent  pottwf 
dorwn  castrorum  venerant ;  and  thus  we  very  frequently  find  m  Livy  an^ 
Cttrtiofl,  apes  pvHundae  urbis,  peSras.    As  an  eiceptioo.  the  same  occurs 


132  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

frith  the  verb  mederi^  which,  in  the  early  language,  was  like^fise  aonie- 
vimea  Joined  with  the  accusative,  whence  we  find  in  Livy,  viiL,  36,  and 
Veil.  Pat.,  ii.,  25,  medendis  corporibus.    InrndenduSy  poenitendutf  tjad  pudem 
tfitf  have  become  adjectives. 

[^  6$8.]  Nou  2.— There  are  a  few  passages  in  good  authors,  in  which 
the  gerund  is  used  in  a  passive  sense ;  Cic,  in  Verr.t  i!,  18,  censendi  causa 
haecfrequentia  convenit^  for  the  purpose  of  undergoing  the  census :  p.  ]^aoc. 
32,  »i  aUenm  cenaendo  Deeianus  nut  facere  po8$et ;  Veil.  Fat.,  ii.,  Ji5,  ad  ceii- 
»enidum  at  jftivmciia  in  luUiam  revocare  ;  Cic,  ad  Fam.,  viL,  3,  ode*  ad  im- 
perandxim  ;  i.  e.,  ut  imperetur  tibi ;  Tiisc,  i.,'23,  ceUriSy  quae  moventWf  kk 
foru,  hoc  principium  eat  movendi ;  Nep.,  Att..,  9,  epea  reatituendi,  the  hope  ol 
being  restored.    See  Bremi's  note  on  this  passage. 

{§  659.]  3.  The  particular  cases  in  whicb  the  gerund, 
and,  under  the  limitations  above  mentioned,  the  participle 
future  passive  are  used,  are  the  following  j 

faj  The  genitive  of  the  gerund  is  used  after  substan* 
tives  and  after  relative  adjectives.  (See  §  436.)  In  Eng- 
lish, substantives  and  relative  adjectives  are  followed  ei- 
ther by  "  of,"  vnth  the  participle  present,  or  by  *'  to/' 
with  the  infinitive ;  e.  g.,  ars  dicendi^  the  art  of  speaking; 
discendi  eupidus,  desirous  to  learn.  Such  substantives, 
among  many  others,  are,  ars^  causa,  ccmsUium,  cormtetudo, 
cupiditas,  Jacultas,  occasion  potestas^  9pes,  ^tudium,  volunt- 
as. The  ablatives  causa  and  gratia  are  also  joined  with 
the  genitive  of  the  gerund ;  e.  g.,  discendi  causa^  for  the 
sake  or  purpose  of  learning ;  quidam  canes  venandi  gra* 
tia  comparantur, 

NcHe.'^X  must,  however^  be  observed  that  with  these  and  other  sub* 
ttantives  the  infinitive  may  also  be  used  (see  ^  598),  when  with  a  tense  o. 
taae  they  form  a  periphrasis  for  a  verb  which  is  joined  with  the  infinitive, 
or  when  they  supply  the  p|ace  of  an  adjective  expression,  of  which  the  in- 
finitive is  the  subject ;  e.  g.,  Sallust,  Cax,^  30,  qyakua  omnia  honeata  atqm 
inkoneata  vendere  moa  erat,  with  whom  it  was  a  custom,  or  who  were  ac- 
cnstomed ;  Cic,  TtiaCf  i.,  41,  tempus  est  abire^  it  is  time,  that  is,  tempeativum 
estf  it  is  proper  to  go ;  but  we  may  also  s&y  eat  (i.  e.,  adaa^  tanpuM  obnmdi , 
as  in  Qumtii,  xi.,  3,  61,  jam  tenmu  eat  dieendi,  quae  ait  ap^  promtntiatio , 
Liv.,  ii.,  53fMoay  credo,  nonplacmat,  aine.  Romano  dvce  exercituque  aocioa  pro- 
priia  viribua  conailiisque  bella  gerere :  here  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive 
dep^ds  upon  the  whole  construction,  and  more  especially  upoD  piaubai, 
hr  ^se  it  would  have  heeh  Becessary  (o  aay  aodorum  moa  bella  ^ermdi.  All 
other  constructions,  especially  the  mfinitive  after  relative  adjectives,  are 
Doetical. 

Beate  vivendi  cupiditate  incensi  amnes  sumus,  Oicoit>. 
Parsimonia  est  scientia  vitandi  suTnptus  supervacuos,  aui 

ars  re  famiUdri  moderate  utendi,  Senec,  de  Benrf.^ 

ii.,  34.. 
Postremo  CatiUna  dissimulandi  causa  aut  sui  expurgandt^ 

sicuti  jurgio  lacessitus  foret,  in  senatum  venit,  Sallust, 

Oat;  31. 
Epaminondas  studiosus  erat  audiendt^  Nep.,  Epam,^  3. 


USB    OF    THG    GERUND.  4^}i 

'  (h)  If  the  verb  governs  the  accusative^  the  passive 
construction  with  the  participle  fiiture  is  commmly  pre- 
ferred. 

Quis  ignorat  Gallos  tissue  ad  hanc  diem  rednere  iUam  im- 

manem-  ac  harhareun  comsuetudinem  hominum  imnwlan- 

dorum  ?  Cic,  p.  Font,^  10. 
Inita  sunt  (a  Catilina  ej usque  sociis)  consUia  urhis  delen- 

doe,  civiwm  trueidandorunif  nominis  Romani  extingutn- 

di,  Cic,  p.  Muren,,  37. 
TS/Motheus  rei  militaris  (belli  gerendi)  Juii  peritus,  nequt 

mintts  dvitatis  regendaey  Nep.,  9Smc^.^  1. 

[6  660.]  Note  1. — The  rule  respecting  the  agreement  of  \he  participle 
•vith  the  noun  in  gender  and  number  is  apparently  violated  in  the  genitive 
of  the  per&ontl  pronouns,  since  tut,  even  when  feminine,  is  joined  with  the 
mascuhne  or  neuter  form  of  the  participle ;  Plaut.,  TrucuL.t  iL,  4, 19,  quo- 
nkan  tm  mdendi  est  copia ;  Ovid,  Heroid*^  xx.,  74,  copia  placaruU  sit  modo 
parva  tia,  and  vestri  and  sui,  even  when  they  are  plural,  are  joined  with 
the  singular  of  t|ie  participle.  Thus  we  read,  ip  Liv.,  xxi.,  41,  non  yereor 
ne  quis  hoc  me  vesiri  adhortandi  causa  numUfice  loqui  existimet ;  Cic.,de 
Dimn,f  IL,  17,  dolea  tantum  Stokos  vestros  Epicweis  irridendi  sui  facultatem. 
iedisse  ;  in  Cat,^  i.,  3,  quum  multi  principes  civUatis  Roma  non  tcan  svi  conser- 
vandit  quam  tuorum  consih'ortun  reprimendorum  causa  profugerunt ;  and  fre- 
quently in  Caesar ;  e.  g.,  BeU.  GalL^  iii.,  6,  neque  sui  coUigendi  hostibus  fa- 
euUaiemreUnqwad;  iv.,  13.  in  castra  veneruntf  sui  purgandi  causa^  No  in- 
stance has  yet  been  found  of  a  feminine  mei  or  nostri  l^ing  joined  with  the 
mascuL  (or  neuter)  of  the  participle,  but  there  is  no  reason  for  doubting  it. 
ft  must  be  supposed  that  tliia  peculiarity  arises  from  the  singular  form  of 
these  genitives,  which  are  properly  derived  from  the  neuters  meum,  tuum^ 
ruuTTi,  nostrum f  vestrum  (analogous  to  the  Greek  to  kfiov^  ro  ^fierepov). 
But  with  the  demonstrative  pronouns,  ejusy  hujvs,  iUtuSf  the  rule  respecting 
the  agreement  between  the  noun  and  participle  is  observed,  although 
tjuSf  referring  to  a  woman,  is  found  with  the  genit.  masc.  of  the  participle, 
in  Terent.,  Phorm.^  i.,  3,  24,  and  Hec^  iii.,  3,  VI  (for  in  Phorm.,  v.,  6,  40 
ihis  is  only  a  correction  of  Bentley). 

[^  661.J  A  similar  irregularity,  but  more  difficult  to  explain,  occurs  in 
Wih  combination  of  the  genitive  of  the  gerund  with  the  genitive  plural  oi 
substantives,  instead  of  the  accusative.  It  is  found  not  only  in  some  pas* 
sages  of  Plautus  and  Terence,  and  frec^ently  in  Qellius,  who  was  fond  of 
reviving  obsolete  forms,  but  also  in  the  following  passages  of  Cicero,  ds 
Invent,,  ii.,  2,  ex  major e  enim  copid  nobis ^  quam  tlli,  fuit  exemplorum  eUgendi 
potestas  ;  de  Umv.^  %  9,  reliquorum  siderum  quae  causa  collocandijuerity  quae' 
oue  eonan  sit  coUocaiio^  in  edium  sermonem  differendum  est ;  in  Verr.^  ii.,  31, 
homines  quibus  ne  rejiciwuU  quidem  ampUus  quam  trium  judicum  praeclarae 
leges  Comeliae  faciunt  potestatem  ;  in  Verr.j  iv.,  47,  &uvm  autem  rerum  iwUam 
tS>i  istensque  infitiafidi  rationemt  neque  de/atdendi/actdtatem  reliquit;  Philip., 
v^  3,  AgitWf  utrum  M.  Antonio  factdtas  detur  opprimendae  rei  publicae,  caedis 
faeiendae  bonorum,  diripiendas  wrlns,  agrorum  SutS  latronUms  condonandi,  pop- 
utum  Romanum  servitute  opprimendi :  <m  fiorum  nihil  facere  ei  Uceat.  It  once 
occurs  in  Cicero  with  the  genit.  plur.  of  a  pronoun ;  de  Fin.,  v.,  7,  eorum 
(for  ea)  adipiscendi  causa.  Uomp.  Sueton.,  Aug.,  98,  permissa  licentia  dir^i- 
endspomorum,  "wiih  the  remarks  of  the  commentators.  We  are  o(  opimon 
that  tl^-iioun,  wnich  properly  dei}ends  upon  the  gerund,  is  by  some  con- 
fusion, of  which  instances  occur  in  every  language,  connected  and  made 
to  depend  upon  the  substantive.  Suetonius,  e.  g.,  might  have  said  licentia 
dirimendi  poma,  or  licentia  pomorum  diripiendorum;  but  what  he  does  say  iM 

Oo 


4S4  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

a  combination  of  noth.  Another  method  of  explaining  this  pec  oLamy  n 
adopted  by  Kritk  (o^  Sallust,  Cat.,  31),  who  thinks  that  the  gerund  atid 
the  leading  substantive  are  so  closely  united  as  to  constitute  only  one  idea, 
and  form,  as  it  were,  only  one  compound  word  ;  as,  eligendi  potestat  (elec- 
tive power),  exemplorvm  (of  examples).  But  see  Madvig  on  Cic,  de  Fitu, 
i ,  18,  ^  60. 

[^662.]  Note2. — ^The  genitive  in  general  serves  to  express  ^ality  inths 
caf>e  of  a  substantive  joined  to  an  adjective ;  and  hence  the  genitive*  nut 
only  of  a  gerund,  but  of  a  substantive  joined  with  the  participle  futurs 
passive  and  ette,  is  used  in  the  sense  of  **  having  a  tendency  to  a  thing," 
or,  "  serving  a  certain  purpose ;"  e.  g.,  Sallust,  CfU,,  6,  Regium  imperiun 
initio  conservandae  Ubertatis  atque  augendae  rei  publicae  fuerat ;  Caes.,  BeU. 
Alex.,  65,  quum  multa  contra  morem  consuetudinemque  militarem  fia-ent^  quat 
dissoivendae  disdplinae  aeveritatia^  etaent ;  Liv.,  xxvii.,  9,  haec  prodendi  im- 
verii  Romcmif  tradendae  Hannilmh  victoriae  sunt ;  xl.,  29,  lectis  rerum  svmmi* 
qtatm  animadvertisset  pleraque  dissolvendarum  religionum  esse^  L.  PetiUio  dixit ^ 
sese  eo8  libros  in  ignem  conjecturum  esse.  The  same  construction  occurs  fre- 
quently in  this  author ;  comp.  iii.,  39,  and  xxxviii.,  50,  nihil  tarn  aequandai 
Ubertatis  esse,  and  v.,  3,  with  the  notes  of  Gronovius  and  Drakenborch 
Esse  must  be  understood  in  Sallust,  Jug.,  68,  quiu  postquam  gloriosa  modo 
neque  belli  patrandi  cognovit ;  and  in  direct  connexion  with  a  substantive  in 
Sallust's  speech  of  Lepidus,  in  the  Fragm,  Hist.,  lib.  i.,  Sulla  eo  processit, 
tU  nihil  gloriosum  nisi  tutwn  et  omnia  retinendae  dominati(^tis  hoTiesta  aestu 
met;  L  e.,  omnia  quae  sunt  dominatianis  retinendae.  In  Cicero  this  use  of 
the  genitive  with  esse  occurs  only  de  Leg.,  ii.,  23,  Cetera  in  duodedm 
(tabulis)  minuendi  sunt  sumptus  lamentationisque  funeris  ;  and  in  Verr.,  ii, 
53,  ut  stwUa  cupiditatesque  honorvm  atmte  ambitumes  ex  omnibus  civitatilnts  tol 
leret,  quae  res  evertendae  rei  publicae  solent  esse,  which,  according  to  the  above 
examples,  it  is  better  to  consider  as  a  genitive  than  as  a  dative,  forwhich 
Garatoni  takes  it 

(Carthagine)  pro  se  quisque  quae  diuttnae  obsidionis  tolerandae  sunt,  ex  agris 
convefut,  Liv.,  xxx.,  9. 

[^  663.]  Note  3. — It  is  a  deviation  from  the  ordinary  principles  of  the 
Latin  Sjrntax,  and  a  decided  imitation  of  the  Greek  idiom,  to  use  the  gen- 
itive of  the  gerund  to  express  a  purpose  or  intention  (it  does  not  occur  in 
Cicero),  for  this  is  generally  expressed  by  the  addition  of  causa,  or  by  the 
dative  of  the  gerund.  (See  ^  764.)  Another  irregular  use  of  the  genitive 
of  the  gerund,  instead  of  the  mfinitive,  occurs  in  Tacit.,  Ann.,  ii.,  43,  Plan- 
dnam  haud  dubie  Augtista  monuit  mulielni  aemulatione  Agrippinam  insectandi, 
though  the  genitive  may,  perhaps,  be  explained  as  dependent  up6a  monere; 
but  in  Ann.,  xiii.,  26,  nee  grave  mamimissis,  per  idem  obsequivm  retinendi  lib- 
ertatem,  per  quod  assecuti  sunt ;  xv.,21,  maneat  provincialUnts  potentiam  suam 
tali  modo  ostentandi  ;  and  xv.,  5,  Vologesi  vetus  et  penitus  infixum  erat  arma 
Romana  vitan^Ur^ihe  genitive  of  the  gerpnd  is  used  quite  m  the  sense  of 
the  infinitive,  and  can  scarcely  be  explained  otherwise  than  by  the  ellipsis 
of  negotiwn,  to  tov  (ftevyetv.  Compare  the  observations  of  Gronovius  on 
Livy,  XXXV.,  49. 

[§  664.]  4.  The  dative  of  the  gerunH  is  used  after  ad- 
jectives which  govern  this  case  (§  409),  especially  after 
utUis,  inutUis,  noxius,  par^  apttis,  idoneus,  and  after  verba 
and  other  expressions  dei^oting  a  purpose  or  design.  In 
this  sense,  however,  it  is  much  more  common,  at  least  in 
Cicero,  to  use  ad  with  the  accusative  of  the  gerund,  or  ai 
clause  with  ut,  (The  expressions  which,  from  their  mean- 
ing, are  most  frequently  joined  with  the  dative  of  the  ge- 
rund, are,  xtudcre,  intentum  esse,  tnnpu^  iwpcndere,  tempt* 


USE    OF   THB   GERUND  43d 

coniumere  or  insumere,  operam  dare,  mfficere,  satis  esse, 
deesse  and  esse,  in  the  sense  "serving  for,*'  "being  ade- 
quate to."  In  the  language  of  the  silver  age,  however, 
the  dative  is  not  limited  to  particular  expressions,  but  is 
used  very  extensively,  chiefly  after  verb®  of  motion,  to 
express  the  purpose.)  The  participle  future  passive,  as 
was  remarked  above,  is  use(^  mucfi  more  frequently  than 
the  dative  of  the  gerund  with  ad  and  the  accusative. 

Aqua  nitrosa  utUis  est  hihendo,  Plin.,  Hist.  Nat,^  xxxvi.,  6. 
Nonjuit  consilium  socordia  atque  desidia  bonum  otium  con- 

terere,  neque  vero  agrum  colendo  aut  venando  intentum 

aetatem  agere,  Sallust,  Cat,,  4. 
Brutus  quum  studere  revocandis  in  urbem  regibus  liheros 

suos  comperisset,  secAri  eos  percussit,  Flor.,  i.,  9. 
T^erius  quasi  Jirmandae  valetudini  in  Campaniam  conces' 

sit.  Tacit.,  Ann.,  iii.,  31. 

Note  1. — Esse  with  the  dative  of  the  gerand  is  usually  explained  by  the 
ellipsis  of  idoneus,  but  it  is  better  not  to  have  recourse  to  an  ellipsis,  and 
^.o  consider  it  analogous  to  the  expression  auxilio  alicui  esse.  Thus  we  read 
(n  Cicero,  non  solvendo  esse,  to  be  insolvent ;  in  Livy,  ii.,  8,divites,  quionen 
ferendo  ^.ssentt  able  to  bear  the  burden;  xxvii,  25,  rem publicam  esse  gratiat 
referendae,  able  to  show  its  gratitude  ;  and  in  Celsus,  viii.,  10,  7,  medica- 
/nenta,  quae  pvri  movendo  sunt.  We  must  add  the  political  expression  scri- 
bendo  ajfuerunt ;  i.  e.,  at  the  drawing  up  of  a  scnatus  consultum,  there  were 
present. 

[^  665.]  Note  2. — The  dative  of  the  gerund  is  g«»»'erally,  also,  used  with 
che  names  of  dignities  and  offices ;  e.  %.,  decemviri  ugibus  scribendiSf  the  ten 
commissioners  lor  drawing  up  a  code  of^  laws ;  dutanvir,  or,  ^Tuiecimvir 
sacri*  facitmdis  ;  triumvir  agro  dando  ;  triumvir  coloniis  deducendis,  juventuti 
eonquirendae,  senatui  legendo;  tresviri  reiptU>licat  constituendae,  and  also  with 
the  word  comitia;  as  in  Livy,  comitia  regt  creando,  creandis  decemviris,  though 
here  ihe  genitive  may  also  be  used. 

[§  666.]  5.  •£he  accusative  of  the  gerund  is  always  de- 
pendent upon  prepositions,  most  frequently  upon  ad  (to), 
or  inter  (duiing  or  amid),  but  sometimes,  also,  upon  ante, 
rij-ca,  and  ob.  The  change  into  the  passive  construction, 
with  the  participle  future,  takes  place  almost  invaiiably 
when  the  gerund  governs  an  accusative. 

J^pres  puerorum  se  inter  ludemdum  simplicitis  dctegunt 
Quintil.,  i.,  3. 

Musicen  natura  ipsa  nohis  videtur  ad  tolerandos  fadlius  la^ 
bares  veltU  muneri  dedisse,  Quintil.,  i.,  10,  16. 

Note. — The  beginner  must  particularly  attend  to  the  use  of  the  geiund 
(without  a  noun)  with  inter,  Which  is  equivalent  to  our  "during,"  or 
**  amid;'*  e.  g.,  inter  eundumt  inter  bibendum,  inter  ambidandum^  inter  vajm 
hmdum. 

f§  667.J    6.  The  ablative  of  the  gerund  is  used :  faj 


36  LATIN    QUAAUfAR. 

ATidiout  a  preposition,  as  an  MaHvut  insirumetUiw  (hj 
(Vith  the  prepositions  ah,  de^  ex«  and  in.  In  the  first  case 
»he  construction  is  commonly,  and  in  the  latter  alwaysk 
ehanged  into  the  passive  when  the  gerund  governs  an  acr 
cusative.  The  accusative  of  a  neuter  prcmoun  or  adject- 
ive alone  is  eeaerally  retained.  (See  §  656,  and  the  :hu3t 
of  the  following  passages.)  • 

Hominia  mens  discenda  aUtur  et  cagitando^  Cic,  de  Off, 
Caesar  dando,  suhUvando,  ignoacendo,  Goto  nihil  largiun' 

do  glariam  adeptus  est,  Sallust,  Get/.,  54. 
Stipersiitione  tollcTida  non  toUitur  religio,  Cic,  de  Divin^ 

ii.,  in  fin. 
Fartitudo  in  lahorihus  pericuUsque  audeundit  cemitur^  tem* 

perantia  in  praetenmUendis  xoLuptatihui,  prudeniidt  in 

deUctu  bonorum  et  maXcrwHyjuatitia  in  mo  cuique  trihu' 

endo,  Cic,  de  Fin,,  v.,  23. 

Note. — The  ablative  of  the  gerund  is  very  rarely  employed  in  any  otbet 
way;  Cic,  de  Off.^  i.,  15»  nvUum  oMcium  T^erenda  gratia  magis  neceesarium 
estt  instead  of  relatione  gratiae ;  Liv.,  vL,  14,  nee  jam  possidendis  puJbUcis 
agris  contentos  eese,  instead  of  possessione  agrorum.  To  the  prepositions 
found  with  the  ablative  of  the  gerund  we  must  add  pro,  which  occurs  in  a 
passage  of  Livy,  zxiiL,  28,  pro  opeferenda  sodis  pergit  ire  ijue  ad  itrbem  dedi 
tarn  nuper  inJidemRomanorum<mpi^nandam,  instead  of  giving  assistance  to 
his  allies.  An  irregular  use  oi  the  ablat.  of  the  gerund  occurs  in  Tacit., 
Ann.,  ziv.,  4,  Nero  matrem  prosequitur  abeuntem,  artius  octdis  et  pectori  hoe- 
tens,  eive  explenda  eimidatione  ecu  periturae  matris  ntpremut  atpeotue  quamvt* 
fawn,  animum  retinebat,  where  the  ablat.  is  employed  for  the  dative ;  Ann., 
lii.,  19,  is  finis  fuit  vlciscenda  Germanici  morte ;  here  the  ablative  implies 
time :  **  in  avenging  the  death  of  Germi^nicus." 


CHAPTER  LXXXIIL 

CSB     OP    THE     SUPINE.* 

(§  668.]  1.  The  two  supines  are,  in  form,  cases  of  a  vei- 
substantive  of  the  fourth  declension.  The  ftrst  supiAie, 
>r  that  in  um,  is  the  accusative,  and  the  second,  or  that  in 
M,  may  be  either  the  dative  or  the  ablative,  according  to  § 
81.  But  with  regard  to  c<9nstruction,  the  supine  in  um  re- 
mains a  true  part  of  a  verb,  for  it  does  not  govern  the  gen 
itive,  but  the  case  of  the  verb.  The  supine  in  u  does  nol 
rovem  any  case,  and  for  this  reason  we  assign  to  it  a  pass- 
rve  meaning. 

2.  The  si^pine  in  um  is  used  with  verbs  which  express 
notiDn  to  a  place ;  e.  g.,  ire,  prqfidsci,  contendere,  pergere^ 

"*  fComoIt  note  on  pafo  120  'H-ilm.  Ed. 


USB  Of  THB   mJVIKH.  43*^ 

Jestinare,  venire,  mittere^  trajicere;  and  k  indicatoA  the 
object;  e.  g.,  cubitum  ire,  to  go  to  sleep;  exploratum 
gpecnlatum,  aquatum^  Jrumentatumy  pahulatum  mittere^ 
oratnem  obsecratumqm  venire ;  or,  with  a  ease  depending 
on  the  supine,  Cicero/  mittit  regatum,  ea  vasa  ;  Livy,  le- 
gati  venenmt  questum  injuriaa  et  res  rvpetitum;  Virgil,  non 
ego  Graiis  germtum  matribus  iBo,  The  same  meaning  is 
implied  in  the  expression,  aUctd  nuptum  dare  (or  tradere, 
collocarej,  to  give  a  woman  in  marriage.  But  the  Latin 
writers  in  general  prefer  using  the  gerund  in  the  accusa- 
tive with  adf  or  in  the  genitive  with  causa,  or  the  partici- 
ple future  active  instead  of  the  supine. 

Philippus  Argis  a  Pausania,  quum  spectatum  hedos  iret^ 
juxta  theatrum  occisus  est^  Nep.,  de  Reg.,  2. 

[^  669.]  Note.-^Eoy  is,  it,  with  the  supme«  literally  sigmfies  **  I  go  to  do 
a  thing,"  and  hence  "I  intend,"  or  **am  going  to."  Instances 'of  this 
meaning  occur  in  PJautus  and  Terence,  and  in  the  prose  of  the  period 
ter  the  time  of  Cicero,  who  himself  does  not  make  use  of  it  (comp.  Cic 
ad  Fam,,  xiv.,  i.,  5),  for  the  periphrastic  conjugation  by  means  of  esse  ana 
the  participle  future  active  expresses  the  sanre  meaning ;  e.  g.,  Terent., 
Andr.f  i.,  1,  107,  Mea  Glyceritan,  qmd  agis  ?  cur  te  is  perditum  ?  Heaut.^  ii., 
3,  74,  in  mea  vita  tu  tibi  laudem  is  ouaesitum,  scehts  ?  villain,  do  you  intend 
to  acquire  fame  at  the  cost  of  my  life  ?  In  like  manner,  Sallust,  Jug.,  85, 
vhi  seflagitiis  dedecoravere  iufpissimi  viri,  bonorum  praemifi  ereptum  eurU;  and 
in  the  infinitive,  Liv.,  xzviii.,  41,  qui  te  in  Italia  retineret,  materiam  glorias 
tUM  isse  ereptum  videri  posset ;  in  the  same  chapter,  Hoc  natura  prius  est 
quum  tua  defenderis,  aliena  ire  oppugnatum.  In  dependent  clauses,  nowever 
this  mode  of  speaking  is  used  as  a  mere  circumlocution  for  a  simple  verb, 
the  relation  to  the  future  being  implied  in  the  conjunction  or  (with  the  in- 
finitive) in  the  leading  verb ;  Sallust,  Cat.,  52,  Sint  sane  misericordes  in  fun- 
bus  aerarii,  ne  Uli  sanguinem  nostrum  largiantur,  et,  dum  pawns  sceleratis  par 
cunt,  bonos  omnes  perditum  eant,  equivalent  to  perdant ;  Liv.,  zxxii.,  22,  ot 
testatus  filium,  tU  ^onsulere  Achaeos  communi  stUuti  pateretur,  neu  pertinaaa 
sua  gentem  universam  perditum  iret ;  i.  e.,  perderet ;  Sallust,  Jug.,  G8,  ultum 
ire  injurias  festinat ;  1.  e.,  vleiscif  Liv.,  xxxiz.,  IQ,  vitricus  ergo  tutts  pudici- 
tiam,famam,  spem  vitamque  tuam  perditum  ire  hoc  facto  properat ;  Curt.,  x , 
^  (comp.  Tacit.,  Ann.,  xvi.,  1),  Meleagri  temeritatem  armis  uUumire  decreve- 
rant ;  Tacit.,  Ann.,  xiii,  17,  ilhtsum  esse,  instead  of  iUusisse;  xii.,  45  (belli 
causas  conlingit,  se)  earn  injuriam  exddio  ipsiv^  ultum  iturum,  for  ulturwn 
esse. 

But  it  must  be  observed  that  the  form  of  the  infinitive  futurd  ptkssive. 
perditum  iri,  is  derived  from  the  proper  signification  of  ;?erditum  ire,  to  gc 
to  destroy,  the  notion  of  going  or  intending  easily  passing  over  into  that 
of  futurity. 

[§  670.]  3.  The  supine  in  u  has  a  passive  sense,  and  is 
used  after  the  substantives  ^a*,  nefas,  and  opus,  and  after 
the  adjectives  good  or  had,  agreeable  or  disasreeable.wor" 
thy  or  unworthy,  easy  or  difficult,  and  some  others  of  sim- 
ilar meaning.  Of  the  adjectives  which  are  ioinnd  with 
this  supine,  the  following  occur  most  frequentlv  .*  "kimesi* 
us,ttirpis,jucundusyfaci1is,  incredihilis,  metnoraht'^  uti^ 

Go  P 


43tS^  LATIN    GRAMMAlt. 

dignus  and  indignus.  But  the  number  of  tibese  supinea 
actually  in  use  in  good  prose  is  very  smail,  and  almost 
limited  to  the  following  :  dictu^  auditu^  cogmtUyJactu^  in- 
ventus TnemoratUf  to  which  we  may  add  naiu  (by  birth,  ac- 
cording to  age),  which  occurs  in  die  expressions  grandis^ 
major  J  minor,  maximua,  and  minimus  ncUu.  But  we  also 
find  magno  natu^  of.  an  advanced  age,  and  maximo  natu 
filiusy  the  eldest  son,  where  natu  is  the  ablative  of  a  ver- 
bal substantive. 

Later  prose  writers,  however,  use  a  great  many  other 
supines  in  u,  and  it  cannot  be  denied  that  this  form  adds 
considerably  to  the  conciseness  of  the  Latin  language. 

Pleraque  dictu  quam  re  suntfctcUiora;  L^iv.,  xxxi.,  38. 
Quid  est  tamjucundum  cognitu  atque  auditu,  quam  sapien 

tibus  sententiis  gravibusque  verbis  omata  oratio  ?  Cic, 

de  Orat,j  L,  8. 

S>  671.]  Note. — The  best  writers,  however,  prefer  using /oo/tf,  difficHU,  ' 
jucundus  with  ad  and  the  gerund,  ret  facilis  ad  jtuUcandwn,  ad  tnteUi- 
gendum;  or  the  neuter  (it  is  easy,  &c.)  with  the  infinitive  &cti\e,  facile  eai 
invemret  exUtimare,  cognoacere.  In  some  cases  there  exist  verbal  nouns ; 
as,  lectiot  cognitio^  potuSf  which  are  used  in  the  dative  or  ablative  in  the 
same  sense  as  the  supines  /ectu,  a^nUu^  potu ;  e.  g.,  Plin.,  IRst.  Nat.,  zxiii., 
8,  arlnttus  fructumfert  difficUem  concoctioni  ;  vi,  8,  aqtta  potui  jucunda  ;  and 
Cicero  frequently  says  res  cpgnitume  dignae.  Dignus  is  most  commonly 
followed  by  the  relative  pronoun  with  the  subjunctive  (see  ^  568),  and  it 
is  only  the  poets  and  later  prose  writers  that  join  it  with  the  infinitive 
passive 


SYNTAXIS  ORNATA. 


The  preceding  portion  of  this  Grammar  contains  the 
rules  according  to  which  the  forms  of  the  declinable  parts 
of  speech  (cases,  tenses,  and  moods)  are  employed  in  the 
Latm  language  for  the  purpose  of  forming  SQntences. 
Hence  that  section  is  called  syntaxis  regvlaris.    If  we 
observe  those  rules,  the  language  (whether  spoken  oi 
written)  is  grammatically  correct  femendata,  grammati 
caj.     It  HOW  remains  to  treat  of  certain  peculiarities  of 
the  Latin  idiom  which  we  metU  with  in  the  works  of  the 
best  authors,  and  the  use  of  which  give?  to  the  language 
its  peculiar  Latin  colouring  (color  Latintts,  Laiine  scrihere) 
A  systematic  collection  of  remarks  of  this  kind  is  common 
,y  termed  syntaxis  omata. 


PECULIARITIES    IN   TUB    PARTS    OF   SPEECH.         4^ 

These  remarks,  however,  cannot  be  reduced  to  ^Ixed 
r  es,  and  their  application  must  be  left  entirely,  to  the 
(]i«jcretion  of  the  mdividual  writer;  for  when  used  too 
fi^equently  or  improperly,  they  render  the  Latin  style  af- 
&>cted  and  unpleasant,  instead  of  embellishing  it.  The  be- 
ginner must  also  beware  of  supposing  that  the  following 
remarks  contain  the  whole  secret  of  a  good  Latin  style. 
A  good  style  depends  for  the  most  part  upon  the  applica- 
tion of  general  principles  in  expressing  correct  thoughts 
in  an  appropriate  manner.  These  principles  are  the  same 
for  €^1  languages,  and  are  explained  in  Rhetoric,  a  distinct 
and  highly  important  branch  of  mental  cultivation.  But 
we  are  here  offering  a  supplement  to  the  Latin  syntax, 
and  can  accordingly  discuss  only  those  points  which  are 
either  peculiar  to  the  Latin  language  as  a  language,  or,  at 
least,  belong  to  it  more  peculiarly  than  to  the  English,  with 
which  alone  we  have  here  to  compare  it.  Many  peculiar- 
ities have  already  been  discussed  in  the  syntax,  especially 
in  the  notes,  and  it  will  not  be  difficult  to  find  them  by 
means  of  the  index. 

We  shall  comprise  all  we  have  to  say  under  four  heads : 
1.  Peculiarities  in  the  Use  of  the  Parts  of  Speech;  2.  Pie- 
fmasm;  3.  Ellipsis;  4.  Arrangement  of  Words  and  Struc- 
ture  of  Periods, 


CHAPTER  LXXXIV. 

PECULIARITIES  IN  THE  USE  OP  THE  PARTS  OP  SPEECH. 

A,  Substantives, 

[§  672.]  1.  The  place  of  an  adjective,  in  case  of  a  par 
ticular  stress  being  laid  upon  it,  is  often  supplied  by  a  suli- 
Btantive  expressing  the  quality  in  the  abstract,  and  the  other 
substantive  is  accordingly  joined  to  it  in  the  genitive ;  e. 
g.,  in  hac  (tanta)  varietate  studiorum  consensus  esse  non 
potestfi,  e.,  in  his  tarn  variis  studiis;  Cic,  de  Orat,,  iii., 
35,  quum  Aristotelss  florere  Isocratem  nobUitate  disciptdo- 
rum  videret^  i.  e.,  nohUihus'  or  claris  discipulis ;  p.  Rose, 
Am,,  17,  in  hanc  calamitatem  venit  propter  praediorum  bo* 
nitatem  et  multitudinem.   ' 

[§  673.]  2.  In  stating  the  age  at  which  a  person  per- 
formed any  action,  it  is  nOt  customary  in  Lectin  to  use  the 
ibstract  nouns  pueritia,  adolescentia^  juventus,  seneetus 


4^  LATIN  ORAKMAS 

ice,  with  die  preposidoli  in,  but  tlie  concrete  mrnsxBpmef 
adolescen9,juvenii^  senex,  &c^  are  joined  to  the  verb  (§  304) 
The  same  frequ^itly  takes  place  in  stating  the  number  at 
years  that  a  person  has  lived,  provided  there  are  adjectr 
ives  ending  in  en€trius  with  this  meaning ;  as,  trtcenarius^ 
texagenarius,  ootogmariue^  perhaps  also  vicenarius,  icfftma^ 
geTtarins,  nonagenarius  (see  §  119).  Those  in  enm^^&am 
annue,  are  less  frequently  used  in  the  sense  of  substant- 
ives. 

[§  674.]  3.  When  official  titles  are  used  to  indicate 
time,  the  cimcrete  nouns  usually  take  their  place ;  d.  g., 
instead  of  ante  or  past  coTuuktium  Cioeraim,  xt  is  prefera- 
ble to  say  ante  or  post  Cic^onem  conmlem;  and  instead 
of  in  consulate  Ouironis,  it  is  better  to  use  the.  ablat.  ab^ 
solute,  Cicerone  eanstde ;  and,  in  like  manner,  with  the  sub* 
stantive  pronouns,  ante  ox  pos^  te  praetorem  is  more  com* 
mon  than  ante  or  post  praetwqm  tuam,  and  te  praeiore  is 
better  than  in  praettsra  tua, 

[§  675.]  4.  Sometimes  abstract  nouns  are  used  instead 
of  concrete  ones ;  thus  we  frequently  find  nobHita^  £ov  no* 
biles f  juventus  for  juvenes^  vicinia  for  vicini^  servititan.  for 
servi,  levis  armatura  for  leviter  armati.  Other  words  of 
this  kind ;  as,  remigium  for  remiges,  mairimonium  ^r  uxa- 
res,  ministerium  for  ministriy  and  advocatio  iov  advocati, 
are  less  common,  and  occur  only  here  and  there.  See 
Drakenborch  on  Livy,  iii.,  15,  and  on*  Silius  ttal.,  xv., 
748.  Adolescentia  is  not  used  in  this  way ;  it  only  signi- 
fies the  age  of  an  adolescens,  but  is  never  equivalent  to 
adolescenteSf  BBJuventtLs  is  to  juvenes. 

We  must  add  that  the  neuters  nihil  and  quidquam  are 
sometimes  used  instead  of  the  masculines  nemo  and  quis- 
quam,  as  in  the .  expressions  hoc  victore  nihil  moderatitis 
est;  non potest  insipiente  fortunato  quidquam  fieri  intoler- 
abilius,  Cic,  JjaeL,  15. 

[§  676.]  5.  Names  of  nations  are  used  as  adjectives, 
and  joined  to  odier  substantives  which  demote  persons ; 
as,  miles  Galltis,  Syrus  phUo^ophus. ,    Oomp.  §  257. 

The  use  of  substantives  in  tor  and  trix  a^  adjectives  has 
been  sufficiently  explained  above  (§  102).  They  are  most 
frequently  joined  as  predicates  to  die  substandve  animus^ 
as  in  Sallust,  animus  Catilinae  cujuslibet  rei  simulator  ac 
dissimulator  ;  animus  rector  humani  generis^  &c. 

The  substantive  nc9»o  (nobody)  is  frequently  jomed  to 


PECULIAP.ITICft    rW  THE   PARTS -LP    SPEECH.  141 

o^ier  sabstantive  denoting  male  persons,  in  such  a  wa^ 
ihat  it  becomes  equivalent  to  tbe  adjective  nuUus  ;  Cic. 
cte  Orat,,i,y  28,  saepe  enim  soleo  andire  Roscium,  quum  ita 
dicat,  se  adhtic  reperire  disciptdumy  qutm  quidem  probaret, 
pottdsse  neminem ;  Thisc,  v.,  22,  adhuc  neminem  cognovi 
poetam,  qui  sihi  non  optimus  videretur  ;  de  Off^  iii.,  2,  ut 
nemo  pictor  esset  inventus,  qui  Coae  Veneris  earn  partem, 
quam  Apdles  inchoatam  rdiquisset,  absolveret;  de  Orat,^ 
i.,  4,  nemo  fere  adolescens  non  sibi  ad  dicendum  studio  om- 
ni  enitendum  puta^vit.  Sometimes  we  even  find  hmno  nemo  ; 
as,  Cic,  ad  Fam,,  xiii.,  55,  turn  vero,  posteaquam  mecum  in 
hello  atque  in  te  militari  fuit,  tantam  in  eo  virtutem,  pru- 
dentiam,fdem  cognovi,  ut  hominem  neminem  plur  is  faciam  ; 
de  Leg.,  ii.,  16,  quum  neimo  vir  bonus  ab  improbo  se  donan 
i)elit.  Quisquam,  Mrhich  has  likewise  tbe  value  of  a  sub- 
stantive, sometimes  follows  the  same  principle;  hence  we 
find  quisquam  homo,  quisquam  civis;  and  homo  itselx*  h 
joined  pleonastically  to  nouns  expressing  ago ;  Qa,*7u)mo 
adolescens,  homojuvenis;  this,  however,  may  be  explain- 
ed by  the  fact  of  adolescens  and  juvenis  being  properly  ad- 
jectives. Nullus  and  ullus,  on  the  other  hand,  are  useu 
as  substantives,  instead  of  nemo  and  quisquam,  especially 
the  genitive  nuUius  and  the  ablatJve  nullo,  neminis  not 'be- 
ing used  at  all,  and  nemine  very  rarely.  See  the  manner 
in  which  Cicero  varies  his  expression  in  p,  Muren,,  40,  «^ 
injuste  neminem  laesit,  si  nullitis  aures  volimtatemve  viola-, 
vit,  si  nemini,  ut  levissime  dicam,  odio  nee  domi,  nee  mili- 
tiae  fait ;  de  Off,,  i.,  4,  honestum  vere  dicimus,  etiamsi  e 
mdlo  laudetur,  natura  esse  laudabile  ;  Lael,,  9,  ut  quisquf 
sic  munifUs  est,  ut  nullo  egeat. 

r§  677.]  6.  Nihil,  properly  a  substantive,  is  used  adverb- 
ially as  an  emphatic  non.  (like  the  Greek  ov66v  for  ov),  in 
the  sense  of  "  in  ho  way,"  ",in  no  respect ;"  e.  g.,  nihil 
mefallisj  nihil  te  impedio,  nihil  te  rrurror,  Graedae  nUiU 
Jedtmus;  Tereiit.,  Afidr,,  init.,  nihil  istac  opus  M  arte ; 
Cic,  in  Rtdl;  ii.,  23,i^Pompeitis  benefido  isio  legis  nihil 
utitur;  Liv.,  iv.,  33,  ea  specie^  nihil  terruit  equos;  xxii.^ 
45,  nihU  consulto  coll^gd;  xxxviii.,  40,  Thraces  nihil  se 
moverunt.  Also  with,  adjectives,  Liv.,  iv.,  9,  nihil  Ro* 
manae  plebis  similis  ;  Sallust.,  Cat,,  17  Senatus  nihil  sane 
intenius.  Nonnihil  is  likewise  used  adverbiahy  in  the 
■onse  of  **  to  some  extent,'*  "  in  some  measure ;"  e.  g. 
Cic,  ad  Fam.,  iv.,  li,'nonvihil  me  consolatur  quum  reco? 


442  *  LATIN   GKAMMAA. 

do7»  Q^^zW^tfam,  like  nxhil/\%  also  used  as  an  adverb, 
as,  Cic.f  de  Invent,,  ii.,  27,  nt  hoc  quidem  ipso  qutd^am 
opus  Jkit,  Respecting  aliquidy  e.  g.,  res  aliquid  differt^ 
«ee  §  385,  and  compare  what  is  said  of  quid  iii  §  711. 

[§  678.J  7.  Some  substantives  are  used  frequently  foi 
the  purpose  of  forming  circumlocutions,  especially  res,  ge* 
Hus^  modusy  ratio,  animus,  and  corpus. 

Res  is  often  used  for  the  neuter  of  pronouns  and  adjectives  (see  above 
^  363),  in  such  a  manner  that  sometimes  even  references  to  the  preceding 
re»are  expressed  by  a  neuter ;  as,  Cic,  de  Divin.,  i,  52,  eamm  rerttm  utrvm- 

?He  ;  Sa\\u8t,Jug.^lQ2,  kumaiianmi  rerttm  pleraquejoptuna  regit ;  Liv.,  xUuu, 
7,  netjuia  tdlam  rem  magistratibus  Romania  cortferret,  praeterquam  quod  tena 
tus  censuisaet ;  Cic,  de  JJivm,,  ii.,  57,  flWnt  prxmida  rerumfiUuranaH,  ut  ea  nor 
modo  cemat,  &c.  •  .        . 

Genus  is  used  in  circumlocutions  like  the  English  Tdnd^  regard,  respect , 
in  hoc  generej  in  this  respect ;  quo  in  genere^  in  which  respect ;  in  omni  ge 
nere  te  quotidie  desidero,  m  every  respect :  in  like  manner,  omnt  genere  virtu- 
tisfiorere,  "  to  be  possessed  of  every  virtue,**  instead  of  which  we  at  least 
should  be  inclinea  to  say  virtute  ovnms  generis. 

Modus  very  frequently  serves  as  a  circumlocution  for  adverbs  (like  Uie 
English  v)ay  or  manner) ;  in  this  manner,  hoc  or  tali  modo,  or  with  the  prep- 
osition in :  in  hunc  modum  loctttus  est,  major  em  in  modum  peto  ([  beg  more 
urgently),  mirum  {mirabilemj  incredibilem)  in  modum  gaudeoj  miserandumAn 
modum  necatus  est;servUem  in  modum  cruciari.  Ad  is  lound  less  frequestly ; 
e.  g.,  Cicero,  Est  igitur  ad  hunc  modum  sermo  nobis  institutus  ;  C^es&T^Ipso- 
rum  naves  ad  hunc  modum  factae  armataeque  erant.  The  genitive  modi  with 
a  pronoun  supplies  the  place  of  the  pronomirta  qualitatis  (^  130),  which  are 
either  wanting,  or  not  much  used.  Thus,  cujusmodi  is  used  for  qualis ;  hu- 
jusmodi^  istiusmodif  ejusmodiy  ejusdemmodi,  for  talis,  and  cujusdammodi  for 
the  indefinite  pronomen  qualitatis,  which  does  not  exist. 

Ratio  properly  signifies  '*  an  account,"  and  is  also  used  in  the  same  sense 
as  the  English  "  on  account  of;**  e.  g.,  Cicero,  propter  rationem  belli  Gallici, 
equivalent  to  propter  bellum  Gallicum  ;  in  Verr.,  l.,  40,  mvUa  propter  rationem 
brevitatts  ac  temporis  praetermittenda  existimo,  for  the  sake  of  brevity, -^rew- 
tatis  causa.  Sometimes,  however,  this  explanation  is  inapplicable,  and  we 
must  have  recourse  to  the  supposition  of  a  mere  circumlocution ;  e.  g.,  in 
Verr.y  iv.,  49,  orotic  mea,  aliena  ab  judicionan  ratione,  instead  of  a  juc^cUs'; 
•.  Mitren.,  17,  quod  enim  f return,  quem  JSuripum  tot  motus,  tantas,tam .■^flriaa 
habere  puteUis  agitationes  fiuctwjon,  qtumtaa  perturbations*  et  qwintos,  <K;^^  ha- 
bit ratio  comitiorum  ?  instead  of  comitia  ;  and  in  the  same  chapter/ ivt^  est 
incertius  vulgo,  nihil  obscuritts  vohmtate  homxnum,  nihil  faUadus  ratione  tota 
amutiorum,  than  the  whole  character  of  the  comitie,  t6  tUv  iipxoipeffuiv , 
comp.  the  same  speech,  chap.  2,  praecipere  tempestatum  rationem  et  praedo- 
num  ;  de  Off.,  \\^  17,  tota  igitur  ratio  taiium  largitionum  vitiosa  est,  sea  inter- 
dum  n^^essaria,  mstead  of  tcdes  largitiohes  omnea,  which,  however,  would  be 
leaa  idiomatic. 

Ammiu  (and  the  phiral  animi,  when  several  persons  are  spoken  of)  i* 
often  usQd  as  a  periphrasis  for  thenerson  himself,  but  only  when  the  feel 
ings  of  a  person  are  spoken  of.  Tnus  we  say,  e.  g.,  animus  (meus)  abhor- 
ret  ab  aUqua  re,  instead  of  ego ;  and  in  like  manner,  ardmum  contineo  or  sub- 
miito,  instead  of  me  ;  cogitare  aliquid  cum  animo  suo,  statuere  apud  animum 
stium,  pro  animi  mm  voluntate.  ana  very  frequently  animvm  alicujus  motiere. 
commovere,  turbare,  offendere,  d&c. 

Corpus  is  used  in  some  expressions  instead  of  the  personal  pronoun ;  e. 
g.,  imponere  corpus  lecto,  to  go  to  bed ;  levare  corpus  -n  Cid>itum,  to  lean  upot 
the  elbow  *  corpus  applicare  stipiti,  to  lean  against  a  tree  •  librare  corpus^  t4 
«vim;?  one's  sflf 


PECULIARITIBS   IN    TUB   FA^TB    Or    SPEECH*         443 

[§  679.]  8.  The  periphrasis,  by  n^ans  of  caiisd  and  ope- 
rdy  is  common  in  ordinary  language;  hence  it  has  been 
noticed  abpye,  §  454  and  455.  Gratia  is  used  in  the  same 
Bense  as  causa,  but  less  frequently ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Nat, 
Zhor.,  ii.,  63,  tantumque  ahest  ut  hacc  bestiarum  causa  pa- 
^cUd  sint,  ut  ipsas  bestias  hominum  gratis  generatas  esse  vi- 
deawMs;  ergo  (originally  epyw),  which  has  the  same  mean- 
imgiPccurs  still  more  rarely,  and  chiefly  in  early  juridical 
language ;  e.  g.,  in  the  formula  in  Cic,  ad  Att,,  iii.,  23,  ^i 
quid  contra  alias  leges  hujus  legis  ergo  factum  est ;  de  Opt, 
Gen,  Or,^  7,  doTpafi  virtutis  ergo  benivolentiaeque, 

Nomen^  edso,  belongs  to  this  class  of  substantives,  inas- 
much as  the  Bhl^tive  nomiTie  (in  respect  of)  is  often  used 
in  the  sense  of  "  on  account  of,'*  or,  '*on  the  part  of;"  e.  g., 
Cic,  p,  Muren,f  38,  neque  isti  me  meo  nomine  interfici,  sed 
vigilantem  Consulem  de  rei  publicae  praesidjo  demovere  t'o- 
lunt;  ad  Quint,  JFrat.,  ii.,  2,  Quod  ad  me  Lentuli  nomine 
scripsisti,  locutus  sum  cum  Cindo. 

[§  6^.]  9.  Nanq^es;  of  nations  are  very  often  used  for 
those  of  counties,  and  many  names  of  countries  very  sel- 
dom occur  at  all.  (See  §  95.)  In  Nepos  we  read,  in  Pef 
SOS  projicisci^  ex  Medis  ad  adversariorum  hiberndcula  per- 
ventt,  in  Lucanis  aliqttidjecit,  and  similar  expressions  are 
of  very  frequent  occurrence  in  other  writers  also,  in  Col- 
fJhQS  abiitj  in  Bactrianis  Sogdianisque  urbes  condidit ; .  and 
we  can  only  say  in  Volscis  res  bene  gestae  sunt,  in  Acquis 
nikil.wi^smorabile  actum,  in  Sabinisnatu^,  versatus,  for  there 
are  no  names  for  the  countries  inhabited  by  these  people; 
in  like  manner,  there  is  no  name  (at  least  in  Latin  voters) 
for  the  town  of  the  Leontini,  who  are  mentioned  so  fre 
quently.  Hence  verbs  are  joined  with  names  of  nations, 
which  are  properly  applied  only  to  countries;  thus  we 
commonly  read  in  the  historians  vastare,  devdstarCy  and 
also  ferro  atque  igni  vastare ;  e.  g.,  Sc^mnitesy  instead  of 
agros  Samnitium,  Liv.,  xxiii,  43,  Nolani  in  medio,  siti  ; 
and  names  of  nations,  on  the  other  hand,  are  construed  as 
names  of  towns;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxiv.,  30,  Leontinos  ire,  and 
^Cicero  often  has  Leontinis,  Centwripinis  instead  ij^f  in  J^e* 
mUiniSy  &;c 

[§681.]  10.  Verbal  substantives; are  soraetiipes  joined 
with  the  case  governed  by  the  verb  from  which  they  Are 
d(E>riyed.  There  is  only  one  instapo©  of  the  aipcuaativo  in 
Plaut«  •  Asin ,  v.,  2,  70,  Quid  tibi  hue  receptio  ad  te  est  vi' 


I 


444  LATIN  OftAUMAm. 

rum  meumf  but  vho  d«ttiv6  is  more  frequent,  Cia,  de  Ltg,^ 
«.,  15,  Justitia  est  ohtemperatio  scriptis  legihuw  i$uiitu$isf^ 
popularum;  Topic, ,  5,  traditio  alteri;  p.  Plane.,  1,  qttmm 
tarn  multos  et  bonos  vvros  ejuskonori  viderem  essejkutoreg; 
Liv.y  xxiii.,  36,  praeceperat,  ne  qua  exprohratio  cuiquam  v&- 
terUfortunae  disctfrdiam  inter  ordinea  sereret.  Hence  Gte- 
ero  sB,yB,  reditua  Romam,  Narbonereditus,  adventuM  in  Ital' 
iam,  domum  itio,  and  Caesar,  domwn  rtditio.  The  dafim, 
which  is  often  joined  to  the  words  legatus,  pra^ecUta^  aiM 
€iccen»U8,  instead  <^  the  genitive,  is  of  a  difibrent  krod, 
these  words  being  originally  participles,  and  therefore 
admitting  both  constructions,  legatuB  LucuUi  and  IakuUo, 
praefectus  castrorum  and  praefectus  urH. 

B.  Adjectives, 

[§  682.]  l..An  adjective  is  sometimes  used  in  Latin 
where  in  English  wo  employ  an  adverb.  This  is  the  case 
when  the  state  or  condition  of  the  9n\>]ett  during  an  acUon 
IS  described,  and  when  the  action  remains  the  same*  in 
whatever  state  the  subject  may  be.  Hence  we  say,  So- 
crates venenum  laetus  hausit:  invitus  dedipecuniam;-  m- 
prudens  in  hoc  malum  inddi;  si  peccavi  insciensj^;  nefno 
saltat  sobrius  ;  perterritus,  trepidus,  or,  intrepidus  ad  me 
venit  /  but  we  may  say,  tardus  or  tarde  ad  me  venisti^  lae- 
tus or  laeee  vimt,  libens  hoc  feci  or  libenter  hoc  fed,  smee 
here  the  action  itself  maybe  conceived  as  being  modified. 
In  such  cases  the  poets  are  always  more  inclined  to  use 
the  adjective,  either  because  it  has  more  oi  a  descriptive 
power,  or  because  they  like  to  deviate  from  ordmary 
practice.  Horace,  e.  g.,  says,  domesticus  otior,  vespertinus 
tectum  peto;  and  Persius,  te  juvat  noctumis  impallescere 
chartis,  instead  of  which  the  adverbs  domi,  vesperi^  and 
noctu  would  be  used  in  prose.  But  it  must  be  remarked, 
in  general,  that  the  Latin  language  is  partial  to  express- 
ing adverbial  modifications  by  an  adjective  or  participle 
joined  to  the  substantive ;  e.  g.,  mortuo  Socrati  magnus 
honos  habitus  estf  where  we  should  say,  **  great  honour  was 
]iaid  to  Socrates  after  (Ms)  death ;"  Nep.,  Att.^  3,  Quam'^ 
diu  affuit,  ne  qua  sihi  statua  poneretur  rCstitit,  absens  pro* 
hibere  non  potuit,  in  his  absence ;  Liv.,  xxL,  25,  practo? 
tffusum  agm^en  ad  Mutinam  ducit,  he  led  the  army^  withoiK 
keeping  it  together,  to  Mutina. 

f§  683.]  2.  The  origin  fronr  a  place  or  country  is  gen 


PECULIARITIES  IN   THE    PABTS    3P   SPEE^^B.         441 

• 

ei«il)y  expressed  hf  adjecdres  formed  irom  the  nunes  of 
t^  places,  and  not  by  the  names  themselves,  unless  we 
-ptseieT  the  circumlocution  by  means  of  tl.3  participles  na* 
tU9y  ortusy  prfyfsctus.  E.  g.,  "  Thrasybulus  of  Athens"  is 
in'  Latin  l^cbsyimlus  AtheMiensis ;  and,  in  like  manner, 
Oorgias  Leontintu,  Protagoras  Ahderites,  Pirodicus  Ceug, 
&e.  Livy  often  uses  ab;  as,  i.,  50,  Tumus  Herdanms  ab 
Arida;  iy.,  3,  Turqmmus  inccia  ab  Tarqumiis.;  Caesar 
pi^efers  the  ablative  alone ;  as,  Bell.  Civ.,  L,  34,  On,  Ma 
giu3  Cremona,  eomp.iii.,  71.  The  tribe  to  which  a  per 
son  belongs  is  expressed  by  the  aldntive  alone;  e«  g.,  Ser, 
Bulpiciue^  Lermmii^Rufue ;  Q.  Verree  BomUia;  C,  Cl€m- 
diue  C.  F.  Palatina. 

iVoie.--AdjectiTes  of  ibis  kind  belong  to  the  name,  and  scnre  to  distin 
g[uish  the  nerson  from  others  of  the  same  name.    There  are  some  adjec- 
lives  whicn  the  Romans  did  not  hke  to  join  to  a  proper  name :  they  wonld 
not  have  said,  e.  g.,  SocraUt  tapiens^  but  would  have  pnt  it  in  the  lorm  of 
apposition,  iSocrates,  homo  aapieuB^  or  aapUntUaimu*,    See  ^.  796. 

[§  684.]  3.  It  is  a  veiy  common  practice  in  Latin  to  use 
adjectives  derived  from  pcoper  names  instead  of  the  gen- 
itive of  those  names.  Hence  \m  say,  e.  g.,  Ciceronian^ 
99mplicita»f  the  simplicity  of  Cicero ;  Her^des  Xewtphon- 
tew^  Hercules  in  2^nophon,  i.  e.,  according  to  the  de- 
scription of  Xenophon;  prodivm  Camiense^  the  battle  of 
Ganftae;  beUttmi  in  particular,  is  frequently  joined  with  an 
adjective  derived  from  the  nation  or  king  against  whom 
war  was  carried  on ;  e«  g,,  bellum  Mitkridaticmn^  Cimbri- 
0im^  Ma/reicmHf  Pumcum^  &c.  On  the  same  principle, 
the  possessive  pronouns  are  used  instead  of  the  persona) 
ones  with  a  preposition,  especially  with  the  words  epi^io- 
./ft  and  litterae;  multas  litterae  tuas  uno  tempore  accept^ 
tuas  litterae  expecto,  nunquam  epistolam  meam  legieti  uiei 
imi^u  m^  ecriptam. 

Note. — This  is  less^fiequfflitl^  the  case  with  adjectives  derived  from  ap- 
.  pellative  nouns,  as  the  derivation  is  not  so  easily  made.  But  wherevei 
there  are  such  adjectives,  they  are  usually  employed  in  preference  to  the 
genitive ;  bence  heriiUJUmtf  the  son  of  the  master ;  fuigor  amtuty  the  fame 
of  the  grandfather ;  amorem  tervilem  objicertf  a  love  anair  with  a  slave : 
with  bellum  ;  bellvm  sociaUf  beUum  servile^  instead  of  Which,  however,  beUvm 
•oeiorttm,  servorum  is  more  frequent.  We  must  here,  also,  mention  the  an* 
iectiYes  in  0rttf«  derived  from  sabstantives,  and  denoting  a  trade  or  profei*i 
lion ;  as,  negotium  vinarivnif  wine  business ;  negotiator  vinarius^  a  wine-mep 
chant ;  mercatorfrumentaritUj  a  com-merchant ;  institor  unguentariuSf  medi 
CU9  eeiHaritu.    See  %  252. 

But  it  also  happens  very  frequently  that  the  English  use  an  a<ljectivi 
where  the  Latin  language  must  have  recourse  to  tho  ^enitfve  of  a  sub- 
stantive ;  as,  mental  contemplation,  contemplaih  mentis ;  hterary  occupation 
yUterairum  Mtudia,  &c 

Pp 


^ 


446  LATlK  GRAMMAR. 

[)  685.]  4.  The  adverbial  expression^  dencidiie  at,  tJi  oi 
on  a  place  are  generally  expressed  in  Latin  by  adjectivos; 
e.  g.,  in  aumma  arbore^  on  the  top  of  a  tree ;  in  media 
urbe^  in  the  midst  of  the  city;  sol  in  medio  mundo  situs  est^ 
Terence,  quis  est  hie  senex,  quern  video  in  ultima  plated  f 
whom  I  see  at  the  end  of  die  street ;  Caesar,  prima  luce 
summus  mons  a  Labieno  tenebatur,  the « summit  of  the 
mountain.  The  use  of  the  neuter  of  these  adjectives  as 
substantives,  as  in  summo  arboris,  occurs  only  in  later 
writers,  whom  we  should  not  imitate.  See  above,  §  435. 
Adjectives  are  also  used  in  expressions  denoting  time, 
where  we  say  "at  the  beginning,"  "  in  the  .middle,"  **at 
the  end;"  e.g., prima,  media  nocte, prima  luce  (not prima 
die),  extremo  anno;  Oic,  p.  Leg,  Man.^  12,  Mcutimum 
bellum  On.  Pompeius  extrenia  hieme  apparavit,  ineunte  vert 
sHscepit,  media  aestate  confecit,  .   . 

[§  686.]  5.  In  like  manner,  the  corresponding  adjec 
lives  are  often  used  for  the  ordinal  adverbs  jpfttw,  primum 
(pr^primo),  posterius,  postremum,  when  they  belong  to  a 
noun  in  the  proposition  ^  e.  g.,  hivy,- Priori  Remo  auguri- 
um  venisse  fertur ;  Curt.,  iv.,  20;  Tyriorum  gens  litteras 
prima  aut  docuit  aut  didicit  /  Liv.,  xxviii.,  12,  Htspania 
postrema  omnium  provinciarum,  ductu  Augusti  Caesaris^ 
perdomita  est;  Cic,  in  Fm*.-,'ii.,  1,  Omnium  exterarum  na* 
tionum  princeps  Sicilia  se  ad  amidiiam  Jidemque  populi 
Ro7n,  applicuit:  prima  omnium,  id  guofi  omamentum  im- 
perii  est,  provincia  est  appeUata :  prima  docuit  majores 
nostros,  quam  praeclarum  esset,  exteris  gentibus  imperare; 
solafuit  eafide  benivolentiaque  erga  populum  Rom.,  ut  civ' 
iiates  ejus  insulae,  quae  semel  in  amicitiam  nostrdm  venis- 
sent,  nunquam  postea  deficerent. 

[§  687.]  6.  In  the  same  manner,  the  adjectives  solia  and 
untis,  joined  with  a  noun,  are  very  frequently  used-i^r  the 
adverbs  modo,  solum,  tantum, ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  ad  Att.,  v.,  17. 
Scaevola  solos  novem  menses  Asiae  praefuit,  only  nine 
months;  Terent.,  Phorm.,  iii.,  3, 2^,(^antum  opus  est  tibi 
argenti  ?  Solae  triginta  minae;  Cic,  de  Fin.^  L,  14,  Homo 
non  sibi  se  soli  natum  meminerit,  sed  jHitriae,  sed  suisi^''^ 
on  the  other  hand,  we  read,  de  Off.,  i.,  7,  n,on  nobis  solum 
nati  sumus  ;  comp.  de  Fin.,  i.,  13,  44) ;  ad  Quint,  Fra^t,^ 
i.,  1,  in  tuis  summis  laudibus  excipiunt  unam  irUcundiam  ; 
ibid.,  me,  cui  se^npcr  uni  magis,  quam,  universis  placere  iv» 
luisti.     So,  also,  unum  illud  cogkcnt^  unum  hoc  dico- 


PECULIARITIES   IN    THE    PARTS    OP   SPEECH.        441 

'  [§  p88.]  7.  Nullus  is  used  for  the  adverb  non^  not  <)nly 
with  esse  and  verbs  of  similar  meaning,  which  is  easily  ex- 
plained ;  as  in  Cicero,  nolite  existimare,  me,  quum  a  vobis 
di^cessero,  nitsquam  aut  nullum  fore;  i.  e.,  no  longer  exist: 
but  sometimes,  also,  with  verbs  expressing  a  distinct  ac 
tion ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  p.  Rose.  Am,,  44,  haec  bona  in  tabular 
publicas  nulla  redierunt ;  ad  AtL,  xv.,  22,  Sexttis  ab  armis 
nullus  discedit ;  xi.,  24,  PhUotimus  non  modo  nullus  venii, 
sed  ne  per  litt^ras  quidem — certiorem  frcit  me,  quid  egeriU 
But  it  occurs  rarely  in  prose,  frequently  in  Terence ;  as, 
memini,  tametsi  nullus  moneas,  and  the  phrase  nullus  du' 
hito,  which  is  so  frequently,  though  improperly,  used  by 
modems,  should  be  employed  only  in  conversation,  and 
never  without  a  comical  or  humorous  shade  of  meaning. 

[§  689.]  8.  The  place  of  the  adverb  quum,  joined  to  a 
tense  of  posse  to  strengthen  the  superlative  of  adjectives, 
is  often  supplied  by  &e  adjective  quantus,  in  the  same 
case  as  the  superlative ;  hence,  instead  of  qudm  maximis 
potuit  itineribus  ad  hostem  contendit,  we  may  say  quantis 
maximis  potuit  itineribus*  Examples  are  numerous ;  those 
which  occur  in  Livy  are  collected  by  Drakenborch  on 
xlii.,  15.  Cicero  uses  this  mode  of  speaking  only  when 
tantus  precedes ;  e.  g.,  de  Fin,,  i.,  12,  statue  aliquem  con- 
fectum  tantis  animi  corporisque  doloribus,  quanti  in  ho^ni- 
nem  maximi  cadere  possunt ;  LaeL,  20,  tanta  est  inter  cos^ 
quanta  maxima  esse  potest,  m^orum  sttidiorumque  distafUia, 
[§  690.]  9.  When  two  adjectives  or  adverbs  are  com- 
pared with  each  other,  J^oth  are  put  in  the  comparative ; 
e.  g.,  longior  qudm  latior,  calidior  quam  cautior  perictda 
adiit,  fortius  qtiam  folicius  beUum  gesserunt^  acrius  <fuam 
constantius  proelium  inierunt;  Cic,  p,  Milon.,  29,  non  ti' 
meo  ne  Ubentius  haec  in  ilium  evomere  videar  quam  verius  ; 
Li  v.,  xxii.,  38,  PauU  Aemilii  contio  foit  verior  quam  gra- 
tiorpopulo.  The  same  is  the  case  when  the  comparative 
is  formed  by  means  ofmagis;  e.  g.,  Cic^  in  Verr.,  ii.,  72, 
neque  enim  vereor,jne  quis  hoc  me  magis  accusatorie  quam 
libere  dixisse  arbitretur ;  Brut,,  68,  magis  audacter  quam 
parate  ad  dicendum  veniebat. 

J^ote. — Tacitus  has  his  peculiarities  in  this  respect  also :  he  uses  the  posi- 
live  in  one  part  of  the  proposition ;  e.  g.j  Agr.^  4,  speciem  excelsae  gtoriae 
tehementius  quam  catUe  appetebat ;  or  the  positive  in  both,  Ann.^  iv.,  61,  c/an« 
mafforilfw  quam  vetustis.  In  a  similar  manner,  he  and  othe:  s  modify  the 
cohstrirction  quo  magis — eo  magis  ;  Liv.,  L,  25,  Romani  Horatium  eo  nui/ore 
turn  gaudio  accipiunt,  quo  props  metum  res  fuerat  ;  comp.  Tacit.,  Ann.,  i.,  5? 
and  68    Hist.,  ii.,  99 ;  Ann.,  i.,  74 ;  quanioque  incautius  efferverat,  poenitenhm 


448  LATIN   6BAMMAK« 

patitM  thlH  instead  of  ttmto  ^atkntion  but  in  Ann.^  i  ,  (T?  we  fina.  7'ti 
veriua  qitanto  intetUiia  olim  pubhcaa  ad  curas^  tanto  occultos  in  liMUs  et*malum 
otium  resolutus,  if  the  common  reading  be  correct.  ^ 

[§  691.]  10.  The  numeral  unus  is  added  to  superlatives 
for  the  puipose  of  strengthening  their  meaning;  as,  Cic, 
Lad,,  1,  qiLo  mortuo  me  ad  pontijlcem  Scaevofam  contuliy 
quern  unmn  nostrae  civitatis  et  ingenio  et  justitia  praestan- 
tissimum  audco  dicere;  p.  Plane,  41,  urhem  unam  miki 
amicissimam  declinavi;  in  Verr,,  i.,  init.,  quod  unuin  ad 
invidiam  vestri  ordinis  sedandam  maxime  pertinehat ;  ad 
Fam,f  xiii.,  43,  qtw  ego  uno  equite  Romano  familiarissim^ 
utor.  The  genitive  omnium  may  be  added  to  unus ;  as, 
Cic,  Brut,,  6,  eloqtientiam  rem  unam  esse  omnium  difficUli' 
mam;  ad  Fam,,  xi.,  16,  hoc  ego  uno  omnium  plurimum 
utor.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  verb  excellere;  e.  g., 
Cic,  Tusc,  ii.,  18,  Virtutes  appellatae  sunt  ah  ea,  quae  una 
ceteris  excellehat, 

[§  692.]  11.  The  numeral  sexcenti  is  used  in  conver- 
sational language  to  express  any  large  number,  as  we 
say  a  thousand ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  ad  AtU,  vi.,  4,  in  quo  multa 
molesta,  discessus  noster,  belli  periculum^  militum  improhi' 
tas,  sexcenta  praeterea ;  Terent.,  Tkorm,,  iv.,  3,  63,  sex* 
centas  proinde  scrihito  mihi  dicas,  nihil  do^  bring  a  thou- 
sand actions  against  me,  I  will  not  pay.  Mille,  and  espe- 
cially  millies,noweYGT,  are  used  m  the  same  way;  as, 
Cic,^.  Milon,,  20,  villam  ut  perspiceret?  millies  in  eaju- 
erat;  de  Off,^  i.,  31,  Ajax  millies  oppetere  mortem,  quam 
ilia  perpeti  maluisset, 

C.  Pronouns, 

[§  693.]  1.  The  personal  pronouns  are  expressed  in  thef 
nominative  when  particular  stress  is  laid  on  the  subject 
of  a  proposition ;  in  other  cases  the  person  is  sufficiently 
indicated  by  the  termination  of  the  verb.  See  above,  § 
379.  It  must  be  especially  observed  that  tu  is  used  ir» 
questions  and  addresses  expressive  of  indignation ;  as, 
Auct,  ad  Herenn,,  iv.,  13,  7u  in  forum  prodire,  tu  lucem 
conspicere,  tu  in  horum  conspectum  venire  conaris  ?  Cic,  in 
Verr.,  v.,  52,  tu  a  civitatibtis  pecunias  dassis  nomine  coe 
gisti  I  tu  pretio  remiges  dimisisti  !  tu,  navis  quum  esset  ah 
legato  et  quaestore  capta  praedonum,  archipiratam  ah  om> 
mum  oculis  removisti  !  See  He^ndorf  on  Horat.,  ^t,,  ii. 
2,  20.  It  occurs  also  vnth  the  s  ibjunctive,  according  to  \ 
629 ;  e.  g.,  Cic.  Philip,,  viL,  2.  Favea^  tu  h/tsti  f  lin^   * 


peculiaIiitibs  m  the  parts  of  speech.      449 

• 

iH^  iUe  mitUU  de  ^ua  spe  remm  secundarum  ?  eas  tu  ladus 
prqfe/Oi  f  recites  ?  deicribendas  etiam  des  improbia  civibus  J 
Stc*f  et  te  eonsularem,  aut  senator em^  ant  demgue  civem 
jnUe*? 

[§  694. J  2.  The  plural  of  the  first  peison  is  oflen  used 
instead  of  the  singular,  nas  for  ego,  and  noster  for  metts^ 
and  the  verb,  evea  without  the  pronoun  being  expressed, 
is  put  in  the  first  person  plural  instead  of  the  first  person 
singular;  e.  g.,  Oic..,  de  Vivin,^  \\,,  1,  sex  libroa  de  re  pub* 
Uca  tunc  scripsimus,  qtium  gubemacula  rei  publicae  teneba-^ 
WHS,  This  use  of  the  plural,  which  occurs  also  in  mod- 
em langi^^ges,  must  not  be  considered  as  an  affectation, 
for  nos  gives  the  idea  of  communicating  something,  and 
makes  the  reader  go  along  with  the  writer,  whereas  ego 
egresses  a  distinct  individual,  and  therefbre  produces 
the  impression  of  assumption  much  more  frequently  than 
the  plural  It  must  be  observed  that  the  genitive  no^i 
is  used  for  mei^  but  not  7U)stTwm^  this  genitive  always  <sx- 
pressing  a  plurality. 

