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AGRICULTURE

AND

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

IN INDIA

1937-38

Issued under the Authority
of

The Imperial Council of Agricultural Research

PUBLISHED BY THE MANAGER OF PUBLICATIONS, DELHI

PRINTED BY THE MANAGER, GOVERNMENT OF INDIA PRESS, CALCUTTA

1940

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CONTENTS

PAGE

CHAPTER I. AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS ... .... 1

1. Agriculture and Climate ...... 1

2. Economic Conditions ....... 7

3. Imperial Council of Agricultural Research ... 7

CHAPTER II. ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS . . . . . . 12

1. Rice 16

2. Wheat 29

3. Cotton 32

4. Sugarcane 48

5. Jute 54

6. Other Fibres 55

7. Tobacco 60

8. Oikseeds 02

9. Tea 66

10. Coffee 6rt

11. Rubber 70

12. Emits 72

13. Fodder Crops and Grasses 75

14. Millets . 77

15. Other Cereals . 80

16. Potatoes ^4

17. Beans and Pulses Sfi

CHAPTER III. INSECT PESTS OF SUGARCANE 89

TTER IV. DRY FARMING RESEARCH 04

CHAPTER V. RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 105

1. Soils and Fertilizers 105

2. Agricultural Meteorology 115

3. Plant-breeding and Genetics 118

4. Plant Physiology 128

5. Plant Diseases 134

6. Entomology Insect Pests 139

(a) Locusts 139

(b) Other Insect Pests 141

7. Useful Insects 148

CHAPTER VI. AGRICULTURAL MARKETING 150

CHAPTER VII. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 160

1. Boring and Pumping 160

2. Water-lifts for Hand and Bullock Power. ... 102

3. Bunds and Channels for Irrigation and Erosion Control . 162

4. Agricultural Implements and Machinery . . .162

5. Mechanical Cultivation 166

6. Miscellaneous 166

*. Progress in the Provinces and States in implementing

the Recommendations of the Royal Commission on

Agriculture 168

ii CONTENTS

PAGE

CHAPTER VIII. ANIMAL INDUSTRY 170

1. General Remarks ....... 170

2. Trade in Animals and Animal Products . . . .178

3. Minor Industries ........ 179 1

CHAPTER IX. VETERINARY RESEARCH AND LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT . . 187

1. Disease control 187

(a) Bacterial and Virus Diseases .... 187

(b) Protozoology ....... ISO

(d) Entomology 195

(e) Deficiency Diseases and Toxicology . . .196

2. Animal Nutrition . . . . . . 19t>

3. Breeding Operations

(a) Cattle 202

(6) Horses and Camels 204

(d) Poultry 208

4. Dairying 210

CHAPTER X. VETERINARY EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION IN DAIRYING . 215

1. Veterinary Colleges 215

2. Post-graduate Courses in Veterinary Science . . .218

3. Indian Dairy Diploma . . . ' . . . 218

4. Post-graduate Courses in Dairying . . . 210

CHAPTER XI. DISTRICT WORK 220

1. Demonstrations . . . . . . . .220

2. Other Forms of Propaganda . . . . . .225

3. Agricultural Shows and Exhibitions .... 226

4. Agricultural Associations 227

5. Seed Multiplication and Distribution .... 230

6. Implements ........ 236

7. Fertilizers 238

8. Animal Husbandry 240

CHAPTER XII. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 242

1. Agricultural Colleges 242

2. Post-graduate Training in Agriculture .... -45

3. Agricultural Schools 246

4. Rural ' Bias ' Schools 248

5. Short Courses 250

CHAPTER XIII. THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE 254

CHAPTER XIV. PUBLICATIONS OF THE AGRICULTURAL AND VETEBINABY

DEPARTMENTS 297

CHAPTER XV. RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE OF THE AGBICUT.TURAL AND VETE-
RINARY DEPARTMENTS 300

APPENDIX I. AREAS UNDER NEW AND IMPROVED VARIETIES OP CROPS IN

INDIA CURING 1937-38 308

II. LIST OF AGRICULTURAL STATIONS IN INDIA IN 1937-38 . .316

n III. STAFFS OF CENTRAL, PROVINCIAL AND STATE DEPARTMENTS

OF AGRICULTURE IN INDIA DURING 1937-38 . . . 334

IV. RESULTS OF WELL-BORING IN INDIA DUBING 1937-38 . . 336

CONTENTS ij

PAGE
APPENDIX V. SALE OP IMPROVED IMPLEMENTS THROUGH DEPARTMENTAL

AGENCY IN INDIA DURING 1937-38 .... 337
VI. IMPROVED SEEDS AND MANURES DISTRIBUTED THROUGH

DEPARTMENTAL AGENCY IN INDIA DURING 1937-38 . 338
VII. DEMONSTRATION AND PROPAGANDA WORK IN INDIA DURING

1937-38 340

VIII. AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS IN INDIA DURING

1937-38 342

IX. OPERATIONS OF NON-CREDIT AGRICULTURAL COOPERATIVE

SOCIETIES IN INDIA DURING 1937-38 ' . . . 348
., X. WORKING OF THE VETERINARY DEPARTMENTS IN INDIA DURING

1937-38 354

XI. WORKING OF VETERINARY COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS IN INDIA

DURING 1937-38 356

XII. CATTLE ISSUED FROM THE GOVERNMENT FARMS DURING 1937-38 357

XIII. (a) IMPORTS INTO INDIA BY SEA OF ANIMALS AND ANIMAL

PRODUCTS FOR THE FIVE YEARS ENDING MARCH 1938 . 358
XIII. (b) EXPORTS FROM INDIA BY SEA OF ANIMALS AND ANIMAL

PRODUCTS FOR THE FIVE YEARS ENDING MARCH 1938 . 361
XIII. (c) INTER-PROVINCIAL TRADE IN LIVESTOCK AND LIVESTOCK

PRODUCTS DURING 1937-38 364:

XIV. STAFFS OF CENTRAL, PROVINCIAL AND STATE VETERINARY

DEPARTMENTS IN INDIA DURING 1937-38 . . . 367
XV. ACTIVITIES OF CATTLE AND OTHER LIVESTOCK FARMS IN INDIA

DURING 1937-38 368

XVI. (a) LIST OF RESEARCH SCHEMES OF THE IMPERIAL COUNCIL OF
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH COMPLETED UP TO 31sT

MARCH 1938 382

XVI. (6) LIST OF RESEARCH SCHEMES OF THE IMPERIAL COUNCIL OF
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH IN OPERATION ON THE 31sT

MARCH 1938 384

XVII. LIST OF AGRICULTURAL AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY PUBLICA-
TIONS IN INDIA PUBLISHED DURING 1937-38 . . 387

MAP OF INDIA SHOWING EXPERIMENTAL
FARMS WITH METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES
OF DIFFERENT ORDERS IN 1938

SAHARANPUR

MUZAFFARNAGAR

1st Class Agricultural Meteorological Observatories started during the
period 1932-1938.

2nd Class Agricultural Meteorological Observatories started "during the
period 1932-1938.

3rd Class Agricultural Meteorological Observatories started during the
period 1932-1938.

Farm observatories which were already existing at experimental farms
but which supplemented their existing equipment with additional
instruments on the advice of the Agricultural Meteorology Section
at Poona, or standardised their instruments at Poona, or had their
station inspected by an officer of the India Meteorological
Department.

XSAKRAND

NEW DELHI

ISHAHJAHANPUR
CAWNPORE

XJUBBULPORE

XUARODA X1NDORE

XJALGAON

0PARBHANI

xWARANGAL
SHOLAPUR *ANAKAPALLE

SANGAREDDI
K

BIJAPUR MAHBOOBNAGAR
A RAICHUR

XK.ODUR

CHAPTER I

AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS

1. Agriculture and climate

THE monsoon of 1937 was marked on the one hand by spells of heavy rains
causing floods in parts of Northern India, and on the other by a prolonged
break during August resulting in drought in North -West India and the Deccau.
Averaged over the plains of India, the total rainfall during the monsoon period
was in defect of the normal by one per cent only. During the retreating period r
the rainfall was scanty in Orissa, the United Provinces and West Gujarat, but
generally in excess of the normal elsewhere. Taking the year as a whole, the
rainfall was within 20 per cent of the normal except in Sind, Berar, Gujarat
and the West Central Provinces, where it was excessive.

Areas under important crops showed some fluctuations during the year*
The Indian cotton crop of 1937-38 was not so good as in the previous year,
In 1936-37 the out-turn of raw cotton in India amounted to the record figure
of 6*2 million bales of 400 Ib. each. In the year under review the yield was
estimated at 5-7 million bales only. The yield was 8 per cent less than in the
previous year and the area under the crop was 3 per cent more than in 1936-37,
The all-India average yield per acre in the year under review was only 89 Ib,
as compared with 100 Ib. in the previous year. The total area under wheat
hi 1937-38 was reported to be 35,618,000 acres, which was greater than the area
of the preceding year by 7 per cent. The crop was reported to have been affected
in places by rust and smut attacks, hail storms and wind, but its condition was,
on the whole, good. The total estimated yield was 10,950,000 tons, which was
11 per cent greater than the yield of 1936-37. The total area under rice during
1937-38 was reported to be 72,277,000 acres as compared with 72,295,000 acres
in the preceding year. The condition of the crop was reported to be good on
the whole. The total yield was estimated at 27,787,000 tons, as against
27,828,000 tons in 1936-37. The production of sugar has been increasing con-
sistently for some years and exceeded a million and a quarter tons in the season
1936-37. This was the highest figure attained and was due mainly to the very
large crop of cane during that year. The cane-grower suffered from this over-
production as he could not dispose of his crop at remunerative prices. As
a result, the area under sugarcane decreased by 14 per cent in 1937-38. The
estimated yield amounted to 5,485,000 tons of raw sugar (gur) which was less
than the production of the preceding year by about 18 per cent. In spite of
deficient rainfall during the growing period, the condition of the crop was, on the
whole, fairly good. Among oil-seeds, the condition of the linseed crop was, on the
whole, good. The total area under linseed in 1937-38 was 3,839,000 acres as
against 3,677,000 acres in the preceding year. The condition of rape, mustard
and sesamum was also fairly good. The total area under rape and mustard in
1937-38 was 5,733,000 acres as against 5,889,000 acres in the preceding year,
while in the area under sesamum there was an increaoe of about 999,000 acres.
The out-turn of groundnuts in India in 1937-38 has been estimated at the record
figure of 3-3 million tons as compared with 2*7 million tons in the preceding year.

( 1 )

2 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

This crop increased in 1937-38 by about 31 per cent over that of the preceamg
year. The out-turn of raw jute in India for the season 1937-38 was estimated
at 8*6 million bales (of 400 Ib. each) as compared with 9-6 million bales in the
preceding season. Conditions were generally favourable for sowing and germina-
tion. The propaganda for the restriction of sowing had limited success and
the total area during the year under review was 2,889,000 acres as compared
with 2,886,000 acres in the preceding year. The crop forecast announced in
September 1937 fell much below market expectations and it was thought that
the total out-turn was considerably underestimated. To arrive at a correct"
estimate of the yield of jute, the Indian Central Jute Committee, in collabora-
tion with the Government of Bengal, had started a scheme of area determination
by random sampling checked by a total enumeration in a limited number of
thanas (revenue sub-divisions). The production of tea, though controlled,
increased during the year under review to 430 million Ib. as compared with
395 million Ib. in the preceding year. This large production was readily absorbed
as the export demand as well as the internal demand for tea was very brisk
during the year.

In MADRAS the monsoon broke late. Although the rainfall was heavy
in June on the West Coast, it was less than normal in other parts of the province.
The monsoon was active in July on the West Coast and the Deccan. The
rainfall in this month was bordering on or above normal except in South Arcot,
the central districts and the south (Tinnevelly excepted). In August the
moiisoon weakened and the rainfall was below normal except in parts of the
Circars, the central districts and the south. Towards the end of September
there were heavy falls at a few stations but the rainfall in this month was
generally below the normal except in Trichinopoly, the south (Tanjore ex-
cepted) and South Kanara.

The south-west monsoon was, on the whole, defective, except in Chingleput,
Chittoor, Trichinopoly, Madura, Ramnad and South Kanara and the sowings
of crops were generally below the average.

The north-east monsoon set in over the Bay of Bengal by the middle of the
third week of October and became established by the 20th of the month. The
rainfall during October was generally above normal except in Bellary, Salem,
Coimbatore, Ramnad and Tinnevelly.

The uneven distribution of rainfall during both the monsoons had an adverse
effect on paddy at Anakapalle and the paddy breeding stations at Coimbatore,
Aduturai and Ambasamudram ; on sugarcane and plantains at Samalkota ;
on groundnut at Tindivanam and Guntur ; on pulses and coriander at Koil-
patti ; and on the dry and garden crops at Palur, Central Farm Coimbatore,
and Pattukottai; cotton and jonna (Andropogon Sorghum) gave, however,
normal yields at Nandyal. At Hagari mungari (early) crops had to be sown
late by two months along with hingari (late) cotton. Nanjanad was the only
research station which had an even distribution of rainfall, and potatoes and
sanai (Crotalaria juncea) fared satisfactorily. Fairly good crops were also
obtained on the millets breeding stations at Coimbatore, Buchireddipalayam,
Gudiyattam and Marutcrti. The dry weather, though it affected the yield of
cotton and Bengal gram in the Cotton Breeding Station, Coimbatore, was
helpful to some extent in checking the multiplication of the cotton stem weevil
(Pempheres affinis). At the Fruit Research Station, Kodur, the north-east

AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS 3

monsoon was specially favourable and was responsible for producing a good
second crop of oranges. The season was a failure for hingari crops in the Bellary
district but it provided an opportunity to study the effects of irrigation on
the crops raised in the hingari season at the newly opened agricultural
research station at Siruguppa in the Tungabhadra Project area.

In BOMBAY there were ample rains over most of the province
during the season under review but their distribution was uneven as regards
periodicity and area. The rainfall was continuous and heavy towards
the end of June, in July and September, but there - was a prolonged
break of about five weeks in August and the first week of September. The
kharif (rainy season) was thus characterized by irregular rainfall which had
the effect of reducing the yield of crops. A large block of the country in the
south of the Deccan and almost the whole of the Karnatak had deficient and
very badly distributed rainfall almost throughout the season and both the
kharif and rabi (winter or spring) crops in these areas were poor. Taking all
crops together, there was little alteration in the total area sown. The area
under food-grains and cotton showed a little improvement over the last year,
while the area under groundnut exhibited a considerable increase and
reached the record figure of 1,344,000 acres during the year under report,
which exceeded the highest figure of 1933-34 (1,292,000 acres).

In BENGAL the season at the sowing time was not generally favourable
either for kharif or rabi crops. Rainfall was deficient and unevenly distributed
in all the districts. Want of proper rainfall in the beginning of the kharif
season delayed sowing of aus (autumn) paddy and bhadoi (grown and harvested
in August to September) crops. Later, heavy rains and flood water damaged
kharif crops and delayed rabi sowing in many places. For want of rain in the
rabi season, cold weather crops generally and specially English vegetables and
tobacco suffered. The yield of winter paddy during the year was below normal
due to late transplantation and subsequent damage by floods at the end of
September. On the whole, the weather was favourable for sugarcane, fodder
crops, and some rabi crops.

In the UNITED PROVINCES the monsoon on the whole was found sufficient
for rice, jowar (Sorghum) and bajra (Pennisetum typhoideitm), but not enough
for sugarcane the growth of which was retarded by insufficient rain through*
out the year and more particularly during September. This crop also suffered
severely from attack by the sugarcane leaf-hopper in some localities, particu-
larly in the Upper Doab and Rohilkhand tracts. There was also serious local
damage to the sugarcane crop from white fly and red-rot in the Terai districts.
Sowings of cotton were adversely affected by scanty rain in the west ard ex-
cessive and continuous rains elsewhere which affected the germination. The
latter part of the season was, however, favourable to the cotton crop, result-
ing in production of good quality lint and a higher yield than in the previous
year.

The area under kharif crops other than cotton exceeded that of the previous-
year by 461,000 acres, i.e. approximately by 2 per cent ; and of the accepted
normal by 429,000 acres ; the major increases being in rice, jowar and smaller
millets. The out-turn of the kharif crops was fair, showing improvement in
all the important crops excepting jowar, bajra and sugarcane.

4 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937.38

Rabi sowing was delayed either by absence of late September rains or exces-
sive rains and floods during October, more particularly in the Eastern division.
There was a reduction of about 4 per cent in the area under rabi crops as com-
pared with that of the previous year. The wheat area was 4-3 per cent above
that of the previous year, and nearly 14 per cent above the normal 30
years' average. The linseed crop showed further recovery of area of over
3 per cent but was still some 33,000 acres below the normal average. The
main crops which contributed to the decrease in the rabi area were rape-seed,
gram and barley which were lower by 25, 11 and 8 per cent respectively in
comparison to the 1936-37 rabi season. Notwithstanding the difficulties at
the commencement of the rabi season, the out-turn generally showed an im-
provement in all crops except gram, and the rabi harvest may be said to have
been satisfactory.

In the PUNJAB the monsoon started earlier than usual, but did not continue
long enough and the rainfall was inadequate during August and September.
Prolonged drought and hot and dry winds towards the end of September and
in the beginning of October were largely responsible for shedding of flowers
and bolls of cotton. In the Canal Colonies the cotton crop also suifered from
the attack of white fly. Excessive dry cold coupled with frost in November
caused defective opening of the bolls, particularly in the case of American
cotton sown in mid-season. The adverse effect of the season was reflected in
the yield of cotton which was 1,232,700 bales of 400 Ib. each from 3,135,500
acres, as against 1,468,000 bales from 2,909,000 acres in the previous year.
Sugarcane was very badly attacked by Pyrilla in the Kohtak district, so much
so that even gur could not be made out of the juice obtained from the diseased
cane. The weather was continually wet and cloudy during the latter half of
December, and during January and February. Considerable damage was
caused to the crops in some districts by hail-storms about the middle of Febru-
ary. In the beginning of April there was again rain accompanied by a severe
hail-storm in some districts. Owing to mild conditions in March, the grain was
well developed, resulting in a high yield of wheat almost equal to the record
yield of 1929-30. The total yield of wheat was 3,724,000 tons from 9,944,700
acres as against 3,392,000 tons from 9,385,000 acres in the previous year.
April and May were favourable for harvesting and threshing. The attack of
gram blight was more widespread this year. The gram crop all o\er the
province suffered, but in the Attock and Mianwali districts it was almost com-
pletely wiped out.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES the monsoon commenced late and followed a
somewhat abnormal course throughout. Kharif sowings were started only
towards the end of June. Germination of kkarif crops, though generally satis-
factory, was defective in crops other than rice in Chhattisgarh and in a few
places in Berar where some re-sowing was necessary. Precipitation was heavy
throughout July in all districts and gave no opportunity for inter-cultivation
with the result that weeds flourished and crops made slow growth. A long
break in August improved the position considerably and conditions throughout
September remained fa\ ourable. Prospects in the cotton tract fell off again
in October when the monsoon ceased and intense heat supervened. Of the
fcharif crops, cotton fared worst, groundnut somewhat better and jowar still
better. Paddy was a considerably smaller crop than the average of past years.

AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS 5

Preparation for rabi sowing was given a good start by the August break.
Sowings were done at the normal tinre in most places and earlier than usual in
some, and germination was generally satisfactory except in Chhattisgarh where
October rain made some re-sowing necessary. Crops made good growth to
begin with but lack of winter rain combined with abnormal heat prevented
full development and this was followed later on by cold spells and hail-storms
in some of the northern districts. Rust made a slight appearance but did not
cause serious damage, and cut- worms did some harm to linseed in Chhattis-
garh. The cumulative effect was that rabi crops in general were below
normal.

In BIHAR the weather conditions were, on the whole, favourable for the
winter rice rabi and sugarcane crops, while bhadai crops, particularly
maize, suffered to some extent due to a shortage in the early stages and an
excess- of rain in the later periods of crop growth. Floods occurred in the
months of June, July, August and September and standing crops, including
sugarcane, suffered as a consequence in parts of Patna, Bhagalpur and Tirhut
divisions.

There was a considerable shrinkage in the area under sugarcane due to the
very low prices received by growers in the 1936-37 crushing season and also
due to a large surplus crop left in the fields at the close of that season. The
area under the crop fell from 490,000 acres in 1936-37 to 360,500 acres in the
year under report.

A good hathia (October) rainfall helped the normal sowings of the rabi crops
and cold weather rains, although late, resulted in a fairly good harvest.

The year under review must, on the whole, be considered fair as satisfactory
out-turns were secured from bJiadai, aghani (winter) and rabi crops.

In SIND, generally speaking, the condition of the crop throughout the
province was below normal during the year. Hot winds during May and June
adversely affected the germination of crops. Subsequently, the fall in the river
level delayed sowings and transplanting operations in the non-Barrage areas.
The heavy /showers in July affected the germination ofjouar and bajri in several
places. There was considerable damage due to sterility in rice.

During the winter season, wheat on the Left Bank suffered on account of
the canal closure and the cloudy weather just before maturity brought on the
rust attack on the crop. In Upper Sind the yield of wheat decreased due
to the absence of flooding in Jcatcha lands during the AbJcalani and lack of rain
in the winter season. The malar (pea) crop was affected by Mahlo. Oil-seeds
suffered from frost in Jacobabad district but flourished in Larkana and Dokri
districts. The area under loria (Brassica napus) increased on the Left Bank
and good yields were obtained. Linseed and safflower grew successfully.
An effort is being made to overcome the difficulties in marketing these crops.
Berseem fodder has now become popular in the Left Bank tract and was
grown on a larger area.

There was a general fall in the prices cf agricultural commodities during
the year. This, combined with the diminished yields of crops, was responsible
for the decline in the economic condition of the people in the Barrage area.
In the non-Barrage areas, there was a little improvement, the crop being better
than in the previous season.

6 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1037-38

In the NIZAM'S DOMINIONS, in the western districts, heavy rains at the t ; *
of maturity damaged the crops considerably, while in the eastern districts
the rainfall continued to be low and was unfavourably distributed.
Consequently, the crops could not grow satisfactorily and the out-turns were
low. The rabi season received little rain, and the crop remained poor. In
Marathwara the monsoon started well in the Aurangabad and Parbhani dis-
tricts, but later on there was a long drought which affected the kharif crop
unfavourably to a certain extent. The conditions were satisfactory for the
rabi crop, but some damage to cotton and other crops was caused by severe
cold in parts of Aurangabad district. In the Nanded and Bhir districts the
monsoon started late, but the conditions were favourable in the end and the
irops could make fair growth. On the whole, the season was satisfactory in
this division. In the Karnatak area the rainfall was below the normal and
was badly distributed. In the Raichur district the monsoon started late,
but the kharif crop received some help from the late showers though those
showers were not sufficient for the rabi. The Osmanabad district was com-
paratively more fortunate. The most unfortunate district during the year was
Gulbarga district, where the kharif failed due to the late arrival of the monsoon
followed by drought, and the rabi suffered on account of inadequate moisture.
The conditions in the Bidar district were, on the whole, favourable and normal
crops were harvested in both seasons.

In MYSORE the distribution of rainfall during the year was not satisfactory.
In the Bangalore circle rains were untimely, there being no rains near maturity
of the .crops. In the Tumkur circle though there were good rains early in the
year there was a long break afterwards due to which the crops suffered. In
the Shimoga circle rainfall was not favourable and the crops suffered heavily.
In the Chikmagalur circle the coffee blossom showers were somewhat early
and insufficient. The long break in the rainfall also adversely affected the
yields of coffee. On the whole the seasonal conditions were unsatisfactory
and there was failure of crops and scarcity of water in several localities. The
prices of agricultural produce continued to be more or less normal.

In BARODA, with the generally moderate rain in June, the rain sowings and
the pre-monsoon ones in light and heavier soils tracts were quite successful.
The July rains prevented proper cleaning and interculture in fields and checked
vigorous growth of crops. The succeeding drought did not allow timely trans-
planting of paddy and tobacco and adversely affected the growth of bajri,
millets and pulses. The heavy rains in September caused further damage
to these crops and to sesamum, but helped cotton, tobacco and kyari paddy and
ensured a good village water supply. The groundnut crop suffered heavily due
to both heavy rains and drought. The season proved quite good for cotton
and kyari paddy, particularly where it could be helped over the drought with
some irrigation. The continuous rains and severe cold spells in winter caused
thin stalk growth and low ginning in cotton.

In TRAVANCORE the total rainfall during the year under report was almost
everywhere less than the normal and the total falls during the previous year.
The rainfall was unevenly and unusually distributed. The month of Makaram
(January-February) was exceptionally wet. This uneven and unusual dis-
tribution of rainfall had a bad effect on the growth of crops. Paddy in South
Travancore failed to a large extent. Insufficiency of water towards the close

AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS 7

ot he previous year hindered the cultivation of the Kanni (September-October)
crop in many fields. Unexpected rains in Makaram damaged the Kumbhom
(February-March) crop which was then just flowering. Again the lack of rains
towards the close of the year left very gloomy prospects for the Kanni crop of
the current year. The situation in Central Travancore was no better. The
Makaram rains rendered it impossible to sow the inter-crop of sesamum in
most of the fields in Onattukara. The water remained in the fields so long
that they could not be tilled or prepared satisfactorily even for the second paddy
crop which is generally sown in dry pulverised soil. These early rains were
also very injurious for the paddy in punja fields. And still worse was the lot
of pepper. The vines put forth their flush with the early rains but these dropped
off in large numbers when the rains broke off, with the result that the harvests
were very poor and irregular. In North Travancore, however, the distribution
of rain was more even.

In COCHIN the south-west monsoon rains commenced earlier than usual
"with active and vigorous rainfall and were, on the whole, slightly in excess of
the normal, but the weather towards the close of the year was disappointing,
with only very little rainfall. The result was that the paddy crop sown early
\vith the short duration types was uniformly good both in dry and wet lands,
whereas the late sowings and long duration types of paddy suffered considerably.
The north-east monsoon rains were almost normal with uniform distribution.
The second crop of paddy did not therefore suffer much. There were some
good showers during hot weather months also and the water scarcity was not
so very severe as in previous years.

2. Economic conditions

Prices of most of the items of India's agricultural production attained their
maximum in the first part of 1937 and thereafter declined sharply, the fall being
about 25 per cent and more in most cases in a period of only a few months.
Thus raw cotton declined from March 1937 to October 1937 by 33 per cent and
raw jute fell off in value from May 1937 to March 1938 by 25 per cent. Wheat
which reached its highest level in April 1937, dropped by 35 per cent in March
1938 and tea by 16 per cent in about the same period. Prices of groundnut
were highest in August 1936 ; since then they declined almost continuously.
The price of rice was fairly steady throughout 1937-38 and the preceding year
#nd that of linseed was on the average higher in the year under review than
during 1936-37.*

3. Imperial Council of Agricultural Research

The expansion of the Council's activities was maintained during the year
under review. As usual the Advisory Board met twice and the Governing
Body once during the year. The Annual General Meeting of the Council took
place on the 12th March 1938 when the annual reports on the working of the
Council and on the accounts were adopted. A Special General Meeting of the

* For details of area, export and prices of different crops reference may be made to:

1. Estimate* of Area and Yield of Principal Crops in Itidia, 1937-38.

2. Renew of the Trade of India in 1937-38 (pp. 12 to 53).

8 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Council was also convened at which various formal amendments to the R* ie&
and Regulations of the Council, which were rendered necessary by the constitu-
tional and other changes and developments, were passed. The Council received
from the Government of India a total grant of Us. 12,25,000 to cover, among
annual recurring grants, expenses on marketing schemes, researches on sugar-
cane and cold storage schemes. Five schemes were approved by the
Governing Body during the year under review and the total fund allotted
for research at the end of 1937-38 was Us. 65,34,211. Of the total number
of schemes financed by the Council, 112 are under local Departments of Agri-
culture, and 23 are carried out by university organizations or private bodies.
A complete list of schemes financed by the Council is given in Appendix XV.

A notable event during the year was the holding of the second meeting
of the Crops and Soils Wing of the Board of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry
at Lahore during December 1937. This was followed by a visit of members
to Lyallpur to see the research work in progress at the Punjab Agricultural
College and its surrounding farms. The deliberations of the Board were opened
by H. E. the Governor of the Punjab. About 60 members from all over India
participated in the discussions and a large number of useful papers were read.
The Board made useful recommendations on several subjects.

Another step taken by the Council during the year was the constitution
of a standing Central Fodder and Grazing Committee. This was in pursuance
of the recommendation made by the Animal Husbandry Wing of the Board of
Agriculture and Animal Husbandry and of a similar recommendation made
by the Cattle Conference. The personnel of the Committee consists chiefly
of representatives of provincial Forest and Agricultural Departments. The
first meeting of the Committee was held in November 1937 and important
questions pertaining to the improvement of grassland were discussed and future
lines of action were laid down. As recommended by the Council, provincial
Fodder and Grazing Committees have been constituted in most provinces and
it is expected that with this type of organization having branches all over
India the coordination of research on problems of fodder production in India
will be greatly facilitated.

The second meeting of the standing Rice Committee preceded by a meeting
of a Research Sub-committee was held in March 1938. Besides discussing the
reports of research schemes of different stations, the Committee approved the
extension of certain schemes and recommended that more funds should be
provided for rice research.

A meeting of the Horticultural Research Workers Conference was held in
September 1937. In addition to the progress reports of research schemes
and technical programmes of work, the Conference considered a memorandum
regarding the need for uniformity in the maintenance of cultural records and
performance records of fruit trees in different stations of India, the questions
of layout of horticultural experiments and the better coordination of horti-
cultural experimental work now in progress.

A meeting of the Dry Farming Coordination Committee was held in Sep-
tember 1937. At this meeting practically all the scientific workers of the
various dry farming research stations were present. It was preceded by a
meeting of a small Drafting Sub-committee. The Committee considered the
progress reports on current research schemes and the question of correlating

AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS 9

tl^l* results. Suitable arrangements were also made for an interchange of
quarterly progress reports.

The Soil Science Committee met twice during the year in conjunction with
the Advisory Board, i.e. in November 1937 and in March 1938. It examined
t number of progress reports and technical programmes of work and considered
applications for the renewal of certain existing schemes and applications for
grants for new schemes. One of the principal items on the agenda at each
meeting was the consideration of Sir John Russell's recommendations regarding
soil research.

The Sugar Committee met twice during the year. In May 1937 the Com-
mittee considered the progress reports of 1935-36 and a few technical programmes
of work on research schemes financed by the Council. The question of the
desirability of extension or otherwise of sugarcane cultivation was discussed
and it was agreed that in view of the increases which had taken place and of
the increase in yield per acre, there was no scope for any general increase in the
cane area but that the present distribution was imperfect. It was considered
desirable to take stock of the performance of all the sugarcane varieties grown
in India and the Imperial Sugarcane Expert was requested to prepare a list of
them with a statement indicating their behaviour in different places and remarks
as to their usefulness. The Committee reviewed the working of the Sugar
Production Rules, 1935, and approved experiments on the ratooning of sugar-
cane at two agricultural stations, one in the United Provinces and the other
an Bihar at a cost of Rs. 59,000, spread over a period of five years.

In March 1938 the' Committee considered 13 progress reports and 10 pro-
posals for the renewal of existing schemes. The Committee also recommended
an expansion of the scheme of work on the insect pests of sugarcane in pro-
vinces other than the United Provinces, Bihar and Bombay which had al-
ready been sanctioned. Proposals for the continuation of the Sugar Market-
ing Survey conducted by the Agricultural Marketing Adviser to the Govern-
ment of India were considered and approved. The Committee also approved
a summary oi: some practical results of sugarcane research in India prepared
by the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research and desired that a similar
publication should be issued annually, giving a short account of the outstanding
achievements recorded in the progress reports of each year.

The Council sanctioned a technical survey of the gur industry in India with
special reference to ^wr-making outfits and the implements made under the
direction of the Director, Imperial Institute of Sugar Technology. The work
is in progress and it is hoped that a complete monograph in this connexion
will be published for the benefit of the industry.

The second meeting of the Wheat' Committee was held at Simla in Septem-
ber 1937. The Committee devoted considerable time to the discussion of the
major conclusions contained in the report on the Wheat Marketing Survey.
The progress made in the standardization of wheat * futures ' contract for India
was noted and discussed. Emphasis was laid on the desirability of encourag-
ing better storage, special reference being niade to the underground concrete
kJiattis (bins) used in Muzaffarnagar. The Committee recommended that
wheat market prices should be regularly broadcast and published in news-
papers. This recommendation has since been accepted and acted upon. The
Committee agreed that both from the point of view of marketing and from the

10 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1&37-38

agricultural standpoint it was necessary that the number of improved t^s
selected for distribution should be limited and that the policy of building up
compact blocks of single varieties was the correct aim. Notes from several
provincial Governments and provincial representatives on the economics of
wheat production were discussed. The general view was that the principal
requirement was an intensification of the organization for seed supply and
better organized marketing. The Committee noted that discussions with the-
Liverpool Corn Trade Association were in progress with a view to ascertaining
whether the Indian wheat could be made tenderable against the Liverpool
wheat ' futures ' contract. Since the Committee met it has been ascertained
that there is no objection in principle to Indian wheats being made so tender-
able, provided a regular export trade was established and wheats of satisfactory
cleanliness, not liable to attacks of weevil in storage, could be shipped in com-
mercial quantity.

At the instance of the Government of India, the Imperial Council of Agri-
cultural Research undertook an enquiry into the possibility of clove produc-
tion in India. Imports of cloves mainly from Zanzibar are valued at over
Rs. 30 to 40 lakhs annually. The question whether cloves could be profitably
produced in India has been raised from time to time but there was a lack of
precise information. The Council appointed Dr. A. K. Yegna Narayana Iyer,
retired Director of Agriculture, Mysore, as officer on special duty to make the
enquiry in promising areas in South India. The enquiry lasted for about six
months. He visited parts of Coorg, Mysore, the Nilgiris and Tinnevelly and
submitted a report which has been published as a Miscellaneous Bulletin (No.
20) of the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research. This report records the
special officer's observations on the scattered clove cultivation in India, deals-
with the soil and climatic conditions necessary for clove plantations and makes
suggestions for the future.

As recommended by Sir John Russell, the results of manurial experiments
on rice and sugarcane conducted so far in the provinces and states were collat-
ed by the Statistician to the Council with a view to replanning the whole system
of manurial experiments on these crops and in particular to arrange for identical
or similar experiments to be carried out simultaneously at all stations.

The Twelfth International Horticultural Congress was held in Berlin in
1938 to which an official invitation was received by the Government of India
and the Council arranged for a delegation consisting of Dr. W. Burns, the
Agricultural Commissioner with the Government of India, as leader and Dr. H.
Chaudhri, Reader in Botany of the Punjab University and Mr. K. C. Naik,.
Horticulturist, Fruit Station, Madras, as members.

In marketing efforts were made from the commencement of the year under
review to put into practical effect the preliminary results obtained in the cci'rse-
of the marketing surveys up-to-date. Much of the information collected by
the central and local marketing staffs in regard to grains, oil-seeds and ghee was
compiled for use in discussions with the producers and trade interests concern-
ed. A full report on the marketing of wheat in India was published as also-
its abridged editions in English, Hindi and Urdu. A report on the marketing
survey on cold storage and transport of perishable produce was also published.
Other reports which were ready for the press were linseed, tobacco, eggs, grapes-
and coffee. Various statutory all-India central commodity committees such

AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS 1}

as lac, jute and coffee decided to have their own marketing staff to carry out
special surveys on the products concerned. The work of these special officers
will, however, be supplemented by the enquiries instituted by the existing local
marketing staffs and the central marketing staff. The Government of India
placed a fund at the disposal of the Agricultural Marketing Adviser for expendi-
ture in regard to the improvement of sugar marketing in India. For this
purpose a Marketing Officer and two Assistant Marketing Officers with a nucleus
staff were appointed temporarily with effect from the 1st December 1937.
The survey was started from the same date.

With a view to better grading of agricultural produce and providing a
common basis for trading on standard quality to the advantage of both pro-
ducers and consumers, the Agricultural Produce (Grading and Marking) Act
was passed by the Central Legislature in February 1937. To give a practical
lead to all concerned the Central Marketing Staff initiated the grading and
marking of different commodities at more than 30 centres. Although some
of those grading stations were running for a short period towards the end of
the year the total value of the graded produce put out under the * Agmark '
exceeded Rs. 10 lakhs. With a view to demonstrating suitable methods of
grading at different stations and to showing producers the practical possibility
of obtaining a premium on graded produce, a number of experimental grading
and marking stations were established at different centres throughout India.
These stations dealt with hides, eggs, fruits, tobacco and ghee. An important
part of the headquarters work on grade standards consisted in the collection
and examination of a large number of samples of the different commodities.
Arrangements were made with various institutes throughout India to carry
out the physical and chemical analyses of these products.

A Marketing Officers' Conference was held as usual in the course of the year.
One of the main decisions arrived at was that greater emphasis should be laid
in future on development work, particularly in the way of

(i) the establishment of more grading and packing stations under the

Agricultural Produce (Grading and Marking) Act,
(ii) the regulation or registration of markets and market charges,
(iii) the standardization of weights and measures, and
(iv) an improved market news service for producers.

A representative conference of ghee producers and others was held in Simla
in September when proposals were formulated for the standardization of ghee
and the establishment of ghee grading and marking stations. In Bombay
another informal conference was held to discuss with the trade representatives
the results of a special investigation into the chemical quality of Kathiawar
ghee.

CHAPTER II

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS*

'' I 4 HE ascertained area under improved varieties of crops in British India in
A 1037-38 was approximately 22-05 million acres as compared with 224 million
acres in 1936-37. These figures by no means represent the whole extent to
which improved strains have replaced old varieties as it is difficult to gauge the
full extent of the natural spread of improved varieties. Tables I and II show
the position so far as it can be ascertained.

*The assistance of the following officers in the preparation of this Chapter is gratefully
acknowledged :

(1) Mr. C. R. Srinivasan, Paddy Specialist, Agricultural Re-

search Institute, Coimbatoro ..... Mice.

(2) Dr. B. P. Pal, M.Sc., Ph.D. (Cantab.), F.L.S., Imperial

Economic Botanist, Imperial Agricultural Research

Institute, New Delhi Wheat, Tobacco and

Potatoes.

(3) Mr. D. N. Mahta, B.A. (Oxon.), Secretary, Indian Central

Cotton Committee, Bombay Cotton.

(4) Mr. N. L. Dutt, M.Sc., Imperial Sugarcane Breeding

Station, Coimbatore Sugarcane.

(5) Mr. A. P. Cliff, B.A., Dip. in Agri., I.A.S., Secretary,

Indian Central Jute Committee, Calcutta . . Jute.

(6) Dr. J. S. Patel, B.Sc. (Agri.), M.Sc. (Cornell), Ph.D.

(Edin.), Jute Specialist, Indian Central Jute Com-
mittee, Ramna, Dacca Oil-seeds.

(7) Mr. P. H. Carpenter, F.I.C., Director, Scientific Depart-

ment, Indian Tea Association, Cinnamara, Assam . Tea.

(8) Mr. M. J. Simon, Secretary, Indian Coffee Cess Com-

mittee, Bangalore ...... Coffee.

(9) Dr. G. S. Cheema, D.Sc., I.A.S., Horticulturist to Gov-

ernment, Bombay Province, Poona . . . Fruits.

(10) Professor L. S. S. Kumar, M.Sc., A.R.C.S., D.I.C., Eco-

nomic Botanist to the Government of Bombay,

Poona ......... Fodder Crops and

Grasses.

(11) Mr. B. S. Sawhney, B.A. (Cantab.), Botanist for Millets,

Botanical Sub-station, Sirsa, Punjab . . . Millets, Beans and

Pulses.
,(12) Rao Saheb Ram Dhan Singh, Cereal Specialist, Lyall-

pur ......... Other Cereals.

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS
TABLE I

Areas under improved crops in India during 1937-38 (in acres) as far as
information is available

Province or state

Rice

Cotton

Wheat

Jute

Sugarcane

Madras ....

1,771,180

B
677,702
911,220

KITES H . r \l'I
74,133

61,414
22,944

Bombay ....

67,442

Bengal .....

486,008

1,763,747

280,202

United Provinces .

220,233

37,224

491,213

1,405,308

Punjab

2,495,900

4,937,700

319,200

Bihar

38,517

61,751

2,700

037,640

C. P. fcBerar

702,502
51 098

389,773

5,405
102
784,472

508,415

308,540
440
3S4,851

14,391
258

15,007
32,291
33,000

N.-W. F. P
Orispi

25,032
3J8,068

Sincl
Totil for British Indin .

3,090,800

5,301,904

0,833,051

1,781,090

2,833,000

13'tiA.N STATE?

Hyderabad ....

2,622

247,981

1,558

5,436

Myporc ,

47,122

51,598

15,967

Baroda
Travari^orfc ....

7,400
218
4,697

61,454

8,542

23,459

156
214

Coobin .....

Bhopul ....

72,000

Kashmir* ....
Total for Indian Stoics .

Grand Total for British India
and Indian States

21,773

62,141

369,655

97,017

3,758,947

5,6*1,559

6,930,068

{1,781,096

2,855,379

* Departmental seed 3,590 acres under different crops. Natural spread not known.

14 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1037-38

TABLE I contd.

Province or state

Millets

Gram

Potatoes

Ground-
nut

Other
Crops

BKITISH INDIA

Hadraa

237,514

Bombay ....
Bengal .....

20,442

7^,580

2,550

56,092

31,283
63,464
318,103

United Provinces .

Punjab ....

Bihar . .

6,750

1,967

9,925

C. P. * Berar

166,302

151,460

52,578

Assam ....

1?,304

N.-W. F. P

425

3,086

197,110

Orissa .....

407

3,050

6,012

18,869
17.V90

Total for Bntisl Infix

186,762

80,162

20,990

215,537

1,105,636

INDIAN STATES

Hyderabad ....

1,844

174,419

704

Mysore ....
Bared* .....

158,235
329

3,600

26,809
397

40
240

1,117
15

193
1,976

Travancoro ....

Bhopal ....

Total fvr Iniian Stotes

Grand Total for British India
and Indian States

160.438

3,600

201,905

4,005
1,109/541

83,762

20,996

417,442

* Departmental seed 3,690 acres under different crops. Natural spread not known.

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS

ritish
tates

c*f

co"

r-ec
t- -^

C5 I- CO

CO O *

Cl CO r"

C: CO 00

O t^ CO

c- co jo

1 1 I

16 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

1. Rice

The rice crop occupies, on an average, about 35 per cent of the total cul-
tivated area in India. Table III shows the estimated area and production
of rice during the year under review and the preceding four seasons :

TABLE III
Acreage and production of rice during the Jive years from 1933-34 to 1937-38

Year

Area in
acres
(thousands)

Yields
in tons
(thousands)

Average yield
per acre in
pounds

1933-34

70,340

25,733

830

1934-35

69,731

25,706

821 '

1935-36

70,998

23,213

757

1936-37

72,295

L'7,828

861

1937-38

72,277

26,737

826

It will be seen that though the area was practically the same as last year,
yet production was in defect by 3-9 per cent.

\Yith the separation of Burma, the position of India in the world rice market
has undergone a change. Rice produced in India is mostly retained for local
consumption, exports being not even one per cent of the total production.
In spite of the very large acreage under rice, India is now one of tho largest
rice-importing countries of the world, and this is due to the fact that the pro-
duction has not kept pace with the increase in population. The annual average
imports of 726,000 tons from Burma during the quinquennium 1922-26 rose
to 1,136,000 tons in the quinquennium 1927-31, and to 1,690,000 tons in
1933-37. In Table IV are shown the total out-turn of rice, exports from India
and imports into India from Burma during the past five years.

TABLE IV
(In thousand tons)

Year

Production
of clean rice in
India proper

Exports

Imports

Rico

Paddy

Rico

Paddy

1933-34

25,773

216

1,877

1934-35

25,706

204

2,594

1935-36

23,213

189

1,391

254

1936-37

27,828

235

1,419

121

1937-38

26,737

227

1,198

> Figures fur paddy Included in rice.

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS

The exports of rice from India during the year declined from 235,000 tons
valued at Rs. 2-72 lakhs to 227,000 tons valued at Us. 2-61 lakhs. These were
destined chiefly to Ceylon, Arabia, and African territories having a fairly large
Indian population. Table V shows the direction of the export trade of India

in nee :-

TABLE V

Exports of rice from India to foreign countries
(In thousand tons)

1935-36

1936-37

1937-38

United Kingdom ......

Rest of Europe ......

Best of Asia

Union of South Africa .....

East Africa .......

TOTAL

189

235

227

Prices of rice in the Rangoon market, which greatly influence the prices
in India, remained generally on a higher level in the first half of the year than
in the second. The slackness of world demand for rice depressed the prices
greatly and up to January, except for temporary reaction, the price fell gra-
dually. There was a slight appreciation in the following two months.

THE IMPERIAL COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH continued to pro-
mote and finance a large number of schemes for the study of rice genetics and
investigation of ancillary problems of rice in various rice-growing provinces.
The outstanding events concerning rice are briefly summarized below.

The life of the Standing Committee on Rice, set up in February 1936 for
a period of two years, in the first instance, was extended for a further period
of one year. The second meeting of the Standing Committee on Rice a"s re-
constituted met at New Delhi on the 5th of March 1938. A Research Sub-
committee held its meeting the previous day to scrutinize the progress re-
ports of rice research schemes, and to consider applications for new schemes,
and for the extension of old schemes. Apart from the circulation of notes
on various subjects for the information o{ the members, some of the important
recommendations of the committee are as follows : *

(1) New varieties intended for export should be sent to local chambers
of commerce for opinion, before they are distributed to the culti-
vators.

18 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

(2) Among the list of subjects for the institution of medals, the design ot

an efficient bullock-driven rice huller should be included.

(3) The Agricultural Commissioner and the Statistician of the Council

should collect further available information from the provincial
Departments of Agriculture and on its basis replan new manurial
experiments for the rice season of 1939.

(4) The Governing Body should approach the Government of India for

allotting more funds to finance more rice research schemes.

Before the end of the year, nearly all survey reports on the marketing of
rice from the provinces and states were received and the drafting of the all-
India report was commenced.

The Royal Commission on Agriculture recommended that testing of new
varieties should be carried out on holdings typical of the tracts for which the
varieties are deemed suitable, and that the work of distribution of seed of
improved varieties should continue to remain in the hands of the Agricultural
Departments until reliable seed merchants come into the business. Recently
Sir John Russell also, in his review on the work of agricultural research in
applying science to crop production in India, stated that, though the standard
of selection and breeding of new varieties has reached a high level, improved
varieties have not been widely taken up by cultivators, which is due chiefly
to the difficulty of obtaining adequate supply of certified seed, through lock
of honest seedsmen to multiply and sell seed at a reasonable price.

"As far as information is available in the reports of some of the major pro-
vinces and states, it is quite evident that the first recommendation of the
Royal Commission on Agriculture, to wit, testing new varieties under ryots*
conditions, is being largely followed. During the year, an elaborate scheme
of testing the new selections under cultivators' conditions has been taken up
by the Deputy Directors of Agriculture in the United Provinces in consulta-
tion with the research staff. It will be evident from a perusal of the para-
graphs relating to the different provinces, that strains that have maintained
their ascertained merit under ryots' conditions of cultivation are finally decided
upon for release for general cultivation. The table below shows the estimated
area cropped with improved strains of rice in the various provinces and states
in India during 1937-38.

Area under imjrroved crop (rice) in India during 1937-38 (in acres)
BRITISH INDIA

Madras .

Bombay .

Bengal

United Provinces

Punjab .

Bihar

C. P. and Berar

Orissa

Asmara

N.-W. F. P.

Sind

1,771,186

67,442

486,068

226,233

* 38,517

702,562

25,032

51,698

" 328,06*

Total for British India . 3,696,806

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 19

Area under improved crop (rice) in India during 1937-38 (in acres) contd.

INDIAN STATES

Hyderabad

Mysore

Baroda

Travancore

Cochin

Bhopal

Kashmir .

2,622

47,122

7,466

218

4,697

Not available.

Total for Indian States . 62,141

Grand total for British India

and Indian States . 3,758,947

Work in the provinces and states

A brief summary of the work in different provinces is given below :

BENGAL. The estimated area for the year was 22,194,000 acres, which
represents 29-1 per cent of the rice area in India and production 9,093,000
tons. Though the area increased by 201,000 acres, the production showed a
decrease of 775,000 tons. The average estimated out-turn per acre for the
province works out to 912 Ib. as against 1,000 last year.

The breeding of better types of rice, for the varying conditions of the pro-
vince, is undertaken mainly at the Dacca and Barisal Farms. Important items
of work are also carried out on the Chinsurah, Bankura and Suri Farms, partly
financed by the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research and partly by the
local Government. Final tests, as regards the suitability of strains isolated in
these farms, are also carried out on all other Government farms.

At the Dacca Farm observations were made on 931 pure lines of aus (autumn
rice) varieties. A very large number of transplanted amati (winter rice) varie-
ties were experimented with and a new species of oryza (0. Barthii) was ob-
tained from the Kew Gardens. It is hoped that this new species will be useful
for making interspecific crosses with the ultimate object of obtaining strains
resistant to drought. During the year, this section took over the work on
medium deep-water paddies of which there are at present 700 pure line cultures.
Seventy of these could not grow over five feet rise of water and all of them
succumbed. Selections are being made from the surviving pure lines to meet
the varying conditions. Artificial crosses have been effected between aus
and aman and various exotic varieties and their progenies are in different stages
of study.

The study of the effect of dusting paddy plants with two larvicides, to wit,
Paris Green, Cuprous Cyanide in 5 per cent strength, with necessary quantities
of soft stone powder as the diluent, was continued. On each occasion,
20 Ib. of the mixture per acre were dusted at intervals of seven days. Though
the yields of the treated plots are less than, the jcontrol, yet the differences are
not significant.

At Barisal 164 strains from different balam varieties were under study
and at Chinsurah 1,741 cultures were grown. In the preliminary yield trials of
aus paddy varieties, Jhanji-34 proved superior to local Kele. In the field-scale
tests of aman varieties, Bhasamanik yielded significantly higher than local

20 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Patnai and Nagra. Correlation studies with 19 strains of aman and seven
strains of aus paddies showed that the yield of grain is associated with weight
of straw, number of tillers and height of plant.

In a factorial experiment, involving three varieties, five dates of planting
from 16 July at 20 days interval, and three spacings (6*, 9* and 12") and number
of seedlings per hole, all the main effects and first order interactions were as
in the previous year significant. All strains yielded highest in the first plant-
ing. In late planting, closer spacing with three or more seedlings gave the
best yield. In another three-fold complex experiment, with age of seedlings,,
variety and time of planting, the primary effects and the first order interactions
between dates of planting and age of seedlings were significant. Eleven weeks
old seedlings in the first and second plantings gave the highest yield. The
mixed cropping of a late variety as before yielded significantly less than a single-
late crop.

The collection of pure lines was increased from 750 to 957 during the year
at Bankura. Experiments to determine suitable varieties for the different
situations were continued. Sada-aus that proved best last year was out-
yielded by Badkalamkati 1 and 4/145 C for the higher areas. Sundrasal con-
tinued to maintain its place for the intermediate situations. For the lowest
areas Sitasail was found to be significantly better than Bhasamanik standard.
None of the Pusa varieties could compete with Nona Ramsail in yield.

Three cultural experiments, as in the previous year, were conducted at the
Bankura Farm. As before, dibbling 9* gave the highest yield of grain. In
the experiment involving the trial of different times of planting and number
of seedlings per hole, yield decreased with successive periods of planting, but
no difference in yield was obtained by planting varying number of plants per
hole. In the third experiment on dates of planting and ages of seedlings,
different dates of planting alone have significantly influenced the yield of both
grain and straw.

MADRAS. The area under rice in the province for the year was 10,141,000
acres and represents 15-3 per cent of the total area under the crop in India.
The estimated production during the year was 4,850,000 tons and the estimated
yield per acre works out to 1,053 Ib. as compared to 1,086 Ib. of 1936-37. In
both acreage and total production slight increases were registered over those
of the preceding year.

Rice improvement work is carried out at Coimbatore, the chief centre of
research, and at sub-stations at Aduturai for the Cauvery delta, Maruteru for
the deltas of Godavary and Kistna and at Pattambi for the West Coast. During
the year under report, two small rice research stations were opened at Buchi-
reddipalayam, in the North Pennar Delta and at Ambasamudram, in the Tain-
parabarani basin.

At Coimbatore a strain from Sendinayagam of Tinnevelly district, yielding
13 per cent over the ryot's bulk, was released as Co 12. Similarly, three strains,
to wit, Mtu 12, in Pedha-Atragada, Mtu 13, in Delhi Bogham and Adt 16, yield-
ing 27 '8 per cent over ryot's bulk in Konakuruvai, were released from the res-
pective sub-stations. Promising cultures in half a dozen important varieties
await trials in the district. In addition, over 1,500 pure-line cultures from
many important local varieties of paddy of the province were under different
stages of testing at all the rice stations.

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 21

Two synthetic strains isolated from a cross between Co 3 and a thick straw
type from Burma continued to be promising in the trials in the district for
their non-lodging character and high yield in low-lying areas. It was also
reported that they withstood even submersion for short periods. Three hybrid
strains isolated for blast resistance were again found to be free from the disease
when grown among varieties that were badly affected by blast (Piricularia
oryzae). One of them was also noticed to stand somewhat alkaline condi-
tions. At Aduturaij a synthetic culture, 7,306, isolated from a cross between
Aclt 3 Kuruvai, a three-month short duration coarse variety, and Adt 2
White Sirumani, a six-month variety, satisfied a long-felt need for a three-
month duration Sirumani type suitable for export to Ceylon.

Six promising cultures isolated from Geb 24. X-ray progenies were selected
for yield trials. Four dwarf mutants selected from the same X-ray material,
though tillering profusely and yielding better than Geb 24, are unfortunately
prone to lodging under manured conditions. Some of the other methods of
inducing mutations, such as heat and cold treatments to new and old seeds,
have also been taken up.

At Coimbatore dibbling in dry gave higher yield than transplanting. At
Pattambi broadcasting early in the first crop season again proved more profit-
able than broadcasting late after the commencement of the monsoon when
transplanting is to be preferred. In spacing experiments, at the different
agricultural research stations, close planting has given better yields. Higher
yields were also obtained by increasing the number of seedlings per hole with
wider spacing. In the experiment to ascertain the effect of grading seed by
means of concentrated brine solution, no advantage was gained by such a
grading, though in a short duration variety heavy seed seemed to give better
results than light but not over ungraded seed. It therefore seems that no
particular advantage is gained by processing the seed paddy more than the
normal methods of cleaning. The results of irrigation experiments conducted
at Coimbatore indicate the desirability of irrigating the rice crop with large
supplies at wide intervals.

At Coimbatore the application of superphosphate to seed-beds was without
effect on the crop. However, superphosphate applied to the crop at planting
was more effective than at other periods of growth. At Pattambi groundnut
cake or green leaf manure supplying 30 Ib. nitrogen gave an increase of 25-30
per cent over no manure. "When sulphate of ammonia is applied as a top
dressing to the same plots, the increase over no manure was 40 to 60 per
cent. The subsidized manurial experiment at Maruteru terminated at the close
of the three-year period. A summary of the findings is given below :

(i) Application of green leaf at 4,000 Ib. per acre to dalca (spring)
crop was distinctly beneficial and better than the application of
2,000 Ib.

(ii) Over a basal dressing of green leaf at 4,000 Ib. to the acre, the opti-
mum economic dose of top dressing consisted in the application of
32 Ib. of nitrogen and 32 Ib. of phosphoric acid per acre,
(iii) No residual effect of the application of manure to the second crop
was visible on the succeeding first crop.

BIHAR. During the year the area under rice was 9,513,000 acres, represent-
ing 13-6 per cent of the rice area in India. The estimated production for the

22 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

year was 3,144,000 tons, which works out to 740 Ib. per acre as against 756 Ib,
per acre during 1936-37. In both acreage and yield slight decreases were
registered over those of the preceding year.

The large collection of 5,000 samples of rice varieties was studied and re-
duced to 1,200 units, representing the varieties grown in the different paddy
tracts of the province. This provides the material from which high-yielding
strains with desirable qualities can be selected. Half a dozen selections, to-
wit, 115 BK in the early group, 16 BK and 88 BK in the medium and 36 BK
and 76 BK in the late group, out-yielded the standard variety by about 15 to-
20 per cent. About 200 pure lines have been isolated from among the South
Bihar materials. Varietal trials of the selections for South Bihar, at a number
of farms, resulted in the isolation of four promising cultures in early, three in
medium, and five in the very late group for further trial.

In some tracts the intrusion of wild rice in the cultivated crop is a regular
menace. A fully pigmented variety is periodically grown to recognise and
eradicate the non-pigmented wild rice appearing in the crop. As the rice
colour of the pigmented variety now cultivated is red and poor in yield, pig-
rnented white rice selections from suitable crosses have been isolated and are
under study.

The experiment on spacing and number of seedlings planted in each hole
has shown that wider spacing (9") with two to three seedlings per hole is de-
finitely more advantageous than the local practice of planting in bunches 4 /f -6"
apart. The former practice not only gives higher yield but also reduces the
cost of transplanting, which is also done more expeditiously.

At Sabour the application of sulphate of ammonia at the rate of 100 Ib. per
acre resulted in a clear profit of Ks. 9 per acre. In areas deficient in phos-
phates, the addition of superphosphate has been found to be more profitable
than the application of such compound fertilizers as Niciphos. Studies in the
time of application of fertilizers showed that they are best applied when the
seedlings are more or less established, say two to three weeks after trans*
planting. Experiments on green manuring are in progress.

Investigations on the water requirements of the rice crop have established
the low transpiration rate of the drought resistant selections and that the maxi-
mum requirements of the plant for water occur two to three weeks before flower-
ing. The work done in this respect also seems to indicate that, once the trans-
planted crop has been established, standing water is unnecessary for the opti-
mum growth of the crop, and it would further appear that a cracked condi-
tion of the soil, once the plants arc well established, gives the maximum yield
in the case of all rice varieties, early or late.

Studies on salt tolerance have established the possibility of gradually
inducing the rice plant to withstand a certain degree of salinity by
pretreating the seeds with minute doses of common salt. Such pretreated
seeds have been grown in natural and artificial saline soils and have
given 30 to 40 per cent higher yield than the untreated seeds grown
under similar conditions. Investigations on the effect of increased day-length
on flowering time have opened out a new field for crossing varieties which
flower at different periods and thus bring about new combinations of
desirable characters present in varieties ordinarily flowering at different times.
of the year.

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 23

THE UNITED PROVINCES. In the United Provinces 7,004,000 acres of
rice produced 2,017',000 tons during the year. This represents about 9 per
cent and 8 per cent of the total acreage and production respectively of rice in
India. Both in area and out-turn appreciable increases were recorded over
that of the previous season.

Research work on rice is chiefly carried out at Nagina Rice Station, financed
by the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research. Cultures numbering 1,650
were under study during the year. The study of cross progenies involving
the Sathi parent which is early and immune togundhi fly (Leptocorisa Varicornis)
formed the main item of work. As a result of this research, five pure-breeding
hybrid strains, with high yield and desirable characters, have been isolated.
Of the three hybrid strains, viz. H 33, H 108 and H 755, marked out in other
economic crosses, strain H 108 has been found suitable for the Sarada Canal
area in the place of T 12 already in distribution.

In manurial trials the effect of the application of sulphate of ammonia
(60 lb. nitrogen) was pronounced and more so when this quantity is applied
in two or three doses. Green manuring with sanai (sunnhemp) of seven to
nine weeks' growth was more effective than sanai of five weeks' growth, and
all treatments better than no manure. Molasses, applied either at the rate
of 100 or 200 maunds per acre, resulted in a substantial increase in yield whether
applied one or two months before planting, though application just before
planting was previously found to be harmful to the crop.

ORISSA. The area under rice during the year was 5,060,000 acres and
production 1,623,000 tons. Both the area, representing very nearly 7 per
cent of the area in India, and production show but a very slight increase over
that of the previous season.

Research on rice in this province, mostly financed by the Imperial Council
of Agricultural Research, was continued at the Cuttack Farm and at two sub-
stations, one at Berhampore, transferred from Madras, and the other newly
opened at Koraput, in the Jeypore Agency.

At Cuttack, in the preliminary yield trials, a number of types in different
classes of paddy yielding 15 to 30 per cent higher than the standard varieties
were marked out for further trials. In the place of Kujang No. 2, another
salt-resistant strain, No. 100, has been released for general cultivation. Pro-
mising selections in dulua, viz. Nos. 3 and 4, and Dl 8 are being multiplied
for distribution. Winter paddy seeds which are dormant after harvest when
subjected to smoking for two hours daily for two or three days induced via-
bility in them, while treatment with anaesthetics and high temperature was
without effect. All the items of work in progress at Berhampore at the time
of taking over from the Madras Government, except agronomic experiments,
were continued. Barhampore strains, 1 to 10 already released, are quite pro*
mising and large-scale distribution of seed has been undertaken. Promising
types of Cuttack were also tried with success at Berhampore.

At Koraput the work was mostly confined to the layout and construction
of buildings. Seventy-five local samples together with the promising types
isolated at Berhampore and Cuttack were grown and 300 samples were collected
for future work.

CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR. During the year under report the esti-
mated area was 5,704,000 acres and represented 7-9 per cent of the area under

21 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

nee in India, while production was 1,552,000 tons and worked out to 588 Ib.
per acre as compared to 689 the preceding year. The seasonal conditions were
on the whole favourable for the crop ; the average out-turn for the province
as a whole was, however, 92-3 per cent of the normal.

The improvement of the rice crop in the Central Provinces is being directed
firstly to get high yielding fine rice strains, secondly to improve the yield of
coarse rices, and thirdly to eradicate wild rice. The work in all these direc-
tions has reached the stage of showing practical results.

Hybrid No. 19 between Budhiabako and Parewa, evolved to meet the de-
mand for a high yielding fine rice which can also be distinguished from wild
rice, has been largely distributed in the eastern circle. Yield trials over a
period of five years at research stations and in the districts have demonstrated
the superiority of hybrid strains No. 116 and No. 22 over the standard varieties
Bhondu 10 and Parewa 22. Of the eleven cultures of EB 17 X Nagkesar under
trial, hybrid 9 recorded the highest yield, exceeding the parent Nagkesar by
19 per cent. Inter- varietal trials were carried out for four years at Raipur,
Woraseoni and Jubbulpore for the isolation of high yielding strains suitable
for the three main rice growing tracts of the province. At Raipur EB No.
17 of the early, Budhiabako of the medium, and Luchai 4 and Chinoor 21 of
the late maturing group gave the highest yield. At Waraseoni Sultugurmatia
and Jalchinga among the early, Budhiabako and Lalgurmatia among the medium
duration varieties and Luchai 4 and Ajam of the late varieties yielded better
than the local standard variety. Trial at Jubbulpore marked out Dilpasand
and Sultugurmatia in the early and Motichur in the medium duration varieties
as the best yielders.

Selection work in fine-scented varieties Chhatri Kubrimohar and Banspatri is
in progress. Outstanding among them is selection No. 40 from ChhatrL which
out-yielded the standard by 32 per cent.

Studies in the development of the root system of rice confirmed the observ-
ation recorded in the previous season. The average dry weight of roots per
plant from the transplanted crop was more than in biasi (broadcast and later
cross ploughed).

In manurial trials the application of phosphoric acid at 20 Ib. per acre as
superphosphate gave a net profit of Rs. 3-12 per acre, while 20 Ib. of phos-
phoric acid with 20 Ib. of nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia resulted in a net
profit of Rs. 2-14 per acre.

The Agricultural Chemist to Government, Central Provinces, continued
his investigations of soil profiles and the losses of valuable plant food through
leaching from different types of rice soils. Malasi (25 per cent clay) soils are
very poor in calcium carbonate throughout the profile and contain a low pro-
portion of clay and a high percentage of fine sand, the former generally increas-
ing and the latter decreasing with the depth of the soil. They are poor in total
exchangeable bases and organic carbon. The proportion of organic carbon,
carbon nitrogen ratio and the percentage of organic matter humified decrease
with the depth of the soil. Dorsa (48 per cent clay) soils contain a high pro-
portion of clay throughout the profiles. A high percentage of calcium carbo-
nate is present at lower depths. They are richer than matasi soils in total
exchangeable bases, phosphoric acid, organic carbon and humus. Percentages
of organic matter humified increase with the depth of the soil. Kanhar soils

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 2&

are more or less similar to the heavy type of dorsa soils except that the per-
centages of organic matter humified do not show any variation in the different
depths of soil.

In the case of dorsa soil, quantities of the leachates obtained at different
periods are strikingly lower than those obtained from the light matasi soils.

In ASSAM the rice area during the year under review was 5,056,000 acres,
representing nearly 7 per cent of the total area in India and recorded a dec-
rease of 378,000 acres over the previous year. The estimated production of
1,745,000 tons shows a decrease of 159,000 tons over the last season.

Kesearch work on rice is concentrated at the Government experimental
stations at Karimganj Titabar and Habiganj, the last of the stations alone
being financed by the Imperial Council of Agricultural Kesearch.

At Karimganj of the 916 pure-line types and 698 hybrid types under observ-
ation, 34 of the former and 32 of the latter groups were also under preliminary
yield trials. In the final varietal trials, one hybrid in sail (transplanted winter
rice) (SC 415-56) and one in asm (shallow water winter rice) (ArC 614-25),
being definitely superior to the standard varieties, were multiplied for distribu-
tion. For late planted areas, after late floods, Jharisail is recommended.

At Titabar, 966 pure-line types and 1,241 hybrid types were under observ-
ation. In the final varietal trials, one hybrid strain (SC 308-372) in sail yielded
higher than S 115 Latamargan, the standard variety. The manurial experi-
ment in ahu (autumn rice) with different doses of cow-dung (0-100-200-300
maunds per acre) conducted in the previous season to assess their residual
effects was continued. The application of 300 maunds gave significantly
higher yields over the rest. Topping of the rice crop twice during its vegeta-
tive growth resulted in giving more fodder than once and that without a reduc-
tion in grain yield.

Two factorial experiments with sail, involving four dates of planting, three
numbers of seedlings per hole, three spacings and three varieties at Karim-
ganj and three ' ages of seedlings ' instead of varieties at Titabar, showed that
all the primary effects were significant except the age of seedlings at Titabar,.
Of the first-order interactions those between spacing and number of seedlings,
spacing and time of planting, and number of seedlings and dates of planting
were significant at both the places, while at Karimganj, those between
varieties and dates of planting, spacing and variety, and number of seedlings-
and variety were insignificant. Both the second and the third order
interactions were insignificant at Titabar, while at the other place, that
between spacing, number of seedlings and time of planting was the only
significant one.

The improvement of boro (spring rice) and deep water aman paddies was
continued at Habiganj. 630 cultures in aman and 580 in boro were under
observation. Seventy-four strains from the important commercial classes of
deep-water aman varieties were under yield trial. In order to meet the persist-
ent and immediate demand for improved amen seed, three promising types
suited to three different levels of 6-7, 8-12 and over 12 feet depth of water,
yielding on an average 40 maunds per acre, were issued ,to the cultivators.

The relationship between plant growth and water rise were studied for
successive years in a number of aman types. Some of the important observ-
ations made, so far, are summarised below :

26 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Quick water rises result in the elongation of internodes, while slow water
rise results in shortening the internodes. If the water level becomes stationary,
nodal branching sets in, instead of an increase in height. The vigorous nodal
tillers eventually produce ears and contribute towards the final yield. The
formation of roots at the nodes, with the rise in water, is another feature of
deep-water paddies. Varieties which grow faster than others before the arrival
of the flood are not necessarily more flood resistant than the slow growing
types. In point of withstanding submersion, some types can stand a longer
period of submergence than others, while, some can, if water rise becomes
stationary, grow and come up again above the water level. The power of
withstanding submergence increases firstly with the age of seedlings up to
four weeks, and secondly with the duration of the varieties, the early varieties
being quicker in growth than the late ones. Plants of aman varieties in deep-
water areas are also susceptible to uprooting usually when the flood water
begins to recede. Cultivators protect the crop from washing away during
the receding floods by erecting bamboo enclosures, known as arks.

In boro 84 cultures were under preliminary yield trials. A good many of
them have given 25-50 per cent better than local unselected bulk. In order
to meet the demand for improved boro seed, one of the strains with blackish-
brown furrow husk was distributed in the Assam Valley where the area under
boro has increased considerably under pump irrigation. Very favourable
reports from the districts have been received about their performance, the
maximum yields reaching as high as 51 maunds per acre.

Under agronomic experiments in boro, significant differences were once
again recorded between broadcasting and transplanting. In a factorial ex-
periment, with age of seedlings and time of sowing, it was found that yields
progressively decreased as the transplanting season advanced from the 28th
December to the 18th of January. Five and six weeks old seedlings were
found more suitable than seedlings of four weeks. In the comparison between
aus and tupa, aus gave a higher yield than tupa. Further, a gradual increase
in yield of aus from year to year indicates the possibilities of acclimatising aus
varieties for the boro season.

BOMBAY. This province contributed roughly 2'5 per cent of the total rice
area in India, or 1,867,000 acres and produced 860,000 tons of rice, working
out to 1,083 Ib. per acre as against 860 the previous year.

The improvement of the rice c;rop of the province is carried out at the rice
breeding stations opened in the important rice growing tracts. During the
year under review, four promising Mugad and three Antersal strains gave signi-
ficantly higher yields than the locals at the Mugad Rice Breeding Station. They
have also been multiplied for distribution. Study of the selections in the early
variety Dodgya is in progress.

At the Kumpta Farm strains in Maskathy, Juddu white and red Halga,
and Mugin Bendu yielding between 9 to 30 per cent over the local varieties
have been carried over for further trial.

At the Karjat Rice Breeding Station work on the improvement of the
rices of the Deccan, Thana and Koiaba tracts of the Konkan is being done.
Z 149, a strain in Zinya, a variety grown in North Thana, though only slightly
better in yield, is much appreciated for its quality. Trials of a late strain,
Varangal No. 487 and Fine Waksal No. 1 conducted at Chiplun, recorded

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 27

increases of 17-34 and 21*7 per cent over the respective local bulk seed. These
two strains are proposed to be tried in the district in the next season.

SIND. The estimated area in Sind during the year was 1,231,000 acres,
showing an increase of 49,000 acres as compared to the area in the previous year.
The production of paddy also shows an increase of 12 per cent over that of
the previous year, the actual estimate being 519,000 tons. The main problem
of the Barrage area, so far as rice is concerned, is to evolve high yielding varieties
that would stand early transplanting in May and June, while in the non-Barrage
area the problem is to select early maturing varieties of rice to suit the new
condition of water supply for i shorter period, late in the season. Research
work on rice is carried out at Larkana Farm, with a small sub-station in the
Fuleli tract in Lower Sind.

In the Barrage canal areas improved strains Kangni 27, Jajai 77, Prong
37 and hybrid strains Silver Jubilee, 34-267-51 and Kangni X Torh cross
16-1-28 are finding great favour with the cultivator.

In North Sind under inundation conditions Kangni 27 and Bengalo No. 1
(Sugdasi variety) are being recommended. In Lower Sind in Fuleli canal areas
New Types ' Y ' and the improved strains of Ratrya and Motya are being dis-
tributed. In the Karachi district the early ripening type, Kangni 27, is being
introduced for high lands ; while Jajai 27 and hybrid strain 34-267-51 have
been found to withstand deeper water.

Monthly planting trials with Kangni 27 and Silver Jubilee conclusively
proved that planting in the month of June is superior to July in both the varie-
ties. The results of the experiment laid out to test the relative tolerance of
fine varieties of rice to kalar in the soil (soil with a high proportion of sodium
chloride, sulphate and carbonate) showed the superiority of Torh and Torh
cross 16-1-18 over the other four varieties. In a rate of sowing experiment,
the lower seed rate of 26 seers gave as good an yield as the high rate at 40
eeers used by cultivators.

PUNJAB. Breeding work on rice is carried on at the rice farm at Kala Shah
Kaku. Among the approved varieties 349 Jhona and 370 Basmati continue
to hold the field. As a result of wide-spread demonstration arranged in colla-
boration with the Public Works Department officers in the Upper Chenab
canal area, selections 346 Mahlar, 246 Palman and 225 Son have found favour
with cultivators.

Rice work carried out for the past two years at Saloh in the Kangra district
was transferred to Nagrota Bagwan. Thirteen commercial varieties are under
observation. The local practice of hodding of the vattar sown crop gave 25 to
75 per cent increase over the non-hodded crop.

The area under rice in the Punjab was 1,086,240 acres as against an area
of 1,039,498 acres in 1936-37. This increase is due to sufficient rainfall received
at the sowing time. The total out-turn estimated was 546,000 tons, 22 per
cent above the normal.

HYDERABAD. The area under rice in this state was estimated to be 962,000
acres during the year, showing a decrease of 173,000 acres compared to that
of the previous year. Similarly, the estimated productioa of 368,000 tons is
50,000 tons less than that recorded in the previous season. Selection work in
rice is being continued. Two strains, Himayatsagar No. 263 and 504, are
under distribution.

28 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

KASHMIR. Rice occupies about one-third of the total cultivated area in the
State and is also largely grown in the Jammu province in the canal irrigated
areas.

Selection work in rice is conducted on the Pratap Model Farm. Baber
selection No. 103, Budiji 111 and 118, Lolawzen selections 1 and 2 and Myshka-
budiji selections 40 and 25, which have yielded up to 19 per cent over the local
during the past three years, are being multiplied for distribution.

MYSORE. The area under rice in the state was 707,000 acres and produc*
tion 229,000 tons. Both the acreage and yield during the year under review
declined by 17,000 and 7,000 tons.

Rice improvement work is carried on at the Nagenohali Farm which is also
the source of supply of pure seed of improved varieties of rice in the state.
Selections 661 and 682, strains in Maharaja Bhogam, though yielding well,
are not finding favour with the cultivators on account of the high percentage
of unset grains compared to other varieties. Two Italian varieties said to be
resistant to blast (Piricularia oryzw) were added to the collection of varieties.

TRAVANOORE. Rice is the most important crop in the state, occupying
663,000 acres and is the staple food of the population. Nevertheless, local
production, being short of the home demand, is largely supplemented by
imports from Burma. Seven improved strains, TEB 1 to 7, have been dis-
tributed in the Nanjanad area. Selection work in Valseramundan, Jemboly,
Veeryavadankan and in some short duration varieties was continued. In
varietal trials, Veeryavadankan did well in South Travancore, while GEB 24
appears to suit areas round about Shencottah.

COCHIN. A in the neighbouring Travaneore State, rice is the staple food-
crop of Cochin State. A number of varieties cultivated during viruppu (first
crop, May to September) and mundakan (second crop, October to January)
were under observation. Cochin l y a selection in Chitteni, is getting
popular on account of its shortness in duration, ensuring a sure second crop.
The question of selecting suitable salt-resistant varieties for the backwater
areas is engaging the attention of the state Agricultural Department.

DACCA UNIVERSITY SCHEME. This scheme is financed by the Imperial
Council of Agricultural Research and deals with mechanical analysis and study
of physico-chemical properties of laterite soils and nutrition of the rice plant
(at Dacca).

In the last year's review, observations were made on the profile characteris-
tics of laterite soils in India. During the year, analyses of the different horizon
samples of the soil profiles examined are in progress.

A detailed study was made on the assimilation and translocation of nutrients
in the rice plant grown in (i) a field unmanured for many years and grcwing
rice every year, (ii) same as (i) but manured with Nicifos and lime, and (iii) water
culture. The scheme which has been running for eight years was extended for
a period of two years and the portion of the work relating to the nutrition of
the rice plant is proposed to be written up for publication.

Investigation on the quality of rice

The study on the quality of rice waa continued during the year at the
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, in its two main aspects, the chemical

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 29

the biological. The scheme, which was due to expire at the end of May
1938, was extended by one year.

Perhaps the most important finding from the present enquiry is that rice
as inherently very much more nutritious than commonly believed. The poor
quality of the food that is eaten by a large section of the population in India
is traceable to (i) the prevailing taste for white and small-grained varieties of
.rce, (ii) the process of polishing which removes the major part of the valuable
phosphorus and a considerable part of the nutritious protein in addition to
the essential vitamin, (iii) the practice of thorough washing (before cooking)
which removes a considerable part of the residual phosphorus, and (iv) the
present method of cooking, involving drainage of gruel and consequently further
loss of nitrogen and phosphorus. Evidence has been adduced to show that
some of the coarser and coloured varieties are very rich in the essential cons-
tituents arid, if cooked without polishing and without extra washing, are
nearly as rich as wheat.

The factors affecting the keeping quality of rice have been determined,
and it has been shown that the poor keeping quality of unpolished rice is essen-
tially due to oil contained in the embryo and the outer integuments of the
grain. It is possible, by suitable control of humidity and storage methods,
to prevent or at any rate greatly minimize the deterioration x of hulled rice on
storage, but further efforts should be made to improve the keeping quality
so as to be readily applicable in practice. Parboiled rice has got much better
keeping quality than raw rice, even when unpolished.

Extensive feeding experiments with different rice varieties on young rats
and pigeons have shown that growth is essentially correlated with composi-
tion ; particularly protein and mineral contents of the rice sample. Coloured
and coarse varieties induce better growth in animals, on account of their higher
protein and mineral contents. One of the factors determining growth-rate
appears to be the level of protein supply and in this connection it is important
to determine the supplements needed to make rice a wholesome diet. The
availability of the different constituents of rice and the means of increasing
them are under study. The effect of parboiling and of polishing on rate of
growth with young rats is also being followed.

The chemical composition and nutritive value of rice varieties grown under
(i) irrigated, transplanted, (ii) irrigated, broadcast and (iii) dry broadcast condi-
tions have been studied. Dry cultivated paddy was found to be the least
nutritious when compared with wet cultivated rice.

2. Wheat

The world production of wheat during 1937 was reported to be very good
after nearly three poor seasons, owing to the increase in acreage under the
crop, especially in North America and the Unioed States. This, coupled
with a probable decrease in the requirements of the importing countries, is
expected to replenish reserves of wheat which had been continuously declining
from 1933-34.

The area under wheat in India in 1937-38 was 35,618,000 acres as against
33,237,000 acres in 1936-37 and the yield 10-8 million tons in 1937-38 as against

30 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

9'8 million tons the previous year. This increased production, combined with
better prices obtainable for wheat in the world market, encouraged exports
from India during the year under report. The total quantity of wheat ex-
ported from India during 1937-38 amounted to 460,000 tons valued at Rs. 462
lakhs as compared with 235,000 tons valued at Us, 212 lakhs in the previous-
year. The prices of Indian wheats, which rose considerably during 1936-37,
however, showed a sharp decline towards the end of March 1938. This break
in prices is largely due to the recession in commodity prices which smarted during
the second half of 1937 and the unfavourable statistical position of wheat in
the world. The fact that the Indian crop of wheat in 1936-37 wa a good one
and it was followed by a better one in 1937-38 also contributed to- the depression
in prices.

Breeding

SIMLA. In connexion with the work on breeding rust-resistant wheats F 3
populations of nine crosses were under study. Out of a total of 4,521 plants,
1 ,631 proved to be resistant. Plants were selected on the basis of rust resist-
ance and other desirable characters for growing the F 4 generation. The study
of the Fj populations of a number of crosses made last year showed suscep-
tibility to be dominant to resistance. The F r s of two crosses made with Khapli
(resistant parent) as one of the parents died without giving any seed.
Several new crosses were made between Indian varieties and foreign resistant
types.

The study of the 40 hill varieties collected in previous years disclosed their
un suitability for breeding purposes. Some more material was collected during
the year. A large number of exotic wheats was under observation with the
object of discovering varieties suitable for breeding work.

DELHI. At the Imperial Agricultural Research Institute work on breeding
of non-shattering strains of Pusa 114 and Pusa 120 was continued and a number
of promising selections were made for further trial.

BOMBAY. In the Bombay Province the testing of selections from the
rarious crosses was continued and further promising material carried forward
for trial. Seeds set from open pollination of the sterile F x plants of the crosses
between rust-immune Russian wheats and improved varieties again yielded
sterile plants, which were further back-crossed with a number of types during
the year. Six seeds were obtained from these crosses and they will be sown
next year.

PUNJAB. The trial of cross-bred strains was continued. C 400, which
had done consistently better than 8A at the Rawalpindi Farm for the last seven
years, has been finally selected for further trial under barani (rain-fed) condi-
tions at Gurdaspur and Rawalpindi. There are preliminary indications that
C 228 may give under late sown conditions better yield than any other wheat
hitherto available.

The two new wheat breeding sub -stations at Rawalpindi and Gurgaon
started work during the year.

CENTRAL PROVINCES. Testing of strains obtained from previous research
was continued. Several intervarietal and interspecific crosses were also under

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 31

study. The F t plants of the cross between Tritwum vulgare (AO 15) X T.
durum (No. 58) were backcrossed with T. dicoccum and those of T. durum
(No. 58) X T. dicoccum (Khapli) with T. vulgare (AO 13) with the object of
transferring the rust-resistant quality of Khapli to the high yielding vulyare
wheats. The cross between vulgare x Khapli which proved a failure in pre-
vious years was successfully effected during the year. The Amphidiploid
Aegilotricum with 2w 56 chromosomes was also crossed with T. vulgare (2w
=42).

The four partially rust-resistant types that were isolated from among a
collection of foreign varieties tested during the previpus year were used as
parents in new crosses.

The crosses between AllSxPusa 4, A115xPusa 52, AO GSxPusa 4 and
AO 68xPusa 52 were grown at different centres and desirable single plants
with rust resistance isolated.

SIND. The work of breeding high yielding, early maturing good quality
wheats with rust resistance was continued.

Varietal trials, seed multiplication and distribution

In the varietal trials conducted by the Imperial Agricultural Research In-
stitute at KARNAL, Pusa 125 was the most successful among early strains,
while Pusa 124 and Punjab C 518 did very well among the late maturing
ones.

At the Botanical Sub-station, PUSA, seven Pusa wheats were tested for
yield with Cawnpore 13 and Punjab 518 in replicated randomized blocks
and the results showed Pusa 80-5 to be the best yielder with Pusa 165 as the
next best.

In BOMBAY, the standard strains Bansipalli 808 and 224 were multiplied
each on half an acre for maintaining the chain of pure seed supply. Alto-
gether 1,140 Ib. seed of various strains were distributed.

C 518 and 591 continued to be the most popular strains in the PUNJAB.
The department distributed 26,000 maunds of pure seed of C 518 and 1-75
lakh maunds of C 591 during the year. In comparative trials in departmental
farms both the strains outyielded 8- A. In 15 out of 16 trials C 518 outyielded
8- A on soils with productivity by more than 19 maunds per acre and C 591
in 23 trials out of 30 gave increased yield of 6 maunds 6 seers per acre over
8-A.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES, the two strains Nos. 76 and 267, derivatives
from crosses between A 115 and Australian and Palestine wheats, maintained
their reputation as good yielders in field-scale trials at Adhartal and Power-
khera Farms. Three new strains were also released for field-scale trial and
multiplication during the year.

In SIND, three selections, including C Ph 47 which proved to be the best
yielder in last year's trials, were tested against Punjab and Pusa wheats in
replicated plots at Sakrand and the results indicated that C Ph 47 was again
the best yielder with 2,441 Ib. per acre. Out of the hybrid strains tested at the
agricultural station strain No. 139 derived from the cross A T 38 X Pusa 12
gave significantly higher yield than the others with 2,483 Ib. per acre. Several

32 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

comparative yield trials were also conducted in the districts all over Sind to-
find out the types suitable for the different tracts. It was found that under
irrigated conditions in North Sind C Ph 47 stood first in point of yield with
A T 38 as a close second. In Hyderabad division, Punjab 8-A gave the
highest yield and under bosi (without cold season irrigation) conditions
A T 38 and C Ph 47 did very well.

In the varietal trials with Pusa wheats carried out in BENGAL, Pusa 52
topped the list as in the previous year.

Results of several varietal trials conducted by the INSTITUTE OF PLANT
INDUSTRY, INDORE, with outside strains against Indore selections both in bread
wheats (irrigated) and durum wheats (rain-fed) disclosed significant differences
in only two of the trials. Among the outside wheats Punjab 591 appeared
to be the most promising both on account of its good quality and rust resist-
ance.

In the Jammu Province the demand for Punjab 8-A, C 518 and C 591
is very keen and even increasing while in KASHMIR local selections of white
wheat and the newly introduced Australian varieties are in great demand.
Punjab wheats do not fare well in Kashmir owing to the difficulty experienced
in threshing them which may be due to climatic conditions.

Miscellaneous

Registration of wheat varieties. At the suggestion of the Wheat Com-
mittee of the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research work on the registra-
tion of wheat varieties has been kept in abeyance pending the publication of
the recommendations of the Committee appointed to report on cotton and rice
nomenclature.

Vernalization studies with wheats were continued at the Imperial Agricul-
tural Research Institute, NEW DELHI.

Physiological research. At the BENARES HINDU UNIVERSITY work was
in progress to ascertain the growth and protein content of wheat as
affected by variations in soil moisture and soil nitrogen. For better protein
formation and accumulation in wheat both nitrogenous and phosphatic
fertilizers are essential and that they are best applied half at germination
and half one month later. The optimum moisture content in soil for
protein formation is in the vicinity of 35 per cent of the moisture-holding
capacity.

During the year under review 6,929,628 acres were cropped with improved
strains of wheat in the various provinces and states exclusive of Baluchistan,
Orissa and Kashmir for which figures are not available.

3. Cotton

During the year under review, the area under cotton in India rose to
25,583,000 acres from 24,759,000 acres in 1936-37, the increase being recorded
mainly in the Hyderabad State, the Punjab, the Central Provinces and Berar
and Sind The ascertained area under improved strains during the year was
5,537,000 acres or 22 per cent of the total. The total estimated out-turn for

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 33

1937-38 was 5,663,000 bales of 400 Ib. each, against 6,204,000 bales in 1936-37,
the average yield per acre being 89 Ib. and 100 Ib. respectively. The drop in
yield per acre was reflected principally in the cotton tracts of the Punjab, Sind
and the Central Provinces and Berar, which registered reduced total out-turns
in spite of increased acreage. Unfavourable weather conditions were mainly
responsible for this. The quantity of cotton pressed, including loose cotton
consumed in mills in India during the year, and extra-factory consumption
of cotton taken at 450,000 bales, the new figure adopted amounted to 6,332,000
bales of 400 Ib. each.

The exports of Indian cotton during the season totalled 2,100,095 bales of
400 Ib. each, against 4,267,267 bales during 1936-37, the fall being due mainly
to unfavourable parity (price of Indian cotton expressed as a percentage of
American) and reduced takings by Japan.

According to the statistics published by the International Federation
of Master Cotton Spinners' and Manufacturers' Associations, the world's
estimated total mill consumption of Indian cotton amounted to 5,863,000 bales-
during the year ending 31 July 1938, against 6,022,000 bales during the corres-
ponding period of 1936-37. For the year ending 31 August 1938, the total
consumption of Indian cotton in mills in India reached the peak figure of
2,993,839 bales of 400 Ib. each, against 2,631,296 bales for the corresponding
period of the previous year (including Burma up to 31 March 1937). Imports
of cotton into the United Kingdom dropped to 375,358 bales from 658,383 in
the previous year.

In order to arrive at a decision as to whether the standard yield figures for
cotton in the Punjab required revision, one of the members of the staff of the
Indian Central Cotton Committee was deputed to examine and report on
statistical data collected by the Punjab Agricultural Department. As a result
of this examination, the standard yield figures for cotton in the Punjab have
been raised.

The results of the enquiries undertaken by the Indian Central Cotton Com-
mittee into the village or extra-factory consumption of cotton in India, referred
to in the last review, have since been published in a booklet entitled General
Report on Nine Enquiries into the Village or Extra-factory Consumption of Cotton
in India, 1933-36. On the basis of the investigations carried out, a recommenda-
tion has been made suggesting the adoption in official statistics of 450,000 bales
as the estimate for extra-factory consumption of cotton instead of the previous
conventional estimate of 750,000 bales.

Statistics were compiled and published as usual dealing with the consump-
tion of Indian cotton by Indian mills, the distribution of the crop by staple-
length and receipts of cotton at mills, exports by sea and stocks held in India
classified according to varieties.

Cotton legislation

The Bhopal Cotton Control Act .was passed into law during the year.
It follows the lines of similar Acts in force in Bombay, Madras, the Central
Provinces and Berar, the United Provinces and the Baroda State, and aims at
promoting the cultivation of superior cottons and prohibiting the growth of
inferior cottons.

34 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

The application of the Cotton Transport Act in the Baroda State was
extended during the year by the issue of a notification by the Durbar declaring
the Mehsana district to be a protected area and prohibiting the import into it of
outside cotton either by road or rail, except under licence.

During the year a few cases of infringements of the Cotton Ginning and
Pressing Factories Act were brought to the notice of the provincial or state
authorities concerned. Most of these were in connexion with the marking of
bales the marks being incorrect, indecipherable or mutilated. In the Punjab
throe cases were instituted against factory-owners for infringement of the Act
with regard to structural requirements.

The Vaktapur taluka (Western India (States Agency) introduced legislation
for the marking of bales and submission of weekly press returns, thus bringing
the number of Indian states having such legislation to 70.

The Government of Madras have drafted a bill for the licensing of ginning
and pressing factories on the lines of similar legislation in force in Bombay,
with a few additional clauses to suit local conditions. One of the clauses of the
draft bill contains provision to the effect that k no cotton which is ginned or
pressed in a cotton ginning or pressing factory shall contain any admixture
of cotton without specifying the fact conspicuously on the outside of the bale
or borah in the prescribed manner, and that every bale or borah of cotton not
bearing the mark '* mixed " shall be considered as containing pure cotton '.
As this provision is opposed to the Indian Central Cotton Committee's policy
in connexion with the mixing of cotton, a recommendation has been made to the
Madras Government for its deletion.

Malpractices

Complaints received regarding watering of cotton at certain centres in the
Punjab, the Baroda State and the Central Provinces and Berar were reported
and the attention of the authorities concerned was drawn to them.

Cotton markets

Four new cotton markets were established under the Bombay Cotton
Markets Act, viz. at Broach, Bijapur, Jalgaou (East Khandesh) and Dondaicha
(West Khandesh), thus bringing the total number of regulated markets in the
province to nine. In Madras, the question of establishing additional markets
has been deferred as the Madras Government are not quite satisfied at
present with the working of the Tiruppur cotton market. It has since been
suggested to that Government that if another experimental market were tried
at a less complicated centre better results might be achieved.

The Agricultural Produce Markets Bill for the better regulation of the
purchase and sale of, and the establishment of markets for, agricultural
produce, including cotton, was introduced in the Punjab Legislative Council.

No further progress has b?on made in connexion with the provision by the
Indian Central Cotton Committee, in cooperation with All India Radio, of a
limited number of rural broadcast receivers in suitable markets for the broad-
ca sting of cotton prices.

In connexion with the adoption of a definite cotton policy in Gujarat,
was felt that the crux of the whole problem centred round the better marketing

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 35

of 1027 ALF cotton in the Surat district and that the Agricultural Produce
(Grading and Marking) Act should be utilised in order that 1027 ALF might
be marketed as a special variety of Surat cotton. The first step in this direction
has been given effect to by the Government of India by amending the schedule
to the Act to include cotton. The question of framing suitable rules applicable
to cotton is under consideration.

Universal standards for selected varieties of cotton were passed as usual by
the Standards Sub-Committee of the Indian Central Cotton Committee in
collaboration with the East India Cotton Association and the Karachi Cotton
Association.

Seed distribution

With a view to making the results of botanical and other research available
to the cultivator, the Indian Central Cotton Committee finances schemes
for the supply of pure seed of improved varieties of cotton. The number
of such schemes in operation at the commencement of the period under review
was 13. During the year three new schemes were sanctioned, ouo for
financing seed distribution in Sind, one for the distribution and marketing of
Buri 107 (acclimatised G. hirsutum) in the Burhanpur tahsil, Central Pro-
vinces, and one for the extension of BD 8 cotton in the Baroda State.

Technological Laboratory

The Technological Laboratory continued its work of testing samples of
cotton, yarn and cloth for agricultural departments and the trade. The samples
tested comprised agricultural samples, samples of standard Indian cottons,
trade samples and technological samples, and the results were published as
technological circulars or bulletins. Investigations of interest completed
during the year were (1) effect of employing different degrees of compression
in a bale on the fibre properties and spinning quality of cottons, (2) optimum
drafts in the fly frames, (3) suitability of two cottons for purposes of mill
mixings in relation to their fibre characters, (4) empirical relationships
between count, lea strength and staple length of Indian cottons,' (5) effect of
humidity on the spinning performance of Indian cottons, (6) drawframe speed
tests, (7) effect of storage on the quality of Indian cottons, (8) deterioration
of BD 8 cotton with lapse of time, and (9) quality of lint in relation to ginning
factors.

The Institute of Plant Industry, Indore

This Institute, which is financed mainly by the Indian Central Cotton
Committee, completed its 14th year of life. Its programme of work included
the general botany, physiology and genetics of Indian cottons ; in addition
agricultural investigations connected with the cultivation of cotton and other
crops are carried out. The Institute also arranges for the supply of improved
seed and gives demonstrations in the use of improved implements, the
preparation of manures and improved methods of agriculture. An important
function of the Institute is the conduct of yield trials with different established
varieties of crops in the States. During the year two sub-strains of Malvi 9 1
were compared at three centres, Punjab-American 289-F, Mollisoni Cwn 52 >

36 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA, 1937-38

and Local in the Bikaner State, Own 520 and Own 402 in the Jaipur State and
in the Jodhpur State and Ajmer-Merwara, Indore I, Dhar Cambodia, Local,
Sind Sudhar and Perso- American were compared. These variety trials have
proved definitely the suitability of Malvi 9 all over Malwa, and of Own 520 for
Jaipur, Indore I for Jodhpur and Ajmer-Merwara, and Punjab-American
289-F, Own 520 and Mollisoni for the canal tract of Bikaner State. Improved
varieties of seed were also stocked at the Institute for distribution.

The work of breeding for wilt resistance is gradually assuming greater import-
ance as the wilt incidence is reported to be on the increase. Progeny trials
were conducted in both wilt-free and wilt-infected fields on the farm and pro-
genies have been obtained from 10 of these families which give 80 to 90 per cent
survival in wilt-infected fields.

Cotton improvement

The work of cotton improvement in India continued to be largely financed
i>y the Indian Central Cotton Committee.

A brief account of the work done on the Committee's schemes in the various
provinces during the year under review is given below :

BOMBAY. Gujarat. The work of cotton improvement in the Gujarat
division is centred at Surat, Broach and Viramgam, and at these places scien-
tific botanical research work is in progress with the object of producing improved
strains of cotton which will give higher returns per acre to the cotton growers.

Jalgaon cotton breeding scheme. During the year under review, Jarila
(NV 56-3), a variety evolved after five years 1 work, was given extensive village
yield trials and compared with Banilla and NR both on Government farms
-and on cultivators' fields. In these trials it gave significantly higher yields
than the other two. The ginning percentage of Jarila ranged from 32-5 to 36.
Both farm and commercial samples were tested at the Indian Central Cotton
Committee's Technological Laboratory and found suitable for 22's to 36's
highest standard warp counts. The prices obtained at auction sales fetched a
premium of Rs. 26 to Rs. 43 over Broach. With the object of combining ginn-
ing percentage and high wilt-resistance in Jarila, work on hybridization of
Jarila with NR and Million Dollar was undertaken during the year. Work
of isolating more desirable and promising types than Jarila is in progress.

Cotton wilt breeding scheme. As a complement to the cotton breeding schemes
in Broach and Khandesh, scientific research on the breeding of wilt-resistant
strains of cotton suitable for the two tracts is being carried out at Poona with
the help of the Indian Central Cotton Committee.

Scheme for breeding wilt-resistant cottons in the Surat area. This scheme came
into operation in April 1937, the object being to produce a cotton suitable to
the conditions obtaining in the Surat tract and one that would, at the same
time, be completely resistant to wilt. This is sought to be achieved either by
selection in 1027 ALF or by crossing the latter with BD 8 or other wilt-
resistant strains. The work is itill in the initial stages.

Inclusion oj Northerns and Westerns in the programme of the dry farming scheme
at Bijapur. The Agricultural Research Sub-Committee of the Indian Central
Cotton Committee, while considering the subject of the possibility of
growing long and medium staple cottons in the short staple tracts of India,
expressed the view that the solution of the problem might be found in devising

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 37

suitable dry farming methods. As a result of its recommendations in August
1936, this scheme was sanctioned and it came into operation in June 1937.
As the year under review was one of scanty rainfall and abnormal distribution,
sowing was postponed to October. The results, however, from such a late sown
crop cannot be taken as normal and no conclusion of value can be drawn.

Cotton improvement scheme at Viramgam. Forty individual plants with
desirable characters have been selected from F 3 and F 4 hybrid populations of
the crosses of the Wagad types with Surti-Broach quality cottons like 1027
ALF and BD 8. The Iranian herbaceums have been found unsuitable for
Viramgam conditions as the seedlings rot if there is continuous rain in July,'
and they are also susceptible to anthracnose. A few types of herbaceum from-
Russia have, however, proved less susceptible. Preliminary crosses of Wagad 8
with Iranian and Russian types have been made for quality and earliness
respectively.

Scheme for the survey of Goghari cotton in Gujarat. This scheme, which was
sanctioned by the Indian Central Cotton Committee in August 1934 for a period
of five years, has for its object the carrying out of field to field survey of Goghari,
an inferior type of cotton but with high ginning percentage, with a view to
tracing it to ginneries and inducing the latter to discourage its cultivation by
paying low prices for it. Owing, however, to the passing of the Cotton Control
Act, it was reported during the year that Goghari is said to have been completely
eliminated.

Interspecific hybridization schem.e, Surat. The Indian Central Cotton Com-
mittee, in January 1938, sanctioned a, scheme for interspecific hybridization in
cottons at Surat with the object of obtaining a fully self -fertile hybrid between
the Asiatic and American types, capable of being easily crossed with any Asiatic
cotton and giving a combination of desirable economic characters, particularly
the good staple length of the exotics and the character of hardiness and suita-
bility to Indian conditions of the Asiatics. Strain BD 8, which is highly wilt-
resistant, was crossed with several high ginning types and, out of the 14 crosses
obtained, the seed of one of the best plants was sown in random replications on
wilt-infected and wilt-free soils to test its relative resistance ; some of the
segregates were found worth retaining for further trials. Three crosses
were handed over to the Wilt Breeding Scheme for Surat area in the hope that
they would be found useful for that tract. New selection 49, resistant to wilt,
having a ginning percentage of 34 and spinning 31 's was maintained as a new
type. Another new selection, 12, with a ginning percentage of 39 and spinning
26J's was found statistically superior to BD 8 against which it was tested for
yield. :

Plant puller propaganda scheme in Surat and Broach districts. This scheme,
which has for its object the eradication of the spotted bollworm by the uproot?
ing of cotton stalks with the aid of specially designed plant pullers, was saner
tioned by the Indian Central Cotton Committee in August 1933. Owing to the
lateness of the crop in one area, continuous heavy rains in another and the
slump in cotton prices, the percentage of the area uprooted was not as high as
was hoped.

During the year under report there were five organized seed distribution
schemes and one nucleus scheme for improved varieties of cotton in force i
the province. All these were financed by the Indian Central Cotton Committee..

38 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Surat seed distribution and extension scheme. During the year the Depart-
ment of Agriculture controlled a seed multiplication area of 26,618 acres, against
25,583 acres in the previous year, and distributed 2,^36,110 Ib. (including
1,660,449 Ib. supplied to Indian States), against 2,687,009 Ib. (including 1,477,946
Ib. supplied to Indian States) in the previous year.

Khandesh (Jarila) scheme. During the year 84,315 Ib. have been made
available for multiplication over an area of 4,000 acres under controlled condi-
tions during the next season. Village trials have shown that Jarila gives a
significantly higher yield than the local variety. It is reported to have a staple
length of 0-84 in. to 0-92 in. and a spinning performance of 28 to 36 standard
warp counts against a staple length of 0-63 in. to 0-68 in. and spinning perform-
ance of 6's to 7J's standard warp counts in the case of the local variety. Jarila
cotton produced at different centres was pooled together and sold by auction
at a premium of Rs. 26 to Us. 46 over Broach.

Deccan Canals (Banilla) scheme. There were 31 acres under cotton on the
Government farm at Kopergaon. A very poor yield of 368 Ib. of kapas (raw
cotton before extracting the seed) per acre was obtained against 678 Ib. per
acre of the previous year and 733 Ib. per acre of the year before. This was
due to uneven distribution of rainfall, attack of green caterpillar, pink boll worm
and growth of weeds.

BD 8 scheme. During the year under report an area of 6,268 acres was
under BD 8 as against 20,012 acres in the previous year, the reason for the fall
in area being excessive rains at the beginning of the season. BD 8 realised
Rs. 3 to Rs. 4 more per bhar (1,020 Ib.) than Goghari kapas. There were 495
acres under pedigree seed supplied by the Surat and Broach farms from which
130,360 Ib. of seed were obtained. These, together with a quantity of 4,120
Ib. obtained from the Surat and Broach farms, will be given to registered seed
growers and the Amod Cotton Sale Society for seed multiplication.

Revised Jayawant and Gadag No. 1 scheme. This scheme has replaced five
schemes in the Southern Division. It commenced work in June 1936. At
present it is jointly financed by the Committee and the Bombay Government.
The scheme is operated from seven centres, viz. Hubli, Haveri, Navalgund,
Bailhongal, Athani, Bijapur and Bagalkot, through the agency of cooperative
societies but under the general control of the Department of Agriculture. The
scheme is intended to cover within five years 9J lakhs of acres with improved
varieties. During the year under report 2,755,200 Ib. of pure Jayawiint seed
were sown over an area of 245,318 acres against 961,100 Ib. of seed sown over
an area of 102,306 acres in the previous year. The natural spread of Jayawant
is expected to be \\ lakh acres, bringing the total area under this variety to
about 4 lakh acres. 1,295,700 Ib. of pure seed of Gadag No. 1 were sown over
an area of 92,539 acres against 844,100 Ib. of seed sown over an area of 84,410
acres last year. The natural spread of this variety was estimated at 25,000
acres, making a total of 117,539 acres. 2,866,920 Ib. of Jayawant seed sufficient
for about 3 lakh acres and 1,588,580 Ib. of Gadag No. 1 seed sufficient for about
113,470 acres have been purchased so far for the 1938-39 season. The cultiv-
ators' produce was pooled together and sold. In all, 14,940 dokras of
Jayawant and 13,569 djkras of Gadag No. 1 were sold during the year and the
xtra profit realized by cultivators is estimated at about Rs. 37,350 and
Us. 73,000, respectively.

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 59

Scheme for maintenance of nucleus of pure seed of improved varieties of cotton
in Bombay. In pursuance of the policy of the Committee to maintain a nucleus
of all approved varieties of cotton, the above scheme for the following seven
varieties of cotton is in operation in the Bombay Province :

1. 1027 ALF

2. BD8

3. Jarila (wilt free zone)

4. Jarila (wilt zone)

5. Jayawant

6. Gadag No. 1

7. Banilla

MADRAS. During the year four schemes financed by the Indian Central
Cotton Committee were in operation in the Madras Province.

Madras herbaceum scheme. This scheme, financed by the Committee since
1923, closed down in May 1938. The results of the investigations carried out
are here summarized. Eleven strains in Uppam cotton have been isolated,
but there is little scope for improvement by selection as the extent of variability
has been found to be very limited. The merit of this strain, however, lies in
affording scope for interspecific hybridization as a result of which hybrid plant
with great vigour, earliness and prolificity are produced. As a consequence of
hybridization 29 strains possessing fineness and lint length equal to Karunganni
have been isolated. Amongst these, seven strains, which have been found to
behave satisfactorily in years of low rainfall, have excelled the standard Karun-
ganni strain Kl in yield during the last two seasons. In addition, fundamental
knowledge has been acquired regarding the origin of lint fuzz and the mode of
inheritance of pollen and lint colour in cotton.

Madras pempheres and physiological scheme. The work on the botanical
side consisted of crossing Co 2 with several South American types which possess
the peculiar feature of producing gum which prevents the larvae from escaping.
Some of these crosses which have reached the second and even the fourth genera-
tion appear very promising in that they do not show any mortality in plants
and no adult emergence. These crosses are now being studied for purity to
ascertain whether their progenies behave' in the same manner. On the bio-
-chemical side an endeavour is being made to find out if there is chemical criteria
by which resistant types can be distinguished from the susceptible ones. On
the entomological side, though many parasites were found, their incidence on
pempheres was too low to produce beneficial results. Further, the discovery
of three more alternative host plants renders the problem more difficult of
eolution. As a result of the physiological work, four strains with a lower shed-
ding index than Kl have been isolated but their behaviour cannot be taken as
conclusive. Sowing cotton thick has been found more remunerative to the
cultivators of the Tinnevelly tract and mixing cotton with coriander has given
(better results. The experiments require confirmation.

Scheme for improvement of Mungari cotton. Owing to unfavourable weather
conditions, the experiments during the yea* were robbed of much of their utility,
the yields being omly 50 per cent of normal. In the * Progeny Row * trials,
39 out of .92 culture* vere found be statistically better than the standards.

40 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Fresh selections were made in local Mungari and in some of the promising im-
ported strains on the basis of number of bolls.

Nadam cotton breeding scheme. A large number of cultures from Asiatic
and American crosses were compared for yield with local Nadam and the best
20 cultures were sown for comparison on field plot scale. All except one gave
yields lower than 100 Ib. per acre. Uganda crosses evolved at the Cotton Breed-
ing Station, Coimbatore, were sown on two dates 29 September and 31
October in replicated plots to study their response under Nadam conditions.
The later sown seed failed, while in the early sown experiment, strain
4383 recorded the highest weight and was found to be significantly better
than Co 2.

Tiruppur and Co 2 (Cambodia) schemes. These schemes commenced work
in May 1931 and closed down in August 1937. It has been estimated that
during the period of their operation the gain to the cultivators amounted to-
nearly Rs. 70,84,900.

PUNJAB. During the year under report six schemes, financed by the Indian
Central Cotton Committee, were in operation in the Punjab.

Botanical scheme. This scheme, which has been financed by the Committee
since 1925, has for its object the production of suitable types of American and
desi cottons to replace the 4F and desi cottons, respectively. During the year
under review 289F/43, a new strain of Punjab- American cottons, early maturing,
drought resistant and a better yielder than -IF, occupied an area of over a lakh
of acres. 39 Mollisoni, a desi cotton, covered several lakhs, while Jubilee, a
new desi strain was tried extensively. 119 Sanguineum, another new strain,
is being- given extensive trials in Multan. Hybridization work with a view to-
combining desirable characters of several strains into one is also in progress.
Tanguis cotton has been used to introduce Jassid resistance in the Punjab-
American strains. Watering experiments have indicated that the current
practice of delaying the first watering is not good for the crop ; it should be
given during the fourth week after sowing.

The physiological scheme was started in March 1935 with the help of the
committee for studying the physiology of the cotton plant for finding out the
causes that lead to the occasional failure of the Punjab- American cotton crop.
The investigations during the year have shown that there are two types of
soils where Tirak appears. These are (1) soils with high concentration of alkali
salts in the sub-soil, and (2) soils with deficiency of nutrients. During the year
under review, remedial measures were tried to counteract the adverse soil
conditions. On soils with alkali salts in the sub-soil, late sowing of cotton
(middle of June) proved efficacious, while, on the second type of soils with
deficient nutrients, applications of nutrients containing nitrogen, potash and
phosphorus produced beneficial effect on the growth of plants. These experi-
ments will be repeated during the next year.

The pink and spotted bollworm scheme. This scheme was started in 1934,
with the help of funds sanctioned by the Committee, for the continuation of
work on the pink bollworm and for investigating certain economic aspects of
the spotted bollworm. The investigations have shown that the most important
source of carryover of these peats are the cotton sprouts and certain other weeds
and that the carryover can be prevented by cutting the cotton stalks about

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 4i

2 in: below the surface of the soil and destroying the weeds. This preventive
measure is at present under trial in an area of about 500 sq. miles.

Punjab root-rot scheme. This scheme was started in 1932 with the help of the
Indian Central Cotton Committee for investigating the root-rot diseases of cotton
in the canal irrigated tracts of the Punjab, where the annual damage was estima-
ted at several lakhs of rupees. The organisms responsible for the disease are
Ehizoctonia bataticola and R. solani. The data available show that if the time
of sowing cotton is varied there is considerable difference in the mortality of
plants and the incidence of the disease is lowered if the crop is sown late, i.e.
mid-June. No resistant type has so far been found among the Indian varieties
tested so far, but it is possible that a suitable selection from other resistant types
may solve the problem.

Scheme for cotton Jassid investigation. This scheme came into operation on
1 April 1937 with the help of the Indian Central Cotton Committee, the object
being the study of the Jassid insect in the Punjab as regards its habits, alternate
host plant and the characters of the plant which determine resistance to the
pest. Observations during 1937 showed marked differences in the incidence of
attack between desi and American cottons and also between varieties of American
cottons. Severe infestation was noticed from the middle of August to the end
of September. The conclusions show that the Jassid attacked chiefly the
American cotton while desi cottons seemed to resist the Jassid attack. Tanguis
cotton, a long-stapled variety, has been found to be resistant to Jassids.

Punjab clean-up scheme. This scheme was put into operation in April 1937,
the object being to demonstrate that better yields can be obtained by elimina-
ting the spotted bollworm by clearing the whole cotton area of all cotton stalks
and stubbles directly the picking is over. For this purpose an area of 500 sq.
miles was selected in Lyallpur and Jhang districts and cleared with kudali.
Extensive educational propaganda was undertaken by the Agricultural Depart-
ment and with the full cooperation of the Revenue and Canal Departments
about 97 per cent of the total area was cleaned. In addition, attempts were
made to starve the pest by eliminating all host plants. The effect of these
operations will be studied in the next cotton season.

CENTRAL PROVINCES. Botanical scheme. This is one of the earliest
schemes of the Indian Central Cotton Committee and one that has yielded
results of practical value. The main work under this scheme has been concerned
with the breeding of new strains suitable to the conditions in the cotton growing
areas of the province, especially capable of resisting the handicaps imposed by
wilt and other diseases. The chief feature of the year was the success which
attended the cultivation and expansion of V 434 which, despite unfavourable
season, again showed its superiority over all other types. Late Verum was grown
on an extensive scale during the year in areas of heavier rainfall. No. 438 was
found to be suitable for lighter soils. Work on Bani Cernuum cross was con-
tinued and the results were reported to be encouraging. At its meeting in
July 1938, the Committee decided ^hat on the termination of this scheme in
March 1939 two separate cotftojp^ breeding schemes should replace it,
one at Nagpur and the other at Akola, the expenditure to be borne on a 50 : 50
basis between the provincial Government and the Committee.

Verum seed distribution and marketing scheme. This scheme was extended by
the Committee at its meeting in July 1938 for a further period of three years

42 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

from June 1939. During the year 'the Agricultural Department distributed
4,233 khandies (two bales) of pure seed of improved strains sufficient to cover
about 87,649 acres, as against 5,594 khandies of pure seed distributed in
1936-37. 4,575 bales of pure cotton were sold through the pool at an average-
premium of Rs. 39-15 on Broach and Rs. 57-7 on Oomras. The drop in acreage
during the season under report was mainly due to the exceptionally low premium
obtained for Verum during the previous season.

The Indian Central Cotton Committee at its meeting in July 1938 sanctioned
a new scheme for the distribution and marketing of Buri 107 cotton in the-
Burhanpur tahsil of the Central Provinces.

A scheme for the maintenance of nuclei of pure seed of the improved strains,.
viz. V 434, Late Verum, No. 438 and Buri 107, was also sanctioned at the same-
meeting.

SIND. The following schemes financed by the Indian Central Cotton.
Committee were in operation in Sind during the year :

Scheme for cotton Jassid investigation. In Sind, Jassid attack is most pre-
valent in the south-east Tharparkar district where it has been decided to estab-
lish a compact block of long-stapled cotton. One of the harmful effects of
this pest is the improper development of seed, resulting 1 in shortage of good
seed for sowing purposes. A scheme for cotton Jassid investigation was sanc-
tioned by the Committee in August 1937 for a period of three and a half years,,
and it came into operation in May 1938.

Sind seed distribution and ertension scheme. This scheme, which has been;
financed by the Committee since April 1931, has proved that the Right Bank
area of the Indus is as suitable as any other part of Sind for growing long-
stapled cotton. Special attention is being given to seed distribution, better
methods of cultivation, and extension of cotton in lands> under the Barrage
area where cotton cultivation was unknown before the commencement of the-
scheme. As a result of intensive propaganda during the year under report
the area under cotton rose to 51,500 acres (including 7,000- acres under natural
spread), 45,000 acres being under 4F-98 and 2,000 acres under Sind-Sudhar.
The Agricultural Department distributed 14,490 maunds of Sind 4F-98,
Sind-Sudhar and Sea Island varieties against 14,060 maunds of 4F-98 and
Sind-Sudhar in the previous year. 16,800 maunds of 4F-98 seed and
12,000 maunds of Sind-Sudhar are available for sowing, during the next
season.

During the year under report, on the Left Bank 445,000 acres were under
Sind NR and Sind-Sudhar against 400,000 acres in the previous year. 2,908
maunds of Sind NR, 11,569 maunds of Sind-Sudhar, 500 maunds of 4F-98-
and 200 maunds of Sind-Egyptian were distributed during the year. 9,000
maunds of Sind NR, 33,050 maunds of Sind-Sudhar,. 150 maunds of 4F-98
and 100 maunds of Egyptian are available for sowing, in the next season. In
order to ensure a supply of pure seed, the Sind Government have established a
ginning factory at Mirpurkhas where the produce of Government farms and
of a few selected growers is ginned. During the year 13,000 maunds of kapas
were ginned and sold under the supervision of the department.

BENGAL. The Comillx cotton scheme at Rangamati r which has been financed
by the Committee since December 1934, has for its object the botanical and.
systematic study and improvement of the commercial grades- of CernuunL

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 43

(Garrow hill) cotton. During the year single plant selections were tried in a
replicated experiment but these failed owing to low stand. A survey of the
cottons grown in the hilly tracts was undertaken with a view to selecting a
suitable type for these tracts to meet trade demands.

BARODA. The following five schemes on cotton improvement, financed
by the Indian Central Cotton Committee, were in progress in the Baroda State
during the year.

The root-rot scheme, which has been in operation since February 1932, has
for its object the study of root-rot disease of cotton in Baroda and the develop-
ment of strains resistant to it. During the year under review KS selections
were tested in sand cultures in glass house in soil heavily infected with root
organisms, with Broach 9 as control. Survivals from these strains will be trans-
planted in the root-rot affected area. Experiments were laid out for replicated
family tests -on KS strains, progeny row tests, non-replicated progeny row tests,
bulk trials, root study and comparative yield trials of KS against B 9. From
these trials, plants showing higher resistance to the disease and possessing
better yielding capacity and other economic characters have been selected
for further trials.

Scheme for survey of Goghari cotton . The objective of this scheme is similar to
that of the corresponding scheme in Bombay. During the year under report the
cotton crop (in 47,986 bighas) was surveyed and the percentage under Goghari
was found to be only 0-2. The range of mixture varied from 1 to 2 per cent.
Propaganda was continued along the lines of the past year. With the enforce-
ment of the prohibition Act against Goghari, the menace to the reputation of
Navsari cotton has disappeared.

Plant puller propaganda scheme. This scheme operates on the same lines
as the corresponding scheme in Bombay. During the year under report the
number of plant pullers sold in the Navsari district was 400 and the area handled
170,000 bighas: The value of the plant pullers as a means of facilitating tillage
operations is also appreciated.

Scheme for improvement of Mathio cottons at Amreli and Jagudan. This
scheme, which commenced work in June 1937, has for its object the improve-
ment of Mathio mixture in respect of yield, ginning percentage and quality,
and, secondly, the trial at Amreli of the early strains of Wagad evolved at
Viramgam with a view to replacing, if possible, inferior Mathio by early her-
baceums. Replicated tests have shown that C 520 is promising both as regards
yield and ginning percentage, and that V 434 and V 438 are as good yielders
as C 520.

The cotton work at Jagudan is confined to duplicating, on a small scale,
important types of Wagad cotton grown at Viramgam as a precautionary mea-
sure against their extermination due to precarious nature of seasons at Viram-
gam. Varietal trial experiments with Wagad 8, Seg. 4-1, Seg. 7-1 and Local
Wagad have shown Segregate 4-1 to be a promising type.

Baroda (Navsari seed storage) scheme. During the year under report, 21,830
Ib. of seed raised from pedigree seed were secured under the supervision of the
Department and of this 21,675 Ib. were issued to A Class growers for sowing on
an area of 2,500 bighas. From the controlled area of 2,506 acres of A Class
growers and 3,544 acres of B Class growers, 1,255,727 Ib. of 1027 seed were
produced, out of which 447,680 Ib. were distributed to B Class growers for

44 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

sowing on an area of 13,194 bighas. The approximate area under improved
seed during 1937-38 was about 75,000 acres. In the past, the Baroda seed
organization had no farm-grown seed for supply to A Class growers, but last
year the Baroda Government opened a seed farm of about 70 acres near Vesma,
a village about eight miles from Navsari, to serve as a nucleus from which
A Class growers would receive their seed. During the year under report, 700 Ib.
of pure seed, secured from the Surat Agricultural Farm, were sown over an
area of 52 bighas at the Vesma Farm and 93 bighas at Parthan by two selected
growers. The seed from these areas will be distributed to specially selected
A Class growers. To secure better prices for 1027 ALF cotton, a marketing
office was opened at Surat in February 1938. Certificates of purity for 559
-cotton bales, ginned under the supervision of the department, were issued.
Most of this cotton was sold at a premium ranging from Rs. 3 to Rs. 11 per
khandy.

MYSORE. Mysore (Doddahathi) cotton scheme. This scheme came into
operation in November 1935, the object being the breeding of suitable types
from the local (Doddahathi) or American cotton which would be resistant to
red leaf disease. During the year under review five new selections showed
great resistance to red leaf disease. About 3,000 crosses were either back-
crossed or crossed with promising hybrids. Seeds of Co 2, X-rayed for 7J
minutes and selfed, have now, in their third generation, given plants with a
ginning percentage of 38 to 40 and lint length of 25 to 28 mm. as compared
with the ginning percentage of 33 to 35 and lint length of 20 to 23 mm. of un-
exposed Co 2. Good yields were obtained from the bulk trials of MA 2 and
Co 2 for multiplication of seed, the first strain yielding 633 Ib. and the second
424 Ib. of seed cotton per acre.

HYDERABAD. During the year five research schemes and one seed distri-
bution scheme were in operation in the Hyderabad State.

Under the botanical research scheme the work of selection of types of Gaorani
was continued and comparative strain tests and varietal tests on these were
undertaken. Comparative study of the improved strains revealed the superiority
of G 3-B-l and G 4--B-5 and G 12-F in respect of both yield and spinning
quality. Tests for wilt resistance were also carried out and selections were
made from plants which showed a fair degree of resistance to wilt for
further study.

Pink and spotted bollworm scheme. Investigations carried out till the end
of the 1936-37 season indicated that the bollworms were responsible for an
annual damage ranging from 25 to 33 per cent of the harvested crop. Control
of the spotted bollworm was considered to be possible by the observance of a
strict close season, by the removal of all cotton and other host plants during
the off-season and the ginning of all cotton by a certain date. The experiments
to determine the carry-over of the pink bollworm through soil revealed that
some caterpillars did not go into soil for hibernation earlier than 10 January,
that fewer caterpillars were recovered from plots growing early maturing varie-
ties, that more caterpillars were taken from soils that were well mulched or
from plots in which plants were allc wed to stand for longer periods. The ex-
periments are being repeated for confirmation.

Bollworm clean-up scheme. This scheme commenced on 1 October 1937.
The chief activity during the period under review was concerned with the com-

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 45

plete clean-up of cotton fields, prevention of the growing of bhendi and ambadi
in the off season and the completion of the ginning of kapas before 1 May 1938.
Intensive propaganda by means of public lectures and demonstrations was
also carried out from February to April. The effects of these measures will
be reported in the next review.

Scheme for inclusion of Northerns and Westerns cottons in the programme of
the dry farming scheme at Raichur. The scheme was sanctioned in March 1937
with a two-fold object, viz. (1) to consider the possibility of growing medium
and long-stapled cotton in areas of short-stapled cotton in India, and (2) to
find out how far the devising of dry farming methods would suit for the success-
ful growing of such cottons in dry tracts and in tracts of low rainfall. The
experiments laid out did not yield significant results owing to the abnormal
season.

Scheme for the improvement of Kumpta cotton. This scheme was sanctioned
in August 1936 with the object of developing suitable strains of Kumpta cotton
from the local variety of Raichur. The work during the year yielded a strain
Raichur-Kumpta 19 which is superior to others in all respects. The strains
KK 4, 15, 25, 20 and 29 show some promise. The tests will be continued during
the next season.

Hyderabad need distribution and cjtension scheme. This scheme started
in March 1938. The total quantity of Jayawant and Gadag No. 1 seed distri-
buted during the year under report amounted to 263,945 Ib. sown over an
area of 21,092 acres, against 374,633 Ib. sown over an area of 13,871 acres the
previous year. To procure pure seed of improved varieties for distribution in
the ensuing season, the Agricultural Department earmarked a reserved area
of 3,500 acres in the Kopbal and Yelburga talukas. This area sown, rogued
and supervised by the departmental staff is expected to yield 360,000 Ib. of
pure seed sufficient for sowing 26,000 acres.

BIKANER. Bikaner Bengals cotton improvement scheme. This scheme was
sanctioned by the Indian Central Cotton Committee in January 1931 for the
purpose of obtaining by selection and hybridization one or more superior types
of cotton suitable to the area under the Gang Canal. At the end of five years
it was found that Cwn 520 was the most profitable cotton to grow in the tract
and that American cottons were generally unsuitable because of their low yield
and susceptibility to disease. Since then re-selection in Cwn 520 has yielded
strains which show much better germination and possibly also a little higher
yield than Cwn 520. Sonic local selections have proved better yielders than
Cwn 520 but are poorer in quality. Breeding tests have shown that there are
possibilities of improving the quality by hybridization. The results of a variety
cum agronomy experiment showed that the desi cotton Cwn 520 can respond
as well as American to more favourable conditions liberal watering and manur-
ing, etc.

Improved varieties of cotton

The table below indicates the progress made in the introduction of improved
varieties of cotton in the various provinces and states during 1937-38 ; the
actual area under these varieties is probably higher than given in the table,
as complete information for area under ' natural spread ' is not available.

46 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Area under improved varieties of cotton

Name of province or state

Variety of cotton

Area n
a

thousand
crcs

Remarks

1937-38

1936-37

PROVINCES

.(1) Bombay

1027 ALF

120

Jayawant .

402

104

Uadagl .

125

BnnillH

BD 8 ...

,(2) Madras

Cambodia

244

191

N 14

223

240

Karunuaniu (C 7, A 10 and

205

105

(3) Punjab

Pu it jab- A merica;

4F ....

1,070

1,187

289F iV 289F/K 25

120

280F/43

122

LSS ....

110

Mollisoul

981

704

(4) Siud ....

Hlnd-Swlhar

210

Sind-Ameriean

4F (\ unspecified) .

380

283

4K-J)8 ....

Spa Maud and Boss 111

27 \VN ....

2r>o

20_>

, (,")) Central Provinces and
Berar

Veiuiti ....
Bun .....

137
3

its

(0) United Provinces .

C 402 ....

i::>2<> ,

25)

A 10 ....

ST VTF.S

(1) Bombay States

1027 ALF ....

142

130

(2) Barod.i

1027 ALF ....

IJD8 ....

i'.'ures for improved
dfNi find jM(llioni
are not available.

(3) Punjab States

Punjab- American strains

337

265

(4) Khairpur .

Hfrid- American 4F (and un-
27 WV ....

15
74

H
57

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS
Area under improved varieties of cotton contd.

Name of province or state

Variety of cotton

Area in thousand
acroi*

Remarks

1037-38

1936-37

(6) Hyderabad .

Gaorani .

Barilla ....

Jayawant ....

Gadag 1 ....

<6) Central India and Raj-
putana

Malvl strains
Total

Pcrmitatre of tho total area
under cotton in India

5,651

4,67fl

Cooperative cotton sale societies

The number of cooperative cotton sale societies working in BOMBAY was 29
an increase of one over that of the previous year. During the year 1937-38, the
total quantity of kapas sold was, 574,952 maunds, the price realized being
Us. 37,82,899. In MADRAS 16 cooperative cotton sale societies dealt in cotton
during the year, as against 9 in the previous year and the total value of the
cotton handled by them was Rs. 22,75,275. The Co 2 seed development
scheme, which was financed by the committee from September 1932 to
August 1937, was continued by the Tiruppur Cotton Sale Society and during
the year under report 13,138 bags of pure seed were purchased by it for supply
to growers in the Coimbatore and neighbouring districts. The Pudur Coopera-
tive Society in the Tinnevclly district constructed a ginning factory which
was of great benefit to its members as they were able to get their cotton ginned
at this factory at rates lower than elsewhere. In the CENTRAL PROVINCES
AND BKRAR, there were two cooperative adat societies working during the
year which dealt largely in cotton, as against three in the previous year.
Both ginned and unginned cotton of the aggregate value of Rs. 35,495 were
handled by them. Twenty ' cooperative commission shops ' in the PUNJAB,
dealing largely in cotton, handled 202,394 maunds of kapas of the value of
Rs. 16,30,853. There was a fall in the quantity handled as compared with the
previous two years, due chiefly to the following causes : (1) the cotton crop
was poor, (2) a new mandi* was started and ginning factories erected near a
place where there are two commission shops, (3) the tendency on the part of vil-
lagers, as soon as market conditions show a favourable turn, to dispose of their
produce to the big agents and representatives of firms rather than cart it on
kacha roads. In BAROUA 18 cotton sale societies.- worked during the year under
report, as against 16 in the previous year. They handled 2,352-2 khandies uf
lint and 54 bhars and 13 maunds of cotton of the aggregate value of Rs. 4,39,586.
The special feature of these societies during 1937-38 was the improvement in

* Market.

48 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

sale due to the appointment of a special marketing officer at Surat by the Agri-
cultural Department. In MYSORE there were no sale societies which dealt
exclusively in cotton but one credit society at Maradihalli in Chitaldrug district
purchased 6,994 maunds of cotton from its members and, after getting it ginned,
sold it and realized roughly Rs. 14,000. In HYDERABAD, the cooperative
cotton sale societies at Kopbal and Nanded did good work during the year.
The societies at Sailu and Jalna could not transact any business in the absence
of the takkavi grant on which their business depended.

4. Sugarcane

During the year the area occupied by sugarcane in India was 3,818,000
acres. This represents a decrease in area by about 14 per cent as compared
with the previous year, and one of the factors responsible for this was the over-
production during 1936-37, when the cane grower suffered for want of remunera-
tive prices for his crop. The total estimated yield of raw sugar (<j<tr) was
5,307,000 tons, which is less by about 21 per cent than that of the previous
year.

The total quantity of sugarcane crushed in modern sugarcane factories in
India was 9,916,400 tons and the production of sugar direct from cane totalled
930,700 tons, giving a fall of about 16 per cent in the former and 17 per cent
in the latter from that of the previous year. The large decline in the produc-
tion of sugar is attributable to (1) shorter duration of season in all provinces,
(2) shorter supply and inferior quality of cane due to attack of insect pests
in some parts of the United Provinces, and (3) the crushing period being parti-
cularly short in Bihar where the majority of factories worked only for 95 days
on account of inadequate supply of cane. The average recovery of sugar from
cane in India decreased to 9-38 per cent from 9-5 per cent of the preceding
year despite the fact that five factories gave over 11 per cent recovery during
the season under report as against only two factories during 1936-37. The
highest recovery for the season was 11-63 per cent which is slightly more than
the corresponding figure of the last year, viz. 11*43 per cent.

The production of sugar refined from^wr in India during the season amounted
to 19,500 tons, representing a decrease of as much as 61 per cent from the
previous year. The large decrease in the output is due presumably to the
fact that in the later stages when the price of sugar gradually declined, the
refineries found it unremunerative to produce more sugar from^wr and restricted
the purchase of the raw material to the minimum. Sugar was refined in nine
factories as against 13 factories during 1936. Six of them were pure refineries
and three were cane sugar factories refining gur in the off-season.

IMPERIAL AGRICULTURAL KESEARCH INSTITUTE, NEW DELHI. At the
sugarcane section of the institute, i.e. at the Imperial Sugarcane
Station, Coimbatore, the work on sugarcane breeding was continued. The
spread of the heavy yielding Coimbatore canes coupled with the rapid develop-
ment of the factory industry during the first half of the present decade is
throwing up fresh problems in the matter of breeding varieties. There is now a
more pronounced demand for distinct classes of canes ' early ', * mid-season '
and ' late ' to feed the factories suitably during the different periods of the

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 49

cane-crushing season. Importance is also attached to the quality of cane
brought to the mill-yard. To meet the above, the breeding programme of the
sugarcane station has been adjusted suitably. The varieties Co 419 and Co
421 are proving increasingly useful in the breeding of vigorous seedlings.
Other useful parents are Co 312 for vigour, Co 354 and Co 440 for early ripening
and Co 349 for vigour and habit. The sugarcane X bamboo hybridization has
resulted in certain seedling canes with good habit and profuse tillering. The
preliminary refractometer readings of these hybrids have been encouraging.
This new line of work is being further exploited at the sugarcane station. The
cyto-genetical studies have thrown some light on the genetic composition of
certain canes as also on the mode of inheritance in Saccharum. The studies
on photoperiodism were continued, to see the effect of this treatment on
[lowering in sugarcane. The arrowing and the flower opening were also
studied in, greater detail.

At the agricultural section of the institute at New Delhi 75 Co sugarcane
varieties were grown. Co 313 went up to 18-10 per cent sucrose in March.
Most of the heavy tonnage canes, except Co 313 and Co 421 showed poor sucrose
content.

At the chemical section of the institute studies were made on the chemical
composition of the sugarcane and its juice and on the bodies responsible for
colour development in raw sugar (gur). The pigments in the rind of the sugar-
cane were successfully obtained in their crystalline form. Laboratory and
large-scale factory investigations showed that the colouring matters could
be successfully eliminated in the sulphitation sugar factories without alterations
to the existing plants by heavy liming and then using aluminium hydroxide.
Investigations were also carried out on the development of colour on boiling
sugarcane juice in open pan. It was found that by the use of paddy-husk-
active-carbon about 60 to 80 per cent of the colour developing constituents
could be eliminated.

UNITED PROVINCES. Research work on sugarcane was conducted as usual
at Shahjahanpur and Muzaffamagar.

Varietal trials. The varieties Co S 87 and Co S 109 gave satisfactory results
as * early ' canes. Among ' medium ' and ' late ' varieties Co 421 again showed
its superiority over the standard Co 312. In regard to the first year ratoons
Co S 70 out-yielded Co 421 and Co 312, but as it showed low purity it is not
considered better than either Co 421 or Co 312.

Manurial trials. The complete nutrient experiment again gave for the
third year remarkable responses to nitrogen application but practically none
to potash or phosphate application. The most economic dose of nitrogen was
100 Ib. per acre, higher doses having an adverse effect on quality and a pronounc-
ed delaying effect on maturity.

Chemical investigations. The experiment on the manurial value of different
portions of sanai (Crotalaria juncea) showed that whole sanai was the best,
the order being : whole sanai, top sanai, roots, and no sanai (control). As
regards nitrogen accumulation, nitrogen goes on increasing in the first foot of
the soil after sanai inversion, till it reaches its peak in February, followed by a
sharp decline in March, steady level till July, and a marked decline in August.
The accumulation of nitrogen in the second foot of soil follows more or less the
same lines.

50 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY L\ INDIA 1937-38

Physiological studies. The experiments on the inter-relationship of nitro-
genous manures, water duty, and sowing date showed that maximum genera-
tion was attained on the 14th of May irrespective of the date of sowing and
that it was distinctly poorer in the early sown canes. At all sowing dates
ammonium sulphate lowered germination appreciably. Fourteen varieties-
were studied for drought resistance and it was found that Co 421 and Co 432
gave the highest available sugar.

BENARES HINDU UNIVERSITY. In addition to the departmental work
detailed above, a scheme of research on the physiology of sugarcane was in pro-
gress at the Benares Hindu University. The Benares experiments showed that
application of 150 Ib. of nitrogen, 75 Ib. of phosphorus and 75 Ib. of potassium
in the form of ammonium sulphate, superphosphate, and potash sulphate,
respectively, soon after germination gives best yield, whereas, from the point
of view of sucrose content, the application of N and P soon after germination
and K two months later appears to be more profitable.

BIHAR. The Bihar sugarcane research scheme which was so far located
at Musheri was shifted to Pusa on the acquisition of the Pusa estate by the:
Bihar Government. Certain of the more important items of work at Pusa
and the sub-station at Patna are given below :

Varietal trials. In the ' early ' group Co 299 was outstanding. Its com-
parative freedom from pests and diseases and good juice quality till almost
the end of March are in its favour, the drawbacks being low yields and difficult
thrashing. In the ' medium-early ' group Co 313 is the standard variety
and Co 385, Co 386, and Co 393 were promising. Co 356 a sugarcane X
Sorghum hybrid which also belongs to this group gave very good results in.
mill trial. In the mid-season group Co 213 is the standard and Co 413, Co 421,
BO 3, and BO 4 have given encouraging results.

Manurial trials. A dose of 10 maunds castor cake and one maund super-
phosphate per acre was better than when the same quantities were supplied
entirely by artificial fertilizers. It was further found that higher doses of ferti-
lizers were uneconomical. It was also noticed that there is no advantage in
applying the fertilizers in two doses as a single application gives quite as good
results. Manuring with potash depresses the yield. The beneficial effects of
sulphitation-process, molasses and press mud were confirmed but the cost of
transport and difficulty of application would appear to militate against its
acceptance.

Cultural experiments. Spacing trials at both'Pusa and Patna showed that
the optimum distance between the rows was three feet. Trench planting gave
interesting results but requires further confirmation. The average weight
per stock of cane was greater in the trench cane and the incidence of stem borer
was less but the tillering appeared to be adversely affected.

In addition to the above studies, work was carried otit on root studies, mois-
ture requirement, varietal behaviour in relation to insect pests and refracto-
meter studies for standardizing juice sampling technique.

PUNJAB. Research work on sugarcane was continued at Risalewala r
Lyallpur and Jullundur.

Varietal trials. Among the early varieties Co 313 and Co 385 have given
high yields while Co 396 is decidedly the earliest to mature. In the mid-season
series Co 312 stands unbeaten in yield, but was found to be highly susceptible

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 51

to pyrilla. In the late group Co 421 stood first in yield. Co 331 and Co 395
are equal to Co 285 in yield, but they are decidedly superior to it in the quality
of produce. Co 312 and Co 395 are superior to Co 285 in their ability to with-
stand shortage of water.

Cultural experiments, In the case of heavy yielding varieties, planting
cane in rows two feet apart, in trenches or on flat and ridging up the crop
with the break of the monsoon was found to be decidedly better than the ordi-
nary method of planting cane. As for the best time for planting cane the
results are in favour of March planting.

Manurial experiments. It was found to be better and economical to apply
about 140 Ib. of nitrogen per acre, half as farmyard manure and half in the
form of toria cake (Brassica napus var. dichotoma) or sulphate of ammonia,
instead of applying the same dose as farmyard manure alone. The toria cake
is a better supplement to farmyard manure than sulphate of ammonia for
soils deficient in organic matter.

Chemical studies. Liberal watering under Lyallpur conditions does not
delay maturity. The higher doses of nitrogen also, viz. 175 Ib. at Risalewala
and 200 Ib. per acre at Jullundur, did not delay ripening of Co 285 and Co 313
to any appreciable extent. Frequent irrigations (i.e. at intervals of seven days)
were found to be effective in lowering the mineral matter in the juice at Risale-

BENGAL. The cultivation of the two new early varieties Co 381 and Co 281
and the late variety Co 331 has been extended to all Government farms.
'Several farms have been supplied with the early cane Co 508 and also with
Co 421 which is a very heavy yielder and if it can stand local conditions may
oust Co 213 as the standard cane for the province.

A number of varieties are being tested at the sugarcane testing station,
Dacca farm. In addition to those that have been mentioned above, other
varieties that have done well are Co 518 as an early cane, Cos 313 and 375 as
mid-season canes and Cos 243, 370 and 432 as late canes. Co 432 has also
been tested at the Gosaba farm in the Sundarban tract. Its gur, though not
free from saltish taste, has been found to be much less saline than the gur of
o 213.

MADRAS. At Anakapalle Cos 419 and 421 gave the maximum yield, viz.
53'5 tons and 44-7 tons respectively as against 29-0 tons obtained from J 247,
a variety grown extensively in the locality. Satisfactory yield, viz. 30*0 tons
was obtained from Co 508, a promising early variety. Six varieties were tested
for their behaviour under water-logged conditions. Of these, Co 421 gave the
highest yield, closely followed by Co 419 when planted both in February and
May. Among the promising varieties that were grown as purely rain-fed crop,
Co 419 gave the maximum yield.

In Gudiyattam, from the varietal trials under normal conditions, it was
found that Cos 408 and 419 yielded the highest with little difference between
themselves. Under restricted conditions, Co 21? gave the highest yield, closely
followed by Co 243. In the ratoon experiments, the ratoon crops of Co 213
and Co 414 yielded more than the planted crops of the same varieties.

At Samalkota, in one of the varietal trials, Co 419 proved again its superiority
with the highest yield of 69 tons of cane per acre. In another trial Co 417
gave the highest yield of 60 tons per acre followed by Co 421. Under purely

52 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, IN INDIA 1937-38

rain-fed conditions, except for one irrigation at the time of planting, the varie-
ties Co 421 and Co 213 gave a good account of themselves.

At Palur, ten varieties were, as last year, compared with one another for
yield in garden lands where Co 419 closely followed by Co 413 topped the list
for the third time by yielding 55 tons of cane per acre, as against 23 tons of
J 247. In wet lands, where also the same varieties were under trial, Co 421 gave
the highest yield of 60 tons of cane per acre closely followed by Co 419. The
variety Co 421 withstood both drought and water-logging better than other
varieties.

Besides the departmental work mentioned above, a scheme of research on
the anatomy of sugarcane was in progress at the university of Madras. The
anatomical features of Saooharum and allied genera, including Sorghum, have
been investigated and based on them certain conclusions have been drawn on
the inter-relationship of the several groups or species.

BOMBAY. At the sugarcane research station, Padegaon, Bombay-Deccan,
Co 429 and Co 413 have completed three years of testing and gave significantly
higher yield over the control varieties POJ 2878 and Puudia. Co 421 and
Co 426 have again out-yielded POJ 2878 and Pundia for the second year of
testing both in tonnage and sugar. As a July* planted crop Cos 421, 426 and
419 gave higher yields than POJ 2878. As a ratoon crop Cos 419, 426-
and 360 have proved to be the best. In the chopan soil Cos 419, 413 and 421
have established their superiority. In regard to the keeping quality in the
field Cos 290, 360, 413, and 419 are at their best till the end of February, show
a slight drop in March, and a distinct drop in quality from April onwards.

Physiological studies on wilting coefficient and water and mineral intake
in the sugarcane plant were continued. It has been found that leaving the
crop to the stage of permanent wilting, though showing a temporary bad effect,
does not affect the yield. The system of irrigating once in ten days during
summer was found to be the best from the point of view of economy of water
without affecting the yield or maturity. Studies in nutrition showed that an
initial application of 100 Ib. superphosphate is conducive to the better per-
formance of the crop. Experiments on the utilization of the waste products
showed that trash incorporated in the soil with sulphate of ammonia was aa
good as compost and gave better yields than trash alone. Molasses alone did
not produce any beneficial effect but its neutralization by means of gurhal ash
has shown definite advantage.

At the Kopergaon Farm yield trials of different sugarcane varieties were
continued and Co 419 gave the highest yield. At the Gokak farm J 213 (POJ
213) out-yielded HM 544.

ASSAM. The distinct superiority of the two new Coimbatore varieties,
viz. Co 419 and Co 421 was maintained this year as well. The variety Co Jl
gave a yield of 49 tons stripped cane per acre. It is a medium quality cane with
good habit. Other varieties that are promising to some extent are Cos 436,
418 and 432.

In the combined spacing and manurial experiments very little difference
in the yield of cane was found between the different spacings of 3 feet, 3J feet,
and 4 feet between rows of cane. A spacing of 3 feet is recommended for thin
varieties and 4 feet for thick varieties. The higher doses of manures, viz.
400 and 350 maunds cowdung per acre, which were equal amongst themselves,

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 53

gave significant increase over the lowest dose of 300 maunds cowdung per acre
and this was more evident with 3-feet spacing. With narrower spacing, more
manure is required for the optimum growth of canes than with broader spacing.
Planting in trenches 9 in. deep gave an increase of 3-34 tons of stripped
cane per acre than planting in trenches 3 in. deep. Canes planted in shallow
trenches lodged to a much greater extent than those planted in deep ones.

SIND. Experimental work on cane is being conducted at Sakrand and
also at Pritamabad. The varieties Cos 312, 313, 213, 270 and POJ 2878 were
again tested and certain new varieties were also obtained from Coimbatore for
trial. Co 213 has become very popular in the Karachi district.

In MYSORE sugarcane occupies about 50,000 acres, the varieties most com-
monly grown being HM 320, Pattapatti, Cheni, HM 544 and a few others.
Of the improved varieties HM 320 is spreading fast. Experimental work
on cane is being conducted at (1) the Hebbal and (2) the Irwin canal farms.
At the former, the work also includes the breeding of sugarcane varieties and
the economic types produced are distributed as HM (Hebbal Mysore) canes.
At the Irwin canal farm the following nianurial dose has been found to be the
best : Six tons compost from cane trash with 7 to 10 cwt. of ammonium sul-
phate plus 1 J cwt. of concentrated supersulphate plus 1 cwt. potash.

In HYDERABAD there are about 30,000 acres under sugarcane and the variety
'Co 213 is quite popular. Experimental work on cane is being conducted at
the Himayatsagar and Rudrur farms. The varieties Cos 290, 301, 313, 331,
419, 423, 426 and 434 have been found to possess very good quality. Analysis
has shown that Co 419, though an early variety, does not deteriorate in sucrose
content till the middle of April. Co 313 and Co 331 also do not deteriorate
till the end of April.

In BHOPAL Co 331 has been found to do quite well and POJ 2878 and
o 419 are also quite popular in places where ample irrigation facilities are
available.

In BARODA Co 213 is quite commonly grown. The experimental work
on sugarcane is conducted at the Vyara farm. Recently POJ 2878 has been
introduced and the area under this variety is increasing. Two or three of the
recent Co canes are likely to give higher yields. The practice of planting whole
canes has now been discarded almost entirely in favour of planting sets. Mix-
ture of castor cake and ammonium sulphate applied as top dressing has been
found very effective.

Introduction of improved sugarcane varieties

The improved varieties of sugarcane (mostly Coimbatore canes) now occupy
about 79 per cent of the area under cane in India, excluding the Indian states.
The sugarcane cultivation in the UNITED PROVINCES and BIHAR is dominated
by the Coimbatore productions which cover about 90 per cent of the area.
The universal cane both in the United Provinces and Bihar is Co 213. The
varieties Co 290 and Co 244 are the next favourites in the United Provinces
and Cos 312, 313 and 331 are just getting into cultivation. Co 421 is among
the promising canes at the Government farms. In Bihar Co 210 is a close
competitor to Co 213. Co 299 is the favourite as an early cane and Co 313 as
mid-season cane.

54 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

The PUNJAB is the only major sugarcane growing province where the indi-
geiious canes are as yet cultivated over fairly large areas, occupying as mucn
as 40 per cent of the area. Of the improved canes, Co 285 is the most favoured.
Other popular canes are Co 312 and Co 313. In Bengal Co 213 is now the
dominant cane occupying about 80 per cent of the total cane area and is steadily
replacing Tanna. Among the promising canes in Government farms are Co 381
and Co 281 as * early ' and Co 331 and Co 421 as ' late ' canes. In ASSAM the
improved varieties occupy about 40 per cent of the area. Magh, Teli, Boga-
pura, and Striped Mauritius were once popular. The canes now largely grown
are POJ 2714 and Co 213. The new canes of promise are Co 419 and Co 42L
In the NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE, the improved varieties occupy
about 60 per cent of the area. ' Peshawar Pounda ' was the cane chiefly grown
but is getting replaced by Co 290. The new promising canes are Co 361 nnd
Co 412.

In BOMBAY, which is on the whole a tropical cane region, the improved canes
occupy about 50 per cent of the area. The thick cane Pundia is grown in the
Deccan Canal tract and Dharwar. POJ 2878 and EK 28 were the first to
successfully replace Pundia in the estate plantations. The thicker productions-
from Coimbatore like Co 419 are now proving useful and have out-yielded the
Java canes in more than one estate. In the areas represented by the Nasik
and Surat districts Co 213, POJ 213, and Co 290 together with indigenous
canes like Khadya are being grown.

In MADRAS, which is entirely tropical, the improved varieties occupy about-
60 per cent of the area. A cane similar to Pundia of Bombay is grown in cer-
tain districts and Purple Mauritius, Fiji B (Badila of Australia) and 247 B (under
the name of J 247) are also being cultivated. The promising canes of the future
are Cos 413, 419 and 421. Co 281 and Co 352 have a limited range of usefulness-
confined to the factory plantations at Nellikuppam.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES the improved varieties in cultivation in certain-
parts are Cos 219, 210 and 237. In ORISSA Co 213 is the dominant variety in,
the drained high lands and Co 285 is popular in the water-logged and flooded
areas. These improved varieties occupy 80 per cent of the total area. Among,
the new promising canes is Co 421.

In MYSORE the dominant cane is HM 320, occupying nearly 25,000 acres,,
i.e. about 50 per cent of the area.

5. Jute

The total crop produced during the year is calculated to be 111-7 lakhs
of bales as against the official forecast of 86-81 lakhs of bales. The restriction
by propaganda of the area sown was again in operation but in this year the
effect was hardly noticeable. With the removal of all restrictions in the mills,,
the output of manufactures remained at a very high level, approximately
105,000 tons per month of jute goods being produced. There was during
the year a steady fall in the price? obtained for these manufactures Porter
Hessians falling from Us. 10-10 to Es. 8-10 per 100 yards, and B Twills falling
from Rs. 22 to Rs. 19-5 per 100 bags. But throughout the year the output
of manufactures was steadily absorbed by the market. During the year the?
price of raw jute fell from Rs. 38 to Rs. 29 per bale of ' firsts '.

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 55.

During this year the Department of Agriculture, Bengal, continued to carry
on the agricultural research work on jute, as the laboratory being built for the
Indian Central Jute Committee at Dacca for this purpose was- not completed
and the staff not appointed till after the end of the year. The Indian Central
Jute Committee carried through during the year a large part of the outside
investigation work for its enquiry into the marketing and transport of jute.
It also got well started the building of its technological research laboratories
and the recruitment of the staff for these. Towards the improvement of the-
jute forecast experiments were carried out during 1937 to compare in costs and
accuracy the method of random sampling of the jute areas with complete
enumeration of the jute plots. The report embodying this work was com-
pleted at the end of the year and further experiments were undertaken imme-
diately afterwards. The report indicated that the method of random sampling
could be utilized for the estimation of the areas sown to different crops. During
the year considerable progress was made in the collection of statistics and
information of importance to the various sections of the jute industry and the
information so collected was published in the form of monthly bulletins. At
the end of the year, a considerable portion of the agricultural staff, sanctioned
by the committee for propaganda and liaison work in the interior, had been
appointed.

The Indian Jute Mills Association's research department functioned during,
the year with its Scientific Adviser in London and a laboratory in charge of a
Chief Chemist in Calcutta. In addition to various items of research being
carried out in different laboratories in England, the Scientific Adviser is also-
responsible for the collection and publication of jute abstracts, which contain
a summary of all the available information and literature on developments
connected with jute of value to the jute-mill industry. The laboratory in
Calcutta was largely occupied with investigations into batching oils and emul-
sions and with giving advice and assistance to member-mills on their batching
and softening processes.

The two varieties of jute seed at present being recommended by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bengal, are (1) D 154 Capsularis and (2) Chinsura Green
Olitorius. The production and supply of seed of these varieties are carried
by Messrs. Godden & Co. under a contract from the Government of Bengal,
whereby the Department of Agriculture, Bengal, tests all seed before distribu-
tion and only that which germinates 90 per cent is allowed to be sold. During
1937-38, 304 maunds of D 154 and 534 maunds of Chinsura Green were supplied
by the contractors. In the same year, the Indian Central Jute Committee set
aside a sum of Us. 50,000 to form a permanent advance to finance the supply
of jute seed of improved varieties on a much larger scale.

6. Other fibres

Hemp (Hibiscus Sabdariffa var. AWssima)

In BENGAL its area is extending in the chief Mesta growing tracts of the
Madaripur sub-division. It has proved itself a formidable substitute to Mesta.
In quality, length and strength it compares very favourably with it. The com-
parative glabrous surface of the stem is also in its favour. If the question of

56 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

pure seed supply can be assured there is a possibility of ousting Mesta the
problem of seed supply of which is also difficult. At present this is being
imported from the United Provinces and some parts of Bihar. Besides, the
seeds of Mesta are not of good quality and have poor germination quality.

In BIHAR, the work on selection of ganja (Cannabis saliva L. hemp) is still
continuing. The cultures of three available types were studied in lines and
seed of selfed single plants was collected for future study. The colour of the
grain as determined with the help of Repertoire de Couleurs (1905) by H. Danthe-
nay is of smoke grey with fine reticulations on the testa. The percentage of
female plants in different cultures was found to vary between 51 and 54. The
multiplication of seed was withheld as there was practically no demand for
seed from the licensed growers of the province.

In SIND, the cultivation of bhang (Cannabis sativa : Indian hemp) is cen-
tralized in Bubak (Dadu district) where it is grown under the supervision of
the Excise Department. At the request of that department one acre was put
under this crop at the Agricultural Research Station, Sakrand, to determine
the cost of cultivation. The crop was sown in the third week of November
-and it took 4J months to be ready for harvest. The total yield was 929 Ib. of
gundhies (dried blossom) and 1362 Ib. of bhor (leaf powder). The yield was
rather low, presumably due to inexperienced labour as the crop was grown
ior the first time on the farm. The total cost of cultivation including bardana
charges was Rs. 186-10. '

At the IMPERIAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, NEW DELHI, four
fixed hybrids from the cross between albus and New Hibiscus were grown
.alongside the latter for comparative tests. Arrangements are being made to
have the fibres tested by the Assistant Fibre Expert to the Government of
Bengal.

.Sunn-hemp (Crotalaria juncea)

The steady increase in the demand for Indian hemp continued in the year
under review and exports advanced from 769,000 cwt. valued at Rs. 69 lakhs
in 1936-37 to 830,000 cwt. valued at Rs. 74J lakhs in 1937-38. Exports to the
United Kingdom and Belgium which between them took more than 56 per
cent of the total quantity exported in 1937-38, amounted to 232,000 cwt. and
236,000 cwt. as against 243,000 cwt. and 237,000 cwt. respectively in the pre-
ceding year. Exports to France and the United States of America also declin-
ed sb'ghtly. There were, however, increased shipments to Germany, Italy and
Greece, which amounted to 100,000 cwt., 48,000 cwt. and 51,000 cwt. as com-
pared with 47,000 cwt., 32,000 cwt. and 46,000 cwt., respectively in 1936-37.

At the PUSA sub-station of the Imperial Agricultural Research Institute
pure strains of sunn-hemp were raised and studied. A few sterile plants similar
to those in pigeon peas were observed in sunn-hemp.

In MADRAS ten varieties obtained from different parts of the province
were tried with Dummugudeni variety as control. Highest yield of green
stalks was obtained in the Tirutharaipundi variety. As regards the quality
of fibre, the early varieties gave clean and fairly white fibre, but it contained
bits of pith. The medium varieties produced the longest fibre which was
clean and bright without any pith. The late varieties produced fibre of inferior
quality with dirty colour.

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 57

In manurial experiment no differences were seen in the growth of the crop
under differently manured plots, nor were there any significant differences in
the yields of the crops under various treatments.

In a seed-rate experiment where 50 lb., 75 lb., and 100 Ib. of seed-rate-
per acre were tried, increased yields were obtained with 75 lb. and 100 11). seed
rates as compared to 50 lb. But there was no significant difference in yield
between 75 lb. and 100 lb. seed-rates.

In a trial to find out the best time for harvesting, it was found that the
crop when harvested at the full bloom stage gave the highest quantity of green
stalks per acre. Stalks retted after drying for three days gave the highest
yield of fibre, while stalks retted after drying for two months and three months
gave fibre of poor quality. Betting was earlier by about six to twelve hours,
in still conditions of both clean and muddy water than in running water, the
difference between clean and muddy water being not significant. The fibre
obtained with clean water was cleaner in both still and running conditions
than with muddy water. The quality of fibre could considerably be improved
by beating and combing but a loss of about 25 per cent by weight was entailed
in the process. Bleaching powder, washing soda, dilute acids and 0-5 per
cent of potassium permanganate solution in conjunction with one per cent
of acidified sodium bisulphate were tried. The last material was found to-
bleach the fibre well, without effecting its strength much.

In BOMBAY the experiment on the relative efficiency of different species
of bees for pollination purposes was continued. Sunn-hemp being a self-
sterile plant the idea is to devise a simple method of cross-pollination for multi-
plying the seed of the wilt-immune strains. The work on the relative pollina-
ting efficiency of Apis and Megachile bees was continued during the year.
The results were similar to those of the previous year. There was, however,
no marked difference in the seeds in Megachile and Apis stimulated pods.
The seed of D-IX, the wilt-immune strain, was multiplied in a largo muslin
cage on the college farm ; Megachile bees were used for pollination. Heavy
rains in September affected flowering and there was also severe attack of
anthracnose caused by Colletorichum curvatum Briant and Martyn. Both
these factors adversely affected the yield. In order to maintain purity of the
seed, a few plants of D-IX were grown in large galvanized iron containers and
covered by muslin cages. These plants were sib-crossed by hand to produce
seed. Three pounds of D-IX seed was sent to Dharwar for multiplication in
the open. The plants suffered from lack of moisture, and only 19 pounds of
seed was produced. The F x progeny of the cross between the immune and
susceptible individuals of sunn-hemp was tested in heavily infected soil with
temperature of about 26C contained in visconsin tanks. All F x plants showed
wilt symptoms, thus indicating that susceptibility to wilt is a dominant charac-
ter. Fourteen of the F x plants showing wilt symptoms were transferred to-
sterilized soil but only six plants survived. These plants were grown under
cages and cross pollinated by hand. The F 2 progeny will be tested during the
next season. Some of the F x plants were also back-crossed with resistant
and susceptible parents.

In BIHAR as a result of a general survey of the sunn-hemp type conducted
during the year, 26 more samples of sunn-hemps were collected from different
ecological localities of the province. Preliminary experiments made in the

58 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

botanical section, Sabour (Bihar) during the past three consecutive years, on
the extraction of fibres of sunn-hemps, have definitely shown that early (desi)
varieties in general are the best quality fibre-yielders, and the highest yield
of poor quality fibre is obtained from the late (parwaria) varieties. This led
to attempts being made to select suitable strains from among the late varieties
also. Thirty-five cultures raised from single plant seeds of last year were
sown in lines along with 26 new samples (including 17 late ones). Desirable
materials have been collected out of these for future studies. The cultures
from samples obtained from Raneshwar (Santal Parganas) have proved to be
the earliest. The selfed single-plant seeds were obtained by the new method of
controlled pollination in xanai evolved at the botanical section, Sabour. The
Bihar variety has been found to be the best fibre yielder and combines the
character of length of fibre with lustre and softness. In the PaJcur variety,
the fibre is very lustrous but is only moderately soft and possesses medium
length. In the Naivada type, the fibre is extremely soft but is short in length
and possess moderate lustre.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES, a close study was made in relation to the
opening and closing of flowers on sunny and rainy days representing different

conditions of temperatures and humidity. It was observed that the percent-
age of the opening of flowers between 1 to 2 p.m. was reduced by 8 per cent
on a rainy day, while the percentage of flowers opening within 2 to 3 p.m. was
increased by 10 per cent on a similar day. The blooming is delayed on rainy
days. It was observed that 17 per cent of dehiscence occurred between 10
and 11 a.m., 67 per cent between 11 to 2 p.m., and 15 per cent between 2 to

2-45 p.m. and no dehiscence occurred after 3 p.m. When flowering was allowed
to occur inside the muslin bags, dehiscence and opening of the flowers occurred
in the usual way but no setting took place. However, if the stigma was rubbed
before selfing, the percentage of setting rose from 27 to 57. By the newly

devised method of applying a drop of glucose solution (strength 5 per cent)
to the stigma after rubbing, the percentage of setting increased to 65 per cent.
In varietal trials, no significant difference was found in the yields of dry
straw between the two varieties Jublmlpore and Chhindwara, but both of
these were found to give significantly increased yield over the Pusa variety.
The cultural trials were conducted to see the effect of (a) different seed rates,
(6) different times of sowing, and (c) different times of harvesting on the
yield and quality of the fibre. The results of the first year, which were analysed
statistically, were in favour of a seed rate of 80 to 100 Ib. per acre, -early sowing,
and harvesting at the dead ripe stage. Retting experiments in standing and
running water were conducted in December, March and May, i.e. under low,
medium and high temperature conditions. Fibre retted in running water was

observed to be superior in colour and fairly free from gummy matter. The
retting process took seven days in the cold weather and could be extended
without adverse effects for two more days. In March and May the optimum
retting period was five to sir days. Longer periods produced deterioration
in the fibre. The Imperial Council of Agricultural Research has sanctioned
a scheme for investigations in sunn-hemp in Madras, Bombay, Bihar
and the Central Provinces. A coordinated trial to find out the behaviour
of a few selected types at different centres was started during the
year.

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 59

Flax

In BENGAL, during the year under review, a few more varieties besides JWS
and Liral Monarch were grown with a view to finding out a strain which will
serve the dual purpose of the production of fibre and a high out-turn of seed.
'One of these varieties named ' Oil flax ' was received through the courtesy
of the Indian Trade Commissioner, Hamburg. Nine strains were also received
J from the Oil Seed Botanist. Some of the promising varieties wore found
to be late flowering. It has been calculated by experiments on the process of
retting and extraction that 30 to 40 maunds of dry straw capable of yielding
four to five maunds of fibre can be obtained from one acre. Besides this two
to four maunds of seed can, also be obtained. It has further been found by
experience that the crop should be retted and broken immediately after
hcirvesting. The process of seutching may be left till the advent of the rainy
season in July and August. The crop does not deteriorate on keeping but
on the other hand the quality of fibre is said to improve the longer the straw
is kept stored. Up to now over 10 maunds of clean fibre have been obtained
'from the last two years' crop. A big jute firm wish to make a mill trial with
the fibre provided a sufficient quantity is supplied. This is being arranged.
If the mill trial succeeds, then it may not be necessary to export the fibre to
Europe for sale. India imports a large quantity of flax goods annually and
if these could bo produced locally then the cultivator may expect to get a
better price for the fibre. Until recently all straw used to be retted at Dacca,
but quite recently the work has been extended to Brahmanbaria and Rangpur
as well. The products obtained from these places point to the fact that the
quality of fibre is probably dependent on the locality. To determine this
point, analysis of water in different localities has been started. During the
year, the total quantity of seeds obtained from different centres in Bengal
was roughly seven maunds of JWS and ten maunds of Liral Monarch. An area
of five acres was also sown at Karnal, where a high yield of 12 maunds of seed
per acre was obtained. Forty maunds of seed was sent from Karnal to Dacca
and 8 1 maunds of seed was reserved for further multiplication. It has been
further proved that it is advantageous to grow seed at Karnal as the fibre
produced from these seeds showed no deterioration. Two maunds of seed
was supplied to the Deputy Director of Agriculture, Jullundur circle (Punjab),
who is anxious to introduce this crop in Kangra and submontane districts where
natural irrigation water is available. If the crop grows there successfully,
the need for renewal of seed from Europe will no longer arise. If in addition
to seed production, extraction of fibre is also undertaken there, then it may
become possible to produce the seed at a cheaper cost.

Further improvements were made in the scutching machine and it is pro-
posed that, if the results of this year's experiments are satisfactory, from the
point of view of length, strength and yield of fibre, these experiments will be
considerably expanded and will include provision of scutching machines to
various cultivators in the interior. Six scutching machines were made by
Messrs. Renwick and Co. of Kushtia. One scutching and one breaking machine
were made at Dacca by the Coronation Iron Works. Besides these, seven
wooden hand scutching machines were made by a local carpenter. It is con-
sidered necessary to make a few more breaking and scutching machines of
improved pattern when more funds become available. Arrangements will be

60 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

made with the cultivators during the next year to grow flax on a larger area*
Four centres have been selected for this purpose in Rangpur, Murshidabad,
Tippera and Faridpur districts. In each centre there will be a godown where
the crop grown by cultivators in the vicinity will be collected and where
machines for breaking and scutching will be kept. The retting will be done^
under the supervision of expert labourers and the method of extraction will
be demonstrated to persons who want to undertake this as a cottage industry.
Work will also be done by hired labour to find out the cost of production.

Sisal hemp

A large number of suckers were supplied to the Baroda State and to the
Economic Botanist, Assam. A fairly rapid extension is taking place in some-
parts of the province. The utility of sisal as a profitable industry is further
enhanced by the fact that it can be successfully raised in unproductive land.

Rhea

There has been some interest in this important fibre crop during the year
under report. The difficulty in degumming and extraction of fibre still
continues. It has not been possible yet to evolve any suitable method that
may prove to be commensurate with the labour and cost involved.

7. Tobacco

The total area under tobacco in India in 1937-38 was 1,288,000 acres as.
compared to 1,183,000 acres in 1936-37 and the total yield of dry leaf was
estimated to amount to 511,000 tons in 1937-38 as against 493,000 tons in
1936-37.

Exports of unmanufactured tobacco improved from 411 million Ib. valued
at Rs. 104 lakhs in 1936-37 to 42-5 million Ib. valued at Rs. 118 lakhs in 1937-38.
Exports of cigarettes of Indian manufacture, almost entirely to Burma, declined
from 2-6 million Ib. to 2-5 million Ib. in quantity but the value rose from Rs. 67"
lakhs to Rs. 70 lakhs. Exports of other manufactures were valued at Rs. 11
lakhs in 1937-38. Imports of unmanufactured tobacco remained stationary
at 6- 6 million Ib. in quantity but the value thereof declined from Rs. 48 lakhs
in 1936-37 to Rs. 45 lakhs in 1937-38. Although Indian factories have been
meeting, for some time past, the local, need with popular brands of cigarettes,
the demand for foreign varieties is on the increase and the imports of cigarettes
advanced from 855,000 Ib. valued at Rs. 30 lakhs in 1936-37 to 993,000 Ib.
valued at Rs. 34 lakhs in the year under review, as usual the United Kingdom
being the largest supplier. Of the other descriptions of tobacco, imports of.
cigars amounted to 191,000 Ib. and tobacco for pipes and cigarettes 51,000 Ib*.
in 1937-38.

Research on the various aspects of cigarette tobacco production was con-
tinued at the Tobacco Research Sub-station, Guntur. The following items of
work received attention : (1) manurial experiments to test the effect of different
manures on the yield of cured leaf, (2) curing experiments to test the value of
the leaf produced under different manurial and cultural treatments and (3) thfr
study of the flue curing processes with reference to quality of the leaf.

The work on leaf -curl of tobacco was continued at PUSA by the botanical,
entomological and mycological sections of the Imperial Agricultural Research
Institute. As regards the incidence of leaf -curl at different times of the

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 61

the general trend was similar to that of last year ; the incidence of the disease
"was greatest in -the months of October and November especially in plots where
'the crop was sown in June -and July. Further experiments on the insect vec-
tors were conducted and-it'was shown that Ageratum Conyzoides is an important
"alternate host of tobacco leaf -curl.

Experiments under the cooperative scheme to determine the most suitable
areas in which to extend the production of cigarette tobacco were carried out
for the third year. As 'in previous years, Adcock, Harrison's Special and Pusa
Hybrid 142 were grown in the different centres and samples of cured leaf were
Bent to the Imperial Economic Botanist for valuation. The valuations on
the samples -of the current year are not yet available but the results of last
year from Bilaspur and Warangal were decidedly encouraging. The trial will
be repeated during 1938-39 at the end of which the results of the entire period
will be reviewed and suitable modifications effected in any further scheme that
may be adopted.

The chief items oi work 'hrprogress during the year at the important centres
sire given below :

MADRAS. The comparative trials of both cigar and cigarette types were
again continued. In cigar types, No. 20 maintained its superiority over all
other strains and in cigarette types, Adcock 13 closely followed by Adcock
14 gave significantly higher yields than Harrison's Special, HS 8 or HS 9.
A. cross between a local variety and an exotic type has proved to be superior
bo all other strains both 'in yield and quality and it will be issued for general
cultivation. Green manuring was found to have a depressing effect on the
yield of tobacco.

BOMBAY. At the 'Nadiad Tobacco Breeding Station, selections in the
Keliu variety, which -is widely grown in the tract, were tested for yield, and
Nbs. 24 and 49 were found to be promising. The study of the economics of
the different flue-curing processes was continued with a view to reducing the
cost of flue curing to make growing of cigarette tobacco more profitable than
local tobacco.

Preliminary tests for resistance to Orobanohe were carried out among potted
plants of three varieties, viz. Poona, Adcock, Harrison's Special and G 6 and
it was found that six plants from Harrison's Special and one from G 6 were
resistant. This trial will be repeated on a large scale in the coming year.

BENGAL. During the year 3,124 tolas of improved tobacco seed were
supplied to the cultivators from fthe various Government farms. Several desi
types and exotic varieties were under trial. The curing was carried out at
two centres, Dacca and Rangpur. A hail-storm at harvest time practically
destroyed the leaves at Dacca and spoiled all chances of obtaining good flue-
cured leaf. At Eangpur, however, the experiments were more successful and
good yellow coloured leaf was obtained. It seems likely that this type of leaf
could be developed in this province.

The sale of cheroots at Dacca farm oontirued to be satisfactory, the
proceeds being Rs. 1,488-6-0 in the year under report as against Rs. 1,291-
12-9 in the previous year.

BIHAR. The August sown crop having been found unsuitable under Sabour
conditions, early sowing in June was tried during 1936-37 and repeated in
1937-38. The experiment proved to be a failure owing to adverse weather

(|2 AGRICULTUKE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

conditions. The average yield of the cured leaf, however, increased this year
from five to over eight maunds per acre. The whole of the out-turn amounted
to 2,708 Ib. and was sold for Rs. 980. The total cost of raising the crop was
Rs. 520 so that there was a profit of Rs. 523 which is equivalent to Rs. 115 per
acre approximately. These results are most encouraging and show that a
definite opportunity exists for flue curing of tobacco in Bihar for people with a
little money to invest.

PUNJAB. Various crosses of tobacco were under study. Culture No. 1-4
of the cross Bombay 6X'Kabriwala showed promise of becoming one of the
best varieties of the province. Punjab type 12 was tested at the Jullundur
Agricultural Station and it yielded 31 maunds 38 seers more than the local
type. At the Agricultural Farm, Karnal, this type produced 22 maunds-
2 seers or 10 maunds 14 seers more than the local type, thus maintaining its-
reputation for high yield.

SIXD. The work on this crop was concentrated on the high class varieties-
capable of being used for cigarette purposes, the technique of growing and cur-
ing them receiving particular attention. Among the several cigarette varieties,
Adcock, Harrison's Special and Pusa Hybrid 142 proved to be high yielders.

TRAVANCOKE. Owing to the failure of the monsoon and inadequacy of
water supply the crop was not a complete success but the cured tobacco and
the cheroots prepared at the agricultural farm were reported to be as good
as, if not better than, those imported into the state. With the return of the
officer deputed to study the methods of cultivation and curing of tobacco in.
important centres in British India and Ceylon, arrangements for the cultiva-
tion of the crop on a large scale in the Government farm at Puliyara are ia
progress.

BARODA. During 1936-37, Virginia tobacco was successfully grown for the-
first time in a private farm at Ramol. During the year 1937-38 the cultivator
extended his plantation to 26| faghas and also put up an additional bam at
his own expense. The cured leaf totalled to 17,000 Ib. and was sold at an
average price of 6 as. 6 pies per Ib. The actual cost of cultivation and curing
came to about 1 a. 10 pies, the farmer thus netting a profit of about Its. 19O
per bigha. The possibilities of further extending the cultivation of tobacco-
in the province are being explored.

8. Oil-seeds

The estimated area and yield of principal oil-seeds in 1937-38 are presented
in the following table :

1936-37

1937-38

Area in
thousands
of acres

Yield in
thousands
of tons

Area in
thousands
of acres

Yield in
thousands
of tons

Groundnut
Sesamum .
Rape and mustard
Linseed
Castor
Cotton

6,663
4,144
0,889
3,677
1,409

2,714
439
964
420
128
2,233
|

8,745
4,456
5,481
3,839
1,146

3,436
449
J,021
457
104
2,039

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 63

In 1937-38 the production of cotton was 5,663,000 bales and the out-turn
of cotton seed calculated at 0-36 ton per bale may be estimated at 2,039,000
tons.

The Imperial Council of Agricultural Research continued the grant of
Rs. 30,000 to the Oil Technology Section of the Harcourt Butler Technological
Institute, Cawnpore, for assisting the oil industry by giving technical advice,
undertaking technical researches and imparting specialized training in the
technology of oils and allied products to the students from all parts of India.

Introduction of improved varieties

There are a number of improved varieties of groundnut, rape, mustard
and linseed which have been taken up by the cultivators. The distribution of
improved oil-seeds has lagged behind as compared with rice and cotton. This
is partly due to the late start in improving oil-seeds and partly due to the
paucity of funds and lack of organization for multiplying and distributing
the improved seed. Good progress has been made in distributing improved
groundnut seeds in Madras, Bombay and the Central Provinces. The
distribution of improved seeds of oleiferous Brassicce is well developed in the
Punjab.

Groundnut

In 1937-38 a record area of 8-7 million acres was under groundnut-
The principal areas in which this crop is grown are Madras, with 4-6 million
acres ; Bombay, with 1-2 million acres ; and the Hyderabad State, with 1-05
million acres.

The prospects of a big crop coupled with business recession depressed the
prices of groundnut in India. The price of machine decorticated groundnut
which stood at Rs. 36-12 per candy (500 Ib.) in March 1937 had dropped to
Rs. 24 by the end of March 1938.

Madras. The demand for the seed of the popular improved variety AH 25
could not be met fully. An intensive study of groundnut was started with the
financial help of the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research. Selection No.
678 yielded 10 per cent more than AH 25 and is superior in shelling percentage
and weight volume relationship. It also gives a saving of 25 per cent in the
seed rate as its kernels are smaller in size. Sixty spreading selections and twelve
bunch selections were under trial. Over 300 selections were made from the
progenies of the crosses.

Examinations of the root-systems of different groundnut varieties revealed
that in general spreading varieties possess a better developed root-system than
the bunch varieties. The maximum growth rate was observed in the first fort-
night after the flowering in the spreading varieties, and during the second fort-
night in the bunch types. AH 25 gave the maximum percentage of fertiliza-
tion while the indigenous variety was the poorest in this respect.

The groundnut plant did not respond to the nitrogenous manures.
Potassium sulphate at 1 cwt. and superphosphate at 2 cwt. per acre increased
the yield.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES AK 12-14 has proved to be the best small podded
variety. Among the large seeded varieties AK 8-11 is recommended on account

4 AGBICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

of its higher yield and better shelling percentage^ Out of the eight pure lines
under observation, 22 have been selected for further trial.

In the PUNJAB the groundnut is stated to give Us. 20 more per acre than
jowar, moth or mung. The most promising groundnut varieties are A-2 and D-3.
In SIND the groundnut and particularly the Spanish peanut suffers from the
white ant attack, but the Madras selections AH 25 and AH 36 escape with
much less damage. In BENGAL the Madras selection AH 18 has already been
established in some parts and there is a great demand for seeds of this type.

The field trials carried out by the INSTITUTE OF PLANT INDUSTRY, INDOBE,
have shown that AK 12-24 is the most suitable variety for greater parts of Raj-
putana. AK 8-11 holds out promise in Makrara and Bundi areas. The local
Oangapuri variety is a spreading variety which matures late and is difficult to
harvest.

Sesamum

At the Imperial Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, the breeding
of sesamum with a view to produce high-yielding, white-seeded types is
in progress. Some of the hybrids appear to possess the desired combinations
of characters. In Madras, SI 84 gave about 54 per cent of oil, i.e. 4 to 6
per cent more than in most of the local varieties. Thirty selections were
under investigation. In the Central Provinces, the relation between the size
of the seed and its oil-content is under investigation. In the Punjab, types
5, 15 and 22 appear to be most promising.

Rape and mustard

Almost half the acreage of these crops in India is in the United Provinces
(24 million acres), the other important provinces being Bengal (0-77 million
acres), the Punjab (0-74 million acres) and Bihar (0-52 million acres).

The Imperial Economic Botanist has taken on hand the investigation of
the inheritance of self-sterility in Brassicce. He has observed pseudo-fertility
in some of the types.

In the Punjab the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research has financed
a scheme for additional research on oleiferous Brassicce crops. Highly
improved strains of toria and brown-seeded sarson have been evolved by ' mass
selection '. In yellow sarson and raya which are normally self-fertile, a large
number of unit species have been isolated and described. OBI (L 18),
a drought-resistant type, has given the best results so far. The effects of various
frequencies of irrigation and different manures on yield and oil-content are under
investigation. The course of the development of oil in a growing seed was
determined.

In Bihar the purity of two mustard types, Nos. 4 and 5, has been established.
In Bengal mustard No. 5 and tori No. 7 continue to maintain their superiority.
Torio crop is becoming popular in North and Central Sind. Among the early
varieties selection No. 45, and Lyallpur No. 36 are recommended and among
the late types Mirpu-khas selection is preferred. Mustard is the only crop that
can be sown as late as 15 December in Central and North Sind, thus allowing
the widening of the sowing period of rabi crops. Sakrand and Jhatpat varieties
are popular. The important problem in the rape crop is the control of the mahlo

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 65

disease which is brought about by the aphids. In the United Provinces selec-
tions have been made which are resistant to aphis.

Linseed

Unlike the other oil-seeds, the prices of linseed were higher during the year
1937 as compared with the earlier two years. Larger demand, especialle
from the United States of America, and threatened short supplies of Plate
linseed were responsible for the rise in Indian linseed prices which occurred
in spite of the higher Indian out-turn.

In the Central Provinces and Berar (1*2 million acres), the principal linseed
growing province, a scheme for research in linseed and other oil-seeds
was inaugurated by the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research. About
4,000 selections have been made. Six Argentine flax varieties and several
improved strains of linseed from the Indian provinces were tried, but none of
them showed any special advantage.

The breeding of rust-resistant strains was continued at Pusa and Karnal,
where most of the F 4 hybrids were free from rust. Progenies of crosses between
linseed and flax varieties made with the object of producing satisfactory dual-
purpose strains were under study.

At Indore several selections have done better than IS 11 and IS 65 which
are rich in oil and resistant to wilt. Linseed breeding at Poona has been financed
by the Sir Sassoon David Trust Fund. Eighteen selections suitable for Karnatak
and Deccan tracts are available as a result of four years' breeding work. The
percentage of natural crossing under Poona conditions is found to be as low as-
0-5 per cent.

In Bihar the purity of Sabour wilt-resistant linseed No. 6, Sabour selected
and Gaya local was established. In Bengal preliminary examination of 309
types was completed. In Sind Cawnpore strains Nos. 1150 and 1193 proved
superior. In Kashmir the Russian type 39730 shows considerable promise.
It is dwarf and hardy and possesses bold seed.

Castor

About half of the area under castor is concentrated in the Hyderabad State
(520,000 acres), the next important province being Madras with 247,000 acres.

In Hyderabad 297 single plant cultures were under study. Preliminary
yield tests were run with 33 high yielding and 7 mono-spined and 4 non-spiny
cultures. In Madras the hybrid selection No. 59-2-1-1 has yielded about 30
per cent more than the control, and two other hybrid selections appear promis-
ing. All these selections mature earlier by at least a month. In Bombay two
promising strains S 20 and S 5 are under district trials. They were selected
for high oil-content and yield. In the Central Provinces correlation between
the yield and the number of branches and the length of the spikes has been
established. Types 31 and 16 have shown promise. In Sind Dwarf Surat No. 4
proved best among the Bombay strains.

Coconut

In Madras the breeding of the coconut has been taken on hand. Since
' natural ' and 4 cross ' progenies show more vigour than the ' self ' progenies,

66 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

the production and utilization of heterosis are recommended. That the
shedding of buttons (very young nuts) is not due to the scarcity of pollen
has been proved by artificial fertilization. From the anatomical examination
of the buttons it was found that about 50 per cent of the shed buttons are ferti-
lized, the remaining fifty per cent are either unfertilized or ineffectively fertilized.
In Travancore it is found that a spacing of 30 ft. X 25 ft. is most profit-
able. Manurial and spacing experiments are in progress in the Cochin State
also. A scheme for investigations on the diseases of the coconut in South India
was sanctioned by the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research. A survey
of the disease in the infected areas was made and the symptoms of ' root ' and
' leaf ' disease of coconuts were studied. Good infection of the leaf was ob-
tained when a mixed inoculum of Helniintliosporium sp. and Gloeosporium sp.
was used. Wilt symptoms were observed on seedlings inoculated with Botryo-
Diplodia thobronuv. and Rhizoctonia batatioola.

9. Tea

The stocks of tea hold in Great Britain have shown an improved position
as indicated by the following figures :

London stock at
the end of
February

Jn million Ib.

1934 283

1935 298

1936 202

1937 206

With this improving stock position, the export quota was increased from
82i per cent of the basic year crop for the year 1936-37 to 87 j per cent for the
year 1937-38 being an increase of 5 per cent, which gave a total export quota
for India distributed as follows :

Ib.

Northern India 274,771,789

Southern India 53,628,360

TOTAL . 328,400,149

as compared with 307,986,301 Ib. for the previous year. With this greater
release by the end of February 1938 stocks of tea in Great Britain increased
to 217 million Ib.

The average price obtained in 1937 was 15-18^. per Ib. of tea, which is a con-
siderable increase over the average price obtained during 1936 which amounted
to 13-07rf.

Country of origin Average price

1936 1937

Northern India 13-01 15-05

Southern India 12-61 14-69

Ceylon 14-08 16-00

Java 10-81 13-76

Sumatra 10-26 12*20

Africa . 11-66 13-81

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 67

The improvement in price in the London market was reflected in the Calcutta
market for export teas but no improvement in price was obtained for the internal
market in India

1935-36

Export
price

As. P.
9 5

Internal
price

As. P.
4 10

1936-37 .
1937-38 .

10 1
11 4

4 8
4 9

It is estimated that approximately 87 million Ib. of tea was available for
consumption in India during 1937-38.

Under the Indian Tea Control Act no new areas of tea can be planted, conse-
quently the acreage of tea does not alter to any great extent. The total tea
area in India on 1 March 1938 exclusive of Burma was 839,685 acres.

Field experiments carried out in the tea districts of North-East India clearly
indicate a general need for nitrogenous manuring and that potash and phosphoric
acid show apparent gains higher than could be expected if either of them was
really without effect. The conclusion, however, is justified that the average
tea soils so far examined showed little immediate need of phosphoric acid or
potash for mature tea. In the case of young plants in their second and third
years from seed it is evident that the use of potash has been beneficial. This
is shown in the greater weight of new growth both in framework of the young
plants and in the amount of loaf grown.

The value of application of readily available nitrogen is also demonstrated
but it is also evident that in their second year young plants can easily be
damaged by an overdose ; the young tea plants receiving an application of
20 Ib. of nitrogen per acre having grown better than the plants receiving 60 Ib.
of nitrogen per acre.

Field experiments on mature tea continue to show that the response
to nitrogen manuring is proportional to the amount of nitrogen applied for any
particular manure. Also that the use of sulphate of ammonia combined with
superphosphate and potash when added for 19 consecutive years to plots still
carries the best looking and the best cropping bushes compared with bushes
receiving the same quantity of nitrogen in other forms.

There has been considerable discussion upon the relative merits of inorganic
and organic manures. Experiments carried out in North-East India have shown
that bulk organic manures such as cattle manure and vegetable compost have
not more than 50 per cent the efficiency of sulphate of ammonia for an equal
quantity of nitrogen so far as crop is concerned.

Experiments to ascertain whether there was any difference in the quality
of the final product indicated that change in quality is associated with change
in crop, and loss in quality is associated with crop increase but is not determined
by the type of manure used to bring about the increase, the artificial manure
mixture giving no greater loss in quality than the bulk organic manures for the
same crop increase. This loss in quality was not confined to any particular
period of the year but remained fairly constant throughout che cropping period.

A great deal of work is now in progress in the various tea growing countries
with the object of improving the tea bush. Much work is being done in vegeta-
tively reproducing selected bushes.

<58 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Owing to the tea plant showing an appreciable degree of self-sterility a larger
crop of seed is invariably obtained by pollination from another bush. The
average crop of seed set by the tea bush with its own pollen is about a quarter
of what would be set if the flowers receive adequate supplies of pollen from
numerous other bushes. Russian botanists report that plants resulting from
self-pollination are inferior in vigour to those resulting from cross-pollination,
also a self-fertilized seed showed a marked reduction in germinating capacity.

The fermentation of tea is in the main an oxidation process dependent upon
the difference in the amount of vitamin C oxidase in the shoots of the different
tea varieties. This varies little during the season for any one bush whereas
the peroxidase content varies considerably during the season.

10. Coffee

Of the three species of coffee, namely Coffea arabica, Coffea robusta and Coffea
liberica, grown in India on a plantation scale, Coffea arabica is by far the most
important. It has been a cultivated crop of India for over three centuries, and
on its quality India has earned a reputation as a producer of one of the finest
coffees in the world. Decades ago, there was a very large area in South India
under Coffea arabica, but at present it may only be just over 180,000 acres.
Coffea robusta, a hardy and disease-resistant plant, is a later introduction, and
the area planted has extended to about 17,000 acres. The present area under
Coffea liberica is almost negligible.

Coffee is largely a plantation crop grown on the hills of South India. On
the Bababudan Range, the hills lying to the west and south of the Bababudan
Range, the Billigirirangan Range, the Coorg and Wynaad Hills, the Nilgiris,
Nelliampathy, Anamalai, the high ranges of Travancore, Shevaroys and Pulni
Hills, coffee is grown on an estate-scale. A considerable area has also been
planted in small patches of a few acres each, and in domestic holdings scattered
around the main coffee producing areas.

Official statistics for area and yield of coffee are collected only from planta-
tions of five or more acres in extent. The number of such reporting plantations
in 1937-38 was 5,728, showing a total area of 343,446 acres of coffee land in the
possession of planters. Of this, only 181,742 acres had actually been planted.
Of this area, Mysore accounted for 52 per cent, Madras 24 per cent, Coorg 22
per cent and Orissa, Travancore and Cochin together 2 per cent.

The season under review was unfavourable to the Indian coffee crop, which,
therefore, turned out to be a short one. The total reported production of coffee
in 1937-38, according to official statistics, amounted to about 15,000 tons only.
Exports during 1937-38 were also small, being only 6,757 tons. The principal
customers of Indian coffee were, in the order of their importance, France, the
United Kingdom, Norway, Iraq and Belgium.

According to the weekly circulars issued by the Mangalore Curers' Associa-
tion, the highest and lowest weekly average prices for FAQ Plantation
Assortment in the Mangalore market during the curing season were Rs. 33-12
and Rs. 28-4 per cvt. respectively. From returns furnished by curers to the
Indian Coffee Cess Committee it is noted that 8,223 tons of coffee passed through
the major curing yards at Mangalore, Tellicherry, Calicut, Coimbatore, Hunsur
and Mysore, during the curing season of 1937-38.

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 69

Since 1925, scientific work on coffee has been centred at the Coffee Experi-
ment Station, Balehonnur, in the Kadur district of Mysore State. This station
is maintained by the Agricultural Department of the Mysore State, and a number
of problems concerning coffee receive the attention of the specialist officers of
the department. In addition, a Coffee Scientific Officer is maintained on this-
Experiment Station by the United Planters' Association of Southern India,
who receive a small grant for the purpose from the Madras and Coorg Govern-
ments. The Coffee Scientific Officer is mainly concerned with the study of the
fungus diseases of coffee with a view to devising cheap and efficient preventive
or control methods, while the Agricultural Department devotes its attention
to the study of pests and their control, the breeding of high-yielding and disease-
resistant plants by individual selection and hybridization, manurial treatment,
vegetative propagation, etc.

As stated in previous reports, the spraying of coffee with suitable spray
materials has been found generally effective in controlling such diseases as leaf
disease, black-rot and die-back. The work on spray materials and methods
was continued during the year of report. The results obtained fully bear out
the conclusion that so far as the control of leaf disease (Hemileia vastatrix) is
concerned, the success of the spray does not depend primarily on spraying when
the largest amount of leaf is available on the trees. The study of the behaviour
of various families of coffee strains derived from known parents towards strains
of Hemileia was continued on the station. It was found that Strain I was much
commoner on the station than Strain II. The isolation and culture of Strain
III, to which certain families of coffee resistant to Strains I and II have been
found to be susceptible, met with some difficulty. Further work is in progress
with a view to confirming the tentative conclusions already reached.

Studies on the coffee fruit and seed were also continued. The data collected
in the course of the investigations during the year under review and previous
years show that there is a relation between a good set of fruit and the rapid,
growth of flush immediately after the blossom showers. The cause of such
defects as ' Black Jelloo ', spotted bean, black bean, ' burnt ' bean, green bean
and dry or coated bean was also investigated. An anatomical study of defective
beans and microchemical tests on the tissues were undertaken particularly on
the black bean, the ' burnt ' bean and the green bean. All the evidence that
has been collected goes to show that these defects are due to a disturbance of
the moisture or nutritive supply of the bean during its development.

As to the coffee stem borer, which is at present the most serious pest
of Arabica coffee, no suitable remedy has so far been discovered, though investi-
gations have been in progress for a quarter of a century. Enough information
has been collected on the habits of the pest, but preventive or control measures
have still to be found out. The scrubbing of stems and washing them with
such washes as s the Bhadravathi Wood Tar Distillate Emulsion, Mortegg, etc.,
have all been tried, but none of them has proved a complete success as a practical,
effective and cheap ovicide, larvicide and repellant. For the moment, the only
hope appears to be in the removal of the attacked plants. In 1937, the Mysore
Government applied the Pest Act to the Manjarabad taluk a of the Hassan
district and ordered the destruction of all infested coffee plants. It is estimated
that as a result about 19 lakhs of coffee plants were destroyed in 1937. In 1938,
the Government of Mysore extended the Notification to the Kadur district as

70 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

well. As a result over 16 lakhs of coffee plants were destroyed in each of the
two districts, Kadur and Hassan.

Experiments were also conducted at the Experiment Station to test the
beneficial aspects of sulphur dusting in the control of the shot hole borer which
infests Robusta coffee. A few experiments on different manurial treatments
for coffee yielded no definite results. Experiments on the proper method of
pruning of coffee were also in progress, but no conclusions can be reached from
such experiments until after several more years' work. Two per cent hongey
oil resin spray was found successful in combating the green bug pest.

Not less important is the work done in the selection of individual plants for
their high yield. The plants which yield 5 Ib. or more of ripe cherry every year
over a number of years without fail are selected as high yielders. So far, some
16 plants have proved themselves up to this standard. These mother plants
and their progenies are under observation. One of these families appears to
be very promising in the matter of individual plant yield. Several plants in
this family are also resistant to leaf disease. It has, therefore, been proposed
to distribute in the season 1938-39 the seeds from selected plants from this family
for trial under estate conditions in different localities

Experiments were also in progress on the station to determine the
best method for the vegetative propagation of coffee. Marcotting, layering
and planting of cuttings were tried under varied conditions. A series of experi-
ments was also started to study the possibility of propagating coffee from leaf
bud cuttings. , Preliminary trials started in the preceding year were continued
to find out the effect, on the quality of coffee, of the elevation at which coffee
is grown, the time of picking coffee, the various methods of drying coffee, the
grading of wet parchment and the process of fermentation. The results
obtained on the drying of coffee under different climatic conditions are encourag-
ing. A number of other minor problems affecting coffee were also under investi-
gation on the station.

The Indian Coffee Cess Committee constituted by the Government of India
under the Indian Coffee Cess Act, XIV of 1935, continued to work for
the improvement of the economic condition of the Indian coffee industry. An
all-India marketing survey in respect of coffee commenced in 1936 was still in
progress in the year of report. Propaganda for increasing the consumption
of coffee in the cities of Bombay, Hyderabad and Lahore, the Salem district
and Travancore State was also in progress. The efforts made in the United
Kingdom to bring Indian coffee to the notice of the coffee trade and the public
were continued. The Committee also moved the provincial and state Govern-
ments in India to frame rules to regulate adulteration in coffee.

11. Rubber

Owing to the existence of a large number of small holdings devoted to rubber
cultivation and the voluntary nature of the returns on which the statistics are
based, it cannot at present be stated to what extent the information given,
particularly with regard to production, is complete.

The number of reporting plantations 'in the year under review was 11,817,
covering an area of 202,990 acres, as against 11,710 with an area of 201,441
acres in the preceding year. The area of old cultivation abandoned during the

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 71

year amounted to 294 acres, while the new extensions (including replanting in
areas abandoned in previous years) are reported to have been 305 acres. The
area actually under rubber in these estates amounted to 125,062 acres, showing
an increase of 1,011 acres on the area (revised) reported in the previous year,
And of this area 119,476 acres were tapped. Of the total area under cultivation,
78 per cent was in Travancore, 11 per cent in Madras, 8 per cent in Cochin, 2
per cent in Coorg and 1 per cent in Mysore.

The total production of raw rubber during the year is reported to be
32,266,479 Ib. (Hevea 32,249,544 Ib. and Fictis claslica 16,935 Ib.) as against
30,447,919 Ib. a year ago. The yield per acre of tapped area was 337 Ib. in
ochin, 280 Ib. in Coorg, 266 Ib. in Madras, 265 Ib. in Travancore and 41 Ib. in
Mysore.

The total stock of dry rubber held on 31 December 1937 was estimated at
5,254,265 Ib. (Hevea 5,237,330 Ib. and Ficus elastica 16,935 Ib.), as against
3,218,366 Ib. on the same date of 1936.

The exports of rubber by sea from India to foreign countries during 1937-38
amounted to 214 million Ib., as compared with 19-6 million Ib. in the preceding
year. Of this, the United Kingdom absorbed 42 per cent, the United States
of America 20 per cent, Germany 14 per cent, Czechoslovakia 11 per cent and
Ceylon 9 per cent. These figures are exclusive of exports from Burma which
has been treated as a foreign country from April 1937.

Karly during the year, the text of the proposed new agreement between the
Governments of France, the United Kingdom, India, Netherlands and Siam was
circulated to the Government and producing associations concerned for considera-
tion. The new agreement provides for a considerable increase in the basic
quotas for each territory, and the quota for India, exclusive of Burma, is
increased from 1 ,3,000 tons to 17,500 tons in 1939. The chief innovation,
however, in the new agreement is the provision permitting the planting up of
new areas to a limited extent, that is to say, up to an area not greater than 5
per cent of the total planted area in each territory during the first year of this
agreement. New planting is to be permitted in the subsequent years of the
agreement to such extent as the International Regulation Committee may fix
from time to time. The committee also has the power to allot a special limited
amount of replanting to any or all of the territories in such manner as it deems
appropriate. Under this scheme, during the first year of the agreement, India
is permitted to plant 6,400 acres of rubber and it will be necessary for the Govern-
ment of India to draft rules as to the allotment of pi anting licences. It has
also been decided that any grower who does not wish to make use of his licence
for new planting may dispose of his right to another estate.

Under the trade regulation between India and Burma it was laid down
that there were to be no restrictions or prohibitions on exports from India to
Burma or vice v*rsa except in regard to any matters mentioned in the Schedule.
Under this regulation, during the pendency of the current international agree-
ment, all imports of rubber from Burma into Lidia have had to be accepted
{free of export licence, and amongst growers in South India a good deal of uneasi-
ness has arisen through the very heavy increase of the imports into Calcutta of
rubber from Burma, which has depressed the price of rubber in that market to
such an extent that it is now below the cost of production. Strong representa-
tions were made to the Government of India by the U. P. A. S. L, the Indian

72 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937:38

Rubber Licensing Committee and, to the Diwan-of Travancore, by the- Indiana
Planters' Association of Kerala to prohibit the importation of Burma rubber
into India without licence as from 1 January 1939, in order that the Calcutta
market shall not continue to be flooded with uncouponed rubber to such an;
extent as to cause the market price to continue to be less than the cost of produc-
tion.

The internal consumption in India is showing a steady increase. In 1936*
the quantity of rubber shipped in South India to other ports in the country
amounted to 6,888,867 Ib. which increased to 8,517,180 Ib. in 1937.

A leaf spot disease of rubber plant Hevea brasiliensis, received from the
Mundakayarn Valley Rubber Plantation, was investigated at the Imperial
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, and the cause of the disease was
found to be Oidium hevea Steinman. An account of this important disease
has been published in the Indian Journal of Agricultural Science, Vol. Vi.II,.
pp. 185-8 (1938).

12. Fruits

In addition to the work at the fruit research stations financed by the Imperial
Council of Agricultural Research, this review embraces practically all the horticul-
tural investigational work carried out by the provinicial Departments of Agri-
culture and some of the Indian states during the year 1937-38. It is chiefly
due to the interest taken by the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research that
horticultural work today figures so prominently in the programme of agricultural'
research and development in India.

The Imperial Council of Agricultural Research spent Rs. 1,27,023 in financing
horticultural research work in various provinces in India. The provincial
Governments and some Indian states also spent a good deal in financing their
fruit research.

Import and export

The large quantity of the import of foreign fruits and vegetables by sea
and land which is valued at about Rs. 300 lakhs (this includes the value of
the fruits imported by land) would not appear so embarrassing when this
figure is read against Rs. 208 lakhs, the value of fruits and vegetables exported
from India to foreign countries. The export of fruits and vegetables, dried,
salted and preserved has increased from Rs. 137 lakhs in 1936-37 to Rs. 148
lakhs in 1937-38. The chief dried and preserved fruit which is exported is
cashewnut, being valued at Rs. 129 lakhs of which 54 per cent was exported
to the United States of America.

Propagation, selection of stock and scion and establishment of nurseries

Research on propagation of plants and nursery work has attracted to some-
extent the attention of worker-. The value of the American method of bud
Insertion with a slire of wood attached to it in the case of Chinee orange, when it
is budded on Kichili stocks, is well proved. Observations on the lopping of
Kichili root stocks, root growth of citrus stocks, the possibility of inarching three
to four months old mango stocks and propagation of mango by ringed cuttings
are made at the Fruit Experiment Station; Anantarajiipet. The use of synthetic

ECONOMIC WOKK ON CROPS 73

liormones in encouraging the root growth on the cuttings of mango and pomelo
is under observation at Dacca. Better gootie plants have been obtained by
allowing a short drying interval between the ringing of the bark and the applica-
tion of mud in litchi plants at Sabour. Large number of reliable plants of
almonds, mango and sapota are made available to the growers by the Baluchis-
tan, Travancore and Cochin Agricultural Departments. It is now definitely
known that top working of mango can be successfully done in Bihar.

The citrus stocks raised from seeds have shown more lateral roots and larger
zone of root distribution than those raised from cuttings in the Punjab, where
it is also observed that Kharna Khatta imparts vigour to the scion worked on it.
'The rate of mortality of plants belonging to various stock and scion combina-
tions have been studied as aifected by transplanting and transhipment in the
case of various Mailing types of apple stocks and scions under trial at Chaubat-
"tia. It is also observed that Crab C stock gives the best growth. The apple
varieties, viz. Delicious and Jonathan, have produced more wood than Rymer
"when used as scions. The root system of various citrus stocks is being studied
at Nagpur where it is observed that root stocks seem to affect the santra scions
greatly. A large collection of root stocks is obtained from East Mailing and
is under trial in Baluchistan.

It is observed that very little has been done in encouraging private enter-
prise in establishing reliable nurseries. The Bombay Agricultural Department
lias a nursery registration scheme which is yet to operate. At any rate, a few
nurseries in Western India are cropping up as a result of the increased interest
which the grower is taking in fruit cultivation. Baroda State has a scheme
for starting nurseries at Dhari and other places. Cochin, Travancore, Baluch-
chistan and some other provinces have got their own nurseries from where reliable
iplants are being supplied.

There is also very little which can be mentioned in regard to the selection
and classification of root stocks except a few observations here and there as
stated above. It is, however, observed that such studies are included in the
programme of work in Madras, the Central Provinces and Baluchistan.

A good deal of work, however, is being done by the Agricultural Departments
in various provinces and states in establishing experimental fruit farms. It
is anticipated that investigations relating to root stocks will be taken up in due
course when the preliminary work is completed by the various provincial depart-
ments.

Improvement of fruit crops by breed-ing, selection and artificial pollination

This line of research is very restricted. It is observed in the Punjab that
the shape of the berries of the Khalili variety of grapes may be changed by the
pollen of Kandhari. Hari Jha guava has given the best performance at Krish-
nagar. Speciah study of papaya is made at Allahabad to find out the benefits of
controlled pollination. Several selected strains of guava are being given field
trials at Poona.

Physiological and cultural observations

The earlier ringing of the bark of apple trees is found to be beneficial at
Chaubattia. Nitrogen alone or in combination with other manures has given

74 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

more growth in peaches at the same station. The liming of the soils in Malta*
oranges is found to be a useful practice and pine-apple grown on ridges has*
given better yield at Krishnagar, In Madras off-season bearing varieties of
mango have been selected and their performance is being recorded. The*
records show that biennial bearing is not a regular phenomenon. A detailed
study of the problem of periodicity in bearing in mango is also undertaken,
in Bihar and Orissa. Cultivated mango trees have shown superiority over
uncultivated trees as regards growth and yield in Bihar. A good deal of
work on the manuring of mango trees is in progress in various provinces.
The success of Cordon system of fruit culture is demonstrated in Baluchis-
tan. The value of American ' bush system* of growing vines as compared,
with the indigenous trench system is under trial at Malezai farm.

Picking, packing, marketing, storage and preservation

As regards the development of fruit crops with special reference to picking,
packing, transport and market, some progress has been made. This work is
being doue by the marketing organisations working under the control of the
Agricultural Marketing Adviser to the Government of India both at the centre
and in the provinces. Some experimental grading stations have been established
in various parts of India for grading fruit. The quantity of fruit graded is<
increasing day by day, indicating that the packers have realized the benefit of
grading. Apart from a few regulations as regards grading of fruits, there is-
not much which can be mentioned. The Government of Bombay have under
consideration a Market Act to regulate fruit markets and have also extended
the life of the Provincial Fruit and "Vegetable Market Committee for another
year. Some of the railway companies have extended freight concessions and
have made arrangements to supervise the transport of fruit and vegetable
packages but such improvements are restricted to particular zones only.

As regards storage, it is observed at Poona that fully ripe Nagpur orange
can be kept in good condition for three months at 40F without any appreciable
wastage. Ripe Malta orange can be kept at 40F in good condition without
any wastage for four months. The size of the Malta fruit is found to influence
its storage behaviour. The big fruit retains fresher appearance for n longer
time than small fruit in cold storage. Wrapping Alphonso fruit in tissue
paper spoils the ripening power after cold storage. Rice straw and wood wool
used as packing material do not affect Alphonso fruit while in cold storage but
do spoil the subsequent ripening to a certain extent. A well-ventilated crate
of the size 24 in. x 12 in. x 12 in. capable of holding about a hundred Alphonso
fruits has been found to be a suitable kind of package for cold storage. The
fruit of ' B ' stage of maturity of the Pairi variety can be kept in good condition
for seven weeks at 45F. Similar observations have been recorded with regard
to potato, cabbage, cauliflower and other vegetables. At Benares it is found
that iodized wood shavings have a definite advantage over iodized paper in the
prevention of rot in tomatoes.

At Anantarajupet, an * eye ' extractor of pine-apple is devised and is found
very useful in taking out/ the ' eyes ' of the pine-apple fruit.

In the Punjab it is observed that vitamin C is more lost in orange squash
than in lemon squash during one year's storage. S0 a is found useful in pre-'

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 75

serving vitamin 0. Pre-heated orange squash is also found to be richer in vitamin
C than the one prepared from unheated juice. Maturity test in pears with a
test 13 Ib. pressure has given the best canned products. A good deal of work
on lime juice is done at Baroda where a scheme of the Baroda Industrial Board
is in operation. Mango canning work is done in Madras with a view to "deter-
mine the optimum period of exhaustion and sterilization. At Benares the
physiology of the life duration of fruit has has been investigated and the possi-
bility of the use of atmospheric oxygen is suggested for storing mango. Banana
flour is prepared in Travancore.

Insect pests and diseases of fruit crops

A detailed study of citrus diseases is made in the Punjab. A new disease,
viz. Ramularia sp., is also recorded in grape vines. At Chaubattia one per
cent sodium chlorate when sprayed on leaves of Osalis sp. a weed in apple
orchard prevents the formation of new bulbs and kills the old bulbs. Siroo
(Imperata Cylindrica) could be controlled by 4 per cent solution of sodium
chlorate. The variability in the intensity of attack of apple borer has also
been studied. The vapour para-dichlorobenzine is found effective as a
larvicide to about six inches deep in soil and up to 12 in. in sandy soils.
Observations on the woolly aphis (Eirosoma lenigerwm Hans.) on apples have
shown that the migration of aphis from roots to shoots and vice versa
occurs throughout the year. Grease banding and spraying nicotine and soap
mixture were effective in controlling aphis. Observations on other crops
such as Pyrus malus* Pyrns commnnis and some Prunus varieties in regard
to aphis are on hand. At Nagpur it is observed that santra budded on
pomelo is the least susceptible to foam disease. Investigation on the yellowing
disease in orange is conducted in Assam.

Organization

As regards the organization for the development of the fruit industry, there
is very little to write. The Dhari (Baroda State) Taluka Fruit Association
has shown good progress. It is observed that very little effort has been
made to introduce improved varieties of foreign fruit crops in India with
the exception of a few varieties of citrus, grapes, peaches, rambusteen,
langsat-daku and santorikum. Effort is being made at several places to give
varietal trials to indigenous varieties of fruit crops to find out which variety is
likely to thrive well in a particular tract.

There is, however, an increasing tendency on the part of provincial Govern-
ments and state authorities to encourage the development of the fruit industry.
A very substantial start has been made in tackling a variety of problems on
fruit research at the various fruit research stations. Much depends upon the
success of these research stations to give a further fillip to the fruit industry on a
scientific basis in India. It is anticipated that the results of researches now
on hand when complete would enormously benefit the growers.

13. Fodder crops and grasses

In the majority of the provinces and some of the Indian states more atten-
tipn is being paid to increased production of fodder crops and improvement of

76 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

grasslands. This is evident from the constitution of provincial fodder and
grazing committees in the United Provinces, Bombay, Madras, the Punjab and
Baroda State. In those provinces and major Indian states in which grazing
committees have not been set up 'fodder and grass improvement does receive
the attention of the authorities concerned to a greater extent than it did in the
past.

In all the provinces and some of the Indian states there is greater coopera-
tion between the Agricultural and Forest Departments to provide better grazing
facilities. The introduction of suitable exotic fodder grasses from South Africa,
West and East Africa, U. S. A., Australia and other countries is actively being
pursued. The report from the provinces show that more propaganda is made
on conservation of fodder by preparing ensilage: Efforts are being made to
make a collection of legumes of fodder value suitable for introduction in
pastures.

IMPERIAL COUNCIL or AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH. Central Fodder and
Grazing Committee. The ad hoc committee mentioned in the previous report
has been constituted into a standing committee consisting of representatives
from different provinces. The second meeting of this committee was held in
Delhi in November 1938.

The Central Fodder and Grazing Committee acts as a liaison body between
the provincial committees and discusses grazing and fodder problems affecting
majority of the provinces. Within the two years since its inception the central
.committee has done very useful work.

IMPERIAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, NEW DELHI. Fodder in-
vestigations consisted chiefly in paying attention to overcoming problems of
seed production, water requirements and yield of alternative crops of berseem
(Trifolium alexandrinum). The slow spread of this very useful fodder appears
to be due to its high water requirement and high cost of seed.

Trials on a few strains of oats were conducted at Pusa sub-station.

IMPERIAL DAIRY INSTITUTE, BANGALORE. Sufficient perennial fodder grass-
es were grown for preparing ensilage to provide the dairy stock throughout
the year. Over 1,100,000 Ib. of ensilage was prepared at a cost of 8 as. 4 pies
per 100 Ib. A tower silo in addition to trench silos was used.

The following is a summary of work done relating to fodder crops and grazing
in the provinces :

MADRAS. In all the circles efforts were made to persuade the ryots to grow
fodder to supplement rice straw. Spread of sann-hemp, Kolukattai grass (Pen-
nisetum cenchroides), lucerne and some of the perennial grasses was undertaken.
Trials of preparing silage fr6m groundnut husks were made at Kalahasti and
it was found that the material prepared was fair. Seed of important grasses
was distributed in different parts of the province.

BOMBAY. The large-scale rotational grazing experiment had a successful
year. The season and the condition of vegetation was the best ever since the
experiment commenced. The grazing area recovered from the set-back it had
during the previous idinless year. An interesting correlation between green
'Condition and increase in live- weight and the dry condition and decrease in live-
weight of animals maintained on grazing without supplementary stall feeding
was observed successively for 'about four years.

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 77-

At Betegaon Cattle Breeding Farm more area under green fodder was grown
to provide green fodder to cattle throughout the year. Gowar (Cyamopsis
psordUndes) was found to be very good both as green fodder and dry kadbi.

BENGAL. Napier grass is grown on all farms for fodder as well as supplying
cuttings to cultivators. Demonstration on silage making is given but the
cultivators appear to take little interest in matters of conserving fodder by
silage and other methods. Encouragement is given to increase fodder cultiva-
tion required for feeding better stocks.

PUNJAB. Sudan grass is becoming more popular and the demand for seed
has outgrown the supply. Some new selections iujowar, cowpea (Vigna catjang),.
moth (Phaseolus aconitifolius), teosinte and oats have been added to the existing
ones and fresh selections are under way. Attempts are being made to select a
non-hairy type of guara (Cyamopsis psoraloides) which the cattle could readily
eat. Root stocks of perennial grasses were distributed.

BIHAE. ' A survey of the important grasses of the province and their impor-
tance from the point of fodder value and mineral contents has been undertaken
from grants sanctioned by the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research.

CENTRAL PROVINCES. Botanical composition of grass areas and the effect
of different fertilizers on them is being studied. Burning had the effect of
increased vigour in growth but Andre pogon contortus was unaffected.

ASSAM. Mama has been found to be suitable both for fodder and ensilage.
A number of fodder gardens (baris) were established and silo pits were dug.
Trials on local aquatic grasses are expected to yield valuable results. The
production cost per maund for some of the fodders was determined.

SIND. Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) is becoming very popular and
is used as a rotation crop and also in reclaiming kalar soils. Mongold, turnips
and senji (Mdilotus 'parviflora) are grown for fodder purposes.

HYDERABAD (DECCAN). Sets of Guinea and Rhodes grasses were sold for
growing fodder crops. Ensilage of maize, jowar and cowpea was prepared.

TRAVANCORE. Investigations on the mineral composition of pasture grasses
in the state have revealed that they are deficient in lime and phosphoric acid.
The exotic grasses such as Guinea and Napier grasses introduced into the state
are richer in mineral contents. Distribution of cuttings of Guinea and Napier
grasses was done and growing of Guinea grass is established all over the state.
Selection of other fodder crops is in progress.

CCKJHIN. Guinea grass is found to thrive even on dry lands and hillocks.
Six to eight cuttings are taken and the surplus is converted into ensilage. Other
fodder crops are under trial.

BARODA. Reinfection of cleared areas of beeds by khadi grass seed from
adjoining military beeds was prevented by providing a belt of cultivated land of
suitable width in between. Seed lands when fertilized gave better yield but the
practical aspect of manuring has not been worked out. Trials on different
fodder crops are in progress.

14. Millets

The work of millets was in progress at different places in India. Consider-
able amount of work has been done and quite a number of selections suited
for different parts of India are being distributed to the cultivator. The problem

78 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

of producing varieties of crops resistant to different diseases are being studied
by the local officers concerned.

The three main millets cultivated in India, jowar (Andropogon Sorghum),
bajra (Penmsetum typhoideum) and ragi (Elemine coracana) occupy an area
of thirty-three million, sixteen million and eight million acres respectively.

Jowar (Andropogon Sorghum)

The largest area under this crop was in Hyderabad State (8-4 million)
followed by 8'1 million in Bombay, 4-5 million in Madras, 4-2 million in the
Central Provinces and Berar, 2-9 million in Bombay states, 2-2 million in the
United Provinces and 0-83 million acres in the Punjab. Other provinces and
states have less than 0-8 million acres each. The total estimated yield of
grain was 6-4 million tons.

In HYDERABAD eight jowar varieties were under trial at the Dry Farming
Besearch Station, Raichur, on the rabi black soils. Varieties M 35, M 47-3,
and BD 34 seem promising.

In BOMBAY efforts were continued to produce a jowar which is resistant
to the Striga parasite. Bilichigan and a new type Muddinandyal show pro-
mise of yielding resistant strains. Experiments at the Dry Farming Research
Stations at Sholapur and Bijapur remained in progress. At Mohl farm selec-
tion and purification of Maklandi jowar strain was continued. Strains 35-1
and 47-3 are liked in the district.

In MADRAS, in the Chetrai Vellai variety, two strains AS 732 and AS
1543 ad Chitrm Manjal variety AS 1195 proved better than the standard
strains AS 1575. 2095 and AS 809. In Guntnr J 103 and J 106 and in
Nandyal selections 233, 628, 294 and 653 appear promising.

Among the fodder types of joiiar AS 3355 has proved to be the best in
every respect and will be tested on a field-scale trial. A cross between Peria
Manjal cholam of Coimbatore and Yerra Jonna of Vellary has given very high
yields of fodder. One variety from Tanganyika and another from Bombay
Province have been observed to be fairly resistant to Striga parasite. Studies
were also continued on the habit of flowering, chlorophyll deficiency in seed-
lings, etc. 11,800 Ib. of improved seed was distributed.

Investigations on the keeping quality of malt from cholam show that when
packed in vaccum its quality remained unimpaired even after lapse of six
months. Biscuits prepared by blending a fair percentage of cholam malt with
white flour are as palatable and nutritious as imported biscuits and better than
ordinary bread.

A machine has been devised by the Agricultural Engineer to the Govern-
ment of Madras for polishing cholam.

In the Central Provinces and Berar No. 33, a white grained variety, appeared
to be specially suited for lighter types of soil in the Nimar tract. Improved
Saoner continued to be popular and there is a great demand for its seed. The
new strains 123 A and EB 1 have also given good results. 16,830 Ib. of pure
seed of improved varieties was distributed.

In the PUNJAB J 8 has continued to show its superiority over other types
regarding yield of grain, yield and quality of fodder and dry straw. At Dry
Farming Research Station, Rohtak, type 908 gave the maximum yield of fodder

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 79

while in another set Duggi has given good results. The results of the trials
at Rohtak are not conclusive.

In BIHAR studies in different jo wars were continued.

In SIND improved varieties suited to different tracts have been evolved.
Bed Janapur is greatly appreciated in Upper Sind, Sukkur and Larkana dis-
tricts on account of its high yield of grain and fodder, early ripening and less
susceptibility to stem borer. For middle Sind Saoro, Kartuho No. 1, Depar
No. 1, Ked Janapur No. 3, for Karachi districts Acho Bazigar and Acho Kar-
tuho No. 1, and for Dadu districts Acho Kodri No. 25 have been found suit-
able.

In TRAVANCORE work is being conducted at Puliyara farm.

Bnjra (Pennisetum typhoideum)

The total area under bajra was 16-2 million acres and the main bajra
growing areas in order of importance are Bombay (3-5 million), Punjab (2-6
million), Madras (2-5 million), Hyderabad (2-1 million), United Provinces (2-1
million) and Bombay states 1-9 million acres. None of the other provinces
contribute more than a million acres.

In BOMBAY the strains 187-1 outyielded the Niphad-local. Trials with
African variety were also conducted and it was found in no way superior to
the local. It has been established that contamination through muslin bag
occurs and inbreeding in bajra results in decreased vigour with various disabi-
lities, hence breeding methods were revised and group breeding and mass selec-
tion was also adopted for improvement of the, crop.

In the PITXJAB bnjra types A 1/3 and G 61/21 (a hairy type of bajra) con-
tinued to give good results.

In MADRAS among the irrigated strains PT 700 (a strain from Punjab
Cuinbu) faired better than PT 499, while no difference was observed between
PT 229 (Kotta Pali Cumbu) and PT 2125 (Vellai Cumbu). Of the rain-fed
types, PT 3G7, a selection from Bombay varieties, gave better yields' than
PT 2 W. 2,000 Ib. of improved seed was distributed.

In SIND Jamnagar Giant, Sujawal and a few types of the Punjab were
under test. Attempt," to evolve an early maturing type combined with high
yield is in progress.

In BIHAR Sabur type 1 has been found to be quite satisfactory.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR 145 single lines were under study
with the object of testing their purity and yield. Selection work on Jarnnagar
Giant is also in progress. At Indore Janmagar Giant has given satisfactory
performance. A from the Punjab has done definitely better at Khatri.

In COCHIN Nawannagar variety is also thriving well.

Rayi (Eleusiue coracana)

Ragi is grown in an area of about seven million acres in India. Mysore
and Madras are the two important centres for its cultivation though it is also
grown in Bombay, Bihar and Orissa and the Hyderabad State.

In MYSORE at Hunsur all pedigree types of early maturing ragis continued
to be under observation. ES 11 and ES 13 are doing well. K 1 is becom-

80 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

ing popular on account of heavy ear heads and its uniformity. C 3, w Nasik
variety, also seems promising.

In MADRAS EC 593 and EC 3775 gave 21 per cent and 33 per cent more-
yields respectively than the local ragil EC 592 continues to be popular in
spite of its larger duration owing to its high yield. In Anakapalle where ragi
is grown as an irrigated crop both in Pyru (January to April) and Punasa (April
to June) seasons, VZM 33 and EC 593 in Pyru season and BAM 10 in
Punasa season gave the highest yield. At Hagari R 42 proved its super-
iority in yield of both grain and straw. 7,507 Ib. of improved seed was issued
during the year.

Other millets

Korra (Setaria italica). In MADRAS S 1523, a selection from rain-fed
varieties, proved its superiority over all the other rain-fed varieties. S 1523
and S 1544 are being tested in districts under local conditions. 100 Ib. seed
of this was distributed.

Panivargo (Panicum miliaceum). In MADRAS strain PV 36 gave 14- per
cent increase over PV 31.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR work on lesser millets, Kodon and
Kutki, was continued. Kutki No. 8 was found to be fairly early type. Nos, T
and 17 are medium while No. 24 is very late but is a heavy yielder.

15. Other cereals
Barley

An area of nearly 6J million acres was estimated to be under barley,
to which the United Provinces,* Bihar and the Punjab, with their respective
shares of 3J, 1J and f millions, contributed jointly about 93 per cent.

Malting and brewing tests

The three-year scheme, financed by the Imperial Council of Agricultural
Kesearch for investigations on the malting and brewing qualities of Indian
barleys grown in the above three important barley-growing provinces, has
been completed. These studies have yielded very useful results, of great
potential value for shaping future policies, which results can briefly be
summarized as follows :

UNITED PROVINCES. Samples submitted from here for valuation and analysis
consisted throughout of type Cawnpore 251, grown at four different farms,
viz. Raya, Kalai, Kunraghat and Kalyanpur, and with eight different manu-
rial treatments described last year. Results show that while malting and brew-
ing properties are not affected appreciably by differential manuring, soil and
climatic conditions, jointly or severally, exercise a considerable influence over
them. For example, in 1934-35 the Raya farm samples were described, by the
Valuation Committee of the Institute of Brewing, London, with whose colla-
boration these tests were carried out, as very ordinary and of little interest to-
brewers, whereas samples from the same farm in 1935-36 and 1936-37 were
rated to be of exceptional value, fully equal to the best Californian barleysv

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 81

Similarly, samples from Kalai farm were likened in 1934-35 to the best Egyp-
tian barleys, but rated better than ' superior to standard ' Californian barley
in 1935-36, while in 1936-37 they were described to have the appearance of
low grade barleys. Further, the samples from Kunraghat farm in 1934-35
were considered to be very useful barleys for making malts. In 1935-36 they
were simply described as ' kind little barleys ' whose value had been affected
by the presence of thin corn, while in 1936-37 they had a very bad appearance.
Last of all, samples from the Kalyanpur farm equalled Chilean forage barley
in value in 1935-36, whereas in 1936-37 they were as good as FAQ barleys
from the same country.

BIHAR. The samples from Sabbur were considered about equal to Chilean
forage barley of which a good deal is malted for English brewers. In the case
of these, the malt made was never below, and in about 30 per cent of cases
malted above the quality expected from the appearance of the barley samples.
In the case of these barleys also, the finding was that climatic and edaphic
factors play a very important part in determining the malting and brewing
quality of a barley type.

PUNJAB. The first instalment of samples from the Punjab comprised
six types grown under uniform conditions, but in later years they consisted
of two types only, found to be the all-round best of the lot, viz. Nos. 4 and 5,
grown (i) on two different kinds of soil with two irrigation treatments, and (ii)
at five different places ; and, finally, of bulk samples of 300 maunds of each of
these two types.

The samples from different places exhibited some difference as regards
nitrogen content. It was also found that the higher number of irrigations
reduced the nitrogen content and increased the brewers' extract, but the reduc-
tion in nitrogen was something appreciable only in the case of Type 5 grown
on clayey soil, which with four irrigations had, on grain basis, 04 per cent
less nitrogen than the same with two irrigations. Further, in both the types
(Nos. 4 and 5), and with both the frequencies of irrigation, samples from clayey
soils contained decidedly less nitrogen than those from sandy soils.

Conclusions. The upshot of these studies is that barleys of the type of
251 from places like Raya can hold their own against the best Californian
barleys, and that barleys of the kind of Types 4 and 5 from the Punjab, giving
as they do analytical figures exceptionally high for Indian barleys, are a pro-
mising potential material, and could be employed with advantage for malting
and brewing in England provided once their intrinsic value is realized and the
bias against their appearance removed. Further, it was noted that high nitro-
gen content did not appear to affect the malting quality of the Indian barleys
to the same extent as of the European barleys. In this respect, Indian barleys
seem to resemble ' Manshuri * rather than the Mediterranean type barleys.

It may be added finally that the samples tested were all obtained from the
crops raised at Government farms and it remains to be seen whether produc-
tion of the same quality can be secured from the cultivators' fields. There
is no doubt that Indian barleys of the right kind can find a ready sale in England
for malting and brewing purposes provided they can ta shipped free of khapra
beetles, and if an export trade in these barleys springs up, assuring for the
-cultivator higher returns for his barley crop, he will most readily take up the
production of the desired qualities of barley.

82 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Yield trials

In yield trials at PUSA with seven Pusa selections, twelve Pusa hybrids,
one Punjab type and one Cawnpore barley, Pusa Type 21 gave the highest
yield.

In the PUNJAB four new cross-bred barleys, selected from among the 14
put under field-scale trials for the first time last year, were under comparison
against the standard Types 4 and 5, at Lyallpur, on both light and heavy soils.
On the sandy soil, Type 4 yielded better than Type 5, and crosses C 111 and
C 107 better than Type 4, the former significantly so. On the heavy soil,
however, Type 5 scored over Type 4, and crosses C 111, C 103 and C 107
out-yielded Type 5, but the differences in all these cases were non-significant.
In addition to these, ten still newer cross-bred barleys were under field-scale
comparisons against Types 4 and 5. Of these, only No. 354 (Am 1311 xT 4) y
which has also more attractive (brighter) grains than those of Types 4 and 5,
out-yielded Type 5 (best yielding sort on heavy soils) by 4J maunds of grain
per acre.

The six varieties (five foreign and one local) tried in Kashmir fared badly
and gave lower out-turns. Out of these, Californian Wonder, a new introduc-
tion, topped the list with a yield of 1,110 Ib. per acre.

Other studies

Studies at Pusa on the incidence of rust in F 2 plants of the cross Alpha
X Type 21 showed that the inheritance of reaction to rust i.s digenic. In the
F 2 of a number of crosses between the virescent mutant observed in type 21
and normal green-leaved Type 2], the green condition was found to be domi-
nant and the ratios obtained were approximately 3 green : 1 virescent plants.

In manurial trials carried out with Type 21, the application of unfermcntcd
cake gave higher out-turns of both grain and straw than the fermented mix-
tures.

In BIHAR the work of isolation of pure lines with a view to evolving disease-
resistant strains having desirable malting and brewing qualities was continued,
and 40 homozygous cultures were studied in detail, the most promising of which
have been retained for further work.

In connection with the work on grade standards of the Marketing scheme
of the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research, 383 samples were examined
for refractions, size, nitrogen content, etc., at the Imperial Agricultural Re-
search Institute, New Delhi, and about two-thirds of these samples were also
submitted to malting tests at the Solon Brewery and also analysed for diastase.

Maize

In British India, maize occupied an area of about 5-6 million acres, of
which 82 per cent was grown in the United Provinces, Bihar and the Punjab,
these contributing to the total about 1-9, 1-6 and 1-1 millions respectively.

Yield trials

Twenty-six foreign varieties were tried at Sirsa (PUNJAB). The best
foreign sorts now available in the Punjab are Silver King, FC 6035 and

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 83

6036, of which the first has established itself in Murree Hills and is in great
demand. In yield trials in the Punjab, Type Red 1, which has cobs over 6 in.
in length and 4 in. in circumference, out-yielded the local varieties at Jullundur
and Lyallpur by twelve seers and two maunds per acre respectively.

Eight varieties of sugar corn, three of pop corn and eleven (nine foreign
and two local) of field corn were under trial in Kashmir. Among the sugar
<jorn varieties, Golden Bantam, a fresh introduction, gave the highest yield
of 2,037 Ib. of grain per acre. In the case of pop corn, White Rice and Amber
Pearl yielded equally well. The cultivation of sugar corn is spreading in the
state as it fetches a higher price (Rs. 5-8 to Rs. 7 per maund) than the local,
'which sells at only about Rs. 1-8 per maund.

Other studies

Inbreeding at the IMPERIAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, NEW
DELHI, was continued and, out of about 1,200 selfed lines, some 600
promising ones were selected and inbred further. The seedling counts as to
the segregation of V 2l indicated a close linkage between Y and V 8l . The F a
generations of the crosses of glossy 94 x glossy 9A and glossy 94 X glossy
326 were studied. Each segregated into 9 riormal : 7 glossy, thereby indicat-
ing that glossy 94 is not allelomorphic to either of the other two glossies.

In BIHAR 56 cultures were under study and, as usual, the promising selfed
single-cob seeds of all samples wore collected for further study.

In the PUNJAB evidence, which requires further confirmation, has been
obtained that sugarcane Co 285 may be successfully and more profitably uti-
lized, instead of elephant grass, as a border crop for preventing cross-pollina-
tion between two adjacent plots of maize.

In ASSAM a variety obtained from Messrs. Sutton and Sons was found to
be very promising.

Studies at NEW DELHI, pursued in continuation of similar investigations
-carried out at Pusa in previous years, strongly suggest that the maize plant
is able to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Further work to obtain unassailable evi-
dence on the point and to understand clearly the mechanism of fixation is in
progress.

A statistical examination of some manurial and miscellaneous experiments
-carried out at Pusa since 1932 shows that for maize 40 Ib. of nitrogen per acre
in the form of rape cake is superior to 8,000 Ib. of farmyard manure per acre.
Potash did not increase, and in fact showed a tendency to depress, the yield.
Maize preceded by gram and peas gave fairly high out-turn, more so in the
former case. Maize after oats and wheat gave low yields in all plots except
in those manured with 40 Ib. of nitrogen in the form of rape cake.

Partial regression coefficients worked out between the yield of maize and
rainfall in the months of June, July, August, September and in the remaining
eight months of the year prior to sowing showed that under Pusa conditions
any additional inch of rainfall over the average for the period under considera-
tion did not produce any significant increase or decrease in the yield of the
crop.

In connexion with the work on grade standards 351 samples of maize were
examined in respect of refractions, size and water-content by the Cereal ist f
Punjab Agricultural College, Lyallpur.

84 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Oats

In the yield trials at Pusa between ten strains of oats, hybrid J outstripped
all others in the matter of green fodder and grain yield. Studies on the
inheritance of seed colour in the F 3 generation of a cross between BS 1 and
PF 2 oats gave a ratio of 3 black : 1 yellow seeded plants,

A statistical examination of the results obtained from green manuring
experiments at Pusa shows that, among the different species of Crotalaria,
C. Minjussi was the best and that sunn-hemp, dhaincha, guara, cowpeas, velvet
bean and meth were better legumes than soya bean for green-manuring purposes
in the case of oats. Green manure in conjunction with superphosphate gave
a higher yield than when applied alone, and sunn-hemp applied six weeks
old plus f maund superphosphate per acre gave the best out-turn. Six times
sunn-hemp (i.e. sunn-hemp grown on six acres and applied on one acre) applied
after fermenting gave the highest out-turns and the residual effect continued
for two to three years without any appreciable deterioration. Fermented
sunn-hemp plus superphosphate gave also high yield and the fertility of the
plot so treated was at a fairly high level even at the end of the fourth year.
On small-sized plots leaves of green manure appeared to possess better manu-
rial value than the whole plant or its parts, but on field-scale no difference in
the yield of oats was observed between manuring with leaves alone and with
the entire plant.

Tapioca

Work on this crop is in progress in Travancore, where it has been found
that tapioca responds readily to manuring. Studies to determine the most
suitable rotations have indicated that, subject to confirmation, tapioca does
best when it follows bananas or yams.

16. Potatoes

The work on potato breeding both at Simla and Nanjanad was continued.
At the former centre, 294 stocks received from various parts of India were again
studied and, after elimination of duplicates, about 50 varieties were carried
forward for further study with a view to determining their suitability for cros-
sing with new species and varieties received from abroad.

The study of the South and Central American species and hybrids was-
continued. Some of them were found to be highly immune or resistant to late
blight and also to possess a certain amount of cold resistance. The F x genera-
tions of a number of crosses between promising indigenous and foreign types
were studied and selections made on the basis of resistance to late blight and
other desirable characters, a natural epidemic of late blight which appeared
late in the season facilitating this work. Study of the incidence of early blight
and of virus diseases was also in progress.

A number of new interspecific crosses were also made successfully. It waa
observed that in certain cases one direction of the cross was much more easily
made than its reciprocal. This was particularly noticeable in crosses involving
S. demissum as one of the parents.

Cold storage trials of potatoes were continued at the COLD STORAGE
EESEARCH STATION, GANESHKHIND. It was found that only the fully mature

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 85

potatoes were suitable for cold storage ; the under mature ones rapidly lost
water and got severely shrivelled in storage with subsequent growth of Peni-
<cillium on them. Analyses of tubers of Khed potatoes stored at 30 P , 35 and
40F. showed that an accumulation of sugars took place at 30 and 35F. The
potatoes at 30F. began to suffer from internal breakdown after three months
of storage. The tubers remained without sprouting for about seven months
at 40F. and were good for table use. A part of the sugars accumulated in the
potatoes stored at 35F. disappeared when the tubers were allowed to remain
at 68F. for some days.

At the Cold Storage Research Station, Ganeshkhind, Khed potatoes were
found to remain without sprouting at 40F. for seven months and at 35F.
for more than a year.

Studies in potato storage were also in progress at the BENARES HINDU UNI-
VERSITY. It was found that marketable tubers are characteristically divided
into three more or less well denned stages designated as adolescence, maturity
and ripening. Tn the adolescent tubers, the loss in weight during storage is
high and decreases with increasing maturity of the tubers, the value of total
loss being about the same in mature and ripe tubers. Mature tubers, however,
can be kept considerably longer in storage than ripe ones. Irrespective of the
developmental stage, tubers stored for 10-12 days at 18C. lose considerably
less weight during subsequent storage than those pre-stored at 7C. prior to
permanent storage.

MADRAS. At the Agricultural Research Station, Nanjanad, three crops of
potatoes were grown as usual. The work on artificial hybridization was con-
tinued and a large number of intervarietal and interspecific crosses were effected.
In all 3,798 flowers were operated upon and 141 berries were gathered. Of the
73 cultures tested in row yields in the main crop season, 19 promising cultures
were split up into two groups and compared in the second crop season with
Great Scot as standard. Three of the cultures gave significantly higher yields.

In the permanent manurial plots, the beneficial effects of phosphatic manures
.and lime and the evil effect of the absence of potash and nitrogen were again
distinctly noticeable. In irrigation experiments, irrigation in furrows once
in two weeks gave better results than irrigation in furrows once a week. In
experiments to judge the value of different weights of individual tubers sown
at different spaces, tubers weighing 1-2 oz. at distances of six to nine inches in
TOWS gave better yields than smaller tubers planted closer than six inches
apart. It was also noticed that new seed gave better yield than old seed.

PUNJAB. The variety Factor continued to be the premier variety in the
Murree hills and has practically displaced all other varieties in cultivation there.
The Kangra local variety has given encouraging results in September sowing
in the plains, particularly in the submontane districts. Arrangements are
being made to distribute the seed of this variety among potato growers at rates
much lower than they generally pay for other varieties imported from outside
the province.

SIND. The common varieties grown are Italian white round and Italian
white long, the former being more successful. In spite of frost, 40-80 maunds
yield per acre was obtained in Tharparkar and Hyderabad districts during
the year. On the Right Bank, the yields were still better. Potatoes grown

86 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

as bosi (without cold season irrigation) on katcha land yielded on an average
about 57 maunds with a maximum of 63 inaunds per acre in Jherruck.

ASSAM. In the Upper Shillong Experiment Station, the total area under
potato was 21 acres and the average acre yield 95 maunds as against 87*7 maunds
in 1936-37. 832 maunds were distributed as seed.

In a field-scale trial with 10 varieties, the average yield per acre was 135-8
maunds as against 87-7 maunds of the previous year. In manurial experi-
ments, the superiority of 200 Ib. of Nicifos-f-200 Ib. sulphate of ammonia has
again been confirmed. It has also been shown that 300 maunds of farmyard
manure per acre is the most economical and productive dressing for potatoes.
The value of compost as against farmyard manure as a manure for potatoes-
was tested for the first time and found to be the same.

Records of dryage and rottage of potatoes maintained at the experimental
station at Upper Shillong showed that 4*03 per cent rottage and 7-4 per cent
dryage had occurred during the year.

The work on the selection of types resistant to late blight has been given up.
Area under improved strains

The total area cropped with improved strains amounted to 17,946 acres
during the year under review.