[§  695.]  3.  Ipse  (self)  is  very  frequently  equivalent  to 
the  English  "just"  or  "  very,"  when  it  denotes  the  agroQ 
ment  or  coincidence  of  two  things ;  when  joined  to  nu- 
merals, it  signifies  "  neither  more  nor  less,"  and  when  to 
other  nouns,  "only;"  e.  g.,  Cic,  ad  Att,^  iv.,  l,pridie  Non, 
Seost.  Dyrrhachio  sum  prqfectus,  ipso  illo  die,  quo  lex  est 
lata  de  nobis :  Brundisium  veni  Non,  Sext,,  ibi  mihi  Tul- 
liola  meajuit praesto,  natali  stio  ipso  die;  iii.,  21,  trigin- 
ta  dies  erant  ipsi,  quum  ha^  dabam  litter a^^  per  quos  nul- 
las  a  vobis  acceperam  ;  p,  JLeg,  Man,,  15,  et  quisquam  du* 
hitabit — quamjfacile  imperio  atque  exercitu  socios  et  vectiga 
lid  conservaturus  sit,  qui  ipso  nomine  ac  rumore  defenderit, 

[§  696.]  4.  Ipse,  when  joined  to  personal  pronouns,  is 
put  in  the  case  of  the  subject,  i.  e.,  m  the  nominative,  or, 
m  the  constiiiction  of  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  in 
the  accusative,  when  stress  is  to  be  laid  on  the  idea  im- 
plied  in  the  subject ;  but  it  is  put  in  the  same  case  as  the 
pronoun  when  the  object  is  to  be  distinguished  from  other 
objects,  as  is  the  case,  e.  g.,  in  Cic,  p.  Leg,  Man,,  13,  Non 
potest  exercitutn  is  ccuUinere  imperator,  qui  se  ipsum  non 
L^^ntinet;  ad  Fam,,  ix.,  14,  Tu  quoniam  rem  publicam  nos-^ 
que  conservas,Jac  zU  diligentissime  te  ipsum  custodias  ;  iii., 
7,  On.  Pompeium  omnibus,  Lentulum  mihi  ipsi  antepono, 
]n  the  following  passages  stress  is  laid  on  the  subject, 

P  p  2 


450  LATIN   GRAMMAR.  ' 

Cic,  hael,t  3,  Non  egeo  medicina  (i.  e.,  ut  alii  me  coiioo* 
lentiir);  me  ipse  consoler;  ad  Fam,^  xii.,  13,  Masdmus  com* 
ttdaris  t/wximum  consulem,  te  ipse  vicisti  ;  in  Verr.,  iii.,  1, 
Nos,  nisi  facile  cupiditates  nostras  teneremuSf  nunquam  ijh- 
timet  nobis  praecideremus  istam  licentiam  libertaiemque  vi- 
vendi;  Liv.,  iii.,  56,  accusando  eum^  a  cujus  crudelitaU 
tjosmet  ipsi  armis  vindicastis.  Hence  we  say,  me  ipsum 
diligOf  but  sibi  ipse  mortem  conscivii,  pro  se  ipse  dixit,  de  se 
ipse  praedicatf  and  in  the  accusative  with  the  infinitiye, 
deforme  est  dc  se  ipsum  praedicare  (Cic,  de  Of,,  i.,  38).  It 
must  be  remarked  in  general,  thatOicero  is  partial  to  con* 
Btruing  ipse  as  the  subject,  even  where  the  emphasis  be- 
longs to  the  object ;  e.  g,,  in  Verr.,  i.,  6,  ut  non  modo  pep* 
ulo  Romano^  sed  etiam  sibi  ipse  condemnatus  videretur  ;  ad 
Fam.^  iv.,  8,  non  ita  abundo  ingenio^  ut  te  consoler,  quum 
ipse  me  nonpossim  ;  ad  Quint,  FraL,  i.,  1,  2«  Quid  est  nc' 
gotii  continere  eos,  quibus  praesis,  si  te  ipse  coniineas  1 

Note, — Ipse,  when  joined  to  a  p^oesessive  pronoun  in  a  redective  clause, 
usually  takes  the  case  of  the  subject ;  e.  g.,  mecrni  ipse  legem  negligo,  tuam 
ipse  legem  negligis^  not  meam  ipsius^  tuam  ipsius^  &c.,  as  we  may  say,  ac- 
cording to  %  424,  Cic,  de  Orat.j  ii.,  2,  si  ex  scriptis  cognosoi  ipsi  svis  potuis- 
sftU ;  p.  Rose.  Am,i  29,  Conveniat  mihi  UQtim  necesse  est,  Rosdvm  <mt  ^mtm 
sua  manu  fecisse^  out  per  alif>s  ;  Liv.,  xxiv.,  38,  earn  fraudem  vestra  ipsi  vir- 
tute  vitastis  ;  ii.,  9,  nee  hostes  modo  timebant^  sed  suosmet  ipsi  cives  ;  viii.,  25, 
vehU  capti  a  suismxt  ipsi  praesidUs  ;  i.,  54,  aUos  sua  ipsos  invidia  opporttmos 
interemit ;  i.  e.,  qui  sua  ipsi  invidia  opportuni  erant.  The  genitive  is  neces- 
sary only  in  those  cases  where  there  is  no  reference  to  the  subject ;  as  in 
tua  ipsius  eausa^  vestra  ipsorum  causa  hoc  feci  ;  Quintil.,  ii.,  6,  Aves  foefys 
suos  iU)ero  coelo  suaeque  ipsorum  fiduciae  permittunt ;  but  sometimes  we  find 
the  genitive  where  the  case  of  the  subject  should  be  used ;  as,  Cic,  p. 
Muren.,  4,  conjecturam  de  tuo  ipsius  studio  ceperis^  instead  of  ipse ;  Liv,,  x., 
16,  omnia  expertos  esse,  si  suismet  ipsorum  viribus  tolerart  tantam  molem  belU 
posserU,  instead  of  ipsi;  xxx.,  20,  suum  wsius  caput  execratum^  for  ipsumi 
But  it  does  not  occur  so  often  as  Drakenoorch  on  Liv.,  vii.,  40,  9,  thinks, 
for  he  does  not  accurately  distinguish  the  cases. 

[§  697.]  5,  Idem  is  used  (see  §  127)  when  two  predi- 
cates are  given  to  one  subject;  hence  it  supplies  the  place 
of  etiam  when  the  predicates  are  of  a  similar  kind,  and 
of  tamen  when  they  are  of  a  different  kind  ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  dt 
Off,,  ii.,  3,  ex  quo  efflcitur,  ut,  quidquid  honestum  sit,  idem 
nt  utile;  i.  e.,  "  also,*'  or,  "  at  the  same  time,"  for  which 
we  might  also  use  id  etiam  uGle  sit ;  benejicentiam,  quam 
candem  benignitatem  appellari  licet;  Libera ,  quam  ean- 
dem  Proserpinam  vacant ;  viros  fortes  eosdem  bonos  esse 
'Volumus  ;  Q\c.,p,  Muren,,  9,  Asiam  istam  refertain  et  ean- 
dem  delicatam  sic  obiit,  ut  in  ca  ncque  avaritiae  neque  lux* 
uriae  vestigium  rehquei-it;  de  Off.,  i.,  6,  alterum  est  vitium, 
fuod  quidam  nimis  magnum  studium  mulfamque  operam 


PECLLIAEITIE9  IN  THE  PARTS    OF  SPEECH.         451 

«ii  res  obscuras  atque  difiicUes  conferunt,  easdemque  nan  ne* 
eessaruts.  Especial  attention  must  be  paid  to  idein^  con- 
aecting  two  opposite  predicates,  where  tamen  might  be 
osed  in  its  ste^,  Cic,  de  Nat,  Deor,^  i.,  43,  guum,  (al- 
though) enim  optimetitii  et  praeitantissimam  naturam  det 
dicat .  esse,  negat  idem  in  deo  esse  gratiam ;  Curt.,  v.,  2^ 
Euphrates  et  Tigris  ex  Armeniae  montibus  profluunt,  ac 
tnagno  deinde  aquarum  divortio  iter,  quod  cepere,  percur- 
runt;  Udem,  quum  Mediae  et  Gordiaeorum  terras  secare 
zoeperuntf  pauldtim  in  artius  coeunt,  et,  quo  loTigius  ma» 
»antf  hoc  angustitis  inter  se  spatium  terrae  relinquunt, 

[§  6&8.]  6.  Et  ipse,  on  the  other  hand,  is  used  (Hke  the 
Greek  Kai  avrog)  when  the  same  predicate  is  given  to  a 
second  subject  It  is  rendered  in  English  by  *'  also"  or 
"too;**  e.  g.,  Eutrop.,  viii.,  7  (15),  Antoninus  Commodus 
nihil  patemum  habuit,  nisi  quod  contra  Crermanos  Jelimter 
et  ipse  pugnavit,  for  item  or  ipse  quoque.  In  Cicero,  how- 
ever, this  use  of  et  ipse  occurs,  as  far  as  wo  know,  only 
in  one  passage,  p,  Caec,  20,  Etiamsi  tuus  servus  mdlus 
Juerit,  sed  omnes  alieni  ac  mercenarii,  tamen  et  ipsi  tuae 
Jaimliae  et  genere  et  nomine  continebuntur,  for  Cicero,  in 
general,  very  rarely  uses  et  for  etiam ;  in  the  passage  p. 
duent,,  51,  §  141,  we  must  read  ipse,  and  not  et  ipse^  But 
et  ipse  frequently  occurs  in  Livy,  Cuitius,  and  the  later 
writers ;  e.  g.,  Li  v.,  xxi..  17,  quia  L,  Manlius  et  ipse  cum 
haud  invaUdo  prae^idio  in  Galliam  mittebatur ;  ibid.,  c. 
21,  credo  ego  vos,  socii,  et  ipsos  cemere  ;  Quintil.,  ix.,  4, 
43,  Vlrtutes  et  ipsae  taedium  pariunt,  nisi  gratia  varietatis 
adjutae.  In  like  manner,  nee  ipse  is  used  in  the  sense  of 
" neither;'*  e.  g.,  Liv,,  xxiii.,  18,  Primis  repulsis  Mahar 
bal  cum  majore  robore  virorum  missus  nee  ipse  eruptionem 
cohortium  sustinuit, 

[§  699.J  7.  Is,  as  was  remarked  in  §  127,  refers  to 
something  preceding,  a  pe^on  or  thing  spoken  of  before ; 
e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Verr,,  iii.,  23,  Tolemarchtcs  est  Murgentinus, 
vir  bonus  atque  honestus,'  Is  quum  medimna  DCC  decu- 
mae  imperarentur,  quod  recusabat,  ad  istum  in  jus  educius 
est;  i,i  41,  C,  Annius  Asellus  mortuus  est  C,  Sacer.dote  praer 
tore.  Is  quum  haberet  unicam  filiam — ed7n  bonis  sms  he* 
redem  imtituit.  If  the  noun  thus  referred  to  is  to  receive 
some  additional  predicate,  we  must  use  et  is,  atque  in,  is- 
que,  et  is  quidein,  and  with  a  negative  nee  is ;  e.  g.,  Cic, 
in  Cat,,  iv.,  4,  Vincula  rcro,  et  ea  sempiterna,  certe  ad  sin 


iSS  LATIN   ORABfMAE. 

gularem  poenam  m^mix  soelerts  inv&nta  sunt,*^^  de  JPtM.^  k. 
20,  At  vero  Epicurus  una  tn  domo,  et  ea  quidem  axgusta, 
^juam  TMLgnos  quantaque  amoria  conspiraHone  oonsentieMtes 
tenuit  amir^nrum  gregeai  Liv.,  iL,  3,  Erant  im  Rontanajw 
ventuU  adoUsoente$  aliquot^  nee  ii  tenui  loco  orti^  quorum  in 
regno  libido  solutiorjuerat;  Cic,  Tuio^  i.,  3,  at  cotUra  vra* 
Uyr&n  cderiter  complexi  sumus^  nee  eum  primo  eruditum^ 
aptum  tamen  ad  dicendum,  post  autem  eruditum,  Sed  idem 
is  used  when  the  additional  predicate  i&  opposed  to  the 
one  preceding ;  as,  Cic,  Cat,  Mt:^,^  18,  Severiiatem  in  se- 
nectute  probo^  sed  earn,  sicut  aMa^  modieam :  acerbitatem 
nullo  modd.  The  neuter  (et  id^  idquej  is  used  vrheti  the 
proposition  itself  receiyes  an  addition,  Gic,  ad  Parn^  xiii^ 
16,  doctum  igitur  kominem  e^fnovi  ei  studiis  optimis  dedi- 
turn,  idque  a  puero ;  de  Off.,  i^  1,  Quamquam  te,  Marce 
Jiliy  annum  jam  audientem  Oratippumj  idque  Athems, 
abundare  opoitet,  dec. 

[§  TOO.}  8.  JEo^'^U,  when  referring  to  peiBons  or 
things  mentioned  before,  generally  follow  the  preriotis 
order,  hie  (the  former)  referring  to  the  person  mentioned 
first,  and  ille  (the  latter)  to  the  one  mentioned  last;  e.  g., 
Quintil.,  vi.,  1,  21,  Meritis  majorum  Cicero  atque  Asimus 
certatim  sunt  usi^  pro  Scauro  patre.  hie  (Cicero),  ille  pro 
fiUo  ;  vi.,  1,  9,  Hdec  pars  peroratianis  accusatori  patron* 
isque  ex  aequo  communis  est,  Affectibus  quoque  iisdemjere 
tUuntur,  sed  rarius  hie  (accusator),  iUe  saepius  qc  magis. 
Nam  huic  concitarejudices,  iUiflectere  convenit;  Cic,  Itod. 
2f  Cave  Catoni  ant^ponas  ne  istum  quidem  ipsum^  quern 
Apollo  sapientissimum  judicamt  (Socratem)  i  hujus  enim 
facta^  illius  dicta  laudantur;  Liv^  xxx^  30,  mdior  tuti' 
orque  est  certa  pax,  quam  sperata  victoria  ;  haec  (pax)  in 
tua,  ilia  in  deorum  potestate  est.  But  the  case  is  onen  re« 
yersed,  hie  referring  to  the  object  nsentioned  last,  as  the 
nearer  one,  and  Ule  to  that  nipntioned  first,  as  Uie  remo« 
ter  one ;  in  this  case,  however,  ille^^hic  is  osed,  and  the 
order  in  which  the  objects  were  mentioned  ^before  is  thus 
restored ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  LaeL,  24,  Scitum  est  illud  Gatonis, 
ut  multa:  inelius  de  quihusdam  acerbos  inimicos  mereri, 
quam  eos  amicos^  qui  dulces  videantur;  iUos  (inimicos) 
saepe  verum  dicere,  hos  nunquam';  Sallust,  CeU.y  54,  Cae» 
sar  beneficiis  atque  munificentia  magnus  hahebatur^  integ- 
ritate  vitae  Cato,  Ille  (Caesar)  mansuetudine  et  miserieor- 
iia  darus foetus^  hide  severitas  dignitatem  addiderat,    Tht 


PECULIARlTlBfi   IN   TUB   PARTd   OF  SPKECn.         US 

jame  4s  Bometimes  foxmd  in  Quintiiian.  Both  pronouns, 
butnaore  fc^qnently  hie,  are  used  in  the  sense  of  the  Eng- 
lish "the  foLowing,"  which  is -never  exjuteasedhysequens. 
It  should,  however,  be  observed  that  hoc  dico  is  connnon- 
Xj  equivalent  to  hoc  tantum  dico^  I  will  say  only  thus  much. 

Nou.'^y/lk&a  idier — alter  (the  one— ^and  thd  other)  refer  to  things  men 
'4oned  before,  the  reference  may  likewise  be  made  in  two  ways :  either 
the  previous  order  is  observed,  or  it  is  reversed,  reference  being  first  made 
to  the  thing  mentioned  last.    The  former  occurs;  e.  g.,  in  Cic,  de  €^.,i«, 
26>  Philqmum  Macedonum  regetn,  rebut  gestis  et  gloria  superatum  a  jUio^f^ 
nlitate  et  humanitate  tmleo  superiorem  fuisse.    Itaque  alter  (Philippus)  sempe' 
magnusy  alter  (filius)  saepe  turpissimus ;  the  latter  in  Cic,  p,  Quint.f  1,  Qua§ 
*es  m  ewUate^ktOeplurimuinpoastmtt  eae  cmUra  nos  ambaejfaeimUtntinmagra 
Ua  et  eloquentia,qtuaym  eUterOm  (eloquentiam)  vereor^  alteram  (gratiam)  m^ 
iuo.    See  de  Ojf.^  iii.,  18,  init. ;  i.,  12.    Wherever  there  is  ambiguity,  the 
•atter  order  mttst  be  observed.    Plin.,  Epist,  ix.,  13,  Fuerat  cum  Arria  et 
FanniOf  quorum  altera  (Fsnnia)  Helvidio  noverca,  altera  mater  novercae. 

[I  701.]  9.  llley  when  not  in  opposition  to  hie,  is  often 
used  to  refer  to  things  which  are  well  known  or  celebra* 
led,  and  although  distant  in  time  or  place,  are  yet  present 
eo  the  minds  of  all ;  as,  Cic,  p.  Leg,  Man,,  9,  Prirrmm  ex 
stto  regno  sic  Mithridates  pn^vgitj  ut  ex  eodem  Ponto  Me- 
dea ilia  quondam  prqfugisse  dicitur ;  p.  Arch,,  10,  Quam 
multos  scriptores  rerum  stiarum  magntts  Ule  Alexander  «e* 
cum  hahtdsse  dicitur  ?  Nep.,  Thra^yh,,  4,  ^ene  ergo  JPit- 
tactis  Ule,  qui  septem  sapientum  numero  est  habitus^  quum 
ei  Mitylenaei  midta  milia  jtigerum  agri  muneri  darent^  No- 
lite,  oro  vos,  inquit^  id  mihi  dare,  quod  Trndti  invideant^  plu- 
res  etiam  concupiscant ;  Cic,  Brut,,  4^  Ulud  Hesiodium 
2audatur  a  doctis,  quod  eadem  mensura  redder e  jubet,  qua 
acceperis,  aut  etiam  cumulatiore,  si  possis.  Hence  Ule.  is 
sometimes  added  to  otlier  pronouns,  to  refer  to  sometiiing' 
discussed  before;  as.  Tacit., ^»^  xi.,  7,  qtiem  ilium  tanta 
superhia  esse,  ut  aetemitatem  Jamae  spe  praesumat  1  xiL, 
36,  avehaait  visere,  quis  Ule  tot  per  annos  types  nostras  spre- 
visseti  xiv.,  22,  hunc  ilium  Mumine  deum  destinari  crede- 
hant.  Iste,  on  the  other  hand,  which  is  properly  a  pro- 
noun t)f  the  second  person  (see  §  127),  sometimes  implies 
disapproval  or  contempt.  This  arises  firom  its  frequent 
use  m  epeeches  in  the  courts  of  justice  and  its  application 
to  the  opponent. 

Note. — The  pronomis  Aic,  iUe,  iste  are  joined  with  talis  and  tantusy  which 
we  cannot  well  render  in  English,  except  by  making  two  sentences;  o^., 
Cic,  ad  Fam.,  xvi.,  21,  Da  operam  ut  hunc  talem-^rum  videos  quam  pum- 
mmh,  this  man,  wtio  is  of  each  a  character ;  de  Orat.,  ii.,  20,  Ista  tanta  tam 
qve  muka  profitenda  non  censeOf  this,  which  is  so  great  and  manifold,  Hie 
ft  Wc,  hie  et  mc,  iUe  et  Ule  are  used  to  refer  to  several  indefinite  objects;  at 
in  'EngUsh,  "  this  one  and  that  one  ;*'  '*  any  one,''  bf  mdefinite  persons  o* 
things,  is  expressed  by  hie  aut  iUe 


4&4  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

[§  702.]  10.  The  oblique  cEuses'of  the  ijersonal  pronoin 
of  the  third  person  (English  him)  are  commonly  express^ 
ed  in  prose  by  the  cases  of  w,  ea,  id,  as  was  remarked  th 
§  125.     The  pronoups  hie  and  Ule  are  more  emphatic ; 
hence,  as  Bentley  (on  Herat.,  Carm.,  iii.,  11, 18)  has  acutely 
observed,  they  supply  in  lyric  poetry  throughout  the  place 
of  the  plain  ejuSy  ei,  eum;  in  prose,  too,  they  are  frequently 
so  U0ed,*z7/tf  in  this  case  answering  to  the  emphatic  "he." 
The  cases  of  ipse,  ipsa,  ipsum  are  employed  when  the  in- 
dividuality of  the  person  is  to  be  expressed;  e.  g.,  Caesar 
respondit,  sicut  ipsius  dignitas  postulabat,  as  his  own  dig- 
nity demanded;  sicut  ipsi  placuit,  sicut  ipsum  decebat ; 
Cic,  de  Fin,f  ii.,  26,  Hoc  etsi  reprehendi  potest,  tamen  ac 
cipio  quod  dant :  mihi  enim  satis  est ^ipsis  nan  satis.   Hence 
ipse  is  joined  to  ego,  tu,  se,  hie,  tile,  iste,  and  idem.     In  re- 
flective sentences  this  pronoun  is  used  for  sui,  iihi,  se,  only 
when  the  person  of  the  leading  subject  is  to  be  referred 
to  with  particular  emphasis ;  as,  Cic,  de  Fin,,  iii.,  19,  In- 
humana  vox  ducitur  eorum  qui  negant  sc  recusare,  quo  mi- 
nus, ipsis  mortuis,  terrarum  omnium  deflagratio  consequa- 
tur ;  Sallust,  e7«^,,  46,  Igitur  (Jugurtha)  legates  ad  con- 
sulem  mittit,  qui  tantummodo  ipsi  liberisque  vitam  peterent 
Sihi,  however,  might  also  be  used.     Comp.  §  550. 

[§  703.]  11.  Hie  and^7/e  bear  the  same  relation  to  time 
present  and  past  as  nunc  and  fuTic  (see  §  285  and  291), 
that  is,  every  thing  which  a  person,  when  speaking  of  time 
really  present,  expresses  by  hie  and  its  derivative  adverbs 
hie,  Kine,  hue  and  adhu^,\s  expressed  by  Ule  and  its  de« 
rivatives,  when  it  is  spoken  of  as  belonging  to  time  past 
The  Syracusans,  as  Cicero  (in  Verr,,  iv.,  62)  relates,  rsom- 
plained  senatum  popvlumque  Syracusanum  moleste  ferre, 
quod  egOy  quum  in  ceteris  Siciliae  civitatibus  senatum  pop- 
fdumque  docuissem,  quid  eis  tttilitatis  afferrem,  et  quum  ah 
omnibus  mandata,  legatos;  litter  as  te^timonia'que  sumpsis- 
sem ,  in  ilia  dvitate  nihil  fjusmodijacerem.  In  direct  speech 
they  themselves  would  say,  querimur  in  hoc  civitate  te  ni- 
hil ^usmadi  facer e.  In  the  same  manner,  c.  29,  Rex  da- 
mare  coepit,  candelabrum  sibi  C.  Verrem  abstulisse:  id  etst 
antea  jam  mente  et  cogitatione  sua  fratrisque  sui  consecra- 
ttBn  esset,  tamen  tum  se  in  illo  conventu  civium  Romanxfrum 
dare,  donare,  dicare,  consecrare  Jovi  Opt,  Max.;  he  him- 
Belf  would  say,  tamen  nunc  in  hoe  conventu  do,  &c. 

f§  704  1  12.  En  tho  connexion  of  sentences  is,  tdcm^  ta^ 


P£CUL1ARITI£S    IN    THE    PARTS    OP    tSPECCH.         <15I 

iis,  taniusy  tot  or  totidem,  are  followed  (sometimes  the  ar- 
rangement of  words  produces  the  reversed  order)  by  the 
relative  pronouns  quiy  qualis,  qtumtus,  quot.  This  must 
be  particularly  attended  to  by  the  beginner,  as  the  English 
language  usually  employs  "  as"  instead  of  the  relative ; 
e.  g.,  qualem  tejam  anteapoptdo  Romano  praebuisti,  tcUein 
te  nobis  hoc  tempore  imperti  ;  Cic,  ad  Att,,  vii.,  1,  videre 
miki  videor  tantam  dimicationem,  quanta  nunquaihjuit,  as 
there  never  was.  Farther,  eodem  modo  me  decepit  quote; 
eadem  facilitate  Graecos  scriptores  intelligere,  qv<i  Latinos  ,• 
idem  quod  tu  passus  sum  ;  iidem  abeunt  qui  vefierunt.  In- 
stead of  the  relative  after  idem^  talis,  and  totidem,  howev- 
er, we  may  also  use  ac,  atque,  or  ut.  See  §  340.  Cic , 
in  Vat.,  4,  honos  talis  2><iucis  est  ddatus  ac  mihi  ;  Tusc,  ii., 
3,  eisdemfere  verbis  exponimus,  ut  actum  disputatumque  est. 
Idem  cum  also  occurs ;  as,  Tacit.,  Ann.,  xv.,  2,  eodem  mc 
cum  patre  genitus,  instead  of  quo  ego.  The.  construction 
of  idem  with  the  dative  is  pure  Greek,  and  occurs  only 
in  poetry,  and  even  there  very  rarely ;  e.  g.,  Herat.,  Ars 
Poet,,  467,  Invitum  qui  servat  idem  Jacit  occidenti;  i.  e., 
qziod  occidens,  or  quasi  occidat ;  Ovid.,  Amor,,  i.,  4, 1,  Vir 
tuus  est  epulas  nobis  aditurus  easdem.  Similis  is  Construed 
like  idem,  in  Horat.,  Serm,,  i,,  3, 122,  quum  magnis  parva 
mineris  falce  recisurum  simili  te,  to  cut  down  with  equal 
sickle  small  as  well  as  great  things. 

[§  705.]  13.  Qui  joined  to  esse  and  a  substantive,  either 
in  the  nominative  or  ablative  of  quality,  is  used  in  explan- 
atory clauses  instead  dipro,  "  in  accordance  with,"  or,  "  ac- 
cording to;"  e.  g.,  instead  of  Tu,pro  tua prudentia,  quia 
optimum  factu  sit,  videbis,  in  Cicero  fad  Fam,,  x.,  27),  we 
may  say.  Facile,  quae  tua  est  prudentia,  or  qua  prudentia 
es,  quid  optimum  factu  sit,  videbis.  Examples  are  nu- 
merous :  D.  Brut.,  in  Cic,  ad  Fam,,  xi.,  13,  Attendere  te 
volo,  quae  in  manibus  sunt.  Qua  enim  prudentia  es,  nihil 
te  fugiet,  si  meas  litteras  dUigenter  legeris  ;  Cic,  ad  Att,, 
vi.,  9,  Quare  de  hoc  satis :  spero  enim,  quae  tua  prudentia 
et  teniperantia  est,  te  jam,  ut  volumus,  valere ;  ad  Fam,, 
xii.,  29,  Nee  dubito,  quin  sine  mea  commendatio^e,  quod 
tuum  est  judicium  de  hominibus,  ipsius  Lamiae  causa  stu- 
diose  omnia  facturtis  sis, 

[§  706.]  14.  We  observed  above  (§  128)  that  the  7ela^ 
tiva  generalia,  which  are  formed  either  by  doubling  the 
simple  relative,  or  by  the  suffix  cunque;  as,  quisquis  and 


€50  LATIN   GRAMMAS. 

quicunque,  are  in  classicalprose  always  joined  with  a  veH^ 
and  form  the  protasis.  When,  notwithstanding  this,  we 
sometimes  read  in  Cic,  qtuicunque  ratione  and  quoqtco  modo, 
in  the  sense  of  onmi  ratione,  omrd  modo^  we  must  explain 
such  expressions  by  means  of  an  ellipsis ;  e.  g.,  quactiriqtt^ 
ratione  fieri  poteU.  But  in  later  writers  we  frequently 
find  quicunque  used  in  this  absolute  sense  for  quivis'  or 
quilihet  f  e.  g.,  Sueton.,  Claud,,  34,  quocunque  gladiatorio 
tnunere  prolapso9  juguLari  jubebat;  Quintil.,  x.,  1,  105, 
Ciceronem  cuicunque  €orum  for  titer  opposuerim,  and  this 
author  and  Tacitus  use  h  quite  commonly  in  this  sense ; 
but  the  fact  of  such  peculiarities,  which  are  founded  on 
the  whole  st^cture  of  a  language,  being  effaced,  is  a  sign 
of  the  decay  of  the  language.  Qualiscunque  mid.  qudn- 
ttLsctmque  are  likewise  used  in  an  absolute  sense  (by  means 
of  an  elKpsis),  which,  however,  cannot  be  censured,  the 
force  of  the  expression  being  thus  enhanced ;  e.  g.,  Senec.i 
Epist.,  80,  Tu  non  coTicupisces  quanticunque  ad  lihertatem 
pervenire,  at  any  price,  be  it  ever  so  highj  Cic,  ad  Fam,, 
iv.,  8,  Si  lihertatah  sequimur  :  qui  locus  hoc  dominatu  ra- 
cat  1  sin  qualemcunque  locum :  quae  est  domestica  stde  ju* 
eundiar. 

[§  707.J  15.  Quidam,  some,  and  substantively,  "some 
one,"  expresses  qualitative  indefinitenesa,  and  it  is  strangis 
to  find  that  certi  homines  is  used  in  the  same  sense  (e.  g., 
Ci6ero,  Tusc,  iii.,  34),  just  as  we  say  **  certain  people.*' 
Quidam  expressing  quantitative  indefiuiteness,  in  the 
sense  of  nofmulli,  atiquoty  occurs  more  rarely.  We  must 
liei  e  observe  that  quidam^,  when  joined  to  substantive^  and 
adjectives,  is  very  often  used  merely  to  soften  the  expres- 
sion when  the  speaker  feels  that  he  has  made  use  of  too 
strong  an  fexpression,  especially  when  he  means  to  sug 
gest  9iat  the  word  he  has  used  should  not  be  taken  in  its 
literal,  biit  in  a  figurative  sense.  The  best  Latin  writers, 
and  more  particularly  Cicero,  are  very  scrupulous  in  their 
application  of  words,  and  add  tl^ir  quidam  or  quoH  qui- 
dam^  where  later  writers  and  modem  languages  do  niot 
feel  any  necessity  for  such  a  modifying  or  softening  W6rd. 
When  in  English  Anything  of  the  kind  is  requiifed,  it  is 
expressed  in  different  ways,  one  of  which  is  the  expres- 
sion, *'so  to  speak,'*  which  is  also  not  unfrequently  used 
in  Latin,  ut  ita  dicam.  In  the  following  passages  quidam 
«'oftens  down  adjectives    Oic,  ad  Fam»f  viii.>  8,  ex  tuis  lii^ 


fECULlARITlCS    11/   TUB    ?ASLTB  OF   SPEECH..        4&T 

pBTis  cognovi  praeposteram  qnandam  fMthuUianem  tuam : 
ciL,  25.Jmt  enim  iUud  quodddm  caecum  temptu  servitutUf 
ie  Orat,j  ii.,  74,  tU  apud  Graecosfertur  tncredibili  quadam 
nagnitucUne  connMi  eUque  ingenii  Atheniensis  Ule  Juiase 
TkemUtodes;  LaeL,  13,  fion  stmt  isii  audimdi,  qui  vvrtU' 
tern  dvram  et  quasi  ferream  quondam  volvnt  /  and  in  the 
following  it  sofbens  down  substantives;  Gxc^de  Orat,^  ii., 
46,  Saepe  enim  audivi,  poetam  bonum  neminem  sine  infiam- 
matione  aniniorum  existere  posse^  et  sine  quodam  affiatu 
quasi  Juroris ;  i.,  3,  Neque  enim  te  Jugit^  qrUUn^  omnium 
taudatarum  procreatricem  quandam  et  quasi  parentem  phi' 
iosophia^n  ah  hominibus  doctissimis  judicari ;  p.  Arch,,  1, 
Ktenim  amnes  artes,  quae  ad  humanitatem  pertinent,  haJtent 
quoddam  cammime  vinculum  et  quasi  cognatiane  quadam 
inter  se  continentur,  Tamquam  is  used  for  the  same  pur- 
pose ;  as,  Cic,  de  Orat,,  iii.,  43,  Translatum  verbum  max- 
ime  tamquam  stdlis  quibusdam  nptat  et  iUuminat  ora- 
'umem. 

[§  708.1  16.  There  is  this  difference  bettjreen  the  sim- 
ple indefinite  pronoun,  quis,  j'la,  and  the , compound  aZe- 
quiSf  that  the  latter  is  more  emphatic  than  the  former. 
Hence  aliquis  stands  by  itself  as  an  independent  word, 
while  the  unaccented  quis  is  joined*'to  other  words,  more 
especially  to  the  conjunctions  si^  nisi,  ne,  num,  and  to  rel- 
atires,  and  quum^  which  originally  was  a  relative  (§  136) ; 
sometimes  one  or  more  words  are  inserted  between  quis 
and  the  words  to  which  it  belbngps;  e.  g.,  Cic.,.<^  Qfi,  i., 
10,  JUis  promissis  standum  non  est^  quae  coactus  quis  metu 
pnrtniserit;  Tusc,  iv.,  19,  Vbi  ^mm  quid  esset^  quod  disci 
posset^  eo  vemendum  judicaverunt;,  v.,  27,  mulieres  in  In- 
dia, quum  est  a^us  earuin  vir  mortuus;,  deFin,,  v.,  10, 
quotienscunque  diceiur  male  de  se'  quis  mereri^  In  other 
conne^ons,  ho;veyer,  quis  is.  used  with  son^ewhat.  mora 
independence;  as,  Cic.»  ad  Att,,- yi,^  1^ , credo  Scaptium 
imquius  quid  de  me  scripsisse;  de  C^^  iii.,  6,  morbus  aut 
.^eetas  otut  quid  efusmodi;.  d^  Fin,,  iii.,  21,  alienum,  est  a 
juetitia  detrahere  quid  de  aliquo,  and  immediately  after, 
infuriam  cuijacere;  de  JNaL  Deor.,  L^  2i,priusque  te  quis 
de  omnivkae  statu^  quam  de  ista  auctoritate  dejecerit,  and 
we  not  unfirequently  find  dixerit  quis^  some  one  might  say 
Bur.  sudi  passages  are,  after. all,  of  very  rare  occurrence 
kn  toe  language  of  Cicero,  and  it  is  advisable  to  follow  hif 


45S  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

exsmple  lathor  than  ^at  of  later  writers,  irii«    ued-thc 
Indefmite  quis  more  frequently  in  the  place  of  aliquis,     * 

It  most,  howerer,  be  obserred,  on  the  odier  haftd,  that 
ahquU  is  used  after  those  conjunctions  which  usually  r^* 
quire  qttiUt  when  it  stands  in  an  antithetical  relation  to 
somidthing  else,  and,  accordingly,  has  a  stronger  empha«8{ 
e.  g.,  Cie.,  p»  Milan,  24,  Timebat  Pan^^eiut  onmia^ne  dH^ 
quid  vos  timeretis;  Philip.,  xiii.,  1,  Bi  aliquid  de  twmnM 
gravitate  Pampcius,  multum  de  eupidiUUe  Caesar  remina* 
Met;  ad  Fam.<,  xir.,  1,  cut  si  dU^^iid  4rii  (if  he  has  but 
something)  ne  ^eat,  medioeri  virtute  opus  est,  ut  cetera  con^ 
sequatur;  Lit.,  xxiy.,  8,  Create. conmdem  T.Otacilium,non 
dico  si  omnia  haec^  sed  si  aUquid  eorttm  praestitit^  We 
are  sometimes  obliged,  in  English,  to  ^Lpress  the  empha- 
sis ofaHquis  by  the  word  "really;"  e.  g.,  Cic,  CaL  Mt0^ 
20,  Sensus  tnoriendit  si  aliquis  esse  potest,  is  ad  exiguum 
tempus  durat ;  ibid.,  IS,  si  aUquid  dandum  est  voluptati, 
senectus  modicis  conviviis  potest  delectari,  C  omp.  ad  Fam.^ 
xi.,  18,  3;  f»  F«rr.,ii.,31,  77. 

Quispiam,  which  is  used  more  rarely,  is  sometimes  em- 
ployed, like  fuis,  after  conjunctions ;  as  in  Cicfero,  pecu 
niam  si  cuipiam  Jbrtmia  ademit ;  ^  grando  quippiam  nth 
cuit;  and  sometimes  It  stands  alone ;  e.jg.,  quaeretjortasse 
quispiam,  vrhere  quispiam  is  rather  mcnre  mdefinite  tfaav 
aliquis  would  be. 

[§  709.]  17.  The  difference  between  qtdsquam  and  ul- 
lus  is  this,  that  quisquam  is  used  substantively  (we  must 
however,  bear  in  mind  what  was  said  in  §  676),  while.  «f 
lus  is  an  adjective ;  both,  however,  have  a  negative  sense 
and  are  thus  opposed  to  the  afitn^atives  quis^  quispiam, 
toid  aliquis.     They  are  used,  like  the  adverbs  wnquam 
and  usquam  (see  §  284),  only  in  such  sentenees  as*  are  neg- 
ative, either  through  the  negative  particles  non,  neque, 
nemo,  nunquam,  &c«,  or  through  a  negative  verb ;  as,  nc^, 
nieseio,  veto,  ignero,  or  through  their  whole  construction; 
®*^*9  ^KS"^  fo^^  quemquam,  or,  nego  fore  uHhOiytkonlimem^ 
which  are  equivalent  to  nem^fnem,  or  nuUum  kominemjbre 
putOi  so  that  quisquam  correq>onds»to  die  substantive  ne 
mo,  and  uUus  to  die  adjective  nmllms.  •  CIc.,  Phiiip.,  x.,  7 
Ah  hoc  igitur  quisquam  h^lufn  timttt  which,  if  we  resoWu 
the  interrogative  form,  win  be  nemo  oib  hoc  helium  timet. 
A  sentence  may  acquire  a  negative  character  from  a  <ioni- 
parative ;  e.  g  ,  when  I  say,  ^'he  stayed  in  this  place  long^ 


PECULIARITISS   IN    THE    P^RTS   OF   SPEECH.         450 

er  than  in  any  other,"  the  meaning  is,  "he  did  not  slay 
so  long  in  any  other  place."  Hence  we  say  in  Latin^ 
diutius  i»  hoc  urbe  quam  in  alia  uUa  co7nmoratus  est;  Cic, 
M  Vcrr.,  iv.,  55,  Tetrior  hie  tyrannus  Syracusanus  fuii 
quam  ^guuquam  superiorum.  It  seems  surprising  that  quis, 
and  not  quisquam,  is  used  after  the  dependent  negative 
particles  ne,nevej  and  after  the  negative  mterrogative  par- 
ticle num :  and  this  is,  indeed,  an  exception  arising  from 
the  ordinary  use  of  quia  after  conjunctions.  The  preposi- 
tion sine'}^^  likewise  a  negative  power;  hence  we  say, 
^7ie  uUa  spe ;  and  hence  non  sine  is  affirmative;  e.  g,,7ion 
sine  aUqua  spe  Imc  venerunt,  not  without  some  hope ;  i.  e,, 
€Wn  aliqud  spe.    See  my  note  on  Cic,  Divin.,  lo. 

{§  709.  b.]  Quisqtuim  and  ullus^  however,  are  some 
timed  used  after  si,  instead  of  aliquis  or  quis,  not  in  a  neg* 
adve  sense,  but  only  to  increase  the  indeiiniteness  which 
would  be  implied  in  aliquis  or  quis  ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Lad,^  2, 
Aui  enim  nemo,  quod  quidem  magis  credoy  aut,  si  qtdsquam^ 
tile  sapiens Juit;  de  Of,^  i.,  81,  Omnino^  si  quidquam  est 
decorum,  nihil  est  profecto  magis,  quam  aequabilitas  uni- 
versae  vitae ;  ad  Fam,,  ii.,  16,  Filio '  meo,  si  erit  ulla  res 
pubUca,  satis  amplum  pairimomum  in  memoria  nominis 
mei:  .sin  autem  nulla  erit,  &c.,  here  the  former  part  with 
ulla  is  meant  in  the  affirmative.  In  Liv.,  v.,  33,  Camillo 
Tnanente,  si  quidquam  humanorum  certi  est,  capi  Roma  non 
potuerat,ihe  Negative -sense  is  still  perceptible,  for,  in  fact, 
-nothing  human  can  be  asserted  with  certainty ;  and  such 
passages  may  serve  to  explain  many  similar  ones.  In  this 
manner  it  gradually  came  to  pSiss  that  quisquam,  ullus^ 
unquam,  usquam  were  also  used  without  si,  where  the  in- 
cleftniteness  is  to  be  made  emphatic  (answering  to  the  em- 
phatic any);  as, Cic,  tn  CaUi^  i.,  2,  QuwmMu  quisquam  erit, 
^ui  te  defender e  audeat,  vives ;  p.  Rose,  AtA.,  43,  Dum 
praesidia  vUa  fuerunt,  Roscius  in  Bullae  praesidiis  Juit ; 
Npp.,  Att,  19,  Tanta  prosperitas  Caesarem  est  consecuta 
ut  nihil  ei  non  tribuerit  fortuna^  quod  cuiquam  artte  detu 
lerit;  Liv.,  i.,  18,  Curibtis  Sabinis  hahitabat  consultissimus 
^vir,  utin  ilia  quisquam  esse  aetate  poterat ;  xxi.,  \,bellwm 
maxime  omnium  memorabile,  quae  urtquam  gesta  sunt 
9cr%pturus  sum  ;  Tacit.,  Ann.,  xj.,  24,  majores  mei  hortan 
■tur,  ut  paribus  consUiis  rem  pubticam  capessam  trq/nsfcren 
do  hue  quod  usquam  egregium  fuerit ;.  Qijntil,  x.,  1,  60 
'  Archilochus  quod  quoquam  minor  est,  materiae  vitikm  est 


460  LATIN    grammar/ 

nan  ingenii;  and  Seneca  fde  Tranquil.  11)  uses  it,  in  a 
witty  antithesis,  in  a  decidedly  afiirmatire  sense,  cuit>u 
potest  accidere,  quod  cuiquam  potest. 

[§  710.]  18.  Quisque  is  every  one  distribute vely  or  rel 
atively,  but  unusquisque,  quivisy  quilibet,  every  one  abso- 
lutely ;  e.  ^.,  Tiatura  imumqv.ehique  trahit  ad  discendum  ; 
hut  (Quintil.,  ii.,  8,  init.)  virtus  praeceptoris  haheri  solet^ 
quo  qtiemque  Tiatura  maximejerat^  scire^  presupposes  a  di- 
vision or  distribution,  every  one  in  his  own  particular  vTay. 
Hence  quisque  has  its  peculiar  place  after  relative  and  in- 
terrogative pronouns  and  adverbs ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Verr,<,  iv.,  . 
33,  Scipio  polltcetur  sibi  magnae  curae  Jore^  ut  omnia  civ- 
itatibusf  quae  cujusque  Juissenty  restituerentur ;  de  Divin., 
i.(  1,  ut  praedici  posset,  quid  cuique  eventurum  et  quo  quis- 
que fato  natus  esset;  i.,  39,  Cur  fiat  quidque  quaeris  :  rectc 
omnino;  p.  Rose.  Com.,  11,  Quo  quisqtie  est  soUertior  et 
ingeniosior,  hoc  docct  iracundius  et  laboriosius ;  de  OrcU., 
i.,  26,  Ut  quisque  optime  dicit,  ita  maxime  dicendi  difficul' 
tatcm  timet ;  Liv.,  iii.,  27,  vaUuTr^  sumpsere,  unde  cuique 
proximumfiuity  and  in  innumerable  other  passages.  Hence 
the  expression  qtwtusquisque  in  the  sense  of  "how  few 
among  all?"  as,  Pliny,  Epistolae^  iii.,  20,  Quotocuique 
eadem  honestatis  cura  secreto^  quae  palam  ?  Quisque  is 
farther  used  distributively  after  numerals;  e.  g.,  decimus 
quisque  sorte  lectus,  every  tenth  man ;  quinto  quoque  anno 
ludi  celebrabantur,  in  every  fifth  year ;  tertid  quoque  verba 
peccat;  and  after  sutes,  a,  um;  as,  sui  cuiqvs  liberi  caris-  « 
simiy  suum  cuique  placet,  suae  quemque  Jorttmae  maxime 
poenitet,  where  attentibn*must  be  paid  to  the  arrangement 
of  the  words  (see  §  801),  and  also  to  the  fact  of  quisque 
remaining  in  the  nominat.  in  the  construction  of  the  ablat. 
absolute;  e.  g.,  Sallust,  Jug.,1^,  multis  sibi  quisque  im- 
perium  petentibus  ;  Justin.,  xxix.,  1,  his  regibus  in  suarum 
quisque  majorum  vestigia  nitentibus  ;  Liv.,  xxi.,  45,  atnnes, 
velut  diis  auctoribus  in  spem  stiam  quisque  acceptis,  proeli- 
um  poscunt.  (See  Kritz  on  the  passage  of  Sallust.)  'In 
the  same  manner,  we  find  quisque  in  the  accusat;  vnth  the 
infinitive  in  Liv.,  xxvi.,  29,  affirmantes,  se  non  mode  suam 
quisque  patriam^  sed  totam  Sidliam  rdicturos. 

[§  710,  b.]  Quisque  with  a  superlative,  both  in  the  sin- 
guiar  and  plural ;  as,  opiimus  quisque,  or  (adject.)  optimi 
quique,  is,  in  general,  eqinvBlent  to  omnes  with  the  positive, 
•but  in  connexiqn  with  the  verb  following  it  conveys  th« 


PECULIARITIES   IN  THE   PAETS   OF   SPEECH.         461 

idea  of  a  reciprocal  comparison  among  the  persons  iro 
plied  ih  the  statement ;  as,  Cic,  Tusc,^  iii.,  28,  Quid  ?  ex 
ceteris  pkilosophis  nonne  optimus  quisque  et  gravissimus 
confitetur^  tmilta  se  ignorare  ?  Hence  this  superlative  is 
frequently  m  relation  to  another,  which  is  joined  with  the 
verb,, whereby  the  reciprocal  comparison  is  distinctly  ex- 
pressed ;  Cic,  CaL  Maj.,  23,  Quod  quidem  ni  ita  se  )eabe- 
ret,  ut  animi  immartales  essent,  haud  optimi  cujtisque  ani' 
mus  maxime  ad  im7nor(alitatem  gloriae  niter etur.  Quid 
quod  sapientissimus  quisque  aeqteissimo  animo  moritur,  stul- 
tissimus  iniquissimo  ?  de  Fin.<,  ii.,  25,  in  omni  enim  arte 
optimum  quidque  rarisshmm;  Curt.,  vii.,  16,  Altissima 
quaeque  Jlumina  minima  sono  lahuntur ;  Liv.,  xxx.,  30, 
Ma^imaecuiqnejortunaemiimne  credendum  est, 

[§  711.]  19.  The  interrogative  quid  is  often  used  in  the 
sense *of  **whyT'  or,  "for  what  purpose  1"  (comp.  m'M, 
§  677);  e.g.,  quid  me  ostentem  1  why  should  I  boast  1  quid 
optcs  est  plura  ?  why  should  I  say  more  I  Also,  in  indi 
rect  questions;  as,  Cicero,  j?.  Rose.  Am.,  12,  A  Fimbria 
guaerebatur,  quid  tandem  accusaturtcs  esset  eum,  quern' pro 
dignitate  ne  laudare  quidem  quisquam  satis  commode  pos- 
set;  p.  Muren,,  37,  Quaeris  a  me,  quid  ego  Catilifiam  me' 
tuam.     Nihil,  et  curavi  ne  quis  metueret. 

[§  712.]  20.  Alius  is  joined  in  a  peculiar  way  to  other 
cases  of  its  own,  or  to  adverbs  derived  from. alius,  for 
which  in  English  we  use  two  sentences  with  th£  one,  the 
other  ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  aliud  aliis  videtur  optimum,  one  thinks 
this  and  another  that  the  best ;  alitis  alio  modo  interpreta- 
tur,  the  one  interprets  it  in  this,  and  the  other  in  another 
w:ay,  or  every  one  interprets  it  differently;  alia  alio  in  loco 
intuebantur  ;  aliter  cum  aliis  loquitur  ;  aliis  aliunde  peri- 
eulufn  est;  aliud  alias  mihi  videtur.  When  only  two  per- 
soils  o^  things  are  spoken  of,  alter  is  used  in  the  sama 
way,  but  there  are  no  adverbs  derived  from  alter;  e.  -g.» 
alter  in  alterum  causam  coTiferunt,  they  accuse  each  other 
We  may  here  add  the  remark  that  alius — alius  and  the 
other  derivatives  are  employed  in  two  sentences  for  alius, 
aliter,  alias,  &c.,  with  ac  or  atqus  (than) ;  e.  g.,  aliud  hh 
quiiur,  aliud  ientit,  he  speaks  otherwise  than  he  thinks ; 
aliter  loquitur,  alitsr  scribit,  he  speaks  otherwise  than  ha 
writes. 

Qa2 


#09  LATHf   GEAMMAR 


1).   Verbs. 

[§713.]  1.  The  English  verb  "to  order"  m  "have/'in 
the  s«nse  of  "  to  order,*'  is  frequently  not  expressed  in 
Latin,  but  is  Implied  in  the  verb,  which,  in  English,  is  de« 
pendent  upon  the  verb  "to  order;"  e.  g.,  Cic,  tA  Verr.y  vr^ 
25,  Piso  annultem  nhi  fecit,  Piso  ordered  a  ling  to  be  xnade 
for  himself,  or,  had  a  ring  made  fox*  himself;  ibid.,  29, 
Verres  ad  palum  alligavit  piratas^  he  had  them  tied  to  a 
post ;  securi  percussit  archipiratam,  he  had  the  archpirate 
put  to  death ;  multos  innocentes  virgis  vecidit;  Nep.,  <^m., 
4,  Gimon  complures  pauperes  puntuos  stto  sumptu  extulit, 
had  them  buned.  In  like  manner,  condemnare  is  used  of 
an  accuser  who  brings  about  a  person's  condenmation. 

[§  714.]  2.  It  has  already  been  obsefved  (§  637)  that 
tlie  Latins  generally  prefer  using  a  verb  in  the  form  ei- 
ther of  the  participle  perfect  or  £ture  passive,  instead  of 
a  substantive  expressing  the  action  of  the  verb.  The 
present  participle  is  likewise  often  used  in  Latin  to  ex- 
press a  state  or  condition  where  we  employ  a  substantive 
With  a  preposition ;  e.  g.,  ignorans,  fro'm  iterance;  me- 
tuens,  from  fear;  consulatum  peteng,  in  his  suit  for  the  con- 
sulship ;  omne  malum  nascens  Jacile  opprimitur,  in  its  ori- 
gin. The  Latin  language  is  not  fond  of  abstract  nouns, 
and  prefers,  if  possible,  to  express  them  by  verbs. 

3.  In  like  manner,  circumlocutions,  by  means  of  a  verb 
and  a  relative  pronoun,  are  preferred  to  those  substan- 
^lyes  which  denote  the  person  of  the  agent  in  a  definite, 
'  but  not  permanent  condition ;  e.  g.,  ii  qtd  audhmt,  qui  ad^ 
mnt,  qui  cum  aliquo  sunt,  qui  tiH  has  litterat  reddent;  i.  e., 
the  audience,  the  persons  present,  companions,  the  bearer 
of  the  letter ;  is  qui  potestatem  hahet,  the  eommander  or 
ruler ;  ea  quae  visenda  sunt,  things  to  be  seen,  ot  furiosi- 
ties ;  thus  we  often  find  ii  qui  eonsuluntur,  for  juris  constd* 
ti;  qui  resjudicantf  for  jtedices,  since  in  the  Koman  con* 
stitution  they  did  not  form  a  distinct  class  of  citizens. 
The  English  expression  "  above  mentioned*'  is  likewise 
paraphrased  by  a  verb;  e.  g.,  ex  libris,  quos  dixi^  quos 
ante  (supra)  laudavi  ;  Cic,  ai  Off.,  ii.,  9,  primum  de  illis 
tribus,quae  ante  diosi,  videamtis;  the  English  •*  so-called," 
or,  "  what  is  called,"  is  dXpressed  by  quern,  quam,  quod 
vacant,  or  by  qui^  quae,  quod  vocatur,  dicitur,  &c. ;  e.  g,, 
Cic,  d4.  Leg.,  ii.,  2C,  neque  opere  tcctorio  cxomari  sepil* 


P£CUUARITU»  tS  TfiE  PARTS   OF  SPSECH.         465 

ekra,  nee  Hermas  hoSiquos  vacant^  imponi  (Athenis)  licebat, 
XjvTs,  xlv.,  33,  ad  Spelaeum,  qmd  vocanty  Mduo  moratus  ; 
die.,  de  Re  FtM,^  vi^,  14,  veatra^  qu€^  dieitwr^  vita  morA 
€st;  p.  Quint.,  6,  Cum  vemssent  ad  Vada  Volaterraiuiy 
quae  nomdnantur,  vident  Jb.  Publicium. 

[§  715.]  4.  The  connexioai  of  two  Bubstandves  by  means 
of  a  preposidon  is  firequeatl^r  paraphrased  in  Latin  bj  a 
sentence ;  e.  g^  yonr  conduct  towards  this  or  thai:  peiBOB« 
agendi  ratio^  qua  ut^risy  or  usus  es.adsenui  hunc  vet  ilium  j 
Oicero^s  works  on.  Duties  may  be  expressed  by  dceroms 
libri  de  Officiisy  but  more  generally  Oiceronis  libri  quos 
scripatt  de,Officii$^  or  libti  de  Officiia  acriptu  Certain  pro- 
nominal expressions  are  likewise. rendered  in  Latin  by 
apeeial  sentences ;  e.  g.^  I  have  no  doubt  of  it,  Tum  duhitc 
quin  hoc  tta  aii,  qutn  hoc  ita  ae  habeat,  quin  hoc  vermm  ait,' 
many  things  have  prevented  me  from  it,  multa  meimpedi- 
verurUy  qudmiriua  hoc  facerem.  The  ablative  absohijbe  q'fio 
fa4:tOf  whereii^cmy  which  is  in  common  use,  belongs  to  the 
same  class  of  expressions. 

[§  716.]  5.  It  is  customary  in  an  answer  to  repeat  the 
verb  used  in  the  question;  e.  g.,  Cic,  2Wc.,'v.,  1,  nempe 
negaa  ad  heate  vivendum  acUia  poaae  virtutem?  Proraua 
nego  ;  Fk«r.,  i.,  5,  Tdrquinvua  Navium  rogavit,Jierine  pos- 
net,  quod  ipae  merUe  conceperat :  ille  poaae  reapondit ;  Cic^ 
Tuacy  m.y  4,  haecine  igitur  cadere  ts  aapientem  putaa  f 
Proraua  exiatimoy  ior  puto.  Comp.the  ancient  fornmla  of 
dediUoy  in  Liv«,  i.,  38.  The;  same  is  the  case  when  a  neg*- 
utive  is  introduced,  Eatne  frater  tuua  intua?  Non  e&L 
fNori  alone  is  used  more  larely.)  The  adverb  t?cro,  cer- 
tainly, is  frequently  added  to  the  verb  in  an  affirmative 
answer;  as,  Cic,  Tuac.y  L,  11,  d€une  aaU  mauere  animoa 
poat  mortem,  aut  ^norte  ipaa  interire  ?  Do  vero.  Hence, 
when  the  protasis  siqjplies  the  place  of  a  question,  vero  is 
introduced  in  the  apodosis  merely  to  show  that  it  contain* 
the  answer ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  p.  Flaccy  .40,  Quod  ai  provihcta- 
rum  ratio  voa  magia  movet  qtiam  veatra :  ego  vero  non  mo- 
do  non  recuao,  aed  etiam  poatulo,*ut  provindctrum  auctori- 
taU  moveamini;  p,  Muren,,  4,  Quodai  licet,  deainere,  ai  te 
nuctore  poaaum'-'^ga  vero  lihenter  deaino;  a^i^a;?».,xiv.,  3, 
Quod  acribia,  te,  ai  velim,  ad  m^  venturam:  ego  vero,  quum 
fdatn  magnam  partem  iatitia  oneria  aba  te  auatineriy  te  iatic 
taae  volo*  Cicero  begins  his  answor  to  the  celebrated  con- 
tolatory  letter,  of  S.  Sulpicius  in  the  following  manner  : 


4M  LATIN  OI^ABfHAK. 

Eg0  veto,  Servif  vdlem,  ut  scribUf  in  meo  gravissimo  eeum 
affmfses.  ••  For  Siilpicius  had  mentioned  in  his  letter  whdf 
he  woald  have  done  if  he  had  been  at  Rome  at  the  time. 
Hence  we  so  frequently  find  quasi  vero  and  imfno  vera  in 
the  same  connexion,  but  the  latter  only  when  that  which 
precedes  is  denied,  and  something  still  stronger  is  put  in 
Its  place.  The  verb  may  also  be  omitted  in  the  answer, 
and  in'  case  of  its  being  affirmative^  the  pronoun  of  the 
verb  alone  is  sometimes  repeated  with  vero;  e.  g.,  dicamne 
quod  tetttio  ?  Tu  vero  /  Cic;  de  Off.y  iii.,  13,  quaero^  si 
hoc  emptorihus  venditor  non  dixerit'-*^-num  id  injuste  out  ifm- 
probe  fecerit,  lUe  vero^  inquit  AiUipcUer;  ad  Au,^  xi.,  7, 
Quod  rogas,  ut  in  honam  partem  accipiam^  si  qua  sint  in 
tuis  litterisy  qude  fne  mordeant:  ego  vero  in  optimam. 
Hence,  lastly,  the  use  of  vero  alone  in  the  dense  €^''yes/' 
acd  equivalent  to  sane^  ita,  etiam  ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Divin^ 
].,  46,  tUam  autem  dixisse :  Veroj  mea  pudla,  Ubi  concede 
meas  sedes.  (See  §  357.)  Vero  occurs  very  rarely  in 
negative  answers,  but  is  found  in  the  expression  minima, 
vero, 

[§  717.]  6.  When  a  circumstance  is  added,  supplement- 
ary, as  it  were,  to  a  preceding  verb,  the  verb  is  nequent- 
ly  repeated ;  e.  g.,  Pompey  obtuned  the  highest  dignities 
in  the  state,  and  that  at  an  earlier  age  than  any  one  before 
him,  Pompeius  summos  in  repMica  honores  assecutus  est^ 
et  assecutus  est  maturius  quam  quisquam  ante  eum ;  Cic^ 
de  Q^,  iii.,  14,  Emit  (hortos)  tatiti,  quanti  Fythius  vehnty 
et  emit  instructos. 

[§  718.]  7.  A  similar  repetition  of  a  preceding  verb,  but 
in  the  participle  perfectpassive, expresses  the  compWtioD 
of  an  action,  which  in  English  is  commpnly  indicated  by 
<<then'f  or  ^aflerward;"  e.  g,jmandavit  mihi.ut  epistolam 
scrihcrem^  scriptam  sihi  darem  ;  Caes.,  'SdL  Civ,j  i,  76, 
edicunt  tct  producantur:  productos  palam  in  praetorio  in- 
terficiunt;  Liv.,  i.,  10,  exercitum  _fitndit  Jitgatque,  Jusum 
persequitur;  comp.  ii.,  28;  xxii.,  20. 

[§  719.]  8.  Reacting  the  circumlocution  of  the  ahia 
tivus  causalis,  by  means  of  the  participles  ductus^  motus^ 
cojnmotus,  adductus^  captus,  incensusy  impulsus,  and  others 
of  similar  meaning,  see  §  454;  e.  g,^  "Sej^,,  Aleih^  •6^ 
Lacedaemonii  pertimueruntt  ne  caritate  patriae  ductus  (from 
love  of  his  country)  aliquando  ah  ipsii  dtscisceret  et  cum 
suis  in  gratiam  rediret;  Cic,  de  Off,^  i.,  10,  Ja/m  iUis  vr» 


PECULIARITIES    (fT   THE   PARTS    OF   SPEECH.        46d 

missif  standum  nan  esse,  quis  nan  videty  quae  coactus  quts 
metu  promiserit  1  de  Invent,^  ii.,  8,  dubia  spe  impulsus  cer- 
ium in  periculum  se  cammisit ;  ad  Fam,,  iii.,  8,  quum  Juk 
suscepissem  nan  salum  jusdtia,  sed  ctiam  misericordia  oJ- 
ductus. 

[§  720. J  9.  Salea  aliquidfacere  and  solet  aliquid  fieri  axe 
Very  frequently  nothing  but  forms  of  expression  for  saepe 
hocfactafSaepe  or  plerumquefit;  and  in  this  sense  it  must 
be  understood,  especially  in  the  infinitive;  e.  g.,  narrahaf 
patrem  suunt  salitum  esse  dicere,  he  related  that  his  father 
used  to  say,  or  often  said. 

[§  721.]  10.  The  expressions  nescia  an  and  Ttaud  scio  an 
(the  Jatter  is  frequent  in  Cicero,  but  occurs  only  once  in 
Livy,  iii.,  60,  and  in  ix.,  15,  haud  sciam  an  J  have  been 
discussed  above,  §  354,  but  only  briefly.  This  expression, 
which  properly  signifies  "  I  know  not,  whether  not,"  has 
acquired  tiie  meaning  of  the  adYeTh/brtasse;  perhaps ;  e. 
g.,  Cic,  ad  Quint,  'Frat,^  i.,  1,  Tanti  tibi  hanores  hahifi 
sunt,  quanti  haud  scio  an  nemini;  JBrut,,  33,  eloquentia 
quidem  (C.  Gracchus,  si  diutius  vixisset)  nescio  an  hahuis- 
set  parem  neminem,  he  would,  perhaps,  not  have  had  his 
equal ;  p,  hig.,  9,  Quaefuit  unquam  in  ullo  homine  tanta 
:onstantia  1  constantiam  dico  ?  nescio  an  melius  patientiam 
possim  dicere;  de  Fin,,  v.,  3,  Peripateticorumjuitprinceps 
Aristotdes,  quern  excepto  Platone/iaud  scio  an  recte  dixerim 
prindpem  pJiilosophorum.  This  adverbial  signification, 
perhaps,  accounts  for  the  indicative  which  occurs  in  Ter- 
ence, Adelph.,  iv.,  5,  33,  qui  irifelix  haud  scio  an  illam  mi- 
sere  nunc  amatf  but  should  not  be  imitated.  Hence  it  ap 
pears  that  we  ought  always  to  say  nescio  an  nvilus,  nun 
quam^  as  in  the  above  passages,  nescio  an  nemo,  BJid  alsc 
in  Cic,  de  Of,,  iii.,  2j  ad  Fam.y  ix,,  14,  12,  and  Nepos, 
TimoL,  1.  And  this,  indeed,  is  the  reading  which  learn- 
ed critics  (Lambinus,  Emesti,  Goerenz)  have  introduced 
in  Cicero;  e.g.,  Ckit.Maj,,  16,  mea  quidem  sententia  haud 
scio  an  nulla  heatior  esse  possit;  de  Leg,,  i,,  21,  hoc  aiju- 
dicari  nescio  an  nunquam,  sed  hoc  sermone  certe  non  poterit. 
See,  also,  adFam,^  ix.,9, 4;  adAtt,,  iv.,  3,  init.;  de  Orat,^ 
ii.,  4,  18.  The  authority  of  M^S.  has  recently  been  ur- 
ged against  this  view,  but  we  think  with  those  editors,  thai 
the  authority  of  MSS.  is  of  no  weight  in  so  undisputed  an 
analogy ;  and  the  more  so,  as  in  all  cases  the  MSS.  con- 
tain evidence,  also,  in  favour  o#the  nesativp.  and  the  dif* 


4M  LATIN  aBAMMAft. 

ferences  between  the  readings  are  msigniiicant.  Tluav 
is  only  one  passage  in  which  the  difiference  is  considcau- 
bld,  VIZ.,  Cic,  Lad.j  6,  qua  quidem  hand  scio  an  excepta 
iapietUia  quidquam  (or  nihil  J  mdiui  homim  nt  datum  ; 
Dut  even  here  the  reading  nihil  is  sufficiently  attested  by 
MSS.,  to  which  we  may  add  one  of  the  three  Berlin 
MSS.,  the  two  others  having  quicquam.  But  we  must  ob- 
serve, in  conclusion,  that  the  writers  of  the  silver  age  (es- 
pecially Quintilian,  see  Buttmann  on  xii.,  10,  2)  do  not, 
indeed,  give  up  the  use  of  nesdo  an  in  the  sense  oijor- 
tasse,  but  along  with  it  they  employ  die  expression  also  in 
the  negative  sense  of  **  I  know  not  whether/'  and  with 
uUus  after  it,  the  anciei^  and  limited  use  of  an  haviBg,  in 

the  mean  time,  likewise  become  extended. 

• 

E.  Adverbs, 

[§  722.1  1.  The  Latins  frequently  use*  an  adverb  where 
the  English  use  a  substantive  with  a  preposition;  e,  e,, 
vere  7ioc  dicere  possum,  I  can  say  this  in  truth,  or  truly. 
In  Latin  the  preposition  cum  is  sometimes  thus  employed 
with  a  substantive  (§  471),  but  the  adverb  occurs  €ax  more 
frequently,  and  it  is  easy  to  perceive  that  cum  with  a  sub- 
stantive serves  rather  to  denote  some  accessory  circum- 
stance than  anything  inherent  in  the  action. 

2.  As  the  adverb  is  joined  to  a  verb  in  the  same  man- 
ner that  an  adjective  is  joined  to  a  substantive,  the  begin- 
ner must  be  reminded  that  participles,  being  parts  of  a 
verb,  are  qualified  by  adverbs,  and  not  by  adjectives ;  and 
thb  i^le  is  observed  even  when  a  participle*  as  is  some- 
times the  case,  has  acquired  the  meaning  of  a  substantive; 
e.  g.,  inyentum,  invention ;  factum,  fact;  which  are  fre- 
quently  joined  with  adverbs.  We  find,  indeed,  Ulustria^ 
jfbrtia,  gloriosa  /acta^  but,  at  the  same  time,  bene  facta, 
rectefacta^  good  deeds,  and  always  res  fartiter,  pr(uclare, 
fetidter  a  te  gestae, 

[§  723.1  3.  Respecting  the  special  use  of  every  separ- 
ate adverb,  see  Chap.  LXIL  :  it  only  remains  here  to  add 
some  remarks  relative  to  the  connexion  of  sentences  b^ 
means  of  adverbs,  and  to  the  interchange  of  adverbs. 

Sentences  are  connected  by  the^ouUed  adverbs  mode 
*^modo^  aQd  nunc — nunc  (sometimes-* sometimes) ;  as, 
modo  hoc,  modo  illud  dicit;  modo  hue,,  modo  illuc  (volat) , 
modo  ait,  modo  negat.     Nunc — nunc  does  not  occur  in  Cio 


FECDUARlflBS  IN  THJ^  JPAftTS  OP  SPEECH.         409 

MPO^  but  is  found  frequently  in  Livy  and  othe|:8;  as,  name 
iiMgtUa9  provoctU,  nunc  omnes  increpat;  r^erre  egregiafa- 
em^a  nunc  in^expeditiombui,  nunc  in  tide,  Instoadof  the 
second  modo  other  particles  nf  time  are  sometimes  used, 
and  Tacitus,  in.  particular,  is  fond  of  varying  his  expres- 
•ion,  by  substituting  aliquando^  Tumnunquam,  interdum^ 
mepiuff  imm^  or  demde^  for«the  secend  modo, 

Fartiwr'-'-partim^  partly — ^partly,  is  sometimes  used  in 
quite  the  same  sense  as  alii — alii  (or  the  other  genders), 
Uiat  is,  as  the  nominat.  of  a  poun.    ^eei  §  271. 

iSiimff^-— «»mM/»  as  well— -as,  does  not  occur  in  Cicero, 
but  i»  used  by  the  historia&s,  and  once  by  Caesar,;  Bdl. 
CrdU,f  iv^  13,  simul  ^  purgandi  cau$a,  Hmid  ut,  si  quid 
possent^  de  inducOs  impetrarent. 

Qua — qua  does  not  occur  very  frequently,  and  is  ec^iv- 
alent  to  U — et;  as,  Cic<,  ad  AU;  ii.»  19,  Gladiataribus  qua 
dominus^  qua  advocati  sibilis  consdsai. 

Tum-^^tum  is  used  like  nwdo-^-'modo,  as  an  adverb  of 
time,  or  like  partimr''-partim^  denoting  divisions  <^  equal 
value ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Lad,^  21,  Erutnpunt  sa^pe  pi^ia  apiico- 
rum  turn  m  ipsos  umiooSf  turn  in  alienor,  quorum  Umen  ad 
amieos  redundat  infamia  ;  de  Finm/u^  14,  Pleriqueprcp^ 
voimpMem  tmn  in  tnorhM  graves,  turn  in  d^ffMa,  turn  tivi 
dedeoora  ineurrunt ;  de  Off^  ii.,  19,  Qua^  autetn  operdf  ntm 
largitionef  jben^cia  dantmr,  haec  turn  in  umvermm  reni 
pubUcam,  turn  in  singulos  dves  conferuniur, 

Quum  imn  ia  eqaivalaQt  to  e^^— e^»  except  that  it  as- 
signs a  greater  importance  ta  the  second  pai^t ;  it  n^ust, 
therefore,  be  translated  by  ^^boU>— and  e^>ecially,"  ^'not 
only^-^Mit also/'  or^''  but  more  particularly."  Tins  mean 
ing  is  often  expressed  more  strongly  by  adding  to  turn  the 
particles  vero,  certe,  etiam  (sometimes  quoquej^  praedpue, 
imprimMf  tnaxime^  The  ccHi^tmction  and  signification  of 
this  expression  must  be  traced  to  the  use  of  quum  with 
the  subjunctive  in  a  protasis  which  ccmtains  the  introduc- 
tory premises,  and  is  followed  by  an  apodosis  with  tumt 
containing  the  application  of  the  premises  to  the  .particu- 
lar case  in  question;  e^  g.,  Cic*»  p.  Sext.^  1,  im  quo  qt^um 
muUa  aint  indignity  turn  mkU  minus  estjerendufnj  ^  ^^«« 
iiia,  3,  Jam  totam  legem  inteUigiiis,  quum  ad  paucwrum 
dommationem  soripta  sii^  turn  ad  SManae  (fssignQticms 
rationes  esse  aocommodaiam  i  Pt  Arehu  4,  id^,  quum  per 
•e  dignus  putaretuTi  tmii  auotoniate  e$  gratu^  I^uculU  m- 


46S    .  LATIN   ORAMMAH 

fctramU.     This  frequent  mode  of  coanectiiig  senteBceft 
led  the  Romans  to  regard  qwum  as  an  adverbial  eorrela^ 
tiye  of  twn^  without  any  influence  upon  the  couBtructioii ; 
and  hence  it  is  joined  with  the  indicative;  e.  g.,  Oic,  a^ 
Fam,^  iii.,  9,  Quum  ipsam  cognitkmem  juris  augurii  con9e^ 
qui  eupio,  turn  mehercule  tuis  incredibiUter  studUs  ddeotor^ 
vi.,  14,  nam  quum  te  iemper  maxime  dilead,  turn  Jratrmtn 
iuorum  sii^ulafu  pieUu  nullum  me  patitur  cffioii  erga  te 
munuf  praetennittere,     Quum  then  becomes  a  complete 
adverb,  when,  being  followed  by  turn,  it  serves  to  express 
the  opposition  between  single  words  which  have  the  same 
verb ;  e.  g.,  Animi  magnitudo  quum  in  ut^itatibui  com- 
paratidisy  turn  muU&  magis  in  his  despieiendis  ducet;  /br- 
tuna  quum  in  reliquis  rebus,  turn  praecipue  in  heUo  plwri- 
mum  potest;  AgesHaus  quum  a  ceteris  scripUtribus,  turn  ex- 
imie  a  Xenophonte  cMaudaius  est;  luxuria  quum  omni  utt- 
tate  turpis,  turn  senectutijbedissima  est;  quumikultaindig" 
na,  tum  vd  hoc  indignissimuhi  est,-    Sometimes  ibe  verb 
stands  in  the  first  part  of  the  sentence;  Cie^  Divin^  11, 
quum  omms  arri^antia  odiosa  est,  tum*iUa  ingemi  atque 
eloquentiaemulto  molestissima;  in  Verr,,'^.,  2, 1,  Nam  quum 
omnium  sociorum  provinciarmnque  rationem  dUigenter  ha- 
bere deb^s,  tum  praecipue  Sieilitte,  judiees,  plurimis  justis* 
simisque  de  eausis,    Such'a  sentence,  however,  might  also 
be  ^xpfessed  in  the  manner  vrhieh-we  meMaoned  first; 
e.  g.,  Fortuna  quum  in  ceteris  rebus  multum^  €um  praed^pue 
in  bdlo  dominatur.'    -Tum  is  sometimes  repeated  in  the 
second  part- 'of  a  sentence ;  e.  g.,  Cicero,  in  Verr.^  i.,  56, 
quern  pater  moriens  quum  tutoribus  ^pfopinquis,  tum  leg' 
ibus^  tum  aequiiati  magistratuum^  tun^udieOs  vestris  dom' 
mef^deftum  putemt;  and  sometimes  we  find  the  gradatioB 
qman^''4um — tum  vero;  as,  Cic,  dt  heg,  Agrj,  i^  3,  quo* 
rum  quum  adventus  graves^  tumjascesjormidd&si,  turn  vers 
judicium  ac  psteitds  erit  non  fetenda;  p.  Rah*  perd;,  1, 
Nam  me  quum  amieidae  petustas,  tum  dignitas  hominis, 
tum  ratio  humanitatis,  tum  meae  vitae  perpetua  consuetuds 
ad  C,  Rabirium  drfendendum  est  adhortafa,  turn  ver&,  &e. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  the  same  is  allowable  widi  ^ihnii. 
See  Cic,  p.  Mwen,,  18, 88  j  Stiirenburg  on  Cic,  p.  Areh,, 
12, 31.    Lati  edition* 

[§  784.]  4.  Non  modo^^sed  etiam  {or  non  ^oium^  or  non 
tantum-^verum  etiamj  g&MfrMy  expresses  the  traasitiot) 
irom  less  important  to  more  imjitektimt  ^ings^  Itk0-t1i« 


PBCULfARITlEa  IN  THB  PARTS   OF  SPEECH.         4(l0 

BngHsli  *^not  only — ^but  (also);"  e.  g.,  Liv.,  i.,  22«  TitUus 
JSbstilius  non  solum  proximo  regi  aissimilis,  sed  Jerocior 
etiam  Romulo  fmt.  When  a  transition  from  greater  tii 
lesser  things  is  to  be  expressed,  we  usually  find  non  modo 
(but  not  non  sotumj^^-^edy  without  the  etiam  ;  e.  g.,  Cic, 
p,  Ijeg:  Man,y  2&,  Quae  dvitas^t  in  Asia^  qwe  non  modo 
trnpercOoris  aut  legati^  sed  unius  tribwd  miiUum  animos  ae 
tpiriius  capere  posnt  ?  Dimn.,  8,  Qua  in  re  non  modo  eet' 
erit  specimen  atiquod  dedisH,  aed  tute  tmi  periadumfecisti  ? 
p.  8ext,y  20,  Jeeusem  me  ipse  poHus  in  profimdumy  ut  cet* 
eros  eonservaremy  quamiUos  mei  tarn  cupidoa  non  modo  cut 
certam  mortem^  aed  in  magnum  wiae  diaerimen  ttdducerem. 
We  render  Ms  non  modo-^-^-aed  m  £nglish  by  *'  I  will  not 
Bay^-'but  «>iily,"  and  in  Ladn,  too,  we  may  say  non  dieam^ 
or  non  dioor-^ed  ;  as  in  Cie.,  p^PUtncy  33,  NikU  tarn  in- 
kwmanum  eat,  quam  committere  ut  beneficio  non  dicam  tn- 
dignu^,  aed  victua  eaae  ffideare;  Philip»,  ii.,  4»  Quid  eai 
enim  mmuanon  dico  oratoriay  aed  komima^  &c*  We  may 
fkrther,' without  altensgdie  meaning,  invert  subb  senten- 
ces by  meaOB  of  ne  dioam  or  nedum  ;  thus,  instead  <^  tlie 
above^oted  passa^  (p.  Leg*  M€M,,  22),  we  may  say. 
Quae  aivitaa  eat  in  Asia,  quae  uniua  tribuni  mihtum  apiri" 
tua  oapere  poaait,  ne  dicam  (nedum)  imperatoria  aut  legati. 
See  above,  §  573.  There  are,  indeed,  some  passages  in 
Cicero,  in  -^^ch  non  modo  faolumj^'^aed  expresses  an  as- 
cending transition,  and  non  modo-^^aed  ^iam  a  descending 
one,  in  which  case  etiam  is  added  without  any  meaning;'; 
but  the  ms^ority  of  passages  of  this  aathor  justifies  us  m 
adhering  to  Ihe  distinclaon  drawn  above. 