17. Beans and pulses
Gram (Cicer arietinum)

This crop occupied an area of 15*7 million acres during the year under
report .and the estimated; out- turn was 3*5 million tons. The areas important
for its cultivation are the United Provinces (5-7 million acres), the Punjab
(3'7 million acres), Bihar (1-3 million acres), Hyderabad (1-2 million acres)
and the Central Provinces and Berar (1-2 million acres). Trials conducted
at New Delhi and Karnal with different gram varieties showed that gram types
25, 58 and PF 3 have done well as compared with other varieties at both these-
places. Experiments on the study of wilt in gram were also continued. At
Pusa sterility in gram was studied. It is believed that defective setting as
well as shedding of flowers in the crop are due mainly to environmental
conditions and are governed by certain lethal genetic factors.

In the UNITED PROVINCES 72,580 acres were under improved types of gram-

In the PUNJAB trials conducted with different varieties of grain have shown
that Punjab 7 is still the best type of the province. F 8 is a new type which
is resistant to gram blight fungus. Work on producing better types by hybri-
dization was continued during the year. Numerous crosses are under study
and some of these appear to be promising.

In BIHAR 12 different varieties were under study and were found to
be breeding pure. There were 6,750 acres under improved types of gram.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES the average area under gram is 1,191,000 acres.
Crosses 36, 37, 38, and 42 are promising. Selections 28, 62, and 352 are popular
on account of good colour of seed, wilt-resistant capacity and high yield.

In BOMBAY G 693 and G 816 have given good results and are ready for
village trials. Nippin j of grams was studied
(a) Before flowering (31 days after sowing)
(6) At flowering (after '38 days)
(c) After flowering (47 days after sowing)

ECONOMIC WORK ON CROPS 87'

The experiment showed significant differences. The unnipped crop exceeded
in yield all the nipped crop. The yields progressively decreased with later
nippings.

The strain 18 at Dharwar farm showed only 2*2 per cent wilting as com-
pared to 95 per cent in the local. The yield of No. 18 was 395 lb. per acre as
against the failure of the local.

In SIND there were 363,000 acres under gram. Most of this is in North
Sind. Sanyasi and Red Jacobabad varieties proved to be superior.

In MADRAS there were 52,000 acres under gram. Strains 468 and 482 were
found to be significantly bettor than other varieties.

In BENGAL there were 279,000 acres. The work of improvement of this-
crop is at a standstill. Sabour 4 and Pusa 58 are departmental recommenda-
tions.

In JAMMJJ AND KASHMIR gram suffered to a large extent in the Jammu-
Province owing to the lightning and thunder-storms.

In the N.-W. F. PROVINCE out of 142,000 acres there were 425 acres under
improved grams.

In BHOPAL 3,600 acres were under improved types of gxam.

Pigeon peas (Cajanus in flic us)

At PUSA the work was continued on varieties which combine resistance*
to wilt disease with other desirable qualities. C 15 and T 80' gave' significantly
better results, and highest yields were obtained with two* feet spacing between 1
the rows and lowest with four feet spacings.

In BOMBAY Type 24 gave significantly higher yield than' the local.

In BIHAR efforts to produce, early strains of rahar which were high yieldera
were continued.

In SIND White Hyderabad is the best with White Di-gri as the second best.
These varieties being early escape damage by frost.

In MADRAS 44 cultures have been selected for further test. The yield
trials conducted during the year did not give conclusive results.

In BENGAL attempts to find out short durationed busy types of arhar suit-
able for mixed cropping and for rabi season are being made.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES Type No. 38, the wilt resistant strain, continued
to be popular. Investigations into the cause of sterility of a newly discovered
mutant with simple leaves are in progress. Demand- for seed of Nos. 3 and
38 is on the increase. Work on evolving white-seeded types possessing wilt
resistance, early maturity and good cropping power is in progress.

Peas (Pi sum sativum)

In BIHAR 17 types of peas were maintained pure.

In the JAMMU AND KASHMIR State the runner variety (up to date) yielded
the highest. In dwarf group ' Hunderfold ' gave the highest yield.

Soya bean (Glycine hispida)

In BOMBAY the American types of soya bean were found to be fairly early
but grew very meagerly and the yields were very poor.

In BIHAR the work is in progress. Twelve varieties received from Washing-
ton were under study. At Pusa attempts are beingt made to isolate botanically

83 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

pure strains of yellow, black, and chocolate soya beans.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES Nos. 53 (white seeded) and 59 (black seeded)
have continued to give high yields.

In ASSAM work is being continued with a view to isolate early maturing
types possessing a high yield of oil.

In JAMMU AND KASHMIR the cultivation of soya beans is being given up
on account of there being no demand for it.

Cowpea (Vigna catjang)

In MADRAS four types C 37, C 42, C 422 and C 512 gave heavy yield of
foliage and appear to be fit for fodder and green manuring. Four other
types C 20, C 92, C 100 and C 521 gave satisfactory yields of grain and C 419
only gave good yield of pods. All these will be fur ther tested.

In SIND Larkana Red was found to be superior to Sakrand and Mirpur-
Ikhas types,

G nar a (Cyamopsis psoraloides)

In SIND guara selection No. 19 from Sind Makhani gave a high yield of
grain and was less susceptible to root-rot.

(Urid (Phaseolus inunyo) and Mung (Phaseolus radiatus)

In BOMBAY urid occupies an important place among the pulses. Preli-
minary work was started and forty samples were collected and studied.

In BIND the local varieties of mung and manh have given better results than
the imported material.

In BENGAL pure-line cultures and matikalai and mung were grown at Krishen
.Nagar including a collection of Chinese mung and selections are being made
out of this material.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES mung Type 10 is early and Types 6, 7 and 35
are good yielding and medium in maturity. Urid Types 8, 17 and 21 are big
-seeded, high yielding and early in maturity. The demand for selections Nos. 4,
160 and 178 of mung and Nos. 110- A, 112 and 126 of urid is steadily on the
increase as these are good yielders both of grain and fodder.

In ASSAM 17 varieties of matikalai and three of mung were under observa-
<tion and a few have been selected for trial next year.

Jn KASHMIR about 12 selections have been retained for final trials.

CHAPTER III
INSECT PESTS OF SUGARCANE*

WORK on the insect pests of sugarcane was conducted at the Imperial
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, and its sub-stations, Karnal,
Pusa, and Coimbatore and also in various provinces and states.

1. Work at the Imperial Agricultural Research Institute

At New Delhi the study of the seasonal incidence of the borers in sugar-
cane revealed that the young crop two to four months old was attacked by
the stem borers, Argyria sticticraspis Hmpsn. and Raphimetopus ablutella Zell.,
and the root borer, Emmalocera depressella Swinh., while, later on up to harvest
time, Scirpophaga nivella F. was the chief pest prevalent.

Among the parasites that were reared were Trichogramma minutum Riley
on the eggs of Emmalocera depressella Swinh. ; Phanurus sp. on the eggs of
Scirpophaga nivella F. ; an unidentified Encyrtid, and Tetrastichus pyrillae
Crawf. on the eggs of Pyrilla spp. ; Melcha arnatipemns Cam. and Rhaconotus
scirpophagae Wilkn. on larvae of Scirpophaga nivella F. ; Epipyrops sp., an
unidentified Dryinid, and a Stylopid on nymphs of Pyrilla spp. ; Azotus sp.
on nymphs of Aleurolobus barodensis Mask. ; and Stenobracon deesae Cam. on
larva) of Emmalocera depressella Swinh. Among the predators noticed were
Nimboa basipunctata Withycombe and Brumus suturalis F. on eggs of Pyrilla
spp. and Chrysopa sp. on nymphs of Pyrilla spp.

In the laboratory of the Second Entomologist (Dipterist), studies on the
biology of Epipyrops sp. and an unidentified Encyrtid, both parasites on Pyrilla
spp., were carried out.

At Karnal the following work was done : (1) Observations were carried
out on the seasonal incidence of the major pests on four varieties of sugarcane,
Co 285, Co 312, Co 313, and Co 331, grown in replicated plots, each variety
having nine replications. Regular periodical examination of all the dead-
hearts produced, noting the causal agents, was carried out and the following
conclusions were arrived at.

Scirpophaga nivella F. This borer started its activity in the middle of
July and continued right up to the time of harvest. The number of dead-
hearts caused by it steadily increased up to the first week of September after
which there was a significant decrease. In July and August the number of
dead-hearts produced by this borer was practically the same in all varieties.
There was no difference between the resisting capacity of Co 285, Co 312, and
Co 313. In the case of Co 331 from the middle of November the number of
dead-hearts due to Scirpophaga nivella F. was significantly less than in the-
other three varieties and hence this variety may be considered to be compara-
tively more resistant than the other varieties.

* The assistance of Mr. P. V. Isaac, B.A., M.Sc., D.I.C., I.A.S , Second Entomologist
(Dipterist), Imperial Agricultural Research Institute,, New Delhi,, in the preparation of thifr
Chapter is gratefully acknowledged.

90 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Argyria sticticraspis Hmpsn. In all the varieties the number of dead-
hearts increased rapidry up to the third week of June after which there was a
steady fall and was practically zero in the third week of July. The varietal
differences were not significant. The pest did very little damage to the stalks.

Emmalocera depressella Swinh. In the initial stages the extent of attack
in all the varieties was the same and it reached a maximum in the first week
of June and was practically nil in the third week of July. In August, it again
increased. No difference could be said to exist between the resisting capacity
of the various varieties to this borer.

(2) Examination was made of all the cane stalks and roots at harvest time,
to note the incidence of borers, on the four varieties, Co 285, Co 312, Co 313
and Co 331, grown in the replicated plots. The examination was done in two
sets of plots one, the periodical observation plots in which the dead-hearts
had been removed at different periodical examinations, and the other, the
final observation plots, which had been left undisturbed throughout the
season, and the following conclusions were arrived at :

(a) Attack due to the top borer Mrpophaya nivella F. was significant in
both sets of plots, and in all the varieties except in Co 331 of the
periodical observation plots. Attack in Co 331 in the final ob-
servation plots was significantly less than in the other varieties.

(6) The percentage of attack by the stem borer Aryyria stictieraspis
Hmpan. in cane stalks was insignificant. The other stem borers
were found in etill less numbers.

and final observation plots was the same.

(d) The weight of canes attacked by Scirpophaga nivdla F. was signi-

ficantly less in the final observation plots for all the varieties,
while in the periodical observation plots it was significantly less
only for Co 312 and Co 331. The average \\eight of canes attacked
by Scirpophaga niuella F. was the same for all the varieties in both
sets of plots.

(e) The number of canes damaged by Argyria sticticraspis Hmpsn. at the

time of harvest was too small for the estimation of losses in weight
due to this borer. A small percentage was damaged by miscellane-
ous causes, such as lodging, and mycological diseases other than
those dealt with above.

</) There was a significant attack of roots by Emmalocera depressella
Swinh. in both sets of plots. The percentage of root borer was
significantly more in the case of Co 331 for the periodical observa-
tion plots. In the final observation plots also the percentage of
the root borer for Co 331 was more than in the other varieties but
the difference was not significant.

(g) The percentage of roots attacked by termites in the two sets of plots
was significant* but the differential susceptibility of the varieties
was not significant.

At Pusa the periodical .examination of some of the varieties of sugarcane,
to note the incidence of the different pests at different parts of the season,
revealed that Scirpophaga app, (the top borers), Diatraa spp., and Chilo zonellus

INSECT PESTS OF SUGARCANE 91

Swinh. (the stem borers), Emmalocera depressella Swinh. (the root borer), and
termites were doing damage throughout the year. Among the sucking insects,
Pyrilla spp., Assamia Masta Westw., Trionymus sacchari Ckll. and Aleurolobus
barodensis Mask, were common during November and decreased later.

At Coimbatore observations on the biology and seasonal occurrence of the
pests of sugarcane and their parasites, throughout the year, were carried out.
The common borers observed were Scirpophaga nivella F. and Scirpophaga
monostigma Z., boring the top shoots, and Argyria sticticraspis Hmpsn. and
Diatrcta venosata Wlk., boring the stem.

The many varieties of canes bred at Coimbatore by the Sugarcane Expert
were under observation for pests and for comparative judgment of suscepti-
bility to borers.

Detailed study of the life-history of the parasites, Stenobracon deesce Cam.,
parapitising the larva) of Argyria sticticraspis Hmpsn., and Diatrwa venosata
Wlk. and Rhaconotus scirpophagte Wilkn., and Elasmus zehntneri Ferr., parasiti-
sing the larvae of Scirpophaga spp., was carried out.

Work on the mid-rib structure in sugarcane affecting the incidence of the
top borer, Scirpophaga nivella F., was started. A strong mid-rib appears to
-afford resistance to the pest.

Biological control research. An attempt was made at Cuttack, with the
cooperation of the Director of Agriculture, Orissa, to experiment in the control
of the chief borer pest of Orissa, Argyria sticticraspis Hmpsn., by introducing
large numbers of its egg-parasite, Trichogramma minutum Riley. Two similar
blocks of sugarcane, one acre each, and some distance apart, were selected
for the experiment. In one of the plots Trichogramma parasites were released
four times during February and March at the rate of 5,000 parasites at each
release. Periodical counts of dead-hearts in the two blocks and examination
of the canes at harvest time during January, 1938, gave the following results :

(a) The dead-hearts produced in the frichogramma distributed block was
less than in the control block. The observed difference between
the number of dead-hearts produced in the Trichogramma released
block and control block was significant, i.e. the number of shoots
destroyed by borers in the control block was significantly greater
than in the Trichogramma distributed block.

{b) Judging from the percentage of stem borer in stalks examined at har-
vest time there was some evidence to the fact that Trichogramma
was effective in checking the population of the stem-borer, Argyria
sticticraspis Hmpsn.

Pyrilla studies. Spraying experiments carried out in the laboratory of
the Second Entomologist (Dipterist) early in 1938 showed that soap solution
at the rate of 1 Ib. of soap in 20 gallons of water gave satisfactory kill against
Pyrilla nymphs..

2. Work in the Provinces

In the PUNJAB, the comparative susceptibility of Coimbatore canes to the
attack of top borer was noted both at Jullundur and Bisalewala. It has been
found that Co 285, Co 313, Co 331, Co 371, Co 373, Co 356, and Co 396, are

92 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

highly resistant, while Co 300, Co 312, Co 323, Co 508, and Co 421 are more
susceptible.

Observations on the effect of top borer attack on maturity of canes showed
that as the upward growth stops as a result of top borer damage, the canes
begin to mature earlier, and are richer in sucrose and purity coefficient.

The bionomics of Scirpophaga nivella F. was studied in detail. The study
of the opposition behaviour indicated that the female of Scirpophaga nivella
F. preferred new cane sprouts to old crop of the last season, for egg-laying,
during March and April. The important species among the larval parasites
of Scirpophaga nivella F. included Goryphvs sp., RJiaconotus scirpophagw Wilkn.,
Elasmus zehntneri Ferr. and Glyptomorpfia deesce Cam. The bionomics of the
important egg-parasite, Phanurus beneficiens Z., was studied in detail.

Regarding Pyrilla, Co 285, Co 331/Co 373, Co 356, Co 395 and Co 396 were
found to be attacked less, while Co 213, Co 290, Co 300, Co 312, Co 421 and
Co 508 were most susceptible. Varieties with soft, succulent, broad, and
drooping leaves, having loose leaf sheaths, were attacked more.

In the UNITED PROVINCES ecological studies of cane pests were carried
out. The incidence of borers, Pyrilla, white-fly, and white-ants was investi-
gated in different cane varieties under different mammal conditions, times of
planting, cultural and mechanical treatments, and under water-logged condi-
tions. Further progress was also made in the study of the natural enemies
of cane pests. Co 411 is one of the most resistant variety to top borer, among
the early varieties, and Co S-70 and Co 421 among the later ones. Long
periods of intermittent dry weather during the monsoon were found to be
very conducive to the severity of Pyrilla attack. Pyrilla incidence, it was
found, could be minimised by the stripping and removal of dry leaves, systema-
tically carried out on the standing crop.

In BIHAR the top borers did not make their appearance on the new crop
till the last week in March. In A^ril and early May their attack became ex-
cessive. Pyrilla and white-fly were present only as minor pests.

In ASSAM the usual control measures against the sugarcane borer pests-
were continued and it was noticed that the removal of infested shoots during
roguing operations reduced the borer incidence without affecting the normal
out-turn,

The removal of plants showing dead -hearts and hand selection of borer-
free sets for planting, combined with the liberation of Apantales sp., have shown
interesting results in the control of stem borers, whereas the light traps have
helped in the control of the top borer. Co 213 and Co 419 were found to be
the most suitable types of canes for Assam, as far as the borer attack is con-
cerned.

In MADRAS much attention was devoted to sugarcane borers and mealy-
bugs. The method of removing the basal leaf-sheath of young canes and
earthing them up, and even mere earthing up without removing basal leaf-
sheath, were found effective agrinst borers under Coimba/tore conditions.

The incidence of the topborer, Scirpophaga spp., in certain localities of the
Madras Presidency was as high as 28 per cent. Seven larval parasites of this
pest, viz. Stenobracon nicevillei Bingh., Stenobracon deesce Ckm^'RTiaconotus
Kirpophaga; Wilkn., Rhaconotus n. sp., Elasmus zehntneri Ferr., Goniozus n. sp.
and Shirakia sp. have been collected, of which, detailed studies were made-

INSECT PESTS OF SUGARCANE 93

of three. Regarding the species of Scirpophaga present in South India, it was
found that both the spotted (monostigma) and the spotless (auriflua) forms
were got from the progeny of either.

Two species of mealy-bugs were found attacking the stems of cane, of which
one was found to be Ripersia sacchari Green. Two species of mealy-bugs were
noted for the first time on cane roots.

3. Work in Indian states

In MYSORE the control of sugarcane stem borers in the Irwiri canal area
was continued in a systematic manner. It was reported that the removal
of the basal leaf-sheath from canes of four to five weeks old, followed by one
light earthing up immediately, combined with the releasing of the egg-parasite
Trichogramma,, when necessary, have kept the borers under control.

CHAPTER IV
DRY FARMING RESEARCH*

EXTENSIVE areas in several provinces in India and in some Indian
states are subject to periodic famine and scarcity, on "account of
low and precarious rainfall. The Royal Commission on Agriculture in
India recommended in their Report (para. 112) that attention should be given
to problems of cultivation in dry and precarious tracts. For want of irriga-
tion facilities in these tracts, the crops grown are entirely rain-fed and are
such as would ordinarily succeed under the trying climatic conditions.

The weather conditions of these tracts are so uncertain that two seasons-
seldom resemble each other even in a period of ten years. Owing to uncer-
tainty of crop yields consequent upon the vagaries of the season the holding*
in these tracts have become relatively large and the number of cattle required
for cultivation relatively less. Every field operation here requires greater
labour and expense and under unfavourable seasonal conditions, even thorough,
cultivation may fail to give profitable returns. This leads invariably to in-
different cultivation which in turn results in very low yields or crop failures.

Several important items of cultivation or treatments of the land, which
are likely to secure -normal or even increased yields under the normal seasonal
condition's, are known to the cultivator. But in spite of this knowledge, he
experiences crop failures which by chance happen to coincide with certain
items of cultivation he has adopted. He knows for example, that ploughing
is beneficial in general. But if the operation coincides with a year of severe
drought, it may result in complete crop failure, whereas an unploughed field
may give him some return. Similarly, he knows that manuring is the best
method of increasing the yields and to avoid frequent or annual additions,,
resorts to heavier doses. If the season happens to be a dry one, it will result
in complete failure of the crop. He knows that bunding prevents run-off of
rain water and the loss of soil by erosion. But his method of bunding at the
lower end of his field, based on local advice and local talent, proves more harm-
ful when the bund breaches under exceptionally heavy rainfall of a season and
results in the loss of accumulated soil of several seasons.

It is computed that nearly one-third of the total cultivated area of the
Bombay Province is liable to conditions of scarcity and famine. Madras,.
Hyderabad and the Punjab have each equally extensive areas liable to similar
conditions of famine. The total area in these four provinces which are liable
to famines but which is capable of being treated by the dry farming method
is estimated at 27 million acres. Several other provinces may have similar
areas, though smaller in extent than those mentioned above.

Governments in these provinces are required to make provision almost
every year in their budget estimates for remission and suspension of land

* The assistance of Mr. N. V. Kanitkar, M. Sc., M. Ag., Chief Investigator, Dry Farm-
ing Research Station, Sholapur, Bombay, in the preparation of this Chapter is gratefully
acknowledged.

DRY FARMING RESEARCH 95

revenue in case the crops fail, in part or whole, in the famine area under their
control. They have also to make some provision for starting famine works
to relieve the distress of cultivators by giving them at least a subsistence wage,
during years of famine or scarcity. In spite of the seriousness of the problem,
no systematic efforts were made until recently to solve it by agricultural re-
search.

BOMBAY. Amongst the earliest attempts in dry farming research may be
mentioned some experiments conducted in Bombay by Prof. J. B. Knight at
two or three places in Ahmednagar district from 1913 to 1917. Prof. Knight
hailed from Massachusetts of the U. S. A., and naturally wanted to try some
of the methods then newly started in America. The experiments consisted
of field-scale trials of ploughing, wider sowing and mulching. But on account
of the inconsistent results obtained under the extremely varying nature of
the seasons during which these experiments were carried out, the work was
not considered satisfactory and was not pursued.

In the year 1914, one particular aspect of the problem of these dry tracts
attracted the attention of the Bombay Department of Agriculture, viz. the
run-off of rain water and the subsequent erosion of agricultural lands. On the
Government farm of the college of agriculture, a series of bunds were con-
structed including the harnessing of an existing nalla, to study the effects of
these measures in stopping run-off and in accumulating silt. This experiment
being laid on a more or less rocky area did not prove in any way very pro-
mising. The bunding experiments started in 1916 on the Dharwar and Gadag
farms, however, gave very promising results and served as a great impetus to
the spread of this activity in that division.

The other important aspect of the problem, viz. improvement in the exist-
ing methods of cultivation, received no attention till 1923. With the introduc-
tion of the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms in the early twenties, there was a
strengthening of the staff of the nation-building departments. The Govern-
ment of Bombay created a post of Soil Physicist along with those of Horti-
culturist and Plant Pathologist. Dr. H. H. Mann, who was then Director of
Agriculture in Bombay, decided in consultation with the Hon'ble C. V. Mehta,
Minister of Agriculture, to entrust the Soil Physicist, Mr. V. A. Tamhane,
M.Sc., M.Ag., with the task of solving the problem of the famine areas in the
Province of Bombay. After some preliminary laboratory work at the College
of Agriculture, Poona, the actual field work for research in dry farming in the
Bombay-Deccan was started in 1924 at Manjri, about eight miles to the east
of Poona, on the Pooria-Sholapur road.

During the first three years at Manjri, viz. from 1924 to 1926, preliminary
field experiments were carried out to test the effect of bunding, mulching and
green manuring. One of these years was of severe drought. The experi-
ments were conducted in three replications but the treatments were not pro-
perly randomised. The results of these experiments with jmcar and bajri
crops were found to be very promising. The field work was supplemented by
laboratory work to determine the soil moisture under different treatments ;
some of the physical properties of the treated and untreated soils were also
studied in the laboratory. The results of the laboratory work were published
in the magazine of the Poona Agricultural College, while those of the field
experiments during the first three years were published by the Bombay

96 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Department of Agriculture in Bulletin No. 142 of 1927, and also in Leaflet No.
25 of the same year. On the transfer of Mr. V. A. Tamhane to Sind as the Agri-
cultural Chemist and Soil Physicist in 1926, Mr. N. V. Kanitkar, M.Ag., B.Sc.,
of the Poona College of Agriculture, was appointed as Soil Physicist and it was
he who extended the field work. Further additions of several experiments
on preparatory tillage, on testing of varieties of joivar and bajri and field-scale
trials of the improved method were made. Preliminary developmental studies
were carried out on the jowar and the bajri plants and water-requirements of
these plants on field-scale were also studied for two or three seasons. Funda-
mental experiments to study the disposal of rain water by run-off, evaporation
and drainage were started and carried on for three or four years. Some of the
meteorological factors were also studied during the same period.

It was, however, soon realized that the problem under investigation was
so vast and complex that the limited resources of men and money at the dis-
posal of the Soil Physicist were absolutely inadequate. It was also realized
that the environmental conditions at Manjri were not representative of the
Tast famine tract in the Bombay-Deccan for which the work was intended.
In consultation with the then Director of Agriculture (Dr. W. Burns), a com-
prehensive scheme for research in dry farming was drawn up and submitted to
the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research through the provincial com-
mittee of agricultural research, in 1930. The work at -the small station at
Manjri was, however, continued so as to accumulate more data. In the mean-
while, Mr. N. V. Kanitkar, the Soil Physicist to Government in charge of the
work, undertook during 1930-31 an extensive tour in the U. S. A. for a period
of eight months, visiting a large number of experiment stations in the dry
arid states like Arizona, Utah, Kansas, Nebraska and California where the latest
methods of cultivation of dry lands were being applied successfully for raising
crops not only on the experiment stations but by the farmers themselves on
their own farms.

The Imperial Council of Agricultural Research appointed a small technical
committee to go into the details of the scheme submitted. This committee
approved of the whole scheme. They further suggested that other provincial
Governments who have similar dry areas should come forward with their
schemes for similar work. Although the Advisory Board of the Imperial
Council of Agricultural Research passed the scheme in 1931, on account of
financial stringency, funds could not be made available till 1933, and hence
the work of the small station at Manjri continued with its limited resources.

As a result of this work carried on from 1924 to 1932 at Manjri by the
Bombay Agricultural Department, the following tentative conclusions were
drawn.

(1) By the study of the disposal of rain water it was found that

(a) when the lands were sloping, a very large proportion of the heavy
showers was lost by surface run-off, causing a serious loss of soil
by erosion ; (b) that a very large proportion of rain water absorbed
by the soil was also lost subsequently by evaporation into air ;
and finally (c) when the lands were shallow, say less than 18 in.
deep, a large proportion of rainfall absorbed by the soil was lost
by underground drainage. If the soils were more than 3 ft. deep*

DRY FARMING RESEARCH

there would be very little loss of rain water by underground drain-
age.

(2) The actual quantity of water required by the jowar or the bajri plant

was limited. In order to obtain an average crop of jowar, so as to
have a ton of dry matter consisting of about 740 Ib. of grain and
1,500 Ib. of straw of jowar, the actual water required would be
equivalent to about four to five inches of rain. The bajri crop
would require even a little less than this quantity.

(3) The soil studies showed that the soils derived from the Deccan trap

with a depth of 18 ft. and above had good moisture holding capa-
city, and also good moisture delivering power. The moisture hold-
ing capacity was found to be increased by the addition of farm-
yard manure or green sann (Crotalaria juncea).

(4) As a result of the field work carried on for eight or nine years, a tenta-

tive method of cultivation was evolved under the title of the
Bombay dry farming method and consists of the following impor-
tant items :

(a) Deep ploughing of the land every year with a turn-rest
plough.

(b) Placing small bunds 9 in. to 18 in. high at suitable distances-
depending on the slope, and then dividing the field into compart-
ments.

(d) Sowing of the jowar seed at a moderate seed rate of 4 to 6 Ib.
per acre with a wide-drill, keeping a distance of 18 inches between
the rows.

(e) Four or five inter-culturings to keep the land free from weeds
and to form mulch on the surface which prevents cracking and
conserves moisture.

The results obtained at Manjri with the Bombay dry farming method
and with the one followed by the cultivator are summarized in the following
table, as the average of seven years.

Comparative yields of jowar in Ib. per acre, by the Bombay dry farming method
and the cultivators' method

(Average of seven years from 1927-28 to 1933-34)

Rain in inches

Cultivators' method

Bombay dry farming method

Grain

Straw

Grain

Straw

23-70

741

2,444

1,260

2,543

Owing to its superiority, the Bombay dry farming method was handed
over to the propaganda staff in the district for trials on cultivators' fields. The

98 AGRICUL1URE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

conditions in the north -eastern part of the Poona district were very similar
to those of Manjri and hence this method was very successfully tried on culti-
vators' fields, covering greater and greater area every year. In 1931-32, the
total area under the improved method was 350 acres ; in 1932-33, it was 2,500
acres ; and in 1933-34, it rose to 4,060 acres. In all these years, the increase
in yield varied from 20 to 50 per cent over the yield obtained by the local culti-
vators' method.

MADRAS. In 1927, the Madras Agricultural Department started experi-
ments on dry farming under the name of moisture conservation experiments.
They were done partly at Coimbatore but mostly at Hagari near Bellary. The
layout was systematic though in replicated series and included the cultivation
of crops of jowar or cholam and cotton in rotation. Effect of shallow and
deep ploughing, effect of farmyard manure, effect of bunds, etc. were studied
by determining the soil-moistures in differently treated plots and also by ob-
taining the yields of jowar and cotton.

The results of moisture conservation experiments carried at Hagari from
1927 to 1932 may be summarized as follows :

(1) Ploughing gave on the whole increased yields as compared to control,

but frequent ploughing had no advantage over occasional plough-
ing.

(2) Bunding gave increased yield on the whole but the increase was not

obtained every year, owing possibly to the difference in the nature
of rainfall and its distribution in different years.

(3) Cattle manure generally gave increased yields but the dose of five tons

per acre proved excessive in a year of scanty rainfall in later years,
possibly as a result of cumulative effect of the large doses applied
in successive years.

(4) Compacting the soil or the removal of stubbles of crop had no bene-

ficial effect on the yield.

(5) These effects were noticeable on the jowar crop and to less extent on

the cotton crop.

This experimental work gave sufficient preliminary experience to the workers
to prepare a comprehensive scheme for research on dry farming more or less
on the same lines as those of the Bombay scheme, as suggested by the Imperial
Council of Agricultural Research.

The Hyderabad Government had also a similar problem in a vast area
comprising four districts adjoining the Bombay and the Madras drought areas.
The Government of H. E. H. the Nizam also submitted a scheme for starting
mostly field work on dry farming at their newly established agricultural station
at Raichur.

The Bombay, Hyderabad, and Madras schemes for research on dry farming
were approved and sanctioned by the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research
in 1932 but actually they commenced their work in October 1933, in Decem-
ber 1933 and in April 1934 respectively. The work of the Bombay dry farm-
ing scheme was transferred to Sholapur and Bijapur in the heart of the famine
area where these two new experiment stations were established to carry on the

DRY FARMING RESEARCH 99

proposed and approved programme of research. The Hyderabad work was
started on a part of the area of the newly established experiment station at
Raichur. The Madras work on dry farming research was also started on the
well established station of Hagari near Bellary. .

Prior to the commencement of the work under the auspices of the Imperial
Council of Agricultural Research the programmes of work for the three stations
were discussed and approved at the first meeting of the Dry Farming Coordi-
nation Committee held in August 1933 in Bombay. The committee consisted
of the representatives of the three Governments and the representative of the
Imperial Council of Agricultural Research.

Later on, the Punjab Government also prepared a similar scheme and sent
it to the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research for grants in aid. The
Punjab scheme started its work on the 1st of July 1935, on the old Rohtak
farm which was being rented out to cultivators.

Thus the research on dry farming was started at five stations for the benefit
of the vast areas in Bombay, Madras, Hyderabad and the Punjab, which are
mostly dependent on precarious rainfall. This became possible only on ac-
count of the generous grants given by the Imperial Council of Agricultural
Research from 1933 to 1935, for a period of five years. The period of these
schemes has recently been extended.

I. The Bombay dry farming scheme

The work under this scheme was started on the 1st of October 1933, at
the two stations, viz. Sholapur and Bijapur. The work of the scheme falls
into three main divisions, viz. the soil, the plant, and the field or agronomy.
All items of work included in the original programme and approved by the
first Dry Farming Coordination Committee were taken up for investigation
during the period of five years and a half. It is proposed to mention briefly
the most important items of work and to indicate the findings in a general
manner.

(a) Work on the soil

The soil types existing on the two experiment stations, i.e. Sholapur and
Bijapur, have been critically investigated and classified into six distinct
types. The same types are found in the major portion of the dry fanning
areas of Ahmednagar, Sholapur and Bijapur districts surveyed so far.
The parent rock of all these types is the Deccan trap. The tract is un-
dulating and hence the soils are subject to heavy erosion.- The Sholapur soils
are comparatively shallow, while the Bijapur soils are deep. All the soil types
are very clayey, with a clay-content varying from 32 to 71 per cent. The
Bijapur soils contain an excess of lime. All the deeper soils crack heavily
during hot weather and get compacted by heavy showers, and sometimes
harden by quick drying after heavy rains. They are all alkaline, having a
pH value varying from eight to nine. *They have a high moisture-equivalent
and a high wilting coefficient. Chemically, they are poor in nitrogen and
organic matter ; other plant food ingredients being present in adequate
amounts.

100 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

(b) Work on the plant

The jowar plant (Andropogon Sorghum) has been intensively studied from
germination to maturity. The development of the plant with regard to
neight, weight, number of leaves, the inflorescence and the root-system, has
been studied for several seasons and its relation to several meteorological
factors investigated.

The water-requirements of the jowar plant or the transpiration coefficient
has been determined with a standard soil. This has been found to vary from
400 to 500 in different seasons ; farmyard manure and fertilizers have been
found to effect an economy in the use of water. Different strains have be-
haved almost alike without any significant differences, although an early matur-
ing strain gave a somewhat low transpiration coefficient. The intake of the
plant-food has also been studied at different stages of the plant growth. The
formation and emergence of inflorenscence seems to be the most important
stage when the intake of mineral plant-food as well as that of water is the
greatest.

Comparative field trials of jowar and setaria strains have been made during
the five years. Morphological observations at the important stages of growth
have been recorded according to a draft-set of instructions prescribed for all
stations by the Coordination Committee.

Studies in the disposal of rain water formed important items of investiga-
tion. It has been found that nearly 30 to 40 per cent of the heavy rains (more
than half an inch received in 24 hours during the monsoon months) is lost by
surface run-off from soils with moderate slope of 125 per cent. The amount
of the soil lost with the run-off water is colossal in years of heavy rain and
amounted to 133 tons per acre in a single season of 1937-38. The soil moisture
lost by evaporation is also very high and the loss is sometimes so rapid from
the top soil that the young seedlings may get dried up by rapid desicca-
tion.

When the rainfall is concentrated in a short period, it results in the loss
of much water by underground drainage, leading to a depletion of the soil of
its nitrates. The soil and the plant studies have shown the extremely com-
plex nature of the problems involved in growing crops in this tract.

Meteorological observations have been recorded by means of standardized
instruments for correlating them with plant growth and soil studies.

The object of the agronomic work at Sholapur and Bijapur has been to
devise a system of farming which includes preparatory tillage, bunding,
manuring, inter-culturings, rotation, fallowing and the cultivation of suitable
varieties. The tentative system known as the Bombay dry farming method
evolved as a result of previous work was tried on a field-scale on areas
varying from 15 to 25 acres at both stations during the last five years.
For comparison, the local cultivators' method was also tried on areas
varying from 5 to 7-5 acres at the two stations. Bunding of the field and
division of the area into compartments, which forms a part of the improved
method, was done in the first year. The remaining treatments were given in
All years.

DRY FARMING RESEARCH 101

The yields obtained during the five years at Sholapur show that the average
grain yield for five years by the improved method is double that obtained by
the cultivators' method, while the straw yield is higher by 33 per cent only.
It must, however, be mentioned that the level of yield of grain and straw at
Sholapur is very low both for the improved method as well as for the culti-
vators' method. The actual average grain yields per acre by the two methods
are 134 and 66 Ib. respectively. The low level of yield is mainly due to the
fact that 40 per cent of the area consists of eroded land, having only a thin
layer of 4 in. to 5 in. of soil.

At Bijapur, where the soils are deep, the average grain yield by the improved
method for five years is about 90 per cent higher than that obtained by the
cultivators' method, while the straw yield is only 33 per cent higher. The
average yield of grain per acre by the improved method at Bijapur is 507 Ib,
in comparison with 263 Ib. by the cultivators' method.

In order to assess the value of different factors involved in cultivation, five
to six intensive experiments have been carried out in replicated and randomised
layout, which allow statistical interpretation. Owing to the vagaries of
climatic factors in different seasons, many of these have not given significant
results in all years. In general, it may, however, be stated that at Sholapur
ploughing is advantageous on the deeper soil in some years but it is deleterious
on the light shallow soil in all years.

Mulching is advantageous, on the whole, on both the medium deep and
light shallow soils. Farmyard manuring and green manuring give 11 to 12
per cent higher yield on medium deep soil. But on the light shallow soil, sann
green manuring is far more beneficial than the farmyard manure.

At Bijapur less frequent ploughing is more advantageous than annual
ploughing on both soil types, viz. the deep black and the limy. Mulching is-
also advantageous on both soils. But, the effect of five cartloads of farmyard
manure on both types is decidedly beneficial, in all years, including years of
scarcity. Sann green manuring is significantly superior both to no-manuring
and manuring with farmyard manure on limy soil. Fallowing and rotation
are both found to be superior on the two types of soil, the treatments being
significant in some years.

II. The Madras dry farming scheme

The work at this station also consisted of investigations on three aspects,
viz. the soil, the plant and the agronomy. It was suggested by the
first Coordination Committee that the soils under moisture conservation
experiments in the past seven years be examined physically and chemically.
It was also suggested that this station should work on setaria or the
Italian millet and should try the Bombay dry farming method on a large
scale. The work done by this station during the first period of five years till
April 1939 is summarized below.

(a) Soil work

The soil of the tract is the black cotton type which varies in depth
from 1 ft. to 10 ft. and is derived from granite and gneiss. It contains
about 50 per cent of clay and is highly retentive of moisture. It cracks

102 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

freely in hot weather and becomes sticky by rains. It is alkaline in character^
having a pH. value of 8*5 to 9-0. It is poor in nitrogen as well as in organic
matter. It is subject to serious erosion on account of its undulating character.
The results available only for one season indicated that nearly 50 per cent of
the rain from July to September was lost by run-off and the amount of soil
lost by erosion amounted to nearly ten tons. Various physical and chemical
determinations have been made on the soil samples of the old moisture conser-
vation experiments. No change of a fundamental nature, as the effect of
seven years' treatment, is noticeable except some increase in nitrogen content
in the manured plots. Soil moistures have been studied from differently treated
plots at several stages of the growth of crops. There is a greater loss of mois-
ture from the surface 2 ft. layer than from the third foot.

Meteorological observations have been recorded by means of standardized
instruments, set up at the station.

(6) Plant work

Setaria or the Italian millet is receiving more attention at this station.
Developmental studies of setaria and jowar have been carried out only for
one or two seasons.

The root-systems of different crop plants have been studied at this station
on a very elaborate scale for the last two seasons. Observations on root grown
under field and pot conditions have been recorded. Effects on root growth
of such treatments as soil moisture, organic matter, bunds, crop mixtures,
fallowing, etc. are being studied very intensively. The- protective effect of
different root-systems on soil erosion is being studied by an empirical method.
Observations on six setaria strains and ten jowar strains as a common pro-
gramme for all dry farming stations have been recorded in all years.

Several selections have been made for high yields in setaria and Sorghums.
Some of the Bombay strains seem to be promising on account of their early
maturity, and of bold and lustrous grain.

Intensive, replicated and randomized experiments have shown as a result
of five years' trial that bunding is advantageous especially in years of scanty
rain. The effect of bunds is increased by ploughing the bunded plots, also
in years of low rainfall. Mulching by four or five stirrings gives increased
yields of jowar and cotton in some years but not every year.

Manuring with farmyard manure or compost is seen to be effective in
increasing the yields of setaria or Sorghum in years of good rains, but it may
be pointed out that the dose of 10,000 Ib. proves to be too high for years of
low rainfall. The adverse effect is seen especially on grain yields. The practice
of fallowing, viz. taking a crop in alternate years, has been found to give pro-
mising results. The extra yields are likely to compensate the loss, in the fallow
year.

III. Hyderabad dry farming scheme

The soil type on which rabi crops are grown is the black cotton type
and is derived from the granite. It is extremely clayey, containing 45 to

DRY FARMING RESEARCH 103

67 per cent of clay and has a high moisture retentivity. Its depth may
vary from 3 ft. to 10 ft. It is fairly fertile. It cracks heavily during hot
weather months and becomes sticky after rains. The tract is undulating and
hence is subject to erosion.

There is another soil type also derived from granite which is red and shallow.
It contains less clay than the former type and is used for growing early or
kharif crops.

The rabi experiments are being carried on the black soil. The Bombay
dry farming method has been tried for three years but only two years' results
Are available. Out of these two years, it is only in one year that the treat-
ments were given in time. During this year, the increase in grain yield was
about 96 Ib. per acre, viz. 18 per cent more than the control. Fallowing
resulted in doubling the grain yield and in increasing the yield of straw by 90
pe r cent.

Bunding and mulching experiments have been tried only for two seasons
but the results of one year are available. The differences in yields are not
significant.

The setaria and jowar strains have been tried as a common programme for
^11 dry farming schemes. Some of the Bombay jowar strains have been found
to be outstanding in grain yields. Setaria strains have given very much
higher yields of grain and straw when tried as kJiarif crop, but as rabi crop
they either failed or gave very low yields.

There are two lysimeters at the station, which have 18 in. layer of soil
iilled in. In 1937, the uncropped lysimeter lost 8-91 in. of rain by drainage,
while the cropped one lost only 3-74 in. The total rainfall that year was
50-76 inches.

IV. The Punjab dry farming scheme

The problem of the four or five districts lying to the south-east of the
^Punjab is somewhat different from that of the dry districts in peninsular
India, containing the famine areas of Bombay, Madras, and Hyderabad.
The rain is mostly received during kharif from the south-west monsoon,
!by which the kharif crop of bajri is grown. The soils belong to the Indo-
Oangetic plain which are sandy or silty in character and have great depths.
Erosion though present is not as serious as in southern India. With adequate
Tains, a second crop during the rabi season can also be taken.

During the three seasons of the working of the scheme, the rains failed
-completely in 1938 and hence no crops could be sown. The rainfalls during
1936 and 1937 were below the average for the station.

.(a) Soil work

The soils on the station have been very intensively surveyed and a large
number of profiles up to ten feet depth have been carefully described
and studied. It is found that though the surface layer shows great
^uniformity in texture, the sub-soil manifests great heterogeneity. Lime con-
cretions or finely divided lime accumulations are found at varying depths.
In some cases, heavy clay is found forming a sub-soil. These variations in
the sub-soil material reflect on the growth and yield of the crop and bring on
;great variations in yields from plot to plot.

104 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

The physical characters show that the soils have comparatively low water
holding capacity, greater porosity and a very low wilting coefficient. Chemi-
cally, the soils are fairly rich in essential plant foods except phosphoric acid
and lime in some fields. Organic matter is also deficient in general.

The movement of soil moisture under cropped and uncropped conditions
has been studied and the observations show that the rain water penetrates to-
greater depths, say up to six feet in contrast to the low penetration in the deep
black soils of the south. The percolation is facilitated by cultivation. Mulches
have been found to conserve more moisture in the lower layers. The moisture
is utilized by the crops from greater depths, as the root-systems of plants are
deep and extensive.

The effects of different methods of cultivation on the texture of the soil
are also being investigated. Changes in nitrate content by inter-cultivation
have been studied for two seasons.

(6) Plant work

(1) Water requirements of two bajra strains have been determined at
two moisture levels. The water requirement at a lower moisture level is
somewhat lower. The transpiration coefficients have varied from 330 to-
550 in the three seasons during which they were determined. The coefficient
varied with the type of soil used. There is a slightly lower water
requirement by the addition of farmyard manure.

Similar determinations have been made for jowar and gram. The jowar
used is a fodder variety and gives lower figures as compared to grain varieties-
of southern India, tested at Sholapur.

(2) Wilting coefficients of three soils were determined by growing four
different crops. They were found to vary from 2-9 to 5-2 per cent according:
to soil type, with all crops.

(3) Developmental studies of bajri including the root-system have beea
made during two seasons.

(4) Germination tests have shown that the range of soil moisture for good
germination is from 8 to 12 per cent. The germination is affected at 15 per
cent of soil moisture.

An extensive programme of experiments on tillage, bunding, manuring,,
fallowing, crop varieties, and a number of rotations has been drawn up and
carried out for two or three seasons. As the seasons have varied so greatly",
the results are not found to be consistent.

But it may be said that bunding shows a great advantage by stopping run-
off of rain water. Manuring also gave increased yields in one season. Fallow-
ing increased the yields of the succeeding crop. Inter-culturing resulted iiu
increasing yields by the removal of weeds, by conserving more moisture, and
by increasing the nitrates in the L,oiL

CHAPTER V

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION *

1. Soils and fertilizers

THE increased contact of research workers promoted by meetings of the
Imperial Council of Agricultural Research, Society of Soil Science (India),
Society of Biological Chemists and the Indian Science Congress Association is
reflected in the lines of research under review. The overlapping of work, badly
planned experiments and non-productive problems have been greatly reduced.
The uniformity of various estimations for soil survey work, laying down of
long-term soil fertility and manurial experiments on similar basis in different
provinces and the close collaboration of research workers in different localities
working on similar problems is becoming evident.

The importance of the physical relationship of the soil in elucidating the
problems relating to erosion, drainage, irrigation and soil alkalinity is now fully
recognized. Manuring of major crops has become more systematic due to
large numbers of special research schemes devoted to special crops. The officers
of the Forest Department have become alive to the importance of studying the
problems of soil erosion.

Thus the year under review, while forming a continuation of the researches
of previous years, marks an advance in so far as new lines of researches are
being introduced.

Soil classification

At the IMPERIAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, the work on soil
consisted of the collation of existing data, preparation of a preliminary
soil map of India and the genetic studies on typical soil profiles. Pending
further information the soil maps were prepared on climatic and other
available data. Using the ratio of mean annual rainfall to saturation deficit
of air, the whole of the country could be divided into four longitudinal zones,
arid, semi-arid, humid and wet. Each of these zones runs from north to south
And includes many soil types. These zones also coincide with the geographical

* In the compilation of this Chapter, the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research
Acknowledges assistance received from the following :

(1) Rao Bahadur B. Viswanath, F.I.C., F.C.S., Director, Imperial Agricultural

Research Institute, New Delhi.

(2) Dr. L. A. Ramdas, M.A., Ph.D., Agricultural Meteorologist, Poona.

(3) Mr. K. Ramiah, M.B.E., M.Sc., Dip. Agri. (Cantab.), Geneticist and Botanist,

Institute of Plant Industry, Indore.

(4) Dr. G. Watts Padwick, M.Sc., Ph.D., D.I.C., Imperial Mycologist, Imperial

Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi.

(5) Rao Bahadur Y. Ramachandra Rao, M.A., F.R.E.S., Locust Research Entomo-

logist.

(6) Khan Bahadur M. Afzal Husain,*M.A. (Cantab.), Vice-Chancellor of the Punjab

University, Lahore.

(7) Dr. H. S. Pruthi, M.Sc., Ph.D., Imperial Entomologist, Imperial Agricultural

Research Institute, New Delhi.
<(8) Dr. H. K. Sen, D.Sc^ Director, Indian Lac Research Institute, Namkum, Ranchi.

( 105 )

306 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

distribution of the major crops of the country. Another soil map based on
colour classifications such as black, red, brown and laterite soils also shows
certain significance in regard to specific characteristics and agricultural prac-
tices. All the black soils so far analysed, although differing in their geological
origin, are characterized by their high clay content, with high values for alu-
minium silicates. Under the influence of large diurnal differences in temperature
and high saturation deficit, the black soils have developed profiles with such
common characteristics as high silica alumina ratio and, high base exchange
capacity, with relatively high exchangeable sodium and magnesium in lower
depths. The red, brown and laterite soils irrespective of their origin are charac-
terized by low clay content, low exchange capacity and lower Si0 2 /Al 2 3 ratio.
The soils of Indus basins and valleys, which are probably derived from granitic
syenites, show alkalinity in more or less pronounced state. Their profiles,
indicate varying degrees of decomposition, setting free alkali, and iron and
alumina moving to lower layers. The soils from Indus alluvium are rich in
alkalis and alkaline earths, those of Ganges alluvium are relatively free from
alkalis while those of Brahmaputra alluvium are highly leached. Low rainfall in,
the Indus area, moderate rainfall in the Ganges area and very heavy rainfall in
Brahmaputra area are evidently the chief reasons for this effect although all
have their origin in the Himalayan rocks. The profiles of uncultivated soils-
in places with low and medium rainfall do not exhibit much variation in ap-
pearance nor do they show great differences in regard to their exchangeable-
base content from depth to depth. In the arid and semi-arid regions calcium
constitutes 70 to 80 per cent of the total exchangeable bases with magnesium,
potassium and sodium together varying between 5 and 15 per cent. In regions
with high rainfall the exchangeable calcium is lower at the surface than in deeper
layers. The cinchona and clove soil surveys of high elevation show that these
soils are mostly ferruginous and in some cases resemble laterite soils, which are
highly leached, rich in organic matter and acidic with pR values between 4
and 5. As extensive data are being worked out, it would be possible to classify
the main soil characteristics of the Indian soils with a greater degree of cer-
tainty than under the old system of classification by general soil behaviour.

A study of the physico-chemical properties of some important soil types;
of the BOMBAY PROVINCE was started at Poona. A few trials made to take
soil monoliths proved unsuccessful. The examination at Padegaon of a large
number of soil profiles from Nira right bank and Pravara canals indicated that
all the normal soils of the tract possessed a well developed crumb structure and
exhibited two to three horizons which were differentiated more or less sharply
by colour, structure, texture or by the presence or absence of concretions.
The first horizon was always loose and granular whereas the second horizon
was in some cases very compact and interfered with proper root development
and drainage. The degradation of soil types occurred with impeded drainage
or nearness of sub-soil water where the profile developed a hard and compact
horizon, which came in the way of cultivation and irrigation. In very shallow
soils, horizon development was rarely observed and an immature or skeletal
soil type resulted. The colour of soil was more related to the moisture relation-
ship of soils than with the actual amounts of organic matter present. The black
coloured soils were usually found on low lying situations where soil remained
moist over a considerable part of the year. The soils on high levels were brown.

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 1QT

brown colour indicated some breakdown of the clay complex due to high
temperature and extreme desiccation in the summer. Evidence of tropical
weathering was found in certain soils where aluviation of clay, silica, and sesqui-
oxides had taken place. This was due to breakdown of clay complex and
subsequent mobilization of the products by torrential showers during monsoon.
The distribution of rainfall induced a steppe type of vegetation, whereas wide
fluctuation in temperature and moisture conditions of the soil caused rapid
weathering. The soil climate is, however, greatly modified by topography
and the soil formation differs widely under different elements of relief. These
have given rise to wide differences in the soil types existing in the canal tracts
of the Deccan.

The examination at DACCA of some of the soils collected from typical laterite
tracts was made. There is a general tendency of pTL to increase with the depth
of the profile. The data of chemical analyses of the lay fractions of most of
the soils examined have their Si0 2 /Al 2 3 ratios higher than 2-33. For this
reason doubt has been expressed on the value for Si0 2 /Al 2 3 ratio as an index
for laterite and of lateritic soils. It is also possible that the so-called laterites
are not laterites. The C/N ratios decrease as the depths of the profile increase.
The saturation capacities of soils from Dacca, Suri, Bidar, Himayatsagar, Nag-
pur, Eaipur, Alisagar and Guntur increase as the depths of the profile increase.
The profiles from Cannanore, Gorantha Hill and Comorin show opposite behavi-
our. The profile from Nilgiri Hills show a minimum saturation capacity at
intermediate layers. The variation of total exchangeable bases down the pro-
file do not show any regularity. A tendency to an increase in total exchangeable
bases with increase in depth is noticed. Almost all buffer curves indicate a
definite inflexion at pR 9*8 and frequently at 2-9 or at 4-6. In general, the
ratio of exchangeable calcium to the total exchangeable bases decreases down
the profile. These ratios are often quite low which show that exchangeable
bases other than calcium predominate.

Typical soil monoliths and soil samples of red soils were collected from various
districts of Chota Nagpur which show that they were all very similar and of
one general type. The nature of laterite soil in Orissa varies from place to
place and the soils are mainly divisible into two types, viz. lateritic rnurrum
and Jjptteritic hard rocks.

Samples were selected from different groups into which the soils of the
agricultural station at Chaubattia have been classified on the basis of appear-
ance were analysed for soil survey data. All soils were acidic in reaction and
the acidity increased with depth. There was a very wide variation in the total
nitrogen content. The total nitrogen decreased with depth. There was a very
**/ide fluctuation in C/N ratio. The ratio was higher for soils rich in organic
matter and lower for soil poor in organic matter. The silica to sesquioxide
ratio varied inversely with the maturity of the soil. CaO/MgO ratio was uni-
formly low. CaO was found mostly in the organic top soils and the percentage
of MgO seemed to be dependent directly pn clay and organic matter contents.
Jhe main source of MgO was obviously the Parent biotite rock.

Mechanical analysis of rice soils at Raipur in the ^CENTRAL PROVINCES
showed that the percentage of clay increased with depth and that there was
no particular relationship between the clay content and the percentage of loss
on ignition. Chemical analysis showed that the lime content of the heavier

208 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

soils was higher than that of the lighter ones. There was very little
of calcium in these soils as most of the calcium was present in an exchangeable
form. / The percentages of available and total phosphoric acid were not
correlated with depth or any texture characteristic. The results of leaching
experiments indicated that the chief constituents lost from the soil were
ammonia, nitrite, nitrate and calcium. When the soil was treated with
ammonium sulphate a greater quantity of calcium was leached out.

In BIHAR the work during the year was mainly confined to a survey and
analysis of soils in order to locate the areas containing poor soils for adequate
manuring of these soils.

A preliminary investigation of soil samples and soil monoliths was carried
out in the PUNJAB. The distribution of water soluble salts, pH, etc. were
correlated with rainfall and irrigation.

Physical properties of soils

At the IRRIGATION RESEARCH INSTITUTE, LAHORE, various problems of soil
physics were tackled. It is found that when ethyl acetate or sucrose
is treated with soil acidoids the course of hydrolysis is similar to that
obtained by the action of buffers consisting of true acids. Thus the soil
acidoids are shown to be similar in their hydrogen-ion activity to weak
acids. The titration curves of soil acidoids closely resemble those of weak
dibasic acids. The point of inflexion is noticeable at approximately 4 pH units
above the initial pH of the acidoid and corresponds to the neutralization of
the first hydrogen. The dissociation constants of soil acidoids could be deter-
mined from their titration curves. The pll value is a special characteristic
of each soil, measuring the reactivity of its acidoid fraction. The smaller the
pTL value, the stronger is the acidoid. Another point of similarity between the
soil acidoid and true acids lies in their behaviour towards carbonates. A trial
has been made to determine the isohydric pH value of soils by bringing the
soil into contact with buffers of different pH values and noting the buffer which
show no change of pH due to the treatment. A comparison of the isohydric
pH values and the ordinary values determined by quinhydrone and antimony
electrode methods, shows great divergence in several cases between the values
obtained by all the three methods. The pH value of the soil is influenced by
the soil-water ratio and it has been found that the salts present in the soil,
which are brought into solution on the addition of water, exert a depressing
effect on the pH. The depression in pH varies with the concentration of salts
and hence is greater at narrower soil : water ratios.

The absorption of ammonia by the soil when soil suspensions are saturated
with ammonia and which is not given off even when the soil suspensions are
boiled down to half their volume is held by the soil acidoid in chemical combina-
tion. The quantity of ammonia so retained is dependant on the degree of
saturation of the soil acidoid and hence on the pTL value of the soil.

It has been put forward that oxidation of soil organic matter with alkaline
permanganate give better and more uniform results than the oxidation by
H 2 2 and the result 3 so obtained are comparable with those obtained by the
International (A) method. The total neutralizable acid of a hydrogen clay
solution calculated from its titration curves is a variable quantity. It is largely

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 109

'vU/i. mined by ' cation effects'. Both regular and specific cation effects have*
seen observed. The bearing of these cation effects in the estimation of the-
lime requirements and the base binding capacity of soil by routine methods
has been pointed out. The total acidities or the base combining capacities by
hydrogen clays and ' hydrogen soils J calculated from their electrometrwr
bitration curves as obtained in this work have been compared with their base
binding capacities obtained by same routine methods. With the system studied,,
titration with Baryta in presence of BaCl 2 (N) has been found to yield results
in agreement with those obtained by Parker's barium acetate method. The
study of the electrodialysis of soils show that the rate of electrodialysis of
different cations is not governed by the state of aggregation of the soil. There
is a proportionality between the decrease in conductivity of the soil suspension
and the amount of base removed by electrodialysis. Hence the differences in
the rates of electrodialysis of different cations are supposed to be due to their
different ionic activity especially in association with insoluble acids such as
alumino-silicates. The marked fall of j?H which occurs when carbon dioxide
is bubbled through a soil suspension is attributed to the increased amount of
salt brought into solution thereby and it is inferred that the carbon dioxide
plays a significant role in the reclamation of alkaline soils.

Soil fertility and management

Soil uniformity trials at Rawalpindi (PUNJAB) showed that soil heterogeneity
as revealed by any one crop cannot be a true index of the subsequent
behaviour of that area with respect to the same or other crop. Two forms
of soil heterogeneity were recognized, viz. casual and permanent. The casual
fertility varied with crop and season while permanent fertility was independent
of such factors.

Experiments conducted at Lyallpur show that in dry climate where weeds
are easily kept in check, furrow turning ploughs and improved implements are
not required to the same extent as in areas of heavier rainfall or where weeds
are more abundant.

The Punjab soils suffer considerable losses in the quantity of organic matter
which if not replenished periodically results in impoverishment of the soil.
Experiments in progress at Gurdaspur and Rawalpindi with farmyard manures,,
green manure and composts indicate the value of application of organic manures..
It^was found at Gurdaspur that during one year sann-hemp as green manure-
gave better results than farmyard manure. But the position was reversed in
the following year. Similarly at Rawalpindi farmyard manure gave higher
yields than sann-hemp compost but the latter showed greater residual effect.

Movements of soil moisture were studied in detail. The experiments show
that there is a gradual increase of moisture content in the lower layers and
attains maximum at 2 ft. or so. The influence of lime on red laterite soils as
represented by Dacca farm with special reference to the retention and evapora-
tion of moisture were studied. It was found that continuous liming in heavy
doses resulted in deleterious effects.

Experiments in SIND indicate that a good kharif crop is depressing to the
following rabi crop. Even legume crops do not help the following rabi crop
if the time intervening between cutting of the kharif or legumes and the sowing
of the rabi crop is small, because the remains of the legumes have not the time

a 10 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

and favourable condition to become available to the rabi crop. Contir "-??.<*
growing of a shallow rooting crop reduces the soil fertility.

Leaching the soil by heavy irrigation of 16*32 in. has been found to be most
suitable for reclaiming kalar soils in Sind. Intensive rotational cropping by
jowar, wheat, and cotton improves the reclaimed soil. Reclamation of kalar
soil has been attempted in the Punjab by treatment with calcium salt followed
by an average dose of farmyard manure. Alkali soil can be further improved
by rice during kharif and berseem as a green manuring crop or fodder crop
during rabi. The chemical analysis of the soil has shown that there is a marked
decrease in the total salt contents of the first four feet column of soil, decrease
in ^H value and increase in exchangeable calcium. The harmful effect of
excess of water soluble salts in soil is counterbalanced by higher amounts
of water soluble calcium salts.

In an experiment to evaluate the fertility of sugarcane soils in the BOMBAY-
DECCAN in terms of soil factors, it was observed that generally the fertile soils
seem to be more associated with lower pH values, lower calcium carbonate,
higher available phosphate contents and higher moisture holding capacities
of the soils than the less fertile ones. Studies regarding the management of
' chopan soils ' (alkali soil with a large amount of sodium colloids) show that
under all treatments with either irrigation or cane growing there has been an
actual improvement in the colloids due to partial removal of sodium from the
soil complex. Continuous fallow with no irrigation appears to be harmful by
way of raising the soil alkalinity. This has been traced to the differential
separation of calcium and sodium salts during summer which can be avoided by
irrigation.

Study of soil factors in the PUNJAB to elucidate the problem of partial failure
of cotton shows the variation of moisture content in ' good ' and ' bad ' plots.
' Bad ' soils had the sub-soils of low water holding capacity, higher amounts
of water soluble salts, and higher pH.

Since the construction of the irrigation canals from the Lloyd Barrage fears
have been expressed that the water-table may be rising in the canal areas. It
has been found that a very large area on the right bank of the Indus (about
3,400 sq. miles) has a high sub-soil water-table varying from three feet to
thirteen feet below the ground level. The water-table is nearest the surface
at the end of the irrigation season that is in October and lowest at the
commencement of the irrigation season in June. In other areas commanded
by the Barrage, notably on the left bank of the river, the sub-soil water-table
is situated at a much lower depth. The problem of probable waterlogging is
likely to be urgent on the right bank in the near future.

Soil erosion

The effect of soil erosion in the sub-mountainous districts on the
agricultural lands have now been duly recognized. In the Uhl valley, which
supplies water for the Mandi hydro-electric scheme, nearly 55 per cent of
the 21,000 acre farm belt is eroding seriously as a result of potato farming on
unterraced ground and over-stocking of grazing cattle. The amount of soil
carried away by rain water in the Punjab sub-mountainous districts has been
measured and it has been found that 7 per cent in the case of grassland and
25 per cent in the case of bare soil have been washed down and removed during

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION HI

one season. At the dry farming station at Sholapur 155 tons of soil per acre
per annum have been lost from a gently sloping field of jowar while the soil
lost from a cultivated field where weeds had been preserved in fallow was only
1 /200th of the jowar plot and that from a clean fallow of bare and uncultivated
ground was about l/5th of the jowar plot. This shows the aggravative effect
of cultivation on erosion losses and stresses the need for bunding even slightly
sloping lands under cultivation. The above land had a slope of 1 in 80.

Soil nitrogen.

The nitrifying capacities of the cultivated soils from various stations
listributed all over India were determined at Delhi. Some soils showed
defective nitrifying capacity and could not nitrify more than 25 per cent of
the added nitrogen in six weeks. On marking such localities on the map it has
been observed that they form a strip running east to west, the entire width of
the northern strip of peninsular India and traversing practically all types of
soil and climatic regions. The defective nitrification could not be correlated
with any soil characteristic so far determined.

Definite evidence has been accumulating which shows that a cereal crop
like maize can fix atmospheric nitrogen under favourable circumstances. There
has been a significant gain of nitrogen by the soil after a maize crop. The
mechanism of the nitrogen fixation is yet obscure.

The study of the mechanism of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus eyelets
has been taken up. The energetics of vital processes such as nitrogen fixation,
ammonification and nitrification are yet partially understood. Slow atmos-
pheric oxidations are accompanied by activation of nitrogen enabling it to
combine with oxygen yielding oxides of nitrogen. The photosynthetic reac-
tions and oxidation reductions occurring in soil in summer months could be
easily explained on this basis, as the microbial activities in arid high tempera-
tures would be hardly significant.

It has been reported by workers at the Allahabad University that when
carbohydrates and molasses are added to the soil there is a considerable increase
in total and available nitrogen content of the soil. Cellulosic materials and
cowdung increase the total nitrogen by fixing atmospheric nitrogen but do not
increase the available nitrogen. In all the cases where carbohydrate, cellulose
or fat was mixed with soil the increase in total nitrogen was much greater in
soils exposed to sunlight than in those kept in the dark although total bacteria,
azotobacter and fungi numbers were much greater in the soils kept in the dark
than those exposed to light. Again when the nitrogenous manures were added
to the soil either in fields or in pots or in dishes, there was a considerable loss
of nitrogen in the process of nitrification. The loss is greater in soils exposed
to sunlight than in those kept in the dark. The amount of nitrate formed
in soil is greater in soils exposed to sunlight. The loss is minimized when
molasses and other carbonaceous substances are added to the soil along with
nitrogenous manures.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES it has been repeatedly confirmed that no nitri-
fication of added organic or ammoniacal nitrogen takes place in soils containing
adequate moisture and exposed to sunlight in thin layers. The absence of
nitrification is not due to the death of the nitrifying organisms but is due to
their temporary inactivity. It was found that nitrates and nitrites were very

112 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

readily decomposed with the evolution of nitrogen gas when they were exposed
to sunlight in the presence of carbohydrates. The influence of crop residues and
of season on soil nitrogen has been examined and it is found that the increase
in soil nitrogen due to growing of leguminous crops is localized in the stratum
of the soil in which the plant feeds. Thus the deep rooted legumes confer on the
deeper soil layers a higher available nitrogen content than on the surface soiL
The amount of available nitrogen in all cases was low in spring, increased in
summer, decreased in rains and once again rose with the beginning of October.

Composts

The ash of maJiua cake being very rich in phosphates and potash acts
as a good manure by supplying these ingredients. Cake as such is useless
as a manure as it contains deleterious substances. It has been shown
that composts prepared from these cakes according to the method evolved
at the Imperial Agricultural Research Institute can be used with much
benefit. A detailed study of the factors influencing the efficiency of the hot
fermentation process for the preparation of composts from town refuse made
it possible to control the process to give maximum benefits. A preliminary
hot fermentation in brick-lined trenches with proper admixtures produced the
temperature of 60-70C. when most of the infectious pathogenic organisms
were destroyed. After allowing to ferment anaerobically for about a week the
mass is pressed down in pits and anaerobically packed by plastering it with
mud and soil. The manure is ready in about three months time. Comparison
of different methods of composting town refuse, viz. wholly aerobic, wholly
anaerobic and hot fermentation methods, shows that the greatest loss of carbon
and nitrogen occur under wholly aerobic process and the greatest conservation
under wholly anaerobic process. The manure produced by wholly anaerobic
process is not very effective as the nitrogen does not nitrify easily.

The best results are obtained by the application of the manure prepared
by the hot fermentation method. Manures prepared by aerobic fermentation
are poor in their nitrogen contents.

A cheap method of making a good quality manure by composting sugarcane
trash with small quantities of cowdung and earth was evolved in Bihar.

Manures and fertilizers

The effect of potash and lime applications to paddy at Nagina was
negative. The effect of ammonium sulphate (60 Ib. N) was pronounced
and was still more so when this quantity was applied in two or three doses
as against a single dose. Green manuring with sanai of nine or seven weeks
growth was more effective than sanai of five weeks growth. Molasses applied
either at the rate of 100 or 200 mds. per acre gave substantial increase ki
yield, but the time of application did not appear to affect the yield much.
Manurial experiments conducted at Raipur have shown that the application
of phosphoric acid at the rate of 20 Ib. per acre in form of superphosphate
to paddy is most economical, next best being 20 Ib. of nitrogen per acre as
ammonium sulphate. Application of ammonium sulphate at the rate of 20 Ib,
of nitrogen per acre to broadcast late paddies at the time of Benshaning and
a week before flowering has been found to be beneficial at Cuttack. Higher
doses of nitrogen are not economical. The experiments in Bihar on the

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 1 [3

comparative utility of supplying green manures to the paddy crop with
or without phosphate have shown the superiority of green manures with
the addition of phosphate over all other treatments. At Raichur application
of superphosphate is most economical. In the Kashmir State lentils were
used successfully as a green manure for paddy. The yields were significantly
increased, the green manures being found superior to ammonium sulphate.
At Berhampore manurial experiments indicated that superphosphate, ammo-
phos and green leaf applied heavily to the nursery alone gave no response
whereas when applied to transplanted field there was increased yield, irrespec-
tive of manuring the nursery. It is, therefore, profitable to manure the trans-
plant fields rather than manure the nurseries heavily. Superphosphate, ammo-
nium sulphate or slaked lime by themselves had very little manurial values.
Green leaf from outside or green manure crop raised in situ were found to be
very beneficial because the soil was deficient in organic matter. The study
of the nitrogen distribution in the rice soils reveals that addition of artificial
fertilizers increases the nitrogen content of the crop. A small part only of
the added nitrogen is ultimately found in the soil. Ammoniacal nitrogen is
usually high. Nitrate nitrogen is also present but in smaller quantities. The
ratio between ammoniacal nitrogen and the organic nitrogen remains more or
less constant.

The changes in numbers and activities of different groups of micro-organisms
were studied in soils under conditions similar to those occurring in the rice
iields in India. The numbers of bacteria and fungi were markedly reduced
.after the soils were water-logged. They again increased in the dry period but
the level was below normal. In the desiccating period there was considerable
reduction in both bacterial and fungal numbers. Nitrifying capacity was
considerably reduced during water-logging but later on in the dry period the
nitrification was quite vigorous. During the hot desiccating period the nitri-
fying powers were almost nil. Power for fixation of nitrogen was affected by
water-logging, but as soon as the water-logged condition ended it revived and
remained even during the desiccating period. Even long periods of water-
logging had no depressing effect on subsequent development of ammonifying
and nitrifying bacteria. For sugarcane in the Punjab it is economical to apply
about 140 Ib. of nitrogen per acre, half as farmyard manure and the other half
as toria cake or sulphate of ammonia instead of applying the same dose in farm-
yard manure alone. Toria cake is a better supplement to farmyard manure
than sulphate of ammonia. The different doses of nitrogen, i.e. 105, 140, 175 Ib.
per acre, applied to cane do not show any residual effect on any of the three
succeeding crops, namely wheat, gram and cotton.

Liberal watering under Lyallpur conditions does not delay the maturity
of sugarcane ; on the other hand the sucrose increases with a corresponding
decrease in glucose. Nitrogenous fertilizers also do not delay the ripening of
the canes under the Punjab conditions. Experiments conducted at Pusa show
that nitrate of soda gives higher yields of sugarcane than sulphate of ammonia.
Application of the fertilizers in two "doses is better than a single application.
Further, manuring just before the break of the monsoon is more helpful than
at other times in the year. At Jorhat insoluble phosphates have been found
to be more beneficial for sugarcane than the soluble phosphates as the soils
are acidic. Potash appreciably improved the quality of the juice as well as the

H4 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

yield. Green manure + cow-dung gave a significant increase over all other
treatments. Manurial experiments in North Bihar suggested that the manur-
ing with castor cake and super were better than that with an equivalent dose
of nitrogenous artificials. There was no advantage in applying the manure in
two doses. Potash manuring did not improve the juice quality while its higher
dose depressed cane yields. The beneficial effects of sulphitation molasses
and press mud were seen at various places in North Bihar. The beneficial effects-
of hot weather irrigation in North Bihar were confirmed. This was proportional
to the dryness of the pre-monsoon months. Experiments carried out at Lyall-
pur showed that the addition of molasses, although it improved the moisture-
holding capacity of the soil and lowered the pR value, actually reduced both
the yields and the quality of the cane. No nitrogen was fixed by the applica-
tion. The sugarcane in the Bombay-Deccan responds considerably to nitrogen-
ous manures and to a slight extent to the phosphatic manures, soluble phos-
phate being better than insoluble.

The study of the movement of nutrients within the plants following ferti-
lizer application and of the branching habits of the chief commercial varieties
of cotton has given indications of the time suitable for the application of ferti-
lizers under the local influences of soil and climate. While the late date of
application, viz. during flowering, is found to be the optimum for American
cotton in the Punjab, the early application, viz. at the time of sowing or soon
after, has been found suitable for Central India. In the United Provinces
and Koilpatti district of Madras the influence of the local factor is paramount,
the former suffering from severe pink bollworm damage and the latter from
fruit-shedding after February rains. In both the cases the date of application
must be so timed that the extra bolls from manuring suffer minimum loss
from these adverse factors. In the case of cotton it seems to be definitely
established that the application of ammonium sulphate does increase the yields
significantly to give an economic return in the Punjab. In the case of wheat
the results are conflicting. Experiments conducted in Sind show that
marginal effects should be eliminated while conducting manurial experiments
on cotton, otherwise the significance of the treatment is minimized.

The effects of manurial applications on quality and quantity of tobacco
leaves were studied at Guntur. The basal dressing on mineral manure plots
encouraged earlier, more rapid and well sustained maturity, similar to farm-
yard manure plots. No manure, farmyard manure, N-f-P-f-K, N-fP, P-f-K,
gave mild flavours while N, P, K and N-f K gave strong flavours.

The application of a basal dressing of 3 tons per acre of cattle manure in
Madras did not affect the yield of groundnuts. Potash and phosphates increased
the yields significantly. Nitrogen appeared to depress the yield. The manurial
treatments did not affect the oil content of the seeds.

A slight correlation was found between the biological contents of fodders
and the amount of available nutrients in soil as determined by the 1 per cent
citric acid method. It was frund that the protein content of grains varied
a good deal according to the locality in which they were grown and that the
protein content could be increased by manuring with nitrogenous manures,
the increase being very marked when the manures were applied late. The
effect of organic manures and fertilizers on the nutritive values of the crop
is yet a controversial subject, but the evidence is daily increasing to establish

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 115

that the nutritive value is affected by the manuring of the crop. The grains
raised with cattle manure had a decidedly higher digestibility coefficient and
slightly higher biological value compared to mineral fertilizers and no manure.
The total net protein value also established a decided superiority of grain raised
with cattle manure to that of other manures.

2. Agricultural meteorology

Sir John Russell, who inspected the Agricultural Meteorology Section in
December 1936, expressed approval of the programme of work and of the
results achieved by this section in his Report on the Work of the Imperial
Council of Agricultural Research in Applying Science to Crop Production in
India. Sir John's conclusion was that ' the need for investigation in agricul-
tural meteorology is beyond question and Poona is the obvious place for the
work. It should now be on a permanent basis.'

In December 1937, the section was visited by Professor R. A. Fisher, F.R.S.
Some stimulating discussions on statistical problems in agricultural meteoro-
logy were arranged during his visit. Professor Fisher was particularly interested
in the work being done on * Precision observations ' (i.e. observations on the
development of crops during the growing season and, finally, the yield) using
modern sampling technique. He suggested that such observations should be
recorded at selected centres in India and made recommendations to that effect
to the Council.

The section maintained its liaison and research activities and devoted consi-
derable attention to the practical or experimental aspects of the subject, as in
previous years.

Experimental or biological

With the kind cooperation of the agricultural college at Poona, it was pos-
sible to improve the facilities for experimental work at the Central Agricul-
tural Meteorological Observatory by adding an adjacent plot to the grounds.
A number of new instruments were added and, besides carrying out the
experimental investigations, the observatory served as a training centre for
agricultural workers deputed to Poona and for the students of the agricultural
-college who came in batches.

Amongst new instruments useful for investigations in agricultural meteoro-
logy, designed or made during the year under review, may be mentioned : (a) a
simple percolation gauge (now being manufactured by the Scientific Instrument
Company) ; (6) a sensitive portable galvanometer for field observations : this
instrument which was evolved by the Laboratory Apparatus Works, Poona,
at the instance of the section, is proving very useful and convenient for the
measurement of plant, soil and air temperature under field conditions ;
(c) soil evaporimeters with bottom feecf, and (d) temperature alarm apparatus
consisting of a bi-metallic spiral of brass and invar actuating a contact maker
which closes an electric circuit through -an alarm bell "and a dry battery, as
soon as the air temperature falls below a previously adjusted temperature,
such an alarm tells the farmer when he should begin taking preventive measures
against possible frost : there has been demand for a number of these instruments

116 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

and attempts are being made by the Laboratory Apparatus Works, Poona, to
manufacture them locally.

Recent investigations in the climate of the air layers near the ground have
shown how important it is to study the fundamental processes controlling the
thermal and moisture balances at the earth's surface in order to understand
the more complicated phenomena relating to the influence of environment on
the micro-climate. The investigations on the various processes involved in
the disposal of solar radiation and rainfall at the surface of the ground were
continued at the Central Agricultural Meteorological Observatory. The
studies on the interaction between climate and the plant world (i.e. the climates
of different crops as controlled by the general weather, and as modified by
plant population, density of foliage, intensity of air movements, etc.) were
continued by using an Assmann psychrometer for the temperature and humi-
dity measurements and a hot wire anemometer for studying the dependence
of crop climate on wind velocity. Among other new investigations, those on
the capillary rise of water through the soil from a water table below and subse-
quent loss by evaporation at the soil surface, transpiration from plants, the
exchange of water vapour between soils, plant materials, seeds, etc. and the
surrounding air may be mentioned. It is found that like dry soils, dry speci-
mens of plant leaves, stem, grain, etc. give up moisture to the atmosphere by
evaporation by day, and re-absorb it from the atmosphere during night.

On the completion of the first stage of the investigations on the effect of
surface-' cover ' on soil temperatures, the second part of the investigation,
viz. the study of the distribution of temperature and of the thermal diffusivity
in blocks of typical soils when exposed to identical weather factors at one place,
i.e. Poona, was taken up. The data showed that the thermal diffusivity is
greater during the wet season than during the dry season, and that an altera-
tion of the surface cover alone does not cause any change in this coefficient as
is to be expected.

The investigation of meteorological factors controlling the nocturnal cooling
of the air layers near the ground was continued. The cold wave warnings issued
by the Meteorological Department are based on the daily weather charts, and
the minimum temperatures referred to are those recorded inside the standard
Stevenson screen. For practical purposes in agriculture it is necessary to find
out the corresponding (radiation) minimum temperatures outside in the open,
and at different levels above ground. This experiment was taken on hand
during the year. During all the months of the year the radiation minimum
temperature increases with height, the depression below the screen minimum,
being less at 4 ft. level than at 1 in. above ground. The depressions of the
radiation minimum temperatures below that of the screen are greater during
the clear season than during the monsoon.

The measurements of solar, sky and night sky radiations were continued
regularly, as also those of evaporation from different types of evaporimeters.
The loss of water by evaporation at the upper surface of a soil column with a
water table below was studied with the help of a series of soil evaporimeters.
referred to earlier. Working with different depths of Poona soil, it was found
that actual wetting of the soil surface did not take place even after the lapse of
several months when the sub-soil water was more than 1 ft. below the surface.
The mean daily evaporation from soil surface decreased rapidly with increase

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 117

in the depth of sub-soil water, being of the order of 0-5 in. of water per day
when the depth was 6 in., but only 0-04 in., when the depth was 36 in. These
experiments are being repeated with different soil types. The weekly measure-
ments of the seasonal variation of soil moisture at different depths were
made regularly during the year.

The Central Agricultural Meteorological Observatory provides opportunities
for the study of allied or borderland problems in plant physiology, e.g. trans-
piration, photosynthesis, nitrogen fixation, etc., which require for their proper
understanding a comprehensive scheme of related meteorological observations.
Some preliminary experiments were made during the year.

Statistical

On the statistical side special attention was devoted to the sampling
studies* on the growth and yield of crops at Poona and a few other centres
with the kind cooperation of the agricultural officers concerned. The analysis
of the daily rainfall in May and June over a number of areas along the west
coast of the peninsula during the past 60 years was continued in connection
with study of the mode of onset of the south-west monsoon. A note on the
prediction of low temperatures during cold waves from a knowledge of prior
meteorological conditions by using statistical methods was published and
another on the frequency of days with hail-storms in India was completed.
Further work was done on the computation of the frequency of heat waves.
The investigations of the frequency of phenomena like floods and droughts
in India and of yield of cotton in the experimental farms at Akola and
Jalgaon in relation to weather were completed.

The question whether cold waves are increasing in frequency in Gujarat
was raised by the Government of Bombay. To examine this a detailed study
of all available temperature records of the meteorological stations in Gujarat,
during the winter season (November to February) was made. On computing
the frequencies of occasions when the minimum temperature in the open was
below freezing, it was found that there is no foundation for the belief among
farmers that the climate of Gujarat is undergoing any permanent changes
with the commencement of irrigation on a large scale in Sind. Cold waves
have been more frequent in some years consecutively than during a number
of years before or after, but there is neither any regularity in the occurrences
of these spells nor any permanent trends. A few other enquiries involving
careful examination of past records were also taken up.

General Agricultural meteorological observatories

Barring a few exceptions, most of the experimental farms in India had very
meagre meteorological equipment. The creation of the Agricultural Meteoro-
logy Section in 1932 coincided with the initiation, by the Imperial Council of
Agricultural Research, of a number of other schemes like locust, sugarcane, dry
farming, cereal rust, etc., research in which weather pk,ys an important part.
As a result of the general awakening in agricultural research in recent years,
most of the provinces and states have begun to take considerable interest in
meteorology and have arranged or are beginning to arrange to equip selected

118 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

farms with standard meteorological equipment in consultation with the Agricul-
tural Meteorology Section of the Meteorological Office at Poona. The map
facing page one indicates the positions and types of farm observatories started
or improved during the period 1932-38. The observatories number about 40,
of which those at Poona, Lyallpur, Shahjahanpur, Cawnpore and Coimbatore-
have first-order equipment. The stations at Chaubattia, Muzaif'arpur, Sabour,
Gwalior, Padegaon, Raichur, Hagari and Pasni are of the second-order type.
The remaining stations marked with full circles, or crosses are of the third-order
type. The farm observatories are gradually increasing in number and in
efficiency and will, in course of time, serve as centres not only for crop-weather
observations, but also for supplementing the existing network of meteorolo--
gical stations in India.

3. Plant -breeding and genetics

Information of a general nature on plant-breeding in various crops is giver*
in Chapter II dealing with ' Economic work on crops '. Only points of genetical
interest are reviewed here.

Cotton

The replicated progeny row technique evolved at the INSTITUTE OF PLANT
INDUSTRY, INDORE, is now being extensively used to exploit the genetical
variability in several crops including cotton with very encouraging results.
In the case of cotton the adoption of the method has been successful in breed-
ing a sub-strain from Malvi 9 (Malvi 9-20), which is just as good as Malvi 9 in all
respects and at the same time has a finer lint with a 20 per cent improvement in
spinning value over Malvi 9. Similarly with strains giving a 50 per cent mor-
tality (mean) due to wilt under field conditions, sub-strains have been obtained
with a 80 to 90 per cent mean survival value. The genetic variability in three-
intraspecies crosses among Malvi, Own 520 and Bani has been under study in
specially designed experiments. There was sufficient heterosis in all the above-
crosses in yield and halo-length, but only in certain of the crosses with regard to
ginning percentage, plant height, node number and final stand. Reciprocal F^
failed to give significant differences anywhere except in final stand and yield
in the Malvi x Bani cross, whereas the F x in which Bani was used as the male
parent gave higher values. The inclusion of the back-crosses along with F 2 s
gave a method for distinguishing between dominance and epistasy as the
cause of the heterosis effects.

The value of an F 2 for selection in plant-breeding work is proportional to-
rts mean and genetic variance and since this can be estimated from the mean
value and heterosis of the F 1? the actual comparison of the F a s from different
crosses should give a good indication of the most profitable combination for
selection. This was actually put to the test by comparing F r s of several arboreum
crosses carried out in connexion with the improvement of Bengal cotton in
Bikaner and indications were obtained as to what particular crosses were likely
to be of value for selection purposes.

The interspecies cross, G. arboreum x G. anomalum, back-crossed to G. arbo-
reum twice has given some economically useful types and the hardness of the
seed coat associated with G. anomalum has been entirely got over in these back'
crosses.

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 119

On the 'purely scientific side the following results were obtained. A chloro-
phyll deficient type isolated from the cross Malvi 9 X cernuum has proved a
simple recessive. A search made in the types of G. arboreum var. negkctum
for intermediate types of the leaf shape multiple allelomorph series resulted in
the obtaining of two such types which belong to the same series. These are
the 1090 type and the ' Dacca Narrow ' and have been designated L iN and
L J) . The chief difference between these types and narrow L is in the leaf index
A and it would appear that index A (sinus length) and index B (lobe width)
are controlled by independent portions of the gene. The linkage studies with
the sterile mutant isolated from Million Dollar have shown that the gene is
independent of anthocyanin, petal colour and leaf shape genes. A ' crinkled '
mutant was obtained in one of the local hirsutum types which proved a simple
recessive. Crossed with the Egyptian * wrinkled leaf ' this mutant gave a
strongly crinkled Y l and a wide range of forms in F 2 from normal to heavily
crinkled. The results indicated that the Indore crinkled was due to a muta-
tion at the same locus as in Egyptian ' wrinkled leaf ' and Sea Island ' crinkled '.

In MADRAS in connexion with the improvement of G. hirsutum (Co 2), where
simple direct crossing with different types had not led to any promising results,
resort was taken to multiple and complex hybridization. It was found that
different types had different potentialities of giving valuable combinations.
It was noticed that even among the progenies of sibs of the same crosses, some
cultures hardly contained any useful breeding material while in others all the
plants were characteristically sturdy, productive and free from leaf curl. Since
most of the promising biotypes of the crosses between Co 2 and the S. American
varieties to get pempheres resistant types were late, an attempt is being made
to combine earliness in them by further suitable crossings.

Anatomical work undertaken at Coimbatore having proved that all the
cultivated cottons could be grouped into five classes on the basis of the varia-
tions in the pattern of disposition of the vessels in the thalamus, crosses were
undertaken to study the inheritance of the anatomical character. G. arboreum
typicum pattern gave monohybrid ratios when crossed with G. herbaceum frute-
scens pattern ; but when the former was crossed with G. herbaceum typicum,
the F 2 segregated in the ratio of nine arboreum, three herbaceum frutescens,
and four herbaceum typicum. In herbaceums, frutescens was dominant over the
typicum pattern. It was clear that the arboreum typicum represented the
double dominant, and the herbaceum typicum the double recessive. In the
American group G. barbadense behaved as a simple Mendelian dominant over
G. hirsutum. When Asiatic and American cottons were crossed, the F x plants
showed an intermediate type of anatomy. It was also observed that the wild
types were dominant over the cultivated. G. Harkensii and G. tomentosum
were dominant over barbadense and hirsutum. It was further noticed that
the anatomical patterns were inherited independently of the external morpholo-
gical characters peculiar to each species.

A mutant with practically no ovary or bolls and with fewer petals obtained
from Million Dollar proved a simple recessive to the normaj and the gene res-
ponsible for it was found to be independent of leaf shape and flower colour
genes. The heterozygotes of the two chlorophyll mutants in arboreum and
herbaceum when crossed gave normal F t s. A female sterile mutant that was.
isolated in G. herbaceum at Hagari station proved a , simple recessive to the

120 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

normal. Another interesting investigation that has been carried on in Coimba-
tore is with reference to the origin of lint and fuzz hairs in cotton which has
(proved the independence of origin and development of the two kinds. Histo-
logical studies on the several linted and lintless mutant types have led to the
iindmg that the mode of development of lint could be grouped under six cate-
gories. It was also observed that the production of lint was influenced by
jnore than one pair of complementary factors.

In BOMBAY further progress was made with regard to the problem of breeding
ifor wilt resistance. The research work of the Plant Pathologist at Poona on
.selection of highly resistant strains under controlled optimum conditions has
'led to a useful technique of giving reliable results in a short time. Several resis-
tant strains from BD 8 and hybrids with it have been obtained. Since the useful
Jarilla strain though fairly resistant to wilt under field conditions is not so under
optimum conditions, it has been crossed to immune Million Dollar type.

In addition to interspecies hybrids already obtained, another ten Asiatic-
American hybrids are reported from Surat (Bombay). Using G. hirsutum as
the pollen parent 20 back-cross hybrids have also been obtained ; while pollinat-
ing American cotton with hybrid pollen one back-cross hybrid was produced
And this has given rise to 12 plants in the next generation.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR, besides the Verum 434, and the
promising selections from G. indicum, certain derivatives from the cross Bani
Xcernuum have been obtained with an average yield of more than l,0001b. of
seed cotton per acre and with fibre suitable for spinning 30 H. S. W. C. A
natural interspecific hybrid between G. arboreum and G. hirsutum proved sterile
fout during the year a boll with five seeds was obtained by using the pollen of
the hybrid on Buri, a local hirsutum type.

In SIND, out of the four cross progenies 4F-18 x Meade mentioned last year,
two were found to be of the same duration as Sind Sudhar, with a higher ginning
And a longer staple. Selection work for jassid resistance was continued in the
progenies of Sind SudharxCo 2.

In the PUNJAB, while the newly developed hybrid strain, Jubilee cotton,
proved just as good as P4F in quality, there is still some difference of opinion
with regard to its yield, and trials are in progress. An early high ginning desi
type with good yield (Sanguineum 119) has been evolved suitable for the Multan
tract.

In MYSORE seeds of Co 2, which had been X-rayed for 7 J minutes, have now
in the third generation given plants with a ginning percentage of 38-40 and a
lint length of 25-28 mm. as compared to 33-35 ginning and 20-23 mm. of un-
exposed seed. The plants are also reported to be almost free from red-leaf.

Wheat

In the PUNJAB among the hybrids, besides C 409 which has given satisfac-
tory yields under baram conditions, a new strain, C 228, promises to give
under late sown conditions better results than any wheat hitherto available.
The oft-repeated experiment of separating grains into small and big in an
established strain and determining their cropping power was tried with Punjab
&A wheat which showed there was no difference between the two.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR the hybrids between A 115 and the
Australian and Palestine wheats have maintained their reputation for yield

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 121

and rust resistance. In order to get rust resistance from Khapli wheat (T. dico-
ccum) F t s of T. vulgarexT. durum and T. durumxT. dicoccum (Khapli) were-
grown and the first one crossed with T. dicoccum and the second with T. vulgare*
Success was also achieved during the year in crossing directly T. vulgare with*
T. dicoccum. The amphidiploid Aegelotricum containing 56 chromosomes was-
crossed with T. vulgare and with the Fj of T. vulgare X T. dicoccum. A cyto-
logical explanation has been offered for the breaking down of rust immunity in
sharbati hybrids which, if correct, should mean that the hybrids did not have a.
stable chromosome complement.

Breeding work for rust resistance was continued by the Imperial Economic
Botanist at SIMLA sub-station. Study of the F x populations of a number of
crosses showed that susceptibility to rust was dominant in all cases. During the
year, F 3 populations of a number of crosses after being tested for resistance at
the seedling stage at Dr. Mehta's laboratory were studied in the field and selec-
tions made on the basis of rust resistance and other desirable characters. The-
hybrid populations were thoroughly studied with a view to finding out if there-
existed any correlation between resistance to rusts and any other obvious and
easily determinable morphological character. The influence of certain external
factors such as different dates and times of sowing, different depths of sowing:
and different conditions of spacing on the manifestation of heterosis in wheat
was investigated at the IMPERIAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, NEW-
DELHI. It was found that hybrid vigour as shown by the rate of formation of
the first four foliage leaves and first tiller was affected by all the factors under
study. The difference in tillering between parents and F t was more striking irt
the earlier than in the later sowings.

Rice

In MADRAS it has been demonstrated very clearly that by the growing of
improved strains and suitably manuring the fields the average yields can be in-
creased to the high figure of 5,000 Ib. per acre. Extensive trials with two
hybrid strains (Co 3 X Burma) have proved their suitability more to the swamp-
conditions rather than to purely rain-fed conditions. Similarly the hybrid
strains evolved for piricularia resistance have done remarkably well in centres-
where the locals were subject to the disease. Of the six X-ray mutant strains
of GrEB 24 with dwarfish habit, which were tried under heavy manuring condi-
tions, four lodged earlier than GEB 24 and two have given higher yields than
24. One of the selections from the interspecies hybrid (0. sativaxO. longi-
staminata) showed a remarkable power to withstand drought conditions.

The erect habit of the cultivated rices and the prostrate habit of the wild rices-
behaved as a simple pair of allelomorphs, the F x being intermediate in habit.
The purple colour of the lemma and palea behaved a simple dominant in one-
case and in another case was due to the presence of two complementary factors^
The scent in rice was found to be inherited m a Mendelian fashion, there being
obtained in some families an approach to the ratio of 9 scented to 7 non-scented..
A genetical association was also detected between scent and the factor r for
white rice. Certain families ^showing segregation for asynopsis revealed the
presence of duplicate genes governing its inheritance. Forty families derived
from trisomics originally isolated from a triploid and a tetraploid showed the-

122 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

trisomics appearing in each of them to the extent of 29 to 36 per cent, and
while the normals bred true, the trisomics repeated the performance. Simple
recessive mutations for male sterility and dwarf stumpy plants (with spikelets
enclosing proliferated floral organs) were isolated. Further studies on the
ageotropic mutant obtained from the X-rayed material have shown that it
may be a recessive but there is indication to the effect that the gene can be
unstable and capable of giving distorted ratios making the mutant appear
dominant. The semi-sterile mutants giving a 1 : 1 ratio of fertiles to steriles
Have been shown to be due to segmental interchange of non -homologous chromo-
somes. Several mutations from somatic tissues were noticed to occur in the
vegetatively propagated plants. Some of these mutations that have been
examined show simple gene changes, duplication of single chromosomes and
chromosome sets. Planting out the individual tillers separated from the stub-

, bles of a previous crop appear to be a very fruitful source of inducing such somatic
mutations. Extensive cytogenetical studies in the oryzae carried out by

.Dr. Ramanujam in London have advanced our knowledge of this important
crop considerably and he has also worked out the phylogeny and the taxono-
mical relationship of the genus oryzae in the tribe and shown the basic num-
ber of chromosomes in oryzae to be five.

Total and partial correlation and multiple regression equations between
yield on one hand and number of tillers per plant, mean length of ear and num-

ber of grains per ear on the other were calculated in four varieties. Number of

^tillers per plant was found to bear the highest correlation with yield, both total
and partial, followed by number of grains per ear and length of ear. Once
again it was proved that there was no advantage in separating the seed of an
established strain into heavy, medium and light.

The chromosomes and chromosome behaviour of a number of rice varieties
differing widely in morphological characters were studied in the United Provinces
and although the number of chromosomes was the same in all, the complements
of different varieties showed variations in chromosome morphology and it is
considered that * chromosome constitution ' is responsible for the varietal
differences exhibited. Studies on the inheritance of awning have led to the
conclusion that the length of awns was governed by three or more genes acting
cumulatively. The presence of colour in the awn, however, proved a simple
dominant to its absence. In connexion with studies on awning it was found
that environment had a pronounced effect on the development of awns ; for in-
stance closer spacing of the plants increased the length of the awns.

In BOMBAY, by crossing different dwarf forms of rice, it has been found
that there are five different genes for dwarf ness. One of them occurred in seven
varieties, the others only one in each. Studies on hybrid vigour in five crosses

. showed no evidence of heterosis except in respect of yield where, in two crosses,
the Fj was significantly better than the higher yielding parent. In Coimba-
tore, where this question has been investigated more extensively involving 26
sets of crosses, there was manifestation of heterosis in six cases with regard to
flowering duration, in seven cases with regard to number of ears per plant and
in four cases for pLint height. '

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR genetical studies have shown thai;
the green colour of the leaf blade was found to behave as a monogenie character

.|n two crosses and as a digenic character in others, green being dominant to

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 123

purple. The behaviour of the same character studied in Bombay has been
explained on the basis of an inhibitory factor hypothesis. Studies on the
inheritance of coarse, medium and fine rice based on the width of the grain
have led to the inference that coarse was dominant to medium, and medium
dominant to fine. While previous reports from here had shown that there was
no natural crossing occurring in rice, it would appear from more recent in-
vestigations that it does occur to the extent of 1*75 per cent.

In BIHAR the inheritance of full purple colour of the plant is found to be
governed by three independent Mendelian characters, one of which is inhibitory
in its nature of action. The inheritance of the long outer glume is stated to
involve the interaction of four independent factors two of which may be inhi-
bitory in its action.

The inheritance of the colour of the lemma and palea such as ripening black,
ripening brown, ripening straw, etc. has been extensively studied in ASSAM
and the results have been explained on the basis of three independent factors
thus confirming the results previously obtained in Coimbatore. Anatomical
studies on the flood resistant types have shown the presence of a sclerenchy-
matic tissue around each of the cortical lacunae not found in ordinary varieties.

Comparative studies on the distribution of mechanical tissues in different
species of rice carried out in BENGAL have shown that wild species were mechani-
cally more strongly constituted than the cultivated rice. Extensive correlation
studies between yield and several measurable morphological characters, both
within a strain and between strains, are in progress in one of the rice sub-
stations in Bengal.

Millets

In Coimbatore (MADRAS) two recessive and lethal types of chlorophyll
deficiency, Xantha and patchy albino, have been recorded in jowar. The factor
responsible for the brown colour in the mechanical tissue of the sorghum
plant and the factor for the juiciness of stalk have been found to be indepen-
dent in their inheritance. A new factor which is responsible for producing
purple pigment on the glumes immediately on emergence of the head from
the boot has been identified and it is a simple recessive to the factor which pro-
duces pigment on the glume at the dough stage. This factor is independent
of the factor which determines the nature of the purple pigment, whether reddish
purple or blackish purple. Studies on the flowering phases of related species
of sorghum have shown that the time and period of an thesis vary with the differ-
ent species. While typical Indian grain sorghums have green seedlings many
wild species and African sorghums have blue green seedlings and when the two
types are crossed the blue green is a simple dominant over green.

In BOMBAY, in connexion with the breeding of striga resistant jowars, several
varieties of jowar both local and African were tried in the field to test their
susceptibility to the three species of striga, AS. lutea, S. densiflora and S. euph-
rasioides, and it was found that the attack varied according to the variety of
jowar and the species of striga.

Sugarcane

In Coimbatore (MADRAS) some of the sugarcane-bamboo hybrids (Fjs)
proved fertile and set seed freely which has enabled the hybridization to be

124 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

taken to the F 2 generation in the second year. Over 1,000 F 2 plants are now
growing in the field. About 20 per cent of the progeny is found to show in a
marked degree the central cavity of the bamboo parent. The F 2 progeny in-
cludes economically useful types with tall, straight and erect canes with very-
profuse tillering. Some of the F 2 s crossed to POJ 213 have given seedlings-
which are distinctly superior to the standard canes of Coimbatore such as-
Co 213, Co 281 in vegetative characters. The examination of the sugar con-
tents determined by the refractometer is also very encouraging.

The cytological studies of the intergeneric crosses have been continued-
Whereas in the sugarcane X bamboo hybrids examined the chromosome counts
approximated to the sum of the haploid counts of the parents, in the sugarcane-
Ximperata hybrids the full diploid complement of sugarcane is present. Fur-
ther evidence of tetraploid inheritance in saccharum was provided by analysis-
of the * synthetic ' Kassoers made in 1936. It has been possible to synthesise
a trigeneric saccharum hybrid by crossing POJ 2725 X Imperata with sor-
ghum. * Triploid ' hybrids between S. spontaneum and sorghum are found to-
be more fertile than the diploid. Giant ' triploids ' found amongst selfed
seedlings and intraspecific hybrids of S. spontaneum are found to be morpho-
logically and cytologically intermediate between the wild spontaneum and the
indigenous canes of India. This has thrown some light on the evolution of this
polyploid species by hybridization and the probable origin of 8. barber i from
S. spontaneum by the formation of giant ' triploids ' arising from the fertilisa-
tion of unreduced eggs. There is an indication that occasional triploids may
have been the starting point in the evolution of indigenous canes of India.

The mutants obtained by X-raying sugarcane buds in MYSORE have been
found to be far superior to the parent in vigour and growth without appreciable-
reduction in sucrose contents.

Twenty-two cane varieties were tested at the DELHI institute for their
relative resistance and susceptibility to mosaic, red-rot, wilt and smut. Some
varieties showed comparatively greater resistance to mosaic, red-rot and wilt
but the results of smut resistance were not conclusive. It is observed that there
are various physiologic forms in existence in red-rot and wilt organisms which
though morphologically alike greatly vary in their power of pathogenicity.

Potato

About 50 cultures from Indian collection after eliminating duplicates, 276'
samples of Chilean tuberomms, 22 species of tuber-bearing solanums and a
large number of interspecific hybrids were under study by the Imperial
Economic Botanist. Attention was primarily devoted to the study of disease-
resistance and the relative susceptibility of the varieties and hybrids to late
blight. A large number of resistant plants were found in progenies of crosses-
between tuberosum and andigenum and more especially between tuberosum and
demissum. Data regarding sterility and compatibility were collected from a
large number of crosses involving several interspecific combinations. In certain
crosses, resistance to late blight appears to be definitely dominant to suscepti-
bility. Leaf index, a distinguishing character of varieties, was determined in
crosses between S. demissum and S. tuberosum and the higher leaf index appeared
to be dominant over low leaf index. Preliminary observations on cold resistance-
were also taken. Analysis of six species of potatoes for starch contents has

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 125

hown that there is ample variation in starch content and it is possible to breed
lor high starch content.

Tobacco

Attempts were made at the IMPERIAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTI-
TUTE, NEW DELHI, to induce doubling of chromosomes in the sterile Tabacum
plumbaginifolia hybrids by the use of Colchicine. The available material
of N. rustica was studied with a view to the production of strains combining
heavy yield with a high nicotine content as such strains would be of value
for the commercial production of nicotine for insecticidal purposes. Five
different kinds of leaf-curl were differentiated ; the first four were due to dis-
tinct viruses, A to D, and the fifth due to a mixture of two or more of the above
an different combinations. Breeding of resistant varieties offered the most
.satisfactory method of control. An experiment conducted during the year
to see whether by protecting seedlings until transplanting time the subsequent
ancidence of leaf-curl could be diminished failed to give any significant
difference.

Oil-seeds

Linseed. The yellow-tipped mutant observed previously at the IMPERIAL
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, proved a simple recessive. Oil content
an Pusa linseed hybrids is found to be negatively correlated with the intensity
of seed colour, the dark seeded types, brown and grey, having a lower oil con-
tent than the lighter coloured types, fawn and yellow. Seed size is positively
correlated* with seed colour intensity. In a cross between a Pusa type and a
flax variety the height of the Fj was intermediate but in seed size and seed
weight the F x had the bold seed of Pusa type and had a heavier seed weight
than that of the heavier seeded Pusa type. With regard to breeding for rust
resistance, while none of the existing strains was free from rust, only very few
plants showed the rust in the F 4 cultures of the crosses specially made for the
purpose. In BOMBAY 18 strains superior for yield, higher oil content and also
drying quality of the oil have been obtained which would be tried in the districts.
Preliminary studies at Indore would appear to show that the general higher oil
content of the white seeded linseed as compared to brown might be partly due
to the thinness of the seed coat in the former. In the CENTRAL PROVINCES
several foreign flax varieties and linseed strains from other provinces were
iried and none was found to be of any special merit.

Brassica sp. Pollen germination and the biology of the flower were
studied in toria at the DELHI institute. Crosses were again made to study the
inheritance of self-sterility in Brassicas and the material so obtained has been
-classified into self-compatible, self-incompatible and cross-compatible groups.
Pseudofertility was observed in certain of the types. In the PUNJAB a new
method of group breeding in which, selected plants can be made to cross
amongst themselves with the help of bees under controlled conditions has been
tried with success. In crosses between self-fertile forms of yellow sarson (B.
campestris) and sterile forms of toria (B. napus var. dichotoma) and brown
A arson, hairiness of leaves was a simple dominant over smoothness and extrose

126 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

position of suture of anthers dominant over introse and the two characters
were independent. Inheritance of seed colour, however, proved too
complicated. Self -sterility (pod setting 30 per cent and less) was dominant
to self-fertility 70 per cent and more and this was independent of seed
colour and position of suture of anthers. Crossings among different species
have shown that (i) brown and yellow sarson, toria, and turnip (B. rapa)
cross readily among themselves and give good setting of pods, (ii) raya
(B. juncea) does not cross readily with any of the remaining species,
and (iii) cauliflower (B. oleracea) will not cross with yellow sarson, toria and
turnip but give a few pods and seeds when crossed with brown sarson and
raya.

Groundnut. In MADRAS among crosses between bunch and spreading
t} pes there was a marked tendency for the pods to germinate in the field after
ti e ripening of the pods and attempts are being made to get types without this
tendency. A white flowered mutant was isolated in BOMBAY and is found to-
breed true for this character.

Castor. In MADRAS a hybrid selection No. 5G-2-1-1 has been obtained
which gives a 30 per cent more yield than the local and is about six weeka
earlier in duration. Genetical studies with castor in BOMBAY have shown that
the stem colour and spine on capsules give a monohybrid segregation while
the bloom character proved complex. A preliminary cytological study of the
castor made in the CENTRAL PROVINCES showed considerable secondary associa-
tion of chromosomes and it is inferred that Ricinus communis is a secondary
balanced polyploid. A successful cross has been made between sesamum and
the wild weed Martynia diandra to see if it would be possible to build up an
ideal type of sesamum plant with all the hardy characters of Martynia.

Coconut. In MADRAS studies of seedlings from nuts obtained by self, crosa
and natural pollination were continued. ' Crosses ' and ' naturals ' were found
superior to ' self ' in respect of height and girth of seedlings and number of
leaves but the ' crosses ' were much more vigorous than the ' naturals '. No
differences were observed either in germination or production of leaves when
seedlings were raised from nuts collected from young, middle-aged and old
trees. Girth and height are found to be the important criterion in selection of
seedlings but the girth is even more important than height. The artificial
pollination of female flower significantly reduces setting by about 6 per cent and
it proves that shedding of * buttons ' is not due to the scarcity of pollen. Anato-
mical examination of the buttons would show that 50 per cent of the shed
buttons are fertilized and the remaining 50 are either unfertilized or ineffectively
fertilized.

Barley. Two Pusa types of barley, one with a weak straw and the other
with a strong straw, which showed differences in the arrangement and develop-
ment of the mechanical tissue of the culms, were crossed, and the F 2 was
studied genetically. Four phenotypes were distinguished, two like the parental
types and two intermediate between them. The results indicated the interac-
tion of two factors, one main and another supplementary and less potent in
its effects, lodging associated with the weak development of sclerenchyma being
dominant to nonlodging. The results of the inheritance studies on fertility of
the lateral floret, awn development and the nature of the outer glume showed
that single factors were found to determine the inheritance of all these charac-

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 127

ters and simple segregations were obtained in F 2 . There was complete linkage
between two-rowed fertility and the lack of development of awns on the
lateral florets, between intermediate fertility and the development 'of pointed
or tipped awns on the lateral florets, and between six-rowed fertility and the
development of full awns on the lateral florets ; the inheritance of fertility
of the lateral florets and the development of the awns may, therefore, be con-
trolled by the same factor pair.

The inheritance of rust resistance was studied in a cross between, a foreign
resistant (Alpha) variety and a local susceptible type and the F 2 showed that
the reaction to rust was inherited on a digouic basis. The resistant parent,
Alpha, has a greater number of epidermal cells in a unit area of leaf surface and
a larger number of stomata of smaller size than in the susceptible variety.
Transgressive segregation occurred for the inheritance of epidermal and stomatal
tissue and there was apparently no correlation between epidermal characters
add reaction to rust.

A virescent mutant was obtained in barley which in breeding proved a simple
recessive to normal green.

In oats the black colour of the seed proved a simple dominant to yellow
seed.

Gram (Ciccr arietinum). In MADRAS confirmatory evidences were
obtained with regard to association between seed coat colour and size of seeds.
Experiments with the mixture of black, mottled and cinnamon coloured seeds*
obtained from the same plant proved that factors other than genetical were
concerned with such variation in seed colours. A cross between two types of
gram, one with branches forming from the ground level upwards and another
with no branches up to the ninth node from ground level, showed that the
former habit was a simple dominant to the latter. In BOMBAY a highly wilt
resistant strain (No. 18) has been obtained which showed only 3-2 per cent
wilting of plants as against 95 per cent in the local. In BEBAR a cross between
Kabuli gram and one of the local strains showed that the pink colour of the
flower, the spreading habit of the plant, brown colour of the seed are domi-
nant over white flower colour, semi-trailing habit and white seed. In the
PUNJAB continuous selection to get a pure strain with two pods per peduncle
has in the course of four years been so effective to raise it from 7-6 per cent
in the original material to about 46 per cent.

Pigetm-pea (Cajanus indicus Spreng). At PUSA simple monogeulc and
digenic ratios were- obtained in the F 2 with regard to characters such as plant
habit, flower colour, pod colour, pod shape and seed coat colour. The work in
connexion with breeding of varieties combining wilt resistance with other econo-
mic characters was continued. In MADRAS where the inheritance of the seed
coat colour in pigeon-pea is in progress it was found that cultures with yellow
petals had lighter coloured seed coat. In the CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR,
when the simple leaved mutant was crossed with normal trifoliate plants, it
was found that seeds set only when the normal giant was kept as the female
parent, the reciprocal cross proving always sterile.

Sunn-hemp. Extensive studies on the biology of tlje flower in sunn-hemp
has been made in Nagpur and it has been found that the percentage of seed
setting can be increased to 65 if in addition to rubbing the stigma, which alone

128 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

produces only a 50 per cent setting, a drop of glucose solution (O5 per cent)
is applied to the stigma after rubbing it with the brush.

4. Plant Physiology
Cotton

With regard to the Sind physiological scheme that had been in progress
for ten years, a special officer was appointed by the Indian Central Cotton
Committee to revise and re-write the report in a form suitable for publication.
The work on the incidence of red-leaf was, however, continued with a single
assistant and indications were obtained that soil and time of sowing were the
most important factors controlling the disease. It was found that all varieties
of cotton were affected if the available nitrogen in the soil was deficient and, by
correcting this deficiency, it was possible to counteract the trouble.

In the PUNJAB the investigations in connection with the partial failures of
American cotton were continued and it was found that there were two kinds
of failures, ' Tirak ', one due to the high concentration of alkali salts in the sub-
soil and the other due to the deficiency of nutrients in the soil. The two types
of Tirak can be easily distinguished from the sequence of characteristic symptoms
produced on the growing plant, particularly in the leaves. Certain ameliora-
tive measures were tried during the year to counteract the adverse soil condi-
tions. To overcome the trouble due to alkali salts in the sub-soil, late sowing
(middle of June) had the effect of saving the crop from the onslaught of the
disease. Late sowing suppresses vegetative growth so that water deficit is
avoided at a time when the loss of water from plants is greatest. In the early
sown crop the symptoms of the disease appeared by the first week of August.
In soils where nutrients are deficient, application of nutrients containing
nitrogen, potash and phosphorus produced beneficial effect on the growth of
plants. The treated plots showed no symptoms of the disease while all
the symptoms appeared in the untreated plots. The number and position of
motes in the locks of three important desi cottons were determined in the
Punjab. It was found that the total number of motes was far less in desi than
in American cotton but the disposition of the motes in the various seed positions
was very similar. The number of motes was least in the centre of locks and
early and late pickings had a greater number than the season pickings.

The physiological work in MADRAS to get a strain with a lower shedding
index than K 1 has resulted in the isolation of four strains and these will have
to be tried in the districts. The work of the year also showed that sowing the
cotton thick is more remunerative to the cultivators of Tinnevellies tract and
that mixing cotton with coriander gives better results. Observations on the
water requirements of Cambodia cotton indicated once again that the demand
for water was the greatest during the flowering phase and that up to that period
it was necessary to maintain a fairly high level of moisture in the soil. Studies
on the variations in the water contents of the leaves point that irrigations in
the mornings were more beneficial than at any other time of the day. The final
results of the Madras fodder jofoar scheme have pointed out that the injurious
after effects of jowar on cotton could be offset by sowing cotton thick, adopting
a higher seed rate for jpwar with a view to inhibit grain setting and by not
ploughing in the jowar stubbles until the commencement of the north-
east monsoon.

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 129

At the INSTITUTE OF PLANT INDUSTRY, INDORE, the quality of certain
American cottons grown under barani (rain-fed) conditions and in adhan (well
manured and rich) lands have been compared and it has been found that the
produce from the latter is finer, longer in staple length and gives a higher spinning
value than the produce from the former. Experiments have been in progress
to determine the effects of competition when the desi cotton (G. arboreum) is
grown in different degrees of association with the American cotton (G. hirsutum).
It has been found that the American type is found to suffer significantly less
both from red-leaf and leaf-roll with increasing association with desi and has
a significantly higher number of bolls per plant. There was a definite indica-
tion that the American type gains at the expense of the desi. As a further step
in this line of investigation a desi strain (Malvi 9) was grown mixed with three
other better quality cottons, one of them being a selected strain of American
cottons. It was found that in no case was the mixture significantly inferior to
the higher yielding component in the mixture. Experiments to determine the
changes from year to year in the proportion of the two components, desi and
American, starting with three varying proportions artificially made, have shown
that the proportion of the two types in the mixture at the end of the season more
or less depends upon the initial germination and stand of the two types, the
post germination mortality being similar for both the types. Experiments in
progress to find a physiological explanation for the differential survival of the
four genotypes, Malvensi, Verum, Cutchicum and Roseum, constituting the
desi types in different tracts showed that the Malvensi type had the greatest
leaf area and dry weight and hence physiologically most suited to Malwa condi-
tions. For the Nimar tract, however, the Malvensi and the Eoseum types were
equally suitable and the preponderance of the latter type in the tract must be
due to the human preference for it because of its higher ginning quality. To
test the quality of cottons, samples were handspun on the takli and charkha
and the count and strength of yarns estimated. The results, however, when
compared with the spinning tests of the technological laboratory, failed to give
any agreement indicating that handspinning was of no value in estimating the
quality of cotton for mill use.

The application of varying doses of farmyard manure for the jowar crop
followed by cotton was tested for its effect on the quality of cotton in Bombay
(Dharwar). It was found that five tons of manure per acre was an optimum
dose and lighter or heavier doses than this quantity brought about a decline in
quality in one respect or another. The ginning percentage in cotton showed a
decreasing trend with increasing rate of manure application. This last finding
agrees with the results obtained at the Indore Institute where the same cotton
grown under rich manured land showed a lower ginning percentage than when
grown in unmanured barani land.

Sugarcane

In BOMBAY (Padegaon) investigations into the bioclimatic have shown a
detrimental effect of heavy rains in September on the growth of cane especially
in non-flowering varieties resulting in early maturity due to leaching down of
nitrates. Experiments on the contribution of the sub-soil water table to
the water requirements of the crop have revealed it to be as high as 50 per cent

13(f AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

in case of its proximity at a depth of 2J ft. They have further indicated that
the water requirements of the crop within the irrigation interval of ten days
can be satisfied if the dose is just sufficient to keep the soil saturated to the
surface two feet. The system of ten-day waterings during summer is definitely
better than eight-day rotation as it leads to economy of water without
in any way affecting the yield or maturity. In connection with the problem
of interrelationship of water and manure it has been observed that while there
is a stimulation of vegetative growth with increasing doses of nitrogen resulting
in delayed flowering, the reverse is the case with higher doses. The wilting
coefficient experiments which have been concluded after a thorough trial have
conclusively proved that leading the crop to the stage of permanent wilting
in summer does not in any way affect the yield although it may show a temporary
bad effect. Experiments on improved methods of the distribution and propor-
tion of manurial top dressings have been continued and the optimum mineral
nutrition of the crop is being elucidated. Although the initial application of
100 Ib. of P 2 5 is conducive to better performance of the crop, an additional
dose of 15 Ib. of P 2 5 at earthing up time is found to be of no advantage from
the standpoint of growth, but on the other hand, leads to the reduction in the
absorption of nitrogen by the crop. The after effect of cane varieties on a
succeeding crop of cotton has shown that cotton yields best after the variety
EK 28 and lowest after Co 413.

In BIHAR, for the fifth year in succession, the beneficial effects of hot weather
irrigation in North Bihar were confirmed, the value of such irrigation being
proportional to the dryness of the hot weather. Arrowed canes in general
were found to give lower and delayed germination. From growth studies it
was found that any improvement sought to be effected in the cane crop could
have the maximum advantage when it was attempted upon and proved to be
of benefit to the hot weather shoots. In root studies, organic manures gave
a higher root/shoot ratio as compared to artificial fertilizers and the total shoot
weight was proportional to this ratio. Study of the relative efficiency of water
requirements of varieties under different moisture and manurial schedules
showed that (1) plants grown under limited water supply were more extravagant
than those growing under normal water supply, (2) application of manure in
one dose at planting time was more economical than application made in two
doses, (3) application of Niciphos II was less economical from the point, of view
of water expenditure than an equivalent dose of castor cake and (4) potash ferti-
lization reduced the water expenditure per unit weight of dry matter produced.