{§  724,  b.]  When  the  sentences  are  negative,  i^  e.,  when 
they  are.conneeted  by  means  of  *'Bot  c^y  not^-4iut  not 
even,"  non  modo  (aohtm)  non^^-^ed  ne  quidem^  the  siscond 
non  is  omitted  if  bodi  sentences  have  £be  same  verb,  and 
^  the  verb  is  contained  in  the  second  sentence,  fi>r  tho 
negative  116  is  then  considered  to  belong  conjointly  to  both 
sentences;  e»  g.,  Oic.,  de  0^.,*iii.,  19,  talia  vir  non  modo 
fkcefBs^aed  ne  oogitare  quidem  quidquam  audebit,  quod  non 
koneatum  ait,  which  is  equivalent  to  talia  vir  non  modofa- 
cerCi  aed  etiam  cogitare  non  audthit ;  LaeL^^i,  AaaentcUio, 
vitiorum  adjutrix,  procul  amoveatur  ;  quae  non  modo  ami* 
CO,  aed  ne  lihero  quidem  digna  est.  This  sentence  may  also 
be  inverted,  Asaentatw  ne  libero  quidem  digna  eat,  non 
modo  (not  to  mensem)  amioo;  as  in  Ctc,  Tuac,  i*  38.  nf 

R  R 


4T0  LATIN  6£AMMAB* 

iues  quidem  idtelwU,  nan  modo  ipse,  Tbe  caae  remaing 
the  same  wheu  sed  vix  follows  in  tbe  second  part  of  the 
sentence ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  p.  Cod^  17,  verum  haec  genera  vir^ 
ttUuni  non  eolum  in  moribus  nostris^  sed  vix  jam  in  libria 
reperiunturt  these  virtues  are  not  only  n6t  found  in  life^ 
out  scarcely  in  books ;  Liv^  iii.,  6,  9mmi  modo  ad  expedi* 
fioneSf  sed  vix  ad  quielas  stationes  viribus  suficiebant.  But 
if  each  part  of  &g  sentence  has  its  own  verb,  or  if  the 
vorb,  although  oomnion  to  both,  is  expieflped  in  the  first 
p^rt,  non  modo  non  is  used  con^lete ;  e.  g^  Cic,  p.  SulL, 
ISf  Ego  non  modo  tibi  non  irascoTf  sed  nereprehendoj^idem 
fadum  tmum  ;  ad  AU^  x«,  4,  honun  ego  imperatmwnnom 
modo  res  gestae  non  iiMteponomeU,  sed  ne/ortmumquidevi 
ipsaM,  The  negatiya  is  not  «infi:e<]^ently  retained- in  the 
first  sentence,  even  wheiwboth  negative  sentences  have 
the  same  predicate ;  as,  Cic«,  p.  Muren^  3,  At^us  hoe  non 
modo  non  laudari^  sed  ne  coneedi  quidem  potest^  %t^  &c.  So^ 
also,  Liv.,  iv.,  3,  Enwnquam  fando  auditum  esse^  J^umam 
Pompilium^  non  mo6^  non  patricium,  sed  ne  civem  qmdem 
Romanum^  Romae  ngnassei  whereas  the  rule  is  observed 
in  i.,  40,  Andjilii  semper  pro  indignissimo  habuerafU,reg* 
nare  Homae  advenam,  non  modo  civicae^  sed  ne  JUaUcae 
quidem  stirpis,  for  the  predicate  of  both  sentences  here  18 
the  participle  of  the  verb  esse.  Lastly,  it  must  be  observ- 
ed, that  the  second  non^  when  its  place  is  supplied  by  a 
negative  word ;  as,  nemo,  nuilus,  nikilf  nunquamt  is  gen- 
erally not  omitted ;  e.  ^<,  Cic^  in  Ferr.,  ii^  4G>  quod  non 
modo  Sieulus  nemo^  sed  ne  Si^iia  quidem  tota  potuisset; 
iii.,  48,  quum  multis  non  modo  granmn  nulluik^  sed  nepa^ 
leae  quidem  ex  omnifruetu  rdknquerentw ;  although  quis" 
quam  or  uUus  would  not  be  wr(»ig,  and  are  acfcuaUy  used, 
e.  e.,  by  Livy. 

[§  725.]  5.  Tam-^quam  expresses  a  comparison;  as 
Cic,  €k2  AU.,  xiiL,.209  VeUem  turn  domeeUoa  ferreposoem^ 
quam  ista  eonUmnere  ;  Chat^  30,  Nemo- orator  tarn  multa^ 
ne  in  Cfraeeo  quidem  otio,  seripsit^  q%am  muUa  sunt  nostra. 
Hence  we  say  deero  tamfaoUe  GroGse^  quamfadUe  Xf#- 
tine  dicebat;  or,  in  the  inverted  order,  Salkist,  Jug,,  34 
Quam  quisqu^pessimejecit,  tarn  maxime  tutus  est,  Tmm^ 
quam  quod  maxime  signifies  ''as  much  as  possible/'  See 
§  774,  note. 

Non  tam'^^quam,  ''not  so  much**^as*;''  e.  g.,  Gi<^  d.'t 
Orat,^  ii.,  30,  De  eo  non  tam  quia  longum  est,  quam  fui^i 


PECULlARITISa   IN   THB   PABTS  OF  SPEECH.         471 

• 

f0%srspieuum,  did  nihil  est  necesse  ;  tn  Verr^  iL,  34,  Qtuu 
titmdiose  compa/rarat  nan  tarn  suae  deUctationis  causa^  quam 
ad  invitalifmes  suorum  amicorum  atque  hospitum  ;  p,  Mu 
ten,,  8,  provinda  n4m  tarn  graCiosa  et  iUustris^  qtiam  nego* 
tiosa  ac  moleata.  The  real  meaning  of  "  not  so  much — 
as"  dnis  Tanishes,  the  former  part  of  the  sentence  being 
negatived  altogether. 

Non  minus — quam  and  non  magis-^'^quam  are,  on  the 
whole,  equivalent  to  aeque  ac^  as  much  as ;  but  it  must  be 
observed  that  in  non  magis^^quam  the  greater  weight  is 
attached  to  the  affirmative  part  of  the  sentence  beginning 
with  quam  ;  e.  g.,  Alexander  non  ducts  magis  quam  mtH- 
tis  munia  exequebatur^  Alex,  performed  just  as  much  the 
service  of  a  soldier  as  that  of  a  commander;  Cic,  ad 
JPam.f  xiv.,  3,  confidor  enim  maerore^  mea  Terentda^  nee 
meae  me  miseriae  magis  excrudant^  quam  tuae  vestraeque; 
Curt.,  viL,  38,  Maverat  eos  regis  non  virtus  magis^  quam 
dementia  in  devictos  Sc^as.  The  place  of  the  adverb 
magis  is  frequently  supplied  hy  plus;  e.  g.,  Oic.,  de  Prav. 
Cans.,  10,  rd  publicae  plus  quam  otio  meo  praspexi ;  p, 
.Flacc.,  31,  revera  nan  plus  aurum  tiM  quctm  monedulae 
comtnittehant  /  ad  Att,^  ii.,  1,  Catanem  nan  tu  amas  plus 
quam  ego.  See  my  note  on  Cic,  in  Verr,,  ii.,  7,  and  Heu- 
singer  on  de  Off.^  iii.,  23.  (Otherwise jp/tfi  is  rarely  used 
for  magis  :  Cic,  de  Leg,,  ii.,  1,  inest  nesda  quid  in  anifno 
ac  sensu  meo,  qua  me  plus  Mc  locus  fortasse  ddectet;  Phil- 
ip,, iL,  15,  An  ille  qusmquamplus  dUexit;  for  Philip,^  ii., 
IZypiusquam  sioani,  plus  quam  hamiddae  sunt,  is  per* 
fectly  regular,  ''they  are  something  more.") 

{§  726J  6.  Sic  and  ita  are  demonstrative  adverbs  de- 
nodng  similarity,  and  corresponding  to  the  relative  ut  (see 
§  281,  foil.) ;  but  ita,  which  differs  from  dc,  also  serves  to 
indicate  a  more  special  relation  :  hence  it  very  o&en  has 
a  regrictive  meanmg,  '^only  in  so  fiu:;"  e.  g.,  Cic,  p.  Leg, 
Man,,  3,  vestri  imperatares  ita  triumpharunt,  ut  Hie  (Mith- 
ridaces)  pulsus  superatusque  regnaret ;  i.  e.,  your  generals 
triumphed,  indeed,  but  in  such  a  manner  that  Mithridates, 
neveitheless,  continued  to  tide;  this  is  sometimes  express- 
ed more  emphatically  by  the  addition  of  tam^n  (e.  g.,  p. 
8Kct,,  5,  Verum  haec  ita  praetereamus,  ut  tame^i  intuentes 
ac  respectantes  relinquamus) ;  p,  Cluent,,  32 ;  ita  multum 
agitata^  ita  diujactata  ista  res  est^  ut  hodiemo  die  primum 
9amsa  ilia  drfensa  dt ;  in  Verr.^  iii.,  82,  iiaque  hoc  est,  qucd 


473  LATIN    GRAMMAR.  . 

mvitiforUuie  fecerunt,  sed  ita  mtdti,  ut  ii  quos  ixnocentt^ 
simos  meminimus  aut  audivinms^  nonfecerinL  Tantus  (but 
not  tarn)  is  used  in  the  ^ame  sense;  as,  Caes.,  Bell,  Gall,^ 
\d.,  35,praesidii  tantum  est,  ut  ne  mums  qutdem  cingipos- 
sit;  i.  e.,  only  so  much ;  Nep.,  de  Reg.,  1,  tantum  indui- 
sit  dolorif  ut  eum  pietas  vinceret,  and  in  like  manner,  we 
find  in  Cic,  ad  Fam,^  i.,  7,  tantam  vim  habet,  in  the  sense 
of  **  so  small  a  value." 

Ut-^^ta  (sic)  places  sentences  on  an  equality;  but  this 
equality  is  sometimes  limited  to  the  result,  to  which  both 
sentences  lead,  so  that  ut-^ta  is  equivalent  to  ''  although 
— ^still,"  or,  **  indeed — ^but;"  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  x.,  20,  Ut  cr- 
rare,  mi  Plance,  potuisti^  sic  dedpi  te  nanpotuisse  quis  non 
videt  ?  Liv.,  xxi.,  35,  Pleraqus  Alpium  ah  Italia  sicut  bre- 
viara,  ita  arrectiara  sunt^  are  mdeed  shorter,  but  steeper. 

The  adverb  ut,  ''  as,"  sometimes  takes  the  signification 
of  the  conjunction  qjfuidy  "  because ;''  e.  g.,  homo,  ut  erai 
Juriosus,  respondit,  the  man,  furious  as  he  was ;  i.  e.,  be- 
cause he  was  furious ;  Gift.,  p,  Murtn.,  25,  Atqtie  iUe,  ut 
semper  Juit  apertissimus,  non  se  purgavit ;  in  Verr^^  i.,  "^^^ 
magnifice  p.t  o^Aate,  )U  erat  in  primis  inter  suos  copiosus^ 
eonvivium  comparat,  rich  as  be  was,  or  because  he  was 
rich. 

[§  727.]  7. .  Instead  of  the  adverbial  numerals  prvmum^ 
secundo  (for  secundum  is  not  often  used,  see  §  123),  terti- 
um,  quartum,  unless  the  strict  succession  of  the  numbers 
is  required,  the  ancients  preferred  using  the  ordinal  ad- 
verbs primum,  deinde,  turn,  denique,  and  generally  in  the 
order  here  adopted,  but  sometimes  turn  is  used  once  or 
twice  instead  of  deinde,  or  the  series  is  exteuded  by,  such 
expressions  as  accedit^  hue  adde.  Sometimes  denique  i& 
followed  by  postremo  to  form  the  conclusion  of  a  series, 
which  is  odierwise  so  commonly  the  function  of  denique^ 
that,  even  without  the  other  adverbs  preceding,  it  con- 
cludes a  series  by  introducing  the  greatest  or  most  im- 
portant, and  is  then  equivalent  to  the  English  "in short," 
or  *^ in  fine;"  e, g., Cic, in  Cat.^  i.,  5,  templa  deorum immor^ 
talium,  tecta  urbis,  vitam  omnium,  civium,  Italiam  denique 
totam  ad  exitium  ac  vastitatem  vocos, 

[§  728.]  8.  The  adverb  Jbrte  difibrs  in  meaning  from 
/brtasse  axidjbrsitan  (comp.  §  271),  the  former  signifying 
*'  accidentally,"  and  the  two  latter  **  perhaps."  Forsitan^ 
according  to  its  derivation,  is  chiefly  joined  with  the  sub- 


f£CULIARITIES    tti   TklB    PARTS    OF   SPEECH.        4l^ 

jitnctive;  i.  e.,  it  is  used  in  those  construclions  the  nature 
of  which  admits  of  the  subjunctive  in  other  connexions 
also ;  e.  g.^Jbrsitan  aliquis  dixerit  /  quod  debeamfors^itan 
ohiinere.  But  Jbrte  acquires  the  signification  of  **  per- 
haps'* after  some  conjunctions,  especially  after  si,  7iisi, 
ne,  niim  ;  e.  g,,  nmiis  forte  miratur,  if,  perhaps,  any  one 
should  be  surprised.  Hence  arises  the  frequent  confiision 
of  the  two  particles  in  modem  Latin. 

[§  729.]  9.  Modo  non  and  tantum  non  acquire,  like  the 
.  Greek  fiovov  ovk,  the  moaning  of  the  adverb  **  nearly"  or 
**  almost,"  fcr  properly  they  signify  "  oflly  not  so  much ;" 
e.  g.,  Terent.,  Phorm.,  i.,  2,  18,*w  senemper  epistolds  pel- 
lexit  modo  non  monies  auripollicens  ;  i.  e.,  paene  ot  prope 
pollicens ;  Liv.,  iv.,  2,  hostes  tantum  non  arcessiverunt : 
xxxiv.^  40,  nuntii  aWerehant,  tantum  non  jam  captam  Lace^ 
daemonem  esse.  The  same  meaning  is  also  expressed  by 
tantum  quod  non,  ^^hich  brings  us  still  nearer  to  the  origin 
of  the  expression ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Verr,,  i.,  45,  tantum  quod 
kominem  non  nominat,  only  (except)  that  he  does  not 
mention  him  by  name  ;  i.  e.,  he  almost  mentions  him  by 
name. 

[§  730.]  10.  Non  ita  is  used  like  the  English  ''not  so,** 
which  is  to  be  explained  by  an  ellipsis ;  as,  non  ita  longt 
aberat,  he  was  not  so  far  off,  viz.,  as  you  might  imagine  . 
but  it  also  acquires  the  meaning  of  "  not  exactly,"  "  not 
very;"  i.  e.,  it  becomes  equivalent  to  n>on  sane,  non  admo* 
dum.  Cicero  uses  it  in  this  sense  only  before  adjectives 
and  adverbs,  and  before  verbs  non  ita  valde  is  employed: 
e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Verr,,,  iv.,  49,  simulacra  praeclara,  sed  non 
ita  antiqua  ;  "Brut.,  66,  Fimbria  non  ita  diujactare  se  po- 
tuit ;  de  Nat.  Deor.,  i.,  31,  quibus  homines  non  ita  valde 
moventur,  and  in  many  other  passages. 

[730,  b,]  11.  Non  item  is  used  to  express  a  certain  op- 
position or  contrast,  and  properly  signifies  "not  in  the 
same  manner  or  degree,"  but  it  is  usually  rendered  by 
the  simple  "not"  or  "but — not;"  Cic,  de  Of,,  i.,32,  hoc 
Herculi potuit fortasse  contingere, nobis  non  item;  ad  Att,, 
ii.,  21,  O  spectaculum  uni  Crasso  jucundum,  ceteris  no7i 
item !  Orat,,  43,  nam  omnium  magnarum  artium,  sictU 
arborum,  altitudo  nos  delectat,  radices  stirpesque  non  item* 
Comp,  §  781.  ' 

[§  731.]  12.  Minus  is  often  used  for  non;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de 
Divin,,  i.,  lii,  Nonnumquam  ea,  quae  jfraedicta  suvt,7nmu4 

Kr2 


474  LATIN   6RAMMAK. 

eceniunt  W  e  must  especially  notice  si  minus — at^  if  not 
— ^yet ;  e.g.,  Cic,  in  Verr^  v.,  27,  si  minus  supplicio  o^o, 
at  custodiri  oportehat — and  sin  minus,  "  but  if  not,"  with- 
out a  verb,  afler  a  preceding  si;  but  with  si  non  the  verb 
is  repeated ;  Cic,  ad  Fam.,  vii.,  1,  Quod  si  assecutus  sum^ 
gaudeo  :  sin  minus^  hoc  me  tamen  consolor,  quod  posthac 
nos  vises  ;  ad  AU*,  ix.,  15,  si  mihi  veniam  dederit,  iUar  il- 
lius  condictone :  sin  minus^  impetrabo  aliquid  a  me  ipso. 
Comp.  §  343.  Panun  always  retains  its  proper  significa- 
tion of  *'  not^-enough/'  though- it  may  sometimes  seem  to 
be  used  for  non  ;  *e,  g.,  parum^  diu  vixit,  he  did  not  livd 
long  enough ;  parum  muki  sunt  defensores  nobUitatis,  wA 
numerous  enough.  The  English  **  how  little"  is,  in  Lat'^ 
in,  quam  non^  and  "  so  little"  ita  non,  or  adeo  non  ;  e.  g^ 
adeo  non  curaiat,  quid  homines  de  se  loquerentur. 

[§  782.]  13.  NunCf  as  was  remarked  in  §  285,  always 
expresses  the  time  actually  present,  and  not  merely  rela- 
tively present,  or  the  time  to  which  a  narrator  transfers 
himself  for  the  purpose  of  making  his  description  livelier. 
In  a  narrative  we  may  say  in  English,  e.  g.,  Caesar  now 
thought  that  he  ought  not  to  hesitate  any  longer;  but  the 
new  in  this  sentence  must  be  rendered  in  Latin  by  tunc, 
or  tum,  Caesar  non  diutius  sibi  cunctandum  censehat,  (In 
the  connexion  of  sentences,  however,  jam  may  be  used 
instead;  see  §  286.)  In  speaking  of  the  time  actually 
present  we  say,  e.  g.,  nunc  primum  somnia  me  eltidunt,  or 
eluserunt,  this  is  the  first  time  that  a  dream  deceives  me, 
oi  has  deceived  me.  In  a  narrative,  cm  the  other  hand, 
wo  must  say,  somnia  tunc  primum  se  dicebat  elusisse^  See 
the  passage  in  Tacit.,  ^nn.,  xvi.,  3.  This  rule  is  observ* 
ed  throughout.  Respecting  the  same  us.e  of  ille  in  con- 
tradistinction to  hie,  see  §  703. 

[§  733.]  14.  The  conjunction  dum  (while)  alters  ita 
meaning  when  added  to  negatives,  and  becomes  an  ad- 
vm'b  signifying  '*  yet ;"  as,  nimdum  or  hauddum,  not  yet ; 
nequedum  or  necdum,  and  not  yet;  nuUusdum,  no  one  yet; 
nihUdum^  nothing  yet ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  ad  Att.^  xiy.,  10,  Quid 
agatjrater  meus  si  scis,  nequedum  Roma  est  profectus,  scri- 
bas  ad  me  vdim ;  Sueton.,  Caes.,  7,  Caesar  quum  Gades 
venisset^  animadversa  apud  Herculis  templum  Magni  Alex- 
andri  imagine,  ingemuit  quasi  pertaesus  ignamam  suam, 
quod  nihUdum  %  se  memorabile  actum  easet  ii^  aeiate^  qua 
jam  Alexander  orbcm  terrae  subegisset^    Hence,  when  at- 


rECULlARlTIfid  IN  THB  PABTa   OF   SPEECH.         475 

«iif:he(l  to  the  negative  advetb  vix — vixdum,  it  signifiea 
** scarcely  yet;*'  c.  g.,  Cic,  ad  AtL\  ix.,  2,  Vixdum  epis- 
tolam  tuam  legeram,  quuni  ad  me  Curtius  venit, 

[§  734.  *  15.  The  conjunction  vel  (or),  which  originally 
serves  to  correct  an  expression,  acquired  through  an  el- 
lipsis the  meaning  of  the  adverb  "even,"  and  enhances 
die' sense  of  the  word  modified  by  it  j  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Fin,, 
i.,  ^4,  qtcum  Sophfides  vel  optime  scripserit  jSlectram^  tamen 
male  etrnversam  Attii  ntihi  legendam"  puto :  here  the  ex- 
pression is  to  be  explained  by  supplying  the  word  bene 
before  vel.  In  this  sense  vel  is  used  frequently ;  as  in 
Cicero,  ha^:  re  vel  tnaxime  prae^tat ;  quam  sinl  morosi  qui 
amanty  vel  ex  hoc  intelligi  potest ;  isto  mpdo  vel  conmlaius 
vituperabilis  est ;  per  me  vel  stertas  licet.  The  derivation 
of  this  particle  from  velle  (wilt  diou?)  accounts  for  its  sig- 
nifying "  for  example/^  or  "  to  mention  a  case  at  once  ;*' 
e.  g.,  Cic^  ad  Fam,,  ii.,  13,  Raras  tuasquidemy  ied  suaves 
accipio  litteras :  vel  quas  proxime  acceperam,  quam  prU' 
derUesf  p,  Flacc.,  33,  Ita  sdtote,  judices^  esse  cetera,  Vel 
quod  ait  L.  Flaccum  sibi  dare  cupisse,  ut  a  fide  se  abducC' 
retf  HS.  vicies*  Velut  is  more  frequently  used  in  this 
sense ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Fin.,  ii.,  35,  Non  elogia  monujnento- 
rum  hoc  significant?  velut  hoc  adportam;  de  Nat.  Deaj^.^ 
ii.,  48,  Veluti  crocodili — simukic  niti  possunt,  aquam  per- 
Kqwmtur, 

[§  735.1  16.  The  conjunction  nisi,  by  omitting  its  verb 
or  uniting  it  wfth  the  leading  verb,  acquires  the  sense  of 
Ae  adverb  "except,"  which  is  generally  expressed  by 
praetetiquam  or  the' preposition  praeter,  (See  §  323.) 
This,  however,  is  the  case  only  after  negatives  and 
negative  questions ;  e.  g.,  Nepos,  Miltiades,  4,  Athenien- 
fes  auxUium  nusquam  nisi  a  Lacedaemoniis  petiverunt ; 
Cic,  p:  Planc,^  33,  Quid  est  pietas^  nisi  voluntas  grata  in 
parentes  ?  p.  Sext,,  60,  Quern  unquam  senatus  civem  nisi 
ne  ndtionibus  exteris  eommendavit  ?  instead  of  which  we 
might  say  in  the  first  passage,  praeterquam  a  Lacedaemo" 
mis,  and  in  the  second  praeter  me ;  and  we  must  say  so 
when  no  negative  precedes ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxiv.,  16,  praeda 
pmnis  praeterqmam  haminuni  captorum  (or  praeter  homines 
captos)  mUiti  concessa  est.  But*  the  expression  "  except 
that,"  may  be  rendered  in  Latin  either  by  nisi  quod  or 
ffdeterquam  quod,  so  tliat  here  we  may  have  nisi  vnthout 
ft  preceding  negative     e.  g.,  Cic,  ad  Att,^  ii.,  1,  TuscuUh 


476  LATIIC  GRAMMAR. 

num  et  Pompeianum  me  valde  delectant,  nisi  qtu'd  me  aerm 
alieno  obrtienmt.  (Nisi  ut  are  likewise  joined  together, 
but  in  a  different  sense,  ut  retaining  its  proper  significa- 
tion;  e.  g.y  nikU  aliud  ex  hoc  re  quaero^  nisi  ut  homines  im- 
telligantf  except  that  people  may  see.) 

As  the  Latin  nisi  auer  negatives  is  rendered  in  English 
not  only  by  "  except,"  but  by  "  than,"  the  beginner  must 
beware  of  translating  this  ''than"  by  quam.  It  is  only  af- 
ter nihil  aliud  that  we  may  use  either  fdsi  or  quam,  nist 
referring  to  nihil^  and  quam  to  aliud.  The  difference  is 
this,  that  nihil  aliud  nisi  signifies  "  nothing  farther,"  or 
"nothing  more,"  and  nihil  aliud  quam,  "nothing  else," 
or  "  no  other  thing  but  this  particular  one."  Hence,  Cic. 
fde  OraL,  ii.,  12)  says,  Erat  historia  nihil  aliud  nisi  anna" 
Hum  co7tfecti0  (but  it  should  be  more) ;  de  Off.^  i.,  23,  Bd- 
lum  ita  susdpiatur,  ut  nihil  aliud  nisi  pax  quaesita  videa- 
tur  (and  not  other  advantages  besides);  Tusc,^  i.,  34,  Nihil 
aliud  est  dispere,  nisi  recordaru  Praeter  is  used  in  the 
same  sense  in  Cic,  de  Off,<,  ii.,  2,  nee  qiUdquam  aliud  est 
philosophia  praeter  studium  sapientiae  (Nothing  more). 
But  in  de  Leg,,  i.,  8,  we  read,  Virttis  est  nihil  aliud  qtiam 
in  se  perfecta  et  ad  summum  perducta  natura  (this  defini* 
ti«n  comprising  everything);  Nep.,  Li/s.,  1,  Nihil  aliud 
molitus  est  quam  ut  omnes  civitates  in  sua  teneret  potestizte. 
Quam  must,  as  a  matter  of  course,  be  used,  when  it  refers 
to  a  comparative ;  as,  nihil  magis  timeo  quam  ilium* 

F.  Prepositions, 

r§  736.]  The  use  of  every  separate  preposition  has  been 
fully  explained  in  Chap.  LXV.,  and  there  is  no  farther 
general  remark  to  be  made,  except  that  the  beginner  must 
be  cautioned  not  to  join  two  prepositions,  as  we  do  in  En^ 
lish;  e.  g.,  "to  speakybr  and  agaifist  a  law,"  or,  "Ihave 
learned  this  with,  and,  to  some  extent,  ^om,  him."  The 
only  mode  of  rendering  these  sentences  in  Lc^in  is,  pro 
lege  et  contra  legem  dicere ;  haec  cum  eo,  partim  cUam  ah 
eo  didici.  Those  dissyllabic  prepositions  only,  which  are 
also  used  without  a  noun  and  as  adverbs,  may  follow  an- 
other, without  being  joined  with  a  case;  e.  g.,  Cicero, 
quod  aut  secundum  naturam  esset,  aut  contra ;  Livy,  ds 
Padum  ultraque,  Caesar  (Bell,  Oiv,,  iii.,  72)  reverses  th« 
order,  intra  extraque  munitiones.     Compare,  also,  §  794 


fSCULIA&iTUJ   IS    THE   PARTS    OF   SPEECH.'      477 

G.  Conjunctions. 

[§  737.]  1.  Respecting  the  signification  of  .the  several 
KonjunctionSt  see  Chap.  LXVII.  Those  who  wish  to  ac- 
quire a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  Latin  language  can* 
not  bestow  too  much  attention  on  this  part  of  speech. 
From  a  careful  observation  of  their  use  in  good  authors, 
we  learn  that  many  combinations  have,  in  fact,  quite  a 
different  meaning  from  what  lies  on  the  surface.  Atque 
adeo^  properly  "  and  even,"  acquires  the  power  of  coi- 
recting  that  which  precedes,  and  also  enhances  the  sense; 
hence  it  becomes  equivalent  to  vel  pdtitcs^  or  rather.  (See 
§  336.  Compare  what  is  said  of  immo  in  §  277.)  E.  g., 
Cic,  in  Verr.^  iii.,  8,*  Tu  homo  minimi  consilii,  niUliia  auc- 
toritatis^  injussu  populi  ac  senattis,  tola  Sicilia  recusante^ 
cum  maxima  detrimento  atque  adeo  exitio  veetigalium^  to 
tarn  JBKeronicam  legem  susttdisti.  At  qtiam  legem  corrigit^ 
judicet,  atque  adeo  totam  toUit  ?  and,  Verres  tot  annis  atque 
adeo  saeculis  inventus  est, 

[§  738.]  2.  Attention  must  be  paid  to  the  following  pe- 
cuHarity  of  the  Latin  language :  when  the  negative  pow 
er  of  a  proposition  is  not  expressed  by  non,hut  contained 
in  some  other  word,  the  negative  is  usually  combined 
with  the  copulative  conjunction ;  hence,  instead  of  et  and 
tU  with  the  negatives  nemo,  nihil,  ntdlus,  nunquam,  we  find 
much  more  frequently  neque  (nee)  and  ne  with  the  corre- 
sponding affirmative  words  quisquam,  tdlus,  v/nquam^  us- 
quam.  It  must,  however,,  be  observed  (see  §  709),  that 
"  in  order  that  no  one*'  is  rendered  in  Latin  by  ne  qifis, 
and  never  by  ne  quisqfiam.  But  it  should  not  bo  forgot- 
ten that  ne  cannot  be  used  everywhere,  and  that  ut  nemo, 
ut  nullus,  &c.,  are  required  in  all  cases  in  which  ut  non 
must  be  employed,  and  not  ne.  (See  §  532.)  E.  g.,  Cic, 
Cat.  Maj.,  12,  impedit  enim  consilium  voluptas  ac  mentis, 
ut  ita  dicam^  praestringit  ocuhs,  nee  hahet  ullum  cum  vir- 
tute  comTnercium;  ibid.,  19,  horae  quidem  cedunt,  et  dieset 
menses  et  anm:  nee  praeteritum  tempus  unquam  revertitur; 
SaHust,  Cat.,  29,  Senatus  decrevit,  darent  operam  consules, 
ne  quid  respuhlica  detrimenti  caper  et ;  Caes.,  IRdI,  Gall., 
i.,  46,  Caesar  suis  imperavit,  ne  quod  omnino  telum  in  has- 
tes  rejicerent 

[§  733.]  3.  When  any  clause  inserted  in  another  has  im- 
peded or  disturbed  the  construction,  the  return  to  the  coa* 


47S     '  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Btruction  of  the  leading  sentence  is  indicated  by  one  ef 
the  conjunctions  igitur^  verum,  verumtamen,  sed,  sed  tamen 
which  we  commonly  render  by  "  I  say."  In  Liatin,  too, 
inqtutm  is  sometimes  so  used  (as  in  Cic,  m  Verr,,  iv.,  29. 
67 ;  p.  Murien,^  30,  63 ),  but  the  conjunctions  are  much 
more  common ;  Cic,  de  Off,,  iii.,  16,  M.  Cato  sententiatn 
dixit,  hujus  nostri  Catonis  pater  fut  emm  ceteri  ex  patnhust 
sic  hie,  qui  Ulud  lumen  progenuit,  exjilio  est  nominandusj  : 
is  igitur  judex  ita  pronuntiavit,  emptori  damnum  praestart 
opoTtere;  Philip,,  ii.,  32,  Trimum  qtmm  Caesar  ostendts-' 
set^  se,  priusquam  prqfieisceretur,  DolabeUam  consulem  esse 
jussurum  :  quem  negant  regem^  qui  et  faceret  semper  ejus* 
modi  aliquid  ft  diceret :  sed  quum  Oaesar  ita  dixissety  turn 
hie  bonus  augur  eo  se  sacerdotio  praeUitum  esse  dixit,  &c. 
See  Heusinger  on  this  passage,  and  compare  in  Cat.^  iii., 
2,  init. ;  p.  Plane.,  4 ;  de  Leg,,  ii.,  1,  Quare  ante  mirahar 
'"^ed  mirahar,  ut  dixi,  &c.  As  for  the  other  conjunctions 
used  in  this  manner,  see  in  Cat,,  iv,,  11 ;  Philip,,  ii.,  37; 
de  Fin,,  ii.,  22 ;  p.  Rose.  Am,^  43,  in  Verr,<,  iii.,  2,  init.;  aa 
Att.,  i.,  10,  init. ;  p.  Sext.,  10,  init.  Nam  is  also  employ- 
ed in  this  way ;  as,  p.  Plane.,  41.  Itaque  is  doubtiul  in 
Cic,  de  Fin.f  i.,  6,  19,  but  occurs  in  Liv.,  ii.,  12,  init. 

[§  740.]  4.  Siquis  often  seems  to  stand  for  the  relative 
pronoun,  as  in  Greek  ehig  for  d^rig ;  but  it  always  con- 
tains the  idea  of  "perhaps,"  Tviiich  it  naturally  retains 
from  its  proper  signification  of  a  possible  condition;  e.g., 
Liv.,  xxi.,  37,  Nudajere  Alpium  cacuminasunf^  et  si  quid 
est  pahtdi,  ohruunt  nives  ;  Cic,  in  Vert.,  v.,  25,  iste  qu(isi 
pra^da  sihi  advecta,  non  praedonihus  captis,  si  qui  senes 
aui  deformes  erant,  eos  in  hostium  numero  ducit,  qui  aliquid 
formae,  aetatis,  artifidique  hahehant,  ahducit  dmnes;  Biut., 
69,  C,  Cosconius  nuUo  acumine,  earn  tamen  verborum  copi- 
am,  si  quam  habebat,  populo  praebebat,  Emesti  proposed 
to  strike  out  si,  but  it  may  be  explained  in  the  manner 
stated  above,  for  Cicero  does  not  even  like  to  admit  that 
Cosconius  possessed  copia  verborum ;  and  in  a  similai 
manner  he  speaks  with  some  doubt  of  his  own  eloquence, 
c  87,  eisi  tu  melius  exi^timare  videris  de  ea,  si  quam  nunc 
habemus,/atultate;  and,  also,  Divin,,  15,  ipse  AUienus  ex 
eafacuLtate,  si  quam  habet,^liquantum  detracturus  est, 

[§  741.]  5,  The  .conjunction  et  (que  wctdatquej  not  uii^ 
frequently  connects  two  substantives,  and  places  4hem  on 
an  equality  with  each  other  although  properly  one  brars  to 


PLEONASM..  '  470 

Cto  Other  the  relation  of  a  genitive  or  an  adjective.  This 
kind  of  connexion  is  called  Bv  did  dvolv^  that  is,  one  idea  is 
expressed  by  two  words  independent  of  each  other,  for  a 
genitive  and  an  adjective,  when  joined  to  a  substantive, 
constitute  only  one  idea.  When,  e.  g.,  Vitg.,  Georg,^  1, 
192,  says,  patens  Ubamui  et  aurOf  it  is  equi^ent  to  jm* 
ieris  aureis;  and,  Aen.,  i.,  61,  molem  et  mantes  insuperaU 
tos  imposuit,  equivalent  to  molem  altarum  montium.  But 
similar  expressions  occur  also  in  prose,  and  oratorical  dic- 
tion thereby  gains  in  fulness  and  power;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Cat,, 
i.,  13,  let  saepe  homines  aegri  morho  gravis  quum  aestu/eb* 
riqve  jaetantttr,  i.  e.,  aestu  fi^fris  ;  p,  Flacc,^2,  quern  plt> 
rimi  ewes  devincti  necessituddne  ae  vetustate,  i.  e.^  vetus* 
tate  necessitudinis ;  p.  Arch.,  6,  ea>  his  studiis  haec  quoque 
crescit  oratio  et  Jacultasj  i.  c.,  faxAdtas  dicendi  ;  in  Verr., 
v.,  li,jtts  imagmis  ad  memoriam  posteritatemque  prodere, 
i.  e.,  ad  memoriam  posteritatis ;  ibid.,  iv.,  35,  complesse 
coronis  etflorihus;  and,  in  Curt,  iv.,  Yi^navigia  redimita 
jflorihus  coronisque^  with  garlands  of  flowers.  It  is  par- 
ticularly frequent  in  Tacitus ;  as,  Ann,^  ii.,  69,  carmina  et 
devotiones  repenebantttr,  for  carmina  devoiionum ;  ii.,  83, 
tempore  ac  spatio,  for  temporis  spatio;  xiL,  27,  veteranos 
coloniamque  dedtecere,  for  coloniam  veteranorwm.  Of  a 
somewhat  different,  though  similar  kind,  &re  those  combi- 
nations of  substantives,  where  the  second  contains  a  more 
accurate  definition  of  the  general  meaning  of  the  first. 
The  substantive  which  occurs  most  frequently .  in  such 
combinations  is  vis  ;  as,  vi  et  armis,  vi  me  nUwiSf  m  et  con* 
tentione^  vi  ac  necessitate. 


CHAPTER  LXXXV. 

*  M.  t  ^ 

PLBOl^AdM. 

[§  742. J  1.  Pleonasm  is  that  mode  of  expression  in 
which  several  words  of  the  same  or  similar  meaning  are 
accumulated,  or  in  which  a  thought  is  conveyed  in  more 
words  than  are  necessary  to  express  the  meaning. 

2.  The  first  kind  of  pleonasm  does  not,  properly  speak- 
ing, belong  to  Latin  grammar.  Good  authors  accumulsfte 
words  of  similar  meaning  only  Vhen  they  intend  to  set 
forth  a  particular  thing  forcibly  and  emphatically,  and  they 
take  care  that  there  is  a  certain  gradation  in  the  words 


490  LATIN   GRAMUAE. 

Uiey  put  together ;  as  in  relinquet'C  ac  dewi  ere,  desef^sre 
derelinquerc  ;  aver  sari  et  execrari  ; .  rogo  te  oroque,  oro  i€ 
atqufi  ooMccro;  gaud^o  veJi-ementerque  laetar^  lia^tor  el  triune 
pho;  hoc  animu  eorum  insiiam  ^que  inna(Mm  videtur  esse; 
agitatur  ct  J$:rterrct^r  Furiarum  taedis  ardeniibus;  hoc 
$naxime  vestras  animms  excUare  atque  inflammare  deheL 
Innumerable  instances  of  this  kind  are  found  in' the  ora^ 
tors,  and  they  constitute  a  great  part  of  the  eopia  verhth 
rum  which  is  required  of  orators.  But  they  go  even  far- 
ther, and  when  their  endeavour  to  accumulate  words  for 
the  sake,  of  emphasis  becomes  still  more  striking,  it  is  call- 
ed  a  rhetorical  figure ;  e.  g^  when  Cicero  (in  CaL^  L,  5) 
calls  on  Catiline  to  quit  Rome,  Quae  qUum  ita  sint^  Catt" 
Ivna^  perge  quo  coepisti :  egrederc  aliquando  ex  urbe :  pat- 
tnt  portae;  prefidscere ;  and  where  he  describes  Catiline's 
flight  (in  Cat,f  ii«,  1),  Abiity,  excessit^  evasit^  erupit.  But 
in  grammar  we  have  to  notice  only  certain  combinations, 
which  by  usage  have  beccnne  so  familiar,  that  they  do  not 
appear  to  contain  any  piyticular  emjdiasis ;  as,  catu  et 
fortuitOy  forte  fprtuna^  forte  temere^  prudens  sdens^  vivus 
vidensque,  volens  propitius,  Jundere  et  fugare ;  and  some 
legal  and  political  expressions,  where  it  was  originally  in- 
tended, by  an  accurate  phraseology,  to  prevent  a  wrong 
or  ambiguous  application.  Expressions  of  this  kind  are, 
pecuma  capta  conciliata,  Cic^  in  VerrS,  iii,,  94 :  ager  datus 
assignatus,  Philip.^  v.,  in  fin.:  nihil  aequi  boni  impetravit, 
P^i/^M  ii.,37  :  quum  Brutus  exercittsm  conscripserit  com- 
pararit,  in  a  d^ree  of  the  senate,  PhUip,^  v.,  13,  and 
others. 

[§  7 43. J  3.  The  second  kind  of  pleonasm  belongs  to 
grammar,  inasmuch  as  certain  redimdant  expressions  are 
sanctioned  by  xu^yj^  and  can  no  longer  be  consid&eo 
faulty.  But  we  must  not  suppose  that  a  thing  expressed 
by  a  redundancy  of  words  is  quite  equivalent  to  a  shorter 
expression  which  we  may  meet  with  elsewhere.  ,  The  lan- 
g^age  of  good  authors  is  not  arbitrary  in  this  respect,  and 
two  modes  of  expression  never  have  quite  the  same  mean- 
ing. It  is  not,  however,  our  object  here  to  trace  such  dif- 
ferences in  their  minutest  details,  but  only  in  general  to 
mention  those  cases  in  which  the  XtdXin  usage. employs 
more  words  than  appear  necessary  tc^  a  person  who  judg- 
es of  it  by  the  standard  of  a  modem  language. 

4.  A  preceding  substantive  is  often  repeated  after  the 


ri.EOiVASM.  4Bl 

f<$lattvd  pronoun ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  p,  Fldec,  33,  hahetis  causam 
inifnicUiarum,  ^[ua  causa  inflammatus  Decianus  ad  haeli' 
um  detulerk  hanc  acdwtcition/efn  ;  de  Orat.,i.,  38»  quum  oh» 
signes  tabdkis  dientis  t^i^  qtdbusin  tahdUs  id  sit  scriptufH; 
in  Verr.,  iii.j  19,  quum  in  to  ordine  videamm  esse  fnultos 
non  ido7ieos,qui  orda  industriae  j)ropf>iitus  est  et  dignitati; 
Dimn.i  1^  si  qtiod  tempus  accidisstt,  quo  tempore  aliquid  a 
me  reqwirerent.  It  is  ^spefcially  frequent  in  Caesar;  as, 
BdL  GtULf  i.,  6,  erant  ommno  itinera  duof  quibus  itinerihus 
domo  eadre  possent;  butit'ia  inoBt' frequent,  and  appears, 
indeed,  to  have  been  cuslonis^>  wirii  tfte  ^oiki  dies/  e,  g., 
Cic,  ad  Att,f  ii.,  11,  dies  enim  nidtuse^at,  Antii  quiim  es- 
sent,  qiio  die  non  4ndius  scirem  Roffiae  quid  ageretur,  quam 
ii  qui  erant  Romae;  Cic,  in  Ca€,y  i.,  ^^  fore  in  armis  e&rto 
die,  qui  dies  Jkturus  er&t  a.  d,  Yl,  Gal.  Novembres,  A 
great  many  passages  of  this  kind  are  found  in  Cicero  and 
Caesar,  and  it  was  die  regular  practice  to  say  pridie  anc 
postridie  ^us  diei.  The  repetition  of  the  substantive  is 
necessary  when  there  are  two  preceding  the  relative,  and 
when  it  becomes  doubtful  to  which  of  them  the  relative 
refers ;  6.  g.,*  Cic,  7?*  Se^t.,  4f.,  Duo  generd  semper  in  ha^ 
civitatk  Juerunt  eoruip,  qui  versari  in  repnblixia  atque  in  ea 
se  excellentius  gtrere  studuerunt,  quibus  ex  generibus  alteri 
se  pOptUdres;  alteri  optimates  et  hdberi  et  esse  voluerunt ; 
p,  Place* f  35,  litteras  misit  de  vilUco  P,  Septimii,  hominif 
omati,  qm  viUicus  caedmn  fecerat, 

[§  744.]  5*  The  pronouns  is  and  ille  are  superfluously 
adcied  to  quidem,  and  the  personal  pronouns  ego^  tu,  nos> 
vos,  though  already  implied  in  the  verb,  are  sometimes  €ix* 
pressed  separately,  see  §§  278  and  801.  Respecting  w,  see 
above,'  §  699,  and  Cie.fKTW;.,  iv.,  3,  Sapientiae  stwdium 
vetwsHd  quid&m  in  ndstris  ;  h^d  tamen  ante  Ladii  aetatem 
et  Sdpicnis  non  repefio  quos  appdldre  possim  nominatim, 
Ule  is  thus  found  frequently ;  as,  Cic,  de  Off,^  i.,  29,  Imdo 
autem  etjoco  «^  iUo  qmdem  Ucet,  sed  sicut  somno  et'quieti- 
bus  ceteris  tum^  quum  grambus  seriisque  rebus  sati^hitri- 
mus;  Tusc,^  i.,  3,  MiUti  jam  esse  Latini  libri  dtcuniur 
icrzpH  inconsiderate  ah  optimis  ^Mis  quidem  tjiris,  sed  non 
fatis  eruditis  t  ad  Pam,^  xii.,  30,  O  hominem  semper  ilium 
quidem  mihi  aptum^  mmc  vera  etiam  suavem  !  Ille  is  far 
ther  {Superfluous  after  at;  e.  g.,  Curt.,  iii.,  19,  Hi  magno- 
pere  suadebant,  ut  retro  abiret  spatiososque  Mesopotamiae 
itcanpos  repeteret ;  si  id  consilium  damnaret,  at  ille  divide- 


4tii2  LATIN    GBAMMAft. 

rei  sdlUm  capias  mnumera6iles.  Is  (ftometimes,  liUo,  hiej^ 
when  refvrnng  to  somethiag  mendoned  before,  seema  u 
as  to  bo  superfluous^  but  is  used  for  the  sake  of  emphasis, 
e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Off^  L,  38^  Quae  cum  aUqua  perturbatifmt 
Jiuntf  ea  non  posswU  n«,  qui  adsunt,  probcuri;  i.,  35,  (Na* 
tura)  formam  nostram  reliquamque  Jiguram^  in  qua  CMck 
jtpcciet  haucsta,  earn  posuit  in  promptu  :  quae  partes  autem 
corporis  ad  naiurae  necessiiatem  dalae  aspectum  essent  de» 
fortnem  habiturae,cas  contexit  atque  ahdidit;  ii.,  6,  Male 
se  res  kabet^  quum^  quod  virtute  efid  debet,  id  temptatu^ 
pecunia.  In  Livy,  xxiL,  30,  in  fin^  ut  vix  cum  eadem  geute 
bellum  esse  crederent,  cupu  terribUem  eamfamam  a  patri- 
bus  acc^issent,  the  earn  refers*  to  something  m^lied,  which 
we  may  express  by  ''  so  fHghtfiil." 

[§  745.]  6.  The  monosyllabic  prepositions  ab,  ad^  de,  ex, 
and  tfi  are  c^ben  pleonastically  repeated,  but,  according 
to  the  observation  of  some  critics,  only  when  two  Bub- 
stantives,  although  united  by  et,  are  yet  to  be  considered 
as  distinct.  Hence  we  should  not  say  ad  ludum  et  adjo- 
cum  facti^  but  we  may  say  deinceps  de  beneficeniia  ae  de 
liberiditate  dicamus,  if  the  two  equalities  are  not  to  be 
mixed  together,  but  considered  separately.  This  theory 
seems  plausible ;  but  the  texts  of  the  Latin  authors,  espe- 
cially of  Cicero,  such  as  they  are  at  present,  do  not  ena- 
ble us  to  come  to  any  definite  conclusion,  since  a  preposi- 
tion is  very  often  repeated  when  the  substantives  really 
belong  together  and  are  of  a  kindred  nature,  while  it  is 
omitted  in  cases  of  the  cmposite  kind^  Comp.  Heusin^r 
on  Cic,  de  Off.,  i.,  14,  init. ;  and  my  note  on  the  Divinat. 
m  Cdec.,  13.  But  it  may  be  considered  as  an  invariable 
rule,  that  wherever  the  substantival  are  separated  by  el—* 
ce,  the  preposition  must  be  repeated ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  €^, 
I.,  34,  ut  eorum  et  in  bdUds  et  in  civUibus  qfidis  mgeat 
%ndusiria. 

The  preposition  inter  is  frequently  repeated  by  Cicero 
idler  the  verb  interesse;  e.  g..  Lad,,  25,  quid  imtersit  inter 
popularem,  id  est^  assentatorem  et  leioem  civem,  et  inter  con- 
*tantem,  severum  et  gr<wem  /  de  Fin.,  i.,  9,  interesse  enim 
inter  argumentum  et  inter  mediocrem  ammadversiomem, 
Dther  writers  repeat  it  after  other  verbs  also;  as,  Liv.,  x^ 
V  certa^m  inter  Ap.  C4audium  maasime  Jerunt  et  inter  P 
Ifeeium. 

f§  746i]  7.   The  dative  of  the  petscmal  pr>nfmn&  (r^ 


PLEONASM.  4Ht 

«fu(mtly  geems  to  be  used  pleonastically,  as  ic  expi  esses  a 
rekktion  of  an  action  to  a  person  which  is  often  almost  im- 
perceptible. See  above,  §  408,  and  Drakenborch  on  Sil. 
Ital.,  i.,  A6  ;  Burmann  on  Phaedr.,  i.,  22,  5.  But  the  ad- 
dition of  nbi  to  suus,  or  rather  to  9U0,  for  so  we  find  it  in 
the  few  passages  (especially  of  the  comic  writers)  where 
this  pecuHsrity  occui*s,  is  a  real  pleonasm.  Something  an 
alogous  to  it  in  English  is  the  addition  of  the  word  **  own 
to  possessive  pronouns.  Plant.,  Capt,,  Prol.  50,  igTioroTu 
8UO  sUfi  aervit  patri  ;  ibid.,  i.,  1,  12,  sue  $ibi  mea  vivunt; 
Terent.,  Addph^,  v.,  8,  in  fin.,  suo  sibi  huno  gladio  jugulo 

[§  747.}  8.  Potins  and  'magis  are  sometimet  used  pleo> 
nastically  with  malle  and  praestare  ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Divin,,  6, 
€tb  omnibtM  se  desertos  potims  quam  abs  te  defemos  esse  ma- 
lunt ;  Liv.,  xxii.,  34,  qui  wagis  vere  vificere  quam  diu  im- 
perare  malit  /  Cic,  in  Pis,,  7,  ut  emori  poixus  quam  servire 
jxraestaret,  Comp^  p.  Bcdb.,  8,  in  fin.,  with  the  notes  of 
Eimesti  and  Garatoni.  Hence  we  sometimes  find  it  also 
with  comparatives;  as,  Cic,  in  Pis.,  14,  mihi  in  tantoom- 
niuph  martaHum  odio;  justo  praesertim  et  debito,  quaevis 
fuga  potius  quam  uUa  pravinda  esset  aptatior,  Comp.  p, 
Lig.,  2;  de  Orat.,  ii.,  74;  de  Nat.Dcor.,  ii.,  13.  The  ple- 
<Hiasm  of  prius,  ante^  and  rursus,  with  verbs  compounded 
vrith  prae,  ante,  and  re^  is  of  a  similar  kind.  See  Draken- 
borch  on  Idv.,  i.,  3,  §  4. 

9.  Resi)ecting  the  superfluous  genitives  hci,  locorum^ 
terrarum,  getUium^  and  ejus,  in  the  phraBe  quoad  ejusjien 
potest,  see  §  434 ;  and  for  id' quod,  instead  of  quod  alone, 
see  §  371. 

[§  748l}  10.  Sic,  itafid,hoc,  iUud^  are  very  often  super- 
fluously  used,  as  a  |)reliminafy  announcement  of  a  propo- 
sition, and  added  to  the  verb  on  which  this  proposition 
depends ;  e^  g.,  Cic«,  in  Verr,,  ii.,  3,  Sie  a  majoribtis  suis 
a/iceperant,  tanta  populi  Romani  esse  benefida,  ut  etiam  in-- 
jurius  nostrorwnkmifmm  perferendas'putarent ;  ad  Fam., 
xiii.y  10,  qwwm  Mi  iia  pcrsuasisset  ipse^  meas  de  se  accurate 
soriptas  litteras  maximum  apud  te  pondui  habituras,  Sec. ; 
nd  Att^  i.,  10,  koc  te  intelligere  voloy  pergraviter  ilium  esse 
ojensum;  ad  Quint.  Frat,  i.,  1,  te  illud  admoneo,ut  quoti- 
die  medAtere,  resistendttm  esse  iracundiue ;  and  afterward, 
illud  te  et  oro  et  hortor,ut  in  eo-trOna  parte  munerii  tki  diU 
tgentissimus  sis.  These  pleonastic  additions,  as  we  re* 
matkf^  above,  have  no  influence  on  the  construction  of 


4SI  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

propositions,  and*  we  find  only  in  a  few  instances  that  % 
pronoun  or  sic  is  followed  by  tU^  which  would  not  other- 
wise be  used ;  as,  Cic,  de  Oraty  iii.,  34,  de  cujus  dicendi 
copia  sic  accepimusy  ut,  &c;  Tusc^  ir.,  21,  ito  enim  definite 
ut  perturbatio  sit;  ibid.,  6,  Est  Zenonis  hate  definition  tU 
ptrturbatio  sit  aversaa  recta  ratione  animi  commotio.  This 
must  be  considered  as  a  contraction  of  sentences,  as  ut 
should  properly  be  followed  by  a  verb  denoting  "  to  say*' 
or  "  to  think,'*  with  an  accusat.  with  the  infinitiye ;  e.  g., 
in  the  last-mentioned  passage,  nt  dicat  (putet)  perturba- 
ttonem  esse.  In  the  phrase  hoc,  iUudy  id  agere  ut,  howev* 
er,  the  pronoun  is  established  by  custom  and  necessary. 
See  5  614, 

[§  749.]  11.  A  kind  of  pleonastical  expression  is  ob- 
served in  quoting  indirectly  the  words  of  another ;  e.  g., 
Cic,  ad  Fam,,  iii.,  7,  A  Pctuswnia,  Lentuli  liberto,  aocenso 
meOf  audivi  quum  diceret^  te  secum  esse  questum,  quod  tibi 
obviam  non  prodissem ;  Brut,  56,  Ipsius  Stdpicii  nuUa  ora* 
tio  est; .  saepe  ex  eo  audiebam,  quum  se  scnbere  neque  c^m- 
suesse  neque  posse  diceret,  and  in  many  other  passages; 
compare  in  Verr,,  i.,  61,  init. ;  de  Fin,^  v.,  19,  in  fin. ;  de 
Orat,,  i.,  28 ;  Philip.,  ix.,  4,  atque  ita  locuius  est  at  aucto- 
ritatem  vestram  vitae  suae  se  diceret  ant^erre;  in  Verr.,  v., 
18,  ejusfnodi  de  te  voluisti  sermonem  esse  omnium,  palam 
ut  hquerentur ;  Liv.,  xxii.,  32,  atque  ita  verba  facta,  ut 
dicerent. 

[§  750.]  12.  A  similar  pleonasm  is  often  found  with  the 
verbs  of  thinking,  believing,  &c.,  inasmuch  as  putare  and 
existimare  are  expressly  added  in  the  dependent  sentence, 
although  a  word  of  similar  meaning  has  preceded ;  e.  g., 
Cic,  in  Verr.,  iL,  75,  Cogitate  nunc,  qu^m  ilia  (Siciila)  s^.t 
insula,  quae  undique  exitus  7naritimos  habeat^  quid  ex  cete* 
ris  locis  exportatum  putetis,  instead  of  cogitate  quid  expor- 
latum  sit;  ibid.,  iv.,  1,  genus  ipsum  prius  cognoscite^  judi' 
ces  ;  deindejbrtasse  non  magnopere  quaeretif,  quo  id  nomi- 
ne appellandum  jmtetis,  where  quo  nomine  appdletis  would 
be  quite  sufficient ;  p.  Leg.  Mem.,  13,  tumfadlius  statue- 
lis,  quid  apud  exteras  nationes  fieri  eosistimetis,  and  in  sev* 
era!  other  passages  of  this  dration,  especially  chc^.  9;  sed 
ea  vos  conjectura  perspicite,  quantum  iUud  bellum  factum 
putetis^  where  Emesti  fctund  difficulties ;  Quintil.,  i,,  10, 
til  hacfk/ere  sententia  ut  existimdrcTtt,  • 

Such  a  reduridan'jy  occurs,  also,  with  licH,  when  de* 


PLEOITASM.    .  44d 

|>Quding  oft  ^ermittitur  and  conceditur;  e.  g.,  Cic,  m  Bdf/^ 
n.,  13,  totam  Italiam  suis  coloniis  ut  complere  liceat  per- 
j^Utitur^  and  afterward,  qtuicunque  velint  summo  cum  i?/^ 
perio  vagari  ut  liceat  amceditur;  in  Vetr.^  ii.,  18,  neque 
enim  permusum  est,  ut  impune  nobis  Uceat;  de  Off.,  iii.,  4, 
fu)bi8  autem  nostrq,  Academia  nuignam  licentiam  dat,  ut 
quodcunque  maxime  prohabUe  occurrat,  id  nostra  jure  liceat 
defenders  For  other  pecuHarities  of  this  kind,  see  Heu- 
singer  on  Nep.,  MUt,y  1,  Ddphos  deliberatum  missi  sunt^ 
qui  Qpnsulerent  ApolUnem. 

[§  751.]  13.  Videri  independent  sentences  is  oflen  used 
In  a  singidarly  tautological  nw^nner ;  as,  Cic,  p.  Leg.  Man., 
10,  Restat,  ut  de  imperatore  ad  id  beUum  deligendo  ac  tan 
tis  rebus  pra^ciendo  dicendum  esse  videatur;  ibid.,  20,  Re- 
liquum  est,  ut  de  Q.  Catuli  audoritate  et  sententia  dicendum 
esse  videatur.  In  other  cases,  too,  it  ia  a  favourite  prac- 
tice of  Cicero  to  make  a  circumlocution  of  a  simple  verb 
by  means  of  videri,  which,  however,  is  not  to  be  consid- 
ered as  a  pleonasm,  but  as  a  peculiarity  of  this  writer, 
who  likes  to  soften  his  expression  by  representing  facts 
as  matters  of  opinion,  and,  consequently,  as  subject  to 
doubt ;  e.  g.,  p.  Leg.  Man.,  14,  Et  quisquam  dubitabit, 
quin  hoc  tantum  bellum  huic  transmittendum  sit,  qui  ad  am* 
nia  nostrae  memoriae  bella  conjicienda  divino  quodam  con 
silio  natus  esse  videatur  ?  another  writer  woidd,  perhaps, 
have  said* simply  qui  divifio  consUio  natus  est.  Cicero 
softens  the  sti'ong  and  somewhat  ofiensive  expression  by 
videri,  and  the  "  divine  decree"  by  his  peculiar  quidam. 
We  know  from  the  author  of  the  dialogue  de  Oraioribus 
(c.  1  and  23),  that  Cicero's  own  contemporaries  remark- 
ed upon  tne  frequent  use  of  his  favourite  conclusion  esse 
videatur;  but  it  was  certainly  not  the  subjunctive  at  which 
they  took  offence,  for  it  is  the  necessary  result  of  the  con- 
struction, but  the  use  of  videri  in  cases  where  there  was 
no  occasion  for  representing  a  fact  as  a  mere  matter  of  * 
opinion.  But  we  prefer,  without  hesitation,  Cicero's  views 
as  to  the  propriety  of  expression,  to  the  judgment  of  later 
wi'ilers,  wlio  livea  at  a  time  when  the  language  began  to 
lose  its  natural  elasticity  of  expression. 

[§  752.]  14.  Respecti^  the  circumlocution  ofjacere  ut, 
see  §  619.  A  similar  circumlocution  by  means  of  estut  ia 
especially  frequent  in  Terence ;  e.  g.,  Phorra.,  ii.,  1,  40» 
Si  est  culpam  ut  Axtipho  in  se  admiserif,  if  it  is  the  caM» 

Ss2 


1 


49lt  LATIN    daABlMAR. 

that  Antipho  is  in  fault;  equivalent  tio  ti  AtUipkn^  cuipm^ 
admUit ;  Horat.,  Epist.,  i.,  12,  2,  ntm  est  nt  eopia  nk^or 
a  Jove  danari  poesit  tibi.  The  same  occuro  in  die  fbllov*^ 
ing  passages  of  Cicero*:  OraL,  59,  est  autem  ut  id  vuub. 
ime  deceat,  notl  id  solum;  p*  Cod,y  20,  ^fuomde^eim/i  km 
factum  Hon  est?  quando  reprehensum?  quando  no»permis»' 
sum  ?  quando  deniquefuit  ut,  quod  Ucet,  non  lieerei  ?  u  e., 
quando  non  licuit,  quod  Meet  ?  de  Off.,  ii.,  8,  haec  est  una 
res  prorsus  ut  non  multum  differat  inter  sumnnos  e$  m^edio^ 
cres  viros  ;  i.  e.,  haec  una  res  non  mukum  d^ert.  But  eai 
ut,  instead  of  est  cur^  is  of  a  dlflferent  kind.    See  §  S62, 

The  same  circumlociition  is  ako  made,  thougb  very  sel- 
dom, by  means  of  est  with  the  infinitive ;  e.  g.,  Prc^ert., 
i.,  10,  13,  Ne  sit  tibi,  GaUe,  montes  semper  aJir«,  univa- 
lent to  ne  adeas;  TibuU.,  i.,S,  24,  At  fnihisi^redash-**mon 
sit  mihi  oculis  timuisse  meis,  that  is,  non  timeam  or  non 
timebo.  Also,  in  Sallust,  Jug,,  110,  3,  Fuerit  mihi  eguisse 
aliquando  amidtiae  tuae;  i.  e.,  €guerim,m«Y  I  have  been 
in  want  of  your  friendship. 

[§  753.]  15.  Coepi  with  the  infinitive  is  very  often  iwf- 
thing  else  than  a  descriptive  circumlocution  bf  the  verbtem 
Jinitum,  though  always  implying  temporary  duration ;  c. 
g.,  Cic,  in  Verr,,  iv.,  29,  Rex  maximo  conventu  Syracusis^ 
inforOfflens  atque  deos  hominesque  obtestans,  clamare  coe^ 
pit^  candelabrum  factum  e  gemmis^^d  sibi  C  J^errem  ab* 
stulisse;  in  Verr,^  ii.,  22,  Primo  negligere  et  cojstemnere 
coepit,  quod  causa  prorsus,  quod  dubitari  posset,  nihil  habc' 
bat,  that  is,  negligebat  et  contemnebat  Mquamdim,  Simi-^ 
lar  passages  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  Ikcipereiamafte 
rarely  used  in  this  way ;  as  in  Vem,  ii.,  17,  cogere  inlcipit 
COS,  ut  ahsentem  Heraclium  condefnnarent,  it  took  place,  but 
not  till  after  some  delay;  iv.,  -^6,  retinereinc^rt,  he  did 
his  part  in  retaining.    Compare  §  500,  n«^  1. 

[§  754.]  16*  Another  kind  of  pleonasm  in  Latin  is  t^e 
use  of  two  negatives  instead  of  an  affirmative ;  in  Engw 
lish  this  does  not  occur,  except  where  a  negative  adjec* 
tive ;  as,  unlearned,  unskilful,  unfrequent,  acquiares  an  af* 
firmative  meaning  by  the  addition  of  the  negative  **not;**- 
as,  not  unlearned,  &c.  In  Latin  this  use  extends  much  far^^ 
ther,  for  not  only  does  non  before  ipnegative  word ;  as,  nrmo^ 
nullus,  nihil,  nunquam,  nusquam,  nescio,  ignoro,  render  thin 
%vord  affinnative,  but  also  the  negative  conjunction  nequt 
i^Ttains  the  aiTirmative  sense  of  et,  by  means  of  a  negative 


•  / 


PLEONASM.  487 

'moid  following  in  the  same  proposition ;  e.  g.,  ntgue  haet 
nan  evenermt,  and  this  took  place  indeed ;  neque  tamen  ea 
non  pia  et  probati^-a  fuerwU^  and  yet  this  was  right  and 
laudable  \  Cic,  de  Fin.,  iv.,  22,  Nee  hoc  tile  non  vidii,  sed 
verborufn  magnificentia  est  et  gloria  dclectatus ;  de  Nat, 
Deor.t  ii^  33,  Nee  vero  non  omni^euppUcio  digni  P.  Clau- 
dius^ L,  Jtmius  consule^  qui  contra  auspicia  navigarunt. 
The  sentence  preceding  is,  auspicia  ad  opinionem  vulgt 
'reiimentur;  Nep.^  Att.^  13,  Nemo  Attico  minus  Juit  aedifi 
emtor :  neque  tamen  non  imprimis  bene  habitaviu  As  to  nc 
non^  for  ut,  see  §  535,  in  £ai. 

Not9. — ^Two  negatives,  however,  do  not  mutually  destroy  each  other  in 
the  case  of  non  being  followed  by  ne — qvidem ;  e.  g .,  mm  fugio  ne  ho$  qw- 
dan  mores;  non  praeUrmUtondum  mdUur  ne  iUvd  qutdemgerau  pecuniae  con- 
ciliatae^  Hi  Cicero,  in  Verr. ;  farther,  when  the  negative  leaoing  proposi 
^on  has  subordinate  subdivisions  With  neipte — ntque,  neve — neve,  in  which 
c«ae  these  negative  particles  are  equivalent  to  out — out.  Thus  we  very 
frequently  find,  e.  g.,Cic.,ad  Aft.,xiv.,  ^,  nemo  unquantf  nemiejMHtaf  neque 
&ratorJuitf  qui  quemquam  meliorem  quam  ee  arbibraretur  ;  ad  Att,,  ix.,  12,  non 
modiMt  fidiuo  prae  laerinua  posaum  reliqua  nee  cogitate,  nee  ecribere  ;  de  Leg., 
ii.,  27,  earn  ne  ouia  nobie  mimuU  neve  vivua  neve  mcrtuua.  Respecting  ne  non, 
we  mav  add  tnat  after  vide  (see  (f  534),  it  must  be  rendered  in  English  by 
**  whemer;^  e.  g.,Cic.,  de  Divin,,  ii.,  13,  muUa  ietiusmodi  dicwUur  in  echolis, 
aodcndereamnia  vide  ne  non  eii  neceeee,  but  consider  whether  it  is  neces- 
sary to  believe  it  all ;  il,  4,  vide  ieitur  ne  nulla  eit  divinatio,  therefore  con- 
sider whether  divinatio  exists  at  alf . ' 

There  are  some  few  passages  where  two  negatives  in  the  same  propo- 
sition do  not  destroy  each  other,  but  strengthen  the  negation.  In  Greek 
this  is  a  common  practice ;  but  in  Latin  it  can  be  regarded  only  9fi  a  rare 
ezceptionr,  apparently  derived  from  the  language  of  common  life.  See  my 
remark  on  Cic,  mtVerr.,  ii,  24,  in  fin. 

It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  the  use  of  non  be- 
^re  a  negative  word  does  not  merely  restore  the  affirma- 
dve  sense,  but  generally  heightens  it '  The  meaning  de- 
oends  upon  the  whole  tenoi^of  the  speech,  but  usu^ly  it 
is  merely  a'fbrmal  softening  of  the  expression;  e.  g.,  homo 
HtHi  indoctus,  inatesd  of  homo  sanedoctus;  especisdlywith 
superlatives,  non  imperitissimusy  not  the  most  inexperi- 
«AVeed,  that  is,  a  very  .experienced  man.  In  like  manner, 
non  semd  is  equiv^ent  to  saepius,  non  ignoro,  non  nescio, 
non  sum  nescius,  to  **I  know  Very  well;"  non  possum  non, 
to  necesse  est ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  ad  Att^y  viii.,  2,  non  potui  non 
^detre  litteras  ad  Caesarem,  quum  tile  prior  ad  me  scripsis' 
set ;  de  Fin.,  iii.,  8,  Qui  mortem  in  malis  ponit,  non  potest 
earn  non  timcre  ;  ad  Fam.^  iv.,  7,  Nemo  potest  non  eum 
maxime  laudare,  qui  cum  spe  vincendi  simul  abjicit  cerian- 
0f  etiam  cuptditatem,  * 

•'^  [§  755.]  17.  The  words  ncno^  null  us,  nihil,  nunquam^ 


498     '  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

have  tt  clifferent  sentey  accordiog  as  the- now  is  placed  be 
fore  or  after  them. 

nonnemo^  someone;  neTno  non^  .  eYei*y  one  (sul>st.> 
non  nulliy       some ;  ntdlus  non,       every  (adject). 

non  nihil, '     something ;  nikU  non,         everything. 
/umnimquam,  soTnetixn^ ;  nunquam  non^  at  all  times. 

So,  niLsquam  non^  eveiy where ;  feut  nonnusquam  is  not  20  - 
use,  alicuhi  being  used  instead  of  it.     Non — nui  acquiiea 
the  meaning  of  "  only"  (see  the  examples  in  §  801),  and 
modo  non  and  tantum  non,  that  of  '\al^ost/'     See  abov?, 
§  729. 

[§  756.]  18.  Et  seems  to  be  pleonastically  used  aftei 
multi  when  another  adjective  follows,  for  in  English  the 
adjective  many  is  put,  like  numerals,  before  other  adjec- 
tives without  the  copulative  "  and."  In  Latin,  however, 
we  frequently  find,  e.  g.,  multae  et  magnae  res,  mvlta  et 
varia  negotia,  multi  being  used  like  other  adjectives,  aad 
et^  also,  supplying  the  place  oi  et  it,  introducing  a  more 
accurate  description  (see  §  699);  e.  g.,Cicp^ in RidL,TL,2, 
versanti^r  enim  in  animo  meo  multae  ^  graves  cogiiationes, 
qtiae  miJii  nuUam  partem  neque  diumae  neque  noctumae 
quietis  impertiunt. 

The  conjunction  vero  is  used  pleonastically  in  the  apod- 
osis  to  indicate  that  it  contains  an  answer;  see  above,  § 
716.  At  is  similarly  used  to  express  opp6sition,  especial- 
ly after  si  and  its  compounds ;  e-  g^  Terent.,  EunMch%^  v., 

2,  25,  Si  ego  digna  hac  contumdift  sum  maxime,  at  tu  ii^ 
dignm  qm  Jaceres  tamen;  Liv.,  x*,  19,  B^ona,  si  hodk 
nobis  victoriam  duis,  ast  ego  tem/plwm  tibi  vpveo.  Also, 
after  quoniam;  as,  Liv.,  i.,  28,  (^^loniam  tuum  insanabiU 
ingenium  est,qt.tuo  s'um>licio  doce,  kumanum  gtnus  ea  sanc" 
ta  credere,,  qu^e  a  te  violata  sunt, 

[§  757.]  19.  A  Wnd  of  pleopasm^  which,  however,  par- 
takes of  the  nature  of  an  anacolufhon,  and  is,  therefcnre, 
beyond  our  limits,  consists  in  the  repetition  of  a  conjunc- 
tion, when  a  sentence  has  grovni  too  long,  or  has  been 
interrupted  by  parentlietical  clauses.  This  is  the  case 
most  frequently  with  si  a-nd  ut;  e.  g.,  Terent.,  Ph&rm.,  i, 

3,  init.,  Adeon*  rem  redisse,  ut,  qui  mihi  optime  constcUum 
velit^  patrem  ut  extimescam,  where  Ruhnken's  note  is  to  l)e 
compared  5  Cic,  in  Verr.,  v.,  11,  ut  quivis^  qutan  uspexis^ 
sef,  non  se  praetor  Is  conv}-  ium,  sed  ut  Cannensen  pugnam 


Eburais.  '480 

me^l^/i^kae  videre  arbitraretttr ,**  Liy.,  iii.,  19,  si  quis  voM$  hu* 
miUimus  Tiomo  de  plehe — si  quis  ex  hiss  Cic,  de  IHvin,^  i., 
67,  Quid  est  igiiur^  cur  quum  domtis  sit  omnium  una,  eaqui 
communis,  quuMque*  animi  hominum  semper  Juerint  Jutu 
rique  sint,  cur  li,  quid  ex  quoque  eveniaf,  et  quid  quamqur 
rem  significet,  perspicere  non  possint  /  An  intemiptec^ 
construcdon  here  may  be  taken  up  again  by  the  particlef 
mentioned  above»  §  739« 


CHAPTER  LXXXVI. 

ELLIPSIS. 

[§  758.]  1.  Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  one  or  mora 
weeds  wnich  are  necessary  for  the  completeness  of  a  con- 
Btraction,  or^  ift  least,  appear  necessary  to  us  who  are  not 
Romans,  inasmuch  as  we  are  inclined  to  consider  the  com- 
l^te  expression  of  a  thought,  where  no  word  is  wanting, 
4ts  the  regular  and  original  one*  But  it  is  manifest  that 
grammar  cannot  notice  all  kinds  of  ellipsis,  as  a  speaker 
or  wi-iterrery  often  begins  to  express  a  thought,  and  after 
having  used  some  words,  drops  it,  being  satisfied  with 
having  merely  suggested  it ;  as  ia  Virgil,  Aen,,  i.,  139, 
Qw^  ego  /  where  we  see  from  the  connexion  what  is  to 
be  supplied,  **  I  will  teach  you  how  to  conduct  youtselves," 
or  something  of  a  similar  kind.  To  explain  the  reasoiis 
Df  such  arbitrary  omissions  made  by  the  speaker  for  the 
sake  of  emphasis,  and  to  illustrate  the  practice  by  exam- 
ples, is  the  provmce  of  rhetoric,  which  considers  it  as  a 
rhetorical  figure,  called  aposiopesis.  Grammar  has  to  treat 
only  of  things  which  ofiten  recur,  and  are  customary  un- 
der parti<$ular  circumstances,  and  grammatical  omissions 
of  this  kind  alone  will  be  the  subject  of  the  foRowiug  re- 
marks. 

[^  769.]  Note. — ^The  ellipsis  occurring  in  proverbs  cannot  be  taken  into 
coDsideration  here,  for  it  is  the  custom  of  all  languages  to  indicato  well, 
known  sentences  only  by^a  few  words,  and  i\)  leave  it  to  the  hearer  to 
supply  the  rest ;  e.  g,^  fortes  fortuna;  soil,  adjuvat ;  nee  «6i,  nee  (Uteris  soil 
prodest,  in  Cic,  de  Off.t  ii.,  10.  Of  a  similar  kind  is  the  expression  in 
drinking  the  health  of  a  person,  bene  te,  soil,  valere  jvbeo.  Tibull.,  iL,  ], 
31 ;  Ovid,  Fast.,  ii.,  637. 

[§  760]j  2.  Respecting  the  oitfission  and  addition  of  the 
personal  pronouns  when  forming  the  subject  of  a  sen- 
^nce,  see  4  ^^^     The  indofinito  homint'  (people)  is  alscj 


480  LATIN  Oft%MMAE. 

omitted,  whence  the  expreBsions  ilicuni,.  tradunt^  fenmt^ 
putant^  vacant^  &c.  (see  §  ^1)»  freqttetitlj  with  the  addi- 
tion of  vulgo  (commonly).  The  expression  "  so-called'* 
is,  by  means  of  the  same  ellipsis,  rendered  by  guem, 
quaiUy  quod  or  quos,  quas^  quae  vacant  or  vocahant.  (See 
S  714.) 

[§  761.]  3.  Proper  names  of  persons  are  sometimes 
joined  with  the  genitive  of  the  father's  nmne,  the  words 
Jilitis  ovjilia  being  omitted;  e.  g.,  Faustus  Bullae,  in  Cic, 
p.  Cluent.f  34,  Concilia  Metdli,  Cic,  de  Divin,^  i.,  46 ;  but 
more  especially  in  the  case  of  forei^  names,  it  being 
customary  in  G-reek ;  e.  g.,  Hannibal  Gitgonis,  Sdeucus 
Antiockij  see  Ruhnken  on  VelL  Pat,  ii.,  5.  An  omissicm 
more  common  in  Latin  than  that  of  JUia  is  that  of  uxot 
with  the  name  of  the  husband;  hence  we  not  unfi^uent- 
ly  find  Terentia  Cioeronis,  MeteUa  Crasn,  Marcia  OaUmu^ 
and  Fahia  Dolahellae,  JDomitia  Pasaieni^  in  QuintiL,  ri., 
3,  73 ;  Apicata  Scjani,  Tacit^  Ann.^  iv.,  11;  HectorisAMr 
dtomache,  Virg.,  Aen,^  iii.,  319;  EHssa  Sickaei,  Ovid, 
Heroid.,  Yii.,  19$. 