In the UNITED PROVINCES (Shajahanpur) in an experiment to determine the
physiological relation between spacing and nitrogen, it was seen that tillering
and yield of individual plants increased with increased spacings between plants
at all levels of nitrogen. The yield per acre on the other hand, decreased con-
sistently as spacing between plants increased from 13 in. to 26 in. at all levels
of nitrogen. Studies on the interrelationship of nitrogenous manures, water
duty and sowing date with growth and yield of cane showed that maximum
germination was attained at the same time irrespective of the date of sowing
and was distinctly poorer in early sown canes. At all sowing dates ammo-
nium sulphate lowered germination appreciably. The adverse effect of ammo-
nium sulphate on germination appears to decrease with increase of moisture in
the soil becoming negligible under wet planted conditions. Tillering was

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 131

maximum in early planted canes decreasing with later plantings. Increased
spacings at all levels of nitrogen increased tillering and additional nitrogen
at all levels of irrigation and sowing dates was beneficial to tillering. Increase
in irrigations from three to six (each at 80,000 gallons per acre) increased
tillering appreciably, but further increase beyond six had no effect on tillering,
Even in the large-scale trials additional winter irrigations beyond five or six
had no effect on yield but yet would appear to be useful in keeping down the
fibre percentage in later harvested canes. Earthing up in lodging varieties
improved yield and quality. There is, however, experimental evidence in Pade-
gaon to indicate that earthing up of cane is not essential from the physiological
point of view. Irrigation during or before frost saves the crop from injurious
effects while smoking did not have any effect. The most economical dose of
nitrogen for the cane crop is 100 Ib. per acre and higher doses appear to have
an adverse effect on quality and a pronounced delaying effect on maturity.

In the PUNJAB liberal watering under Lyallpur conditions does not delay
maturity ; on the other hand the sucrose increases with a corresponding decrease
of glucose. Even the higher doses of nitrogen, 175 Ib. per acre at Rawalpindi
and 200 Ib. per acre at Jullundur have not delayed ripening to any appreciable
extent. The comparison of irrigations after 7, 14 and 21 days' intervals suggests
that frequent irrigations (7 days) are effective in lowering the mineral matter
in the juice at Risalewala.

In MADRAS (Anakapalle) a study of the water requirements of the sugarcane
crop has shown that a variety like J 247 requires 77 acre inches. Eperiments
conducted at this place on ripeness of the cane have shown that arrowing was
not an indication of attainment of maturity. There was even a steady increase
in sucrose content even after 2 to 2J months after arrowing. Under Ankapalle
conditions canes did grow even after arrowing to a slight extent and deteriora-
tion started only 2 months after arrowing, arrowed canes showing a higher,
sucrose content than the non-arrowed canes for about 2J months. Arrowed
canes gave a higher percentage of extraction, longer inillable cane and greater
weight, diameter and girth.

At the Imperial Sugarcane Station the effect of extra illumination by means
of lamps on certain varieties was tried with the result that the majority of
clumps failed to flower.

Sugarcane on an area of four acres in the Punjab was sprayed with O'l per
cent ferrous sulphate solution against chlorosis and normal condition was
restored.

Rice

The DACCA UNIVERSITY scheme of research on the nutrition of rice plants
had, during the year, been mainly devoted to researches on the rice soils, agents
responsible for the fixation of nitrogen and the identification and isolation of
such agents, the nature of the process leading to the evolution of elementary
nitrogen from water-logged soils, tc. A bacteriological examination of the rice
leaf has revealed the occurrence of one or more nitrogen fixing bacteria within
the tissue of the leaf and the results would seem to indicate that the rice plants
can assimilate elementary nitrogen after the manner (ft legumes.

The effect of nitrogenous fertilizers like ammonium sulphate on rice and the
time of applying them has been under investigation at several centres and it

132 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

would appear that the best results are obtained when the manure is applied
a few weeks after transplanting, which varies from two weeks to a month ac"cord-
ing to the locality and variety, later applications not giving a response in
yield but improving only the nitrogen content of the grain.

The physiological investigation in BIHAR would point out that drought-
resistant strains have a low transpiration ratio, that the maximum require-
ments of the plant for water occur two to three weeks before flowering and that
when once the transplanted crop has established itself standing water is un-
necessary for the optimum growth of the crop. At the same place it has been
established that the rice plant can be made to tolerate a certain degree of salinity
in the soil by pretreating the seeds with minute doses of common salt. Such
pretreated seeds have given 30 to 40 per cent more yield than untreated seed
grown under similar conditions.

Studies on the deep water rices in ASSAM indicated that quick water rise
due to flooding resulted in long internodes. If the water level becomes
stationary, growth in the height of plants ceases and the plant's energy appears
to get diverted towards nodal branching, which is characteristic of deep water
rices, such nodal tillers producing ears and contributing to the total yield unlike
in the case of ordinary varieties. Maximum root development in deep water
rices appears to synchronize with periods of slow water rise or of constant water
level. The primary and secondary nodal roots characteristic of these rices have
a nutritional function and supplement the food supply during the active growth
period. It has also been found that sprouted seeds cannot grow through more
tha'n 4 in. height of water and that early varieties respond quicker to water rise
than the late ones. The growth rate in response to water rise increases with
the age of the plants up to four weeks. An experiment to determine the best
time of maturity of rice grains in Assam has shown that grains attain
full maturity five weeks after flowering and the produce harvested 35-42 days
after flowering gave the best milling results.

In the UNITED PROVINCES rice seeds after a preliminary soaking and
irradiated with quartz mercury lamp for different periods from a few minutes
to a few hours showed different mortality but longer exposures appear to have
some effect in inducing vigour in the surviving plants.

In BENGAL smoking the seeds two hours daily for two or three successive
days was found to be the most successful and an easy method of breaking the
dormancy period.

In MADRAS in the ' quality ' investigation conducted at Coimbatore it has
been definitely established that grain from a green manured plot had thicker bran
layers than the grain from an unmanured plot. The milling tests have shown
that while in hand pounding only a fraction of the bran layer is lost as com-
pared to what is removed in mill polishing, such hand pounded rices do not
cook properly on account of the uneven removal of the bran layer. A uniform
removal of the same amount of bran as is removed by hand pounding by an
improvised polisher has given v#ry satisfactory results.

Dry Farming Schenie

In BOMBAY measurements of heights of jowar plants at Sholapur showed
that growth continues even during the night while transpiration was restricted

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 133

to thfe day time only. Tissue temperature of jowar leaves showed that it
fluctuated with the temperature of the surrounding air. An early maturing
selection has been found which on testing is noticed to be more efficient,
requiring 15 per cent less water. The lysimeter studies recorded a loss of
11 in. and 8 in. of water in the uncropped and cropped lysimeter respectively,
both having 18 in. layer of medium deep soil.

MADRAS. The root-system of the jowar plant examined at Hagari was 37
per cent greater in bulk, 111 per cent better in lateral spread in the ploughed
and bunded plot than in the control. Similarly jowar plants in plots which
were fallow in the previous season had roots double that of the plants in previ-
ously cropped plots. This importance of fallow in dry farming practices was
also clearly brought out in experiments conducted at Rohtak (Punjab).

PUNJAB. At Rohtak, with moisture content of the soil ranging
between 7 to 15 per cent, jowar and bajra gave cent per cent germina-
tion in both heavy and medium soils. It was also found that for jowar and
bajra soil drought was more harmful when it occurred before earing than
after, as grain yield is considerably lowered in the former case without any
economy in the use of water. By vernalizing jowar seeds it was possible to
shorten the vegetative period by about ten days.

Miscellaneous physiological investigations

Several investigations of general physiological importance such as influence
of light on plant growth, rate of transpiration at different periods of growth,
photo-synthetic rates in different plant species, physiology of stored fruits, etc.
were carried on at the BENARES HINDU UNIVERSITY but they are not reviewed
here. The one investigation relating to wheat, namely, the growth and protein
content of wheat as affected by variations in soil moisture and soil nitrogen, is
alone dealt with. For better protein formation and accumulation in wheat
both nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizers are found essential. The later the
application of fertilizers, the better is the protein content of the grain, though
this may not be most conducive from the yield point of view. Increase in soil
moisture up to 35 per cent of the moisture holding capacity of the soil increases
the yield of both straw and grain in wheat, any increase beyond this limit being
detrimental. The optimum moisture content in soil for protein formation is
also in the vicinity of 35 per cent of the moisture holding capacity.

In the PUNJAB trials with barley types have shown that barleys grown on
clayey soils had lower nitrogen content both with two and four irrigations and
that the number of irrigations given to a crop had more or less pronounced effect
on nitrogen content and brewers' extract. Nitrogen content decreases and
brewers' extract increases with increase in irrigation.

In MADRAS it has been found that the maximum rate of plant growth takes
place during the first fortnight after the first flowering in the spreading varieties
of groundnut and during the second fortnight in the bunch types. Most of the
flower production takes place during the fortnight immediately following the
commencement of flowering in the bunch varieties aAM during the third and
fourth fortnights in the spreading varieties.

In addition to his studies on the living protoplasm Dr. Boshi Sen has obtained
successful results in vernalizing seeds. In mustard which has been the first

134 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

crop under trial, the maximum earliness that has been observed in opening of
first flowers in plants from dried unsplit vernalized seeds is 18 days. It has
also been found that unsplit vernalized seeds can be dried over 15 weeks ( the
maximum period so far studied) under Almora climatic conditions without being
completely devernalized. Vernalization experiments with other plants like
linseed, peas, garden peas, etc. have been started.

5. Plant diseases

Soil-borne diseases and root diseases

8ome progress has been made in studying the root disease of coconuts in
Southern India. Two hundred and eighty isolations yielded 78 cultures
of Botryodiplodia t/heobromcs Pat., which has been suspected as the cause
of the disease by Butler and by Stockdale, and which also causes the internal
root -rot of tea and die-back of rubber. Of the four plants inoculated with pure
cultures of this fungus two have so far shown symptoms of the disease and one
has died of wilt. One seedling inoculated with Rhizoctonia also showed symp-
toms of the disease. Soil analyses showed marked deficiencies, notably of
potash and nitrogen, and the belief is held that these deficiencies, if not the
cause of root disease, are at least predisposing factors.

It has been found in the PUNJAB that low temperature and high humidity
are unfavourable for active attack of cotton roots by Macrophomina pnaseoli
(Maubl.) Ashby, explaining why the incidence of disease is reduced in the late
sown crops, and also why plants at Ambala and Rohtak, which carried the fungus
on the roots, showed no damage. At these places the humidity is much higher
than in the irrigated districts of West Punjab, where the disease is severe.

The wilt disease of gram, which causes severe damage in many parts of India,
was under study at the IMPERIAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE. A
number of isolates of Fusarium were obtained, of which one, a non-colour-form-
ing species of the sub-group Orthocera, was predominant. This caused severe
wilting in artificially infested soil. Certain other species caused severe seed-
rooting or pre-emergence blight, and the remainder were non-pathogenic.

Attempts were made in MADRAS to control wilt of red gram (pigeon-pea,
Cajanus Cajan) by inducing biological antagonism of the casual organism
{Fusarium vasinfectum Atk.) by common soil organisms through addition of
farmyard manure at the rate of 15 tons per acre or green manure at 30 tons
per acre. The efforts were unsuccessful.

It was found in Madras that the strain of Fusarium vasinfectum causing
cotton wilt is physiologically distinct from that causing pigeon-pea (Cajanua
Cajan) wilt, no cross-infection taking place, thus confirming previous conclu-
sions reached elsewhere.

A new disease of citrus trees, described as ' bark rot ', has been found doing
.severe damage in the Kistna cfelta, Madras. Although a species of Diplodia
and two other fungi were found constantly associated with the disease, it was
believed to be primarily due to unfavourable soil conditions resulting in water-
logging, the water table *having been found only about seven feet from the surface
at the beginning of the rains. Control measures were based on amelioration
of soil conditions ; it was recommended that dead trees should be dug out and
destroyed, and that the cankered bark of diseased trees should be scraped away,

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 135

the stained wood excised, and the wounds disinfected by application of Bordeaux
paste.

A species of Fusarium isolated from wilted citrus trees in the PUNJAB was
found to be capable of causing infection when artificially inoculated into citrus
trees. The fungus is one with a high optimal temperature (about 30C.) for
growth.

The root-rot disease of areca-palms in MYSORE, caused by Ganoderma lucidum
(Leyss.) Karst, responded satisfactorily to soil treatment with sulphur. A large
block of diseased trees has now been treated as an experiment.

Foliage diseases

Citrus anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum glceosporioides Penz. has been
found to cause five distin6t types of damage :

(1) Withering of the branches from the tip downwards.

(2) Blighting and falling of the flowers.
(3) Rotting of the stem ends of the fruits.
(4) Spotting of the leaves.

(5) Dying of newly budded plants.

Of a varied collection of fungi isolated from coconut plants infected with
the leaf disease, Helminthosporium, Gloeosporium and Pestalozzia all reproduced
rotting on inoculation.

It was found that the main cause of spotting on Hevea brasiliensis leaves
in the Mundakayam Valley Rubber Plantation was Oidium hevce Steinman,
a, disease which causes severe damage in certain rubber-growing countries, but
not previously recorded in India.

A new disease of chilli was found to be common in the neighbourhood of
DELHI. The symptoms are the production of spots of a greyish or greyish-
brown colour, oval, roundish or irregular in appearance, with concentric rings,
-on leaves, twigs and fruits of chilli. It is caused by a species of Alternaria.

The effect of nitrogenous manures on susceptibility of paddy to ' blast ',
caused by Piricularia on/zee Cav., was studied in MADRAS in a pot culture
-experiment. Forty pounds of nitrogen per acre in the form of ammonium
sulphate, or sodium nitrate increased the disease in susceptible varieties, but
<lid not cause infection of the highly resistant variety Co 4. Sodium nitrate
induced greater susceptibility than ammonium sulphate.

An interesting and important discovery about Phytophihora arecm (Colem.)
Pethy bridge, the cause of Kolcroga disease of betel-nut, has been made
in BOMBAY. It was known that the fungus does not normally produce oospores
in nature, and the mode of its survival from year to year and the origin of primary
infection was a mystery. It has now been found that the fungus hibernates
in the dead portions of the crowns of infected trees as mycelium, but oospores
are not found in these portions,

Fruit spoilage

The host range of the fungus Colletotrichum lagenarium (Pass. Ell. & Halst.)
was studied on fruits of Cucumis sativus, Cvurbita maschata, Lagenaria vulgaris,

136 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Cucumis melo vat. utilissimus, Momordica ckarantia, Cucurbita pepo, Citrullu9
vulgaris, and Trichosanthes dioica. The only fruits which became infested
were Lagenaria mdgaris and Cucumis melo var. utilissimus.

A study of seasonal effects on development of rotting in fruits and vegetables
is being made by paying fortnightly visits to the Delhi wholesale market.
During the first year, apples, coming mainly from the North- West Frontier
Province and Kashmir, showed rotting of 5 to 20 per cent of the fruits. In
November most of the damage was due to Aspergillus and Penicillinm, but
after December the cause appeared to be almost exclusively the latter
fungus. Oranges from Nagpur showed marked variation in the amount of
rotting. From November to February the cause was chiefly Penicillitim digita-
tum Sacc., but during the hot weather damage was less and was mostly caused
by bacteria. Pears were frequently damaged by Aspergillus japonicus Saito,
which appears to attack only fruits with slightly damaged skins.

Botrytis rot of grapes, which causes severe damage in South Africa, has beens
found to be fairly wide-spread in Baluchistan.

Breeding resistant varieties of crops

Twenty-two varieties of cane were tested for susceptibility to red -rot and!
wilt, namely varieties Co 213, 214, 223, 244, 281, 285, 290, 299, 312, 313, 331,
352, 354, 360, 362, 402, 411, 412, 413, 417, 419 and 421. The varieties most
susceptible to red-rot were Co 213, 223, 244, 281, 290, 299, 331, 354, 362, 402 y
411, 412, and 417 : those most susceptible to wilt were Co 213, 223, 290, 352,.
360, 362, 402, 419 and 421.

Tests of resistance of sugarcane varieties to mosaic were made at MADRAS.
The varieties Co 215, 335, 355, 434 and 511 were found completely free, others-
varying from 2 per cent to 86 per cent infection.

Testing of F 3 generations of nine wheat crosses against a mixture of the six
physiologic forms of stem rust in India were carried out. None of the Indian,
vulgare wheats had shown a satisfactory degree of resistance to any of the rusts-
except Pusa 120, which showed high resistance to yellow rust. Consequently
exotic varieties were used as parents for crossing with the Indian varieties. Out
of a total of 4,521 F 3 plants thus tested with a mixture of physiologic forms,
1,631 fell in the infection classes to 2, indicating resistance, while the others,
ranged in the higher susceptibility classes.

In addition to the above, tests were carried out on F x plants from crosses*
made the previous year. In eight such crosses, all the F x plants showed high
susceptibility to infection with the mixture of six physiologic forms, indicating
the dominance of susceptibility over resistance .

Extensive testing of varieties of wheat and oats for resistance to smuts have
been conducted for several years and results are now becoming available. Of the
40 Indian wheat varieties tested seven appeared to be immune and nine more
highly resistant to loose smut. Selections of resistant plants were made for
testing next year. Kesistance *k> flag smut was tested with 97 varieties, of
which 25 snowed no infection, 15 showed less than 10 per cent, and four
more less than 25 per c cent. The remainder ranged from 30 to 89 per cent
infection.

Seed of the sann-hemp (Crotalaria juneea) variety D-IX, a strain immune
to Fusarium wilt, is being multiplied in Bombay for distribution. All the Fj^

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 137

plants in a cross between immune and susceptible individuals showed
wilt symptoms, indicating that susceptibility is dominant over resistance.

Marked progress has been made in breeding wilt-resistant cottons in
BOMBAY. In the Broach section, seeds from nine highly resistant plants of
BD 8 have been retained. Seed from 19 selected plants of NS 12 all gave rise
to some disease, but a number of cultures showed a high degree of resistance.
Crosses have been made of BD 8 with Goghari and NS 12. In the Jalgaon
section seeds of 103 selected plants of Million Dollar variety were tested, and 76
of the resulting cultures showed no mortality. Promising selections are also
being retained from Chinese K x Spotless and New Million Dollar.

So far no cotton resistant to Macrophomina root-rot has been found in the
PUNJAB in the Indian varieties tested, but foreign cottons show more promise
of giving a resistant type. In Baroda certain KS strains show promise and
selections are being made.

Owing to the failure of cultivators to adopt the practice of cleaning up debris
in gram (Cicer arietinum) fields in the Punjab for control of blight caused by
Mycosphwrella rabiei Kovachevsky efforts were directed towards producing
a resistant variety, and this has been found in F 8 which is being multiplied for
distribution.

Fungicides

Attempts to work out a cheaper spraying programme for ' Mahali ' disease
of areca palms caused by Phytophthora arecce (Golem.) Pethybridge were made
an MADRAS. It was found that two sprayings with Bordeaux mixture were
necessary for satisfactory control, and that 2 per cent Bordeaux mixture is
more efficacious than a 1 per cent mixture, but the possibility of replacing the
2 per cent mixture by a 1 per cent mixture for the pre-monsoon spray is to be
investigated. Oils and casein were found to be better spreaders than resin, and
also easier to manipulate, but good results were obtained with plain Bordeaux
mixture, suggesting the possibility of dispensing entirely with spreaders and
adheeives. Cuprous oxide was found to be a poor substitute for Bordeaux
mixture.

In BOMBAY work has been done on the control of the newly-discovered
powdery mildew disease of betel vines, caused by Oidium piperis Uppal and
Kamat. It has been found that a single application of 200-mesh sulphur gives
effective control in new gardens, but a second dusting must be given in older
gardens.

It was found that Sulsol of strength 2 or 2J parts in 100 parts of water gave
good control of fig rust in Bombay. The infection, however, was mild. The
object of the test is to replace Bordeaux mixture which though effective leaves
a disfiguring spray-deposit on the fruit,

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES it was found that treatment of cotton seeds,
before sowing with the mercurial dressings Agrosan G, Hortosan B, Abavit B
and Ceresan and with copper carbonate, sulpnur or sulphuric acid increased
the yield. The use of Agrosan G, Oeresan, sulphur and copper carbonate also
increased the yield of grain and straw of jowar.

The largest outlet for fungicides continues to be in the control of Koleroga
disease of areca palms. In Mysore alone 15,500 acres of palms were sprayed

138 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

during the year, the total value of spraying materials sold being Es. 41,500,
For the Koleroga disease of betel -nut palms in Bombay the area sprayed was
3,487 acres. A large amount of spraying is also done annually in Madras and
Travancore.

In MYSORE a new sprayer of German make, capable of spraying nearly 1,500
trees a day instead of about 250, trees has been introduced.

Nutritional disorders

Mosambi citrus suffering from ' mottle leaf ', a serious disease in Bombay,
have been found to respond readily to spraying twice with a zinc sulphate lime
mixture of 5-2J-50 composition.

In Mysore orange trees suffering from chlorosis responded well to spraying
with zinc lime mixture, as in Bombay, but it was noticed that trees in which
the yellow leaves had become thick failed to respond.

Virus diseases

As in the previous year the thick cane variety Surkha Saharanpuri suffered
severe loss (18-8 percent) in yield of cane as a result of mosaic in a yield trial
at Karnal using naturally infected and healthy sets ; in contrast to this the
thin cane variety Co 313 grown at Shahjahanpur suffered practically no loss*
of yield from mosaic.

- Among the most interesting and important findings which have come out
of the sugarcane mosaic investigation have been those relating to natural trans-
mission and recovery from mosaic. In some areas there appears to be practi-
cally no natural transmission of the disease (e.g. at Delhi). Recovery is the
phenomenon of production of healthy canes, entirely free from mosaic, from
sets cut from mosaic-infected clumps. It seems to be a factor of the district
of origin of the sets, and supports the conclusion that there are more than one
strain of mosaic virus. Mosaic-affected Co 313 material from Pusa gave 15 to-
^20 per cent recovery at Pusa, Delhi and Karnal, but when sets of the same
variety were obtained from Shahjahanpur instead of Pusa they showed no
recovery at the same three stations. It is not a question of masking of
symptoms the ' recovered ' canes are quite free of the virus. The two factors,,
natural transmission and recovery, must set the level of infection with mosaic
in any particular district.

Further attempts to transmit the leaf-curl disease of tobacco by white-flie 8 *
fed on extracted juice of diseased plants have not met with much success. Out
of 110 plants carrying flies fed on leaf-curl plant juice extracts, only two showed'
anything strongly reminiscent of leaf-curl.

Phanerogamic parasites

Striga on sugarcane was found at Risalewala in the Punjab for the first
time in 1936, and it was also found at Delhi, It is suspected that to both
places the seed of the parasite was carried by irrigation water. This troublesome-
pest is wonderfully adapted for distribution and multiplication,, and is difficult,
to eradicate.

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 139

6. Entomology Insect pests

(a) LOCUSTS
Locust survey work

Surveys of the various habitats of the desert locust in Sind, Rajputana
and Baluchistan were periodically made to note seasonal peculiarities of its
distribution and breeding as in previous years. Ecological studies of the
solitary phase of the locust in typical centres were also continued.

Experimental work

Experiments to determine the relative preferences shown by young and
adult locusts for various natural food plants were carried out, as also,
observations under controlled conditions in regard to the influence exerted by
different food plants on expediting the sex-maturation of the adult locust and
on quickening the growth of the hoppers. Certain experiments were also
conducted to determine the effect of the action of sun-light in the production
of mauve or rosy tinge in the hindwings of locusts.

Biometrical studies of collections of Schistocerca gregaria and Locusta migra-
toria were in progress during the year and the relative proportion of the different
phases in both species at different seasons and places was carefully worked
out.

Surveys of outbreak areas in Mekran

In the course of the year careful surveys were made all over Mekran and
maps were prepared to show the distribution of sandy areas and of cultivated
patches where the formation of incipient swarms was likely to occur. These
maps would be valuable in case the suppression of incipient outbreaks should
be decided to be carried out.

Study of old records

Considerable progress was made in the correlation of locust activity with
meteorological data. Maps showing the movements of locust swarms, month
by month, were prepared for the last two locust cycles (1912-19 and 1926-31).

Observations on the breeding of solitary phase locusts in their natural habitats
during 1937-38.

(a) Schistocerca gregaria

1. Winter-spring breeding 1936-37. Along the Mekran coast, winter rainfall
was very scanty and consequently there was no locust breeding in these areas.
On the other hand, normal rain was received in the interior valleys of Mekran,
as well as in Kachhi and Upper Baluchistan. A certain amount of breeding
occurred in the interior of Mekran. In Kachhi, good numbers of solitary
hoppers were noted all over the area, while in the Bolan valley fairly concen-
trated breeding occurred in favourable situations. There was also some con-
centrated breeding in the Sheh Lakhra area of Lasbela in April- June 1937.

2. Summer breeding in 1937. By June most of the adults of the new gene-
ration were found to have disappeared from Kachhi, Bolan, Mekran and Las-
bela.

240 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

In July somewhat large concentrations of adult locusts were found in parts
of East Bikaner and Western Jaipur States, where fairly early and good rain-
fall had occurred in June, and in this area considerable breeding was observed
in July-August. Breeding also occurred in parts of Thar, Mallani and Southern
Jaisalmer, and to a small extent also in Lasbela.

Owing to the development of a long and persistent drought in August,
the large locust population produced in the East Bikaner areas gradually dis-
appeared, and was found by September to have migrated partly into other
parts of the Rajputana desert. In southern areas of the desert as around
Chachro, a second summer brood appears to have developed with the fall of
some rain in the early half of September. By October, most of the locusts
had disappeared from the Sind-Rajputana area, and it is presumed that they
had migrated westwards into Baluchistan since the locust population in the
Lasbela Pasni and Gwadar areas was found to have increased very considerably
in October-November.

3. Spring breeding in 1938. A fair quantity of winter rainfall in 1937-38
occurred during the months of December 1937 and February 1938, but was on
the whole below the average both on the coast and in the interior. There was
ilittle rain in spring in Kachhi. Consequently only light locust breeding occurred
on the coastal reks in March- April, as also to some extent in the interior. Un-
like the previous year there was no breeding whatever in Kachhi, but light
breeding was noted in the Bolan valley in March-April.

(b) Locusta migratoria ph. solitaria

(1) Spring breeding in 1937. Concentrated breeding of Locusta was observ-
able in the Bolan area in May-June, as also light breeding in Kachhi.

(2) Summer breeding in 1937. By July, however, very few locusts were
noticeable in Bolan and Kachhi, but in the East Bikaner- West Jaipur areas,
very large concentrations of Locusta migratoria were noticeable in July. Con-
siderable breeding occurred in this region during July- August. During August,
however, a pronounced drought developed, and in its wake, the greater part
of the Locusta population was found disappearing from these areas.

(3) Autumn breeding in 1937. During October-November 1937, heavy
infestation of cereal crops by hoppers of Locusta migratoria were reported from
the Sirohi and Mehsana areas, and similar attacks were detected in the adjoin-
ing areas of Palanpur, Idar and Kaira. Considerable damage to tfrops such
as jowar, bajri, paddy, sugarcane and millets was caused in some of the
attacked fields. By November, the new generation of locusts produced was
found disappearing. As good concentrations of winged locusts were found
in parts of the Karachi district and Lasbela State in November, and in Kathia-
war and Cutch in December- January, it is presumed that migration of the locusts
into these areas had occurred.

Spring breeding in 1938. Stray hoppers of Locusta were noted in parts
of Lasbela State in February 1938. In March, fairly good numbers of Locusta
adults were found present in irrigated wheat fields in the Bolan valley, and
by May, large numbers of hoppers were detected in the fields after wheat har-
vest. Some damage' to sugarcane was also noted at Harnai in May-June.
By the middle of June, however, very few specimens of Locusta were observable
in the Bolan-Harnai area.

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 141

The observations made during 1937-38 show that, just like the desert locust,
the migratory locust is capable, in its solitary phase, of making long distance
migrations from one rain-zone to another with the change of seasons, possiblj
as a result of certain combinations of meteorological conditions.

Work on the desert Locust at lyallpur

Hoppers of the desert locust breed * crowded ', in an atmosphere containing
excess of oxygen, develop patterns of black pigment typical of gregaria
hoppers bred in normal atmosphere. Atmosphere containing more than 66 per
cent of oxygen was not congenial to the normal life of the hoppers.

It has been determined that in a starving desert locust, the death is primarily
due to moisture deficiency in its body. It has been found that a thirsty locust
may 'drink water, and in one particular case a male locust drank 225 mgm. of
water at a stretch.

The influence of atmospheric pressure on the life-cycle and the colouration
of the desert locust has been studied. An addition or reduction of 2 in. of
mercury pressure does not seem to have any effect.

The size of the gonads as also the amount of fatty deposits in the body of
the locust are influenced by atmospheric temperature.

(b) OTHER INSECT PESTS*
Cotton

In the laboratory of the Imperial Entomologist at NEW DELHI, the
ecological work on the spotted bollworms of cotton and their parasites,
Microbracon lefroyi and Melclia nursei, yielded some interesting results. The
fecundity and rate of development of the bollworm (Earias fabia) were found
to be profoundly influenced by temperature and humidity. During pre-imagi-
nal period high temperatures increased the fecundity and low temperatures
decreased it. Moist conditions, within certain limits, increased the reproduc-
tive power, while dry conditions retarded it. The threshold of development
was found to lie between 10 and 13C. and the rate of development at any
constant temperature was quickest at a saturation deficiency of 3 mm. The
parasite (M. lefroyi) developed much more quickly than its host and on an
average, a. female parasite killed five to seven host larvse. This parasite deve-
loped best in an atmosphere with a saturation deficiency of mm., as against
one of 3 mm. for the host. The rate of development of Melcha nursei was
found to be comparatively slower than that of the bollworms. It oviposits
preferably on prepupse and paralyses a far greater number of hosts (56-150)
than it actually lays its eggs on.

In the PUNJAB research work on the spotted and pink bollworms, under
a scheme of the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research, came to an end.
The work showed that protection with mosquito-net covers of crops from the
attack of spotted bollworms resulted in the triple advantage of high yield,
early crop and clean kapas. Another scheme was, therefore, initiated to de-
monstrate the value of this finding to the cultivators. Sinse the most important
source of carry-over of the bollworms from one crop to another is through the
ratoon cotton sprouts, the demonstration has taken the form of cleaning up

* Excludes insect pests on sugarcane, for which see Chapter III.

142 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

an experimental area of 500 sq. miles of all cotton stubbles and also other weeds
which harbour the pest. As the Surat plant-puller did not work well in the
hard soils of the colony areas of the Punjab, an implement called kudali which
cuts the cotton plants 2 in. below ground level was substituted. Preliminary
work on the cotton jassid, started under another scheme of the Imperial Council
af Agricultural Research, confirmed some already known conclusions, viz*
that this pest mainly attacks the American varieties of cotton and even among
these, exhibits varying degrees of preference, that resistance of desi and other
cotton varieties results from the inability of the jassid females to oviposit
freely on them and that hairiness is not necessarily an important factor in
anti- jassid resistance.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES the American bollworm, Heliothis obsoleta
and the spotted bollworm, Earias fabia, were shown to be serious pests of cqtton
but not the pink bollworm, Platyedra gossypiella.

In MADRAS the alternative host plants of spotted and pink bollworms were
studied. The incidence of spotted bollworms on the Cambodia cotton was
much higher (48-55 per cent in mid-December and 4-7 per cent in mid-January)
than that of the pink bollworms which never exceeded 1-5 per cent.

In BENGAL the cotton leaf roller, Sylepta derogata and the red cotton
bug, Dysdercus cinguhtus were moderately serious as pests and were kept in
jheck by regular hand picking. Aphids on young cotton plants were con-
trolled by spraying with crude oil emulsion (4 oz. to 4 gallons of water).

Paddy

In MADRAS light trap trials against the paddy stem borer, Schcenobius
incertellus, showed that the effect of light is felt most at a range between 60
and 130 yards from the source. Seasonal studies of fortnightly plantings at
the Paddy Breeding Station were also made with a view to finding the rela-
tionship, if any, between weather conditions and the degree of incidence at
different stages of the crop. The army worm of paddy, Spodoptera mauritia,
was studied to note its peculiarities, if any, during larval or pupal period under
natural conditions at different times of the year.

In BENGAL the stem borer, Schcenobius bipunctifer, attacking transplanted
paddy plants, was controlled by letting the water out of the plots and also
by destroying the moths by light traps.

In ASSAM the paddy case-worm, the paddy swarming caterpillar, the paddy
stem borer and the paddy hispa were serious. In addition to these, a Chry-
somelid beetle, a Limacodid caterpillar and Nephotettix bipunctatus were re-
corded for the first time as pests in this province.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES Pachydiplosis oryzce was under investigation.
It was found that the damage by this pest could be avoided if the crop could
be sown earlier than the normal time.

In MYSORE two serious pests of rice were the swarming caterpillar and
the stem borer. Tn working out the life-history of the former, attention was
chiefly directed towards finding out the means by which the pest tides over
the interval between succeeding crops. In addition to the usual remedies
of flooding, sweeping and applying kerosine, dusting with Paris Green was
found fairly effective against the BW arming caterpillar. About the only method
of controlling the stem bojer seemed to be to weed out infected seedlings from

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 143

the nursery. This method was successfully applied over 300 acres of paddy
nurseries.

In COCHIN the important pests of paddy included a species of Spodoptera
and species of Nymphula (rice case-worm).

Fruits

The survey of the codling moth by the Imperial Entomologist in BALUCHIS-
TAN disclosed it as a serious pest of apple, pear, quince, etc. in that province.
Larvae of another moth, Euzophera punicella, sometimes occurred in large
numbers inside the fruits along with the larvae of the codling moth, but they
did not seem to attack sound fruit and were, therefore, of secondary
importance. Larvae of yet another moth, Spilonota ocellana, attacked chiefly
the leaves and flower buds of apple. The Imperial Entomologist also found
the pest, codling moth, in the Parachinar district (Kuram valley) near the
Indo-Afghan border. With regard to the pest it was considered probable
that it had been and was being introduced into India by being carried inside
infested apples imported from Afghanistan.

In the NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE the incidence and bionomics
of the fruit fly, Gh&todacus ferrugineous Fb., a serious pest of fruits, was further
investigated by the Imperial Entomologist. The fly damages pear, peach,
guava and other fruits in Peshawar, Kohat and Parachinar districts, the attack
varying from 50 to 80 per cent depending upon the time of the year. In Kohat
the fly was observed to make as many as 15 punctures on a fruit and the mag-
gots hatched out in 24-48 hours. Large-scale experiments at Kohat for testing
the effect of various baits and poison sprays on the fruit fly showed that
{!) Citronella oil attracted the largest number of flies, but the majority of them
were males, (2) Pollard and Clensei were found almost equally useful as attract-
ants, but the former was more economical. Sodium fluocilicate bait proved
ineffective.

The biology of the apricot chalcid, Eurytoma samsonovi, a serious pest in
the North-West Frontier Province, was closely studied by the Imperial Ento-
mologist in the field at Haripur, Peshawar and Parachinar, and in the labora-
tory at New Delhi. The grubs were usually found from May up to the middle
of the following February in the infested fruits which were attracted to the
extent of 60-80 per cent in the kori variety. The grubs pupate inside the seeds
and the adult emerges by making a hole in the testa and then boring a fine
hole in the woody wall of the fruit. It was found that the grub stage might
last for two to three years.

The fruit growing areas of the North-West Frontier Province and the Punjab
were surveyed for San Jose scale and other insect pests of fruits under a scheme
of the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research in charge of the Entomologist
to Government, Punjab. The San Jos$ scale was found in Simla, Kulu valley,
Handi State, Dalhousie, Kurram, Abbotabad and other places on a large variety
of host plants including almond, apricot, quince, walnut, rose, etc. Other
pests distributed in both the provinces and fairly serious were Chrysomphalwt
aurantii and Diaphorina citri on citrus, Monophlebus stebbingi var. octocauda
on apple, mango and plum, Idiocerus sp. on mango, Schizoneura lanigera on
Apple.

144 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

At the Chaubattia Fruit Research Station in the UNITED PROVINCES the
study of the apple root borer, Lophsteromis hugelli, was continued. In con-
finement the grubs fed on roots of almost all kinds of fruit trees, e.g. apple,,
chestnut, walnut, etc., although in nature, usually, roots of apple and dead,
oak stumps were found infested. The hatching of the eggs, which were laid
preferably in sandy soil, seemed to depend on the moisture of the soil, that
with 20-40 per cent moisture proving the most suitable, Tests with para-dich-
lorbenzene and carbon bisulphide showed that the former is effective up to a
depth of 6 in. if applied at the rate of 1 oz. to a running foot and the latter
effective to 3 in. at the rate of oz. to a running foot. Observations on the
woolly aphis, Eriosoma lanigera, brought to light several new forms not hitherto-
noted in Kumaun. The migration of the aphids from root to shoot and vice
versa continued throughout the year except for two months in winter. .Some
varieties, such as Merton 729 and 793 and Pyrus baccatd remained immune
from attack in all types of soils at Chaubattia. There seemed, however, no
interaction between stock and scion and a susceptible scion remained so on
a resistant stock without being changed by the latter. Sprays of nicotine
sulphate and soap were very effective against the wooly aphis.

Different results about the efficacy of different sprays against the woolly
aphis are, however, reported from the Punjab. In the Kulu valley, spraying
the trees attacked by the pest, with rosin soap was found very successful but
nicotine sulphate gave very low mortality. A parasite of the woolly aphis,
imported from England and introduced into the Kulu orchards, is reputed to
have done good work. Some other important fruit pests in the Kulu valley
were the walnut weevil, the cherry and apple tree borer and the walnut tree
borer.

In BOMBAY the citrus scale, Chrysomphalus aonidum, was effectively con-
trolled by spraying with fish oil rosin soap. The common species of fruit flies
in the province are Chcetodacus Jerrugineous, C. zonalus and C. cucurbitce, da-
maging mango, guava, citrus, chikoo and cucurbits, the first two being most
seriously attacked. Clensel was found to give good results as a trapping
agent.

In MADRAS studies on two fruit flies, Carpomyia vesuviana and Dacus
correctus, showed that the former did not feed on any host other than her and
was also not attracted by any lures, while the latter had a range of food plants
which included sandal fruits, pumpkin flowers, guava and oranges. Raking
up the soil to expose pupae and spraying poisoned molasses were found effective
as control measures. Experiments against Virachola isocrates, pest of pome-
granate, indicated that spraying lead arsenate, crude oil emulsion and cutting
away calyx cups, were partially effective in reducing infestation. This insect
was also noted to breed in guava fruits and soap nuts.

A survey of fruit-growing areas in KASHMIR showed that San Jose* scale
was more serious in areas of high humidity than in those which are dry and
well drained. The warmer climate of Jammu seemed unsuitable for this pest.
Observations on the woolly aphis showed that during the winter season, the
aphids hibernated "chiefly in the crevices of trees and on the summer galls.
The winged forms of this insect were seen moving about towards the end of
summer. Winter spraying with Diesel oil emulsion controlled both the woolly
aphis as well as the San Jose scale.

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 145

Vegetables

At the IMPERIAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, NEW DELHI, the
ok grasshopper, Pcecilocerus pictus, which was found attacking cultivated crops
for the first time, was closely studied. Previously known to feed only on
wild Calotropis plants, this insect was found to damage leaves and fruits of
brinjal and tomato and leaves and seedlings of gourd, etc. at Delhi. A test of
the range of food plant showed that P. pictus, in addition to the above plants,
could feed well on leaves of cowpea, soya bean, castor, cabbage, radish, bhindi,
maize and oleander and to a lesser extent, on cotton and Dolichos lablab.
The eggs of this insect, which are laid in the soil from June to August, over-
winter and hatch in the next spring, the nymphs taking seven to nine weeks
to become adults. The usual grasshopper baits, which are laid on ground,
did not prove successful as the pest seldom leaves the plants. The spray with
sodium arsenate gave the best results.

At Coimbatore (MADRAS) the life-cycle of the diamond back moth, Plutella
maculipennis, a pest of cabbage, was found to last 15 to 18 days. Two para-
sites of this moth, Brachymeria excarinata and Tetrastichus sokolowskii, were
also studied. In Madras sulphur and tobacco dustings were tried to control
thrips damaging chillies.

Although the results have yet to be confirmed indications are that tobacco
dusting gave better yields.

In ASSAM the life-history of Heliothis obsoleta, the caterpillars of which were
found to bore into tomato fruits, was under study.

In COCHIN the brinjal shoot borer, Leucinodes orbonalis, was under study.
It was found that each dead shoot generally harboured only one caterpillar.

In BOMBAY spraying experiments were carried out to control aphids on
cabbage but the results were not conclusive.

Tobacco

Some interesting results were obtained by the Imperial Entomologist from
experiments on insect vectors of leaf curl of tobacco carried out at PUSA. It
appears that in nature, the alternate hosts, sann-hemp and Ageratum conyzoides
and not diseased tobacco are the main sources of infection for healthy
tobacco. The most susceptible period for tobacco plants for receiving
infection is' when they are about eight weeks old, * provided the infection
occurs during autumn or in February. It was also found that the white fly,
Bemisia gossypiperda, can transmit the leaf curl virus after five to six hours'
feeding and the minimum number of white flies tested and found successful
for the transmission of the disease from sann-hemp to tobacco was five, from
tobacco to sann-hemp and sann-hemp to sann-hemp two and from Ageratum
to tobacco only one. The number of infected individuals used did not seem
to alter the incubation period of the disease, provided they all fed for the same
time. The white fly was observed to have a wid^ range of host plants some
of which are affected with a leaf curl disease, very closely allied to, if not iden-
tical with, tobacco leaf curl. This would seem to reduce the chances of con-
.trolling the disease by the removal of the alternate hosts of ^ts insect vector.

In MADRAS ragi (Eleusine coracana), raised in long narrow strips on the edges
of tobacco plots, was found successful as a trap crop for Laphygma exigua.

146 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1037-38

Additional control measures found useful were handpicking of egg masses and
caterpillars and spraying of arsenical poisons against caterpillars which escaped
to tobacco seedlings.

In MYSORE the most serious insect pest of tobacco was the tobacco stem
borer, Phthorimcea (Gnorimoschema) heliopa Low., which was kept under control
by spraying the nursery beds with calcium arsenate, discarding all borer attacked
seedlings in the nursery and splitting open the borer galls on the plants in the
field.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES Prodenia litura caterpillars on tobacco seedlings-
were successfully controlled by spraying with lead arsenate (k oz. in 4 gallons-
of water).

Coffee

In MYSORE the coffee borer, Xylotrechus quadripes Chevr., became a serious-
pest owing to the neglect of some planters to systematically remove and
destroy in time coffee plants badly affected by the borers. A tar distillate
was very effective against the eggs and larvse but proved costly. Other dis-
tillates were under trial with a view to reducing the cost consistently with.
efficiency.

Tea

Further work in respect of control of Helopeltis theivora was carried out
in South Travancore using various insecticides. Fish-oil insecticidal soap r
lime-sulphur, " Hillo " and " H. G. Ionised " (proprietory products) and ordi-
nary bar soap were the wet sprays tested while " Helopellicide ", " Nico-sect"
and Pyrethrum alone as well as in combination with diluents such as lime r
sulphur and wood ash in varying proportions were the dusting trials made.
The results distinctly indicated the superior value of dusting as compared with
spraying as a means of Helopeltis control.

The study of the life-history and bionomics of Laspeyresia leucostoma (leaf-
roller) was continued. The eggs were discovered for the first time in the field.
They are laid on older leaves further down the branch. This is important from
the control view point, as, in the course of normal plucking, the old leaves'
*are not removed from the bush.

Gracilaria theivora, another leaf-roller occurring along with Laspeyresia,
was under further study. Xyleborus fornicatus (shot-hole borer)' is believed
to be gradually extending its range of distribution in Travancore. A begin-
ning was made to study the various types of gallery formation of this pest
and their relation to the thickness of branches.

The termites Kalotermes sp. and Coptotermes sp. were definitely found
attacking living tea bushes. Regarding Toxoptera aurantii (tea aphis) it
was found that in the case of pruned tea, the bushes that were slow to recover
from the effect of pruning were the worst to suffer from this aphid. Climatic*
factors and the presence of, parasites and predators were found to exert consi-
derable influence on the growth and dispersal of these insects.

Coconut

In MADRAS the maximum attack by the coconut beetle, Orycte*
rhinoceros, on palms was noticed during March and April. Control method*

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION H7

tried included, first, systematic hooking out and removal of beetles from
palms and filling the holes with sand to prevent further entry of beetle and
secondly, use of the parasitic Green Muscardine fungus against the beetle
grubs. As could be expected, the activity of the fungus in infecting the grubs,
was slow in drier areas.

In TRAVANOORE the coconut leaf roller, Nephantis serinopa, continued
to be a serious pest, against which large numbers of Eulophid parasites were
released in the field in certain areas.

Moringa

In MADRAS Stictodiplosis moringce, a cecidomyid pest of moringa, was
tinder study. Usually buds, 4-10 mm. long, are selected for oviposition and
the maggots feed on the internal tissues, as a result of which the bud shrivels and
falls down. Pupation occurs in the soil. Another major pest of moringa is
the moth Noorda moringce, the caterpillars of which first feed on the anthers
and later, on the other parts of the buds. After the buds have fallen down,
the catepillars come out and pupate in the soil. In the case of both the pests,
raking up the soil underneath the trees to destroy the pupae was found to be
useful.

Castor

In MADRAS a study of the life-history of the red spider, Tetranychus
telariuS) showed that the life-cycle of this pest was completed in 10-12 days and
a female could lay as many as 75 eggs. Dusting with flowers of sulphur
and spraying with lime sulphur, were both found effective, the former giving
slightly better results. The other serious pest was Achoca melicerte, the
various stages of which, as also its natural enemy, Microplitis maculipennis,
were studied.

Betel vine

In BENGAL the betel vine mealywing, a regular pest of betel vine on some
farms at Dacca, was controlled by a proprietory insecticide called " Whiz ".

In ASSAM an ant, Pseudolasius binghami, was for the first time noted boring
into the nodes and internodes of betel vines.

Stored grain

At the IMPERIAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, NEW DELHI, studies
on the life-histories of the rice moth, Corcyra cephalonica Stn. and the rice
-weevil, Calandra oryzce were continued. In the case of the former, oviposition
started in April and a single female laid 100-200 eggs which hatched in three
to six days during April, May and September. The larvae hibernated in
winter and the adults emergerd in spring. For the rice weevil, a temperature
of 20C. and a relative humidity of 87 per cent* was found to be the most
favourable for development, while relative humidities 36 per cent and 56
per cent proved very unsuitable. Similarly temperatures, tyelow 16C. seemed
to be very unfavourable, irrespective of the relative humidity.

Laboratory experiments at COIMBATORE for the preservation of cholam
from the attack of Calandra beetles showed that grains mixed with borax

148 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

and copper carbonate act as a repellent, while lime plus creosote, copper carbo-
nate and sodium fluosilicate appeared to check their multiplication. The leaves
of Acorus and neem also seemed to have repellent action.

In the PUNJAB mercury placed in small quantities in grain bins was found
most effective in repelling and also checking the multiplication of insect pests.

The fecundity and duration of life of some species ofBruchus attacking pulses,
both in field and in storage, were studied in COCHIN.

7. Useful insects

Lac and Shellac

Butea frondosa (palas) X Ficus infectoria (pakaur), Zizyphus Jujuba
(ber) X Ougeina dalbergioides (panjan) and Albizzia lucida X Albizzia lucida
infections gave promising results during the Baisakhi crop. Glycine hispida
(soya bean), Tephrosia Candida (bogammeddalor), Panicum maximum (Guinea
grass) and Pollindium angustifolium (sabai grass) are found to be valuable
in preventing erosion and for the production of a revenue crop subsidiary
to lac.

Lac host trees were damaged by Aspidiotus orientalis, against which a
completely refined low boiling paraffin distillate was found to be effective,
and by the Pentatomid Tessaratoma javanica which was controlled by hand
picking. Petrol was found to be the most effective fumigant for Termitaria.

The damage to lac crops by parasites remained small, being 7-5 per cent,
and the predators, Eublemma amabilis and Holcocera pulverea, continued to
damage 30-35 per cent of the lac cells. The effect of water immersion of stick-
lac as a control against insect enemies was further investigated ; the immersion
is undoubtedly effective against lac enemies, but has certain effects on the
chemical and physical properties of the resulting shellac which are being exa-
mined.

Microbracon greeni, parasitic on the larvae of E. amabilis and M. hebetor,
parasitic on the larvae of both E. amabilis and H. pulverea are likely to be of
major importance in the biological control of lac enemies. M. greeni is in-
digenous and it would appear that the periodic release of laboratory-bred
adults would grealty increase its efficacy. M. hebetor is an introduced parasite
and results ^indicate that laboratory-bred adults are able to colonise in the
field.

Two Trichogrammid parasites of the eggs of E. amabilis and H. pulverea
recently identified as Trichogramma toideanana and Trichogramma minutum
were observed for the first time during the year and are under investigation.
Their potential value in the control of these enemies appears to be great.

On the chemical side, further progress has been made in the investigations
on the possibility of modifying shellac and shellac constituents with various
chemicals to give better products than the original shellac.

Further studies have been made in regard to the effect of various factors
on the bleaching of seed-lat; and shellac and a technical note on the bleaching
of seed-lac on a semi-large scale has been published for the information of
shellac manufacturers and industrialists.

The manufacture of garnet lac from seed-lac and by-products of lac manu-
facture, especially kiri, by solvent extraction has been worked out and the pro-
cess has been successfully demonstrated with the aid of a Pilot Plant on a semi-

RESEARCH IN CROP PRODUCTION 149

large scale. The quality of lac obtained from kiri by this process has been shown
to be quite comparable in properties with the garnet lac of commerce.

The seed-lac obtained by refining stick-lac by the centrifuge process worked
out by the Indian Lac Kesearch Institute, Namkum, Ranchi has been found
to be of very good quality and the possibilities of the commercial application
of the process are being worked out on a fairly-large scale.

Improved shellac varnishes, coloured with alcohol-soluble dyes and giving
finish like enamel, have been prepared suitable for brushing or spraying and
favourable interim reports have been received, especially in regard to their
application for cane furniture.

Considerable progress has been made in the moulding of articles from shellac
and using a hydraulic press, it has been found possible to reduce the time-cycle
to 2 min. with comparatively small articles. Greater rapidity of production
is being tried with an injection moulding press and the possibilities of starting
a shellac moulding industry have been indicated to the Government depart-
ments and industrialists in thi* country.

CHAPTER VJ
AGRICULTURAL MARKETING*

DURING 1937-38 greater emphasis was laid on the work of immediate
practical value and efforts were made to put into effect the results obtain-
ed in the course of the marketing surveys which had been completed. It was
realized that the surveys, though forming the essential foundation for any
system of organized marketing, should, as far as possible, be followed up by
effective demonstrations of the methods of improved marketing. Accord-
ingly, it was decided at the Marketing Officers' Conference held in September
1937 that new surveys should be taken up only in respect of fish and cashew-
nuts so that the central and provincial marketing staffs could devote more
time to development work.

The central marketing staff was thus engaged throughout the year in the
two-fold task of compiling the all-India survey reports on various commodities
and of giving a practical lead to the provinces and states in the matter of develop-
ment work. The all-India reports on linseed, eggs, tobacco and grapes were
in the press and several others under preparation. A special report, Cold
Storage and Transport of Perishable Produce in Delhi Province, was also pub-
lished. It outlined the economic possibilities and advantages of applying
improved methods of cold storage to perishable commodities like fruits, fish,
etc. Besides, short and simple summaries of the All-India Wheat Report were
published in English, Hindi and Urdu for the benefit of the general reader
and the cultivator. The annual report of the Agricultural Marketing Adviser
for the year ending 31 December 1937 was also issued as a priced publication.

The survey work and the compilation of reports on lac, sugar and coffee
was continued by the special staffs working under the Agricultural Marketing
Adviser.

The experimental grading and marking stations, run during the previous
year, having indicated possibilities of development along the lines of defined
Btandards and systematic grading, it was felt necessary not merely to continue
the experiments but to extend them to cover fresh commodities and to other
centres. With this end in view, the funds of the Agricultural Marketing Adviser
were augmented by a special grant of Us. 31,000 made by the Imperial Council
of Agricultural Research.

Such grading operations assumed further importance when it was decided
to attempt the grading of ghee which is one of the most widely consumed
articles of food in the country. A scheme for the testing, grading and marking:
of ghee was formulated in consultation with the trade and the remarkable
progress achieved may be judged from the fact that within nine months from
the date of inauguration of the scheme ghee grading and packing stations were
functioning successfully at Calcutta, Cawnpore, Okara, Khurja, Aligarh, Hath-
ras, Jaswantnagar, Etawah* Firozabad, Shikohabad, Sirsaganj, etc. The task
of checking the quality of ghee collected at these stations was entrusted to a

* The assistance* of Mr. A. M. Livingstone, Agricultural Marketing Adviser to the
Government of India, in the preparation of this Chapter is gratefully acknowledged.

( 100 )

AGRICULTURAL MARKETING t5t

central ghee control laboratory specially established for the purpose at the
Haroourt Butler Technological Institute, Cawnpore.

The adoption of uniform grade specifications for ghee was rendered difficult
by the existence in certain areas, like Kathiawar, of genuine ghee having physical
and chemical characteristics different from those prescribed originally by the
conference held at Simla. Hence, the claims to special exemptions advanced
by the Kathiawar ghee interests were considered at a special meeting in Bombay
and suitable provision was made in the Agricultural Produce (Grading and
Marking) (Ghee) Rules, 1938, to admit of the grading And marking of genuine
ghee of particular localities and in particular seasons having peculiar physical
and chemical characteristics.

The experimental hide grading statipns at Agra and Delhi were continued
and new stations were opened at Tangra and Garden Reach Slaughter Houses
in Calcutta. The working of the hide grading stations was reviewed by an
informal conference held at Cawnpore in February 1938 and certain modifica-
tions, found necessary in the light of the experience gained, were incorporated
in the hide grading rules. The conference recommended that the possibilities-
of introducing mechanical flaying should be investigated. It also authorized
the Agricultural Marketing Adviser to open a hide improvement fund for the-
purpose of encouraging proper and careful flaying by paying small premia oa
well flayed hides.

The egg grading stations at Pabbi (Peshawar), Chenganoor (Travancore)
and at Delhi were continued and eight more stations were opened at Calcutta,.
Mardan, Havelian, Quilon, Lucknow, Bareilly, Bombay and Chinnaganjam
(Madras Presidency). The fact that the egg merchants were willing to take
to grading without any financial aid testified to the practical success of grading.
The grading experiments in respect of fruits were also continued oranges at
Nagpur and Sylhet, grapes at Sheikh Mohammad! in the North- West Frontier
Province, apples in Kashmir, mosambis at Rahuri and mangoes at Bulsar in
Bombay and Digha in Bihar. An experiment for the manufacture and sale of
graded ata from conditioned wheat similar to the one previously tried at Delhi
was conducted at Lahore and proved popular. Concurrently with the grading
of commodities for the internal trade, it was decided to apply the grading system
to tabacco exported from the Madras Presidency to the United Kingdom, and
the Indian Tobacco Association, Guntur, shipped several hundred bales of
tobacco, graded according to the specifications laid in the Agricultural Produce
(Grading and Marking) (Tobacco) Rules.

In addition to revising the rules for grading tobacco, eggs, oranges, hides
and grapes in the light of experience, new rules in respect of commodities like
ghee, plums, mangoes and apples were promulgated. The results obtained
in the course of the grading operations outlined above, encouraged the autho-
rities concerned to consider the question of widening the Schedule to the Agri-
cultural Produce (Grading and Marking) Act, so as to include fruit products,,
cotton of specified varieties, ata, rice of specified varieties, oil-seeds and edible
oils and wheat of specified varieties. With a view to securing wide support
in this connexion contact was established with the main interests affected.

Since public cooperation and appreciation were essential for the success of
fluch a new line of work, advantage was taken of the various agricultural exhibi-
tions in provinces and states to give public demonstrations of the technique of

152 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

grading and these evoked general interest, particularly that of the cultivators.
The various provincial Governments also gave wide publicity to the Agricultural
Produce (Grading and Marking) Act, by translating it into twelve major
languages.

As in the case of commodities previously surveyed, many representative
samples of rapeseed, mustard seed, market wool, ghee, sugar and butter were
collected and analysed in different centres with a view to defining their quality
characteristics and to finding their prevalent defects. The market wool samples
"were also examined from the point of view of their commercial utility by a
leading firm of wool manufacturers.

The weekly broadcast bulletin was made more comprehensive by the inclu-
sion of an estimate of wheat stocks at Karachi and wider publicity was given to
this bulletin through newspapers and journals. The daily broadcast service
in respect of Hapur was enlarged by the inclusion of quotations for gram, barley,
peas and arhar. Besides, arrangements were made to broadcast twice a week,
along with the Hapur quotations, the latest available quotations for jute bags
(f.o.r. Calcutta). As a preliminary step towards the introduction of a market
intelligence service designed to benefit and connect the buying and selling
centres for she-buffaloes, statistics of their daily prices and arrivals into Bombay
were collected and a weekly bulletin compiled therefrom was published every
Wednesday.

Experiments on cold storage transport continued to receive the attention
of the Cold Storage Committee, consisting of representatives of the Finance,
Defence, the Railway Board and Imperial Council of Agricultural Research
Departments, of which the Agricultural Marketing Adviser was the liaison
officer. Closely linked with the question of transport is that of proper contain-
ers for perishables like fruits and eggs. An improved type of light container
was designed for eggs and was subjected to several examinations. Other
problems such as the standardization of weights and measures also continued
to engage the attention of the Agricultural Marketing Adviser.

The long series of negotiations with the grain and oil-seeds trading interests
were brought to a successful close when, as a result of a third grain conference
held in April 1938, the trade accepted with certain modifications the standard
contract terms for white wheat and for * small ' and ' bold ' linseed. Con-
sideration of the final terms of the contract for groundnuts had, however, to
ibe postponed to a later date.

While the central staff was busy tackling these several problems, similar
progress was maintained by the marketing staffs in the provinces and states.
The provincial officers examined the possibilities of opening new grading stations
and supervised the working of the existing ones. As a result of their efforts,
several railways reduced the freight rates on many commodities and thereby
encouraged a greater flow of traffic between centres of demand and
supply.

The formation of an organic and closely knit marketing structure was further
facilitated by the decision bf several major Indian states to pass legislation
similar to that of the Agricultural Produce (Grading and Marking) Act. Sikkim
was the first state tp pass such an act and others like Travancore, Kashmir,
Hyderabad, Mysore, Patiala, Porbandar and Nawanagar have taken the prelimi-
nary steps. The all-India nature of the activities and the progress already

AGRICULTURAL MARKETING 153

achieved lead one to hope that the Indian agriculturist will soon be enabled
to market his produce in a more economical and scientific manner.

Progress report

The fourth annual report of the Agricultural Marketing Adviser to the
Government of India (published elsewhere) includes the summarized reports
of the marketing staffs in provinces and states and shows the progress of the
scheme in detail. It may be recalled, however, that the Office of the Agri*-
cultural Marketing Adviser with a central marketing staff was established
by the Government of India in 1935 as a result of the Report of the Royal
Commission on Agriculture (1928) presided over by Lord Linlithgow, now
His Excellency the Viceroy. The report embodied many recommendations
for the improvement of agricultural marketing and it will be useful at this-
stage to take stock and see how far the main proposals of the Commission.
have been carried out.

Marketing officers

The Commission recommended the appointment of a whole-time marketing-
officer of the status of Deputy Director of Agriculture in each of the major
provinces. This has been done and three assistants provided by the help
of a grant from the central Government through the Imperial Council of
Agricultural Research. Provincial Governments have, in some cases, added
to their staff to meet the growing demand for development work of a
practical nature. Special marketing staffs have been appointed for jute, sugar,
lac and coffee. Ten leading Indian states, at their own expense, have engaged
full-time marketing officers. There are, therefore, now altogether 100 full-time
marketing officers in India and in addition over 200 minor Indian states have
nominated persons to carry out marketing enquiries so that marketing work is
receiving attention practically throughout the whole length and breadth of
India. The marketing staff in Burma also cooperates.

Surveys

The Commission's report pointed out the need for the collection and
study of exact information in the form of marketing surveys as an essential
preliminary to the formulation of an effective policy for the improvement of
marketing.

By the end of March 1939 four all-India marketing survey reports had been
published (wheat, linseed, tobacco and eggs). Abbreviated editions in Indian^
languages were issued for wheat. Those for linseed were in press and also the-
report on grapes. Survey work was completed and reports were being com*
piled in respect of seven commodities (rice, groundnuts, coffee, potatoes, milk y
cattle and hides and skins) as well as on cooperative marketing. Twenty-one-
other commodities were under survey and altogether well over 300 commodity
survey reports were received in the course of the year from the marketing
officers in provinces and states, for being examined and compiled into all-India
survey reports by the central marketing staff.

Grading and standardization

In the view of the Commission there \\as considerable room for improve-
ment in the quality of much of the Indian produce as marketed. In discussing

154 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

steps which might be taken to improve the general level of quality and assist
the cultivator in obtaining the full premium for quality, the Commission
thought that organized trade associations in India could give great assistance
in applying effective pressure to secure improved quality from the producer.

This view was fully borne out by the preliminary marketing surveys and
two general lines of action were decided upon. First, the physical grading and
packing of commodities such as fruit, eggs, etc., on the basis of statutory
standards and second, the standardization of contract terms for staples such
as cereals and oil-seeds.

The former involved legislation and the Agricultural Produce (Grading and
Marking) Act was passed in 1937 for defining standards of quality and methods
of marking in respect of prescribed grade designations applied to scheduled
products. As a result of consultation with the provincial Governments and
with the representative trade and manufacturing interests, the original products
in the schedule were later added to and by March 1939 included fruit, vegetables,
eggs, dairy produce, tobacco, coffee, hides and skins, fruit products, ata, oil-
seeds, vegetable oils (including hydrogenated oils and vegetable fats), cotton
and rice. Rules in respect of most of these commodities had been duly pre-
pared and notified.

Further, experimental grading stations were opened or established by packers
authorized in accordance with the rules under the act. Altogether produce
valued at about half a crore of rupees was graded and packed at 134 centres
and sold under the AGMARK the emblem used to distinguish the standard
products. The number of grading stations is rapidly increasing. Up to the
end of March 1939 the following had been opened, eggs (36), hides (10), ata (2),
tobacco (3), fruits (27), ghee (53) and rice (3). The results of these grading
stations show that there is, in fact, in India a good demand amongst consumers
Tor reliable high-grade produce for which producers can secure a substantial
premium. In some cases the AGMARK products sold for 50 per cent more
than similar produce ungraded and the average increase ranged from 5 per cent
in the case of eggs to 9 per cent for fruit and 12 per cent in the case of ghee.

Consultations and conferences were held with associations of traders and
manufacturers with a view to drawing up standard contracts for staples. The
terms were designed not only to act as a basis for " futures " trading and im-
proving the system of price quotation generally, but also to provide a premium
to producers of good quality through a mutual or reciprocal scale for produce
higher or lower than the basis, and at the same time to discourage the putting
of dirty produce on the market by reducing the amount of refraction (impurities)
allowed in the basis prescribed in the standard contracts.

Considerable progress was made towards the general adoption, throughout
the whole trade, of the standard contracts for wheat, linseed and groundnuts
both for crushing and edible purposes. Certain interests, however, remained
opposed to the standard contracts in Calcutta, for linseed, and in Bombay and
Karachi for wheat. At meetings of all the interests concerned held in Calcutta
and .Bombay during March, the respective Hon'ble Ministers for Agriculture
indicated that if voluntary agreement could not be secured they would con-
sider the possibility of applying statutory sanction* In Karachi, however, it
was found possible to secure unanimity among all the interests for the adoption
of the standard contracts.

AGRICULTURAL MARKETING 155

There is a need for the formation of stronger representative trade associa-
tions in India and as a result of negotiations and discussions initiated by the
central marketing staff, the Tanners' Federation of India and an Indian Tobacco
Association have been formed. Committees have been set up with a view to
constituting a federation of the ghee trade, and an all-India federation of grain
and oil-seed trade associations and allied interests. The necessity for the last-
named has been particularly felt for carrying out negotiations with the cor-
Tesponding trade associations in the United Kingdom regarding standard con-
tract terms for produce exported from India.

Regulated markets

Well-regulated markets for all produce were regarded by the Commission
as essential and it was recommended that in all provinces local Governments
should take the initiative in establishing regulated markets under provincial
legislation. This point was again emphasized at a marketing conference of
Ministers from provinces and states held in Delhi in November 1938.

The central marketing staff circulated a model bill and before the end of
March 1939 an act for the regulation of markets had been passed in the Punjab.
Bills suitable for local conditions had been introduced or prepared in the United
Provinces, Bihar, and Bengal, and were under preparation in Sind, the North-
West Frontier Province, Mysore and Travancore. The Bombay Act was being
amended to include produce other than cotton, and in Madras the Commercial
Crops Markets Act was extended to tobacco in Guntur district and groundnuts
in South Arcot.

Statutory regulation of markets already prevailed in the Central Provinces
and in certain states such as Hyderabad, Gwalior and Patiala so that as soon
as the recent legislation, either passed or contemplated, is put into effect this
recommendation of the Commission will be well on the way to fulfilment through-
out most of India.

Standardization of weights

An important recommendation of the Commission was to the effect that
the Government of India should again undertake an investigation into the
possibility of standardizing weights and measures throughout India.

The investigations carried out in the course of the marketing surveys showed
that conditions were chaotic and that producers suffered considerably through
the manipulation of weights, measures and scales, anjl the fact that the com-
parison of prices was almost impossible owing to the trade practice of buying
on the basis of a heavy weight and selling on a light.

Fortunately the surveys also showed a common thread of agreement through-
out India in respect of the three cardinal weights, tola, seer and raaund and
as a result the central Government passed the Standards of Weight Act, 1939.
Pending the passing of central legislation, proposals were awaiting considera-
tion in most of the provinces. Bills to standardize their weights on the basis
of the all-India standards were taken in hand in Hyderabad, Patiala and Tra-
vancore, and Mysore had indicated a readiness to follow suit. It is, therefore,
reasonable to suppose that imiform standards of weight will be established
throughout most of India in the very near future.

150 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

In regard to measures the marketing surveys, so far as they have goney
have not shown any common feature prevailing throughout India regarding
dry measures and it would, at present, appear that their standardization can
only be done on a local basis. So far as liquid measures are concerned the
imperial gallon is in very wide-spread use and the marketing survey reports
have recommended that local Governments should base their standard measures-
on it.

Market news service

The Commission recommended that attention should be paid to
the form and manner in which market information regarding prices and stocks
at the principal marketing centres of the tract, and at the ports and the
wholesale and ' futures ' prices ruling in major markets should be made
available.

Provincial and state marketing staffs have directed their attention to initia>
ing local market news services through the radio and by the issue of bulletins-
and in other ways, but it will be readily understood that having regard to the
amount of other work in hand and the absence of standard weights, most of the
efforts so far have been of a tentative and experimental character.

The central marketing staff has arranged the daily broadcast from Delhi
of * ready ' and ' futures ' prices in Hapur market for a number of cereals,
pulses and oil-seeds. The price of jute bags is included in this broadcast twice
a week. In addition a weekly market report in English and Hindustani is
broadcast every Saturday and issued, at the same time, to over 100 newspapers*
Tnis includes information regarding the ' ready ' and ' futures * prices and stocks
of wheat and linseed at the large ports and certain important up-country centres,
as well as information regarding rice and a summary of the position in markets
abroad as received from the Indian Trade Commissioner in London.

Since the surveys showed almost a complete absence of market news regard-
ing cattle, a service was opened for the exchange of prices, loadings, etc. between
certain producing areas and Bombay and Calcutta. The experience so far
gained seems to indicate that it is necessary to have two different types of
market news services, one for markets and another for producers, but that it
is not possible to lay down any general rules on this subject. Each commodity
and each area presents special problems which require study and attention by
the local marketing staffs. This is being done and the work is developing.

Transport, cold storage and containers

In recommending the periodical revision and adjustment of railway
freights the Commission suggested that Agricultural Departments should
interpret to the railway authorities the requirements of producers, and
marketing officers should be members of rhe local railway advisory com-
mittees. Only in the case of the Punjab and Madras has the latter recom-
mendation been adopted.

So far as the reduction of freights is concerned, various railways as a result
of discussions with the local marketing staffs have so far allowed more than
100 concessional rates on about 30 different commodities. Attempts are
being made to maintain closer relation between marketing staffs and the com-
mercial branches of the railways.

AGRICULTURAL MARKETING 157

The Commission also recommended that the possibilities of cold storage
should be investigated under the auspices of the Railway Board and that
^experiments should 'be made to devise suitable standard forms of containers.

The Railway Board in collaboration with the Imperial Council of Agricul*
tural Research and the Defence Department constructed an experimental
railway refrigerated van and the Agricultural Marketing Adviser carried out
test runs of the van with fruits and vegetables. The prices obtained for the
produce showed considerable possibilities to be inherent in this form of transport.

Trials of improved containers were carried out for oranges in the Central
Trovinces and although only done in a small way showed that the produce
^packed in this way could command a higher price. More success has attended
the experiments in devising a small standard container for eggs. This has
^proved of value ID reducing the breakages in transport and the North Western
Railway introduced concessional rates on eggs packed in this way and also a
special freight on the returned empties.

The work is to some extent still in the experimental stage but the results
'Obtained so far are promising.

'Cooperative marketing

Cooperative sale societies should be encouraged in all possible ways
.-according to the Commission and help can best be given in the form of assist-
ance in the grading of produce k

Several of the grading stations for eggs and fruits already referred to were
operated on a cooperative basis and secured direct price benefits for the pro-
ducers. Existing producers' cooperative sale societies for ghee in the United
Provinces were brought into direct contact with refiners of AGMARK ghee
.and not only -obtained an extra Re. 1-8 per maund above the bazar price but
effected a further saving in market charges and middlemen's profits.

The marketing surveys have shown that in the case of perishables parti-
cularly a more rapid collection of village produce and a speeding up of distribu-
tion generally is required. The measured loss in the hot weather due to staling
of eggs runs as high as 28 per cent and the damage to fruits in some cases even
higher. The more rapid assembly of village produce by instituting cooperative
societies of small village collectors was, therefore, indicated. The Frontier
Cooperative Egg Sale Society of local village collectors, started by the central
{marketing staff, has amply justified its existence not only by securing more
profit for the collectors, but by bringing about a higher general level of prices
for producers with a premium on large as compared with small eggs. This
has been obtained entirely by the elimination of losses and more efficient dis-
tribution and not at the expense of the consumer.

There is a need for further and more rapid expansion of cooperative activities
on these lines. For example, in the case of eggs alone there are at least 150
centres in India where more thun 50,000 eggj are assembled daily by village
collectors.

Hitherto provincial cooperative departments have confined their operations
Strictly to the formation of producers' cooperative sale societies frequently
"with disastrous results. Where producers' cooperative sale societies are formed
there is a great need for them to be Jinked into central cooperative unions which,

158 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

will operate on business lines in much the same way as a pakka arhatiya witfr
the help and guidance of the local marketing staff. The coordination of effort,
however, between local cooperative departments and local marketing staffs-
has been found difficult except in provinces such as the Punjab and Madras
where Marketing Advisory Boards or Rural Development Boards exist on which
non-officials and all departments (including industries) concerned with agri-
cultural marketing are represented.

The Ministers' Marketing Conference opened by H. E. the Viceroy in Novem-
ber 1938 took note of this fact and subsequently similar bodies had been or
were in process of being established in several other provinces and states by
the end of March.

Miscellaneous

There were many incidental recommendations of the Commission. For
example, that the foreign demand for specially chosen fruits should be
tested. Nine tons of mangoes bearing the AGMARK were despatched to
London where they met with a mixed reception but enabled useful permanent
contacts to be made.

Many major recommendations of the Commission bearing on the market-
ing of agricultural produce are not dealt with here. For example, their sugges-
tions for the improvement of agricultural statistics and forecasts and for the
revision of normal and standard yields of various crops. These recommenda-
tions have been fully borne out by the marketing surveys. Further, the report
dealt with the development of cultivation, particularly of fruits and vegetables
and matters relating to rural welfare, communications, education and agricul-
tural research all of which make it a useful handbook of reference for marketing
officers. These important items apart, it would appear that in spite of the
hiatus which occurred between 1928 and 1935, the main recommendations
of the Commission specifically relating to agricultural marketing are fairly well
on the way to being implemented.

Later developments

With the information then at its disposal the Royal Commission on
Agriculture could not be expected to make positive recommendations on
many important points which have since arisen.

In regard to the control of exports, for example, they could not have fore-
seen that the export of cigarette leaf a trade only then in its infancy would
be disastrously affected by the absence of such control, and that by the end of
1938 practically all the interests concerned were agreed on the need for all ship-
ments being graded and marked in accordance with the prescribed standards.

Conditions were then so rudimentary that problems connected with the
wider organization of marketing were not of immediate concern. The partial
rationalization of the sugar industry in the United Provinces and Bihar and the
recently introduced Lac Control Bill in Bihar have opened up new avenues of
approach to the organized marketing of other commodities.

The regulation of pioduction has not so far been attempted except in a
tentative way by the voluntary restriction of jute acreage in Bengal. The-
possibility of central legislation for controlling commodity exchanges dealing

AGRICULTURAL MARKETING 159

in * futures ' with a view to the elimination of (satta) gambling transactions
was only taken up by the central marketing staff at the instance of the Ministers'
Marketing Conference.

For future development reliance must be placed on the marketing surveys
which are regularly bringing to light these and many other similar problems
which can only be solved by the wit and willingness of the marketing staff so
far as Governments and other interests concerned are prepared to make use of
their services.

CHAPTER VII

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING*

1. Boring and pumping

IN the BOMBAY PROVINCE, 12 boring machines and 15 pumps were given on
hire, 12 boring machines were repaired and 282 power plants were inspected
through the mechanical assistants in the divisions. Similarly 25 power plants,
including 22 pumping, were erected and 15 were repaired. As regards site
surveys for pumping, 37 sites were surveyed and 39 estimates supplied for
power plants. The receipts for hire of plants and for the sale of spares and
machines were Rs. 30,523 and Rs. 97,734 respectively.

In the BARODA STATE, 73 wells were bored, of which 45 were successful,
giving an increase of 70 Jcoses of water. Similarly 103 wells were dynamited,
giving a total increase of 5J koses in 75 wells. Nine tube-wells were bored
successfully and of these the one at Makarpura Dairy has the capacity of about
15,000 gallons per hour. The air compressor was used for testing water supply
and cleaning bore holes at seven places.

As regards pumping plants, five pumps driven by engines and 10 pumps
worked by electric motors were installed. Thirty-five pumping plants were
repaired including fourteen electric sets.

In the MADRAS PROVINCE, the total number of borings put down and
the depth bored during the year were 971 and 69,840 feet respectively as against
1,034 and 66,369 feet respectively in the previous year. The total number of
borings decreased by 63 but the footage bored increased by 3,471 reflecting
the tendency for deeper borings. The demand for borings for providing
water for drinking purposes is on the increase. The amount expended by the
public on the boring operations conducted during the year is estimated at
Rs. 1,61,374. Of the 673 successful borings put down, those for agricultural
purposes numbered 510. The deepest of the borings completed during the
year by a hand boring set was 566 feet and by a power drill 876 feet.

Twenty-four fresh artesian springs were tapped during this year, capable
of discharging from 5 to 400 gallons of water per minute at ground level, thus
making a total of 150 artesian bore-holes so far put down.

In all 75 sub-artesian borings were made, some in existing wells and some
from surface, and water was tapped in all of them. Out of these 75 borings,
65 are for the purpose of supplying drinking water to rural areas, etc., and the
remaining 10 for increasing the water supply in wells for irrigation. Bore-
holes for supply of drinking water are fitted with hand pumps. The power
drills were used for making 10 bore-holes of depths ranging from 82 feet to
561 feet in various places in the province and all of them, with the exception
of one, which was to be tested, were successful.

The department maintained^ 22 pumping plants for hiring out to culti-
vators and erected for them 54 pumping plants in various divisions resulting
in a new area of about 90 acres under irrigation.

* The assistance of Mr. C. G. Paranjpe, Agricultural Engineer to Government, Bombay,
in the preparation of this Chapter is gratefully acknowledged.

( 160 )

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 161

In BIHAR, 242 open borings of 2J in. to 4 in. in diameter were sunk with
a total footage of 20,297 and out of these, 193 borings were successful. The
number of borings in progress was 14. As regards tube- wells of small diameter,
124 wells with diameter varying from 1J in. to 5 in. were installed and out of
these 116 were found to be successful. In addition to the above, three tube-
wells of 10 in. to 12 in. in diameter were also sunk and the total depth sunk
in feet was 9,721. The number of tube-wells in progress was seven. The
percentage of successful bores in the cases of open borings and tube-wells was-
79 and 96 respectively.

In BENGAL, a 6 in. tube-well with a turbine pump driven by a 15 B. H. P.
oil engine was installed on the Chinsurah farm. This tube-well yielded, on
test, 38,000 gallons of water per hour. An irrigation plant capable of deli-
vering 48,000 to 50,000 gallons of water per hour was also designed and installed
at Lakshminarainpiir in the Malda district.

t In MYSORE, two pumping outfits were worked in two areas of the Mysore
Tobacco Company for irrigation and one electrically driven plant consisting
of a 10 H. P. motor and 4 in. centrifugal pump was installed at the Hesaraghatta
grass farm.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES, a pumping plant consisting of a 9 B. H. P.
crude oil engine and 4 in.x3 in. centrifugal pump was installed for a culti-
vator. In addition to the above, pumping tests were carried out around
Kalmeshwar with a view to finding out the { pumping level ' and the
capacity of an average well, for irrigating orange orchards. It was found
that the ' pumping level ' was between 30 ft. to 33 ft. when discharge of
water from the pump was adjusted to 28 to 30 gallons per minute and that an
average well of 35 ft. to 40 ft. depth and six ft. to seven ft. in diameter was
able to command about three acres of oranges with one mhote, provided
the layout was well arranged and the distribution of water properly looked
after.

In NORTH TRAVANCORE, pumping demonstrations were given and the
interested ryots were furnished with details regarding the cost of the machi-
nery as well as the cost of running and upkeep.

In the PUNJAB, Rs. 43,898 were spent on well-boring. It has been noticed
that the demand for this work was reduced when the overhead charge of annas
twelve per foot was reimposed. The existing rule of prepayment of the esti-
mated cost of the bore was also responsible to some extent in reducing the
demand lor boring. During the year under report 50 boring machines were
at work and they completed 353 bores, out of which 266 were successful. The
total footage bored during the year was 37,993. Out of 266 successful bores,
strainers were used in 160 wells. The average yield in such wells increased
from 617 gallons per hour before boring to 3,288 gallons after boring under an
average head of three feet. The total length of strainer used in 160 wells was
3,086 ft., giving an average of about 19 ft. strainer per well. The average cost
of each well bored with the strainer was Rs. 240. Three deep trial bores, one
at Khanewal of 18 in. in diameter and 590 ft. deep, the other at Rampura of
12 in. in diameter and 284 ft. deep and the third at Jullundur of 7 in. in dia-
meter and 250 ft. deep were made. In addition to above, eight demonstration
bores were also made at places such as Jullundur, Amri^sar, Lahore, etc. which
have attracted a large number of people. As regards tube- wells, 19 power-

162 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

operated tube-wells were completed during the year with a total footage of
5,546 and using 1,021 ft. length of strainers of different makes.

In SIND, five tube- wells, out of which one is 6 in. in diameter, were sunk
at different places for irrigation purposes and out of these, three including
the trial bore taken at Karachi have been found to be unsuccessful, as the
quantity of water tapped was insufficient and the quality brackish. The bore
at Larkhana and at the Agricultural Research Station, Dokri were very
successful, the former yielding 15,000 gallons of water per hour and the latter
12,000 gallons per hour with a drop of eight and eighteen feet respectively.
The possibilities for economic utilization of tube-wells for agricultural
purposes are being explored in one of the talukas of Karachi district and a
boring machine is sent there to take some trial bores. A scheme for an
extensive well-boring programme in Sind, including the desert tract, in
conjunction with rural reconstruction, is in contemplation.

2. Water -lifts for hand and bullock power

In MADRAS, further minor improvements on the improved circular mhote
have been carried out and it has been entered for competition, notified by the
Imperial Council of Agricultural Research, for improvements in water-lifts, as
the provincial research committee considered it as a distinct improvement
upon the existing types. Three such Lifts have been manufactured and installed
at Akkaum, Nagari and Anakapalle and two Persian wheels at Attur and
Kabakasti.

In BIHAR, the following water-lifts were made and supplied to different
parties :

2 Archimedean screws
7 Rahat pumps
16 Hand pumps

3. Bunds and channels for irrigation and erosion control

In BIHAR, 15 irrigation schemes for controlling 20,000 acres were inspected,
and levels, plans and estimates were forwarded to the parties for considera-
tion. The biggest of these schemes would irrigate about 5,000 acres. There
are yet 54 irrigation schemes which are pending.

In BENGAL, surveys of two irrigation projects, one for Chinsurah and the
other for Malda, were made, plotted and estimates submitted.

In BOMBAY, the observations of soil erosion and its control in almost all
parts of the province were continued and bunding classes at various centres
were held. Similarly, advice on preventive measures was given on inspection
of typical areas.

4. Agricultural implements and machinery

In the BOMBAY PROVINCE, further work was continued on improved
seed-drills, winnowing fans, the application of ball bearings to country cart
wheels, groundnut lifting implement and the soil scooper or basin furrowing
implement. Six improved seed j drills were sent to districts for trials and de-
monstrations and 114 acres were sown by them. Three such improved drills
were sold to people outside the province, thus making up the total number
to 24 drills.

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 163

Out of the 14 winnowing fans made and supplied, the latest model has
been greatly appreciated by the people and there has now been a considerable
demand for such fans from Khandesh.

A few minor improvements have been effected in the arrangement of fixing
the ball bearings into the cart wheels to overcome certain difficulties. The
idea has been much appreciated by the public during the shows at Belgaum,
Sanand, Broach and Haripura.

In the case of the groundnut digger it was found that stiff soils demand
still stronger supports for the blade. Improvements in that direction are
taken in hand and the implement given further tests next season.

The soil scooper designed for the Sholapur dry farm worked quite satis-
factorily but the one built for Bijapur requires further improvements in order
to enable it to deal successfully with the peculiar soil condition there.

Two wooden and steel ridging implements were designed for Gujarat and
sent for trials to Surat. It was, however, found that further tests are neces-
sary to form some definite opinion about their usefulness.

In BARODA, six improved wheat threshers were prepared and sent out for
trials, five in Mehasana district and one at the model farm. Trials of
cultivator and dusting machine were also in hand. The Baroda hoe
has been found to be a very useful implement by the agriculturists and
there has been a considerable demand for it. The new model A. G. (1938) is a
distinct improvement upon the old ones. The total hoes so far sold amount to
653.

Three bullock-power crushers and four engine-power crushers were put to
work by the department for demonstration and in all they crushed 71,838
maunds (Baroda) of sugarcane.

In MADRAS, the demand for the light Cooper and Kirloskar ploughs was
greater than last year. The new light ridge plough, designed by the section
and produced now by all the leading manufacturers, has been well received by
the people and 235 ploughs were sold since it was put on the market. Tests
were carried out with the Cooper No. 34 plough, Gardner Turnwrest plough,
two bar point ploughs from Messrs. Cooper Engineering Works Satara and the
five-tyned John Deere cultivator received from Messrs. William Jacks & Co.,
and amongst them the first and the last two have been found to be satisfactory.
The Cooper No. 34 plough is as good as the Ransome's ' Victory ' plough and
its cost is only one-fifth of the latter.

The total number of iron ploughs of all descriptions sold throughout the
province reached a record figure of 4,339 excluding 918 ploughs sold by private
agencies.

The earth scooper with a capacity of 2 c. ft., a basin furrower for moisture
conservation and soil erosion control and a disc roller for the incorporation of
green manure into the puddle in paddy land cultivation were devised and
found to be satisfactory.

The improved seed drill has been tested with highly satisfactory results
and will be tested on an extensive scale next season. Trials were continued
with wet land puddling implement, chaif -cutters, paddy* husking machines and
stalk pullers. A hand distributing device for artificial manure has been de-
signed for use in potato cultivation in the Nilgiri hills and has given very
satisfactory results.

164 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

All the power-driven sugarcane crushing mills were fully engaged on hire
during the season with the exception of one mill attached to Tanjore division.
One thousand eight hundred and sixteen tons of cane were crushed by
these crushers, producing 14,175 maunds of jaggery and 157 maunds of white
sugar.

Pneumatic tyred carts have shown complete satisfaction in all respects
and they are greatly appreciated by the ryots, even though the cost is 2J times
that of an ordinary country cart. The section has manufactured rubber tyred
carts, trolleys and wheel harrows of various descriptions to meet the demand
of different officers. The section has also built an improved cotton stalk
puller, a corn sieve and a turmeric polisher for hire and demonstration
purposes.

In BIHAR, a winnowing machine was designed and tests carried out with
it showed satisfactory results. Experiments were carried out with a hand-
power maize sheller costing about Rs. 8 and capable of clearing about four
maunds of maize cobs per hour. The machine has proved very satisfactory.
The department supplied two archimedean screw water-lifts, seven rahat
pumps, 16 hand pumps and five Norag threshing machines to cultivators.

In BENGAL, Peterson's furnaces, filter battery, oil-seed press for labora-
tory work, flax breaking machine and the all-steel bullock carts come under
the newly invented machines.

The demand for the improved Bengal ploughs is greatly increasing. The
.all-steel improved type of field cultivator, three types of hand hoes, a strong
branding iron and a large and efficient grease gun are an addition to the newly
designed implements.

A large char furnace of special design for the economical manufacture of
activated char on a commercial scale for use in refining cane juice, in the
manufacture of refined white sugar in the departmental type of open pan sugar
factories, was designed, made up and installed at Birampur factory and tested.
It proved quite satisfactory in every respect. Activated char can be manu-
iactured in these furnaces at Us. 4-13-9 per maund.

Peterson's improved types of furnaces for gur were made and tests on
A, B and C types were conducted.

One improved new 25-ton open pan sugar factory of improved depart-
mental type was erected at Mhow, Central India. The flax-breaking machine
will be assembled after the parts are manufactured and then tested. It is
hoped that it will improve the flax industry to a great extent.

The all-steel tilting and easy running bullock carts of different types were
designed in view of economy, long life and reduced maintenance cost.

In MYSORE, experiments with a power attachment in cane milling were
carried out for preparing cream jaggery and since they proved successful, a
10 H. P. electric motor and a half-ton horizontal power crusher were purchased
for increased production of crea'hi jaggery.

The manufacture of all-steel implements required by the central implement
depot was continued ,at the Hebbal workshop, including the manufacture of
ploughs and plough-shares, etc. A few locally made shovelled cultivators were
tested and found satisfactory. A cheap fly trap, a groundnut seed drill and a
groundnut harvester come under the newly designed machines. The fly trap
found to be very useful and about 50 have been made and supplied.

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 165

The Raoeng pulper supplied by Messrs. Krupp Engineering Works was
fitted up in the Coffee Experimental Station, Balehonnur, for demonstration to
the coffee planters.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES, two cane crushing plants, one consisting of an
8 H. P. Crossley engine and Kirloskar 8J in.xlO in. horizontal cane crusher
and the other consisting of an 8 B. H. P. Blackstone engine and a Kirloskar
crusher of similar size, were erected by the department, the former for the Belul
farm and the latter for the Bilaspur farm.

UNITED PROVINCES. In Allahabad, research on implements has been
mainly concerned with the development of ploughs suitable for medium-sized
and small cultivators and has resulted in the development of three ploughs
which are coming into increasingly wide use. The design of a new grain-drill
is practically ready and it will be put on the market after one more season of
testing.

In TRAVANCORE, demonstrations were given with the improved type of
iron ploughs and * Pallikkal ' plough, which is the imitation of improved types,
is rapidly gaining favour with the ryots, (icneral demonstrations were also
given with the improved type of sugarcane mills to show to the agriculturists
the higher percentage of extraction obtained by them than that by the country
mill.

In the PUNJAB, a scheme regarding the award of prizes for inventions de-
signed to improve the various implements of cultivation suitable for the need
of the province was sanctioned and accordingly a prize of Rs. 3,000 was ad-
vertised for the best invention of cheap bullock-driven cultivators.

In SIND, four agricultural implements, viz. (1) threshing machine, (2) univer-
sal seed-drill, (3) stalk-cutter and (4) rake, were designed for bullock power.
Efforts are being made by the department to introduce the use of a seed-drill
in place of broadcasting, which is the common method of sowing crops like
wheat, gram, yewrar, etc. in this province. The four-coultered drill now designed
to sow grain crop is universal and is fitted with an arrangement to control
the seed rate and the depth. Further, necessary improvements have been made
in the already designed implements such as the winnowing machine, standard
plough, bullock cart and low-lift water wheel.

At the IMPERIAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, NEW DELHI, the
testing of agricultural implements and machinery was continued and the follow-
ing implements were tested :

(1) A. G. B. general cultivator and bullock hoe was used for interculture

and the defects noticed were communicated to the inventor with
suggestions for improvements. A new improved model has been
received and will be tried next year.

(2) The Ramchandra water-lift was given an exhaustive trial at two places.

The working of the lift is based on sound principles but the tests-
have revealed that it needs expensive repairs and heavy cost of
upkeep.

(3) A mechanical seed-drill received frcja the Research Engineer, Coim-

batore, was found to have certain defects and the inventor has been
referred to in the matter.

(4) The Hissar S. 3A plough was worked in comparison with the standard

Victory plough and was found hard on the bullocks.

166 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

It is noticed that the inventors do not realize the importance of testing
their implements by an experienced agriculturist at all stages before the imple-
ment is brought out to the public and hence a number of implements had to
be returned on account of their obvious defects.

In the HYDERABAD STATE, the Agricultural Department supplied to the
public 186 implements and 1,735 spare parts excluding those supplied to culti-
vators direct by local agencies and village blacksmiths. The demand for spare
parts shows that the cultivators are making use of the implements they have
purchased.

5. Mechanical cultivation

In BOMBAY, investigation into the cost of tractor ploughing for eradication
of haridli (Cynodon Dactylon) in the Southern division was carried out with a
view to arrive at a reasonable rate per acre, at which the proposed tractor-
ploughing syndicate might undertake the work. A detailed report in this
connexion has been submitted to the Government for consideration.

In BARODA, a high power Diesel tractor was purchased and it ploughed
594 bighas for Ra. 2,945-11-6. The cost of ploughing one bigha, including
working expenses, repairs, interest at 3J per cent and depreciation calculated
on the basis of 10,000 working hours life, comes to Rs. 6-8-0 exclusive of super-
vision and expert help.

In MYSORE, tractor-ploughing was done in the lands of a landlord at White-
field through sectional staff.

In HIND, it is estimated that about seven million acres of waste land which
is infested with dabh grass and other obnoxious weeds will have to be brought
under cultivation by the use of tractors. Such lands are now being ploughed
by the departmental tractor at the rate of Rs. 6 per acre and there is a great
demand for this work from the zamindars. An additional new Diesel cater-
pillar tractor type R. D. 7 was, therefore, purchased. The old Diesel 35 cater-
pillar tractor continued to work at the Agricultural Research Station, Dokri.
The total area ploughed by both these tractors during the year was 1,423 acres
and the quantity of earth removed by them in scraping work amounted to
1,124,312 c. ft.

6. Miscellaneous

In BOMH\Y, the agricultural engineering section had to spend much time
and energy on the agricultural shows sit Belgium, Sanand, Broach and Bandlian
and on the various constructions in connexion with the sheep breeding station
at Poona, including paddocks bore-holes with pumps, shearing machines, etc.
The section was also busy with the construction of a glass house and quarters
at the College of Agriculture, Foona, and quarters and dutch barn, etc. at the
Cereal Breeding Station, Niphad.

In BARODA, the outfit offered 'but for pneumatic-drilling has been received
and experiments were made on farm and neighbouring cultivators' wells at
Amreli.

Two gins and one chaff-cutter were installed in Vesma farm. Two flour
mills were installed in Kosamba and Sokhda,

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 167

In MADRAS, the following miscellaneous articles were prepared by the
department as per requirements of different officers :

1. Steel gates

2. Laboratory apparatus

3. Bullock harness

4. V notch plates

The section participated in the exhibition held in connexion with the
College Day and implements and machines pertaining to the work carried out
by the section were displayed with illustrated charts and diagrams. Improved
implements and machinery were also sent to Madras for the All-India Khaddar
and Industrial Exhibition held in the Congress House and to the Swadeshi
Exhibition held at Coimbatore.

In BIHAR demonstrations of borings, tube- wells, hand and power-lifts and
various kinds of agricultural machinery were given at the fairs held annually
a't Sonepur, Dumka, Sangheswar and Banka. The use of the portable cane
crushing plant evolved at the Sabour workshops was demonstrated at Khutia
and Sondih in North Bhagalpur.

In BENGAL, a complete set of steel buildings for an improved 25 tons depart-
mental type open pan factory were designed and erected at Mhow in Central
India. A factory building with layout of several industrial machines was
designed and drawn for Lakshminarainpur and several small buildings for
pumping plants were designed and constructed. Practical demonstrations in
the use of improved machinery and implements were given repeatedly in
different parts of the province.

In MYSORE, an electric motor and a double roller gin were fitted up on the
Irwin canal farm for ginning cotton grown in that area. All the constructional
steel work and the erection work was carried out on the following items of
works :

1. Construction of fowl yards for the Hcbbal poultry.

2. Construction of the poultry colony house in steel and cement.

3. Construction of fowl runs and houses for the serum research station.

4. Steel trusses for the buildings on the Irwin canal farm.

5. Steel frame work for the reinforced well curbs on the. Hebbal and He&ara-

ghatta farms.
The special building works carried out during the year are :

1. .Erection of necessary structures for housing the poultry on the Hebbal

farm, Nagenahally farm and cattle breeding station.

2. Preparation of live sets of portable structures for the five centres of

Shimoga, Hassan, Chiekmagalur, S. K. V. D. Patasala and Closepet.

3. Construction of structures needed in the investigation of poultry diseases.

4. Construction of activated charcoal furnaces and the structures required

in connection with the manufacture of cream jaggery on the Irwin
canal farm.

5. A permanent well fitted with reinforced concrete rings was built in the

wet area on the Hebbal farm.

.6. As desired by the Military Department, wells with reinforced rings
were sunk with a power pumping plant capable of lifting water
to a height of nearly 120 feet for providing irrigation supply to the
grassland on the Hesaraghatta farm.

168 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1987-38

In TRAVANCORE, general demonstrations with improved cane crushing
were given for the benefit of the cultivators.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES, the departmental workshop prepared Akola
hoes, feeding troughs and constructed a godown for the horticultural sectionu-
All the electrical fittings and equipments of the two new Cbmmer Diesel trucks
were completed and the lorries were kept ready for work with the projectors
and the generating sets for cinema demonstration outfits.

UNITED PROVINCES. In Allahabad, the department has introduced in thfr
line of building, the method known as reinforced brick work giving a very
superior type of construction at a considerably smaller rate than was pre-
viously possible. This type of construction has also superior resistance to-
damage by earthquake.

In SINO, the godown and ginnery of the Government ginning factory have-
been enlarged and the factory Ls now capable of dealing with 20,000 maunds
of kapas in four mouths. During the year the factory worked for 97 days
and during this period 12.4594 maunds of cotton was ginned.

7. Progress in the provinces and states in implementing the
recommendations of the Royal Commission/ on Agriculture

The foregoing paragraphs give in general the progress made by the pro-
vinces and states in implementing the recommendations made by the Koyal
Commission on Agriculture, in paras. 79, 105, 107, 108, 280, 491 and 494.
Para. 79 deals with soil erosion. The BOMBAY PROVINCE has been doing ex-
tensive Experimental work at Poona and at the Dry Farming Stations at Bija-
pur and Sholapur in this respect, and has put up several thousands of feet of
bunds in fields for checking run-oil' and preventing soil nrosion. In BIHAR
the work of bunding is on the increase and the bunding staff has inspected
nearly 15 schemes.

Para. 105 deals with agricultural implements and paras. 107 and 108 deal
with the scope of research work in agricultural implements and machinery
including power cultivation with the help of tractors. In this connexion
attempts have been made by the following provinces and states as regards*
the design of new implements and machines useful for agriculture :

Bombay Mysore State

Baroda State United Provinces

Madras- Travancore State

Bihar Punjab

Bengal Sind

Hyderabad State

No one could, however, concentrate on wooden implements and. produce-
their spares on a large scale presumably because of inadequate demand andi
want of uniformity in the design, which is an essential feature for mass pro-
duction. In MADRAS, the research on implements is entrusted to aii indepen-
dent officer but in other provinces u-nd states, the work has not been sufficiently
developed in order to entrust it to a separate research officer. As regards-
mechanical cultivation, investigations have been carried out in, BOMBAY and 1
SIND and also in BARODA STATE with a view to find out its economic value in,
comparison with bullock power.

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 169

The Commission lays particular stress on the need for an automatic seed-
drill, cheap threshing and winnowing machines, improvement in a country
cart, etc. and provinces like Bombay, Sind, Bpngal and Madras and Mysore
State are the foremost dn tackling these problems. There are, however, several
points which require investigations and the most important of them are the
following :

(a) Study of resistance offered by different soils to various implements
with an accurate dynamometer as is used at Rothamsted with a
view to comparing their efficiency.

,(&) Whether deep ploughing pays for all klwrif crops in different tracts ;
is conversion of soil necessary, if it is not, would one implement
do in place of the plough and the cultivator both.

i(c) Relation of the capacity of bullocks to the implements they are re-
quired to draw.
(d) Further improvements in indigenous implements in the light of modern

knowledge and to keep their cost within cultivator's means.
Para. 280 deals with tube-wells and pumping arid recommends a systematic
survey of sub-eoil water supplies. The provinces of MADRAS, BIHAR, PUNJAB
and the BARODA STATE seem to be foremost in boring, while BENGAL, BOMBAY
,nd SIKD #tand next to them. Madras stands first in point of footage and
has at its credit good many artesian welh, \\hile Punjab stands second and
Bihar third.

As regards training the cultivators in the handling of agricultural machi-
nery facilities are afforded in three provinces, viz. Sind, Bombay and Bengal,
in partial compliance with the recommendation made, in paras. 491 and 494.

CHAPTER VIH
ANIMAL INDUSTRY

1. General remarks

CATTLE IMPROVEMENT

nnWO outstanding events of the year which have contributed! considerably
1 towards the cattle improvement drive, initiated by the Imperial Council
of Agricultural Research under the guidance of His Excellency the Mar-
quess of Linlithgow, are the Cattle Conference held in Simla in May 1937,.
and the First All-India Cattle Show organized at the Irwin Amphitheatre,
New Delhi, in February 1938.

Cattle conference

Reference was made in the preceding review to the impetus provided!
by His Excellency the Viceroy's initiative for the improvement of livestock
in India. A natural sequel to His Excellency's appeal for the- donation of
pedigree bulls or money for their purchase and maintenance,, and the response
thereto, was the further elaboration of the ways and means by which this-
country-wide awakening and enthusiasm could be harneswd for the purpose
of setting livestock improvement on a permanent basis and also to secure
that the methods recommended for cattle improvement reach the man in
the village and are accepted and utilized by him. Wi.th this aim in view r
an All-India Cattle Conference, convened by the Government of India at
Simla, was opened by the Viceroy and was attended by Ministers from pro-
vinces, representatives of the Government of India and of Indian states
and distinguished non-officials.

In opening the conference, His Excellency observed : ' The purpose of this-
gathering is that we may take counsel together upon the question of what may
best be done in order to promote an early improvement and development of
the livestock industry throughout India in other words, to consider what
practical steps can be taken to secure the better breeding and feeding of Indian
cattle.' Further, while pursuing the details of the pressing problems confronting;
this vast subject, His Excellency observed : ' It is not necessary that I should
remind an audience such as this that the ox is the foundation of India's agri-
culture. Indeed, I am aware of no other single contribution which it lies within,
our power to make towards the enhancement of the agricultural wealth of this
country which, in its potential value, is in any degree comparable with the
general improvement of livestock. It has been calculated that the total annual
cash value of livestock in India, if we include the annual value of cattle labour,
dairy produce, manure and other products, is of the order of 1,300 crores of
rupees. That, no doubt, is an approximate figure, but it serves at least to indi-
cate the immense values at issue, and the scope afforded in this direction for
the enhancement of the country s wealth.

* And here lot me say that, while cattle must be the chief concern of this
meeting, many of the proposals which may result from your deliberations
will be applicable to other branches of the industry such a-s sheep and goat

ANIMAL INDUSTRY 171<

breeding, both, in my opinion, deserving of and certain to repay, in full measu-
res, the early attention of the departments concerned ; while wool production,
the hides and skin industry, and, in some provinces, horse breeding may well
derive benefit as a consequence of your labours.

' It is impossible to overstate the importance to the agriculturists of India
of an adequate supply of good working bullocks. For the bullock provides-
practically the sole source of power available to the cultivator, whether for
cultivation, for transport, or for the lifting of irrigation water. Nor need I
emphasize the value of cattle manure or the importance of the place which
cattle dung used as fuel still holds in the domestic economy of a large propor-
tion of the rural population, much as we may regret that fact.

' The great importance of milk production, whether produced by the cow
or the buffalo, from the point of view of the country at large, as well as from
that of the cultivator himself, is now widely recognized. The facts as regards
the average consumption of milk and milk products per head of the population,
so far as these are at present available, go to show that, while there is great
variation in this matter as between region and region and between household
and household even in the same village, there is no doubt that the average
consumption of dairy produce is too low, more particularly when it is remembered
that we are dealing with a country in which the diet of human beings is so
largely vegetarian, and in which there is therefore a special need for such pro-
tective animal foods as milk, ghee and curds/

His Excellency made many valuable suggestions in regard to various aspects-
of animal husbandry organization and the lines of improvement which would
ensure a speedy realization of the main object, namely the improvement of
livestock.

The conference discussed in detail the following agenda and the compre-
hensive notes prepared on each subject by the Imperial Council of Agricultural
Research.

1. The setting up of suitable provincial cattle improvement funds on the

lines suggested by the Animal Husbandry Wing of the Board of
Agriculture as the best means of following up His Excellency the
Viceroy's campaign for providing breeding bulls.

2. The improvement of grass lands and the better utilization of waste and

surplus land for fodder production and the initial steps to be taken
in that direction by the various appropriate agencies.

3. The need for increased technical personnel required for livestock im-

provement work throughout India.

4. The possibility of crop planning for increased fodder production with

special reference to leguminous fodders.

There was a full and frank exchange of ideas and interchange of experiences
and each Minister explained the work that was being done in his province and
pointed out the difficulties regarding further extension work due to limited
finances. After due deliberation the following resolutions in respect of each
of the items of the agenda were adopted :

SUBJECT No. I

Resolution 1. The conference having noted the response to His Excellency
the Viceroy's appeal for the provision of funds for the purchase and maintenance

H2 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

of approved breeding bulls, being convinced of the necessity for a sustained
effort to improve Indian livestock and of the importance of continuity of
policy in all livestock breeding, considers it desirable

(a) that there should be established in each of the provinces represented
a provincial livestock improvement fund into which would be paid
donations or other monies received for the purchase and mainte-
nance of breeding bulls and for other forms of livestock improvement.
It is a sound principle that most of the money should be spent
in the district in which it was collected ;

.(/>) that there should be set up in each province either a provincial live-
stock improvement board with suitable district or local committees
or a provincial livestock improvement association with district
branches. It would be for each province to decide what form of
organization to adopt. It would largely rest with district and
local committees or branches to maintain local enthusiasm and
raise further funds ; and

t (c) that there should be the closest possible liaison between the several
Ministries of Agriculture and such boards and associations. The
precise composition and functions of these bodies is a matter for
the provinces to determine, but it is desirable that the Minister
should be president except where that position is occupied by the
Governor of the province in which event the Minister would be
vice-president. It would be an advantage if such bodies include
in their membership the permanent officials connected with live-
stock improvement. Provincial livestock improvement boards
would not undertake administrative functions.

The conference noted the unanimous opinion of the provincial Ministers
that the central Government should make substantial grants to provincial
livestock improvement funds.

Resolution 2. The conference endorses the recommendation of the Cattle
Improvement Sub-committee of the Board of Agriculture and Animal
Husbandry that adequate and suitable provision should be made for the proper
maintenance, in such manner as may best suit local conditions, of all breed-
ing bulls ^which may be presented in future.

SUBJECT No. II

'Resolution 1. With a view to securing systematic and progressive
improvement in grazing and grassland areas, and the conversion of waste
land into useful grazing, wherever that is possible on an economic basis, the
conference recommends

(a) that in all provinces standing fodder and grazing committees should
be established -on the lines recommended by the Board of Agricul-
ture and Acairnal Husbandry in India ; and

{b) that a central committee to coordinate grassland and fodder research
and the dissemination of information should be set up by the Imperial
Council of Agrj cultural Kesearch.

ANIMAL INDUSTRY 173;

Resolution 2. Whilst recognizing that conditions vary greatly in different
provinces and localities the conference is agreed upon the following general
conclusions :

(a) The report of the Special Committee on Forest Grazing shows that

contrary to popular belief this is not only a reserved forest problem
but even more a problem of waste lands ;

(b) That great improvement in existing grasslands is possible by controlling

the periods during which individual areas are open to grazing and
by limiting the number and species admitted. Without such
control deterioration is progressive and frequently the poorest
cattle are found where grazing is unrestricted ;

especially of the draught broods and is, therefore, of special im-
portance in all definite cattle-breeding areas ;

(<f) That it has already been shown by experiment that, under control,
several types of waste, land can be improved to yield an appreciable
amount of grazing and hay ; and

(e) That there is scope for much useful experimental work on grassland
improvement in many parts of India and that definite schemes of
experimental work should bo initiated by the provincial and central
fodder and grazing committees and by the Forest Department hi
forest lands.

SrBJECT No. IJ1

Resolution 7. The conference is convinced of the need in every province
for a livestock division with a separate allotment of funds for livestock
improvement work and controlled by a livestock expert whose whole
time is devoted to that subject. It is probable that the ultimate solu-
tion in each province will be found in the eventual establishment of a unified
department under one Minister embracing plant industry, animal industry,
the control and prevention of animal diseases, the marketing of crop and animal
products and rural cooperation with technical heads for the appropriate divisions.

Resolution 2. Additional staff of all grades is required for livestock work
and much can be done by the creation of a class of trained stockmen : provided
that the head of the livestock division has an adequate supervising staff.

Resolution 3. It is also suggested for the consideration of provinces that
the best possible use should be made of existing staff and, in particular, that
in those provinces which have not completely provincialized their veterinary
staffs there should be a clear division of responsibility for veterinary work.
Local bodies might be responsible for the maintenance of veterinary hospitals
for the treatment of ordinary diseases and casualties and should retain control
of the veterinary assistant surgeons required for that purpose. The rest of
the veterinary assistant surgeons would form a disease control staff at the
disposal of the Directors of Veterinary Services and these assistants could
render substantial assistance in livestock improvement work.

SUBJECT No. IV

Resolution 1. The conference being convinced of jthe need for a greater
attention to the improvement of fodder and its best use and for deliberate crop-
planning directed to the greater production of fodder crops recommends that

,174 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

such special effort should be made and such planning should form part of the
regular propaganda by the agricultural staff in all provinces. Details must
vary greatly with local conditions but the fullest advantage should be taken
of all favourable opportunities such as are afforded by the spread of high-yield-
ing varieties of cash crops and the development of more intensive cultivation
due to new irrigation facilities.

Resolution 2. The conference recommends that the above resolutions
be commended to the notice of Indian states for their careful consideration and
such action within their own territories as may suit their special conditions.

All-India cattle show

Another important landmark in the history of cattle improvement in
India was ushered in by the first All-India cattle show held at New Delhi
in February 1938. The value of exhibitions as an effective medium for
demonstrating the variety and range of a country's products and for en-
gendering a healthy spirit of competition amongst producers has long
ieon recognized. The important role of shows in the improvement of cattle
ihas also been duly appreciated in India and the holding of periodical cattle
shows in selected localities is a regular feature of the activities of the livestock
departments in the provinces. The assembling and exhibition of the best
stock available in India at a central place is, however, an entirely new
event. Experience of the premier livestock producing countries has shown
that the results achieved amply repay the vast sums expended. Therefore,
apart from adding another attractive item to the pageantry and the social
.engagements of the Imperial capital during the week, the show, a unique event
in this country, rendered an incomparable service in the presentation of a
panoramic picture of India's enormous cattle wealth.

The organization of the show was an uphill task. There were no precedents
to follow and a considerable amount of scepticism, which is frequently encoun-
tered in efforts of this nature, had to be surmounted. In spite of the immense
odds, however, Col. Sir Arthur Olver, the Animal Husbandry Expert, who was
the Chairman of the show and the moving spirit of the whole organization,
ably assisted by the show secretary, Sardar Santokh Singh, managed to make
the event a great and an astounding success. The organizers succeeded in
enlisting the sympathy and cooperation of high and distinguished personages.
The response from provinces and Indian states was very substantial and the
corporate efforts of all concerned thus resulted in the representative display
of the most important Indian breeds of cattle which, incidentally, India had
never witnessed before.

The detailed arrangements connected with the show were entrusted to a
tfmall committee whose personnel comprised of persons who could easily be
assembled in Simla and Delhi.

The show was confined to cattle only and almost all the important breeds
of India, namely Amritmahal,*Bhagnari, Deoni, Dhanni, Hissar Hansi, Gir,
Hariana, Kankerej Kbillari, Hallikar, Krishnavalley, Malvi, Mewati, Nagori,
Nimari, Hath, Bed Sintlhi, Sahiwal and Tharparkar ; and Jafiarabadi, Mehsana
Murrah and Nili breeds of buffaloes were exhibited.

ANIMAL INDUSTRY 175

Despite the time and cost involved in the transport of cattle some representa-
tive breeds of the south, e.g. Hallikar, Amritmahal and Deoni, were also
exhibited.

Food, water and suitable accommodation, including isolation facilities,
were arranged for the animals and their attendants and during the period of
the show, the cost of maintenance and other incidental expenses in con-
nexion with the exhibits were borne by the exhibition authorities.

Two separate enclosures were provided one for cows and heifers and the
other for bulls. Each enclosure contained the requisite number of stalls for
the exhibits. A spacious open ground on the western side of the wall with
necessary enclosures was provided for judging rings. Tents were pitched
between the walls for the use of cattle attendants, while officers in charge of
the exhibits were provided suitable accommodation outside the cattle yard.
A microphone was installed on the hillock near the judging rings with loud-
speakers all over the cattle yard and all general directions concerning the
assembling of cattle, general parade, milking, etc. were issued over the micro-
phone. Tn the middle of the cattle yard, two wire -gauze enclosures with weigh-
ing machines were provided for milk recording. Milking and recording was
done at regular hours everyday and the milk was mostly handed over to local
hospitals for charitable purposes.

As the main purpose of the show was to attract the private breeders and
to foster a spirit of competition amongst them, each province was requested
to fill up the quota of each breed, as far as possible, with private-owned animals.
If that was not possible, a certain number of selected animals from Govern-
ment farms could be sent, but they would not be admitted to compete for
money prizes and the number of Government animals was normally limited
to three per breed, i.e. one bull, one cow and one heifer.

The Railway Board was approached as regards concession rates for animals
coming to Delhi for this show and all railway administrations cooperated in
providing cheap and rapid transportation for all animals vouched for by the
Animal Husbandry Department of the province or state concerned as bond fide
exhibits for the show.

Systematic arrangements for disease control were also kept handy at the
show grounds and no animal not permanently protected against rinderpest
was accepted. It was also made obligatory that every animal sent to the show
should be inspected for freedom from disease by a Veterinary Officer, immediate-
ly before despatch.

Demonstration stands were arranged by the Civil Veterinary Department,
Punjab, S. P. C. A. jind the Civil Veterinary Department, Mysore, at which
pamphlets, brochures, etc. dealing with various aspects of animal husbandry,
disease control and treatment were made available to the public.

To enable reasonably good prizes to be given, it was necessary to limit
the number of classes in each breed to (a) breeding bulls under eight years,
(b) cows over four years, and (c) heifers between three and four years.

In addition a bronze medal was presented to "svery animal that came to
the show having been duly selected by the provincial animal husbandry staff
to represent a breed. Twenty-nine magnificent challenge cups were offered
for open competition including one presented by His Excellency the Viceroy
for the best animal in the show. The show was opened at the Irwin

176

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Amphitheatre on 14.th February 1938 by His Excellency the Viceroy, who also
presented the prizes.

On the first day of the show, i.e. the 14th February, there was a
rehearsal parade followed by a full parade of all exhibits on the afternoon of
the second day. His Excellency the Viceroy was a distinguished spectator.
There was a running commentary over the loudspeaker by Col. Sir Arthur
Olver on each breed as it passed in front of the stadium, wherein he described
the origin, home, characteristics, utility, excellence, defects, etc. of each breed.
This was very much appreciated by the interested audience who never previ-
ously had an opportunity of seeing the different types of Indian cattle.

Arrangements were also made for taking photographs of all the winners-
of 1st and 2nd prizes, as also their measurements and milk yields. A cinema-
tograph film depicting the various activities of the cattle show was also prepared.

A valuable addition was the special bulletin (No. 17 of the I. C. A. R.)
by Col. Sir Arthur Olver entitled A Brief Survey of Some of the Important Breeds
of Cattle in India, which contained a brief description with photographs of
representatives of 25 of the best knovui breeds. It is a unique publication,
the first of its kind in this country, and its issue simultaneously with the open-
ing of the show was appreciated by persons interested in livestock.

A number of the best animals were sold at the show, at prices up to Rs. 500
for a bull and Rs. 325 for a cow. At the conclusion of the show it was the general
opinion that this unique event made a very important contribution towards-
livestock improvement work in this country, particularly in drawing attention
to the potentialities of the Indian breeds of cattle. It had encouraged competi-
tion between breeders which would help in gradually raising the stock to the
highest levels of efficiency for the particular functions they are required to
perform and also in stimulating trade in livestock and livestock products.

There was a general desire that the show should be made an annual event
and agreeing with this view the Government of India have allotted funds for
the continuance of the show for a period of five years,

GENERAL HEALTH OF LIVESTOCK

It will be clear from the previous year's reviews that the prevention of
contagious diseases is one of the major problems facing India. Detailed figures
of reported mortality and inoculations are given in Appendix X. The following
statistics relating to bovines show the share of the different diseases in the
total annual toll levied by these diseases :

Mortality from contagious diseases 1933-34 to 1937-38*

Total
reported

Mortality from
rinderpest

Mortality from
liK'morrhatfic
septicemia

Mortality from
black quarter

Mortality from
anthrax

Mortality from
other contagi-
ous diseases

Year

mortality

among
bovines

No.

Per

cent

No.

Per
cent

No.

Per

cent

No.

Per
cent

No.

Per

cent

1933-34

289,774

178,801

6i-r>

60,485

20-9

14,401

9,377

27,208

9-4

1934-35

216,750

118,698

54-8

43,156

199

10,484

5,869

2-7

38,549

17-8

1035-30

228,693

135,i51

591

30,750

134

9,40

7,118

3-1

46,07fl

20-1

1936-37

279,397

1 (K),OG5

67-3

43,456

156

12,863

10,478

3-8

52,545

18-ft

1937-38

286,177

115,987

49-1

53,446

22-6

19,474

10,396

4-4'

36.S71

15'7

* (Since Burma hag been separated from India figures relating to that country are not included in the
general statistics. For purposes of comparison with previous years, however, Burma has been included in
this.)

ANIMAL INDUSTRY

177

It will be seen that during 1937-38 mortality in bovines decreased by 43,000
or 15 per cent from the previous year, but it is still greater than that in 1935-36.
One noticeable feature is that the share of rinderpest is only 49 per cent which
is less than any of the figures for the previous four years. This low rate is
probably due to the extended use of the goat virus inoculation which is cheap
and at the same time confers satisfactory immunity. Hsemorrhagic septi-
caemia accounted for 22-6 per cent of the total mortality, black quarter 8-2
per cent and anthrax 44 per cent. The proportions due to these are higher
than in the four previous years.