[§  702.]  4.  Aedes  or  templum  is  frequently  omitted,  the 
name  of  the  divinity  alone  being  expressed  in  the  geni 
tive,  but  a  preposition  is  always  added;  e.  g.,Liv^  i^  41, 
Itahitabat  rex  ad  Jovis  Stataris ;  Cic,  ad  Fam,,  xiv^  2, 
Valerius  miJd  scripsit  quemddmodum  a  Vestae  ad  tdbulam 
Valeriam  ducta  esses ;  Philip.^  i.,  7,  pecunia  utkuan  ad 
Opis  maneretj 

[§  763.]  5.  Other  particular  ellipaes  are  those  of  the 
words  temjncSf  in  the  expressions  ex  quo^  ex.  eo,  and  ex  Ule 
(since  that  time),  aixd  hrevi  (shortly) ;  pa^s^  with  adjectives^ 
as  in  English ;  iertia  (a  third),  decuma  (a  tenth),  quinqua- 
gcsima  (the  fiftieth  part),  and  in  the  plural,  partes  (parts 
performed  by  an  actor),  with  the  adjectives  primat  and  se- 
fundae ;  febris^  with  the  adjectives  tertiana  and  quartana; 
aqua,  with  frigida  and  calida  ;  caro,  with  the  adjectives 
ferina^  agnina,  buhda^  canina,  pardna^  &c.,  is  very  com- 
mon ;  mare,  with  alium ;  castra,  with  hibema^  aestiva ; 
praedium  (an  estate),  with  adjectives  derived  from  the 
names  of  neighbouring  towns;  as  in  Pampeianim  proper^ 
abam,  in  Tusculano  eram,  ex  Formiano  scripsit ;  ordo,  in 
the  expression  in  qtiattut^decim  sedere;  i.  e.,  to  sit  on  one 
of  the  fourteen  rows  of  benches  set  apait  for  the  equitos; 
pecuniae,  in  the  name  of  the  action  of  repftimdae :  u  <».« 


ELLIPSIS.  491 

>f  sums  of  money  reclaimed — and  i^ther  expressions,  which 
must  be  learned  from  the  dictionary. 

[§  764.]  6.  The  ellipsis  of  causa  with  the  genitive  of 
the  gerund  (or  fut.  part,  pass.)  is  a  decided  imitation  of 
a  Greek  idiom  (viz.,  the  usp  of  the  genitive  of  the  declined 
infinitive,  tov  ^cvycev,  to  express  a  purpose  or  object,  the 
preposition  SveKa  or  vnip  being  omitted),  which,  especial- 
ly in  later  times,  was  looked  upon  and  soaght  for  as  an 
elegance,  vide  §^663. 

'    But  it  k  wrong  to  apply  this  ellipsis  also  to  the  immediate  oonnexioo 
of  a  noun  with  the  genitive  of  the  gerand ;  for  auch  expressions  as,  Cic. 
de  Nat.  Xfeor.f  i.,  2^  ddiberandi  nbi  unum  diem  postulamt,  **  one  day  of  (L  e., 
for)  deliberation;**  or,  Quintil.,  it.,  1,  in  fin.^paulo  Unurita  exordium  rei  de 
numstrandae  repetam  ;  or,  Livy,  iz.,  45,  ut  Marrueim,  Pel^pu^  &e.,  nutttrem 
Jionum  ort^orea  pacts  peteudae  amidtiaemu*  do  not  require  the  ellipsis  of 
cauea  for  their  explanation.    Nor  must  the  dative  (as  is  often  done)  be  con 
founded  with  the  genitive ;  for  since  the  use  of  the  dative,  as  expressive  ol 
purpose,  is  as  agreeable  to  Latin  Syntax  as  that  of  the  genitive  is  foreign 
to  it,  it  would  be  wrong  to  suppose  the  genitive  where  the  text  allows  us 
to  consider  it  as  the  dative.    In  conformity  to  this,  there  occurs  no  deci- 
sive passage  of  the  ellipsis  of  causa  (or  that  Greek  use  of  the  genitive  of 
the  gerana)  in  Cicero,  Nepos,  or  Livy,  and  it  is  not  certain  in  Caesar,  sines 
in  the  passage,  BdL  GalL,  iv.,  17,  si  naxes  dejudendi  opens  essent  a  barbaris 
missae,  and  still  more  in  others,  the  reading  varies,  and  even  here  the  gen- 
itive may,  perhaps,  depend  on  naves.    But  the  ellipsis  in  question  certain* 
jv  occurs  in^^erence  in  one  passage,  probably  a  close  imitation  of  the 
ureek  original.  Ad,,  ii.,  4,  6,  vereor  coram  in  os  te  laudare  amplius,  ne  id  as 
fentandi  magis  quam  quo  habeam  graium  Jfacere  existvmes.    Farther,  in  Sal 
lust,  desisnedly^  and  with  some  affectation,  in  the  speech  of  L.  Philippus 
{Fragm.  IKst,,  lib.  \,\  ^  2,  4,  and  7,  arma  Ule  adversvm  divina  et  humana  om 
ma  cepitt  non  pro  sua  out  quorum  simtUai  injuria^  sed  lefvm  ae  Ubertatis  subver 
tendae ;  but  nowhere  else  in  this  a\:^thor.    In  Yelleius,  in  one  passage,  ii., 
^,  opus  erat  partibus  auctoritate^  gratta :  cujus  awendae  C,  Marium  cum.  JUie 
ab  exilio  revocavit,  unless  we  ought  to  read  ciu,  which  is  more  genuine  Latin. 
But  it  occurs  more  frequently  in  Tacitus,  Attn.,  iii.,  9,  a6  ^amia  vitandae 
suspicionis,  an  quiapavims  consilia  in  incerto  sunt,  Nare  ac  moat  Tiberi  devec- 
tus  ;  ibid.,  27,  Secmae  leges  dissensions  ordiwum,  et  apiscendi  Ulidtos  honores, 
out  pellendi  cUaros  viros^  aliaque  ob  prava  per  vim  latas  sunt ;  Ann.,  vi.,  30,  quia 
peeuniam  omittendae  dehuiorus  ceperant ;  Ann.^  xiiL,  ll,  quas  (orationes)  Sen- 
eca testifioando  quam  honesUuoraeciperett  veljoctandi  ingenUt  voce  prindais  vul- 
gabat ;  Hist.,  iv.,  25,  turn  e  mUtiosis  unum  vtnciri  jubet,  magis  usurpandi  juris, 
quam  quia  unius  cu^  foret ;  ibid.,  42,  aceusationem  sidnsse  juvems  admodum 
nee  dspdlendi  pericuU,  sed  in  spem  potentiae  videbatur.    But  even  iq  Tacitus, 
the  dative  of  the  gerund  occurs  more  frequently  in  this  sense,  and  in  the 
passages,  Ann.,  ii.,  59,  init.,  and  iii.,  4J,  ih  tin.,  this  case  might  e»sily  be 
restored.    It  is,  at  all  events,  clear  that  this  use  of  the  gepitiye,  generally 
speaking,  remained  foreign  to  the  Latin  language. 

J§  765.]  7.  The  pronoun  is,  ia,  id,  is  frequently  omit- 
when  it  stands  in  the  same  case  ^  the  corresponding 
relative ;  less  frequently,  though  not  very  rarely,  whep 
the  cases  are  different.  It  mayi^also  he  observed  that  the 
relative  part  often  precedes  the  leading  part  of  the  ))rot) 
FMition,  in  which  case  is^  in  the  sams  case,  is  put  onl^ 


4Q2  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

when  a  certain  emphasis  is  intended.  Hence  we  oHc* 
meet  with  such  passages  as,  e.  g.,  Cic,  Lad,,  22,  tnaxi» 
mum  omamentum  amidtiae  tollit  (is),  qtd  ex  ea  toUit  t^ere^ 
cundiam  ;  i.  e.,  "  he  bereaves  friendship  of  its  brightest  or- 
nament, who  takes  away  from  it  mutual  respect ;"  and 
very  frequently  with  sudi  as  terrj,  quod  accepU^  (id)  nun- 
quam  sine  usura  reddit;  for  the  demonstrative  pronoun 
IS  expressly  added  only  when  it  is  to  be  pronounced  witJi 
emphasis :  see  above,  §  744.  ^ 

Nou. — Upon  the  whole,  however,  it  is  a  favourite  practice  in  Latin  to 
omit  the  demonstratives,  if  they  can  be  supplied  from  the  relatives.  We 
should,  therefore,  say  diacijndum  maxime  probo^  qualem  te  fore  promisisHt  for 
taUm—quaUm;  quanta  potuit  cekritate  cwurrit ;  and  so  veiy  frequently  with 
the  same  case  m  mammu$  ;  as,  e.  g.,  Cwuvl  quantia  nuurimia  poterat  itmeri- 
btts  ad  coUegam  ducebatj  dedit  nuhi  quantum  maximum  potuit ;  i.  e.,  *'  as  much 
as  he  possibly  could  give."  (See  ^  689.)  QaaKs  is  used  by  Livy  with  a 
still  greater  Ml^iS,  iii.,  63,  nrodmm  fidty  quale  hUer  fidentes  nbi  ambo  exer- 
cUus  ;  i.  e.,  t^  quale  esse  detmit ;  xxil.,  49,  eauitum  pedestre  proelium^  queie 
jam  httud  dubidhostium  victoria  Juit.  With  relative  adverbs  the  correspoml- 
mg  demonsttative  adverb  is  omitted ;  as,  vnde  semel  pecuniam  sumpsistif  ite 
rum  nonet  for  inde  itervm  eume.  •  * 

[§  766.]  8.  The  pronoun  u^  ea,  id,  is  likewise  not  ex- 
pressed,  if  it  would  be  required  to  be  put  in  the  same  ob- 
lique case  as  the  preceding  noun  to  which  it  refers.    Thus, 
e.  gp,  pater  amal  Uheroa  et  tamen  castigat;  i.  eif  ^^  and  nev- 
ertheless he  chastises  them."     Sen.,  Epist,  79,  multos  il- 
lustratfortuna^  dum  vexat.   The  student  may  also  remem 
ber  that,  in  the  construction  of  the  ablative  absolute,  those 
references  to  the  subject  of  tiie  proposition  which  we  in 
English  express  by  means  of  a  preposition  and  an  unem- 
phatical  pronoun  are  not  e:!^)ressed  in  Latin ;  e.  g.,  Cae- 
sar,  Potnpeio  victo,  in  Asiam  prqfectus  est ;  i.  e,,  "  after 
Pompey  had  been  vanquished  by  him,"  Where,  in  Latin, 
ab  eo  is  never  added.    Hence  we  usually  render  such  ab- 
latives absolute  actively;  thus,  "after  having  vanquished 
Pon^ey*" 

[§  767.]  9.  In  those  cases  where  we  use  **ihat"  *Uhose,^ 

ipstead  of  a  repetition  of  the  preceding  substantive,  tho 

pronoun  i*  is  never  used  in  Latin,  and  only  later  author«j 

express  this  relation  by  Ule*    It  is  the  rule,  that  the  pre* 

ceding  substantive,  if  it  can  be*  conveniently  omitted,  is 

Ijft  to  be  supplied,  and  the  pronoun,  Which  would  refer 

nait,  is  not  expressed  j  tbus^  e,  g„  Nep.,  Alc,^  5,  qmm 

Qj)(£niensium  opes  semscfire^  cmtra  hdcedaemoniorum  cres' 

the  f^'^erc^,  for  illas  Laoedaemoniorum,  *^ those  of  the  Lace- 

of  th^n^ans,"  Cart.,  \x,,  2G  (6),  PJiiJippm  ifi  acic  tutior 

'nic  • 


ELLIPSIS.  499 

fuam  in  ihtatrofait :  hasHum  manus  saepe  vUavtt,  tuorwm 
effugere  non  valuit.  And  thus  wo  should  say,  not  only  in 
the  nominative,  fratris  Jilius  mila  placety  sororis  duplicet, 
but  also  in  the  dative,  fratris  Jilio  magnam  pecuniam,  80- 
roris  nihil  prorsus  testamento  legavit,  and  in  the  ablative, 
fratris  JUio  multum,  saroris  longe  minus  vtor.  So,  also, 
with  prepositions ;  as,  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Verr^  i.,  30,  PlebtU 
iuerqucf  non  de  suo  suppHcio^  scd  pater  de  Jilii  morte,  de 
patris  Jilius ;  iii.,  38,  ut  aratores  tn.$ervarum  numero  es- 
sentf  servi  in  ptihlicanarum  ;  iv.,  20,  ut  non  canferam  vitam 
neque  eadstimatianem  tuam  cum  illius;  i.  e., ''  with  those  of 
that  man."  There  are  also  instances  where  another  sub- 
stantive of  a  similar  meaning  is  used,  or  the  same  is  re- 
peated, eveii  with  some  harshness  (e,  g.>  Veil.  Pat.,  ii., 
128,  In  hujus  virtutum  aestifnationejam  pridem  juddc^a  civ- 
•  itatis  cum  itidiciis  prificipis  certant J,  or  a  derivative  adjec- 
tive is  maae  use  of;  as,  e.g.,  Terentiifahulas studioselego^ 
Plautinis  minus  delector.  We  also  meet  with  passages 
where,  instead  of  the  derivative  adjective,  or  of  the  geni- 
tive of  the  person  depending  on  the  omission  of  a  sub- 
stantive, the  name  of  th^  person  itself  is  put  in  the  case 
which  the  verb  governs;  as,  e.  g*^*TerentiiJabulis  magno* 
pere  delector,  PTauto  longe  minus^  or  libros  Platonis  lego 
non  multum  ah  Aristotele  dissidentes^  instead  of  ah  Aristo- 
tdis  (libns)  or  ab  Aristoteleis.  Comp.  Cic,  de  Orat,,  i., 
4,  §  15;  and  44,  §  197y  si  cum  Lycurgo  eH  Dracone  et  So- 
lone  nostras  leges  conferre  volueritisy.  and  Heusinger  on 
Cic,  de  Of.,  i.,  22. 

NoU.—ISe  aad  iUe^  wben  the  pfeceding  sobstantive  is  trnderstood,  re- 
tain, in  Cicero,  their  demonstrative  signification^  and  therefore  do  not 
merely  supply  the  place  of  the  substantive  which  is  omitted;  e.  g.,  Cic, 
p.  Arch.t  11»  iV«f/2am  entm  virtuiem  aUam  mereedem  laborwn  periculorwnqtu 
•  iondtral^  fnuter  hano  (the  one  of  which  I  am  speaking)  loMit  et  gloriae , 
Divin.,  \\,  Quum  omnis  arroganiia  odiosa  esl,  turn  ilia  (into  which  1  should 
(all)  ingenii  atque  eloqupuiae  mnlto  moUstissima.  But  such  4tases  form  the 
precedents  on  which  later  writers  actually  use  iUe  in  the  place  ctf  the  pre 
ceding  substantive. 

[§  768.]  10.  The  possessive  pronoui»  are  usually  omit- 
ted when  they  can  be  easily  supplied  from  the  subject, 
which  is  either  a  noun,  or  implied  in  the  person  of  the 
verb.  Thus,  patrem  video,  fratrem  certe  diligis,  roga  pa- 
rentes,  Cicero  in  lihro  de  senectute  Catonem  loquentem  in- 
duxit,  without  the  pronouns  meum,  tuum^  tuos,  suo  ;  the> 
ere  added  only  when  emphasis  or  contrast  is  intended, 
where  in  English  wo  might  add  "own"  to  ihrj  pronoun 

T  T 


I 


4f4  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

Hotice  tho  }/«tins  did  not  say  cmimum  mum  ddjecttf  admsk ' 
tit  J  apptdit  idaliquam  rem,  aninios  vestros  attendite  ad  em 
quae  conseguuntur,  but  animum  advertit,  animos  attendite 
alone,  since,  in  the  absence  of  a  genitive  or  of  the  pronoun 
of  another  person,  the  reader  or  hearer  would  naturally 
understand  no  other  person  than  that  of  the 'Verb.  Tho 
contrast,  howevet,  requires  its  addition  in  (Cic,  in  Rull,^ 
ii.,  24)  tgo  non  dicam,  tamen  id  poteritis  cum  animis  ves- 
trit  eogkare^  and  the  precision  in^ro  ex  animi  mei  senten- 
tia,  jura  ^  animi  tui  sententia.  But  if,  bei^ides  the  per 
son  oi  the  subject,  that  of  a  remote  object  also  occurs  in 
the  proposition,  the  possessive  pronoun  will  be  supplied 
from  this  latter;  e.  g.,  patris  animum  mihi  reconcUiasti ; 
i.  e.,  patris  mei  animum^  rather  than  tui.       ^ 

Tbe  possessive  ptonomi,  as  in  English,  is  generally  ex- , 
pressed  only  once,  Yrhevl  it  belongs  to  two  substantives 
even  if  they  are  of  diligent  genders ;  ^ls,  amor  tuus  a* 
judicium  de  me  ;  ingenium  tuum  ac  doctrina, 

[§  760.]  11.  The  interrogative  inteijection  Quid?  which 
is  of  sucik  frequent  occurrence,  may  easily  be  explained 
by  an  ellipsis  of  ais,  censes.     It  deserves  to  be  noticed, 
that  this  quid  attracts,  or  draws  near  to  itself,  the  case  of 
the  succeeding  verb ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Off,^  ii.,*7.  Quid?  AU 
Kxandrum  Pkeraeum  quo  animo  vixisse  arhitramur?  p, 
Muren,,  15,  Quid?  illam  pugnam  navalem  ad  Tenedum 
nediocri  certamine  commissam  arhitraris  ?  in  Pis,,  36^ 
Quid  ?  illam  armorum  officinam  ecquid  recordaris  ?  and, 
farther,  that  in  the  phrase  quid  censes  fcensemus,  censetisj? 
when  another  clause  depends  on  it,  quid  often  serves  mere- 
ly to  introduce  th^  interrogation ;  $.  g.,  Cic,  p.  Rose,  Am*, 
17,  Quid  censes  Ivunc  ipsum  Roscium,  quostudia  esse  in  rus* 
ticis  rebus  ?  equivalent  to  Quo  studio  censes  Roscium  esse  ?  ' 
de  Off,,  ii.,^7,  Quid  censemus  superiore7(^  Dionysium,  quo 
cruciatu  ^moris  angi  solitum,  the  same  as  Quo  cruciafu 
cefisemus  Dionysium  angi  solitum  esse  ? 

Quid  vera  ?  Quid  igitur  ?  Quid  ergo  ?  Quid  enim  ?  are 
likewise  easily  explained  by  an  ellipsis  of  censes  or  ceMe- 
tism  They  are  always  followed  by  another  question  which 
may  be  united  with  that  elliptical  interrogation  into  one 
proposition.  But  of  a  different  kind  are  Quid  postea  f 
Quid  tun»?  Supply  sequitur,  i.  e.,  "what follows  then  (ot 
from  lhis)t''  and  Quid  ita  ?  "How  so?"  "Wniy?"  whicb 
may  be  explained  by  an  ellipsis  of  the  preceding  verb; 


BLLIPSI8.  4M 

tbtss  ۥ  g.y  die,  AjBCU$(Ui9  Sex,  Rascimn.   Quid  ita  t   Quia 
tie  fnanwnt  veitris  efugit. 

In  the  mtorrogative  transition  Quid  quod,  which  is  so 
frequont  in  the  Latin  writers^  dicam  de  eo  ia  omitted, 
hence  properly  '*  what  shali  I  say  about  this,  that,"  &c. ; 
out  it  may  be  rendered  in  yarioos  ways ;  as,  e.  g.,  by  **  «a;/," 
*^nai/  etfen^^*  ^^  but  now,*'  **  moreover J^  Thus,  e.  g.,  Cic.^ 
Quid  quod  solus  soeiorum  summum  in  periculum  vocatur  f 
Quid  quod  sapicntissimus  quisque  animo  aeqitissimo  moru- 
htr? 

Quid  mulia  }  quid  jphtra  fne  muUa  ;  ne  muhis;  ne  pin- 
ra,are  used  with  t^  ellipsis  ofdieam^  we  may,  perhaps, 
also  supply  «^6a  and  verbis^  unless  we  consider  the  neu- 
ter to  be  used  substantirely.  Similar  expressions  are  quid 
quaerirf  quid  vtdtis  ampUusl  We  also  find  the  infinitivo 
dicere  omitted ;  Oic^  Brut,,  92 f  Nimis  multa  videor  deme; 
ad  Fam,,  v.,  21,  Multa.  alia  eoreun  hrevi  tempore  licehit. 

[§  770.]  12.  Pertinere,  **  to  concern,*'  *•  to  have  refer 
ence  to,"  is  omitted  in  such  expressions  as  nikU  ad  mc; 
rede  an  secus,  nihil  ad  nos ;  aut  si  ad  nos,  nihil  ad  hoc 
tempus  ;  in  Cic,  in  Pis.^  28,  nihil  ad  rem  ;  or,  interroga 
tively, ^tfM^  hoc  ad  Epieurum  f  ''what  does  this  concern 
Epicurus i"  what  does  he  care  about  it?  Quorsus  haec? 
for  quorsus  haec  pertinent?  **what  is  that  fori"  "what 
does  this  refer  to  1" 

'  In  the  elHptieal  expression  quo  mihi  hanc  rem  ?  "  what 
use  is  this  to  me  V  aiui,  unde  mihi  aHquam  rem  ?  "  whence 
am  I  to  get  anything  1"  parabo  may  be  supplied ;  e.  g., 
Cic,  ad  Fam.,  vy.,  23,  Martis  vero  signum  quo  mihi,  pacia 
audori  1  Herat.,  Epist,,  i.,  5, 12,  quo  mihifortunam^  si  non 
conceditur  uti  ?  Sen.,  de  Tranq^  9,  quo  mihi  bibliothecas  f 
Horat^  Serm^,  ii.,  5,  102,  Unde  mihi  tam  fortetmatque  Ji* 
ddem  ?  ii.,  7,  116,  unde  mihi  lapidem  f  In  the  indignant 
question,  in  Cic,  Philip.,  i-»  10,  Quas  tu  milii  intercession 
nes,  quas  religiones  ?  supply  prqfers  or  dicis, 

A  similar  expression  is  quid  mihi  cum  hac  re  ?  "  what 
have  I  to  do  with  this?"  "what  does  this  concern  me?'* 
e.  g.,  Cic,  pro  Quint,,  17,  Quid  mihi,  inquit,  cum  ista  sum- 
ma  sanctimonia  oc  dUigentia  ?  viderint  ista  offida  viri  boni, 
de  me  autem  sic  considerent,  &c. 

[§  771.]  13.  A  tense  o£/acere  is  omitted  in  slioit  prop 
osttions  containing  an  opinion  on  a  person's  actions;  e.  g., 
rJicero,  Recte  illc^  meWis  hi;  Bene  Ckrysipjms,  qui  docctf 


486  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

de  Off^  iii.,  27,  At  stuUe  (Regalua)  qm  non  modo  fUf/^  cm 
iucrit  captinos  rfmttCendos,  verum  etiam  dissuaserit.  Que 
modo  stulte?  p,  Milon,^  14,  NiJiil  per  vim  unqtcam  Clodius 
omnia  per  vim  Milo  ;  de  Off,,  i.,  ll^ne  quid  talc  post  hat 
(scil.yaao/^.  Also,  in  the  phrase  ^»cw^^/accr6/  Cic,  J< 
Nat,  Dear,,  iix.,  40,  Quae  quum  dixuset^  Cotta  finem  ;  de 
Fin,,  iv.,  1,  Quae  quum  dixisset,  Jinem  tile.  This  ellipsis 
deserves  especially  to  be  noticed  in  the  phrases  niJiil  ali^ 
ud  quam,  quid  ahud  quoMf  nihil  praeterquam,  which  in 
sense  are  equivalent  to  ^^  merely  ;*^  e.  g.,  Nep.,  Ages,,  2, 
Tissaphemes  nihil  aliud  quam  bellum  comparavit ;  Liv., 
xxxiv.,  46,  "Per  hiduum  nihil  aliud  quam  steterunt  paraU 
ad  pugTUKidum;  Sueton^  Caes,,  2C,  ut  quoad  potestate  obi* 
ret,  domo  abditus  nihil  aliud  quam  per  edicia  obnuntiaret; 
Aug,,  %2ym^x  nihil  aliud  quam  vectabatur  et  demmbula' 
bat ;  Flor^  iiL,  23,^  ^a/n.  qumn  jure  belli  SuJla  dictator 
proscrip^isset  inimico^  qui  supererant^  revocante  JLepido, 
quid  aliud  quam  ad  bellum  vocabantur;  Liv.^  iv.,  3,r9ga 
tiones  quibus  quid  aliud  quam  admoncmus^  civet  no9  eorum 
esse  ?  Liv.,  iii.,  26,  et  Ula  quidem  noete  nihil  praeterquam 
vigilatum  est  in  urbe.  In  like  manner,  the  verb  is  omit- 
ted with  nihil  amplius  qttam^  niidl  minus  quam^  aiid  its 
place  is  supplied  by  the  one  following ;  as,  Soeton.^  Vo- 
mit., 3,  quotiaie  sibi  sccretum  horarium  sumere  solebat^  nee 
quidquam  amplius  quam  muscas  cdptare  ;  Liv..,  xxvi.,  20 
nihil  minus  quam  verebatur^  ne  okstaret  gloriat  suae,  he 
was  far  &om  fearing,  &c.  We  observe  a  similar  ellipsis 
in  the  phrase  si  niJul  aliud  ;  e,  g.,  Curt.,  iv.,  28,  vinc^m 
tamen  silentium,  et,  si  nihil  aliud,  certe  gemiiu  interpellabo, 
*'  if  nothing  else ;"  i.  e.,  /*  if  I  cannot  do  anything  else." 
See  Drakenborch  on  Liv.,  xxx.,  35. 

ZVoie. — Tko  ellipticiil  use  of  mkU  aliud.  muim  does  not  oocnr  in  Cicero 


' 


a  direct  cohnezion  with  the  verb  foUowisg;  p,  I^,  MatUf  22,  tU  mAt^otivB 
nisi  de  koste  ac  de  laude  cogitet. 

[§  772.]  14.  Ait  or  inquit,  which  serves  to  iptrodqce  the 
direct  words  of  another  person,  is  sometimes  omitted-;  e, 
•  g.,  Phaedr.,  v.,  5,  37,  turpemque  aperto  pignore  crrorem 
prohans :  lUn,  hie  declarat,  quales  sitis  jicdices  ;  lut  mori 
frequently  in  relating  a  connected  conversation,  in  thii 
manner.  Turn  tile ;  hic  ego  ;  huic  ego. 

Respecting  the  omission  of  the  verb  "  to  sai/,*^  in  if»-.i' 


ELLIPSIS  49/ 

rtctly  qucrting  some  one^s  words,  and  the  supplying  it 
from  some  preceding  verb,  see  above,  §  620.  Even  with- 
out another  verb  preceding,  didt  is  sometimes  omitted  in 
quoting  a  person's  words ;  e.  g.;  Cic,  de  Nat,  Deor,^  iL, 
14,  Scite  enim  Chrynppus :  ut  sladii  causa  vaginam^  sic 
vraeter  mundum  cetera  omnia  dliorwn  causa  esse  generata. 

The  omission  of  the  idea  implied  in  "  I  will  tell  you,*' 
\}T,  "let  me  tell  you"  in  the  apodosis,  and  commonly  after 
a  protasis  with  ne,  is  of  a  different  nature;  e.  g.,  Cic.,^. 
Arch,,  If  Ac  tie  quis  a  nobis  hoc  ita  did  forte  miretur-^lei 
me  tell  you)  ne  nos  quidem  huic  uni  studio  penitus  unquam 
deditifwimus ;  in  Verr,^  ii.,  73,  Ac  ne  forte  omnia  ita  condita 
juisse  videantur  :  quae  consUso  cdiqtio  aut  ratione  invenirt 
potuerunt,  inventa  sunt,  judices, 

[§  773.]  15.  In  adjurations  the  verb  oro  {orrogo,  precox  ^ 
&c.)  is  frequently  omitted  after  the  preposition  per  (by), 
which  makes  the  accusative  of  the  person  adjured  appear 
to  depend  on  the  preposition.  Curt.,  iv.,  55  (14),  Per  ege 
vos  deos  patrios,  vindicate  ah  ultimo  dedecore  runnen  gen- 
temque  Persarum,  The  construction  is  this,  per  deos  pa- 
trios  vos  oro,  vindicate,  Gronov.,  in  the  7th  vol.  of  Dra- 
kenborch's  Livy,  p.  187  (on  Liv.,  xxix.,  18, 9)  has  collect- 
ed numerous  examples  of  this  kind.    Comp.  §  794. 

In  the  wish  Di  mdiora  !  either  the  verb  dent  is  omit- 
ted, or  velint,  as  we  find  at  full  length  in  Ovid,  Metam,^ 
vii.,  37,  Di  mdiora  velint ;  Juven.,  vii.,  207,  Di^  majorutn 
umbris  tenuem  et  sinepoTidere  terram  /  supply  date. 

[§  774.]  IQ.  As  occasionally  in  English,  so  ofken  in  Lat- 
in, a  verb  is  }5ut  once  only  instead  of  twice,  being  left  to 
be  supplied  the  second  time ;  e.  g.,  in  Cic,  de  Leg.,  vL, 
13,  ut  enim  cupiditatihus  prindpum  et  vitiis  infid  solei  tota 
civitas^sic  cmendari  et  corrigi  contineniia;  and  even  when 
the  persons  are  different;  as,  e.  g.,  magis  ego  te  amoquam 
tu  me,  supply  amas.  From  a  preceding  negative  verb  the 
corresponding  positive  verb  is  sometimes  lefb  to  be  sup- 
plied; as,  e.  g.,  from  n€^(7,  cZi^Y);  from  veto,  juheo  ;  in  which 
case  the  copulative  et  obtains  the  signification  of  the  ad- 
versative sed;  e.  g.,  Cic,  ad  Att.,^Yii.,  15,  plerique  negant, 
Caesarem  in  condicione  mansurum,  postulataque  haec  ah  eo 
interposita  esse,  quo  minus  quod  opus  esset  ad  helium  a  nobis 
pararetur,  which  we  should  in  English  express  either  by 
**  nK>st  people  say  that — not — and  that,"  &c.,  or  by  using 
two  verbs.     Comp.  de  Leg.^  ii.,  27,  §  67.    Farther,  in  a 


i9S  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

relative  diause  an  mfinkive  is  left  to  be  supplied  fronk  ihm 
tempus  Jinitum  of  the  main  proposition ;  as,  e.  g.,  quos  vo^ 
luU  omnes  interfecit,  **  he  caused  all  whom  he  wished  tc 
oe  killed ;**  rogmt  RuhHumy  ut,  quo9  commodUT^  ^  sit-in- 
vitet ;  nonJacUe  irascetm- judex  cui  tu  veK»y  viz.,  eum  ^ras- 
ci  :  Bnd  even  in  cases  where  an  infinitive  future  is  to  be 
supplied ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Off,,  ii.,  22,  Tie  illam  quidem  con- 
^equnntury  quam  putcmt,  gratiam;  i.  o,,  quam  se  consecuiu- 
ros  putant.     An  ellipsis  of  the  infkfiitive  takes  plEu;e,  also, 
in  indirect  discourse  after  relatives,  wh^^  the  verb,  if  it 
were  repeated,  would  have  to  be  put  in  the  subjunctivift ; 
and  it  deserves  to  be  noticed  that  the  street  of  the  omit- 
ted infinitive  is  put  in  the  accusative;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Vfrr*^ 
iii.,  92,  (Verres)  aiehat  bc  tantidem  aestrntoBse,  qtuznti  Sa 
cerdotem,  for  quanti"  ScLcerdifS  aestimasset  ^  p.  Lig,,  1,  con- 
jiietur  se  in  ea  parte  Jmsiei  qua  te,  qua  virmn  omni  laude 
dignum  patrem  twum  ;  de  Fin,^  iv.,  20,  Zeno  negat,  Plat(h 
nem,  si  sapiens  nan  sit,  eadem  esse  in  causa,  qua  tyrannum 
Dionysimm;^  Liv.,  viii.,  14,  ^Junho^os  Snessukmosque  ejus* 
dem  juris  eondieiomsque,  cufus  Capuam,  esse  piacuit ;  i.  e., 
cujus  Capua  esset.    See  §  603^.     The  same  'attraction  to 
the  case  of  the  leading  proposition,  which  is  general  in 
the  construction  of  the  accus.  widi  the  inRnity  sometimes, 
also,  occurs  with  the  participle ;  as,  Nep.,  Hann,,  5,  Han- 
nibal Minucimn,  magistntm  equitum^  pari  ac  dictatorem 
dolo  productum  in  proelium,Jugavit;  Liv.,  xxxiv.,  32,  nam 
et  Messerten  uno  et  eodem  jure  foederis,  quo  et  Lacedaefno- 
nem,  in  amidtiam  nostram  receptam,  sociam  ndbis  urbem^  vt 
atque  armis  cepisti  ;  and  in  the  tionstniction  df  the  ablat. 
alMol.,  Liv.,  iv.,  39*  Quibus  pcteratsauciis  ductis  secum; 
i.,  29,  raptim  quibus  quisque  poterat  elatis,    (Mier  kiniis 
of  attraction  of  the  relative  pronouil  are  of  ^eek  origrn, 
and  very  rarely  used ;  as,  LucceiuB  in  Cic,  ad  Fam,,  t^, 
14,  quum  aliquid  agas  eorum,  quorum  consuesH  /  Herat, 
Senn,,  i.,  6, 15,  judice,  quo  nostij  popido,  where  Bentley 
has  collected  some  similar  passages  from  Grellius ;  but  • 
Terent.,  HeauL,  i.,  1,  35,  hoc  quidem  causa,  qua  dixi  tihi, 
is  of  a  different  kind,  ad  the  ellipsis  Tne  scht  ijelle  is  to  be 
supplied  from  the  preceding  sdre  hoc  vis  f 

Note. — A  peculiar  construction  of  ouam  qui  with  the  superlative  is  ex- 
plained by  the  omission  of  the  verb;  Oioeiv),  cdFum.,  tiii.,  3,  tsmmihigra' 
turn  id  erit,  quam  quod  gratiasimum ;  ibid,,  v.«  %  tam  enm  mm  amicu$  rt^ndh 
UcaCt  quam  qui  maxime  ;  pro  Suit*  31,  tarn  turn  misericorst  judice»,  quam  vo^ 
§am  mtVit,  quam  qui  lenissimus.    So,  also,  ut  qui^  without  k  piecemng  tam, 


-   4.  Oic«,  ud  Fmn,^  xUi.,  62,  JTe  *mp$r  am,  t^lma  9t  ftiiltr,  <<  gmm  iUig^m 
tUtime;  Quiotii.,  iil,  8,  i2,  deiiUratiaageetrntf  vx  quae  maxime,  poMtuUa, 

[§  775.]  17.  2kug7na  (fevy/io,  called  by  some  syllepsis  J 
is  that  foi-m  of  expression  in  which  a  verb  which  gram- 
matically belongs  to  two  or  more  nouns  is,  as  to  its  mean- 
ing, applicable  only  to  one ;  so  that  to  the  other  noun  01 
■\ouns  another  verb,  sometimes  of  a  quit©  different  mean- 
ing, must  be  supplied.  This  mode  of  expression  is  not 
unfrequent  in  the  poets,  and  in  those  prose  writers  who 
arc  fond  of  deviating  from  the  common  mode  of  speaking ; 
e.  g.,  Tac,  AuTL,  ii.,  20,  Germanicus^  quod  arduum,  sibi^  cete- 
ra legaUs  pennisit^  where  from  permisit^  another  verb,  per- 
haps sumpsitj  must  be  supplied  \\dth  sihi;  ibid.,  iii.,  12,  si 
legatus  qffiidi  termijios,  ohsequium  erga  hnperatbi'em  exuit^ 
where  to  terminos  we  may  supply  excess  U.  Sal  lust,  Jug,, 
46,  In  JugurtJia  tantus  dolus  tantaque  perttia  locorum  ei 
militiae  erat^  uti,  pacem  an  bellum  gere^s  pemiciosior  esseC, 
m  incerto  haberetur,  Pacem  gerere  is  not  said,  but  pacem 
agere;  on  the  pth^  hand,  heUum  gerere  is  common.  But 
even  in  Cicero  we  fiiid  similar  expressions ;  p.  Mil.,  1,  ilia 
arma,  centuriones,  cohortes  Twn  periculum  nobis,  sed  praesi' 
dium^Lenuntiant,  where  the  verb  denuntiare,  "to  threaten,'* 
is-  applicable  only  to  periculum,  and  for  praesidium  we 
must  supply  promittunt, 

[§  77 6. J  18.  The  auxiliary  verb  esse  is  frequently  omit- 
ted vnth  the  infinitives  formed  by  means  of  it.  Thb  is  so 
conimon  with  the  infin.  perf.  pass.,  depending  on  oportet, 
that  it  may  be  regarded  as  the -ordinal  usage;  as  in  Ter- 
ence, adolescenti  morem  gestum  oportuit;  aucillas  nan  opor- 
tuit  relictas  ;  Cicero,  quod  jam  pridem  factum  oportuit ; 
totam  rem  LucuUo  integram  servatam  oportuit;  signum  ab- 
latum  non  oportuit,  &;c.  Comp.  §  611.  As  regards  the 
other  forms,  it  is  only  the  third  persons  of  the  present,  est 
and  ^e^n^,  which,  in  the  tenses  of  the  passive,  are  omitted; 
though  not  so  frequently  in  Cicero  as  in  later  prose  \vri- 
ccrs,  Cicero,  however,  especially  in  his  philosophical  wri- 
tings, often  omits  est  and  sunt,  as  the  predicate  verb  with 
adjectives ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Off.,  i.,  12,  Poeni  foedifragi, 
crudelis  Hannibal:  reliqui  justiores;  and  in  proverbial 
phrases  this  is  almost  the  general  practice ;  summum  jus 
summa  injuria,  in  Cic,  de  Off.,  i.,  10  y  omnia  praeclara 
vara,  Lael.,  21;  jucundi  acti  labores,  de  Fin.,  ii.,  32;  quoi 
homines  tot  sententiact  suus  cuiquc  mos,  in  Teience,  Phorm., 
li.,4.  14. 


MO  A^\TIN  QtLAUMAU. 

JVblt.— ^  speaking  of  the  pastive  fonns,  it  deserves  to  be  noticed  .UmI 
est  it  most  frequently  omittea  with  the  fut.  part,  passive ;  Cic.,«Ca<.  Mt^ 
11,  Htibenda  ratio  valetudinist  vtendum  modicis  exercitationibus  ;  but  it  is  done 
only  in  short  sentences,  and  when  rhetorical  emphasis  is  aimed  at. 

[§777.]  19.  Ut  (as)  in  interposed  clauses,  such  as  «^  o^ 
nor,  ut  pvtOy  ut  censeOf  ut  credo,  is  not  unfrequently  omit' 
ted,  as  is  the  case,  also,  in  English.  It  must  be  observed 
that  credo,  us<{dm  this  manner,  very  often  takes  an  ironi- 
cal meaning,  like  our  *'I  should  think;"  e.  g.,  Cic,  d^ 
Fin,,  i.,  3,  male^  credo,  mererer  de  meis  dvihus,  si  ad  earum 
cognitionem  divina  ilia  ingenia  transferrem.  The  other 
verbs,  however,  are  much  more  frequently  used  as  lead- 
ing verbs  followed  by  the  accus.  with  the  infin.;  hence  it 
is  not  advisable  to  say,  e.  g.,  nandum  domi  erat,  ut  scie* 
bam  ;  nondum  Romam  venisti^  ut  puto,  but  rather  nondum 
eum  domi  esse  £ciebam;  nondum  Romam  te  advenisse  puto  : 
thid  construction  is  especially  common  vsrith  relatives ;  e. 
g.,  lihri,  yws  putaham  mihi  surreptos  esse,  reperti  sunt. 

[§  778.J  20.  A  preposition  is  sometimes  pleonasticall} 
put  with  two  nouns  joined  by  et  or  aut ;  respecting  this 
see  §  744,  folL  On  the  other  hand,  an  ellipsis  of  a  prepo- 
sition takes  place  when  it  is  omitted  vnth  the  first  of  two 
nouns,  and  put  with  the  second  only.  This  is,  hoi^ver, 
not  often  the  case,  and  only  in  the  poets ;  e.  g.,  Horat., 
Carm.^  iii.,  25,  Quae  nemora,  aut  quos  agar  in  specus,  foi 
in  quae  nemora  aut  in  quos  specus  agor  :  comp.  Bentley's 
note  to  this  passage ;  EpisL,  ii.,  1,  2d,  foedera  reguwt  vd 
Gabiis  vel  cum  rigidis  aequata  Sabinis.  Another  ellipsis 
of  a  proposition  with  the  relative  pronoun,  together  virith 
the. ellipsis  of  the  verb  which  preceded  with  the  demon* 
strative,.  is  of  more  frequent  occurrence ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  ad 
Att,,  viii.,  15,  in  eadem  opinione  fui,  qua  reliqui  omnes, 

5»roperly  in  qua  reliqui  omnes  fuerunt ;  p.  Rose.  Ant.,  44, 
n  quern  hoc  dicam,  quaeris,  Eruci ?  Non  in  evm,  quern  vis 
etputas,  for  in  quern  vis  et  putas  me  dicere;  TWc,  i.,  46, 
si  opinamur  eosj  quibus  orbati  sumus,  esse  cum  aliquo  sensu 
in  iis  malis,  quibus  vulgo  opinantur;  i.  e«,  in  quibus  eos 
esse  vulgo  homines  opinantur,  Quintil.,  vi.,  1,  16,  si  per- 
cmsus  sit  ab  eo,  quo  minime  oportuit.  See  §  774,  and  comp. 
Heindorf  on  Cic,  de  Nat.  Ikor.,  i.,  12. 

[§  779.]  21.  In  the  phrase  tantum  abest  ut,  followed  by 
another  clause  with  nt^  an  adverb,  such  as  potius  (rather), 
contra  (on  the  contrai-y),  seems  to  be  omitted  with  the  sec- 
ond ut.     This  potius,  however,  is  never  added,  and  cfn^a 


i 


*  sLLiPsia.  501 

tmt  rarely;  for  vhe  second  clause  ifith  i^,  another  con* 
•traction  with  vix  or  etiam  is  sometimes  used ;  e.  g.,  Cic, 
Orat.^  29,  in  quo  tantum  ahest,  ut  nostra  miremur^  ut  usque 
eo  dtfflciles  ac  morosi  simus^  ut  nobis  non  satisfaciat  ipse 
Demosthenes;  Tuse.,  v.^  2<,  ac  philosophia  quidem  tantum 
ahest,  tUproinde  ac  de  hominum  vita  est  merita  laudetur,ut 
a  plerisque  neglecta  a  multis  etiam  vituperetur  ;  Bruti^  80, 
tantum  ahfuit,  ut  tj^ammares  nostros  animos:  somnum  vix 
ienehamus, 

[§  780.]  22.  The  conjunction  si  in  the  protasis  is  often 
omitted  in  Latin,  as  is  sometimes  done  in  English  with 
'^if;"  in  this  case  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  clause  should 
not  be  considered  as  a  question,  it  being  pi*onounced  with 
the  tone  of  a  question ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Hull,,  ii.,  25,  Lihet 
agros  emi.  Pr\mum  qucaero  quos  agros  ?  et  quibus  in  locis  ? 
you  will  buy  lands,  or,  will  you  buy  lands  1  L  e.,  if  you 
will  buy  lands,  I  will  first  ask,  &c.;  Juven.,  iii.,  100,  Rides, 
majore  cackinno  coneutitur :  flet,  si  lacrimas  coTupeasit  am 
id,  nee  doLet;  Herat.,  Serm,,  ii.,  6,  50,  Frigidus  a  rostris 
manat  per  compita  rumor  :  quicunque  obvius  est  me  consu 
lit;  Cic,  in  RuU.,  ii.,  15,  Commodum  erit  TergamMmr^ 
totam  denique  Asiam  populi  Romani  Jactam  esse  dicere : 
utrum  oratio  ad  ejus  rJS  disputationem  deerit,  an  impelli 
nan  poterit  lujalsum  judicet  ?  The  future  perfect  is  par- 
ticularly frequent  hi  these  sentences;  as,  Cic,  in  Verr., 
iii.,  2,  Furem  aliquem  aut  rapacem  accusaris;  viianda  tibi 
temper  entomnis  avaritiae  suspieuK  Maleficum  quempiam 
adduxeris  aut  crudelem :  cavendum  erit  semp^,  ne  qua  in 
re  asperior  aut  tiihumanior  fuisse  videare  ;  Herat.,  8erm., 
ii.,  3, 292,  casus  medicusve  levarit  aegrum  ex  praecipiti,  ma- 
Ut  delira  necdbit,  '*  should  chance  or  the  physician  have 
saved  him;"  i.  e.,  "if  chance,  &c,  has  saved  him,  the 
mother  will  destroy  him;"  Terentj  Phorm.,  i.,  2, 35,  TJnum 
cognoris,  omnes  noris,  "if  you  know  one,  you  know  all." 
Also,  with  the  imperf.  and  pluperf.  subjunctive,  in  suppo- 
sing a  ease  which  is  known  not  to  be  a  real  one ;  in  Verr.^ 
iii.,  97,  ntgaret  hac  aestimatione  se  usum  :  vos  id  homini 
credidisse  videremini,  £bir  si  negaret;  de  Off,,  iii.,  19,  Dtvres 
Aanc  vim  M.  Crasso,  ut  digitorum  percussume  heres  posset 
Mcriptus  esse,  qui  re  vera  non  esset  heres :  inforo,  mihi  a  ede^ 
saltaret  f  Plin.,  Epist,,  i.,  12,  Dedisses  huic  animo  pa?  cor- 
pms,fecisset  quod  optahat,  for  si  dedisses, 

\\  7S1 .]  23.  The  conjunctions  vero,  autem,  are  fireq  aent 


1 


SM  LATIM    GlCAMMAR. 


ly  omitu^d  hi  stdversative  clauses,  especially  in  flhort  odeat 
the  opposition  being  indicated  by  the  position  of  the  meni* 
bers  of  the  proposition ;  6.  g.,  Cic,  in  RtdL,  ii.,  8,  Non  de- 
fm.t  coTtnlium :  fides  erga  plebem  Rom,  defuit;  Liv.,  xxii., 
51,  vincere  scit  Hannibal ,  victoria  utinesdit;  Senec.,  Epist^ 
88,  ego^  quid  futurum  sit^  nesciOf  quid  fieri  possit  scio ; 
Plin«,  JEpisL,  iii.,  20,  mulH  Jamam,  conscientidm  patud  ve^ 
rentur;  Cic,  ad  Att,,  ix;,  10,  Sulla  potuit^  ego  non  poterof 
de  Fin,,  v.,  32,  An  Scythes  Anacharsis  potuit  pro  nikilo  pe- 
ctmiam  ducere,  nostrates  philosopki  n^m  Jacere  poterunt? 
**  and  should  our  philosophers  not  do  it  1"  in  Cat.,  i.,  1,  An 
vero  vir  amplissimus  P,  Scipio  TV*.  Gracchtlm  mediocriter 
lahefactantem  statum  rei  puhlicae  privates  interfecit :  Cati- 
linaniy  orbem  terrae  caede  atque  ificendiis  vastare  cupientem, 
nos  coTtsules  perferemusf     And  it- occurs  in  this  manne^ 
frequently,  in  describing  a  progress  from  smaller  to  greatei 
things.     We  must  add  the  remark  that  jwn  in  a  second 
negative  member  of  a  proposition,  e.  g.,  aliena  vitia  videt, 
sua  non  videt,  is  thus  used  without  the  conjunction  et  or 
vcro;  Cic,  Cat.  Maj.,  11,  Tahtum  cihi  et  potipnis  adhiben 
dum,  ut  reficianinr  vires,  non  opprimantuf ;   Tusc,  iii.,  18, 
A  gravibus  et  antiquis  philosojmis  mddicina  petenda  est,  non 
ab  his  voluptariis.     But  et  (ac)  non  must  be  used  in  unreal 
suppositions,  or  ironical  sentences,  where  the  second  mem- 
ber contains  the  truth.    Here  we  may  supply  "rather,"  or 
"as  is  really  tlie  case*'  (see  above,  §  334);  Cic,  de  Off.,  u 
2,  si  sibi  consentiat,  et  non  interdum  naturae  bonitate  vinca- 
twr;  in  Rull.,  ii.,  26,  usus  est  hoe  verbo,  exhauriendam  esse 
pldtem,  quasi  de  aliqua  sentina,  ac  nonde  (yptimorum  civium 
genere  loqueretur  ;  p.  Rose.  Am.,  33,  Quasi  nunc  id  agatur 
— ac  non  hoc  quaeratur,    Potius  is  actually  used  In  Cic,  de 
Or  at,,  i.,  22,  Quando  enim  me  ista  curdsse  aut  cogitasse  ar 
bitramini,  et  non  semper  irrisisse  potius  eorum  hominum 
impwdentiam  /  in  Cat.,  ii.,  6,  qttis  denique  ita  adspexit  ut 
perditum  civem  ac  non  potius  tU  importunissimum  hostem 
which  is  equivalent  to  qteasi  perditus  esset  civis,  ac  noti  im 
portunissimtes  hostis, 

[§782.]  24  The  conjunction  is  likewise  omitted  when 
two  single  words  as  comprehending  the  whole  idea  are 
opposed  to  each  other;  e.  g.,  velim  nolim,  ^whether  I 
would  or  not;**  maxima  minima,  "the  greatest  as  well  as 
the  least  ;*'  prim>a postrema,  "from  the  first  to  the  laat*'* 
digiufs  indign^s  adhre,  "both  those  who  do  and  tnofts  ^ 


frtio  do  »(0t  deserve  it  j"  ^e  rediiti^  "  to  go  to  and  fro^" 
Thus,  Cic,  in  Verr,^  iv.,  54,  Aedificiis  omnibus  publicU 
privaUB,  sacns  profanis  no  pepercit ;  SalL*  Cat^  11,  Nam 
gloriam,  h^moremf  imperium  bonus  ignavus  aeque  sibi  exop' 
iant^  at  which  passage  Corte  quotes  several  similar  ones, 
[§  783.]  25,  Et  is  very  frequently  omitted  in  mention- 
ing the  names  of  two  colleagues;  e.  g^  Consides  dedarati 
sunt  On,  Pompeitts,  M,  Croesus ;  quo  anno  On.  Pqmpeimt 
M.  Crassus  consuLes  fuerunt ;  On,  Pompeio^  M,  Crasso  eon^ 
sulibus  ;  and  so,  also,  Cic,  in  Verr.,  i.,  41,  ab  A,  Posiumio^ 
Q.  Ftdvio  censoribus;  ihid.,  14,  P.  Lentulo,  L.^Triario 
qttaestoribus  urbanis.  But  sometimes  alsd  when  the  names 
of  two  persons  stand  in  another  relation  to  each  other ; 
e.  g.,  Cic,  Brut,  74,  Mitto  L.JJaelium,  P.  Scipionem;  de 
Off.,,  ii.,  17,  dicebat  idem  Ooita,  Curio  ;  ibid.,  ii.,  19,  com 
mendare  judicibus,  magistratibus.  Kespecting  another 
customary  omission  of  the  conjunction  in  certain  formu- 
lae, see  §  740.^  In  other  combinations  et  is  seldom  omit- 
ted with  two  words,  in  the  oratorical  style ;  e.g.,  Cic.,  in 
Verr.,  i.,  48,  aderant  amid,  propinqui  ;  ii.,  24,  inimicus, 
liOjStis  esses ;  iii.,  55,  dejectos  fortunis  omnibus,  expulsos* 
See  my  note  on  Cic,  in  Verr.^  ii.,  78,  §  192.  Also,  with 
verbs ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Divin.,  4,  Adsunt,  queruntur  Siculi  uni' 
versi  ;  p.  Lig.  4,  Italia  prohihetur,  exulat.  If  three  or  more 
substantives  are  joined,  it  is  usual,  in  good  prose,  either 
to  omit  the  conjunction  in  all  cases,  or  to  insert  it  between 
eachj  thus  either  amidtiqpi  summafide^  eonstantia,jtisti' 
tia  servavit,  or  summa  fide  et  constantia  et  justitia  ;  Cic, 
p.  Muren.^  8,  may  serve  as  an  example  for  both  cases,  qui 
non  niodo  Ouriis,  Catonibus^  Pompeiis,  antiquis  illis,  sed 
his  recentibus  Mariis,  et  Didiis  et  CoeUis  commemorandis 
jacebant.  This  is  also  the  more  common  practice  with 
adjectives  and  verbs.  Hence  it  is  not  proper  to  conclude 
an  enumeration  of  several  persons  or  things  with  et  alii, 
et  ceteri,  et  cetera,  *but  rather  without  fit ;  thus,  alii,  ceteris 
reliqid^  rdiqtA.  We  must,  however,  observe,  that  though 
etf  ac,  and  atque  are  not  used  alone  in  the  third  or  fourth 
place,  yet  the  enclitic  qus  very  frequently  occurs  in  this 
position ;  as,  e.  g.,  Cic,  p.  Muren.^  1,  precor — ut  ea  res  vo* 
ais  populoque  Romano  pacem„  tranquillitatem,  otium  con 
cordiamque  afferat ;  and  afterward  idem  ego  sum  preca- 
tus,  ut  ea  resfauste,felicit€r  prosper eque  eveniret,  and  ut  ah 
hufus  honore,  fama  Jbrtunisque  omnibus  inimtcorum  tm* 


504.  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

petus  pro]Jtdsare  passim,  and  in  a  great  many  odier 
Bages. 

[§  784.]  26.  We  may  like mse  suppoise  an  ellipsis  of 
the  conjunction  e^,  when  two  protases,  introduiped  by  «, 
are  joined  together;  where  we  say  "j/^— <MkZ«^"  or  **if-^ 
arid,**  omitting  the  second  "  if."  Examples  of  this  kind 
are  common.  Comp.  Cic,  de  O^,  iii.,  9,  Haec  est  vis  hu- 
jus  anuli  et  hujus  exempli :  Si  nemo  scilurus,  nemo  ne  sus- 
picaturus  quidem  sit,  cum  aUguid  injuste  Jhceris,  si  id  diis 
hominibtisque  futwrum  sit  semper  ignotum,  sisne  Jacturus, 
An  ellipsis  of  the  conjunction  i;^  is  supposed  when  ne  pre- 
redes,  and  the  mere  et  is  used  to  continue  die  sentence , 
e.  g.,  Curt,  viii.,  60,  monere  eoepit  Porumi  ne  ultima  expe^ 
riri  perseveraret,  dederetque  se  victori;  Nep^  JSum^  6, 
Olympian  ad  Eumene  petrit^  ne  pateretwr  Philippi  domus  ei 
famUiae  inimicissimos  stirpem  quoqueinterimere^Jhrretque 
opem  liheris  Alexandri,  and,  a  little  before,  huic  iUe  pri- 
'  mum  sTicLsit  ne  se  moveret  et  expedtaret,  where  the  copula- 
tive conjunctions  et^  atque,  que  obtain  the  meaning  c^  tlie 
adversative  sedk     Comp.  §  774. 

[§  785.]  27.  We  may  heye  meiition,in  conclusion,  that 
a  praenomen  which  belongs  to  two  persons  in  common  is 
only  put  once  in  the *plural, before  die  other  nanaes;  e.g., 
Cic,,, in RuU.f  ii.,  6,  Tib,  et  Gains  Gracchi;  Cat,  Maj,,  9, 
mihi  Gnaeus  et  Publius  Scipumes^^JbrtuneUi  videbantur; 
Liv.,  i.,  42,  Servius  duos  filias  juvenU^us  regiis,  Ludoatque 
Arunti  TarquinOs,  jungit,  Aky,  when  two  names  belong 
;o  two  persons  in  common ;  as,  Cic,  in  Verr,y%,  39,  cum 
Q.  et  Cn,  Postumis  CurtOs;  Brut,,  25,  orationes  L,  et  G, 
Aureliarum  Orestarum,  Such  persons  are  usually  broth- 
ers, and  the  word^o^T^e^  is  added ;  Cic,  Brut,,  69,  Eodem 
tempore  C.  et  L,  CaepasH  Jratres  Juerttnt,  The  fimgular 
is  not  so  frequent,  but  still  occurs  in  Cic,  p,  RahJperd,, 
7,  Gn,  et,  L,  Domdtius  /  Liv.,  vi.,  22,  Sp.  et  L,  Papirius; 
Sueton.,  Goes,,  80,  Marooqwf  et  D,  Bfut»  which  is  fittested 
by  MSS.  The  same  is  done  with  odior  ^bstaiitives ; 
Veil.  Fat.,  ii.,  67,  legio  Mattia  et  quarta;  Brums  in  Cic, 
ad  Pwn.^  xi.,  19,  qaum  putarem  quartam  et  Martiam  k* 
gioTiesmecumJuturasf  Liv.,  x.,  ISrCutA  legixmibus  tecunda 
et  tertia;  xxvi.,  10,  circa  portal  GoUinam  Esqtulinamque 
and  inter  Esquilinam  Gdiinamque  portam, 

Notrr^A  praenomen  belonging  to  two  persons  should,  according  to  On» 
novlod  (oo  Liv.,  iv.,  48),  precede  the  other  names,,  and  be  put  in  thoj^ 
ru!.  A«  i«  'Jiere  edited  by  Drakenborch,  Turbatores  vulgi  erant  Spurp  Mof 


ARUANGEM&NT    OF    V\  0UD3.    CTC.  &0«l 

fi(nM  qvartum  et  Metilitu  tertium  tribuni  plebi*  ;  80,  alao,  z.,  1,  Marci$  Um» 
Ihntre  et  Aemilut  coruulibtU';  x.,  40,  eqtutibus  Gaios  Caedkium  et  Trehonium 
mtfecU,  Others  have  doubted  this,  because  the  same  praenomen  is  very 
frequently  repeate  I,  and  the  question  cannot  be  decided  ov  means  of  MSS. 
But  be  plural  of  the  praenomen,  joined  with  duo,  is  well  attested ;  Sue- 
ton^  Av^.t  1^»  Ohiit  in  cubiado  eodentt  qtto  pater  Octavius,  duobus  Sextis 
Pompeii  et  Apjndeio  eonnUibus  ;  Liv.,  v.,  2H,  duos  PtAUoe  Comrliof,  Costvm 
fi  Sdptonem. 


K  HAPTER  LXXXVII. 

ARR^I^TGEMENT  OF   WORDS,  AND   STRUCTURE  OF  PERIODS. 

[§  786.]  1.  When  we  arrange  the  words  according  to 
the  logicsd  connexion  of  ideas,  the  fii^t  place  next  to  the 
conjunction  or  connecting  relative  is  taken  by  the  subject; 
next  comes  the  verb  with  its  adverb ;  then  the  cases  of 
the  nearer  or  remoter  object;  and  last,  the  remaining  ad- 
ditions of  prepositions  with  their  cases.  The  adjective 
closely  adheres  to  the  substantive  which  it  qualifies.  This 
is  commonly  called  the  grammatical  order  of  construction, 
which  is  strictly  followed  in  most  modem  languages.  But 
the  Latin  language  may  place  atty  one  of  the  fourpftnci- 
pal  parts  first,  and  has,  besides,  great  freedom  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  rest:  the  adverb  maybe  separated  ftom 
the  verb,  and  the  adjective  from  the  substantive,  being 
placed  eithef  before  or  after,  or  even  removed  to  some 
distance.  Hence  oratorical  effect  may  be  produced,  inde- 
pendent of  accent,  by  the  position  of  words,' and  the  lan- 
guage affords  great  facility  for  the  poetical  numcrtis.  In 
prose,  however,  the  ibllo wing  general  principle  is  obser- 
ved :  words  which  are  necessary  for  the  complete  expres- 
sion of  a  thought  are  put  together,  and  should  not  be  sep- 
arated by  the  introduction  of  ideas  not  connected  with  the 
main  thought. 

[§  787.]  ^.  But  as  we  do  not  always  speak  emphatically, 
^d  as  in  ordinary  discourse  we  naturally  choose  the  sim- 
plest expression  for  our  thoughts,  a  certain  arrangement 
has  become  established *iQ  good  Latin  prose,  especially  in 
historical  narrative ;  and  this  arrangement  (which  is  not 
departed  from  widiout  a  special  reason)  is  this :  the  sub- 
ject is  placed  first ;  then  follow  the  oblique  cases,  with  all 
other  unemphatic  additions,  and  last  of  all,  the  verb.  For 
in  the  construction  of  a  Latin  sentence  we  should  avoid, 
what  is  so  common  in  it  odem  languages,  the  introduction 

I  u 


I 


506  LATIN    GAAMMAR. 

of  a  train  of  suboi  dinate  and  addidpnal  matter  after  the 
expression  of  the  principal  ideas :  a  Latin  sentence  is  com- 
pact, being  enclosed  by  the  subject  on  the  one  hand,  and 
by  the  principal  verb  of  the  predicate  on  the  other;  e.g., 
CtLea.f^Bell.  Gall.,  i.,  9,  Dumnorix  gratia  et  largUione apud 
Sequanos  plurimum  poterat, 

[^  788.]  Note. — The  verb,  however,  is  often  not  placed  at  the  enfl  of.  a 
sent^ice,  when  either  this  is  too  long  for  the  hearer  to  be  kept  in  expec- 
tation of  it,  or  when  too  many  verbs  would  come  together  at  the  end.  We 
should,  therefore,  not' say,  e.  g.,  se  incolumem  esse  non  posse  demonstmt,  btUt 
rather  se  denumstrat  incolumem  esse  wm  posse.  But  without  either  of  these 
reasons  the  verb  is  placed  earlier  in  the  sentence  in  easy  and  familiar  style ; 
for  the  vert)  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  for  the  purpose  of  closing  it,  19  m(n« 
suited  to  the  oratorical  and  historical  style,  and,  m  general,  shows  i»edit» 
tion  and  design.  Gomp.  a  passage  in  a  letter  of  Cicero  to  Lucceios  (v» 
12),  which  is  written  with  great  care,  but  purposely  with  the  eaae  and 
fn^ness  of  a  man  of  the  world :  genus  enim  scripUfnan  tuonan,  eUi  erai 
semper  a  me  vehementer  expectatjuan,  tamen  vicit  opinionem  meam,  meque  ita  vd 
eeptt  vel  tncendit,  tU  cuperem  quam  ceUrrime  ref  nostras  momtmentis  eammen 
dari  tuts.  In  a  narrative  it  would  be  expressed  thus :  gemu  enim  saripUh 
rum  Lucceii,  etsi  semper  ab  eo  vehementer  expectatum  eratt  tamen  qpinionenerus 
ita  vicity  vt  qtuim  celerrime  res  suas  iUius'  monttmentis  Ulustrari  cuperet.  The 
verb  is  placed  at  the  very  beginning  of  a  proposition,  even  where  no  ora- 
torical emphasis  is  aimed  at  in  explanatory  clauses,  in  which  case  a  con- 
junction is  generally  added ;  e.  g^  amicum  aegrotantem  visere  volebam :  hnbi 
tat  amem  Hie  in  parte  urbis  remotissima. 

[§  789.]  3.  With  this  rule  respecting  the  arrangement 
of  words  in  ordinary  statements  of  facts,  we  must  con- 
nect another,  that  in  sentences  containing  the  expres- 
sion of  emotion  or  an  independent  judgment,  the  pathetic 
word  is  put  at  the  beginnmg,  or  the  mos£  significant  at 
the  end.  The  pathetic  word  is  that  whose  emphasis  char- 
acterizes it  as  especially  affecting  the  feelings  or  as  form- 
ing a  contrast.  Innumerable  instances  show  that  it  is 
placed  first;  e.  g.,  Cicero,  Cito  arescit  lacrima^ praesertim 
in  alienis  malis  ;  Sua  vitia  insipientes  et  suam  culpam  in 
senectutem  conferunt ;  A  malis  mors  uhducit,  nOn  a  bonis, 
verum  si  quaerimus;  Insignia  virtutis  mtdti  etiam  sinevir- 
tute  assecuti  sunt.  The  other  words  of  the  ^proposition 
then  follow  in  the  usual  order.  If  there  be  no  pathetic 
word  requiring  prominence,  or  if  the  sentence  with  the 
verb  being  placed  first  is  explanatdry  of  the  preceding 
one,  the  place  at  the  end  of  the  proposi^on  is  reserved  for 
the  sign^cant  word,  that  is,  the  word  which  is  most  strong- 
ly to  be  impressed  upon  our  understanding  or  memory. 
This  is  especially  frequent  in  Caesar;  e.  g.,  Gallia  est  om* 
nis  divisa  in  partes  trcs  ;  i.,  6,  quod  ante  id  tempus  accide' 
rat  nunquam  ;  i.,  7,  quod  aliud  iter  haberent  nullum  ;  h/l 


J 


ARkANGEMENl-   OK   WORDS,    ETC.  601 

also  in  other  authors,  and  especially  in  the  didatic  style  of 
Cicero;  as,  de  O^.,  i.,  2,  Sequemur  igitur  lioc  quidem  Urn- 
pore  et  in  hac  quaestione  potissimum  Stoicos  ;  i.,  8,  Expe* 
tuntur  autem  divittae  quufn  ad  ustes  vitae  necessarios,  turn 
ad  perfruendcbs  voluptates  ;  de  Leg,,  i.,  32,  quae  virtus  ex 
jnrovidendo  est  appellata  prudentia. 

Note. — ^We  have  adopted  the^erms  pathetic  and  sigiuficant  from  the  work 
of  Gehlras,  Ratio  ordinaHonia  verbortarty  Hamburg,  1746,  4to.  Compare  e» 
pecially  the  rules  laid  down*  b^  QuintUian,  ix.,  4,  26,  foil.,  Verbo  Mensvm 
bandore  multOf  si  compositio  patiatur^  optimum  est.  In  verbis  enim  sermonis 
ws,  Saqte  tamen  est  vehemens  aliquis  sensus  in  verbOf  qitod,  si  in  media  parte 
sententiae  latH^  transire  intentionem  et  obsourari  drcumjacentibus  solet^  in  cLnh 
mdapoeitum  assignaiur  audUori  et  infigitur;  quale  illud  est  Ciceronis  {Philip. ^ 
ii.,  25),  Ut  tiln  necesse  esset  in  conspectu  popvU  Romani  ^omere  postriaie. 
TVansfer  hoe  tUtimum^  minus  valibit.  •  Nam.  totius  ductUs  hicie&^qtiasi  mucrot 
tU  pers»  foeda  vomejuii  uecessitas.,  jam  nihil  tdtra  ^xpectantibus,  hone  mtoque 
adjtceret  deformitatem,  tU  cibus  tenen  non  posset  postriaie.  But  we  should  not 
deviate  from  the  common  form  of  a  propositiongvnthout  a  special  reason : 
he  who  aims  at  too  much  emphasis  falls  into  affectation,  the  most  unpleas 
ant  fkult  in  composition. 

[§  790.]  4.  What  is  comnion  to  several  objects  either 
precedes  or  follows  them,  but  is  not  put  with  one  exclu- 
sively ;  hence  we  say,  e.^  g.,  in  scriptaribtis  legendis  et  im- 
itandiSf^T  in  legendis  imitandisque  scriptoriby^y  not  in  le- 
gendis scriptoribus  et  imitandis ;  farther,  hostes  victoriae 
non  omen  modo^  sed  etiam  grattdationem  praeceperant ;  * 
quum  respondere  neque  vellet  neque  posset ;  hahentur  et  di- 
cuntur  tyranni;  amicitiam  nee  usu  nee  rations  hahent  cog- 
nitam  /  phxLosophia  Graecis  et  litteris  et  doctoribus  percipi 
potest,  and  the  like. 

Note. — In  this  point,  too,  the  familiar  style  diffeiiB  from  the  oratorical. 
In  the  former,  words  are  very  often  subjoined,  with  a  certain  appearance 
of  neglirence,  which,  in  a  more  istrict  arrangement,  would  have  been  in 
troduced  earlier,  and  more  closely  united  \vith  the  rest;  e.  g.,  the  last  sen- 
tence might  havo  stood  thus,  philosophia  et  litteris  Graecis  percipi  potest  ef 
doctoribus. 

[§  791.]  5.  It  is  commonly  laid  down  as  a  general  rule 
that  the  dependent  cases,  and  therefore  especially  the  gen- 
itive, precede  the  governing  nouns.  This  rule,  however, 
may  easily  lead  to  mistakes,  for  it  is  arbitrary,  and  all  de- 
pends on  the  idea  which  is  to  be  expressed.  Fratris  tut 
mors  acerhissirnfi  miki  fuit  and  mors  fratris  tui  ai^  both 
equally  correct,  according  as  the  idea  of  the  person  or  his 
death  is  to  be  more^trongly  impressed  on  the  mind:  mor^ 
fratris  tui  contrasts  the  death  with  tbe  preceding  life, 
and  fratris  tui  mors  describes  this  case  of  dsath  as  dis- 
tinct from  othcfs  that  may  occur.  He^ce  we  say,  e.  g., 
animi  motus,  animi  morbus^  corporis  partes^  terrae  mottu^ 


508  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

in  this  order,  since  the  general  term  receives  its  specific 
meaning  only  from  the  genitive.  A  genitive,  however, 
which  expresses  an  objective  relation  (see  §  423),  usually 
follows  the  noun  on  which  it  depends.  Thus  we  read  in 
Cicero,  pro  Leg,  Man.<,  3,  quod  is,  qui  una  die,  tola  Asia^ 
tot  in  civitatibusj  uno  nuntio  atque  una  signijicatione  litter- 
arum  cives  Romanos  necandos  trucidandosque  denotavit,  a 
notice  "by  letters,"  not  una  litt^qrum  signijicatione ;  so, 
in  Fcrr.,*i.,  40,  offensionem  negligentiae  vitare^  an  "ofTence 
by  my  negligence."  When  several  genitives  are  depend- 
ent on  one  noun  (compare  §  423),  the  subjective^genitive 
commonly  precedes,  and  the  objective  genitive  may  either 
precede  or  follow  the  governing  noun;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Caec^ 
6,  cur  eorum  spem  exiguam  reliquarum  fortunarum  vi  ex- 
tor  quere  conaris?  in^Verr,,  i.,  13,  oogxoscite  hominis  prifi- 
cipium  magistratuum  gerendorum;  p,'Mur,,  4,  hominis  am- 
plissimi  causam  tanti  pericu}i  repudiare  ,\  de  Re  PubL,  L, 
28,  Atheni^sium  populi  potestatem  omnium  rerum,  &c. ; 
Cic,  Brut. J  44,  Scaevolae  dicendi  elegantiam  satis  cogni- 
tarn  Tiahemus;  de  Fin.,  i.,  5,  quod  ista  Platonis,  Aristotelis, 
Theophrasti  orationis  omamenta  neglexit  Epicums;  be 
cause  dicendi  degaTUia^  orationis  omamenta,  in  this  order, 
*  express  the  idea  which  is  to  be  set  forth. . 

[^  792.]  Note.— The  genitive  dependent  on  caiisa  or  gratia,  **  on  account 
ov*  always  precedes  these  ablatives ;  ghnae  causa  mortem  obire,emolttmeim 
sui  gratia  aliqyid  hominibus  detrahere,  Exceptions  are  very  rare  in  Cicero 
{Lael.,  16,  miutafacimus  causa  amicorum) ;  more  common  in  Livy. 

[§  793.]  6.  TJie  Adjective,  likewise,  may  be  placed  be- 
fore or  after  its  substantive;  it  is  before  its  substantive 
when  it  is  declarative  of  an  essential  difference  of  that 
substantive  from  others;  it  is  placed  after  when  it  merely 
expresses  an  accessory  or  incidental  quality.  The  natural 
accent  will,  in  most  cases,  be  a  sufficient  guide.  Pliny 
calls  his  woi^k  Libri  Napuralis  Historiae,  th.e  idea  of  na- 
tui'e  appearing  to  him  of  greater  importance  ii4bharac- 
terizin?  the  work  than  that  of  hiMory;  Theodosianus  'Qh 
dex  is  m  the  same  way  distinguished  from  other  codices. 
It  ihuAt  be  observed  that  a  monosyllabic  substantive  al- 
most invariably  precedes  a  longer  adjective;  e.  g.,l>*  tm- 
mortales^rex  potentissimus  et  nooilissiMus;  especially  with 
res:  res  i«mum€rabiles,res  incertissimae^  res  dissimiUimae ; 
if  the  position  were  inverted,  the  impression  would  be  un- 
pleasant, and  the  shorter  woi'd  would  bo  lost.  Other  qu^- 
ifying  words  (besides  adject:  ves)  which  belong  to  the  idea 


ARRANOEMISNT  OF   WORDS,  ETC.  509 

of  the  noun,  especially  genitives  and  propositions  with 
their  cases,  are  usually  placed  between  the  substantive 
and  the  adjective ;  e.  g.,  amicitia  usque  ad  extremum  vitae 
diem  pcrmansit ;  tuorum  erga  me  meritorum  memoria. 
Such  words  as  respublica,  jus^urandum,  which  are  combi- 
nations of  a  substantive  and  an  adjective  rather  than  com- 
poimd  words,  are  separated  only  by  partibles.  Other 
words  which  do  not  belong  to  the  substantive  and  adjec- 
tive may  be  placed  between  them  only  for  the  sake  of 
a  special  emphasis,  which  lies  either  on  the  substantive 
or  on  the  adjective ;  e.  g.,  magnum  animo  cepi  dolorem*; 
ut  cuperem  quam  celsrri^iu  res  nostras  monumentis  com* 
tnendari.  tuis, 

[^794.]  Note  1.— Other  words  may  be  introduced  between  a  preposition 
and  the  case  governed  by  it :  this,  however,  is  usually  the  case  only  with 
genitives  or  adverbs  which  are  closely  connected  with  the  following  noun 
or  participle ;  e.  g.,  Cicero,  inter  hostium  teh ;  propter  SRspanorum,  apud 
^uos  conswfuerat,  mjuriaa  ;  ad  bene  beateque  vwendvm.  Conjunctions,  also, 
in  the  connexion  ofclauses,  are  so  interposed ;  e.  g.,  poet  vero  SvUae  victa- 
riam ;  praeter  enim  tres  (Usc^Unas,  Other  words  very  rarely  and  only  in 
certain  combinations;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Brut.f  12,  in  bella  gerentibua,  which  ex- 
pression hasj  in  a  certain  measure,  become  one  word ;  ibid.,  22,  in  euum 
mique  tribuendo.  We  menlion  this  in  onier  to  caution  the  student  against 
saymg,  e.  g.,  ad  praeeidiie  fimumda  moenia  ;  in  mihi  invisvm  locum,  or  even 
es  ate  laudato  loco,  the  proper  order  being  this,  ad  moenia  praesidiia  firman 
da,  in  locum  mihi  inviswaif  ex  loco  a  te  laudato  ;  or,  adfirmanda  praesidm  moe 
nia,  in  invisum  mihi  locum,  ex  laudato  a  te  loco. 

It  deserves  to  be  noticed  that  the  preposition  |>ct-,  "by,"  in  adjurations,  it 
usually  separated  from  its  case  by  the  accusative  of  the  person  adjured ; 
e.  g.,  Terent.,  Andr.,  v.,  H  5,  per  egote  deos  oro,  and  with  the  omission  of 
oro,  Cic,  p.  Plane.,  42^  Nolite,jvdices,  per  vos  fortvnas  vestras,  inimicia  meia 
dare  hutiham  ;  Sail,,  Jug.,  14,  Patres  conscripti,  per  vos  liberos  atque parentes, 
tubvtnUe  misero  mihi,    CiWip,  ^  773. 

[^795.]  Note  2. — The  yariation  in  the  arrangement  of  words  by  the  po- 
ets properly  consists  in  too  great  and  ungrammatical  a  separation  of  the 
adjective  from  the  substantive ;  and,  generally  apeaking,  in  putting  togeth 
er  worda  from  different  parts  of  a  proposition.  We  may  illustrate  this  by 
an  example ;  Cicero  (Philip.,  v.,  10)  says  bella  dvilia  opiruone  plerumque  et 
fama  gvbernantur.  lie  intended  to  conclude  thus,  opmione  pterumque  gu- 
bemantwr,  but  added  (according  to  our  remark  in  %  790)  et  fama.  This  ia 
very  natural^  and  p/erum^utf  is  an  unemphatlcal  word,  wmch  must  be  some- 
where inserted.  The  arrangement  still  remains  prosaic,  if  we  say  beUa 
gtAternanturdviliafama  plentmque  et  opinione,  for  dviUa  follows  soon  enough 
after  beUa.  But  if  we  insert  one  word  more,  we  have  an  entirely  poetical 
iiction,  and  by  substituting  another  word  for  ciyHia,  a  complete  verse, 
JBeUa  gubemantur  plerumque  domestica  fama.  And  it  would  likewise  be  po* 
elical  to  say,  beUa  fama  et  opinione  dvilia  gubemantur,  still  more  so,  dvilia 
fama  et  opinione  bella  gubemantur,  and  entirely  lyric,  dvilia  fama  et  plervmr 
que  bella  opinione  gubemantur,  but  all  these  and  similar  arrangements  of 
vords  occur  in  thepoets ,  and  we  might  easily  prove  this  by  quotations, 
and  analyze  the  different  forms,  were  it  not  our  object  hero  only  to  show 
the  point  at  which  poetical  license  commences. 

r§  796.1  7.  Names  of  honours  or  dignities   and  evory 

Uu2 


^10  LATIN  GftAMMAK. 

thing  of  the  nature  of  a  titles  are  commonly  placed  afbet 

the  proper  name,  as  meiely  serving  as  explanatory  addi 

tions.     Thus  especially  the  names  of  changeable  Roman 

dignities;  e.  g.,  Cicero  Consul^  Proconsul,  Imperator^  C. 

Curioni  Tribuno  plebis^  aAd  the  like.     But  also  peima« 

nent  appellations;  e.  g.,  Enmuspoeta,  Plato philosopkus, 

Zeno  Stoicu$j  Dionysitu  tyrannMS^  and  such  epithets  as  vit 

honestUsimus,  vir  fortisnmuSf  nir  darusimus,  homo  dociU' 

nmus.    Cic,  Lael.,  1,  Q.  Mucius  Augur,  mulia  narrare  de 

C,  LadiOf  socero  suo,  memoriter  etjucunde  iolebatj   Tmc^ 

i»,  43,  Cyrenaeum  Theodorum^  pMlowphuH  non  ignohUem, 

norms  miramur?  cui  quum  Lysiw^/ochifs  rex  cmcem  ndnare- 

lur,  Istis,  quaeso^  inquit^  isia  horrihUia  minitare,  purpwratU 

tuis :   Theodori  quidem  nihil  interest,  humine  an  amblime 

putrescat.    But  it  must  be  observed  that  the  hereditary 

title  rex  is  frequently  placed  before  the  name ;  e.  g.,  rex 

Deiotarus ;  and  this  £d8o  applies  to  the  Roman  title  Jm- 

perator,  from  the  time  that  it  became  permanent,  in  con- 

tra-distinction  to  the  ancient  usage. 

[^  797.]  Note. — In  the  use  of  the  Roman  prrper  names,  the  name  of  the 
geria  commonly  precedes  the  name  of  the /ami^  (L  e.,  the  nomen  precedes 
the  cognomen)^  which  may  here  be  considered  as  an  apposition ;  e.  g^  Q. 
Faibius  Maximtu  Cunctator;  P,  Comdius  Sciph  Africanus^  M.  Tviiiua  Cice- 
ro. ^  In  the  imperial  times,  however,  when  the  ancient  gentea  had  become 
extmct,  and  lost  their  importance,  we  usually  find  the  name  of  the  jtoi/ta, 
or  even  the  tignomtn  of  the  individual,  placed  first,  and  the  name  of  the 
gejis,  if  mentioned  at  all,  following  as  something  subordinate. 

[§  798.]  8.  Words  expressing  contrtlsted  ideas  are  com- 
monly placed  by  the  side  of  each  other;  e.g.,  alius  alium 
vituperat,  alius  aliunde  venit,  manus  muinum  laveU,  cuneus 
cuneum  trudit,  vir  virum  legit;  so,  also,  the  possessive  and 
personal  pronouns ;  e.  g.,  mea  mihi  conscientia  pluris  est 
quam  omnium  sermo;  sequere  quo  tua  tenatura  ducit*;  stmm 
se  negotium  agere  dicunt. 

[§  799.]  9.  Non,  v^rhen  it  belongs  to  a  single  word  of 
the  proposition,  always  stands  immediately  befote  it;  e.  g., 
non  te  reprehendo,  sedjbrtunam  ;  i.  e.,  "I  blame  not  thee, 
but  fortune."  But  if  the  negative  belongs  to  the  propo- 
sition generally,  and  not  to  any  specific  word,  Jion  stands 
before  the  verb,  and  more  particularly  before  the  verbum 
jfinitum,  if  an  infinitive  depends  on  it ;  e.  g.,  cur  tantopere 
te  angas,  inteUigere  sane  non  possum.  Instead  of  non  dtco, 
nego  is  generally  used ;  negavit  eum  adesse,  ^  he  said  he 
was  not  there,"  not  "he  denied  *'  Arc.  Respecting t?etarf, 
tee  §  774. 


1 


ABUANOIIMENT   OF  WORDS,  ETC.  511 

» 

ifou.-^yfemzy  farther  observe  that  the  negatives  runit  ruiue,  n«mo,niil* 
h^St  joined  to  general  negative  pronouns  or  adverbs ;  such  as  quisquamt 
viltuj  vnquam,  always  precede  them,  though  not  always  immediately; 
thus  we  must  say,  e.  g.,  nemini  ^uidquam  negavitf  not  qyidquam  nemim  neg* 
avU  ;  rum  memini  me  unqnam  te  vidisse,  not  unquam  me  vidisse  te  non  memim. 
See  ^  709. 

[§  800.]  10.  In  many  phrases  custom  lias  established  a 
certain  order,  which  must  there£:)re  be  attended  to  in 
readmg  the  authors.  This  is  especially  the  case  with 
many  judicial  and  political  expressions ;  o.  g.,  civit  Ho- 
rn anus  ^  poptdta  RomanuSf  jus  cwile^  aea  alienum,  terrae 
marique^  Pontifex  maximus,  magister  eguitum,  tribunis  mil- 
itum^  tribuni  militum  constdari  potestatey  Juppiter  optimua 
9/iaximuSf  via  Appia,  via  Flaminta,  &c. 

It  more  properly  belongs  to  grammar  to  observe  that 
the  ablatives  opinione^  spe,  justo,  solito  (see  §  484,  extr.) 
generally  precede  the  comparative;  g^wg'we,  if  joined  with 
9ui,  sibif  se  or  suus,  always  follows  these  pronouns  ;  e.  g., 
sibi  quzsque  maximefavet;  pro  se  quisquelaborabat;  suuin 
cuiqtm  ptdclirum  videtur ;  sua  cuique  dextra  ultionem  tot 
mcdoruM  pariet ;  vigiles  relicta  sua  quisque  statione  fngi- 
uni.  But  in  relative  clauses  quisque  joina  itself  closely  to 
the  relative  (see  §  710),  in  which  case  se  or  suus  fellows ; 
•e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Off*,;  i.,  31,  maxime  decet,  quod  est  cujusqw 
maxime  suum  ;  expendere  deb^  quid  quisque  habeat  sui, 

S§  801.]  Quidem  is  attracted  by  the  pronoun  (see  §  278), 
[  is  therefore  often  separated  from  the  word  to  which 
it  properly  belongs,  in  order  to  be  joined  to  a  neighbour- 
ing pronoun ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Off,,  iii.,  in  fin.,  tibique  per- 
suude,  esse  te  quidem  mihi  carissimum,  sed  multofore  cari- 
oretiij  si,  &e.,  instead  of  te  carissimum  quidem  mihi  esse. 
And  as  the  custom  of  joining  quidem  to  a  pronoun  had 
become  established,  the  personal  pronoun,  although  con- 
tained in  the  verb,  is  expressly  added  (see  §  801),  Cic, 
ad  Fam,,  ix.,  13,  Quod  dicturus  sum,  puto  equidem  non 
valde  ad  rem  pertinere^  sed  tamen  nihil  obest  dicere;  ad 
Quint.  FraL,  ii.,  16,  TS>mebam  Oceanum^  timebam  litus  in- 
sulae  (Britanniae).  Rdiqua  non  equidem  contemno,  sed 
plus  tamen  haberU  spei  qttam  tinmris;  de  Fat,,  2,  Oratorias 
exerdtationes  non  tu  quidem,  ut  spero,  reliquisti,  sed  certt 
philosophiam  illis  anteposuisti,  instead  of  the  simple  reli^ 
quisti  quidem, 

iVfe — quidem  are  always  separated,  the  word  on  which 
ihe  emphasis  rests  being  placed  between  them ; .  e.  g.,  nt 
patrem  quidem  vcncrabatur^  "  he  did  not  reverence  even 


bl^  LAI  IN  OftAMMAE. 

his  father."  Prepositions  and  conjuncticus  which  beloii§ 
to  the  word  on  which  the  emphasis  rests  are  placed  with 
it  between  ne  and  quidem  ;  e.  g.,  Cicero,  nc  in  fanis  qui- 
dcm  ;  ne  si  dubitetur  quidem  ;  ne  quum  in  Sicilia  quidetn 
fuit;  ne  si  extra  judicium  quidem  esset ;  even  ne  cujus  ret 
argueretur  quidejh,  in  Cic,  /?.  Caec,,  25,  ne  quum  esset  Jac' 
turn  quidem,  f,  Mtir.,  17.  Hence  compound  expressKMM 
whicl^  form  one  ide;^  such  as  res  publica,  go  together;  as, 
Cic,  de  Off',,  i,,  24,  ne  re  publica  quidem  postulante.  In 
like  manner,  non  nisi  (only)  are  separated  (not,  indeed,  in 
air  authors,  but  in  Cicero  aknost  without  exception)  by 
some  intervening  vrovi  or  words,  in  ^uch  a  way,  however, 
that  either  non  or  nisi  may  precede ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Jxie/.,  5, 
sed  hoc  primum  sentio,  nisi  in  bonis  amidtiam  esse  non 
posse;  ibid.,  8,  quae  (caritas  inter  natos  et  parentes)  diri-^ 
mi  nisi  dHestabili  seder e  non  potest;  the  negative  may  also 
be  contained  in  a  verb;  e.  g.,  ibid.,  c,  5,  negant  enim 
quemquam  virum  bonum  esse  nisi  sapietUemi  « 

MiJii  crede  (mihi  credite)  and  crede  mihi,  in  the  sense 
of  prqfecto,  are  both  used  detached  fixHn  the  rest  of  the 
construction ;  the  former  especially  if  the  emphasis  rests 
on  the  pronoun ;  i.  e.,  "  believe  iwe,"  implying  "  who  know 
•it  better." 

[§  802.]  11.  Inquit  (says  he,  or  said  he)  is  used  only  af- 
ter one  or  more  of  the  words  quoted,  or,  still  better,  after 
a  short  clause ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  i.,  58,  Sex.  Tarquinius — stricto 
gladio  ad  dormientem  Lucretiam  venit,  ^nistraque  manu 
mulieris  peotore  oppresso,  Tace,  Lucretia,  inquit.  Sex.  Tar- 
quinius  sum;  ii.,  10,  Turn  Codes,  Tiberine' pater,  inquit, 
te  sancte  precor,  haec  arma  et  Jiunc  militem  propiiio  fiumine 
accijnas.  Ita  sic  amuUu*  in  Tiberim  dciilu£  When  a 
nominative  is  added  to  inqmt,  it  usually  follows  this  verb; 
as,  Cic,  de  Nat.  Dear.,  i.,  7,  Mihi  vero,  inquit  Cotta,  vide* 
tur.  (For  exceptions,  see  Heindorf  on  this  passage.)  Ait 
is  either  placed  before  the  words  quoted,  or,  like  inquit, 
between  them  (see  §.219);  dicit  and  dixit  are  used  in  this 
way  only  by  the  poet^.     , 

[§  803.]  12.  Thus  much  respecting  the  arrangement  of 
words  in  single  propositions.  We  now  add  some  remarks 
on  the  connexion  of  sentences.  It  may  be  laid  down  ai 
a  general  i-uTe  for  good  Latin  style,  that  no  proposition 
should  bo  unconnected  with  another,  and  that  tlie  propo- 
sitions and  periods  should,  as  it  were,  form  links  of  a  chaing 


li 


AERANCeMENT  OP   WOUDS,  ETC.  61* 

which  breaks  off  only  at  last  when  the  series  ot'the  thoughts 
themselves  comes  to  its  close.  At  least,  no  proposition 
should  stand  detached  without  a  special  reason. 

Relative  pronouns,  adjectives,  and  adverbs  are  particu- 
larly useful  for  eflfecting  this  connexion  of  propositions, 
and  ^re  therefore  very  jfrequently  employed  to  avoid  the 
monotonous  connexion  by  means  of  et  or  dutenif  and 
sometimes,  also, "^of  certain  other  conjunctions,  such  as 
nam  (for).  Every  relative  may  be  used  for  the  demon- 
strative with  et ;  qui  for  et  is^  ^ualis  for  et  talis ,  quo  for  et 
eo,  &c.  They  are,  therefore,  also  found  before  those  con- 
junctions which  admit  of  a  co*-  sxion  by  means  of  et  or 
autem;  e.  g.fOtiod  qwum  audivissem,  qttod  sijedssem,  quod 
quamvis  7to§  tgnorassemy  for  et  quum  hoc,  et  si  hoc,  et  quam- 
vis  hoc,  or  quum  autem  Jibe,  &c. ;  often,  also,  where  in 
English  no  conjunction  is  used ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  Cat,  Maj.,  6, 
Quam  palmam  utinam  di  immoftalcs  tibi  reservent  /  Far- 
ther, even  before  other  relativeii,  quod  qui  Jacit,  eum  ego 
impiumjudico  ;  i.  e.,.  et  qui  hocjhcit,  or  qui  autem  hoc  fa- 
dt;  contra  quern  qui  exercitus  duxerunt,  iis  senatus  singu- 
lares  honores  decrevit ;  p,  I^g,  Man.,  15,  a  On,  Pompeio 
omnium  rerum  egregiarum  exempla  sumuntur^  qui  quo  die 
a  vohis  maritime  bello  praepositus  est,  tanta  repente  vilitas 
annoime  consecuta  est,  for  nam  quo  die  is.  The  connexion 
by  means  of  the  relative  pronoun  in  the  ablative,  with 
comparatives,  deserves  especial  attention ;  e.  g.,  Cato  quo 
nemo  turn  erat  prudentior  ;  liheri  quibus  nihil  mihi  potest 
esse  jttcundius ;  i.  e.,  "Cato,  who  was  more  prudent  than 
all  others;"  "  my  children,  who  delight  me  more'  than  any- 
thing else.'' 

[§  804.]  IiJ^ropositions  consisting  of  two  members,  the 
relative  pronoun  is  grammatically  joined  sometimes  to  the 
leading  proposition  or  the  apodosis,  and  sometimes  to  the 
secondary  clause  or  the  protasis ;  the  former  is  the  case, 
e.  g.,  in  Cic,  Cat,  Maj,,  5,  qui  (Gorgias)  quum  ex  eo  quae* 
reretur,  cur  tarn  diu  vellet  esse  in  vita,  Nihil  habeo,  inquit, 
quod  aceusem  senectutem;  Philip,^  ii.,  7,  Hoc  ne  P,  quidem 
Clodius  dixit  unquam,  quem,  quia  jure  eijui  inimictis,  do^ 
leo  a  te  omnibus  vitiis  esse  superatum;  but  the  latter  is 
much  more  frequent ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Off,^  ii.,  25,  a  quo 
quum  quaereretur,  quid  maxime  expediret,  respondit.  In 
this -case  the  nominative  of  the  demonstrative,  is  fiupplied 
with  tb''*  ap^osis  frc  tt  another  case  of  the  relative  in  th^ 


514  LATIN  GRAMMAft. 

firotanis,  as  in  the  passage  just  quoted,  and  in  p,  Plane^ 
7f  In  hortos  vie  M.  Flacci  cojUtdi,  cui  quum  omnu  meUtSk 
publicatio  hmorum  exilium,  mors  proponeretur^  haec  per- 
peti  jnaluit,  quam  citstodiam  mei  capitis  dimittcre.  But  a 
demonstrative  may  also  be  used  with* emphasis ;  as,  Cic, 
ad  Fam.^  v.,  16,  Saepissime  legiy  nihil  fnali  esse  in  jnorte,  in 
qua  si  resideat  sensus^  immortalUas  ilia  potius  quam  nuyrs 
dicenda  sit.  In  the  other  cases  the  demonstrative,  for  the 
sake  of  clearness,  is  not  merely  understood,  but  express 
ed ;  e*  g,t  de  Fin.^,  ii.,  1,  qui  mos  quum  a  pasterioribus  non 
esset  retentus^  ArcesUaa  eum  revocavit ;  de  Nat,  Dear,,  i., 
5,  Mtdta  sunt  prohahilia^  quae  quamquam  non  perdpian- 
tur,  tamen — iis  sapientis  vita  regitur.  Without  a  demon- 
fixative  the  sentence  becomes  harsh ;  e.  g.,'  Qia,  de  Nat. 
Deor.f  iii.,  14,  Heraditum  non  omnes  interpretantur  una 
modo,  qui  qtumiam  isUeUigi  noluit,  omittamus,  instead  of 
eum  omittamus;  Liv.,  xxx.,30,  Agimus  ii,  qui  quodcunque 
egerimust  ratum  (id)  civitates  nostras  habiturae  sint.  These 
examples,  however,  show  that  the  accusative  is  sometimes 
lefl  to  be  supplied  by  the  mind.  When  the  demcHistra* 
tive  precedes,  and  is  followed  by  a  px>position  consisting 
of  two  members,  the  relative  attaches  itself  to  the  second- 
ary clause,  which  is  placed  first,  and  not  to  the  leading 
proposition  or  the  apodws;  6.  g.,  Cic,  in  Verr.^  v.,  3$, 
Fane  pirata  pemtravit,  quo  similatque  adisset,  magnam 
partem  urbis  a  tergo  relinqueret  ?  ad  Fam.,  vi*,  6,  Ea  suasi 
PompeiOf  quibus  iUesi  parmssetf  Caesar  tantas  opes,  quan- 
tas  nunc  habet,  non  Aaberet;  in  Verr.,  i,  14,  Mihi  venit  in 
mentem  iU^d  dicere,  quod  apnd  Grlabrionem  quum  commem- 
orassem,  intellexi  ve/iementer  populum  Rom.  eommoveti; 
Nep.,  Am.,  4,  noli,  oro  te,  inquit  Pomponius^  mhersus  eos  mt 
vdle  ducere,  cum  quibus  ne  contra  te  arma  Jerrem^  Itcdiam 
rdiqui.    (See  Breml's  note  on  this  passage.) 

[^805.]  Note  l.-^The  Kttglish practice  of  connectinff'a  clause,  which  is 
introduced  by  a  relative,  to  the  jpreceding  clause  hy  the  additional  con- 
iunetion  "  however"  (e.  g.,  who,  however),  is  not  admissible  in  Latin. 
Thus,  6.  g.,  **  he  promised  me  msxxf  things,  which,  however,  he  did  not 
perform*'  (the  latter  part  being  equivalent  to  '*  but  he  did  not  perform 
them")  cannot  be  expressed  in  Latin  hy  mxdta  mihi  pronusity  quae  autem 
{vera)  non  praestitit,  but  by  aed  {verum)  ea  non  praestiHtt  or  the  relative  im- 
plying the  adversative  conjuiction,  quae  non  praeatitit.  Qui  autem  and  rat 
verOf  nowever,  may  be  used  in  protases  where  the  relative  retains  its  rela- 
tive meaning,  and  a  demonstrative  in  the  apodosis  corresponds  to  the  rel- 
Htivrt  preceding ;  e.g.,  Ttdium  juoenum  eonauetudine  utere  ;  qui  veropetmlan- 
te*  «tie',  eoe  prw^l  a  te  remove  ;  Cic,  Cat,  Maj..  2,  Qiu  autem  omnia  bona  « 
9i  tpsi»  petunt'iia  nihil  malum  videri  potest f  quod  naturae  necessitas  afferat. 

{^  M)61  Note  2. — In  double  relative  clauses,  Cicero  not  unfr<N-,D«»n^ 


} 


ARRANGEMENT   OF    WORDS,   ETC.  616 

• 

aVmdons  the  relative  construction  in  the  second  member,  ai.d  m%kea  use 
nt  the  demonstrative  ;  e.  g.,  Orat.j  2,  Sed  ipsius  in  mente  insidebat  species 
fmUAritudinis  eximia  quaedatnt  quam  intueru  in  eaque  (for  et  in  qua)  dejixus  ad 
tUtus  simiUtutUnem  manua  et  artem  dirigebat ;  Brut,,  74,  Omnes  turn  fere^  qui 
nee  extra  hancurbem  vixerant  nee  eos  (for  nee  quos)  aliqua  barbaries  domestiea  . 
infu$caverati  reete  loqu^antur.    Comp.  de  Fin.^  ii.,  2,  Finem  definiebas  id  esse^ 
quo  omnia  referrentur,  neoue  id  ipsum  usquam  referrctur^  for  et  quod  iptum  nua 
quanif  &c. ;  comp.  de  Ojf.t  ii.,  5,  in  fin. ;  de  Orat.,  ii.,  74,  ^  299.    And  some 
times  even  wh«re  the  cases  are  the  same ;  as,  e.  g.,  Cic,  TWc,  v.,  3,  querr 
PhlimUtm  veniBMe  feruntf  eunupie  6um  Leonte  ditseruiese  quatdamj  where  et 
blone  would  have  been  sufficient 

[§  807.]  From  this  tendency  to  connect  sentences  by 
relatives  arose  the  use  of  quod  before  certain  conjunc- 
tions, merelywB^  a  copulative.    We  may  express  this  quod 
by i" nay,"  "now,"  or  "and."     It  is  most  frequent  before 
the  conditional  particle  #{',  and  its  compounds  nisi  and 
etsi;  e.  g.,  Cia,  in  Verr.,  L,  14,  Quodn  tllinc  inanis  pro- 
Jugisseif  tamen  ista  tuafuga  nefaria,  proditio  cansulis  tui 
conscderata  judicaretur ;  i.  e.,  "  and  even  if  you  had  iled 
without  taking  ^ything  with  you,"  &c. ;  de  Nat.  Deor., 
i.,  18,  Quodsi  omnium  animantium  formam  vincit  hominis 
Jigura,  eafigura  profecto  est,  quae  pidcherrima  sit  omnium, 
'*  If  then,"  &c. ;  and  this  use  of  quodsi  is  especially  in- 
tended to  introduce  scnnething  assumied  as  tiHe  from  which 
farther  inferences  may  be  drawn.     It  is,  moreover,  also 
equivalent  to  ^^  dltJiough  ;^^  comp.  Cic,  jt?.  Mur,,  2,  which 
pjassage  is' too  long  to  be  inserted  here.     Quodnisi;  e.  g., 
ux  Cic,  in  Verr,,  ii.,  66,  Quodnisi  MeteUus  hoc  tarn  graviter 
egisset  atque  illam  rem  imperio  edictoque  prohihuisset,  ves 
tigium  statuarum  i^us  in  Sidlia  non  esset  relictmm  /  i.  e., 
''  if  then^-not ;"  ib.,  ii.,  26,  Quodnisi  ego  meo  adventu  il- 
lius  conatus  aZiqumUulum  repressissem^^-^4am  mnltos  testes 
hue  evocare  non  potuissem.     Quodetsi;  e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Fin,, 
iv.,  4,  Quodetsi  ingeniis  magnis  praediti  quidmm  dicendi 
copiam  sii^e  raiione  coTisequuntur,  ars  tnm.cn  est  dux  certior, 
nay,  even  if,  &c    BUt  quod  is  found  also,  though  more 
rarely,  before  other  conjunctions;  as,  quodquum,  quodubi, 
quodquid,  qfiodquoniam,  quodne,  quodutinam,  where  the 
conjunction  alone  would  have  been  sufficient,  though  quod 
is  intended  to  efiect  a  closer  connexion  of  the  sentences ; 
e.  g.,  Cic,  de  Off.,  iii.,  31,  Criminahatur  etiam  (Jj.  Manli 
us),  quod  Titum  Jilium,  qui  postea  est  Torquatus  appeU 
lattis,  ah  hominibus  relegasset  et  ruri  hahitare  jussisset, 
Quodquum  audivisset  adolescens  Jilius,  negotium  exhiberi 
patri,  accurrisse  Romam  et  cum  prima  luce  Pcmponii  do* 
mum  rc7iisse  dicitur      So,  also,  de  Off.^  ii.,  8,  quodquum 


A16  LATlli  ORAMMAl. 

perspicuum  sU,  hcnivolentiae  vim  esse  j/Mgnam,  metus  tm* 
beciUam,  scquitur  ut  disseratmts,  &c. ;  in  Verr,,  i.,  26,  QuoO" 
ubi  Ule  intellexit,  id  agi  atqtie  id  parari,  tU  fiUae  suae  vts 
afferretur^  servos  suos  ad  se  vocat,  Comp.  in  Verr,,  iv.,  66; 
de  Orat.,  ii.,  49 ;  de  Fin.^  i.,  20,  Quodquia  nvllo  modo  sine 
amicitia  Jirmam  et  perpei^uamjticunditatem  vitgs  t-enerepo^^. 
sunuUf  neque  vero  ipsam  amiriiiam  tueri,  nisi  aeque  arnicas 
tt  nosmet  ips'os  diligamus :  idcirco  et  7io<^  ipsum  efficitur  in 
amicUia,  et  am^dtia  cum  voluptate  connectitur ;  iii.,  18 
quodquoniam  (sapiens)  ntmquamfallitur  injudicando,  ertt 
in  mediis  rebus  qficium;  Acad.,  iL,  25,  Quadne  idjacere 
posses,  idcirco  heri  non  necessario  loco  contra  sensus  tarn, 
fnulta  dixeram,  Comp.  Hotdnger  on  Cic,  de  Divin,,  ii., 
02 ;  Cic,  ad  Fam.,  xiy.,  4,  QuodtUinam  minus  vitae  cupi- 
dijfuissemus,  certe  nihil  in  vita  malt  vidissemus,  where  the 
note  of  Manutius  may  be  compared.  Even  before  the 
relative  pronoun  we  find  quod  thus  used  in  Cic,  Philip,, 
x^  i,  in  fin.,  Quodqui  ah  iUo  ahdudt  exerdtum,  et  respec- 
tun^  pulcherrimum  et  praesidium  Jirmissimum  adimit  ret" 
publicae.  •      • 

[§  808.]  lit  Another  peculiarity,  which  at  the  same 
time  facilitates  in  Latin  the  connexion  of  propositions,  is 
the  use  of  the  conjunctions  neque  and  nee.  They  stand 
for  et,  and  atithe  same  tiifte  contain  the  negation,  in  what- 
ever form  it  occurs  in  the  proposition  (except  when  it  be- 
longs to  one  particular  word  ;  as,  e.  s,,  in  an  antithesis). 
For  examples,  see  §  738.  The  Latin  language  is  so  par- 
tial to  this  kind  of  connexion,  that,  for  the  sake  of  it,  neque 
or  nee  is  added  to  enim  and  vero  vfkere  in  English  we 
could  not  use  ^^and,"  and  we  therefore  explain  it  by  say- 
ing that  neque  is  used  for  non.  In  neque  tamen,  too,  the 
copulative  is  to  us  superfluous,  although  the  Latins  ap- 
pear to  have  considered  it  as  essen1;ial  to  the  connexion 
of  the  propositions.  Examples  are  very  numerous.  Non 
vero,  non  tamen,  are  very  rarely  used  for  this  pu^ose,  and 
are  therefore  not  deserving  of  imitation ;  nan  enim^  how- 
ever, is  common.  To  these  negative  expressions  the  Lat 
ins  ofi;en  join  (comp.  §  754)  a  second  negative,  in  which 
case  neque  enim  non  is  equivalent  to  nam ;  non  vero  non 
to  atque  etiam,  a  stronger  et ;  nee  tamen  non  to  attamen ; 
e.  g.,  Cic,  p.  Mil.,  32,  Neque  vero  non  eadem  ira  deorum 
hanc  ejus  satellitibus  injecit  amentiam,  ut  sine  imaginibus, 
sine  cantu  atque  ludis,sine  exequih — '/^nhureretur  abjectust 


ARRANGEMENT  OP   WORDS,  ETC.  617 

k  •►.,  "  and,  in  truth,  the  same  anger,"  &c. ;  ad  Fam.y  vi., 

1,  nee  efdm  is,  qui  in  te  adhuc  injustior  Juit,  non  magna 

signa  dedit  animi  erga  te  mitigati;  i.  e.,  "for  lie  gjave 

signs;"  v.,  12,  neque  tamen,  quum  Jiaec  scribeharh,  eram 

nesciu9 ;  i.  e.,  "  and  yet  I  knew ;"  dc  Orat.^  ii.,  85,  nequt 

tainen  ilia  non  omant^  hahiti  lionores^  decreta  virttUis  prae- 

mia,  &c. ;  i.  e.,  "  and  yet  these  things  also,"  &c.     Comp. 

§334. 

Note, — The  use  of  namque  for  nam  (see  ^  345)  may  ^ewise  be  consid- 
ered as  an  instance  of  this  redundance  of  the  copulative. 

[§  801^;]  14.*Upon  the  signification,  the  use,  and  the  po- 
sition of  the  s^reral  conjuncticms,  we  have  treated  at  large 
in  Chap.  LXVII.  It  may  here  be  observed  in  addition, 
that  it  is  a  favourite  practice  in  Latin  to  make  antitheses, 
aod  to  indicate  them  by  placing  oonjimctions  in  opposition 
to  each  other;  as,  et-^^,  aut-^ut,  neque^^neque,  neque-— 
et,  et — neque,  see  §  338 ;  farther,  etsi — tamen,  quum — turn, 
non  magis — quam,  non  modo — sed  etiam,  and  the  like. 
But  oompfu:^,  also,  §  781,  foil.,  respecting  the  omission  of 
copulative  and  adversative  conjunctions. 

[§  810!]  15.  In  a  rhetorical  point  of  view  there  are  three 
kinds  of  propositions,  viz.,  commute,  cola,  and  periodi. 
Compare,  on  this  point,  Cic,  Orat.,  66,  and  Quintil.,  ix.,  4, 
122,  foil.  A  comma  (xoijtfiayincisumj  is  an  absol&te  or  in- 
dependent simple  proposition ;  e.  g.^  Bene  res  se  hahet, 
AliTtd  videanms.  A  colon  (kcjXov,  membrum)  is  likewise 
a  simple  proposition,  but  which  by  its  form  shows  its  re- 
lation to  another  proposition ;  e.  g.,  quum  bene  res  se  hahe- 
at.  A  period  is  a  proposition  which  is  enlarged  by  a  com- 
bination of  commata  and  cola,  and  is,  at  the  same  time, 
absolute  or  complete  in  itself  (i.  e.,  it  begins  and  ends  in 
itself).  It,  therefore,  requires  at  least  two  propositions, 
which  are  unit^  into  a  whole,  either  as  precedent  and 
consequent  clauses  (protasis  and  apodosisj,  or  by  the  in- 
sertion of  the  one  into  the  other ;  e.  g.,  quurHi  bene  res  se 
habeatf  aliud  videamus  (but  not  in  an  inverted  order),  or 
'Nunc  igitur,  quoniam  res  bene  se  liabet,  aliud  videamus. 
But,  according  to  the  views  of  the  ancients,  it  is  not  neces- 
saiy  that  a  complete  proposition  should  be  inserted.  The 
enlargement  of  a  proposition,  which  is  reqiired  to  form  a^ 
period,  may  be  effected*  by  the  insertion  of  parts  of  prop- 
ositions,  which  contain  only  the  elements  of  entire  prop* 
osUi(<ns,  as  in  the  passage  if  Cicero,  Homfincm  foedum, 

•  Xx 


$18  LATfN  GRAMMAR. 

verdUuvi,  desperatum  pluris  quam  te  ct  quamfortunoM  tmoM 
aestimasti.  And  such  a  period  is  called  a  simple  on6 
(juovo/cwAof).  The  following  period,  on  die  other  hand, 
consists*  of  two  parts :  Quem^  quaeso^  nostrum  fefeUit,  ita 
vos  esscjacturos  ?  The  period  is  the  hlossom  of  a  finished 
style;  it  is  generally  employed  in  even  and  progressive 
descriptions,  and  the  highest  perfection  of  style  is  dis- 
played in  its  variety  and  easy  development.  But  as  not 
all  thoughts  ace  so  complex  as  to  admit  of  an  enlarge* 
ment  of  the  principal  by  subordinate  propositions,  or  by 
a  combination  of  protasis  and  apodosis,  peribds  should  be 
intermixed  vnth  commata  and  cola.  In  Latin  style,  inter- 
rogative an^  exclamatory  forms  of  expres^on  are,  among 
others,  particularly  calculated  to  produce  the  desirable 
variety.  • 

Note. — ^We  have  been  obliged  abore  to  abandon  the  common  definitions 
given  by  the  ancients  of  commata  and  colot  for  they  do  not  explain  the  real 
nature  of  the  propositions.  The  correct  definition  of  a  colon  is  given  by 
the  rhetorician  Alexander  in  Emesti's  Technolog.  Graec.  Rhet.j  p.  258, 
KQikov  kcrrl  vepiodov  /iepoc  ^  ^>tyeTai  uiv  Ka6t  airrd,  uvTucelfievov  di 
TrXnpoi  ireplodov.  The  term  period  should  not  be  confined  exclusively  to 
sucn  propositions  as  are  enlarged  by  the  insertion  of  another  propositicn. 
SchelleTt  for  instance,  in  his  Praecepta  stiUf  considers  such  a  proposition  as 
Quemadmodvm  concordia  res  parvae  crescuntf  ita  ditcordia  etiam  maximae  dilm' 
buntur  not  to  be  a  period :  we,  however,  do  consider  it  a  poiiod,  since,  by  the 
very  beginnjpg,  quemadmodvm,  we  are  made  to  expect  the  subsequent  ita. 
and  the  coarse  of  the  propositioD  is  fixed  ;  not,  however,  in  an  inverted 
position  of  the  two  memi^prs.  In  like  manner,  the  above-mentioned  peri 
od,  Qttum  bene  res  se  habeat^  aliud  videamusj  would  lose  its  periodic  charac 
ter,  if  the  two  members  were  inverted ;  for  it  would  merely  represent  two 
propositions  in  juxtaposition,  not  united  either  by  their  form  or  otherwise 
mto  a  coherent  whole. 

[§811.]  16.  Where,  however,  we  have  subordinate 
propositions  introduced  by  conjunctions  (excepting  the 
copulative  conjunctions),  it  is  certainly  preferable  to  form 
a  period  by  inserting  them ;  for,  as  has  already  been  ob- 
served above,  the  placing  of  circumstances  after  the 
thought  or  idea,  which  they  are  intended  to  introduce,  is 
contrary  to  the  common  practice  of  the  Latin  language. 
As  in  the  construction  of  a  simple  proposition  minor  ad- 
ditions or  circumstances  are  put  between  the  subject  and 
the  verb,  and  especially  as  the  verb  closes  the  whole,  sc 
propositions  which  contain  secondary  circumstances  are, 
m  Latin,  thrown  into  the  middle  of  the  period.  A  prpp« 
*08ition,  such  as  Scipio  exercitum  •  in  Africam  trajecit  tit 
Hdnnibalem  ex  Italia  dedteceret,  is  not  periodic  in  its  stiniC" 
ture,  but  it  becomes  so  when  we  say  Scipio,  u4  Hanni^ 


ARRANGEMENT   OF   WORDS,  ETC.  519 

halem  ex  ludia  deduceret,  exercitum  in  Africam  trajecit 
Thus  propositions  like  the  following,  where  the  subordi- 
nate member  precedes  with  two  conjunctions,  Quum  i^i* 
tur  Ramam  venisset,  atatim  imperatorem  adiitf  are  made 
still  more  strictly  periodic  by  placing  the  conjunction 
which  belongs  to  the  whole  first,  and  then  inserting  the 
subordinate  proposition,  Itaque^  quttm  Romam  venisset^ 
Uatim  imperatorem  adiit.  And  diis  must  especially  be 
recqpmended  in  shorter  propositions,  though  we  do  ifbl 
mean  to  say  that  quum  igitur,  quum  autem,  quum  vero, 
quum  enim  are  incorrect,  or  tllitt  nam  quwn^  sed  quum^ 
&c.,  are  of  themselves  preferable. 

[§  812.]  It  is,  therefore,  particularly  necessary  to  see 
whether,  in  two  propositions  connected  by  a  conjunction, 
the  subject  is  the  same ;  for,  in  this  case,  it  is  the  almost 
invariable  practice  in  Latin  to  form  them  into  one  period 
io  proposition  j  e.  g.,  Nep.,  de  Reg.,  3,  Antigonus,  quum 
adveraus  Seleupum  hydmachumque  dimicaret,  in  prodio 
occisus  est^  Cic,  in  Fm".,i.,  10,  Verres,  eimulac  tetigit  prO' 
vindam,  statim  Messana  litteras  dedit;  Tusc,  v.,  18,  Sttd' 
Htia,  etsi  adepta  est,  quod  concupioit,  nunquam  se  tamen 
satis  consecutam  putat.  Hence  the  Latins  are  rather  fond 
of  expressing  a  complex  thought  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  subject  remains  the  same ;  for  a  period  with  two  sub 
jects,  the  one  in  the  principal,  the  -other  ih  the  subordi- 
nate proposition,  is  less  easily  to  be  surveyed  or  followed 
by  the  mind.  Instead  of  Antimachus^  quum  eum  amnes 
praeter  Platanem  deseruissent,  NihUaminus,  inquity  legam^ 
it  would,  acc(»rdingly,  b^  better  to  say  Aniimachus,  quum 
ah  omrdbus  desertus  esset,  NihUomintiSy  inquit,  legam.  The 
same  practice  is  observed  when  the  object  is  the  same  in 
both  propositions ;  e.  g.,  Nep.,  Alcib,,  10,  quem,  ut  harhari 
incendium  effugisse  efninus  viderunt,  telis  missis  intevfece- 
runt.  In  such  constructions,  it  cannot  be  said  whetner 
the  nominative  or  the  oblique  case,  which  stands  first,  oo 
longs  to  the  leading  oi*the  dependent  proposition. 

When  jthe  object  of  the  leading  proposition  is  the  sub- 
ject ^f  the  dependent  proposition,  it  is  likewise  placed 
first,  and  the  nominative  supplied  in  the  dependent  prop 
ofiition  from  the  oblique  case  which  has  preceded ;  o.  g., 
Cic,  de  Off,,  iii.,  31,  i.  Manlio,  quum  dictator  Juisset,  M. 
PomponiuSf  tribunus  plebis^  diem  dixit,  quod  is  paucos  sihi 
dies  ad  dictatvram  gerendam  addidisset ;  and  botli  united, 


520  LATIN   GRAMMAR, 

f.  Leg,  Man.f  12,  Idem  OretcnsibuSf  quum  ad  eum  usqiA 
m  Pamphyliam  legatos  deprecatoresq'ie  misissent,  spent  de* 
ditionis  non  adefnit. 

[§  813.]  17.  Relative  propositfjns  of  every  kind   are 
very  frequently  employed  in  constructing  a  period,  being 
especially  adapted  to  form  inserted  clauses.     If  emphasis 
is  required,  the  relative  proposition  is  generally  placed  be- 
fore the  demonstrative  pronoun  or  adverb ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  d^ 
NaL  Deor,,  i.,  42,  Quid  ?  ii  qui  dixerunt,  totam  de  dii^im- 
mortalihus  ppinionem  fictam  esse  ah  hominibus  sapientibus 
¥eip,  causa^  ut,  quos  ratio\on  posset^  eos  hd  ojfficium  religio 
duceret,  nonne  omnem  religumem  funditus  sustulerunt  f  de. 
Off,,  ii.,  12,  Socrates  hanc  viam  ad  gloriam  proximam 
dicebat  esse,  si  quis  id  ageret,  ut,  qualis  haberi  vellet,  talis 
esset;  in  Verr,,  ii.,  2,  Itaque  ad  omnes  res  SicUia  sempcf 
usi  sumus,  ut,  quidquid  ex  sese  posset  efferre,  id  apud  eos 
non  nasci,  sed  domi  nostrae  conditum  putaremus  /  in  Verr,, 
].,  2,  Quodsi,  quam  audax  est  ad  coTiandum,  tarn  esset  oh' 
scurus  in  agendo,  fortasse  aliqua  in  re  nos  aliqittindo  fefd- 
lisset;  p.  Rose,  Com,,  11,  Nam,  quo  quisque  est  sollertior 
et  ingeniosior,  hoc  docet  iracundius  et  lahoriosius.    It  \h, 
how^ever,  equally  common,  even  in  the  elaborate  and  ora- 
torical style,  to  place  the  demonstrative  in  its  natural  or- 
der before  the  j-elative  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Rose.  Am,^  24,  No' 
lite  enim  putare,  quemfid.modum  infahulis  saepenumero  vi* 
detis,  eos,  qui  aliquid  impie  scelerateque  commiserint,  agi' 
tari  et  perterreri  Furiarum  taedis  ardenfibus.     The  inver- 
sion, therefore,  should  be  adopted  only  occasionally  for 
the  sake  of  ornament,  but  should  not  be  used  immodeiv 
ately.     Respecting  the  omission  of  the  demonstrative  a^ 
ter  the  relative,  see  §  765,  note. 

[%  814.1  Note. — The  |>oets  not  unfrecjuently  take  away  the  substantive 
from  the  leading  proposition,  and  join  it  to  the  relative  pronoun  in  the  de  * 
pendent  clause,  and  m  the  same  case  as  the  pronoun,  tne  substantive  ei 
ther  preceding  or  following  the  pronoun ;  e.  g.,  Ttmu,,  Eun.,  iv.,  3, 11, 
Eunuchvm  ^pum  dedisti  nobit,  quas  turbos  dedi$I  for  Eumu^tua;  Virg.,  Aen^ 
L,  573,  urbmi  quam  statuo,  vestra  est;  Terent.,  Andr.y  proL,  ^,  poSta  id  tSbt 
negotii  eredidit  solum  dariy  populo  vt  plaeerent  quas  fedsset  fabiMu  ;  Horat^ 
Serm.,  L,  4,  2,  atque  oJm,  quorum  comoedia  prisca  virorvm  est,  tor  atque  aUt 
viri,  Quorum  est ;  Serm.y  i.,  10, 16,  t7/t,  Scripta  qtdbus  comoedia''prisca  mris  est, 
for  illi  viri,  qwbus.  Comp.,  also,  Epcd.,  2,  37 ;  6,  7 ;  Carm.,  iv.,  13,  18- 
22 ;  Senru,  ii.,  2,  59.  Ovid,  Art.  Am.,  ii.,  342,  sub  qua  nunc  recubas  arbortt 
wrgafuit ;  Ceroid.,  iv.,  173,  Sic  tibi  dent  Nymphae  quae  levet  unda  sitim,  for 
dent  undam,  quae  levet.  And  also,  in  Cicero,  p,  Suluij  33,  Quae  prima  innth 
eentis  mihi  defensio  est  oUata,  sus&Bpi;  ad  Att.,  vi.,  1,  quos  puerss  misenm, 
epistolam  mHu  atttUerunt ;  de  Leg.,  iu.,  5,  haec  est,  quam.  Scipio  lamdat  it  omm 
vuLvime  p*9bat  teirveraiynem  reipublieae,  comp.  p.  C^,  42,  in  fiu  ;  000,01 


ARRANGBMENT   OF   WORDS,  ETC.  623 

tfie  other  nnnd,  de  Leg.,  i.,  17, vdab  .a,  qu/aepenituM  m  omni  tentu  tmjUkstm 
inndet  inutacris  bom  voluptas.  The  regular  form,  hoieever,  always  u  this, 
that  the  substantive  has  its  place  in  the  leading  proposition,  or,  if  it  baa 
preceded  in  the  relative  proposition,  that  the  retrospective  pronoun  is  is 
put  in  the  case  which  the  leading  proposition  requires ;  hence  either  pus- 
ri,  ^fko9  miseram,  attiderunt,  or  quos  puaros  miseram,  u  tUtuUnmt, 

[§  815.]  18.  A  period  becomes  more  complex  and  at* 
lificial  if  the  dependent  proposition  has  neither  the  same 
subject  nor  the  same  object  as  the  leading  proposition ; 
e.  g,,  Cic,  p.  Rose.  Am,,  init.,  Credo  ego  vos,  judices,  mi' 
rari,  quid  sit  quod,  quum  tot  summi  oratores  hominesque 
nohUissimi  sedeant,  ego  potissimum  surrexerim,  qui,  &c. 
Here  care  must  be  taken  that,  by  the  insertion  and  en- 
largement of  a  new  proposition,  the  construction  of  the 
main  proposition  be  hot  suspended  or  embarrassed,  which 
\irould  produce  "an  Anacoluthon  \  as,  e.  g.,  if  we  were  to 
enlarge  the  inserted  pit)position  in  thq  preceding  period 
thus,  quid  sit  quod,  quum  tot  summi  oratores  hominesque 
nohilissimi  sedeant,  neque  in  hac  causa,  quod  in  aliis  facer e 
consueverunt,  vocem  pro  salute  hominis  innocentissimi  mittere 
audeant — ^the  beginning,  quid  sit  quod,  would  have  been 
forgotten  in  the  length  of  the  inserted  propositions ;  and  * 
an  orator,  following  the  train  of  his  feelings,  would  scarce- 
ly have  proceeded  by  ego  potissimum  surrexerim,  but  would 
probably  have  found  it  necessary  to  take  up  the  suspend 
ed  construction  with  cur  igitur  ego  potissimum  surrexerim 
See  §  739  and  §  756. . 

[§  816.J*  19.  In  constructing  a  period,  wo  must  take 
care  that  the  apodosis  be  not  too  short  in  proportion  to 
the  protasis,  which  would  produce  a  disagreeable  effect 
upon  the  ear.  If,  for  example,  we  had  the  protasis  Qui 
putat  magnam  doctrinam  sine  ingenio  praeclaro,  sine  in-* 
dustria  indefessa,  sine  libris  optimis  posse  comparari,  and 
were  to  close  with  errat,  the  disproportionately  short 
apodosis  would  seem  ridiculous;  we  ought  either  to  have 
written  tftiperiodically  (though  sufficiently  weU)  errat  qu* 
putat;  or  we  ought  to  produce  the  necessary  counter* 
poise  by  an  enlargement  of  the  idea  errat;  e.  g.,  by  say- 
mg  magno  vehementique  errore  ducitur.  This  requires  a 
knowledge  and  command  of  word^  and  phrases  whicli  is 
acquired  from  an  accurate  and  attentive  study  of  the  au- 
thors. The  Auct.  ad  Herenn.,  iv.,  1,  commences  a  peri- 
odic proposition  thus  :  Quoniam  in  hoc  libro  de  eloctUione 
scfipsimus,  ct,  quihus  in  rehvs  exeinplis  opusfuit,  usi  ^ummt 

X  i2 


^22  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

naatns,  iidque  fecimns  praeter  constietudinem  eorum^  qui  d4 
hac  re  scripserunt — and  had  in  mind,  then,  to  conclude 
with  the  apodosis  ratio  nostri  consilii  danda  est.  But  in 
companson  with  that  protasis,  his  apodosis  would  have 
been  too  short ;  he  therefore  enlarges  it  th\is,  necessario 
faciendum  putammtcs  ut  paucis  rationem  nostri  consilii  de- 
mus.  (Comp.  §  619.)  The  following  passages  from  Cic- 
ero may  serve  as  examples  of  a  pleasing  and  synmietri- 
cal  structure  of  periods :  de  Jjeg,  Agr.^  Quemadmodum^ 
quum  petebam,  nulli  me  vobis  auctores  generis  met  commen- 
darunt :  sic,  si  quid  deliquero,  nuUae  stmt  ifnagines,  quae 
me  -a  vobis  deprecentur ;  in  Cat,,  i.,  \Z^\Jt  saepe  Jiomines 
aegri  morbo  gram,  quum  aestujebrique  jactantur,  si  aqtuim 
gelidam  biherint,  primo  releCari  videntur^  deinde  muUo 
.gravius  vehementiusq'ue  afflictantur:  sic  hie  morbus,  qui  est 
in  re  publica,  relevatus  istius  poenc^  vehementius,  vivis  reli- 
quis,  ingravescet ;  p.  Caec,^  init.;  Bi,  quantum  in  agro  lo' 
risque  desertis  audada  potest,  tantum  inforo  atque  injudt 
ciis  impudentia  valeret :  non  minus  nunc  in  causa  cederet 
A,  Caecina  Sex,  Aebutii  impudentiae,  quam  tum  in  vi  fa- 

'  cienda  cessit  audaciae.    It  is  easy,  in  diese  periods,  to  see 
the  accurate  propriety  with  which  the  s^eral  propositions 

*  are  separated  and  again  connected  by  the  adequate  use  of 
corresponding  particles. 

[§  817.]  20.  We  may  here  draw  attention  to  the  differ 
ence  of  periods  in  the  historical  and  the  oratorical  style. 
Historical  narrative  requires,  above  all  things,* variety  of 
the  propositions  containing  statements  of  time :  to  form 
propositions  possessing  this  quality,  historians  have  re- 
course to  three  methods ;  the  use  of  the  participle  in  the 

•case  of  the  preceding  noun ;  of  the  ablative  absolute;  and 
thirdly,  of  l3ie  conjunctions  of  time,  quum,  uhi,  postquam. 
By  these  means  Livy  can  unite,  without  injury  to  perspi- 
cuity, in  one  period  what  in  English  we  must  express  by 
three  or  more  propositions ;  e,  g.,  Liv.,  L,  6,  Numitor,  in- 
ter primum  tumultum  hostes  invasisse  urbem  atque  adortos 
rtgiam  dicfitans,  qwum  pubem  AlbaTuim  in  arcem  praesidio 
armisque  obtinendam' avocasset,  postquam  juvenes,  perpe- 
irata  caede,  pergere  ad  se  gratulantes  vidit,  extcmpio  advo- 
cato  consilio,  scelera  in  sefratris,  originerji  n^otum,  ut  ge 
niti,  ut  educati,  ut  cogniti  essent,  caedem  deinceps  tyrannic 
feque  ^us  auctorem  ostendit.  Such  a  period  is,  perhaps, 
sot  1o  be  found  in  all  the  writings  of  Cicero ;  but  it  if 


ARRANOBMBNT  OF   WORDS,    ETC.  523 

well  adapted  to  express  all  collateral  circumstances  in 
their  subordinate  relation.  In  this  way,  therefore,  most 
of  the  periods  in  Livy  are  constructed,  the  ugh,  of  course, 
with  many  variations  in  the  detail ;  Liv.,  ii.,  6,  His^  sicut 
acta  erant^  nuntiatis^  incensus  Tarquinitts  non  dolore  solum 
tantae  ad  irritum  cadentis  spei,  sed  etiam  odiq  iraque,  post" 
quam  dolo  mam  obseptam  vidil,  bdlum  aperte  moliendum 
ra^us^  circumire  supplex  Etruriae  urbes,  &c. 

[§  818.]  21;  A  correct  and  ingenious  arrangement  of 
words,  and  an  artistic  construction  of  propositions,  natu 
rally  produce  in  the  delivery  a  symmetriccd  variety  in  the 
raising  and  sinking  of  the  voice,  which  the  ancients  called 
oratorical  numerus  (fwOfw^),  ^he  rhetoricians  reduced 
the  effect  thus  produced  to  metrical  feet,  though  we  must 
not  thereby  be  led  to  suppose  that  the  orator  set  out  with 
a  premeditated*  view  to  use  and  apply  certain  metrical 
feet.  The  Greek  and  Latin  languages  possess  th^ pecu- 
liarity of  marking  in  their  pronounciation  the  natural 
quantity  of  the  syllables,  along  with  and  distinct  from  the 
accent  of  the  words :  another  peculiarity  is  their  freedom 
in  the  arrangement  of  words,  and  it  is  the  admirable  re- 
sult of  a  thorough  rhetorical  cultivation,*  especially  of  the 
Latin  language,  that  a  well-constructed  proposition  in 
prose,  such  as  we  have  considered  in  the  preceding  para- 
graphs, calls  forth  a  natural  variety  in  the  raising  and  sink- 
ing of  the  voice,  which  otherwise  is^ot  to  be  met  with 
but  in  poetical  composition.  There  is,  it  is  true,  no  strict- 
ly uniK>rm  return  of  any  change ;  but  the  application  of 
the  principle,  that  an  important  word  which  by  its  prom- 
inent position  draws  the  accent  upon  itself,  is  f6llowed  by 
a  number  of  less  important  words  expressive  of  seconda- 
ry qualities  or  circumstances,  which,  again,  are  succeeded 
by  an  important  word  which  forms  the  close  of  the  prop* 
osition  or  period,  produces  the  same  effect :  the  period 
nas  a  beginning,  a  middle,  and  an  end,  and  the  words 
form  a  compact  whole,  as  well  as  the  thoughts  they  ex- 
press. Thus,  the  orator  need  but  follow  the  general  law, 
and  his  prose  will  naturally  be  rhythmical  and  melodious. 

[^  819.]  Note. — A  regular  verse  in  prose  is  considered  by  all  rhetoricians 
as  a  fault,  though  a  verse  is  occasionally  found  in  good  prose  writers. 
Nay.  it  seems  as  if  at  the  commencement  of  a  book  or  writmg ;  as,  e.  g., 
in  Livy,  Fattitrutne  operas  prethtm  «m,  a  poetically  measured  start  wers 
aimed  at.  But  an  hezanetrical  close  should  certainly  be  avoided,  espe 
daily  in  tho  comhinatioo  of  esse  videtvr  (^  ^  ^  ^  y)«    This  cautioD  if 


524  LATIN    ORAMMAB. 

the  more  neceMary,  as  in  the  passive  conai^ction  we  i  radily  fall  mta 
a  cadence.    See  my  note  on  Uic  ,  in  Verr,,  iL,  9. 

HiaiuSf  that  is,  the  concurrence  of  long  vowels  at  the  end  of  one  word 
and  the  beginning  of  another,  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible ;  for 
a  concurrence  of  short  vowels,  or  of  a  long  vowel  followed  bya  short  one« 
is  not  objectionable.    Comp.  4  8. 

[§  820.]  22.  The  language  of  the  orator  difiei-s  from 
oommon  prose  chiefly  in  the  use  of  tropes  and^gures^  for 
these  terms  denote  modes  of  expression  varying  from  the 
common  form.  These  modes  of  expression ,  when  they 
consist  in  single  words,  are  called  tropes;  and  when  in 
propositions, ^^ref.  There  are  seversd  tropes,  i,  ^,,  modes 
by  which  one  word  is  used  for  another  for  tiie  sake  of 
rhetorical  variety  and  ornament :  . 

Metaphora  or  translatio,  a  contracted  simile ;  e.  g.,  ir^e* 

tes  sitiuntf  homo  asper^fulmina  doquentiae; 
Si/necdoche,  when  a  part  is  mentioned  instead  of  the  whole; 

e.  g^,  tectum  for  aomus ; 
Metonymia,  when  a  thing  is  expressed  by  means  of  cir- 
cumstances connected  with  it;  e.  g.,  segne  otium;    Vul 
canus  for  ignis^  Ceres  for  pants; 
il^itofUTfTkzna,  substituting  other  nouns  for  a  proper  name; 

e.  g.,  RoTnafuie  eioquefUiae princeps,  for  Cicero; 
KaTdxpTiaiq,  the  use  of  a  word  in  an  improper  sense,  wheu 
the  language  is  in  y^gjit  of  a  proper  or  specific  term ;~ 
e.  g.,  aedificare  naves  ; 
and  other  tropes  l«ss  applicable  to  the  Latin  language. 
The  store  of  words  and  expressions  which  have  come 
down  to  us  and  are  collected  in  dictionaries,  must  decide 
upon  the  degi'ee  of  propriety  and  applicability  of  these 
tropes. 

[§821.]  23.  The^^rc*  admit  a  greater  freedom  in  their 
use.  They  are  divided  mtjojigurae  sententiarum  nnd^fig' 
urae  verhorum  ;  the  former  are  modes  of  conceiving  and  • 
shaping  an  idea  or  thought^  which  differ  from  die  common 
or  vulgar  mode;  the  lattei  have  reference  merely  to  u 
different  expression  of  the  same  idea,  and  are  therefore, 
as  it  were,  transformations  of  the  same  body.  A  knowl- 
edge and  pi*actice  in  the  use  of  figures  is  interesting  and 
important  even  for  the  be^nner,  since  in  them  lies  the 
secret  of  the  most  admirea  portion  of  the  rhetoric  art ; 
and,  in  fact,  they  are  indispensable  for  the  orator,  although 
the  essential  part  of  his  art  consists  in  far  different  things, 
iriz.,  the  Invention  and  adequate  arrangement  and  dispo   ' 


ARRANGEMENT    OF    WORDS,  E'lC.  525 

itton  of  Ills  thoughts.  The  figurae  ^erborum  arise  from 
additioQ»  from  resemblance  of  sound  and  form,  and  sup- 
pression. 

The  following  arise  from  addition :  geminatio,  a  doub* 
ling  of  words ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Verr,,  v.,  62,  crtix^  crux  in- 
luam^  misero  et  aerumnoso  compardbatur ;  inava(f>opd, 
repetiiio,  repetition ;  i.  e.,  when  the  several  members  of  a 
proposition  Degin  with  the  same  word;  e.  g.,  Cic, in  CaU, 
i.,  1,  Nihilne  te  noctumum  praesidium  Palatii,  nihil  urbia 
vigUiae,  nihil  timor  populi,  niJiU  consenstis  bonorum  omni- 
um, nihil  hie  munitissimu^  habendi  scTtattis  locus,  nihil  ho 
rum  ora  vultusque  moverunt  ?  Comp.  p.  Arch.,  9»'21 ;  in 
RuU.,  iL,  6.  The  reverse  (i.  e.,  when  the  same  word  is 
used  at  the  end  of  sinreral  members)  is  called  dvrterrpo^^, 
canversio.  Complexio  arises  from  a  combination  of  rep- 
eiitio  and  conversio  ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Rull.,  ii.,  9,  Quia  legem 
tulit?  RuUus.  Quis  majorem  partem  poptdi  suffragiis 
prohibtdt  f  RuUus,  .  Quis  comitiis  prarfuit  ?  RiMus. 
Quis  decemvirosm  quos  voluit  renwUiavit  7  Idem  Rtdlus, 
Traduction  when  a  word  from  a  preceding  clause  is  re- 
peated in  the  following,  as  in  the  Auct.  ad  Her.,  iv.,  14, 
Eum  tu  hominem  appellas,  qui  si  Juisset  homo,  nunquam 
tdm  crudditer  vitam  hominis  petisset,  HoXvavvSerov,  i.  e , 
the  repetition  of  the  same  conjunction ;  e.  g.,  ad  Her.,  iv. 
19,  Et  inimico  pr^Lera^,  et  amicum  laedebas,  e^tibi  ipsi 
non  consulebas. 

[4  822;]  From  resemblance  ^soun4  and  form,  or  sym* 
metry,  anse,  TTopovofioala,  annominatio,  when  words,  with 
scjhie  resemblance  of  sound,  are  placed  together,  or,  rath- 
er, in  opposition ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Verr.,  v.,  10,  ut  eum  non 
facile  non  modo  extra  tectum,  sed  ne  extra  lectum  quidem 
quisqtutm  videret;  in  Cat.,  i.,  12,  hanc  reip  pcstem  non 
pauLisper  reprimi,  sed  in  perpetuum  comprimi  volo;  de 
Off*,  i.,  23,  expetenda  magis  est  decemendi  ratio,  quam  de-^ 
certandi  fortitudo.  For  more  examples,  see  my  note  on 
Cic,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  6,  10.  ^OiioidTrrorrov,  when  the  same 
cases  are  in  several  members  of  the  proposition ;  and  6jiiot- 
OTeXevTOfV,  when  the  members  end  similarly;  e.  g.,  both 
united  occur  in  Cic,  p.  Clu.,  6,  Vidtpudorem  libido,  timo- 
rem  audacia,  rationem  amentia.  To  these  may  be  added 
MkcjXov  ;  i.  e.,  when  the  members  are  of  (about)  equal 
length ;  e.  g.,  Auct.  ad  Her.,  iv.,  20,  Alii  fortuna  jelicita- 
Um  dedit,  huic  industria  virtutem  ccmparavit.    Compare 


52G  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

the  quotation  from  Cic,  jp.  Caeoinaf  at  the  end  of  §  816 
'AvTiderov,  opposition,  requires  this  symmetry;  e.  g.,  Cic 
p.  MU,,  4,  Est  igitur  haec,  judicea,  non  scripta,  sed  nata  lex, 
quam  Tion  dididmusy  accepimus,  legimus^  verum  ex  Tuitura 
ipsa  arrijmimuSf  hausimus,  expressimus,  ad  quam  nondocti, 
sedfacti,  non  instikuti,  sed  imhuti  sumua,  ut^  &c.  Of  a  similar 
nature  is  avrifjieradoX^,  commutaiio, where  the  opposition 
is  expressed  by  an  inverted  order  of  the  proposition;  e.  g., 
ad  Her,,  iv.,  28,  Quia  atultus  es,  ea  re  taces^  non  tamen  quia 
taces,  ea  re  stultus  es;  si  poema  loquens  pictura  est,  pi^urd 
taciturn  poema  debet  esse.  If  not  the  whole  clause  is  in- 
verted, mis  figure  is  called  eTrdvodo^y  regression  e.  g.,  Cic, 
Brut,,  39,  ut  eloquentium  juris  peritissimus  Crassusj^juris 
peritorum  eloquentissimus  Scaevolm  haheretur,  Lastlyi 
Kklfia^,  gradatio ;  i.  e.,  gradation,  at  the  same  time  re- 
peating the  preceding  word ;  e.  g.,  ad  Her,,  iv.,  25,  hnpe- 
rium  Graeciae  Juit  penes  Athienienses,  Atheniensium  potiti 
sunt  Spartiatae,  Spartiatas  superavere  Thehani,  Thebaaios 
Macedones  vicerunt,  qui  ad  imperium  Chmeciae  brevi  tern' 
pore  adjunxerunt  Asiam  hello  suhactam,  ^ 

[§  823.]  The  following  arise  from  suppression  :  anoai^* 
TTTjOLg,  an  intentional  breaking  off  in  the  middle  of  afipeech; 
e.  g.,  Cic,  p.  Mil.,  12,  De  Tiostro  enim  omnium:-'-non  audeo 
totum  dicere,  Videie  quid  ea  vitiijex  Tiahiturajuerit,  cupu 
periculoBa  etiam  reprehensio  est,  and  t)|e  well-known  pas- 
sage of  Virgil  (Aen,,  i.,  135),  Quos  ego-sed  motos  praes- 
tat  componere  flucttis,  'Aavvderov,  dissohitio,  the  omission 
of  the  copulative  conjunctions ;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Q^uintilian, 
ix.,  3^  50,  Qui  indicabantur,  eos  vocari,  custodiri,  ad  sdut- 
turn  adduci  jussi,  Correctiq,  iTTcafdp^oi^,  the  correction 
of  an  expression  ju^t  made  use  of;  e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Cat»,  i.,  1, 
hie  tamen  vivit,  Vivit  t  imm>o  vero  etiam  in  senatum  venit, 
comp.  atque  adeo,  §  734.  Dubitatio,  intentional  doubt;  to 
*  which  the  figure  of  an  intentional  forgetting  and  recalling 
to  mind  may  also  be  added ;  e.  g.,  ad  Her*,  iv.,  29,  Tu  is- 
tud  attsus  es  dicere,  homo  omnium  morUUium^^'^nam  quo  te 
digno  moribus  tuis  appeUem  nomine  7 

[§  824.]  We  must  leave  it  to  rhetoric  to  explain  the,^- 
urae  sententiarum :  some  of  them,  however,  are,  at  the 
same  time,  ^^rae  verborum;  as,  e.  g.,  the  question  and 
the  exclamation,  which  are  of  very  frequent  occurr^kse 
m  Latin.  We  may  also  mention  the  addressing  ot  absent 
persons  or  things  ^vithoiit  life  (aTrotrrpo^i^) ;  e.  ^.,  in  (^ic. 


ARRANGEMENT   OF    WORDS,   ETC.  521 

p.  Mil.f  31,  Vos  enim  jam  ego,  Albani  tumuli  atque  luc, 
ice. ;  farther,  personificadoD ;  as,  e.  g.,  Cicero  in  Cett.,  i., 
7,  intzoduces  his  native  country  as  speaking ;  hyperbole, 
Jrony,  simile,  sentence,  &c.,  whose  manifold  use  must  be 
learned  from  the  writings  of  the  best  authors,  with'^vhich 
we  strongly  adyise  the .  student  to  combine  the  study  of 
the  eighth  and  ninth  books  of  Quintilian's  Institutio  Ora 
toria,  and  the  excellent  fourth  book  of  the  Author  ad  He- 
rennium  among  Cicero's  rhetorical  writings. 

r§  825.]  We  ^dd,  in  conclusion,  as  an  example  for  imi- 
tation, a  yery  simple  proposition,  transformed  according  to 
the  several  figures  mentioned  above.  The  theme  or  sub- 
ject is  this,  litteris  detector. 

Geminatio,     Lttterae,  Utterae,  inquam^  solae  me  delectant, 
Repetitio.    Lttterae  me  puerum  oLtierunt,  litterae  me  juve- 

nem  ah  infamia  libidinum  servarunt,  litterae  virum  in 

rep,  administranda  adjuverunt,  litterae  senectutis  imbe' 

cUlitatem  consolahuntur. 
Chnversio.     Litterae  Tionestissima  voluptate  ohlectant,  re- 
rum  novarum  inventione  oblectantj  immortalitatis  spe  cer- 

tissima  ohlecfant. 
Gomplexio.     Qui  litteris  delectatur,  qui  vero  inveniendo  de 

lectatur,  qui  doctrina  propaganda  delectatur^  eum  vos 

malum  esse  civem  putatis  ? 
Traductio.     Quid  vis  7     Tune  litteris  delectaris,  qui  litter- 

aramjundamenta  odisti  ? 
Polysyndeton.     Litterae  et  erudiunt  et  omant  et  oblectant 

et  consolantur. 
Paronomasia.     Qui  possim  ego  littcns  carere,  sine  quihus 

vitam  ipsam  agerem  invitus  ? 
'OfjuHOTrrcrroVf  dfioiOTiXsrrrov.     Num'puias  fieri  posse,  ut, 

qui  Utterarum  studiis  teneatur,  libidinum  vinculis  obstrin- 

gatur? 
AvrldsTOV.     Qui  litteris  delect^ri  te  dicis^  voluptatibus  im- 

plicari  te  pateris  ?  ^ 

AvTifieradoXri.     N3n  quia  delector,  studeo  litteris-:  sed 

quia  studeo,  delector. 
CHradatio.     Studia  mihi  Utterarum  doctrinam,  doctrina  gUh 

riam,  gloria  invidiam  et  obtrectationem  comparavit, 
^Uposiopesis.     Quid  ?     Tu  audes  hoc  mihi  objicere^  qui  nu 

hil  unquam  invita  expetierim  nisi  virtutem  et  doctrinam ; 

tu  quid  expetieris — sed  taceo,  ne  convicium  tibi  fecism 

videar. 


&28  LATIN   GRAMMAB. 

Kayvderov.     Quid  dicam  de  utUitatc  liUerarum  ?    Brudi 

w^,  omant,  oblectant,  cotisolantun 
Correctio,    Litterae  me  ddertant:   quid  dico  delectamtt 

Immo  con8olantur^  ut  unicum  mihi  per/kgium  praebemi 

itUff  has  vitae  lahariosae  molestiqa. 
Dubitatio.    lAUerae  me  sive  erudiunt^  sive  ohlectatUt 

coHsolantur:  nam  quid  potissimum  dicam  nesoio 


APPENDIX  I. 


OF  METRK ;   ESPECIALLY  WITH  REGARD  TO  THE 

LATIN  POETS. 

[§  826.]  1.  The  words  o?  a,  language  consist  of  long  and 
short  syllables.  In  meaa^iring  syllables,  the  time  consu- 
med in  pronouncing  a  sljivrt  syllable  is  taken  d^  a  standard, 
and  this  portion  of  timf;  is  called  mora,  A  long  syllable 
takes  two  morae,  am',  is  therefore,  in  this  respect,  equal 
0  two  short  s^Uables.  Which  syllables,  in  the  Latin 
language,  are  copjidered  short,  and  which. long,  has  been 
shown  in  Clap.  ilL  From  the  combination  of  syllables 
of  a  certaJ.!  qaa'itity  arise  what  are  called  Yeet'f pedes J^ 
o(  which  th'jre  are  four  of  two  syllables,  eight  of  three 
syllabled,  aixt^^en  of  four  syllables,  thirty-two  of  five  syh 
lablep,  &c.,  since  the  respective  number  of  syllables  ad- 
mits of  sc  many  variations.  For  the  sake  of  brevity, 
Bpocific  rjimes  have  been«  given  to  those  feet  which  con- 
eifit  of  tvv^o,  three,  and  four,  syllables,  as  well  as  to  soipe 
of  five ; 

(a  ?  of  two  syllables : 
^  ^  Pyrrhichius ;  bone^  pater^  lege, 
-  —  Spondeus  ;  dudax,  constans,  virtus. 
J  _  Iambus ;  potens,  patres,  l^unt. 

^  Trochaeus,  or  Choreus ;  laett/cs,  fortis,  gaudet. 

(h)  Of  three  syllables  : 
^  v^  ^  Tribrachys ;  domine,  duhius,  legere. 

. Molossus ;  mirarij  libfirtas,  legerunt, 

i.  ^  ^  Pactylus ;  improbus,^  omnia,  legerat, 
^  «  ^  Amphibrachys ;  amare]  peritus,  legebai, 
^  w  -  Anapaestus  j  bonitas,  meditansy  legerent. 

^' Bacchius;  dolores,  amavi,  legebant. 

.  ^  «  Amphimacer,  Oreticus ;  fecerant,  legerant,  cogiians. 
*.  —  s/  PalimbacchTufl,  Antibacchius ;  praeclaruSf  peccata^ 
legisse, 

(c)  Of  four  syllables  : 
fc  w  w  w  Proceleusmaticus ;  celeriier,  memoria,  relegere. 
,.  .  .  ^  'dispell deus ;  praeceptores,  interrumpunt,  perlegn 
runt  • 

Yt 


530  .  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

^  ^ Ionic  as  a  minori ;  adolescens,  generosi,  atlantari. 

-  -  w  w  lonicus  a  majori ;  sencentiaj  mutabilis,  perlegeral 
•  w  -  w  Ditrochaeus,  Dichoreus ;  educator,  infiddis^  ertP 

ditus, 
^  _  ^  .  Diiambus ;  amQenitaSy  renuntians,  supervenu 

^ ^  Antispastus ;  verecundus,  cdmndabit,  perilluatrts, 

..WW—  Clioriambus ;  impatiens,  credttlitas,  eximios. 

-  w  o  w  Paeon  primus  ;  credibilisj  historia,  attoniius. 

secundus  ;  modesiia,  amabilisy  idoneus, 

tertius ;  pturilis,  opulentus,  Tnedicamen. 

quartus  j  cderitas^  misericorsy  refugiens 

^ Epitxitus  primus ;  laborando,  reformidant,  saltt- 

tantes. 

-—-   secundus  ;    administrans,    imperatrix^ 

comprobavi. 

'  tertius ;  auctoritaSy  intelligens,  dissen- 


w  «—  «^ 

W     >^     N^     — 


tiens. 

-  quartus;  assentaiorytnfinitus,naturalis. 