It will be seen from Appendix X that the total reported mortality during
the year among all kinds of livestock was in round numbers 244,000 in British
India as against 282,000 (excluding Burma) in the previous year, which shows
a 'decrease of nearly 38,000. Of this 23,000 is due to decrease in mortality
from rinderpest, which again shows the increasing success which is being attained
in the control of that disease. The increases and decreases are as under in
the various provinces :

Increase or decrease
previous

n mortality from
year

Name, of Province

(In thousands)

Total mortality

Mortality from
rinderpest

Madras

4-9-4

4-2-9

Bombay

ltf-1

15-5

Bengal .

30 -4

9-7

United Provinces

9-6

3-6

Punjab .

+ 2-6

4-9-0

Bihar .

6-3

4-7

Central Provinces .

4-3-6

0-6

Assam ....

4-6-8

4-2-7

North-West Frontier Province

0-5

Orissa ....

1-1

4-0-1

Sind ....

4-4-4

1-6

Ajnier-Merwara

0-9

0-5

4-0-1

TOTAL .

37-9

22-7

Increases in total mortality are mainly in Madras, Assam, the Central
Provinces and the Punjab and the decreases in Bengal, Bombay, the United
Provinces and Bihar. The most striking decrease is in Bengal, but out of the
30,000 only a third is in rinderpest, while almost the whole of the 16,000 decrease
in Bombay is due to decrease in mortality from rinderpest. The most notable
increase in rinderpest mortality is in the Punjab.

Preventive inoculations. The increasing attention* paid to the prevention
of diseases is well reflected in the figures of inoculation given in Appendix X.
The totals during the year were 4*9 millions as a gainst 4-4 in the preceding
year or an increase of about 10 per cent. About 70 per cent of these total

178

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

inoculations were against rinderpest, and these are distributed as under
among the various methods :

Serum alone ........ 2-8 per cent

S. S 8-3

Goat vaccine 88-7 ,,

These figures are definite evidence of the efficiency of goat vaccine.

SLAUGHTER HOUSE STATISTICS

In view of the importance of statistics of slaughter of livestock an attempt
was made for collecting figures of animals slaughtered in recognized slaughter
houses in India. Assam and the United Provinces were not able to supply
these figures. The totals for the remaining provinces in British India for
1937-38 were approximately as under :

Ovines . 6,322,367

Bovines 886,11-4

Pigs 11,979

Others 89,117

Certain unclassified figures ...... 11,404

TOTAL

7,320,981

These figures are provisional, but arrangement has been made for making this*
return a regular feature of annual reports of provincial and state Veterinary
Departments and a detailed table has been laid down for the purpose. It is-
expected that more accurate and classified figures will be available in the near

future.

2. Trade in animals and animal products

Appendix XIII (A, B and C) contains figures of inland and foreign trade-
in animals and animal products. The total values of imports and exports of live-
stock and livestock products for the past five years are as under :

1933-34
1934-35
1935-36
1936-37
1937-38

Value in lakhs of rupees

Imports Exports
4,27 13,80

4,98 11,88

4,09 13,6Q

4,22 16,50

4,91 17,32

It will be seen that both imports and exports show a tendency to rise,
values of individual products during the year are as under :

Exports

Rs.
8,79,133

The

Import*
Rs.

Live animals 35,32,524

Sides and skins

Raw hides 4,26,2.59 1,57,01,401

Raw skins 15,44,406 3,36,69,705

Tanned or dressed hides . o . . . . 29,785 3,20,72,727

Tanned or dressed skins 17,47,299 3,24,63,062

Wool 3,35,15,503 3,72,37,394

Dairy products , 51,41,843 34,77,389

Other products 32,01,383 1,76,83,179

TOTAL . 4,91,39,002 17,31,83,990

ANIMAL INDUSTRY 179

Inter-provincial trade

There is a considerable amount of inter-provincial trade in animals and
animal products in India. The Director-General of Commercial Intelligence
and Statistics has arranged to register the quantities of such trade as is carried
by railways and steamers and figures are summarized in Appendix XIII-C.
These figures do not include quantities carried by road or by country boats.
The total volumes of the trade are as under :

1937-38 1936-37

No. No.

Livestock

Cattle 260,615

Homes 25,359

Sheep and goats 930,513

Others 352,188

Maunds Maunds

Bones 5,036,899 4,672,117

Hides-
Raw 1,812,422 1,996,383

Skms

Raw 1,156,248 1,160,550

Hides and skins

Tanned and leather .... 610,099 586,826

Ghee 762,210 692,237

Wool-
Raw 573,911 770,426

3. Minor industries

Apiculture

The provinces at present most interested in apiculture are Assam, the
Punjab and Madras, and in all these provinces steady progress is being main-
-tained. Apart from ordinary demonstration and propaganda work a * bee-
keeping ' film was produced in MADRAS for illustrating better methods in
apiculture. During the year, 1,016 colonies were maintained, 419 colonies wore
hived, 90 demonstrations of better methods of extraction were held and 219
beehives and 2 extractors were supplied to parties. Observations on the
'behaviour of bees in relation to weather and pasturage conditions were also
started at Coinibatore and sonic interesting information on the fluctuation
in the activity of bees as shown by periodical fluctuations in the weight of the
colonies under different conditions and on the influence of weather on the
secretion, of nectar in plants, time of visit of bees to different flowers, etc.
was obtained. The biology of a Braconid parasite, Apanteles galleries, noted
for the first time on wax moths, was under study.

In the PUNJAB, a regular survey of the honey and pollen flora round about
bee farms was undertaken. A large number of meetings were addressed by
the staff of the Entomological Section. Classes in apiculture were held
during the year at Raison and Nagrota and 40 students were trained.

Increasing interest is evidenced in ASSAM by the large number of enquiries
received by the Agricultural Department, and a few bee-keepers have set good
examples by their success in getting pure hctiey extracted from the colonies
supplied by the department. A course of training in systematic and economic
entomology was given to students of the agricultural training class at Jorhat.
Two important exhibitions were also held.

180 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

In TRAVANCORE, bee-keeping is developing into an important subsidiary
industry on account of the small initial outlay required and the existence of
other natural facilities, particularly pastures. The total cost of a hive and an
extractor amounts to Rs. 7 only, while at a modest estimate each hive can be
expected to yield honey worth at least Rs. 10 per annum. During the year
under report, 59 new apiaries were started and in Trivandrum alone there are
now over 200 apiaries. Twenty-nine hives, six honey extractors, seven smokers
and three bee-scapes were manufactured and sold to local residents. Further,
to popularize this industry in the villages iu South Travancore, Government's
sanction was obtained during the year for the manufacture and sale of 500 bee-
hives among rural families. The timber was supplied free of cost by the Forest
Department and the work of manufacturing and distributing the hives was
entrusted to the Y. M. C. A. rural demonstration centre at Martandam. Those
hives are being sold to the villagers at a flat rate of Re. 1-9 each, which is the
actual cost of manufacture.

In MYSORE, six apicultural centres were established in different areas to-
disseminate information about bee-keeping, and a week's practical course in
bee-keeping was also given at each of these centres. In COCHIN, honey bees and
their predators were under study.

The increased interest in the subject is also evident from the numerous
enquiries received by the Imperial Entomologist. As in previous years he
gave advice and references to literature and also supplied hives, comb founda-
tion sheets and other appliances.

Sericulture*

As pointed out in the previous reviews, the effect of the protective tariff has
not been completely successful and has not been able to check the imports of
raw silk. During the first live months (April to August), the import of raw
silk was 645,270 Ib. in 1936, 797,813 Ib. in 1937 and 712,178 Ib. in 1938. Out of
the last quantity as much as 613,886 Ib. were high-grade and mostly reported
to be from China but it is doubtful if this was wholly of Chinese origin. The
average declared value per Ib. which had gone up to Rs. 3-8-10 in April 1937,
fell to Rs. 2-12-11 in April, 1938, to Rs. 2-10-4 in June 1938, and to Rs. 2-9-11
in August, 1938. The imports of silk yarn during the same periods of the same
three years were 1,165,785 Ib., 988,520 Ib. and 413,215 Ib. and those of silk
piecegoods were 7,933,284 yds., 8,538,998yds. and 6,534,415 yds. respectively.
Artificial silk and artificial silk goods showed decrease to about half and
two-sevenths respectively. Staple fibre and yarn were imported to the extent
of 705,332 Ib. in 1937 and 859,352 Ib. in 1938.

BENGAL. The year under review was marked by drought succeeded by
heavy rain and floods which adversely affected the cocoon production. The
Bengal Sericulture Department undertook work on simultaneous development
of all three stages of the silk industry, viz. (1) cocoon raising or sericulture
proper, (2) reeling of raw silk, and (3) weaving.

In connexion with the first stage, seven nurseries or seed rearing farms
maintained stocks of worms and produced and supplied examined eggs to 423.

* The assistance of Mr. C. C. Ghosh, B.A., F.R.C.S., Deputy Director of Sericulture,
Berhampore, Bengal, in the preparation of this section is gratefully acknowledged.

ANIMAL INDUSTRY 181

iselected seed rearers, w.ho produced seed cocoons for general cocoon rearers.
The nurseries also supplied seed direct to cocoon rearers.

A propaganda staff for district work, consisting of four inspectors, nine
officers of the rank of assistant inspectors and 59 demonstrators, supervised the
work of selected seed rearers, dealt with epidemics of diseases among silkworms,
with disinfection, improvement of rearing houses, demonstration of improved
rearing methods, and issue and realization of agricultural loans among silkworm
rearers, and collected statistics.

For the improvement of the sericultural stage (1) new improved fixed hybrid
multivoltine races of worms (Nistid and Nismo evolved in Burma) were found
to be better than the indigenous races (Nistari and Chhotopolu) and were being
adopted by general rearers, (2) research was undertaken (a) for production of
resh improved fixed hybrid multivoltine races of worms suitable for Bengal
conditions, for trials with first cross-races with the local multivoltine races and
'(6) for study of mulberry varieties, their growth and methods of growing them
with a view to adoption, on the? result of this study, of varieties which prove to
be high-yielding and possessed of high nutritive value of worms. Two more re-
search officers, viz. Protozoologist and Agricultural Biochemist, were sanctioned
to undertake research on diseases of worms as well as of mulberry and manurial
and chemical problems connected with all these items of research. The Calcutta
University helped the research work by the free provision of (i) land for mulberry,
(ii) laboratory accommodation and (iii) use of costly apparatus and also by
permitting the heads of the Departments of Zoology, Botany, Chemistry and
Applied Chemistry to afford assistance to the research officers.

For the improvement of the reeling industry the Peddie Silk Reeling Institute
was started at Malda in order to try and introduce up-to-date reeling machinery
and methods. A raw silk conditioning house was also started in order to
test and standardize raw silk and raise the quality of raw silk at present
produced.

For the improvement of the silk weaving industry a scheme was sanctioned
for the organization of a proper silk technological institute.

A special enquiry undertaken to find out the defects from which the industry
was suffering revealed that many of the general cocoon rearers were not using
seed-cocoons produced from examined eggs which, therefore, was responsible
for the consequent loss due to diseases among worms. Adverse climatic condi-
tions to which bush mulberry succumbed easily caused more loss than diseases.
Steps were taken to arrange for seed examination so as to keep all sources of
seed supply disease-free and also to have trees and high bushes from grafts
which would better withstand the adverse climatic conditions. An enquiry
was also made to find out the economics of the three stages of the silk industry
as at present carried out and the results are given in the report.

The expenditure incurred by the Government of Bengal on sericulture proper
and reeling, i.e. the first two stages of the industry, was Rs. 1,73,579; and
Rs. 37,501 and Rs. 4,651 were expended from the^rants provided by the Govern-
ment of India on seed production and research respectively.

MADRAS maintained four silk farms for rearing and maintaining different
races of worms and also for trials with mulberry. Thervi were six aided grain-
Ages which produced disease-free eggs and supplied them to cocoon rearers.
, Besides, 14 moth-testers were distributed in different villages.

182 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

The department is arranging for first-crosses between pure Mysore race and
foreign univoltine races as is done by the Mysore Sericulture Department with
very satisfactory results.

The Pathological Assistant confirmed by actual rearing further known modes
of contamination by pebrine, through infected cow-dung, with which trays are
smeared though the smearing is thoroughly dried in the sun, through leaves-
stocked in pebrine infected room, through chopping knives and boards used be-
fore for feeding pebrinized worms, through infected stands for trays and through
the attendant caring for infected as well as uninfected lots at the same time.
It was also proved that a pebrine-infected male transmitted disease germs
to a disease-free female at the time of fecundation. The germs of the disease
in this case, however, adhered to the egg-shells and could be got rid of by
washing in .formalin w f ater.

This department secured a hybrid of univoltine races (Italian and French)
and a pure uuivoltine race from Kashmir. The rearing, however, was unsuccess-
ful though successful hatching could be secured artificially.

While the existing sericultural industry is confined to Kollegal taluka of
Coimbatore district, five demonstrators were stationed in Tinnevelly, Bellary,
North Arcot, South Kanara, West Godavari and Kistna districts in order to try
sericulture there and Chittoor, Salem, North Arcot and Tinnevelly districts are
reported to be promising.

An important event which is expected to benefit the sericultural industry
is the starting of Kollegal Silk Filatures Ltd. with an issued capital of Rs. 1,78,500
of which 10 per cent was subscribed by the Government.

Ten thousand silkworm guts were prepared from univoltine worms and
sent to London for valuation.

ASSAM maintained two sericultural stations of which Titabar dealt with all
the three kinds of silkworms, viz. Muga, Eri and Pat ( i.e. mulberry silkworm),
and Shillong only Eri and Pat. Foreign and indigenous races of mulberry
silkworms were reared and cross breeds tried.

Besides these stations, there were six permanent demonstrators and 20
temporary demonstrators and seed examiners or a total of 26 demonstrators
who were posted in as many circles in the province. They had 127 model
rearing houses under them and distributed eggs, food plants of the worms
and reeling and other appliances.

The two stations and the district staff distributed a total of 190,979 layings
of eggs and 31,232 seed-cocoons.

MYSORE followed a very wise principle of supplying free of cost disease-
free eggs to seed rearers, thus keeping the source of seed supply free. Madras,
which takes seed-cocoons from the seed rearing areas in Mysore, also benefits
by this measure. In Bidadi and Kunigal seed rearing areas, 552 rearers were
supplied free with 491,119 layings which yielded 900 lakh seed-cocoons.
Besides, 252 foreign race-rearers were provided free with 129,804 layings of
foreign races, from which 127 lakh seed-cocoons were utilized for production of
first-crosses. All these seed-cocoons were purchased by the Government and
aided grainages, sericultural cooperative societies and private cocoon rearers.

The demand for cjoss-bred eggs is increasing. Government sanctioned an
additional grant of Rs. 45,300 during the year for arrangements for increased
production of disease-free layings.

ANIMAL INDUSTRY 183

During the year 10 Government grainages produced 5,482,026 disease-free
layings of which 5,247,355 were supplied to 15,120 cocoon rearers and 33,491
to different farms. The cost of production of 100 layings amounted to 11 as:
5 pies.

In all, 24 aided grainages including four newly started ones worked during
the year, and 21 of these were producing cross-bred eggs. The total number
of laying produced by them amounted to 3,958,407 of which 3,915,591 were
distributed to 5,054 coccoon rearers in 1,522 villages. The cost of production
of 100 layings in aided Drainages amounted to 1 4 as. 2*7 pies. The aided grain-
ages incurred an expenditure of Rs. 34,876-10-6 for their work out of which
they received from Government Rs. 19,634-14-2 as bonus at the rate of Rs. 5
for 1,000 disease-free layings produced.

Although about 5,000 acres of mulberry were estimated to have been newly
started when higher prices were obtained for cocoon and raw silk much of it
was neglected when prices went down again, leaving only abotat 1>,175 acres.
Towards the end of the year under report there were 26,175 acres under mul-
berry. Seventy-two cartloads of green mulberry cuttings and 5,000 saplings
were supplied free of cost to sericulturists from different farms;

Ten sericultural cooperative societies, of which six were' recognized as aided!
grainages and received bonus, produced and supplied to 1 their members 567,644
disease-free layings. The membership of the societies Was- 336 and the total
subscribed capital was Rs. 2,237-1-9.

Research and experiments, as regards mulberry, Consisted of further trials
which confirmed the results already obtained that groundnut cake and
ammonium sulphate alternated with cow-dung gave the best results as regards
yield and quality of leaves. Farmyard manure applied in three instalments
gave better results than when applied once. Yield of leaf from male mulberry
was slightly better than that of female mulberry. Bush raised from seeds gave
better yield than that raised from cuttings. As regards spacing 2 ft. x2 ft.
gave the highest yield, 2 ft. X 1 ft. came next and 3 ft. X 2 ft. third. As regards
quality of leaf the third spacing was the best.

As regards worms, trials were continued to find out the best foreign races for
hybridization purposes in different seasons. Foreign race worms fed on tree
leaf gave better results than when fed on bush leaf. Worms fed on leaves of
mulberry grown from seedlings and seedling cuttings gave better results than 1
when fed on bushes grown from ordinary cuttings. Leaves of mulberry manured:
alternately with farmyard manure and groundnut cake or a mixture of ground-
nut cake and sulphate of ammonia proved better for worms than mulberry with
other kinds of manure. The local variety (Morus indica) proved better for worms
than Sultani variety. Seed-cocoons of no particular locality had any supe-
riority over others. Chinese races of worms proved better than Japanese. Fresh
univoltine races from France and Turkey showed a very high percentage of
pebrine, and those continued after a rigid selection and elimination of pebrine,
produced good cocoons. A preliminary test fjhowed that worms reared on
leaves from rain-fed and partially irrigated gardens with hard soils produced
more male moths while those fed with leaves of irrigated gardens with soft
soils gave more female moths. The refrigeration experiment with multivoltine
worms was completed during the year and similar experiment was continued to
find out the most suitable age of the pupa as well as of first-cross eggs when they

184 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

could be subjected to cold and the period for which refrigeration could be con-
tinued. Experiments for hibernation of imported univoltine and bivoltine eggs
and seed-cocoons were arranged to be undertaken in the ensuing year. The
Government of India contributed Rs. 5,000 towards these experiments.

The propaganda staff distributed disease-free layings, demonstrated im-
proved methods of rearing worm and growing and manuring of mulberry,
encouraged starting of mulberry topes and collected statistics.

As regards sericultural training and education 37 students including one
from Assam and one from Bihar were under training in the different, silk farms,
all of which excepting the Bihar and Assam students, were undergoing the
training at their own expense. In the four Government middle schools 263
students took up practical sericulture as optional subject.

With the starting of a new cocoon market at Closepet in October, 1937, three
such markets were now working.

Sericultural loans amounting to Rs. 700 were issued and the amount of
Rs. 5,884-12-10 out of past issues was realized. A sum of Rs. 132-9-9 was
written off as irrecoverable. The ordinary and penal interests were reduced
to 4 per cent and 6J per cent respectively from 6J per cent and 9 per cent.

The expenditure on the Department of Sericulture during the year was
Rs. 1,99,000 as against 85,000 in 1927-28.

The Government Silk Filature which worked under the control of the Direc-
tor of Sandalwood Oil Factory was handed over to a joint stock company,
-called Mysore Silk Filatures, Ltd., which is arranging to start a filature of 200
basins. None of the Mysore domestic basins was worked. Stops were being
taken to improve the country charkhas.

A joint stock concern called the Mysore Spun Silk Mills, Ltd. which started
in 1936 with a capital of Rs. 10 lakhs has erected a factory and started the
operation.

The Mysore Silk Association and the Board of Sericulture, Mysore, continued
to function.

Fish

For some time past the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research
{have been interested in the question of the practical measures for the develop-
ment of the fish industry in India. Information collected from various sources
shows that a certain amount of work is already being done in Bombay, Madras
and Bengal and that considerable success has been achieved by motor-launches
in bringing fish to market in Bombay. By this means the price realized for
fish has in some cases been increased from Re. 1 per thousand to Rs. 12 per
thousand and further, the available figures indicate that there would be consi-
derable scope for the sale of fish if suitable facilities were available in regard to
marketing and transport. Similar attempts had also been made in Bengal to
enable Hooghly and estuarian fish to realize better prices in the Calcutta market
but their efforts had been frustrated by a ring of middlemen to whom the
fishermen are financially indebted.

The matter was dii cussed in detail by a special fish committee of the Council
and the general view expressed was that, in order to effect improvement, it
was necessary to carry out (a) local surveys of the amount and class of fish

ANIMAL INDUSTRY 185

available, and (b) systematic experimentation on a small business scale with
such improved methods of collection, transportation and handling of fish as-
are available in the country.

Survey work on fish marketing, under the direction of the Agricultural
Marketing Adviser to the Government of India, has already been started in the
provinces and states and an all-India report thereon will be published shortly.

The Council has already provided funds for a scheme for the investigation-
of the life-history of. certain fresh-water fishes in Bengal. The result of this
investigation will have an important bearing on the economic aspect of the
fish industry and, incidentally, work has also been undertaken on this scheme
in regard to control of malaria through fishes that feed on mosquito larvae.
It is proposed to correlate the laboratory methods with those practised by
fishermen. A study will also be made of the history, development and habits*
cf the common carp, which have been found to breed successfully in fresh-water
tank* % During the year under review, experiments were carried out in regard
to natural and artificial feeding of fish and relative values of artificial foods for
yearlings. The problems of natural and artificial breeding have also been-
investigated.

Another important scheme relating to the development of the fishing industry
in Madras has also been approved by the Council but so far funds have not been
available for putting it into operation.

The urgent need for developing fisheries as an important food industry in
India was emphasized in the Zoology Section of the Jubilee Session of the
Indian Science Congress held in Calcutta, and in this connexion Professor
W. M. Tatter-sail of the University of Wales moved a resolution stressing the
need for an all-India institute for research on the major problems of Indian,
fisheries.

In MADRAS, efforts have been made during the year under review for reviving
deep soa fishing research work initiated by Lady Goschen and proposals, relating
to the chartering of a boat capable of employing all known methods of sea
fishing with a view to testing their suitability for Indian conditions, have reached
an advanced stage. A remarkable advance has been made with regard to*
pearl fishing research and considerable impetus has been giv?ii tto'this research
by the discovery of unexpected spat falls in very shallow water adjacent to the-
farm in places where oyster-beds had never been known before-. A bed of
young oysters 1/1 2th square mile in extent was located and 302 oysfceus collected
therefrom were transferred to the collection at the Krusadai pearl farm-
Another large bed, two square miles in area, has been discovered in Palk Bay
north of the Krusadai pearl farm. 21,149 oysters have so far been added to-
the pearl farm and it is hoped that this large addition to the stock will now
enable the department to commence pearl farming on an extensive scale and
will provide sufficient raw material for initiating experiments in the culture-
pearl industry. The chief cause for the failure of Catla and Gonrami to thrive-
in the Ippur farm has been traced to the sub-soil salinity which supervenes in.
late summer. This knowledge will now enable the department to prevent
avoidable waste of effort and money in tank stocking. The most important
feature of the year in inland fish research is the proof obtained of the breeding
of Catla in the Cauvery river and its capacity to live or breed in rapid currents*
in large rivers.

186 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

In the field of technological research, useful work was carried out at the
Tanur Research Station.

VITAMIN A. Survey of fish oils has led to the discovery of four more
Indian fish with three to nineteen times the Vitamin potency of cod-liver oil.
Another notable result achieved during the year is the confirmation of the
presence of vitamin A in appreciable proportions in Malabar sardine oil. A
scheme to popularize the manufacture of medicinal fish oil in fishing villages, as
a cottage industry, is under consideration.

The department furnished information regarding a number of enquiries
relating to types of nets used in fishing, Fish-Guano manure, chemical and biolo-
gical values of South-Indian fish oils as compared with foreign products in
quality and prices, preparations of fish oils and establishment of a factory for
quick freezing of perishable food-stuffs, specially fishes, etc.

Since the closure of the fisheries training institute at Calicut, the questior
of opening a technological institute at Tuticorin on the East Coast has been
revived. The proposed institute is intended to impart a course in fisheries
techniques to train teachers who will be employed in fishermen schools, and it
will function as a technological institute for training apprentices in all branches
of the fishing industry including navigation. Fifteen scholarships tenable at
the institute for fisher youths of the Parava community have been promised by
the leaders of that community. The abandoned harbour building on Hare
Island with their extensive ground and dockyard provides an ideal site for a
fisheries institute.

The department also carried out considerable propaganda for rural pis-
ciculture. The maintenance of this department has cost the Government
Dearly Us. 1-28 lakhs during the year under review as against Rs. 1-61 lakhs in
the preceding year. The expenditure on fishery schools alone amounted to
Rs. 77,500. The net cost to the department, therefore, was only just over
Rs. 50,000.

In the PUNJAB, research activities of the fisheries section received consider-
able impetus as a result of acceptance by the provincial Government of the
schemes submitted by the department. During the period under review,
further information was collected in regard to carp breeding, fish culture, trans-
port of fry, food of brown trout and carp, and propagation of brown and rainbow
trout. It is stated that crossing of brown trout ova with rainbow trout milt
did not yield satisfactory result and that, though the crossing of rainbow trout
ova with brown trout milt was successful, the fry did not develop further than
the alevin stage. Work was also carried out on larvicidal fish and these spawned
successfully both at Lyallpur and Chhonawan.

Some 2,850 fish were supplied during the year for anti-malarial control
measures. It is observed that wherever these fish were introduced, they effec-
tively helped in controlling the mosquito larva?.

The total revenue from fishing licences and leases during the financial year
was Rs, 60,139 which means an increase of Rs. 5,497 on last year's receipts.
The expenditure during the year was Rs. 39,404, thus showing a net return of
Rs. 20,735.

CHAPTER IX
VETERINARY RESEARCH AND LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT*

1. Disease control

(a) Bacterial and virus diseases

THE incidence and losses from bacterial and virus diseases throughout India
was little changed from the previous year, decreases in certain areas
being counterbalanced by increases in others.

An increased interest in the reporting of disease and more accurate diagnosis
is evident and is a pleasing feature, but it is equally evident that in general the
sir.ff available for the execution of control measures is quite inadequate
and until this is remedied efforts at control will be ineffective or but partially
successful.

The assistance rendered by the Veterinary Investigation Officers in the inves-
tigation of obscure outbreaks and the introduction of measures of control is
again a marked feature and the addition to their programme of the investiga-
tion of the more prominent diseases of sheep, goats and poultry has produced
some information which has already been extended in certain cases by the local
administrations.

There is, however, a very wide field for further development and it is hoped
that the beginning now made will be actively developed.

Rinderpest. This disease occurred throughout the country and as usual,
was the pmlominant cause of mortality in bovines ; one province, viz. the
Punjab, reporting that it was responsible for 52 per cent of the total mortality
and in other areas this figure was exceeded. A notable reduction occurred in
Bengal, Bombay and South Madras.

* In the compilation of this Chapter, the Imperial Council of Agricultural ReM"ireU
acknou lodges assistance received from the following:

I.Mr. J. R. Haddow, B.Sc., M.R.C.V.S., D.V.S.M., I. V.S., Veterinary Research
Officer m charge of Horology Section, Imperial Veterinary Research Institute,
Muktc'swsir.

2. J)r. II. N. Rav, M.&r., Ph.D. (Loncl.), Systematic Protozoology, Imperial Veteri-
nary Research Institute, Muktesxvar.

:5. Dr. U. I). Bhalorao, M.So., Ph.D., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., F.A.Sc., Holmmthologist,
Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar.

k Mr. S. K. Sen, B.A., M.Sc., F.E.S., Veterinary Research Officer in charge of Pro-
tozoology, imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Muktoswar.

5. Dr. N. D. Kehar, .M.So., Se.'D., Officer in charge, Animal Nutrition Section,

Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Tzatnagar, United Provinces.

6. Dr. P. E. Lander, " M.A. (Cantab.), D.Se. (Lond.), Principal, Agricultural

College, Lyallpur.

7. Mr. Wynne gayer, B.A., Dip. Agri. (Cantab.), Imperial Agriculturist, Imperial

Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi.

8. Capt. [T. W. F. Walker, M.C., M.R.C.V.S., I.V.S., Director of Veterinary

Services, Punjab, Lahore.

9. Mr. T. J. Egan, I.V.S., Director, Civil Veterh;ary Department, United Provinces,

Luck now.

10. Mr. A. J. Macdonald, B.Sc., N.D.A., Officer in charge, Poultry Research Section,

Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar,, United Provinces.

11. Mr. James N. Warner, M.Sc., Professor of Animal Husbandry and Dairying,

Agricultural Institute, Allahabad, United Provinces.

( 187 )

188 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

The methods of control used were serum alone, serum simultaneous and
goat adapted virus with or without serum. Of these, goat virus either in the
form of blood or spleen tissue was the most popular and has proved uniformly
satisfactory both for prophylaxis and for the control of actual outbreaks in the
less susceptible breeds.

The same material combined with a suitable amount of serum has found
favour for the protection of buffaloes and the more susceptible breeds.
Controlled experiments in the field and wide-spread vaccinations for demonstra-
tion purposes were carried out.

HaemorrJiar/ic septicaemia. This disease is, as far as annual mortality is
concerned, of little less importance than rinderpest and despite the products
available for its control no large decrease in mortality has occurred.

The use of serum, serum with vaccine and vaccine alone have all been com^
mented upon favourably as a means of controlling outbreaks, but it is evident
that such control is of very local value.

The factors governing the occurrence and transmission of this disease do not
appear to have bcon examined in sufficient detail and it is clear that more
accurate information is required on the real value of the present methods of
control.

The position with regard to pasteurellosis in sheep requires further investiga-
tion, as it would appear from the Disease Investigation Officers' reports that
the condition may be more prevalent than at present suspected.

Black-quarter. This disease is also wide-spread. As in the case of haemorr-
hagic septicaemia there is little evidence that effective control has been initiated.
It appears that the control of outbreaks rather than their prevention is the
present general objective.

Foot awl mouth disease. This disease came into prominence in the year
under review owing to the occurrence of exceptionally wide-spread outbreaks
of an unusually severe nature. The whole of India was affected and the mort-
ality rate was high. Numerous outbreaks were als>o reported in sheep and
goats, although in goats the mortality rate was not high.

Anthrax. The incidence of this disease was low and the losses correspond-
ingly small. The use of spore vaccine as a preventive inoculation has received
considerable notice and is being tried out in most provinces. The incidence in
horses was unchanged.

Tuberculosis and Johne's disease. Tuberculosis is notable for its absence
in the general reports from the provinces, but the reports of the Disease Inves-
tigation Officers with regard to tuberculosis and Johne's disease indicate
that these conditions are probably wide-spread and may be of some eco-
nomic importance. Reports of the Joline's disease in goats and sheep were
received.

Sheep diseases. Sheep-pox occurred in most provinces and it was parti-
cularly prevalent in the north-vest and in the south.

Outbreaks of pneumonia of uncertain origin were also numerous.

Poultry diseases. There is evidence that this subject has received consider-
ably more attention than formerly. Fowl-pox, Ranikhet disease and fowl
cholera were prevalent. The incidence of Ranikhet disease as compared with,
previous years was less.

VETERINARY RESEARCH AND LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT Ifl)

Equine diseases. The only two diseases under this head deserving of mention
are glanders and strangles. In the former case, the incidence was small and in
the latter case, only a few sporadic outbreaks in the south were reported.

Rabies. It is difficult to estimate the extent nnd this importance of this
disease as the reports received relate either to outbreaks in towns or to cases in
which large domesticated animals have been involved.

(!>) Protozoology

Trypanosowiasis. In the Protozoologies 1 Section of the Imperial Veterinary
Research Institute, Mukteswar, morphological studios on T. evansLof bovine,
equine, and camel orison were made durinsj tho period under review. The
dividing forms usually presented a stepped appearance a feature which ac-
cording to Hoare (Tran*. Roy. Son. Trop. Med. and Hyrj., 193*5, 29, pp. 619-
4") is the characteristic of the Congolense group. The phenomenon of auto-
a glut ination in which the parasites exhibit * head to tail ' arrangement has
been noted to occur in T. emnxi from both cattle and horses. Atypical forms
of T. cvaH*i were encountered in the peripheral blood of a relapse c.ise of equine
surra, initiated artificially. The Trypauosomes were found to enter the
monocytes and assume a leishmanial form. It is possible that this newly
discovered behaviour of the parasite will be of use in understanding
the mechanism of relapse in cases of surra treated with a single do<e of
Naanol.

In tho Central Provinces several outbreaks of bovine and equine surra were
effectively brought under control by the prophylactic use by either Naganolor
tartar emetic. In the United Provinces field experiments were carried out at
Align rh and Sharnli (Muzaffarnagar) to determine the minimum curative and
prophylactic dose of Nnganol for combating surra in the province ; this work
being financed by tho Civil Veterinary Department, United Provinces and the
National Horse Breeding and Show Society. An outbreak of bovine Trypano-
somiasis in the province of Bengal was controlled by the administration of sodium
antimony tartarate. In Hyderabad (Dcccan) both equine and bovine surra
was encountered. The largest number of cases in equines occurred in November.
A single intravenous injection of a 10 per cent solution of Naganol proved effica-
cious for equities, while in bovines (including bullocks, cows, young stocks, and
buffaloes) treated with tartar emetic proved successful. In the Madras Presi-
dency ?2 outbreaks of bovine surra as against 226 in the previous year were
encountered. The method of control adopted was the intravenous injection
of 5 gr. of tartar emetic in every positive case. Some cases of equine and
canine surra also occurred in the province but these were successfully treated
with Naganol. Cases of equine surra in the Bombay Province were treated
with Naganol and it is stated that of 55 animals treated with this drug 36
recovered and 19 died. Fourteen deaths due to surra are recorded amongst
cattle and buffaloes from West and East Khandesh districts. Cases of bovine
and equine surra are also reported from the province of Assam. In the N.-W.
F. Province four horses are reported to have died out of six affected with
surra in Dera Ismail Khan. In Sind 134 horses were reported to have been
affected with surra of which 19 died and the rest recovered after treatment with
Naganol. Surra in equines is also reported from Coorg, Mysore, Baroda and
Ajmer-Merwara with a few casualties.

190 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Trypanosoma tlieileri. This haeraoflagellate was obtained from a local bull
at Mukteswar and cultivated successfully in vitro. The leishmanial and crithi-
dial stages of the organism developed in culture tubes, as described by other
workers, but no infection could be produced in healthy bulls by the experimental
inoculation of the crithidial stages. Occurrence of T. theileri has been recorded
from an apparently healthy heifer in Hyderabad (Deccan).

Theileriasis in cattle. Morphological studies on the virulent strain of theileria
parasite, maintained in the Protozoological Section at Mukteswar, were carried
out during the year under review. It was found that the innocuous form, T.
mutans, invariably divided in the cytoplasm of the erythrocytes, while the
dividing forms of T. annulata were found as Koch's bodies in the cytoplasm
of the monocytes. The predilection seat for this parasite is provided by the
lymphoid tissue generally, the disease being primarily an infection of the lym-
phadenoid tissue. The studies on the life-history of this parasite are being con-
tinued and in the meantime Hyalomma ticks sent by the veterinary authorities
at Kenya have been infected with our strain and forwarded to them for
comparative study against T. parva, the causal agent of East Coast fever*
Preparation of experimental antitheileriasis serum was postponed, firstly
because its demand fell low and secondly because it was considered that
serum treatment would hardly solve the problem as obtained in the field.
Attempts were diverted towards the finding of a suitable drug for combating
the malady.

A number of young calves at a military dairy farm in the N.-W. F. Pro-
vince; are reported to have succumbed to theileriasis duo to infection with T.
anmrtata. Treatment with trypanblue, acaprin, plasmoquine and quinine
did not produce any beneficial result in these cases. It is noteworthy that male
calves ^ere not affected. Theileriasis in calves from one to four years of age
is also reported from Assam, the causal agent in these cases being considered
to be T. mutaiiR. In the Punjab cases of bovine theileria HIH due to T. annulata
are reported to have been encountered. The infection proved pathogenic for
young calves and the tick, Hyalomwa a'gyptium, is held to be tin 1 natural trans-
mitter of the disease. T. mutans was detected in the blood smears of a number
of bovine from the Central Provinces and Ajincr-Merwara but as the presence of
this parasite was not accompanied by any clinical symptom no treatment was
resorted to in any case. It has been the experience of the Imperial Veterinary
Institute, Mukteswar, as well as that of the Veterinary Departments of some
of the provinces and states, that this parasite may appear in the peripheral
circulation as a result of resuscitation due to an intercurrent disease, such as
rinderpest.

Theileriasis in sheep and goats. The occurrence of T. ovis in sheep and T.
hirci in goats is reported from Bombay. The disease in sheep appears to be
wide-spread and is locally called ' Tidak ', the chief symptoms being high tempera-
ture, rolling on the ground and passing of high-coloured urine. The disease
in goats was indistinguishable fr,om pasteurellosis, except for the fact that only
adult goats showed the affection, while in pasteurellosis both kids and young
goats were affected.

Babesiasis in cattle. * In the Protozoological Section at Mukteswar a detailed
study of the nuclear structure ofB. bigemina was undertaken in order to ascertain
if the organism originated from a flagellate as propounded by Dennis (1930).

VETERINARY RESEARCH AND LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT ]91

The results obtained so far have not supported the view but, on the contrary,
the observation of Nuttall and Graham-Smith (1908) that the nucleus is situated
at the apical end was confirmed. The results have already been incorporated
in a detailed article prepared on this subject (Ray, H. N., 1938. 7W. J. Vet.
Sci. andAmm. Husb., VIII, pp. J83-86). In the Central Provinces, out of 175
animals immunized against rinderpest with goat virus, +hree showed chronic form
of B. Ingemina. Like T. mutans, this parasite has also been observed to resus-
citate due to the occurrence of an iritercurrent disease, but its presence in the
blood under such circumstances is usually not associated with the occurrence
of any clinical symptoms. It is often noted that with the subsidence of the
intercurrent infection this parasite disappears from the circulation. In the
same province it is reported that 434 clinical cases of Babesiasis were treated
with injections of trypanblue.

Babesiasis in dogs. (1) B. canis infection. Canine piroplasmosis due to infec-
tion with B. cams has been reported from the Central Provinces. Thirty-eight
dogs which showed this infliction were successfully treated with trypiinblue.
In an outbreak in Bihar 10 out of 20 dogs are reported to have died of piroplas-
mosis. All the affertrd dogs also showed helminthic infection but antihel-
minthic treatment brought about no amelioration of the symptoms. The drugs
such as, N. A. B., 8. U. P. 36, and Oinnadm gave no satisfactory result.

(2) B. gibsotti infection. A detailed study of the different stages of this
parasite within the veitebrate host wah rumcd out in the Protozoolouical
Section at Muktoswar. Two forms were encountered in the blood, viz. (a)
round or o\ul forms and (b) thin elongated forms. The round or oval
forms were found to divide many by means of bmniy fission, ^hile the
other forms multiplied in a way which was highly suggestive of srhizigony.
It seems possible that this morphological diffeiem-e, represents sexual
dimorphism. An article incorporating these observations has been prepared
and will soon be published. Kudo-nee is collected to show that in a
number of instances dogs affected with piroplas mosis revealed a liyperans-
coptibility to poisoning with organic arsenical applied in routine treatment,
and it was further observed that of the organs the liver was the most
affected. To minimize the toxic effects of arsenobenzeiie derivatives in
protean infections, the regular administration of sugar and liver extract
would seem to be indicated. It is proponed that the new arsenical Neocryl
(May am? Baker Ltd., London), which is stated to be less toxic and
more active than those hitherto known, be employed in the treatment of
B. gibsoni infection in dogs. In the Central Provinces eight cases of B. gibsoni
infection were encountered and it is claimed that Tryparsamide gave good
result in these cases. Ten out of 20 cases affected with B. gibsoni are
reported to have died in Ajmer-Merwara.

Bartonellosis in dogs. The occurrence of Bartonella canis in the erythrocytes
of dogs was for the first time reported in this country in the Annual Report
of the Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar, 1936-37. Studies
were continued on a pure strain of this parasite during the period under review.
This organism produced fatal and progressive anaemia in healthy dogs. The
disease lasted for 16 days in acute cases and three to four weeks in sub-acute
cases. The organisms occur in erythrocytes as minute coccoid or bacillary
forms, and sometimes in chains of various shapes.

192 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Babesiasis in horses. In Sind 45 cases of equine piroplasmosis were
encountered of which two are reported to have progressed to a fatal issue
while the rest were successfully treated.

Coccidiosis in cattle and buffaloes. Occurrence of Eimeria smithi in cattle
and buffaloes is reported from the Central Provinces. It is stated that weak
and emaciated animals are more susceptible to its attack. Cases are reported
which showed symptoms of protracted illness, great weakness, inappetance,
emaciation, anaemia, diarrhoea, exhaustion, and systematic derangement termi-
nating in death. The chief predisposing factors noted in these cases were
lack of proper nourishment, vitamin A deficiency, and hygienic condition. The
clinical cases were treated with the following special * coccidiosis powder ' :

Cupri sulphas ..... gr. XXX

Ferri sulphas .... drams II

Pulu. Areca nut . . . . . II

Pulu. Catechu . ....!
Pulu. zinziberis ...... IV

The above constituents were mixed thoroughly and administered in the
form of bolus prepared with rice or wheat flour and country sugar. Usually
one course of treatment is claimed to be sufficient for 10 days. In chronic
cases, however, the mixture is repeated after a week. It is pointed out that
liberal feeding with easily digestible diet is essential. Cases of coccidiosis in
bovines have also been reported from Mysore and Cochin. Resuscitation of
coccidiosis was encountered in bovines used in the Goat Virus Vaccination
Scheme in the Central Provinces during 1935-38. It was noted that carbon
tetrachloride had no effect on the infection but the special coccidiosis powder
described above ameliorated the condition.

Coccidiosis in sheep, goat, and rabbits. A series of experiments were carried
out in the Protozoological Section at Mukteswar to test the pathogcnecity of
Eimeria arloingi recovered from an outbreak of suspected toxaemia in goats at
Etah, described last year. The results so far obtained have been of negative
order. Material from a similar outbreak in tho Central Provinces was received
at this institute but no definite pathogenic properties could be ascribed to the
parasite.

Coccidiosis in rabbits complicated with snuffles has been reported from the
Pasteur Institute, Shillong (Assam).

Coccidiosis in poultry. Both coecal and intestinal types of coccidia were met
with in birds at the Mysore Serum Institute, Bangalore. Kerr's iodized milk as
well as sour milk were used as a preventive and curative in these cases.

Spirochcrtosis in poultry. Severe outbreak of spirochsetosis in poultry is
described from the Punjab. The runs were heavily infested with all the stages
of ticks. Soamin was found to be a specific remedy for the malady. In Mysore,
Rhode Island Reds, affected with spirochaetosis, were treated intravenously
with 0-3 gm. of Atoxyl per 1 Ib. body weight. A second injection, if neces-
sary, was given after four days. In Ajmer-Merwara 93 out of 117 birds are
reported to have succumbed to this disease.

Keeping quality of NaganoL Experiments were undertaken at Mukteswar
on behalf of the army authorities to test the keeping qualities of a 1934 batch

VETERINARY RESEARCH AND LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT 195

of Naganol against a fresh stock of 1937 in artificially infected equines. Results
obtained pointed out that the stock of 1937 was less efficient.

Malaria in a flying squirrel. In the Protozoological Section at Mukteswar,.
Plasmodium pteropi was encountered in the blood of an arboreal squirrel,.
Petaurista inornatus.

Flagellate from Tabanid. The Veterinary Investigation Officer, Hyderabad
(Deccan), has recorded in 50 per cent of the Tabanid flies the occurrence of viable
Crithidia tabani. Rabbits inoculated with this flagellate gave negative result.

Fascioliasis. Cases of this infection were discovered in Madras, Sind and
Ajmer-Merwara and in the Punjab. The incidence of this disease in the
Kangra valley was found to be 50 per cent. Treatment and prophyleexis
against this disease were undertaken in Hyderabad {Deccan) and Mysore.
Carbon tetrachloride gave good results in goats and sheep in the North-West
Frontier Province.

2. Verminous pneumonia. In the Punjab and in Darjeeling Hills this disease-
in goats was found to be due to Varestrongylus pneumonicus. In the latter area
Dictyocaulus fileria was also found to cause this condition.

3. Hump sore. This disease was detected in the whole of Bengal excepting
the hilly tract. It is suggested that the lack of this disease in the hills may be-
due to the absence of insect vectors in that area. In Assam it has been observed
that the old lesions of this disease can be distinguished into (a) active summer
lesions and (6) quiescent winter lesions. This clinical differentiation of the
lesions has its counterpart in the pathological changes undergone by the tissues*

4. Schistosomiasis. Oases of portal schistosomiasis were discovered in the
Bombay Province, Orissa., Madras and the Central Provinces. Cases of nasal
schistosomiasis were treated successfully with tartar emetic in the United Pro-
vinces, with tartar emetic and anti-mosan in Hyderabad and with anti-mosan
in the Central Provinces. It has been found in Bihar that the cases of nasal
schistosomiasis in buffaloes are not so rare.

5. Parasitic gastritis. This was found to be prevalent in the Bombay Pro-
vince and Sind. It was found to be caused by Mecistocirrus digitatus in the
Central Provinces and by HcomoncJius contortus in Sind.

6. Ascariasis. Cases of ascariasis in calves were detected in the Central
Provinces! Cases of this disease were detected and treated in Orissa.

7. Ampldstomiasis. The disease caused by immature amphistomes was
detected in goats in Bihar and sheep in Hyderabad (Deccan).

8. Microfilariasis. In the Bombay Province two species of microfilaria
were found in a tick parasiting cattle. A dog in Bihar showing symptoms of
incurable ascitis was found to have a liver tumour caused by microfilariee.
Microfilariasis with associated changes was detected in two dogs in Mukteswar.
Microfilaria? were detected in the blood of horses in the North- West Frontier
Province, Sind, Bombay Province and at Mukteswar. Repeated attempts were
made at Mukteswar to transmit microfilariasis fo cattle through the agency
of biting insects, but no positive results were obtained. Avian, canine and
bovine, microfilariasis was detected in the Bombay province. Cutaneous
microfilariasis was detected in Orissa and Hyderabad (Deccan). In the latter
state it was treated successfully with tartar emetic.

194 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

9. Nodular disease. This was detected in a ram in the Hyderabad State.

10. Study of the parasitic nodules of the liver and lungs of ponies was con-
tinued in Madras. The parasites recovered from the horse were Strongylus
vulgaris, Trichonema nasatum and T. pseudocatinatum.

11. Ancylostomiasis of dogs was detected and treated in Orissa.

12. Parafilaria multipapillosa. Hsemorrhagic nodules caused by these worms
were treated with success by 1 per cent solution of tartar emetic in Hyderabad
(Deccan).

14. Work has been undertaken at Mukteswar to elucidate the life-cycle of
the round worm of goats, Varestrongylus pneumonicus Bhalerao, 1932.

15. The following new records have been made by the Imperial Veterinary
Research Institute, Mukteswar :

(i) Dictyocaulus filaria in bronchi of Buffalo, N.-W. F. P.

(ii) Protostrongylus rufescens in bronchi of Buffalo, N.-W. F. P.
(iii) Trichostrongylus extenuatus in abomasum of goats, Mukteswar.
(iv) Echinuria uncinata from the gizzard of ducks, N.-W. F. P.

(v) Echinostomum rewlutum from the intestine of duck, N.-W. F. P.
(vi) Tetrameres fissispinus from proventriculus of duck, N.-W. F. P.
(vii) Trichocephalus vulpis from dog, Bhimtal, Dehra Dun.
(viii) Schistosoma incognitum from dog, Bhimtal.
(ix) Catatropis indicus n. sp. from the caeca of ducks.

16. Pseudanoplocephala crawfordi was recorded from pigs in Madras and
Cooperia curticei from the abomasum of goats in the Punjab.

17. A report of the Punjab helminthological scheme was published during
the period under review. Important conclusions reached as a result of experi-
ments carried out for three years are :

(1) A mixture of copper sulphate and Kamala acts as the best anthelmintic

against haemonchosis amongst ruminants. A mixture of copper
sulphate and sodium arsenite acts as the second best anthelmintic
against this condition.

(2) The animals fed on a balanced ration resist the infection of worms more

efficiently than those fed on grasses growing in the area that was
under investigation.

18. In 1933 a coordinated scheme of helminthological research was drawn
up by a special helminthological committee in order to obtain more precise
information about the parasites which cause heavy losses to livestock in India.
The committee suggested that the necessary identification and detailed examina-
tion of materials received from various parts of India should be carried out at
the following institutes which have agreed to cooperate, viz. (1) Madras Veteri-
nary College, (2) the Lucknow University, (3) the Imperial Veterinary
Research Institute, Mukteswar and (4) the Nagpur University. Material collect-
ed for the purpose will be sent to the appropriate centre according to a regional
distribution. The recommendations were accepted by the Imperial Council
of Agricultural Research and research is now being carried out at the first three
centres and arrangements are rn progress for starting work at Nagpur.

19. Work done under the helminthiasis scheme at the Lucknow University
(a) A general survey of the helminths of domestic ruminants was carried
out and as a result of this one new parasite, Olveria indica, was
discovered and a few new records were, made.

VETERINARY RESEARCH AND LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT 195

(6) Observations were made on multiple infection due to helminth para-
sites and on seasonal variations of helminthic infection in animals,
(c) A few larval trematodes were collected from some molluscs.

(d) Entomology

In the Entomological Section at Mukteswar, considerable advance was made
in the study of the life-history and bionomics of Hypoderma lineatum Daily
examination of carcases at the post mortem room at Mukteswar showed that
the cesophageal forms of H. lineatum larva; occurred during a continuous period
of nearly 1 1 months and this would appear to raise some doubt as to whether
those larva) migrate to the subcutaneous tissues of the back at all, for the
warble tumours themselves are usually observable during a continuous period
of not more than five months in the year. Young forms of H. lineatum were
also recorded from the trachea, rumen, diaphragm, vertebral column, neural
canal and intercostal tissues. In a number of instances, the presence of the
larvsB in the oesophagus was found to be associated with haemorrhage and
stenosis of the gullet wall. It was observed that it took, on an average,
52 days for the larvae to mature after their appearance in the subcutaneous
tissues of the back of the host and that the maggots emerged from the tumours
till the beginning of March.

The cesophageal forms of H. lineatum were also encountered in the gullets of
goats at Mukteswar, while some specimens of the full-grown larvse were collected
from the subcutaneous tissues of sheep in the Punjab. These two findings are
believed to be the first of their kind whether in India or elsewhere.

The results of warble-fly surveys carried out during the year showed that
the seasonal occurrence of H. lineatum varied with climate and topographical
conditions. Thus, while at Hissar, no tumours occurred on the backs of cattle
after the middle of January, they were observable at Kohat, Dera Ghazi Khan
and Peshawar till the middle of February. As for the goat warble-fly (77. crossi),
it was found to be very common amongst goats of the Barbary breed in the salt
range area of the Punjab.

Reports from the provincial Veterinary Departments indicate that
H. lineatum is widespread in several localities in Northern India. Thus, 17,970
warble dressings were carried out at Hissar during the year, while the pest was
found to 1)e very common in the district of Sukkur and in certain parts of
Karachi. In the North-West Frontier Province young cattle were found to
be more heavily infested than adults, while in certain localities of the province
warble tumours (due to H. crossi) were encountered in practically every one
of the goats examined. In Bengal H. lineatum was found to be very common
at Darjeeling and the neighbouring hill tracts, but the plains were practi-
cally free from it. On the basis of information supplied by the various pro-
vinces arid states, a map showing the incidence of H. lineatum has been pre-
pared by the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research.

During the year, severe outbreaks of mange tn goats, with heavy mortality
in some instances, were reported from the North- West Frontier Province,
the Punjab, the United Provinces, Madras and the Central Provinces. In the
United Provinces, the disease, which occurred among young stock under one
year of age, manifested itself in the form of a peculiar skin infection charac-
terized by a * trimming ' of the hairs as if with scissors and the formation of

196 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

hypersemic and eczematous patches on the affected region, this being followed
by a cracking of the skin. The outbreak was, however, brought under control
by segregation and disinfection. Several cases of scabies in sheep, resulting
either in death or considerable loss of condition, were reported from Madras,
the Central Provinces and Hyderabad State.

The problem of the control of ticks received special attention in Bombay,
where four dipping tanks are now available for the public. Studies were also
made on the seasonal prevalence and bionomics of the various species of ticks
parasitic on cattle, with a view to the eventual utilization of the results of these
studies in determining the frequency of the dipping operations. An investiga-
tion into the aetiology of tick toxaemia occurring in certain heavy rainfall tracts
of the province resulted in a finding which seemed to be suggestive of the possi-
bility that the toxic element was present in the saliva of the tick.

In the United Provinces an investigation was carried out at the G9vern-
ment Cattle Farm, Manjhra (Lakhimpur-Kheri) upon the relative, efficacy of
certain repellent sprays in protecting cattle from the attacks of biting flies. It
was found that a spray consisting of high speed Diesel oil, l Pyrocide 20 ' (a
proprietory preparation of pyrcthrum extract) and pine oil exercised a markedly
repellent effect upon the flies, and the use of this spray also resulted in an increase
in the yield of milk.

(e) Deficiency diseases and toxicology

Experimental research in deficiency diseases and toxicology in India does
not seem to have, unlike other sciences, a long history. Within recent years,
however, there has been a growing interest in these spheres as is evidenced
by a comparatively larger number of contributions. The present review
aims to cover the progress made during 1937-38.

The consideration of certain diseases has been included in this review in
so far as dietary deficiencies affect them.

DEFICIENCY DISEASES

Osteomalacia. Osteomalacia appears to be of common occurrence in
certain parts of India. Keports of a fairly great incidence of this disease in
cattle were received from the villages of Alumpur taluka in Raichur district in
Hyderabad (Deccan) and in buffaloes near Bihar Sharif and Nawada in Bihar.
The fodder and concentrates fed to these animals were examined at the Imperial
Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar, and found to be poor in phosphorus.
Representative samples of soil from the affected areas in Bihar were examined
and found to be significantly poor in nitrogen and phosphorus. The analysis
of affected bones showed very low inorganic ash, calcium and phosphorus
contents and chemical examination of serum revealed definite phosphorus
deficiency.

In Hyderabad (Deccan) v>one meal was used to control the malady with
good results.

Rickets in pups. Although a large number of dogs and bitches live under
the same dietetic and kennel conditions at the Imperial Veterinary Research
Institute at Mukteswar, one bitch produced pups with bone deformities.
Examination of the serum of the bitch and of the dog with which she was

VETERINARY RESEARCH AND LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT 197

mated showed very low inorganic phosphorus. Analyses of the bones of these
pups indicated characteristic rickets of a very advanced nature.

Night blindness and nutritional optic disorders. It was noticed
in Bengal that when cows were confined to the cowsheds during the entire
period of lactation and fed on a dry ration, the influence of the dry ration and
lack of exercise and sunlight for about 8 to 12 months on the cows produced
calves which were practically or completely night blind and developed com-
plications of eye diseases at the age of about three months. Although the
health of the cows was affected, they were found fit enough for breeding pur-
poses.

In Bihar night blindness in up-country bullocks which were kept on dry
fodder exclusively was noticed and it was assumed that it may be due to vitamin
A deficiency.

The frequent occurrence of blindness amongst elephants of the Madras
Forest Department was reported. The affected eyes showed simple and trau-
matic ophthalmia, opacity of the cornea and cataract with and without opacity
of the cornea. Such conditions were ascribed to the exposure of sun, maltreat-
ment by mahout and injuries inflicted during forest grazing and bolting, which
appeared doubtful. Investigations into these conditions were undertaken at
the Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar, where the lachrymal
secretions were examined bacteriologically with negative results. It appears
that this condition in elephants has some nutritional or toxicological bearing.

Since it has been established that vitamin A deficiency is the cause of con-
genital blindness and night blindness in livestock a series of experiments have
been initiated at Mukteswar to see whether any losses in the carotene content
(vitamin A) of the fodder plants are brought about during the various stages
of harvesting, drying and conserving by different methods as practised by the
ordinary farmer.

Goitre in horses. Cases with unilateral or bilateral enlargement of the
thyroid glands were reported from Saugor. The animals lost condition when
put to hard work. Examination of the blood showed that it was low in iodine
and histological examination of the thyroid gland revealed the presence of
goitre for which iodine therapy was recommended.

Bovine abortion and dietary deficiency. As appears to be evident
from the observations made in Bengal and Bombay, dietary deficiencies seem
to play an important role. The investigation into bovine abortion, which
inflicts considerable loss to dairies, was continued in the province of Bombay
and one of the main factors responsible for this condition was suspected to be
possibly the deficiency of calcium in fodders. An experiment undertaken to
ascertain the value of administration of mineral feed in a dairy where abortion
was greatly prevalent showed that out of 28 buffaloes in various stages of lacta-
tion 21 calved normally, one aborted due to Brucella infection and the rest
remained pregnant. Fiesh controlled experiments are proposed to be carried
out to get confirmatory results.

Sterility in cows. This has been found to occur in Assam, Orissa and
in a large number of villages of the Central Provinces and Berar. It is more
common in ill-fed cattle than in the properly fed animus. In regard to the
causation of sterility one of the chief factors is suspected to be an ill-balanced
diet, deficient in minerals and vitamins.

198 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Equine abortion. An examination of the serum from 87 cases of abor-
tion in mares from different parts of the Punjab showed low phosphorus in
51-7 per cent of the cases and a gross imbalance iii the calcium and phosphorus
ratio in the remaining 483 per cent. It may be that mineral imbalance or
deficiency may be an associated factor in the incidence of this condition.

Kumri and mineral imbalance. Kumri was prevalent during the year
in Assam. Investigation based on clinical and post mortem evidence repre-
sented a stage in the development of Osteofibrosis or Osteodt/strophia fibrosa
caused by the imbalance of calcium and phosphorus in the diet.

Johnes disease and mineral feeding. Recurrence of Johne's disease
in Assam, Bombay, Madras and Mysore was reported during the year under,
review. In Assam under village conditions where the diet of the animal was
far from being properly balanced, the incidence of the disease was greater, but
under proper care and feeding the animals remained comparatively healthy.
The incidence of the disease was very substantially reduced by having recourse
to the feeding of a mineral supplement. Although it is not possible to say
definitely whether mineral feeding will check the progress of the disease in
animals already showing clinical symptoms, it seems, however, that the feeding
of mineral mixture increases the resistance of the healthy animals.

Parasitic infestation and mineral deficiency. An investigation to deter-
mine whether certain mineral deficiencies tend to lower animal resistance
towards parasitic infestation showed that mineral deficiency was produced in
calves and sheep when they were kept on mineral deficient rations for a period
of seven months and artificially infesting them after this period with Ihinion-
chus and Oesophagostome larvgp led to a more severe parasitic attack than the
control animals fed on a balanced ration.

Mineral deficiency disease in cattle is met with in certain areas in the Punjab
and a few feeding experiments have been planned to see whether the malady
can be attributed to the fodder.

In the case of swine at Kalimpong in Assam, a considerable reduction in
the ration consisting of boiled maize and skimmed milk led to the development
of epileptic fits, convulsions and paralysis of the left facial nerves. Besides,
they were very heavily infested with worms. The incidence of this condition
was, however, controlled by an increase in the ration with addition of greens
and cod-liver oil and treatment for worms.

In Mukteswar an investigation was undertaken to study the various frac-
tions of serum proteins of the normal and vitamin A, calcium, and pohsphorus
deficient cattle and the results showed that the animals on vitamin A deficient
diet had decreased total proteins especially total globulin (although the ration
is adequate in regard to protein), euglobulin, and pseudoglobulin I. This de-
crease in immunologically active protein fractions may probably be responsible
for an increased susceptibility of the host to infections. A diet imbalanced
with regard to calcium showed a similar effect but to a lesser degree.

Nutritional aspects of equine encephalo myelitis. Nutritional investiga-
tions with regard to equine encephalomyelitis were continued at Mukteswar.
Fresh cases had been reported from Jamshedpur where the recurrence was
observed in the same troop. Similar condition was noticed in other places.
These observations showed that the disease was probably restricted to certain
areas. Analyses of fodder and concentrates showed that there was a gross

VETERINARY RESEARCH AND LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT 199

imbalance of calcium and phosphorus and the serum was low in phosphorus.
Three cases also occurred in the horses- of the mounted military police in
Bihar. Thery were destroyed after a thorough post-mortem examination. The
diagnosis of equine encephalomyelitis was confirmed in every case but trans-
mission experiments did not confirm the presence of a filterable virus as the
causal agent as was previously suspected. The disease is now being studied
from the biochemical point of view in collaboration with Mukteswar. Hexa-
mine treatment of affected cases did not yield any conclusive results.

TOXICOLOGY

An investigation into an outbreak of jou-ar poisoning near Bihar Sharif in
the district of Patna and chemical examination of the samples of food-stuffs
showed the presence of hydrocyanic acid in every case.

It has been observed in Kangra district, Punjab, that the twigs and leaves
of Andrachne Cordijolin Muell kill cattle when browsed in the early morning
on an empty stomach.

The incidence of poisoning of cattle in Assam has been investigated and the
condition resembled very much Dikoor and Geeldikopp or k Yellows ' of cattle
caused by the ingestion of certain injurious plants, the main feature being
photosensitization of the ears, the face and eyelids.

Lrtntana camera Liem, the seeds, ilowers and leaves of which are known
to be poisonous to cattle has been responsible for great damage both in the plain
and hill areas and the animals showed grave pathological condition attended
with mortality.

2. Animal nutrition

DACVA. Kxperiments have been continued at Dacca under the scheme
financed by the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research on rice straw and its
mineral assimilation when animals are fed on this material. These investiga-
tions have brought out some interesting characteristics in regard to the assimi-
lation of lime, phosphate and potash from Bengal rice straws. This material
is rich in potash which occasionally has been found to cause diuresis and in
spite of this high potash content there is not always a positive potash balance
in the animal. A modification of this situation is produced if linseed cake is
combined with rice straw when a positive potash balance was usually secured
but -the opposite was the case when mustard cake was fed. With mustard
cake the general phosphate and lime assimilation WAS unsatisfactory and this
point needs further elucidation.

Amongst the more interesting results brought out in the course of
these investigations is the wide variation in the protein, ether extract, and most
of the minerals in rice straws from different districts.

Special attention has been given to the distribution of the various mineral
ingredients in rice straws and the added concentrates in regard to the effect
on mineral assimilation of added concentrates.

The work on potash has shown conflicting results and is being studied further.

Similarly rice bran is rich in phosphorus but it was found that assimilatkm
was not satisfactory.

Napier grass is also found to be rich in potash, Mid when fed alone the lime-
phosphorus metabolism in the animal is not satisfactory.

200 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Studies on the water hyacinth which is so prolific in Bengal have shown that
this may be utilized as a fodder reserve provided it is fed with some satisfactory
concentrates and in limited quantity.

An interesting study which has been carried out is the mineral requirements
of an animal in relationship to live \\eight, and the results so far indicate that
the lime content of an adult animal in Bengal is probably a linear function of
the live weight.

Work has also been carried out on Napier grass silage in various digestion
and metabolic tests ; further tests have also been made to throw light on the
value of the new methods of estimating digestible coefficients.

COTMBATORE. The work at Coimbatore under the Imperial Council of Agri-
cultural Research Nutrition Scheme has been carried out on the following
lines :

(a) Mineral metabolism studies and investigations on the mineral content
of blood in relationship to that of fodders.

This investigation has shown that the Kangayam breed of calves from 12
months of age require about 30 gm. each of phosphoric acid and calcium per
day in order to ensure a positive calcium phosphorus balance, and a calcium
phosphorus ratio in the neighbourhood of 1 : 1. It has also shown that cross-
bred heifers during pregnancy do not exhibit any considerable disturbance in
mineral metabolism, and that with an intake of 30 gm. of phosphorus and
calcium respectively a positive balance was obtained but after parturition a
considerable increase over 30 gm. is necessary in the ratio of 1 : 1.

(/;) The blood studies for mineral content were continued from last year
and the general conclusions arrived at were that in normal healthy animals the
calcium content of the serum was about nine to ten milligrams per 100 c.c. and
the phosphorus about five to eight milligrams per 100 c.c. of blood. These
studies have also brought to light interesting da^a in regard to the calcium-
phosphorus ratio in the fodder in comparison with the ratios found in the blood
and in bone and flesh in general.

(c) During the year under report a number of interesting pasture surveys
have been carried out in order to study the relative values of pastures in
different districts of the province. The analytical data recorded for certain
places however relates to rather abnormal conditions when the pastures were
dead ripe and not at the best nutritive stage.

(d) Studies have also been carried out on the biological values of cereals in
relationship to manurial treatments. The results obtained are not conclusive
and this work requires to be continued. In this connexion an interesting finding
was that rice grown under the effluent from activated sludge showed a higher
protein content than that grown under ordinary irrigation.

MADRAS. Studies have been concluded on the minimum protein require-
ments of Kangayam bullocks and confirm previous findings that 100 gin. of
digestible protein per day are necessary. Related to this study was an investi-
gation on the relationship between protein metabolism and muscular work and
the general findings are in conformity with general physiological knowledge.

BIHAR. AVork has been continued during the year under review under the
Imperial Council of Agricultural Research scheme for studies on the influence
of the age of a crop, soil condition, season, geographical localities, cultivation
and manuring, on the composition of fodder. This work is still in the prelimi-

VETERINARY RESEARCH AND LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT 201

nary stage and some of the results obtained have confirmed the results which
have been found in the Punjab. The composition of the same fodder may vary
in different localities and under different types of soil and strict correlation
cannot be found.

The Bihar studies have shown distinct variations in protein and ash content
in the same type of fodder on different farms, but much further work and statis-
tical interpretation is yet required before a complete picture of the various rela-
tionships of the nutritive values of fodders with other factors can bo stated in
detail

Investigations by the Department of Agriculture on the effects of supple-
menting the normal rations of cattle with mineral adjuncts in cases where soils
are known to be deficient in mineral content have been continued. Tentative
conclusions indicate that under such conditions calves when fed mineral adjuncts
increase in weight more than the controls.

PUNJAB. The following investigations were carried out :

(i) An investigation on the value of decorticated cotton-seed cake obtained
from a local oil press in comparison with undecorticated cotton seed. The
results showed that the decorticated cotton-seed cake contained 29 Ib. of diges-
tible protein per 100 Ib. of feed against 18 Ib. for the undecorticated cotton-seed
cake.

The corresponding figures for the albuminoid ratio were 1 : 1 and 3 : 1, indi-
cating the superiority of the decorticated cotton-seed cake both in protein con-
tent and protein digestibility.

(ii) Working bullocks. An investigation was carried out with six working
bullocks on the ordinary farm ration as fed at Lyallpur, using the general
technique followed in digestion experiments to ascertain the efficiency of the
rations in relationship to the work done on the basis of eight hours a day.

The average weight of the animals was 1,000 Ib. and they were fed on
wheat bhusa, green berseem and gram. The average intake of digestible pro-
tein per day was 1-6 Ib. and on this ration all the animals showed positive
nitrogen balances. The nutritive ratio of the rations calculated from the
fodder actually eaten by the animals was 1 : 6 against 1 : 8 as recommended by
American writers.

(iii) Exjjeriments on cattle feeds manufactured from molasse*. A number
of experiments have been carried out in different parts of India to throw light
on the value of molasses when mixed with other materials in the form of com-
pressed cakes as a ration for animals. The Haicourt Butler Institute,
awnpore, has produced a composite feed from bagasse screenings, mustard
cake and molasses in the proportions of 2, 3 and i respectively. Work had
"been conducted with this material at the Allahabad Agricultural Institute, Naini,
IT. P., and the Punjab Agricultural College, Lyallpur. The conclusions drawn
from the Allahabad trials are, firstly, that feeds containing molasses and
bagasse are not as efficient for purposes of nutrition as other common Indian
feeds with which they have been compared, such as various concentrates, oil-
seed cakes, etc., and also that they are Ijss palatable. It has invariably been
found that animals do not take to these feeds, particularly at the start, and it
takes a considerable time before they will tolerate them in moderate amounts,
such feeds, nevertheless, form a cheap source of energy as an emergency ration
but are not to be universally recommended. The results at Lyallpur have

202 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

shown that the chemical composition of the composite molassed feed was appro-
ximately that of wheat bran although its digestibility was considerably lower ;
the content of calcium and phosphoric acid was satisfactory in amount but not
well balanced. The digestibility coefficient of the protein in molassed feed was
52 as against 75 for that in wheat bran. The general results of the Lyallpur trials
indicate that there is no particularly strong case for manufacturing bulky but
not exceptionally rich food materials, such as this molassed feed, and transport-
ing them long distances, except for emergencies. The general value of such
fodders appears to be as a local fodder reserve in dry areas although it is doubt-
ful whether this would justify the cost of manufacture particularly when the
danger of spontaneous combustion from such fodders is borne in mind. This
fodder underwent spontaneous combustion under storage in moderate bulk
both at Lyallpur and Allahabad.

Corresponding trials have also been carried out at the Imperial Institute
of Veterinary Research, Mukteswar, Imperial Dairy Department, Bangalore
Agricultural Sub-station, Karnal, and various other institutes.

The results from these institutions will be published when ready.

3. Breeding operations

(a) Cattle

At last it is possible to review the pick of the cattle of India at one place
and one time, and the all-India show at Delhi enables one to assess the qualities
and values, types and capacities of many breeds which have all too often only
represented names to the ordinary cattle bleeder. A beginning has been made
with herd books, registration and the foundation of a breed society : all
healthy signs that Indian breeders are slowly coming into line. Much work
requires to be done, and it will undoubtedly be necessary to be definite with
regard to certain breeds, which appear to represent districts rather than pro-
vinces and to shade off into other breeds of similar type. A decision on this
point is required before any real improvement can be started in these parts
and the all-India cattle show has brought this most important question to a
head. Environment and demand would appear to be much greater and more
important factors in India's breeds of cattle than was previously believed, and
many so-called breeds are mere answers to the above inventions based on the
spur of necessity which clearly go to prove the skill of the Indian breeder
when faced with a paying demand and a ready market for a certain type.

In the PUNJAB there were 5,962 district board stud bulls standing in different
districts of the province as compared with 5,370 in the previous year. In
addition to this, there were 5,340 privately owned registered bulls at stud in
the various districts under Government supervision. Special attention was
given to the elimination of scrub bulls, and as a result of the by-laws framed
by the various district boards, Brahmini bulls have now been completely elimi-
nated from the rural areas of the Lahore and Jullundur divisions. At the
Hissar farm, the total number of stock issued for breeding and draught pur-
poses was 1,724 animals against 1,429 in the previous year. There were 1,659
births against 1,727 in the previous year. In the Hariana tract there were
2,392 pedigree stud bulls ad compared with 2,281 of the previous year. Under
the Dhanni cattle breeding scheme, there were 110 district board and 347

VETERINARY RESEARCH AND LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT 203

subsidy bulls at stud as compared with 87 district board and 269 subsidy bulls
in the previous year. The demand for Dhanni bulls is becoming very keen
as the breed is establishing itself in most parts of the province. A number
of other breeding schemes were also in operation in different tracts. The total
number of approved buffalo bulls under departmental super vision^ including
bulls belonging to local bodies was 6,695 as compared with 2,629 last year.
Buffalo breeding work in the province has been much improved by the organiza-
tion of a large number of breeding societies.

In the NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE the work on the improvement of
the Dhanni, Lohani, Dajal, Sindhi and Sahiwal breeds of cattle was continued.
At the end of the year there were 408 bulls at stud in the province.

In BIHAR although no definite cattle breeding policy has yet boon formula-
ted by the Government, yet due to the formation of district cattle improvement
associations in certain districts, the question of improvement of livestock
received greater attention than before. During the year 1 lt>,043 scrub bulls
and bull calves were castrated as compared with 111,438 in the previous year.
At Kanke farm, two pure-bred herds, Sahiwal and Tharparkar, are being
built up side by side. A small herd of Hansi-Hissar cattle was maintained at
the Puvsa farm. There were 45 buffalo bulls at stud in the Tirhut range.

In BENGAL 20 out of 27 districts in the province participated in the cattle
improvement scheme, and 390 stud bulls were purchased and distributed to
each of the 10 districts which accepted the scheme during the year. The total
number of progeny reported up to the end of the year was 5,400 and most of
these are said to bo in good condition. Further some 16,980 scrub bulls were
castrated during the year. A sum of Rs. 7,200 was distributed in 19 districts
to people who kept stud bulls in good service condition. In addition to this,
several district boards also allotted funds for this purpose.

In ASSAM work on the improvement of cattle consisted in grading up the
local cattle by crossing them with Friesian, Sindhi, Hariana and Tharparkar
bulls. Considerable improvement in milk yield and size of cattle has been
achieved by this process. The supply of cattle from Government farms, which
was stopped owing to the outbreak of Johne's disease, was resumed from the
Khanapara and Jorhat farms towards the end of the year. Cattle improve-
ment was continued as in the previous year in the grazing reserves and village
breeding centres. Substantial expansion of work for livestock improvement
was possible due to the provision of Rs. 50,000 out of the Government of India's
rural uplift grant. The establishment of the Livestock Improvement Associa-
tion in 1936-37 ushered in yet another agency for carrying out cattle breeding
operations all over the province.

In MADRAS the main work on the improvement of livestock was carried
out at the Hosui farm. The breeds of cattle maintained there were Kanga-
yam, Sindhi and Hallikar, while a few buffaloes and a small herd of Ongoie
cattle were located at Guntur. At Hosur attempts are also being made to
improve the indigenous cattle by using Sindhi bulls. Altogether 53 cows, 55
bulls, 4 heifer calves and one bull calf were issued for breeding purposes.

In BOMBAY the work on the improvement of cattle was continued at Chha-
rodi for the Kankrej breed and at Bankapur for the Amntmahal breed, at
Cbharodi testing and selection for the production of high milk yielders was
continued. Besides this, a herd combining a fair milk yield with good draught

204 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

quality is being developed. The rearing, selection and distribution of premium
bulls was continued and 253 bulls were maintained under the premium bull
scheme in selected cattle breeding tracts. During the year 127 bulls were
made available under H. E. the Viceroy's gift bull scheme. An impetus was
also given to the scheme for the improvement of buffalo breeding in the pro-
vince. A -total number of 507 buffaloes in the province were tested. Herd
registers of pure breeds were maintained in the interest of the local breeders.
In addition to these activities, cooperation was continued with the Gowrakshak
Mandali, Kandivli, in the breeding of improved Gir cattle, and 15 Gir bulls
were put out as premium bulls.

In COORG the scheme for the improvement of cattle launched last year
worked satisfactorily. The total number of stud bulls purchased up-to-date
by Government was 19. The progeny of these bulls appear to be promising.

In MYSORE there were 1,387 Hallikar and 169 Amritmahal bulls maintained
in the state for stud purposes. In TRAVANCORE the Department of Agriculture
continued the policy of awarding grants for approved stud bulls maintained by
private individuals. In BARODA a number of breeding bulls were maintained
at different centres for the improvement of cattle of the state. With a view to
improving Gir cattle, the Government sanctioned a scheme for issuing six bulls
a year to six selected villages in Kodinar taluka. In HYDERABAD the work
on the improvement of cattle was continued on the lines reported last year.
At the end of the year, there were 56 breeding bulls on the register as compared
with 33 in the previous year.

At the IMPERIAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, NEW DELHI, a
pedigree herd of Sahiwal cattle was maintained and a similar herd of Thar-
parkar cattle at the Karnal sub-station. At both these stations line breeding
and rigid selection for milk yields was carried on. Fourteen Sahiwal and 35
Tharparkar bulls were sold during the year. At the Imperial Dairy Institute-,
Bangalore, pedigree herds of Sindhi and Gir cattle were maintained with a view
to develop high milk yielding strains.

During the year under report, a large number of cooperative cattle breed-
ing societies were started in different provinces and states for the improvement
of cattle and other aspects connected with it. These societies maintained stud
bulls for the service of cows owned by their members, advanced funds for the
purchase of good cattle, made arrangements for training in veterinary first
aid and also for the treatment of sick animals and organized cattle shows and
distributed prizes to the winners. The number of such societies working in
the various provinces and states at the end of the year was : Madras 3, Punjab
272, Delhi 7, Travancore 1, Baroda 2, while 7 new societies were registered
in the United Provinces.

(b) Horses and camels

Some provinces in India are paying very little or no attention to horse,
mule and donkey breeding. In the PUNJAB the number of horse and pony
stallions in the non-selected districts* was 79 in 1937-38 as compared with
80 in the previous year. The number of donkey stallions was 82 against 80

* Hissar, Rohtak, Gurgaon (except Palwal and Balabgarh tehsils), Karnal, Ambala,
Simla, Kangra, Hoshiarpur, Jullundur, Ludhiana, Gurdaspar, Sialkot, Mianwali, Muzaffar-
garh, Multan, Montgomery, Gujranwala and Dera Ghazi Khan.

VETERINARY RESEARCH AND LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT 205

in the previous year. The total number of mares covered by these horse and
donkey stallions was 5,287 and 6,453 as compared with 5,092 and 6,183
respectively, during the preceding year. While there is a groat demand for
the Baloch breed of horses in the districts of Multan and Montgomery, there is
great dearth of suitable stallions even in the home district, viz. Dera Ghazi
Khan. This dearth is probably due to the fact that the old indigenous breed
has practically been replaced by mixed Arabs and thorough breds. One horse
and ten donkey stallions were issued to districts during the year from the
Government Cattle Farm, Hissar. In most of the breeding areas in the
non-selected districts horse and mule breeding societies were formed during
the year. The Arab breeding operations at the Government Cattle Farm,
Hissar, have been suspended under the orders of the Punjab Government and
whatever livestock was available has since been disposed of.

In the NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE five Arab and two T. B. E. horse
and 15 donkey stallions were maintained in non-selected districts. They
covered 314 and 1,131 mares respectively. There is great scope for develop-
ing donkey and mule breeding industries in certain hilly tracts of the province
where the only means of transport are these animals. In the UNITED PROVINCES
there were at the close of the year 52 horse and 10 donkey stallions. They
covered 1,800 and 312 mares respectively. In ASSAM there were 14 ponies,
out of which five were working ponies, three mares and six colts. There were
five horse stallions at stud in the SIND Province. This number included one
thorough-bred English and one Australian horse presented to the district local
board, Upper Sind Frontier district, by the Race and Riding Club, Ltd.,
Karachi. These stallions covered 207 mares during the year against 196 in
the previous year. In the HYDERABAD STATE there were 29 stallions at the
close of the year as against 35 in the preceding year, while the number of stallion
stands increased from 15 to 16. The number of coverings during the year
was 558 as compared with 564 in the year before, which shows a decrease of
six only. The total number of stallions at work, however, increased from 36
to 37. In the BARODA state there were only 2 Egyptian donkey stallions which
covered 48 mares. An attempt is now being made to collect and collate all
available information regarding the indigenous breeds of horses and asses in
India and Burma including particulars of breed characteristics. The informa-
tion when collected and published will be useful towards the improvement of
indigenous breeds of horses and donkeys.

Although camels are extensively used as pack animals for riding and agri-
cultural purposes little systematic work has been done so far for the improve-
ment of breeding. The only province in which anything is being done, is the
Punjab. The District Board, Ferozepore, subsidized 13 selected camel stallions
which covered 1,080 she-camels compared with 499 coverings by 15 camel
stallions in the previous year. Eight camel stallions were subsidized by the
Mianwali District Board against 12 in the preceding year. The scheme is very
popular with the zamindars in the tract who chiefly rely on their animals for
many necessities of life. Progress was, however,* retarded by lack of funds.
A similar scheme of subsidizing camel stallions has also been started in the
dry and sandy tracts of the Hissar, Rohtak and Gurgaon districts. As a first
step towards the improvement of camel breeding, the Imperial Council of
Agricultural Research is now collecting information from the camel rearing

206

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

tracts in India, regarding the various breeds of camels, their breed characteris-
tics, the way in which they are usually bred and other relevant matters.

Sheep and goat breeding operations in India, whether on the contribution
from the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research, or financed by the provincial
Governments in different provinces and the states, have been undertaken with
the following objects in view :

1. To improve the indigenous breeds of sheep and goats by selection under
farm conditions.

2. To provide pedigree rams and bucks in the rural areas, whore goat and
sheep breeding under controlled conditions is to be contemplated.

3. To investigate such economic factors as may be of value to sheep and
goat breeders generally.

4. To investigate disease conditions amongst these animals.

(i) Sheep. In the PUNJAB the work in connexion with sheep breeding is
in progress in Kangra under the sheep breeding scheme of the Kangra district,
in the Jhelum district under the Rakh Dand Cooperative Sheep Broeding Society
and at Hissar farm under the scheme financed by the Imperial Council of
Agricultural Research. Three breeds of sheep are being tried in the Punjab
and the record of wool production in each breed is reproduced below.
Average production of wool in two clips per animal per annum in each daxs

Breed

(

'lass

19:36-37

1037-38

Ibs.

lb.

Merino ....

Rams

8-21

8-31

Hissar Dale ....

Rams

8-37

8-00

Ewes

3-56

3-93

Lambs

4-42

4-38

Bikanir .....

Rama

8-56

9-12

Ewes

4-50

5-r>0

Lambs

5-23

6-2!)

At the Hissar farm the scheme of the Imperial Council of Agricultural
Research concerns the improvement and breeding of Bikanir sl^eep and the
programme of work taken in hand promises results of great value.

The sheep breeding scheme in BOMBAY, financed by the Imperial Council
of Agricultural Research, aims at evolving a type of breed superior to the indi-
genous sheep, and with this end in view the operation was started in 1938 with
ten ewes and five rams of Merino breed of Wangenlla strain obtained from
South Africa. In MADRAS attempts are being made to improve Bellary sheep
by selective breeding at the Government Cattle Farm, Hosur. At the Upper
Shillong Farm, ASSAM, breeding operations with Bikanir sheep were continued
with satisfactory results, end the best yield for the year 1937-38 of a ram at
this farm was 9J Ib. Worm infestation was the main trouble of sheep at this
farm.

In the NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE the sheep breeding operations
are being conducted in several districts with satisfactory results with Hissar

VETERINARY RESEARCH AND LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT 207

Dale (Merino and Bikanir cross) and Merino imported from South Africa. A
trial is given to Bikanir sheep in HYDERABAD STATE at Hingoli farm where
the flock suffered mainly from parasitic infestation in spite of preventive
measures.

At three Government sheep farms in MYSORE, considerable progress is
being made in sheep breeding, using Merino rams on local ewes. At Ajjampur
main station and its sub-station at Basur the total number of sheep at the
close of the year 1937-38 was 346 as against 315 in the previous year. At
Yallachihalli Sheep Farm the flock consisted of 173 sheep. The yield of wool
with improvement in its quality per head during the year 1937-38 was
12-9 oz. as against 114 oz. in the previous year. At Hebbal Sheep Farm the
breeding operation with Merino rams was given a serious set-back due to ' Heart
Water ' disease to which eight Merino sheep brought from South Africa suc-
cumbed either in transit or after landing in Bombay and thereafter.

The Kolar Sheep Breeders' Association consisting of 1 66 members is making
an appreciable effort at sheep breeding with stud rams issued to the association
from the Government farms. The association had 10,000 sheep under its control
at the end of the year 1937-38 as against 7,383 at the beginning of the year of
which 1,200 were hybrid sheep. 12,788 sheep wore machine-shorn by the
association which produced 3,491 Ib. of wool and sold it at prices far better than
what the individual flock-owners would have realized.

In the UNITED PROVINCES, on the result of a survey on indigenous sheep
industry carried out in Upper Garhwal hills, it has been suggested that con-
siderable improvement could be effected in slice]) in this region by encouraging
private enterprise in selective breeding for the colour and quality of wool.
The survey report also contains the possibility of encouraging livestock trade
in the beginning of the winter when proper shelter to sheep is rendered practi-
cally impossible. The possibility of meat export is also envisaged by estab-
lishing private cold storage which in these hills would not necessitate an
expensive plant.

(ii) Goat. The importance of goat breeding in the general scheme of live-
stock improvement in India is of no small measure on account of meat and
milk supplied from these animals on low productive cost. Goat breeding
schemes, therefore, are in contemplation of several provincial and state Govern-
ments.

In the UNITED PROVINCES considerable headway has been made in goat
breeding at the Government Goat Breeding Farm, Etah, with Jumna-Pari
and Barbari goats under a scheme financed by the Imperial Council of Agri-
cultural Research. The report for the year 1936-37 shows that further im-
provement in the milk yield of the stock maintained on the farm has been
effected and that the cost of production of milk per pound has been steadily
reduced. By decreasing the number of days in milk from 274 in the previous
years to 151 in the year 1937-38, the maximum yield per day, the average milk
yield per day during lactation and the average yield per day during kidding
interval have increased from 32 to 4-1, 1-8 to 2-9 and 1-2 to 1-10 Ib. respectively.
One gratifying result of goat breeding at this farm has been the demand for
Jumna-Pari goats from various provinces, and during >he last seven -years 193
goats were supplied to nine different provinces, and 381 village goats were
bred to the farm bucks during the same period.

208 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

In BENGAL, there is a demand all over the province for a larger goat. A
scheme on goat breeding is under consideration by the Government of Bengal,
and funds have been provided by the district boards of Dacca, Faridpur,
Berhampur, Nadia, Rajshahi, Malda, Hooghly and Bankura for improvement
of stock in these districts.

At the Hissar farm in the PUNJAB, 89 goat lactations were recorded and
the milk yield exceeding 300 Ib. was observed in 1ft out of 28 goats in their
first lactation, and out of 16 goats in their second lactation, 6 showed a yield
exceeding 400 Ib. during the usual lactation period. A scheme for the investiga-
tion of indigenous goat breeding at the Government Cattle Farm, Hissar, has
been sanctioned for a period of five years at a total cost of Rs. 18,720 and
funds provided.

In ASSAM, the demand for improved male goats is enormous and a herd of
Jumna-Pari goats is being graded up at the Khanapara farm. As a result of
mating of local she-goats by Jumna-Pari bucks, goats of improved size and
quality are to be seen in certain villages around this farm.

During the year 1937-38, 16 Patnai goats were purchased from NOKTH BIHAR
for issue in villages where 230 services were reported and 101 kids counted.

Goat breeding continued on a small scalo in NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PRO-
VINCE with Jumna-Pari goats and during the year 1937-38, arrangements were
made to bring in six Angora goats from the United States of America for the
development of Mohair in the hills.

The sheep and goat breeding operations in several provinces arid states
appear to have been considerably affected during the year under review by
incident diseases which call for investigation and proper control.

(d) Poultry^

From a review of the year's work it is apparent that it is now widely
realized throughout India that breeding improvement schemes are necessary
for the betterment of the poultry industry. Unfortunately the schemes
on hand at different centres are severely handicapped by lack of knowledge
in regard to all aspects of production and marketing. The epizootic diseases
which periodically sweep away huge numbers of fowls together with lack of
precise information on breeding, feeding, management, etc. are fundamental
problems which will have to be overcome before the various breeding
improvement schemes can yield their full value.

In the UNITED PROVINCES the scheme sanctioned by the central Govern-
ment for the erection of a central poultry institute at Izatnagar, under the
administration of the Director, Imperial Veterinary Research Institute, is
well in hand, and it is hoped that research will be commenced during 1938-39.
The poultry laboratory will provide facilities for fundamental research into the
various epidemic diseases which sweep out whole poultry populations. A
qualified veterinarian will be recruited and sent abroad for two years' study
prior to taking up investigational work. Facilities will also be provided for
physiological and nutritional studies and provision is being made for research
into the processing and storage of both eggs and poultry. A poultry farm with
accommodation for 1,000 laying birds will provide material for fundamental
research together with facilities for practical research into breeding, housing,
feeding and general management of different classes of fowls. The work of the

VETERINARY RESEARCH AND LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT 209

new section will be put in charge of an officer with wide practical experience in
poultry husbandry and the processing and marketing of poultry products.

In the PUNJAB the principal work of the Poultry Expert was directed to
the standardization of two distinct breeds of Desi fowls. Though some im-
provement has again been made, considerable more work is deemed necessary
before the project can be carried through to a successful conclusion. On heavy
clay soil heavy breeds such as Rhode Island Reds and Light Sussex gave better
results than light breeds. A scheme for the improvement of table poultry
has been started under the auspices of a grant sanctioned by the Imperial
Council of Agricultural Research. Under this scheme Asils and Chittagongs
will be tested out against improved and unimproved Desi fowls. Losses during
hatching and rearing have been materially reduced by alteration in feeding and
management.

In BOMBAY the scheme for research under the auspices of the Imperial
Council of Agricultural Research has been continued at three centres. Trap-
nesting records for various periods have been obtained from White Leghorn,
Rhode Island Red, Black Minorca, Light Sussex, Chittagong, Naked Neck
and selected country fowls. Records have also been obtained from Khaki
Campbell and Indian Runner ducks. Selection is being carried out on the
basis of trapnest records but an outbreak of Ranikhet disease rather retarded
progress. In addition to useful work on housing and feeding it was found that
fortnightly high pressure spraying of kerosene was effective in controlling ticks.
Under the scheme for rural uplift work sanctioned by the Government of India,
212 pure-bred male birds were distributed in eight centres and an inspector
was sent out to advise the starting and working of poultry centres in these
districts. To encourage pedigree poultry keeping in villages premiums were
paid to six poultry farmers for the purchase of foundation stock and houses.

In BENGAL there has been considerable demand for improved poultry, and
during the year 180 cockerels and 167 dozen of eggs were distributed to various
centres. The removal of the Poultry Section at Dacca to a new site has so
far prevented outbreaks of contagious diseases which had previously retarded
progress. As in most former years Rhode Island Reds gave better production
than other breeds. The sixth Rhode Island Red X Chittagong which appears
to be well established lays as well and appears to be more resistant to heat than
pure Rhode Island Reds.

In MADRAS stocks of White Leghorn, Rhode Island Red, Light Sussex,
Black Minorca and an indigenous strain of Chittagong fowls were trapnested
throughout the year at Hosur and a number of birds were also kept at seven
other agricultural stations. At Hosur the average annual egg production from
78 laying birds was 166'9. Five thousand, five hundred and four hatching
eggs for stock improvement were sold during the year.

In ASSAM at the upper Shillong experimental farm the average annual
egg production from White Leghorn, Rhode Island Red, Black Minorca and
local crosses was 156-9, 143-2, 1254 and 137*5, respectively. Imported strains
of Khaki Campbell ducks gave good production but gave disappointing hatch-
ability and rearing results. A considerable number of stock birds and hatch-
ing eggs were distributed for breeding purposes to villagers.

In MYSORE the Government sanctioned the opening of small poultry farms
at four of the veterinary hospitals to demonstrate and facilitate the

210 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

distribution of improved poultry to villagers. Sixty stock cockerels, 29 hens,
687 chickens and 4,159 hatching eggs were distributed during the year.

In BARODA, in addition to the distribution of improved breeds, a scheme
was launched, whereby selected candidates from different districts were trained
and provided with capital to start small poultry farms in order to facilitate
the distribution of stock cockerels.

4. Dairying

Progress was made in many phases of dairying during the year under report.
Some of the newer aspects of this very important part of Indian agriculture
have shown groat advances. Such matters as research and the improvement
of the production of the respective breeds of cattle were given continued
emphasis. The gift bull scheme of His Excellency the Viceroy received an
exceptional response. Work was in some cases begun and in other cases con-
tinued with regard to the publication of milk records, definition of breed charac-
teristics, the establishment of breed societies, cattle exhibitions, surveys of
the industry, marketing, cooperative dairying and education. A short summary
of the progress in each case makes up this section.

Research

At the Imperial Institute of Agricultural Research studies on early
maturity, skeletal alterations, transmission of characters, full brother and
full sister parallels, and stimulation of the mammary glands by manipulation
before and after pregnancy were continued, while at Karnal four-time
milking, pre-handling and milking and early maturity work received further
attention. The Imperial Council of Agricultural Research continued to en-
courage study along various lines in this field. Schemes financed by this bodv
on subjects pertinent to dairying were carried out in almost every part of the
country. Results of completed studies have been or are being published and
the practical application of the findings encouraged. At the Imperial Dairy
Institute, Bangalore, further work was done on subjects such as the following*:
correlation of body weight and period of gestation, hand versus machine milking,
bacteriological study of milk produced and handled under different conditions,
milk transportation, use of a vegetable rennet in cheese making, khoa, freezing
point of milk from cows and buffaloes and several others. Seventeen reports
were completed of which five were published. The Allahabad Agricultural
Institute continued schemes on the chemical composition of milk, feeding of
baggo-molass, procuring supplies of raw milk, herd and dairy records, and on
other specific problems.

Surveys and reports

Dr Norman C. Wright's Report on the Development of the Cattle and Dairy
Industries of India, which appeared in October 1937, embodies 69 specific
recommendations regarding the improvement of these industries in the country.
Dr Wright spent nearly five njonths surveying very carefully these aspects of
Indian agriculture.

Some of the main points covered in the report, and which may well be
watched during the nCxt few years to study the imminent effects of his visit,
are : marketing of ghee and establishment of trading centres, investigations
into the nutritive value of indigenous milk products, establishment of herd

VETERINARY RESEARCH AND LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT

211

books and milk recording societies, survey of the incidence of mineral and
vitamin deficiency diseases of cattle, award of scholarships for post-graduate
training in animal genetics, reconsideration of the courses for dairy training,
the establishment of an Imperial Dairy Research Institute, reconsideration of
the development of the Anand Creamery and the appointment of a central
officer for recording milk registration. These are now receiving the careful
attention of the central and provincial Governments.
Production

In the table below the production of several different herds is given.
In the column ' Daily average ' the two sub-headings, ' M. A.' and * 0. A.,'
refer to the ' milking herd average * and the ' over-all herd average '
respectively. These headings are used by the Imperial Dairy Institute
and should be adopted for all such reports. The reader would then not
be at a loss to know as to which is referred in the case of such data when it is
not properly identified in the reports. It is further suggested that the ' average
daily number of cows in milk ' be given, as the number of cases in any bio-
logical study bears very important relationships to the results.

Herd

Breed

Average
daily
No. of
cows in
herd

Average daily
production

Average
yield of lac-
tatioiiK com-
pleted during
the year

Highest individual
lactation

M. A.

O. A.

yield

days

Ib.

Imperial Institute of
Agricultural Re-
seat eh.

Sahiwal .
Thar p a r k e r
(Karual).

72'
56*

22-2
20-2

5,716

11,003-0
8,785-0

304
305

Imperial Dairy
Institute

Cros.s bred
Slndhi .
(Mr
Murrah .

72 3
48 s
IK 3
21 3

181
12 4

iu-;>

13-5

11 6
7-5
6-6
7-8

1,747-0
3,160-0
3,087-0
4,. r >17

8,076-0
5,862
4,581-0
7,736

292
399
331

Civil Veteiiuarv De-
partment, C. P. and
TJcrar, Telinkherl
Farm

salmval .
Murrah .

8 1
25

3,410-0
2,837-0

t'oiiubjitoro \gricul-
tiii.il College

14-2

10-5

Myfloi P Department
ol Agriculture

Halhkar .

12-0

Baroda Department
ot Agriculture

Cows
Buftaloes .

-1
37

7-6

0-0

4 I
fi 2

Lyallpnr College

Montgomery .
Butlaloes .

20-8

1912
12-8

Bihar Civil Veterinary
Department

Tharparker

120

323
422
316

Military dairies,
Northern circle

Frlptfland
Cross -bred
Sahiwal at
Ferozpore.
Buffaloes

O 1
285

1,<W

33-4*
20-8*
18-4*

14-1*

8-3

3,488-5

16.486-0
13,572-0
8,800-0

Military dairies, South-
ern circle

Cross bred
Buffaloes

744*
1,671*

14-S
06

7,128-0
3,854-0

Allahabad Agricul-
furl Institute

Sindhi .

11-18

8-62

3,404-7

8,002

365

1 Average monthly number of milking phi a average monthly number of dry.

* Number completing lactations within the year. *

' Average daily number of milking plus average daily number of dry.
4 Calculated from average milk yield and average number of days in milk.

Number at end of year.

212 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

The data given above does not give comparisons with those of the preceding
year. Except for difficulties with regard to disease or a radical change of breed-
ing policy in certain instances, nearly every figure is an increase over that of
the last year. The Sahiwal herd at the Imperial Institute of Agricultural Re-
search, for example, averaged 20-7 Ib. daily for the milking herd a year ago,,
whereas for this year it averaged 22-2 Ib.

Dr Wright estimates that over Rs. 50 lakhs are annually contributed ta
gowshalas and pinjrapoles for the improvement of Indian cattle. Certainly
there are several of such institutions in which a definite improvement in the
cattle is being made through the selection of bulls and careful management
of the breeding policy. Press reports confirm this. It would appear, there-
fore, that if all such organizations would send a copy of their annual report to
the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research, a great fund of valuable informa-
tion on the improvement of cattle would be available for reference. This
would be of great value in the summarizing of the work done in this respect iu
the country.

Publication of milk records

The material available to the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research
for inclusion in its publication of available milk records greatly increased
during the year. The preparation of the report continued so that it will be
ready for distribution towards the end of 1938. This project, therefore, which
was begun last year, is to make extremely valuable and needed information
available very soon to the trader, breeder and research worker. Such
information has been found to be indispensable in other countries to the
development of their dairy industry. This gives some intimation as to the-
value such information will have for the Indian dairyman.

Definition of breed characteristics and establishment of breed societies

Very recently special impetus has been directed toward? the definition
so far as this is possible, of the characteristics of the important breeds
of cows and buffaloes of all-India importance, and the establishment of breed
societies in each instance. These matters were ghen continued attention
during the year. The definition of the characteristics of each of seven
such breeds of cattle will be formulated and published within the following
year. The work of establishing breed societies received special attention in at
least one instance. Such societies will give purpose and direction to the im-
provement of the respective breeds. India \\ill then have authentic records of
her cattle for her own and foreign breeders interested either in developing their
own herd or in purchasing breeding stock for other purposes.

Gift Mis

In addition to steps being taken independently in nearly every province
and Indian state in the matter of the selection, purchase and location of
breeding bulls for tte improvement of local draught and miUk cattle and
buffaloes, the gift bull scheme of His Excellency the Viceroy received a
tremendous response. About 1,100 persons donated either money or bully, or

VETERINARY RESEARCH AND LIVESTOCK IMPROVEMENT 213

promised to make a contribution to the scheme. Nearly, 1,400 bulls, including
several donated personally by His Excellency the Viceroy, and about Rs. 1 ,70,000
were made available by the India-wide interest taken in this relatively new
phase' of dairying. This is an extremely gratifying report. The interest taken
in this very important approach to the improvement of our Indian cattle gives
assurance, it would seem, of the stability of the scheme and the certainty with
which very beneficial consequences might be anticipated.

Shows and exhibition*

The first All-India Cattle Show was hold at New Delhi in February 1938.
The value of this show is well stated in the Annual Report of fhe Imperial
Council of Agricultural Research, 1937-38. It runs as follows : ' Such shows,
besides providing the necessary stimulus to improvement, by encouraging
competition between breeders in order to raise gradually the stock to the
highest levels of efficiency for the particular function they are required to
perform, also help to stimulate trade in livestock and livestock products '.
There are other values that might be enumerated as well, but mention
might be made of the regular attendance of a large breeder from Australia
and the. intense interest he showed in the different breeds displayed.

Many smaller sho\\s, such as local fairs, attracted considerable interest during
the year. Doubtlessly the number of such shows \vill greatly increase in the
near future because of the interest takeu in the all-India cattle show.

Marketing and cooperation

1. Ghee. The Ghee Conference, which was held in September, recommended
the establishment of experimental grading and packing stations for ghee. Such
stations were established during the year at six places. A central control
laboratory was set up at the Harcourt Butler Institute, Cawnpore. In the few
Wfcks of operation of these stations before the end of the year over 12,000
maunds of ghee were tested and graded for market. Such approved ghee is
now marketed as ** Agmark " ghee., a trade mark adopted by the oih'ce of
the Agricultural Marketing Adviser to the Government of India. Special
surveys of certain areas also were undertaken on recommendation of this
conference.

The aggregate value of ghee produced within the country is such that 12,000
maunds is relatively a very small portion of the total trade. It is, however,
a very promising response to a great need ; that of improvement and stand-
ardization of marketed ghee. The amount of this product which will be sold
as * Agmark ' during the next year will, undoubtedly, be many times greater.

Cooperative societies for the, production and marketing of ghee, separately
or as one of several products, continue to operate satisfactorily in Madras and
the United Provinces. The number of such societies is greatly increasing,
especially in the latter instance.

2. Milk. The Royal Commission on Agriculture (paragraphs 199 to 201
of their report), in addition to calling attention to the supply of ghee to the
Indian consumer, also pointed to the problem of city mil^ supply as being one
to which greater attention must necessarily be given. The progress made
during the year in tbe operation and establishment of milk societies is, as a

2H AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

whole, very marked. Dr. Norman 0. Wright discussed this problem and urged
that further and more careful attention be given to milk standards.

The work being done at the Allahabad Agricultural Institute on the chemical
composition of milk from cows and buffaloes will contribute greatly to the
establishment of such standards.

Progress in the growth and development of cooperative milk producing
organizations was shown by the Palghar dairy district scheme in Bombay,
the Karimganj and Gauhati groups of societies in Assam, the cooperative
dairy at Drug in the Central Provinces and the Thirumala Ksheera Vyavasaya
Manila Cooperative Society No. 1999 and others in Travancore. In the United
Provinces a very promising society has been put into operation at Lucknow
and a similar one is being organized for Cawnpore. Although not exactly
cooperative in their organization, mention is also made of the milking stations
at the Allahabad Agricultural Institute, United Provinces.

The problems involved in making available to urban markets ample supplies
of good quality milk from rural areas, rather than from within the cities them-
selves, are being quite satisfactorily overcome by such organizations as those
mentioned above. In most cases the supply is to a considerable extent un-
limited. Instances of having overcome the difficulties arising from the trans-
portation of milk over long distances by pasteurization at or near the producing
area, are seen in such of these societies as that at Lucknow.

The Gauhati group of societies in Assam handled 61,00() seers of milk during
the year, the Thirumala Jvsheera Vyavasaya Manila Cooperative Society handled
nearly 45, 600 seers and the cooperative dairy at Drug handled 20,210 seers.

Education

A statement on this part of the work during the past year is given
elsewhere in this report. Mention is, however, made uf it here in order to
complete this section.

In addition to the Indian Dairy Diploma and post-graduate courses, there
is also the new Bachelor of Science decree course at Allahabad University with
the specialization in animal husbandry and daiiying. Veterinary colleges,
intermediate schools for agriculture and many high schools continued to give
courses in dairying of increasing value to their students. New colleges where
this subject, as well as animal nutrition, will be offered are being planned and
will be admitting students in the near future. This is a great stride forward
and is indeed very encouraging.

CHAPTER X

VETERINARY EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION IN
DAIRYING

1. Veterinary colleges

EFERENCE has been made in the preceding reviews regarding the proposal
lYrelating to the establishment of a central veterinary college for imparting
the >ighest standard of veterinary education in India. Further action in the
matter is now under the consideration of the Government of India.

Madras Veterinary College

Extensive facilities were available to the students for obtaining practical
training in the various subjects included in the curricula and also for acquiring
detailed practical experience in regard to all branches of the profession.
The students also attended the Serum Institute, Madras, and acquainted
themselves with the practical aspects of the production of some of the
biological products.

During the year undef review, the Government of Madras have sanctioned
the extension of the Diploma course of the Madras Veterinary College to a
period of four years with effect from the academic year 1938-39, and have also
ordered the submission of proposals for the revision of the B. V. Sc. course in
consultation with the University of Madras.

Under the orders of the provincial Government, the number of candidates
to be admitted to the Degree and the Diploma courses at this college has now
been restricted to 50, i.e. 40 for the students belonging to the presidency and
10 for students from other provinces, including also Burma and Coorg. The
total number of admissions to the 1st year class was 50 (il for Degree and 9
for Diploma course). One student of the Degree course and two of the
Diploma course left the college during the academic year. Including the failed
students (one for Degree and seven for Diploma) who joined the class in Octo-
ber, the strength of the class at the end of the year was 55 (4L in the Degree
and 1 1 in t)ie Diploma courses). The total number of students on the rolls at
the end of the year in all the three classes was 118 (55 in class A, 40 in class B
and 23 in class C, as against 101 in the preceding year).

One scholarship was awarded to a Mohammedan and two to members of
the depressed classes who were new entrants in the 1st year class. Due to-
lack of a suitable candidate, one scholarship was kept in abeyance.

Out of the 32 students who appeared for the final examination of the Diploma
course, 19 qualified during the year under review. The first B. V. Sc. preli-
minary examinations were held on the 28th, 29th and 30th June and 2nd July
1937. Of the 28 students who registered for tl> examination, one was dis-
qualified due to lack of requisite attendance and three absented themselves.
Of the 24 students who appeared for the examination, 9 secured a full pass ;
and of the remaining 15, 8 secured a pass in one subject frhile the rest failed
in both the subjects. The second B. V. Sc. preliminary examinations were

( 215 )

216 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA W37-38

held from the 22nd to 24th November 1937. Fourteen students registered
and all of them appeared in the examination (seven for the whole examina-
tion and seven for one subject only). Of the seven who appeared for the whole
examination, two passed in both the subjects, two failed in both, and three
passed in one subject only. Of the seven who were examined in one subject
only, six were successful. Thus, out of the 24 candidates who appeared in
these two B. V. Sc. preliminary examinations 17 qualified during the academic
year under review.

Meetings were held periodically under the auspices of the Madras Veteri-
nary College Association and some interesting lectures were delivered on * The
Pathology of Tuberculosis ', * Foot and Mouth disease and some of its pro,-
blems ', ' Vaccinia ', and ' Radiology and its application to Medicine '. The
attendance at these meetings was satisfactory and the students evinced a keen
interest in the proceedings.

Bombiy Veterinary College

There was a heavy influx of applicants for admission to this college
and this was responsible for a rather abnormal figure for admission during
the year under review. It is observed, however, that, in view of the limited,
available accommodation and facilities, it will be necessary to limit the
number of new entrants in future years.

The number of students on the rolls for the three-year Diploma course on
the 1st of April 1937 was 113, and of these 61 passed the annual examina-
tion. The number of students who graduated and left the college during
the academic year 1937-38 was 15, and 9 other students also discontinued
their studies. In June 1937, 54 new students and one old student were
admitted to class A and one old student to class B. The total number
on the rolls at the commencement of the collegiate year was, therefore, 145.
Of these, four left on passing the supplementary iinal examination in
October and three for other reasons, and there were, therefore, 138 students
on the rolls at the end of the year. Of the 55 students admitted to the
college in June, 40 were natives of the province, two were from Sind, four from
Kathiawar states, one from Indore, seven from Jammu and Kashmir and
one from the Federated Malay States.

Of the seven scholarships available at the commencement of the session,
three were awarded to new students in class A, two to students in class B,
and two to students in class 0. The Government of Sind continued the stipend
to their two scholars and sent two new scholars this year. The Government
of the Central Provinces and the states of Kolhapur, Udaipur, Dewas, Mysore,
Rewa and Kotah continued stipends to their scholars. Some state scholars
from Jammu and Kashmir, Indore, Bikaner and the Federated Malay States
were also admitted. Thus, the total number of stipendiaries at the commence-
ment of the year was 35.

During the year, 32 candidates appeared for the farriers examination and
of these 30 secured the certificate for efficiency.

Bengal Veterinary College

As stated in the last review there was an increasing demand for admission
.into this college. The number of students on the rolls at the end t>f the year

VETERINARY EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION IN DAIRYING 217

for the three-year Diploma course was 207 as against 174 and 184 during the
preceding two years. Out of 207 students, 75 held stipends from various bodies
and 132 were private students. The district boards of Bengal awarded 35
stipends during the year 1937-38 as against 24 in the previous year. Sixty
students appeared for the final examination during the year and 44 came out
successful.

Punjab Veterinary College

During the year under review, the number of applicants for admission to
the four-year Diploma course was 228, and of these 87 secured admission.
Later four students left the College during the academic year. Of the new
entrants 38 were statutory agriculturists.

The total number of students at the annual examinations held in June 1937
and the supplementary examination held in September 1937 was 127, and 79
passed their respective examinations. Of the 11 students who appeared for
the final examination, six were successful in securing the Diploma of Licensed
Veterinary Practitioner offered by the college. It is stated that there is a big
demand for these graduates of the Punjab College both in the Punjab and the
states and that, though the supply is still inadequate to meet the demand, it
is hoped to overcome this shortcoming in the near future.

Amongst other facilities available at this college, six veterinary assistant
surgeons received training in the new method of Goat-virus inoculation against
rinderpest. Further, 77 candidates completed their training as dressers. The
farriers' class was held as usual and 15 candidates were admitted to this class
in September 1937. Of these, 11 were deputed by the Military Advisor, Indian
States Forces, and four were private candidates. 13 candidates passed this
course in June 1937.

Bihar Veterinary College

Altogether 38 new students joined the college as against 29 during
the previous session while 57 out of 59 old students returned for resuming
their studies. There were thus 95 students on the college rolls at the
beginning of the year. The new admissions comprised of two stipendiaries
of the Bihar Government, one of the Orissa Government, six of the district
boards in Bihar, and 29 private students (namely 19 from Bihar, three from
the United Provinces, four from Bengal, one from the Punjab, one from
the Central Provinces and one from Nepal). The numerical strength at the
end of the session was, however, reduced to 81, as 14 students left the college
during the year. Of these, 55 were private students and 26 were stipendiaries.

Altogether 80 students (namely 33 in class A, 22 in class B, and 25 in class
C) appeared for the examination in the three classes. Out of these, 5f> passed,
namely 21 in the 1st year, 18 in the 2nd year and 17 in the 3rd year, the per-
centage of passes being 63-6, 81-8 and 68 respectively as compared with 66-6,
81*8 and 63-1 in the preceding year. Five students obtained distinction in
the Diploma examination one in Veterinary Medicine,* one in Veterinary
Medicine and Surgery, one in Pathology and Bacteriology, and two in Opcra-
tjve Surgery.

218 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

2. Post-graduate courses in veterinary science

The annual post-graduate refresher course at the Imperial Veterinary
Research Institute, Mukteswar was held from the 5th of April to the 3rd of
July, 1937, and 10 officers attended the course. Three of these officers
remained at the institute for further periods to complete the special courses.

In addition to the post-graduate refresher course short courses of practical
training were given at the institute to nine officers.

At the Madras Veterinary College, 10 students (viz. six from C. V. D.
Madras, two from Hyderabad, and one each from Bangalore and Travancore)
attended the refresher course for veterinary assistant surgeons. It is stated
that the course will be held for the usual period of nine months from July
1938.

At the Punjab Veterinary College two veterinary assistant surgeons of
the district cadre joined the refresher course in September 1937.

Due to want of accommodation the post-graduate training class at the
Bihar Veterinary College was not held during the year though a number of
candidates including some from other provincial Governments and states had
applied for admission.

Instruction in dairying

During the year under review, the total number of students trained
at the Imperial Dairy Institute, Bangalore, was 98. These students came
from different provinces in India and Indian states and some from places
outside India, viz. Ceylon, Federated Malay States and China. Some were
stipendiaries and some deputed by provincial Governments and Indian states,
but the majority undertook the training at their own expense.

In Bengal, with the establishment of a dairy school at Dacca, special
facilities will be available for training of the officers of the Livestock Section
in dairying and animal husbandry. The proposal, which is under considera-
tion, envisages a full course of training extending over a period of two years
and also facilities for short courses for persons interested in dairying. During
the year under review, students of the agricultural and some other schools and
also some young men of Bhadralok class received training in dairying and cattle
management.

3. Indian Dairy Diploma

At Bangalore, the 23 students who commenced their Indian Dairy Diploma
training in November 1935 and the four ' repeat course ' students who were
admitted in May 1937 appeared for the final examination in October 1937.
Of these, all secured the Diploma, one with Honours. A fresh batch of 23
students, which was admitted in November 1937, is now under training.

Allahabad Agricultural Institute

Keference was made last year to the accepted practice according to which
students for the Indian Dairy Diploma course are admitted only once every
two years. No admissions *vere accordingly made during the year. Twenty-
four out of the 31 students admitted during 1936 continued their courses
satisfactorily during 1937-38.

The teaching staff was strengthened by the appointment of a new pro-
fessor of dairying. The annual grant of Rs. 6,000 from the Government of

VETERINARY EDUCATION AND INSTRUCTION IN DAIRYING 210

India was continued during the year and equipment and facilities for train-
ing were improved. A herd of eight selected Murrah buffaloes was added to
the milking stock at the institute farm.

A specialized course in Animal Husbandry and Dairying for agricultural
students of the institute was completed during the year. Seven students took
the university examination during the year and four passed in the second divi-
sion.

4. Post-graduate courses in dairying

At the Imperial Dairy Institute, Bangalore, six post-graduate students
who were admitted in January 1937 for a course in Animal Husbandry and
^Dairying completed their training at the end of March 1938 and a fresh batch
of seven students, admitted in January 1938, is now under training. The
post-graduate students attended the routine practical work of the dairy, cattle
yard and cultivation sections of the institute and also received intensive practi-
cal experience in regard to the chemical, physical and biological examination
of milk and the diverse solid and liquid milk products, analysis of cattle food,
etc. Special demonstrations on items of practical interest were also staged for
their benefit. As a result of instructional visits to selected dairy institutes,
they gained practical knowledge about the various details of the trade. Special
short courses were arranged for 12 students for periods varying from one
to six months and 12 British soldiers, who were admitted in March 1937, com-
pleted a vocational training course in August 1937. A fresh batch of 11 British
-soldiers was admitted to the course for the last time in September 1937. This
vocational training was instituted in 1934 at the instance of the Defence
Department and, up to the period of its termination, 100 British soldiers will
have received training at this institute.

Two parties of Indian soldiers visited the institute in connexion with the
rural reconstruction scheme and attended demonstrations relating to the ac-
tivities of the institute.

CHAPTER XI
DISTRICT WORK

'T'HE Advisory Board of the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research, while
1 considering the recommendations of Sir John Russell in regard to the
methods of demonstration and propaganda, had recommended that (i) the
Council should undertake an examination of the methods already in use in
India with a view to evaluate their relative merits and (ii) it should study
and bring to the notice of the various provinces and states promising new
methods found to be under trial in India. A note on the first item has already
been written and published in Agriculture and Live-stock in India* and infor-
mation on the second item is being collected for preparing a similar note
to be published in one of the Council's journals. In the circumstance it has-
been thought best to give in this chapter only the latest figures showing the
progress made in various directions and such newer account as has not been
contained in the note already written on the subject and published in
Agriculture and Live-stock in India. This chapter will thus be supplementary
to the article already published. The area under improved varieties of crops-
in British India (excluding Burma) was 22-1 million acres during 1937-38, as-
compared with 22- 4 million acres in 1936-37.

The reports of the provinces from which information for this note has been
culled indicate an increased tendency on the part of cultivators to recognize the
importance of improved methods of farming recommended by the Agricul-
tural Departments. Propaganda and demonstration have also recently re-
ceived a fillip from the rural development drives initiated by the new popular
governments in various provinces.

1. Demonstrations

Practically all the departments report great success achieved by this method.
These demonstrations cover a wide field and include a wide range of operations
such as growing of improved seed, use of improved implements, manufacture
of composts and manures, spraying of the trees with insecticides against insect
pests and diseases, eradication of weeds, etc. Space forbids a detailed enumera-
tion of all items undertaken by various departments and it is only possible-
to mention here a few important items of demonstration held during the year
in each province.