[§  827.]  2.  These  feet  are,  as  it  were,  the  material  of 
which  prose  and  verse  are  equally  composed  :  but  while 
in  prose  the  sequence  and  alternation  of  long  and.  short 
syllables  is  not  particularly  attended  to,  and  only  on  cer- 
tain occasions,  ancient  poetry,  so  far  as  the  outward  form 
is  concerned,  consists  entirely  in  the  ailaptation  of  words, 
by  the  arrangement  of  long  and  %hort  syllables,  to  the 
reception  of  the  Rhythm.  Rhythm,  in  this  respect,  ia 
the  imifbrmity  of  the  duration  of  time,  in  the  raismg  and 
sinking  of  the  voice,  or  Arsis  and  Thesis.  We  raise  and 
sink  the  voice  also  in  common  discourse,  but  not  at  defi- 
nite intervals,  nor  with  a  regular  return.  In  these  inter- 
vals, or  in  the  proportion  of  the  duration  of  the  Arsis  to 
the  duration  of  the  Thesis,  consists  the  difference  of  the 
Rhythm.  The  Arsis  is  either  equal  to  the  Thesis,  or 
twice  as  long,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  difference  of  the  two 
feet,  the  Dactyl  an4  the  Trochee,  ^  ^  ^  and  ^  ^^  the  Arsis 
(marked  thus  ^)  being  combined  with  the  long  syllable. 
The  same  proportion  takes  place  when  the  Thesis  pre- 
cedes the  Arsis  in  the  Anapaest  and  Iambus  ^  ^  -  and 
.  i.  The  first  species,  in  which  the  Ar^is  forms  the  be- 
ginning, is  called  the  descending  Rhythm ;  the  other,  in 
which  the  Thesis  forms  th6  beginning,  the  ascending. 
From  these  simple  rhythms,  thd  artificial  are  composed 
by  the  combination  ijf  two  simole  serief  and  the  suppres' 


OF    METRE.  531 

8icm  of  a  Thesis,  viz.,  the  Paeonic,  Choriambic,  and  Ionic 

rh}  thms.     The  three  Paeonic  feet  are,  the  Creticus  C  w  -i 

the  Bacchius  v^  ^  i,  and  the  Antibacchius  {.{^^\  the  Cho- 

riambus  ^  >^  v^  ^ ;  the  two  Ionics  ^^  ^CC  and  CC^^^^     In 

verses  of  simple  rhythm  Arsis  and  Thesis  are  joined  in 

alternate  succession ;  while  in  verses  of  a  complicate 

rhytnm,  partly  from  the  natiire  of  the  foot  itself,  and  partly 

from  the  combination  of  two  feet,  one  Arsis  may  meet 

another  Arsis,  which  imparts  to  the  verse  an  animated 

and  impetaous  character. 

r^  828.]  NoU, — ^The  metrical  intonation,  or  Ictu»^  which  falls  on  the 
syllable  that,  according  to  the  rhythm,  receives  the  Arsis,  is,  in  Greek  and 
I>atin,  entirely  independent  of  the  accent  of  words.  The  old  Latin  comic 
writers,  indeed,  have  endeavoured  to  bring  the  accent  of  words  into  coa. 
formity  with  the  rhythmical  intonation,  and  this  is  the  reason  why  they 
allowed  themselves  many  shortenings  of  syllables  which  are  long  by  posi 
tion  ;  but,  far  from  making  the  accent  guide  the  rhythm,  they  only  enaeav 
oured  to  produce  this  coincidence  in  the  middle  dipodia^  and  even  tH3re  bj 
no  means  uniformly.  In  the  other  parts  of  Latin  poetiv,  which  more 
closely  follow  the  regularity  of  the  Greek,  no  regard  at  all  is  paid  to  the 
accent  of  words,  any  more  than  by  the  Greeks  ;  nay,  it  should  seem  that 
the  ancients  derived  a  pleasure  from  the  discordance  between  the  metrical 
intonation  and  the  ordinary  accent.    In 

A'rma  viritmque  cano  Trojaie  qyi  primus  ab  oris 
rtaUamfato  profugUs  Lavinaqice  venitj 

It  is  only  in  the  end  of  the  verses  that  the  prose  accent  and  the  metrical 
intonation  coincide.  In  the  recitation  of  verse  the  latter  should  predomi- 
uate,  but  not  so  as  entirely  to  suppress  the  ordinary  accent  of  words.  The 
metrical  accent,  or  ictus^  has  the  power  of  giving  short  syllables  the  value 
of  long  ones.  This,  however,  is  not  frequent,  except  m  the  short  final 
syllable  of  polysyllabic  words  ending  in  a  consonant,  and  especially  where 
the  force  of  the  arsis  is  aided  by  the  principal  caesura  of  the  verse ;  e.  g., 
Virg.,  Ecl.f  X.,  69,  Omnia  vincU  amoTf  |  et  not  cedamus  amori;  Herat.,  jSerm., 
i.,  5,  90,  caiUduM  vt  soUdt  \  humeris  portare  viator  ;  Ovid,  Art,  Am.j  iii.,  63, 
Nee  quae  praeteriit  |  itervm  revocabitwr.tmda  ;  but  also  without  the  aid  of  the 
principal  caesura ;  e;  g.,  Hor.,  Serm.f  ii.,  3,  260,  exdusus  qui  dietat  t  \  agit 
uU  tecum ;  ecf,  an  non.  Ovid,  Meiam.,  ix.,  610,  non  adnt  apte  I  non  legit 
idonea,  credo.  Final  syllables  ending  in  a  vowel  are  much  less  frequently 
lengthened  by  the  arsis.  It  has,  however,  been  remarked  (see  Schneider's 
Eianentarlehre,  p.  752),  that  this  occurs  surprisingly  often  with  the  enclitic* 
qft0  in  the  second  foot  of  the  hexameter,  commonly  supported  by  the 
caesura,  of  which  we  shall  speak  under  No.  8 ;  e.  g.,  Virg.,  Aen.,  iii.,  dl, 
Liminaqui  laurusque  dei ;  Ovid,  Jlfef,,  v.,  484,  Sideraqtte  ventique  noceni. 
Short  moDOsyllabic  words  are  never  lengthened  by  the  arsis. 

[§  829.]  3.  Several  feet,  united  in  one  simple  rhythm, 
constitute  a  series  (ordo).  The  dissyllable  feet,  i.  e.,  tro- 
chees and  iambi  (when  they  do  not  pass  into  another 
fhythm,  in  which  case  a  simple  foot  may  be  reckoned  as 
a  series),  are  united  into  such  series,  of  two  feet  each,  or 
dipodiat :  a  dipodia  is  also  called  a  metre ;  hence,  e.  g., 
an  iambic  verse  of  six  feet  is  called  an  iambic  trimeter 
ftnmeter  idmbicusj.    Of  the  feet  of  three  syllables,  the  . 


532  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

dactyl,  according  ^  the  metrical  writers,  makes  a  metre 
by  itself,  though  not  the  anapaest;  but  two  anapaests 
according  to  the  analogy  of  two  iambi,  make  an  anapaestic 
metre  (metrum  anapaesticumj,  '  In  some  cases,  especially 
in  the  trochaic  verse,  the  end  of  a  series  is  marked  by  a 
.  syllaba  anceps  ;  i.  e.,  a  syllable  whose  natural  quantity  is 
not  attended  to,  but  which  reckons  long  or  short,  as  the 
rhythm  requii'es ;  consequently,  in  the  trochaic  rhythm 
(^  J)  short.  A  verse  consists  of  one  or  more  series  of  the 
same  or  different  rhythms.  It  is,  however,  distinguished 
from  the  series  itself  by  the  circumstance,  that  the  syllaba 
anceps,  which  is  only  allowed  sometimes  at  the  end  of 
he  series,  always  occurs  at  the  end  of  the  verse,  that 
hiatus  is  allowed,  and  that  a  pause  of  the  voice  takes 
place.  A  verse  is  called  by  the  Greek  name  acatalecticus 
when  the  feet,  or  metres,  of  which  it  is  composed  are 
complete ;  catalecticus  when  they  want  one  syllable  or 
two,  or  even  a  foot.  Of  verses  which  consist  of  trisyllabic 
feet,  some  aie  catalectici  in  syllabam,  in  which  one  sylla- 
ble only  remains  of  the  defective  foot ;  others  catalectici 
in  hisyllabum,  when  two  syllables  remain ;  as,  e.  g.,  in  the 
hexameter.  Trochaic  and  iambic  feet  can  be  catalectic 
only  in  syllabam. 

[§  830.]  Caesura  is  the  interruption  of  the  rhythm  by 
the  end  of  a  word.     In  the  dactylic  hexameter  of  Ovid, 

Ddnec  erisfdix^  multds  numerdbis  arnicas^ 
or  in  the  one  of  Virgil, 

rnfandum  reglna  jubes  renovdre  dolorem, 

the  end  of  the  foot  is  throughout  at  variance  with  the  end 
of  the  word ;  and  while  the  rhythm  requiries  the  union  of 
•two  words,  the  sense  is  opposed  to  it,  inasmuch  as  it  re- 
quires a  pause  at  the  end  of  each.  On  this  circumstance 
however,  rests  the  connexion  of  the  feet,  and  a  lonjr 
verse  cannot  exist  without  some  caesurae,  especially  one 
cowards  the  middle  of  the  line,  generally  called  emphati- 
cally the  caesura,  "We  must  carefully  distinguish  incision 
from  caesura.  Incision  is  the  coincidence  of  the  end  of 
the  foot  with  the  end  of  the  word  ;  and  in  some  species 
of  verse  (in  the  trochaic  tetrameter,  in  the  dactylic  pen- 
tameter, and  in  choriambic  verses)  it  is  essential,  and  is 
often  used,  also,  in  the  hexameter  under  certain  forms. 
[§  831.]  4.  In  what  follows,  we  shall  give -a  brief  ao 


OF   M^TRE.  533 

coiint  of  those  species  of  verse  which  the  Koman  ];oets 
have  used,  and  of  the  laws  they  observed  in  their  struc- 
ture. Wo  shall  first  speak  of  verses  with  simple  rhythm, 
then  of  those  with  artificial  rhythm,  and  shall,  lastly,  add 
some  remarks  on  compound  verses,  and  on  the  combina- 
tion of  different  kinds  of  verse  to  a  lyric  strophe.  We 
shall  thus  be  enabled,  at  the  same  time,  to  see  the  differ- 
ence of  the  forms  of  the  several  species  of  ancient  poetry. 
The  epic  makes  use  only  of  one  simple  rhythm,  the 
dactylic ;  while  the  drama  (with  the  exception  of  its  lyric 
part),  with  greater  variety,  moves  in  the  three  other  sim- 
ple rhythms,  the  iambic  trimeter,  however,  being  its 
principal  verse.  In  both  species  of  poetry,  verses  of  the 
same  measure  and  of  the  same  length  are  repeated  in 
uninterrupted  succession  (Kard  arlxov),  Lyiic  poetry, 
on  the  contrary,  on  account  of  its  lively  character,  makes 
use  of  the.  artificial  rhythms,  as  well  as  of  verses  of  com- 
pound or  mixed  rhythm ;  repeating,  however,  in  succes- 
sion verses  of  artificial  rhythm  only  in  some  of  its  species 
of  verse ;  while  in  the  others  compound  verses  are  <iom- 
bined  into  a  rhythmical  whole,  called  strophe. 

[§  832.]  5.  Trochaic  verses,  as  has  been  observed  above, 
are  generally  measured  by  dipodiae.  But  the  tribrachys 
may  stand  for  the  trochee  without  injury  to  the  metre; 
and  as  the  last  syllable  of  the  series  is  doubtful,  a  spondee 
or  an  anapaest  may  stand  in  the  second  foot;  or,  when 
the  verse  consists  of  several  dipodiae,  in  the  second, 
fouith,  and  sixth  foot.  Consequently,  this  is  the  measure 
of  the  trochaic  dipodia. 


w 

^/W  ViAir/ 


As  the  arsis,  when  it  falls  on  two  short  syllables  afler 
the  resolution  of  the  long  syllable,  cannot  be  expressed 
equally  on  both,  the  XGtus  is  laid  on  the  first  of  the  two 
shorts. 

Note, — The  spondee  or  anapaest  in  the  uneven  places  (I  e., ),  ri,  5,  &c.) 
\a  found  only  in  the  Latin  comic  writers,  and  is  at  variance  vith  pure 
rhythm.  The  dactyl  can  only  be  admitted  in  the  even  places  as  *  he  reso- 
lution of  the  spondees,  but  is  very  seldom  used,  and  is  still  more  >n!Piita- 
ble  to  the  uneven  places,  where  even  the  spondee  is  only  admitt  >  >/  *oo 
great  a  license. 

•[§  833.]  The  most  common  species  of  trochaiv  rcrpe 
is  the  tetrameter  catalectiCf  called,  in  Latin,  quadraxus^  or. 
from  the  numbei  of  *.he  complete  feet,  septenarius : 

y  v2 


584  LATIN  CaAMMAR. 

It  has  its  incision  adcr  the  second  dipodia,  where  a  Mnncl 
ends.  In  Plautus  and  Terence,  that  is,  in  the  di^ama, 
many  scenes  are  found  in  this  measure,  which  is  well 
adapted  to  express  excitement  and  emotion.  The  fol- 
Jowmg  example,  &om  Terentianus  Maurus,  dt  Syllab,^ 
exhibits. the  pure  measure :  we. have  marked  the  first 
arsis  of  the  dipodia  with  the  accent: 

J\'ulla  vox  humdna  constat  |  dbsque  septem  Hiteris, 
Rite  vocales  vocavit  I  quds  magistra  Graecia  : 
Qufdquid  audis  praeter  istas,  \  pdrs  soniy  non  v6x  erit. 
Quinque  contenta  istjiguris  |  Rdmuli  Ldtfnitas. 

This  verse,  however,  is  not  found  in  such  purity  in  the 
comic  writers,  but  with  all  the  changes  mentioned  above  ; 
so  that  the  last  cataJectic  dipodia  alone  shows  the  true 
measure.  In  the  foUowine  passage  &om  Terence,  •dndr,, 
li.,  1,  18,  foll.y  every  arsis  is  marked  with  the  accent : 

A'd  te  advenioy  speMj  scUutem^  |  cdnsiliitmj  auxilium  ex- 

petens. 
Jfeque  pal  cdnsili  locum  hdbeo^  \  neque  ad  auxilium  cdptam, 
Sid  istuc  qufdnam  est  ?     Hodie  uxdrem  \  d&cis  1     •d'iunt 

Pamphile^ 
Si  id  facis,  hodie  postrimum  |  me  vides.     Quid  ita  1     Ef 

mihu 
Vereor  dicere,  kuic  diCy  quaesOy  \  Byrria,     E'go  dicdm. 

Quid  est] 

Spdnsam  hie  tuam  amat.     JVae  fste  haud  mecum  |  seniit, 
E'hodum  dtc  mihi, 

[^  834.1  Note.— The  name  of  versus  .ithyphalUcua  is  given  to  a  trochaic 
verse  of  three  feet.  It  is  found  in  its  pure  measure  in  Horace,  at  the  close 
of  another  verse,  Carm.f  i.,  4,  appendeid  to  a  dactylic  tetrameter : 

Solviiur  acris  hiems  grata  vice  \  veris  it  Favoni, 

Ac  neque  jam  Mabulis  gaudet  peettSf  (  adt  orator  ignL 

[§  835.]  6.  The  law^c  rhythm  is  the  reverse  of  the 
trochaic,  as  it  begins  with  the  thesis,  which  may  be  re- 
garded as  an  anacrusis  (prelude)  to  the  trochee.  As 
such  it  has  no  necessary  measure,  and  may  therefore  be 
long,  whence  arises  the  following  measure  of  the  iambic 
dipodia: 


W^  WV^ 


Consequently^  we  may  say,  that  mstead  of  tlie  iambus  in 
all  places  the  tiibra;hys  may  stand,  except  in  the  lail 


OF  METRE.  53d 

place,  since  the  last  syllable  of  the  verse  is  anceps,  and 

cannot,  therefore,  be  resolved;  and  that  in  the  uneven 

places  I|  3,  5,  the  spondee,  and,  as  its  resolutions,  the 

anapaest  and  dactyl,  may  stand  instead  of  the  iambic  (of 

course,  so  that  the  second  half  of  the  dactyl  be  in  arsi^  and 

the  ictus  rest  on  the  first  of  the  two  short  syllables). 

[^  836.]  This  is  the  general  rule ;  but  poets  either  impose  restnctiona 
on  themselves,  in  order  to  produce  greater  harmony,  or  allow  themselves 
greater  latitude,  to  facilitate  the  composition  of  their  verses  The  earliest 
Greek  iambograpbi  are  most  careful  in  this  respect,  and  seldom  use  even 
the  tribra(;^8.  The  tragedians  much  more  frequently  admit  the  tribrachys 
in  all  places  but  the  last ;  the  spcmdee  anti  dactyl,  in  accordance  with  the 
general  rule,  in  the  uneven  places :  they  do  not  like  the  anapaest ;  they 
use  it  almost  exclusively  in  the  first  place  and  in  a  whole  word,  but  in  all 
places  only  in  the  case  of  proper  names,  in*  regard  to  which  greater  lati^ 
tude  must  be  allowed.  The  Greek  comic  writers  introduced  the  anapaest 
in  all  places,  the  last  being  always  excepted,  with  certain  limitations,  as 
when  a  dactyl  precedes.  The  Roman  comic  writers  and  Phaedrus  adopt- 
ed  all  these  licenses,  and,  besides,  admitted  the  8{)ondee  in  the  even  places, 
80  that  in  their  verses  the  iambus  maintains  its  right  only  in  the  last  foot. 
On  the  other  hand,  Horace,  in  his  Epodes,  and  Seneca  the  tragedian,  re> 
turned  to  the  original  strictness,  and  thev  only  use  the  tribrachys  instead 
of  the  iambus  occasionally  in  the  even  places ;  in  the  uneven,  besides  th» 
iambus,  they  use  the  spondee,  and  rarely  the  anapaest  o^^  dactyl ;  e.  g., 
Herat.,  Epod.^  2 : 

Ho8  inter  tpHlas^  xU  juvat  pastas  oves 
Videri  pro'perantes  domumy 

Positdsque  vemas,  ditis  examen  domuSf 
Circum  renidentes  Lares. 

Haec  CH  locutusfeneratar  AlfiuSf  &c. 

[§  837.]  The  iambic  verse,  which  is  in  most  Qommon- 
use,  is  the  trimeter  acafalecticus,  or,  irom  the  number  of 
its  feet,  calTed,  in  Latin,  senaritts  /  which  is  the  usual 
measure  of  the  dialogue  of  the  drama.  It  has  generally 
a  caesura  in  the  third  or  fourth  foot;  the  first  is  called 
ventkemimercU  {TrevOrjiuiiepTig)  after  the  fifth  half  foot,  the 
«econd  hejphthemimeral  {k^dijiUfiepTig)  ailer  the  seventh 
half  foot ;  e.  gi,  Hor.,  Epod.,  17  ; 

Jam  jam  efficaci  \  do  manusacientiae 
Supplex^  et  oro  \  regna  per  Proserpinae^ 
Canldiay  paree  \  vocitus  tandem  sacris, 
Citumque  retro  solve^  \  solve^  turbinem. 

It  may  be  combined  also  with  other  caesurae,  as  is  the 
ctise  in  the  third  and  fourth  Verse  of  this  passage.'  The 
metrical  writers  have  pointed  out  many  niceties^ in  the 
structure  of  these  verses';  as,  e.  g.,  that  the  third  and 
fourth  foot  ought  not  to  consist  of  •single  words ;  that, 
when  the  last  word  is  a  a  eticus,  a  preceding  long  syllable 
ought  not  to  be  the  last  syllable  of  a  polysyllabic  wore? 


536  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

As  these  rules  and  observations  ha/e  reference  to  tii6 
Greek  tragedians  only,  farther  particulars  must  l>e  learned 
from  the  works  on  metre.  As  an  example  of  this  special 
of  verse,  we  take  a  passage  from  Phaedrus,  and*  mar* 
each  arsis  with  the  accent : 

Ad  rtvum  eundem  lupus  et  dgnus  venerant 
Siti  compHlsi^  sji^perior  stahdt  lupus^ 
Longeque  inferior  dgnus.     Tuncfattce  improba 

Lairo  incitdtus^  jurgii  causam  intulit :. 

CtiTy  inquity  turbtUeniam  fecisti  mihi 

Istdm  bibenti  1    Ldniger  contrd  timens : 

Qui  possum,  qttaiso^J'd^cere,  qu6d  quereriSy  lupe  1 

[§  838.]  Verses  consisting  of  iambic  dimeters  are  com 
inonly  found  in  Horace  in  the  Epodes,  subjoined  to  a 
longer  iaml^ic  or  dactylic  verse.;  e.  g.,  Epod,^  2  : 

Beatus  tile,  qut  procul  negoiiisj 

Ut  prisca  gens  moridliumy 
Paterna  rura  bdbus  exercct  suis, 

Solutus  omni  fenore. 

Oft  Epod.,  14  :  . 

Mdllis  inertia  cur  iantdm  diffdderit  imi$ 

Oblivionem  sensibus, 
Candide  MagcenaSy  occidis  saepe  rogando  : 

Deusy  deusy  nam  me  vefbt. 

The  metre  in  which  a  trimeter  is  followed*by  a  dimeter 
was  that  in  which  Archilochus,  the  most  ancient  writer 
of  iambic  verse,  composed  his  poems. 

Dimeter  catalectic  verses,  of  which  the  first  foot  may 
be  a  spohdee,  or  instead  of  it  an  anapaest,  b^|;  of  whick 
the  other  feet  are  pure,  are  found  among  the  Roman  poeta 
who  have  come  down  to  us,  only  in  Seneca  in  chorused : 
e.  g,,Med,y  862,  foil. : 

Ut  tigris  6rba  gndtis 

Cursufurente  lustrat 

Gangeticum  nemUsy  sic 

Prendre  nescit  iras 

Medeay  non  amdres. 

And  Terentianus  Maurus  uses  this  verse  in  speaking  of  it  i 

Et  condere  inde  carmen 
Multi  solent  fo'etae 
Hofatium  videmus 


OF    METBE. 

Versus  tenorii  hujus 
Misquam  locasse  jttgeSf 
•dt  Arbiter  disertus 
Libris  suis  frequentat, 

[§  839,]  Tetrameter  iambics,  complete  and  incompletei 
are  common  in  the  Roman  comic  writers ;  the  first  are 
called  octonarii^  the  others  septenarii^  from  the  number 
of  the  complete  feet.  An  example  of  octoirarii  is  found, 
Terent.,  Andr ,  i.,  3,  init. : 

EnimverOy  Dave,  nil  locist  \  segnitiae  neque  soc6rdiae, 
Quantum  intdlext  mo^do  senis  \  sententiam  de  niiptiis, 

Quae  st  non  astu  promdentur^  me  aui  herum  pessumdabum, 

JVcc  quid  ogam  cerium  est :  Pdmphilum  |  ne  adjutem  an 

auscultem  sent. 
Si  ilium  relinquOy  ejus  vitae  timeo  :  sin  opitalary  hujus 

minas. 

The  septenarii  have  a  very  lively  and  animated  rhythm. 
There  is  an  incision  in  the  middle.  An  example  is, 
Terent.,  ^ndr.,  iv.,  2,  11 : 

Per  dmnes  adjurd  deos,  \  nunquam  edm  me  deserturum^ 
J^on,  si  capiundos  m(hi  sciam  esse  inimicos  omnes  hb'mtnesy 
Ilanc  mi  expetivi :  cdntigit^  \  conveniunt  mores.     Valeanty 
Quiint&r  nos  discidium  volunt :  |  hanc  nVsi  mors  mi  adimtt 
nemo, 

[§  840.]  7.  The  halting  iambus  fCholiambusJ,  or  Scazon 
{oKd^(M>v),  called  also  Hipponactean  verse,  lo  e  compound 
verse,  and  therefore  properly  belongs  to  another  place, 
but  may  be  conveniently  treated  of  here,  that  it  may  not 
be  sepai'ated  from  the  other  iambic  verses. 

The  choliambic  is  an  iambic  senaiius,  instead  of  the 
last  fbet  of  which,  however,  a  trochee  is  introduced,  the 
fidh  foot  being,  for  the  sake  of  contrast,  uduaUy  a  pure 
iambus.  This  species  of  verse  is  adapted  to  satire ;  the 
Roman  poets,  however,  especially  Catullus,  have  also 
employed  it  for  the  expression  of  the*§ofter  feelings  j  e.  g^ 
in  me  8th  poem,  where  It  is  particularly  suitable : 

Miser  Catulle  desinas  ineptire, 
'Et  quod  vides  perisse^  perditum  diicas. 
Fulsere  quoftdam  cdndidi  tibi  sdles^ 
Quum  ventitabaSy  qu6  puella  diiccbai 
j^mdta  nobis  quantum  amabitur  mdla^ 


M8  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

Ibiiila  multa  turn  jocoia  fiSbant, 

Quae  td.  volebas^  n6c  puella  ndlebat. 

Ftdsere  vere  cdndidi  tibi  sSles  ! 

JCunc  ilia  non  voltj  tu  quoqtu  impotens  ndli^ 

•hCec  qudefugit  aectdrey  nee  miser  vive, 

[§  841.]  8.  Of  all  the  dactylic  metres,  the  Hexameter  ia 
iho  most  used.  Being  employed  especially  in  epic  poe- 
try, it  has  obtained  the  name  of  the  heroic  verse.  It 
properly  consists,  i^ccording  to  its  name,  of  six  dactyls, 
for  the  last  of  which,  however,  a  trochee  (or,  as  the  last 
BvUable  is  doubtful,  a  spondee)  is  always  substituted. 
The  first  four  places  admit  dactyls  or  spondees  without 
distinction,  and  the  verse  gains  in  strength  and  variety  by 
their  intermixture,  all  dactyls  producing  too  tripping  a 
movement ;  all  spondees  too  heavy  a  movement.  These 
effects  Virgil  has  designedly  produced  in  the  verses 

Quddrupeddnte  putrem  sonitu  quatit  ungula  cdmpum, 
rili  inter  sese  magna  vi  brdchia  tdllunt. 

In  the  fifth  place  a  spondee  seldom  occurs,  but  when 
it  does  occur,  a  dactyl  generally  precedes.  Such  a  verse 
is  called  versus  spondiacus.  It  has  a  hard  and  heavy 
sound,  but  the  slowness  of  its  movement  is  oflen  suited  to 
the  thought,  and  therefore  constructed  on  purpose.  In 
such  lines  the  Roman  poets  are  fond  of  placing  a  word 
of  four  syllables  at  the  end  of  the  verse ;  as,  Virg.,  Ecl,^  iv., 
49,  and  ^en.,  ii.,  68, 

Cara  deum  soboles,  magnum  Jovis  incrementum, 
Constitity  atque  oculis  Phrygia  agmina  circumspexit. 

Ovid,  Met,y  vi.,  69,  Et  vetus  in  tela  deduciiw^  argumentum. 

Ibid.,  128,  •N'exilibus  Jlores  hederis  hafiet  intertextos. 

Note.-^A  word  of  three  syllables  at  the  end  of  a  spondiacus  would  bring 
the  ictds  on  the  last  syllaole  of  the  preceding  word,  and  this  is 'contrary 
lo  the  Roman  system  of  accentuation,  which  is  not,  indeed,  generally  at* 
tended  to  in  the  construction  of  the  hexameter,  but,  at  the  end  ot  the 
verse,  is  generally  made,  if  possible,  to  harmonize  with  the  ictus.  Foi 
this  reason,  the  best  metricians  avoid  using  a  word  of  three  syllables  at  the 
end  of  the  spoHodiac  verseL  br,  at  least,  they  stake  a  monosyllabic  word  pro- 
cede  it  (as,  e.  g.,  Juvenal,  Sat.,  iv.,  87,  tun  quo  de  flwiis  out  aestibus  out 
nimboso  Vere  locuturi,  and  in  many  other  passages).  Proper  names,  how- 
ever, render  exceptions  necessary. 

[§  842.]  The  poets  bestowed  especial  care  on  the 
caesura  of  this  verse,  as  it  is  too  long  to  be  read  in  one 
breath ;  and  by  this  means  it  obtains  a  fresh  variety,  the 
caesura  producinjjr  an  apparent  change  in ;  tho  rhythm. 


•     •  or  METRE.  530 

The  cciesuia  most  natural  and  the  most  common  is  that  in 
the  third  foot,  eithel-  after  the  arsis,  or  in  the  thesis,  i.  e., 
after  the  first  short  syllable  of  the  dactyl.  The  former  is 
called  the  caesura  {rofiTj)  TTevdrjfiLfieprjg  (semiquinaria),  or 
masculine ;  ^the  other  is  called  by  the  Greek  writers  on 
met^  caesurct  Kara,  Tplrov  rpoxalov^  and  by  the  modems 
the  trochaic  caesura,  because  a  trochee  ^  ^  immediately 
precedes,  or  the  feminine,  because  the  half  of  the  verse 
.ends  in  the  thesis.  In  ancient  heroic  poetry  the  mascu- 
line caesura  is  the  prevalent  one ;  the  trochaic,  which  is 
really  expressive  of  less  force,  is  abo  often  used,  accord- 
ing to  the  character  of  the  thought  or  sense.  If  the  cae 
sura  ia  not  in  the  third  foot,  it  generally  is  in  the  fourtli ; 
but  here  only  one  species  of  it  is  allowed,  that  after  the 
arsis.  This  is  called  k<pdi]iJLifiep7i^  (semiseptenaria),  and  is 
considered  a  beauty  when,  at  the  same  time,  there  is  a  lesE 
considerable  caesura  in  the  second  foot.  CatulL,  Epithal.^ 
Pel,  139, 

Eumenides  \  quibus  anguineo  \\  redimita  capilld 

Virg.,  ^en.,  i.,  9,     * 

Quidve  dolens  \  regina  deum  \\  tot  volvere  casus. 

[^  843.]  Note  1. — Every  well-constrncted  hexameter  has  one  of  theao 
hree  caesurae ;  with  them  may  be  combined  several  others  made  of  the 
Mngle  feet,  ^nd  in  this  respect  the  caesura  after  the  first  arsis  is  particu- 
farlv  deserving  of  notice,  as  giving  great  emphasis  to  a  monosyllabic  word. 
In  the  principal  caesura  of  the  verse,  poets  frequently  introduce  a  pause 
in  the  sense,  which  must  be  attended  to  in  determining  which  caesura  is 
the  principal  one ;  for  it  oflens  happens  that  at  the  common  place  foi 
the  caesura,  in  the  third  foot,  there  is  a  caesura  in  the  word,  and  in  the 
fourth  foot,  besides  the  caesura  in  the  word,  also  a  pause  in  the  sense.  In 
this  case  the  latter  is  to  be- considered  as  the  principal  caesura,  and  to  be 
distinguished  accordingly  in  leciting ;  e.  g.,  I|or.,  Serm.,  i,  4,  61, 

«  Poatqitam  discordia  tetra 

Belli  fnratos  posies  portasque  refregit,*  ^ 

the  caesurft  irevdtffii/iep^g  would  separate  the  adjective  from  the  substan- 
tive ;  it  is  better,  therefore,  after  po««e«,  where  by  means  of  que,  at  least,  a 
new  noun  is  added.  In  like  manner,  it  does  not  appear  doubtful  to  us  that 
m  Horat.,  Epist.^  ii.,  3, 137,  the  caesura  should  be  made  thus : 

Fortunam  Priami  cantab*  |  et  nobile  bellum, 

Fortunam  Priami  \  cantabo  et  nobile  belhim  ; 

kit  the  elision  of  the  vowel  does  not  prevent  the  caesQra,  Xhe  word  being 
egarded  as  closed  before  the  elided  vowel. 

[^  844.]  A  peculiar  kind  of  incision  is  that  which  is  called  caesura  kueolica,. 
in  which  both  the  eense  and  the  word  close  at  ^e  end  of  the  fourth  foot. 
U  may  also  be  joined  with  one  of  the  before-mentioned  principal  caesurae, 
but  the  pause  in  the  sense  coinciding  vf\i\i  i\\e  end  of  tl^e  foot,  of  course 
ftompels  the  Reciter  to  make  a  longer  pfiuse  than  usual  before  the  fifth 
•fv^t     This  caesura  bucolica  sometinnes  l)e|iutifuHy  ^xpres^ps  fhe  rapjditf 


540  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

>f  a  Uvel}  mo^dment  tiA  it  comes  to  a  sudden  check :  but  in  consequencii 
of  the  disproportionate  shortness  of  the  last  msmber  of  the  verse,  it  gef» 
erally  makes  the  impression  of  an  uncultivated  simplicity;  and  this  ap- 
pears to  be  the  reason  why  it  was  so  much  used  bv  the  Greek  bucolic 
poets,  from  whom  it  derives  its  name. 

[i  845.]  Note  2. — A  monosyllabic  woid  at  the  end  of  the  verse,  if  another 
monony liable  does  not  precede,  produces  a  singular  effect,  by  compelling 
the  reader,  in  order  that  it  ma^  be  understood,  to  lay  an  accent  yipfm  it, 
which  is  not  suited  to  the  thesis.  This  effect,  however,  is  sometimes  de- 
•igneilly  produced  by  the  poets,  either  to  express  something  harsh  and 
rough,  or  in  a  ludicrous  way  something  which  is  unexpected ;  e.  g., 

Dot  lotus f  inaequUHr  |  ettmulo  praeruphu  anpiae  mons,  • 

Virg.,  Am.f  i,  106. 
HUCf  at  perhibent    out  intempesta  silet  nox, 

Virg.,  (jfeorg.,  i,  247. 
Parturiunt  mnntet.  \  nascetur  ridiculus  mus, 

Horat.,  Art.  PoeL,  139. 

[§  846.]  9.  Next  to  the  hexameter,  the  most  common 
dactylic  verse  is  the  pentameter.  It  has  this  name  from 
its  containing  the  number  of  five  complete  metres  ;  but  it 
has  properly  six  feet,  of  which  the  third  and  sixth  are 
incomplete.     The  measure  is  the  following  : 

^  —  /  —  ^  \  ^        /        / 

In  the  second  half  there  must  be  ^ure  dactyls  ;  and  in 
the  first,  dactyls  and  spondees  are  commonly  intermixed ; 
for  two  spondees  give  a  hardness  to  the  rhythm.  Afler 
the  third  arsis,  \vhere  the  caesura  is  invariable,  a  pause 
equivalent  to  two  morae  must  be  made  in  order  to  com- 
plete the  rhythm.  Hence  the  lengthening  of  a  short  syl- 
lable by  the  force  of  the  arsis  is,  according  to  the  strict 
rule,  in  this  place  not  admissible,  though  there  are  sev- 
eral exceptions  to  be  found  in  the  Homan  poets.  (Re- 
specting the  Greek,  see  Friedemann,  Dissert,  de  media 
Syllaba  PeiUametri,  in  Spitzner's  work,  De  Versu  Graeco- 
rum  Heroico^  Lips-*  1816.)  There  is  the  same  pause  at 
the  end  of  the  verse,  where,  according  to  the  general  rule, 
a  short  syllable  may  stand,  but  in  fact  is  rarely  found  in  a 
word  ending  in  a  short  vowel.  This  verse  commonly 
ends  in  words  of  two  syllables,  and  words  of  three  sylla- 
bles are  not  often  used  for  the  conclusion,  as  the  accent 
m  these  falls  unpleasantly.  This  verse  is  used  only  as  an 
appendage  to  ka  hexameter,  and  both  together  constitute 
the  elegiac  verse.  Although  originally  employed  on 
mournful  or  amatory  subjects,  it  was  soon  turned  tc 
lighter  topics  ;  but  it  is  not  adapted  to  a  long  poem,  and 
is  best  suited  to  epigrammatic  and  sententious  poetry 
e.  g.,  Martial,  Epigr.^v.,  76, 


OP   METRE.  M 

Proftcit  poto  Mithridates  saepe  veruno 
Tdxica  ne  possSnt  saeva  nocire  sibi : 

Tu  quoque  cavistiy  coenando  tarn  male  semper^ 
J^e  posses  unqtidm,  Cfnna^  peHrefame, 

[§  847.]  10.  Of  the  other  dactylic  verses  we  shall  men- 
41011  the  dimeter  cafalecticus,  called,*  also,  versus  ^donius, 

—  ^^  \^  .•  Q 

used  as  an  appendage  to  other  verses  in  lyric  poetry. 
Farther,  the  tetrameter  catalecticusy  Qr  versus  Mcmanius, 
from  the  lyric  poet  Alcman,  who  frequently  used  it :  the 
last  foot  of  it  is  preserved  pure. 

The  trimeter  cataleciicus  in  syllabam, 

^  —  ^  —  ^ 

used  by  Horace,  after  the  ex&mple  of  Archilochus.  Hefore 
or  after  bl  dimeter  iambicus  ;  e.  g.,  Epod.^  11, 

Vnachid  furere  I  silvh  honorem' decutit 
Fervidi&re  mero  \  arcana  promordt  loco ; 

and  Epod.y  13, 

Tu  vfna  Torquatd  move  |  cSnsule  pressa  meo 
Levare  duris  pectora  \  sdllicitUdinibus, 

Horace  uses  the  tetrameter  cataleciicus. SiS  an  appendage 
to  the  heroic  hexameter,  Carm.^  i.,  7, 

Albus  tu  obscuro  |  deterge  nubila  coelo 
Saepe  J^otuSy  neque  parturit  imbres 
PerpetuoSy  \  sic  tu  sapiens  \  finire  memento 
Tristitiam  vitaeque  labores. 

[§  848.]  11.  The  anapaestic  rhythm  {^y^C)  '^  the  re* 
verse  of  the  dactylic.     Instead  of  the  pure  anapaest,  the 
gpondee,  dactyl,  or  proceleusmaticus  may  stand,  but  the 
ictus  must  be  placed  as  in  the  pure  anapaest,  and;  conse 
quently,  the  dactyl  must  be  read,  not  ^  ^  w»  but «;  {,  ^ 

Anapaests  are  used  by  the  Greek  tragic  and  comic 
poets  most  frequently  in  systems,  in  which  there  is  no 
doubtful  syllable,  except  at  the  end ;  but  they  are  gen 
erally  divided  into  dimeters.  A  system  always  ends  in  a 
dimeter  catalecticus  in  syllabam^  called  verstis  paroemiacus. 
This  is  usually  preceded  by  a  monometer,  hence  called 
basis  anapaestica ;  and  sometimes  such  a  verse  is  Intro* 
duced  in  the  middle  of  the  system.  In  the  Roman  p^cts. 
wbos^  works  have  come  down  to  us,  we  find  but  f<&^ 

Z  7 


549  LATIN   GRAMMAP> 

anapaests  of  this  kind ;  Terence  nowhere  uses  them ; 
Plautas  not  iinfrequently,  but  wi^  difficult  measures  and 
many  licenses ;  Seneca  the  tragedian  did  not  use  the 
pai'oemiacus,  whence  his  anapaests  have  no  proper  close. 
Besides  these  dimeters,  the  Greeks  very  frequently  use 
the  tetrameter  catalecticus  in  syllabam^  which  has  a  caesura 
in  the  middle,  after  tfie  second  dipodia.  Plautus  like- 
wise uses  it ;  but  as  he  indulges  in  great  licenses,  and  as 
his  text  is  very  corrupt,  we  must  refer  the  reader  to 
Hermann's  Elementa  Juoctrin.  Metr.,  p.  405,  foil.  We 
take  a  specimen  of  the  dimeter  anap.  &om  Seneca,  Hipp^ 
974 

Res  humanas  ordine  nullo 
Fortdna  regit  ^argitque  manU 
Murie'rd  caecay*pej6rUfdvens. 
Vindt  aanctos  dira  libido, 
Fraus  ^tiblimi  regnd't  in  aula  / 
Trade're  turpi  fasces  populus 

Gaude%  eosdem  colU  dtque  odit, 
Tr\stis  virtus  perversa  titlit 
PraemVd  recti,  castds  sequitur-    . 
Mala  paupertas  :  vitidque  potens 
Regno  t  adulter. 
0  vane  pudor  falsdmque  decus! 

[§  849.]  12.  The  art'0icial  rhythms  arise  from  the  sim- 
ple, by  the  suppression  of  a  thesis ;  hence,  each  foot  of 
these  rhythms,  having  a  double  arsis,  is  equivalent  to  a 
metre.  By  this  collision  of  one  arsis  with  another,  the 
impiession  of  vehemence  and  violence  is  produced ;  and 
the  Roman  lyric  and  dramatic  po'ets.  With  whom  vei^sea 
of  this  kind  supply  the  place  of  the  choral  songs  of  the 
Greeks,  have  made  gooa  use  of  them.  From  the  com- 
bination of  the  uneven  rhythm  (^  —  or  if  J)  arise  the  Pae- 
onic  rhythms,  exhibited  in  their  purity  in  the  Creticus 
i  ^  £,  die  Bacchius  ^  ^  ^,  and  the  Antibacchius  ^  ^  ^ 
This  rhythm  is  called  Paeonic,  because  these  feet  were 
regarded  as  originating  &om  contractions  of  the  four 
Paeons  ;  for  the  Creticus  ^^  2!  is  equivalent  to  the  first 
Paeon  ^  ^(7^  and  to  the  fourth  d^^l  the  Bacchius 
v^  ^  ^  to  the  second  Paeon  ^  ^CT^ ;  and  the  Antibacchius 
^  ^  ^  to  the  third  Paeon  C^  C  v^  From  the  even  rhythm 
(-  %*  w  er  ^  ^.  C)  arose,  by  combination,  the  Choriambic  and 


OF  M£TRB.  5i«l 

Imm  vhjikax ;  the  Choiiambic  ^  ^^  o  ^,  the  Ionic  in  two 
formSf  a  majori  ^^^^^  minori  ^ ^^ ^ ^. 

[§  850.]  13.  The  Creticus  C>^C  allows  the  resolution 
of  either  arsis,  but  at  the  close  of  the  verse  only  the  reso- 
lution of  the  first  into  two  shorts.  In  Plautus  and  Ter* 
ence  it  is  commonly  used  in  tetrameters,  a  dimeter  being 
occasionally  inserted.  In  the  following  example,  from 
Terence,  Andr,^  iv.,  1,  a  dactylic  verse  begins  : 

Hdcine  credibih  aut  memordhile, 

Tdnta  vecdrdia  innata  cuiquam  Ht  siet, 

U't  malts  gaMeant  dtque  ex  incommodts 

A'ltepua  sua  ut  cdmparent  cdmmoda  'i  ah 

rdne  est  verum  1  (mmo  id  est  ge'nus  hominum  pessumumjtm 

Dem^ando  modo  quis  pudor  paulum  adest^ 

Postf  uhi  tempu*  promissa  jam  perfidy 

TUm  coacti  necessdrio  se  aperiunt^ 

An  iambic  verse  forms  the  conchision  {clausula), 

nil  opdst  I  itn  verSntur, 

[§  851.]  14.  The  Bdcchius  ^^^is  fre'quently  used  by 
the  Roman  comic  poets  in  systems  and  in  verses.  It 
admits  the  resolution  of  either  arsis ;  the  latter,  however, 
not  at  the  end  of  the  verse,  because  the  syllable  is  doubt- 
ful*  The  close  of  such  verses  is  iambic  or  anapaestic ; 
e.  g.,  Terence,  Andr,^  iii.,  2, 

JldhiiCy  ArchyliSy  quae  adsolent  quaeque  op&rtet 
Stgna  esse  ad  salutem^  omnia  huic  esse  vi^deo* 
^unc  primumfac  istaec  lavet,  post  detnde 
Quodjussi  ei  dari  hibere^  et  quantum  imperdvi 
Date :  mdx  ego  hue  revertor. 

In  the  second  verse,  in  the  foot  se  videp,  the  first  arsis 
is  resolved  into  two  shorts,  vide;  in  the  fourth  verse,  in 
the  foot  dari  bihe^  the  second  arsis  is  resolved.  The  ictus, 
as  it  cannot  be  laid  upon  both  syllables,  is  placed  upon 
the  first  of  the  two  shorts.  The  Antihacchius  does  not 
form  any  verse. 

[§  852.]  15.  The  most  common  kind  of  verse  of  the 
Ionic  species  a  majori  [CC  >uJ)  is  the  tetrameter  brachy- 
catalectus,  also  called  Sotadeus,  the  poet  Sotades  having 
written  his  poems  in  this  metre.  Its  original  measure  is 
this: 


544  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

But  as  the  long  syllables  may  be  resolved,  and  a  trucliai«. 
dipodia  may  be  substituted  for  an  lonicus,  it  admits  <> 
great  variety  of  forms,  and  belongs  altogethe:*'  to  tne  most 
difficult  metres.  Terentianus  Maurus  employs  it  in  bis 
poem  on  the  letters,  and  generally  uses  the  trochaic  di- 
podia instead  of  the  third  lonicus  a  majori.  We  take 
the  beginning  of  his  poem  as  an  example,  anJ  divide  the 
metres : 

Elements,  ru\des  quae  pui\r6s  docent  mi^jistri 
Vocalia  I  quaedam  memd\ranty  consona  \  fuaedanij 
Haec  readme  \  vocem  qufini\dm  vdlent  se\or8ay 
JsTullumque'  si\ne  illis  potis  \  est  coire  (  verbum. 

[§  85^.]  16.  The  lonicus  a  minori  vrsn  Much  used  by 
the  Mdlic  lyiists  (Sappho,  Alcaeus,  Alcmau).  In  Horace, 
Carm.,  iii.,  1?,  v^e  find,  in  imitation  of  Aljaeus,  a  system 
of  ten  feet,  of  pure  measure  throughout,  and  without 
hiatus.  The  division,  ^according  to  which  twice  four  feet 
are  combined  and  closed  by  a  shorter  ve/se  of  two  feet, 
is  arbitrary.         • 

Miserarum  6st^  \  neque  amdri  \  dare  ludum  \  nequa  dalci 
Mala  vind  \  lavere,  aut  ex\anim6,rf  \  metuentes 
Patruae  verbera  linguae. 

[§  854.]  17.  The  so-called  ^Anacreontic  verse  consists 
originally  of  |;wo  lonici  a  minori,  ^   - 

If,  however,  we  consider  the  first  two  short  syllables  ats 
an  anacrusis,  and  combine  with  this  the  change  of  the 
lonicus  a  minori  into  a  trochaic  dipodia,  we  obtain  th^ 
following  measure : 


or  — 

ViA./ 


-      W     - 


^  ^'- 


Co 


/       / 

And  these  are  the  different  forms  of  the  small  Anac- 
reontic poems,  most  of  which  were  composed  at  a  very 
late  period,  afl;er  the  manner  of  the  ancient  lyiic  poet. 
The  llomans  did  not  use  this  verso,  unless  we  considei 
iho  dimeter  iambicus  catalecti  jus,  mentioned  in  §  838,  to 
be  a  specimen.  It  is,  how/^-ver,  the  foundation  of  the 
G-alliambns 


OK    METRE.  A45 

[§  855.]  The  Galliambus  adds  to  a  complete  Anacre- 
ontic Terse  another,  but  incomplete  Anacreontic, 

whence,  with  the  licenses  above  mentioned,  may  be  pit> 
duced, 

—     /  /  \    —    ^  ^  s^ 

and  this  is  tlie  form  which  Catullus  has  given  to  his  Gal- 
liambi,  the  only  complete  specimens  which  remain  in  his 
63d  poem.  The  example  m  which  Terentianus  Maurna 
has  given  instructions  respecting  this  metre  i&  as  follows : 

Sonat  hoc  subinde  metro  \  Cybeleium  nemusy 
Mmenqtie  GaJliamhis  I  memoratur  hinc  datum^ 
Tremulos  quod  es^e  Gculis  \  habiles  putdnt  modos^ 
Adeo  ut  frequenter  ilium  \  prope  db  ultimd  pedem. 
Mage  qu6  sonus  vlbretur,  \  studedrU  ddre^  trtbrdchyn, 

Catullus  accordingly  has  generally  resolved  the  last 
arsis  before  the  catalexis  into  two  short  syllables.  Tha 
beginning  of  his  poem  is  this  : 

Super  dJtd  vectus  .dtys  V  celeri  rate  mdria 
Phrygium  nemus  citato  \  ciipide  pede'  tetigit. 

[§  856.]  18.  The  Choriambus  ^^^tl  admits  only  the 
resolution  of  the  first  arsis  into  two  shorts,  very  seldqn: 
the  contraction  of  the  middle  short  syllables  into  one  long 
Only  the  dramatic  poets  have  placed  the  iambic  dipodia, 
which  is  of  the  same  measure,  in  the  place  of  the  chori- 
ambus ;  yet  always  after  another  chonambus,  the  second 
arsis  of  which,  followed  by  an  iambic  thesis,  preserves 
the  unity  of  the  rhythm.  The  lyric  poets,  when  they 
made  use  of  the  choriambus  in  verse,  always  preserved  it 
pure. 

[§  857.]  19.  As,  however,  the  ancient  poets  did  noi 
compose  verses  entirely  of  the  choriambic  foot,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  impetuous  movement,  but  prefixed  or  sub- 
joined to  it  feet  of  a  different  rhythm,  we  are  naturally 
led  to  «peak  of  compound  verses.  A  compoimd  verse  is 
one  in  which  series  of  different  rhythms  are  combined. 
This  combination  maybe  so  accomplished,  that  either  the 
alternation  of  arsis  and  thesis  is  not  interrupted,  or  two  of 
eafch  may  come  together.  The  first  species,  in  which  the 
rhythmical  connexion  is  preserved,  and  only  a  different 
proportion  of  the  arsis  nnd  thesis  takes  place,  is  by  fiur 

Zz2 


MM  LATIV   OJIAMMAR. 

the  most  common.  The  second,  in  which  the  transitiaD 
from  thesis  to  thesis,  or. from  arsis  to  arsis,  takea  places  is 
in  itself  unrhythmical ;  but  a  poet  may  sometimes,  never- 
theless, desire  to  produce  such  an  effect. 

[§  858.]  20.  The  simplest  species  of  composition  is  seen 
in  the  logaoedic  verses,  where,  in  order  to  produce  a  sim- 
ple prosaic  close;  the  verse  descends  from  the  trisyllabic 
feet  ^  s^  w  an<i  ^  ^^  ^  to  the  dissyllabic  ^  ^  and  ^  ^  This 
name  is  generally  given  only  to  dactylic  verses  ending 
in  trochees;  but  the  same  relation  exists  in  anapaests. 
Such  a  logaoedic  verae  is  that  which  closes  the  Alcaic 
stanza, 

^         ^  ^  « 

J^ecte  meo  Lamiae  coronam.     Herat. 

As  the  trochee  in  this  verse  serves  to  moderate  the  lively 
rhythm,  so  a  trochee  is  very  often  used  before  a  dactylic 
series  as  a  sort  of  introduction.  Hence  it  is  now  com- 
monly called  a  Base,  As  it  supplies  the  place  of  a  series, 
the  final  syllable  is  doubtful ;  i.  e.,  a  spondee  may  some- 
times stand  as  base  instead  of  the  trochee ;  nay,  occasion- 
ally this  spondee  is  even  resolved  into  a  trisyllabic  foot. 

[§  859.J  21.  Logaoedic  dactylic  verses  with  their  base 
are  called  by  the  general  name  of  Jleolic  verses,  from  the 
lyric  poets  of  that  nation,  who  invented  or  used  them 
Some  kinds  have,  alsoi  special  names. 

The  Pherecratian  verse, 

—    v./     I     —    S^   N./   —   O 

in  which  the  dactyl  is  very  seldom  contracted. 

The  Glyconian  verse  is  lengthened  half  a  foot ;  and 
has,  in  Horace,  always  a  spondee  as  its  base, 

«      I  -/        -/ 

Note, — The  unconnectedjuxtaposition  of  the  Glycnnian  and  Phcrccra- 
lean  verses  produces  the  Friapean  verse  (which  is  consequently  a  vemu 
•aynarUtns) ;  e.  g.,  CatuU.,  xvui., 

Hunc  Ittcum  tSn  dedia^  |  conaecroque,  Priapty 
Qua  domus  tua  Lampsad  est,  \  quaque  sihva,  Priape, 
Nam  te  praedpue  in  suis  \  urbibus  coUt  ora 
HeUespontia,  caeteris  \  ostreosior  oris.  * 

[§  860.]  The  Phalaecian  verse  consists  of  a  dactyl  and 
three  trochees, 

*  «  I  ^         ^     ^     ^ « 

This  verse  has  eleven  syllables,  and  is  therefore  called 
Hendecasyllabus,  and  under  this  name  it  has  often  been 


OF    METRR.  547 

fued  by  the  Latin  poets,  ei^ecially  Catullus  and  Martial, 
•^  smaller  poems ;  e.  g.,  Catull.,  iii. : 

lAigete,  O  Veneres  CujAdinie^e 
Et  qnantUm  est  h(munum  venustiorum  : 
Passer  m6rtuus  est  meaepuellae, 
Passer y  deiidae  meae  puMtae^ 
»  QuempluB  Ula  ocuUa  mis  emJabat, 

Nam  mellitus  erdt.  sudnvjue  norat 
Ppsa  tim  bene  quam  puetla  matrem, 
Nee  «ese  d  gremio  iUme  mofoebat, 
Sed  circdmsiliens  modo  hue  modo  illue 
A'd  solam  dominam  Usque  pipildbat. 
Qid  mmc  it  per  itir  tenebncosum^ 
rilvc,  (hide  negdnt  redire  qttemquam. 
A't  vobfs'male  sit,  malaS  tendbrae 
Cyrd,  quae  6mnia  bdUa  devordtis, 
Tdm  oelliJim  mihi  passerem  abstulistis  ! 
(yfactdm  male  !     Cf  miselle  passer !  • 

Cu^a  niinc  opera  meae  puellae 
Flendo  turguMi  rubent  ocelli. 

The  base,  as  we  here  see,  is  commonly  a  spondee,  anu 
Catullus  is  the  only  one  among  the  Latin  poets  who  has 
allowed  himself  greater  license,  and  occasionally  uses 
the  original  trochee. 

[§  861.]  22.  Asihe  dactyls  in  the  logaoedic  verse  finish 
with  trochees,  so  choriambi  must  be  resolved  at  the  close 
into  iambi,  because  in  the  choriambus  the  arsis  closes, 
and,  according  to  the  most  common  mode  of  composition, 
a  thesis  should  be  subjoined  to  it.  In  this  way  we  find 
in  the  Roman  poets  (especially  in  Horace)  a  choriambus 
with  an  incomplete  iainbic  dipodia. 

Sanguine  viperino, 

Commcmly,  however,  the  choriambus  has  abase  prefixed, 
and  thus  we  find  in  Horace  two  or  three  choriambi  closing 
with  one  iambus. 

This  poet  makea  his  metre  still  more  difficult  by  using 
only  the  spondee  as  a  base,  and  by  making  an  incision 
after  every  choriambus  except  the  last.  Such  verses  are 
called  Jlsclepiadeiy  and  are  either  short ;  as, . 

Maecenas  atavis  \  edite  regibus 
0  et  praendium  et  |  didce  decus  meum  ! 
or  longer,  as 

Jftdlam^  VdreySacra  |  viieprius  \  severis  arhorem 
Circa  mite  solum  \  Ttburis  et  \  moenia  Catili. 
Siccis  dmnta  nam  \  dura  deus  \  pr&posuit :  7uqU€ 
Mcrdach  aliter  |  diffugiunt  \  sollicitudines. 


548  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

r§  862  J  23.  In  the  species  of  compound  verse  hithertu 
mentioned  the  base  may  be  regarded  as  the  smallest 
trochaic  seiies,  from  which  a  transition  is  made  to  another 
rhythm.  In  other  verses,  however,  we  find  a  more  com- 
plete trochaic  series ;  in  Horace,  Carm.y  i.,  8,  before  a 
choriambic  verse  of  two  choriambi  with  an  iambic  close. 
The  poet  has  imposed  on  himself  tjio  restraint  of  using 
the  spondee  throughout  instead  of  the  second  trochee. 

The  caesura  after  the  ^rsis  of  the  first  choriambus  is  re- 
markable, and  cannot  be  considered  appropriate.  In  the 
poem  referred  to,  this  verse  is  combined  with  a  shorter 
choriambic  of  the  kind  mentioned  above. 

Lx^dia  die,  per  dmnes 

Te  deds  ordy  \  Sybarin  cur  properas  amdndo. 

The  same  trochaic  dipodia  before  a  logaoedic  di^tylie 
series  produces  the  hendecasyllabic  Sapphic  yerse 

...       W    —      9     -«        VAii/        —  \J    mm^ 

Persicos  odi  puer  apparatus* 

The  transition  from  iambi  to  dactyls  may  take  place,  if 
the  rhythmical  connexion  is  to  be  regarded,  only  by  the 
iambic  series  being  catalectic.  And  this  is  the  case  ia 
the  hendecasyllabic  Alcaic  verse, 

Frui  paratis  et  valido  mihi, 

[^  863,]  Note.-r-We  may  here  mention  the  Satumian  verse,  an  old  Romao 
measure,  which  in  later  times  was  rarely  used.  It  consists  of  a  dimetei 
iambicus  catalecticus,  to  the  thesis  of  which  three  trochees  ai«  added. 
The  early  Roman  poets,  however,  allowed  themselves  many  lice itfes  in 
the  us^  of  this  measure,  and  it  is  difficult  to  reduce  the  fragments  which 
are  here  and  there  quoted,  to  the  proper  measure.  We  shall  therefore 
quote  the  regular  Satumian  verses,  which  Terentiann*  Maurus  con»p78ed 
opon  it  as  a  model : 

u/,  si  vocet  Camoenas  \  quit  novem  sardre* 
Et  NatinopoStae  \  sicferunt  Metellos 
quum  saepe  laederentur  |  esse  comminatos  : 
dabuiH  malum  Meielli  \  Naemo  po^ae, 
Dabunt  nudum  MeteUi  \  claudapars  dimetn^ 
post  Naevio  po^tae :  \  ires  vides  trochaeos^ 
nam  nil  obest  trockaeOf.  \  longa  quod  suprema  fPf 

[§  864.]  24.  This  may  be  sufficient  for  the  rcmpouud 
verses  which  are  used  by  the  Latin  lyric  poets,  A  poem 
may  consist  of  a  succession  of  verses  of  the  same  kind,  as 
is  usually  the  case  with  simple  verses,  and  the  choriambic 
among  compound  ;   or  verses  of  different  measure  rd^ 


OP  >IETRK.  549 

rhythm  are  combined  into  a  rhythmical  wnole,  called  a 
strophe^  the  single  vei'ses  remaining  separate  (which  is 
chiefly  indicated  by  the  doubtful  syllable).  In  the  com- 
bination of  different  verses  into  a  strophe,  the  poet  is 
guided  by  his  feeling,  and  it  is  impossible  to  enumerate' 
all  the  varieties,  of  the  strophe  that  may  be  made.  Horace 
(whom  we  have  here  chiefly  to.  attend  to),  without  having 
any  Grecian  model  (as  it  appears),  formed  short  strophes 
either  of  choriambic  verses  alone,  or  of  choriambic  and 
Aeolic  verses,  of  which  we  spoke  above.  It  will  not  be 
found  difficult  to  resolve  these  strophes  into  their  ele- 
ments. Of  the  more  artificial  Greek  strophes  we  find 
in  this  poet  the  Sapphic  and  the  Alcaic.  In  both  he  has 
introduced  some  changes,  according  to  his  own  views. 

[§  865.]  The '  Sapphic  strophe  consists  of  a  Sapphic 
hendecasyllabic  verse  thrice  repeated,  and  closed  with 
an  Adonic  (see  §  847).  Horace,  instead  of  the  syllaba 
anceps  at  the  end  of  the  trochaic  dipodia,  uses  only  a 
spondee,  and  introduces  a  caesura  ailer  the  fifth  syllable, 
but  exchanged  it  sometimes  for  a  trochaic  caesura  ailer 
the  sixth  syllable.  In  some  of  his  poems  (especially 
Carm.j  iv.,  2)  he  allows  himself  the  use  of  versus  hyper^ 
metri  ;  i.  e.,  verses  which  with  their  final  syllable  extend 
by  elision  into  the  following  verse ;  rarely,  however,  and 
chiefly  with  enclitics.  Sometimes  he  unites  in  a  singular 
manner  the  Adonic  verse  "with  the  preceding  hendecasyl- 
labic ;  e.  g.,  Carm.j  i.,  2,  19, 

labitur  ripa  Jove  non  probanie  u- 
xorius  amnis^ 

so  that  it  might  seem  as  if  he  regarded  them  both  as  one. 
The  hiatus,  however,  is  also  found,  and  m  is  not  elided 
when  the  following  verse  begins  with  a  vowel.  The 
former  practice,  therefore,  is  to  be  considered  only  as  a 
license  which  Horace  assumed  after  the  example  of  Sap- 
pho. But  in  point  of  rhythm  the  verses  are  indeed  so 
connected  together  that  no  chasm  exists  anywhere,  but 
the  thesis  is  always  succeeded  by  the  arsis.* 

w  " 

♦  [Compare,  ho\vever,  the  article  Arsis  in  the  Penny  Cyclopaedia,  sa 
tifo  key's  Rejoinder  lo  Donaldson,  p.  12.]— Am.  Ed. 


ft60  LATIN    GRi\MMAR. 

>»W>M»-«N^N>    —    N./    —    W 
—  SAW  —  W 

Int^er  vitae  scelerisque  purua 
J^on  eget  Mauris  jaculis  neque  (xrcu 
Jfec  venmatis  gravida  sagittis^ 
•  FttscCy  pharetra. 

•  1§866.J  The  .^/catc  strophe  consists  of  the  Alcaic  heiid^ 
casyllabic  verse  twice  repeated,  a  dimeter  iambic  hyper" 
catalectic,  and  a  logaoedic  of  two  dactyls  and  two  tro- 
chees. 

The  Greek  metre  is  the  following : 


—  N./  \^  —  V/  Z 

—  W    N./    —    N./    X 

Q..W  —  9->w<»,Q 
/  /  /        /„ 


O  —    N./   —    O 


Horace  strengthens  the  first  three  verses  by  spondees, 
making  it  his  rule  to  use  the  long  syllable  in  all  the  places 
in  which,  by  the  above  scheme,  it  is  allowedy  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  syllaba  anceps  at  the  end  of  the  verse, 
which  remains  anceps.  The  metre,  therefore,  according 
to  the  usage  of  Horace,  is  commonly  given  thus ; 


— \^  \J    ~m    \J    ^ 

—    v>  sy  ••  wi  _ 


/  /  /  /     ^ 


[t  is,  however,  useful  to  keep  the  original  Greek  measure 
in  view,  because  the  Roman  poet  sometimes  deviates 
from  his  own  rule,  just  because  it  is  arbitrary,  using  an 
iambus  instead  of  the  spondee  at  the  beginning  of  the  first 
three  verses.  (In  the  first  verse  of  the  strophe,  i.,  9,  1 ; 
31,  9 ;  35,  37 ;  ii.,  9,  5 ;  in  the  second^  i.,  37,  22 ;  ii.,  1,  6  ; 
14,6;  19,22;  iii.,1,2;  1,26;  3,34;  6,22;  in  the  third, 
i.,  35, 15 ;  37, 15  ;  ii.,  3,  3  ;  iii.,  29,  11 ;  but  never  in  the 
fourth  book.)  But  he  never  ibakes  use  of  a  short  syllable 
before  the  caesura,  according  to  Beutley's  remark  on 
Carm,y  iii.,  2,  1 ;  compare  iii.,  5,  17.  The  caesura  of  the 
Alcaic  hendecasyllabus  is  always  observed  by  Horace, 
and  is  an  excuse  for  the  hiatus  ;  Carm»^  ii.,  20,  13.  The 
caesura,  however,  is  sometimes  made  in  a  compound 
word ;  it  very  rarely  (iv.,  14,  17,  and  i.,  37,  14)  falls  ou 
d.n   uncompounded  word   of  more   llia«    two   syllables 


THE    ROMAN    CALENDAK.  .     551 

Horace  is  also  careful  in  observing  the  cac3surae,  and  ac 
cordingly  does  not  use  two,  or,  in  the  third  verse,  three, 
dissyllabic  words  one  after  another  at  the  beginning. 
The  hiatus  between  several  verses  is  not  unfrequent :  the 
third  and  fourth  verses  are  sometimes  united  by  elision ; 
as,  e.  g.,  in  the  last  strophe  of  Carm.j  ii.,  3, 

Omnes  eodem  cogimur,  omnium 
Versatur  umd  serius  ocius 
Sors  exitura  et  nos  in  aetemum 
Exilium  imposittira  cymhae. 


APPE.NDIXII. 

THE  ROMAN  CALENDAR. 

[§  867.]  The  Roman  names  of  the  days  of  the  monoi 
are  entirely  different  from  our  own.  Without  entering 
here  upon  the  manner  in  which,  in  the  early  timesf,  tne 
year  was  divided  and  defined,  we  shall  commence  at  once 
with  the  Julian  year  and  its  division  into  months.  Ac- 
cording to  this,  the  month  of  February  in  a  common  yeai 
had  twenty-eight  days ;  April,  June,  September,  and  No- 
vember thuty,  and  the  others  thirty-one  days.     The  days 

<of  these  months  are  not  reckoned  in  an  uninterrupted 
series,  from  one  to  thirty  or  thirty-one,  but  are  calculated 

•  backward  from  three  days,  which  are  fixed  in  every  month. 
These  three  days  are  the  first,  fifth,  and  thirteenth,  which 
are  called  by  their  Roman  names,  the  Calendae^  ^anae^ 
and  Idus,  of  a  month.  (The  names  of  the  moQths,  nfi 
was  remarked  in  §  38,  are  used  as  adjectives,  and  as  bucI. 
they  are  joined  to  th'e  three  feminine  names  just  men 
tioned.)  In  the  Roman  system  of  counting  from  a  certain 
point,  this  point  itself  is  included  in  Sie  calculation. 
Tims,  e.  g.,  the  third  day  before  the  nonae^  i.  e.,  before 
the  fifth  of  the  month,  is  not  the  second  of  die  month,  but 
the  third.  Hence  we  may  give  it  as  a  practical  rule,  that 
in  calculating  the  days  of  the  month,  we  must  add  one  to 
the  number  from  which  we  deduct.  When  the  point 
from  which  we  have  to  count  backward  is  the  first  a£  the 
month  (Calendae),  it  is  not  sufficient  to  add  one  to  Jhe 
number  of  days  of  the  current  month,  but  the  Calendae 
itself  must  also  be  taken  into  the  account,  i.  e.,  the  num- 


552      .  LATIN    GUAMMAfl. 

ber  of  days  of  the  current  month  must  be  increased  by 
:wo  before  we  deduct  from  them.  Hence,  dies  tertius 
ante  Cal,  Julias  is  the  29th  of  June,  as  June  has  thirty 
days.  This  is  the  cause  of  the  whole  apparent  difficulty 
in  calculating  the  Roman  dates.  But,  besides  this,  wo 
have  to  consider  another  peculiarity,  which  is  a  remnant 
of  the  ancient  arrangerrient  of  the  Roman  year,  ascribed  to 
King  Numa,  viz.",  in  the  months  of  March,  May,  July,  and 
October,  the  Jfonae  fall  on  the  7th,  and  the  Idus  on  the 
15th,  instead  of  the  6th  and  13th.  In  leap  years  (i.*e., 
according  to  the  Roman  expression,  every  fifth  year)  Feb- 
ruary has  one  day  more,  but  this  intercalary  day  was  not 
added  at  the  end  of  the  month,  as  is  the  custom  in  modem 
times,  but  was  inserted  in  the  .place  where  formerly  the 
mtercalary  month  fmensis  intercalartsj  had  been  inserted 
to  make  the  lunar  year  of  King  Numa  harmonize  with  the 
solar  year,  that  is,  after  the  23d  of  February,  so  that  the 
24th  of  Februaiy,  i.  e.,  the  sixth  day  before  the  Calendae 
of  March,  was  reckoned  double,  and  was  called  bis  sextus 
or  bis  sextum^  whence  the  leap  year  itself  was  called 
annus  bis  sextus.  On  this  subject,  see  the  classical  work 
of  Ideler,  Handbuch  der  mathematischen  und  technischen 
Chronolqgie,  Berlin,  1-825,  in  the  beginning  of  vol.  ii. 

[§  868.1  Respecting  the  grammatical  form  of  stating 
the  day  of  a  month  the  followipg  points  must  be  observed. 
The  ablative  indicates  the  time  when  a  thing  occurs; 
hence  we  say,  e.  g.,  die  tertio  ante  Calendas  Marlias,  but 
die  and  ante  may  be  omitted,  and  we  may  say  tertio  Cal- 
endas^ or  in  figures  m.  Cal,  Cicero  and  Livy,  however, 
use  a  different  form,  either  exclusively,  or,  at  least,  much 
more  commonly  than  others  ;  e.  g.,  ante  diem  tertium  Cal- 
endas, or  JSTonaSy  Idus  (abridged-  a,  d.  Hi,  Cal,).  This 
peculiarity,  instead  of  the  correct  die  tertio  ante  Calendas, 
cannot  be  explained  otherwise  than  by  the  supposition 
that  arUe  changed  its  place,  and  that  afterward  the  abldt. 
*  was  changed  into  the  accusat.,  as  if  it  were  dependent  on 
ante^  while  the  real  accusat.  Calendas  remained*  unchan- 
ged. Pridie,  the  day  before,  and  postridie,  the  day  afler, 
are  either  joined  with  the  genitive ;  as^pridie  ejus  diei,  or, 
in  the  case  of  established  calendar  names  and  festivals 
with  the  accusative,  to  which  people  were  more  accus 
comed ;  as,  pridie  Idus,  pridip  Compitalia,  pridie  natalenif. 
postridie  ludos  ^^pollinures. 


TUB   SOMAN    C.U.BNPAR. 


im 


fi  fl69.]  This  expression  ante  diem  must  be  considered 
M  an  indeclinable  substantive,  since  we  often  find  it  pre 
^eded  by  prepositions  which  govern  the  accusat.  or  ablat. ; 
o.  g.,  Cic,  in  Cat^  L,  3,  dixi  ego  idem  in  Senatu^  caedem 
te  optimatum  contulisse  in  ante  diem  V,  CaL  JSTovemBris  (oi 
Kovemhres^  is  being  probably  only  the  ancient  termina- 
tion of  the  accusat.,  instead  of  esj  ;  Liv.,  xliii.,  16,  t ;t 
witu  dies  octavum  et^septimum  Calendas  Octobres  comitiis 
dicta  dies;  xlv«,  2fSupplicatio  indicta  est  ex  ante  diem  quin* 
turn  Idus  OctobreSy  cum  eo  die  in  quinque  dies  ;  and  in  the 
same  manner  postridie^  e.  g.,  Cic*,  act  Jitt,^  ii.,  11  ^nos  in 
Farmiano  esse  volumus  usque  udpridie  J^onas  Maias, 

[§  870.]  In  order  to  facilitate  the  calculation  of  a  date 
in  the  ancient  calendar  (such  as  it  was  established  by  C» 
Julius  Caesar,  in  B.C.  45),  we  have  annexed  Brpder's 
table«  in  which  the  befiinner  may  easily  find  his  way. 


Our  "Dux* 

oTthe 

Itonth. 

Marcb,  May, 
July, 

Jma.0jL}^  D«ceiDb., 

April,  June,  Septemb. 
and 

Febr.  has  28  Daya, 

•ad  October 
luTeSl  Day*. 

Iiiave  31  Days. 

NoTemb.bare 
SODngra. 

■na 
in  Leap  Yean  29. 

1. 

CmUndU, 

CaUndi*. 

CdUndia, 

C(Uendi9* 

2. 

VI.  ^ 

IV.  >    ante 
in.  f  Nonas 

IV. )    ante 
in.  (  Nonas 

IV. )    ante 
m.  \  Nonas 

3. 

V.   (   ante 

4. 

IV.  f  Nonas 

Pridie  Nonas 

Pndie  Nonas 

Pndie  Nomas 

5. 

UlJ 

Nonis, 

Nonis, 

Nonis. 

6. 

Pridie  Nonas 

VIII.  ^ 

vm.  ^ 

VIIL^ 

7. 

JVoni*. 

VH.     • 

VIL 

VIL 

& 

vnL\ 

VL     lante 

VL     I  ante 

VI.     lante 

9. 

VIL 

V.      fldus 

V 

fldus 

V.      hdus 

10. 

VI.     (ante 

IV. 

IV. 

• 

IV. 

11. 

V.      f 

Idus 

lU.    j 

UI.    j 

IlL    ) 

12. 

IV.  , 

Pridie  Idus 

Pridie  Idus 

Pridie  Idus 

•13. 

ni.  j 

Idibus. 

I^Ubua, 

Idibus. 

14. 

Pridie  Idus 

xrx.  ^ 

XVUL'^ 

XVI.  ^ 

1&  ^ 

>     IdUms. 

XVIIL 

XVIL 

-a 

XV.  ^ 

16 

XVII.  ^ 

XVIL 

•B 

XVL 

B 

XIV. 

• 

17. 

XVI. 

5 

XVL 

g 

XV. 

g 

XIIL 

18. 
19. 

XV. 

XIV. 

8 

XV. 
XIV. 

XIV, 

xm. 

w 

20. 

XIII. 

xm. 

■^-s 

xn. 

OS 

X. 

J 

21. 

XII. 

--s 

XII. 

'sf 

XL 

IX. 

^1 

22w 
23. 

XI. 
X. 

XI. 
X. 

"Si 

X. 

IX. 
VIII. 

X 

O 

24. 

IX. 

11 

IX. 

•a 

VL 

S 

2& 

VIII. 

Is 

VIII. 

VL. 

o 

V.      1 

§ 

26' 

VIL 

-a 

VIL 

o 

VL 

s> 

IV. 

w# 

27. 

VL 

o 

VL 

2 

V. 

s 

m.  J 

28. 

V. 

s 

V. 

9 

IV. 

Pridie  Calendat 

29. 

IV. 

9 

IV, 

UL 

Martia*. 

30. 

III.     , 

ni.     . 

Prid.  Calend. 

• 

31. 

Prid.  Calcnd. 

Prid.  Calend. 

(of  the  month 

(of  the  month 

(of  the  month 

following). 

followinjQ^ 

following.) 

A  A  A 


ftM  LATIN   GRAMMAR 


APPENDIX  III. 


ROMAN  WEIGHTS,  COINS;  AND  MEASURES. 

[§  871.]  1.  The  Roman  pound  flibra^  pandoj  is  aboul 
I  of  the  Paris  pound,  that  is,.  11  ounces  and  1^  drachm* 
(According  to  Rom6  de  Tlsle,  it  contained  6048  Paris 
grains ;  according  to  Cagnazzi,  6135 ;  according  to  Le- 
tronne,  6154 ;  accordine  to  Paucker  and  Bockh,  6165, 9216 
of  which  make  a  Pans  pound.)  It  is  divided  into  12 
parts  funciaejf  and  these  twelve  parts  together  are  called 
an  08,  The  names  of  the  fractions  are :  i^  is  uncia  (about 
an  ounce  in  weight) ;  ^j  sextans,  ^at  is,  j^ ;  -|^  quadrans^ 
that  is,  j- ;  ^  triens,  that  is,  |^ ;  y^  quincunx  ;  /^  semis  or 
semissiSy  i.  e.,  half  an  as  /  -^j  septunx  /  y\-  bes  or  bessis^ 
i.  e.,  two  parts  out  of  three,  or  | ;  ^j  dodrans,  compounded 
from  dequadranSy  i*  e.,  | ;  ||  dtactans  or  decunx  y  \\  deunx, 
i.  e.,  one  ounce  less,  scil.  than  an  as.  These  names  are 
also  applied  to  other  relations;  thus  we  say,  e.  g.,  he 
was  instituted  heir  ex  dodrante  ;  i.  e.,  he  received  ^^ ;  ex 
deuncej  he  received  \^  of  the  whole  property.  An  tmcia 
contains  2  semiunciae,  3  duellae,  4  sicilidj  6  sextulae^  24 
scrupula  or  acripula.  One  ounce  and  a  half  is  sescuncia' 
(from  sesquiunciaj.  Compounds  o€as  are  tressis^  3  ases ; 
octussis,  8  ases ;  decussisj  10  ases ;  centussis^  100  ases.. 

[§  872.]  2.  The  most  ancient  Roman  money  was  of 
copper^  fMid  the  as,  as  a  coin,  was  originally  a  p<lfind  of 
copper  coined.  At  the  time  when  the  Romans  com- 
menced to  ooin  silver  (some  years  before  the  first  Punic 
war),  the  copper  as  was  reduced,  at  first  to  i,  afterward 
to  YT,  and  at  last  to  ^  of  the  original  weight,  so  that  the  . 
coin  which  had  originally  weighed  a  pound  of  copper, 
was  afterward  only  half  an  ounce  in  weight 

Silver  coins  were  die  denarius^  originally  equal  jto  10 
ases,  and  subsequently,  after  the  reduction  of  the  as  to  f^, 
equal  to  16  ases.  Half  a  denarius  was  called  quinarius; 
j^  of  a  denarius  sestertius^  that  is,  originally  2  ases  and  a 
half  (hence  it  is  written  HS ;  i.  e.,  2  jj ;  but  when  the  de- 
narius had  become  equal  to  16  ases,  it  was  worth  4  ases. 
Silver  coins  of  still  smaller  value  were  the  libetla^  =  1^*1 


•  4 


KOMAAi    WEIGHTS^    COIN'S,    AND    MEASURES,  555 

of  a  denarius;  the  sembdla^  =  ^^  of' a  denarius ;  terun- 
dua,  =  7V  o^  ^  denarius,  3  unciae  of  the  ancient,  and  4 
unciae  of  the  reduced  copper  money.  A  denarius  weighed 
a  little  more,  or  less  than  73  Paris  grains,  but  was  gradu* 
ally  reduced,  under  the  first  emperors,  to  63  grains; 
hence  the  Roman  pound  in  the  times  of  the  RerubUc  con- 
tained about  84  denarii  (which,  according  to  tlin..  Hist. 
AW.,  xxxiii.,  46,  was  the  legal  amount),  and  in  the  reign 
of  Domitian  from  96  to  100. 

Gold  was  coined  in  various  Ways:  an  aureus  in  the 
times  of  the  enftperors  was  equal  to  25  denarii  or  100 
sestertii  ;  consequentlyi  1000  HS  are  equal  to  10  atfrez, 
100,000  HS  to  1000  aurei,  and  (fecies  HS  to  10,000  aurei. 
The  Emperor  Honorius  made  25  pounds  of  copper  coin 
equal  to  one  solidus  (aureus)^  that  is,  a  pound  of  coppei 
equal  to  a  silver  denaiius. 

[§  873.]  3.  The  Romans  generally  calculated  according 
to  sestertiiy  and  «.  rmmmus  is  simply  a  sestertius.  Instead 
of  miile  sestertii^  we  may  say,  vrith  equal  cori'ectness,  milU 
sestertium  (genit*.  plur.),  just  as  we  commonly  say  millt 
passuum.  A  million,  as  was  remarked  in  §  115,  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  form  of  multiplication :  decies  centena  milia 
sestertium^  oc  more  commonly  by  decies  alone,  centena 
milia  being  omitted ;  centies^  therefore,  is  10  millions,  and 
millies  100  millions.  As  people  were  thus  accustcnned  to 
hear  the  word  sestertium  in  connexion  with  mUle^  they 
came  by  a  kind  of  grammatical  blunder  to  consider  ses- 
tertium  as  a  substantive  of  the  neuter  gender,  and  heftce 
they  said  unum  sestertium^  septem  sestertia^  bis  dena  sester* 
tidjSexcerUa  sestertia^  &:c.,  instead  of  unum  mille  sestertium^ 
septem  milia  sestertium,  &c.  In  Cicero.it  does  not  often 
occur,  but  is  yet  found  in  some  passages,  as  in  Verr.j  iii., 
50 ;  Parad.y  6,  3 ;  but  in  the  writers  of  the  silver  age  it 
is  quite  common. 

Decies  sestertium^  a  million  of  sestertii,  centies  sestertium, 
&c.,  is  used  as  a  singulare  tantum  of  the  neuter  gender ; 
e.  g.,  Cic,  in  Vehr.^  ii.,  7,  HS  dtcies  numeratum  ess  *•;  Phil- 
ip.^ ii.,  16,  anwlius  HS  ducenties  acceptum  hereditm  ibus  rei^ 
tuli.  But  the  mistake  was  carried  still  farther  by  de- 
clining this  expression ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xlv.,  4,  argenti  ad  sum" 
mam  sestertii  decies  in  aerarium  rettulity  up  to  the  sum  of 
one  million^sostertii ;  Cic,  Philip.,  ii.,  '37,  ?yngrapha  ses* 
ttriii  centies,  a  bill  of  te^i  millions  of  sestertii    Tacit,  Jlnn^ 


9M  LATIN   OEAMMAB* 

adi,  58,  Bononiensi  coloniaej  ighi  kmtitatj  ^ibvmi%tia  ca»- 
ties  sestertii  iargitioney  by  a  present  of  ten  milUbns  of  de^ 
terdi ;  Suecon.,  Caes,^  50,  ServUtae  aetagiea  ststertio  fimr- 
garitam  mercatus  est^  be  bought  ber  a  pearl  ^h*  six  imU'^ 
ions  of  sestertii^  Sueton.,  Octav.^  41,  Smatqrum  ceneum 
duodecies  seatertio  taxemt^  be  fixed  the  senatorial  census  at 
1,200,000  sestertii ;  Cic,  p.  Font.  (Niebuhr,  Fragm.),  §  4. 
Testis  non  invemtur  in  ducentis  et  trieies  sestertio  ;  ad  Att^ 
iv.,  2,  superficiem  aedium.aestimarunit  HS  (sesterdo)  deeie^. 

[§  874.]  4.  Witb  regard  to  Oreek  weights  and  money, 
we  con  here  add  only  a  few  remarks.  '  An  Attic  talent 
(talentumj  is  equal  to  80  Roman  pounds ;  a  mina  (fivd)  is 
the  sixdeth  part  of  it;  i  e'.,  equal  to  1^  Roman  pound ; 
and  100  drachmae  make  one  mina,  Gonsequendy,  a  talent 
has  60  minae  or  6000  drachmae.  The  same  namea  aisd 
proportions  occur  in  the  Greek  coins.  The  most  conamon 
silver  coin,  which  forms  the  unit  in  calculadons,  is  die 
drachma  (which  is  wordi  6  oboiij*  It  raaies  Yeryjcnuch  ik 
weight,  according  to  the  different  places  and  times,  but  in 
general  it  is  considered  equal  to  the  Roman  detiarius* 
The  Attic  drachma^  however,  is  somewhat  better  than  die 
Roman  denarius,  (See  Bdckh,  The  Public  JBcon&m.  of 
AthenSj  chap,  iv.,  2d  edit.,  Engl,  transl.)  Wheacompared 
widi  Roman  money,  a  mina  is  equal  to  4  aurei,  and  a 
talent  to  240  atrret,  or  to  24,0€yp  sestertiL 

[§  875.]  5.  The  basis  of  Romsfh  measures  is  the  foot, 
pes,  which,  according  to  die  njost  accurate  calculadons  of 
modem  scholars,  contained  131  Fans  lines,  144  of  wbi(^ 
make  a  Paris  foot;  The  Roman  foot  is  divided  either, 
according  to  die  gmieral  Actional  4»yst6m,  into  12  unciaey 
or  into  16  digiii  ifidKtvXoC),  Smaller  measures  are: 
femipes,  i  foot ;  pamus, }  ^t,  or  4  d^iti,  i.  e.,  die  breaddi 
^f  a  hand  (naXaiaTTj),  but  in  later  times,  and  ev&a.  down 
to  die  present  day  in  Italy,  the  name  palmus  is  tran^rred 
lO  the  length  of  a  span,  and  is  equal  to  f  of  a  ^ot»  Greater 
measures  are:  pcumipes,  a  foot  and  a  palmus,  i.  e„  1|> 
foot ;  ctdnius  (n^x^)^  1^  ibot ;  passue^  a  pace,  or  5  Ibet; 
ttctusy  120  feet,  or  12  decempedae.  The  Gjreek  Vadium 
has  600  Greek  and  625  Roman  feet ;  40  stoma  are  some* 
what  more  than  a  geographical  mile.  On  die  Romaa 
roads  milestones  were  erected  at  intervals  of  1000  pas- 
nts,  and  such  a 'Roman  mile  of  5000  feet  contains  ^8 
itadia.  amounting  to  very  little  more  than  j>  of  a  gee^ 


ABBRBirilftVIOKS  OF  WORDS.  55T 

gnqaliicai  mile,  ivivereas  a  modera  Italimh  mile  is  j-  of'«' 
geo^«p\de^  one.    A  QaHie  leuca,  is  1^  Romasi  mile. 
From  ieUGZ.  the  Frendi  dieue  is  £>rmel,  but  the  Franks 
assigued  to  it  tke  length  of  3  Homan  miles. 

f4  ^^*]  "^A  jvgerum  is  a  s^aire  measi^e  of  240  fe^  in 
length,  and  120  in  breadtb,1^t  is^  2&y600  Roman  square 
feet.       ^  • 

Roman  cubic  measures  for  fluids  are  :  the  amphora  or 
quadrantaij  i.  e.,  a  Roman  cubic  foot ;  it  contains  2  ttmae, 
8  congiij  48  sextarn^  96  heminae,  192  quartarii,  and  576 
cyathi.  There  is  only  one  larger  measure,  viz.,  the  culetcs^ 
containing  20  amphorae.  Greek  cubic  measures  are : 
the  metretes  or  cadus,  equal  to  1^  amphora  ;  it  is  divided 
into  12  x^^f  ^^d  144  KorOhu^  so  that  one  kotOXtj  is  half 
a  aextarius.  An  ampbora  of  water  or  wine  is  said  to. 
weigh  80  Roman  pounds,  and,  consequently,  a  co/igius 
would  weigh  10,' and  a  stxtarius  If.  As  the  sextariusy 
being  the  most  common  measure,  contains  12  cyathi,  these 
twelfths  are  denominated,  Hke  the  12  undue  of  an  as,  ac- 
cording to  the  common  fractional  syst^n ;  e.  g.,  sextans, 
quadransj  triens  vini,  for  -^  j^,  |-  of  a  sextarius. 

Dry  substances  were  chiefly  measured  by  the  modius^ 
wnieh  is  the  third  of  an  ampAoro,  and,  accordingly,  contains  ^ 
16  sextarii  :  0  modii  make  a  Greek  medimnus.  Respect- 
ing this  whole  subject  the  readel:  is  referred  to  the  excel* 
lent  work  of  Job.  Fr.  Wurm,  De  Ponderum,  Jfummorun^^ 
Mensurarum  ac  de  *dnni  ordinandi  Rtaionibus  apud  R(h 
manos  etfiraecos^  Stuttgardiae,  1821,  8vo. 


APPENDIX  IV. 


NOTAB  SIVE  COMPENDIA  SCRIPTURAB ;  OR  ABBREVI- 
ATIONS OF  WORDS. 

[§  877.]  Many  words  and  terminations  of  frequent  oc- 
currence are  abridged  in  ancient  MSS.,  as  well  as  in  books 
printed  at  an  early  time ;  e.  gl,  atque  is  written  atq3,  per 
p ;  the  termination  us  is  indicated  by  ^,  as  in  quib9^  non 
by  fi,  and  m  and  n  are  frequently  indicated  by  a  hori- 
zontal line  over  the  preceding  vowel.  Such  abbrevia- 
tions are  no  longer  used  in  books,  and  wlio^^vcr  finds  thena 

A  A  A  2 


558 


LATIN  GRAMMAS. 


in  MSS.  or  early  prints,  may  easily  discover  their  mean* 
ing  with  the  assistance  of  a  modem  text.  Praenonlina, 
however,  and  certain  political  words,  i.  e.,  names  of  of* 
fices  and  dignities,  are  still  abridged  in  modem  editions. 
We  shall  subjoiii  a  list  of  those  which  occur  most  fre> 
quently,  for  the  assistance  of  beginners. 

1.  Praenomtna, 

Mam.    Mamercus. 
N.     Numerius. 
P.    PubHus. 
Q.  or  Qu.    Quintus. 
S.  or  Sex.    Sextus. 
Ser.    ServiuB.   . 
Sp.    Spurius. 
T.     Titus. 

Ti.  or  Tib.     Tiberiua. 

• 

2.  Constitutional  Designations. 


A. 

Aulus. 

Ap. 

Appius. 

C.  or  G.    Gains. 

Cn. 

or  Gn.    Gnaeos. 

D. 

Decimus. 

K: 

Kaeso. 

L. 

Lucius. 

M. 

Marcus. 

M'. 

Manius. 

Aed.     Aedilis. 

Cal.  or  Kal.    Calendae,  or 

other  cases  of  this  word, 
Cos.     Consul. 
•  Coss.    Consules,  or  Consu- 
libus. 
D.  *  Divus. 
Des.    designatus. 
Bq.Rom.    Eques  Romanus. 
F.     Filius. 
Imp.    Imperator. 
Leg.     Legatus,  or  Legio. 
Non.    Nonae  or  other  cases. 


P.  C.     PatresXJonscripl^ 

PI.     Plebis. 

Pop.     Populus. 

P.R.     Populus  Romanus, 

Pont.  Max.    Pontifex  Max 

imus. 
Pr.     Praetor. 
Praef.     Praefectus. 
Proc.     Proconsul. 
S.    Senatus. 
S.P.Q.R.    Senatus  poptifus* 

que  Romanus. 
SC.    Senatus  consultum. 
Tr.     Tribunus.  [testaa 

Trb.  Pot     Tribunitia  Po- 


O.  ^L    Optimus  Maximus, 
as  a  surname  of  Juppiter. 

3.  Other  Abbremations  which  are  still  in  use. 

A.    Anno. 

A.  c.    Anno  currente. 

A.D.    Anno  DominL 

A.  pr.    Anno  praeterito 

A.M.    Anno  mundi. 

A.  u.  c.     Anno  urbis  co  *  li- 

tae. 
A.  Chr     Anno  Christf 


i 


a.  Chr*     ante  Christum. 

c.    caput. 

cf.    confer  or  conferatur« 

Cod.     Codex. 

Codd.     Codices. 

B.  M.     Bene  merentu 

Dn.     I)ominus. 

D.  N,     Dominus  Noatan 


I 


ANOIBNT   FOmUM  OF  DBOLENSION. 


^50 


JD.  D.    IDono  dedit. 

D.D.D.  Dono  dedit  dica- 
vit 

D.  M.     Diis  Manibus. 

D.  S.     De  suo. 

D.  S.  F.  P.  De  sua  pecunia 
posuit. 

F.  C.     Faciendum  curavit. 

Ictus.    lureconsiiltus. 

J.  U,  D.  Juris  Utriusque 
Doctor. 

i.  e.    id  est. 

L  loco  or  lege  :  h.  1.  hoc 
loco  or  hac  lege* 

L.  B.     Lectori  benevolo. 

1.  c.  or  1. 1.  loco  citato  or  lo- 
co laudato. 

L.M.     Libens  merito. 

L.  S.     Loco  SieiUi. 

MS.    Manuscnptus  (liber). 

MSS.     Manuscripti  (libri). 


pag.  m.    pa^a  mea. 
P.P.O.     Professor  PubL- 

cus  Ordinarius. 
Ps.     Postscriptum. 
Q,.D,B.V.  Quod  dous  bene 

vertat. 
S.  V.  B.  E.  E.  V.     Si  vales 

bene  est,  ego  valeo. 
sciL    scilicet, 
seq.  sequens ;  and  seqq.  se^ 

quentes  or  sequentia. 
S.     Salutem. 
S.  D.     Salutem  dicit. 
S.  D.  P.    Salutem  dicit  plu- 

fimam.  • 
V.     versus. 

vid.    vide  or  videatur. 
V.  CL     Vir  clarus  or  Claris^ 

simus. 
W.  DD.     Viri   Docti   ot 

Doctissimi. 


APPENDIX  V. 


ANCIENT  FORMS  OF  DECLENSION.* 

[§  878.]  The  element  of  a  word,  stripped  of  all  pro- 
ves and  suffixes,  is  called  the  Root.  .Gtenerally,  how- 
ever, there  is  a  secondary  form,  which  may  be  called  the 
Crude  formj  containing  something  more  than  the  mere 
element,  but  yet  not  enough  to  render  it  fit  for  universal 
use,  the  base,  however,  of  all  the  forms  which  are  ac- 
tually emploved.  For  example,  in  the  word  currum^  the 
letter  m  is  the  accusative  sign ;  this  being  removed,  we 
have  the  crude  form  of  the  noun,  curru.  It  is  clear  that 
cumi  is  l^e  base  on  which  are  built  curru-s^  ctirHl-^, 
cttrrU'i,  curru*m^  and  ciim-6t«,  for  in  this  last  the  u  is 
only  represented  by  a  euphonic  t.  But  curru  is  not 
the  simplest  element  to  T^ich  the  word  is  reducible ;  we 
have  the  verb  curr  in  curro,  xurris^^turrit^  currere,  &c. 

♦.  AlieiCt  Etymological  Antdyrii  of  Latin  Verh^^  &c..  p.  viii.,  «ey^. 


6M  LATIN   GmMMAB*  ' 

The  root  is  eurr:  tbe  nanny  however,  ia  fofmei}  by  tto 
letter  u,  and  hence  the  crude  fonn  CMrru»  and  the  naniir 
native  curru^Sj  &o. 

[§  879.]  Now  every  crude  form  must  end  in  a  conso- 
nant or  in  a  vpwel ;  o^  e»  i^  o,  or  u.  Henqe  nouns  Mve 
been  divided  into  two  great  claa0et»  ccmsonantroonn^'aad 
vowel*nouns»  The  latter  of  these  have  been  naiturally 
subdivided  according  to  the  parftioular  vowel  foond ;  an4 
hence  the  a-declension,  the  e-declendion^  tbe  t-^eclei^ 
eion,  the  o-declen8iOii«  and  the  «i-deet0Dsi<>n*  Tbo  Third 
declension,  aa  it  is  called^  is  on  this  plan  split  .into  t>wo ; 
namely,  the  t-deden^n  aind  the  consonant  declension; 
The  cohscHiant  declension  must  be  taken  as. the  c^ginal 
dedenmon,  and  then  the  i^declension  stands  on  the  same 
ground  as  the  a-,  s-,  ^y  and  u-  declension3»  The  conso- 
nant declension  preserves  the  case-endings  most  fully.  In 
jthe  vowel  declensions  the  last  letter  of  the  emdje  form 
and  the  vowel  of  the  case-ending  ate  sometlknes  incoi^ 
porated  and  disguised. 

[§  88Q.1  Now  from  these  premises  some  idea  may 
easily  be  formed  of.  the  ancient  forms  of  declension*  and 
in<K>rder  to  carry  out  this  idea,  it  will  be  woith  while  to 
give  a  table  of  the  declensions  as  they  wo«dd  stand  if  the 
case-endings  were  affixed  at  once  to  die  crude  form  with* 
out  any  contraction  or  indorporation ;  for  in  so  doing  we 
shall  detect  several  ancient  forms  which  actually  occur. 
The  case-endings  are, 

SiNo^  Plus. 

«,                      Nom.  ej. 

iff,                    Gen.  urn. 

(bjh                Dat  bus. 

.         m,  *  Accus.  '        es. 

*,                     Abl.  hns. 

A 

The  yocatiye  has  not  been  inserted,  becai^se  this  ca3e 
'is  always  either  the  crude  form  (modified  frequently  on 
euphonic  principles)  or  the  same  as  the  nominative.  In 
the  e-declensioB,  in  Latin,  we  find  an  s  at  the  end  of  the 
vooative;  83,  tcmre^  This  e  is  the  r^resentative  of  the 
•  or  n  in  the  nominative,  tauru&=:tauros.* 


ANCIENT   FOEICe   OF   DECLENSION. 


9»} 


VoiTfiL  Declensions. 


Forma  (A-). 
pOTmarSy         Foama-es. 


Fonaa-iBy 
Ponnap(b)i, 
Fonn2L*iiii 
Fonna-e, 


Forma-iim. 
Forma-bus. 
Fontaa-^s. 
Forma^bus. 


NaYi^s, 

Navi-is, 

Navi-(b)i, 

Nayi^m, 

Navi-e, 


Jfavi  (I). 


Navi-ea. 

NaTi^um. 

Navi*biuk 

NaTKes. 

Navi-bcia. 


Die-s^ 

Die-is, 

Di©-(b)i, 

Die-m, 

Diore, 


Die  (E). 


Die-es. 

Die-um. 

Die-bus. 

Die-es. 

Die-bus. 


Avo-s, 

Avo-is, 

Avo-(b)i, 

Avo-in, 

Avo-e, 


Jlvo  (O). 


Avb-es. 

Avo-uni. 

Avo-bns. 

Avo-es. 

Avo-lms. 


Arcu-s, 

Arcu-is, 

Arcu-(b)i, 

Arcu-m 

Arcu-e, 


^rcu  (U). 


Arcu-es. 

Arcu-um. 

Arcu-bus. 

Arcu-esi 

Arcu-bus. 


[§  881.]  It  is  probable  that  all  these  declensions  once 
had  a  ^  in  the  dative,  and  that  the  remaining  i  is  only  the 
relic  of  the  W  which  we  see  in  ti-biy  «-W,  w-W,  and  tt-W, 
as  in  Greek  the  i  is  the  relic  of<pi,  e,  g,,  fiop<l>7iiz=zfiop(Pfi-{l)i, 
It  is  also  probable  that  in  all  these  declensions  ibe  dative 
plural  ended  iti  bis.  The  plural  bisz=bus  remained  in 
regular  use  in  three  of  the  declensions,  and  examples  of 
it  are  not  wanting  in  the  other  two ;  as,  deabtiSj  nymfabuSy 
horahus^  duobiiSj  ambobusy  dibuSy  diibiiSj*ttmicibus,  Sec* 

[§  882.]  With  respect  to  the  genitive  plural,  it  is  dis- 
puted whether  the  original  ending  was  um  or  turn,  seemg 
that  in  the  consonant  declension,  and  the  t-  and  u-  de- 
clension there  is  no  r,  and  in  the  o-  and  o-  declensions 
there  is.  Struve  contends  that  the  r  is  euphonic,  and 
that  the  original  ending  is  t^m,  answering'  to  the  Greek 
G>v,  Many  things  favour  this  view;  e.  g.,  o-um  would 
naturally  be  contracted  into  Urny  which  is  constantly  found 
in  such  instances  as  dettm,  virCtmy  Graidmy  signiJMtmy  &:c., 
whereas  the  transidon  from  orum  to  um  is  not  so  easy. 
The  same  remark  applies  to  the  a-declension ;  as,  Dor* 
daniddmy  coelicolttm.    That  this  contracted  form  was  a 

*  Orem,  Ifucript.,  No^  1628,  1629,  4601,  2118,  4608,  1676,  13C7,  3419 
%S8\.-^Struve,  uber  die  Lot,  Decl,  p.  15,  ^  10. 


5(12  LATIN   GRAMMAB. 

very  old  one  appears  clearly  from  the  instances  given  b% 
Cicero  fOrat.j  §  155,  156).  Still  the  forms  boverum 
and  Joverum,  in  Varro  (viii.,  74),  and  lapiderum^  regerum 
nancerunij  in  CharisiiM,  seem  to  point  to  a  full  and  origi- 
nal ending  erum,  the  e  being  the  connecting  voweL  In  a  * 
note  on  Sie  above-cited  passage  in  Varro,  Miiller  db- 
eerves  that  those  forms  are  the  remains  of  the  ending  of 
which  the  original  type  must  have  been  in  Greek  and 
Latin  JSQM.  JPerhaps  it  is  an  argument  for  considering 
the  r  euphonic,  that  m  Sanscrit  the  letter  n  is  inserted  in 
some  forms  in  a  similar  way.  For  example,  t;acA  is  "  a 
discourse ;"  the  plural  genitive-ending  is  dm :  the  geni- 
tive, then,  is  vacMm.  Now,  when  the  crude  form  ends  in 
a  vowel,  the  ending  dm  is  joined  to  it  by  a  euphonic  n  ; 
thus,  vana  is  "  a  wood  ;'*  the  genitive  plural  is  not  vana' 
am^  but  vana-n'am,  ^  Thus  the  gentive  of  musa  would,  in 
Sanscrit,  be  mttsanam  fz=musarumj.  On  the  other  hand, 
however,  it  sl^uld  be  stated  that  the  pronouns  (and  they 
would  naturally  preserve  the  old  formation  longer  than 
any  other  parts  of  speech)  have  the  termination  sam  in 
Sanscrit,  answering  to  the  Latin  rt^m.  Compare  Sans. 
td'Sdm  and  the  Lat.  ista-rumy  to  which  it  is  eqmvalent. 

[§  883.]  Most  of  the  changes  from  the  original  type  of 
the  Latin  declensions  given  under  §  880  may  be  traced 
from  existing  instances.  To  give  them  all  would  lead 
too  far :  one  example  shall  be  mentioned.  ,  The  full  form 
of  the  genitive  smgular  of  the  a-declension  is  a+w, 
e.  g,,  formats,  .This  is  found  with  a  euphonic  change  of 
the  vowel  t  to  e;  as,  partis  dimidiaesj  Procttlaes^  Satur* 
niaes.*  It  was  abbreviated  in  three  ways :  first,  by  drop- 
ping the  «,  whence /ormew ;  secondly,  by  dropping  the  s  ; 
^iS,  formal  /  and,  thirdly,  by  contracting  ai  into  oe  ;  sSyformcB, 
Examples  of  the  first  contraction  are  paterfamilias  and 
materjamUias,  Examples  of  the  second  contraction  are 
common  in  Lucretius  and  other  old  writers.  Some  occur 
in  Virgil ;  as,  aurdi  (Aen^y  vi.,  747) ;  pictai  (.Aen,^  ix.,  26). 
The  tmrd  contraction  became  the  common  form* 
.  ■  II    _  "  I.       ^    ■   1 1       ■■■ 

•  OnOh Inter^,IioB.  4376, 4537, 3860, 4887. 


REMAINS  OP  SA&LT  LATIN.  563 


APPENDIX  VI. 


REMAINS   OF  EARLY  LATIN. 

[§  884.]  "Wj^  have  very  few  Bpecimens  of  the  Latin 
language  previous«to  the  time  of  Ennius  and  Plautus, 
when  it  had  become  nearly  developed,  and  was  Bubstan* 
tially  ^e  same  as  in  the  later  times  of  the  Republic.  The 
specimens  of  the  ancient  language  which  have  come  down 
to  us  principally  consist  ot  fragments  of  anciAit  laws, 
preserved  by  Festus,  Cicero,  and  others,  and  of  a  few  in- 
scriptions. The  former,  as'  might  have  been  expected, 
appear  to  have  been  considerably  altered ;  and  the  latter 
are,  unfortunately,  too  few  to  give  us  much  assistance  in 
tracing  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  language.  Of  these, 
however,  one  of  the  most  important  was  the  anoient  song 
of  the  Fratres  Arvales,  discovered  in  the  year  1777,  and 
which  appears  to  have  been  the  same  as  was  sung  in  the 
most  early  times,  though  the  inscription  w^as  not  cut  till 
A.D.  218.  It  appears  from  the  mtroductory  remarks 
that  this  song  was  confined  to  the  priests,  the  Publici 
being  excluded.     The  song  is  as  follows  : 

1.  Enos  Loses  juvate,     •   ' 

2.  J^eve  luervBy  Marmar^  sins  incurrere  in  pleorts  : 

3.  Saturfurerej  Mars,  limOi  salts  sta  berber  : 

4.  Semunis  aliemei  advocapit  conctos. 
5.,  Enos  Marmor  juvato : 

6.  TriumpCy  triumpej  triumpe^  triumpe^  triumpe. 

1.  Enos  is  a  form  of  the  first  person  plural  fnosj,  anal- 
ogdtis  to  the  German  uns.  Loses  is  instead  of  Lares. 
fQuinctili,  Inst,  Or.y  i.,  4,  §  13.) 

2.  Luerve  for  luerve'tny  according  to  a  custom  of  drop- 
ping the  final  m,  vvhich  lasted  till  Cato's  time.  This  form 
IS  equivalent  to  luem.  Marmor  is  a  name  of  Mars,  who 
was  called  Mafners  in  the  Oscan  language.  jSiIt^  is  in- 
stead' of  sinks.  Pleoris  is  the  older  fonn  ofplures.  The 
root  of  this  word  is  phy  as  we  see  in  ple-nus  and  in  im* 
ple-Oj  and  the  comparative  is  formed  by  adding  tor  or  or. 
Pleores  afterward  became  plures^  in  the  same  way  a 
reversus  or  reorsus  was  shortened  into  rttrsu^. 


664  LATIN  ORAMMJUU 

• 

3.  Saiurfurerey  &c  The  meaning  appears  to  be»  "O 
Mar8>  having  raged  to  your  satisfaction,  put  a  stop  to  dfe 
scorching  heat  of  the  saiL"  Compare  Horace  fOd.y  i,  2, 
37),  *'  longo  satiate  ludo,  Limen  for  lumen  may  be  com- 
pared widi  pHsima  for  plurima  (Fest,^  p.  205).  Salts  is 
the  original  form  of  sdis :  compare  aiXa^^  ^Ato^,  •du-selius^ 
&C.  Whether  we  read  sta  or  ta,  the  meaning  seems  to 
be. "  cause  to  cease,**  which  may  be  derived  from  either 
root.    Berber  is  another  form  oifervete, 

4.  Semunets  is  semaneSj  i.  e.,  semkemones,  .ddvocapit 
is  instead  of  advocabite,  the  e  being  omitted  as  in  diCy  duc^ 
faCjfer.^  The  future  is  here  used  in  the  sense  of  an  im- 
perative.* 

[§  885.]  The  other  extant  religious  compositions,  though 
few  and  scanty,  contribute  to  the  same  conclusion  witl' 
the  preceding,  that  the  oldest  Latin  was  not  so  unl&e  the 
language  with  which  we  are  familiar  as  to  defy  interpre- 
tation. The  fragments  of  the  oldest  Roman  laws,  though 
undoubtedly  genuine  in  substance,  must  be  considered  as 
haying  undergone  much  alteration  in  the  orthogikphy  tct 
least.  They  are  precious  memorials  of  primeval  L  atinity^ 
but,  like  the  Homeric  poems,  they  not  unfi:equently  ex. 
hibit  the  deformity  of  an  ancient  statue,  whidi  the  fain* 
taste  of  a  later  age  may  have  daubed  over  with  a  coat  of 
coloured  plaster.?  We  will  now  proceed  to  give  speci- 
mens of  the  same,  with  the'lsiter  Latin  opposite.]: 

I.  Le($bs  Regiae. 

L&b  Momulu 

Set  parentem  puer  verberity  f   '  Si  parentem  puer  verbe 
ast  oleplordsity  pu&r  Diveis       **'     ^ '"      '  ** 

parentom  sacer  esto  :  set  nu- 
ru8y  sacra  DiveUt  parentom 
esto. 


zarit,  at  ille  ploraverit,  puer 
Divis  parentum  sacer  esto: 
si  nurus,  sacra  Divis  pafien- 
|um  esto. 


Lex  Jfum(R, 


Set  quips  hemonem  loehe- 
som  dolod  sciens  mortei  duitj 
pariceida  esto :  set  im  impru- 
dens  se  dolod  malod  oceisit^ 


Si  quis  hominem  Hberura 
dole  sciens  morti  det,  parri- 
cida  esto :  si  eum  impru- 
dens  sine  dolo  malo  occi* 


*  Donaldton^f  ViirroniqnuSf  p.  139,  ua.'^Pennv ^p^fdykf/Kih  vol.  jcx  ,  p 
.12  -      t  Donaldson**  VamnitnuSf  p.  145 

GroUfend,  Ausf.  Gramm.  derLat.  Spr  ,  vdI.  i.,  p.  167. 


) 


REMAma   OF  EAELT   LATIW 


AAA 


pro  kdptted  oceUet  tt  naieis 
$fm^^€nd9  {ondoned  4mciem 


d^rit,  pro  capite  occisi  et 
natis  ejus  in  concione  arie- 
tern  subiicito. 


4^lia  Lex  JfumcB. 


Ptlex  cthdm  Junonis  ne 
tacito.  Set  tacet^  Junonei 
crinibotts  demiseis  amum 
feminam  caidito. 

II.  Lbobs  Iribukicus  et  Aedilicus. 
Lex  Tribunietaj  Jl.V.C.  261. 


Pellex  aram  Junonis  nt 
tan^to.  Si  tan^et,  Junoxi 
crinibus  demissis  agnun 
feminam  caedito. 


Sei  quips  ditUa  fcufsii^ 
ipsos  jovei  sacer  esto:  jsei 
quips  imy  quei  eo  plebeiscilo 
sacer  sit^  ocisit^  pariceida  nee. 
esto, 

Edictum  ^tdUium  Ctlrulium. 


Si  quis  aliter  fecerit,  ipsa 
Jovi  sacer  esto:  siquiseum* 
qui  eo  plebiscito  sacer  sit, 
Occident,  parricida  ne  sit. 


Titultts  soriptorum  singu- 
hrum  utei  gtariptus  sit,  cd» 
erato  itOy  utei  itaellegi  recte 
possity  quid  morbi  vitiive 
quoique  sit^  quis  fugitivus 
errove  stty  noxave  soluiusncn 


Titulus  BGriptorom  nnga- 
lovuip  uti  seriptua,  curato 
ita,'Ut  int^nigi  recte  possit, 
quid  morbi  vitiive  cuique 
sit,  quis  fugitivus  ernw^  sit, 
nbxare  solutus  non  sit. 


8tt. 

III.  Leges  XII.,  tabularum  rbstitutjk. 

Tab.  1.  ' 


Rem,ubeipaco»tj  orarUod: 
net  ita  pacont^  endo  comitiod 
out  endoforod  anted  medidiem 
eausam  comciuntod.  Post 
medidiem  .praisented  ambobtis 
stlitem  adeicitod,  Sol  ocasus 
sUprema  t^pestas  esiod. 


Rem  ubi  pangunt,  oranto : 
ni  ita  pangunt,  in  comitio 
ant  in  foro  ante  n^ridiem 
causal^  conjiciunto.  Post 
meridif  m,  prsesentibus  am- 
bobus,  litem  addicito.  Sol 
occasus  suprema  tem^)estaa 
esto. 

Tab.  2. 


Set  quips  nox  fourtom 
faxsity  seiim  aliquips  oceisitj 
joured  caisos  estod,  Sei  lu* 
cei  fourtom  faxsity  sei  im 
aliquips  endo  ipsod  capsity 
verberat^ 

B  n  p 


Si  quis  nocte  furtum  fece* 
rit,  si  eum  aliquis  Occident, 
jure  caesus  esto.  Si  luce 
furtum  fecerit,  si  eum  aliquit 
in  ipso  ceperit,  verberaton 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


Tab.  3. 


^irts  confesiy  rebosque 
joured  joudikatiis^  XXX 
aies  joustei  suntod.  Postt- 
dea  manuU  endojactio  estod : 
endo  jous  ducitod,  Jfei  jou- 
dikatomfaxsit,  aut  quips  endo 
to  im  joured  vindicit^  secom 
ducitodj  vtncttod  aut  nesvo 
aut  compedebos :  XV  pondo, 
nei  majosedy  at  sei  volet  mino- 
aedvincitod.  Seivoletysovod 
mtntod  :  nei  souod  vivit^  quei 
im  vinctom  habebity  librae 
faris  endo  dies  datod ;  sei 
volet  J  pious  datod. 


Aeris  confcesi,  rebuBqaa 
jure  judicatis,  triginta  aies* 
lusti  sunto.  Postea  manus 
injectio  esto :  'in  jus  ducito. 
Ni  judicatum  fecerit,  aul 
quia  interea  earn  jure  Tin- 
dicarit,  secum  ducito,  yin- 
cito,  aut  nervo  aut  compedif 
bus  :  quindecim  «pondo,  ne 
majore^  at,  si  volet,  minore, 
vincito.  Si  volet,  suo  vivito : 
ni  Sbo  vivit,  qui  eum  vinctun> 
habebit,  libras  farris  in  die. 
date ;  si  volet,  plus  dato. 


Tab.  4!. 


Sei  pater  fidiom  ter  venom 
duitj  fidios  af  patre  leiber 
estod. . 


Si'pater  filium  ter  venum* 
det,  nlius  a  patre  liber  esto. 


Tab.  5. 


S  ei  pater  familias  intestato 
moritoTy  quoi  sovos  heres  nee 
escity  acnatos  proxsumos  fa- 
niliam  habetod:  sei  acnatus 
xec  escity  centileis  familidm 
Ktrciscuntod. 

Tab 

Quom  nexsomfaxsit  man' 
cipiomquey  utei  tincumnoncu- 
pasityitajous  estod. 


*  Si  pater  familias  intestato 
morituTy  eui  suus  haeres  non 
erit,  agnatus  proximus  fa- 
miliam  habeto:  si  agnatus 
non  erit,  gentiles  familiam 
herciscuntoi 

.6. 

Cum  quis  nexum  fecerit 
mancipiumve,  uti  lingua 
nuncupaverit  ita  jus  esto. 


Tab.l. 


Sei  quips  ocentasity  cas- 
menve  condisity  quod  infami' 
am  faxit  Jlacitiomqtie  altereiy 
fuste  feritor.  Quei  malom 
casmen  incantasity  malomque 
venenom  faxsit  duilve,  kapi- 
tal  estod. 


Si  quis  occentaverit,  car- 
menve  condiddrit^  quod  in* 
famiam  fecerit 'flagitiumque 
alteri,  fuste  feritor.  Qui 
malum  carmen  incantaverit 
malumque  venenum  fecerit 
dedelltve,  capitale  esto. 


REMAINS   OP  EARLY  LATIN. 


Sfd 


Tab.  8. 


•Ambitus  parietis  estertios 
pes  ^stod 


Preivileciad   nei 
cantod.     Forctei  sanaieique 
sirtmpi  jou8  estod^^ 

Tab.  10. 

Sumtus  luctumque  af  De- 
orom  Maniom  joured  remove- 
tod.  Quel  coronam  parit 
ipsos  pequniave  ejus  virtutis 
ercod  arduitOTj  et  ipsei  mortuo 
parentalebos  ejusj  dum  intus 
posttos  escttyforisve  exfertur^ 
enddposita  se  frauded  estod, 
Jfeive  ausom  arduitodj  ast 
quoi  auso  denteis  vinctei  es* 
cunt  im  com  olo  sepdire  ure 
reve  se  frauded  estod.  I 


Inter  vicinorum  sudificia 
s^atium  duorum  cum  dimi*' 
dio  pedum  relinquitor. 

Tab.  9. 

endorO'  Privilegia  ne  irroganto 
Bono  Banatoque  civi  idem 
jus  esto. 


lesto. 
Tab.  11. 


Sumtus  luctumque  ab 
Deorum  Mdnium  jure,  re- 
moveto;  Qui  coronam  pa- 
raverit  ipse  pecuniave,  ejus 
virtutis  ergo  addatur,  et  ips!. 
mortuo  parentalibus  ejus 
dum  intus  positus  erit,  fo 
rasve  effertur,  imposita  sine 
fraude  esto.  Neve  aurum 
addat,  et  cui  auro  dentes 
vi»cti  erunt,  eum  cum  illo 
sepelire  urereve  sine  fraude 


Jousus  poplei  sofraciaque 
suntod.  Quodcuomque  pos' 
tr^mom  poplos  jousit,  idjous 
ratomque  estod. 


Jussuspopuli  sufiragiaque 
sunto.  Quodcumque  pos- 
tremum  populus  jusserit,  id 
jus  ratumque  esto. 


Tab,  12. 


Set  servos  sctentoddominod 
fourtom  faxsity  noxiamve 
noxsit^  noxsai  dedi/bd. 


Si  servns  sciente  domino 
furtum  fecerit,  noxamve  no- 
cuerity  noxae  dedito. 


lY.  Senatus  Consultum  de  Bacchanalibus.* 

(2.)  Marcius  L.F.  S.  (p.)  Postumius,  L.  F,  Cos.,  Sena- 
tum  consuluerunt  N.  Octob.  apud  aedem  Duelonai,  Scri" 
bendo  arfuerunt  M.  Claudius,  M.  F.  I^.  Valerius,  P.  F.  Q.. 
Minucius,  C.  F.  De  Bacanalibus,  quei  foideratei  esent,  ita 
exdeicendum  censuere.  Nei  quis  eorum.Bacanal  habuise 
velet.  Sei  ques  esent,  quei  sibei  deicerent,  necesus  esse 
Bacanal  habere,  eeis  utei  ad  Pr.  urbanum  Romam  veni- 

*  Merely  a  part  of  this  is  given. 


508  XMTIN   GRAmiAB. 

rent,  deque  eels  rebus,  ubei  eorum  itra*  audita  esent^ 
utei  senatus  noster  decemeret,  dum  ne  minus  Senatoribua 
C.  adesent,  (quom  e)  a  res  consoleretur.  Bacas  vir  nequis 
adiese  velet  ceivis  Romanus,  neve  nominis  Latini,  neve 
socium  quisquam,  nisi  Fr.  urbanum  adiesent,  isque  de 
Senatus  sententiad  dum  ne  minus  Senatoribus  C.  adesent, 
quom  ea  res  consoleretur,  jousisent,  censuere.  Sacerdos 
ne  quis  vir  eset,  magister  neque  vir  neque  nmlier  quisquam 
eset,  neve  pecuniam  quisquam  eorum  cotjQoinem  (h)  abuisBa 
▼elet,  &C. 


•••^ 


*  A¥o  rhoold  lead  frobaU j  rrfo. 


« 


i 


INDEX. 


■  <     I      I  -  1 1    ■  ■ 


%*  l%e  faanbers  indicate  the  paragraphs  in  brackets. 


4  {ab,  aht,  abuqu^t  its  meaning, 
aOi,  aOft,  dee,  396; 

«  pedilmsy  ah  epistoHSfU  rutionibus 
isse,  and  simikir  phrases,  305, 
in  fin. 

m  prificipwi  304. 

a  puerOf  a  pueriSf  304,  a.,  at  tm- 
tio,  304. 

a  jP&tton^)  and  similar  expres- 
sions, 304,  b. 

abalienare,  construction  oi,  468. 

abest  mtAt,  420,  note,  469.    Non 

.  multum  abest  quin,  540.  Tan- 
turn  abest  ut — ^u/,  779. 

abkhiCf  478,  and  note. 

abhorrere,  eonstruction  of,  468. 

abbreviation,  in  case  of  several 
persons  having  the  same  prae- 
nomen  and  cognomen,  785. 

ablative,  viith  passive  verbs,  451. 
Ablativtti  instrumenti,  455.  Ab- 
Uuivusctmsalis,  452,  Paraphra- 
sed by  the  partio.  perf.  passive, 
454,  719.  Ablative  denoting 
price  or  value,  456.  *  Ablat.  de- 
noting in  regard  to,  457.  Ablat. 
with  verbs  denoting  abundance 
or  want,  460.  Ablat.  with  the 
adject,  fidl   and  empty,  462. 

*  Ablat  of  quality,  471.  Ablati- 
tns  modi,  472.  •  Ablat.  denoting 
the  time  wbeni  476.  Ablat. 
denoting  how  long  before  or 
after  ^476,  foil.  Ablat.  in  an- 
^  swer  to  the  question,  "how 
*  long  before  the  present  time  V 
478*  To  the  question,  "  in 
what  timel"  479.  Ablat.  de- 
noting duration  of  time,  396. 
Ablat.  of  place,  481 .  Ablat.  in 
poetry  and  prose,  instead  of  ex 
or  a  with  the  ablat.,  481,  482. 
Ablat.  with  comparatives,  483. 
AM«t.  »f erasure,  488.  Ablat. 


'  '  absolute,  640,  foil, ;  foimed 
with  the  partic.  fut.,  643.  Ab- 
lat. absolute  in  passive  con- 
structions has  no  reference  to 
the  subject,  640.  Ablatives 
absolute,  of  which  the  subject 
occurs  in  the  leading  proposi- 
tion, are  rare,  ^1.  Ablat.  of 
the  partic.  perf.  pass,  as  ablat. 
absolute,  647.  Ablat.  absolute 
as  an  adverb,  648.  Ablat.  of  • 
the  gerund  denoting  instru- 
mentality, 667.  Ablat.  of  the 
gerund  with  ab,  de,  ex,  in,  pro, 
667.       •• 

abscissum  and  abscisum,  189. 

absolvere,  with  the  genit.,  446. 

abstinere,  145 ;  construction,  468. 

abstract  nouns  used  for  concrete 
ones,  675. 

abundare,  construction  of,  460. 

abunde,  267;  with  the  genitive, 
432. 

ac,  use  of,  332,  foil. ;  instead  of 
quam,  340.  Ac  and  atque  after 
aeque,  juxta,  6lc.,  340. 

accedere,  construction  of,  415. 

accedit  ut,  621,  622 ;  accedU  quody 
626. 

accent  of  final  syllables,  34.  Ac- 
cent in  verse,  828. 

acddU  tt/,  621. 

accipere,  with  the  participle  fp- 
ture,  653. 

accusare,  with  the  genit.,  446. 

accusative^  382;  with  intransit. 
verbs,  383-386;  with  imper- 
sonal verbs,  390.  Accusativus 
Graecus,  458  ;  the  same  in 
prose,  459.  Accns.  denoting 
space  and  time,  395.  Accua 
in  answer  to  the  question, 
"  how  Idng  before  the  present 
time^"  478.    Acdus-  witboul 


^70 


INDBZ. 


a  preposition  in  poetry,  401. 
Accus.  in  exclamations,  402. 
A  ecus,  with  prepositions,  404 ; 
with  the  verbs  of  renurpiering 
and  renUndingt  dcQ.,  439,  440. 
Accus.  of  the  subject  in  the 
construction  of  the  accus.  with 
the  infinit.,  605.  Accus.  with 
neuter  yerbs  indicating  a  par- 
ticular part,  458.  Accus.  to 
denote  dress,  458.  Accus.  in 
relative  clauses  with  the  accus. 
with  the  infinit.,  774.  Accus. 
of  the  gerund,  666. 

accusative  with  the  infinit.  as  sub- 
ject or  object,  600 ;  as  nomi- 
nat.  of  the  predicate,  600,  note ; 
with  the  verbs  of  sayitig^  decla- 
ring, dec.,  602;  after  relative 
pronouns  and  conjunctions,  inr 
stead  of  the  subjunctive,  603 ; 
used  as  an  exclamation  or  a 
question  expressed  with  indig- 
nation, 609;  alteiaatcS  with 
ut,  620.  Difiference  between 
the  accus.  with  the  infinit.  and 
the  accus.  of  the  gerund,  655. 

aequiescere,  construction  of,  41$, 
416.    • 

ae  nan,  334,  781. 

ac  si,  with  the  subjunctive,  572. 

active  verbs  used  as  deponents, 
207,  note. 

ad,  meaning  of,  296 ;  with  the 
gerund,  666. 

ad  id  locorum,  434. 

ad  tempos,  meaning  of,  296. 

ad  unum  otnnes,  phrase,  296. 

adde  quod,  628. 

adeo,  meaning  of,  281. 

adesse,  construction  of,  415. 

adhibere,  construction  of,. 416. 

adhuc,  meaning  of,  292;  adhuc 
locorum,  434. 

adjectives,  used  as  adverbs,  266, 
383,  in  fin.,  682 ;  used  substan- 
tively, 363 ;  their  neuter  gen- 
der with  substantives  of  other 
genders,  368 ;  used  dyr  adverbs 
of  place,  685  ;  used  for  ordid^ 
adverbs,  686.  Adject,  deno- 
ting origin,  683.  Adject,  with- 
out a  substantive  in  the  con 


Btmctlon  of  the  ablat.  abBokte^ 
645,  646,  648.  Adjective,  po* 
sition  of,  683,  793,  796.  Ad 
jectives  derived  from  proper 
names,  and  used  instead  of  the 
genitive  of  the  latter,  684.  The 
same  is  not  frequent  in  the 
case  of  adjectives  derived  from 
appellative  nouns,  684,  note. 
Construction  of  two  adjectives 
being  compared  with  each  oth- 
er, 6i90.  Adjectives  from  which 
no  adverbs  are  formed,  267. 
Adjectives  in  arius,  684,  note. 
Adjectives  formed  frqm  names 
of  towns,  265,  266.  Relative 
adjectives,  their  construction 
with  the  infinit.  is  poetical, 
598,  659,  in  fin. 

adijnsci^  466. 

adtre,  construction  of,  387. 

adjutare,  construction  of,  388, 
note. 

adiuvare,  with  the  accnsat.,  388. 

admoners,  construction  of,  439, 
with  ut  or  the  aocusat.  with 
the  infinit.,  615. 

adoleseentia,  675. 

adscribo,  orthography 4)f,  325. 

adspergere,  construction  of,  418. 

adulari,  construction  of,  389, 413. 

advemre  and  adventare,  construc- 
tion of,  489. 

adverbs  iir«,  263;  in  o,  264;  in 
ter,  265 ;  in  im,  268 ;  in  itus, 
269 ;  with  double  terminations, 
265,  note.  Adverbs  in  the  form 
of  neuters,  266.  Adverbs  in 
the  form  of  a  particular  case,, 
and  in  composition,  270.  Ad- 
verbs of  place  with  a  genitive, 
434.  Adverbs  joined  to  sub- 
stantives, 262,  note;%sed  as 
prepositions,  276;  with  parti- 
ciples, 722.  Ordin^  adverbs 
instead  of  numeral  adverbs, 
727. 

adver^us,  meaning  of,  299. 

a«,  diphthong,  2. 

aedes,  ellipsis  of,  762. 

aeinulari,  construction  of,  889, 
note  3,  413. 

aequalis,  constructioh  of,  411 


INDEX, 


571 


re  and  aeqmparart,  constraq- 
tion  of,  389,  note  2. 

aeqv-e  ae,  340. 

uequi  bomfacio^  dec,  444,  note. 

aeguiua  and  aequum  enu^  the  in- 
dicative instead  ot  thu  sub- 
junctiTc,  518. 

aeslimare,  with  tho  genitive,  444. 

affoHm,  with  the  genitive,  432. 

tjicere,  construction  of,  461. 

^fimst  constraetioB  of,  411,  436. 

tLffluere,  construction  of,  460. 

Mgere  cum  aUquo,  with  the  geni- 
tive of  the  crime,  446 ;  td  mgerc 
ui^  614.  <• 

aggredior,  construction  of,  387. 

«tit'  for  ottne,  218. 

at/,.ellip8is  of,  772;  its  position, 
802. 

Alcaic  strophe,  866. 

mli,  dropped,  136,  708. 

alias  and  alioqui,  diffisrenee  k%- 
tween,  275. 

aiienaret  construction  of,  468. 

alienus,  construction  of,  468, 470. 

aliquarUo  and  paulot  difference  be- 
tween, 108,  in  fin.,  488. 

aliquantum,  with  the  genitive, 
432. 

iiiqutM  and  aliquit.  meaning  of, 
129 ;  declension,  135.  Aliquid 
joined  with  an  adjective,  433 ; 
aliquid  as  an  adverb,  385,  677. 
Altquis  and  quiSf  difference  in 
the  use  of,  708. 

UiquispiarHf  129. 

diquo^  adverb  of  place,  434. 

— alis,  the  termination,  251 

s/t^if  adverb,  264,  note  1. 

alius  and  alierp  difference  be- 
tween, 141. 

alius — alius f  712  ;  aUus — alium, 
with  the  plural,  367. 

a'.iusy  with  the  ablative  in  poetiy, 
484.  Aliud,  with  the  genitive, 
432. 

sUatrare,  construction  of,  417. 

alter  and  aUus,  difference  be- 
tween, 14L 

alter — alter^  700,  note.  Alter — 
altemac^  with  the  pluial9i6C7. 

altaro  itn^  487. 

aU^ruter,  »?^,  140. 


amb  i&ft^,  inseparable  preposi- 
tion, 330. 

ambire,  conjugation  of,  21 5,  itt  fin. 

amicior,  with  the  accuaative,  458 

amicus,  construction  of,  410. 

ampUuSf  with  the  omission  of 
quam,  485. 

an,  use  of,  353,  354  ;  in  indirect 
questions,  353,  and  note  at  the 
foot  of  the  page.  An — an^  a 
poetical  and  unclassical«form 
of  a  question,  554,  in  fin. 

anacoluthon,  757,  815. 

anacrusis,  835. 

anapaestic  verse,  848. 

angor,  construction  of,  627. 

animans,  gender  of,  78,  in  fib 

animij  in  some  expressions  use  I 
for  animo;  437. « 

animo,  472,  note  1. 

animus,  used  as  a  circumlocution, 
678. 

an  minuSf  554,  in  fin. 

anne,  in  double  questions,  554. 

an  nan,  use  of,  454,  in  fin. 

annusj  compounded  with  numei 
als,  124. 

answer,  impliotl  in  the  question, 
716. 

ante,  meaning  of,  297 ;  its  posi- 
tion, 324;  with  the  ablative, 
476. . 

anlea  and  antehac,  323. 

antecedere,  construction  of,  488. 

antecellere,  construction  of,  417, 
488. 

antequam,  construction  of,  576. 

— onux,  the  termination,  254. 

aorist  of  past  time,  500. 

apage,  222. 

aposiopesis,  758,  823. 

appellare,  wjth  two  accusatives, 
394. 

appetens,  with  the  genitive,  438. 

apposition,  370 ;  its  place,  796.. 

apprime,  meaning  of,  273. 

aptus,  construction  of,  409  ;  aptus 
qui,  with  the  subjunctive,  568  ; 
aptus,  with  the  dative  of  the 
gerund,  664. 

apud,  meaning  of,  297 ;  with  the 
names  of  authors,  297. 

o^iM,  ellipsis  of,  763. 


ATS 


Il«M»l. 


xTMiv,  eonstniocion  of,  468 ;  i;rith 
quominust  ^  or  ^um,  643. 

tLteestere  or  aecerserif  SOS;  con-' 
BtniciioB,  446. 

ardeo,  oonstmction  of,  452. 

Arg&B  and  Argit  89. 

arguere,  with  the  genitiTe,  446. 

-Htfitim,  the  termination,  949. 

"-Htrius,  the  termination,  953. 

arsis,  827 ;  lengthened,  898. 

M,  and  its  division,  871. 

— A9,  the  ancient  form  of  the  gen- 
itive singalar,  46. 
-Of,  the  termination  of  the  Greek 
accus.  plural,  74. 

—asj  the  derivative  termination, 
255^  r. 

A.8clepiadean  verse,  861. 

Mssentio  and  a9»€nHor\  906. 

mstequi «/,  618. 

asamiihition  in  verbs  oomponnd- 
ed  with  prepositions,  325,  foil. 

tusis  non  habere,  444,  note. 

—otfto,  the  termination,  instead 
of  av^ro,  161,  e, 

assueseertf  constrabtfon  of,  416. 

asaueltis,  meaning  of,  688. 

asynartetus  versos,  859,  note. 

alt  use  of,  349;  is  superfluous, 
756 ;  at  vero^  use  of,  349. 

Athos,  Mount,  deelension  of,  62, 3. 

tUque,  use  of,  332,  note ;  meaning, 
333;  used  for  ^iMtin,  340.  Atque 

.     adeoy  737. 

•tqMi,  use  of,  849. 

aUenderCf  construction  of,  417. 

— dttu,  the  termination,  258. 

attraetion,  with  the  dative  with 
licet  este,  601 ;  with  mihi  nomen 
e9t,  421.  Attraction  to  the 
case  of  the  leading  proposition 
with  the  particle  quam,  in  the 
case  of  the  accusative  wi^  the 
infinitive,  608 ;  sometimes, 
.  also,  in  the  case  of  a  partici- 
ple, 774. 

Mudio  te  eanentem  and  te  canere, 
difference  of,  636. 

stfit/ur,  construed  like  dieitur, 
with  the  nominative  and  infin- 
'itive,  607,  note. 

migcultartf  construction  of,  413. 

siutfii,  161,  181. 


ana  and  t#/,  886 ;  c»l  2tt  a 
tive  sense*  337.  iiiif-— «til^  888, 
809  ;  with  the  singular,  374. 

autemy  its  position,  366 ;  ellipsis 
of  ott/em,  781. 

tnaruB,  with  ths  genitive,  436 

atfidus,  with  the  genitive,  486. 
,  the  termmation,  249^  4. 


Bacchic  verse,  85? . 
base,  6fn  verse,  868. 
belle,  1tH,ttote. 
bdlor  476,  note,  in  fin. 
bellumf  constnwd  like  the 

of  towns.  400. 
bene  te  !  759. 

benedkere,  construction  of,  413. 
^tdtiimi,  triduurHi  124. 
"-bUie,  the  termination,  249,  8 
boni  coTuulo,  444,  note. 
bos,  declension  of,  69. 
brevif  scil.  Umpore,  763. 
— bulum,  the  termination,  289. 
— bundtts,  the  adjective  termins 

tion,  948. 

C.  for  Gatus,  4^  its  pronuncia- 
tion, 6. 

caesura  (roju^),  830 ;  in  the  sena- 
rias,  837 ;  in  the  hexameter, 
842,  foil.  ;  caesura  buoolica, 
844 ;  caesura  in  the  Sapphic 
verse,  866;  in  Asdepiadeaa 
verse,  861;  in  Alcaic  verses 
862;  in  the  Satumian  verse, 
863. 

calendar,  calculatioapf,  867,  foU 

canere  receptui,  to  sound  a  retreat. 
422,  note.  ^ 

eafax,^mith  the  genitive,  436. 

capUtM  and  capite  dMnnmre,  mceu 
Murt,  447. 

caro,  ellipsis  of,  768. 

causa  and  gratia^  joined  with  meOi 
tua^  sua,  Ac,  424, 669, 678 ;  its 
positior ,  792 ;  is  omitted,  663. 
764. 

cave,  used  as  a  circumlocution  for 
the  imperative,  686 ;  with  the 
subjunctiie,  without ««,  694. 

caverif  construction  of,  414,  084 

cedere,  construction  of,  418. 

cedo,  the  imperativ6i-993. 


imiBX. 


«W 


•rn^m  It  with  two  ^fceusaiiigs,  391. 

tdnseo^  followed  bf  ut,  instead  of 
the  accusative  w^  the  ii^ni- 
tiYe,^17.  . 

C^aSf  declension  of,  52,  3v 

temm'CMt  528. 

cer^tf  and  <}«r/a»  266,  note  1. 

cervices  and  cermeenit  94. 

Mtara  and  reUqua,  for  ceteris^  459. 

ceterunty  meaning  of,  349 

celo9  and  c^Iim,  89. 

eeUf  poetical,  340 ;  with  tlie  sub- 
janctive»  572.  * 

Chaot  and  Ckam,  69. 

G^nambtc  verse^  856,  861. 

ci  or  /i,  6,  note  1. 

cingoTy  opBStruction  of,  458. 

do  and  cieo^  180. 

circa  and  circumy  m^iung  of,  262, 
298. 

circumdare^  constFuction  of,  418. 

drcumfwndere^    contttmctioii    of, 
.  418.  . 

f»,  cUrOf  meaning  of,  298 

ciiartj  with  tbe  genitive,  446. 

tlam,  adverb  and  preposition,  321. 

cUmcttlwrn^  321. 

Cn.i  that  is,  Gnacusy  4« 

OHurguere^  coostraotion  of,  446, 

coenare  and  habitare,  with  the  gen- 
itive, 444,  note. 

atepit  used  pleonastically,  753. 

co^us  ^uiih  221,  i&  fin. 

cognomen,  placed  after  the  gen- 
tile name,  797. 

c^go,  construction  of,  613. 

eoUeetive  nouns,  with  the  plural 
of  tbe  verb,  366. 

coUocare,  construction  01^489. 

com.  tor  eum^  m  compound  verbs, 
829.^ 

eomUarti  construction  of,  .388, 
note  1. 

eomitiis,  475,  note  in  fia. 

tanmiserari,  construction  of,  442. 

eommoneref  comnumefacere,  con- 
struction of,  439,j615. 

eommmHcarej  constraotion  of,  41 6. 

eomtmtnis,  with  the  dative  and 
genitive,  411. 
*  eommiUaret  construction  of,  456. 

compararct  construction  of,  415, 
416. 


I  comparative,  with  the  ablatfve, 
It    483 ;  used  pleo'nastically,  690. 

compedes,  76. 

eompertusi  with  the  genitive,  446, 
note. 

complere,  construction  ofy  463. 

complumt^  meaning  of,  65,  in  fin^ 

compoMre,  construction  of,  415. 

compos,  with  the  genitive,  436, 
437,  note  2. 

compound  woids,  260 ;  verbs 
compoffioded  vnth  prepositions, 
325,  foil. ;  compound  numerals, 
116, 118  ;  compounds  of  sequor 
and  sector,  888,  note  1. 

comrii  oonstrttction,  610. 

concedere,  with  ut  and  the  accusa 
tive  with  the  infinitive,  613, 
624 ;  with  the  particle  future 
passive,  653.  « 

concessive  mood,  529,  and  note. 

concrete  nouns,  used  for  abstract 
ones,  673 ;  for  names  of  public 
Offilces,-674. 

condicwne,  472,  note  1. 

conducere,  444;  with  the  paitior 
pie  future  passive,  653. 

amducit,  with  the  dative^  412. 

conferre,  oonstruetaon  of,  415, 416 

conficitur  i^,  618. 

caujidere,  construction  of,  413, 
452. 

congruere,  construction  of^  415. 

conjugation,  ancient  forms  ol, 
161,  foU. ;  paraphrased  conju- 
^tion,  168,  498. 

conjungere,  construction  of,  415, 
416. 

conjunctions,  331,  foil,  .356;  con- 
junctions, repeated,  756 ;  omitto 
ted,  782. 

conjunctiis.  With  the  ablntive 
alone,  474.- 

conacius,  construction  of,  437, 
note  2. 

oonaeoulio  temporum,  -612,  foil. 

Qonaenianeum   erat^  the   indioat 
*  used  for  the  subjunctive,  518 

emuentire,  415. 

coaaidersi  oonstrcmtion  of,  489. 

consors,  with  the  genitive,  436. 

constare,  construction  of,  444, 452 

coTts^Vuere^  construction  of,  489 


574 


INDBZ. 


With  tLe  infinitive  and  witti  ui, 
614.',  • 

constructio  ad  synesiqi,  368. 

earuuescere,  143 ;  construction  of, 
416. 

consuetudo  est,  with  the  infinitive 
and  with  lU,  622,  in  fin. 

eonsuUre,  constraction  of,  414. 

eontumere,  with  the  dative  of  the 
gerund,  664. 

contendere  ut,  614. 

contentuM,  construction  of,  467. 
Cantentus  sum  with  the  infinit. 
perfect,  590. 

t^ntermiimsy  with  the  dative,  411. 

contineri,  construction  of,  452. 

contingit  ut,  621. 

corUinuo,  meaning  of,  272. 

contra^  meaning  of,  290;  contra 

^  ea,  349  ;  contra  auro,  323. 

contraction,  11. 

convenio,  construction  of,  387. 

convenit,  construction  of,  413  ; 
used  in  the  indicative  instead 
of  the  subjunct.,  518. 

convertere,  145. 

conviciari,  with  the  dative,  412. 

convinceref  with  the  genitive,  446. 

corpus,  used  instead  of  the  per- 
sonal pronoun,  678. 

correlative  pronouns,  130;  ad- 
verbs, 288. 

CoSf  declension  of,  52,  3. 

^eare,  with.two  accusatives,  394. 

credo.  111 ;  crederes,  628. 

Creticus,  verse,  850. 

cretus,  with  the  ablat.,  451. 

crimine,  ellipsis  of,  446. 

— erum,  the  termination,  239. 

^ui,  a  monosyllabic  word,  11. 

cui  bonofuit,  422,  note. 

cujiis,  a,  um,  139,  2. 

— culum,  the  termination,  239. 

— cuius,  diminutive  iermination 
of  comparatives,  104,  note. 

cum,  mdhning  of,  307 ;  in  answer 
to  the  question  **  in  what  maiv 
nerT'  472;  ellipsis  of,  419; 
appended  to  the  ablative  of 
personal  and  relative  pronouns, 
324,  in  fin. 

eumprimis,  meaning  of,  273.' 

— cunque,  the  suffix,  ISS. 


cupere,Mim9imciion  of,  414 ;  with 
the  nom.  or  the  accns.  with  the 
infinit.,  609. 

cupidq,  gender  of,  75,  in^n. 

cupidus,  with  the  genitive,  436 

cupiens,  with  the  genit.,  436. 

cupio  tibi,  tua  causa,  414. 

cur,  276,  2 ;  est  cur,  562. 

curare,  construction  of,  614,  653, 
713. 

curiosus,  with  the  genitive,  436. 

Damnare,  construction  of,  446. 

damnasf  indeclinaUe,  103.  • 

dare,  quantity  of,  152,  note  ;,with 
the  dative,  422 ;  with  the  par- 
tici^  future  passive,  653  ; 
with  the  infinit.  it  is  poetical, 
except  with  bibere,  653 

Darius  and  Darius,  2. 

dative  with  verbs  compounded 
with  prepositions,  415;  with 
verbs  of  difiference,  468 ;  with 
verbs  of  separation,  469.  Da- 
tive of  attraction  with  licet  esse, 
601 ;  with  mihi  nomen  est,  421. 
Dative  with  passive  verbs  in- 
stead of  a6, 419 ;  with  the  par- 
ticiple perf.  pass.,' 419,  note. 
Dativus  commodi  and  incom- 
modi,  405.  Dativus  ethicus, 
409.  Dative  of  the  gerund 
with  esse,  664 ;  with  names  of 
dignities  and  offices,  665. 

de,  meaning  of,  308 ;  its  position, 
324;  is  used  instead  of  the 
genitive,  430 ;  de  node,  308. 

debebat,  the  indicat.  instead  of 
the  stibjunct,  518. 

decedere,  construction  of,  468 

decemere,  conMruction  of,  619. 

decef,  deduct,  with  the  acous., 
390 ;  decet,  with  the  infinit.  ac- 
tive and  passive,  608. 

declarare,  with  two  accusatives, 
394. 

dedocere,  construction  of,  391. 

deesscf  with  the  dative  of  the  ge- 
rund, 664. 

deest  mihi,  420,  note. 

defective  nouns,  in  case,  88,  M. 
m  mnnber,  91,  foil. 

defendere,  construction  of.  469 


INDEX. 


576 


mfene^  scil.  nomen,  with  the  gen- 
it,  446. 

ieficere,  construction  of,  388. 

iefungij  construction  of,  465. 

dejicere^  constructiofi  of,  468. 

dein,  a9  a  monosyllable,  11. 

delectarif  construction  of,  629. 

delectat  met  ^^^t  note. 

deligerej^with  two  accusatives, 
394. 

demonstratives,  omitted,  765, 
note  ;  used  instead  of  rela- 
tives, 805, 

demovere,  construction  of,  468. 

demquet  meaning  of,  727. 

depellere,  construction  of,  468. 

dependence  of  tenses  on  one  an- 
other, 612. 

deponents,  deffved  from  nouns, 
147,  note ;  deponents  with  the 
ablat.,  465. 

derivation  of  verbs  from  nouns, 
235  ;  from  adjectives,  235. 

desiderative  verbs,  232. 

designare,  with  two  accusatives, 
394.    ' 

desitus  sum,  200. 

desperarCf  construction  of,  417. 

deauetus,  633. 

delerior  and  pejor,  difference  be- 
tween, 111,  note. 

ieterrere  with  quominus  and  ne, 
543. 

deturbare,  construction  of,  468. 

dicere,  with  two  accusatives,  394 ; 
eUipsis  of,  620,  769. 

diceres,  528. 

<ftct/,  ellipsis  •f,  772. 

dicitur,  construction  of,  607. 

Uies,  its  gender,  86 ;  compounded 
with  numerals,  124;  die,  by 
day,  476 ;  dies,  repeated,  743. 

differre,  construction  of,  468. 

difficile,  adverb,  267,  and  note  2. 
Difficile  tst,  the  indicat.  being 
used  for  the  subjunct.,  520. 

difficilis,  with  the  infinit.,  the  su- 
pine, or  ad,  671. 

dignari,  with  the  ablat.,  467,  note. 

i^mls,  with  the  ablat.,  467 ;  with 
qui  and  the  subjunct.,  568 ; 
with  the  supine,  670. 

dimimutive  verbs,  233 ;  substan- 


tives, 240     adjectives,  250; 

comparatives,  104,  note. 
dis  or  di,  the  inseparable  prepo> 

sition,  330. 
discemeres,  528. 
discordari  eum  aliquo,  469. 
dissidere,  construction  of,  413,  v* 

fin. 
dissimilis,  construction  of,  411. 
distare,  construction  of,  468. 
distinguere,  construction  of,  460, 

foil, 
distributive  numerals  ancl  theii 

use,  119. 
dm,  294. 
diversus,  with  ab,  dat.  and  genit. 

468, 470.  • 

divertor,  as  a  deponent,  209,  in  fir 
dives,  Its  declension  and  compar 

ison,  102,  note ;  its  construr 

tion,  437,  note  2. 
division  of  words  into  syllablet 

14,2. 
docere,  construction  of,  891. 
dolere,  construction  of,  452,  629 
dominari,  construction  of,  413. 
dorhus,  its  declension,  83 ;  is  eon 

strued  like  names  of  towni 

400. 
donare,  construction  of,  418 
donee,  350,  575. 
donicum,  350,  note. 
doti  dico,  422,  note, 
dubitative  mood,  630. 
dubito  or  non  dubito,  construction 

of,  540,  541 ;  dubito  an,  mean 

ing  of,  354,  541. 
ducere,  Yike  habere,  with  two  aoca 
■  satives,  394 ;  in  numero,  or  tw 

loco,  394,   note   3  ;  with  the 

genit.,  444 ;  with  the  dative 

422. 
dudum,  287. 
duim  for  dem,  162. 
dum,  meaning  and  construction 

350,  note,  606,  507,  575  ;  com- 
pounded with  a  negative,  733. 
dummodo,  dummodo  ne,  its  mean 

ing,  342 ;  construction'  672,  ii 

fin. 
duntaxat,  meaning  of,  274 
duum^  forduorum  and  duarum,  1 1^ 
duumviri,  is  doubtful,  124. 


676 


IVWBX. 


a  or  ex^  meaning  of,  909  ;  is  Jsed 
instead  of  the  genitive,  430 ; 
oases  in  which  it  may  be  ( mit- 
ted,  468. 

re  publica,  for  the  good  of  the 
republic*  308,  in  fin.       * 

— «,  the  ancient  termination  of 
the  dat.  of  the  third  declension, 
68. 

•*e,  for  ci,  in  the  fifln  declension, 
85,3. 

r,  elided  in  the  imperfect  of  the 
foujfth  conjugation,  162. 

eoj  quantity  oU  16,  note  1. 

ecce,  compounded  with  pronouns, 
132,  in  fin. ;  with  the  nominal, 
and  acmis.,  403. 

ecqma  aoi  ecquae,  136,  note. 

ecquidf  meaning  of,  351,  Bote. 

ecquis  and  ecguitnam,  meaning  of, 
136. 

edepolf  361,  note. 

edicere  ut,  617. 

edim  for -edam,  162. 

ediius,  with  the  ablat.,  451. 

edocere,  with  two  accusat.,  391. 

^^ieere  ut,  618.  « 

^jfficienSf  with  the  genit.,  438,  note. 

tfficitwTj  with  the  accus.  with  the 
infinit.,  or.  ut^  618,  note. 

effugere,  construction  of,  388. 

egerCf  construction  of,  463. 

d  was  used  ancientiy  instead  of 
t,  2. 

ejus  used  for  «uu«,  550 ;  (quoad) 
ejus  fieri  potestt  484. 

—ela,  the  termination,  237,  note. 

eUsioU)  8. 

ellipsis,  758,  foU. ;  of  a  preposi- 
tion, 778. 

enure,  construction  of,  444.. 

en,  compounded  with  pronouns, 
132,  in  fin. ;  the  interrogatiye 
particle,  351 ;  the  interjection 
with  the  nominat.,  403. 

Iv  6ia  dvotVy  741. » 

'^end^s^  and  ttuidus,  terminations 

/   of  the  part.  fut.  pass.,  167. 

fmm  ahd  nam,  345,  note 

mimvero,  meaning  of  348,  note. 

tns,  156. 

*^€ntis8imuSf  termination  of  cer- 
tain superlatives,  106,  c. 


enunq'JMm,  851. 

— er,  in  the  lengthemng  ol  .|}it 
infinit.  pass.,  162. 

eo,  344,  note ;  vi'iih  comparatives. 
487 ;  as  9  conjunction,  444 
note ;  as  an  adverb  qf  plac« 
with  the  genitive,  434. 

eodem,  with  the  gcnit-i  434. 

epicene  (nomina  epicoega),  42. 

ejnstola,  with  a  possessive  pro 
noun,  684. 

epistolary  style,  requires  the  per- 
fect and  imperfect  instead  of 
the  present,  503. 

enodus,  gender  of,  54,  in  fin. 

tnolei  and  knoijferev,  500. 

equidem,  278. 

— ere,  instead  of  erunt,  163 

ergo,  meaning  o^99. 

ergo,  679. 

— errimus,  termination  of  cer^aii 
superlatives,  105. 

— erunt  (3d  pers.  plur.  perf.  act.), 
shortened  in  poetry,  163. 

esse,  joined  with  adverbs,  365 ; 
esse  a  pedibus,  ah  episiolis,  a  ra- 
tionibus,  &c.,  305,  m  fin.  Esse 
with  the  dative,  420, 422 ;  with 
the  genit.  of  quality,  427,  448, 
note  1 ;  with  the  dative  of  the 
gerund,  664;  With  the  genit. 
of  the  gerund,  662 ;  with  the 
ablat.  of  quality,  471. 

esse  videtur,  to  be  avoided  at  the 
end  of  a  sentence,  819. 

esse,  in  the  infin.  perf.  pass.,  592 

esse,  est,  ellipsis  of,  776. 

est,  equivalent  to^et^  %ll. 

est,  qvx,  with  the  subjunct.,  561. 

est,  \uod,  with  the  subjunct.,  56S 

est  ut,  621, 752  ;  equivalent  to  es 
cur,  562. 

et,  whether  used  for  oc,  340,  note 
foretiam,  335 ;  rarely  by  Cicero, 
698;  is  superfluous,  756;  el- 
lipsis of,  783.    Difiference  be- 
t  Acer  et  and  que^llBQS. 

et-^t  {que),  337,  809. 

el  ipse,  for  etiam,  698 ;  for  iiiwii 
697. 

et  is  {quidem.)i  699. 

et — neque  (nee),  337,  809. 

el  non,  334,  781        . 


INDKX. 


677 


i? 


»i«fitm,  340,  note. 

^tam,  ilB  difi^tenue  from  quoque, 

'335  ;  with  comparatiyes,  486. 
ciutmnvnc  and  «ttamh«m,  difier- 

ence  between,  285. 
^tsi,  341,  809. 