In MADRAS there were during the year 7,963 demonstration plots in the culti-
vators' fields spread over the whole presidency as against 7,554 in the previous-
year. This does not include a large number of demonstrations conducted on
the use of improved labour-saving implements, better preservation of farmyard
and compost manures, treatment of seeds against fungoid diseases and of spray-
ing against pests and diseases. In addition a large number of trials were con-

* Vol. IX, Part VI.
( 2*20 J

DISTRICT WORK 221

ducted on cultivators' fields to judge the comparative merits of improved
methods of cultivation. Their number also increased from 902 during 1936-37
to 1,026 in 1937-38. The scheme of intensive propaganda by the appointment
of 63 demonstration maistries in nine talukas of the Vizagapatam district
started two years ago was further extended to a larger number of villages.
The number of implement demonstrations under this scheme was increased
during the year to 2,998 as compared to 1,705 during 1936-37. A
noteworthy improvement was the increase made in the number of bee
colonies that were hived. The colonies starting from two in 1934-35 went
up to 61 during 1937-38. The scheme has served to get wide recognition all
over the district of the usefulness of the Agricultural Department and the
ryots have begun to appreciate the work of agricultural demonstrators and
their maistries. Outside this scheme about 75 lakhs of arecanut palm were
sprayed with insecticides in South Kanara and one lakh in South Malabar.
The department distributed 89 sprayers, 83,053 Ib. of copper sulphate to garden
owners besides 3,100 cwt. of chemicals and 183 sprayers supplied by the
cooperative organization at Puttur.

In BOMBAY during the year under report, the district activities of the Agri-
cultural Department in connexion with demonstration and propaganda, seed
distribution, land improvement, crop protection, etc., continued to develop in
almost every district of the province. A special feature of the year was that
the Government gave special grants of Rs. 40,000 for training a large
number of cultivators in scientific bunding operations. Great interest was
evinced by cultivators in learning scientific methods of constructing field
bunds and embankments to protect the cultivated fields from permanent
damage and loss by soil erosion and washings. As many as eight classes, each
lasting for a fortnight, were held in the three agricultural divisions (four in
South Central, two in North Central and two in Southern division) for
training as many as 815 cultivators in the science and art of bunding their
fields. These classes serve as the best form of propaganda in this direction.

During the year, 4,503 acres were protected by simple bunds in the North
Central division, whilst between the South Central division and Karnatak 112
minor bunding projects were framed and carried out, protecting 2,718 acres of
land. The Government have also sanctioned a scheme for reorganizing the
district work by starting a large number of taluka agricultural demonstration
centres on the holdings of progressive agriculturists, which are to be culti-
vated and cropped by cultivators themselves in accordance with the
improved methods advocated by the Agricultural Department. Provision
has been made to organize 50 such taluka demonstration centres in 1938-39.
Along with this an arrangement has been made to select about 900 honorary
agricultural agents willing to devote some of their time to the work of
persuading the agriculturists of their villages to adopt certain agricultural
improvements. It is hoped that these two newly created non-official agencies
will materially contribute to the improvement of agricultural practice in the
province.

In BENGAL the demonstration work of the Agricultural Department is greatly
supplemented by the staff of the district boards, court of wards, Government
estates and by zemindars. There were as many as 43 Memonstrators in the
Eastern circle alone. The jute restriction propaganda inaugurated by the

H 2

222 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Government in 1930 was continued. A special staff of overseers was engaged
for six months under the collectors of the jute-growing districts. The .depart-
mental officers collaborated by giving lectures and by freely distributing large
quantities of seeds and cuttings of substitute crops among cultivators for which
a sum of Us. 4,000 was sanctioned by the Government up to the end of
March only. The union board farms (450) started with the help of the Govern-
ment of India grant proved extremely valuable but unfortunately, owing to
lack of funds, are closing down. Attempts are again being made to provide
funds and revive them. Propaganda for growing fodder is proving success-
ful. Cultivation of Napier grass is especially gaining much popularity.

In the UNITED PROVINCES there exists a large number of private demonstra-
tion farms which work in cooperation with and under the supervision of the
department. There are 1,372 such farms, of which the largest number is
between 50 and 100 acres each. In addition to these private farms the propa-
ganda staff carries out demonstrations by working in close cooperation with
the staff of other departments such as the Cane Development Department,.
Irrigation Department, Cooperative Department and the rural development
organizations. In the Sarda circle alone the demonstrations during the year
increased from 6,600 to nearly 9,000 and covered a wide range of crops and
agricultural practices, the total area under demonstrations being about 7,400'
acres. The staff of the Agricultural and Irrigation Departments work jointly
in developing intensive agriculture in special zones located in the Sarda circle.
They have worked in close cooperation in developing a rapid increase in the-
areas under fodder crops especially berseem, in introducing suitable rotations r
economizing the use of irrigation water, use of green manuring crops in sugar-
cane areas and in the utilization of available canal supplies in April and May
for reclamation of mild usar (alkaline) and banjar (waste) lands and in Septem-
ber-October for cultivation of late paddies. In the Western circle the special 1
staff provided for intensive agricultural development in the state tube-well areas-
extended its activities from 105 to 175 centres.

Remodelling of holdings in this area was carried out, by consent, on a further
6,864 acres, bringing the total to 18,081 acres. The year's work provided for
2,622 acres of sugarcane and 4,242 acres of wheat sown in blocks, the cost per
acre including the construction of water channels and roads being 10 as. 5 pies
and 8 as. 8 pies respectively. Provision for work on somewhat similar lines
was made during the year in the Mat branch circle of the Upper Ganges Canal.
Joint effort by the Agricultural and Cooperative Departments is a marked
feature of the development work in the eastern districts, particularly in Sultan-
pur, Benares and Fyzabad. In Partabgarh there are organized centres at a
large number of important villages where assistant gudies encourage the adop-
tion of improved farming practice under the supervision of inspectors of both
the departments. In the North-eastern circle red-rot in sugarcane was a cause
of anxiety during the year and a clean up campaign was carried out in January
1937. In the Bundelkhand circle some 332 acres of kans infested area were
ploughed by departmental ' power plant consisting of two Diesel caterpillar
tractors. The cost of the operation was reduced to about Us. 12 per acre.

In the PUNJAB 5,443 demonstration plots were laid out on cultivators' fields
as against 4,866 in tne preceding year. The scheme of contestant holding*
introduced in the Nilibar colony is producing good results. The scheme

DISTRICT WORK 223

recently extended to the Pir Mahal and Khika extensions of the Lower
Chenab Canal area. The most remarkable feature of the year was the
inauguration of a special rural reconstruction scheme in one selected tehsil of
each district of the province except Simla. A special staff of one agricultural
assistant and two mukaddams has been sanctioned for each of these selected
tehsils and the aim is to intensify further the district and propaganda work
in these localities. Pohli weeks were observed in cooperation with the Revenue
and Irrigation Departments on some canals and large areas wero cleared of
this obnoxious weed.

\n BIHAR, as a result of demonstration work, practically the whole of the
area under sugarcane is planted with Coimbatore canes and similar results will
soon be recorded in the case of wheat as well. Altogether in the course of
the year 21,307 demonstrations were given to show varietal, cultural and
manurial improvements on different crops, while 2,432 demonstrations were
given on the manufacture of composts. The staff provided by the Govern-
ment for district work consists of one overseer and three kfimdars per sub-
division. It has been felt, however, that the efforts of such a small number o f
workers scattered over such a large area as a sub-division are rather dissipated
and so it was decided during the year to concentrate such staff in one thana ot
one sub-division per district to see how the results would improve. Another
change introduced during the course of the year was the appointment of
advisory committees in every sub-division to be associated with the overseer
in this work.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES the number of private demonstration plots in
the Northern circle was raised from 16 to 24 during the year. In the Southern
circle 31 private plots were run under the advice of the department and efforts
are being made to start many more in accordance with the accepted policy of
making them the real centres of demonstration of the activities of the depart-
ment. ' Farmers' Days ' were held at Seoni and Betul farms to enable agri-
culturists to see at a close range the agricultural improvements advocated by
the department. Ploughing demonstrations were arranged at 1,817 centres
and on the occasion of important religious fairs. A scheme designed to stimu-
late interest in growing different kinds of fruit trees in home 6am was organized
in the Balaghat district in cooperation with the Revenue Department to com-
memorate the Coronation of His Majesty King George the VI. A large number
of fruit trees was distributed under the scheme. In the Eastern circle where
the system of absentee landlordism is prevalent the successful running of de-
monstration plots has created a demand for trained village managers. A
new scheme designed to provide this kind of training is intended to be sub-
mitted to the Government shortly. There was a rapid increase in fruit and
vegetable cultivation in this circle. Orchards have been extended from 281
during last year to 489 during the year under review. Practical demonstra-
tions given on various occasions were 3,736 as compared to 2,803 during
the last year. ' Farmers ' Days' were held at five centres. In the Western
circle the staff organized 3,256 ocular demonstrations as compared to 2,886
during the last year.

In SIND as a natural extension of the work at the auxiliary farms, a move
has been made by the department to open model farms.* These farms are located
on the zemindar's land. The area is about 32 acres and the cropping scheme

224 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

is decided in consultation with the zemindar. A few of these model farms have
already been started. It is expected that they will serve a useful purpose as
centres of propaganda in the interior.

The number of demonstration plots during the year was about 1,000, the
Government foregoing the levy of assessment on those portions of the zemindari
land which were utilized by the department as demonstration plots. Ten
* Farmers ' Weeks' were held during the year on different farms, the most notable
one was that held at Oderolal on the occasion of His Excellency's visit.

In BALUCHISTAN extensive demonstrations of spraying with lead arsenate,
Hosin fish oil soap and lime sulphur wash together with rat killing were given
throughout the fruit growing tracts of the province.

In HYDERABAD there were 14 aided farms working in the state during the
year. Five new farms, which have been sanctioned, will start functioning
shortly. In addition to the work on these aided farms propaganda is also
carried out on demonstration plots in villages. There were 3,407 demonstra-
tion plots during the year as compared to 2,967 during the last year. The
methods of control of red hairy caterpillar and castor semi-looper were
demonstrated as usual by conducting campaigns in heavily infested districts.
Demonstrations on improved methods of farming were also given in connexion
with the rural development work conducted at the Patancheru centre.

In MYSORE the Government sanctioned the formation of ten circles instead
of four as originally proposed, each with a district officer in charge. The number
of ranges has also been raised from 35 to 43 so as to provide one range inspector
for every taluka. This will now give a convenient size of area to each circle
officer to work in. A regular system of conducting demonstrations on ryots'
fields has also been instituted. For this purpose 200 ploughs were granted free
to selected village panchayats. One thousand nine hundred and thirty-three
demonstration plots were laid out during the year as compared to 1,080 during
the previous year.

In BARODA the scheme for demonstrations with the help of intensive units
made further progress and an intensive contact was established with 327 more
villages. The travelling demonstration carts arranged to make seven circuits
during the year touched about 284 villages. It is calculated that about a lakh
of people must have come in contact with this enterprize. As a result of this
method 587 field tests dealing with crops* treatment were organized in Baroda,
398 in Mehsana district and several in Amreli and Navsari. The third method
of laying out aided experimental plots as a link between departmental and
experimental farms and the intensive units of demonstration also made great
headway during the year. Demonstration on various items of agricultural
improvement was also conducted at the rural reconstruction centre at
Kosamba where the work was further extended to 22 more villages during the
year.

In TRAVANCORE a scheme for reorganizing the propaganda section of the
department has been submitted to the Government and it is expected before
long that one agricultural inspector or demonstrator will be appointed for each
taluka of the state. Most of the demonstrations conducted during the year
related to the manuring of the principal crops grown in the state. Eighty-four
demonstrations on paddy and 87 on coconut were conducted during the year.
A new colony was started during the year in Palode village of the

DISTRICT WORK 225

Nedumangad taluka by the Travancore War Service Men's Association.
Though intended mainly for the benefit of ex-service men, the aim of this land
colonization scheme is to meet in some measure the problem of unemployment
among educated men in the state and to bring into existence a class of holdings
which would demonstrate to agriculturists the advantages of cooperative culti-
vation. A night school has also been started in the colony for the benefit
of the colonists and their families and the neighbouring inhabitants includ-
ing the hillmen in the adjoining forest.

In COCHIN new centres of demonstration were selected in all the talukas and
to cope with the increased work, two centres each on paddy, sugarcane and
coconuts were placed under the supervision of an agricultural trained teacher
in each taluka. Besides supervising the centres, the teachers advised the ryots
on the general lines of improved agriculture. Six such teachers were appointed
and they were given a bonus of Rs. 50 each at the end of the year.

2. Other forms of propaganda

These consist mostly of the utilization of motor vans and other mobile units
equipped with magic lanterns and other appliances for showing to cultivators
in the interior the various methods of improvement recommended by the Agri-
cultural Departments. Cinema and radio are replacing the gramophone
and magic lantern and are being utilized to a greater extent in the rural develop-
ment drives initiated in different provinces.

In MADRAS 1,243 lectures with and without the aid of lantern slides were
delivered on the occasion of fairs, exhibitions, jamabandi camps and conferences.
The three motor exhibition vans of the department toured throughout the
presidency except in the VIII circle and attracted large gatherings of villagers
throughout the areas they visited.

In BOMBAY rural uplift vans equipped with agricultural-propaganda material
visited a number of villages in the Southern, South-central and North-central
divisions during the year. These itinerant units proved extremely useful
in educating cultivators in improved methods of farming. The members of
the Agricultural Department contributed articles dealing with matters of local
agricultural problems in numerous papers and periodicals in the districts. A
special leaflet showing how to organize gun clubs and a poster to show how the
Forest, Police and Agricultural Departments can cooperate in protecting crops
against animals were printed and freely distributed.

In BENGAL a large number of lectures illustrated by magic lantern slides
were given during the year in connexion with the jute restriction propaganda.
Cinema shows depicting the activities of the department as also of other
Government departments were also arranged by the publicity department
in course of propaganda tours of their peripatetic staff. A new film on
agricultural operations at the Dacca farm was prepared during the year.

In BIHAB in the Tirhut range alone 93 illustrated lectures were given in the
course of the year. These attracted large crowds of interested people. Similar
lectures were given at other important Centres on the occasion of fairs.

CENTRAL PROVINCES. In the Northern circle 183 lantern and cinema
lectures were given at Dindori and Saugor farms. In the Southern circle
a cinema demonstration was held at the Ramtek fail 'and also at Chhindwara
where films of agricultural interest were exhibited to gatherings of teachers

226 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

and students drawn from schools working under the control of the district
council. Lantern lectures were delivered at 56 centres as compared to 21
during last year. In the Eastern circle 116 lantern lectures were given as
compared to 55 during the last year and in addition 75 cinema shows were
demonstrated at important centres. In the Western circle illustrated lantern
lectures and cinema demonstrations were given at 280 centres as compared
to 213 during the last year.

In SIND the touring party of the publicity section equipped with cinema
outfit visited 86 villages from September to April. The party also gave cinema
lectures on the occasion of agricultural shows, farmers' weeks and at other such
gatherings of cultivators. Posters were prepared and were exhibited in the
countryside to create interest in the agricultural well-being of the province and
the department issued bulletins and press notes dealing with important subjects.

3. Agricultural shows and exhibitions

Agricultural shows and exhibitions were as usual held at important
gatherings in ail provinces and states. These varied considerably in size and
scope. A few important ones held during the year in different provinces are
noted below.

IN MADRAS the number of exhibitions held during the year was 352 as against
299 in the previous year. Special mention may be made of the exhibitions held
at Gadithamadugu and at Prodatur in conjunction with cattle fairs arranged
under the auspices of the district economic councils. The rural exhibition at
Tritala was the first of its kind where prizes were awarded for the best crops,
methods of conservation of manure and for the best products exhibited by
the farmers. A comprehensive exhibition on important lines of research work
pursued by different sections of the Research Institute was held in conjunction
with the * Annual Day ' of the Agricultural College and Institute at Coimbatore.

In BOMBAY the Karnatak Agricultural Show was the outstanding event of
the year. This show was held at Belgaum in January 1938. Though the show
was organized on divisional basis it was of the same magnitude and comprehen-
siveness as the other two previous presidency shows held at Poona and Ahmed-
abad.

Most of the states, geographically related to the division, took part in the
show.

In BENGAL the department contributed grants to 30 exhibitions including
those held in Darjeeling and the Chittagong hill tracts. Of all exhibitions,
those held at Suri, Midnapore, Faridpur, Brahmanbaria, Rangpur and Cooch
Behar were the most important.

In the UNITED PROVINCES a number of swadeshi exhibitions were provided
with agricultural stalls, the most important of which were at Lucknow, Benares
and Allahabad. In the Western circle the number of agricultural shows held
during the year was 30 of which the more important were those held at Aligarh,
Meerut during Nauchandi fair and at Hardwar at the time of the Kumbh mela.
In the Eastern circle a first class show was organized in connexion with the
Magh mela, and an extensive exhibition was held on the occasion of Babuganj
fair. In addition 18 pther shows were attended by the departmental stafi
where agricultural materials and lectures were given. In the Rohilkhand

DISTRICT WORK 227

circle 14 agricultural exhibitions were arranged during the year, the most
important being the Bareilly Industrial and Agricultural Exhibition.

In the PUNJAB the agricultural stall at Lyallpur continued to serve as a very
useful medium for the sale of improved seeds and also acted as a link between
the department and the trading community. The total quantity of seed of
different crops sold for sowing purposes during the year was 9,456 niaunds as
against 8,632 maunds sold during the previous year. The number of visitors
rose from 30,821 in the preceding year to 32,108 during the year under report.
To stimulate interest of the hill men of Murree and Kahuta tehsils two fruit
shows were held in July and September respectively and the competitors were
awarded prizes.

In BIHAR agricultural displays were given at most of the important fairs
held in the province during the year. Competitions were arranged at Sitamarhi,
Hijla, Gulabbagh and Khagra. In addition, a cattle show for the Shahabad
and Bachhaur breeds was held for the first time at Sonepore on the occasion
of the annual fair and it proved such a success that it is hoped to make this an
annual event.

In SIND altogether 30 agricultural shows were held during the year under
report. At Sukkur, Jacobabad and Sajan Sawai the agricultural shows were run
in conjunction with the industrial, health and village uplift departments. The
Kevenue Commissioner in Sind inspected the show at Jacobabad. An agricul-
tural and horticultural show was held at Hyderabad. It was opened by the
Honourable Minister of Agriculture and attended by His Excellency the
Governor of Sind who presided over the prize distribution ceremony.

In BALUCHISTAN agricultural shows were organized at Sibi and Usta. In
the latter place the Assistant Entomologist and Agricultural Assistant gave
short discourses on agricultural topics. ,

In HYDERABAD the annual horticultural and poultry show was held
in February 1938 and a rural development exhibition was held at Patancheru
in March 1938.

In MYSORE an exhibition took place in the Town Hall at Chikmagalur in
November 1937 in connexion with the Mysore State Women's Conference. The
department took five stalls and actively participated in the exhibition.

In BARODA the Second Baroda Fruit Show was held during the year and
was very well attended. About 40,000 people visited the exhibition which
contained about 385 exhibits. The department also participated in the annual
rural exhibition of the rural reconstruction centre at Kosamba.

In TRAVANCORE the department actively participated in the Sri Chitra
Exhibition at Trivandrum, the Vavubeli Exhibition at Kuzhithura and the
exhibitions held at Oachira in connexion with the Karunagapally Cooperative
Conference and at Karunagapally in connexion with the All-Kerala Coconut
Growers' Conference.

In COCHIN the department took part in five exhibitions by sending several
kinds of agricultural exhibits including chart! illustrating the control of pests
and diseases.

4. Agricultural associations^

In the large list of associations that are being established for all phases of
improved farming, it is only possible to mention the activities of a few important
ones and of those newly established.

228 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

In MADRAS the fruit growers' association at Vizianagaram conducted
the first fruit show during the year. Three more agricultural associations
were started during the year, two in South Arcot district and one in North
Arcot district. The district agricultural association of Trichinopoly con-
ducted an agricultural exhibition on an elaborate scale at Srirangam during
the Vaikunta Ekadasi festival. Six agricultural associations were newly started
in the Tinnevelly district during the year. The cooperative loan and sale
society at Anakapalle sold 107,272 maunds of jaggery worth about Rs. 86,896.
The Bimlipatam society disposed of 6,800 bags of groundnut valued at
Rs. 36,339. One loan and sale society was started at Proddatur.

In BOMBAY the organization of gun clubs for the protection of cultivators'
crops from damages by wild animals was continued and one lakh of acres in
the southern division and 40,000 acres in East Khandesh were protected. The
number of taluka development associations was 102 at the close of the year
1937-38. Subsidies amounting to Rs. 40,840 were granted during the year
as against Rs. 37,879 in the previous year. The associations have been classed
by the divisional boards of agriculture in order of merit as class A including
those which are most successful and class B struggling associations which
deserve help if possible and class C the moribund associations.

In BENGAL almost all the district agricultural associations in the presi-
dency are now in a moribund condition for want of funds. Of these associa-
tions, the 24-Parganas Agricultural Association is the only active body that
is doing some constructive work. The Midnapore District Agricultural Asso-
ciation was reorganized towards the end of the year on a broader basis under
the name District Rural Reconstruction Committee. There is no agricultural
association in Eastern Bengal, but a cooperative rural reconstruction society
at Brahmanbaria (Tippera) opened a small farm and entertained a demons-
trator.

In the UNITED PROVINCES about ,200 better-farming and better-living
societies have been organized and a dozen seed unions were working during
the year in the eastern districts. In the Sultanpur district the number of
better-farming societies rose from 17 to 26 and in addition a number of agri-
cultural credit societies have begun to function. Better-farming societies have
also been organized in the rural development centres, some of which have com-
menced to do good work. The fruit development board an organization of
fruit growers and nurserymen further consolidated its position and increased
its utility under the guidance of its executive committee. Its membership
increased during the year by 63 to a total of 599 and. Their Highnesses the
Nawab of Rampur and Maharaja Sahib of Tehri, Garhwal, accorded their
patronage to the board. The objective of the board is the furthering of fruit
production and its marketing throughout the province, in which it cooperates
with affiliated district fruit growers' associations to which financial aid is given
for maintenance of nurseries and for the holding of fruit shows. The board's
work is financed in regard to its general activities by the subscriptions of its
members, but it receives a grant of Rs. 4,500 from Government as a help in its
fruit marketing scheme*.

In the PUNJAB village farmers' associations are making very satisfactory
progress and are greatly appreciated. The total number of such associations
has increased from 3,129 during the preceding year to 3,482 in the year under

DISTRICT WORK 229

report. These associations consist of prominent practical farmers of the district
who meet twice a year for bringing local problems to the notice of the Agricul-
tural Department and the results of the department's labour to the notice of
farmers.

In BIHAR the Agricultural Department, as usual, worked in close coopera-
tion with the directorate of those cooperative banks and institutions that are
interested in agricultural development even though they may not be active
participants in the work of agricultural propaganda themselves. The only
bank that maintains kamdars on its staff now is the Siwan Bank. A close liaison
was also maintained with the cane-growers' cooperative societies that were
established in the Tirhut and Patna ranges. In the former range alone no
less than 1,230 demonstrations were carried out in the fields of the members
and in addition to this sugarcane and green -manure seed, fertilizers and castor
cake were distributed free to various societies.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES in the Southern circle four new agricultural
associations were registered during the year which increased the number of
cooperative agricultural associations to 14. The re-orientation of the
departmental policy with regard to seed unions whereby efforts are
directed to consolidate the existing seed unions rather than to increase
their number has proved helpful in consolidating the principles of self-
help and cooperation among cultivators. In the Eastern circle 12 seed
unions were registered under the Cooperative Societies Act and 29 unions were
supplied with pure seed from Government farms in exchange for ordinary seed
as against 18 unions supplied during the last year. In the Western circle
there were 23 taluka agricultural associations and 29 branch associations.
These associations run shops for the supply of pure seeds, implements and
spare parts.

In SIND in order to ensure closer cooperation between the Agricultural
Department and the Revenue and Public Works Department on the one hand
and with the non-official public on the other, district agricultural committees
have been formed in each district. They meet twice a year to review the pro-
gress made in agricultural propaganda in their respective districts and to devise
means to promote the welfare of the cultivator. These committees have proved
very useful in keeping on the one hand the non-official public fully informed
of what the department is doing for the zemindar and the hari and on the other
in giving valuable assistance to the department in conducting propaganda in
the districts.

In HYDERABAD the village improvement association of Patancheru con-
tinued to do useful work under the guidance of the centre in the way of improv-
ing water supply of villages, organizing relief work and opening of seed depots
for the supply of improved seeds to cultivators.

The cooperative cotton sale societies at Kophal in the Raichur district and
at Nanded and Aurangabad and cooperative implement sale societies continued
to function on profitable basis. %

In MYSORE two paddy growers* associations were started for the first time
one at Kunigal and the other at Mayasandra in the Turvekere taluka. Work
through cooperative societies and village panchayats vpas continued in all the
circles. The total value of sales of seeds and implements through societies
amounted to Rs. 967.

230 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

In BARODA better-farming societies were organized in many villages and
although much success has not so far been achieved in installing the idea of co-
operative effort, growing individual interest and cooperation with the depart-
ment are amply evident. In the year under report three cotton sale societies
with a membership of 412 growers sold through the marketing organization
bales of cotton valued at Rs. 1,80,000 at an average premium of Rs. 7-5-11 per
Mandi. The Dhari taluka fruit association showed good progress during the
year. Its membership was over 110 and it took part in the Baroda Fruit
Show.

In TKAVANCOBE the Thirurnala Kaheera Vyavasaya Manila Cooperative
Society further increased its membership during the year. It continued to
supply milk to several public institutions in Trivandrum town and made a
profit of Rs. 562.

5. Seed multiplication and distribution

The production of improved seed and its multiplication forms one of the
important functions of the propaganda staff of the Departments of Agriculture.

The Indian Central Cotton Committee continued to help the Agricultural
Departments in the more extended distribution of pure seed of improved varie-
ties of cotton. At the commencement of the period under review there were
13 seed distribution and extension schemes in operation on cotton. During
the year, however, five new schemes were sanctioned, two for the maintenance
of nuclei of pure seed of improved varieties of Indian cotton in the presidency
of Madras and the Central Provinces and Berar, one for financing seed distri-
bution in Sind, one for the distribution and marketing of Buri 107 cotton in
the Burhanpur tehsil (Central Provinces) and one for the extension of
BD8 cotton in the Baroda State.

The Imperial Sugarcane Breeding Station, Coimbatore, continued as
usual to supply seed and seedlings to stations in sub-tropical India, i.e. Karnal,
Shahjahanpur, etc. A brief account of the important seed distribution and
extension schemes in each province is noted below.

In MADRAS the Cambodia cotton was tried in the I circle for the first time
as an irrigated crop and the growth of the crop was satisfactory. In all 312,126
Ib. of improved Cambodia seed was distributed for sowing during the year
as against 249,355 Ib. in the previous year, of which the VIII circle alone was
responsible for 188,507 Ib. as against 148,000 Ib. in the previous year.' The
total area in the presidency under the improved strains of Cambodia during
the year was 246,367 acres as against 206,550 acres in the previous year. It
is estimated that the acreage of these strains in the VIII circle alone was
180,022. Of the Karunganni cotton which is grown only in the V, VI
and VIII circles, 252,470 Ib. of pure seed was distributed during the year
as against 60,624 Ib. in the previous year. The strains recommended were
Kl, A10 and C 7. It is estimated that 203,924 acres were under these strains
during the year as against 165,440 acres in the previous year. ' Northerns '
cotton is confined to III circle and N 14 is the chief strain under distribution.
The area under this cotton during the year was 4,368 acres as against 3,925
-acres in the previous yea?. ,

The total area under different improved strains of paddy in the presidency
including natural spread was estimated at 1,774,024 acres as against 1,395,043

DISTRICT WORK 231

acres in the previous year. The total quantity of paddy se ed distributed in
the whole presidency was 2,718 tons. In potatoes Great Scot is the chief
variety that is largely distributed. 103,675 Ib. of seed material was distri-
buted to ryots from Coonoor and Ootacamund. The area under improved
strains on Nilgiris was estimated to be 12,068 acres and the total quantity of
seed distributed in the whole presidency amounted to 106,590 Ib.

The total area under improved strains of sugarcane in the presidency was
46,064 acres as against 42,650 acres in the previous year.

In BOMBAY the following seed distribution schemes for the improved varie-
ties "of cotton were in force. These schemes continued to receive financial
assistance from the Indian Central Cotton Committee.

(i) Distribution of 1027 ALF seed in the Surat area. During the year
under review, the Department of Agriculture controlled a seed multiplication
area of 26,618 acres (including 1,160 acres grown with farm pedigree seed)
against 25,583 acres (including 1,589 acres grown with farm pedigree seed)
in the previous year, and distributed 2,936,110 Ib. (including 1,660,449 Ib.
supplied to Indian states) against 2,687,009 Ib. (including 1,477,946 Ib. supplied
to Indian states) in the previous year.

(ii) Khandesh (Jarila Scheme), This scheme, which has for its object the
extension of Jarila cotton in place of Banilla in the Khandesh area, was sanc-
tioned in March 1937 for a period of 10 months from the 1st of May 1937
and was extended in January 1938 for a further period of one year up to the
28th of Februaryl939. 84,315 Ib. of seed was made available for multiplica-
tion over an area of 4,000 acres under controlled conditions as against 520
Acres in the last year. This is in addition to the area spread of its own
accord without departmental supervision. The Jarila cotton produced at
different centres was pooled together at Jalgaon and Bodwad centres, ginned
under departmental supervision and was sold by auction at a premium of
Us. 26 to Rs. 46 over Broach.

(iii) Deccan Canals (Banilla) Scheme. During the year under report, 31
.acres were sown with this cotton at the Kopergaon Government Farm.
A very poor yield of 368 Ib. of kapas per acre was obtained against 678 Ib.
of the previous year and 733 Ib. per acre of the year before. The reason for
this was reported to be the uneven distribution of rainfall, attack of green
caterpillar, pink bollworm and growth of weeds.

(iv) bD 8 Scheme. This scheme was extended in July 1938 for a further
period of five years, the total grant sanctioned for the scheme being Us. 47,501.
During the year under report, an area of 6,268 acres was under BD 8 as against
20,012 acres in 1936-37. The reason for this fall in area was reported to be
the excessive rains at the beginning of the season. Out of 2,035 bales of
pure BD 8 produce, 1,770 bales were sold through sale societies and gin-owners.
BD 8 realized Rs. 3 to Rs. 4 more per bhar (1,020 Ib.) than Goghari kapas,
against Rs. 2 to Rs. 7 less per bhar during the previous year.

(v) Revised Jayawant and Gadag No. 1 Scheme. This scheme replaced five
schemes in the Southern division, viz. the Huoli, Gadag, Athani, Haveri and
Bailhongal seed distribution and extension schemes. It commenced work on
the 1st of June 1936 and is due to terminate on the Slit of May 1941. The
scheme is intended to cover, within five years, 9 J lakhs of acres with improved
varieties. During the year under report, 2J55,200 Ib. of pure Jayawant

232 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

seed was sown over an area of 245,318 acres against 961,100 Ib. of seed
sown over an area of 102,306 acres during the last year. The natural spread
of Jayawant was estimated to be 1J lakh acres, bringing the total area-
under this variety to about 4 lakh acres. 1,295,700 Ib. of pure Gadag No. 1
seed were sown over an area of 92,539 acres against 844,100 Ib. of seed sown*
over an area of 84,410 acres during the last year. The natural spread of this-
variety was estimated at 25,000 acres, making a total of 117,539 acres.
2,866,920 Ib. of Jayawant seed, sufficient for about 3 lakh acres, and
1,588,580 Ib. of Gadag No. 1 seed, sufficient for about 113,470 acres, have
been purchased so far for the 1938-39 season.

The cultivators' produce was pooled together and sold by auction at
different centres and sub-centres. In all 14,940 docras of Jayawant and 13,569
docras of Gadag No. 1 were sold during the year and the extra profit realized
by cultivators is estimated at about Ks. 37,350 and Ks. 73,000 respectively.

(vi) Scheme for maintenance of nucleus of pure seed of improved varieties of
cotton. In pursuance of the policy of the committee to maintain a nucleus of
seed of all approved varieties of cotton, a scheme for the maintenance of
nucleus of each of the following seven varieties of cotton was sanctioned in
August 1937 at a total cost of Us. 2,660 per annum (i.e. Rs. 380 per variety),
and it came into operation during the season 1937-38 :

1. 1027 ALF 4. Jarila (wilt-zone)

2. BD 8 5. Jayawant

3. Jarila (wilt-free zone) 6. Gadag No. 1

7. Banilla

The multiplication and distribution of pure seed of improved varieties of
all crops, other than cotton, is carried out chiefly by departmental agencies,
assisted, in some places, by cooperative organization and taluka development
associations. The main features of this work during the year under report
were the distribution of 483,300 setts of improved sugarcane varieties at con-
cession rates to cane growers in the Deccan Canal tracts. In the North-central
division, progress reported during the previous year was maintained in the
distribution of improved whelit strains Nos. 168, 224 and Pusa 4 and as much
as 440,000 Ib. of improved wheat seed were distributed with the help of funds
available with the village uplift societies and other organizations. About
4,000 Ib. of Maldandi jowar seed was supplied in Khandesh and large quan-
tities of improved seed of Kolumba varieties were distributed to cultivators in*
the Thana district.

In BENGAL a well-planned scheme for growing long staple cotton on culti-
vators' fields in some of the districts of Bengal has been devised in consultation
with the Bengal Millowners' Association who have promised cooperation and a
substantial contribution of funds towards its working. It is expected that the
scheme, if sanctioned by the Government, will be launched during next year.

In the UNITED PROVINCES there has been a considerable increase in the
number of seed stores in connexion with rural development schemes. The
total number has been increased from about 200 to 600.

In the Eastern districts the department is concentrating on producing only
one type of seed over a wide area in several villages. This scheme, which is
proving successful, is greatly facilitating the collection of seed of satisfactory

1933-34

1937-38

Mds.

88,150

278,000

32,750

94,800

3,358

5,700

4,700

29,700

DISTRICT WORK 233

quality and purity for further distribution and it is intended to be completed
in the first instance in wheat and barley to be followed up later with other
crops like rice, linseed, etc. The total quantity of seed distributed during the
year including the supply of sugarcane setts through the departmental seed
stores and associated agencies was 2,398,157 maunds. This does not include
the sugarcane seed distributed for planting in the cane development zones
under the Cane Commissioner. The largest quantity of seed distributed during
the year was that of sugarcane amounting to 1,953,764 maunds followed by
361,110 maunds of wheat. In cotton the total area under the two selected
varieties of cotton, i.e. C402 and C520 dropped to 1,898 and 362 acres respec-
tively against 2,619 and 1,008 acres in 1936-37. The scheme for extension
of seed of C402 sanctioned by the Indian Central Cotton Committee was
closed down in K)38 as the area under C402 was not likely to expand to an
extent that would justify an expenditure of further money.

In the PUNJAB the work of seed multiplication and distribution has pro-
gressed very rapidly during the last three years.

The following statement will give some idea of the expansion :

Wheat
Cotton
Rice
Gram

In BIHAR 16,300 maunds of seed inclusive of 14,700 maunds of cane setts
and 985 maunds of cuttings of elephant grass were distributed during the year
free of cost. 22,445 maunds of seed inclusive of 14,680 maunds of cane setts
and 147 maunds of cuttings of elephant grass were sold. In addition 118 fruit
plants and 7,325 vegetable seedlings were sold. The demand for wheat No. 52
in North Bihar was considerable and exceeded the supplies that were possible
to be made even with the help of several planters who were growing seed for
"the department.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES the total number of seed farms in the Eastern
circle numbered 4,662. The quantity of improved seed distributed from all
sources amounted to 1*12 lakhs of maunds, exclusive of over 6 lakhs of maunds
of whole canes. The seed farms have been classified into central, A and B
categories. Central and A class farms are under the direct supervision of
agricultural assistants while B class farms are looked after by jamadars. Fresh
seed is supplied to the central farms every year, and to the others as often as
is considered necessary. Seeds of improved varieties of all crops recommended
by the department are estimated to have covered 5*31 lakhs of acres as compared
to 5-03 lakhs during the previous year and to have brought an increased
profit of at least Ks. 14-9 lakhs as against Rs. 15-02 lakhs in the preceding year
to cultivators. The number of fruit seedlings distributed was 48,741 as com-
pared to 40,209 in the preceding year. In the Western circle the number of
seed farms rose to 7,981 as compared to 6,042 during the previous year. The
total quantity of seed distributed during the year amounted to 52,560 maunds
as compared to 38,579 during the previous year. In the ' Scheme for the ex-
tension and marketing of V434 cotton * the Agricultural Department distri-
buted 4,233 kkandies of pure seed of improved strains (sufficient to cover an

234 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

area of about 87,649 acres) as against 5,594 kkandies of pure seed distributed)
in 1936-37. 4,575 bales of pure cotton were disposed of at an average pre-
mium of Rs. 39-1 on Broach and Rs. 57-7 on Oomras, against Rs. 1-3 on Broach
and Rs. 19 on Oomras in the previous year. The drop in the area covered
during the season under report was mainly due to the exceptionally low pre-
mium of Rs. 1-3 on Broach and Rs. 19 on Oomras obtained for Verum during 1
the previous season.

The scheme of distribution and marketing of Buri 107 cotton in the Burhan-
pur tehsil and the scheme for the maintenance of nucleus of pure seed of im-
proved strains, V434, Late Verum, No. 438 and Buri 107 are expected to
come into operation shortly.

In SIND the total quantities of pure seed of improved varieties distributed
during the year amounted to 80,949 maunds. In the case of wheat the regis-
tered growers found it difficult to store the whole quantity of the produce and
were obliged to see it in the local market. To save that good seed from sale 1
for consumption in the market the Government as an experimental measure
sanctioned a sum of Rs. 27,500 for the purchase and distribution of wheat
seed. 7,348 maunds of wheat were purchased from the registered growers
and were distributed to zemindars. A scheme for the extension of cotton
on the right bank of the Indus which was sanctioned by the Indian Central
Cotton Committee has led to a considerable increase in the area under cotton
in that tract. During the year under report the area under cotton has gone
up to 51,500 acres (including 7,000 acres under natural spread), of which 45,000'
acres were under 4F-98 and 2,000 acres under Sind Sudhar. In the previous
year the area under improved varieties was 41,020 acres (including 1,500 acres
under natural spread). The Agricultural Department distributed 14,490
maunds of 4F-98, Sind Sudhar and Sea Island varieties against 14,060 maunds-
of 4F-98 and Sind Sudhar in the previous year. On the Left Bank the most
striking development has been the introduction of American cotton in plac&
of desi cotton. During the year under report 445,000 acres were under
Sind NR and Sind Sudhar, against 400,000 acres during the last year. 2,908-
maunds of Sind NR, 11,569 maunds of Sind Sudhar, 500 maunds of 4F-98
and 200 maunds of Egyptian were distributed during the year, against 3,685
maunds of Sind NR, 21,586 maunds of Sind Sudhar and 812 maunds o
Egyptian during the previous year. The cultivators generally realize eight
annas to one rupee more per maund for the kapas than the local rate by
getting their produce ginned at the Government ginning factory at Mirpurkhas
and by selling the lint and seed separately.

In pursuance of the policy of the Indian Central Cotton Committee for
the maintenance of a nucleus of seed of all varieties of cotton, the spread of
which has been approved by it, a nucleus scheme for the following five varie-
ties of cotton was sanctioned in August 1937 at an estimated cost of Rs. 2,500^
per annum, for a period of five years :

1. Sind NR 3. 4F-98

2. Sind Sudhar 4. Sea Island 2-4

5. Boss 111-16

In HYDERABAD the department supplied 3,341,634 Ib. of seeds of improved
varieties of all crops during the year for an area of 244,899 acres. This does-

DISTRICT WORK 235

not include the seed which is spreading naturally, passing directly from one
cultivator to another without the intervention of the department. In cotton
three improved varieties are being introduced on a large scale. The first is
Gaorani 6 the seed of which, enough for 217,345 acres, was distributed in the
Gaorani protected area. The other two are Jayawant and Gadag No. 1, the
seed of these varieties distributed during the year under report amounted
to 263,945 Ib. sown over an area of 21,092 acres against 374,633 Ib. sown
over an area of 13,871 acres during 1936-37 and 553,880 Ib. on an area of
41,256 acres in the year 1935-36. To procure pure seed of the improved varie-
ties for distribution in the ensuing season the Agricultural Department reserved
an area of 3,500 acres in the Kopbal and Gulburga talukas where the crop was
rogued and supervised by the staff of the department. This area is expected
to yield 360,000 Ib. of pure seed sufficient for sowing 26,000 acres in the coming
season.

In MYSORE the total quantity of improved seed of different crops such as
sugarcane, cotton, paddy, ragi, groundnut, etc. distributed by the department
during the year amounted to 120 tons. The number of sugarcane setts distri-
buted in the year was 222,058 as compared to 914,000 setts during the previous
year.

In BARODA in the scheme for rapid spread of 1027 ALF variety of cotton
sanctioned by the Indian Central Cotton Committee 21,830 Ib. of seed raised
from pedigree seed was secured under the supervision of the department
during the year and of this 21,675 Ib. was issued to ' A ' class growers for
sowing on an area of 2,500 bighas. From the controlled area of 2,506 acres of
' A ' class growers and 3,544 acres of * B ' class growers, 1,255,727 Ib. of
1027 ALF were produced, out of which 447,680 Ib. was distributed to ' B ' class
growers for sowing on an area of 13,194 bighas. The approximate area under
improved seed during 1937-38 was about 75,000 acres. In the past, the Baroda
seed organization had no farm-grown seed for supply to ' A ' class growers,
but last year the Baroda Government opened a seed farm of about 70 acres
near Vesma, a village about eight miles from Navsari, to serve as a nucleus for
supplying seed to * A ' class growers. To secure better prices for 1027 ALF
cotton, a marketing office was opened at Stirat in February 1938. Certificates
of purity for 559 cotton bales, ginned under the supervision of the department,
were issued. Most of this cotton was sold at a premium ranging from Rs. 3
to Rs. il per khandy. Another scheme for the extension of BD 8 cotton in
the Baroda district was sanctioned by the Indian Central Cotton Committee
and is expected to come into operation shortly. Similar schemes for supply
of improved wheat seeds of Pusa 52 in Mehsana and Pusa 4 in Amreli were put
into operation and stocks amounting to 132,440 Ib. and 16,000 Ib. of the respec-
tive types were stored at Jagudan and Amreli. In fruits, 5,000 fruit plants
chiefly mango grafts, pine-apple suckers, guavas, figs and pomegranate were
distributed and arrangements for supply of 31,OOOBasarai banana were made.

In TRAVANCORE during the year under report 9,329 Ib. of selected paddy
seed was sold from the paddy farm at Nagarcoil while 3,744 Ib. was distri-
buted by the Economic Botanist. The distribution of setts of improved strains
of sugarcane continued to receive special attention, and during the year 25,075
setts were supplied to ryots from the demonstration farm at Alwaye A
great demand has sprung up within recent years for seed nuts and seedlings

236 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

of coconut and arrangements have been made to raise large coconut nurseries
on the departmental farms at Alleppey and Oachira.

In COCHIN during the year under report 1,530 seedlings of different varieties
of coconut were sold to 153 persons. In paddy, 1,050 paras of seed were issued
to 210 persons as against 1,045 paras issued to 207 persons in the previous
year. Eight paras of improved type of paddy known as Cochin I was distri-
buted for trial to eight ryots of the Chittur taluka through the local inspector,
and to some ryots of other talukas. There have been reports of increase in
yield in some places even up to 50 per cent as compared to local types.

6. Implements

A steady progress was maintained during the year in the introduction of
improved implements. In Appendix V will be found a statement of the agri-
cultural implements sold through departmental agencies. As stated in the
last report these figures do not give a correct estimate of the total number of
implements sold as a large number of private agencies and village blacksmiths
have sprung up over vast areas which also deal in implements. Departmental
sales therefore represent a part of the material purchased by cultivators during
the year.

In MADRAS the total number of iron ploughs of all descriptions sold during
the year throughout the province reached a record figure of 5,257 as against
3,000 sold during the previous year. In the Vizagapatam district the number of
implement demonstrations rose from 1,705 during 1936-37 to 2,998 during the
year under report. The number of demonstrations with different implements
throughout the presidency during the year totalled 19,056 as compared to 8,973
during the last year. TakJcavi loans to the extent of Rs. 22,373 were granted
to ryots for the purchase of agricultural implements as compared to Rs. 16,660
granted during the previous year. Loans, for implements costing Rs. 25 and
less, amounting to Rs. 17,318 were sanctioned by the department and the
Revenue Department sanctioned loans to the extent of Rs. 5,055.

In BOMBAY six improved seed drills were sent to Khandesh and Southern

divisions for trial and demonstration and about 114 acres were sown with them.
Three such improved drills were also sold outside the Bombay Province.
Further improvements were made in the winnowing fan and a considerable
demand for such fans came from Khandesh where arrangements for making
them locally are being made. In the plant-puller propaganda scheme at

"Broach and Surat, rise in prices of plant-pullers and the fall in prices of cotton

.affected the sale of plant-pullers. Seventy-six iron handle and 381 wooden

Tiandle plant-pullers were sold during the year.

In BENGAL the demand for improved ploughs designed in previous years
showed a gradual increase. Several improved gur furnaces were designed
and tested. A double-pan type was found to be the most successful although
it is slightly on the larger size for individual cultivators.

In the UNITED PROVINCES the total number of different types of imple-
ments and spare parts sold during the year was about 50,000 showing an increase

of 12,500 over the last year. These chiefly consisted of Meston ploughs, shares
for ploughs, chaff cutters, harrows and hoes, the largest number being sold in
the RoMlkhand and Kumaun circles followed by the Sarda circle. The chaff

cutters were mostly sold in the Western circle.

DISTRICT WORK 237'

In the PUNJAB it is difficult to estimate the correct number of improved,
implements in use without a regular survey as a large number of common and.
popular implements are now made in the villages. Roughly as far as it could
be ascertained the total number of implements sold during the year under
different heads was as follows :

(a) Imported 6,3?0

(6) Made in India 49,585

Of these about 6,700 were ploughs and 22,154 were chaff cutters. District
ploughing competitions which are held on the occasion of large cattle fairs
create a great stimulus for the use of improved implements. During the
year under report a divisional ploughing competition was held at Jullundur.

In BIHAR 1,500 complete instruments and 631 parts were sold during the
year. The sale of parts indicate the continued use of implements already sold
during previous years.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES unsatisfactory economic conditions affected the
sale of implements. The implement chiefly in demand was the iron plough
of which 1,279 were sold during the year as against 2,753 during the previous
year. There was also a reduction in the sale of spare parts from 23,019 during
the previous year to 17,090 during the year under report. The largest number
of 12,921 of spare parts was sold in the Western circle. The total number of
cane mills sold during the year was 193 as compared to 223 during the pre-
vious year, the largest number of 119 being sold in the Southern circle. The
sale of other miscellaneous implements remained approximately the same,
of which the largest number was sold in the Northern circle.

In SIND a special grant of Rs. 9,090 received from the Government of India
for rural reconstruction was utilized for maintaining seed and implement depots
at 18 important centres. The total number of implements sold during the
year from these depots amounted to 855 and the number lent was 1,299.

In HYDERABAD the progress in the sale of iron ploughs was maintained
during the year. Cultivating plants, Persian wheel, chaff cutter, sugarcane
crusher and gur boiling setts continued to be sold. The departmental sale of
implements amounted to 1921 during the year under report of which the largest
number of 1,705 was that of the spare parts.

In MYSORE the total number of implements sold during the year was 5,205.
Of these 713 were ploughs, 4,356 shares and spares, 126 cultivators and 10
sugarcane mills. Practically half the number of shares and spares was sold
in the Mandya area.

In BARODA the total number of implements sold during the year was 1,033
of which the largest number was that of the Baroda hoe. In order to faci-
litate despatch of implement by minimizing the cost of transport to the farmers,
arrangements were made to stock the material at various centres. About
500 to 600 plant-pullers were in use in 11 villages of the rural reconstruction
centre at Kosamba. During the year under report about the same number
was sold in 22 additional villages.

In TRAVANCORE several ploughing demonstrations >were held with the
improved types of ploughs recommended by the department. The * Pallikkal *
plough, which is an imitation of the improved type, is rapidly gaining favour

*238 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

with ryots. Demonstrations of pumping setts, garden tools and sugarcane
mills were given on an extended scale.

7. Fertilizers

Appendix VI gives the sale of fertilizers through departmental agency.
An increase in the manufacture of compost and the extended use of green
manures was evident. The imports of chemical fertilizers amounted to 78,425
tons in 1937-38 as compared to 83,653 tons in 1936-37. This included 53,216
tons of sulphate of ammonia, 2,928 tons of muriate of potash, 7,405 tons of
superphosphate and 2,167 tons of ammonium phosphate. The production of
ammonium sulphate in India during the year amounted to 17,977 tons as com-
pared to 16,041 tons during the previous year and the approximate consump-
tion of ammonium sulphate to 69,274 tons as compared to 74,653 tons during
1936-37. A brief account of the use and sale of various fertilizers in different
i provinces is noted below.

In MADRAS the department continued its propaganda on better methods
of preservation of cattle manure. The number of manure pits, dry earth sheds
and loose boxes maintained in all the circles during the year was 73,942 as
compared to 51,711 during the previous year. The total number of compost
pits maintained during the year was 3,063 as against 1,792 in the previous
year. The quantity of green manure seed distributed during the year was
408 tons excluding the quantity disposed of by private agencies. In regard
to artificial fertilizers these are not stocked by the department but only a general
advice in regard to their use is given.

In BOMBAY work of conserving village manure supply by improving manure
pits and by making compost was steadily pushed on particularly in the
Khandesh and the Karnatak divisions. A quantity of 9,729 Ib. of the sann
seed was distributed in the kharif season of 1937 for green manuring from the
stock available with the village improvement committees. Besides, a quantity
of 24,105 Ib. was distributed by the taluka development associations and the
district staff. Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. sold through the taluka
development association 1,212,683 Ib. of ammonium sulphate in the North-
. central division as compared to 735,597 Ib. during the previous year. Advan-
tage was taken of the concession given by the Government for the use of
denatured salt for manurial purposes and a sufficient quantity was used by
mango growers in North Konkan. During the year under report a quantity of
2,453 maunds of salt was used as compared to 2,332 maunds during the last
year.

In BENGAL cultivators have so far generally failed to take advantage of
the farmyard manure prepared from waste materials. The method of pre-
paration and application of farmyard manure from waste material using water
hyacinth as one of the ingredients is intended to be demonstrated on the culti-
vator's fields wherever possible.

In the UNITED PROVINCES the policy of distributing concentrated fertilizers
in the form of mixtures of oil' cake and ammonium sulphate for manuring
sugarcane in the tube-well areas was continued. Government sanctioned a
permanent advance of Rs. 2,00,000 to finance the purchase operations. During
the year under report 27,242 maunds of fertilizer mixture No. 1 of 12-5 per
. cent nitrogen (consisting of eight parts of groundnut cake and five parts of

DISTRICT WORK 239

ammonium sulphate) and 3,500 maunds of mixture No. II of 7-5 per cent
nitrogen (consisting of five parts of mustard cake and one part of ammonium
sulphate) were purchased and issued to the Cane Development Officers,
State Tube-well Agricultural Development Officer and Deputy Directors of
Agriculture. The total quantity of fertilizers distributed during the year
Amounted to 63,716 maunds, which includes 4,012 maunds of seed for green
manures. This does not include the fertilizers supplied in the cane
development zones, under the Cane Commissioner but includes the fertilizer
mixtures supplied in the tube-well areas. The largest quantity of fertilizer
sold during the year was that of the ammonium sulphate which amounted to
12,977 maunds.

In the PUNJAB the advantages of the proper pitting of farmyard manure
And the collection of waste organic matter to add to the manure pits are being
realized more than ever. Not less than 50,000 pits were dug by zemindars for
this purpose during the year.

In BIHAK the department gave over 6,500 demonstrations during the year
to show to cultivators the advantages of the use of castor cake, fertilizers and
green manures. About 376 maunds of green manure seed, 490 maunds of
cake, 1,050 maunds of fertilizers and 56 maunds of gypsum were distributed
free. In addition, over 1,000 maunds of green manure seed, 3,570 maunds
of castor cake, nearly 1,000 maunds of fertilizers and 16,000 maunds of gypsum
were sold by the department. These are merely the sales put through by the
department and these figures do not by any means represent the total sales
in the province. 2, -130 demonstrations of compost making were arranged in
the course of the year It has been estimated that the trash from an acre of
cane will provide, if composted, sufficient manure for half an acre of cane crop.
Such work is of the most fundamental importance and is being demonstrated.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES in the Eastern circle 7,021 maunds of cake and
.artificial fertilizers were supplied during the year as against 6,198 maunds
during the previous year. Takkavi loans amounting to Us. 20,997 were given
for the purchase of improved seeds, manures and implements as against
Us. 21,745 during the previous year.

In SIND as a result of successful demonstrations zemindars have realized
the value of using sulphate of ammonia in preference to farmyard manure,
by the rabbing method. The farmyard manure which is saved is now
being put to better use for manuring the land instead of burning it for nibbing.
In order that sulphate of ammonia may be made easily available arrangements
have been made by Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. to stock the material
with local shopkeepers.

In HYDERABAD 237,707 Ib. of artificial fertilizers and other manures were
sold through departmental agency in the year under report for 1,555 acres.
Out of this the amount of ammonium sulphate was 183,136 Ib. This does
not include the large quantity sold by the fertilizer firms direct to cultiva-
tors.

In MYSORE the total quantity of manure supplied during the year amounted
to 261 tons.

In BARODA 23 tons and 19 maunds of manures consisting of bone, castor
cake, ammonium sulphate and seed of sunn-hemp were distributed during the
year in villages of the rural reconstruction centre at Kosamba. This does not

240

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

include the large quantities obtained by societies and individuals direct from
dealers.

In TRAVANCOBE the aggregate value of the fertilizers sold during the year
by the leading firms, i.e. Messrs. Parry and Co., Stanes and Co., Shaw Wallace
and Co. and the Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. amounted toRs. 1,07,715.
Of the local firms, Mr. A. G. Chinnappan's Manure Works at Poovar in South
Travancore is by far the most prominent. That firm sold during the year
manures worth Rs. 3,311. The number of agency manure depots which con-
ducted manure sales under the supervision of the department was seven.
The total sales from all these depots amounted to Ks. 432 as against Rs, 894
during the previous year. As in the previous year the most active agency
depot which conducted the largest sale was the Thattayil Cooperative Society
and it sold manures to the value of Rs. 318.

8. Animal husbandry

Hitherto district work done by the departmental sta ff in the field of animal
husbandry has found only a brief mention in this review. The actual and
potential value of this contact with the villagers and the direct help that is
rendered to them, however, deserve more detailed treatment and it is proposed
in future to recount these activities in greater detail in these pages.

District work may be divided into two classes : (a) work done by the
veterinary staff on tour in treating cases, visiting areas of outbreaks, perform-
ing inoculations against diseases, castrations, etc. and (6) propaganda by means
of shows and fairs, lectures and distribution of pamphlets. Work done under
category (a) is summarized in Appendix X.

The work dealing with contagious diseases has already been dealt with in
detail in Chapter VIII. The best index of the volume of work done in regard
to non-contagious diseases and public health is probably provided by the
number of hospitals and the cases treated there as well as outside. The follow-
ing is a comparative statement for the past three years :

1935-36

1936-37

1937-38

Number of hospitals and dispensaries
Number of cases treated at hospitals and dis-
pensaries.
Number of cases treated on tour

1,086
3,476,739

2,283,127

1,111
3,873,968

2,189,425

1,138
, 4,052,200

2,504,917

It will be seen that there is a steady expansion of these activities from year to
year.

The main activity centres round the periodical shows and fairs and
the distribution of prizes and sanads. The value of such shows in creating a
healthy spirit of rivalry in exhibiting the range and value of livestock of the
country and in evolving standards cannot be over emphasized. As will be
noticed from the following a number of shows were held during the year at
various localities in each province. The provincial officers visited these shows,
delivered lectures and carried out other propaganda relating to common
diseases and their control, hygiene, breeding, first aid and treatments.

Two principal shows were held in the province of BOMBAY during the year,
one in Ahmedabad district and the other in Belgaum. The latter was a central

DISTRICT WORK 241

show and was composed mostly of animals chosen from preliminary rallies of
about 865 animals held in different localities. The staff of the Veterinary
Department opened stalls at these shows and departmental exhibits were de-
monstrated. Lectures were also delivered at these gatherings.

In BENGAL the demand on the services of the propaganda officer continued
to be heavy and as many as 555 calls were made on him. Propaganda was
carried on in regard to cattle welfare and the better treatment and care
of livestock. Fairs and shows were also fully utilized by departmental
officers for delivering propaganda lectures with the help of posters,
models, etc.

In the UNITED PROVINCES, 36 important horse and cattle fairs were held
during the year, which were attended and utilized for propaganda by the
departmental officers. Arrangements were also made by the staff for the treat-
ment of sick animals and for warding off epidemics at these fairs as far as
possible.

In MADRAS, propaganda on the usual lines was carried out by the staff of
the Veterinary Department in the course of their tours by distributing leaflets,
holding magic lantern lectures, participating in health and baby week celebra-
tions, etc. and demonstrating castration by the Burdizzo method. Cattle
fairs and shows were also utilized for the purpose. The department has two
motor vans which toured the districts and did intensive propaganda. People
gathered in crowds round the van and appreciated the lectures, demonstrations,
etc.

In BIHAR the veterinary staff delivered 7,808 propaganda lectures during
the year on the different aspects of development and care of livestock. Many
of these were delivered with the aid of magic lanterns.

Ten fairs were held in ASSAM during the year and the departmental staff
took part in them and carried out propaganda.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR, nine shows were held during the
year and propaganda was carried on through them.

One hundred and seventy-one lectures were delivered by the veterinary
staff in ORISSA on cattle welfare. In the previous year the number of such
lectures was only 84, During the year a magic lantern was purchased and
several new slides were added to the old collection.

In the PUNJAB, 294 cattle fairs were held during the year as against 254 in
the previous year. All these were attended by the officers of the Veterinary
Department and educative exhibits were set up in them. In addition to these
tegular fairs, 77 one-day shows were also organized in the villages, and several
cash prizes were offered. The scheme for the establishment of the veterinary
iirst-aid centres is being gradually pushed up. The number of visits paid to
villages, cases treated and castrations performed showed a considerable increase
over the previous year.

One of the outstanding items of propaganda during the year was the pavilion
organized by the Punjab Veterinary Department in the all-India exhibition
held at Lahore in the winter of 1937-38. As many as 300 self-explanatory
charts, models, pictures and diagrams explaining the various animal husbandry
problems were on view, and were deeply appreciated by all interested in the
subject. A modern dairy experiment where pasteurised milk was sold attract-
ed large crowds.

CHAPTER XII

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION
1. Agricultural colleges

THERE was an increased demand for admission into the agricultural colleges,,
especially at Coimbatore, Poona and Cawnpore, The total number of stu-
dents on the college rolls, who attended all courses exceeded the numbers of the-
previous year. In the Agricultural College, Lyallpur, the record figure of
569 was reached. Two new posts, i.e. of Associate Professor of Entomology
and Assistant Professor of Horticulture were added to the staff of the college.
At Poona a Forest Rangers' course was started in the college during the year
and was well attended. The proposed agricultural institute at Dacca is
expected to be in working order in 1940. The Government of Bengal has also
sanctioned a dairy for the institute and its construction is in progress. Another
agricultural institute was started at Khulna in 1937. At the Agricultural
College, Cawnpore, 10 nominees of the Bihar Government were admitted
for the first time on a reciprocal arrangement by which a similar number of
candidates from the United Provinces will be given training in the Bihar
Veterinary College. The proposal for starting an agricultural institute in Sind
was further pursued and it is expected that a start will be made with a certificate-
course shortly. In Baroda another donation of Rs. 50,000 was received for an
agricultural institute fromSheth Bhogilal Rajaram of Nardipurand the Govern-
ment has decided to locate the new institute at Jagudan. A brief account of
educational activities in the provinces and states is given below.

In MADRAS 184 applications were received for admission to the Agricultural
College, Coimbatore, aa against 156 in 1936-37 and 116 in 1935-36. Of this-
number 42 were selected and 13 were placed on the waiting list. Only 37 of
the selected candidates joined the college and seven were admitted from the
waiting list. Four failed students were re-admitted. The final strength of the
first year class stood at 48. The number of candidates that passed the B.Sc.
(Agri.) final examination in 1937 was 20.

In BOMBAY during the year under report the number of students who-
attended the Agricultural College, Poona, showed no diminution. The new
B.Sc. (Agri.) course was in full working order. A Forest Rangers' class was
started during the year at the college wherein some of the science courses were
taught by the college staff and the forestry part was dealt with by the Forestry
Instructor. The Agricultural Graduates' Employment Board maintained at
the college to assist the agricultural graduates to obtain suitable employment
after graduation had only 28 members this year as against 94 during the
last year as a large number of old members discontinued membership. Four'
new members were added. Fifteen enquiries were received from employing
agencies and were circulated among members. Nineteen students and some
members of the college staff took part in the rural reconstruction work in the
Satara district. Some students also worked as foremen instructors in the-
bunding classes conducted by the department.

( 242 )

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 243

In BENGAL the scheme for the establishment of an agricultural institute
at Dacca was speeded up. A sum of Rs. 1,50,000 was provided in the budget
Cor 1938-39 for the construction of buildings and other expenses. It is expected
that the institute will open in 1940. Government sanctioned the establishment
of a dairy at Dacca to be attached to the institute and the work of its construc-
tion is in progress. The animal husbandry course at the Dacca Agricultural
Institute with 10 students will be started as soon as its construction is completed.
In the Basanta Kumar Agricultural Institute at Rajshahi which was started
in 1936 through the munificence of the late Kumar Basanta Kumar Roy of
Dighapatia, the courses of study include theoretical and practical training in
horticulture and fruit canning, dairying, animal husbandry, poultry keeping
and cigar making. Provision has been made for training two classes of students,
casual and regular. The former are generally students who, along with their
studies in the college classes at Rajshahi or elsewhere, join the institute for
such vocational training as may be available, while the latter are whole-time
students at the institute. There were 22 students on the rolls as against 17
during the previous year and there were three regular students and one casual
in the fourth year class. All the students, both regular and casual, passed the
final examination of the institute.

The Daulatpur Agricultural Institute, Khulna, was started in 1937 with a
view to imparting higher education in special branches of agriculture, both
theoretical and practical, as well as to enable qualified young men to undertake
agriculture of their own either individually or cooperatively, with a fair chance
of making a living. The course of study covers two complete years.

In the UNITED PROVINCES in the Agricultural College, Cawnpore, the
number of applications for admission during the year increased to 167 as com-
pared with 131 and 129 in the two previous years respectively. Fifty-eight
candidates were accepted for admission. Of the total number of applicants only
10 declared their purpose of study to be government service alone ; 53 indicated
their intention to take up private farming. One hundred and three proposed
to undertake farming if they failed to obtain Government appointments. This
is in distinct contrast to the state of affairs a few years ago when practically
all applicants seeking admission to the college had government service as their
aim. The fact that so many of the applicants for training in scientific agricul-
ture have an intention of farming their own lands augurs well for the future of
the country as well as of the college. The number of students on the college
roll in January 1938 was 153 of whom 39 were in the first year, 37 in the second
year, 42 in the third year and 35 in the fourth year class. Of these 136 passed
in the varying classes of which 30 belonged to the final year class. To meet the
increasing demand for training of students in agriculture it has been decided to
increase the capacity of the college. Proposals made to the Government for
providing facilities for this purpose were sanctioned and it was decided to have
About 80 students in the first year in place of 40 and ultimately to double the
capacity of the college and to have altogether about 300 students. Of a total
-of 143 students who have passed out of the college in the four years 1934-37,
only five are known to be unemployed. The expansion of the Agricultural
Department and the need for agriculturally trained men in the Rural Develop-
ment Department as well as the increasing tendency on the part of students
to take up farming in their own lands should effectively absorb all the graduates

244 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

of the college for some time to come. Among the new entrants for 1938 are
included 10 nominees of the Bihar Government deputed for training on a reci-
procal arrangement by which the United Provinces candidates are given training
in veterinary science in Bihar. A post of Lecturer in Estate Management has
been sanctioned on the recommendations of the Sapru Unemployment Com-
mittee.

The Government continued to contribute Ks. 20,000 per annum to the-
Allahabad Agricultural Institute towards the expenditure on the intermediate
classes and the B.Sc. degree course in agriculture of the Allahabad University.
The Allahabad Agricultural Institute is one of the two centres in India
approved for giving training for the Indian Dairy Diploma course. Three
stipendiary students under the unemployment relief scheme were undergoing
the course during the year. The total number of students on the roll of the
institute was 164. Out of 32 students in the Intermediate class and 22 in the
B.Sc. (Agri.) course 27 and 14 passed in the final examination respectively.

In the PUNJAB the total number of students on the rolls of the Agricultural
College, Lyallpur, who attended all courses was 569 as against 565 last year.
This beats all previous records. Of the 569 students, 255 attended the degree
course and the remainder the various other short courses. There were 290 1
applications for admission to the first year of the degree course as compared
with 412 during the last year and 94 students were admitted as against 82
during the last year. The standard of qualification of the students admitted
this year was much higher than that during the previous three years. Five
M.Sc. students were admitted to the M.Sc. (Agri.) class this year. Fifty-seven
candidates appeared in the B.Sc. (Agri.), Part I and 34 in the B.Sc. (Agri.),
Part II. Out of these 45 and 20 respectively passed in these two examina-
tions.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES there has been a considerable increase in the
number of students seeking admission to the College of Agriculture, Nagpur,
in recent years. Formerly, admission was limited only to the number which
could be accommodated in the hostel but a departure from the standing rule
requiring residence in the hostel was made in the year under report. Thirty-
eight students were permitted to reside with their parents or accredited!
guardians. Applications for admission numbered 127 as compared to 157 during
the last year. Of these, 58 were finally admitted. The same number was
admitted last year. Twenty-nine students appeared for the B. Sc. (Agri.^
examination out of whom 16 were successful, one in the first division. Thirty
students were members of the University Training Corps. The College Platoon
secured the Guard Mounting Cup for the second time and one University
Training Corps member was elevated to the rank of Under-Omcer.

In SIND the Government granted scholarships to the sons of the agriculturists-
for their education at the Poona Agricultural College. Four such scholarships,
each of Es. 30 per mensem, are granted every year. The total number of
students receiving training at 'the Poona Agricultural College during the year
was about 50. The Government of Sind considered a scheme for starting an,
agricultural institute in Sin'd and it is expected that the certificate course will
start from 1939 and the degree course a year later when the buildings are con-
structed. The funds for this institute have been made available from His*
Majesty King George Memorial Fund.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 245

In HYDERABAD two scholars returned this year after completing their
courses in the Nagpur Agricultural College. Three more scholarships were
granted during the year, but one was not availed of. Altogether eight scholars
were studying during the year in Nagpur, Poona and Cawnpore Agricultural
Colleges.

In BARODA agricultural educational work is carried on chiefly by the Sheth
Dosabhai Maganlal Agricultural Institute, started during the last year. One
hundred and seventeen applications were received during the year, of which
25 were selected for stipends. Three more joined the course at their own ex-
pense. The Government during the year received another offer of Rs. 50,000,
from Sheth Bhogilal Rajaram of Nardipur (Kalol taluka), in the Mehsana
district, for an agricultural institute. It has been decided to locate it at Jagudan
in association with the department's farm there. Land has already been
acquired and the Public Works Department plans and estimates for the institute
building costing about Rs. 40,000 have been recently sanctioned by the
Government. Necessary proposals for staff, etc. will be submitted to the
government in due course.

2. Post-graduate training in agriculture

THE IMPERIAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, NEW DELHI. For the
post-graduate course commencing in November 1937, 52 candidates applied
for admission, of whom 33 were recommended by the provincial authorities.
Sixteen applicants were selected for admission four in botany, three in agri-
cultural chemistry, two in entomology, two in mycology and five in general
agriculture. Of these, one in entomology left soon after admission and one in
agricultural chemistry left after 10 months, on getting appointments.

During the year under report ten post-graduate students successfully com-
pleted the two-year course and qualified for the Institute Diploma ; four in
botany, three in agricultural chemistry, one in entomology, one in mycology
and one in sugarcane breeding. Three students completed the one-year course
in farm organization and general farm engineering.

In addition, one employee of the Assam Government, one of the Indore
State and two private candidates were admitted for short course training in
particular subjects.

The special course in flue curing of tobacco was attended by seven candi-
dates : two from the United Provinces Agricultural Department, one from the
Madras Agricultural Department, one from the Sind Agricultural Department,
one from the Baroda State and two private candidates from the United
Provinces.

Eight honorary research workers were afforded facilities for carrying out
definite pieces of work four in chemistry, two in entomology and two in myco-
logy-

The total number of students trained in the old 'sugar courses of the HAR-
COURT BUTLER TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, CAWNPORE, during the period 1931
to 1937 was 207, out of whom 107 passed in the sugar diploma course, 33 in the
sugar analyst course, 66 in sugar boiler course and one in khandsari foreman
Bourse. Over 85 per cent of the students secured employment in sugar factories.

246 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

3. Agricultural schools

In MADRAS the school at Usilampatti continued to function during the year,
It was however decided by the Government to close it from the end of this
school year and to amalgamate it with the local high school. The three farm,
labourers' schools at Anakapalle, Palur and Coimbatore continued to function.
At Anakapallc there were 24 boys on the rolls during the year as against 25-
last year. At Palur there were 35 on the rolls as against 31 in the previous
year. At Coimbatore there was only one boy in the school with wages and 19'
boys without wages as against three and 24 respectively in the previous-
year. Steps have since been taken to admit more boys with wages in this
school.

In BOMBAY the Marathi and Kanarese agricultural schools at Dhulia and
Devihosur continued to work under the control of the Department of Agricul-
ture. Another Marathi agricultural school at Rajapur was managed by a
private agency. All the schools continued to do good work. The Dhulia
school completed its fifteenth year and had 30 students on the rolls during the
year, 14 being in the first and 16 in the second year. The local agricultural
school committee continued to manage the finances of the school efficiently .
The school at Devihosur completed its twenty-fourth year and had 32 students,
13 being in the first year and 19 in the second year. The Rajapur school had
18 students in the first year and eight in the second year.

In BENGAL 25 students and three teachers were admitted to the Dacca
Secondary Agricultural School during the year. The maximum number of
students on the rolls was 51, including six teachers under training. The-
Government awarded 17 stipends and the District Board 20 stipends for different
communities. Twenty students sat for the final examination, including one
ex-student, of whom 18 passed.

In the UNITED PROVINCES the two schools at Bulandshahr and Gorakhpur
provide a two-year course which is essentially vocational and practical and
which includes only such elementary scientific knowledge as is necessary to the-
practical farmer. The number of applications continues to increase, indicating
thereby that the schools were meeting a real need and that their number and
size were inadequate for the growing requirements of the province. Provision
has accordingly been made for a considerable increase in the number of admis-
sions annually and for such additions to the school farms as are requisite for the
practical training of the increased number of students. In addition to the two-
year course the schools also provide a six months' course for fieldmen, a course
for farm mechanics and from time to time according to the requirements of the
Education Department for the agricultural training of school teachers. The
Bulandshahr school which is in its seventeenth year of working continued to
show steady progress. * Out of 100 applications for admission during the year
only 30 were selected. The total number of students on the roll was 117 against
80 during the previous year. Of these 72 were in the diploma course, 23 in
fieldman class and 12 in farri mechanic's class. In addition 10 teachers were
receiving agricultural training. At the final diploma examination held ia
December 1937, 30 candidates appeared and all were declared successful. In
addition to cultivation of their plots on the school farm, the students are
allotted vegetable garden plots fqr the practical growing of vegetables, the

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 247

produce of which is consumed by the students themselves. The number of
students in the Gorakhpur school during the year was 102 as compared to 88
in the previous year. Of these 42 and 36 were in the first and second year
respectively of the diploma course and 24 in the fieldman class.

In the PUNJAB the strength of the vernacular class was raised from 50 to
100 students and the duration of the course extended to one year. The six
months' vernacular course at Gurdaspur was abolished. During the year under
report only three students joined the Leaving Certificate class. No separate
class was therefore started and a time-table was arranged for these students
so as to cover the syllabus for the Leaving Certificate class. Only one student
appeared in this class and was declared successful. Since this class has out-
lived its usefulness the question of its abolition is under consideration.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES the number of boys on the rolls of the Powar-
khcda Agricultural Middle School, including new entrants at the beginning of
the session, was 95, of whom 20 left during the course of the year. All of them
were drawn from cultivating classes, being sons of either malguzars or cultiva-
tors. The High School Entrance examination having been abolished in the year
under review, the pupils of the VIII class were examined in the school itself.
Sixteen boys appeared, of whom 13 passed. An area of 6-5 acres cultivated
by the boys produced a total income of Ks. 307. The number of boys at the
Betul Agricultural Middle School at the beginning of the session was 63 includ-
ing new entrants of whom five left subsequently. All the boys came from
the Betul district and, with three exceptions, belonged to cultivating classes.
Sixteen boys appeared for the VIII class examination, of whom 14 passed.
An area of 1-80 acres cultivated by the boys fetched an income of Rs. 38-8.
The inclusion of instruction in carpentry and blacksmithy in the curriculum has
been decided upon. The Peace Memorial Agricultural School at Buldana has
been providing a two-year course in agriculture and allied subjects since
1929. During the year 58 boys applied for admission and 19 were admitted,
of whom four subsequently left. Nine boys were promoted and eight out
of nine second-year boys passed the final examination.

In MYSORE the total strength of the Hebbal Agricultural School was 50 as
against 70 in the preceding year. Of these 20 were in the final year class, 20
in the second year and only ten in the first year. Seven old students also joined
the final year class at the end of the year. Twenty-eight scholarships were
granted during the year. Out of 24 students who appeared for the diploma
examination 21 were declared successful. Want of opportunities for employ-
ment after passing has seriously affected the popularity of the Hebbal Agricul-
tural School. The number of applications for admission was 44 in 1935-36,
38 in 1936-37 and only 26 in 1937-38.

The vernacular agricultural school at Ramakrishnapur, Anekal taluka,
developed considerably during the year. The number of students on the rolls
increased to 31. Out of 30 students who sat for the examination 28 were de-
clared successful.

In the Sri Krishnarajendra Vyavasaya Dharma Patasala at Chikkanahalli,
Sira taluka, 18 students were admitted to the school in the year, all of whom
were given a scholarship of Rs. 10 per month.

In TRAVANCORE, the department maintains two agricultural schools, one at
Kottarakara and the other at Koni. The course of studies extends over a period

248 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

of two years and is essentially of a practical nature, and every student is re-
quired to grow his own crops and thoroughly familiarize himself with all field
operations. Periodical excursions are also arranged to the experimental
stations both in Travancore and Cochin states to enable the students to acquaint
themselves with new agricultural developments. Almost every student receives
from the Government a stipend of Rs. 40 per mensem, and facilities are pro-
vided to supplement this income by working as part-time labourers on the
school farms.

In the Kottarakara school there were 17 pupils on the rolls at the beginning
of the year. All of them passed the final examination. A new batch of 22
students was admitted during the year. At the Koni school, of the 31 candi-
dates on the rolls 29 passed the final examination.

In COCHIN the agricultural school attached to the central farm wad not run
during the year on account of lack of sufficient number of students forthcoming.
The three horticultural schools at the central farm, Trichur and Hill Palace
continued to make satisfactory progress during the year. The number of
students on the rolls was 17, 14, and 15 respectively. All of these passed the
final examination. The competition in school gardening and the system of
kgiving prizes to the best gardens were continued. About 20 schools entered
ior the competition,

4. Rural ' bias ' schools

In BOMBAY the number of agricultural bias classes remained unchanged at
93 during the year under report. The committee appointed by the Govern-
ment to report on the vocational training in primary and secondary schools
has suggested a compulsory primary course of agriculture for the first seven
standards for all rural schools, and if this course is to be adopted and developed
on proper lines the Department of Education should have the services of a first-
class agricultural officer trained in agricultural education preferably in U. S. A.
where the agricultural courses in primary schools and high schools are well
developed. Such an officer assisted by a number of agricultural graduates in
different divisions will develop properly the whole system of agricultural educa-
tion in rural schools.

In BENGAL the scheme for opening agricultural classes in the English middle
and English high schools started in 1928 continued to work satisfactorily.
Three teachers from these schools are annually trained in agriculture in the
Dacca secondary school to fill up the vacancies. A necessity for training a
larger number of teachers has been felt. Fifty-eight schools participated in
the scheme including Ushagram Boys' High School and Chapra King Edward
English Middle School. The former has been raised to a high school and main-
tained an agricultural teacher while the latter has followed the scheme with
considerable modification, having two years vocational training instead of con-
tinuation classes. Ramgarh English Middle School has been excluded from
this scheme and transferred to the Education Department. Out of the 58
schools, five schools were without any agricultural teacher during the whole
session and five schools had agricultural teachers only for a short time owing
to scarcity of trained teachers. In 54 schools, 4,055 boys received agricultural
training with an area of 185 acres of land under cultivation. In most of the
schools both rabi and kharif crops were successfully grown. The progress in

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 249

20 schools was highly satisfactory both theoretically and practically. Many
schools under the scheme have been gaining popularity, the number of students
on the roll being on the increase. In some localities the cultivation of English
vegetables and other departmental crops have received a good impetus due
to the efforts of the local school authorities who have taken a keen interest in
the introduction of departmental crops among cultivators. On the whole, the
scheme has been working satisfactorily, the working of the English middle
schools being generally better than that of the English high schools, so far as
agricultural classes are concerned.

The primary schools at Kishoreganj and Burirhat farms, where preliminary
practical and theoretical training in agriculture as well as in general education
to the sons of the local cultivators is given, were continued. In both schools
classes III and IV have been added and the schools are raised to the standard
of upper primary schools. There were two teachers available during the year
and the number of boys is increasing.

Two literate Chakma youths completed their course of one year's practical
training at the Rangamati farm. Some hillside and valley lands were allotted
to them and they carried on farming under the instructions of the District Agri-
cultural Officer.

In the UNITED PROVINCES the Muslim University, Aligarh, includes agricul-
ture in its high school course and has been given on lease the experimental farm
of the Agriculture Department for training boys in practical agriculture, subject
to the right of the Deputy Director of Agriculture to conduct experiments
thereon. The Jat Intermediate College, Lakhauti, which teaches agriculture
up to the intermediate standard supplies a number of applicants annually for
admission to the Agricultural College, Cawnpore, for the B.Sc. degree course.
The Ingraham Institute, Ghaziabad, Mission School, Roorkce, and K. E. M
A. V. High School, Atrauli, continued to devote considerable attention to
vocational training in agriculture. The members of the district agricultural
staff continued to assist the institutes.

In BIHAR departmental officers, particularly in the Bhagalpur Range, took
an active part in earning out propaganda in rural areas in collaboration with
the sub-inspectors of I lie Education Department. Lectures were given in a
large number of schools and demonstrations were carried out in school gardens.
The overseers at Kishanganj and Pakur were particularly active in this respect.
The teachers under training at the Government training schools at Ghurmara
were also given occasional lectures on agriculture.

In the Central Provinces a special course in agriculture was provided at the
middle schools at Itki and Chandur Railway which have small plots for practical
work. Teachers trained in agriculture were provided for by the Education
Department and it is hoped that such training will stimulate interest in manual
work. Similar training was given in Amarwara, Lakhnadon, Chhapara and
Chaurai middle schools in the Southern circle. In the Northern circle training
in practical agriculture was given to classes V and VI of the Middle School,
Piparia, on Silari farm and to classes VII ani VIII of the Fisher Middle
School, Khandwa, on the plot attached to that school.

In TRAVANCOBE the only agricultural bias schools worthy of mention are
the summer schools conducted by the rural demonstration centre at Martan-
dam and the rural school at Ollannoor. The aim of these institutions is to

250 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

infuse into the villagers a desire for better village life, and the students are mostly
adult men and women teachers, farmers and local leaders. The training extends
over a period of two to three months and includes short courses on the scientific
methods of cultivation, the preservation of manure, poultry-raising, bee-keeping
and other cottage industries. Both these schools made good progress during
the year and have proved a great success. The officers of the Agricultural
Department visited these schools from time to time and rendered every possible
help.

5. Short courses

These pertain to all types of subjects of agricultural science and extend from
a few days to a few months. These are becoming very popular.

In MADRAS at the Agricultural College, Coimbatore, short courses on farm
management, horticulture, insect pests and diseases, dairying and malt making,
care of animals, bee-keeping, jaggery making, farm implements, manuring and
crop improvement were conducted during the year. Fourteen, the largest
number of students, were admitted to farm management course.

The short courses in agriculture that were started last year at the agricul-
tural research stations at Nandyal and Taliparamba were continued this year
also. The course lasted for nine months. At Nandyal 10 applications were
received ; six of them were selected but only three completed the course. At
Taliparamba five students were admitted but only three completed the course.

A short course in fruit culture and nursery practices was instituted at the
Fruit Research Station, Kodur, for a period of six months. Seventeen applica-
tions were received of whom seven underwent the course for six months, three
for four months, one for three months and two for two months. In addition,
two agricultural subordinates and one demonstration maistry underwent train-
ing at the station.

A short course of practical training in agriculture was given, as in the previ-
ous year, to educated unemployed young men for a period of four months at
several agricultural stations in the presidency. During the period of training,
the students were given a stipend of Rs. 16 each per mensem. Of the 60
^candidates that were selected for admission, 34 completed the course and the
remaining 26 did not either join the course or left it after joining.

In BOMBAY special courses were, as usual, held at the Agricultural College,
Poona. The number of students attending being 28 as compared with 24 in
the previous year, shgwing thereby the increased demand for specialized training.
Special short instructional courses were arranged for the Assistant and Deputy
Collectors, army rural reconstruction classes, Reservists of Royal Bombay
Sappers and Miners, Cooperative Department training classes and honorary
agricultural agents of Poona district.

A training class for oil-engine mechanics was conducted by the Agricultural
Engineer to the Government. Eighteen students were admitted and given
training in the management and care of oil engines and pumps. Sixteen students
from various districts were truned in poultry-farming at the Government
Central Poultry Farm, Kirkee. Fifteen students attended the practical course
in animal husbandry and dairying at the Agricultural College Dairy, Kirkee.
Thirty students attended the practical training class in horticulture at the
Ganeshkhind Fruit Experimental Station, Kirkee, and, in addition, district

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 251

Classes in horticulture were arranged by the Divisional Deputy Directors with
the help of the Horticulturist where necessary.

In BENGAL several young men of the Bhadralog class are given training every
year in mechanical work in the workshops, maintenance of agricultural
machinery, manufacture of gur and sugar in departmental type of factories,
Irrigation, etc. and then found employment in Government service as demons-
trators or with the public who are in need of skilled men to work their plant.
Many apprentices were given a permanent or temporary employment during
the year.

In the UNITED PROVINCES as a result of the recommendations of the Sapru
Unemployment Committee, a short course of six months was introduced at
the Agricultural College, Cawnpore, to provide training for educated unemployed
youths in the handling of milk and milk products. Each student was given
a stipend of Rs. 25 per mensem. Of the ten students who joined the first batch
in February 1937, six have completed their course. The second batch of 13
began their training in September 1937. A short course on fruit preservation
And canning was arranged in the college by the Fruit Expert and was attended
by 18 students, most of whom were graduates or undergraduates. Training
in sericulture which forms a compulsory subject for students of the
college was made available free of cost for the public. During the year
About 200 persons were supplied with eri and mulberry silkworm eggs.
In pursuance of the recommendations of the Sapru Unemployment Committee,
"20 graduates and diplomates in agriculture were selected for practical
training in agriculture. Half of these were trained at the Fyzabad
Government farm where five students were given individual holdings of ten
acres each and the remaining a single holding of 50 acres to work on a
cooperative basis. The training was continued throughout the year under
report The Allahabad Agricultural Institute has agreed to cooperate with
the Government in a three-month class for the training of rural develop-
ment organizers.

In the PUNJAB a large number of short courses such as vernacular course,
teachers course, training class, lohar class, fruit culture and fruit preservation
courses, estate managers' course, jail warders' course, course for training of
mukaddams in diseases and pests, etc. were given during the year in the Agricul-
tural College, Lyallpur.

In BJHAR five stipendiaries who were recruited in the previous year
and posted to Pusa for practical training continued their work in general agri-
culture and livestock management. In the course of the year three of them
were appointed as Assistant Directors of Agriculture and the other two as Agri-
cultural Inspectors.. At the Patna farm two men received free practical training
in agriculture while 33 students were trained in the preservation and canning
of fruit. One post-graduate student continued his training in the chemical
section of the department.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES in Chhattisgarh agricultural education was
imparted at four selected centres, of which Mah'iadih was the most important
in that the practical training has continued on systematic lines. At other centres
the teaching was mainly theoretical for want of adequate area for growing crops.
The training class in the workshop was attended by seven -candidates of whom
three were found proficient, .

252 AGRICULTURE AND ANI3TAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1037-35

In SIND a scheme for giving practical training to sons of zemindars at the.
Government auxiliary farms has not so far proved very successful and only
few students availed themselves of the facility offered. During the year under
report two short courses extending to a week each were held at the Agricultural
Research Station, Sakrand, for the purpose of giving practical training in crop
estimates to junior civilians, tnukhtiafkars and assistant engineers. The kharif
class was attended by seven officers of the Revenue Department and five
officers of the Public Works Department. The second course was attended
by six officers of the Revenue Department and four officers of the Public Works-
Department. During the year under report a course of training in * Dana-
bandi * was sanctioned by the Government for the village establishment of the
Revenue Department. The object of training these subordinates is to enable
them to estimate yield forecasts of the standing crops with some measure o
accuracy.

In HYDERABAD the Patancheru centre is serving as an institution for train-
ing rural development workers for the Dominions. During the year under
report training in all aspects was given to 35 headmasters of village primary
schools. In all 180 workers have so far been trained, including the propa-
gandists of the cooperative unions and teachers of village schools, some of
whom are doing good work in their villages. Training in making fruit jellies and
pickling was given to 15 persons belonging to the Patancheru village. The
two night schools started by the centre continued to function and 42 villagers
were taught reading and writing and simple arithmetic, besides being given
general information on rural development subjects including agriculture.

There is a considerable demand for trained engine drivers in the state, since
the use of power pumping plants has become more and more common. Two-
classes were held in the year, each of which was of three months duration.
Twenty-five students attended the class during the year under report, of which
17 passed out successfully. This class has turned out 163 engine and pump
drivers since its inception.

There is also a two years' course of practical training in all operations of
growing of fruits, vegetables and flowers. There were nine students on the
roll this year, of which six passed out successfully. This class has supplied 2f>
trained gardeners to various garden owners since its start.

There is a farmers' class, the object of which is to train the sons of cultivators
in modern methods of agriculture. Students are given practical training in
all operations connected with farming on improved lines. The duration of the
course is two years. Arrangements for this training have been made at the
Himayatsagar, Parbhani and Rudrur farms. The total number of boys on-
the roll at all the three farms was 50 of whom 21 passed during the year under
report.

In MYSORE short courses in practical bee-keeing were given in Bangalore,-
Mysore, Hassan and Kadur districts during the year. The classes were
attended not only by local ryots and others interested in bee-keeping but also
by a few agricultural officers .from outside the state.

In BARODA the educational efforts of the rural reconstruction centre*
at Kosamba have been well taken advantage of in the various courses it offered
for training in cottage industries, teachers' place in rural uplift, poultry work
demonstrations and shows. In the horticultural section a mali training class

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 253

was held for -the whole year and periodical short courses were given on fruit
preservation. About eight students attended the former and four the latter.

A three months' course in better farming was also offered from 15 July
to 15 October and was attended by 30 entrants. Similar courses were
-also given at Amreli and Jagudan farms with 17 and 23 students respect-
ively. A special course was also started in cigarette tobacco curing and was
taken advantage of by nine students. The Agricultural Engineer held a
twelve-week course in oil engines, pumps and tractors.

In COCHIN a short course of training in agricultural and horticultural methods
*6 given at the Central farm according to the .prospectus of the agricultural
schools prescribed by the Government.

CHAPTER XIII

THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING
AGRICULTURE*

UNFAVOURABLE agricultural conditions due to inadequate and
untimely rains in most provinces and the continuance of the low level of
prices of agricultural produce and commercial commodities led to a further
deterioration of the movement in most of the provinces in British India and
the Indian states. Only in Bengal the outturn of crops was better than in
the previous year owing to better rainfall, and in Madras there was p slight
rise in the price of paddy. The heavy overdues in Bengal, coupled with the
inability of the central banks to give adequate relief in the form of a subs-
tantial deduction in interest and the absence of effective methods of recovery
of overdues, did not, however, make it possible to effect any improvement,,
while in Madras the slight rise in the price of paddy was more than neutralized
by a substantial fall in the price of commercial crops like areca, cotton, ground-
nuts, coffee, etc. In the Punjab the difficulties were further aggravated by an.
epidemic of plant diseases, while in the North-West Frontier Province the
disturbed conditions of the area containing Dera Ismail Khan and Bannu made-
it difficult to achieve any appreciable progress. The decreased repaying
capacity of the agriculturists was mainly responsible for the low percentage
of recovery and the increase in the extent of overdues. It is believed, how-
ever, that the agriculturist members were in many cases inclined to evade-
payment on the plea that the economic depression was still continuing.
The credit side of the movement maintained its position fairly well in Madras,,
the Punjab and the United Provinces, while deterioration was noticeable ia
most of the other provinces and states, particularly in Orissa, Bihar, the-
Central Provinces and Bengal.

It has been realized by most of the administrations that the existing demand
is far greater than the annual repaying capacity in most cases and that the
percentage of collection to demand, or to the amount of overdues, which must
necessarily increase from year to year, has lost its real significance. The policy
of examining the condition of individual members of societies with a view to-
ascertaining what can be expected to be realized in suitable annual instal-
ments within a reasonable number of years has been adopted by most of the
provinces in one form or another. In Bombay the examination has taken
the form of classifying the debts as frozen, doubtful and bad. The policy of
rectification, which Madras was wise enough to start several years ago in spite
of the comparatively more satisfactory condition of its societies, was com-
pleted in more than 7,000 societies during the year. In the Central Provinces
and Berar the reorganization of societies also made steady progress. The
Bihar scheme of rehabilitation ^involves an enquiry into the assets, liabilities-
and repaying capacity of members and scaling down the dues of individual
members to an amount which they can pay in annual instalments within their

*The assistance oft Mr. N. Baksi, I.C.S., Registrar of Cooperative Societies, Bihar*
in the preparation of this Chapter is gratefully acknowledged.

( 254 )

THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE 233

Repaying capacity over a maximum period of 15 years. The Mudaliar Report
for Orissa has also recommended a preliminary enquiry similar to that in the
Bihar scheme. In Bengal the department initiated an enquiry for the deter-
mination of actual repaying capacity of individual members in village societies
for the purpose of fixing annual instalments and for determining the amount
of bad debts.

Everywhere the general policy of controlled credit and cautious expansion
is being followed. It is being realized more and more that strict scrutiny of
the needs of members and their eligibility to membership in the light of not
only their character but also their repaying capacity should be insisted upon
before a society is registered. The result of this cautious policy has been that
fresh registration is not increasing with as much speed as before. As to the
nature of the loan to be advanced, all the provinces and states have been ad-
vising that fresh finances should be restricted mainly to short-term loans and,
in some cases, to intermediate-term loans, for productive purposes, ard th.it
credit societies should not undertake any long-term business. Most of the
Registrars have issued executive instructions to banks and societies on this
point. In Bombay the model by-laws have been revised so as to restrict the
business of credit societies to short-term and intermediate-term loans for periods
not exceeding five years. The Bihar scheme contemplates statutory rules of
business on similar lines. Long-term business is being recognized more and
more to be the function of another type of institution, namely the land mort-
gage bank. The indication is that there will be more and more clear cut
separation between short-term and long-term business in the future develop-
ment of cooperative banking.

The central cooperative banks throughout British India and the states con-
tinued to be adversely affected by the unsatisfactory condition of the credit
societies. With the development of marketing societies, requiring advances
for various periods, the necessity of a provincial cooperative bank to work as
a balancing centre has been recognized in the United Provinces, and the
Government have sanctioned the establishment of a provincial bank.

The necessity for land mortgage banks for taking over long-term business
is being felt throughout India. The land mortgage banks maintained their
progress in Madras and the Government of Madras increased the maximum of
their guarantee in respect of debentures from Rs. 125 lakhs to Rs. 200 lakhs.
The primary land mortgage banks in the Punjab, Bombay, Bengal, Assam
and the Central Provinces continued to be financed by the provincial coopera-
tive banks in the absence of any central land mortgage bank. The work of
the land mortgage banks in the Punjab and Assam was not satisfactory. The
question of re-organization of the land mortgage banks is engaging the atten-
tion of the Governments of these two provinces. The primary land mortgage
banks in Bombay and Bengal made fairly good progress. In Bengal measures
were adopted to coordinate the working of debt settlement boards and land
mortgage banks by establishing special debt settlement boards for tne par-
pose in places where land mortgage banks have been established. In Bihar,
on due consideration of the report of the Special Officer, who had been deputed
to study the land mortgage banks in other provinces, it has been decided to
take up the question of opening land mortgage banks ufter the rehabilitation
of the credit side of the movement. A central land mortgage bank is proposed

256 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

to be established in the Central Provinces and Berar when the business of the
primary land mortgage banks exceeds Rs. 15 lakhs.

A contrast to the depressing character of the reports regarding the credit
side of the movement is provided by the satisfactory expansion of non-credit
activities, particularly in British India. The outstanding types of non-credit
agricultural societies are production and sale societies, marketing societies and
rural welfare societies. The loan and sale societies of Madras made a remark-
able progress and the Government inaugurated a scheme for advancing loans
for the construction of combined godowns, village halls and reading rooms, the
Government paying 25 per cent of the estimated cost as a subsidy. The Salem
district has been selected for the experiment, and it is proposed that the
godowns at the district headquarters will serve as centres for sale and those at
taluka headquarters for storage of produce. The cotton and ginning societies
of Bombay, the milk unions of Madras and Calcutta, the societies for the
consolidation of holdings, particularly in the Punjab and the United
Provinces, extended their activities, and a scheme for the consolidation of
holdings was introduced in Madras after the return of the Registrar from a
study tour in the Punjab. Of the marketing societies, the cane-growers'
cooperative societies in the United Provinces and in Bihar, particularly in
the former, deserve special mention. The ghee societies in the United
Provinces and the central paddy sale society of Bengal also achieved
considerable success. The Egg Grading and Sale Association of the North-
West Frontier Province continued to maintain its unique position in India.
Development of rural reconstruction societies was most marked in Bengal.

Considerable attention was paid to cooperative training and education
during the year. Schemes for training the departmental and the bank staff
as well as panches and members of societies in British India were financed out
of the Government of India grant, as in the previous year. The Punjab main-
tained its lead in the systematic training of cooperative workers, both stipen-
diary and honorary. Madras proposes to enlarge the Central Cooperative
Institute into a college of cooperation for a better and higher standard of
training and to have the college affiliated to the University of Madras, which
will confer a degree in cooperation to the qualifying candidates. A training
institute with an ex-Registrar as the officer -in-charge has been started in
Bengal. In Bihar the training institute has been reorganized on a residen-
tial basis and the syllabus has been revised so as to give a comprehensive train-
ing, both theoretical and practical, not only in the usual subjects but also in
rural economics, economic geography, social psychology, first-aid bandaging,
public speaking, survey and settlement work, vegetable gardening, riding and
cycling. An interesting feature of the Bihar scheme is the provision for inviting
eminent cooperators from all parts of India as part-time honorary lecturers.
Everywhere, it is being realized more and more that cooperation is a technical
subject and that in the administration of cooperative institutions, good inten-
tions are not enough but should be supplemented by a comprehensive theoretical
and practical training in all subjects, allied to cooperation. It is obvious that the
cost of maintaining a sufficiently large permanent staff capable of teaching
all the subjects in an institute with a limited number of students will be pro-
hibitive and that tin only possible course is to maintain the minimum per-
manent staff and to arrange for securing the deputation, for short periods, of

THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE 257

experts in different subjects. There are obvious difficulties in the maintenance
of such an institute by one province alone and the indication is that it may be
to the best advantage of the movement throughout India to establish an all*
India college of cooperation, where experienced officers and professors with
special knowledge of subjects connected with cooperation may be deputed for
short periods. There should be no difficulty in reserving a certain number of
seats in the college for candidates from the different administrations contribu-
ting towards the cost of maintenance of the college. In view of the keen
interest the Government of India are taking in promoting cooperative educa-
tion, there should also be no difficulty in obtaining adequate financial support
from the central Government for such a college. Apart from imparting train-
ing with the assistance of the best available brains in the country, a college of
this kind would also be able to render invaluable assistance in guiding coopera-
tive research and in evolving comparable methods of procedure in the solu-
tion of various problems like disposal of lands, rehabilitation enquiries, etc.
which are engaging the attention of the different administrations.

Some detailed figures are given below regarding the movement in the-
different provinces and states.

MADRAS. The south-west monsoon was generally defective while the
north-west monsoon was bordering on or about normal in some of the dis-
tricts. The slight rise in the price of paddy was coupled with a fall in the
price of commercial crops with the result that there was no marked improve-
ment on the whole in the economic condition of the ryots.

The total number of all types of agricultural societies at the end of the
year was 11,184 as against 11,110 at the end of the previous year. Out of the
total number of societies, 101 were land mortgage banks, 10,520 ordinary
credit societies, 135 purchase and sale societies, 45 production and sale societies
and 383 were other types of societies. The passing of the Madras Agricul-
turists' Relief Act, 1938, contributed to a great extent to the increased demand
for the organization of new societies. Besides the toddy tappers, having been
thrown out of employment on account of the introduction of prohibition, were
brought in the cooperative fold and a few societies for the manufacture of
jaggery out of coconut and palmyra juice were organized. The societies ad-
vanced loans to the members to the extent of Rs. 211-94 lakhs as against
Rs. 162*90 lakhs in the previous year. There was an appreciable increase in
the volume of loan transactions with the members of societies which was
largely accounted for by the increase in the volume of trade of sale societies.
Of the total loan advanced during the year, 25 per cent was for cultivation ex-
penses and nearly 11 per cent was for urban business. The advice given by
the Registrar to the primary societies to refrain, as far as practicable, from
advancing loans for long periods was readily followed and the loans for long
terms were advanced by the land mortgage banks.

The policy of rectification started in the previous years was continued
during the year. Examination of 7,105 societies was completed during the
year. The total amount of loans including interest, involved in these socie-
ties, was Rs. 303 lakhs out of which about Rs. 40 lakhs was estimated to be
bad debts. As the central banks concerned hold strong reserves, it is ex-
pected that they will be in a position to meet the losses ty setting off bad debts
against a portion of their reserves and that the creditors will not have to bear

258 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

any part of the loss. The amount of overdues on the 30th of June 1937 was
about Rs. 178 lakhs, the demand for 1937-38 being about Rs. 128 lakhs. Out
of the total demand of about Rs. 306 lakhs from members of agricultural
societies, the total of extension and collection was about Rs. 136 lakhs, the
balance being about Rs. 170 lakhs. The percentage of balance to demand
under principal in agricultural societies was 5545 as against 58*76 in the
previous year.

Two hundred and thirty-five societies were liquidated during the year,
while the committees of 12 societies were superseded. At the beginning
of the year, 1,236 societies were under the management of agents appointed
under by-law 62. The assets to.be collected in these societies amounted to
about Rs. 73 lakhs. In the opinion of the Registrar, the existence of such a
large number of societies under the management of agents is an altogether
unsatisfactory feature of the movement and in the cases where the agents
have either substantially reduced the overdues or have improved the condi-
tion of the societies, the normal constitution of the societies should be restored
as early as possible.

There were 118 loan and sale societies at the end of the year as agaiiist
111 at the beginning of the year. The societies advanced loans to members
to the extent of Rs. 62*12 lakhs as against Rs. 26-16 lakhs during the previous
year. During the year 13 sale societies wore sanctioned. Government ad-
vanced loans amounting to Rs. 1,32,276 and made a free grant of Rs. 43,144
for the construction of godowns. Government have so far sanctioned loans
to 20 sale societies for the construction of godowns. The free grant of 25 per
cent of the estimated cost of the godowns put up by sale societies is met out
of the Government of India grant for rural reconstruction. Government were
pleased to extend the concession to selected credit societies which intend put-
ting up combined godowns, village halls and reading rooms. About 13 societies
have availed themselves of this concession and the free grant sanctioned to these
societies amounted to Rs. 7,100. These societies are in a position to
meet the balance of 75 per cent of the cost of the godowns from their general
funds. The godowns which will be put up in Salem district will serve as auxi-
liary to those constructed by the sale societies in the taluka headquarters, the
idea being to cover the entire district with godowns at important taluka centres
with auxiliaries in the villages. The main godowns will be centres for. sale
while the auxiliaries will provide facilities for storage of produce. The success
of the new scheme will be watched with interest.

The main function of the loan and sale societies is to market the produce
of members but the societies have not yet developed this side of the business
to any large extent. With a view to helping sale societies to market their
goods, the Madras Provincial Marketing Society was started in 1936. The
value of the goods marketed and the net profit earned by this society were
Rs. 93,224 and Rs. 2,317 as against Rs. 8,979 and Rs. 196 respectively in the
previous year. Fruits and vegetables, including potatoes, were the chief
articles sold, their value being Rs. 55,119. Other important commodities
marketed were ghee, butter, hand-pounded and milled rice, tamarind, jaggery,
eggs and honey. One factor, which stands in the way of the greater progress
of the provincial societv is the irregular supply of commodities of certain quan-
tity and quality by the mofussil societies. The result is that the provincial

THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE 259

society is not in a position to guarantee the regular supply of articles to the
consumers.

There were four milk supply unions at Madras, Coimbatore, Madura and
Nellore. Only the union at Madras appears to have achieved any su cross so
far. It purchased 531,872 measures of milk for Rs. 1,63,941 about half of
which was sold to the state hospitals in the city, the unsold milk being con-
verted into milk products sold for Rs. 14,179. The union had 44 depots in
the city for sale of milk. It earned a profit of Rs. 14,492 of which Rs. ] 0,930
has been set apart towards the Pasteurization plant and building fund.

The organization of societies for consolidation of holdings was taken up
by thft Registrar after his visit to the Punjab. In his opinion there is no reason
why the scheme should not succeed in Madras as it had succeeded in the Punjab,
both the provinces having an overwhelming population of peasant proprietors,
who are considerably handicapped by the cumulative evils of fragmentation of
holdings. Five societies were registered during the year. Wi$h a view to
encouraging the formation of societies of this type the Government of Madras
have allowed the Government of India grant for rural reconstruction to be
utilized for meeting the cost of consolidation of holdings, as in the Punjab.

The number of sugarcane societies and unions at the end of the year was
15. The scheme for promoting the organization and operation of cooperative
societies among sugarcane growers so as to help them in securing fair prices
was approved by the Government of India and the scheme was put into opera-
tion during the year. According to the scheme, the grant of a cash subsidy
to the societies and unions for the purchase of seed, manure, implements, etc.
is given. The amount spent over implements will not be recovered from
societies, but the amounts advanced for the purchase of seed, manure, etc.
will be recovered after the harvest. The amount thus recovered at the end
of the fourth year is proposed to be spent in giving premia during the fifth
year to the members, who grow the best variety of cane and those whose yield
per acre is the greatest. It may be of interest to mention that according to
the orders of the Government of Madras, the Registrar of Cooperative Societies,
the Director of Agriculture and the Director of Industries are to meet quar-
terly, and if necessary oftener, for discussing matters connected with the
schemes. This is certainly a move in the right direction for ensuring coordina-
tion between the different development departments.

Mention may be made of the South India Cooperative Insurance Society,
Madras, which is one of the few cooperative insurance societies successfully
working in India. Out of 2,866 proposals for about Rs. 25 lakhs received,
2,792 proposals for about 24-2 lakhs were accepted during the year. The
total life assurance business on the 30th of June 1938 amounted to Rs. 64-41 lakhs
in respect of 7,630 policies as against Rs. 44-66 lakhs relating to 5,354 policies
at the end of the previous year. The society collected premia to the extent
of Rs. 2-26 lakhs as against Rs. 1*59 lakhs in the previous year and had a
statutory deposit with the Controller of Currency to the extent of Rs. 2 lakhs.
The number of central banks remained the same as in the previous year,
Viz. 31. The central banks showed an appreciable improvement in their collec-
tion. From societies, the overdue at the beginning of the year was about
Rs. 118 lakhs and the demand for the year was about Rs. 110 lakhs. Out of
the total demand of about Rs. 228 lakhs, the total of extension and collection

260 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

amounted to about Rs. 114 lakhs out of which Rs. 108 lakhs represented collec-
tion. The percentage of balance to demand under principal was 50-20 as
against 51-15 in the previous year. The rise in the arrears in interest and the
fall in the amount of principal overdue are partly due to the fact that in the
case of bad societies the central banks have been crediting the collections to-
wards principal first instead of interest, as advised by the Registrar, and partly
also due to the fact that the arrears are due from societies, which are on the
verge of liquidation. The central banks were advised to develop more of
short-term business, the suggestion being that 75 per cent of the borrowing
capacity may be set apart for short-term loans. The ratio of short-term to
long-term loans issued was 1 : 047 as against 1 : 0-82 in the previous t year.
With a view to implementing the Agriculturists' Relief Act and thereby justi-
fying the exemption given to cooperative societies from the operation of the
act, the Registrar advised that the lending rate on new loans to societies should
be reduced to 5 per cent, and in any case, should not exceed 5| per cent and
that the rate of interest on outstanding loans should not exceed 6 per cent.
The response from most of the central banks was generally satisfactory, and
as many as 18 banks brought down their lending rates to 5 or 5i per cent.

The Madras Provincial Cooperative Bank continued to make steady and
satisfactory progress during the year. The deposits from individuals fell
from Rs. 57 to Rs. 56 lakhs and the deposits of societies also from Rs. 79 to
Rs. 62 lakhs. Loans to the extent of Rs. 32-79 lakhs were issued during the
year as against Rs. 9-23 lakhs in the previous year. The loans outstanding
against the central banks at the end of the year amounted to Rs. 28-78 lakhs
of which as much as Rs. 25-86 lakhs were under short-term. Only one bank
defaulted in its payment. The net profit during the year was Rs. 2-93 lakhs
as against Rs. 1-98 lakhs in the previous year.

The central land mortgage bank continued to progress on sound lines.
The debentures of the bank were quoted at a premium in the market and en-
joyed the confidence of the investing public. On due consideration of the
suggestion of the Reserve Bank that the bank may create a sinking fund for
the repayment of debentures on maturity, the Government accepted the sugges-
tion of the president of the bank to create a debenture redemption fund to
which annual equated payment is to be made so as to provide sufficient funds
to pay off the debentures at maturity. During the year, Government further
increased the maximum of their guarantee in respect of debentures from
TU. 125 lakhs to Rs. 200 lakhs. The number of primary land mortgage banks
rose from 93 to 101. The land mortgage banks cover 12,816 villages and
loans have been issued in 3,440 villages. The total amount of loans issued
by these banks up to the 30th of June 1938 was Rs. 175-83 lakhs as against
141-24 lakhs in the preceding year. The percentages of arrears under
principal and interest at the end of the year were 16-16 and 2-44 as against
14-15 and 3-85 in the previous year.

The Central Cooperative Institute arranged three training classes, one in
non-credit activities for the departmental inspectors and office bearers and
employees of non-credit societies, one for the Cooperative Sub-Registrars and
non-officials in the duties of secretaries and managers of central and urban
banks and the third for a number of candidates 'who had been selected by the
Madras Public Service Commission for appointment as junior inspectors of

THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE 261

cooperative societies. Seventeen candidates deputed from the Indian states,
Coorg and Ceylon were also trained. One special feature in the working of
the Central Cooperative Institute during the year under review was the institu-
tion of the Government Central Cooperative Institute examination, which has
now replaced the Government technical examination so far prescribed for
the subordinates of the Cooperative Department as a requisite qualification.
There is a proposal to enlarge the existing Central Cooperative Institute into-
a college of cooperation where training of a better and higher standard can
be given in cooperative banking, auditing, book-keeping and rural economics,
during a course of two years. It is further proposed that the college should
be affiliated to the University of Madras, which will confer a degree in coopera-
tion tcv the candidates.

BOMBAY. The failure of the rains in some of the districts and excessive
rains in others coupled with the continuance of low prices rendered the out-
look very depressing to agriculturists. Land revenue was suspended in
many places and it was too much to hope that the cooperative movement
would show any appreciable upward progress. Government appointed
Mr. Vaikunth Lai Mehta, Managing Director of the Provincial Cooperative
Bank and Mr. M. D. Bhaiisali, I.C.S., Registrar of Cooperative Societies, to
examine and report on the present position of the cooperative movement with
special reference to the proper method of dealing with frozen assets, coopera-
tive education, audit, finance and development of non-credit cooperation.

The total number of societies, excluding central banks, was 5,066 as against
5,055 in the previous year, the number of members being 593,365 as against
571,559 in the previous year. The number of agricultural societies was 4,017
with 2*64: lakhs of members as against 4,035 with 2-71 lakhs of members in the
previous year. Of these the number of agricultural credit societies was 3,702
as against 3,718 in the previous year, the number of members being 1*96 lakhs-
as against 1-98 lakhs. Twelve new credit societies were registered while 28
were cancelled, there being a net decrease of 16 societies. The small number
of fresh societies is due to the policy of subjecting all proposals for registration,
to a very careful scrutiny. In spite of the fall in the number of credit societies^
their working capital increased from Es. 294-67 lakhs to Rs. 298-13 lakhs.
Advances during the year amounted to Rs. 68-65 lakhs mainly for short-term
purposes, while recoveries amounted to Rs. 65-57 lakhs and extensions ta
Rs. 22-27 lakhs, the amount of overdues being Rs. 144-31 lakhs. The percent-
age of unauthorized arrears rose from 52 to 63. The policy of examining the
nature of overdues and of classifying them according to security or repaying
capacity of debtors into good, bad and doubtful debts, started in the previous
year, was continued. These investigations were completed in 3,392 societies
out of the total number of 3,702 societies. Out of a total loan of Rs. 240-58
lakhs in these societies, the frozen assets, doubtful debts and bad debts
amounted to Rs. 58-93 lakhs, Rs. 19-76 lakhs and Rs. 11-91 lakhs respectively r
the total of frozen, doubtful and bad debts being Rs. 90-61 lakhs. Under the
process of rehabilitation liberal remissions of '* interest were allowed after ex-
amination of each individual case, and in the case of doubtful debts all recoveries
were credited to principal and accrued interest was shown in suspense account
and recovered later if and when possible. Societies were advised to enter into
hire purchase bonds with members if adequate assets and repaying capacity

262 AGRICrLTt'RE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

existed for the purpose. The total losses written off during the year amounted
to Rs. 55-591 lakhs. With the expansion of the Small-Holders Relief Act to
the agriculturist members of cooperative societies during the year, the debtor
members are entitled to stay of proceedings for the sale of land on payment
to the society of one year's interest on the amount for the recovery of which
the land is sought to be sold. These concessions were availed of by 90,047
members in 1,684 societies, the total amount of rebate granted being Rs. 1-57
lakhs. According to the revised constitution, the lending business is restricted
to short-term loans and intermediate- term loans for periods not exceeding
five years and members are also required to sell their produce through a coopera-
tive marketing agency whenever available. There are also provisions for com-
pulsory deposits at harvest times. In pursuance of the recommendations of
the Joint Report, a multi-purpose society at Gorhe has been organized.

Most of the agricultural non-credit societies continued to make steady pro-
gress in spite of unfavourable conditions. The number of cotton sale societies
increased by one bringing the total to 29. The quantity of cotton sold and the
price realized were 548 lakh maunds and Rs. 37-83 lakhs as against 6-18 lakh
maunds and Rs. 43-84 lakhs respectively in the previous year. The Purushottam
Cooperative Ginning Society installed 18 additional gins, worked by electricity
and ginned 86,987 maunds of cotton and earned Rs. 23,278 as ginning charges
and Rs. 9,772 as profits. The number of fencing societies also increased by
one bringing the total to 16, the length offence or wall and the area protected
being 77,249 yards and 19,663 acres respectively. The number of crop protec-
tion societies showed an increase from 20 to 23, the total profit being about
Rs. 2,000. They have invested small amounts in guns, spray pumps, nets
and other articles for the protection of members' crops. Two new taluka
development associations were registered during the year, the total number
increasing to 105 and the total membership to 30,641. The aim of these asso-
ciations is to encourage better farming and to improve the breed of cattle and
poultry and to do rural uplift work generally. Their income is derived from
subscriptions from members and societies, donations from local bodies and
grants from Government. The amount of Government grant received was
Rs. 39,611 as against Rs. 48,520 in the previous year and the total of contribu-
tions from individuals, societies and donations received was Rs. 51,615 as
against Rs. 59,667 in the previous year.

The Nasik District Central Cooperative Bank, Ltd., was liquidated during
the year, reducing the number of central banks from 13 to 12. The Registrar
ascribes the failure of this bank to frequent frost and failure of rains since
1930 and states that the failure of this bank had no repercussions on the work-
ing of other central cooperative banks in the province. The working capital
of the 12 central cooperative banks decreased from Rs. 306-52 lakhs to Rs. 295-38
lakhs, but the paid-up share capital, reserves and other funds recorded
a satisfactory increase. Notwithstanding the reduction in deposits,
mainly owing to the liquidation of the Nasik Bank, most of the central banks
continued to have a plethora of surplus funds. The percentage of unauthorized
arrears of societies showed a slight drop from 33 to 32-9.

The Bombay Provincial Cooperative Bank had another year of successful
working. Its working capital declined from Rs. 231-88 lakhs to Rs. 212*20
lakhs as a result of withdrawals of savings deposits by school boards and local

THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE 263

boards and reduction of deposits from cooperative societies. Rs. 26*36 lakhs
^were advanced for short-term and intermediate-term purposes and repayments
amounted to Rs. 26-13 lakhs as against Rs. 26-80 lakhs in the previous year.
The percentage of arrears rose from 18-5 to 23. In spite of an increase in the
percentage of arrears, the sound financial position of the banks is apparent
from the fact that out of the working capital of about Rs. 212 lakhs as much
as Rs. 43 lakhs represent non-withdrawable long-term capital.

The paid-up share capital of the Provincial Land Mortgage Bank rose from
Rs. 3-74 lakhs to Rs. 3-94 lakhs during the year. The loans sanctioned in
526 cases amounted to Rs. 7-33 lakhs the total amount of loans up to the 30th
of June 1938 being 13-04 lakhs. The first series of debentures for Rs. 20 lakhs,
the principal and interest of which Government had agreed to guarantee in
the previous year, was issued at 3J per cent. Cooperative banks subscribed
to the extent ofRs. 3-81 lakhs while Rs. 12-75 lakhs were subscribed by
private banks and individuals, during the period the debentures were kept
open for subscription by the public. The work of transfer of assets and
liabilities of the land mortgage department of the Provincial Cooperative
Bank to the Provincial Land Mortgage Bank was in progress during the year.

The number of primary land mortgage banks continued to be 13 as in the
previous year, but there was a steady increase in their business. The total
share capital increased from about Rs. 2 lakhs to Rs. 2-27 lakhs and the number
of members from 6,562 to 7,654. Loans advanced amounted practically to
double the amount advanced in the previous year and stood at Rs. 13-60 lakhs
exclusive of the loans advanced previously by the provincial cooperative banks
to the three old primary land mortgage banks at Dharwar, Pachora and Broach.
Rupees 0-46 lakhs in principal and Rs. 0-61 lakhs in interest were recovered
during the year, leaving a balance of Rs. 0-70 lakhs, the amount overdue from
members in all the banks being Rs. 0-61 lakhs including interest. Only seven
of the banks showed some profit at the close of the year. All the new land
mortgage banks registered in 1935 received a subsidy of Rs. 500 for the third
year in succession towards the cost of the land valuation officers lent by
the Cooperative Department.

Three training classes of four months' duration for the departmental staff
and the employees of the central banks and unions, three classes of one month's
duration for managers and secretaries of urban banks, one class for 15 days
for honorary organizers and one class for three weeks for land valuation officers
-were organized under the cooperative training scheme. The scheme provides
for tutorials in which discussions on the subjects taught take place and also
for a weekly test. The teaching staff consisted of two Inspectors and one
Assistant Inspector and continued to be in charge of an Assistant Registrar.

BENGAL. In spite of more favourable weather conditions and outturn of
crops than in the previous year, there was no marked improvement in the
collection of the dues of cooperative societies during the year. The huge accu-
mulation of arrears had induced the feeling of despair among the members
Tvho, too, readily excused themselves from pacing in the belief that the econo-
mic depression was still continuing. The inability of the central banks to
reduce their rate of interest on loans adequately and the absence of any sum-
mary power of recovery also contributed to the poor collection. The policy
of restricting new loans to short-term productive purposes was continued.

264 AGRICULTURE ANB ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937.3&

The number of agricultural credit societies increased from 19,790 to I9,928 r
their membership from 4-47 lakhs to 4-48 lakhs, and the working capital from
Rs. 5-91 crores to Rs. 5-94 crores. The owned resources amounted to Ks. 251 -2S
lakhs or 42-51 per cent as against 43-8 per cent in the previous year. Loans
issued to members increased from 23-30 lakhs to Rs. 23*79 lakhs, and repay*
ment also showed a slight increase from Rs. 30-48 lakhs to Rs. 31-02 lakhs,
Overdues at the end of the year amounted to Rs. 326-68 lakhs or 80-8 per cent?
as against Rs. 345*81 lakhs or 86-6 per cent in the previous year. As no effec-
tive arrangement for realization of overdues was possible without fhe deter-
mination of the actual repaying capacity of individual members in village-
societies, the department initiated an enquiry in this direction. As it waff
not possible for the central bank to engage the supervising staff exclusively
for this enquiry work, the department also gave some assistance in the en-
quiry. It was suggested to the central banks that on completion of the enquiry r
the overdues of a society and all its individual members should be scaled down
to what they can pay in a number of annual instalments within their repaying
capacity. The remission granted should be set off against the owned resources-
in the first instance. A draft revised bill for amendment of the Cooperative
Societies Act, 1912, incorporated the special provisions for land mortgage
banks and for recovery of cooperative dues by summary methods was under
the consideration of Government? during the year.

Unlike the credit societies many of the agricultural non-credit societies*
made considerable progress during the year. The number of purchase and
purchase sale societies decreased from 73 to 67, their membership and work-
ing capital decreasing from 13,510 to 13,297 and Rs. 7-80 lakhs- to Rs. 7-52"
lakhs respectively. The central paddy sale society at Calcutta handled 1*47
lakh maunds of paddy and rice as against only -57 lakh maunda in the pre-
vious year, and earned a profit of Rs. 3,016 as against a loss of Rs. 3,189 in
the previous year. This society also marketed gur amounting to 3,132 maunds-
belonging to the members. The Gosava Jamini rice mills handled 96,439
maunds of paddy as against 50,163 maunds in the previous year and earned
a profit of Rs, 2,204 as against Rs. 1,340. The fall in the amount of profit,
in spite of increase in the amount of paddy handled, is due to the fact that
the society had to sell old stock at market rate which was below the cost price
due to the competition of Rangoon rice in the Calcutta market. The number
of irrigation societies increased from 957 with 21,869 members to 975 with
22,091 members, the total irrigable area increasing from 141,008 bighas to
143,778 bigJias. The utility of most of the societies- in the Burdwan district?
ceased owing to the opening of the Damodar and Eden irrigation canals by
the Irrigation Department. Of the six stream schemes in the district of
Birbhum the Dadpur Dowki Jalsarbaraha Samiti served 10,000 bighas of land
in 23 villages and extended its area of operation during the year. The Calcutta
Milk Societies Union sold 37,612 maunds of milk for Rs. 3-22 lakhs as against
35,293 maunds for Rs. 3-04 lakhs in the previous year, the daily average milk
handled being 103 maunds as against 97 maunds in the previous year. The
net profit earned by the union rose from Rs. 117 to Rs. 27,488 during the year,
mainly as a result of reduction of cost of management 1 amounting to Rs. 11,000 /
by judicious retrenchment and ^organization of staff. The number of milk
societies remained at 243, and of these the primary societies affiliated, to the-

THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE 265

^Calcutta Milk Societies Union supplied milk valued at Rs. 1-82 lakhs and
earned a profit of Ks. 5,247. The rural reconstruction societies showed a re-
markable increase in their number from 27 to 512, the number of members
increasing from 932 to 8,816. The programme of these societies includes
improvement of the economic -condition of members by adoption of subsidiary
occupations such as vegetable gardening, poultry farming and handloom weav-
ing, spread of primary and vocational education, and improvement of sanita-
tion and communications. These societies were responsible for opening 17
new roads covering 24 miles and five canals covering eight miles and for ex-
cavation of six tanks by organized voluntary labour. The outstanding achieve-
ment of these societies was the excavation of the Nilokhi Khal in the Dacca
-district which has led to the reclamation of 5,000 bighas of inundated lands.

The number of central banks stood at 118, while their total working capital
decreased from Rs. 518'11 lakhs to 515-89 lakhs. The share capital and the
Teserves showed appreciable increase in spite of unfavourable conditions, the
total owned capital being 224 per cent of the working capital as against 20*9
per cent in the previous year. Deposits from individuals and other sources
dropped from Rs. 278-80 lakhs to Ks. 268-99 lakhs, while loans from provincial
and other banks increased from Rs. 121-83 lakhs to Rs. 122-15 lakhs. The
loans issued by the banks to societies amounted to Rs. 93-08 lakhs as against
Rs. 88-24 lakhs in the previous year, the recoveries falling from Rs. 102-23
lakhs to Rs.'98-39 kkhs. The total profits Tose from Rs. 9*02 lakhs to Rs. 9-86
lakhs. The percentage of recovery of principal was 26-9 as against 27-2 in
the previous year, the percentage of collection being 71-4 as against 70-9 in
the previous year. The average borrowing rate of central banks was reduced
from eight to five per cent while the lending rates ranged between 9| and
10 per cent, the interest charged by societies to members being 10-JJ- per
cent.

The working capital of the Bengal Provincial Cooperative Bank, Limited,
rose from'Rs. 233-21 lakhs to Rs. 233-31 lakhs, but there was a drop in its
paid-up share capital from Rs. 16-70 lakhs to Rs. 16-66 lakhs. The reserve
fund, however, increased from 5 lakhs to Rs. 5-50 lakhs. Deposits from mem-
bers and others decreased from Rs. 195-95 lakhs to Rs. 192-52 lakhs. Recovery
of loans amounted to only Rs. 18-49 lakhs during the year. The net profits
amounted to Rs. 81 lakhs which will enable the bank to make up a portion
of the deficits of the previous years. The most important event of the year
was the decision taken by Government to make a subsidy of Rs. 24 lakhs at
the rate of Rs. 2 lakhs a year to the provincial bank so as to enable it to make
good the loss due to the failure of the jute sale and supply societies and to
build up a reserve with a view to reduction of interest rates charged to central
banks and primary societies. The first instalment of Rs. 2 lakhs was paid
during the year. Apart from this subsidy, the bank will be audited free of
charge for a period of three years.

The number of land mortgage banks continued to be five but their working
capital rose from Rs. 2-02 lakhs to Rs. 3-48 lakha, the membership increasing
from 1,087 to 1,564. The total amount of loans outstanding from members
at the close of the year was Rs. 3- 73 lakhs as against Rs. 2- 08 lakhs in the pre-
vious year. Out of a total demand of Rs. 16,629 as principal and Rs. 20,478
as interest, recoveries amounted to Rs. 20,135 and Rs. 20,860 respectively

266 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

some members having repaid their loans in excess of instalments due. The
total amount of overdues at the close of the year was Rs. 2,437 as against
Rs. 708 in the previous year, the overdues being mostly due to circumstances
over which the members had no control. The dues of the Bengal Provincial 1
Cooperative Bank were regularly paid except in the case of two banks. Out
of Rs. 5-2 lakhs sanctioned during the year, Rs. 3-9,9 lakhs was actually ad-
vanced. The lo%ns represented about 33 per cent of the value of the pro-
perty mortgaged and is considered by the Registrar to be well within the margin
of safety. The period of repayment has been fixed with reference to the re-
paying capacity of each member and varies from 5 to years. Measures have
since been adopted to coordinate the working of debt settlement boards with
that of land mortgage banks by establishing special debt settlement boards
for the purpose in places where land mortgage banks have been established.
In the absence of effective measures for speedy recovery of the dues of land
mortgage banks, it was not possible to float debentures on the mortgages ob-
tained by them. Since the close of the year an amendment of the Bengal
Public Demands Recovery Act has been passed by the legislature authorizing
the use of certificate procedure for recovery of the dues.

A cooperative training institute, maintained out of the Government of
India grant, was opened at Dum Dum, Calcutta, in April 1937 and 47 depart-
mental officers, mostly Inspectors, were placed under training. The teaching
staff consists of six Inspectors, who had been specially trained at the Gurdas-
pur Training Institute in the Punjab, the Officer-in-charge being an ex-Regis-
trar of Cooperative Societies. It is proposed to train all the departmental
Inspectors as well as Supervisors and members of central banks and primary
societies.

UNITED PROVINCES. The policy of expansion of the non-credit side of
the movement, particularly of marketing and of better-living societies, was
continued with considerable success.

The number of societies, excluding 72 central banks, was 9,063 with
368,842 members as against 8,316 with 278,622 members on the 30th of June
1937. The number of agricultural primary societies rose from 7,788 to 8,439,.
the number of members rising from 2-09 lakhs to 2-72 lakhs. Out of a
working capital of Rs. 119-14 lakhs, the owned capital in the agricultural
primary societies was Rs. 66-56 lakhs. The number of primary land mortgage
societies remained unchanged at five but their membership rose from 456 ta
556 and advances, mostly for redemption of previous debts, rose by about
Rs. 15,000 to Rs. 42,000. The borrowing rate of these land mortgage societies
was 4| per cent and the lending rate 7^ per cent. The total of advances made
by all the primary credit societies rose from Rs. 32-24 to Rs. 36-89 lakhs and
repayments increased from Rs. 30-0 to Rs. 32-28 lakhs, the rise in the per-
centage of recoveries being 45-0 to 46-7. The overdues came down to 46-8-
per cent as against 49-9 per cent in the previous year. Collections were
credited to principal in a number of cases and overdues in respect of interest
rose from 17-17 to 17-70 lakhs.

On the non-credit side, the outstanding achievement was of the cane supply
societies and the ghee societies, particularly of the former. There were two
kinds of cane marketing cooperative societies, namely (1) those formed in the
gate areas of the 27 sugar factories which have joined the cane development

THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE 267

scheme and (2) those organized by the Cooperative Department for whol
districts or sub -divisions. The object of cooperative marketing of sugarcane
is to arrange proper regulation of supplies, to ensure correct weight and price
and, above all, to organize growers so that they may learn to adopt better
agricultural practices with the sanction of the group behind them, and to
arrange for the cheap supply of credit, improved implements, manure and
seeds. While the ultimate object of both the types of societies is the same,
in areas under the cane development scheme, special attention was given to
the improvement of ' cane cultivation. According to the cane development
scheme, whicji was initialed towards the end of 1935, Government offered to
develop the cane in the gate areas of the factories, which were willing to pay
an annual contribution of Rs. 3,000 a year and to purchase cane through the
cooperative society on commission. Each zone has a staff of one Assistant Cane
Development Officer, three Supervisors and nine kaindars, who are expected
to develop an area yielding 2,000 2,400 acres of cane annually, the staff being
paid by the Government out of the Government of India grant from the sugar
excise fund. In the first year in every zone, a small area, usually 200 acres,
is put under new varieties of cane and a full area of 200,000 acres is developed
in the third year of working. During the year, about 19 lakh maunds of seed
of new varieties, 80,000 maunds of various fertilizer mixtures and 4,000 im-
proved implements were distributed in the areas under the scheme. About
3,000 acres of land were green-manured and about 5,000 manure pits were
also maintained. The membership rose from 10,624 to 29,097 during the year,
the area under the scheme rising to about 1,000 acres of land. The societies
under the scheme supplied 1*34 crore maunds of cane while the other societies,
outside the area under the scheme marketed 1-42 crores and earned Rs. 2-12
lakhs as commission, and Rs. 26 lakhs as profits. The concessions given under
the United Provinces Sugar Factories Control Act of 1938 (a right to get a
contract, a right to a reasonable commission, a right to equitable purchase
and compulsory arbitration) have enabled a rapid expansion of these societies
since the close of the year under report, but it is noteworthy that even with-
out this legislative prop, nearly one-fifth of the total cane supplies of factories
was handled by cooperative societies.

The number of ghee societies rose from 153 to 227, the increase being mainly
in the districts of Etawah, Mainpuri and Agra. The primary societies
have been federated into unions. The amount of ghee, jointly marketed, rose
from 1,981 maunds to 4,305 maunds, the profits being Rs. 20,000 excluding
Rs. 5,200 distributed as bonus on supplies. The quality of ghee sold by the
societies is subjected to a double test before it is put on the market. The
panches test it according to village methods, which are fairly effective and
the ghee is subsequently tested with a refractometer at the headquarters of
the ghee union. During the year the middlemen made desperate attempts
to recover their custom by offering better rates to members of ghee societies
but the strength of these societies was amply demonstrated by the unflinching
loyalty of the members. The number of societies for consolidation of hold-
ings rose from 93 to 118. 8,800 bighas were consolidated, the number of plots
being reduced from 11,992 to 1,290, The total area consolidated so
far is 56,000 bighas, the number of plots having been reduced from 56,706 to
5,434.

268 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Under the new rural development scheme, the Government have appointed
a special staff for organizing better-living societies with definite economic pur-
poses like credit, joint sale and supply.

The number of central financing institutions continued to be 72 as in the
previous year, the total working capital increasing from Rs. 92*25 lakhs to
Rs. 94-87 lakhs. A very satisfactory feature of these banks is that the owned
capital amounts to as much as 42 per cent of the working capital except in
the case of four or five banks which the Registrar regards to be * the black
spots ' in the movement. The banks had no difficulty in raising the necessary
deposits at 3J per cent and in some cases at even 2 per cent. The five bad
banks made little or no advances and worked merely as debt 'clearing
institutions. Advances to primaries rose from Rs. 37' 74 lakhs to Ps. 39-25
lakhs but recoveries fell from Rs. 37-56 lakhs to Rs. 33-93 lakhs, while
overdues rose from Rs. 16-60 lakhs to Rs. 16-72 lakhs. The percentage
of recovery was 61-3 as against 71-1 in the previous year, the percentage of
overdues to outstandings being 41-5 as against 45-8 in the previous year. It
may be of interest to mention that in pursuance of the scheme of repayments
in kind, described in previous reports, the Moradabad bank purchased wheat
worth Rs. 1-05 lakhs as against Rs. -77 lakhs in the previous year. The
collection was nearly 100 per cent even though there was a small loss of
Rs, 657. The Etawah and the Kotdwara banks have also started accepting
repayments in kind.

The scheme for establishing a provincial bank to work as a balancing
centre of the movement was approved during the year and the Government
allotted Rs. 75,000 for setting it up. Up till now inter-lendings between the
central banks have been going on without any interference by the department
but now with the development of marketing societies requiring advances for
various periods, the necessity for a provincial bank is being felt all the more.
The Partabgarh Training Institute trained 67 supervisors and 13 auditors
and 115 training classes for panches and secretaries were held during the year.
The department continued to publish two pamphlets, Sakyog Skiksha (Co-
operative Education) and Hidayat Secretary (Instructions to Secretaries).

PUNJAB. Owing to inadequate and ill-distributed rainfall and severe onset
of various plant diseases in different areas, the agricultural conditions were
unfavourable. There was also a drop in the prices of certain commodities
like cotton and wheat.

The total number of societies of all classes increased by 471 from 23,186
to 23,657, membership increasing from 8-63 lakhs to 9-14 lakhs. The number
of agricultural credit societies with unlimited liability increased by only 35
from 16,982 to 17,017, the number of members increasing from 5-14 lakhs to
5-28 lakhs. Their loan business showed a marked increase to Rs. 106-85 lakhs
as compared to Rs. 96 lakhs in the previous year, over one-third of the total
loans issued to members being crop loans and for the purchase of cattle. Re-
coveries during the year amounted to Rs. 112-19 lakhs as principal and 43-55
lakhs as interest. The percentage of recovery of principal to the amount out-
standing at the beginning of the year rose from 16-03 to 17-7. There was a
fall in the percentage of recovery of the interest mainly because recoveries were
being taken towards repayment of principal in the first instance. There were
17 societies and one union for purchase and sale mostly working in settlements,

THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE 269

for criminal tribes. Their total business during the year was valued at Rs. M2
lakhs as against Rs. 156 lakhs in the previous year. Cattle breeding societies
increased from 222 to 272 and sheep breeding societies from 12 to 13. At 60
veterinary first-aid centres, maintained by these societies, over 10,000 animals
were treated. Societies for better-farming distributed about 6,796 maunds of
sugarcane and improved varieties of cotton and other grain seeds. The fruit
growing societies in the Muzaffargarh district continued to make progress.
179 new societies with 24,415 members for consolidation of holdings were
registered during the year. In 255 villages 1-32 lakh acres were consolidated
during the year, the total area consolidated in the whole province up to the
31st of July 1938 being 9*19 lakh acres. The staff for consolidation was
increased to 15 Inspectors and 240 Sub-Inspectors. The cost of 15 Inspectors
and 187 Sub-Inspectors was met by the local Government and the Govern*
ment of India. Nine new crop failure societies were registered in Hoshiarpur.
These societies collected Rs. 2,593 and returned Rs. 1,769 to members on
failure of the crops.

The number of central banks was 48 and of banking unions 68, besides
these there were four industrial unions and two new unions were registered
during the year. The working capital of the central banks decreased from
Rs. 669 lakhs to Rs. 658 lakhs, but their owned capital and reserves increased
from Rs. 117 lakhs to Rs. 122 lakhs at the end of the year. The total profits-
amounted to Rs. 4*45 lakhs as against Rs. 5-78 lakhs in the previous year.
The average dividend declared was 4-9 per cent. Loans issued by societies
during the year increased from Rs. 54-27 lakhs to Rs. 61*34 lakhs, the number
of non-borrowing societies being as high as 12,223. Out of the demands of
Rs. 55-02 lakhs and Rs. 59-07 lakhs on account of principal and interest,
the recoveries amounted to Rs, 68-45 lakhs and Rs. 19-07 lakhs respectively,
the percentage of principal recovery during the year on the amount of loans
to societies at the beginning of the year being 18 as against 19-3 in the
previous year. The principal recoveries include sums paid in excess of
demand. The central banks are continuing to give relief as far as they can
by accepting repayment in kind, by reducing their lending rate and by
granting rebate of interest on punctual repayment. Their strong position
is indicated by the fact that they were able to maintain adequate fluid
resources and their investments in Government securities increased by
Rs. 14 lakhs during the year and were valued at Rs. 182 lakhs.

The total number of land mortgage banks was 10. The registration of the
land mortgage banks at Gurgaon and Sonepat was cancelled during the year.
The working capital decreased from Rs. 17-10 lakhs to Rs. 14-10 lakhs and the
recoveries decreased from Rs. 2-09 lakhs to Rs. 1*32 lakhs, which is the least
figure for the last four years. Great diificulty is being experienced in enforcing
the coercive provisions of law and an increase in physical resistance to posses-
sion of lands of the banks is reported. The question of reorganization of these
land mortgage banks awaits the passing of the new Cooperative Societies'
Bill.

The Punjab Provincial Cooperative Bank continued steadily to strengthen
its financial position, even though there was a drop in the volume of its busi-
ness. Its working capital decreased from Rs. 149-28 lakhs to Rs. 148-80 lakhs
and the amount advanced as loans to central banks and unions from

270 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Ks. 49*02 lakhs to Rs. 42*44 lakhs. No loan was advanced to the land
mortgage banks. It is significant that the amount of loans and deposits
from the central banks and unions amounted to Rs. 105*37 lakhs as against
only Rs. 16*04 lakhs from the public, there being no loan from Government
-outstanding. Its fluid resources were Rs. 31*11 lakhs which were slightly
lower than the amount prescribed, and the market value of the Government
securities held by it was Rs. 106-51 lakhs. It borrowed at 2 per cent for
new deposits and allowed 2| per cent of renewals while the lending rate
was 4 per cent for cash credit and 3J per cent for fixed deposits, the bank
rate throughout the year being about 3 per cent. The profits made by the
bank amounted to about Rs. 0*65 lakhs as against Rs. 0- 32 lakhs in the
previous year.

One hundred and eight classes for secretaries, 129 classes for office-holders
of societies, 16 classes for members of industrial societies, 11 classes for liquida-
tors and execution agents, and one training class for managers and munims
of cooperative commission shops were organized by the education staff main-
tained by the Government of India grant. The educational staff also delivered
42 public lectures, 72 lectures in schools and colleges and four lectures to mili-
tary reservists. Intensive propaganda through drama, broadcasting and
articles in the press was also carried on, the number of radio talks being 44.
A cooperative drama was also successfully broadcast and a series of gramo-
phone records dealing with village uplift were prepared in the Department
at the request of the Commissioner of Rural Reconstruction. The Punjab
Cooperative Union, Ltd., continued to publish its monthly magazine Coopera-
tion, a special number of which was brought out on the occasion of the visit
of His Excellency the Viceroy to Lahore. The union also published a new
book containing the collection of cooperative dramas which had been played
by the cooperative drama party during the last two years. Two Assistant
Registrars and three Inspectors paid a special visit to the North- West Frontier
Province to study the work of egg grading and marketing societies. A Deputy
Registrar and an Assistant Registrar also made a study tour in the United
Provinces.

BIHAR. The agricultural condition continued to be unfavourable and there
was further deterioration of the movement during the year under report.

There was a net increase of 111 societies including 85 cane-growers' co-
operative societies during the year, the total number of societies of all kinds
at the end of the year being 7,010. The number of agricultural societies of
all classes increased by 123 and was 6,790 at the end of tho year. The member-
ship decreased by 2,889 and stood at 161,287. Their working capital dropped
fromRs. 152- 44 lakhs in the previous year to Rs. 148 lakhs owing to the
liquidation of a number of societies and inadequate advances. The total
amount of loans advanced during the year was only Rs. 2-61 lakhs as against
Rs. 3*67 lakhs in the previous year, about Rs. 48,000 being advanced for pay-
ment of rent to landlords. The percentage of collection was only 7*8 in respect
of principal and 11*4 in respect of interest, the amount of principal and interest
outstanding at the end of the year being Rs. 97-96 lakhs and Rs. 60-45 lakhs
respectively.

While the condition of the credit side of the movement continued to be un-
satisfactory, there was satisfactory expansion in the development of the non-

THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE 271

credit side, particularly in the organization of cane-growers ? cooperative
societies. The scheme for the cooperative marketing of sugarcane came into
operation towards the end of 1935. In spite of the difficulties created by the
unsympathetic attitude of several mills, during the crushing season, 1936-37,
117 societies with 2,204 members supplied 9-23 lakh maunds of cane while
203 societies with 4,174 members supplied 11-52 lakh maunds of cane during
the crushing season of 1937-38. The cost of this scheme is being met by the
Government of India out of a grant from the sugar excise duty. Us. 30,000
has been set apart for advancing loans at an interest of 3J per cent and arrange-
ments have also been made for obtaining credit for cane-growers' cooperative
societies from the authorities of the sugar mills cooperating with the scheme.
Special attention LS being paid to the development of sugarcane of improved
varieties and in the introduction of improved agricultural implements, village
sanitation, and village uplift work generally. The officers of the Agricultural,
Veterinary and Public Health Departments as well as local bodies like district
boards have been cooperating with the staff. Eri rearing and spinning as
cottage industries are also being introduced with the assistance of the Indus-
tries Department. With the passing of the Sugar Factories' Control Act, the
expansion of this side of the work will be greatly facilitated.

The four village* welfare centres, one in each division, under the Bihar
Village Welfare Scheme, which had been inaugurated in 1936, out of the Gov-
ernment of India rural reconstruction grant, continued to progress during the
year. Each centre comprises a group of three to five villages. The paid staff
'Consists of a graduate rural welfare officer, a village guide, a katndar and a
trained dai, working uiulor the general guidance of a rural welfare com-
mittee of local men of influence. Their object is to promote improved methods
of agriculture 1 , cattle welfare, village sanitation, training of village dais, village
-communications, amicable settlement of disputes and education of the masses ;
maintenance of night schools with the assistance of honorary teachers recruited
locally receiving their greatest attention. Thirty-six such schools, including
two for girls, were started during 1937.

There were 53 central cooperative banks and unions as in the previous
year. Their working capital decreased by Rs. 3-02 lakhs and stood at Rs. 167
lakhs. The precarious condition of the central banks will be apparent from
the fact that the total demand for withdrawals of all kinds of deposits in central
banks amounted to Rs. 47-01 lakhs against which the central banks main-
tained fluid resources to the extent of only Rs. 6*88 lakhs or 14-6 per cent.
Two banks held creditors' meetings under section 2t (A) of the act during
1937, thus bringing the number of banks subject to terms of compromise to
five. Fourteen other banks, which are unable to meet the demands of the
creditors, arranged to hold similar meetings in 1938. The combined percent-
age of collection of principal and interest was only 7-6 as against 8 in 1936
and 10*7 in 1935 respectively. The amount advanced to societies waa Rs. 3-41
lakhs as against Rs. 3*89 lakhs in the previous year.

The position of the Bihar Provincial Cooperative Bank, most of the invest-
ment of which is in the central cooperative banks, continued to be adversely
affected by the unsatisfactory condition of the central cooperative banks.
Its working capital dropped from Rs. 110-13 lakhs at tne end of 1936 to
Rs. 102*24 lakhs as a result of the sale of Government securities for refund of

272 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

deposits maturing during the year and its inability to collect its dues from the*
central cooperative banks. The amount outstanding against the banks at the-
end of the year was Rs. 53,28,000 as against Rs. 53,56,000 in the previous-
year. Out of a total demand of Rs. 46-06 lakhs only Rs. 79,000 could be
collected, and the amount of overdue was Rs. 8-67 lakhs at the end of the year.
The net profit amounted to only Rs. 30,000 as against Rs. 21,766 in the pre-
vious year and no dividend could be declared as in the two previous years.

The financial position of the Bihar and Orissa Cooperative Federation con-
tinued to be unsatisfactory owing to poor collection. The Federation Press-
continued to incur losses. The press has since been closed and the control of
the audit staff transferred to the Government in pursuance of the resolutions-
of the Cooperative Federation Congress held in April 1938. The publication
of the Co-operative Journal in English and of the Sahyog in Hindi was con-
tinued.

Special attention was given to cooperative training during the year. The
Cooperative Training Institute, which had so far been housed in a few rooms-
lent by /i society at Patna, and was functioning more or less as a lecturing
institution, was re-organized on a residential basis and shifted to the Pusa,
estate in the district of Darbhanga, where ample accommodation and play-
grounds in an excellent environment for a corporate life were available. The
proposal of the Registrar to train 40 graduate stipendiaries, each with a stipend
of Rs, 30 a month, for a period of one year and to invite, as part-time hono-
rary lecturers, experts from other departments in Bihar as well as from other
provinces in India was sanctioned during the year. The stipendiaries were
selected by a special committee appointed by the Government and Rs. 3,000
was sanctioned by the legislature for paying honoraria and travelling expenses-
of part-time lecturers. The revised syllabus included economic geography
with special reference to Bihar rural economics, social psychology besides-
cooperative law, banking, book-keeping and accounts. Training in first-aid
and bandaging, survey and settlement work, public speaking, riding and cycling y
vegetable gardening, was given and daily attendance at drill and games-
was compulsory. Lectures on the work of other nation building depart-
ments by selected officers were also arranged. The department has since-
been fortunate enough in securing the services of eminent cooperators like the
Hon'ble V. Ramdas Pantulu, Dewan Bahadur Professor H. L. Kaji of Bombay,
Dr. Radhakamal Mukharjee of Lucknow and others as part-time lecturers.
Those who qualify at the final examination will be eligible for the posts of
inspectors, liquidators, managers, etc., and may, in time, provide the nucleus
for a closed service for the department. In recognition of the high educa-
tional qualifications and the nature and extent of the training at the Coopera-
tive Training Institute, the Public Service Commission have also agreed, a&
a special case, to appoint one of the stipendiaries, who occupy the first four
places in the final examination, to a gazetted post in the department.

During the year, a comprehensive scheme for the rehabilitation of banks
and societies was drawn up by the Registrar. According to the scheme, the
first essential is to have an enquiry into the assets, liabilities and repaying
capacity of each member of every society requiring reconstruction. Those
members who are found to be dishonest, uncredit- worthy or otherwise unfit,
are eliminated and in the case of others considered fit for retention, the dues

THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE 273

are scaled down to what they can pay within a reasonable number of years
not exceeding 15, repayments being arranged in suitable annual instal-
ments within their repaying capacity as found by the enquiry. There are
provisions for crop loans carrying a low rate of interest to members of recon-
structed societies during the period of recovery of the reduced dues according
to the scheme. Members are required to execute rent purchase bonds or mort-
gage bonds in respect of their lands as security for the outstanding loans. The
net loss of every society is determined after setting off owned resources except
rupee one per head on account of such share-capital as may be available. With
, view to starting with a clean slate, the net loss of a reconstructed central bank
is to be met by the creditors or by the Government or by both in such pro-
portion as the Government may deem fit. Economy in the cost of manage-
ment to be secured in the first instance by the amalgamation, bifurcation,
or a combination of both the processes of reconstructed societies under the
different central banks in a district and where necessary, there should be a
Government annual subsidy till the amalgamated reconstructed banks are
able to stand on their own legs. There are provisions for sufficient long-term
capital through a Government loan or through debentures guaranteed by
'Government and also for short-term accommodation to enable the recons-
tructed banks to obtain sufficient funds for financing the reconstructed banks
and societies and also new societies, organized on sound lines. In view of the
increase in the number of liquidation and award cases consequent on recon-
struction, a special staff, vested with special powers for the disposal of these
cases, will have to be appointed. Necessary safeguards financial, adminis-
trative and legislative have also been prescribed for the prevention of a re-
currence of a crisis similar to what the movement is passing through at present.
The efficient functioning of the scheme will require substantial amendment
of the existing Act. During the Interim Ministry, Government expressed their
great anxiety for securing an early rehabilitation of the movement. The
Ministry changed soon after the scheme was submitted for consideration, in
August, 1937. The present Ministry have taken up the question in all earnest-
ness. Rehabilitation enquiries in 15 central banks and unions have since been
completed and are pending in six banks.

CENTKAL PROVINCES AND BEBAR. There was a decline in both the out-
turn and prices of the principal crops, namely cotton, rice and wheat, with
the result that the recoveries continued to be low. The central banks and
societies in Berar, with their 57,000 acres of land with an annual revenue pay-
ment of about one lakh of rupees, continued to be the weak spot in the
.movement.

There was an increase by 442 in the number of societies of all kinds which
.stood at 4,408 at the end of the year. The number of agricultural^ credit
'Societies was 4,084 ; 3,414 being in the Central Provinces and 670 in Berar. Tihe
working capital of all the societies in the province decreased from Rs. 108*26
lakhs to Rs. 105-39 lakhs. The total cash recovery from members of working
.societies decreased from Rs. 8-19 lakhs to Rs. 7-89 lakhs in the Central
Provinces and from Rs. 4-38 lakhs to Rs. 2*28 lakhs in Berar. The total of
loans advanced by societies to members increased from Rs. 7*2 lakhs to
Rs. 19-78 lakhs. The largest amount was advanced for purchase of cattle,
of which 73 per cent was absorbed in Chhattisgarh where cattle mortality

274 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

was reported to be the highest. Out of 609 societies selected for reorganiza-
tion, 68 societies were finally organized, 59 rejected and the rest kept for
further trial. The department paid considerable attention to the work of
reorganization. The rates of interest charged by banks to societies varied
from 6J to 10 per cent while the rates charged by societies ranged between
4 to 10 per cent. The proportion of overdues was reduced to 69-9 per
cent in the Central Provinces while it rose to 92-2 per cent in Berar.

The number of central banks continued to be 35 with a working capital
of Rs. 245-81 lakhs as against Rs. 245-46 lakhs in the previous year. The
net profits of the central banks decreased from Rs. 2-59 lakhs to Rs. 1-26-
lakhs.

The working capital of the provincial bank increased from Rs. 1 52-33-
lakhs to Rs. 164-99 lakhs, the net profits increasing from Rs. 5,790 to Rs. 46,859.
It allowed interest at If to 3 per cent and was able to maintain public con-
fidence sufficiently so as to have surplus funds ranging between Rs. 7 lakhs
to Rs. 33 lakhs during the year. Its cash advance rose to Rs. 2-48 lakhs while
recoveries decreased to Rs. 4-88 lakhs.

The number of land mortgage banks increased from 12 to 19 during the
year. The total working capital increased from Rs. 4-42 lakhs to Rs. 8*12"
lakhs. Loans advanced amounted to Rs. 3-79 lakhs as against Rs. 2-64 lakhs-
in the previous year, the recoveries being Rs. 54,481 as against Rs. 17,727 in
the previous year. The provincial cooperative bank, which is the financing,
agency for the land mortgage banks, floated the second series of debentures
by 3J per cent for Rs. 3 lakhs in October, 1937, which was over-subscribed.
In response to the growing demand for land mortgage banks it has been decided
to have a bank of this kind in each district. It has also been decided to take
up the question of the establishment of a central land mortgage bank when,
the business of these banks exceeds Rs. 15 lakhs.

Two hundred and forty -one rallies attended by 13,085 members were or-
ganized during the year. The educational staff, consisting of an Education
Inspector and three assistants, employed under the scheme of training and
education, financed by the Government of India, conducted eight training
classes for auditors, group officers, managers and other employees. Thirty-
seven training classes were also organized by the educational staff in consulta-
tion with the cooperative institutes for members and office-bearers of societies.

ASSAM. The movement passed through another year of crisis. The total
number of members decreased from 43,335 to 42,775 in agricultural societies,,
the number of which increased from 1,296 to 1,320. There is a good field for
the expansion of the movement but the work could not be pushed on owing
to inadequate staff for the increase of which the Registrar has been pressing
for the last two years. The loans advanced and the recoveries made during
the year amounted to Rs. 92,777 and Rs. 1,61,814 as against Rs. 66,610 and
Rs. 1,67,286 respectively, in the previous year. Out of this total loan out-
standing, about Rs. 16-7 lakhs or about 94 per cent was overdue as in the previ-
ous year. In the opinion of the Registrar, the position does not show any
sign of improvement and it will take years to clear up this position which re-
presents the accumulated overdues of several years. Most of the agricultural
credit societies are running at a loss, which will greatly increase as a result of
the enforcement of the provisions of the Assam Moneylenders* Act in the co-

THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE 375

operative institutions. Other factors such as remission of interest, reduction
in the lending rate and the heavy cost of execution proceedings in liquidation
and award cases have been instrumental in increasing the loss. The Registrar
apprehends that under the existing conditions the movement may, in the near
future, reach a stage in which all the societies, except the new ones, will be
working at a loss, which if allowed to continue, will wipe out all the accumula-
ted reserve funds and that unless some preferential treatment is given to co-
operative societies exempting them from the operation of these laws, their
effect on the movement may be disastrous.

Twenty-four new non-agricultural credit societies were registered during
the year. Out of the working capital of about Rs. 26-42 lakhs the owned
capital represented 59 per cent as against 57 per cent in the previous year.
These societies issued loans to members to the extent of Rs. 8*78 lakhs as
against Rs. 8*33 lakhs in the previous year, the recoveries being Rs. 8-03 lakha
against Rs. 7*46 lakhs. The percentage of the overdues was 28' 8 as against
40 in the previous year. The profits, however, decreased from Rs. 56,418 in
the previous year to Rs. 48,866. The other types of non-credit societies
included 11 stores, 20 milk societies, one land improvement society, one
execution society, one insurance society, five mutual benefit societies, 13
welfare and better-living societies, one women's cooperative thrift and home
savings society and two fishery societies. Apart from one store, which was
put under liquidation, the working of the stores was generally satisfactory
and they earned a profit of Rs. 5,982 as against Rs. 3,872 in the previous
year. The milk societies are on the decline and the progress made by the
other societies, most of which have recently been started, was not appreciable.
The women's cooperative thrift and home savings society of Sylhet was
organized towards the close of the year. Every member of the society was
supplied with a home savings box in which she was expected to save something
every day from her household money, so that the total savings of a month
may not be less than Re. 1. At the end of the month, the savings are
collected and deposited in the accounts of the members concerned.

There were 18 central banks as in the previous year. The share capital
decreased from Rs. 1-96 Itikhs to Rs. 1-94 lakhs. The proportion of the paid-up
share capital to the working capital was 8' 3 per cent, which is practically the
same as in the previous year. Loans and deposits received from individuals
and other sources decreased by Rs. 63,201 while loans from the provincial
coopertive bank increased by Rs. 47,227. The central banks, being unable
to meet the demands of the depositors from their own resources, had to borrow
more and more from the provincial cooperative bank. The loans issued to
the societies during the year amounted to Rs. 66,326 as against Rs. 39,751
while the corresponding recoveries of principal were Rs. 97,815 aa, against
Rs. 95,601 and the interest realized amounted to Rs. 1-30 lakhs as against
Rs. 1-53 lakhs in the previous year. While the recoveries indicate a slight
improvement, the overdues continue to be very high, being 100 per cent in
some of the central banks. Fresh loans to new societies were advanced very
cautiously after due enquiry into the repaying capacity of the members.
Profits earned by the central banks decreased considerably during the year
and a large number of banks ran at a loss. The figures indicate that the central
banks are on the verge of collapse.

276 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Unlike most of the central cooperative banks, the provincial cooperative
bank of Assam continued to maintain satisfactory progress and enjoyed suffi-
cient public confidence to be able to obtain current deposits without any interest
and fixed deposits at only 4 per cent. Deposits from members and outsiders
increased from Us. 1-89 lakhs to Rs. 2-15 lakhs while the paid-up share capital
increased from Rs. 1*08 lakhs to Rs. 1-10 lakhs. The total loans issued during
the year amounted to Rs. 1-01 lakhs as against Rs. -51 lakh in the previous
year. Owing to the result of reduction in the rate of interest on loans from
7 per cent to 6 per cent with effect from the 1st of April 1937, there were more
demands for loans during the year than in the previous years. It, however,
appears that most of those loans were taken by the central banks for refund
of deposits bearing higher rates of interest with the result that the position
of the central banks with regard to fresh investment remained practically
unchanged. The recovery on account of principal and interest amounted to<
Rs. 50,761 and Rs. 12,263 as against Rs. 63,716 and Rs. 17,769 respectively in
the previous year. The decrease in the collection of interest was mainly due
to the reduction in the rate of interest on loans and also due to the fact that
the amount invested in loans during the earlier part of the year^was less than
that of the preceding year. The percentage of overdue was 40 against 42 in
the previous year. The net profit of the bank amounted to Rs. 9,201 as
against Rs. 10,792 and a dividend of 5| per cent on the preference shares
and 4J per cent on ordinary shares was declared.

The number of land mortgage banks was five as in the previous year. Their
condition continued to be unsatisfactory and most of them appear to be in a
stagnant condition. The total working capital decreased from Rs. 5*68 lakhs
in the previous year to Rs. 4-79 lakhs. The deposits from members and non-
members also decreased from Rs. 3-08 lakhs to Rs. 2-56 lakhs. This decrease
is the result of repayment to depositors out of collection. As mentioned in
the report of the previous year, depositors are being encouraged to take lands
in lieu of their deposits. As regards the causes of the decline of these banks
the Registrar observes as follows :

* The land mortgage banks, started "with the object of enabling the agri-
culturists to redeem their lands, liquidate their old debts and make further
improvements in their activities, made the fundamental mistake of financing
members other than the agriculturists without looking into the repaying capacity
of the borrowers and issuing long-term loans without securing any corres-
ponding long-term capital.'

In view of the inability of the central banks to obtain financial accommoda-
tion from the Reserve Bank, this province will have to obtain the necessary
long-term capital from other sources. It is proposed to appoint a special
officer for a short period to study the progress of land mortgage banks in other
provinces with a view to re-organizing the land mortgage banking system in
Assam after a due consideration of the report of the special officer.

NORTH- WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE. The continuance of unfavourable trend
of prices and the disturbed conditions of the Southern circle, comprising Dera
Ismail Khan and Bannu made it difficult to affect any appreciable improve-
ment in the condition of the primary societies, particularly agricultural societies.

The total numbe^ of societies increased from 692 with 25,078 members to*
753 with 28,643 members during the year, the corresponding increase in the

THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE 277

working capital in the whole movement being Rs. 23-99 lakhs to Us. 26-87
lakhs. The number of agricultural credit societies was 660 with 16,049 members
as against 607 with 15,018 members in the previous year. The increase in the
number of societies was mainly in the Northern circle, the number of societies
in the Southern circle, with its disturbed condition, being practically the same
as in the previous year. The loan business during the year decreased by
Rs. 8,000 to Rs. 2-46 lakhs, the lending rate being 12 per cent subject to a rebate
of 3J per cent on punctual re-payment in full. Fifty per cent of the loan was
for the purchase of cattle, not only for ordinary agriculutral operations but also
for trade. Out of the principal demand of Rs. 3-23 lakhs, Rs. 1-87 lakhs was
recovered and out of Rs. 2-8 lakhs due on account of interest the recovery
amounted to only Rs. 0-85 lakhs. In the Northern circle the percentage of
recovery* increased from 15-9 to 16-4 while in the Southern circle it showed a
heavy fall from 35 to 24.

On the market fide the outstanding success was the growth of the Taru
Jabba Egg Grading and Sale Association, Ltd., which shifted its headquarters
from Pabbi to Peshawar. The number of eggs sold increased from 18-80 lakhs
to 42-56 lakhs, the price obtained being Rs. 76,291 and Rs. 1,84,352 respec-
tively. The Sheikh Muhammadi Grape Sale Society marketed about 550
maunds of grapes as compared with 154 maunds in the previous year. The
number of societies for consolidation of holdings increased from 16 to 22 and
the area consolidated during the year was 4,558 acres as against 6,618 acres in
the previous year. The fall in the area consolidated is mainly due to the
difficulty of working in the Southern circle.

The three central banks continued to function in a satisfactory manner,
the working capital increasing from Rs. 9-06 lakhs to Rs. 10-28 lakhs and the
investment in Government securities increasing from Rs. 1-93 lakhs to Rs. 2-26
lakhs. The borrowing rates of the banks for fixed deposits ranged between 2J
and 3J per cent while their lending rates ranged from 6 to 8 per cent, subject
to a rebate of 1 per cent on punctual repayment in the case of the central bank
at Dera Ismail Khan. Rupees 1-89 lakhs was advanced as loans to societies.
Rs. 1-71 lakhs was recovered as principal and Rs. 49,631 as interest, the
overdues on account of principal and interest at the end of the year being
Rs. 55,421 and Rs. 18,438 respectively. The Registrar considers the repayment
of loans by societies to be on the whole fair under the existing circumstances.

ORISSA. North Orissa, which was formerly a part of Bihar, continued
to be under the administrative charge of the Registrar, Cooperative Societies,
Bihar, while the banks in South Orissa, taken mainly from the Madras Presi-
dency, were administered by the Director of Development, Orissa. The deterio-
ration of the movement in North Orissa continued, while the comparatively
more satisfactory condition in South Orissa was maintained in spite of the
general unfavourable agricultural condition.

The number of societies decreased by two and stood at 2,686 with 10,386
members at the end of the year. The number of agricultural societies was
1,994 with 65,734 members in North Orissa amd 495 with 23,061 members in
South Orissa. The working capital of the societies in North Orissa was Rs. 47-04
lakhs as against Rs. 12-04 lakhs in South Orissa. The percentage of collection
of principal was 2-58 as against 5-58 in the preceding yep* in North Orissa, the
percentage of collection of interest being 16-38 as against 14-42 in the previous

278 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1037-38

year. In South Orissa the percentage of collection on account of principal
was 5-58, the percentage of collection of interest being 12-57.

The non-credit societies like those of bell-metal workers, purchase
and sale societies and weavers' societies did not record any appreciable
progress.

There were 13 central cooperative banks and unions in North Orissa and
two in South Orissa as in the previous year. The working of banks in North
Orissa continued to be unsatisfactory owing to poor recoveries. The propor-
tion between owned and borrowed capital in North Orissa was 1 : 2*6 as
against 1 : 2*8 in South Orissa. The percentages of collection of principal
were 2-5 in North Orissa and 17 in South Orissa and 5 for the whole province,
the corresponding figures for the previous year being 4-7, 15*3 and 6-7. The
percentage of collection of interest was 11-5 in North Orissa and 89-8 in South
Orissa and 14' 9 for the whole province as against 18*4, 916 and 22-7 in the
previous year. The central banks in North Orissa could advance loans only
to the extent of Rs. 0* 13 lakh, while the two banks in South Orissa advanced
Rs. 2-22 lakhs.

The Orissa Provincial Cooperative Bank, registered in the previous year,
could not start work during the year mainly owing to the non-settlement of
the dispute regarding the bifurcation of the Bihar and Orissa Provincial Co-
operative Bank. The latter continued to function as an apex bank for the
central banks in North Orissa while the Madras Provincial Cooperative Bank
continued to serve the same purpose for the banks in South Orissa. No loans-
were, however,, granted by these banks to any of the central banks in Orissa,
only the cash credit facilities being continued.

Dewan Bahadur K. Deivasikhamoni Mudaliar enquired into the condition
of the cooperative movement in Orissa and his report has since been published
and Government decision thereon is awaited.

DELHI. Rains were scanty and both the crops failed and even in the canal
irrigated areas the cotton and sugarcane crops were not successful. The un-
favourable seasonal condition had an adverse effect on the economic condition
of the members with the result that in spite of various concessions in the form
of remission of overdue interest, reduction in the rate of interest and extension
of kist in deserving cases, no appreciable improvement in the financial condition
of the agricultural societies was noticeable.

The total number of societies increased from 313 with 14,272 members to
328 societies with 15,597 members, the number of agricultural societies increas-
ing from 220 to 228. The number of agricultural credit societies decreased
from 200 to 198, the number of members falling from 4,853 to 4,767. The
agricultural credit societies advanced Rs. 49,079 as loans to members, the rate
of interest being 7J to 12J per cent. The recovery of principal and interest
amounted to Rs. 74,639 and Rs. 55,557 as against Rs. 72,012 and Rs. 70,300
respectively in the previous year. The percentage of recovery was 11-27 as
against 10 g 6 in the previous year. The overdues on account of principal
increased from Rs. 14,493 to Ks. 22,076, while interest overdue amounted to
Rs. 2,09,212 as against Rs. 2,17,408.

The number of cattle breeding societies increased from five to seven during
the year. An additional field staff was sanctioned for supervision of 23 societies
with 1,477 members for the consolidation of holdings. 2,511 acres were con-

THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICUlTURE 279

solidated during the year, the number of blocks being reduced from 2,515 to
496:

The Delhi Province Central Cooperative Bank, Limited, continued to be
the sole financing institution. This bank continued to enjoy public confidence
and was able to obtain adequate deposits at 2 per cent. It had a working
capital of Rs. 13-65 lakhs as against Rs. 13-36 fakhs in the previous year and
had investments in Government securities to the extent of Us. 3*71 lakhs.
The sum of Us. 1*43 lakhs was advanced at 7 per cent to the societies. The
bank collected Rs. 1-48 lakhs as principal and Rs. 49 lakhs as interest during
the year, the percentage of recovery falling from 19*9 in the previous yoar
to 15-9 during the year under report.

HYDERABAD. The agricultural season was unfavourable, the yield of
crops being about eight annas as against nine annas in the previous year. The
prices of agricultural commodities also did not show any appreciable improve-
ment. The department followed a policy of controlled credit and of restrict-
ing it to crop loans.

Out of 298 societies registered during the year only 164 were agricultural
societies. Societies of all kinds increased in number from 3,119 to 3,373, the
number of agricultural credit societies being 2,693 with 56,561 members as
against 2,546 societies with 52,421 members in the previous year. The societies-
borrowed Rs. 5'35 lakhs from central banks and repaid Rs. 5-25 lakhs as principal
and Rs. 2-88 lakhs as interest, the corresponding figures for the previous year
being Rs. 5-12 lakhs and Rs. 3-25 lakhs. The slight improvement in the re-
payment of the principal and the fall in the repayment of interest were due to
the fadt that in the case of the older societies, the collections were credited to
the principal loan account while interest was recovered only to the extent of
the accrued amount. The societies advanced loans to the extent of Rs. 6-46
lakhs as against Rs. 4*66 lakhs in the previous year. The collections amounted
to Rs. 5-92 lakhs as principal and Rs. 3-88 lakhs as interest as against Rs. 5-84
lakhs and Rs. 4*30 lakhs respectively in the previous year.

The non-credit side did not show any marked expansion. The number of
sale societies remained eight as in the previous year.

The number of central cooperative banks continued to be 39 as in the previ-
ous year but their working capital increased from Rs. 63-95 lakhs to Rs. 64-36
lakhs. Loans borrowed from the Dominion Bank during the year amounted
to Rs. 2-24 lakhs while Rs. 3-26 lakhs was repaid, leaving a balance of Rs. 14-25
lakhs at the end of the year. Loans were advanced to the societies to the
extent of Rs. 9- 23 lakhs as against Rs. 6- 95 lakhs in the previous year, the re-
coveries falling from 7-92 lakhs in the previous year to Rs. 7-66 lakhs.

The Hyderabad Cooperative Dominion Bank continued to maintain a sound
financial condition, paying 3 to 3J per cent on fixed deposits of one to two years
respectively. It received deposits to the extent of Rs. 8-95 lakhs from indi-
viduals and Rs. 2-37 lakhs from societies and banks and advanced to banks and
societies Rs. 3-71 lakhs as against Rs. 3-35 lakhs in the previous year. Recove-
ries amounted to Rs. 5-03 lakhs as against Rs. 4M2 lakhs in the previous year.
The bank made a profit of Rs. 91,000 and declared a dividend of 6 per cent.

The central cooperative union carried on its educative work through 10
p-opagandists, who held training classes at 34 centres. It'also arranged train-
in;? classes for supervisors at two centres and rural reconstruction classes in

280 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

25 villages. The supervision of village societies entrusted to the union was
carried on by a staff of 109 supervisors and four Inspectors. The union is
finding difficulty to carry on its work, particularly of supervision of societies
-without adequate financial assistance from Government.

MYSORE. Owing to the low prices of agricultural produce and of com-
modities like areca, coffee, groundnut and cotton, the deterioration of the
.agricultural societies did not stop. The department concentrated its attention
on the weeding out of inefficient societies and the improvement of others, the
expansion being more in the direction of non-credit activities.

The number of agricultural societies of all kinds was 1,445 as against 1,417
in the previous year and of these 1,365 were credit societies, the rest being
supply societies, grain banks and marketing societies. The membership
increased from 62,229 to 62,307, the membership of the agricultural credit
societies being 60,313. The agricultural credit societies with a working capital
of 57 68 lakhs advanced loans to the extent of about Rs. 9-98 lakhs and recover-
ed Rs. 8 69 lakhs during the year. The percentage of overdues to demand
decreased from 75*9 to 73-2 mainly as a result of the grant of extension of time
in deserving caces.

The agricultural supply societies did not show signs of improvement during
the year but the marketing societies did a fairly good business by selling areca,
cardamums and cotton. The grain banks, numbering 36, did not function
properly for want of adequate facilities for stocking grain and keenness on the
part of the members. There were 12 womens' societies with a membership of
698.

The 11 banking institutions included five district banks, three federal bank-
ing unions, one central urban bank, the other two being the apex bank and the
central cooperative land mortgage bank. The apex and the central land
mortgage banks have been organized for issuing short-term and long-term loans
to the ordinary credit societies and the land mortgage societies respectively.
Steps are being taken to close down the district banks by arranging for the wind-
ing up of the societies indebted to them. The apex bank will henceforth be
the sole agency for the grant of short-term and intermediate term credit to the
primary societies. It advanced loans to societies to the extent of Rs. ! 76 lakhs
as against Rs. 1-81 lakhs in the previous year. The recoveries under principal
and interest, however, fell from Rs. 2-49 lakhs to Rs. 1-71 lakhs and Rs. 1-43
lakhs to Rs. 1'26 lakhs respectively, the percentage of overdues being 77' 96
as against 74' 6 in the previous year. The bank offered certain concessions in
the form of reduction of future interest and remission of penal interest to 400
societies during the year. Preliminary examination regarding the value of
securities for the loans outstanding against individual borrowers of the societies
indebted to this bank has been completed in more than half the number of
such societies. Side by side with this examination, extension of kists is being
granted to deserving members so as to bring the annual demand within their
repaying capacity. Government have sanctioned the appointment of an
Assistant Commissioner to work as the Secretary of the bank, Government meet-
ing half the cost involved in his appointment.

The lending operations of the Mysore Central Cooperative Land Mortgage
Bank were further extended during the ye"ar, and it is proposed to introduce
the land mortgage scheme in every taluka. The working capital of the bank

THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE 281

increased from Rs. 6-36 lakhs to about Rs. 9 lakhs. The bank issued the fourth
series of debentures at 3J per cent and subscriptions to the extent of 2*40 lakhs-
were received. Up till now debentures to the extent of about Rs. 8 lakhs have
been issued. The bank advanced Rs. 2-10 lakhs as loans during the year and
out of a demand of Rs. 66,906, recovered Rs. 57,605, the percentage of over-
dues to demand being 13-91 as against 20*58 in the previous year. The services*
of an official to work as Secretary of the bank were lent by Government. During
the year Government also continued the grant of Rs. 1,500 towards the work-
ing expenses of the land mortgage societies.

BARODA. The policy of consolidation and cautious expansion was con-
tinued during the year, the number of agricultural societies being only 914 as
against 913 in the previous year. Fresh loans to the extent of Rs. 6- 8 lakhs were
advanced as against about Rs. 6 lakhs in 1936-37. The repayment of loans
and the percentage of overdues were Rs. 6*36 and 45*6 lakhs as against Rs. 6' 39
and 46- 7 lakhs respectively in the previous year. It appears that the overdue^
decreased owing to the extension of kists in many cases. Most of the societies
reduced their lending rates from 9J per cent to 6J per cent and 7 j- per cent.
Among the non-credit societies specially good work was done by sale societies
and societies for consolidation of holdings. Joint sale of various produce like
oil-seeds, groundnuts and cotton was also carried on by several credit banks.
In seven out of 77 societies for the consolidation of holdings, lands covering
2,178 bighas belonging to 73 members were consolidated.

Apart from the Baroda Central Cooperative Bank, there were two co-
operative financing institutions with a total working capital of about Rs. 19-73
lakhs. The outstanding loans at the beginning of the year amounted to Rs. 14* 23
lakhs as against Rs. 12-82 lakhs in the previous year and the loans advanced
during the year amounted to about Rs. 4 lakhs. The recoveries amounted to
Rs. 3*34 lakhs as against Rs. 2' 63 lakhs in the previous year. Most of the finan-
cing institutions reduced their rates of interest. Government also advised all
the banks not to charge more than 6 per cent from societies on fresh loans and
not more than 5 per cent on overdue loans and to give instalments to the
societies after a thorough enquiry.

The cooperative land mortgage bank at Baroda extended its area of opera-
tion. It advanced loans to the extent of Rs. T27 lakhs and was able to recover
the whole of its dues amounting to Rs. 30,599. During the year, the bank
floated debentures for Rs. 3 lakhs at 3 per cent out of which debentures worth
Rs. 25,000 were purchased by Government, who also guaranteed repayment of
both the principal and the interest of the debentures. Efforts were made to
compound the debts of the members and Government met the full cost of a
Land Valuation Officer and half the cost of the management of the bank.

The central cooperative institute organized four classes for training secre-
taries and continued editing the Gramjiwan, a monthly journal, and also a-
bulletin dealing with cooperation, agriculture and other topics of rural interest.

TRAVANCORE. The policy of rectification and consolidation and a cautious
policy of expansion was continued during the year. Special attention was:
given to non-credit activities by the organization of sale societies and by the
introduction of the ' Kettuthenga deposit ' system. According to this system,
each member hands over a number of coconut trees to the society which collects
the nuts, auctions them for the best price and credits the value to the accounts*

282 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

of the member. Where there is no repayment of debt to be made by the member,
the amount realized by sale is shown as a deposit in his name. The system is
getting very popular specially in areas where coconut trees grow abundantly.
Several lakhs of coconuts, collected by this system, were sold for Us. 1,29,159
during the year.

The number of agricultural societies and the number of members were
1,290 and 137,681 as against 1,346 and 142,809 respectively in the previous
year. Of the total principal demand amounting to Rs. 24 lakhs, the collec-
tions amounted to Rs. 5-5 lakhs while in interest Rs. 1-60 lakhs was collected.
The percentage of balance to demand was 77-1 in the case of principal and 81-2
in the case of interest. Societies were encouraged to accept repayment in
kind. Under certain conditions, penal interest was also not demanded.

As a result of the special attention given to developing the non-credit side
of the movement, 21 societies, for purposes other than credit, were registered
during the year. The non-credit societies included societies for distribution,
school stores, dairy farming and cattle breeding, building purposes, poultry and
bee-keeping and rural uplift. The Trivandrum Distributive Cooperative
Society, with its 14 branches, working in different centres in the town of Tri-
vandrum, sold articles to the value of Rs. 2,51,396. School stores are becom-
ing very popular, the most outstanding store of its kind being the Maharaja's
College of Science Cooperative Stores Ltd. at Trivandrum. During the year,
this store sold goods worth Rs. 12,180 and made a net profit of Rs. 887. The
Marthandam Y. M. C. A. Poultry Society encourages members to rear better
poultry. It also collects, tests, grades, packs and sells the eggs of members in
outside markets. The society collected 159,713 eggs and sold them for
Rs. 8,808. The Marthandam Bee-keepers' Cooperative Society supplied bee-
hives to the members and sold members' honey to the value of Rs. 1,005.

In view of the social status of women in this state, it may be of interest to
mention that the total number of women in the movement was 24,096 as against
24,022 in the previous year, the proportion of women to men in the movement
being 1 : 8. Educated women take a keen interest in managing some of the
societies. There were 10 purely women's societies ; four of these were non-
credit societies, while the remaining six were doing credit business.

The working capital of the only central bank was Rs. 15-14 lakhs as against
Rs. 17-72 lakhs in the previous year. The demands on account of principal
and interest were Rs. 9-08 lakhs and Rs. 2344 lakhs respectively. Of these
only Rs. 3*63 lakhs and Rs. 0-93 lakhs could be collected during the year, the
percentage of balance to demand being 60 in the case of the principal and
the interest. The central bank advanced Rs. 26 lakhs to societies and Rs. 0-56
lakhs to individuals.

, JAMMU AND KASHMIR. The Registrar observes that deterioration has of
late crept into the movement and that the field staff are mostly engaged in
consolidating existing societies and in weeding out undesirable societies and
members.

The number of agricultural societies stood at 2,584 with 46,518 members
as against 2,575 with 46,823 members in the previous year. The decrease in
the number of members appears to be due to weeding out of undesirable members
and liquidation of certain societies. The working capital also decreased by
,al>out Rs, 80,000 ancTstood at Rs. 55-10 lakhs owing to the same reasons and

THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE 283

to the refund of share money to those who had been members for 10 to
20 years. The amounts recovered during the year were Rs. 2-50 lakhs on
account of principal and Rs. 3'48 lakhs as interest. The percentage of recovery
to the total demand was 6*10 as against 4*12 in the previous year. The societies
advanced Rs. 1-63 lakhs to members as against Rs. 2-12 lakhs in the previous
year. The large amounts appear to have been advanced for unproductive
purposes like marriages, and also for payment of debts.

The non-credit societies included 187 societies for consolidation of holdings,
135 societies for compulsory education, and one society for adult education.
In seven societies for the consolidation of holdings, 2,215 fields were consolidated
into 547 fields. His Highness's Government have initiated the work of adult
^education in the state and have allotted funds for subsidizing agencies for
promoting the work. The compulsory education societies appear to be rather
slack in not enforcing the penalty prescribed in the by-laws on members who
fail to send their wards to the schools. The Registrar is considering a scheme
by which the existing education societies as well as those which may be organiz-
ed will run in conformity with the general scheme of adult education inaugurat-
ed by the Government.

The number of central banks and unions increased from 14 to 15 during
the year, the working capital and the owned increasing from Rs. 19-8 lakhs to
Rs. 21-7 lakhs and from Rs. 104 lakhs to Rs. 1M lakhs respectively. The high
proportion of owned resources and its appreciable increase in existing circum-
stances are satisfactory features of the financial administration of these banks.

No refresher course or training class was held during the year. It may be
of interst to mention that the inspecting staff are constantly directed to read
literature on cooperation so that they may remain in touch with modern theories
and give them practical shape whenever possible. They are also required to
record in their fortnightly diaries the literature on cooperation they read regular-
ly. One Deputy Registrar and one Assistant Registrar proceeded to Europe
on study leave and returned after a course of higher training.
Consolidation of holdings*

Sir John Russell in his report| pointed out that the fragmentation and
scattering of holdings is a very serious weakness in Indian agriculture and
unless a method is found to consolidate them progress in the introduction of
improved methods of farming and improving the general welfare of the agricul-
tural classes as a whole must be extremely slow. This question was consi-
dered by a special committee of the Advisory Board of the Imperial Council
of Agricultural Research in March 1938 and later by a joint committee of the
Governing Body and the Advisory Board of the Council at its meeting held at
Simla in July 1938. It was generally recognized that fragmentation of hold-
ings was one of the greatest impediments in land improvement and constituted
an important factor in making agriculture in India uneconomic. The com-
mittee recommended that, as a first step to improvement in this direction,
various provinces and constituent states be asked to send whatever informa-
tion they possessed on consolidation of holdings in their respective areas and
when all the reports were received the information should be collected by the

* This section was prepared by R. B. R. L. Sethi, I.A.S.

f Report on the work of the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research in applying
science to crop production in India, pp. 64-5.

284 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Council. It should as far as possible show the methods adopted, the extent of
operations, the departments by which carried out and the cost involved. It
ras further agreed that the information if received in time should be publish-
ed in Agriculture and Animal Husbandry in India.

The answers to the enquiry showed that in the Punjab, the United Provinces,,
the Central Provinces, the North -West Frontier Province and in the states of
Baroda and Jammu and Kashmir, the need for action had been recognized and
action taken. In the Punjab the work is carried out by the cooperative
societies and in the Central Provinces by the Revenue Department. Consoli-
dation acts have been passed in both the provinces. In the United Provinces
the work is carried out by the cooperative societies but a scheme by which
consolidation of cropping is effected in the newly developed tube-well areas is
in the charge of the Agricultural Department. In the United Provinces the
societies are registered after the consolidation has been effected and the pos-
session has actually been transferred while in the Punjab the societies are re-
gistered before any other action is taken. In Baroda a consolidation act
was passed in 1921 and while 90 per cent work is carried on through coopera-
tive societies 10 per cent is done through Revenue Officers. The work in most
of these places is done by persuasion. A detailed account of the work done
in these important centres is further given.

In BOMBAY, a small holdings bill was introduced in 1927 but due to keen
opposition to the intended alteration in the Hindu law of inheritance and the
effect on the smallest holder, the measure was withdrawn. Since 1929 future-
grants of waste lands are now, under orders of the Government, made on im-
partible tenure.

In BENGAL, the Government appointed a board of economic enquiry in
December 1936, which, after consideration of the question in all its aspects,,
agreed that no tangible benefits could accrue unless legislation was devised to
put a check on further fragmentation of holdings either by altering the laws
of inheritance among the Hindus and the Mohammedans or otherwise. The-
note from Bengal showed an imperfect distinction between fragmentation
and sub -division. This distinction was lost to view in many reports. It is
worth while explaining this distinction between the two. The sub -divisions-
indicate the progressive reduction in the total size of each man's farm which
results from partition among heirs under the present law of inheritance and
produces holdings so small as to be uneconomic. Fragmentation, on the other
hand, is not due to the law of inheritance but to the custom which allows each
heir to take a share of each field wherever situated.

A large farm may be a fragmented farm, i.e. held in scattered plots, where-
as a tiny farm may be and often is held in a single block without fragmentation.
In this connection it may be mentioned that the law of inheritance in many
peasant countries of Europe is substantially the same as that of Bengal, yet
in these countries consolidation has been carried out ; fragmentation is now
voluntarily avoided by heirs though the law of inheritance and the practice
of sub-division remain unaltered. ,

The board of economic enquiry of Bengal further recommended that the
process of consolidation, however, could be tried in the Khas -Mahals or in
villages where there is only one landlord. In such cases plots exchanged between
one tenant and another could be added to or subtracted from existing tenancies,

THE COOPERATIVE MOVEME^JT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE 285

leaving the total number of tenancies and rents unaltered. In villages belong-
ing to many different landlords consolidation of holdings was almost impractic-
able.

ASSAM. The Government of Assam after examining the position have come
to the conclusion that fragmentation of holdings has not proceeded to such
lengths in the Assam valley as to call for action. Such fragmentation is
admittedly of a serious nature in parts of the Surma valley? but the absence
of a proper record of rights in the permanently settled areas renders the forma-
tion of any simple administrative measure impracticable. Where consolida-
tion measures appear desirable and feasible as in the temporarily settled areas,
particularly in the Jaintia Parganas, it is considered that cooperative methods
offer tht. best hope of success and the possibility of encouraging 1 action on co-
operative lines is not being lost sight of, but for the present the cooperative
movement in such areas is not of sufficient strength. A suggestion, that the
principles of the civil court should be applied to partition proceedings under
the land revenue regulations to prevent further fragmentation by enabling
sale proceeds to be distributed rather than the land and fixtures themselves,
was considered but was discarded as likely to be ineffective. The opinion of
-certain Revenue Officers is that since the system has not been apparently tried
in permanently settled. areas, an attempt to consolidate holdings in Assam
must begin with temporarily settled areas as in the Punjab and the Central
Provinces.

MYSORE. The question engaged the consideration of a committee appoint-
ed by the Government specially for the purpose as also of a committee on co-
op^ratioii which among other matters dealt with this question.

The committee confined their investigations to a few talukas and collected
statistics for about half a dozen villages in each taluka. They prepared two
statements, one showing the size of holding, i.e. the extent to which sub-divi-
sion had progressed, and the other the extent of fragmentation of lands in the
state. According to the first statement, the number of holdings which did not
exceed 10 acres was 79-5 per cent. After referring to the various measures
adopted in the state for the prevention of sub-division of holdings, the committee
came to the conclusion that the evils of sub-division could not be met except
by a change of the laws of inheritance which, however, could not be thought of
in the present stage of public opinion in the country. As regards the extent of
fragmentation of lands in the state, it was observed that it had not progressed
to an alarming extent. After examining the schemes and measures adopted
in the CenjLral Provinces, the Punjab, Baroda and Bombay and taking into
consideration the view expressed by the Royal Commission on Agriculture, the
committee recommended that propaganda might be undertaken by the Co-
operative Department with a view to familiarizing the rural population with
the ideas of consolidation and its advantages ; a regulation might be passed on
the lines of the Central Provinces Consolidation of Holdings Act, providing
for consolidation to be carried out in villages, and might be introduced in
two or three talukas to start with and then gradually extended. The staff at
the beginning should be one Consolidation Officer with half a dozen subordi-
nates at a cost not exceeding Rs. 500 a month. The view generally held was
that fragmentation of holdings in the state had not proceeded to such an
extent as to constitute a serious hindrance to economic farming. In these

286 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

circumstances the Government considered it best to defer the matter for the-
present.

TRAVANCORE. The sub-committee of the State Economic Development
Board, which was appointed to study the problem, reported that a survey
of the nature and extent of the problem of sub-division and fragmentation,
of holdings should be conducted with reference to one pakuthy (village) in each
of 12 typical areas, with one member of the committee being in charge of the
work in each pakuthy. The work would largely consist of taking down, on
printed forms, the data relating to different plots of a holding and its tabula-
tion. As this was a task involving great labour and expense, the Government
have ordered that this survey may be conducted in conjunction with the-
ensuing census operations. In the meanwhile the sub-committee of the
board has been asked to consider and report whether consolidation should
be started throughout the state or only in certain specialized tracts, the
relative merits of various methods and the lines on which legislation, if any,
should proceed,

BHOPAL. In Bhopal the question is not acute but the Government have
made certain rules to check fragmentation below five acres. A copy of these-
rules is further given.

In COCHIN, no law exists to check fragmentation. Legal measures are
advocated as the only effective remedy.

MADRAS, BIHAR, SIND, ORISSA and HYDERABAD have not so far taken
any measures to consolidate holdings as the problem in most places has not
been found to be very pressing.

The cost of consolidation varies in different provinces ; while in Chhattisgarh
(C. P.) it is four annas per acre, in the Punjab, the North-West Frontier Pro-
vince and Jarninu and Kashmir it varies from Ks. 1-8 to Ks. 2-8. In the
United Provinces it varies from 9 as. per acre in the eastern districts to 7 as.
per 6igha (one-half of an acre) in the western districts. This variation may be
ascribed to difference in conditions in various places and it should not be sup-
posed that the low figure of 4 as, can be reproduced in all places. The varia-
tions in level and constitution of soils, the amount and nature of irrigation,
the rate of pay of the staff employed in different places and the docility or
stubbornness of the peasantry have all to be taken into account. Figures of
cost have not been given by the Baroda State for either revenue or co-
operative agency. A comparison of the cost needs to be very cautiously
made in order that all items included in one case are also included in
another.

The advantages of consolidation are manifold and these, as related in reports-
of important centres, are briefly indicated below :

In the Punjab some of the areas which were hitherto lying uncultivated
owing to either being small or unwieldy have now been brought under cultiva-
tion. On account of the change brought about in the shape and size of the
fields, the interest of cultivators in their land has increased and this has resulted
in more efficient management of the fields and better yield of crops. In the-
barani (rain-fed) areas it has now become more convenient to make bunds round
the fields for retaining rain water. It has resulted in an increased use of im-
proved implements and better conservation of manures. With the improve-
ment in the level of fields there is greater economical use of the irrigation water

THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE 287

The system of cropping has changed and poor crops are generally giving place
to better one's. In the Central Provinces it has improved the general standard
of agriculture in the rice-growing tract of the Chhattisgarh division. The
removal of bunds between small fields and straightening of field boundaries
have added about 2 per cent to the actual area under rice crop. The gross
produce of crops in the consolidated village (in the C. P.) is estimated to have
increased by about 5 to 10 per cent. In general, consolidation of holdings has
saved a good deal of the time and energy of cultivators formerly wasted in going
over to scattered plots. With the laying out of footpaths and cattle tracks the
chances of the crop being trampled upon and grazed by cattle and of thefts
during harvest time are minimized. Chances of boundary disputes and of
encroachments on land have considerably decreased with the consequent de-
crease of litigation between farmers. Arrangements have been made to reserve
special blocks for pastures and for other necessities or amenities of village
life. Consolidation has reduced the work of village patwaris and has made it pos-
sible to decrease their number without any sacrifice of quality of work.

A brief account of important centres where measures have been, adopted
with success is given below :

In the UNITED PROVINCES the work on consolidation of holdings was started
in the eastern part of the province in 1926 on a cooperative basis under the
supervision of tho provincial cooperative union. Since the financial year 1937-
38 a recurring grant of Rs. 12,500 has been sanctioned by the local Government
to help the union to extend its field of activities. Since 1932 an area of more
than 25,000 acres has been consolidated in nearly 93 villages at a total cost of
Rs. 15,000 or at the rate of 9 as. per acre. The consolidation of holdings in this
area is reported to have improved the standard of agriculture. Cooperative
consolidation has also been undertaken in Bijnore, Sahranpore and Moradabad
districts where the number of societies has lately increased from 82 to 94. Close
upon .39,000 plots have so far been consolidated into about one-tenth of the
number. The coat is about 7 as. per bigha. The work is done by persuasion
and the societies are registered after consolidation has been effected and
the possession actually transferred. Persuasion has, however, its limits and it
appears it will be necessary before long to supplement it by legislation more or
less on the lines of that in force in the Central Provinces.

Another form of consolidation which strictly speaking consists more of conso-
lidation of cropping and which is also advocated as an alternative measure by
Sir John Russell in his report* has been in progress in the western districts of
the province, particularly in the Meerut division. This became possible with
the inauguration of the state tube-wells scheme of the Hydro-Electric Depart-
ment. In 1935 the provincial Agricultural Department prepared a definite
scheme of agricultural development in the tube- well areas and it was launched
in October of the same year in the Meerut and Moradabad districts. The area
brought under the scheme was divided into five development zones (i.e. three
in Meerut and two in Moradabad districts), each zone being worked by one
Inspector, three fieldmen and 12 kamdars. Thr scheme was put in charge
of a Tube-well Agricultural Development Officer stationed at Meerut. The
work at Moradabad was supervised by a senior Inspector designated as Assistant
Cane Control Officer. In the beginning 12 tube- wells we r e included in each

* Page 64.

288 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

zone which have since been extended to 36 tube-wells per zone. The
main features of the development work consist of (i) remodelling of holdings
(including construction of water channels and block roads), (ii) consolidation
of crops (block forming), (iii) supplies of seed and manure, and (iv) undertaking
other measures of village improvement. The practice followed in remodelling
of holdings is that the staff first marks out the chaks (blocks) to be brought under
control. They then proceed with the straightening of mainds (partitions) of
the fields coming in the chaks. The cultivators are as far as possible induced
to draw up the mainds in straight lines. If necessary they are induced to ex-
change land between two fields to straighten the corners in such a way that
the area of the fields is not affected. There is no legal compulsion for
this purpose ; the cultivators are merely persuaded to do this in their own in-
terest. In the beginning there was some opposition but the improvements
effected by the process have gradually created a confidence in cultivators who
now willingly carry out the instructions of the department. The cultivators
are then induced to grow the same crop in one chak thereby effecting consolida-
tion of crops. Here again there is no legal force ; it rests entirely with the culti-
vator to follow the advice or reject it, but barring a few exceptions practically
all carry out the instructions. The successful working of these two operations,
i.e. remodelling of holdings and consolidation of crops, depends on the extent
of confidence that the staff is able to create among the cultivators. The advant-
ages of consolidation of crops consist in effecting economy in irrigation water,
in facilitating performance of agricultural operations and in affording facilities
for easy transport of produce. Such consolidated blocks in this area aro gener-
ally made with two crops, i.e. sugarcane and wheat. Formerly the sugarcane
crop in this area was grown haphazard without any definite rotation and second
and even third -year ratoon canes were grown. The rotation of crops now
followed is, first year sugarcane, second year ratoon cane, third year wheat
and fourth year sanai or kharif crops. The ratoon has definitely been limited
to one year only in the controlled blocks. All agricultural operations in blocks
are carried out under the supervision of the departmental staff.

In the PUNJAB cooperative consolidation of holdings societies were first
organized in the year 1920 on a voluntary basis, i.e. without special legislation.
Some concessions to the peasant's suspicions were made in the earlier period,
the members being required only to accept the new consolidated holdings for
four years, with the right to revert to their old scattered plots if they then wished.
No re-allotment, however, when once approved by the members, has ever been
subsequently rejected and the four years limit was soon withdrawn. The staff
is specially trained for the purpose, and selected inspectors and sub-inspectors
are employed on the responsible duty of repartition and work in collaboration
with the elected committees of the cooperative consolidation societies. This
staff was previously paid by the Government but in recent years arrangements
have been made by the villages which apply for consolidation to make a contri-
bution towards the cost. The Government of the Punjab passed a consolida-
tion act in 1936 similar to tha^ of the Central Provinces whereby not less than
two-thirds of landowners in an estate holding not less than three-fourths of the
cultivated area are required to make an application for consolidation of their
holdings before any action is taken, When it is settled that a scheme should
be introduced in any village, a cooperative society is formed for the purpose

THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE

28$

and is registered. It is now usual to demand also a payment of 8 as. per acre
from the owners towards the cost of operation and this sum is readily paid. The
by-laws bind every member to accept a scheme of partition which is approved
by two-thirds of the members and to submit all disputes to arbitration and to
subject any future partition or rearrangement of the consolidated area to the
decision of the society. Up till July 1937 a total area of 800,000 acres had been
consolidated and an area of at least 100,000 acres is now being completed
annually. A statement showing the progress made annually in the number of
societies, the number of members, the area consolidated in acres per year and
the cost per acre annually from 1921 up to 1938 is given below. It should be
clearly understood that no pressure, official or other, is exerted on the peasantry
either to initiate a demand for consolidation or to accept a re-allotment plan
when draurn up. The demand is voluntary in all cases and the applications
exceed the capacity of the allotted staff. It is for this reason that the condi-
tion of a levy per acre has been imposed. The size of plots is, in any case, greatly
increased and much economy secured. The 120,295 acres consolidated in 1936-
37 were reduced from nearly 200,000 plots to 29,400 and the area of each was
proportionately increased. Access to each member's holding is given by the
laying-out of new roads, the space for which is found by the removal of super-
fluous boundaries dividing the former tiny plots. Special sites are often also
assigned by the villagers for a school play-ground or similar amenities. It has
sometimes been supposed that the owners of small plots are ousted in the course
of consolidation and given compensation in cash or in land in other districts.
This is not the case. No attempt is made to eliminate any right-holder and
each person is given the same area of land which he formerly held.

Progress made by the cooperative consolidation of holdings societies in the Punjab

since 1921

Particulars

1921

1922

1923

1924

1925

1926

1. Societies ....

60
1,698

107
3,397

133
5,225

154

7,078

174
8,412

237
10,928

3. Area consolidated (in acres per
year)

7,571

6,983

5,376

8,120

11,707

21,258

4. Cost per acre (in rupeoi per
year)

0-12-5

2-1-4

3-0-6

2-2-9

2-8-10

3-5-1

Particulars

1927

1928

1929

1930

1931

1932

1. Societies ....
2. Members ....

314
15,387

428
20,49o

543
28,305

654
35,778

795
47,948

911
58,803

3. Area consolidated (in acres per
year)

38,071

64,699

*8,709

50,105

72,821

60,348

4, Cost per acre (in rupees per
year)

2-7-2

1-12-0

2-12-10

3-0-6

1-11-8

2-0-7

290 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Progress made by the cooperative consolidation of holdings societies in the
Punjab since 1921 contd.

Particulars

1933

1934

1936

1937

1938

Grand
total

1. Societies

1,011

1,097

1,167

1,210

1,270

1,360

11,625

2. Members

67,992

78,319

89,429

103,684

119,875

141,929

796,634

3. Area consolidated
(in acres per year)
4. Cost per acre (in
rupees per year)

62,062
1-13-2

56,148
1-14-0

63,534
1-11-8

92,689
1-10-0

120,295
1-10-1

132,313
1-11-5

922,809

CENTRAL PROVINCES. The outstanding example of consolidation through
the revenue staff is in the Chhattisgarh division. The common term used for
these operations is chakbandi. Before the British occupation a system of annual
redistribution of the fields in each village of the Chhattisgarh division among cul-
tivators was in vogue. The object of the system, which was known as Lakha-
bhata, was to ensure that every cultivator in a village obtained a share in rotation
of the different types of land in his village. This system encouraged the
fragmentation of land and the formation of fields of small dimensions. The
operation of the ordinary law of inheritance during later years brought in further
fragmentation of the already scattered holdings, and it has long been recognized
that this extreme fragmentation of land in Chhattisgarh was a serious obstacle
to the economic cultivation of holdings throughout the whole of the rice area
in this division. Revenue and Settlement officers endeavoured from time to
time in the past to evolve some simple system of consolidation of holdings in
these areas. No real progress could, however, be made, as the cultivators them-
selves were backward and the voluntary exchange of fields was the only way
in which a holding could be consolidated. Government decided some nine years
ago to legislate in regard to consolidation and the ' Consolidation of Holdings
Act * was passed in 1928. The act and the rules thereunder now provide the
necessary machinery for the consolidation of holdings. The Consolidation
Officer can proceed to prepare a scheme of consolidation in a village when he
receives an application from not less than one-half of the permanent holders
in the village, holding not less than two-thirds of the occupied area. The Conso-
lidation Officer is assisted in his work by a panchayat of five villagers represent-
ing the different interests in the village. The rules provide for the hearing of
objections, the submission of voluntary schemes agreed to by the villagers and
various other matters, in which the villagers are closely associated ' with the
Consolidation Officer and his staff at every stage. The ultimate decision in case
of objections lies with the Settlement Commissioner. Before April 1938 there
were two Consolidation Officers and 40 Inspectors and over 1,100,000 acres had
been repartitioned in 1,172 villages of Drug and Raipur districts, the average
size of a plot being raised from \ acre to 3^ acres, and the total number of plots
brought down from 2,370,000 to 354,000. The average size of a rice field in
these consolidated villages is now six times the size ot former rice dolis. Inter-
vening bunds are being demolished and compact holdings have now come into
being.

THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE 291

The most encouraging feature of consolidation is its growing popularity.
The Chhattisgarh tenant is now fully alive to the benefits of consolidation, and
the work is making remarkable progress. The strength of the consolidation
staff had to be increased in order to cope with the increasing number of appli-
cations for consolidation, and the whole cost of the operations is now met by
the holders themselves. The average cost of consolidation is 4 as. an acre
and the entire cost of consolidating a village is willingly deposited by the villagers
in advance. A statement showing rate of progress through successive years
is given on page 292 :

NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE. Consolidation of holdings began in
1930 and about 26,000 acres have been repartitioned, the plots being brought
down frohi 38,000 to 7,500. The cost, consisting almost entirely of the pay of
staff, varies from Rs. 1-8 to Rs. 3 per acre depending on local circumstances.
The share of this cost which falls on the Government is more than com-
pensated by the extension of irrigation (from canals or old wells or from the
sinking of new wells) to land formerly dry, by the cultivation of waste land,
diminution of partition proceedings and of futile litigation and the reduction of
violent crime. The landowners and cultivators show their appreciation by
their readiness to make voluntary contributions.

JAMMU AND KASHMIR. The measure of consolidation of holdings was
introduced in the Jammu and Kashmir State in 1926 and the progress made
so far in this direction is noted as under :

No. of villages
consolidated

Area consoli-
dated in acres

No. of blocks before
consolidation

No. of blocks after
consolidation

189

36,047

85,576

11,498

The movement for consolidation of holdings is proving advantageous-
to zemindars in many respects. Re -stripping of scattered fields into blocks-
of economic size has rendered the ploughing, sowing, irrigation, protection and
harvesting much easier and less expensive. The cost is almost the same as in
the North- West Frontier Province.

BARODA. An act for consolidation of scattered holdings to be worked by
the Revenue Department was passed in 1921 and a further measure (XXVII
of 1933) to allow to neighbours a right of preemption in order to prevent fragment-
ation. Under this act two-thirds of the khatedars (cultivators) of a village,
holding not less than half of the total land, can apply to the Suba (District Magis-
trate) for consolidation of their land and the act is made applicable to the whole
village. Individual consolidation work is not done through this act. Although
it is considered desirable to amend rules so that individual khatedars may also-
be allowed to consolidate their small and scattered holdings by mutual exchange.
The work of consolidation of individual khatedars O was, however, started through
cooperative effort in 1925 by the Department of Cooperation. The work done
through these cooperative societies is on a voluntary basis. Ten or more persons-
of any village willing to consolidate their lands can form a society which after
due enquiry is registered. A board of directors is then formed and is em-
powered to consolidate the lands of the members of the societies by transfers
and a transfer statement is prepared. Documents of transfers are prepared

292 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

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THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE 293

from this statement which are then registered before the Sub-Registrar. After
the documents are registered the transfer statement is sent to Mahal Vahivatdar
concerned for transfers of names and for necessary changes in the registers.
After the lands are transferred in the revenue records consolidation is per-
manently effected. Mutation, however, in the settlement registers is left to
the will of the members. Thus land consolidated is not always compulsorily
brought under one survey number, although the holder is allowed to get his
several numbers in a block turned into one single holding even in survey
papers. The work of consolidation of holdings has been well begun in the Kadi,
Kalol, Sinor, Mahuva and Padra talukas. A total of almost 48,000 acres has
been consolidated under the act of 1921 of which 90 per cent was done through
the agency of cooperative societies and the remainder through revenue officers.
A statement showing the rate of progress made through successive years is
given on page 294. The success of this work largely depends on the efforts
of the honorary organizers and local revenue officers interested in cooperation.
The honorary organizers and the Government auditors who help in the
consolidation work are given a remuneration of Rs. 5 and Rs. 3 respectively
for each block reduced. Small pamphlets explaining the advantages of
consolidation are distributed among members of societies which are 74 in
number.

The difficulties experienced in getting cultivators to agree to consolidate
their holdings are their poverty, indebtedness, difficulty of obtaining in
exchange the same type of land and complicated processes required to be
undertaken for effecting change of holdings. To popularize the movement
the Government give amongst others the following special concessions :

(1) When a Barkhali alienated land is transferred with one under Sarkari
(Government) or Chakariat (village service) head the original sanad is issued
for the lands so transferred.

(2) Same concessions are given when a Chakariat land is transferred with
the Sarkari land.

(3) Exemption of registration fees.

(4) Instead of separate transmutation for every khatedar's land, all such
transmutations are entered in a single form, and sanctioned collectively. It
is also exempted from stamp duty.

(5) Exemption of stamp duty on documents of transfers of lands.

(6) Members have not to go to the Sub-Registrar's Office at the taluka town,
but the Sub-Registrar goes to the village when a sufficient number of transfers
of holdings are to be registered.

BHOFAL. The question of fragmentation and scattering of holdings is not
at all acute. Holdings are generally large and fairly compact and it is there-
fore not necessary to take any immediate steps towards consolidation. Some
rules, however, are framed by the Revenue Department to prevent fragmenta-
tion in such a way as to minimize this evil. The main provisions of these rules
entitled ' Rules governing Partition of Holdings ' ftre noted below :

(1) Every person, who enjoys the rights of a tenant in a holding as
prescribed in the Bhopal State Land Revenue Act (IV of 1932) and
whose name is entered in the register of rights*as a tenant or co-
sharer, can apply for the partition of his holding.

294 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

fc s

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THE COOPERATIVE MOVEMENT AS AFFECTING AGRICULTURE 295

Such application shall be submitted in writing to the Tehsildar and shall
mention, among other things which the applicant deems necessary, the following
facts :

(i) Name of village, tehsil and district in which the land to be partitioned

is situated ;
(ii) Khasra number giving area of each number as well as th total area

of the holding ;
(iii) Land revenue of each khasra number and total land revenue of the

holding ; and

(iv) Names of all the co-sharers with their fathers' name, caste and resi-
dence and area of each share.

An. attested extract from the jamabandi of the preceding year shall accom-
pany the application for partition.

2. (a) If the partition for which an application is made results in a holding
of less than five acres, the application shall be dismissed without any action
being taken on it.

(b) If the partition creates small holdings or holdings scattered in different
places over a large area and the co-sharers are thereby prevented from deriving
any benefit from such holdings owing to their being small or scattered,
the Tehsildar shall be entitled to dismiss the application giving reasons thereof
in writing.

3. When the application for partition is not dismissed under rule 2 above,
the Tehsildar shall issue a notice, giving information of the partition, in the
village where the land mentioned in the application is situated or in the village
from where it is cultivated. Notices shall also be issued to all the co-sharers
of the holding, binding them to be present on a specified date (falling 30 days
or at the most 60 days after the issue of the notice) and to file any objection
which they may desire to make. If the above notice is not served on any co-
sharer for some reason, the issue of the notice shall be considered to be equiva-
lent to the service of the notice. Besides the co-sharers of the land, the mort-
gagees of, and persons having permanent or temporary rights in the same, also
shall be entitled to file objections.

4. After hearing the claims of the applicant or applicants and the objections
of the objectors, if the Tehsildar does not find sufficient grounds for partition
or there be some other hindrance to the same, he shall dismiss the application
by a written order giving reasons thereof. If the Tehsildar finds sufficient
grounds for the partition and there be no hindrance to the same, he shall start
proceedings of partition.

5. The ptartition shall be made in one of the following ways :
(i) By mutual agreement.

(ii) By arbitrators appointed by the parties to the partition,
(iii) By the Tehsildar.

6. (a) (i) When the applicants agree to partition by mutual agreement,
the Tehsildar shall direct them to submit, within a specified time, a razinama
(deed of agreement) giving details of the partition.

(ii) When the applicants desire partition by arbitration, the Tehsildar shall
direct them to nominate their arbitrators. The arbitrators so nominated shall
submit their award giving details of partition within the period specified by the
Tehsildar.

296 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

(iii) When the Tehsildar himself partitions the land, he shall, after necessary
enquiry, inspection and measurement of the land on the spot, prepare a robkar
of the partition.

(6) It shall be obligatory to take the following facts into consideration :
(i) Kind of land ;

(ii) Nature of land, e.g., bir, charokhar, etc. ;
(iii) Sources of irrigation, if any ;

(iv) So far as possible, no fragments of khasra numbers should be made ;

(v) A khasra number, except enclosure of gattas or such number which

may be under irrigation at the time of partition or had been irrigated

during the preceding five years, should not be partitioned in such

a way as to form a piece of less than five acres in area ;

(vi) Partition should be made in such a way so as to make ever> share a

profitable holding ; and

(vii) All the numbers which fall to the share of a person should, so far as
possible, adjoin, or be adjacent to one another.

7. If the applicants do not submit the razinama mentioned in Rule 6 (a) (i)
or the arbitrators fail to send their award as provided in Rule 6 (a) (ii) within
the specified time, the Tehsildar shall himself make the partition.

8. When a holding is divided into shares by partition, it shall be incumbent
to proportionately fix the land revenue of each share.

9. The Tehsildar shall generally accept the partition made either by mutual
agreement or an arbitration award under Rule 6 above. But if in the case of
mutual agreement, the applicants, or in the case of arbitration, the arbitrators*
did not observe the limitations imposed by the rule just following, the Tehsildar
shall reject the mutual agreement or the arbitration award, as the case may
be, and shall himself make the partition.

10. If the Tehsildar accepts the original agreement or the arbitration award
and issues orders accordingly, no appeal shall lie to such an order passed by him.
All the other orders which may be passed under these rules shall be appealable
under Chapter IV of the Bhopal State Land Revenue Act (No. IV of 1932).

CHAPTER XIV
PUBLICATIONS OF THE AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENTS

A COMPLETE list of the agriculture and animal husbandry publications
Jrx issued in India during the year under review is given in Appendix XVI.
A brief account of the publications of the central, provincial and state
Agricultural and Veterinary Departments is given below :

Central Government publications. The Imperial Council of Agricultural
Research continued the publication of the three journals, viz. Agriculture and
Livestock in Iiidia, the Indian Journal of Agricultural Science ami the Indian
Journal of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, all of which reached the
eighth volume. The first two were issued bimonthly and the last one
quarterly. In addition to the three journals, the following publications
were issued :

(a) Scientific Monograph No. 11. Investigations on the Course and Distribu-
tion of the Nerves supplying Levator anguli scapuli and Rhomboideus
muscles and the formation of the Phrenic Nerve in the Ox, with
observations on certain Anatomical Deviations , by H. N. Chelva
Ayyangar.

.(b) Miscellaneous Bulletin No. 15. Selected Clinical Articles, Part II, by
O. K. Sharma, R. L. Kaura, S. Uanapathy Iyer, G. S. Khan and
8. Mangrulkar.
Miscellaneous Bulletin No. 16. Indian Grazing Conditions and the

Mineral Contents of some Indian Fodders, by Dr. P. E. Lander.
Miscellaneous Bulletin No. 17. A Brief Survey of some of the
Important Breeds of Cattle in India, by Col. Sir Arthur Olver.

Three miscellaneous bulletins and one scientific monograph were in the
press at the end of the year.

Provincial and state publications. In addition to ordinary leaflets in Indian
languages on matters of agricultural interest, the wide distribution of which is
a feature of all provincial Agricultural Departments, leaflets in more popular
form are now being issued in some provinces. Their effectiveness is limited by
the illiteracy of the bulk of the cultivating classes.

In MADRAS the Department of Agriculture issued 11 leaflets, eight broad
hint series, five pamphlets and two notes. About 20,000 copies of the Villager's
Calendar for 1037-38 (in English and four provincial languages) were printed
and distributed. A monograph on the coconut and a popular English hand-
book on rice in Madras were published. A popular account of the activities
of the Agricultural Department from 1922 to 1935 was published. Twenty-
nine short notes on the activities of the department were issued to the local
papers. The Madras Agricultural Journal, issued by the Madras Agricultural
Students' Union, continued to be popular. v

In BOMBAY the Agricultural Department contributed articles dealing with
local agricultural problems to newspapers and magazines in the districts. A
special leaflet showing how to organize gun-clubs and a poster to show how the

( 297 )

298 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Forest, Police and Agricultural Departments can cooperate in the protection of
crops were printed and distributed. A bulletin on the development of the
Jcagdi lime industry in Western India and a leaflet on the grading of grapes
in the Nasik district were published. The Poona Agricultural College Magazine
was as usual issued quarterly. The Deccan Agricultural Association published
its monthly Marathi magazine, the Shetki and Shetkari. The new Gujarati
monthly magazine, Khedut, Kheti and Sahakar, continued publication with
the joint efforts of both Cooperative and Agricultural Departments and is
stated to be growing in popularity.

In BENGAL all the leaflets and bulletins published previously by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture were reprinted for wide circulation amongst cultivators.
A bulletin on the open pan system of white sugar manufacture was published.

In the UNITED PROVINCES the Department of Agriculture issued 24 leaflets ;
six pamphlets and seven bulletins. The departmental magazines Kisan Upkark
and Mufid-ul'Mazarain continued to be published. The fortnightly issue of
The Bulletin of the United Provinces Fruit Development Board was con-
tinued as usual by the provincial Marketing Officer, the bulletin gives, among
other things wholesale and retail prices of fruits in some of the important markets
of the United Provinces.

The PUNJAB Department of Agriculture continued to issue half yearly
Seasonal Notes. The Lyallpur Agricultural College Magazine completed the
fifth year of its existence. The Punjab Fruit Journal, issued by the Punjab
Fruit Development Board, Lyallpur, published an annual number during the
year, which contained English and Urdu sections dealing with various aspects
of the fruit industry in the country.

The Department of Agriculture, BIHAR, issued nine bulletins and three
leaflets. The Provincial Agricultural Association journal Kimn continued to
be published. The journal is issued quarterly in Hindi and is stated to be
very widely appreciated.

In the CENTRAL PROVINCES AND BERAR bulletins and leaflets are published
in English, Marathi and Hindi. The leaflets generally deal with agricultural
subjects in a popular way and are distributed free at all important fairs and
shows. Besides other publications, the department issued nine leaflets. The
Nagpur Agricultural College Magazine, published quarterly, continued to be-
popular.

The ASSAM Department of Agriculture issued 12 leaflets and three bulletins.-

The Agricultural Department of the NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE
issued Quarterly Notes (i.e., January, April, July and October) from the Agri-
cultural Station, Tarnab. The periodical is intended to give information
about different aspects of agricultural developments in the province.

The Department of Agriculture, SIND, issued seven new leaflets, 10 revised
leaflets and 48 press notes during the year. These publications are issued in
English and Sindhi and keep the zemindars and the literate haris (tenants)
well informed of agricultural developments. Leaflets written in simple dialogue-
are read out to haris.

In BALUCHISTAN a leaflet on the control of codling moth in Baluchistan
was distributed free to cultivators.

In HYDERABAD leaflets on improved varieties of crops, methods of cultiva-
tion, manures, implements, cultivation of fruits, poultry keeping and important

PUBLICATIONS 299

pests were distributed free in large numbers. The Hyderabad Farming
Association continued to issue its quarterly magazine, The Hyderabad Farmer,
which is an important medium for agricultural propaganda. The English
quarterly and the Kannada monthly published by the Agricultural Experimental
Union, Mysore, continued to be popular. In BARODA six messages to farmers
were issued during the year. A number of other publications in English and
in the local language were also published on different subjects. A publication
entitled Fifty Years Onward : History of the Department of Agriculture for the
last 50 Years was also published. The Department of Agriculture and Fisheries,
TRAVANCORE, published four pamphlets during the year. In COCHIN three
leaflets and two bulletins dealing with cultivation, manuring and insect pests
were issued during the year. In BHOPAL leaflets with parallel Urdu and Hindi
texts on typical subjects were published for distribution to cultivators.

CHAPTER XV

RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE OF THE AGRICULTURAL AND
VETERINARY DEPARTMENTS

THE financial aspects of the Agricultural and Veterinary Departments of the
central, provincial and state Governments during 1937-38 are summarized
in Statements I and II. Statements IIIA and IIIB show the figures analyzed
under various sub-heads.

The total gross expenditure of the central and provincial Departments of
Agriculture has risen from Rs. 145-09 lakhs in 1936-37 to Rs. 15Oo7 lakhs in
1937-38. The total gross expenditure of the central and provincial Veterinary
Departments has increased from Rs. 66-1 lakhs in 1936-37 to Rs. 71-4 lakhs in
1937-38. There is thus a rise of nearly Rs. 5 lakhs each in the total expenditure
of the Agricultural and Veterinary Departments during the year.

STATEMENT I

Receipts and expenditure of the Agricultural Departments in India for 1936-37

and 1937-38

Central institute, province or state

1930-37

1937-38

Receipts

Expenditiire

Receipts

Expenditure

British India

Imperial Agricultural Reserach Institute,

New Delhi.

Imperial Dairy Department, Bangalore .
Madras ......

Bombay ......

Bengal ......

United Provinces .....

Punjab ......

Bihar .......

Central Provinces and Berar .

Assam . ...

North- West Frontier Province

Sind
Baluchistan .

TOTAL FOR BRITISH INDIA

02,436

8,74,0.-)0

73,217

7,38,037

1,14.481*

2,00,044*

1,16,528

2,21,307

1,&8,7!>2

19,54.180

3,54,945

22,30,709

1,08,83.-)*

11,43,333*

1,90,720

11,00,477

72.HUO*

10,90,000*

70,700

9,47,700

4,52,067*

25,08,039*

4,24,810

20,60,775

11,78,271*

32,60,167*

12,25,308

35,63,560

1,20,361

10,22,521

1,29,429

8,08,519

2.33.002

10,71,338

2,00,340

10,22,300

58,579*

4,81,112

06,420

4,97,815

45,268*

1,14.949*

81,722

2,18,056

25,435

1,00,013*

23,094

1,00,840

79,055

5,61,272*

1,19,533

7,09,228

7,760

50.038

5,970

53,441

28,14,122

1,45,09,056

30,88,730

1,50,07,944

Indian States

49,983*

7,38,507*

55,765

7,95,376

Tl <1

28,157*

3,90,117*

47.188

4,75,017

jBaro *

9,331

1,24,841*

8,217

1,34,085

i'rhin

21,033

84,948

28,978

1,12,923

10,903

61,181*

7,221

47,852

Janunu and Kashmir ....

71,445*

1,82,087*

61,702

1,28,793

TOTAL JOR INDIAN STATES - .

2,33,631

24,78,207

2,32,292

25.79.745

TOTAL FOR BRITISH INDIA AND INDIAN

STATES.

30,47,753

1,69,87,323

33,21,028

1,70,47,080

* Revised figures.
( 300 )

RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE
STATEMENT II

301

Receipts and expenditure of the Civil Veterinary Departments in India during

1936-37 and 1937-38

Central Institute, province or state

1936-37

1037-33

Receipts Expenditure

Receipts

Expenditure

Imperial Veterinary Research Institute,
Mukteswar.

Madras ......

Bombay

Bengal ......

United Provinces ...

Punjab ......

Bihar

Central Provinces and Berar .

Assam

North- West Frontier Province

Orissa ......

Sind

Baluchistan .....

Coorg

AJmer-Merwara ...

TOTAL FOB BRITISH INDIA

British India.

5,22,609

7,28,591

5,13.329

8.22 073

82,042*

11,47,843*

94,013

12,41,814

30,769*

5,22,915*

34,688

5,36,721

1,26,411*

4,17,371*

1,46,688

4,28,254

1,30,525

4,49,707

1,33,347

4,36,118

1,42,160

21,47,472

2,03,801

23,52,028

1,80,559

4,59,277*

1,87,522

4,45,887

54,810*

1,06,141*

34,148

77,903

1,333

1,83,894

1,544

1,91,677

5,000*

1,41,100*

12,685

2,73,480

19,024

89,396

25,191

1,03,101

9,171*

1,22,282

21,405

1,39.894

Nil

63,389

Nil

60,067

21,878

22,609

Nil

11,546

1,141

10,467

13,04,565

60,12,802

14,09,567

71,42,693

Indian States

13,597*

4,96,694*

24,434

23,154

2,62,390

20,445

2,92,135

9,992*

1,27,200*

19,288

1,51.679

270*

36,282*

369

38,636

Nil

9,252*

Nil

10,334

Nil

15,511

Nil

34,959

Jammu and Kashmir ....

151*

56,614*

279

78,587

TOTAL FOE INDIAN STATES

47,164

10,04,003

64,815

6,06,3^0

TOTAL FOB BRITISH INDIA AND INDIAN

STATES.

13,51,729

70,10,805

14,74,382

77,49,023

* Revised figures.

t Figures not available.

502 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

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CO 10" 5f -s" O r-T (-T frf ) -t" C? ^l"

i^ i"5 O 1 O -

CvJ

1 1 | 1 s s 2

VD r-.

| I | i 1 | 1 | * : a S 1 | * 3 = a - :

irt co g

: c '' ^ 3 5 5 5

s ^

CO ^~ 0" 00 JH" Cl" fff -T 0* 1<" cT CO

?^ 30 00 S

ggSIISIS2fl8Ii

. -t CO 00 1-1

'^" cj ij; * c< " ^ C1 " M " "^ o -^ o i-<

sc o

O 71 O O rH i-(

| g | s i | i s a i - I 1 1 : : ^ ^ ?1

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1 5

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^ _"* -2 J2 o j3 'S
s *> -5 "^ ^ to *
^152353

5 ^ ? Si 2 -3 3s

ll8S;*23*sa-as5lll!il

?25=1'I^5S-J5.2?152,1|||

O O > '-^ -^ ^i H rj o> ^ =*; ^ -^ -v, ^ to ^ Q) 35 ^

310 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

ou t~ oj ^"

3 * o <o

t- <N **

00
-Jt|-*

| S 3 g 2'
of wr

oo m O5 o

Sfi 3"

>o" of oo

1-(00-4

N irt
0.

co o i-J o>" <N~ o n

.-: r-i T i-( O rH

o -t

00 O

-t

01 o m

t~ CM -I

5 I S

a" "

Depart-
mental
seed

1 II I

S q

os r

B g"

10 W

i i

oo"

. . g

PU I?

8 II 1 S

APPENDIX I

311

8tft I-. OQ i N CO 01 W 00 00 r- *
CO <0 < rH <0 t~ & <0 t~ gjOOOS
r- ^ O t-~ * ^t m r-. co "> in o o co eo

SI <N O M
. q o o 3^ 5 o w

of co" i-i . o" o oo <?" oT " - CM* r- o" of **
; 3 o oo <0 ia o o r- ri i-i

co kfl os eo t-

CO 0-J

S e>l co w^2S

t-^ O 00 C4 <N * C 1 ^ O Oi_
C-l* CO* t-T . " tff OO" fl" N CO

RS^^S^SS

o>t>ooo'i<ini-
CM* iT oo" *$ <o co* <o"

O 00 (M Ol O O

w eo <M i eo 1-1 cv o
^< r-i m c-i o>i co IM '*

r-T ... . W"

O Cl I- O O O t> (M

T. & CM fH 1H T.

W <M O -* "1 t CO CO Cl O CO J5 fH CJ >fl
ooeor^o oo*it-0'.* o>>no*
eo o^ co <o i-^ o o^ -- 3_ -<r o_ oo r-
" PI" i^ V flf IN" " oo" no of cT i-" oo" eo"
^^ot^^ooo mi-< H

CO co Tt Tl

OQOO-1'OOH
O0'-r-t'-l00

o t- ci o> o * C^ i>

r-T t-T tC *f O" CO "<"

1- 71 1^ O
CM
CJ T 00 t-

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00 O "K C Cl Ol
O rH 00 <i CO O O

o 55 >' C4 r co* ^r

-r c- o

t- O5 u-^

C L

ggsa^ass

8 .

. . s . . 1 . . . s ..

illiii ill ill fSli

^PQOHOS ^PnO^OO h m P4 i?

1 x "S o ^

1 I ? 3 1 | 1 1

^csS o 3 t a). 2
02J1.CSUOPP3S

I
I 1 I

312 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

s
^
s

~> *0 LO L"i i"5 Q O =O CJ t* O <N H 00 O !3 C4 >**

2 ^ ;: 3 -' * " g 8 $ 8 $ S 3 % 3 3

^J 1 "* ^ o so so o oo oo &? r- t

foSSS? WMOOO^S^OO^ ^^^

3 - : IS-S^gggS'S"

s? - *1 a S SSgSgS25 2 S 5

111

: i ^ o o a >j

^. ^, ^, "* *t ^ H . ". 1 ^ ^.

* #

i-T ^ tf -H" O O* nT 30 '>

0:0 ^^J 1 ^ 00 ;i

* * *
OOOt^-M 00 O o r- H -H 00

S O i-t CO O (X) -^ 00 O :O JO -O
O '-0 <-> *_ ri 1-1 !! O CO I-l

Ii"

. . . 8 .

Province or state

1 1

i i ;

3 S

|' If

i 1

jS^ rl 1

APPENDIX I

313.

<N C 1-1 CO <T. rH

10 rH ^

^H 1-1 m n CO 00 iH

c. it co -r c-J

, . I - :

CO O O

O 5 5 CO O

S 3 3

8 -a

1 1

I =

1 3 I

314 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

'
o-^

5 r-(

r-( C5

VO rH i-l

* *

3 S S

OiCO<

^ s s g

APPENDIX I

315

S 3 S

S S 8 8

S S 3 2

2 9
o is

} 5 3 .

o o o

rt <N

*=> &

8 g

& %

a s

>> H

w H

I 1

w -s

I-'.JY

2fc-| 5 jj

I I ll i li

' ]L tl I t tl

S. g

If i
1 rs

S S S

M ^ a
*

i p

^ ft

^ -^

I S
w *

S S

I 1

1 i

* S

1 I

APPENDIX II

317

t ti & i | t i

* <g <! . * s <:

h * ii * 8 ** *

5 &

| B tf I I J I II |a^ .

| jjL |>8 I Si | J| I

*!iii| ii i II ^i P Q

|15 |ll 11 p 11 |1S

Q GO < O *< Q

pi I

i <t> o

:f-!j 2

Q c SIS

si I, II

i i

ii it jii linn

o *. 5 d, HI

S a

I 3 I 5

ails
g E

i i

a 5
I

8 5 8 S

1 I

U ' !* . i 1

I I lit Ii 1 I i

318

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

I | *f|S

il I ll

|| ^ 1 j*|

$!> S a *'s T3 i

11 i| In 1 !

So | sn <2

11 i! ' ' ' If

^0 ^t v/E

*<A

!^ I I ill 1 1 1 If s ill

S fi p -= fl fl Q g >s Q ft P P

Director <
, Gujarat.

11 >.ll >jl

&S ||| pi

? v. t c n

s -c,- tf S ' o S ^~ 5' ' 1?

t I !l 1 f. ! . i 1 II 1 1

<s>

tr Jn immediat

1 ! !f ii 51 1 3 i l"j P'! 1 f U

G C "S"-" ** -fi ^ W f rt *" c C P c ** 0*0 ^i

|s g S| w | |g" as |g eg |5 |g Hg"

-I

cftc^Wf^jfc M dc K cc ccP^i^

(r.
1

1
_c

t^OOQiOO iMr1> O <M OOOOC

^ ... . *- " *-

S" 1 ^ | I |

?!-'! ' <: c' ' ^ -

lg.l|| ^ " 1 1 !

j^ ig S e8 "rtt^ jsSfcidKiH

i i S 1 i 1 t 1 | i ! i g

s i II j 1 111 i | |1:

| f !| | f ||| I If | ft ||

I f f! 1 I 111 1 |I 1 II |i

nWPMW rtWS O O Mrto

-S

APPENDJX H

319

pa under actual cultiva-
n.

acres farm area and
2 acres gra/mg area at

B
I

la now converted into
mmercfal fruit farm.

accounting for mixed
rnimg with livestock
iMiig.

W.S

<**

S-

a
5

3 2

o'
Q

1 Professor of Agriculture,
Acricnlti-ral C'ollego,
Poona.

Crop Botanist to Govern-
ment, Bombay Presidency ,
Karjat.

Livestock Expert to
Government Bombay
Presidency, Poona.

Horticulturist to Govern-
ment, Bombr.J Presidencv,
Poona.

Profsor of Agricultural
Economic^. Agricultural
College, Poona

A^tetant Director of Agri-
culture, Bengal.

(11) Cotton Breeder, South
Gujarat, Surat.

Tobacco Breeder, Nadiad

(i) Superintendent, Broach
Farm.

(ii) Cotton Breeder, Broach

Superintendent, Bohad
Farm, Dohad.

Cotton Breeder, Xorth
Gujarat, Viramgam

Superintendent. Aericultura
College Farm, Poona.

Manager, AgricutJural
College, Kirkee.

Superintendent. Rice Breed
ing Station, Karjat.

Superintendent, Cereal
Breeding Station,
Xiphad.

Manager, Northcote Cattle
Breeding Farm, Chharodi

Manager, Cattle Breeding
Farm, Bankapur.

Supprintendent, Ganesh-
khind Fruit Experiment
Station, Kirkee, Diutnct
Poona.

Superintendent, Modibag,
Agricultural College,

Poona

Investigator in Agricultural
Economics, Agricultural
College, Poona.

Distrht Agricultural
Officer, Chittagong Hill
Tracts.

<!t

e-i

c-j

S-

Kirko,'

c
1

-3

iL,~

c43

rr'-S

1 =

Xadiad (District Kaira

Viramgam (Dis-tri* t Al

IAsrimltural Collece F.
tnrt Poona)

1 Agricultural CoIK-sre
(Di-trict Po<in,i).

Biro Breedinc Station,
Kolaha)

Cereal Breeding Statin
tnct Xaik)

Xorthrote Cattle B
Chharodi (Uiitrict A

1 Cat tie Breeding Fa
(Dis-tnct Dharwar).

Gfnrshkhiml Fruit
Station, Kirkee (I)i^

1 Modibag. Agricultural
(DMnrt Poona).

Samarkh, Kasor ant
Anand (PMrict K-d

Go\err.ment Agrici
llangamati (C'lnttflg

320

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

jF!

Hfsl* si s

lpp| 5 I|
8^.8-.,* ,Mj

II
&

if:.

I o

* i w

! i! !!

5 *

w s

i i

I I

s a

g |

^ I

"5 5

I 5 -

A 38

il O

APPENDIX H

321

S)M . .

1 I II

I fl I*

55555

3 |*
. P

t** 3 V | 3

2 -3555

<i L- . H I! '

! il $ '

I a a

u> a

oB 1

& a

rni 1 1 ii P

if -s

"it

322

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

' OT3 H

g, S 5 g,

^.5 S ^s

f 3 o

Qg- f 5g.

I! I li

ft W O

1 1

ft Q tt

i|s

APPENDIX II

323

IS 2 .

I 2 I

I
1

1^1

3|2S

g-5

i s !
*?*

"^fc-S

^l^

s^s-g

ts ft -

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S-S

^ a *"3

fill

"" 3

1 1 s - ' s

1 11 - 2

B : s

Sc 3*;

JJ1 If

1J S - If II

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|| 0^ -S B og

g j| H || 1 1 1 1 j {:<.

5 f g^ . C fi G | .|

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11 11

a 85

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| S I 1 I 35 | SS

i^i |<i

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P "

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S 1 s

* - 1
5^2 2 21-^322

^222

| 2 egg

S ss s s a
pfcp flltOGf 3

p S

t$ ~ a +^

1 If

c c -* 5

g |

^ C fn

ft, w h

i *

Sfrl W T-t
10 r-

ggg S 8 S 8 3 8 S

8 B S s

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III

it * ' S

P ~ *

fH S'd ^ S

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iiii 5 1

If II !

gi2 go IS,

O O ta

J5 | $ 5

, , I I

1 s S |
| g I 4

324

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

SIS

S 5 3

P Sd

45 OQ-C

.
s 8,8 &g

I I I I I

Q fi p P Q

5 3

3 S

5 5

3 333

** -tJ 4_> S

3 353

5 3 3 t=
I 3 5 |

: ?s

I i&s

^ a^i:

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s $ s

S 3 3

S S 3

SCJ G
01

O Cl

rH O

APPENDIX II

325*

>
8

III

a <a

g 5

S ^"**

Breeding and yield
parison experiment
wheat and barley.

Breeding plot.

.SI

1
1

For practical train!
students.

Ditto.

H*^ s

flsi

are seven acres
teaching collection a
botanical garden.
Experiments with frui

Mainly a seed farm

District Farm.

85 -G

i Seed Farm.

Experimental and Seed
Seed Farm.

Experimental Farm.

District Farm.

3 -

S tc

ifessor of Agri
d Professor o:
e, Lyallpur.

tto

3 ^

5 J -

B 5

?lsi

u ij 1

5 .

ft 1 ft

2^5

Cerealist,
tural C

it
C

5S3

as Si

Professor
Agricul
Lyallpv

Deputy j
culture

Cerealist,
tural C

I 1

-g

a
o

. Sb

fis

M
o

g S

S 1

^ c.

"fl'3

"p tS

S ft

-|-S

-2-2 j>

1 S

is -i

fcC

Cl X

"*"

o m

a
,2

? I

c
.2

1 1

^^^

fl"

t>t

> s

. 5

1 .'

1 LyallpuT Agricultural

Cereals Breeding Fan

I Cotton Research Stat

1 Cotton Research F;
(Lyallpur District).

,d
t3

Students' Farm, Lyal]
Dairy Farm, Lyallpui

t-i

i
i

Fruit Farm, LyaDpur

Bisalewala Farm (L;

Jhang Farm (Jhang)

Bice Farm, Kala Shah
pura District).

Montgomery Agrici
(Montgomery).

j Shergarh Farm (Moni

Fatna Farm (Montgo
Yusafwala Farm (Mon

Multan Farm (Multan
Vihari Farm (Multan

Gurdaspur Agricul
(Gurdaspur).

1 Beas Farm (Amritsar

326

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

r st

% .

District Fai

Experiment

District Far

Seed Farm.
Ditto.

District Fai

Experiment

Botanical e:

District Fai

is
^

District Fai
Ditto.

Agricultural

Experiment

District Fai

"3d

^.8

a*
P

:>y Director
e, Rawalpint

1 S

o 5

t.y Director
nire, Hansi

i sorof Botan;
icultural
illpur.

1 1

S Q

;y Director
ture, Jullund

3 3

|33

c
,o

"or?

3 3

*3.*a

5 5

3 03

S io

I 1

*n
^ i?

Q J

"S,

-A

2 ^>

.2
2

Agricultural rese

Attari Farm (Amritw

Gujranwala Farm (G

Rawalpindi Agrici
(Rawalpindi).