—etunif  the  termination,  249L 
etymology,  331. 
eu,  the  diphthong,  1. 
— iusf  the  termination,  250 
evadertf  construction  of,  468. 
svenie  ut,  621. 
txaequare,  oonBtniction  of,  399, 

note  2*  . 

cxcedere,  with  the  accusat.,  387. 
excellerer  construction  of,  488. 
excludere,  construction  of,  468. 
exire,  construction  of,  468. 
exisiimare,   with    two   accusat., 

394 ;  is  used  pleonastically,  750. 
txistwU  qui,  with  the  subjunct., 

661. 
expedire,  construction  of,  468. 
expedit,  with  the  dative,  412. 
experiens,  with  the  genit.,  488, 

note.  • 

tsspers,  with  Ifte  genit.,  436,  437, 

note  2 ;  with  the  aUat.,  487, 

note  2. 
x  quo  (scil.  tetnpore)f  309,  478, 

763. 
^xscissfum  and  exdsuniy  189. 
ixtemph,  meaning  of,  272. 
4Xtra,  meaning  of,  300. 
txtremum  est  ut,  631. 
exucre,  construction  of,  418. 
extUarCf  construction  of,  468. 
exKOTf  construction  of,  458. 

Fakda,  ellipsis  of,  39,  in  &i. 
^ae  (facto),  quantity  of,  24.     Fac 

forming  a  circumlocution  for 

the  imperatiTe,  686 ;  with  the 

subjunct.,  618,  624. 
^fkeere  de  aUquo,  aHquo,  alieui,  and 

facere  cum  aliqtto,  491 ;  faeere, 

with  two   aoousatiTes,   394 ; 

with  the  genitive,  444;  with 

a  participle,  618. 
Itcere  eertiorem,  construction  of, 

394,  note  1. 
''iaeere  rum  possum  quirtt  538. 
^€cer^  quod,  628 

c 


facere  «^,  618,  619,  816. 
facere,  ellipsis  of,  771. 
facile,  adverb,  267. 
facUis  and  dijfficiRs,  wilr  the  su- 
pine OT  ad,  671. 
factum,  egregie  factuTK,  722. 
fatlit  me,  390,  note. 
familiaris,  wilh  tho  dative   and 

genit.,  410. 
familias,  the  anrient  genit.,  45. 

note  1. 
fando  audire,  220. 
fas,  with  the  supine  in  u,  070. 
faxOffaxim,  6cc.,  161,  «. 
fearing,  verbs  of,  with  ut  and  ne., 

533. 
febris,  ellipsis  of,  763. 
feci^ndus,  with  the  genit.,  436 
fer,  quantity  of,  24. 
ferax,  with  the  genit.,  436. 
fere  and  fermB,  their  difference 

from  paene  and  prope,  t^to. 
fertilis,  with  the  genit.,  436  437 

note  2.        ^ 
fertur,  607. 

fidere,  construction  of,  413,  462. 
fieri  and  esse,  with  the  genit.,  444, 

448. 
fieri  non  potest  ut,  621 ;  quin,  538 
figures,  821 ,  &c. 
filius  andfilia,  ellipsis  of,  761. 
finitimus,  with  the  dative,  411. 
fit,  construction  of,  621. 
fiagitare,  with  two  accusat.,  39a 
flocci  haiere,  444,  note. 
florere,  with  the  ablat.,  460. 
foras  and  foris,  400,  in  fin. 
forem,  156,  in  fin.,  224. 
fore  ut,  594. 

forte,  fortasse,.forsitan,  371,  728 
fortuna  fortes,  759. 
fortmtus,  as  a  word  of  three  syl 

lables,  11. 
fractions,  how  expressed,  120 
freni,  proved  to  occur,  99. 
frequentative  verbs,  331,  1. 
freHuM,  construction  of,  467. 
frui,  construction  of,  466,  466 
frustra,  meaning  of,  276. 
fugere,  construction  of,  388 ;  fugt 

me,  390,  note. 
fkisse,  instead  of  esse,  with  tb« 

part.  perf.  pass  •  592 
c  c 


576 


INOBX. 


^ulgurtU  and  fiUmnat^  difierence  I 

of,  228. 
^ngi,  construction  of,  465,  466. 
future  tense,  its  use,  609,  610, 

616 ;  in  the  sense  of  the  im- 

perat. ,  686 ;  future  perfect,  611; 

future  perfect  with  ero  and  fue- 

TO,  168,  note. 
futurum  esse  u/,  694,  621. 
futurum  fuisse  ut^  696. 

Gf  the  letter,  4. 

gaudeo,  construction  of,  629. 

gender,  of  the  predicate*  376. 

genitive,  of  the  subject  and  ob- 
ject, 423,  and  note  1.  The 
genitive  instead  of  a  noun  in 
apposition,  426.  The  genit. 
with  adverbs  of  place,  4^; 
with  neuters  of  adjectives,  436 ; 
with  relative  adiectives,  436 ; 
with  the  participle  present  ac- 
tive, 438  ;  with  neuters  of  pro- 
nouns, and  adJQi^ve  pronouns, 
432.  Genitive  ef  quality,  426, 
427.  Pleonastic  genitive  in  ex- 
pressions denoting  time,  434, 
in  fin.  Genitive  paraphrased 
by  prepositions,  430 ;  of  value 
and  price,  444,  446  ;  of  guilt 
and  crime,  446 ;  of  punishment, 
447. 

genitive  of  the  gerund,  426,  669, 
folL ;  joined  with  the  genit. 
plural  of  substantives,  661. 

genitive,  of  the  participle  fut. 
passive  with  esse^  662. 

genitivus  partitivus,  429,  431. 

genitive,  its  position,  791 ;  in- 
stead of  the  ablat.,  437,  470  ; 
instead  of  the  accusat.,  661 ; 
the  genit.  animi  with  a^jee- 
♦      tives,  437,  1. 

genitusy  with  the  ablat.  alone,  461 . 

gentium^  used  pleonastically,  434. 

genus,  used  in  circumlocutions, 

.  678 ;  {hoe,  id,  iUud  omne)  genus 
used  adverbially,  428;  gpms 
clari,  for  genere,  in  Tacitus,  468. 

gerund,  in  a  passive  sense,  668. 

gerundivum,  656. 

glmdiatorilnu,  in  answer  to  the 
question,  "  when  1"  475,  note. 


gtoriartf  eonstractioii  of,  489. 
gnarus,  with  the  genit.,  43ft. 
gradatio,  a  fi^re,  822. 
gratuk  and  csuss^  679  ;  their  posi 

tion,  792. 
grtUias  agere,  construction  of,  628. 
gratias,  271.* 
gratis  constat,  equivalent  to  nikUs 

constat,  445. 
^a<u/ari,- construction  of,  629, 
gratum  mihi  est,  construcUoa  of^ 

626.  - 
Greek  words  in  poc,  T«atinized, 

62,  1. 

Habere,  witl^wo  accusat.,  394 , 
in  numero,  or  in  locOf  394,  note 
3 ;  with  the  genit.,  444 ;  with 
the  dative,  442 ;  with  tl^  par- 
ticiple perf.  pass.,  634. 

habeo  (non  ka^eo)  fuod,  with  the 
subjunct.,  662  ;  haieo  facere, 
662,  663. 

Aoc,  291. 

hactenus,  meanmg  of,  291,  fin 

Aa^c,  instead  of  ii»e,  132. 

hmiaxAnon,  difieiSDce  between, 
277 ;  hand  scio  an^  354,  721 

hei,  with  the  dative,  403. 

heu,  with  the  accusat.,  402. 

hexameter,  841. 

hiatus,  8,  10  ;  within  a  word,  11. 

Ate,  meaning  of,  127 ;  in  expres- 
sions of  time,  479,  note ;  as  an 
adverb  of  place  with  the  genit., 
434. 

hio-'^iUew  700,  foil.  ;  kie  joined 
with  talis  and  ttmtus,  701,  pote ; 
hie  et  hie,  hie  etille,  7Q1. 

hie,  hue,  kine,  adverbs  of  pl^ce, 
291.  f 

hinc,  344,  note  291. 

historical  infinitive,  682 ;  histor- 
ical period,  817. 

iu)c,  ideonastiQ,  748 ;  with  the  ^ 
genit.,  432. 

hoe,  with  comparatives,  487. 

hoc  dico,  700. 

homo,  homines,  ellipsis  of, 
381,  760. 

honor  and  honos,  69. 

hortor,  construed  with  i^,  610 

hsrtus  and  horti  (hortuii)^  9A. 


'♦ 


INDEX. 


679 


hoBtis^  with  ilic  genit.  and  dative, 

410. 
huiCf  as  a  raonosyllaXne,  11. 
hucy  with  the  geoit,  484. 
hujus  non  fticiOt  444,  note, 
hypothetical  sentence8,<619,  524 ; 

in  the  infinitive,  598,  595,  596. 
Hypothetical  subjunctive,  629. 

/and  u,  middle  sounds,  2-;  t  and 
e  for  Che  Greek  ec,  1 .  The  let- 
ter t,  3 ;  t  in  the  genit.  singuL, 
instead  of  if,  61,  1 ;  in  the 
ablative  of  names  of  towns,  63, 
in  fin.,  and  the  note  at  the  foot 
of  the  page ;  H,  for  ti,  in  the 
genit.  sing,  of  the  second  de- 
clens.,  49 ;  in  the  perfect,  160 ; 
t,  instead  of  jit  in  the  com- 
pounds of  jacere,  183. 

— to,  the  termination,  246,  2. 

— za,  quantity  df,  16,  note  1. 

jamy  e.  g.,  nihil  jam,  286. 

iambic  verse,  835,  foil. 
•     jamdudum,  287. 

'jampridemf  287,  in  fin. 

— ^bam,  instead  of  iebaniy  162. ' 

— ibo,  instead  pf  torn,  162. 

— icio,  instead  of  jicio,  in  the  com- 
pounds of  jacio,  183,  in  fin. 

^-icust  the  termination,  250,  2. 

ictus,  828. 

ti,  with  the  ^enit.,  432 ;  id  aetatts^ 
id  tem^oris,  459 ;  id  a^ere  ut, 
614 ;  td  quod,  instead  of  quod, 
371. 

Hem,  meaning  of,  127 ;  with  the 
genit.,  432;  instead  of  etiam 
ijpd  tamen,  127,  697 ;  idem  qui, 

'  dc,  atque,  ut,  cum^  704 ;  idem 
with  the  dative,  704,  in  fin. 

identidem,  276,  2^ 

idoneus,  with  qui  and  the  sub- 
junctive, 568  ;  with  the  dative 
of  the  gerund,  664. 

jccur,  declension  of,  57. 

igitur,  355 ;  placed  first  in  Cice- 
ro, 357;  equivalent  to  "I  say," 
739. 

ignarust  with  the  genitive,  436. 

— iUf  the  termination,  244. 

adem'and  iisdem,  pronunciation 
^        Lft  132,  note. 


— Xlis,  the  termination;  249,  8. 

— llis,  the  termination,  250,  8. 

iliac,  291. 

illacrimare,  construction  of,  416. 

illaec,  instead  of  illae,  182. 

ille,  mea,ning  of,  127,  700 ;  in  ex- 
pressibna  denoting  time,  479; 
as  a  pronoun  of  the  third  per 
son,  125,  note ;  the  preceding 
substantive  is  understood,  767, 
note.  lUe  and  hie,  700,  702 , 
ille,  joined  with  talis  and  tantus, 
701,  note ;  ille  et  ille,  701,  note ; 
ille  quidem,  744. 

illic,  iiluc,  mine,  291. 

— illimus,  termination  of  supeil#* 
tives,  105,  b. 

illo,  291,  note. 

Ulud,  with  the  genit.,  432  ;  used 
pleonastically,  748. 

iUudere,  construction  of;  417. 

imitari,  388. 

immemor,  436. 

immunis,  437,  note  2,  468. 

immo,  meaning  of,  277. 

impatiens,  with  the  genit.,  438. 

impedire,  with  quominus  and  ne 
543,  c ;  with  the  infinitive,  544 

imperare,  construction  of,  617. 

imperative,  583 ;  paraphrased  by 
fac,  noli,  cave,  58^  the  imper- 
ative of  direct  speech  become* 
the  subjunctive  in  the  oratig 
obliqua,  603.  Use  of  the  im- 
perative future,  584;  the  im- 
perat.  fut.  passive  has  no  sec- 
ond person  plur.,  151, 164.  Thr 
imperat.  perf  passive,  587. 

tmperfect  of  the  indicative,  502 ; 
the  imperfect  in  hypothetical 
sentences,  524 ;  used  instead 
of  the  pluperfect,  525,  528. 

imperfect,  of  the  subjunctive,  in 
doubtful  questions,  530,  note ; 
its  difierence  from  the  perfect 
of  the  subjunct.,  504. 

imperitus,  construction  of,  436. 

impersonal  verbs,  with  the  accu- 
sat.,  390 ;  with  the  genit.,  441 ; 
with  the  ablat.,  404 ;  with  tlMt 
dative,  412. 

impertire,  418. 

impitrare  uty  GI8. 


5»0  . 


INDEX. 


implere,  463. 

nupanerCf  490 

impost  436. 

tmpoUnSt  436. 

imprimeret  416. 

imprimist  meaning  of|  27^ 

impune^  adverb,  267. 

f«.  meaning  of,  314,  foil;  with 
the  accusative  instead  of  the 
Ablative,  316;  with  the  abla- 
tive in  answer  to  the  question 
"  whither  1 "  489 ;  omitted  in  ex- 
pressions denoting  place,  481, 
482 ;  in  expressions  denoting 
time,  475  ;  with  names  of 
towns,  398.  In  manibus  esse^ 
habere,  316  ;  in  dies,  with  com- 
paratives, 315. 

in^  the  negative  prefix  in  com- 
pounds, 328. 

inania,  437,  note  2*. 

incassumf  meaning  of,  275. 

incedere,  387. 

incerlum  est  an,  354. 

inchoatives,  234;  list  of  them, 
204,  foil. 

inciditut,  621. 

incommodare,  412. 

increpare,  446. 

incumbere,  415.  416 

incuriosuSf  wnh  the  genit.,  436. 

i^ctuaref  446. 

inde,  344,  note. 

indicative,  in  sentences  of  a  con- 
dicio  imperfecta,  518,  619,  b., 
520,  521, 522 ;  in  inserted  clau- 
ses, 516  ;  as  a  circumlocution. 
547,  548. 

indigere,  463. 

indignarif  629. 

indignus  qui,  with  the  subjunct., 
568  ;  indigmts  with  the  abla- 
tive, 467. 

indirect  speech,  545,  foil.,  603. 

induere,  418. 

inesse,  415,  416. 

infamare,  446. 

infinitive  perfect,  instead  of  the 
infinit.  present,  590, 611 ;  infin- 
it.  future  with  verbs  of  promis- 
ing and  hoping,  605;  infinit. 
future,  paraphrased ;  the  his- 
torical infinit.,  599,  note ;  the 


infinit.  as  the  s abject,  597, 599 
as  the  object,  597;  as  the  pred- 
icate, 600,  note.  The  infinit 
with  relative  adjectives  is  po 
etical,  598, 659,  in  fin. ;  the  in- 
finit. instead  of  the  genit.  of 
the  gerund,  659 ;  instead  of  ui 
with  the  subjunct.,  616. 

infinitum  est^  the  indicat.  instead 
of  the  subjunct.,  520. 

tVi/ra,  meanmg  of,  300.     • 

inimicitiae,  a  plurale  tantum,  94. 

inimicus,  with  the  dative  and 
geniti,  410. 

initio^  at  first,  without  a  preposit.^ 
495. 

innitor,  452. 

inquam,  *«  I  say,**  739. 

inquit,  ellipsis  of,  772 ;  its  posi- 
tion, 802. 

insatiabilis,  with  t^e  genit.,  436. 

inscius,  with  the  genit.,  436. 

inscribere,  416,  490. 

insculpere,  490. 

inserere,  490. 

insimulare,  446 

insolens,  436. 

insolitut,  436.  *       « 

inspergere,  418 

ins  tar,  89. 

instituo,  615. 

insuesco,  416. 

insuetus,  with  the  genit.,  430. 

insumere,  with  the  dat.  of  the  ge- 
rund, 664. 

integrum  est  ut,  623. 

intentum  esse,  with  the  dative  of 
the  gerund,  664. 

inter,  meaning  of,  300 ;  with  Hie 
gerund,  666;  instead  of  the 
genitive,  '430  ;  repetition  of 
745. 

intercedere,  with  quominus  and  ne 
543. 

intercludere,  418. 

inter dicere,  418,  469. 

interdiu,  475. 

intered,  270. 

interea  tod,  434. 

interesse,  construction  of,  415^ 
449,  745. 

interjections,  359,  foil. ;  construe 
tion  of,  403. 


INDEX. 


581 


mierrogare,  with  two  accusat.,- 
893 ;  with  the  genit,  446. 

interrogative  particles,  351,  note. 
Interrogative  sentences,  552, 
553,  554  ;  in  the  accusal,  with 
the  infinit.,  603. 

tfUrjk,  meaning  of,  300. 

intransitive  verbs  used  in  a  tran- 
sitive sense,  and  governing  ttie 
ar*c.usat.,  883 ;  with  the  dative, 
412. 

invadere,  387. 

invenirc,  with  two  accusat.,  394. 

imoeniuntw  qui,  with  the  subjunc- 
tiirer661. 

inventuntt  as  a  substant.  joined 
with  an  adverb,  722. 

tnvidere,  412,  41 3» 

invidendtUf  as  an  adjective,  657. 

-^nusy  the  termination,  252. 

inuHHs,  409 ;  with  the  dative  of 
the  gerund,  664. 

— isf  the  termination,  237 

Ionic  Terse,  852,  foil. 

tpse,  meaning  of,  125,  note,  695, 
702 ;  used  as  the  subject,  906 ; 
with  possessive  pronouns,  696, 
note ;  in  the  oblique  cases,  702. 
Ipsum  joined  to  an  infinitive, 
598 ;  to  nunc  and  turn,  270 ;  et 
ipse,  instead  of  etiam,  698. 

vrasci,  with  the  dative,  412 ;  its 
perfect  auccensui,  209; 

ire,  with  the  supine,  669. 

«rony,  implied  in  certain  particles, 
345,  note,  526. 

•«,  meaning  of,  127;  at  the«be- 
ginning  of  a  sentence,  699 ; 
instead  of  the  reflective  pro- 
noun, 604 ;  ellipsis  of,  765, 766 ; 
used  pleonastically  with  qui- 
dentf  744 ;  isqite,  et  is  {quidem), 
699  ;  is'-qui,  656,  704. 

Is  (m),  in  the  accusftt.  plur.  in- 
stead of  esy  68,  note. 

— is,  dropped  in  the  preterite 
tenses,  161. 

islands,  names  of,  construction 
of,  398,  note  1. 

istac,  291 

isief  meaning  of,  127,  701 ;  iste 
joined  with  *alis  and  tantus, 
701,  note. 


istic,  isHtc,  istific,  adverbs  of  plaoe, 

291. 
isto,  as  an  adverb,  291,  note. 
istud,  with  the  genitive,  432. 
ita,  281, 726;  used  pleonastically, 

748  ;  ita  ut,  726. 
itaqn%  344,  note ;  its  nositioa. 

355 ;  comp.  739. 
— itas,  the  termination,  24tt. 
iterum»\22. 
ilinere,  without  the  preposit.  tn. 

482. 
jubeor  facere,  vetor,  607. 
jubere,  construction  of,  412 ;  with 

the  accus.  with  the  inflnit.  <&c., 

617. 
jucundus,  with  the  supine,  infinit., 

or  ad,  671. 
judicare,  with  two  accusat.,  394  , 

with  the  genit.  of  a  crime,  446. 
jngerum,  declension  of,  9*7;  its 

meaning,  875. 
— ium,    derivative    termination, 

241. 
— ium,  in  the  genit.  plur.  of  the 

third  dcclens.,  66. 
junctus,  with  the  ablat.  alone,  474. 
Juppiter,  declension  of,  69. 
— tus,  quantity  of,  16 ;  termina 

tion,  251,  6. 
juratus,  with  an  active  meaning 

123. 
juris  («)  consuUus,  437,  note  2. 
justum  erat,  the  indicat.  instead 

of  the  subjunct.,  518. 
juvare,  388  ;  juvat  me,  390,  note. 
juxla,  as  an  adverb,  383 ;  juxui 

ac  {atque),  340,  note. 

K,  the  letter,  5.  ^ 

Laborare,  452 

laetari,  with  the  ablat.,  452. 

latef  me  and  mihi,  390,  note. 

lavere,  instead  ofUvare,  171. 

laurus,  declension  of,  97. 

laxare,  468. 

legatus,  joined  with  the  genit 

and  dative,  681. 
lege,  472,  note  1. 
legem  dare,  construction  of,  817. 
— lantus,  the  termination,  252.  \0 
levare,  46R. 


INDKX. 


kberare,  with  the  geniL,  446  ; 

with  the  ablat.  alone,  or  with 

2^468 
liber,  468. 

liecre,  with  the  genit.,  444. 
Hcet,  construed  as  a  ooDJuaetion, 

574 ;  lu,et  esse,  with  the  accus. 

and  the  dative,  601 ;  with  the 

infmit.   act.  and    pass.^  608 ; 

with  the  subjunct.,  6#1;  liceti 

the  indicat.  instead  of  the  sttb- 

junct,  618 ;  used  pleonastical- 

ly,  760. 
tiiUrae,  orthography  of,  12 ;  with 

distributive  -  numerals,    119  ; 

with  possessive  {nronouns,  684. 
locare,  with  the  genit,  444 ;  with 

in  and  the  aolat.,  489;  with 

the  partioiple  fnt  pass.,  668. 
loci,  locorum,  434:  lod  and  hcii, 

difference  between,  99. 
loco  and  locis,  without  the  prepos. 

f»,  481. 
loctMf  in  apposition  to  names  of 

towns,  399. 
iogaoedic  verse,  868. 
long  syllables,  15;  lon^  vowels, 

16,  note  1 ;  in  certain  words, 

17.  X 
longe^  with  comparatives  and  su- 
perlatives, 108. 

longuSy  with  the  accusal,  396. 
longum  est,  the  indicat  instead 

of  the  subjunct,  620. 
luciy  in  the  phrase  cum  primo  hid, 

78,  note. 
ludere,  transitive  and  intransitive, 

883. 
litdis,  in  answer  to  the  question 

"  wheig"  476,  note. 
— Iu8y  la,  lum,  the  termination, 

240. 

Mactare,  418. 

niacte,  103,  and  maeti,  453. 

magia,  used  in  oircumlocutions, 

106,  114,  690;  pleonastically, 

747. 
magnam,  maximam  partem,  459. 
magni,  parol,  Ac,  witli  the  verbs 

of  estimating,  444,  446. 
magno,  parvo,  &e.,  with  the  verbs 

of  buying,  445. 


maledteere,  412. 

mo/tm,  with  the  subjunct.,  OM 

malUf  construction  of,  488. 

tnallem,  meaning  of,  628. 

tnandare,  617. 

mane,  89,  270. 

manere,  with  the  accusat.,  383. 

mantfeatuSf  with  the  gcnit.,  446, 
note. 

mare,  ellipsis  of,  763. 

me,  before  the  names  of  ^>d8« 
361,  note. 

mederi,  with  the  dative,  412. 

tnedieari  aod  medicare  construc- 
tion of,  413.  « 

meditari  tU,  614. 

mediuafidfUki,  861,  note. 

mehercvle,  361,  note. 

meliu$  erat,  ike  indicat  instead 
of  the  subjunct,  618. 

melos,  mehu,  and  mjthim,  89. 

memini,  construction  of,  439, 440, 
with  the  infiuit  present  689. 

memor,  436. 

— men,  the  termination,  238. 

int0nentem  ^tenit,  eonatruetion  o( 
439,44a 

' — menttnn,  the  termination,  238. 

—^net,  the  suffix,  131,  189. 

metuens,  with  the  genit,  488. 

metuere,  construetion  of,  414^  688. 

meum  eat,  44S.  ^ 

mi,  for  mtAt,  131. 

mihi  crede,  instead  of  prof ecto,  801. 

mile,  Roman,  876. 

miles,  instead  ofknilitet,  364. 

militia,  constmcd  like  the  names 
of  towns,  400. 

military  egressions  without  the 
prepos.  cum,  473. 

mUle  and  milia,  116. 

millies,  in  the  sense  of  "very 
often,"  692. 

million^  h<lw  expressed,  116. 

minimitm,  with  the  genit,  482. 

ministrare,  eonsti*uotioa  o^  412; 
653. 

minits,  with  the  genit,  482;  In- 
stead of  non,  731;  without 
quam^  397,  486. 

miror,  629. 

miseran,  442. 

miserescere  and  misereri,  44% 


nri>ix. 


588 


md9€rei,990t  441. 

mMre^  with  the  particip.  fot. 
pass.,  653 ;  with  the  particip. 
fut.  act.,  668. 

mode  of  an  action,  271. 

modtrarit  414. 

nuN^t,  joined  with  a  pronoun,  sup- 
plies the  place  of  a  pronoun  of 

quality*  678. 
modoj  472,  note  1. 
moda-^^maiot  723. 
modo  mm,  i.  e.,  **  neariy,"  780. 
modo  ne,  672. 
modus,  used  in  circumlocutions, 

678. 
moneref  with  ut,  or  the  acoust 

with  the  infinit,,  615 
mora,  in  Yerse,  826. 
mns  or  maris  est,  construction  of, 

622. 
movere,  as  *an  intransitive  verb, 

145. 
moK,  laeaning  of,  287. 
mulH  et,  756. 
muUo,  with  superiatives,   108 ; 

with  comparatiTes,  487. 
mUtum,  with  the  geait.,  432. 
mulhis  and  ^tmmut,  the  singular 

instead  of  the  plural,  109. 
muta  cum  liquida,  31. 
mutiure  and  contmic/cr«,  construc- 
tion of,  456. 
mutiio,  264. 

Nae,  360,  note. 

num  and  emuiy  345,  note;  nam, 

namque,   345,  n<^,  739,  808, 

note, 
names  in  ius  used  as  adjectives, 

254. 
naseUur,  615. 
natu,  90,  670. 
natura  fert,  tU,  622,  in  fin. 
natus,  <*  old,**  with  the  accusat., 

397 ;  with  the  ablat.,  451. 
nauci  habere,  444,  note. 
ne,  inseparable  particle,  330,  in  fin. 
ne,  24,  note,  347,  532;  573. 
Mfthe  interrogative  particle,  352, 

554 ;  with  the  accus.  with  the 

infinit.,  609. 
u — ne,  a  poetical  and  unclassical 

form  of  a  question,  454. 


ne  altquidy  708 ;  nt  muiia,  ne  nnu* 

Hs,  ne  plura,  -769 ;  ne  mm,  535 ; 

after  mde,  754,  note. 
ne,  with  the  subjunct.  instead  ol 

the  imperat.,  529,  note. 
nsf  v«th  the  imperative,  in  Plautua 

and  Terence,  585. 
fiM— 9100,  with  the  singular,  374. 
nee,  instead  of  lie — quidem,  277. 
nse,  instead  of  men,  535,  in  fin. 
mc  ipse,  698. 
nae  u,  699. 
neene,  554. 
nee  non,  334. 
necesse,  103,  in  fin. ;  netesse  est, 

construction  of,  625 ;  with  the 

infinit.  act.  and  pals.,  608. 
necesse  fuit,  the  indicat.  instead 

of  the  subjunct.,  519. 
nedum,  with  the  subjunct.,  573, 

724,  a. 
nefas,  with  the  supine  in  u,  670 
negatives,  doubled,  337 ;  instead 

of  an  affirmative  expression, 

754,  foil. ;  joined  with  a  con- 

junction,  738. 
negligens,  with  the  genit.,  438 
nego^  instead  of  non  dico,  79fl 
negotium,  ellipsis  of,  448. 
ntmo  and  mdhis,  88,  676;  nema 

est  qui,  with  the  subj.,  561 ;  wmt 

non,  755.  * 

Sempe,  meaning  of,  278, 345,  note 
nequa  and  nequae,  137,  note. 
nequaquam,  289. 
neque  and  et  non,  334. 
neque,  instead  of  et  ne,  535. 
neque^-neque,  or  nee — nee^  neque 

'-nee,  nee — neque,  338. 
neque  enim,  neque  9ero,  neque  ta* 

men,  808, 
neque  (nee)-^t  {que),  338. 
neque  non,  754. 
neque  quisquam^  uUus,  unqudm^ 

&c.,  738. 
nequicquam,  meaning  of,  275. 
ne — quidem,   277  ;    its    positions 

801. 
ne  quia,  137,  709,  7.38. 
Tiescio  an,  meaning  of,  354,  721 ; 

nescio  an  nullus,  nunquam,  721  * 

nesMo  quis,  equivalent  to  ak* 

quis,  553,  in  fin. 


•84 


IVOEZ. 


wUb  the  genit.^ 
nev€y  a47,  535,  686. 
neuter,  pronuooiatiob  oC,  1 ;  dif- 
ference between  neutar  and  uir 

lUSy  431. 

•enters  of  adiecthreR.  need  a» 
adverbs,  267 ;  as  aubstantives 
with  a  genitivet,  435;  i^euters 
of  pronouns  with  intransitlTe 
verbs,  386  ;  neaters  of  pro- 
nouns,  used  as  substant.  with 
a  genit.,  432,  433;  used  as 
substantives,  368 ;  the  neuters 
of  possessive  pronouns  used 
instead  of  the  genit.  of  personal 
pronouns,  448,  449. 

neutralia  piftsiya,  148. 

fit,  use  of,  343. 

mihilt  with  the  genitive,  4^ ;  in- 
stead of  lum,  677 ;  nihil  iUiud 
quamy  735,  771 ;  nihil  est  quod, 
with  the  sufajunct.,  562 ;  mkUi 
facto,  444,  note  ;  nihil  turn, 
755  ;  TtihUo  eecius,  283. 

nihurum,  271,  845,  note.^ 

uisi  and  si  non,  343 ;  ntsi,  with 
the  indicat.,  526;  nisi,  **ex- 
c^t,"  732,  b„  735 ;  ftm  farU, 
with  the  indicat.,  536  ;  itm 
^uod,  627 ;  nisi  vero,  with  the 
indicat.,  526. 

nocte,  noctu,  475. 


noli,  used  in  paraphrasing  the'      sed  et,  336. 


nondum,necdum,itC.,'m,.  -    • 
no»  est  quod,  with  this  aobjiMl    . 

562. 
non  ita,  non  item,  730. 
non  magis-^^uasn,  725, 800 
non  minus — qtiam,  735. 
non  modo  "sed  {wermm),  ec  ..aralenl 

to  nam  diemti^-sed,  72a,  809. 
non  modo,  instead  of  9M4  moJo  wm, 

724,  b. 
nonne,  352. 
non  mwio,  nihil,  nuilus,  ntntquMm, 

755. 
nonnikU,  677. 

non  nisi,  "  only,**  755 ;  its  posi- 
tion, 801. 
non  possum  non,  754. 
non  quo  {quod,  quin),  536,  6U&', 

678 
non  quia  non,  instead  of  11071  ^i 

637. 
non  tan^'^quam,  724. 
nos,  instead  of  ego,  and  noster  h 

stead  of  meus,  694. 
nostri  and  noslrum,  difference  b»t 

tween,  431^  094. 
not,  expressed  by  pm-um,  minm, 

731 ;  by  man  item,  '/30,  b. 
not,  how  exprorsed  with  an  iia- 

perat.,  585. 
not  only — ^but  (alio),  expreaseb* 

by  non  solum —  sed  eiiam,  724 . 


i 


imperat.,  686. 

nolim,  with  the  subjunct.,  624. 

noUem,  meaning  of,  528. 

nomen  est,  construction  of,  421. 

nominare,  with  two  accusatives, 
394. 

nominative,  with  the  infinit.,  in 
the  case  of  the  passive  verbs 
of  thinking  and  declaring,  607 ; 
with  the  active  of  the  same, 
612.  Import  of  the  nomina- 
tive, 379 ;  nominative,  instead 
of  the  vocatiTe,  492. 

nomine,  670 

non,  follov>cd  by  a  negative,  754, 
in  fjn. ;  non,  without  a  conjunc- 
781;  its  position,  .''99; 
non,  «vith  the  imperative  585, 
lAUbc ;  difference  between 
and  haud.  277. 


non 


noun,  placed  in  the  dependen 
clause,  814 ;  proper  nouns  usa 
as  adjectives,  258. 

nomim  est  ut,  69^. 

noxius,  with  the  genit.,  446,  note 
with  the  dative  of  the  geruntf 
664. 

nubere,  with  the  dative,  406. 

nubilo,  646. 

nudius  tertius,  270. 

nulUus  and  nuUo,  instead  ofnem 
nis  and  nemine,  676. 

nuUus  and  neuter,  difference  be 
tween,  431 ;  nuUus  est  qui,  wit> 
the  subjunct.,  561 ;  nai/v«,  676 
used  for 'non,  688 ;  mdlus  non 
755 ;  nuUus  dubito,  688,  in  fin. 

num,  meaning  of,  351,  note;  i. 
not  used  in  double  questions 
554 ;  num-^nu  •n.  in  poet  iral  an* 


INDEX. 


585 


onclassieal  fOnns  dT a  question, 
154,  in  fin. 

mber,  of  the  verb  when  belong- 
ing to  several  subjects,  373, 
374 ;  when  they  are  connected 
by  cum,  375. 

numerals,  with  the  genitive,  429. 

numcrus,  oratorical,  818 ;  poet- 
ical, 827. 

numqua  and  numquae,  137: 

numquidy  351,  note. 

mtncupare,  with  two  accusat.,  394. 

nunc — nunc,  723 ;  nunc  and  tuTic, 
732. 

nunquam  non,  755. 

nuntiaiur,  like  dicitur,  with  the 
nominat.  and  the  infinit.,  607. 

nuper,  287. 

nuspiam,  284. 

nusquam,  433. 

O,  instead  of  u  afler  v,  2  i  instead 

of  au,  2. 
19,  the  termination  of  verbs,  its 

quantity,  26,  note. 
0,  with  the  accusat.,  402,  with 

the  vocat.,  492. 
o  si,  with  the  subjunct.,  671. 
9b,  meaning  of,  300. 
obire,  387. 
oblivisd,  439. 
jbruo,  460. 
jbsequi,  388,  note  1. 
ihstare,  with  quominus  and  ne,  543. 
htrectare,  412, 413. 
obumbrare,  417.  ^ 

occumbere,  387. 
occurrit,  ut,  621,  a. 
Of,  the  diphthong,  2. 
Oedipus,  declension  of,  59. 
offieere,  with  ^tfomtnui  and  n«,  643. 
olere,  383. 
j^/i,  o/k  (from  ollus,  i.  e.,  t7/e),  132, 

note. 
omnino,  266,  note  2. 
omnium,  with  superlatives^  691. 
—an,  termination  of  the  genitive 

plur.,  73,  b. 
opera  med,  equivalent  to  per  me, 

465,  note. 
operam  dare,  ut,  614,  a. 
wportebat,  oportuit,  the  indioat.  ki- 

8t3ad  of  the  subjunot.,  61R. 


oportet,  constriction \)f,  600,  A25. 
oppetere  mortem,  387. 
oppido,  107,  note,  266,  note  2. 
oppidum,  in  apposition  to  names 

of  towns,  399. 
oppleOy  460. 
opiabilius  erat,  the  indicat.  for  the 

subjunct.,  518. 
optare,  610,  613. 
o;?tf^,  with  the  supine  in  u,  670 ; 

opus  est,  construction  of,  464, 

625;  with  the  infinit.  active 

and  passive,  608. 
-^or,  the  termination,  236. 
oratio  obliqua,  603. 
orbare,  460. 
orbus,  462. 
ordine,  472,  note  1. 
ordo,  ellipsis  of,  763. 
oriundus,  meaning  of,  210. 
oro,  construction  of,  393,  61b  ^ 

ellipsis  of,  773. 
orthography,  J  2. 
ortus,  with  the  ablat.  alone,  451 . 

ortus  ab  aliquo,  451,  note. 
— o^,  the  termination,  252,  9 

Paene  and  prope,  differ  from  fere 
and /«rmc,  279. 

palam,  321. 

par  ac,  340,  note. 

par  erat,  the  indicat.  for  the  sub 
junct.,  518. 

parare,  with  the  infinit.  and  ut 
611. 

parcere,  194 ;  with  the  dative,  412. 

pariter  ac,  340,  note. 

pars,  its  use  in  fractional  numer- 
sds,  120 ;  ellipsis  of,  763 ;  pars 
— pars  with  the  plural,  367. 

particeps,  with  the  genit.,  43b. 

participles,  with  the  genit.,  438 , 
used  in  paraphrases,  454,  71b. 

participle  perf.  pass.,  used  in  cir- 
cumlocution  for  the  ablat.  de- 
noting cause,  454,  719 ;  deno- 
ting a  permanent  condition, 
495. 

participle  fut.  past.,  its  significa- 
tion, 499,  631,  649 ;  iq  the  in- 
finit., 596. 

participle  perfect  of  deponents,  is 
,  a  passive  sense,  632. 


OMMt 


INDEX. 


participle,  ftsed  for  the  infinit., 
636 ;  for  a  subatantive,  637. 

participle  fut.  act.,  its  genit.  not 
in  use,  its  plural,  639 ;  in  the 
infinity  693. 

participle  perf  pass.,  used  alone 
as  an  ablat.  absolute,  647. 

participle  perfect,  of  both  pass- 
ives and  deponents,  denoting 
merely  priority,  635. 

participle  Ibt.  pass.,  631,  649, 
foil. ;  with  the  indicat.,  618 ; 
comp.,  660. 

participle  pres.  act.,  with  a  genit ., 
438,  714. 

partimt  S71,  723. 

parunit  with  the  genit.,  432 ;  in 
the  sense  of  *^Dot  enough," 
731. 

parumpeTf  276.        * 

parvif  see  magni. 

parvo,  Beemagno. 

passive  verbs,  with  a  reflective 
meaning,  146 ;  with  the  accu- 
sative, 391,  note. 

passive  construction,  in  iUe  ac- 
cusat.  with  the  infinit.,  606. 

pathetic  word,  789. 

patienSt  438. 

patioTf  613. 

patrocinarit  with  the  dative,  412. 

patronymics,  246. 

paulUper,  276. 

paulo  and  aliquanlOy  difference  be- 
tween, 488. 

peculiaris,  41 1. 

pecuniae^  ellipsis  of,  763. 

pejor  and  deteriofy  difference  be- 
tween, 111,  note. 

peUcrty  468. 

pendirct  with  the  genit.,  444. 

penesj  meaning  of,  800. 

pcrui  and  pili  habere^  444,  note. 

pentameter  verse,  846. 

penus,  penum,  84. 

— p«r,  the  suffix,  276. 

per,  meaning  of,  301 ;  used  to  de- 
note the  means,  456 ;  in  adju- 
rations, 794. 

per  and  prae,  strengthen  the 
meaning  of  adjectives,  107. 

percontarif  393. 

verdilum  ire,  for  perdere,  669 


perduim,  fof  perdim^  162. 

perfect,  used  as  an  aorist,  SIS, 
foil. ;  perflBCt  indicat.,  600 ;  per- 
fect subjunct.,  equivalent  to 
the  present,  627 

pcrficere  ut,  618. 

pcrinde  and  proiruU,  282 ;  ptrinie 
ac  {atqu€)j  340,  note. 

period,  810;  its  structure,  810; 
foil.- 

periodus  fiov6Kuh>g,  810. 

perUiis,  436. 

p^rmittere,  with  the  infinit.  or  «c, 
613 ;  with  the  subjunct.  alone, 
624;  with  the  participle  fat. 
pass.,  653. 

PerseuSj  declension  of,  62,  4. 

persuadcre,  407;  with  k/,  or  the 
accusat.  with  the  infinit.,  616 ; 
pemuasum  mihi  habeo,  634. 

pcrtaesus,  construction  of,  442, 
633. 

pertiiure,  ellipsis  of,  770. 

petere,  con^ruction  of,  393  ;  with 
ut,  616. 

phalaecian  verse,  860. 

piget,  construction  of,  390,  441 

pUne,  263,  in  fin. 

plenusf  with  the  genit.,  437,  2. 

pleonasm,  742,  foil. ;  in  quoting 
the  words  of  another  person, 
749 ;  in  certain  verbs,  760. 

pUrique  and  plurinU,  difference 
between,  109,  note. 

plerumque,  ^Q. 

pluperfect,^  Englffth  and  I^atin, 
606 ;  how  used  by  historians* 
608.* 

plural  of  verbs  with  collective 
nouns,  366 ;  the  plural  of  ab- 
stract nouns,  92 ;  the  plural  of 
pronouns  instead  of  the  singu- 
lar, 694;  in  praenomens  and 
cognomens  common  to  several 
persons,  786. 

pluralia  tantum,  93.    - 

plurinu  and  pUrique,  diffisrence 
between,  109,  note;  plurimi, 

AAA 

plurimo,  446. 

plurimum,  with  the  genit.,  432. 
plus,  with  the  genit.,  432 ;  rarely 
used  for  ma^i.t,  725;  ntm  pfus 


INDKl 


S$7 


lor  nan  fnagis^  725 ;  p  '\s  with- 
out guanif  485. 
po^utendus,  used  as  an  adjective, 

657. 
poenitet,  construction  of,  390, 441, 

442. 
poetical  arrangemeDt  of  words, 

795. 
poUeOy  460. 

pondo  libram,  libras,  428. 
pondcj  87 
pone,  302. 
ponere,  489. 

pdno»  ^ffttt,  ;id9flu}ii,  18,  3. 
porrOf  meaning  of,  289,  348,  note. 
poscere,  construction  of,  893 ;  with 
'  ut  or  the  acous.  with  the  infin- 

it.,  613 ;  with  the  subjunctive 

alone,  624. 
position,  30,  31. 
possessive  pronouns,  ellipsis  of, 

768.       ^ 
possum,  foT  possemj  520. 
post,  with  the  ablat.,  476 ;  with 

the  aocusat.,  477, 478. 
pastea,  276,  in  fin. ;  posiea  lod,  434. 
posterior  and  postrenms,  for  poste- 

rius  and  postremum,  686. 
postqiiam  and  posteaquOm,  with 

the  perfect  indicat.,  506 ;  with 

tie  imperfect  or  pluperfect, 

507. 
postuiaret  construction  of,  893, 

613 ;  with  the  genit.,  446. 
potensy  with  the  genit.,  436. 
poterai^  the  indicat,  for  the  sub- 

junct.,  518. 
potiri,  465,  466. 
potiu»9  used  pleonastically,  747  ; 

ellipsis  of,  779. 
si  potuero,  510. 
potus,  pransitSf  in  an  active  sense, 

633. 
prae,  meaning  of,  107,  310. 
praebere,  with  two  accnsat.,  394. 
praecedere,  387. 
praecipu^^  273. 
praedttus,  460 ;  ellipsis  of,  471, 

note. 
praeesse,  415. 
praefechis,  with  the  genit.  and 

dative,  681. 
waescribere^  617. 


praesefUe  and  praesenti,*  difference 
between,  64,  note  1. 

praesertim,  meaning  of,  273. 

praestare,  with  the  dative,  387; 
with  two  accusat.,  394 ;  with 
the  ablat.,  488. 

praestolari,  207,  413. 

praeter,  meaning'of,  302 ;  used  ai 
an  adverb,  323 ;  praelcr  modum^ 
302. 

praeterea,  270. 

praeterquam  quod,  627,  735 

praeterit  me,  390,  note. 

praeverior,  deponent,  209 ;  con- 
struction of,  417. 

precari,  615. 

prece,  defective  in  the  singular, 
89. 

predicate,  36*5 ;  its  number,  373 ; 
its  gender,  376. 

prepositions,  put  after  their  case, 
324 ;  inseparable  prepositions, 
330 ;  prepositions  used  as  ad- 
verbs, 323 ;  in  composition  with 
other  words,  325;  their  posi- 
tion, 324,  794;  expressed  by 
participles,  454 ;  repeated,  745 , 
ellipsis  of  prepositirus,  778. 

present  tense,  used  for  the  future, 
510 ;  as  an  historical  tense, 
501. 

pretii  and  prelio,  ellip^  of,  445. 

prior  and  primust  for  prius  and 
primum,  686. 

prius,  used  pleonastically,  747,  ic 
fin., 

priusqium,  576. 

pro,  meaning  of,  311 ;  pro  nihut 
habere,  444,  not^ 

pro  eo,  and  proinde  ao,  340,  note. 

pro  se  qmsque,  312 ;  with  the  plu 
ral  of  the  verb,  367. 

probcare  cUicui,  meaning  of,  419 
note. 

procul,  321. 

profecto,  266,  note  2. 

prokibere,  construction  of,  468, 
with  quomintts  and  ne,  543; 
with  the  infinit.,  544;  esjio* 
cially  in  the  passive,  607. 

proin,  makes  one  syllable,  11. 

proinde,  282,  344,  note. 

pronoun,  relative,  in  the  (^noei 


INDEX 


and  namber  of  the  noun  fol- 
lowing, 372 ;  attracts  the  noun 
of  the  leading  sentence,  814. 
Personal  pronouns,  how  their 
gen  it.  arose,  660 ;  with  the  ac- 
cusat.  with  the  infinit.,  604; 
use4  693.  Possessive  pronouns, 
omitted,  768 ;  used  for  the  per- 
sonal ones  with  a  preposition, 
424,  664. 

p  oncminal  relations,  expressed 
by  special  sentences,  715. 

propct  267,  note  1,  323-;  its  con- 
struction, 41 1 ;  propc  and  prop- 
ter, 802. 

propemodumt  279. 

propinquuSf  with  the  datire.  411. 

proprium,  ellipsis  of„448. 

propriiu,  construction  of,  411. 

propter,  meaning  of,  302 ;  used  as 
an  adverb,  265,  note  1,  323. 

prospicere,  414. 

prostare,  444. 

proverbs,  elliptical  expressions 
in,  759,  .776. 

protinus,  meaning  of,  272. 

providere,  construction  of,  414. 

providiis,  with  the  genit.,  436. 

prudens,  with  the  genit.,  436. 

—pse,  tke  suffix,  132,  in  fin. 

— pte,  appended  to  suo,  $ua,  139, 
note.     0 

pudendus,  used  as  an  adjective, 
657. 

pudet,  construction  of,  390,  441  f 
443. 

pugna,  for  in  pugna,  375,  note. 

pugnampugnare,  384. 

punior,  a  deponent,  206,  in  fin. 

purgare,  with  the  genit,  446. 

purus,  construction  of,  468. 

piUare,  with  two  accusatives,  394 ; 
with  the  genit.,  444 ;  used  ple- 
onastically,  750. 

ptUares,  528. 

Qu,  5,  31,  106,  note. 

gua,  as  a  correlative,  288. 

t^ua. — qua,  723. 

quaero,  construction  of,  393. 

quaeso,  223;  with  the  accasa'., 

393. 
^fussisi  765,  note 


qualUqualis,  138. 

qualis — talis,  704. 

qitam  and  ac,  340;  quam,  vriit 
comparatives,  483,  484 ;  ellip- 
ma,  of,  485 ;  with  superlatives, 
108,  689 ;  quam  or  quum'  and 
ex  quo  after  ante  and  post,  478 ; 
^uam  est  {erat),  ellipsis  of,  484, 
m  fin. ;  quam,  with  the  sub- 
junctive afler  comparatives, 
56Q,  note ;  quam,  pro,  with 
comparatives,  484,  in  fin.; 
quam  qui,  with  comparatives, 
560;  with  superlatives,  774, 
note. 

quamquam,  peculiar  use  of,  841* 
note  ;  construction  of,  574. 

quamms,  construction  of,  574. 

qvundo,  quandoquidem,  meaning 
of,  346. 

quantity,  15,  foil. ;  of  derivative 
words,  17,  1 ;  of  Gr^k  words, 
16,  note  1 ;  of  derivative  syl 
tables,  20. 

quajUo,  with  comparatives,  487 

quarUuluscuTique,  With  the  indi(»- 
at.,  521. 

quantum,  with  the  genit.,  432. 

quAiTilum  possum,  the  indicat.,  559. 

quantus,  for  quam  with  poss*.  with 
superlatives,  689  ;  quamt/^-- 
tantus,  704  ;  quantuscunque, 
with  the  indicat.,  521. 

quasi,  adverb,  282 ;  with  the  smb- 
junct.,  572;  quasi  and  quast 
vero,  used  in  an  ironical  sense, 
572,  716. 

que,  its  generalizing  character 
when  appended  to  pronouns 
and  adverbs,  288 ;  its  position. 
358  ;  used  pleonastically,  807 . 
is  lengthened  in  verse  by  the 
arsis,  828,  in  fin.;  difference 
between  que  and  et,  333 ;  qui 
—^t,  que — qu£,  338. 

queo  and  nequto,  261.  ■ 

qui,  the  ablat.,  133,  not^;  fmeum 
for  quocum  and  quacum,  133, 
note,  comp.  561,  in  fin. 

qui,  for  quis,  134 ;  difference  be- 
tween qui  and  quis^  134,  note. 

qui,  with  the  spbjunct,  556,  folL, 
559 ;  with  ".tse  and  a  substap 


INOBA. 


irVf^ 


.  tive  insiead  of  ^ uo,  705 ;  qui 
9erd,  qui  auienh  ^^« 

fiMo*  meaning  of,  346. 

quieunque  and  quisquis,  difference 
detweeOt  128 ;  quieunque^  with 
the  indicat..  521 ;  instead  of 

,   onvit  and  jquivis,  700. 

quid^  with  the  genit.,  432 ;  in  the 
s^nae  of  cwr^  677,  711 ;  quid 
and  aliquidt  708;  quid  tUiud 
quam^  771 ;  quid  est  quody  with 
tiie  sttbjiuiot.,  562;  quid  ndhi 
cum  hoc  re  1  770  ;  quid  1  quid 
censes  I  769 ;  auid  ergo  1  quid 
enim 7  quid  ita i  quid  turn?  quid 
quod  1  quid  muUa  1  quid  plura  1 
769, 

quidaniy  meaning  of,  129,  707. 

quiderriy  its  meaning  and  position, 
278,  355,  801. 

quidquam  or  quicquam,  137 ;  used 
as  an  adverb,  677. 

quidquidt  with  the  genit.,  432. 

quilibet,  quivisf  137 ;  use  of,  710. 

quint  538,  foil. ;  with  the  indicat., 
542 ;  with  the  imperative,  542 ; 
non  quirit  53^ ;  quin  in  the  sense 
of  eY^TL  or  rather,  542,  in  fin. ; 
instead  of  quod  non  (accus.), 
539 ;  instead  of  quo  non^  after 
dies,  539  ;  after  dubito,  540. 

quippCt  346  ;  quippe  qui,  565. 

quippiam  and  qusdquanif  with  the 
genit.,  432.       * 

qui8(queis)i  for  quihu,  133,  note. 

quis  and  quif  difference  between, 
134,  note ;  between  quisnam 
and  qutnam^  134;  qUis  and  uter^ 
431 ;  quis  and  aliquis,  136, 708  ; 
quis  est  qui,  with  the  subjunct., 
561. 

quispiam,  quisquam,,  and  aUquis, 
129,  708,  in  fin.  ^ 

quisquantf  129,  676,  709. 

quisque,  as  a  relative,  710 ;  joined 
with  the  superlative,  710,  b. ; 
position,  800 ;  pro  se  quisque, 
«67. 

fuisquisf  quieunque,  difiTerence  be- 
tween, 128, 706 ;  quisquis,  with 
,  the  indicat.,  521. 

quo,  the  correlative,  288 ;  with  a 
eomparative,  487;  for  ut  eo, 


536  ;  with  the  genit.,  434 ;  qu$ 
magis—eo  magis,^  690,  note; 
quo  mihi  hanc  rem  7  770 ;  ^«m 
secius,  544. 

qu^md,  meaning  and  constructioL 
of,  575. 

quocurui  quwum,  quibuseumy  in- 
stead 01  dum  quo,  qua,  <&C.,  324, 
in  fin* 

quod,  a  conjunction  expressing 
cause,  346 ;  with  the  subjunct 
of  dicere,  pulare,  551 ;  in  a  lim- 
iting sense,  quod  sdam,  quod 
intdligdm,  559  ;  qv^  in  the 
sense  of  "  in  regard  to,"  627 ; 
quod  is  unclassical  in  a  purely 
objective  proposition,  629» 

quod,  with  the  genit.,  432 ;  pre- 
fixed to  congunctions,  quodsi, 
quodnisi,, 6[,c.f  342,  note,  807 

quominus,  543. 

quoniam,  meaning  oC  346b 

quppiam,  288. 

quoquum,  288 

qucipu  and  etiam,  difference  be* 
tween,  335  ;  its  position,  355. 

quQtquot,  128 ;  construed  with  the 
indicat.,  521. 

quot—4ot,  13G. 

quotusquisque,  710 ;  quotusquisque 
Hi  qui,  with  the  subjunct.,  561. 

quum  and  cum,  5. 

quum,  the  chi^  rule  concerning 
it,  579,  in  fin. ;  construed  with 
the  indicat.  aod  subjunct.,  577, 
578,  foil. ;  with  the  present 
indicat.,  580 ;  with  the  perfect, 
581 ;  with  the  historical  infinit., 
522 ;  in  lively  descriptions, 
580 ;  difiTerence  between  quum 
and  sif  579,  note ;  quum  primum, 
with  the  perfect  mdicat.,  506 , 
quum — turn,  723,  809. 

quummaxime  and  tummaxime,  285. 

R  and  s,  kindred  sounds,  7. 
r upturn  ire,  for  rapere,  669. 
ratio,   used  in  circuralocutionik 

678  ;  ralione  472,  note  1. 
— re,  the  termination  for  m,  166 
re,  the  inseparably  prepoaitioii, 

330. 
reapse,  132. 


MO 


INDBX. 


r§een»y  an  adrerb,  367. 

reeordtui,  with  the  genit.,  '489. 

r9Ctftm  est,  ui,  628. 

recusare,  with  quomhnu  and  ne, 
648. 

reddere,  equivalent  to  facere,  304 ; 
redOf  eqoiTalent  tofim,iBTare, 
394,  note  I. 

ndolere^  with  the  accusat.,  883. 

rt/ert,  33,  in  fin. ;  449,  note. 

fifertusy  construetion  of,  437,  2, 
462. 

rtgnart,  with  the  genit.  (Herat.), 
466. 

relative  adjectives,  with  the  gen- 
itive, 436 ;  the  tame  principle 
applied  to  other  adjectives,  437. 

relative  clauses,  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  aceusat.  with  the 
infinit.,  663 ;  in  relation  to  two 
different  sentences,  804. 

relative  construction,  changed 
into  the  demonstrative  ope, 
806. 

relative  pronouns,  used  instead 
of  demonstrative  ones  with  et, 
803 ;  joined  with  conjunctions, 
545,  547 ;  in  quoting  the  senti- 
ments of  another  person,  649 ; 
used  for  it/,  556,  560,  567 ;  in 
general  expressions,  561 ;  Uted 
for  quum,  564;  after  dignus, 

*  <&c.,  668 ;  to  express  a  repeat- 
ed action,  569. 

r«/tiifut(t(r  It/,  621. 

reliquoy  "  for  the  rest,"  459. 

reliquum  est  ut,  621. 

reminisci,  construction  of,  439. 

remunerari,  461. 

repente,  272. 

reperiref  with  two  aceusat.,  394. 

reperiuntur  qvi,  with  the  subjunct., 
561. 

repetundaruniy  763. 

reponere,  490.  . 

reposeere,  with  two  accusativea 
393. 

'tpugnaref  with  quominus  and  ne 
543. 

resy  used  in  circumlocutions,  678 

resiptre,  construction  of,  383. 

restat  ut,  621. 

fsrertor,  as  a  deponent,  209,  in  fin 


reumfaceret  with  the  lenit, 
reus,  with  the  genit.,  446,'BOle. 
rhythm,  of  speech,  818 ;  cf  Terse, 

827. 
— rimus,  — rUisj  lenninatien,  16ft 
rile,  380. 
rivers,  names  of,  in  us,  used  as 

adjectives,  357. 
rogare,   with   two    accnsatives, 

393 ;  with  ui,  615. 
rudis,  with  the  genit.,  436. 
rursu£,  used  pleonasticaUj,  747, 

in  fin. 
rus,  construed  like  the  names  of 

towns,  400. 

Saepe,  Si&T,  note  1 ;  its  degrees 
of  comparison,  394. 

saltern,  meaning  of,  374. 

sapere,  with  the  aceusat.,  383 

Sapphic  verse,  862,  865. 

sat,  satis,  with  the  genit,  432 ; 
satis  esse,  with  the  dative  of 
the  gerund,  664;  satis  habeo^ 
and  s€Uis  ndkt  est,  with  the  in^ 
finit.  perfect,  590. 

satrapes,  declension  of,  46. 

sahis,  v/ith  the  abiat.  alolie,  451. 

seiens.  With  the  gemt.,  438,  note 

seiiicet,  345,  note. 

scito  for  sci,  164. 

se  and  suus,  in  explanatory  sen- 
tences  with  the  aceusat.  wiUi 
the  infinit.,  604 ;  se  in  the  ^c- 
eus.  with  the  infinit.,  after  the 
verbs  of  promising  and  hoping, 
605. 

se,  the  in^parable  preposition^ 
330. 

secundum,  meaning  of,  303. 

secus,  adverb,  283;  a  substan* 
tive  for  sexus,  84,  89,  438. 

secutum  and  0quutum,  159,  in  fin. 

sed  and  autem,  848,  note ;  sed,  sei 
tamen,  in  the  sense  of  <<  I  say,'* 
739 ;  ellipsis  of  sed,  781 ;  sea 
et,  335 ;  sed  is,  699. 

semideponents,  148. 

semis,  87,  103. 

seorsus  and  seorsum^  390.* 

sequor  and  sector,  with  the 
sative,  388. 

sequiturut,%2\,  688. 


INDEX. 


501 


tsrtnOf  646. 

sertrt,  in  two  signiitcations,  200. 
in  fin* 

servittUem  servire,  384. 

tegieriiutf  sesterHum,  873. 

seui  836 ;  seu — seu,  with  the  plu- 
ral of  the  predicate,  374. 

texcenli,  sexcerUiesi  in  a  general 
and  indefinite  sense,  692. 

thort   vowels,    16 ;    in   certain 

words,  17. 
i,  for  num,  354,  in  fin. ;  differs 
from  guum,  579,  note  ;  ellipsis 

-  of,  780 ;  si  quid  and  aUqidd, 
.  708 ;  n  and  nm,  with  the  im- 
perfect snbjunct.  instead  of  the 
pluperfect,  525 ;  ai  minus,  343 ; 
si  nihil  aliudf  771 ;  si  quisquam, 
710. 

stbi,  used  pleonastically  with  suo, 
746. 

sic,  281 ;  used  pleonastically,  748, 
has  different  accents,  33,  note. 

siaU,  meaning  of,  282  ;  with  the 
subjunct,  572.  « 

siqua  and  siqumCf  137,  note. 

siquf,  siquis,  136,  708,. 740. 

similis,  with  the  genit.  and  dative, 
41 1, 704 ;  simUiUr  ae,  340,  note. 

simul,  with  the  ablat.,  321 ;  simul 
— simtU,  723. 

iimulae  and  simulatque,  with  the 
perfect  indicat.,  506  ;  with  the 
pluperfect,  507. 

siUf  342 ;  sin  minuSf  sin  tJiiter, 
343,  731. 

sine  ullo,  &c.,  709. 

singular,  the,  has  a  collective 
meaning  in  the  names  of  dif- 
ferent fittits,  92;  is  used  for 
the  plural,  364,  373,  note  1. 

singuli,  119. 

siqwdaUf  346. 

siSf  for  si  vis,  360. 

sivCt  meaning  ot,  336^  swe — sive, 
339,  374,  522. 

todeSf  300. 

solere,  for  saepe,  720. 

9olumj  274. 

foZtt^,  for  «o/um,  (anlum^  modOf  687 

spoliare,  with  the  ablat.,  460. 

sfontCy  90. 

tUvrCt  with  the  genit ,  444 ;  with 


the  ablat,  452$  stat  per  mt. 
construction  of,  543  -* stare  ai 
aliquo,  304,  b. 

statimj  272.  * 

statute,  construction  of,  489; 
with  the  infinit.  and  u/,  611. 

sierilis,  with  the  genit.,  436. 

stropl\p,  S31. 

studerCj  with  the  dative,  412 ; 
with  the  infinit.  or  u/,  610, 
614;  with  the  dative  of  thP 
gerund,  664. 

studAosus^  with  the  genit.,  436. 

suadeOf  615. 

rubf  meaning  of,  319. 

subject  and  predicate,  362,  foil. 

subjunctive,  of  the  future,  496, 
497 ;  subjunctive  in  Latin  and 
English,  512;  in  hypothetical 
sentences,  524;  in  interroga- 
tive sentences,  552, 553 ;  after 
relative  pronouns,  555,  foil. ; 
in  explanatory  clauses,  545, 
folL  ;  the  subjunctive  of  the 
present  and  perfect,  instead  of 
the  indicate  of  the  future,  527 ; 
subjunctivus  concessivus,  V29 ; 
in  doubtful  questions,  530 ;  the 
subjunctive  without  ut,  625 ; 
subjunct.  of  the  present,  used 
as  an  imperative,  386,  529; 
subjunct;  perfect  the  same  as 
the^ubjunct.  of  the  future  per- 
fect, 497,  524;  the  subjunct. 
perfect,  a  softened  indicative, 
527 ;  subjunct.  perfect,  instead 
of  the  subjunct.  present,  528 ; 
instead  of  the  indicat.,  551 ; 
subjunctive  denoting  repeated 
actions,  569. 

subito,  meaning  of,  272. 

sublime^  an  adverb,  267. 

substance  and  origin  of  things, 
expressed  by  a  termination, 
250,  252. 

substantives,  verbal,  used  only 
in  the  ablat.  sing.,  90,  in  fin. ; 
substantiva  mobilia,  used  as 
adjectives,  102 ;  comp.  ^1, 
365 ;  verbal  substantives,  con- 
strued like  theiir  veibs,  681 , 
substantives  expressed  by  a 
participle.  637;  used  instead 


INDRX. 


oi  participles,  644 ;  used  as  ad- 
jectives, 257,  foil ;  instead  of 
adjectives,  103,  672;  in  cir- 
ccim]ocutions,  678 ;  plconas- 
tically,  773 ;  substantives,  par- 
aphrased by  qui  with  a  verb, 
714;  two  substantives  con- 
nected by  a  prepositi^  and 
extended  into  a  proposition, 
715 ;  two  substantives  joined 
together,' the  latter  of  wluch 
defines  the  former,  74L 

subter,  320,  in  fia.,  489. 

MucccTuere,  construction  of,  412, 
413. 

Buficfire,  with  the  dative  of  the 
gerpnd,  660. 

6ui,  tibh  «£,  125,  note ;  in  paren- 
thetical clauses,  550;  sui  for 
se,  with  the  genit.  of  the  ge- 
rund, 660. 
'  8umme  and  maxime,  106. 

tummunif  271. 

tuni  qui,  with  the  subjunct.,  563 ; 
sunt,  ellipsis  of,  776. 

tuper,  meaning  of,  320. 

supmrare,  with  the  ablal  ,  488. 

zuperease,  construction  of,  415. 

superest  u^  621. 

superlative,  its  formation,  104, 
3, 105, 109,  foil. ;  strengthened, 
108 ;  with  the  genii.,  429. 

mpersedere,  construction  q£,  416. 

fupersUs,  construction  of,  411. 

supine,  153,  noto    668,  foil. 

iupplicare,  with  the  dative,  406. 

fupra,  meaning  of,  303. 

nu,  declension  of,  69. 

smcipere,  with  the  participle  fut. 
pass.,  653. 

nululi,  not  derived  from  sufferre, 
213. 

ffKUf,  instead  of  eju9,  550 ;  oppo- 
sed to  aUenus,  125,  550 ;  muus 
*iW,  746. 

syllaUes,  division  of  words  into, 
14,  2 ;  doubtful  syllables,  829. 

cynaeresis,  11. 

synesis,  constructio  ad  synesim, 
368. 

syncope,  in  verbs,  160. 

Taedetf  construction  of,  390, 441. 


talentum,  874. 

talis,  followed  by  qui,  and  ellipwii 

of,  556, 557 ',  talis  ac,  340»  wAe « 

talis — qualis,  704. 
tarn,  281 ;  tam—quam^  374,  724. 
tamen,  used  pleonastically^  341 

note. 
lamquam,  an  adverb,  282 ;  a  coft* 

junction,  572. 
tandem,  meading  of,  287. 
tanti  est,  444,  note  1. 
tarUisper,  276. 

tanto,  with  comparatives,  487. 
tardum,  *<only,"  274;  with  the 

genit.,  432  ;  tantum  ahest  tU-r- 

ut,  779 ;  tantum  non^  729  ;  tan>' 

turn  ut,  726. 
ton/iM,  followed  by  qui,  and  ellip- 
sis of,  556,  557 ;  taaUus — qtutm 

tus,  70^. 
taxare,  construction  of,  444 
-^e,  the  suffix,  131. 
temtre,  280. 

temp$rare,  construction  6f,  414. 
temphtm,  ellipsis  of,  762. 
tempore  and  in  tempore,  475. 
tempori,***  in  jood  time,"  63,  note. 
tempus  est  abtre  and  abeuMdi^  659 ; 

ellipsis  of  tempus,  763. 
tempus  impendere,  with  the  datiVe 

of  the  gerund,  664. 
tenaXf  with  the  genit.,  436. 
teneri,  with  the  participle  perf. 

pass.,  592. 
tenses,  of  the  verb,  493,  foil. , 

tenses  of  the  subjunct.,  524 ; 

tenses  used  in  the  epistolary 

style,  503. 
tentare,  with  the  infin.  and  it/,  614. 
tenus,  meaning  of,  313. 
— /«•,  264. 

Teos,  declension  of,  58, 3. 
terra  mariquc,  481. 
Thales,  declension  of,  71,  in  fib. 
Thebaicus  and  Tkebanus,  differ* 

ence  between,  256,  in  fin. 
thesis,  827. 

— ti,  pronunciation  of,  6. 
ti  or  ci,  orthography  of,  6,  note  i 
time,  particles  expressing  time* 

270;  expremons  cif  time  ii 

the  accusal ,  395 ;  in  UjC  ablat. 

396. 


INDBX. 


d93 


nrnensy  with  the  genit.,  438. 

iimere,  constroction  of,  414. 

titles,  where  they  are  placed  with 
names,  796. 

—lor,  friar,  102,  236. 

totOf  tola,  ablat.  without  in,  482. 

towns,  names  of  in  e,  in  the  ablat. 
e,  63,  b. ;  construction  of  names 
of  towns,  398.  • 

tndere^  with  the  participle  fnt. 
pass.,  663. 

iraditur,  construction  of,  507. 

tranquiUo,  646. 

transjectus  and  transmissu^f  con- 
struction of,  392. 

tribuere,  with  the  dative,  422. 

trochaic  verse,  832. 

— tudoy  the  termination,  247. 

tui,  feminine,  with  the  particip. 
fut.  pass,  in  the  masc.  gender, 
660. 

turn  and  tunCf  difference  between, 
285 ;  turn  maxime,  270 ;  tiM — 
hem,  723 ;  turn  temporisf  434. 

tu,  in  questions  expressive  of  in- 
dignation, 693. 

U,  instead  of  e,  2. 

9,  softened  down  into  «,  3,  note. 

tc,  hardened  into  v,  3,  note,  11. 

vacarCf  406. 

vacuus,  with  the  ablat.,  462,  468. 

vae,  construction  of,  403. 

valde,  107,  266. 

vaUo,  construction  of,  460,  463. 

vapulOf  14$. 

ubi,  with  the  genit.,  434;  with 
the  perfect  indicat.,  606 ;  ubi- 
ubi,  128. 

— ^«,  380,  in  fin.,  336,  337. 

wkementer,  264,  note  1. 

9t3di  construction  of,  465. 

rd  and  aut,  diflference  between, 
336 ;  vd—vel,  339 ;  vd,  strength- 
ening, 734 ;  with  superltfives, 
108 ;  in  the  sense  of  '*  for  ex- 
ample," 734.  -  c 

vdim,  with  the  subjunct.,  627, 
624. 

velUj  construction  of,  424 ;  with 
the  infinit.  pass.,  611. 

Mttem,  meaning  of,  528. 

9dMt,  «  for  example,*'  282 ;  vHut, 


and  tdut  si,  with  the  subjunct., 
572.  • 

vendere,  with  the  genit.  or  ablat., 
444 ;  its  passive  veneo,  187. 

venire,  with  the  dative,  422 ;  witk 
the  gp^it.  and  ablat.,  444. 

venit  in  mentem,  construction  of, 
439,  foU. 

verbs,  neuter  passives,  148 ;  neu- 
ter verbs  joined  with  an  accu* 
sat.,  144,  385 ;  used  imperson* 
ally  in  the  third  person  passive, 
144 ;  transitive  verbs,  used  as 
neuters,  143,  145 ;  verbs  with 

'  a  relative  pronoun  instead  of 
a  substantive,  714;  verbs  re- 
peated, 716,  717;  their  posi- 
tion, 787,  foil. ;  ellipsis  of  verbs, 
774;  verbs  compounded  wHh 
prepositions,  415 ;  with  trans, 
392 ;  passive  v^rbs  with  the 
datiye,  419 ;  with  the  accusat., 
according  to  the  Greek  fashion, 
458. 

vere  and  vero,  266,  note  1. 

verisimile  est,  followed  by  the  ac- 
}^  cusat.  with  the  infinit.,  600 ;  by 
vt,  623. 

veritum  est,  used  impersonally, 
390. 

vero,  meaning  6f,  266,  348  ;  use 
of  in  answers,  716 ;  in  the  ap- 
odosis,  716 ;  ellipsis  of,  781. 

verses,  feet  of,  826. 

versus,  the  preposition,  303. 

vertere,  in  a  reflecti^  sense,  145 ; 
with  the  dative,  402. 

vcrum,  verunUamen,  348,  note, 
739 ;  verum  enimvero,  349. 

verum  est,  followed  by  the  accu- 
sat. with  the  infinit,  600 ;  by 
ui,  623. 

^esci,  construction  of,  466, 466. 

vestri  and  vestrum,  diiSerence  be- 
tween, 431. 

vetare,  construction  of,  607, 617 ; 
wiUi  quommus  and  ne,  643, 544. 

vt  and  per  vim,  difiTerence  between 
455,  note. 

via,  ablat.  without  in,  482. 

vicem,  instead  of  vice,  453. 

vicinus,  construction  ol,  411. 

viddicet,  345,  note. 


504 


INDEX. 


mdere  ut,  614 ;  con8tru<:.d  iike  the 
verbs  ^f  fearing,  534. 

tideres,  cerneres,  meaniog  of,  538, 
in  fin. 

tideri,  constmction  of,  880 ;  used 
pleonastically,  751. 

nri,  compounded  with  numerals, 
124. 

Mtom  vivere,  and  sifoilar  expres- 
sions, 383,  in  fin. 

ft/to  ereati  magutrtLtut^  472,  note. 

uUuM,  129,  709. 

nZ/ro,  meaning  of,  303;  adverb, 
323. 

vitro,  289. 

ultum  ire,  for  viciaei,  669. 

— lilttfn,  the  termination,  239. 

— iim,  instead  of  arum,  45 ;  in- 
stead of  ortem,  51 ;  in  distribu- 
tive numerals,  119,  note  1. 

— urn,  the  genit.  plur.  for  turn,  51. 

unde,  344 ;  with  the  genit.^  434. 

— wnde,  344,  note. 

undecunque,  288. 

— uitduSf  instead  of  endus,  167, 

tint,  muie,  una,  115,  note. 

unquam,  284,  comp.  709,  a. 

uniiSf  for  solum,  tarUum,  mode, 
687 ;  umu,  With  a  superlative 
and  exeellere,  691. 

unusquiMque,  declension  of,  138 ; 
meaning  of,  710. 

vocaref  with  two  accusatives,  394. 

vocative,  its  position,  492 ,  with 
interjections,  403. 

volanif  the  future,  use  of,  609. 

volo,  with  th9  nominat.  or  thenc- 
cusat.  with  the  infinit.,  610; 
with  the  infinit.  or  the  partici- 
ple perfect  pass.,  611 ;  with 
ut,  613 ;  with  the  subjunctive 
alone,  624 ;  si  voluero,  510. 

voH  and  votarum  darnnari,  447.  ^ 

urbs,  used  in  apposition  to  names 
of  towns,  399. 

urinor,  207. 

— us,  the  terminatuHi,  237. 

uspiam,  284. 

usquam,  284 ;  with  the  genit.,  43 4. 

usque,  286,  322. 

tsquepiaque,  289,  in  fin 


usu  vcnu  Hi,  631. 

usus  est,  used  impersonally,  464 

ut,  an  adverb  of  similitude,  282, 
531,  note ;  a  conjunction  witc 
the  subjunctive,  531, 613,  foil. ; 
in  questions  expressive  of  in- 
dignation, 609 ;  with  the  per- 
fect indicat.,  506;  its  place 
356  ;  ellipsis  cf;  777 ;  ut  aflei 
adjective  ei^pressipns,  ihsteaU 
of  the  acousat.  with  the  infinit., 
623 ;  ut  in  the  sense  of  **  even 
if,"  and  in  negative  sentences, 
ut  turn,  573 ;  ut,  equivalent  to 
".because,"  726  ;  ut-^a  {sic), 
726  ;  ut  ne,  347,  note,  535 ;  u4 
non,  347,  note,  532, 573 ;  u<  non 

*  for  quin,  539  ;  ut  frimutn,  with 
the  perfect  indicat.,  506 ;  ui 
qui,  565. 

utcun^ue,  with  the  indicat.,  521. 

uter.  Its  differewse  from  quis,  431- 

utemue,  141,  note  2;  with  the 
plural  of  the  ve^b,  367 ;  with 
a  genit,  430 

uti,  construction  of,  .465,  466. 

utile,  est  ut,  623. 

utUis,  construction  of,  40a(  witu 
the  dative  of  the  gerund,  664 ; 
utUisfuit,  618. 

wtinam,  utiriam  ne,  utiiumL  non, 
with  the  subjunct.,  571. 

utique,  282. 

uipote  qui,  565. 

utrique,  use  of,  141,  note  2. 

utrum,  352. 

utrumne^  in  double  questions,  554. 

utut,  128  ;  with  the  indicat.,  521 

— uus,  the  termination,  249 

uxor,  ellipsis  of,  761. 

Words,  their  accent,  in  referencs 
to  rhythm,  828 ;  formation  of 
words,  231,  foil. ;  arrangement 
oUgl^orda  in  the  formation  of 
sentences  in  proee,  786,  foil. ; 
in  poetical  oompositioas,  796. 

Y,  m  Greek  words,  I , 

Zeigma,  776. 


THE    END. 


I 


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