Campbellpur Farm

Gujrat Farm (Gujrat;

Chilli an\\ala Farm ((
Sargodha Old Farm (

j Sargodha New Farm

Mianwali Farm (Miai

HanM Act icultural
District)

Botanical Sub-btatic
District).

-3

Rohtak Dry Farming
(Ilohtak).

Ambala Farm (Amba
Karnal Farm (Kama

Ludhiana Farm (Lud

3
DO

Jullundur Ai;ncul
(Jullundur City).

..._<

8
a

]

c
P

APPENDIX II

327

II'

gg,
5-3 .

I I -

5 S 5

J J

I
5

J } 1 1 II j 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 j

a i

*l i i i i i

|| | S S S g

g g

!,; ! I

^ t

s .-
s a

h r

S k

S Q PQ

s l

|
2

^S
g-8

rm,
aba

3a 32

1 l

IS S5

i & -si -g| i

8,3 2t| SS &S I

M ~ M "^ J7-' JT--' JT

&5 83

K X^

.328

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Remarks

ervlslng officer

1, Agricultural
e, Nagpur.

Director of Agri-

Ditto.

1 1 I 1

fi fi Q

1 1

5 5

3333333
2 5 S g 25 *2

Q Q p Q Q Q fi

|I | J

ji5 |1

a;
"2

I 5 3

3 | 3 |

1 S

S 5 5 5 5 1 5

f 5 Q

5 5 S 5

S 5

S I 5 5 5 5

a
c

<0 OS CO
W <N

S S

rH Cl rn C-J

O O rH O Ol O
l O t> i-t r^ t O
r-l r-( rl lO <N M W

I
<

I 1 E

5 s i |

= i

E g s e s i i

** <2 *

.3? M S Q

OS S 03 88 oj 08

s *

. * fe H

PI [

ft, PCI ^ FM HH fH fc

Agricultural research static

Experimental Farm, Najrpur (]
Nagpur).

Experimental Farm, LabhandJ <
Raipur).

Seed and Demonstration
Waraseoni (District Balaghat

Seed and Demonstration Farm
(District Betul).

Seed and Demonstration
Bilaspur (District Bilaspur).

! Seed and Demonstration
[ Buldana (District Buidana).

Seed and Demonstration Farm
(District Drug).

Seed and Demonstration
Khandwa (District Nimnr).

Seed and Demonstration
Chandkhuri (District Raipur)

1 f ^ 1 ^ gf
ll ll Sl Sf S| S| Si

-S c ** o +* 5f *? "^ -P ^-' -H> ^ -t 3 3

jS eiti K! Tcp was To "3 M^!
Cfl (=* CS Brt c-t> C^ 5 (5^.

o ^s o*s cio o"* 1 o~ o* o'g'

J- s. s s-g e5 e sr
4>C & d>^5 5 o5 a; *1
.H A Hg (5^3 fig 0| fig

if l| l| 1| l| 1| 1|

|l |H |5 |5 |l JR |1

Central Provi
contd.

APPENDIX IE

329

S 3l

<5?g

II II

.T: T; -< -
Q ft A ft

I 1

III

5 5 S

3 5

5 5

vn p

<N Ob

3 5

330

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY W INDIA 1937-38

immediate

ural
u).

c m s. ^ c HM
a~ Sr- Sk-

anacer, Frui
Larkana.

,!*

, Govern
iary Farm, N

harge,
search

Ill III

i i

Agri

a a 1

_. " Pk

aripur Ex

iary
ion,

Aux
du).

P jj H E 4J

Is IS IB

vem
Distri

e R
triet

11
1?
II

eed Far
r Paxkar)

ve
(Di

APPENDIX II

331

< Si

S-5

jputy Director
culture, Left
Hyderabad.

Ditto.

zricultural Ofl
Baluchistan.

eputy Director
culture.West Te

spnty Director
culture, East Te

sputy Director
culture, Karnat
sion.

?puty Director
culture, Godav
sion.

|j 1

f^l

sputy Director
culture, Godav
sion.

;puty Director
culture, Bang

4>(^

^ 3

s ^ g

G
i

Manager, Go
Auxiliary Farm

Manager, Goi
Auxiliary Farm

Manager, Go^
Auxiliary Far
Idan.

Assistant Pomolo

I
1

Farm Superintend

Ditto
Ditto
Fieldman

Farm Superintend

Vice Principal in
Hebb.tl Farm.

a s

S 8 "-11

,0 o3

5 M^

I ?

(District

m, Oderolal

m, Pad Idan

O 1

5
P

, Himayat-
alda).

Raichur .

i, Parbhani

s ^ 1
a "s s

1 If I

a &

Jamesabad Sub -static
Thar Parkar).

Deh 257 (District Thar I

1 Nawabshah Sub statio
Nawabshah).

1 Government Auxiliary FJ
(District Hyderabad).

1 Government Auxiliary ]
(District Nawabshah).

Government Auxiliary Fa
(District Nawabshah).

Fruit Experiment Statio

Government Seed Farn
District).

Main Experimental Far
sagar (District Atraf-e-

Main Experimental Farm

Main Experimental Fanr

Main Experimental Far

Experimental Farm, San
trict Medak).

Experimental Farm,
Rndrur (District Nizan

Poultry Farm, Himayats
Atraf-e-Balda).

Poultry Farm, Parbhani

1 Government Experime
Hebbal (District Banga

v '

332

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

is ig ib

<? la <t
*< eg -85

II.

I
s

' I

3 1

' _!|- -I

|| || | . >.

I I si 11 I I o 1

1 5 -aa 56 | | I |

s H, < ^ a o >

S I

S S

SCO *

5 ^

S S

APPENDIX II

333

Director
and Fish

& .1 & &

-< PQ ft fi

II
H

3 P
5

O -

(- cj 3

III

SiS

5^
||
1^

perime
Amreli)

gricultural
Amreli (

&
5

^ -3

& i

tation,

&
s

overnme
Trichur.

i!
"

Filled
bubstan-
tively

00 nrHtQOptOlOCft^lO

-H ^^cS^MO-HiA^

53 IH 00 \& r* rH

3 . | S f ^ 2 = - 2

co -2 S

ill

s . . a = ,,,,,

Ss5

. -o o

s 1 i a a - -

035 o

o co M r-i a <N eo

ij-S's

erf

a
yj

C> 01 CO O W C"J

Ja-a
si

^ .*<*.<>

'3 1

^j>

^s3

fl ,

X R

1*1

a *
SI 1

05
p

Q <

W ^3

A "Q

3-3

W (NH^rHffi A *

fe a*j

f-*

i 13 D

co jS ao ~ 1 ^>25 < ^ t '-''* <w

a c-3

H W ^ N H

w *

|jf

00 iH

-3

^l 3

J|-o

f-io * fi r* M r^

Qi*

2 "-2p5 *

| Jl^ : i

ill J

! ^J 1 ! ! I ! i ! ! I

APPENDIX III

336

CO r-t

00 * H rH

if
H

o ^

lisa

o!4l

i s i i

D
I

* 2? S3

iH t O

I
I

* I I I s

OJ U5 fH h- 00 CO

fH Q C3> r^ rH IQ

O O 00 <O O H

O "1

000O<Ot*-iH03C0H
t-i*.C>IiM-*Ci9OQr4
CO O I- 0> S

H" ^" rf

* of

3 s

-I

04 04 O
0^ 00

' *" cf

J 22S25|^S . ^ ^ " S . .^

^COCO OlrHlH II'.',

ss^rts^g^s S H & li *" s

rHNNHt-Soi * H< ^'**

CO t>T r-" ' iH T-l

:::;;; ;i :.". ;;.':!;;

i ! i

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1-1

1936-37

O J>
*. *.

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1

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1

ED DIST:

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CEJPT WHE
WISE ST

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I I

APPENDIX VI

339

f> O

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rf 2? 2

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o^ id <o o eo e
S 5 S eo

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Ift

rH t 'f CO O M

5 3 S g S

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f>73
(seeds) cwt.

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B CAR

w f cT

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APPENDIX VH

341

^ 3

1-4 CO

g s

r- O

ec i-t

t- 0> t

eo oo eo

Jl! 1

S s .

.2 g

Applications
for
admission '

% rt^ S_2

^ " 4*

-i

,C3

EH *"

3^2

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APPENDIX VIII

a s S; - -

3*3

<N <N

-) >

s s

-a 15

i! H
ii I *

la i |

B O o

implement
manures

year degre

dian
Co

1 i

- >>

S i

^ <

s 5

I I

3fi!ii|l|!~i|!l|

^-ro^^lofc'S.S&.S^

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

!H]|

= = s a =

S ?! 8 2 -

? ~l

-H -H CO M FH c* C4 C4 CM tC CP

2*3 S

* 2 *~ S % $ g S 8

111

1 1

<o -01 o . t- 10 o

M frl 01 rH n ^i 9

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t 2 !

< *

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toooiftto o **.j 2

1 . . , - . s .

O O rH
' "*

2 l|

^ iH VH H 54 rH N

rH 2

a o *< ^ r^

^ N N rH N N

i 3 B S .

3,*" a

Course of instruction

- to *< -d-o w p 43 A

i B, 1 S . SI 1 1*

k i. 5 y r ! if

1* o 4 * i? s "?> "* - &I 1

i S I !i all s ^l *l *n

'&> H w M H H H

One -year Mali class

Two months' Beekeeping
class at Baison (Kulu).

Two weeks' Estate Managers

Jail Warden' Conne .
Four-year Degree cours^
B.So.(Ari.) .

|i'

1 1

i 1

I *

APPENDIX VIU

345

s s

. I

S 2 3

3 8

l^sllslrll^ll

IlfUf^IirHi!

i i n

^wilsSaSgfSSll^s 8 3 I 8

H H H S h H

s course
anic
' cou

rs of Agri(
It | apt pria

i ^ H g-Si

S*> T

mil

^ S^

, I

346

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

38!

2-a >.
'P

ss^

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APPENDIX VIII

347

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frl

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ts.

I 5

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2

%
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K 0) 43

ill

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ocieti
46,0
duals

oo"

I> 1-1 00 CO

APPENDIX IX

349

o u 10

I ^

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S- 3

co -H ro cs

l ^ "1
co ^ <N

1
1

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i 1

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350 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

s',

I I

s-g.;

or state

00 tfO lO
<N CO O

I .
li

I 1

i i

and

I
I

.
and sale

APPENDIX IX

351

2
33

"i S

*! GO

S 8'

55 <N

i *

1 1

I 1

.352 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Profit (-f)
and loss ( )
for the year

^ + 5 f +

+ 10,819

s *"*

+ ^*

CO -< CO

to '-i r-

5" J

r-4 r-(

CO*

111

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t- O

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APPENDIX IX

355

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APPENDIX X

355

1
3

r-t

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,: . ; ( ; :

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] 1 I I 1 1 i

S J S o a

APPENDIX XII

Cattk issued from the Government farms during 1937-38

Province or state

Bulls

Cows

Male

buffaloes

She
buffaloes

Young
stock

Total for
1987-88

Total for
1936-87

Imperial Agricultural

Research Institute, New

Delhi

Agricultural Sub-station,
KarnaJ.

101

166

272(o)

Imperial Dairy Institute,
Bangalore.

111

Madras ....

120

Bombay ,

205

104

United Provinces

528

105

644

1,087

Punjab ....

775

136

453

1,364

1,132:

Bihar ....

Central Provinces and Berar

221

886.

Assam ....

Bind

1 t

Indian Statei

Hyderabad

107

172

180

Mysore ....

168

224

170-

Barodft .

Cochin ....

(a> Includes animals of the Hariana herd transferred to the Animal Nutrition j***^ 9 ^*
(6) In addition to the above, 1,880 bulls were purchased from the Punjab and iasuea free tor
the year 1037-38,

( 367 )

"*.

s~*.

w
cu

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co 3

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359

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360 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

cc~ i-~ oi

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CM

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rH 10 cf

rH OS

00 rH

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CO O iO rH

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5 5

rH CO

t-T

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GO*

00 rH tt $5

CO rH rH CO
^ ^ CO

if i

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CD"

"* rH*

CO
OJ

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CD
CO

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to_ ^ o
cf cs"

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5*1

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1- CO CO rH

CO rH O
CO t CO
00 CJ_ *

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1933-34.

O CO CS rH
^ " 1 |

133,282

(^ CD rH rH

3 | 3 ^

00 t-T

5 s r' a : : r s t r :

8 . ^

* 1*

a * 1 2 , 1 * \

1 3 i s s g :-

I 5l ll lllll I If

^UojO g w

862

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

ct S

s s

S S

W3 ** CO *

S fc i $

o (* of o

a * oo <N

of 3

oo eo *nT

O <O <N

eo eo eo

VI t (M CO rH

t>T o" eo" oo* T-H
co_ co i-i (N a>

OS (M OJ CO

O lA
OO"

APPENDIX XIII (B)

36*

. .

w" H of i-T * o

CO rH t^

3 s S

r-T co"

o" in" " co"

CO r-t -H

So 8 S

r-^OO^7'J'-iO^

ofooo"<>}"j > ^

CO rH i-t (?) rH

a s

<N C C

co co co

CO(MO<OO
O'"f"*l^

fl -2 2 -d -^

I 2 I S 1

APPENDIX XIII (C)*

Inter-provincial trade in livestock and livestock product* during 1937-38

Provinces, states and pori

ANIMALS LIVESTOCK

CATTLE EXCLUMNG
SHEEP AND GOATS

HORSES, PONIES

AND HULK*

SHEEP AND GOATS

OTHERS

Import

Export

Import

Export

Import

Export

Import

Export

No.

1. Assam

2,250

984

208

280

638

553

525

476

2. Bengal

23,051

6,147

1,374

265

8,633

112,946

5,439

4.35Q

. Bihar ....

14,210

40,911

1,515

2,422

7,286

195,917

25,323

8,967

4. Orissa

615

22,127

115

5,993

472

546

5. United Provinces

33,791

10,407

4,365

2,734

5,558

111,755

5,120

39,017

. Punjab

5,728

104,425

2,289

6,710

11,853

4,911

8,166

6,296

7. Delhi ....

4,428

7,904

3,014

2,104

7,344

2,087

2,919

2,400

8. North-West Frontier
Province.

7,651

727

796

795

506

4,195

1,587

1,786

0. Bind and Baluchistan .

623

2,347

233

475

9,158

589

1,243

10. Central Provinces

2,786

2,391

620

378

3,969

23,084

739

720

11. Bombay

20,385

24,616

2,254

1,835

376,552

1,121

4,641

3,704

12. Madras

2,581

4,996

592

355

23,555

60,169

24,160

240,547

13. Rajputana .

3,555

8,245

651

736

185

308,879

3,209

692

14. Central India

723

8,471

692

451

15,012

26,452

644

556

15. Nizam's Territory

221

130

480

544

40,274

761

864

1C. Mysore

309

1,130

1,056

799

33,612

21,488

16,632

11,854

17. Jammu and Kashmir .

195

202

119

137

18. Calcutta .

71,555

8,185

1,116

1,396

401,770

765

16,856

5,058

19. Bombay Port

60,189

10,146

3,032

2,391

483

254

2,893

3,552

20. Karachi

863

326

159

6,717

672

437

21. Madras Chief Port

1,376

454

474

457

364

191

201,430

4,183

22. Madras Ports (excluding
Chief Port).

TOTAI
1936-37 ....

3,530

781

26,224

246

29,283

14,782

260,615

25,359

930.513

930,513

352,188

The figures in this Appendix relate to quantities
country boats.

carried by railways and steamers and exclude trade by roads OK
( 364 )

APPENDIX XIII (C) 365-

Inter-provincial trade in livestock and livestock products during 1937-38 contd.

Provinces, states and ports

BONES

HIDES, RAW

SKINS, RAW

Import

Export

Import

Export

Import

Export

Maunds

1. Assam

10,672

124

60,117

3,771

2. Bengal

875,620

525,127

51.791

370,214

4,421

74,489-

3. Bihar ....

605

803,068

4,019

297,806

3,113

68,254

4. Orissa

358

62,349

8,090

96,719

13,517

6. United Provinces

30,160

616,997

145,198

210,015

20,188

112,663

6. Punjab

3,608

775,834

84,366

116,824

53,472

168,761

7. Delhi ....

9,6*3

86,814

81,616

23,749

71,687

77,484

8. North-We^t Frontier
Province.

43,966

1,396

78,012

1,060

32,773

9. Sind and Baluchlfetan .

555,356

554,710

4,994

61,402

3,013

56,045

10. Central Provinces

13,245

226,879

4,484

53,403

6,877

44,963

11. Bombay

159,440

486,724

29,751

77,498

8,970

132,872.

12. Madras

294,874

370,720

321,071

54,172

273,179

95,354

13. Bajuutana .

174

386,378

10,801

19,904

2,786

50,738

14. Central India

4,619

116,380

484

18,398

2,590

21,882

16. Nizam's Territory

3,012

226,835

1,084

8,883

6,061

27,476-

16. Mysore

5,237

67,184

88,391

2,885

23,076

77,288

17. Jammu and Kashmir .

6,171

178

4,669

852.

18. Calcutta .

969,717

56,000

695,221

161,664

224,112

9,895-

19. Bombay Port

391,476

8,866

57,424

44,903

121,831

14,655

20. Karachi

1,222,001

101,573

132,249

744

179,483

329

21. Madras Chief Port

189,623

21,035

134,056

82,142

148,361

32,736-

22. Madras Ports (excluding
Chief Port).

TOTAL
1986-87 ....

802,119

83,117

5,634

23,899

1,868

89,467

6,036,899

5,036,899

1,812,422

1,156,248

4,672,117

1,996,383

1,996,883

1,160,650

1,160,550

366 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Inter-provincial trade in livestock and livestock products during 1937-38 concld.

Provinces, states and ports.

HIDES AND SKINS,
TANNED AND LEATHER

GHEE

WOOL, RAW

Import

Export

Import

Export

Import

Export

Maunds

1. Assam

552

5,950

1,508

2. Bengal

10,702

200

95,124

4,972

870

56,144

3. Bihar ....

6,993

3,365

25,520

87,399

9,383

2,350

4. Orlssa

117

2,382

19,834

598

1,171

5. United Provinces

36,670

55,768

63,962

234,773

56,920

31,048

. Punjab

16,115

45,883

14,886

106,188

69,359

83,235

7. Delhi ....

3,128

4,305

11,822

1,084

899

3,270

. North- West Frontier
Province.

33,069

827

36,767

8,025

19,863

0, Sind and Baluchistan .

11,466

426

24,521

7,089

1,740

95,617

10. Central Provinces

3,473

5,695

4,267

39,306

180

543

11. Bombay

21,422

38,574

19,637

23,107

35,853

36,139

12. Madras

20,844

241,040

3,126

150,978

9,875

47,869

13. Rajputana .

9,389

5,151

19,279

33,027

16,353

105,479

14. Central India

4,988

1,424

2,976

40,984

1,402

4,064

15. Nizam's Territory

1,603

47,142

647

2.970

26,527

16. Mysore

4,828

33,913

8,480

951

25,322

6,471

17. Jararau and Kashmir .

281

285

271

337

18. Calcutta .

39,065

50,843

284,230

10,885

54,473

35,921

19. Bombay Port

58,812

25,090

60,360

2,313

88,181

12,437

20. Karachi

919

4,114

23,741

3,729

168,940

3,875

21. Madras Chief Port

322,219

42,711

15,768

1,171

32,827

2,524

22. Madras Ports (excluding
Chief Port).

TOTAL
1936-37 ....

3,444

933

21,262

882

1,214

610,099

762,210

573,911

586,826

686,826

692,237

770,426

Source of data. Accounts relating to the Inland (Rail and River-borne) Trade of India for March 1938.

NOTK. The trade recorded is that between 22 principal blocks : 12 British Provinces as shown in serial numbers
1 to 12, five Indian States (13-17) and five principal port towns (18-22). It may be noted that trade shown against
Bengal, Madras, Bombay and Sind excludes that of ports within them.

For greater details the original may be referred to.

APPENDIX XIV

Staff of central, provincial and state Veterinary Departments in India during 1937~38

Province or state.

SUPERIOR STAFF

SUBORDINATE STAFF

ADMINISTRATIVE

RKSKAROH AND
TEACHING.

RESEARCH AND
TRACKING.

FIELD STAFF.

Sanc-
tioned
cadre

Filled
substan-
tively

Sanc-
tioned
cadre

Filled
substan-
tlvely

Sanc-
tioned
cadre

Filled
substan-
lively

Sanc-
tioned
cadre

Filled
substan*
tively

Imperial Veterinary
Research Instutite,
Mukteswar.

Madras . . * .

290

210

Bombay

140

139

Bengal

102

162

United Provinces

247

220

Punjab

405

385

Bihar

Central Provinces and
Bcrar.

150

Assam

Jforth-West Frontier
Province,

101

Slnd ....

Baluchistan

Ajmcr-Merwara .

Coor

INDIAN STATES

Hyderabad

130

Mysore

Baroda

Travancore

Cochin

Bbopal

.Tammu and Kashmir .

Administrative and research work in AJmer-Mexwara Is carried out by the Sind Officer? in addition to their o'

( 367 )

APPEN

Activities of cattle and other

TOTAL NUMBER OF LIVESTOCK

Province or state

Name of farm

Area
in

Officer in
Immediate

Super-
vising

Cattle including buffaloes

acres

charge

officer

Name
of

breed

Bulls

Cows

Heifers

Calves

Imperial Veterinary

Mukteswar Dairy

Estate

Director

Mixed

One

Research Insti-

Farm.

Manager.

breed.

stud

tute, Mukteswar.

bull.

Hill

breed.

Plain

butfalo.

Jfill

buiftvlo.

Imperial Veterinary
Kesearch Insti-

Izatnagar Dairy

Cattle
Superin

Do.

Hariaua

tute, Izatnagar.

tendent.

Imperial Depart-
ment of Agricul-

Imperial Agricultural
Research Institute,

380

Do.

Imperial
Agricul-

ture.

New Delhi.

turist.

Agricultural Sub-

1,175

Do.

Station, Karnal.

Imperial Dairy In-

213

Supciin-

Imperial

Sindhi

btitute, Bangalore.

tendent.

Dairy

Expert.

Gir

Ayr.

Cross breed

Murrah

buffalo.

Buffalo

134

Milk Depot, Welling-

Super-

Do.

Sindhi

ton.

visor

in charge

Cross breed

Madras. . .

Livestock Research

1,659

Farm

Livestock

Kangaya-

107

Station. Hosur

Manager.

Develop-

ms.

Cattle Farm, P. O.

ment

Officer,

Hallikars

Hosur

Cattle

Sindhi

Farm,

South

Cross breed

India.

Buffaloes

Livestock Research

258

Superin-

Do.

Ongole

Station, Guntur.

tendent.

breed.

Buffaloes

(Delhi and

graded

Delbis).

( 368 )

* From October

DIX XV

livestock farms in India during 1937-38

ON THE FARM ON 30 JUNE 1938

Issue of bulls, stal-
lions, bucks, rams,
etc., for stud pur-
posea and number o
eggs for poultry
improvement during
1937-88

Receipt
for
1937-38

Expendi-
ture for
1937-38

Sheep and
goats

Donkeys

Horses and
mules

Camels

Poultry

Rs.

9,667

1,02,222

2,886*

11,503*

15,187

1,33,874

37,964

66,516

10 ponfes

74,404

1,34,584

41,035

40,060

White Leghorn
58
Rhode Island
Red 52
ight Sussex 88

Black Minorca
66

81 (Bellary)

52 bulls, 20 rams,
510 birds, 3,964 eggs

15,555

89,586

hittagong 39

xmntry 6

2,647

8,415

1937 to March 1938.

( 369 )

370 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Activities of cattle and other

TOTAL KTTMBEB or LIYBSTOOK

Province or state

Name of farm

Area
in
acres

Office 1 ^
trained 1
charge

Super-
vising
officer

Name

Cattle Including buffaloes

breed

Bulls

Cows

Helfe

Calves

Bombay

Northcote Cattle
Breeding Farm

2,279

Manager

Livestock
Expert to

Kankrej

101

Chharodl

Govern-

ment,

Bombay,

Poona.

Cattle Breeding

249

Do.

Amrlt

Farm, Bankapur,

Mahal.

Government Cen

Do.

tral Poultry Farm

Kirkee.

Imperial Counci

Do.

of Agricultural

Research, Poultry

Research Scheme

Kirkee Centre.

Imperial Counc

Do.

ol Agricultural

* *

Research Poultry

Research Scheme

Vadala Centre.

Imperial Counci
of Agricultural

Principal

Research Poultry

Scheme, Ankle-sh-

war Centre.

Sheep Breeding
Scheme, Imperial

289

Manager

Deccani

Council of Agricul-

Merino

tural Research.

Bengal

Cattle Breeding Sec-
tion, Dacca Farm.

Livestock
Expert to

Officer
Jncharge,

Hariana

Govern-

Cattle

Sindhl

ment,
Bengal.

Breeding
Section,

Mnrrah

Dacca

buffalo.

Farm.

United Provinces .

tfadhurikund .

1,396

Mr. Babu-
ram Sing.

Deputy
Director

Hlssar

142

124

219

f Agricul-

Murrah

ture,

Incharge,

Cattle

Breedine

Derations,

United

*rovinres,

Jhansi.

Bharari .

2,241

Mr.

Do.

Hissar

104

107

169

Vishwa-

ram

Ken

Singh.

Katha.

Murrah

APPENDIX XV
livestock farms in India during 1937-38 contd.

371

ON THJB FARM ON 30 JUNH 1988

Issue of bulls, stal-
lions, bucks, rams,
etc., for stud pur-
poses and number of
eggs for poultry
improvement during
1937-38

Receipt
for
1937-38

Expendi-
ture for
1987-38

Sheep and
goats

Donkeys

Horses and
mules

Camels

Poultry

Es.

R-a,

33 bulls

12,628

20,887

4 bulls

1,559

11,601

322

447 birds and 590 eggs

4,072

4,461

448

165 birds and
435 eggs.

46 birds and 6 eggs

2,693

8,319

218

128 birds and
1,352 eggs.

17,006

546

150 cockerels and
30 hens.

6,567

2,02,890

167 eggs for hatch-
ing.

172

13,903

48,537

328

it 3,395

70,582

372 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Activities of cattle and other

TOTAL NTJMBBK OF LIVESTOCK

Province or state

Name of farm

Area
In
acres

Officer In
immediate
charge

Super-
vising
officer

Name
of

Cattle including buffaloes

breed

Bulls

Cows

Heifers

Calves

Ualted Provinces .

Manjhra*

551

Mr.
Raghubir
Singh.

Deputy
Director
of ART!

Hlssar
Sahiwal

culture,

Inch irge,

Ken

Cattle

Katha.

Breeding

Oper.ition^,

Ponwar

United

Province*,

Hurrah

Jh n-I.

Herapnr

7,348

Mr.
Pad am

Do.

K heri garb

240

224

Sliush.

Pom\ar

430

497

Punjab.

Poultry Farm,
GurdHspur.

Poultry
Expert.

Deputy
Director

of Agri-

culture,

Gurd is-

Agricultural College,
Lyallpnr Dairy
Farm.

Farm
Manager.

pur.
1'iof. of
Agricul-
ture,

Sahiwal
Kill

25
10

Lyallpur

Buflnloes.

Hissar

bullocks.

Poultry Farm, Lyall-

Do.

pur.

Dairy Farm, Rawal-

Do.

Deputy

Dhannl

1-2

pindi.

Dlrertor

breed.

of Agri-

culture,

Rawal-

pindi.

Poultry Farm, Rawal-

Do.

pindi.

Poultry Farm, Mont-

Do.

gomery.

Mont-

gomery.

Poultry Farm,
Jullundur.

Do.
Do

Do
Jullundur.

Do.

Jullundur.

Government Cattle
Farm, Hissar.

38,829

Superin-
tendent.

Director,
Veteri-

Hissar
breed?.

1,563

3,170

1,127

1,233

nary

Ser ,

Punjab.

Tahangirabad Cattle

4,189

Deputy

Ditto

Mont-

689

687

128

Farm.

Superin-

gomery

tendent,

breeds.

Civil

Veteri-

nary

Depart-

ment,

Mont-

gomery.

*The farm hn been Hofrd
t Bulls fit for issue are mostly

APPENDIX XV

livestock farms in India during 1937-38 contd.

373

ON THB FAKM ON 30 JUNE 1088

Issue of bulls, Btal-

Sheep and
goats

Donkeys

Horses and
mules

Camels

Poultry

lions, bucks, rams,
etc., for stud pur-
poses and number of
eggs for poultry
improvement during
1937-88

Eeceipt
for
1937-38

Expendi-
ture for
1937-38

Rs.

114

6,477

27,856

25t

323

7,544

729

EKRS . . 754

734

10,740

Stork . .149

14,262

12,793

219

KKRB . . 2,443

841

907

Birds . . 44

953

950

212

Eggs . . 1,510

670

1,840

Birds . . 4

Eggs . .174

Egps . . 561

179

530

Fowls . . 17

46 sheep and

201

3 ram-*.

2 Merino,

131

5 stallions,

Bulls . . 775

8,16,971

3,11,541

1,101 Hissar,
840 fiikancrl,

25 mares and
1 mule.

Donkey etillion 18
Arab stallion . 3

233 Loh! and

Rams . .179

306 poata.

Bucks . . 52

Bulls . . 67

from September 1939.

transferred to Manjhra Farm for issue.

374 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Activities of cattle and other

TOTAL NTTMBBK or LIVESTOCK

Province or state

Name of farm

Area
in
acres

Officer in
immediate
charge

Super-
vising
officer

Name

Cattle including buffaloes

breed

Bulls

Cows

Heifers

Calves

Punjab.

Allahadad Cattle
Farm.

4,056

Deputy
Superin-
tendent,

Director,
Veteri-
nary

Mont-

VSS.

556

Civil
Veteri-

Ser.,
Punjab.

nary

Depart-

ment,

Mont-

gomery.

Montgomery Dairy

485

Do.

196

Farm.

Ravi and

Nili

breed.

Bahadur Nagar
Buffalo Farm.

3,049

Do.

Nili
breed.

431

Qaderabad Cattle

1,011

Do.

Hissar

273

Farm.

breed.

Shergarh Orantee

5,462

Do.

Mont-

776

141

187

Farms.

gomery

breed.

Bihar .

Government Cattle
Farm, Patna.

650

Manager

Principal,
Bihar

Thar-
parkar.

144

116

163

Veteri-

nary

College.

Cross breed

Sepaya .

379

Assistant
Director

Deputy
Director

Buffaloes

of Agri-

ot Agri-

culture.

culture,

Tirhut

Range.

Pusa

641

Do.

Pusa.

Kanka .

370

Farm

Do.

Sahiwal

Manager,

Chota

Kanke.

Nagpur.

Thar-

parkar.

Cross breed

Patna .

194

Farm

Do.

Hansi

Manager,

Patna

Hissar.

Patna.

Range.

Thar-

parkar.

Cross type

Shahabad

Gaya . .

Overseer

Do.

Central Provinces
andBerar.

Telenkhary Cattle
Breeding Farm.

1,800

Farm
Superin-
tendent.

Extra
Assistant
Director,

Sahiwal
Hurrah

8
3

86
24

26
12

48
28

In-charge,

buffalo.

Animal

Husban-

dry

Section,

Central

Provinces.

APPENDIX XV

livestock farms in Indw, during 1937-38 contd.

375

ON THE VAUM ON 30 JUNK 1938

Issue of bulls, stal-
lions, bucks, rams,
etc., for stud pur-
poses and number of
eggs for poultry
improvement during
1937-38

Receipt
for
1937-38

Expendi-
ture for
1937-38

Sheep and
goats

Donkeys

Horses and
mules

Camels

Poultry

Rs.

BulU . . 20

Bulls . . 71

Bulls . . 27

1 Horse

Bulls . . 15

62,163

87,509>

Bull . . 1

20,336

24,331

19,294

42,717

254

Fertile eggs . 275
Cockrels . 91
Hens . . 88
Pullets . . 86
Chickens 44

33,067

36,69a

239

5,441

21,000

53 (sheep)

1,606

4,838

353

Stud bull . 1
Poultry . . 83
Eggs . . 779

18,004

25,263

376 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937.38

Activities of cattle and other

TOTAL NUMBEB OF LIVESTOCK

Area

Officer in

Super-

Province or state

Name of farm

in
acres

immediate
charge

vising
officer

Name
of

Cattle Including buffaloes

breed

Bulls

Cows

Heifers

Calves

'Central Provinces
and Berar.

Bod Cattle Breeding
Farm.

2,924

Farm
Superin-

Extra
Assistant

Mixed
breed.

114

112

tendent.

Director,

In charge,

Animal

Hubban-

dary

Sect! n,

Central

Province?

Garhi Cattle Breeding

1,617

Do.

Gaolao

102

120

Farm.

cow breed.

Pakara Cattle Breed-

2,014

Do.

Murrah

ing Farm.

buffalo.

Malvi

cross.

-Assam

Upper Shillong

522

Farm
Manager.

Deputy
Director

Fresian

of Agri-

Crofes

culture,

breed.

Live-

stock,

Assam,

Shilloug.

Khanapara

208

Do.

Sindhi

Sindhi x

Assamese

grade.

Sylhet Cattle Breed-

228

Do.

Ing Farm.

Local

Sindhi

and Local

Jorhat Farm .

Do.

grades.
Jorhat

Grey.

3forth-West Fron-
tier Province.

TarnabFarm .

200

Manager

Agricul-
tural

Officer.

Naurang Serai Farm

100

Do.

Extra

Assistant

Director

of Agri-

tu re,

Southtrn

Circle.

Hnripur Farm .

Agricul-

Do.

tural

Northern

Assistant.

Circle.

Noel Bagh D. I. Khan

Do.

Southern

Circle.

H yderabad-Deccan

Poultry Farm, Hima-

Fieldman

Deputy

yatsagar.

Director

of Agri-

culture,

West

Telingana

Division.

APPENDIX XV

h vestock Jarms in India during 1937-38 contd.

377

ON THE' FARM ON 30 JUNE 1938

Issue of bulls, stal-
lions, bucks, rams,
etc., for stud pur-
poses and number of
eggs for poultry
improvement during
1937-38

Receipt
for
1937-38

Expendi-
ture for
1937-38

Sheep and
goats

Donkeys

Horses and
mules

Camels

Poultry

Rs.

1,297

12,563.

Cow bull . 13
Buffalo bull . 1

4,072

7,640

Cow bulls . 22

2,903

9,041

73 F. ikai.cn

1 btallion,
13 mares and
others.

13 Black
Minorca, 61
\\ hite Leg-
horn, 81
R.I It
13Khasi
Campbel
ducks.

150 birds, 7,539 eggs

25,978

34,133:

4 Jniniiapari

8 Jarnnapari
x Local.

44 White
Leghorn,
20 ducks.

17 bulls

5,089

15,571

39 Ducks

275 eggs

7,729

12,944

Issue of bulls was
stopped due to
segregation.

1,311

5,177

2 Stud goats
ft stud rams
59 ewea 1 '2
young rams

947 country hen eggs,
186 duck eggs, 39
birds, 12 adult rams.

2 Stud goat

27 birds, 1,190 eggs.

81,722

2,18,05ft

162

23 birds 678 eggs

378 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

Activities of cattle and other

TOTAL NUMBER OF UVFSTOOK

Province or state

Name of farm

Ares
In

Officer in
immediate

Super-
vising

Cattle including buffaloes

acres

charge

officer

Name
of

breed

Bulls

Cons

Heifers

Calves

Hyderabad-Deccan

Poultry Farm, Par-

Farm

Deputy

bhanl.

Superin-

Director

tendent.

of Agri-

culture,

Godavari

Division.

Poultry Farm Rural

Superin-

Director

D e v e 1 o p m ent

tendent.

of Agri-

Centre, Patan-

culture,

cheru.

Hyder-
abad.

Cattle Breeding

Farm, Hangoli.

Government Cattle

464

Superin-

Director,

Krishna

Breeding Farm
and Dairy, Hima-
yatsagar.

tendent.

Veterinary
Depart-
ment.

Valley.
Malvi

Murrah

buffalo.

Mysore .

Cattle Breeding

5,936

Manager

Livestock

Amrit

431

271

Station, Ajjampur.

Expert

Mahal

in Mysore,

breed

Bangalore.

Hallikar

breed.

Hebbal Dairy Sheep
and Poultry Farms.

Veterinary
Inspector.

Do.

Amrit

Mahal

Yellachihalli Sheep

429

Agricul-

Do.

and Poultry Farm.

tural

Inspector.

Ajjampur Sheep and
Poultry Farm.

Veterinary
Inspector.

Do.

Nagenahally Poultry

Agricul-

Do.

Farm.

tural

Inspector.

Baroda

Dairy Farm, Makar-

Dairy

Deputy

pura.

Superin-

Director

tendent.

of Veteri-

Buffalo

nary and

Animal

Huflban-

dary

8er.

Cochin

Government Central
Farm.

400

Manager

Director
of Agri-

Ongole

culture.

Cochin

Sindhi

Buffaloes

Palachi

Ongole

Sindhi

APPENDIX XV
livestock farms in India during 1937-38 contd.

379

0* fHB FABM ON 80 JtTNB 1938

Issue of bulls, stal-

Sbeep and
goats

Donkeys

Horses and
mules

Camels

Poultry

lions, bunks, rams,
etc., for stud pur-
poneH nnd number of
eggs for poultry
Improvement during

Receipt
for
1937-38

Expendi-
ture for
1937-38

1U37-38

II-.

17 birds, 138 eggs .

245

12 birds, 2,350 eggs

4 rams, 4 bulls

V 6 bulls .

6,446

73,083

76 bulls .

30,519

23,51 2

426

7 sheep, 823 poultry,

4,100

7,705

3,070 eggs.

178

60 sheep . - .

1,810

2,084

346

5 sheep, 7 poultry,

916

2,718

812 eggs.

161

37 poultry, 976 eggs

276

2S8

R.S.R,. 87
Austolorps 93

Kankrej bulls . 5
Hens . . 9

10,171

35,8,*

Country 13

Pullets . . 24

Coeks . . 32

6 bulls .

6,213

380 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

TOTAL NUMBER OF LIVESTOCK

Area

Officer in

Super-

Cattle Including buffaloes

Province or state

Name of farm

In
acres

immediat

vising
officer

Name

breed

Bulls

Cow

Heifers

Calves

Jammu and Kash-
mir,

The Central Govern-
ment Poultry Farm

Poultry
Assistant,

Senior
Entomo-

Dh&niil

logical

Slndhl

Assistant.

Government Sheep
Breeding and
Research Farm.

18,621

Officer In
charge of
the Farm,

A Board
consisting
of

(1) Chief

Conser-

vator of

Forests.

(2) Dlrec-

tor of

Indus-

tries and

Commerce

Depart-

ment.

(3) Supe-
rintendent,

Veterinary
Depart-

ment.

APPENDIX XV
livestock farms in India during 1937~38~-conM.

331

OR TH1 FARM OK 30 JUNE 1938

Issue of bulls, stal-

lions, bucks, rams,
etc., for stud pur-

Receipt

Expendi-

Bheep and
goats

Donkeys

Hones and
mules

Camels

Poultry

pose? and number of
cgf?>* for poultry
improvempnt during
1937-88

for
1937-38

ture for
1937-38

Us.

B*.

W htie Leghorn.

7 stallions

Cocks . 11
Hens . 14
Chicks . 116

Shoie.

61 birds issued on
swai system, 112
birds sold for breed-
ing purposes, 777
eggs sold for hatch -

328

COO
(excluding

iJffi?

staff).

Cocks . 9

Ing purposes.

Hens . 12

Chicks . 97

Bapington.

Cocks . 3

Hens . 16

Chicks . 17

Lotab . 1

Capons . 2

Loc. Favourettts.

Cock . 1

Hen . 1

Chicks . 21

Titri (Local).

Cock . 1

Hens . 4

Country bens 22

' Sheep.
Newzeal and
Merinos 15
Austr a 1 1 a n
Corrfeda-
les. 3

The Farm was
started in October
1937, so no rams
could be diBtributed.

No Farm
wool has
been sold
yet.

23,409
for cons-
tructions,
purchase
of stock

and

Local Stock.

salaries

Kel . 301
Bakarwal .125

of the
establish-

Gurey .128

ment.

Ooata.

Bital . 1

Bakarwal 3

APPENDIX XVI (A)

List of Research Schemes of the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research
completed up to 31st March 1938

1. General Agricultural Schemes

1. Grant to Dr K. C. Mehta for

(a) Investigation of rusts of wheat and barley.

(6) Investigation into the physiologic forms of wheat rusts.
(c) Giving some relief from a part of his duties at the College.

2. Appointment of Hemp Marketing Offirer.

3. Investigation into the vitamin contents of mangoes.

4. Professor Parija's scheme of water-hyacinth.

5. I)r A. N. Pun's scheme of standardization of physico-chemical single value measure-

ments most suitable for Indian soils.

6. Dr Bhatnagar's schemes on (a) effects of ions on plant growth and (6) physico-chemical

properties and fertility of soil.

7. Professor Dastur's scheme of rice physiology.

8. Dr. Cbaudhri's scheme for investigations on the wither tip of citrus trees.

9. Grants to provinces for collecting data on manurial experiments conducted in the

past.

10. Exhibits for World's Grain Exhibition and Conference.

11. Distribution of sodium fluo-silicate.

12. Experimental consignment of mangoes to the Empire Marketing Board.

13. Cost of exhibits in connection with commercial samples room of the High Commissioner's-

Office.

14. Grant to Burma Shell Oil Storage and Distributing Co., Bombay, for tractor operating

costings.

15. Enquiry into supply of coconut products in India.

16. Award of a prize for a bone-crusher worked by (a) animal power and (b) mechanical

power.

17. Training of an officer m the gas storage of fruits and vegetables.

18. Survey of various fruit growing tracts in Baluchistan to determine the distribution

and status as pest of the Codling Moth and Spilonata Ocellana.

19. Professor Seth's scheme for investigating an electric method of hygrometry.

20. Financial assistance to the Oil Technological Section of the Harcourt Butler Techno-

logical Institute, Cawnpore.

21. Enquiry into production of eloves in India.

2. Sugar Schemes

1. Deputation of a Chemist to Bhopal to test Khan Bahadur Hadi's process of manufac-

turing sugar by open pan method.

2. Hadi's commercial test at Bilari under L. Har Sahai Gupta.

3. Bengal scheme for sugarcane crushing and yur boiling.

4. Deputation of Sugar Technologist to Europe and America.

5-7. Lump sum grants to the United Provinces, Bihar and Orissa and the Punjab Govern*
ments in designing a satisfactory small power sugarcane crushing mill.

8. Grant to the Sugar Section of the Harcourt Butler Technological Institute, Cawnpore.

9. Investigation into the production of khandmri sugar in the United Provinces.
10. Bihar khandsan scheme.

11-14. Sugar Technologist

() Main Office.

(b) Sugar Cable Service.

(d) Indian Sugar Trade Information Service.

15. Grant to Sugar Demonstration Section of the United Provinces Industrial and Agri-

cultural Exhibition.

16. Deputation of Mr. P. V. Isaac to America, Porto Rico, etc., in connection with research

on insect pests of sugarcane and representation at the fourth Imperial Entomological
Conference.

17. Sugarcane beetle scheme, Burma.

( 382 )

APPENDIX XVI (A) 383

3. Animal Husbandry Schemes

1. Testing of Drug Plasmoquine.

2. Appointment of a Statistician for the compilation of certain statistics relating to feed-

ing scales, etc., in Military Dairies.

3. Investigation of the measures of control in existence for the prevention of adultera-

tion of milk and other dairy products.

4. Training of Mr. H. C. Varma in the preparation of skimmed milk and dried milk powder.
6, Punjab apiculture scheme regarding the training of an Agricultural Assistant in api-
culture abroad.

6. All-India legislation for the control of animal diseases.

7. Investigation into most suitable methods of combating different types of parasitic

infection in ruminants in the field.

8. Investigation regarding vaccination of cattle against rinderpest in the Central Pro-

vinces.

9. Village enquiry regarding cattle and the production and consumption of milk.

APPENDIX XVI (B)

List of Research Schemes of the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research
in operation on the 31st March 1938

I. General Agricultural Schemes

1. Grant to the Government of the Punjab for locust control measures.

2. Special staff for research work with headquarters at Karachi.

3. Central Locust Bureau.

4. Botanical Sub-Station at Pusa.

5. Grant to the Agra College, Agra, for the investigation of rusts of wheat and barley.

6. Agricultural Meteorology, Poona.

7. Appointment of a Physical Assistant to the Staff of the Agricultural Chemist, Bengal.

8. Coordinated schemes of rice research

(a) Central Provinces.
(6) Bihar.

(d) Bengal.

(e) United Provinces.
(/) Orissa.

9. Research work on potatoes in Madras.

10. Chemistry of malting cholam, Madras.

11. Malting and brewing tests of improved barleys

(a) United Provinces.

(b) Punjab.

12. San Jose Scale survey in the Punjab to prevent the pest spreading to other parts of

the Punjab, the United Provinces and the North- West Frontier Province.

13. Research in systematic cultivation of medicinal plants and study of food poisons, by

Col. Chopra.

14. Statistical Section.

15. Bombay cold storage of fruit scheme.

16. Dry farming research schemes

(a) Bombay, Deccan.

(6) Ceded Districts of Madras.

(d) Hyderabad-Deccan.

17. His Exalted Highness the Nizam's Government scheme for the improvement of the

castor crop in India.

18. Grant to the Imperial Agricultural Research Institute for potato breeding research

in Northern India.

19. Provincial schemes of fruit research

(a) Madras.

(b) Bengal.

(d) Punjab Fruits and vegetable preservation.

(e) Bihar.

(/) Central Provinces.

(g) Punjab Citrus and grape vines.

20. Research on the Gangai pest of rice in the Central Provinces.

21. Bengal flax fibre scheme.

22. Tobacco cooperative flue curing experiments in provinces and states.

23. Tobacco research, Guntur Sub-station.

24. Oilseed research schemes

(a) Linseed Central Provinces.
(6) Linseed Bengal.

(d) Groundnuts Madras.

( 384 )

APPENDIX XVI (B) 385

26. Travancore scheme of research on the diseases of the cocoanut palm in South India.

26. Fruit Canning and Preserving Laboratory, Quetta.

27. Sunn-hemp schemes

(a) Madras.

(ft) Central Provinces.

(d) Bombay.

28. Investigation of Indian fish poisons and other forest products for their insecticidal

properties in Mysore.

29. United Provinces Scheme for the supply of decorticated cotton seed cake for propa-

ganda.

30. Wheat Milling and Baking Laboratory at Lyallpur.

31. Cinchona Enquiry.

32. Wheat Breeding Sub-station, Simla.

33. Dacca University scheme of agricultural research (latentic soils and nutrition of the

rice plant).

34. Prof. Mukherjeo's scheme of research into the properties of colloid soil constituents.

35. Prof. Mahalanobis' scheme of investigation on experimental errors in field trials.

36. Investigation on the organic constituents of Indian soils by Prof. J. C. Ghosh, Dacca.

37. Investigation for preparation of cheap synthetic manure from town refuse and waste

materials by the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.

38. Extension of work * on quality' in crops by the Institute of Science, Bangalore.

39. Research on nitrogen loss in soils and nitrogen fixation in soils by Prof. N. H. Dhar.

40. Research work on plant physiology by Dr. Boshi Sen.

41. Research in agricultural economics at the Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics.

42. Benares University scheme of research on the physiology of cane and wheat,

2. fiugar Schemes

1. Grant to Shahjahanpur Research Station for examination and study of sugarcane

seedlings.

2. Bombay- Deccan sugarcane research scheme.

3. Scheme for the establishment of a Sugarcane Research Station in Bihar and for the

appointment of a Sugarcane Specialist.

4. Scheme for the establishment of a Sub-station of the Coimbatore Imperial Sugarcane

Station at Karnal.

5. Scheme for research on diseases of sugarcane at the I. A. R. I., New Delhi.

6. Sugarcane Seedling Testing Station, Dacca.

7. Grant to the Mysore Durbar for breeding of thick canes.

8. Research on the genetics of sugarcane at the Imperial Cane Breeding Station,

Coimbatore.

9. Research on sugarcane in the Madras Presidency.

10. Establishment of a Sugarcane Research Station in the Punjab.

11. Investigation into various problems of sugar industry in the United Provinces.

12. Establishment of a Research and Testing Station for the indigenous system of gur

and sugar manufacture by the Director, Imperial Institute of Sugar Technology.

13. Extension of sugarcane work at the Jorhat Experimental Station, Assam.

14. Bureau of Sugar Standards.

15. Economic enquiry into the cost of production of crops in the principal sugarcane and

cotton tracts in India.

16. Research on insect pests of sugarcane.

17. Research on morphology and anatomy of sugarcane-sorghum hybrids and of the Indian

sugarcane.

18. Research on the chemistry of sugarcane.

19. Investigation of suitable types of canes for Gujrat.

20. Utilization of bagasse for paper and board industry.

21. Sugarcane research in Hyderabad.

22. Scheme regarding manufacture of cattle feed from molasses.

23. Sugar marketing survey.

24. Research on the insect pests of sugarcane in the U. P.

386 AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

3. Animal Husbandry Schemes

1. Dr. Slater's scheme of goat breeding in the United Provinces.

2. Appointment of Physiological Chemist to study animal nutrition problems at Dacca-

3. Appointment of Veterinary Investigation Officers in :

(a) Hyderabad-Deccan.
(6) Bombay.

(d) Punjab.

(e) Bihar.

(/) Central Provinces.

(g) Madras.

(h) United Provinces.

(i) Assam.

( j) North-West Frontier Province.

(k) Sind and Ajmer.

4. All-India Animal Husbandry Bureau.

5. Research on the composition of milk at the Allahabad Agricultural Institute.

6. Investigation of Johne's disease among cattle in Mysore.

7. Extension of work on animal nutrition in the Madras Presidency.

8. Research on warble flies.

9. Grant to the Government of the Punjab for investigation of indigenous sheep breeding.

10. Feeding of cattle on departmental farms, United Provinces.

11. Grant to the Government of Bombay for a scheme of research in poultry husbandry

to be conducted in the Bombay Presidency.

12. Bihar scheme for the analysis of food-stuffs for cattle.

13. Bengal fresh water fishes scheme.

14. Improvement of poultry for table purposes, Punjab.

15. Bombay sheep breeding scheme.

16. Enquiry into the helminthiasis of cattle, sheep and goats in the United Provinces.

17. Establishment of pedigree herd books.

18. Appointment of a systematic protozoologist, Imperial Veterinary Research Institute.

19. Revised scheme for carrying on research work in the Anand Creamery in the manufac-

ture of products and by-products of milk.

APPENDIX XVII

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38

Title

Author

Where published

GENERAL AGRICULTURE

Agriculture and Livestock in India,
Vol. VII, parts 6 and 6 and Vol.
VIII, parts 1 to 4. Annual subscrip-
tion Ks. 6 or 9s. 9rf. (A bi-monthly
journal of agriculture and animal
husbandry for the general reader
interested in agriculture or livestock
in India or the Tropics).

Issued under the autho-
rity of the Imperial
Council of Agricultural
Research.

Manager of Publications,
Civil Lines, Delhi.

The Madras Agricultural Journal.
Monthly. Annual subscription Rs. 4.

M. U. Vellodi (Editor).
Published by the M. A.
S. Union, Agricultural
Research Institute,

The Secretary, M. A. 8.
Union, Agricultural Col-
lege, Lawlcy Road, P. O.

Coimbatore.

The Journal of the Trichinopoly District
Agricultural Association. (English and
Tamil) Quarterly. Annual subscrip-
tion Re. 1-8-0 for non-members, free
for members.

Issued by the Trichino-
poly District Agricul-
tural Association, Tepp-
akulam Post.

The Secretary, The Tri-
chinopoly District Agri-
cultural Association,
Teppakulam Post.

The Journal of the Mysore Agricultural
and Experimental Union (English).
Quarterly. Price As. 13 or Is. 3d.
per copy.

Dr. V. K. Badami (Ch.
Editor).

The Secretary, The Mysore
Agricultural and Experi-
mental Union, Seshadri
Road, Bangalore.

Mysore Vyavasaya Shodhaka Sanghada
Patrike. Monthly. Price As. 4 per

N. Venkatasubbaya (Ch.
Editor).

Ditto.

copy.

The Poona Agricultural College Maga-
zine. Quarterly. Annual subscrip-
tion Us. 2-8-0.

V. G. Deshpande and S.
M. Rao (Editors).

The Editor, Poona Agricul-
tural College Magazine,
Poona.

Shetki Shetkari (Marathi). Monthly.
Annual subscription Re. 1-3-0.

Vasudev Ganesh Pande .

The Editor, Shetki Shetkari f
Agricultural College,
Poona.

The Planters' Journal and Agriculturist.
Fortnightly. Annual subscription
Rs. 10 or 16*.

Theo H. Thorne (Editor)

The Manager, The Planters
Journal and Agriculturist
13, Ezra Mansions,
Calcutta.

Bulletin of the Indian Central Jute Com-
mittee. Monthly. Free.

Issued under the autho-
rity of the Indian
Central Jute Com-

Secretary, Indian Central
Jute Committee, 1,
Council House Street,

mittee.

Calcutta.

KrisM'Sampad (Bengali). Monthly.
Annual subscription Rs. 3.

N. K. Ghosh (Editor) .

The Manager, Krishi-
sampad Office, Dacca.

( 387 )

388

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

GENERA

The Mufidul Mazarin (Urdu). Annual

L AGRICULTURE contd.
C. C. Sanyal (Editor),

Office of Editor, Govern-

subscription Re. 1 for subscribers in

Government Agricul-

merit Agricultural Jour-

the United Provinces and Re. 1-8-0

tural Journals.

nals, Sikandarbagh,

for subscribers outside the province.

Lucknow.

The Kisan Upkarak (Hindi). Annual

Ditto

Ditto.

subscription Re. 1 for subscribers in

the United Provinces and Re. 1-8-0

for subscribers outside the province.

The Allahabad Farmer. Bi-monthly.

B. M. Pugh (Editor).

The Allahabad Agricul-

Annual subscription in India Ra. 2.

Published by the Agri-

tural Institute, United

cultural Institute,

Provinces (American

Allahabad.

Presbyterian Mission),

Allahabad.

Seasonal Note*. Price As. 4 per copy.

Issued by the Department

Government Printing,

of Agriculture, Punjab.

Punjab, Lahore.

The Nagpur Agricultural College Maga-

Published by P. D. Nair,

The Editor, The Nagpur

zine. Quarterly. Annual subscrip-

Agricultural College,

Agricultural College

tion Rs. 3.

Nagpur.

Magazine, College of

Agriculture, Nagpur.

Kisan (Hindi) Quarterly. Annual

Issued by the Agricultural

B. N. Sircar, Senior

subscription Rs. 2, As. 8 per copy.

Association, Bihar and

Marketing Officer and

Orissa.

Editor, Kisan, Patna.

The Planters Gazette and Annual.

David H>e Arakie (Edi-

Published at 109, Park

Annual subscription inland Rs. 6,

tor and Publisher).

Street, Calcutta.

foreign 15*.

Jute Journal. Annual subscription

Ditto

Ditto.

inland Rs. 10, foreign 1.

Agriculture and Animal Husbandry in

Issued under the autho-

Manager of Publications,

India, 1936-36. Price Rs. 4-10-0 or

rity of the Imperial

Civil Lines, Delhi.

Is. 9rf.

Council of Agricultural

Research.

Report of the Work of the Imperial

Sir John Russell, D.Sc.,

Ditto.

Council of Agricultural Research in

F.R.S.

Applying Science to Crop Produc-

tion in India. Price Rs. 1-14-0 or

Report on the Cold Storage and Trans-

Agricultural Marketing

Ditto.

port of Perishable Produce in Delhi.

Adviser to the Govern-

Price As. 12 or Is. 3d.

ment of India.

Report on an Enquiry into the Cultiva-
tion of Cloves in India. Miscellaneous

A. K. Yegna Narayana
Aiyer.

Ditto.

Bulletin No. 20 of the Imperial

Council of Agricultural Research.

Price Ra. 2-4-'0 or 3. 9d.

Abridged Editions of the Report on the

Issued by the Agricultural

Ditto.

Marketing of Wheat in India

Marketing Adviser to

{English, Hindi and Urdu). Price

the Government of

As. 8 each.

India, Delhi.

Annual Report of the Agricultural

Ditto

Ditto.

Marketing Adviser and summarized

Reports of Senior Marketing Officers

in Provinces and certain States for

the year ending 31st December 1937.

Price As. 6.

APPENDIX XVIT

389

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

GENERAL AGRICULTURE conld.

Report on the Marketing of Linseed in
India. Price Re. 1-4-0.

Agricultural Research and the Indian
Farmer. Unpriced publication.

Summary Proceedings of the 34th
Meeting of the Indian Central Cotton
Committee. Price Re. 1.

Annual Report of the Indian Central
Cotton Committee, Bombay, for the
year ending 31st August 1937. Price
Rs. 2-0-0.

A Guide to Indian Cottons (Marathi,
Gujerati and Kanarese). Price
As. 6 each.

Summary Proceedings of the 35th
Meeting of the Indian Central Cotton
Committee, Bombay. Price Re. 1.

Garrowhill Cotton and the Central
Provinces Cotton Control Act Pro-
hibiting its Cultivation. (English,
Hindi and Marathi) Gratis.

First Annual Report of the Indian
Central Jute Comrnitte for the period
from 1st December 1936 to 31st
March 1938. Free.

Cholam Malt (English, Tamil and
Telugu) (Reprint). Leaflet No. 4 of the
Department of Agriculture, Madras.

Care and Management of Cattlemanure
in South India (English, Telugu,
Tamil, Kanarese and Malayalam)
(Reprint). Leaflet No. 24 of the
Department of Agriculture, Madras.

The Earth Scoop (Telugu, Tamil,
Kanarese and Malayalam). Leaflet
No. 78 of the Department of Agricul-
ture, Madras.

Improved Turmeric Polisher (Tamil,
Telugu, Kanarese and Malayalam).
Leaflet No. 80 of the Department of
Agriculture, Madras.

Manufacture of Active Carbon from
Paddy Husk (English, Telugu, Tamil,
Kanarese and Malayalam). Leaflet
No. 81 of the Department of Agri-
culture, Madras.

Issued by tho Agricultural
Marketing Adviser to
the Government of
India, Delhi.

Issued by the Imperial
Agricultural Research
Institute, New Delhi.

Issued by the Publicity
Officer Indian Central
Cotton Committee,

Bombay.

Issued by the Indian
Central Cotton Com-
mittee, Bombay.

Ditto

Issued by the Publicity
Officer, Indian Central
Cotton Committee,

Bombay.

Issued by the Indian
Central Jute Committee,
Calcutta.

M. Suryanarayana ,

V. Muthuswamy Ayyar

N. G. Charley

Ditto

P. V. Ramiah

Manager of Publications,.
Civil Lines, Delhi.

Director, Imperial Agri-
cultural Reserach Insti-
tute, New Delhi.

Indian Central Cotton-
Committee, Bombay.

Ditto.

Indian Central Cotton?
Committee, Bombay.

Secretary, Indian Central
Jute Committtee, 1,.
Council House Street,
Calcutta.

Government Press, Madras.

Ditto.

390

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

GENERAL AGRICULTURE cantd.

Evils of Damping Groundnut (English,
Telugu, Tamil, Kanarese and
Malay alam). Leaflet No. 83 of the
Department of Agriculture, Madras.

Note on Nilgiri Agriculture (Kanarese).
Pamphlet No. 10 of the Department
of Agriculture, Madras.

A. H. 25 improved Groundnut (English),
Pamphlet No. 12 of the Department
of Agriculture, Madras.

Plough Enrly (English) (Reprinted).
Broad Hint No. 3 of the Department
of Agriculture, Madras.

Plough Efficiently (English) (Re-
printed). Broad Hint No. 4 of the
Department of Agriculture, Madras.

Sow Good Seed ( English) (Reprinted).
Broad Hint No. 5 of the Department
of Agriculture, Madras.

Improved Circular Mhote Water lift for
Bullock Power. Leaflet No. 86 of
the Department of Agriculture,
Madras. Free.

On Coconut Cultivation (Telugu).
Pamphlet No. 8 of the Department
of Agriculture, Madras. Free.

Note on Nilgiri Agriculture (Kanarese).
Pamphlet No. 10 of the Department
of Agriculture, Madras. Free.

On Improved Groundnut (Tamil,
Telugu, Malayalam and Kanarese).
Pamphlet No. 12 of the Department
of Agriculture, Madras. Free.

Feed Your Bullock (Telugu and Mala-
yalam) (Reprinted). Broad Hint
No. 1 of the Department of Agricul-
ture, Madras. Free.

Plough Early (Telugu) (Reprinted).
Broad Hint No. 3 of the Department
of Agriculture, Madras. Free.

Plough Efficiently (Telugu and Mala-
yalam) (Reprinted). Broad Hint
No. 4 of the Department of Agricul-
ture, Madras. Free.

J. S. Patel

D. G. Munro

J. S. Patel

Rao Bahadur D. Anandc
Rao.

Ditto

G. R. Hilson .

N. G. Charley

J. S. Patel

D. G. Munro .

J. S. Patel

G. R. Hilson .

Rao Bahadur D. Ananda
Rao.

Ditto

Government Press, Madras.

Dittj.

Ditto.

APPENDIX XVII

391

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

Sow Good Seed (Tclugu and Mala-
yalam) (Reprinted). Broad Hint
No. 5 of the Department of Agricul-
ture, Madras. Free.

Beware of Weeds (English, Tamil,
Telugu and Malayalam) (Reprin-
ted). Broad Hint No. 6 of the
Department of Agriculture, Madras,
Free.

Monograph on Coconut (English).
Price Rs. 3-12-0.

Annual Report of the Department of
Agriculture, Bombay Presidency, for
the year 1936-37. Price As. 12.

Annual Report of the Department of
Agriculture, Bengal, for 1936-37.
Part I, price As. 8; Part li price
Re. 1-4-0.

A Short Survey of the Work, Achieve-
ments and Needs of the Bengal Agri-
cultural Department for the period
1906-1936. Free (For official use
only).

Mustard. Leaflet No. 4 of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bengal. Free.

Instructions for Sowing Improved
Varieties of Rice Seed (Reprinted).
Leaflet No. 36 of the Department of
Agriculture, United Provinces.
(Free in the United Provinces only.)

GENERAL AGRICULTURE wntd.
G. R. Hilson .

The Utilisation of Molasses as a Manure
(Urdu and Hindi). Leaflet No. 41
of the Department of Agriculture,
United Provinces. (Free in the
United Provinces only.)

Ditto

J. S. Patel

Issued by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture,
Bombay Presidency.

Issued by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture,
Bengal.

Ditto

Rai Bahadur II. L. Sethi

Department of Agricul-
ture, United Provinces.

Government Press, Madras.

Ditto.

Government Central press,
Bombay.

Government Printing,
Bengal, Calcutta.

Office of the Director of
Agriculture, Bengal,

Dacca.

Government Printing,
Bengal, Calcutta.

1. Deputy Director of

Agriculture, Sarda
Circle, Lucknow.

2. Deputy Director of

Agriculture, Eastern
Circle, Partabgarh.

3. Deputy Director of

Agriculture, Western
Circle, Aligarh.

4. Deputy Director of

Agriculture, North-
Eastern Circle,

Gorakhpur.

5. Deputy Director of

Agriculture, Bundel-
khand Circle, Jhansi.

6. Deputy Director of

Agriculture, Rohil-
khand and Kumaon
Circle, Bareilly.

Ditto.

392

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38contd.

Title

Author

Where published

GENERAL AGRICULTURE m^,

Lawn Making (Urdu). Leaflet No. 48
of the Department of Agriculture,
United Provinces. (Free in the
United Provinces only.)

Seed Sowing (Urdu). Leaflet No. 49
of the Department of Agriculture,
United Provinces. (Free in the
United Provinces only.)

Hedges ( Urdu). Leaflet No. 50 of the
Department of Agriculture, United
Provinces. (Free in the United
Provinces only.)

Rose Cultivatiion (Urdu). Leaflet No
61 of the Department of Agriculture,
United Provinces. (Free in the
United Provinces only.)

Other Important Matters about Seed:
(Urdu). Leaflet No. 52 of the
Department of Agriculture, United
Provinces. (Free in the United
Provinces only.)

Paddy Cultivation in Canal Tracts

(English). Leaflet No. 66 of the

Department of Agriculture, United

Provinces. (Free in the United
Provinces only.)

The Cultivation of A j wain (English).
Leaflet No. 67 of the Department of
Agriculture, United Provinces.
(Free in the United Provinces only.)

Improved Mustard Strains and their
Importance in the Cultivation and
Industries of the United Provinces.
Leaflet No. 58 of the Department of
Agriculture, United Provinces. (Free
in the United Provinces only.)

Improved Groundnut Strains and their
Importance in the Cultivation and
Industries of United Provinces.
Leaflet No. 59 of the Department of
Agriculture, United Provinces. (Free
in the United Provinces only.)

A Note on Improved Tobacco (Vir-
ginian Tobacco). Free.

Cultivation of Some Important Drugs
in the Punjab. Price As. 10

Department of Agricul
ture, United Provinces.

Ditto

H. D. Singh Gupta

'ssued by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture,
Punjab.

Ditto.

Ditto,

Ditto.

Ditto,

Ditto.

Ditto,

Deputy Director of Agri-
culture, Sarda Circle,.
Luc know.

Government Printing,
Punjab, Lahore.

APPENDIX

393

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

L. S. S., A New Cotton of Hirsutum
Type. Leaflet No. 139 of th
Department of Agriculture, Punjab
Free.

GENERAL AGRICULTURE^^.

Issued by the Depart
ment of Agriculture
Punjab.

Soyabean Cultivation in the Punjab
Leaflet No. 146 of the Departmen
of Agriculture, Punjab. Free.

Annual Report of the Department ol
Agriculture, Punjab, for the year
ending 30th June 1937. Price As. 8.

Annual Report of the Department o1
Agriculture, Bihar, for the year 1936-
37.

Annual Report of Tirhut Range.
Bulletin No. 3 of 1937 of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bihar.

Annual Report of Patna Range. Bul-
letin No. 4 of 1937 of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bihar.

Annual Report of Bhagalpur Range.
Bulletin No. 5 of 1937 of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bihar.

Annual Report of Chota Nagpur Range.
Bulletin No. 6 of 1937 of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bihar.

Annual Report of the Engineering Sec-
tions. Bulletin No. 9 of 1937 of the
Department of Agriculture, Bihar,

So>abeaa Its Cultivation and Use.

Leaflet No. 6 of 1937 of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bihar.

Reports on Demonstration Work
carried out in Northern Circle to-
gether with Reports on Seed and
Demonstration and Cattle-breeding
Farms of the Circle for the years,
ending the 31st March 1936 and 1937
Price Re. 1-8-0 each.

Reports on Demonstration Work
carried out in the Eastern Circle
together with Reports on Seed and
Demonstration and Cattle-breeding
Farms of tfcre Circle for the years
ending the 31st March 1936 and
1937. Price Re. 1-8-0 each.

Ditto

Issued by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
Bihar.

Ditto

Issued by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture,
Central Provinces and
Berar.

Ditto

Government Printing,
Puajab, Lahore.

Ditto.

Government Printing,
Bihar, Gulzarbagh.

Ditto.

Government Printing
Central Provinces and
Berar, Nagpur.

Ditto.

394

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

GENERAL AGRICULTURE contd.

Reports on Demonstration Work
carried out in the Western Circle
together with Reports on the Seed
and Demonstration and Cattle-breed-
ing Farms of the Circle for the years
ending the 31st March 1936 and
1937. Price Re. 1-8-0 each.

Reports on Demonstration Work
carried out in the Southern Circle
together with Reports on Seed and
Demonstration and Cattle-breeding
Farms of the Circle for the years
ending the 31st March 1936' and
1937. Price Re. 1-8-0 each.

Demonstration Plot, Kham (English,
Hindi and Marathi). Leaflet No. 15
of 1937 of the Department of Agri-
culture, Central Provinces and Berar.
Free.

Eradication of Kans by Cultivated
Fallow System (English, Hindi and
Marathi).* Leaflet No. 16 of 1937 of
the Department of Agriculture,
Central Provinces and Berar. Free.

Eradication of Kans, Kunda, Dub and
Nafjanriotha (English). Leaflet

No. 17 of 1937 of the Department of
Agriculture, Central Provinces and
Berar. Free.

Report on the working of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Central Pro-
vinces and Berar, for the year ending
31st March 1937. Price Re. 1-8-0.

Annual Report on Experimental
Farms, Nagpur, Akola, Adhartal,
Chhindwara, Powarkhera, Raipur
and Tharsa for the year ending the
31st March 1937. Price Re. 1-8-0.

Why we should grow Castor ? Leaflet
No. 18 of the Department of Agri-
culture, Central Provinces and Berar.
Free.

The Cultivation of Groundnut
(Marathi). Leaflet No. 19 of the
Department of Agriculture, Central
Provinces and Berar. Free.

Cultivation of Potato. Leaflet No. 20
of the Department of Agriculture,
Central Provinces and Bei ir. Free.

Issued by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture,
Central Provinces and
Berar.

Ditto

Goverment Printing

Central Provinces and
Berar, Nagpur.

Ditto.

Ditto,

Ditto.

APPENDIX XVII

395 1

JAst of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38^-contd.

Title

Author

Where published

GENERAL AGRICULTURE cantd.

A Simple Method of Extracting Fibres
from Linseed Stalk. Leaflet No. 21
of the Department of Agriculture,
Central Provinces and Berar. Free.

The Potato in Assam. Bulletin No. 2
of the Pepartment of Agriculture,
Assam. Free.

Soyabean. Leaflet No. 1 of 1938 of
the Department of Agriculture,
Assam. Free.

Cultivation of Groundnut. Leaflet
No. 11 of 1938 of the Department of
Agriculture, Assam. Free.

Eupatoriutn. A Noxious Weed in
Assam. Leaflet No. 12 of 1938 of
the Department of Agriculture,
Assam. Free.

The 4rhar (Pigeon Poa Cajanus
indicufi). Leaflet No. 13 of 1938 of
the Department of Agriculture,
Assam. Free.

The Spanish Chestnut. Leaflet No. 14
of the Department of Agriculture,
Assam (Revised Bulletin No. 3 of
1904). Free.

Catch Crop for Orissa (Oriya). Bul-
letin No. 8 of 1937 of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Orissa.

Annual Experimental and Research
Report of Hydcrabad-Deccan for
1344 Fasli.

Annual Administration Report of ~
Department of Agriculture, Mysore,
for 1935-36. Price Ro. ] -8-0.

Annual Report of the Department of
Agriculture, Mysore, for 1936-37,
Price Re. 1-8-0.

Mysore Agricultural Calendar for 1938.
Price As. 2.

Bone Meal (Malay alam). Free .

Solarium
Free.

melmgena (Malayalam),

[ssued by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture,
Central Provinces and
Berar.

R. C. Woodford .

[spued by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture,
Assam, Shillong.

Ditto

Issued by the Director of
Development, Orissa.

Issued by the Director of
Agriculture, Hyderabad-
Deccan.

Issued under the autho-
rity of the Department
of Agriculture, Mysore.

Ditto

Issued by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture,
Cochin, Trichur.

Ditto

Government Printing
Central Provinces and
Berar, Nagpur.

Director of Agriculture,
Assam, Shillong.

Ditto.

Orissa Government Press,
Cuttack.

Government Central

Press, Hyderabad-

Deccan.

Director of Agriculture,
Mysore.- Bangalore.

Ditto.

Director of Agriculture,
Cochin, Trichur.

Ditto.

596

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

GENERAL AGRICULTURE concld.

JSoil Erosion

. R. Madhavan Pillai

Nutmeg Cultivation (Malayalam).
Free.

TTifty Years onwards. The Develop-
ment of Agriculture and of the
Department of Agriculture in
Baroda, 1888 to 1938. Price As. 10.

Castor

Cultivation Kasti-Arandi.

Price one anna.

'The Elimination of Foreign Matter in
Tea.

The Application of Science to Modern
Tea Culture.

Proceedings of the Second Annual Con-
ference, held "at Tocklai, 1938.

M. K. Narayana Pillai

R. G. Allan

Dr. ,T. K. Dubey

C. J. Harrison

P. H. Carpenter

Issued by the Indian Tea
Association, Cinnamara
P.O.

Government
Travancore.

Press,

Director of Agriculture and
Fisheries, Travancore,
Trivandrum.

Commissioner of Agri-
culture, Baroda State,
Baroda.

Government Press,

Bhopal.

Assistant Secretary, Indian
Tea Association, Royal
Exchange Buildings,
Calcutta.

Ditto.

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

Supply and Distribution of Various
Types of Indian Cotton during the
Season of 1935-36. Statistical Bul-
letin No. 6, 1935-36. Price As. 8.

.Stocks of Indian Cotton held in India
by the Mills and the Trade on 31st
August 1937. Statistical Leaflet
No. 2 (Fourth issue 1936-37). Price
one anna.

^Receipts at Mills in India of Raw
Cotton classified by Varieties 1936-
37 Season. Statistical Leaflet No. 3
(Fourth issue 1936-37). Price one
anna.

Exports by sea of Indian Raw Cotton
classified by Varieties 1936-37
Season. Statistical Leaflet No. 4
(Fourth issue, 1936-37). Price one
anna.

Report on the Staple Length of Indian
Cotton Crops of 1937-38 Season.
Statistical Leaflet No. 1 of the Indian
Central Cotton Committee. Fifth
Issue (1937-38). Price Anna 1.

Issued by the Secretary,
Indian Central Cotton
Committee.

Ditto

Indian Central Cotton
Committee, Bombay.

Ditto.

Ditto,

APPENDIX XVU

397

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS cantd.

Report on the Accuracy of the All-
India Cotton Forecasts of 1936-37
Season. Statistical Leaflet No. 5 of
the Indian Central Cotton Com-
mittee. Seasonal Issue (1936-37).
Price As. 2.

Monthly Bulletins (Nos. 1-4) for the
Months of April to July 1938 con-
taining information and statistics
relating to Jute. Free.

The Delimitation of Areas for Strains
of Agricultural Crops with Special
Reference to Cotton. Indian Central
Cotton Committee Proceedings of the
First Conference of Scientific Re-
search Workers on Cotton in India.
Cotton Statistical paper No. 1.

Season and Crop Report of the Bombay
Presidency for the year 193f>37.
Price As. 4.

Season and Crop Report of Bengal for
1937-38. Price As. 1.

Season and Crop Report of the Punjab
for the year 1930-37.

Agricultural Statistics, Bihar. 193-37

Season and Crop Report, Sind, for 193G-
37.

Issued by the Secretary,
Indian Central Cotton
Committee.

by the Indian
Central Jute Committee,
Calcutta.

V. G. Pause .

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Bombay
Presidency, Poona.

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Bengal.

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Punjab.

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Bihar.

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Sind.

Indian Central Cotton.
Committee, Bombay.

Secretary, Indian Central
Jute Committee, 1
Council House Street,.
Calcutta.

Director, Institute of
Plant Industry and
Agricultural Ad\ iser to
States in Central India
and Rajputana, Indore,

Government Central Press,
Bombay.

Government Printing,

Bengal, Calcutta.

Government Printing,

Punjab, Lahore.

Government Printing,

Bihar, Gulzarbagh.

The Daily Gazette Press,
Ltd., Karachi.

SUGAR RESEARCH

First and Second Memoranda on the
Production of Sugar direct from Cane
during the Season 1937-38.
Supplied free to sugar factories.

Note on the Production of Sugar refined
from Our during the year 1937.
Supplied free to sugar factories.

Review of the Sugar Industry of India
for the ci op-year 1036-37. ' Supplied
free to sugar factories.

Note on the Results of the Experiments
on the Utilization of Molasses as a
Road-making Material. Supplied
free to sugar factories.

Issued by the Director,
Imperial Institute of
Sugar Technology,

Cawnpore.

Ditto

Director, Imperial Insti-
tute of Sugar Technology,
Cawnpore.

Ditto.

398

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38contd.

Title

Author

Where published

SUGAR RESEARCH corUd.

Sugar Production Rules 1935 (Revised
Edition). Supplied free to sugar
factories.

Cultivation of Sugarcane in Tanjore
Delta. Leaflet No. 82 of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Madras.

The Open Pan System of White Sugar
Manufacture in Factories Completely
Installed with Machinery Designed
bv the Bengal Department of Agri-
culture. Bulletin No. 1 of 1937 of
the Department of Agriculture,
Bengal. Gratis.

Improved Methods of Cane Cultivation
in the. United Provinces. Bulletin
No. 72 of the Department of Agri-
culture, United Provinces. Price
Re. 1-8-0.

General Information about the Sugar-
cane Crop in the United Provinces
(Urdu and Hindi). Leaflet No. 37
of the Department of Agriculture,
United Provinces. (Free in the
United Provinces, only.)

Improved Methods of Cultivation and
other Important Cultural Operations
of Sugarcane ( Urdu ). Leaflet No. 38
of the Department of Agriculture,
United Provinces. (Free in the
United Provinces, only.)

Irrigation of Sugarcane Crop (Hindi
and Urdu). Leaflet No. 39 of the
Department of Agriculture, United
Provinces. (Free in the United
Provinces only.)

Issued by the Director,
Imperial Institute of
Sugar Technology,

Cawnporf.

M. Anandan .

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Bengal.

Rai Bahadur R. L. Sethi,
and others.

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, United
Provinces.

Ditto

Director, Imperial Insti-
tute of Sugar Technology,
Cawnpore.

Government Press, Madras.

Director of Agriculture,
Bengal, Dacca.

Printing and Stationery,
United Provinces,

Allahabad.

1. Deputy Director of

Agriculture, Sarda
Circle, Lueknow.

2. Deputy Director of

Agriculture, Western
Circle, Aligarh.

3. Deputy Director of

Agriculture, Eastern
Circle, Partabgarh.

4. Deputy Director of

Agriculture, North-
Eastern Circle,
Corakhpur.

5. Deputy Director of

Agriculture, Bundel-
khaml Circle,

Jhansi.

6. Deputy Director of

Agriculture, Rohil-
khand and Kumaun
Circle, BareiHy,

Ditto.

APPENDIX XVII

399

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38 -contd.

Title

Author

Where published

SUGAR RESEARCH concld.

Manuring of Sugarcane Crop in the
United Provinces (Hindi and Urdu).
Leaflet No. 40 of the Department of
Agriculture, United Provinces. (Free
in the United Provinces only.)

Ratooning of Sugarcane (Urdu). Lea-
flet No. 42 of the Department of
Agriculture, United Provinces. (Free
in the United Provinces only.)

Open Pan Boiling for gur and Sugar
Manufacture (Urdu). Leaflet No. 43
of the Department of Agriculture,
United Provinces. (Free in the United
Provinces only.)

Manufacture of Khandsan Sugar as a
Cottage Fndustry in Bihar. Bulletin
No. 2 "of 1037 of the Department of
Agriculture, Bihar.

Work Done on Sugarcane in Onssa
(English). Bulletin No. 11 of 1037
of the Department of Agriculture,
Orissa.

Sugarcane Its Cultivation and

Manuring. Bulletin No. 1 of 1938
of the Department of Agriculture,
Assam. -Free.

Sugarcane Cultivation and Sugar
Industry.

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, United
Provinces.

Ditto

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Bihar.

Issued by the Director of
Development, Onssa.

N. Ghose

V. Narayanan Nair

Ditto.

Government Printing,
Bihar, Gulzarbagh.

Onssa Government Press,
Cuttack.

Director of Agriculture,
Assam, Shillong.

Government Press, Travan-
core.

COTTON TECHNOLOGY

Technological Reports on Trade Varie-
ties of Indian Cottons, 1937.
(Technological Bulletin Series A.)
Price Re. 1-8-0.

Technological Reports on Standard
Indian Cottons, 1937. (Technolo-
gical Bulletin Series A.) Price
Re. 1-8-0.

The Effect of Different Degrees of Com-
pression on the. Fibre Properties and
Spinning Quality of Indian Cottons.
(Technological Bulletin Series A.)
Price As. 8.

Spinning Tests on Pun jab- American
4F Cotton with Different Schemes of
Drafts in the Speed Frames.
(Technological Bulletin Series A.)
Price As. 8.

Dr. Nazir Ahmad

Ditto

Indian Central Cotton
Committee, Bombay.

Ditto.

400

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

A Device for Determining the Propo:
tion of Fibres of Different Length
in Samples of Cotton. (Technologi
Bulletin Series B.) Price As. 8.

Studies in the Variation of Strengt
and Weight per inch with Grou
Length of Cotton Fibres. (Techm
logical Bulletin Series B.) Pric

As. 8.

Spinning Test Report on Samples o
Latur Cotton, 1936-37. (Techno
logical Circular No. 882.) Pric
As. 4.

Spinning Test Report on Samples

Bengal Cotton, 1937-38. (Techno

logocal Circular No. 912.) Price
As. 4.

Spinning Test Report on Samples o]
Moglai Cotton, 1937-38 (Techno
logical Circular No. 913.) Price
As. 4.

Technological Report on Venini
(Nagpur), 1937-38. (Technological
Circular.) Price As. 4.

Annual Report of the Director, Techno-
logical Laboratory, Matunga, for the
year ending 31st May 1938. Price
As. 6.

Empirical Relationships between
Count, Lea Strength and Staple
Length of Indian Cottons. (Techno-
logical Bulletin Series A, No. 42.)
Price As. 8.

Suitability of two Cottons for Purposes
of Mill Mixings in Relation to their
Fibre Characters. (Technological
Bulletin Series A, No. 43.) Price
Re. 1.

A Device for determining the Propor-
tion by Weight of Fibres of Different
Lengths in a Sample of Cotton.
(Technological Bulletin Series B,
No. 23.) Price As. 8.

Studies in the Variation of Strength
and Weight per Inch with Group
Length of Cotton Fibres. (Techno-
logical Bulletin Series B, No. 24.)
Price Re. 1.

COTTON TECHNOLOGY-contf.

Dr. Nazir Ahmed

Ditto

[ssued by the Secretary,
Indian Central Cotton
Committee, Bombay.

V, Venkataraman and Dr
Nazir Ahmad.

)r. Nazir Ahmad and
K. R. Sen.

)r. Nazir Ahmad and C.
Nanjundayya.

. Nanjundayya and Dr
Nazir Ahmad.

Indian Central Cotton
Cammittee, Bombay.

Ditto.

Ditto,

Ditto.

APPENDIX XVH

401

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

The Clinging Power of Single Cotton
Fibre in relation to its Physical Pro-
perties. (Technological Bulletin
Series B, No. 25.) Price As. 8.

COTTON TECHNOLOGY contd.

K. R. Sen and Dr. Nazir
Ahmad.

Spinning Te^t Report (No. 918) on
Samples of Khandesh Cotton, 1937-
38. (Technological Circular No. 326. )
Price As. 4.

Technological Report on Late Verurn
(Nagpur), 1937-38. (Technological
Circular N o. 327. ) Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 919) on
Samples of Bcrar Cotton, 1937-38.
(Technological Circular No. 328.)
Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 921) on
Samples of Pun jab -American Cotton,
1937-38. (Technological Circular
No. 329.) Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 922) on
Samples of Central Provinces No. 1
Cotton, 1937-38. (Technological
Circular No. 330.) Price As. 4.

Technological Report on Umri Bani,
1937-38. (Technological Circular
No. 331.) Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 925) on
Samples of Ujjain Cotton, 1937-38.
(Technological Circular No. 332.)
Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 926) on
Samples of Khandesh Cotton, 1937-
38. (Technological Circular No. 333, )
Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 927) on
Samples of Ujjain Cotton, 1937-38.
(Technological Circular No. 324.)
Price As 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 931) on
Samples of Farm Westerns Cotton,
1937-38. (Technological Circular
No. 335.) Price As. 4.

Technological Report on Verum 434
(Akola), 1937-38. (Technological
Circular No. 336.) Price As. 4.

Dr. Nazir Ahmad

Ditto

Ditto.

Ditto

Indian Central Cotton
Committee, Bombay.

Ditto.

402

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during 1

1937-38.

Title

Author

Where published

COTTON TECHNOLOGY-contf.

Spinning Test Report No. 934 01
Samples of Broach Cotton, 1937-38
(Technological Circular No. 337.
Price As. 4.

Technological Report on Verum 262
(Akola), 1937-38. (Technologica
Circular No. 338.) Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 939) on
Samples of Bailhougal Cotton, 1937
38. (Technological Circular

No. 339.) Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 940) on
Samples of Miraj Cotton, 1937-38,
(Technological Circular No. 340.)
Price As. 4.

Technological Report on Punjab
American 289-F., 1937-38. (Techno-
logical Circular No. 341.) Price
As. 4.

Technological Report on Punjab-
American 4-F., 1937-38. (Techno-
logical Circular No. 342) Price
As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 942) on
Samples of Westerns Cotton 1937-38.
(Technological Circular No. 343.)
Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 943) on
Samples of Hubh Kumpta Cotton
1937-38. (Technological Circular
No. 344.) Price As. 4.

Technological Report on Sind-Sudhar
(289-F-l), 1937-38. (Technological
Circular No. 345.) Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 945) on
Samples of Tiruppur Cambodia
Cotton, 1937-38. (Technological
Circular No. 346.) Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 946), on
Samples of Karunganni Cotton, 1937-
38. (Technological Circular

No. 347.) Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 947 on
Samples of Surat Cotton, 1937-38.
(Technological Circular No. 348.)
Price As. 4.

Dr. Nazir Ahmad

Ditto

D. L. Sen

Ditto

Indian Central Cotton
Committee, Bombay.

Ditto.

Ditto,

Ditto.

Ditto,

Ditto.

APPENDIX XVII

403

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

COTTON TECHNOLOGY contd.

-Spinning Test Report (No. 948) on
Samples of Kampala Cotton, 1937-38.
(Technological Circular No. 349.)
Price As. 4.

-Spinning Test Report (No. 950) on
Samples of Tiruppur Cambodia
Cotton, 1937-38. (Technological
Circular No. 350.) Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 952) on
Samples of Jinja Cotton, 1937-38.
(Technological Circular No. 351.)
Price As. 4.

.Spinning Test Report (No. 953) on
Samples of African Busoga Cotton,
1937-38. (Technological Circular
No. 352.) Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 954) on
Samples of Latur Cotton, 1937-38.
(Technological Circular No. 353.)
Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 956) on
Samples of Broach Cotton, 1937-38.
{Technological Circular No. 354.)
Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 957) on
Samples of Surat Cotton, 1937-38.
(Technological Circular No. 355.)
Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 958) on
Samples of Muttia Cotton, 1937-38.
(Technological Circular No. 356.)
Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 960) on
Samples of Navsari Cotton, 1937-38.
(Technological Circular No. 357.)
Price As. 4.

Technological Report on Surat 1027
ALF Cotton, 1937-38. (Techno-
logical Circular No. 358.) Price
As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 964) on
Samples of AR Busoga Cotton,
1937-38. (Technological Circular
No. 360.) Price As. 4.

D. L. Sen.

Ditto

Dr. Nazir Ahmad

Ditto

Indian Central Cotton
Committee, Bombay.

Ditto.

404

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

COTTON TECHNOLOGYconcM.

Spinning Test Report (No. 965) on
Samples of AR Kampala Cotton,
1937-38. (Technological Circular
No. 361.) Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 966) on
Samples of AR Jinja Cotton, 1937-
38. (Technological Circular No. 362. ]
Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 968) on
Samples of Dholleras Cotton, 1937-38,
(Technological Circular No. 363.)
Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 969) on
Samples of Kadi-Viramgam Cotton,
1937-38. (Technological Circular
No. 364.) Price As. 4.

Spinning Test Report (No. 971) on
Samples of Kalagin Cotton, 1937-38.
(Technological Circular No. 365.)
Price As. 4.

Dr. Nazir Ahmad

Ditto

Indian Central Cotton
Committee, Bombay.

Ditto.

Bulletin of the United Provinces Fruit
Development Board (Marketing Series}.
Fortnightly. Annual Subscription
Rs. 2-8-0. Price single copy As. 2.

The Punjab Fruit Journal (English and
Urdu). Quarterly. Annual subscrip-
tion Rs. 2 inland and 4a. for foreign
countries.

Investigations on the Cold Storage of
Mangoes. Miscellaneous Bulletin
No. 21 of the Imperial Council of
Agricultural Research.

Safe-guarding Fruit Trees from Heat,
Cold and Wind (Hindi and Urdu).
Bulletin No. 16 F. S. of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, United Pro-
vinces. Price As. 1-6.

Pruning of Deciduous Fruit Trees
(Hindi and Urdu). Bulletin No. 18
F. S. of the Department of Agricul-
ture, United Provinces. Price As. 2.

1 The Loquats '. Bulletin No. 19 F. S. of
the Department of Agriculture,
United Provinces. Price As. 3.

FRUITS

Issued by the Provincial
Marketing Officer, Uni-
ted Provinces, Lucknow.

Issued by the Punjab
Provincial Coopera-
tive Fruit Development
Board, Lyallpur.

G. S. Cheema ; D. V. Kar-
markar and B. M. Joshi.

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, United
Provinces.

R. S. Singh

Pratap Singh

Secretary, United Pro-
vinces Fruit Develop-
ment Board, Lucknow.

Honorary Secretary,.

Punjab Provincial Co-
operative Fruit Develop-
ment Board, Lyallpur.

Manager of Publications,.
Civil Lines, Delhi.

Printing and Stationery r
United Provinces,

Allahabad.

Ditto.

APPENDIX XVII

405

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published durvn

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

Planting of Orchards (Urdu). Leaflet
No. 68 of the Department of Agricul-
ture, United Provinces. Free in
U. P. only.

FRUITS contd.

Issued by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture,
United Provinces.

Pkdlon ka bagh lagana (Urdu). Leaflet
No. 68 of the Department of Agri-
culture, United Provinces. Free in
U. P. only.

A Note on Peach Cultivation in Chota
Nagpur. Leaflet No. 4 of 1937 of
the Department of Agriculture, Bihar.

For the Attention of Banana Cultiva-
tors.

Ditto

Issued by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture,
Bihar.

V. Narayanan Nair

1. Dy. Director of Agri-
culture, Sarda Circle,
Lucknow.

2. Dy. Director of Agri-
culture, Western Circle,
Ahgarh.

3. Dy. Director of Agri-
culture, Bundelkhand
Circle, Jhansi.

4. Dy. Director of Agri-
culture, Eastern Circle,
Partabgarh.

5. Dy. Director of Agri-
culture, North- Eastern
Circle, Gorakhpur.

6. Dy. Director of Agri-
culture, Rohilkhand
and Kumaun Circle,
Bareilly.

Ditto.

Government Printing,
Bihar, Gulzarbagh.

Government
Travancore.

Press,

A Technical Process for Washing and

Refining Stick Lac.
Price As. 3.

Bulletin No. 27.

Preparation of Bleached (White) Lac.
Technical Note No. 3. Price one

Lac Cultivation in India. Being a
second and revised edition of ' A
Practical Manual of Lac Cultivation ',
by P. M. Glover. Price Rs. 2.

The Shellac Industry (Urdu)

Conservation of the Baisakhi Ber (Zizi-
phus Jujuba). Brood of the Lac In-
sect and Possibilities of effecting
Better Returns from Lac Cultivation
on Ber. Price As. 4.

LAO

A. K. Thakur

Issued by the Director,
Indian Lac Research
Institute, Namkum.

Ditto.

Ditto

P. S. Negi

Director, Indian Lao
Research Institute,

Namkum, Ranchi, Bihar.

Ditto.

Ditto.
Ditto.

406

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published' during

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

JEupelmu* tachardix How. and the Lac
Insect.

A Few Hints on the Cultivation of Lac
(Bengalee).

LAC contd.
P. S.Negi and S.N.Gupta

Faizuddin Bhuiiya

Director, Indian Lao
Research Institute,

Namkum, Ranchi, Bihar.

Ditto.

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

The Indian Journal of Agricultural
Science, Vol. VII. parts 4-6 and Vol.
VIII, parts 1-3. Annual subscnp-

tion Rs. 15 or 24#. (Original scientific
work in the various brandies of
science applied to agriculture, for-
merly published in the Memoirs of
the Imperial Department of Agricul-
ture in India is now published in the
Indian Journal of Agricultural
Science).

Scientific Reports of the Imperial Agri-
cultural Research Institute, New
Delhi (for the year ending 30th June
1937). Price Rs. 3.

Report on the (1) Agricultural College,
Nagpur, (2) Chemical, Botanical,
Mycological Research, (3) Agricul-
tural Engineering Section, (4) Maha-
rajbagh Menagerie together with the
external work of the Veterinary
Inspection attached to the Agricul-
tural College, Nagpur for 1936-37.
Price Re. 1-8.

Annual Report of the Coffee Scientiic
Officer, 1937-38. Bulletin No. 17 of
the Mysore Coffee Experiment Sta-
tion. Price As. 4.

GENERAL

Issued under the authority
of the Imperial Council
of Agricultural Research.

Issued by the Director,
Imperial Agricultural
Research Institute,

New Delhi.

Issued by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture,
Central Provinces and
Berar.

W. Wilson Mayne ,

Manager of Publications,.
Civil Lines, Delhi.

Ditto.

Government Printing,
C. P. and Berar, Nagpur.

Department of Agricul-
ture, Mysore, Bangalore.

The Genetics of Gossypium and its
Application to Cotton Breeding.

The Genetics of Lintlessness in Asiatic
Cotton.

Annual Report of Botanical Section,
Bihar Bulletin No. 8 of 1937 of the
Department of Agriculture, Bihar.

BOTANY.

J. B. Hutchinson, P. D.
Gadkari and M. A. A.
Ansari.

J. B. Hutchinson and
P. I). Gadkari.

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Bihar.

Director, Institute of Plant
Industry, Indore.

Ditto.

Government Printing,
Bihar, Gulzarbagh.

APPENDIX XVII

407

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE-ccw^.

CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

On the Reclamation of Alkaline Soils
(English). Leaflet No. 84 of the De-
partment of Agriculture, Madras.
Free.

Preparation of a Cheap Manure from
Farm Waste. Bulletin No. 1 of 1988
of the Department of Agriculture,
Bihar.

Annual Report of Chemical Section,
Bihar. Bulletin No. 7 of 1937 of the
Department of Agriculture, Bihar.

Manuring of the Rice Crop. Leaflet
No. 1 of 1938 of the Department of
Agriculture, Bihar.

Lime for Assam Soils. Leaflet No. 3
of 1938 of the Department of Agri-
culture, Assam. Free.

Preservation of Cow-dung Manure
(Oriya). Bulletin No. 7 of 1937 of
the Department of Agriculture,
Onssa.

Compost (English). Bulletin No. 9 of
1937 of the Department of Agricul-
ture, Orissa.

Khad (Manure). (Urdu and Hindi).
Price one anna.

Night Soil (Malayalam). (Leaflet.)
Free.

Compost (Malayalam). (Leaflet.)

Free.

P. V. Ramiah

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Bihar.

Ditto

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Assam.

Issued by the Director of
Development, Orissa.

Ditto

Dr J. K. Dubey

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Coehin.

Ditto

Government
Madras.

Press,

Government Press, Gulzar-
bagh, Bihar.

Ditto.

Director of Agriculture,
Assam, vShillong.

Orissa Government Press,
Cuttack.

Ditto.

Government Press, Bhopal.

Director of Agriculture,
Cochin, Trichur.

Ditto.

A Preliminary Annotated List of the
Fruit Pests of the North- West Fron-
tier Province. Miscellaneous Bulletin
No. 19 of the Imperial Council of
Agricultural Research. Price Re. 1
or Is. 9d.

The Spotted Boll- worm Pest of Cotton
and how to Control it. (English and
Urdu). Gratis.

ENTOMOLOGY
Hem Singh Pruthi and
H. N. Batra.

Issued by the Publicity
Officer, Indian Central
Cotton Committee.

Manager of Publications,
Civil Lines, Delhi.

Indian Central Cotton
Committee, Bombay.

408

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE co*^.

ENTOMOLOGY contd.

The Mango-hopper (Telugu, Tamil, M. C. Cherian
Kanarese and Malay alam). Leaflet
No. 77 of the Department of Agricul-
ture, Madras.

Red Hairy Caterpillar Pest (Tamil and
Kanarese). (Reprinted.) Leaflet
No. 23 of the Department of Agricul-
ture, Madras. Free.

Sugarcane Pests in the United Provinces
Bulletin No. 73 of the Department of
Agriculture, United Provinces.

Insect Diseases and their Remedies
(Urdu). Leaflet No. 53 of the De-
partment of Agriculture, United Pro-
vinces, Free in U. P. only.

A Method of reducing Borer Attack on
Sugarcane. Leaflet No. 69 of the
Department of Agriculture, United
Provinces. Free in U. P. only.

Sugarcane Pests in the United Pro-
vinces (English). Bulletin No. 73
of the Department of Agriculture,
United Provinces. Price As. 2.

The White Fly of Cotton. Leaflet
No. 141 of the Department of Agri-
culture, Punjab. Free.

Surface Grass-hoppers 4 Toka *. Leaflet
No. 142 of the Department of Agri-
culture, Punjab. Free.

Y. Ramachandra Rao

B. D. Gupta

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, United
Provinces.

Ditto

B. D. Gupta

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Punjab.

Ditto

Government
Madras.

Press,

Director of Agriculture,
Madras.

Printing and Stationery,
United Provinces, Alla-
habad.

1. Deputy Director of
Agriculture, Sarda
Circle, Lucknow.

2. Deputy Ditector of
Agriculture, Western
Circle, Aligarh.

3. Deputy Director of
Agriculture, Bundel-
khand Circle, Jhansi.

4. Deputy Director of
Agriculture, Eastern"
Circle, Partabgarh.

5. Deputy Director of
Agriculture, North-
Easteni Circle, Gorakh-
pur.

6. Deputy Director of
Agriculture, Rohil-
khand and Kumaun
Circle, Bareilly.

Ditto.

Printing and Stationery,
United Provinces, Alla-
habad.

Government Printing,
Punjab, Lahore.

Ditto.

APPENDIX XVII

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE contd.
ENTOMOLOGY concld.

An Easy Method of Destroying Cactus
with Cochineal Insects (Marathi).
Leaflet No. 14 of the Department of
Agriculture, Central Provinces and
Berar. Fre:>.

Rice Caterpillar (Hindi). Leaflet No.
23 of the Department of Agriculture,
Central Provinces and Berar. Free.

Sugarcane Borers and How to Control
Them. Leaflet No. 6 of 1938 of the
Department of Agriculture, Assam.
Free.

Rice Case Worm (Nymphylo dopunctalis).
Leaflet No. 7 of 1938 of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Assam. Free.

Swarming Caterpillars in Paddy. Lea-
flet No. 8 of 1938 of the Department
of Agriculture, Assam. Free.

Citrus Trunk Borer (Mohohammus
versteegi). Leaflet No. 9 of 1938 of
the Department of Agriculture,
Assam. Free.

Rhinoceros Beetle Pest (Oryctea rhin-
oceros). Leaflet No. 10 of 1938 of
the Department of Agriculture,
Assam. Free.

How to Control ' Tid ' (Urdu). Leaflet
No. 2 of the Department of Agricul-
ture, Baluchistan. Free.

Codling Moth and its Control in Balu-
chistan (Urdu). Leaflet No. 3 of the
Department of Agriculture, Balu-
chistan. Free.

Bee-keeping for Beginners. (Entomo-
logical Series Bulletin No. 10.) (Re-
vised.) Price As. 10.

The Occurrence and Treatment of Bark-
Eating Caterpillars and Borers.

The Occurrence and Treatment of Red
Spider in Tea in North East India.

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Central
Provinces and Berar.

Ditto

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Assam.

Ditto

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Baluchis-
tan.

Ditto

T. V. Subramaniam

E. A. H. Roberts and M.
Singha.

C. J. Harrison

Government Printing,
Central Provinces and
Berar, Nagpur.

Director of Agriculture,
Central Provinces and
Berar, Nagpur.

Director of Agriculture,
Assam, Shillong.

Ditto.

Agricultural Officer*

Baluchistan, Quetta.

Ditto.

Director of Agriculture r .
Mysore, Bangalore.

Assistant Secretary, Indian
Tea Association, Royai
Exchange Buildings
Calcutta.

Ditto.

410

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE-<;onfc/.
PLANT DISEASES

The Fungi of India. Supplement T.
Scientific Monograph No. 12 of the
Imperial Council of Agricultural Re-
search. Price Re. 1-6 or 2s. 3d.

. Sendomans Citre Disease of the Citrus
(Urdu). Leaflet No. 63 of the De-
partment of Agriculture, United Pro-
vinces. Free in U. P. only.

Wither Tip and Die Back Disease of the
Citrus (Urdu). Leaflet No. 64 of the
Department of Agriculture, United
Provinces. Free in U. P. only.

.Leaf Minor Disease of the Citrus (Urdu).
Leaflet No. 65 of the Department of
Agriculture, United Provinces. Free
in U. P. only.

Handbook of Plant Diseases of Econo-
mic Importance in the Central Pro-
vinces. Bulletin No. 28 of the De-
partment of Agriculture, Central Pro-
vinces and Berar. Price As. 8.

Moorda or Churda Disease of Chillie
Plants, Its Causes and Control. Lea-
flet No. 22 of the Department of Agri-
culture, Central Provinces and Berar.
Free.

- Collar Rot in Sugarcane. Leaflet No. 4
of 1038 of the Department of Agricul-
ture, Assam. Free.

Red Rot of Sugarcane. Leaflet No. 5
of 1938 of the Department of Agri-
culture, Assam. Free.

B. B. Mundkur

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, United
ProvinceH.

Ditto

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Central
Provinces and Berar.

Ditto

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Assam.

Ditto

Manager of Publications,
Civil Lines, Delhi.

1. Deputy Director of
Agriculture, Sarda
Circle, Lucknow.

2. Deputy Director of
Agriculture, Western
Circle, Aligarh.

3. Deputy Director of
Agriculture, Bimdel-
khand Circle, Jhansi.

4. Deputy Director of
Agriculture, Eastern
Circle, Partabgarh.

5. Deputy Director of
Agriculture, North-
Eastern Circle, Gorakh-
pur.

6. Deputy Director of
Agriculture, Rohil-
khand and Kumaun
Circle, Bareilly.

Ditto.

Government Printing,
Central Provinces and
Berar, Nagpur.

Director of Agriculture,
Central Provinces and
Berar, Nagpur.

Director of Agriculture,
Assam. Shillong.

Ditto,

APPENDIX XVII

411

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38contA.

Title

Author

Where published

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE contd.

PLANT DISEASES contd.
How to Control Bunt of Wheat (Urdu), i Issued by the Department Agricultural

Circular No. 1 of the Department of
Agriculture, Baluchistan. Free.

of Agriculture, Balu-
chistan.

Officer
Baluchistan, Quetta.

VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY.

Agriculture and Livestock in India Vol.
VI 1, parts 5 and 6 and Vol. VIII,
parts 1 to 4. Annual subscription
Its. 6 or 9s. 9a. (A bi-monthly jour-
nal of agriculture and animal husban-
dry for the general reader interested
in agriculture or livestock in India
or the Tropics.)

The Indian Journal of Veterinary
Science and Anitiud Husbandry, Vol.
VII, parts 3 and 4, Vol. VIII, parts
1 and 2. Annual subscription Rs. 6
or 9a. 9c/. (A quarterly journal for
the publication of scientific matter
relating to health, nutrition and
breeding of livestock.)

Agriculture and Animal Husbandry in
India, 1935-3(1. Price Rs. 4-10 or
7. 9cZ.

The Indian Veterinary Journal. (The
Journal of the All-India Veterinary
Association.) Quarterly. Annual
subscription Rs. 4 or 6s. Qd. for mem-
bers and Rs. 8 or 10. for others.

The United Provinces Veterinary Maga-
zine (English and Urdu). Monthly.
Issued free to members of the United
Provinces Veterinary Association.

The Punjab Veterinary Journal

The Central Provinces Veterinary Jour-
nal. Quarterly.

Investigations on the Course and dis-
tribution of the Nerves supplying
Levator anguli scapuli and Rhomboi-
deus muscles and Formation of the
Phrenic Nerve in the Ox with
Observations on certain Anatomical
Deviations. Scientific Monograph
No. 11 of the Imperial Council of
Agricultural Research, 1937. Price
Rs. 4-10 or 7s. 9rf.

Issued under the autho-
rity of the Imperial
Council of Agricultural
Research.

Ditto

P. Srinivasa Rao (Editor)

Issued by the United Pro
vinces Veterinary Asso-
ciation.

Issued by the Punjab
Veterinary Association.

Issued by the Central
Provinces Veterinary
Association.

H. NT. Chelva Ayyangar

Manager of Publications,
Civil Lines, Delhi.

Ditto.

The Editor, The Indian
Veterinary Journal, 2Q
Wallajah Road, Madras.

Editor, The United Pro-
vinces Veterinary Maga-
zine, Moradabad.

The Editor, The Punjab
Veterinary Journal,

Lahore.

The Honorary Secretary,
Central Provinces Veteri-
nary Association, Nagpur.

Manager of Publications,
Civil Lines, Delhi.

412

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937.38

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38contd.

Title

Author

Where published

VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY co*^.

Selected Clinical Articles, Part II
Miscellaneous Bulletin No. 15 of th
Imperial Council of Agricultura
Research. Price Re. 1-4 or 2s.

Indian Grazing Conditions and the
Mineral Contents of Some Indian
Fodders. Miscellaneous Bulletir
No. 16 of the Imperial Council o1
Agricultural Research. Price
Rs. 3-14 or 65. 9<Z.

A Brief Survey of some of the Import
ant Breeds of Cattle in India. Mis-
cellaneous Bulletin No. 17 of the
Imperial Council of Agricultural
Research. Price Rs. 2 or 3*. Qd.

Report on the Development of Cattle
and Dairy Industries of India. Price
Re. 1-8-0 or 2s. U.

Milk Records of Cattle in Approved
Dairy Farms in India. Miscellane-
ous Bulletin No. 18 of the Imperial
Council of Agricultural Research.

Proceedings of the Second Meeting of
the Animal Husbandry Wing of the
Board of Agriculture and Animal
Husbandry held at Madras from the
14th to the 16th December 1936.
Price Rs. 3-10-0 or 65. 3d.

Annual Report of the Imperial Veteri-
nary Research Institute, Muktcswar,
for the year ending 31st March 1937.
Price Re. 1-2-0 or 2*.

Feed your Bullock (English) (Reprint-
ed). Broad Hint No. 1 of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Madras.

Dedication of Breeding Bulls of Ongole
Breed (English) (Reprinted). Broad
Hint No. 8 of the Department of
Agriculture, Madras.

Bullock Harness An Improved Method
of Yoking. Leaflet No. 85 of the
Department of Agriculture, Madras.
Free.

Practical Hints on Bee-keeping
(Tamil). Pamphlet No. 11 of the
Department of Agriculture, Madras.
Free.

G. K. Sharma, R. L
Kuura, S. Ganapathj
Iyer, G. S. Khan am
M. Y. Mangrulkar.

P. E. Lander

Col. Sir Arthur Giver

Dr. Norman C. Wright .

K. P. R. Kartha

Issued under the autho-
rity of the Imperial
Council of Agricultural
Research.

tssued by the Director,
Imperial Veterinary Re-
search Institute, Muk-
teswar.

G. R. Hilson .

R. W. Littlewood

N. G. Charley

S. Ramachandran

Manager of Publications,
Civil Lines, Delhi.

Ditto.

Government
Madras.

Press,

Ditto.

APPENDIX XVII

413

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY cw?/;

Feed and Work your Cow (Tamil) (Re-
printed). Broad Hint No. 7 of the
Department of Agriculture, Madras
Free.

Dedication of Breeding Bulls of Origole
Breed (Tamil and Malay alam) (Re-
printed). Broad Hint No. 8 of the
Department of Agriculture, Madras.
Free.

Bee-keeping (Tamil.) Bulletin No. 37
of the Department of Agriculture,
Madras. Price Re. 1,

Diseases Affecting Poultry in the
Bombay Presidency. Bulletin of the
Veterinary Department, Bombay.
Price one anna.

Feeding of Stock. Leaflet No. 1 of
1938 of the Department of Agricul-
ture, Bengal. Free.

Incubation for Poultry. Leaflet No. "2
of 1038 of the Department of Agri-
culture, Bengal. Free.

Feeding of Poultry, leaflet No. 3 of
1938 of the Department of Agricul-
ture, Bengal. Free.

First Aid to Livestock (Hindi and Urdu).
Leaflet No. 47 of the Department of
Agriculture, United Provinces. Free
in U. P. only.

R. W. Littlewood

Ditto

S. Ramachandran

K. N. Naik

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Bengal.

Ditto

Khan Bahadur S. Bashir-
ud-Din Ahmad.

Government Press, Madras.

Ditto.

Government Central Press,
Bombay.

Director of Agriculture,
Bengal, Dacca.

Ditto.

1. Deputy Director of
Agriculture, Sarda
Circle, Lueknow.

2. Deputy Director of
Agriculture, Western
Circle, Aligarh.

3. Deputy Director of
Agriculture, Bundel-
khand Circle, Jhansi.

4. Deputy Director of
Agriculture, Eastern
Circle, Partabgarh.

/>. Deputy Director of
Agriculture, North-
Eastern Circle, Gorakh-
pur.

0. Deputy Director of
Agriculture, Rohil-

khand and Kumaun
Circle, Bareilly.

414

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-38

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY wntd.

Improved Fodder Joicars. Leaflet
No. 140 of the Department of Agri-
culture, Punjab. Free.

Punjab Dairying (Urdu) (Revised Edi-
tion). Price As. 13.

Principles of Utility Poultry Breeding
(Urdu). Price As. 2.

Fodder Crops of the Punjab. Price
As. 8.

List of Horse and Cattle Fairs and Show*
in the Punjab and the Punjab States
for the year Fasli 1937-38. Gratis.

A Cheap Blow-Fly Trap (Urdu, Hindi
and Gurmukm). Leaflet No. 6 of
1937 of Veterinary Department,
Punjab. Gratis.

A Note on Cattle Breeding (Reprinted).
Gratis.

Milk in Relation to Public Health (Re-
printed from the Journal of the Red
Cross Society, India, Vol. VI, No. 4,
October 1932). Leaflet of Veterinary
Department, Punjab. Gratis.

The Value of Milk as an Article of Diet
(Reprinted from the Report on the
Milk supply of Lahore, 1930). Gratis.

Hay-Box Method of Heating Milk for
Indigenous Ghee-Making (Reprinted)
Bulletin No. 8 of 1936 of Veterinary
Department, Punjab. Gratis.

Some Important Diseases of Sheep in
the Low Land, Inundated and Water-
logged Areas of the Punjab with
Particular reference to the Control
Measures at the Government Cattle
Farm, Hissar (Reprinted). Bulletin
No. 3 of 1935 of Veterinary Depart-
ment, Punjab. Gratis.

Sheep Breeding at the Government
Cattle Farm, Hissar (Reprinted).
Bulletin No. 4 of 1935 of Veterinary
Department, Punjab. Gratis.

Goat Breeding (Jamna Pan) at the
Government Cattle Farm, Hissar
(Reprinted). Bulletin No. 6 of 1935
of Veterinary Department, Punjab.
Gratis.

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Punjab.

Ditto
Ditto

H. R. Saini

Issued by the Director
of Veterinary Services,
Punjab.

L. W. Smith and Sh. Mum-
taz Husain.

T. F. Quirke .

A. C. Aggarwala

Ditto

W. S. Read .

Issued by the Director of
Veterinary Services,
Punjab.

L. W. Smith and Sh. Mum-
taz Husain.

B. N. Handa and D. L.
Datta.

Government Printing,
Punjab, Lahore.

Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.

Office of the Director,
Veterinary Services,
Punjab, Lahore.

Ditto.

APPENDIX XVII

415

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India publishea during

1937-38 contd.

Title

Author

Where published

VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY-**^.

Livestock at the Government Cattli
Farm, Hissar (Reprinted). Bulletin
No. 7 of 1936 of Veterinary Jtepart
ment, Punjab. Gratis.

The Art of Milking (Reprinted ). Bulle
tin No. 20 of Veterinary Department
Punjab. Gratis.

Hints on the Management of Sheep in
the Punjab (Urdu) (Reprinted)
Leaflet of Veterinary Department.
Punjab. Gratis.

A Lecture on Cattle Breeding (Urdu)
(Reprinted). Leaflet of Veterinary
Department, Punjab. Gratis.

Rinderpest (Urdu) (Reprinted). Lea-
flet of Veterinary Department, Pun
jab. Gratia.

Mange in Sheep (Urdu) (Reprinted).
Leaflet of Veterinary Department,
Punjab. Gratis.

Haemorrhagie Septicaemia (Urdu) (Re-
printed). Leaflet of Veterinary De-
partment, Punjab. Gratia.

Foot and Mouth Disease (Urdu) (Re-
printed). Leaflet of Veterinary De-
partment, Punjab. Gratis.

Annual Report of the Civil Veterinary
Department, Punjab, for the year
1936-37. Price As. 4.

Larvieidal Fish in Malarial Control.
Leaflet No. 143 of the Department
of Agriculture, Punjab. Free.

Fish Farming in the Punjab, Leaflet
No. 144 of the Department of Agri-
culture, Punjab. Free.

Supply of Green Fodder throughout the
year. Leaflet No. 145 of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Punjab. Free.

Stud Bull. Veterinary Leaflet No. 7 of
1938 of Veterinary Department,
Punjab. Free.

Some Notes on Practical Silage Making.
Veterinary Bulletin No. 11 of 1938
of the Veterinary Department, Pun-
jab. Free.

B. N. Handa

A. C. Aggarwala

Issued by the Director of
Veterinary Services,
Punjab.

Ditto

Ditto.

Ditto

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Punjab.

Ditto

issued by the Department
of Veterinary Services,
Punjab.

W. S. Read .

Office of the Director,
Veterinary Service*,
Punjab, Lahore.

Ditto.

Director of Agriculture,
Punjab, Lahore.

Ditto.

Director of Veterinary
Services, Punjab, Lahore.

Ditto.

416

AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA 1937-36

List of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Publications in India published during

1937-38 concld.

Title

Author

Where published

VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY eontd.

The Feeding of Minerals to Livestock.
Bulletin No. 2 of 1938 of tho Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bihar.

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Bihar.

Government Press, Gulzar-
bagh, Bihar.

Hints on Poultry Farming. Bulletin
No. 29 of the Department of Agricul-
ture, Central Provinces and Berar.
Price As. 8.

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Central
Provinces and Berar.

Government Printing, C.P,
and Berar, Nagpur.

Paspalum dilatatum a Promising Fod-
der Grass for Assam. Leaflet No. 2
of the Department of Agriculture,
Assam, 1938. Free.

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Assam.

Director of Agriculture r
Assam, Shillong.

Annual Report of the Civil Veterinary
Department, Assam, for the jear
1936-37. Price As. 10.

Issued by the Supdt.,
Civil Veterinary Depart-
ment, Assam.

Officer in charge, Assam
.Secretariat Book Depdt,
Shillong.

Silage (English). Bulletin No. 10 of
1937 of the Department of Agricul-
ture, Orissa.

Issued by the Director of
Developement, Orissa.

Onssa Government Press,
Cuttack.

Annual Administration Reports of the
Civil Veterinary Department, Sind
and Ajnier-Merwara, for 1936-37.

Issued by the Director of
Veterinary Services,
Sind.

The Daily Gazette
Press, Ltd., Karachi.

Fowl Cholera (Malayalam) (Leaflet).
Free.

Issued by the Department
of Agriculture, Cochin.

Director of Agriculture,.
Cochin, Tnehur.

Nasal Granuloma (Malayalam) (Leaflet).
Free.

Ditto

Ditto.

Rabies (Malayalam) (Leaflet). Free .

Ditto

Ditto.

Anthrax (Malayalam). Leaflet of the
Department of Agriculture, Cochin.
Free.

Ditto

Ditto.

MGIPC M 1IM.107 2440-600.

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